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THE 


PROCEEDINGS  AND  TRANSACTIONS 


(Scotian  Institute  of  <§£tence, 

I 
HALIFAX,    NOVA  SCOTIA. 


VOLUME    X. 

(BRING  VOLUME  III  OF  THE  SECOND  SERIES. 


WITH   FOUR  PORTRAITS  AND  SEVEN  PLATES. 


HALIFAX  : 

PRINTED  FOR  THE  INSTITUTE  BY  THE  MCALPINE  PUBLISHING  Co.,  LTD. 

1903. 


•*/ 


CONTENTS. 


PROCEEDINGS. 

SESSION  OF  1898-99:—  PAGE 

Presidential  Address,  by  Alex.  McKay i 

Obituary  Notices  of  John  Somers,  M.  D.,  Jules  Marcou,  and 

John   Ambrose,    D.  C.  L iii 

Notes  on  the  Early  History  of  the  Institute   v 

The  Position  of  Science  in  our  Educational  System viii 

Report  of  the  Treasurer  xv 

Report  of  the  Librarian   xv 

Dr.  A.  H.  MacKay  on  the  Diatomacece  of  Nova  Scotia xix 

Lee   Russell,   B.  S. ,  on  School-Room  Air   .  xxi 

Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregor,  and  W.  A  Macdonald,  on  the  Varia- 
tion with  tension,  of  the  elastic  properties  of  vulcanized  india- 
rubber  xxviii 

SESSION  or  1899-1900:— 

Presidential  Address,  by  Alex.  McKay xxxv 

Obituary  Notices  of  J.  J.  Fox,  and  Sir  J.  W.  Dawson xxxvi 

The  utility  of  a  Scientific  Library  and  of  a  properly  conducted 

Museum    xxxix 

Report  of  the  Treasurer xli 

Report  of  the  Librarian xlii 

A.  H.  McKay,  LL.  D. ,  on  the  Sub-divisions  of  the  Carboniferous 

System  of  Canada xlvii 

H.  S.  Poole,   F.  G.  S.,  on   the  Periodical  Appearance  of  Ants  in  a 

Chimney,  and  on  an  unusual  site  for  a  Humble-bees'  nest xlix 

A.  H.  MacKay,  Li,.  D. ,  on  Material  taken  from  the  bottom  of  the 
Atlantic  by  the  cable  steamer  Minia  ; 

SESSION  OF  1900-01  :— 

Presidential  Address,  by  Dr.  A.  H.  MacKay  liii 

On  the  Scope  of  Work  of  the  Institute liii 

Provincial  Museum  and  Science  Library Ivi 

Deaths  of  Captain  Trott,  and  Rev.  A.  C.  Waghorne Ivii 

Reports  of  Treasurer  and  Librarian Iviii 

Officers  of  1900-1901 Iviii 

Resolution  of  Regret  on  Death  of  Dr.  J.  R.  DeWolf Ixi 

H.  S.  Poole,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  on  the  Davis  Calyx  Drill.     (Title  only) lix 


IV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Prof.  H.  W.  Smith,  B.  Sc. ,  on  Rotation  of  Leguminous  Crops,  and 
Preservation  and  Use  of  Tops  of  Turnips  and  other  Root  Crops. 
(Title  only) Ix 

A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D.,  on  Gravel  taken  from  the  bottom  of  the 

Atlantic,  forty  miles  west  of  Sable  Island  (Title  only) Ixi 

Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregor,  D. Sc.,  on  the  Use  of  the  Wheatstone  Bridge 

with  Alternating  Currents.  (Title  only) Ixii 

W.  H.  Magee,  Ph.  D  .  on  the  Rare  Earths  :  their  Scientific  Import- 
ance as  regards  the  Periodic  Law Ixii 

W.  L.  Bishop,  exhibition  of  collection  of  Nova  Scotian  Birds'  Eggs.  Ixxviii 

Resolution  relative  to  the  formation  of  Branches  of  the  Institute .    .  .   Ixxviii 

E.  Gilpin,  LL.  I).,  &c.,  on  Further  Exploration  in  the  Torbrook  Iron 

District.  (Title  only) Ixxix 

Sketch  of  the  Life  of  John  Matthew  Jones.    ByH.  P.    (  With  portrait )      Ixxx 

SESSION  OF  1901-1902  :— 

R.  W.  McLachlan,  Talk  on  Roman  Coins.     (Title  only) Ixxxiii 

A.  H.  Cooper  Prichard,  Exhibition  and  Remarks  on  Roman  Coins  of 

the  Provincial  Museum.     (Title  only) Ixxxiii 

Presidential  Address,  by  Dr.  A.  H.  MacKay Ixxxiv 

Obituaries  of  Dr.  J.  R   DeWolfe,  Capt.    W.  H.  Smith,  and 

Rev.  Moses  Harvey    Ixxxiv 

Work  of  the  Institute Ixxx vi 

Provincial  Museum  and  Science  Library Ixxxvii,  Ixxxviii 

Provincial  Progress   Ixxxviii 

Malaria,  Yellow  Fever  and  Sheep-fluke  Object  Lessons  .  xci,  xcii,  xcv 

Marine  Biological  Station xcvi 

Treasurer's  and  Librarian's  Reports    xcvii,  xcviii 

Report  on  Kings  County  Branch  of  the  Institute    xcviii 

Officers  for  1901-1902    xcviii 

Dr.  A.  H.  MacKay,    on   a   condensed  form  of  Botrychium  ternalum 

found  at  Blomidon,  N.  S xcix 

Miss  A.  Louise  Jaggar,  Notes  on  the  Flora  of  Digby  County,  N.  S. 

(Title  only) c 

R.  S.  Boehner,  B.  Sc.,  On  the  Standardization  of  Hydrochloric  Acid 

with  Borax.     (Title  only) ci 

Harry  Piers.     Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Andrew  Downs,  founder  of  the 

first  zoological  garden  in  America.     ( With  portrait}   cii 

Prof.   E.  Haycock.     The  Kings  County  Branch  of  the  N.  S.  Insti- 
tute of  Science  :    Outline  of  purposes  and  aims  of  the  Society. .  .         cix 


CONTENTS. 


TRANSACTIONS. 

SESSION  OF  1898  99  :—  PAeE 

1.     Statistics  of  Expenditure  and  Consumption  in  Canada, — by  Prof. 
J   Davidson,  M.  A.,  Phil.  D.,  University  of  New  Brunswick, 

Fredericton    1 

II.  On  a  Test,  by  the  Freezing-Point  Method,  of  the  lonization  Co-effi- 
cients determined  by  the  conductivity  method,  for  Solutions 
containing  Potassium  and  Sodium  Sulphates, — by  E.  H. 
Archibald,  M.  Sc.,  1851  Exhibition  Science  Scholar,  Dalhousie 
College,  Halifax,  N.  S 33 

III.  On  the  Conductivity,    Specific   Gravity,  and  Surface   Tension    of 

Aqueous  Solutions  containing  Potassium  Chloride  and  Sulphate, 

— by  James  Barnes,  B.  A.,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  N.  S.  .     49 

IV.  On  Finding  the  lonization  of  Complex  Solutions  of  given  concen- 

tration, and  the  converse  problem,— by  Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregor, 
Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  N.  S 67 

V.  New   Mineral   Discoveries   in   Nova   Scotia, — by  E.   Gilpin,  Jr  , 

A.M.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.C.,  Inspector  of  Mines,  Halifax,  N.  S. .  . .     79 
VI.     Phonological  Observations,  Canada,  1898,— by  A.H  MacKay ,  LL.  D. , 

Halifax 91 

VII.     On  a  Fish  ( '  Chylomycterus  schatpfi)    new    to    Nova    Scotia, — by 

Harry  Piers 110 

SESSION  OF  1899-1900:  — 

I.     On   the   Relation  of   the  Viscosity  of   Mixtures   of   Solutions  of 
certain  Salts  to  their  state  of  lonization, — by  James  Barnes, 

B.  A.,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  N  S 113 

II.  On  the  Calculation  of  the  Conductivity  of  Aqueous  Solutions  con- 
taining Hydrochloric  and  Sulphuric  Acids, — by  the  same 129 

III.  On  the  Depression  of  the  Freezing-Point  by  mixtures  of  Electro- 
lytes,— by  the  same .  139 

IV.  On  the  Sub-divisions  of  the  Carboniferous  System  in  Eastern 
Canada,  with  special  reference  to  the  position  of  the  Union  and 
Riversdale  Formations  of  Nova  Scotia,  referred  to  the 
Devonian  System  by  some  Canadian  Geologists, — by  H.  M. 
Ami,  M.A  ,  D.Sc.,  F.G.S.,  of  the  Geologcal  Survey  of  Canada, 
Ottawa  162 

V.     The  Natural  History  of  Money,— by  Prof.  J.  Davidson,  Phil.  D., 

University  of  New  Brunswick,  Fredericton,  N.  B 179 

VI.  On   the   presence  of  Acid   Sulphate  of    Copper   in   mixtures    of 

Aqueous  Solutions  of  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Copper  Sulphate, — by 
Charles  F.  Lindsay,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  N.  S 205 


VI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

VII.     On  a  Diagram  of  Freezing-Point  Depressions  for  Electrolytes, — by 
Prof.  J.  G.   MacGregor,    D.  Sc  ,  F.  R.  S.,   Dalhousie  College, 

Halifax,    N.    S 211 

VIII      Geological  Nomenclature  in  Nova  Scotia,  by  Hugh  Fletcher,  B  A., 

of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada   235 

IX.  Notes  on  a  Cape  Breton  mineral  containing  Tungstein,  and  on  the 
effect  of  washing  certain  Cape  Breton  coals, — by  Henry  S. 
Poole,  F.  G.  S.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  Assoc.  Roy.  Sch.  Mines,  etc., 

Stellarton,  N.  S 245 

X.     Minerals   for  the   Paris   Exhibition, — by  E     Gilpin,  Jr. ,  LL.  D. , 

F.  R.  S.  C.,  Inspector  of  Mines 248 

XI.  On  the  Variation  of  the  Rigidity  of  Vulcanized  India-Rubber  with 
Tension, — by  Thomas  C.  Hebb,  B.  A.,  Dalhousie  College, 

Halifax,    N.    S 273 

XII.     Records  of   Post-Triassic"  Changes   in    Kings  County,  N.  S., — by 

Prof.  E.  Haycock,    Acadia   College,  Wolfville,  N.  S 287 

XIII.  Phonological   Observations,   Canada,    1899,— by   A.    H.    MacKay, 

LL.  D. ,  Halifax,  N.  S 303 

XIV.  A  Fresh- water  Sponge  [ffeteromeyenia  macouni,  n.  sp.]  from  Sable 

Island,  — b}r  the  same 319 

SESSION  OF  1900-01:-- 

I.     Geological  Nomenclature  of  Nova  Scotia  :   New  Glasgow  Conglom- 
erate, by  Hugh  Fletcher,  B.  A. ,  Geological  Survey  of  Canada, 

Ottawa   323 

II.  Description  of  Tracks  from  the  fine-grained  Siliceouous  Mudstones 
of  the  Knoydart  Formation  (EoDevonian)  of  Antigouish 
County,  N.  S.,— by  H.  M.  Ami,  D.  Sc.,  F.  G.  S.,  Geological 
Survey  of  Canada,  Ottawa.  (  With  plate. ) 330 

III.  On  Drift  Ice  as  an  Eroding  and  Transporting  Agent, — by  Walter 

H.  Prest,  M.  E.,  Bedford,  N   S 333 

IV.  On   a   Polished   Section   of  Stigmaria,  showing  an  axial  cellular 

structure,— by  Henry  S.   Poole,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  Halifax.     (With 

two  plates.) 345 

V.     The   Star-nosed   Mole  (Condytnra,  cristata),  its  breeding   habits, 

&c. , — by  Watson  L.  Bishop 348 

VI.     Recent  Developments  with  the  Calyx  Drill  in  the  Nictaux  Iron  . 
Field, — by   D'Arcy   Weatherbe,  C.  E,.  Mines   Department  of 

N.  S.,    Halifax.     (With  two  plates.)   350 

VII.     The  Geological  History  of  the  Gaspereau  Valley,  N.  S  , — by  Prof. 

Ernest  Haycock,  Acadia  College,  Wolfville,  N.  S   (  With  plate. )  361 
VIII.     Fossils,  possibly  Triassic,  in  Glaciated  Fragments  in  the  Boulder- 
clay  of  Kings  County,  N.  S., — by  Prof .  Ernest  Haycock 375 


CONTENTS.  vil 

PAGE 

IX.  ( 1 )  Phonological  Observations  of  the  Botanical  Club  of  Canada,  1900. 
(2)  Abstract  of  Phonological  Observations  on  Flowering  of  ten 
Plants  in  Nova  Scotia,  1900,  with  (3)  Remarks  on  their  Pheno- 
chrons, — by  A.  H.  Mac-Kay,  LL.  D.,  &c.,  Halifax 379 

X.     Rainfall  Notes,  Nova  Scotia,—  by  F.  VV.W.  Doane,  City  Engineer, 

Halifax 399 

SESSION  OF  1901-1902  :— 

I.     On  a  Determination  of  the  Freezing-point  Depression  Constant  for 
Electrolytes,-- by    T.    ('.    Hebb,    M.    A.,    Dalhousie  College, 

Halifax 409 

II.  On  the  Determination  of  Freezing-point  Depressions  of  Dilute 
Solutions  of  Electrolytes, — by  T.  C.  Hebb,  M.  A.,  Dalhousie 
College,  Halifax  .  422 

III.  The  Progress  of  Geological  Investigation  in  Nova  Scotia, —  by  R. 

VV.    Ells,    LL.  D.,    F.   R.  S.  C.,  of  the  Geological   Survey  of 
Canada,  Ottawa   433 

IV.  On  the  Upper  Cambrian  Age  of  the  Dictyonema  Slates  of  Angus    _ 

Brook,  New   Canaan,   and  Kentville,  N.  S., — by  H.  M.  Ami, 
D.  Sc.,   F.  G.  S.,  F.  R,  S.  C.,    of   the  Geological    Survey   of 

Canada,  Ottawa    447 

V.     Notes  on  on  Dr.  Ami's  paper  on  the  Dictyonema  Slates  of  Angus 
Brook,  New  Canaan,  and  Kentville,  N.  S. , — by  Henry  S.  Poole, 
Assoc.  Roy.  Sch.  Mines,  F.  G   S.,  F.  R.  S.  C  ,  Halifax.    ......   4T>1 

VI.     Supplementary  Notes  on  Drift  Ice  as  a  Eroding  and  Transporting 

Agent,— by  Walter  H.  Prest,  M.  E.,  Bedford 45,") 

VII.     Agricultural  Credit, —by  Prof.  John  Davidson,  Phil.  D.,  Univ.  of 

New  Brunswick ,  Fredericton    4-18 

VIII.  Phenological  Observations  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Canada,  1901, — by 
A.  H.  Mac  Kay,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  Supt.  of  Education, 
Halifax 480 

IX.     Labrador  Plants  (collected  by  W.  H   Prest  on  the  Labrador  coast, 
north  of  Hamilton  Inlet,  from  25th  June  to  12th  Aug  ,  1901), 
—by  A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D. ,  etc. ,  Halifax    507 

APPENDICES  : — 

I.     List  of  Members,  1898-1899 I 

II.     List  of  Members,  1899-1900 .    .  v 

III.  List  of  Members,  1900-1901 via 

IV.  List  of  Members,  1901-1902 - xm 

INDEX  TO  VOIXBIE  X.                                                                                        .  xva 


WESLEY 


vZ/1 


PROCEEDINGS 

OK  THE 

,Scotian  Institute  of  Science. 


SESSION  OF  1898-99. 

f  - 

ANNUAL  BUSINESS  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,   Halifax,  14th  March,  1898. 
The  PRESIDENT,  MB.  A.  McIvAY,  in  the  chair. 
The  PRESIDENT  addressed  the  Institute,  as  follows  : — 

GENTLEMEN, — It  is  an  educational  axiom  of  the  first  importance  that 
in  presenting  a  new  subject  for  study  it  should  in  some  vital  way  be 
correlated  with  ideas  already  in  the  mind  of  the  student. 

Guided  by  this  principle,  I  should  at  the  beginning  of  another  year's 
work  of  this  Institute,  review  briefly  the  progress  made  during  the  past 
year.  This  was  in  many  respects  most  unsatisfactory,  Never  before 
did  we  have  so  much  difficulty  in  securing  papers  for  our  ordinary 
meetings.  We  had  in  all  thirteen  communications,  of  which  eleven  were 
papers, .  three  read  by  title.  Six  of  these  papers  gave  the  results  of 
investigations,  conducted  chiefly  by  two  Dalhousie  students  in  a  physico- 
chemical  field,  regarding  the  behavior  of  ions  under  certain  conditions. 
There  were  two  papers  relating  to  Geology,  one  to  Natural  History, 
one  to  Ethnology,  one  to  Botany.  In  addition,  Mr.  Twining  exhibited 
a  model  of  a  Pivot-boat,  and  explained  its  working,  and  Dr.  MacGregor 
gave  an  address  on  Laboratory  Methods. 

It  may,  however,  be  found  that  the  sum  total  of  scientific  knowledge 

has  been  increased  somewhat  by  those  original  researches  which  were 

conducted  in  Dalhousie  College,  and  that  the  printed  results  may  be 

utilized  by  other  investigators.     Dr.  Bailey's  very  interesting  papers  on 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  PROC.— A. 

(0 


ii  PROCEEDINGS. 

the  structure  and  geologic  formation  of  Digby  Basin  throw  much  light 
on  some  hitherto  obscure  problems  of  the  geology  of  that  region. 

The  teaching  of  science  in  our  public  schools  would  be  greatly 
improved  if  the  methods  recommended  by  Dr.  MacGregor,  in  his  able 
address  on  Physical  Laboratory  Work,  were  generally  adopted. 

It  is  too  soon  yet  to  attempt  any  prediction  regarding  Mr.  Twining's 
novel  experiments  in  boat-sailing.  They  seem  calculated  to  lead  to  a 
great  improvement  in  the  quality  of  speed  by  showing  how  friction  and 
water  displacement  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Dr.  MacKay's  phenological  observations,  assisted  as  he  is  by  a  large 
corps  of  observers  all  over  the  Dominion,  may  lead  to  some  important, 
generalizations  regarding  the  relation  of  organized  life  to  latitude  and 
other  climatic  conditions. 

I  have  referred  to  the  difficulty  of  securing  papers  on  scientific  sub- 
jects for  our  ordinary  meetings.  This  does  not  necessarily  imply  that 
our  members  are  becoming  less  interested  in  science  than  formerly.  It 
may  and  probably  does  mean  that  work  in  science  like  work  in  every 
other  department  of  human  life  is  becoming  more  specialized.  Our 
earlier  scientists  worked  in  comparatively  new  fields.  It  was  then  an 
easy  matter  to  find  plants  or  animals  not  previously  known  in  our 
country  and  with  the  aid  of  good  text  books  to  describe  and  identify 
them.  The  first  explorers  in  a  rich  gold  mine  find  it  easy  to  make 
fortunes.  Those  who  come  later  require  much  greater  skill  and  patience. 
It  did  not  require  much  scientific  knowledge  forty  years  ago  to  enable  a 
man  to  acquire  some  reputation  in  the  field  of  science.  The  possibilities 
in  this  respect  made  it  more  attractive  as  an  outlet  for  the  expen- 
diture of  those  surplus  energies  which  are  nowadays  required  for  the 
severer  business  competition  of  a  more  congested  state  of  society. 

Then,  a  little  enthusiasm,  a  vasculum,  an  insect  net  and  a  pocket- 
glass  comprised  all  the  outfit  necessary  to  enable  a  man  to  write  valuable 
papers  and  to  give,  him  a  good  standing  in  our  Institute.  Now  he  requires 
a  thorough  scientific  training,  costly  scientific  apparatus,  and  years  of 
patient  toil  to  be  able  to  add  a  single  new  or  valuable  idea  to  our 
scientific  knowledge.  It  is  not,  therefore,  difficult  to  understand  that 
scientific  pursuits  as  a  recreation  are  every  year  becoming  less  attractive 
and  are  being  left  to  those  who  make  of  them  the  business  of  life. 

While,  in  some  departments  of  natural  science,  such  as  natural 
history,  elementary  electricity,  and  geology,  the  charm  of  novelty,  ease 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS  111 

of  acquisition,  and  admiration  for  showy  experiments  no  longer  attract 
our  older  members,  they  should  not  lose  their  potency  with  the  students 
of  our  high  schools  and  academies. 

The  older  members  should,  however,  have  some  compensation  in 
those  departments  of  science,  a  practical  knowledge  of  which  is  every 
day  opening  up  mines  of  national  wealth  ;  for  our  love  of  money  is 
supposed  to  grow  with  our  advancing  years  and  we  should  be  willing 
to  make  great  sacrifices  for  what  tends  so  greatly  to  enrich  our  country. 

During  the  past  year  we  admitted  two  new  members  ;  but  on  the 
other  hand,  we  lost  by  death  three  of  our  most  prominent  men,  concern- 
ing whom  you  will  permit  me  to  say  a  few  words. 

JOHN  SOMERS,  M.  D.,  died  on  the  13th  of  March.  He  was  born 
in  Newfoundland,  came  to  Halifax  in  early  infancy  and  received  a 
fairly  good  education. 

In  conducting  a  drug  store  he  acquired  a  taste  for  the  study  of 
medicine.  One  year  before  the  close  of  the  American  civil  war  he  was 
graduated  from  Bellevue  in  time  to  spend  a  year  in  active  service  as  an. 
army  surgeon.  He  then  returned  to  Halifax  where  he  remained  in  the 
practice  of  his  profession  until  his  death. 

He  took  an  active  part  in  the  establishment  of  the  Halifax  Medical 
College  in  which  he  lectured  for  many  years  as  Professor  of  Physiology 
and  Examiner  in  Medicine.  He  was  an  active  and  useful  member  of 
society.  In  1879  and  1880  he  was  a  member  of  the  Halifax  School 
Board.  He  also  served  for  some  time  as  Chairman  of  the  Public 
Charities  Board. 

In  January,  1875,  he  was  elected  member  of  this  Institute,  and  one 
year  after,  he  read  his  first  paper  on  his  favorite  subject,  Botany.  Of 
his  18  published  papers,  14  related  to  Botany,  3  to  Zoology,  and  1  to 
the  use  of  the  Microscope.  He  had  three  papers  in  course  of  prepara- 
tion when  he  died.  He  was  an  authority  on  the  Mosses  and  Fungi  of 
Nova  Scotia  and  an  accomplished  microscopist.  From  a  busy  pro- 
fessional life  he  managed  to  snatch  enough  time  to  become  fairly 
proficient  in  many  departments  of  science.  He  was  an  omnivorous 
reader,  had  a  good  memory  and  well-trained  powers  of  observation,  so 
that  whatever  subject  might  be  under  discussion  at  our  meetings  he  was 
always  able  to  add  something  of  value  and  interest.  He  was  always 
ready  to  assist  those  engaged  in  scientific  study.  I  first  met  him  at  one 


iv  PIIOCEED1NGS. 

of  our  Field  Meetings  at  Grand  Lake  24  years  ago.  I  shall  never  forget 
the  delightful  day  which  I  spent  with  him  in  botanizing. 

JULES  MARCOU,  who  had  been  one  of  our  corresponding  members 
eince  1891,  died  at  Cambridge  on  the  17th  of  April.  He  was  born  at 
Salins,  France,  in  1824.  He  studied  at  the  College  of  St.  Loui?,  Paris, 
but  failing  health  led  him  to  make  an  excursion  to  Switzerland,  where  he 
soon  acquired  an  intense  love  for  the  study  of  Geology.  At  the  age  of 
21  he  assisted  Jules  Thurman  in  his  work  on  the  Geology  of  the  Jura 
Mountains.  Here  he  met  Louis  Agassiz,  with  whom  two  years  later  he 
explored  the  Eastern  United  States  and  Canada.  In  1850  he  embodied 
these  reserches  in  a  geological  map  of  the  United  States  and  the 
British  Provinces  of  North  America.  For  five  years  he  was  Professor 
of  Geology  at  Zurich.  In  1861  we  find  him  associated  with  Louis 
Agassiz  founding  the  Museum  of  Zoology  at  Cambridge,  U.  S.  A.  In 
1867  he  was  decorated  with  the  Cr.oss  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  He  was 
a  member  of  many  scientific  societies  and  published  many  valuable 
papers,  maps  and  books.  In  common  with  our  own  Dr.  Honeyman, 
he  took  special  interest  in  the  study  of  the  Huronian,  Cambrian,  and 
Primordial  Silurian  rocks,  and  assisted  the  Doctor  in  the  identification 
of  some  of  the  more  obscure  Nova  Scotian  fossils  of  these  systems.  He 
was  a  strong  advocate  of  the  Taconic  system,  since  pronounced  by  Dana 
to  be  identical  with  the  Lower  Silurian  system.  It  was,  upon  the 
proposal  of  Dr.  Honeyman  who  labored  in  the  same  field,  that  he 
became  one  of  our  corresponding  members. 

KEV.  JOHN  AMBROSE,  D.  C.  L.,  who  died  at  Sackville,  on  September 
12th,  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  founders  of  this  Institute.  Before 
it  was  organized  he  promised  his  hearty  support — a  promise  which  we 
shall  see  was  faithfully  kept.  He  was  indeed  proposed  as  a  member  of 
the  first  Council,  but  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  resided  at  that 
time  at  Margaret's  Bay  he  was  unable  to  act. 

He  was  born  in  St.  John  of  Irish  parents,  received  his  common 
school  education  at  Truro,  and  was  graduated  from  King's  College, 
Windsor — receiving  the  degree  of  B.  A.  in  1852,  M.  A.  in  1856,  and 
D.  C.  L.  in  1888. 

For  over  44  years  he  labored  successfully  and  acceptably  as  a  clergy- 
man ;  2i  years  at  Liverpool,  3  years  at  New  Dublin,  13  years  at 
Margaret's  Bay,  23  years  at  Digby  and  3  years  at  Herring  Cove,  and 
for  2£  years  more  he  enjoyed  at  his  country  farm  at  Sackrille  the 
respite  from  labor  which  he  needed  and  which  he  had  so  well  earned. 


PRESIDENT'S  APDRESS.  v 

In  addition  to  the  performance  of  extensive  parish  duties  as  a 
clergyman,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  other  church  work.  He  edited 
a  religious  monthly  called  Church  Work,  and  also  the  Halifax  Church 
Chronicle.  He  was  a  Governor  of  King's  College — strongly  opposing 
its  union  with  Dalhousie.  In  Digby  he  led  a  successful  crusade 
against  the  iniquitous  system  of  "  Farming  out  the  Poor."  He  lectured 
in  Engl.-md  for  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  and  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge. 

Amidst  all  these  labors  he  found  time  to  make  science  a  recreation. 
In  January,  1864,  he  communicated  his  first  paper  to  the  Institute.  It- 
was  followed  by  a  series  of  papers,  all  relating  to  the  birds  and  fishes 
of  St.  Margaret's  Bay — a  spot  which  should  be  as  well  known  to  our 
Zoologists  as  Arisaig  is  to  our  Geologists.  His  paper  on  the  Stormy 
Petrel  was  republished  more  than  once. 

In  October,  1863,  he  was  elected  Associate  Member, — retaining  that 
position  until  1881.  Again  in  1890  he  was  elected  Corresponding 
Member. 

Dr.  Ambrose  was  a  remarkably  fine  specimen  of  a  man, — physically, 
mentally  and  morally — a  man  to  whom  the  leaders  in  any  public  move- 
ment for  the  public  good  could  appeal  with  the  certainty  of  receiving 
sympathy  and  support. 

While  glancing  over  the  records  I  made  a  few  notes  concerning 
matters  which  struck  my  attention  in  our  early  history  and  which  may 
interest  some  of  you. 

On  the  last  day  of  the  year  1862  the  late  J.  Matthew  Jones  presided 
at  a  meeting  held  in  the  hall  of  the  Halifax  Medical  College  There 
were  present,  T.  Belt,  S.  Gray,  Dr.  Gilpin,  Wm.  Gossip,  K.  G. 
Haliburton,  Capt.  Lyttleton,  H.  Poole,  Capt.  Hardy,  J.  R.  Willis 
arid  P.  C.  Hill.  Of  this  company,  so  far  as  I  know,  all  but  one  have 
passed  away. 

The  object  of  the  meeting  was  to  organize  an  Institute  of  Natural 
Science  for  Nova  Scotia.  This  Institute  grew  out  of  another  organiza- 
tion which  had  done  pioneer  work  in  science.  It  may  be  said  to  have 
been  a  development  from  the  Halifax  Mechanics'  Institute,  which, 
under  the  inspiration  of  men  like  the  late  Andrew  MacKmlay,  did  very 
much  to  awaken  the  general  public  to  an  interest  in  the  discoveries  of 
of  science,  which  at  that  time  were  coming  on  like  a  November,  meteoric 
shower. 


Vi  PROCEEDINGS. 

At  the  first  meeting  the  officers  of  the  older  organization  resigned, 
and  the  officers  of  the  Institute  of  Natural  Science  were  elected — Mr. 
P.  C.  Hill  being  President.  At  this  meeting  a  Constitution  and 
Bye-Laws  were  adopted.  Among  the  resolutions  which  passed  was 
the  following  :  Resolved,  That  at  the  next  monthly  meeting  each  mem- 
ber be  entitled  to  bring  a  friend. 

Now  every  member  is  not  only  entitled  to  bring  a  friend  to  the 
meetings  but  he  is  urged  to  do  so,  and  to  bring  not  one  friend  only  but 
as  many  friends  as  he  pleases,  provided  he  can  sufficiently  interest  them 
in  the  work  of  the  Institute. 

At  the  meeting  in  February,  the  Right  Honorable  the  Earl  of 
Mulgrave,  Patron  of  the  Institute  was  present,  and  after  listening  to 
the  papers  and  discussions  he  expressed  himself  much  pleased,  and 
promised  to  do  what  he  could  to  advance  the  work. 

In  the  early  meetings  of  our  Institute  so  great  was  the  general 
interest  in  scientific  work  that  there  seemed  to  be  always  a  sufficient 
supply  of  scientific  papers  ready  to  be  read  when  required.  Every 
meeting  was  closed  by  an  announcement  of  the  titles  of  the  papers  to  be 
read  at  the  next.  This  timely  announcement  of  the  subject  gave  mem- 
bers an  abundance  of  time  to  prepare  to  take  an  intelligent  part  in  the 
discussions  which  followed  every  paper. 

But  in  these  busy  days  in  which  our  lot  has  fallen  we  are  thankful 
if  we  can  announce  the  programme  a  few  days  in  advance,  and  some- 
times papers  are  read  by  title  because  they  are  not  ready.  Could  not 
the  Secretaries  and  President  by  taking  thought  beforehand  bring  about 
the  happy  state  of  things  in  this  respect,  that  formerly  existed  1  It  is 
worth  the  attempt. 

In  March,  1864,  we  find  the  first  announcement  of  the  receipt  of 
Reports  of  sister  societies.  The  small  beginning  of  our  present  large 
and  valuable  library  consisted  of  three  volumes,  namely,  the  second 
Report  of  the  Scientific  Survey  of  the  State  of  Maine,  the  Report  of  the 
Natural  History  Society  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  and  the  first  number 
of  our  own  Transactions. 

Now  that  our  library  has  grown  to  such  dimensions,  we  should  pre- 
pare a  catalogue  complete  to  date.      Copies  of  it  should    be  sent  to  our 
,  academies    and    to    all  other  institutions   of  learning  in   the   Maritime 
Provinces   and    to    all    persons  whom    we   might   wish   to   persuade   to 
become  members.     To  young  students  having  time  and  inclination  for 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS.  Vll 

nature  studies,  such  a  catalogue  would  be  suggestive  and  helpful  in 
selecting  those  fields  of  work  which  have  been  most  neglected  in  Nova 
Scotia.  In  the  appendix  to  this  catalogue  there  might  be  a  list  of  the 
scientific  books  belonging  to  the  City  Public  Library  and  to  Dalhousie 
College,  and  also  a  yearly  supplement  of  publications  received  by  the 
Institute. 

The  year  1864  is  also  marked  by  the  decision  to  have  a  series 
•of  Field  Meetings  in  the  summer  season.  The  first  excursion  was 
to  St.  Margaret's  Bay  in  June  to  investigate  some  Indian  remains  in 
that  vicinity.  These  meetings  were  continued  in  1865.  They  were  very 
interesting  and  profitable.  After  visiting  a  locality  and  studying  its 
natural  history  the  members  would  assemble  at  some  point  for  dinner, 
•discussion,  and  the  reading  of  papers  relating  to  the  day's  work. 

At  a  conversazione  in  the  Horticultural  Gardens  on  the  6th  of 
July,  there  were  about  200  persons  present.  The  President  delivered 
an  address  on  the  advantages  which  the  Institute,  if  properly  supported 
and  encouraged,  might  be  expected  to  confer  upon  the  country.  He 
afterwards  gave  a  very  interesting  description  of  the  butterflies  and 
moths  of  Nova  Scotia.  Dr.  Gilpin  described  the  manner  of  taking  and 
smoking  Digby  Herring.  Mr.  Gossip  read  a  paper  on  the  geological 
formation  of  Halifax.  Dr.  Lawson  discoursed  on  Botany,  while  all  the 
company  enjoyed  a  repast  of  cakes,  strawberries  and  cream,  lemonade 
and  ices.  Thus,  in  the  early  days  of  this  Society  was  the  love  of  science 
fostered.  The  resumption  of  some  of  these  old  practices,  which  have 
Unfortunately  fallen  into  abeyance,  would  not  be  a  retrograde  movement. 
If  we  would  study  Nature  honestly  and  effectively  we  must  meet  her 
face  to  face.  She  does  not  woo  by  proxy,  by  text-books,  illustrations 
or  recitations.  With  this  principle  in  view  then  let  me  draw  up  an 
imaginary  programme  for  next  summer's  Field  Meetings. 

Accompanied  by  friends  we  meet  in  the  Public  Gardens  at  8.30  a.  m. 
on  the  third  Saturday  in  June,  every  one  provided  with  substantial 
lunches.  After  an  hour  spent  with  Superintendent  Power  and  Drs. 
MacKay  and  Lindsay  investigating  ferns  and  learning  the  scientific 
names  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  we  take  the  street  car  to  Point  Pleasant. 
Here  we  examine  the  beautiful  synclinal  on  the  shore,  and  collect 
specimens  of  littoral  fauna  and  flora.  We  then  cross  the  Ferry  to 
Purcell's  Cove  and  have  lunch,  followed  by  shoH  addresses  relating  to 
the  scientific  peculiarities  of  our  immediate  environment.  After  some 


viii  PROCEEDINGS. 

botanizing  we  return  visiting  the  gas  works  which  we  inspect  carefully 
with  a  view  to  a  better  comprehension  of  a  lecture  by  Prof.  E.  MacKay, 
giving  a  scientific  account  of  the  manufacture  of  gas  from  coal,  dealing 
particularly  with  the  by-products,  showing  their  chemical  relations 
and  uses. 

On  the  third  Saturday  in  July  we  would  make  a  similar  expedition 
to  Waverly  Gold  Mines  —  crossing  to  Dartmouth  in  the  steamer 
"  Chebucto,"  and  to  our  destination  by  train.  At  Waverly  we  would 
examine  the  gold  mine  and  the  rich  lacustrine  flora. 

In  August,  for  one  fare  we  purchase  a  return  ticket  to  Campbellton, 
N.  B.,  to  spend  two  days  with  some  of  the  most  enthusiastic  scientists 
of  the  Maritime  Provinces — those  Professors,  Principals,  and  other 
teachers  who  are  willing  to  devote  two  weeks  of  their  holiday  season 
to  mutual  instruction  and  enjoyment  in  the  forest,  field  and  laboratory. 
I  refer  to  the  Summer  School  of  Science,  which  will  then  hold  its  13th 
annual  session.  The  President,  Mr.  Geo.  U.  Hay,  has  invited  the 
Natural  History  Society  of  New  Brunswick  and  also  this  Institute  to 
co-operate  with  the  Summer  School  in  a  grand  gathering  of  the  repre- 
sentative scientific  men  of  the  Maritime  Provinces.  The  place  of 
meeting  would  be  a  delight  to  the- lover  of  romantic  scenery,  while 
affording  to  the  botanist  and  geologist  exceptional  facilities  for  field 
work.  The  occasion  might  be  utilized  ior  the  discussion  of  some  of  the 
larger  questions  regarding  scientific  education  that  are  pressing  upon  us. 
Joint  resolutions  from  our  three  scientific  societies  would  have  great 
weight  with  our  governments,  and  might  lead  to  the  extension  of  our 
technical  science  schools,  now  so  miserably  inadequate,  or  to  important 
modification  in  the  methods  adopted  to  further  education  in  general 
science. 

Before  closing,  it  might  be  expected  that  as  a  member  of  a  Scientific 
Institute  and  teacher,  I  should  say  a  few  words  as  to  the  place  which 
science  occupies  in  our  educational  system,  as  to  the  place  it  should 
occupy,  and  also  concerning  the  best  means  to  be  used  to  secure  for  it 
that  place. 

As  to  the  place  which  it  does  occupy.  It  is  found  in  the  prescribed 
course  of  study  in  the  form  of  lessons  on  Nature  for  the  eight  grades  of 
the  common  school  course,  with  the  addition  of  a  few  specialized  lessons 
on  the  simplest  principles  of  Physics  and  Chemistry  for  Grades  VII.  and 
VIII. 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS.  IX 

In  this  work  the  teacher  and  pupils  are  required  to  study  things  and 
not  books,  to  perform  experiments  in  order  to  learn  how  substances  act 
under  varying  conditions  and  to  draw  their  own  conclusions.  Is  this 
done  ?  It  may  be  fairly  well  done  in  five  per  cent,  of  the  schools,  with 
very  varying  degrees  of  success  in  60  per  cent.,  and  scarcely  attempted 
in  the  remainder. 

The  majority  of  teachers  would  do  better  work  if  they  could,  but 
they  hare  never  seen  it  done  ;  they  cannot  learn  how  from  books ;  and 
they  have  not  the  pecuniary  or  moral  support  that  comes  from  a  general 
intellectual  appreciation  of  the  material,  intellectual  and  moral  benefits 
resulting  from  scientific  training. 

In  the  curriculum  for  our  Academies  and  High  Schools  it  is  taken 
for  granted  that  Botany  and  Physics  are  studied  for  about  90  minutes  a 
week  throughout  the  year.  Chemistry  and  Mineralogy  about  the  same 
time  in  the  second  year,  and  Physiology  and  more  advanced  Physics 
each  about  two  hours  a  week  for  the  third  year.  There  are  very  few 
schools,  however,  in  which  so  much  time  is  devoted  to  Science.  The 
Provincial  Examinations  show  that  experimental  work  is  almost  wholly 
neglected.  The  mental  confusion  and  crudity  of  conception  apparent  in 
a  large  proportion  of  the  answers  received  would  tend  to  show  that 
much  of  the  science  teaching  is  simply  a  mechanical  memorizing  of  the 
text-book. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  the  High  School,  science  is  optional.  In  the 
year  1897,  23  candidates  received  Grade  "A  Classical"  and  only  three 
took  Grade  "  A  Scientific."  Candidates  who  are  trained  in  schools 
where  the  facilities  for  the  teaching  of  science  are  poor  and  where  the 
teachers  are  themselves  not  interested  in  science,  are  not  likely  to  select 
the  science  subjects  for  their  Grade  "  A "  examination.  Of  the  37 
Academic  teachers  reported  as  holding  Grade  "  A  "  there  are  but  two  of 
them  who  hold  the  "  A  Scientific  "  and  this,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  Superintendent  of  Education  for  scientific  subjects 
might  be  supposed  to  influence  the  teachers  and  students  in  the  ranks 
below  him. 

The  large  proportion  of  "  Classical  A's  "  may  also  be  partly  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  a  considerable  number  of  candidates  are  college 
students,  and  classics  still  dominates  the  Nova  Scotia  colleges.  For 
matriculation  leading  to  the  degree  of  B.  A.  the  student  is  supposed  to 
have  studied  Latin  for  three  years,  but  nothing  is  required  in  Natural 
Science. 


X  PROCEEDINGS. 

More  or  less  successful  attempts  ar«  being  made  in  some  of  the 
colleges  to  teach  science.  But  divided  and  scattered  as  they  are — five 
degree  conferring  institutions  in  a  small  province  of  scarcely  half  a 
million  inhabitants,  with  no  preparatory  schools  capable  of  giving  a 
proper  preliminary  science  training,  it  is  small  wonder  that  they  take 
little  interest  in  the  teaching  of  new  subjects  which  require  expensive 
apparatus  and  hard  work. 

I  should  have  said  that  there  is  one  preparatory  school,  Pictou 
Academy,  which  still  retains  the  preeminence  in  science-teaching  which 
it  reached  when  Dr.  McKay,  as  Principal,  filled  its  halls  with  students 
drawn  from  all  parts  of  the  province. 

From  what  I  have  said  it  will  be  evident  that  taking  the  schools  as  a 
whole  there  is  but  little  of  science-teaching,  and  that  little  is  poorly  done. 

2.     "What  place  should  science  occupy  in  the  schools  1 

Our  Nova  Scotia  educationists  say  that  it  is  entitled  to  twelve  per 
•cent,  of  the  time  devoted  to  the  compulsory  subjects,  or  on  an  average, 
to  ten  per  cent,  of  the  whole  time.  In  Germany  the  gymnasia  (or 
classical  schools)  through  all  the  grades  devote  seven  per  cent,  of  their 
time  to  science,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  time  besides  to  physical 
geography.  In  the  real-gymnasium  and  real-schulen,  science  is  the  lead- 
ing subject.  We  all  have  some  idea  of  what  the  German  colleges  and 
universities  are  doing  for  theoretical  science. 

As  might  be  expected  in  these  circumstances  technical  education  has 
received  an  enormous  development.  In  the  small  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
•considerably  less  than  one-third  the  size  of  Nova  Scotia,  there  are  111 
technical  institutes.  Prussia  has  200  such  schools  and  12,000  pupils. 
Hesse  with  a  population  of  1,000,000  has  83  schools  of  design,  43  for 
manufacturing  industries  and  many  others  for  artisans  of  various  trades. 
How  many  such  schools  has  Nova  Scotia? 

It  might  here  be  asked  :  which  was  cause  and  which,  effect, — the 
-science-teaching  of  the  gymnasia  or  the  technical  schools  ?  The  fact 
that  so  long  ago  as  1837  there  was  nearly  as  much  science  prescribed  for 
the  gymnasia  as  at  present,  would  suggest  an  answer. 

England,  slow  in  adopting  reforms,  has  at  last  been  awakened  to  a 
sense  of  the  danger  in  which  she  stands  of  losing  her  industrial  supre- 
macy unless  she  gives  heed  to  the  wise  teachings  of  her  great  prophet, 
Herbert  Spencer,  who  years  ago  said  :  "  Paraphrasing  an  eastern  fable, 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS.  XI 

"we  may  say  that  in  the  family  of  knowledges,  science  is  the  household 
•drudge,  who  in  obscurity  hides  unrecognized  perfections.  To  her  has 
been  committed  all  the  work  ;  by  her  skill,  intelligence  and  devotion, 
have  all  conveniences  and  gratifications  been  obtained  ;  and  while  cease- 
lessly ministering  to  the  rest,  she  has  been  kept  in  the  background,  that 
her  haughty  sisters  may  flaunt  their  fripperies  in  the  eyes  of  the  world. 
The  parallel  holds  yet  further.  For  we  are  fast  coming  to  the  denoue- 
ment, when  the  position  will  be  changed,  and  while  these  haughty 
sisters  sink  into  merited  neglect,  science,  proclaimed  as  highest  alike  in 
worth  and  beouty  will  reign  supreme." 

The  Duke  of  Devonshire  has  introduced  a  bill  into  the  House  of 
Lords  which  is  practically  a  bill  for  the  establishment  of  science  schools. 
In  Scotland,  Sir  Henry  Oaik's  latest  educational  circular  aims  at  the 
•encouragement  of  Science  and  Art  in  combination  with  a  sound  scheme 
of  general  education.  The  course  of  instruction  extends  over  three  years 
-as  follows  : 

1.  Experimental  Science. — Not  less   than   four  hours  a  week,  of 
which  two  hours  must  be  experimental.     In  the  third  year  at  least  three 
hours  of  practical  work  will  be  required. 

2.  Drawing. — At  least  two  hours  a  week. 

3.  Mathematics,  including  Geometry,  Mensuration,  Arithmetic  and 
Algebra. — At  least  four  hours  a  week. 

4.  History  and  English  Literature. — About  five  hours  a  week. 

5.  Geography. —About  two  hours  a  week. 

6.  Manual  Training — At  least  three  hours  a  week. 

7.  One  Modern  Language. 

8.  Various  other  subjects  of  Practical  Interest  such  as  Bookkeeping, 
Phonography,  &c. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  course  very  much  resembles  our 
imperative  course,  except  in  that  it  gives  one-sixth  of  the  time  to  science 
while  we  give  only  one-eight. 

Coming  to  America  we  find  that  the  recommendations  of  the 
Committee  of  Ten,  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen  and  of  the  Committee 
on  Science  Teaching  in  Schools  to  the  American  Society  of  Naturalists, 
all  agree  in  recommending  a  course  of  study  substantially  like  ours, — 
like  our  ideal  course,  but  not  like  the  actual  course. 

A  consideration  of  these  facts  leads  us  at  once  to  conclude  that  our 
prescribed  course  of  study  fairly  well  represents  the  best  ideals  of  the 


XH  PROCEEDINGS. 


most  advanced  educationists.  That  it  is  frequently  criticised  arises  from 
the  fact  that  there  are  in  any  community  very  few  persons  possessed  of 
sufficient  knowledge  of  the  science  and  history  of  education  and  at  the 
same  time  of  the  requirements  of  modern  civilization  to  enable  them 
to  jndge  intelligently,  and  further,  from  the  fact  that  but  few  of  our 
teachers  are  possessed  of  the  necessary  professional  qualifications  to  adapt 
themselves  and  their  work  to  the  various  conditions  and  circumstances. 

To  quote  from  Dr.  Rice  :  "  That  the  mass  of  our  teachers  are 
incompetent  for  any  very  high  quality  of  science-teaching  is  a  truth  as 
unquestionable  as  melancholy."  But  it  is  not  the  fault  of  the  teachers 
that  they  are  not  prepared  for  their  work.  Out  of  2,485  teachers  we 
have  1,750  who  receive  less  than  $200  a  year,  out  of  which  they  have  to 
pay  for  board  and  clothing,  buy  educational  books  and  magazines,  and 
purchase  the  apparatus  and  materials  for  science  experiments  in  their 
schools.  With  such  miserably  inadequate  salaries,  insecure  tenure  of 
office,  and  no  pensions,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  brightest  young  men 
and  women  look  upon  teaching  as  but  a  stepping  stone  to  other 
positions  that  offer  more  substantial  rewards  with  the  promise  of  greater 
permanency. 

All  complaints  against  our  course  of  study  will  cease  when  the 
complainants  are  capable  of  appreciating  Ihe  worth  of  good  teaching  and 
are  willing  to  give  the  moral  and  pecuniary  support  that  will  call  forth 
the  best  talent  and  training.  As  the  country  advances  in  population.' 
wealth  and  civilization  the  course  of  study  will  need  to  be  modified,  but 
to  foreshadow  the  coming  changes  at  present  would  be  unwise. 

3.  What  means  must  be  used  to  secure  for  science  the  place  which 
it  should  have  in  the  actual  work  of  the  schools  and  colleges  ? 

^  (a.)     Make    it   an    imperative  subject  in  the    College    Matriculation 
Examination  for  B.  A. 

The  colleges,  more  than  any  other  agency,  determine  the  character 
of  the.  education  given  in  the  schools  below  them.  They  train  those 
who  become  teachers  of  teachers.  Legislators  look  to  them  for  direction 
in  educational  matters.  The  High  Schools  and  Academies  work  slavishly 
to  produce  the  kind  of  students  upon  whom  they  are  most  likely  to  set 
their  seal  of  highest  approval.  They  have  in  every  learned  body 
throughout  the  land  an  ever  increasing  constituency  moulded  by  their 
teaching  and  adopting  their  ideals.  If  there  is  a  general  lack  of 
interest  in  science,  or  if  it  is  badly  taught,  the  colleges  are  largely 


PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS.  xiii 

responsible.  If  they  would  abandon  the  fetich  of  "  culture-worship  " 
and  study  the  conditions  of  modern  society  they  would  add  greatly  to 
the  inestimable  benefits  which  they  now  confer  upon  the  community. 

Until  the  colleges  take  this  step  in  advance,  science  will  not  be  well 
taught  in  the  schools,  the  colleges  will  not  have  students  capable  of 
doing  the  best  science  work  ;  for  if  they  neglect  science  until  they  reach 
their  college  course  and  give  "  so  many  years  of  exclusive  attention  to 
other  subjects,  their  powers  of  observation  and  of  imagination  of  physical 
phenomena  are  well-nigh  atrophied ;  and  the  loving  interest  in  nature, 
innate  in  every  normal  child,  instead  of  being  systematically  developed 
is  well-nigh  extinguished." 

The  college  can  determine  not  only  the  subjects  to  which  the 
academies  shall  in  reality  devote  their  attention  ;  but,  by  the  nature  of 
their  examinations,  they  can  determine  the  character  of  the  teaching. 
If  the  matriculation  examination  calls  for  experimental  work  it  will  be 
supplied.  If  the  colleges  neglect  to  exercise  their  power  in  this  respect 
wisely  they  will  lose  it.  Rival  institutions  unduly  emphasizing  the 
neglected  work  will  divide  with  them  their  present  constituencies.  This 
is  the  experience  of  Germany,  England,  and  the  United  States. 

The  Crowing  wealth  of  the  country  and  the  keenness  of  competition 
in  the  learned  professions  are  indications  that  the  time  has  come  when 
the  colleges  can  safely  require  science  for  the  entrance  examination. 
Harvard  has  made  it  optional  and  the  London  University  has  made 
it  imperative. 

(b)  The  present  Grade  "A"  work  in  the  Academies  should  be 
discontinued  and  its  place  should  be  taken  by  a  more  thorough  practical 
Science  course  for  Grade  "B".  The  "A"  work  cannot  be  properly 
done  in  the  academies.  It  is  essentially  college  work  and  should  be 
kept  where  it  belongs.  Merely  to  state  that  Gage's  Principles  of  Physics, 
Storer  and  Lindsay's  Elementary  Chemistry,  Bessey's  Essentials  of 
Botany,  Dawson's  Hand-Book  of  Zoology,  Colton's  Practical  Zoology, 
Sir  William  Dawson's  Canadian  Geology,  Young's  Elements  of  Astron- 
omy, James's  Psychology,  arid  the  Ontario  Manual  of  Hygiene,  together 
with  twelve  other  subjects  are  all  to  be  mastered  in  our  poorly  equipped 
academies  in  one  or  even  in  two  years  is  to  condemn  absolutely  the 
present  arrangement  'with  regard  to  Grade  "  A  ".  It  is  but  a  survival 
from  a  lower  stage  of  our  educational  development,  and  the  sooner  it  is 
allowed  to  become  atrophied  by  disuse  the  better. 


xiv  PROCEEDINGS. 

If  Academic  and  High  School  positions  are  worth  on  an  average- 
only  ten  years'  tenure  we  will  require  but  six  new  Grade  A's  each  year,— 
say  ten  to  give  them  the  benefits  of  healthy  competition,  and  let  them, 
have  a  thorough  college  training  or  its  equivalent. 

(c)  The   professional   training   of   academic   teachers   and   of   the- 
Principals  of  the  larger   schools   should    be    part    of    a   college  course. 
Elsewhere  at  some  length  I  gave    my   opinions    on    this    subject.     At 
present  I  will  do  no  more  than  quote  from  an  American   educationist  a 
few  sentences  which  express  the  opinions  of  the  most  of  our  educationists 
and  of  .our  college  graduates.     "The  environment  of  learning  and  culture 
are  essential  to  the  best  training  for  the  practice  of  the  learned  pro- 
fession.    *     *     *     Existing   normal  schools,  which    have    more   than 
justified  their  establishment  for  the  professional  training  of  elementary 
teachers  should  continue  to  do  their  appropriate  work.     However  much, 
modified,  they  will  not  be  well  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  higher 
teachers." 

Their  professional  training  should  be  a  post-graduate  course  at  least 
in  part.  If  our  larger  colleges  cannot  provide  pedagogical  training  for 
the  few  Grade  "  A  "  teachers  that  we  need  we  will  have  in  the  mean- 
time no  difficulty  in  obtaining  it  abroad  ;  but  wherever  it  is  obtained  let 
it  be  as  thorough  as  the  post-graduate  training  required  in  the  other 
professions. 

(d)  Examinations  in  science,  whether  by  the    colleges  or  by  the 
Educational  Departments,  should  be  so  modified  as  to  take  into  account, 
the  pupil's  laboratory  work  throughout  the  term  and  his  present  ability 
to  perform  and  interpret  experiments,  and  also  to  examine  and  classify 
mineral,  plant  and  animal  specimens. 

A  certified  copy  of  his  Note-Book  of  experiments  should  be  taken, 
as  evidence  of  his  work.  In  order  to  have  some  reasonable  certainty 
that  this  work  was  honestly  reported  it  would  be  necessary  for  some- 
qualified  person  to  inspect  the  laboratories  and  see  tbe  students  at  work 
twice  every  year.  A  written  examination  does  not  adequately  test  a 
student's  science  acquirements.  If  the  Provincial  Grade  "  A  "  scientific 
examinations  are  to  be  continued  they  should  be  conducted  at  the 
Normal  School,  and  every  candidate  should  have  to  do  a  certain  amount 
of  laboratory  work  in  the  presence  of  the  examiner. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  suggestions  which  I  have  to  offer  for  the 
advance  of  science  in  Nova  Scotia.  I  feel  confident  that  if  adopted. 


TREASURER'S  REPORT.  xv 

they  will  hasten  the  time  when  our  reputation  for  scierice  will  not  be 
confined  to  a  few  great  names,  but  that  all  the  people  will  reap  the 
benefit  in  the  opening  up  of  new  centres  of  those  industries  and 
manufactories  for  which  the  province  is  so  well  adapted. 

The  TREASURER  presented  the  accounts  for  the  year,  1897-8,  which 
had  been  audited  and  were  certified  as  correct.  The  following  is  an 
analytical  statement  of  the  expenditure  : — 

PROCEEDINGS  AND  TRANSACTIONS  : — 

Printing-  and  binding-  Vol.  IX.,   Part  3.  .    $158  oo 

Less  received  for  authors'  separate  copies 2  50 

$155  50 

Distributing-  Vol.  IX.,  Part  3 29  32 

— $184  82 

Printing  portion  of  Vol.  IX.,  Part  4 $61  60 

Portrait  and  Plate,  do  14  22 

—  75  82 
LIBRARY  : 

Removal  to  Dalhousie  College $17  65 

Fittings 56  41 

Purchase  of  U.  S.  Government  Reports 13  15 

Binding 75  oo 

Miscellaneous  expenses 8  20 

—  170  41 

Insurance  (Library  and  Stock  of  Transactions) 16  75 

Miscellaneous  Printing,  including  Post  Cards 25  oo 

Postage 5  67 

P.  O.  Box 4  oo 

Advertising 4  oo 

Repairing  and  removing  Blackboards i  80 

Typewriting 75 


$489   02 

The  Treasurer's  Report  was  approved. 

The  Report  on  the  Library  was  presented  by  the  LIBRARIAN  and 
CORRESPONDING  SECRETARY.  The  Library  had  been  increasing  during 
the  past  year  at  a  greater  rate  than  ever  before.  The  Institute  had  sent 
its  Transactions  for  the  first  time  to  the  following  : — 

Director-General  de  Correos  y  Telegraphos,  Buenos  Ayres. 

Asociacion  de  Ingenicros  Industrials,  Barcelona. 

State  Library  of  Massachusetts,  Boston. 

St.  Anne's  College,  Church  Point,  Digby  Co.,  N.  S. 

Case  School  of  Applied  Science,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


xvi  PROCEEDINGS. 

High  School,  Dartmouth,  N.  S. 

Scottish  Meteorological  Society,  Edinburgh. 

Institut  Meteorologique  Central,  Helsingfors. 

Cornell  University  (Geological  Department),  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Eoyal  Meteorological  Society,  London. 

Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers,  London. 

Kansas  University,  Lawrence,  Ka. 

Australasian  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  Melbourne. 

Kew  Observatory,  Richmond,  G.  B. 

Eoyal  Asiatic  Society  (Straits  Branch),  Singapore. 

Public  Library,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Anthropological  Society  of  Australia,  Sydney,  N.  S.  W. 

Catholic  University  of  America,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Publications  had  been  received  for  the  first  time  during  the  past  year 
from  the  following  : 

Societe  Beige  de  Geologic,  Paleontologie  et  Hydrologie,  Bruxelles. 

Volta  Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C.,  U.  S.  A. 

Australian  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  Melbourne. 

Carnegie  Institute,  Pittsburg,  U.  S.  A. 

Asociation  de  Ingenieros  Industrials,   Barcelona. 

McGill  University,  Montreal. 

Observatorio  Meteorologico  y  Vulcanologico,  Colima,  Mexico. 

Nederlandsche  Dierkundige  Vereenigung,  Holder. 

Institution  ol  Civil  Engineers  of  Ireland,  Dublin. 

Department  of  Mines,  Wellington,  New  Zealand. 

Engineers'  Club  of  St.  Louis,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  U.  S.  A. 

Sydney  Observatory,  Sydney,  N.  S.  W. 

La  Reale  Academia  de  Ciencias  y  Artes,  Barcelona. 

Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers,  London. 

Pasadena  Academy  of  Sciences,  Pasadena,  Gal. 

Wyoming  Historical  arid  Geological  Society,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa. 

Botanical  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta. 

The  Transactions  were  being  sent  out  annually  to  752  Societies, 
Museums,  Libraries  and  Government  Scientific  Departments.  Exchanges 
were  being  received  from  440  Scientific  Institutions.  A  considerable 
proportion  of  the  312  recipients  of  the  Transactions  from  which 
exchanges  had  not  yet  been  received  were  Libraries  and  Museums  which 
did  not  issue  publications  of  their  own.  A  smaller  proportion  consisted 
of  societies  with  which  exchange  relations  had  not  yet  been  effected. 


LIBRARIAN'S  REPORT.  xvii 

The  cost  of  distributing  the  above  752  copies  of  our  Transactions  to 
institutions  in  all  parts  of  the  world  had  been  $29.32,  the  possibility 
of  securing  so  widespread  a  distribution  at  so  small  a  cost  being  due  to 
the  courtesy  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington, 
in  extending  to  the  Institute  the  privileges  of  the  Institution's  Bureau 
of  International  Exchanges. 

During  the  year,  113  volumes,  for  the  most  part  English  publications, 
had  been  put  into  the  binder's  hands.  Including  these,  the  Library 
now  contained  1,326  volumes  bound  in  cloth  or  leather,  besides  67 
volumes  in  boards  with  paper  or  cloth  backs,  in  all  1,393  bound  volumes. 
It  contained  besides,  271  volumes  of  sufficiently  large  size  for  separate 
binding,  but  at  present  simply  stitched  together  in  paper  covers,  as 
received,  and  a  large  number  of  volumes,  at  least  1,000  in  Parts.  The 
labour  of  looking  into  the  completeness  of  these  volumes  in  separate 
Parts,  getting  them  completed  when  necessary,  preparing  them  for  the 
binder,  and  so  on,  is  very  great,  and  consequently  in  the  case  of  many 
publications  had  not  yet  been  undertaken.  The  Institute,  as  soon  as  funds 
will  permit,  should  give  the  Librarian  a  paid  assistant  to  do  such  work. 

The  Library  had  now  been  completely  removed  to  the  room  at 
Dalhousie  College,  courteously  offered  free  of  rent  by  the  Governors  of 
that  college.  It  had  also  been  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  a  visitor 
would  have  no  difficulty  in  finding  any  work  which  the  Library  con- 
tained. The  books  are  arranged  under  countries,  labels  and  placards 
indicating  the  cases  in  which  the  publications  of  the  various  countries 
are  to  be  found.  In  the  division  occupied  by  each  country  they  are 
arranged  under  the  cities  which  are  the  seats  of  the  societies,  museums, 
i^c.,  from  which  they  come,  the  cities  being  in  alphabetical  order.  In 
the  case  of  all  publications  in  English,  the  shelves  devoted  to  the  various 
cities  are  indicated  by  labels  giving  the  name  of  the  city  and  the  name 
of  the  society  or  other  publishing  body.  The  same  system  of  labelling 
is  to  be  extended  to  the  publications  in  foreign  languages  at  an  early 
date.  In  any  case  in  which  the  publications  received  from  a  society 
are  too  bulky  for  the  shelf  on  which  they  would  otherwise  be  placed, 
they  are  placed  on  the  lowest  shelf  of  the  same  division  of  shelving  and 
the  fact  is  indicated  by  a  label  on  the  shelf  on  which  they  would 
first  be  looked  for,  containing  the  name  of  the  city  and  society  and  an 
arrow-head  pointed  downwards.  It  is  hoped  that  with  this  system  of 
arrangement  members  may  find  themselves  able  to  get  such  books  as 
they  may  desire  without  difficulty  even  in  the  absence  of  the  Librarian. 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  PROC  — B. 


Xviii  PROCEEDINGS. 

The  work  connected  with  the  arranging  of  the  Library  in  its  present 
quarters  calls  to  mind  the  similar  work  which  was  done  at  the  time 
when  the  Institute  first  really  began  energetically  to  build  up  its. 
Library.  The  Proceedings  contain  no  reference  to  the  services  rendered 
at  that  time  by  the  late  Mr.  Denton,  but  though  late,  it  is  not  too  late- 
to  record  the  Institute's  appreciation  of  them  now. 

The  Library  being  in  a  room  off  the  College  Library  will  be  founds 
open  by  members  daily,  except  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  from  10 — 1 
and  3 — 5  o'clock.  On  Saturdays  and  in  vacation,  access  to  it  may  bu 
obtained  by  members  on  application  to  the  Janitor.  Members  resident 
in  the  country  can  ascertain  whether  such  works  as  they  may  desire  to- 
see  are  in  the  Library,  and  have  these  which  are,  forwarded  to  them,  by 
applying  to  the  Corresponding  Secretary.  A  printed  catalogue  would 
facilitate  the  use  of  the  Library  by  members  and  should  be  undertaken; 
as  soon  as  the  requisite  funds  are  in  hand. 

The  thanks  of  the  Institute  were  presented  to  MR.  BOWMAN  for  his 
services  as  Librarian,  to  the  HON.  EGBERT  BOAK,  President  of  the 
Legislative  Council,  for  granting  the  use  of  the  Council  Chamber,  to 
the  CITY  COUNCIL  for  the  use  of  the  City  Council  Chamber,  and  to  the 
SECRETARY  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  for  his  courtesy  in  con- 
tinuing to  admit  the  Institute  to  the  privileges  of  the  Bureau  of 
International  Exchanges. 

Eesolutions  of  regret  were  passed  on  the  announcement  of  the  deaths, 
of  PROFESSOR  GEBELIN  of  the  Society  of  Commercial  Geography  of 
Bordeaux,  and  of  DR.  EDWARD  ALBERT  HIELZ  of  the  Society  of  Natural 
Science  at  Hermannstadt ;  and  on  the  announcement  of  the  resignation  of 
PROFESSOR  ALEXANDER  AGASSIZ,  Director  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative 
Zoology,  Cambridge,  U.  S.  A. 

The  following  officers  were  elected  for  the  ensuing  year  (1898-99): — 
President — ALEXANDER  McKAY,  ESQ. 
Vice- Presidents— A.    H.    MACKAY,    ESQ.,    LL.  D.,    F.  R.  S.  C.,    and; 

F.  W.  .W.  DOANE,  ESQ.,  C.  E. 
Treasurer — -W.  C.   SILVER,  ESQ. 

Corresponding  Secretary — PROFESSOR  J.   G.  MAcGREGOR,   D.  Sc. 
Recording  Secretary — HARRY  PIERS,  ESQ. 
Librarian — MAYNARD  BOWMAN,  ESQ.,  B.  A. 
Councillors  -without  Office— EDWIN  GlLPiN,  JR.,  ESQ.,  LL.D.,  F.  R.S.  C.; 

MARTIN  MURPHY,  ESQ.,  D.Sc.,  C.E.;  WILLIAM  MCKERRON,  ESQ.; 

RODERICK  McCoLL,   ESQ.,    C.  E.;   S.  A.  MORTON,    ESQ.,   M.  A.; 

WATSON  L.  BISHOP,  ESQ.;  P.  O'HEARN,  ESQ. 
Auditors— G.  W.  T.  IRVING,  ESQ.;    H.  W.  JOHNSTON,  ESQ.,  C.  E. 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  XIX 

FIRST  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  14th  November,  1898. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  Chair. 

A  paper  by  PROFESSOR  J.  DAVIDSON,  Phil.  D.,  of  the  University 
of  New  Brunswick,  "  On  Statistics  of  Consumption  and  Expenditure  in 
Canada,"  was  read  by  PROFESSOR  W.  C.  MURRAY.  (See  Transac- 
tions, p.  1). 

The  subject  was  discussed  by  Drs.  MACKAY  and  MACGREGOR,  and 
Mr.  DOANE. 


SECOND  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  12th  December,  1898. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  Chair. 

It  was  announced  that  PROFESSOR  J.  DAVIDSON,  Phil.  D.,  University 
of  New  Brunswick,  Fredericton,  and  REV.  BROTHER  J.  PETER,  St. 
Joseph's  Collegiate  Institute,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  had  been  elected  Corre- 
sponding Members  of  the  Institute  ;  and  that  ANDREW  HALLIDAY,  Esq., 
M.  D.,  Shubenacadie,  N.  S.,  and  ARTHUR  M.  EDWARDS,  Esq.,  M.  D., 
F.  L.  S.,  Newark,  N.  J.,  had  been  elected  Associate  Members. 

A  paper  by  DR.  A.  M.  EDWARDS,  entitled:  "  Infusorial  Earths  of 
the  World,  and  the  Iceberg  Period,"  was  read  by  DR.  A.  H.  MACKAY. 

DR.  A.  H.  MACKAY  gave  an  address  on  the  subject  of  "  The 
Diatomaceae  of  Nova  Scotia."  His  treatment  of  the  subject  was  a 
popular  one,  a  number  of  microscopes  with  prepared  slides  being  arranged 
for  the  convenience  of  their  examination  by  those  present.  He  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  these  minute  algae  were  characterized  by 
the  power  of  secreting  silica  from  the  waters  in  which  they  lived  and 
building  it  up  into  the  most  beautifully  formed  and  sculptured  cell  walls 
of  transparent  rock  crystal ;  that  they  were  so  abundant  in  all  of  our 
fresh  water  lakes,  which  are  not  seriously  disturbed  by  the  turbulent 
earth  laden  waters  of  spring  freshets,  as  to  form  layers  many  feet  in 
depth  in  their  bottoms  of  the  dead  silicious  cells,  the  mass  being  some- 
times so  pure  as  to  look  like  the  whitest  flour  when  dried ;  that  this 
material  was  of  commercial  value  in  the  manufacture  of  dynamite,  of 
water-glass,  tooth  powders,  scouring  material  of  great  fineness,  firebrick. 


XX  PROCEEDINGS. 

etc.  He  noted  that  these  deposits  in  lakes  on  different  sides  of  the 
same  watershed  were  characterized  by  the  presence  in  more  or  less 
abundance  of  some  peculiar  species.  He  was  endeavoring  to  obtain 
sections  of  some  of  these  deposits  so  as  to  be  able  to  compare  the  varia- 
tion of  or  succession  in  th°,  species  since  the  first  deposits  were  laid  on  the 
barren  beds  of  the  lakes  carved  out  in  the  glacial  period.  Over  a 
hundred  different  species  had  already  been  observed  in  our  fresh  water 
deposits,  many  of  them  identical  with  those  found  in  similar  deposits 
in  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  Among  them  were  found  the  silicious 
epicules  of  several  species  of  freshwater  sponges,  which  appear 
to  be  also  more  or  less  abundant  in  all  our  freshwater  deposits.  The 
following  species  of  diatoms  have  been  already  identified  in  these 
deposits  : 

Cocconeis  pediculus,  Ehr.  C.  placentula,  Ehr.  Gomphonema 
acuminatnm,  Ehr.  G.  a,  var.  coronatum,  Ktz,  G.  a.  var.  laticeps,  Ehr. 
G.  cristatum,  Ralfs.  G.  gracile,  var.  naviculoides,  Grun.  G.  abbrevia- 
tum,  Ag.  G.  capitatum,  Ehr.  G.  intricatum,  Ktz.  G.  cistula,  Hemper. 
Epithemia  turgida,  Ehr.  E.  gibba,  Ehr.  E.  g.  var.  parallela,  Grim. 
E.  argus,  Ehr.  Himantidium  arcus,  Ehr.  H.  a.  var.  majus,  W.  Sm. 
H.  a.  var.  tenellum,  Grun.  H,  formica,  Ehr.  H.  pectinale,  Ktz.  H. 
p.  var.  ventricosum,  Grun.  H.  p.  var.  minus,  Ktz.  H.  p.  var.  undula- 
tum,  Ralfs.  H.  soleirolii,  Ktz.  H.  bidens,  W.  Sm.  H.  b.  var.  diodon, 
Ehr.  H.  praeruptum  var.  inflatum,  Grun.  H.  polydon,  Brun.  H. 
polydentulum,  Brun.  Amphora  ovalis,  Ktz.  A.  affinis,  Ktz.  Cymbella 
gastroides,  Ktz.  C.  cuspidata,  Ktz.  C.  ehrenbergii,  Ktz.  C.  lanceolata, 
Ehr.  C.  delicta,  A.  Sch.  C.  cistula,  Hemper.  C.  heterophylla,  Ralfs. 
C.  tumida,  Ktz.  N.  ambigua,  Ehr.  N.  appendiculata,  Ktz.  N.  affinis, 
var.  amphirhyncus,  Ehr.  N".  rirma,  Grun.  N".  Hitchcockii,  Ehr.  N. 
legumen,  Ehr.  N.  dicephala,  Ktz.  N.  radiosa,  Ktz.  N.  scutellum, 
O'Meara.  Pinnularia  oblonga,  Rab.  P.  viridis,  Rob.  P.  v.  var. 
hemiptera,  Rab.  P.  perigrina,  Ehr.  P.  nobilis,  Ehr.  P.  major,  Rob. 
P.  dactylus,  Ktz.  P.  gibba,  Ehr.  P.  divergens,  W.  Sm.  P.  interrupta, 
W.  Sm.  P.  mesolepta,  Ehr.  P.  nodosa,  Ehr.  Stauroneis  phoeni- 
centeron,  Ehr.  St.  gracilis,  W.  Sm.  St.  anceps,  Ehr.  St.  fulmen, 
Breb.  St.  punctata,  Ktz.  St.  stauropheria,  Ehr.  Surirella  robusta, 
Ehr.  S.  splendida,  Ehr.  S.  biseriata,  Breb.  S.  bifrons,  Ktz.  S. 
turgida,  W.  Sm.  S.  linearis,  var.  constricta,  W.  Sm.  S.  slevicensis, 
Grun.  S.  elegans,  Ehr.  S.  tenera,  Grey.  S.  cardinalis,  Kitton. 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  XXI 

Nitschia  araphioxys,  Ehr.  N.  elongata,  Grun.  N.  spectabilis,  Rolfs. 
N.  sigraoidea,  Nitzsch.  Stenopterobia  anceps,  Breb.  Fragillaria  con- 
struens.  Grun.  F.  c.  var.  binodis,  Grun.  F.  capucina,  Desrn.  F. 
undata,  W.  Sin.  Synedra  ulna,  Ehr.  "Meridiem  circulars,  Ay.  Tabel- 
laria  floculosa,  Roth.  T.  fenestra,  Lynyb.  Cyclotella  operculata,  Ag. 
C.  comta  var.  affinis,  Grun.  Melosira  distans,  Ehr.  M.  arenaria,  Moor 
M.  orichalcea.  Meriens.  M  granulata,  Ehr.  M.  crenulata  var.  valida 
Grun. 

A  vote  of  thanks  was  tendered  DR.  MAcIvAY  for  his  address. 


THIRD  ORDINARY  MEETING. 
Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  9th  January,  1899. 

The  FIRST  VICE-PRESIDENT,  DR.  MACKAY,  in  the  chair. 

LEE  RUSSELL,  ESQ.,  B.  So  ,  of  the  Normal  School,  Truro,  read  a 
paper  on  "  School-room  Air,"  as  follows  : 

One  of  the  great  problems  of  modern  mechanics  is  to  increase  the 
efficiency  of  machines,  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  work  done  with  a 
given  expenditure  of  energy.  Every  possible  device  is  used  to  lessen 
friction,  to  minimize  waste,  and  to  apply  more  advantageously  the  force 
employed.  Rails  in  place  of  the  uneven  ground,  rolling,  instead  of 
sliding,  friction,  are  familiar  examples  of  the  gains  made  in  the  single 
direction  of  lessening  friction,  and  many  more  might  be  instanced. 
These  are  purely  physical  instances,  but  the  illustration  may  be  carried 
further.  Intellectual  processes  are  as  subject  to  waste  and  loss.  Inter- 
ruption, noise,  disease,  poisons,  are  the  causes  of  loss  in  mental  operations, 
as  are  dust,  friction,  inertia,  and  radiation,  in  those  of  a  physical  nature. 
Such  considerations  as  these  first  led  me  to  investigate  some  of  the 
causes  of  decrease  of  efficiency  in  school. 

It  appears  to  me  plain,  that  as  the  school  year  advances,  there  is  a 
decrease  in  mental  power  in  both  teachers  and  pupils.  By  this  is  meant, 
that  for  a  given  result,  more  energy  must  be  expended  toward  the  close 
of  the  year  than  at  the  beginning. 

This  is  not  susceptible  of  exact  proof,  except  by  long  and  carefully 
conducted  experiments,  but  from  observations  made  upon  the  students 
at  the  Normal  School  at  Truro  I  believe  such  to  be  the  case. 


Xxil  PROCEEDINGS. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  exhalations  from  the  bodies  of  animals 
have  a  poisonous  effect  if  breathed,  even  tho  much  diluted  with  air. 
The  classic  researches  of  Pettenkofer.  Brown-Sequard,  d'Arsonval, 
Lehman,  Merkel,  Parkes,  and  others,  have  proved  the  presence  of  an 
organic  poison  in  air  which  has  been  breathed  by  man  or  other  animals. 
Its  exact  constitution  is  not  known,  but  the  effects  of  "  Pettenkofer's 
man-poison  "  are  apparent  in  every  school-room.  They  are,  headache, 
drowsiness,  slight  fever,  and  a  general  retardation  of  all  reactions  to 
stimuli.  Partial  loss  of  the  power  of  inhibition  is  also  noticeable.  Less 
apparent,  but  more  important,  are  the  general  weakening  of  vitality  and 
the  greater  susceptibility  to  disease  which  follow  prolonged  breathing  of 
impure  air. 

These  effects  are  more  easily  seen  in  the  weak  and  anaemic  than  in 
vigorous  persons.  It  was  the  observation  of  the  less  vigorous  students 
at  Truro  which  first  led  me  to  suspect  that  the  air  in  the  Normal  School 
might  be  one  cause,  at  least,  of  the  decrease  in  power  which  I  had 
noticed.  We  have,  as  do  all  schools,  pupils  who,  when  at  their  best,  are 
just  able  to  keep  np  with  the  class,  who  are,  mentally  or  physically, 
near  the  fatigue-point.  A  slight  interference  with  their  normal  activity 
throws  them  off  their  balance,  and  they  must  drop  behind.  Not  infre- 
quently pupils  come  to  us  enfeebled  by  excessive  study  in  preparation 
for  examinations.  Under  favorable  conditions  they  might  do  well,  but 
if  subjected  to  further  strain  they  may  break  down.  With  these  two 
classes  of  students,  poisoning  by  impure  air  may  make  the  difference 
between  success  and  failure.  At  all  times,  and  with  all  classes,  it  causes 
a  determinate  decrease  in  the  amount  of  work,  mental  or  physical, 
which  is  done  with  a  given  expenditure  of  energy.  Especially  where 
the  system  of  public  education  is  most  highly  developed  and  most 
strenuously  applied,  the  evil  effects  of  this  poison  have  been  most 
apparent. 

In  testing  the  air  in  the  Normal  School,  the  method  and  apparatus 
of  Prof.  Hch.  Wolpert  of  Nuremburg  was  adopted.  The  chemical  basis 
of  this  method  is  the  fact  that  an  alkaline  solution  of  sodium  carbonate 
becomes  neutral  by  the  absorption  of  carbon  dioxid.  If  the  alkaline 
solution  be  colored  red  by  phenol  phthalein,  when  the  solution  becomes 
neutral  the  color  disappears.  Thus,  with  a  given  amount  of  sodium 
carbonate,  the  decolorization  of  the  liquid  shows  that  a  certain  amount 
of  carbon  dioxid  has  been  absorbed.  If  this  carbon  dioxid  come  from  a 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  XX111 

measured  quantity  of  air,  the  proportion  of  carbon  dioxid  in  the  air  is 
easily  calculated.  Carbon  dioxid  is  a  constituent  of  all  air,  but  it  has 
been  shown  that  in  re-breathed  air  it  increases  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  other,  more  poisonous,  but  less  easily  detected,  impurities.  "We 
shall  therefore  make  no  error  if  we  use  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxid  as 
an  indicator  of  the  amount  of  the  organic  poisons. 

The  apparatus  is  so  arranged  as  to  admit  into  a  glass  cylinder  which 
contains  a  measured  amount  of  the  standard  solution,  the  air  to  be  tested. 
When  enough  has  been  admitted  to  neutralize  the  solution,  the  propor- 
tion of  carbon  dioxid  may  be  read  off  from  a  scale  etched  on  the  glass. 

It  should  be  stated  that  as  checks  upon  the  experiments,  samples  of 
air  were  tested  by  other  methods,  the  results  agreeing  very  closely  with 
those  obtained  by  the  Wolpert  method.  This  is  not  as  exact  as  syste- 
matic chemical  analysis,  but  it  is  sufficiently  so  for  the  purpose. 

The  instrument  is  graduated  for  0°C  and  760mm.  of  mercury  pressure. 
As  the  air  tested  was  always  at  a  temperature  of  from  15°C  to  20°C,  and 
as  the  average  pressure  at  Truro  is  761mm.,  there  should  be  about  7% 
added  to  ths  actual  observations  to  correct  them  for  temperature  and 
pressure.  I  give  below  a  table  showing  a  set  of  observations  which 
were  made  in  the  Chemical  Laboratory  at  the  Provincial  Normal  School. 
They  are  corrected  for  temperature  and  pressure,  and  the  conditions  in 
the  room  at  the  time  of  the  various  tests  are  given  as  accurately  as 
possible. 


XXIV 


PROCEEDINGS. 


TESTS  OF  THE  AIR  IN  THE  CHEMICAL  LABORATORY,    PROVINCIAL   NORMAL 
SCHOOL,  TRURO,  NOVA  SCOTIA. 


Date. 


Mar. 

7 
H 
15 

21 

22 
24 

17 

22 

8 

15 

22 

8 

9 

i5 

17 

9 

16 

21 

23 

7 

10 
26 

27 


Time. 


A.  M. 
9.00 
g.oo 
9.00 
9.00 
9.00 
9.00 
9-45 
9-45 

IO.OO 
IO.OO 
10.00 

10.40 
10.40 
10.40 
10.40 
12  m. 
12  m. 
12  m. 
12  m. 

P.  M. 
5.OO 
5.00 
5.00 
5-00 


Condition  of  the  Laboratory. 


Empty    6.42 

4.28 
3-2i 
4.28 
16.05 
6.42 

34  students — 40  m. — high  wind    .  , 9-63 

32  windows  open 16.05 

i  h 20.33 

"  windows  open 9.63 

"  windows  and  doors  open 16.05 

i  h.,  40  m.,  windows  and  doors  open. . . .       23.54 

21.40 

windows  open  .    10.70 

i  h 16.05 

"  windows  open 20. 33 

17.12 

i  h.,  15  m.,  Blow-pipe  lamps  in  use 48-15 

windows  open 17.12 

Empty    16.05 

20.33 
42.80 
Laboratory  used  for  blow-pipe  work  in  mineralogy  for 

i  h.,  45  m.,  by  20  students '      65.00 


C  O2 
(parts  in 
10,000.) 


The  observations  made  in  the  Laboratory  were  chosen  for  presentation 
because  they  present, 

1.  A  mean  between  the  worst  and  best  rooms  in  the  building. 

2.  A  greater  variety  of  conditions  than  any  other  room. 

3.  A  large  air  space  per  pupil— 9  cu.m.,  or  318  cubic  feet. 

4.  Less  interference  from  other  rooms,  and  from  interruption  during- 
the  test. 

The  month  of  March  was  chosen  because  at  that  time  the  laboratory 
work  consists  of  lectures  and  blow-pipe  analysis,  where  few  chemical 
re-agents  aie  used  and  those  mostly  in  the  "  dry "  state.  With  one 
exception,  March  21,  no  blow-pipe  work  was  done  till  after  3  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon.  Moreover,  March  presents  many  warm  days  when  it  is 
possible  to  have  windows  open,  while  in  the  winter  the  insufficiency  of 
our  heating  apparatus  is  such  as  to  make  this  impossible.  It  has  been. 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  XXV 

my  endeavor  to  present  a  case  considerably  better  than  the  worst 
which  obtains  in  our  school. 

As  will  be  seen,  a  great  variety  of  conditions  is  presented.  The  use 
of  the  room  is  intermittent,  arid  when  in  use,  its  ventilation  depends 
wholly  upon  the  temperature  of  the  outside  air.  The  heating  apparatus 
is  so  inadequate  that  upon  a  cold  day  with  all  windows  closed  the 
temperature  cannot  be  brought  above  62°  F.  Hence  it  is  only  during 
comparatively  warm  weather  that  the  windows  can  be  opened  at  all. 

The  laboratory  gives  an  air  space  of  nine  cubic  meters  to  each  °* 
thirty-four  students,  due  allowance  being  made  for  the  desks  and  cases. 

All  authorities  admit  that  air  containing  more  than  six  parts  of 
carbon  dioxid  in  ten  thousand  is  injurious,  but  for  various  reasons  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  Pettenkofer's  standard  of  ten  parts  of  carbon  dioxid 
may  be  used  as  the  outside  limit  for  ordinary  school-room  air.  For 
kindergartens  it  is  thought  that  the  air  should  never  become  more 
impure  than  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  four  parts  of  carbon  dioxid 
in  ten  thousand.  It  will  be  seen  that  only  at  the  beginning  of  school 
does  the  air  in  the  laboratory  come  within  Pettenkofer's  standard. 

From  all  observations  made  in  all  the  rooms  in  the  Normal  School, 
and  in  the  corridors,  the  times  of  making  the  tests  being  from  9  a.  m. 
to  5  p.  m.,  and  the  conditions  as  various  as  exist  in  any  school  building,, 
and  the  dates  from  March  6  to  June  1st.  I  find  the  following  averages 
for  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxid  in  ten  thousand  parts  of  air  : 

At    9.00  a.  m 8.30 

"     9.40     "      9.63 

"10.00     " 20.33 

"  11.00     "      16.05 

"  1 2.00    m 23.54 

"     3.15  p.  m 18.19 

"     5,00     "      29.96 

The  decrease  in  impurity  from  ten  to  eleven  o'clock  is  due  to  the 
recess  taken  by  the  model  school  at  that  time.  The  great  increase  after 
3.15  is  more  difficult  to  account  for,  but  it  seems  to  me  satisfactorily 
explained  by  these  considerations.  1st.  During  school  hours  the  warm 
air  breathed  out  rises,  so  that  even  the  heavy  carbon  dioxid  is  carried 
upward.  When  the  whole  air  cools  the  carbon  dioxid  is  found  near  the 
floor.  2nd.  After  school,  much  blow-pipe  work  was  going  on  in  the 
laboratory,  raising  the  impurity  in  that  room,  and  the  library  was  usually 
crowded.  The  average  of  many  five  o'clock  tests  in  the  latter  room  gives 
forty-five  parts  of  carbon  dioxid  in  ten  thousand  of  air. 


XXvi  PROCEEDINGS. 

A  consideration  of  these  figures  will  make  it  evident  that  we  are 
severely  handicapped  in  our  work  at  the  Normal  School,  and  that  pupils 
and  teachers  are,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  poisoned  by  the  air  in  the 
school  building. 

This  is  in  no  way  a  peculiarity  of  the  Normal  School.  With  the 
exception  of  some  modern  ventilated  buildings  in  Halifax,  and  in  a  few 
of  the  towns,  all  schools  are  just  as  bad.  I  have  found  most  country 
schools  which  1  have  visited  with  just  as  impure  air  as  that  at  Truro. 

The  amount  of  air  space  per  pupil  in  the  various  rooms  in  the 
Normal  School  is  much  greater  than  that  in  most  schools.  Six  cubic 
meters  per  pupil  is  considered  ample,  and  in  no  room  at  Truro,  except 
the  library,  have  we  less  than  seven. 

The  obvious  remedy  here  is  to  provide  some  means  of  changing  the 
air.  With  the  present  heating  it  is  impossible  to  do  this  by  means  of 
windows,  even  if  there  were  no  danger  from  drafts  by  such  a  mode  of 
ventilation. 

The  really  important  problem  to  be  solved  is  the  ventilation  of  the 
•country  schools.  Here  are  the  greatest  numbers,  at  ages  when  injury  is 
very  dangerous,  since  it  may  effect  the  whole  future  life  of  the  pupil. 
That  we  may  do  the  "  greatest  good  to  the  largest  number  "  by  ventilat- 
ing the  country  scnool  houses  is  evident.  The  obstacle  in  our  way  here 
is  the  complete  ignorance  of  the  people  of  the  principles  of  ventilation. 
This  is  perfectly  excusable,  since  it  is  only  within  comparatively  few 
years  that  the  subject  has  been  studied  at  all.  A  "  campaign  of  educa- 
tion "  is  feasible,  but  is  expensive.  The  Inspectors  are  the  proper  persons 
to  bring  the  matter  before  the  teachers  and  the  trustees.  The  Depart- 
ment of  Education  can  also  do  much  by  securing  plans  of  suitable  build- 
ings and  requiring  all  new  school  houses  to  be  built  upon  one  of  these 
plans.  They  may  be  of  various  sizes  and  prices  so  as  to  suit  the  needs 
of  poor  or  of  wealthy  sections.  Thus,  in  time,  every  school-house  in  the 
Province  would  be  provided  with  pure  air,  and  the  cost  be  saved  many 
times  over  by  the  increased  efficiency  of  both  teachers  and  pupils. 
Until  something  is  done  by  the  central  authority  in  some  such  compul- 
sory manner  as  I  have  indicated,  I  fear  there  will  be  no  change. 

As  for  the  Normal  School,  the  only  remedy  for  the  state  of  affairs 
existing  there  is  to  provide  the  building  with  suitable  heating  and 
ventilation. 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  XXVli 

The   paper    was   discussed    by    the  Chairman,    MESSRS.  O'HEARN, 

McKERRON,     DOANE,    BLACKADAR,  HoPSON,    BAUSCH     and    PROFESSOR    E. 

MAC  KAY. 

A  vote  of  thanks  was  presented  to  MR.  RUSSELL. 


FOURTH  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

City  Hall,   Halifax,  13th  March,   1899. 
The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

EDWIN  GILPIN,  JR.,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,'read  a  paper,  entitled, 
"  New  Mineral  Discoveries  in  Nova  Scotia."     (See  Transactions,  p.  79.) 

A.  P.  REID,  ESQ.,   M.  D.,   exhibited   and  explained  a  model  of  a 
Sanatorium  for  Consumptives. 

A  vote  of  thanks  was  presented  to  DR.  REID  for  his  communication. 


FIFTH  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  17th,  April,  1899. 
The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

It  was  announced  that  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  Council,  HERBERT 
E.  GATES,  ESQ.,  Architect,  Dartmouth,  and  WILLIAM  A.  MACDONALD, 
ESQ.,  Halifax,  had  been  elected  ordinary  members. 

PROFESSOR  J.  G.  MACGREGOR,  D.  Sc.,  read  a  paper  entitled,  "  On 
finding  the  ionization  of  complex  solutions  of  given  concentration,  and 
the  converse  problem.  (See  Transactions,  p.  67). 

A  paper  entitled,  "  Phonological  Observations,  Canada,  1898,"  was 
read  by  A.  H.  MACKAY,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.  (See  Transactions, 
p.  91.) 


XXviii  PROCEEDINGS. 

SIXTH  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  8th  May,  1899. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

A  circular  from  the  Eoyal  Society  of  Canada,  relative  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  delegate  to  the  forthcoming  meeting,  was  read  and  referred  to 
the  Council  for  action. 

PROP.  J.  G.  MACGREGOR  communicated  a  "  Note  on  the  variation 
with  tension,  of  the  elastic  properties  of  vulcanised  india-rubber,"  being 
an  account  of  some  experiments  made  in  his  Laboratory  at  Dalhousie 
College,  by  MR.  W.  A.  MACDONALD. 

The  experiments  had  been  intended  originally  to  deal  with  rigidity 
only,  but  it  had  been  -found  possible  to  apply  some  of  the  observations 
to  the  determination  of  Young's  Modulus  as  well. 

The  composition  of  the  specimen  of  india-rubber  used  was  not 
known.  It  was  in  the  form  of  a  cylindrical  cord  and  was  fairly  soft  in 
texture  and  grey  in  color,  a  freshly  cut  surface  having  a  mottled 
appearance.  It  had  been  obtained  from  Messrs.  Thornton  &  Co.,  Edin- 
burgh, and  was  both  very  true  and  very  uniform  in  its  circular  cross 
section. 

The  method  employed  for  determining  the  rigidity  under  tension 
was  the  method  of  oscillation.  It  was  necessary  therefore  to  fix  the 
upper  end  firmly  and  to  attach  a  weight-holder  firmly  to  the  lower  end. 
As  the  problem  had  been  assigned  to  Mr.  Macdonald  as  a  class  exercise 
merely,  and  no  appropriate  gear  for  the  attachment  of  the  ends  was 
immediately  available,  he  had  to  be  contented  with  a  makeshift  method. 
He  drew  the  ends  of  the  cord  through  pieces  of  glass  tubing,  previoxisly 
coated  internally  with  soft  sealing  wax,  of  considerably  smaller  diameter 
than  the  cord,  and  then  gently  heated  the  tubes  until  the  wax  melted. 
The  tube  at  the  upper  end  was  fixed  to  a  bracket,  that  at  the  lower  end 
carried  a  cork  disc  which  served  as  a  weight-holder.  To  reduce  the 
error  due  to  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  diameter  of  the  cord  near  the 
ends,  produced  by  the  pressure  of  the  tubes,  the  cord  selected  for  use 
was  a  long  one.  Except  in  so  far  as  the  heating  may  have  changed  the 
physical  properties  ot  the  cord  near  the  lower  end,  the  arrangement  was 
satisfactory  enough  for  the  comparatively  small  extensions  for  which  it 
was  intended.  But  for  the  greater  extensions,  to  which  the  earlier 
results  made  it  appear  desirable  to  proceed,  it  was  not  suitable.  For 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  XXIX 

under  considerable  stress  the  wax  near  the  ends  of  the  glass  tubes  gave 
way,  and  the  space  thus  left  in  the  ends  of  the  tubes  had  to  be  packed  to 
make  it  certain  that  the  portion  of  the  cord  actually  subjected  to  tension 
and  torsion  was  the  portion  outside  the  tubes.  The  observations  under 
the  greater  stresses  are  thus  considerably  less  trustworthy  than  the 
others. 

The  weights  used  were  square  plates  of  sheet  lead  with  an  edge  of 
four  inches,  having  a  small  circular  portion  cut  from  the  centre,  and  a 
slit  from  the  centre  to  the  edge  to  admit  of  their  being  placed  on  the 
holder.  Their  moment  of  inertia  could  therefore  readily  be  calculated. 
The  length  of  the  cord  was  measured  by  means  of  a  beam  compass, 
reading  to  .01  inch,  and  its  diameter  by  a  micrometer  gauge  reading  to 
.001  inch.  The  time  of  oscillation  was  determined  by  means  of  a  stop- 
watch reading  to  0.2  second.  The  observations  given  below  were  in  all 
cases  means  of  several  individual  observations,  —  the  length  and  radius  of 
five,  and  the  times  of  oscillation,  of  ten.  No  special  effort  was  made  to 
keep  the  cord  at  constant  temperature  ;  but  the  temperature  of  the 
laboratory  varied  but  little. 

The  course  of  the  observations  was  determined  by  Mr.  Macdonald's 
available  time  rather  than  by  the  fitness  of  things.  He  kept  the  cord 
stretched  slightly  throughout  the  whole  series  by  482  grm.,  and  from 
time  to  time  he  would  apply  additional  weights,  make  the  requisite 
observations,  and  then  remove  such  additional  weights,  the  observations 
requiring  perhaps  a  couple  of  hours.  The  dates  of  the  observations  are 
given  in  the  table  below.  Unfortunately  the  length  of  the  cord  under 
its  permanent  stress  was  not  in  all  cases,  and  its  diameter  was  in  no  case, 
determined  immediately  before  the  application  of  the  additional  weights, 
such  observations  not  being  necessary  for  the  purpose  originally  in  hand. 

The  following  table  gives  the  results  of  the  observations  and  the 
calculated  values  of  the  rigidity.  The  observations  have  been  reduced 
to  C.  G.  S.  units,  and  the  rigidities  expressed  in  absolute  units  of  that 
system.  The  rigidities  were  calculated  from  the  formula  : 


r*  t*   ' 

where  n  is  the  rigidity,  I  the  length,  and  r  the  radius,  of  the  cord,  /  the 
moment  of  inertia  of  the  lead  plates,  and  t  the  time  -of  a  complete 
oscillation.  In  finding  the  moment  of  inertia  the  weight-holder  of  cork 
and  glass  was  neglected,  as  also  the  small  circular  apertures  in  the  lead 
plates.  The  volume  of  the  cord  is  given  in  the  table  also. 


XXX 


PROCEEDINGS. 


o 

b 

ippended 
> 

1 

'•E 

0 

o 

02° 

O 

0^1 

4 

Tempera 
(°C.) 

38 

H"~ 
o 

•2,o 

il 

Time  of  < 
(sec.) 

0  O 

'& 

10"  x 

FIRST  SERIES. 

Mar. 
16 

21 

15.6 
18.1 

90.68 
90.98 

482 

482 

0.356 

1080 

36.03. 

10.18 

21 
22 
22 
23 
23 
28 
28 

17.5 
17.6 
18.7 
18.9 
18.6 
18.6 

96.60 
91.24 
103.99 
91.51 
113.92 
92.35 
123.21 

.343 

735 

482 
981 
482 
1222 
482 
1467 

16.00 

35.69 

8.68 

.335 

20.04 

36.73 

8.69 

.323 

25.32 

37.25 

8.67 

.307 

29.76 

3657 

9.89 

Apr. 
4 

18.S 

137.41 

.293 

1714 

35.88 

37.16 

10.68 

5 

19.3 

138.38 

.293 

1714 

36.36 

37.42 

10.48 

6 

17.7 

150.37 

.279 

1956 

40.80 

36.88 

12.54 

SECOND  SERIES. 

Apr. 
13 

17.0 

95.65 

.345 

482 

12.22 

35.86 

9.38 

13 

17.4 

102.16 

.337 

735 

18.44 

36.36 

7.44 

13 

17.5 

110.31 

.324 

981 

23.80 

36.35 

7.51 

13 

20 
20 
20 

18.0 

121.13 
130.97 
141.83 
151.99 

.312 
.301 
.290 
.282 

1222 
1467 
1714 
1956 

29.26 
33.64 
38.48 
42.30 

37.15 
37.28 
37.36 
37.96 

7.85 
8.95 
10.10 
11.37 

The  first  series  of  observations  showed  that  the  rigidity,  as  deter, 
mined,  at  first  diminished  with  tension,  then  reached  a  minimum  value, 
and  finally  increased,  as  the  cord  was  more  and  more  stretched, — an 
interesting  result  if  it  should  be  substantiated.  Hence  a  second  series  of 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  XXXI 

observations  was  made  with  the  same  cord  and  the  same  arrangements 
as  the  first.  This  series  had  to  be  made  somewhat  hurriedly,  as  will  be 
seen  by  the  dates  of  the  individual  experiments,  but  the  experim'ents 
were  made  with  the  same  care  as  those  of  the  first  series.  It  will  be 
seen  from  the  above  table  that  (1)  the  treatment  to  which  the  cord  had 
been  subjected  in  the  first  series  had  diminished  its  rigidity,  the  values 
being  smaller  throughout  than  in  the  first  series,  and  (2)  that  the  initial 
diminution  of  rigidity  with  increase  of  tension,  its  final  increment  with 
tension,  and  the  occurrence  of  a  minimum  point  are  as  marked  in  the 
second  series  as  in  the  first. 

To  find  out  if  the  occurrence  of  the  minimum  point  was  due  to  the 
defective  character  of  the  attachments  at  the  ends  of  the  cord,  Mr. 
Macdonald  made  a  number  of  observations  with  new  modes  of  attach- 
ment. These  consisted  of  brass  tubes  in  one  end  of  which  three 
longitudinal  cuts  had  been  made,  the  ends  of  the  three  strips  thus 
formed  being  bent  inwards  and  provided  with  teeth.  The  ends  of 
the  cord  having  been  passed  into  these  tubes,  the  strips  were  firmly  bound 
to  the  cord  by  means  of  wire.  Unfortunately  Mr.  Macdonald  had  Hot 
(sufficient  time  to  make  more  than  rough  observations  with  the  new 
arrangement.  Such  observations  as  he  was  able  to  make  seemed  to  show 
that  the  minimum  point  had  disappeared.  Whether  its  disappearance 
was  due  to  the  more  satisfactory  attachments,  the  passing  away  of  the 
heating  effect  or  the  fatigue  of  the  cord,  Mr.  Macdonald  hopes  to  deter- 
mine by  further  experiments. 

The  above  values  of  the  rigidity  agree  fairly  well  with  Mallock's1 
determinations,  Mallock  having  found  that  the  rigidity  of  what  he  calls 
'•soft  grey"  india-rubber,  determined  dynamically,  ranged  from  5.52  to 
8.76,  if  expressed  as  in  the  above  table,  and  that  for  "hard  grey"  rubber 
it  ranged  from  10.77  to  13.94.  Mr.  Macdonald's  rubber  could  not  be 
designated  as  either  soft  or  hard ;  and  his  values  are  intermediate 
between  Mallock's  for  the  soft  and  the  hard  specimens. 

The  volume  of  the  cord  underwent  very  little  change  during  either 
the  first  or  the  second  series.  In  both  series,  however,  there  is  an 
unmistakeable  though  small  increase  of  volume  with  stretching  ;  but 
whether  it  was  due  to  the  stretching  or  to  the  series  of  oscillations  to 
which  the  cord  had  been  subjected  does  not  of  course  appear. 

1  Proc.  R.  S.  Lond..  46,  233,  1889. 


XXXll 


PROCEEDINGS. 


Mr.  Macdonald  did  not  intend  at  the  outset,  to  make  any  deter- 
minations of  Young's  Modulus  ;  but  his  observations  may  be  used  for 
two"  purposes,  viz.,  to  determine  (1)  how  the  value  of  this  modulus  for 
a  cord  under  a  constant  original  stress  varies  with  the  magnitude  of  the 
increment  of  stress  to  which  it  is  subjected,  and  (2)  how  the  value  of 
the  modulus  for  a  cord  under  different  original  stresses,  and  elongated 
by  approximately  equal  increments  of  stress,  varies  with  the  magnitude 
of  the  original  stress.  In  the  determinations  given  below,  Young's 
Modulus  has  been  taken  to  be  the  increment  of  tensile  stress  divided 
by  the  corresponding  increment  of  length  per  unit  of  the  length  immedi- 
ately before  the  stress  was  increased. 

(1)  The  observations  requisite  for  the  first  purpose  were  made  only 
in  a  few  cases  ;  and  even  in  those  cases  in  calculating  the  increment  of 
tensile  stress,  it  is  necessary  to  assume  (the  requisite  measurements  not 
having  been  made)  that  the  radius  of  the  cord  would  not  appreciably 
vary  with  the  small  variations  of  length  under  the  permanent  load — 
an  assumption  which  is  doubtless  permissible.  The  following  table 
gives  the  results  : — 


Original  Stress 
(grms.  per  sq. 
cm.) 

Additional 
Stress 
(grins,  per  sq. 
cm.) 

Elongation  per 
unit  length. 

Young's 
Modulus, 
(abs.  C.  G.  S. 
units). 
10"  x 

1354 

789 

.0618 

12.53 

1354 

1574 

.1397 

11.05 

1354 

2529 

.2449 

9.73 

1354 

3424 

.3342 

10.05 

These  determinations  would  thus  seem  to  show  that  for  the  smaller 
additional  stresses  to  which  the  cord  was  subjected,  the  value  of  Young's 
Modulus  diminished  as  the  additional  stress  increased,  that  for  the  larger 
additional  stresses,  it  increased  with  the  additional  stress,  and  that  there 
was  a  certain  additional  stress  for  which  Young's  Modulus  had  a 
minimum  value, —  this  additional  stress  being  of  such  a  magnitude  as  to 
produce  an  elongation  of  about  0.25.  This  result  is  in  agreement, 
qualitatively,  with  Mallock's  observations,  which  showed  that  Young's 
Modulus,  statically  determined,  "  diminishes  with  the  extension  until 
the  stretched  length  is  about  3/2  times  the  natural  length."  As  Mallock's 


ORDINARY     MEETINGS. 


XXX111 


rubber  no  doubt  differed  in  degree  of  vulcanisation  from  Mr.  Macdonald's, 
and  as  he  used  a  different  initial  stress,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  elon- 
gations giving  a  minimum  value  for  Young's  Modulus  should  be  0.25  in 
the  one  case  and  0.5  in  the  other 

Mallock's  mean  value  of  Young's  Modulus,  when  expressed  in 
absolute  C.  G.  S.  units,  was  8.56  x  106for  soft  grey  india-rubber,  and 
34.16  x  106  for  hard  grey  rubber.  As  in  the  case  of  the  rigidity,  Mr. 
Macdonald's  values  are  intermediate,  being  nearer  Mallock's  values  for 
the  soft  than  for  the  hard  specimen. 

(2)  The  following  table  contains  the  determinations  made  for  the 
second  purpose  mentioned  above. 


Original  Stress 
(grms.  per  sq. 
cm.) 

Additional 

Stress 
(grins,  per  sq. 
cm.) 

Elongation  per 
unit  length. 

Young's 
Modulus, 
(abs.  C.  G.  S. 
units). 
10«x 

FIRST  SERIES. 

1354 

789 

.0618 

12.53 

2143 

785 

.0765 

10.06 

2928 

855 

.0955 

8.78 

3783 

995 

.0816 

11.97 

4778 

1072 

.1152 

9.13 

5850 

1161 

.0943 

12.08 

SECOND  SERIES. 

1397 

784 

.0681 

11.30 

2181 

847 

.0798 

10.42 

3028 

889 

.0981 

8.89 

3917 

957 

.0812 

11  55 

4874 

1036 

.0829 

12.26 

5910 

1026 

.0716 

14.05 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X. 


PROC.— C. 


XXXIV  PROCEEDINGS. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  both  series  of  observations  the  values  of  the 
modulus  are  large  at  the  outset,  diminish  in  value  as  the  original  stress 
is  increased,  reach  a  minimum  value  and  thereafter  increase  with  the 
original  stress.  The  irregularity  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  determinations 
in  the  first  series,  is  obviously  due  to  the  unusually  long  intervals  of 
time  which,  as  the  first  table,  p.  xxx,  shows,  intervened  between  the  two 
pairs  of  observations  on  which  they  are  based.  The  variation  of  Young's 
Modulus  with  initial  stress,  th«  additional  stress  being  roughly  constant, 
would  thus  appear  to  be  similar  to  that  which  was  shown  above  to  hold 
with  respect  to  additional  stress  when  initial  stress  is  constant. 

It  should  be  noted,  with  respect  to  all  the  above  determinations  of 
Young's  Modulus  that  the  values  found  apply  to  the  state  of  the  cord 
immediately  after  the  application  of  the  additional  stress,  and  in  addition 
that  the  cord  was  subjected  to  torsion  after  each  observation  of  length. 

Mr.  Macdonald  hopes  to  be  able  to  continue  the  above  investigation 
at  a  later  date. 

The  paper  was  discussed  by  DR.  MURPHY. 

JAMES  BARNES,  ESQ.,  B  A.,  Dalhousie  College,  read  a  paper  "  On 
the  Conductivity,  Specific  Gravity,  and  Surface  Tension  of  Aqueous 
Solutions  containing  Potassium  Chloride  and  Sulphate."  (See  Transac- 
tions, p.  49.) 

HARRY  PIERS,  ESQ.,  read  a  paper  entitled,  "  Observations  on  a  Fish 
new  to  the  Fauna  of  Nova  Scotia."  (Sec  Transactions,  p.  110.) 

CHARLES  F.  LINDSAY,  ESQ  ,  read  a  paper  "On  the  presence  of  Acid 
Sulphates  in  Solutions  containing  Copper  Sulphate  and  Sulphuric  Acid." 

The  paper  was  discussed  by  PROFESSORS  E.  MACKAY  and  MACGREGOR, 
and  DR.  A.  H.  MAC  KAY. 

A  vote  of  thanks  was  presented  to  MESSRS.  MACDONALD,  BARNES  and 
LINDSAY  for  their  communications. 

The  following  paper  was  read  by  title  :  "  Notes  on  Nova  Scotian 
Zoology :  No.  5,"  by  HARRY  PIERS,  ESQ. 

The  Council  was  authorized  to  receive  as  read  by  title,  any  papers 
that  might  be  offered  too  late  for  this  meeting. 

HARRY  PIERS, 

Recording  Secretary. 


PROCEEDINGS 


,Scotian  Jnstitute  of  .Science, 


SESSION   OF  1899-1900. 


ANNU&.L  BUSINESS  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  20th  November,  1899. 
The  PRESIDENT,  ALEXANDER  McKAY,  ESQ.,  in  the  chair. 
The  PRESIDENT  addressed  the  Institute,  as  follows  : — 

GENTLEMEN, — A  review  of  the  last  year's  work  of  this  Institute 
may  well  he  very  brief.  Meetings  were  held  at  the  usual  times, 
except  in  February,  on  account  of  a  severe  storm.  Twelve  papers 
were  read  and  discussed,  and  another  was  read  by  title.  These  cover  a 
wide  range  of  subjects  :  Social  science,  geology,  sanitary  science, 
mineralogy,  medicine,  chemistry  and  botany,  zoology  and  physics. 

Prof.  Davidson,  of  the  University  of  New  Brunswick,  opens  up  a 
field  new  to  the  Institute  by  a  valuable  paper  "  On  Statistics  and 
Expenditure  in  Canada."  In  this  and  related  studies  there  are  splendid 
opportunities  for  unlimited  research  and  the  display  of  the  highest 
order  of  talents.  A  paper  by  Prof.  Russell  on  "  School  Room  Air " 
will  be  of  much  interest  and  value  to  teachers.  The  tests  recom- 
mended are  inexpensive,  and  such  as  can  be  generally  used.  Teachers 
who  have  once  made  these  tests  will  ever  afterwards  be  more  alive  to 
the  almost  criminal  carelessness  of  those  who  allow  children  to  occupy 
badly-ventilated  school  rooms.  Dr.  A.  P.  Reid  also  deserves  the 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  PROC.— D. 

(xxxv) 


XXXvi  PROCEEDINGS. 

thanks  of  the  Institute  for  calling  attention  to  the  spread  of  consumption 
by  contagion  and  its  prevention  by  means  of  properly  constructed 
sanitaria,  of  which  he  exhibited  a  model.  In  the  phenological  observa- 
tions of  the  school  children,  collected  by  Dr.  MacKay,  and  in  the 
experiments  in  physics  and  chemistry  conducted  by  Messrs.  Barnes. and 
Lindsay — promising  young  students  of  Dalhousie  College — we  see 
hopeful  signs  of  a  reviving  interest  for  science  in  iSrova  Scotia.  Mr. 
Piers  has  favored  us  with  "  No.  5  of  Notes  on  Nova  Scotia  Zoology." 
Dr.  Mackay,  who  is  our  only  authority  on  the  Diatomaceae  of  Nova 
Scotia,  has  awakened  a  fresh  interest  in  one  of  his  favorite  studies  by 
another  paper  reporting  progress,  and  by  exhibiting  excellent  micro- 
scopic slides  of  our  principal  diatoms. 

Upon  the  whole,  then,  the  work  of  the  year  has  been  of  very 
considerable  interest  and  of  some  scientific  importance. 

We  have  added  to  our  numbers  two  ordinary  members,  one  corres- 
ponding member  and  three  associate  members.  We  record  with  sorrow 
the  death  in  September  of  one.  of  our  oldest  and  most  faithful  members, 
Mr.  J.  J.  Fox.  He  was  born  in  Salisbury,  England,  in  1818.  He 
studied  medicine,  but  preferred  a  seafaring  life,  and  spent  many  years 
full  of  adventure  in  Egypt,  Greece,  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  by  the  Imperial  Government 
comptroller  of  customs  and  navigation  laws  at  Magdalen  Islands. 

A  faithful  performance  of  duties  soon  led  to  advancement,  and  for 
many  years  he  was  familiarly  known  as  "  governor."  He  was  charac- 
terized by  modesty,  bravery  and  humanity.  For  valuable  services  to 
shipwrecked  mariners  he  was  presented  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States  with  a  magnificent  gold  watch  valued  at  $1,000.  His  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  fisheries  made  him  a  most  valuable  witness  before  the 
Halifax  fishery  commission  in  1877.  After  retiring  from  the  civil 
service  he  lived  in  Halifax,  joined  the  Institute,  and  seldom  missed  a 
meeting. 

To-;lay  brings  us  sad  tidings  of  the  death  yesterday  of  Sir  William 
Dawson,  the  most  distinguished  member  of  our  Institute  and  the  most 
eminent  scientific  man  in  Canada.  He  was  born  in  Pictou  in  1820. 
At  a  very  early  age  he  began  his  studies  in  natural  history,  thereby 
cultivating  his  powers  of  observation,  and  thus  laying  the  foundation 
for  his  remarkable  achievements  in  geology  subsequently.  His  success 
in  this  respect  is  a  good  argument  in  favor  of  the  early  introduction  into 
our  course  of  study  of  science  teaching. 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS.  XXXVll 

Mr.  Dawson  graduated  from  Edinburgh  University  at  the  age  of  26. 
For  four  years  he  studied  geology,  travelling  part  of  the  time  with  Sir 
Charles  Lyell,  the  greatest  geologist  of  the  world.  At  tho  age  of 
thirty  he  was  superintendent  of  schools  for  JS'ova  Scotia,  and  did  much 
to  lay  the  foundation  of  our  present  educational  system.  In  1855  he 
was  appointed  Principal  of  McGill  University,  a  position  which  he  held 
until  1893,  until  he  and  the  University  had  become  famous  the  world 
over. 

He  was  capable  of  a  prodigious  amount  of  hard  work.  In  his 
favorite  science  he  kept  in  the  foremost  rank,  but  he  found  it  difficult 
to  avail  himself  of  the  light  thrown  upon  natural  phenomena  by  the 
theory  of  evolution  of  which  he  was  a  most  uncompromising  oppo- 
nent. 

His  extraordinary  industry  is  shown  by  the  large  number  of  books 
and  scientific  articles  which  he  wrote.  Some  of  them  were  of  very 
great  value  and  are  still  used  as  text  books. 

His  eminent  services  to  science  were  acknowledged  by  his  appoint- 
ment as  first  President  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada  in  1882,  his 
•election  in  the  same  year  as  President  of  the  American  Geological 
Association,  and  of  the  British  Association  in  1886.  He  received 
honorary  degrees  fram  various  universities,  and  was  knighted  in  1884. 

At  the  close  of  my  address  last  year  I  referred  to  the  fact  that 
science  was  much  neglected  or  very  badly  taught  in  our  schools.  As  a 
remedy  I  suggested  (a)  that  the  colleges  prescribe  science  as  a  subject 
for  matriculation,  (b)  that  for  the  academic  license  more  scholarship, 
especially  in  practical  science,  and  a  long  course  of  the  best  professional 
training  be  made  imperative,  (c)  that  higher  qualifications  in  science  be 
required  for  B  licenses,  and  (d)  that  a  large  part  of  the  provincial 
•examination  in  science  for  grade  A  consist  of  laboratory  work. 

The  progress  of  science  teaching  in  other  countries  during  the  last 
year  has  all  been  in  confirmation  of  the  soundness  of  these  principles. 
No  doubt  the  time  is  near  when  we  also  must  adopt  them.  When  that 
•day  comes,  and  not  until  then,  science  will  make  satisfactory  progress 
in  all  our  educational  institutions. 

But  it  is  perhaps  more  especially  the  province  of  this  Institute  to 
awaken  the  public  to  an  interest  in  general  science  and  to  stimulate  and 
assist  individuals  in  particular  fields  of  research. 


xxxviii  PROCEEDINGS. 

In  reference  to  this  aim  I  may  be  allowed  to  make  some  additional 
suggestions  : 

1.  We  should  have  a  scientific  library  easily  accessible  to  scientific- 
workers  in  every  part  of  the  Province.  At  present  we  have  nothing  of 
the  kind.  A  collection  of  partially  catalogued,  somewhat  inaccessible 
reports  of  scientific  societies  cannot  be  said  to  be  such  a  scientific  library 
as  the  majority  of  workers  need,  however  useful  it  may  be  to  those- 
engaged  in  original  research. 

We  requiie  not  less  than  5,000  volumes  of  the  latest  books  by  the 
ablest  men  of  science  ;  10,000  would  be  better.  In  addition  to  this 
there  should  be  complete  sets  of  all  the  scientific  periodicals  in  English, 
French  and  German. 

Such  a  collection  of  standard  science  textbooks,  supplemented  by 
government  reports  on  agriculture,  forestry,  fisheries,  etc.,  and  the 
reports  of  scientific  societies,  and  managed  by  a  competent  librarian,, 
would  be  of  incalculable  benefit.  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  I 
believe  it  is  the  duty  of  our  government  in  its  encouragement  of 
technical  instruction  to  establish  such  a  library.  If  there  existed  an 
intelligent  appreciation  of  its  value  the  cost  would  not  long  be  a 
hindrance,  for  the  number  of  books  required  would  not  be  large,  and 
probably  many  of  them  would  be  received  as  donations. 

But  why  should  the  government  provide  a  science  library  any  more 
than  a  law  library  or  a  historical  library  1  Because  science  in  some  form 
or  other  lies  at  the  foundation  of  success  in  all  the  industries  of  the- 
country,  so  that  the  government  would  be  justified  and  supported  in 
making  an  expenditure  which  would  result  in  such  general  benefit. 
Facilities  for  scientific  research  would  lead  to  discoveries  which  would 
pay  the  cost  a  thousand  fold.  Pasteur's  discoveries  were  worth  untold 
millions  to  France. 

Although  Nova  Scotia  is  not  large,  populous  or  rich,  yet  her  natural 
resources  are  so  great  and  varied  as  to  warrant  the  government  in 
following  the  examples  of  other  countries  in  respect  to  technical 
education;  and  the  establishment  of  a  good  science  library  would  be  but 
the  first  and  most  natural  step  in  that  direction. 

Recently  I  wanted  to  consult  twenty  or  thirty  scientific  works  and 
periodicals.  In  the  three  largest  public  or  quasi-public  libraries  of 
Halifax  I  was  able  to  find  but  one  of  them.  No  wonder  that  our 
ablest  young  men  are  lost  to  the  Province  when  we  deny  them  the- 
opportunities  for  research  which  they  readily  obtain  elsewhere. 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS.  XXXIX 

Here  let  me  call  your  attention  to  the  most  valuable  and  self- 
sacrificing  labors  of  Dr.  MacGregor  and  Mr.  Maynard  Bowman  in 
•connection  with  the  library  of  this  Institute.  A  few  years  ago,  when 
they  began  work  upon  it,  it  consisted  of  a  small  number  of  unclassified 
reports  from  secieties  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  It  now  includes  a 
large  number  of  serial  publications  by  scientific  societies  and  other  insti- 
tutions, and  numbers  about  1,500  bound  volumes  with  about  as  many 
more  unbound.  These  haee  been  placed  in  a  room  temporarily  pro- 
vided by  Dalhousie  College,  and  so  arranged  that  any  one  desirous  of 
consulting  any  volume  would  be  able  to  find  it  without  the  assistance  of 
the  librarian. 

The  work  of  bringing  order  out  of  the  confusion  that  existed  at 
first,  the  cataloguing  and  labelling  of  so  many  books,  searching  and 
sending  abroad  for  missing  numbers,  was  an  immense  labor,  which  if 
performed  by  a  paid  expert  would  have  cost  several  hundred,  not  less, 
perhaps,  than  two  thousand  dollars. 

But  in  addition  to  all  thi.°,  the  addresses  of  other  societies  had  to 
be  searched  and  copies  of  our  Transactions  sent  abroad  to  about  700 
societies  in  all,  by  which  means  the  number  of  valuable  publications 
received  each  year  was  more  than  doubled.  Surely  when  these  two 
gentlemen  have  done  so  much,  we  may  expect  our  provincial  government 
to  supplement  their  efforts  by  the  addition  to  this  library  each  year  of  a 
few  hundred  treatises.  Thpn  would  it  not  be  better  that  the  library 
thus  enlarged  should  be  taken  over  by  the  government,  properly  housed 
and  managed,  and  made  free  to  the  public  1 

Nor  must  I  forget  to  say  that  the  thanks  of  this  Institute  are  due 
to  the  Governors  of  Dalhousie  College  for  the  use  of  a  room  at  a  time 
when  our  library  became  so  large  that  it  could  no  longer  be  kept  in  the 
place  which  it  formerly  occupied. 

2.  A  properly  conducted  museum  would  do  much  to  popularize 
science  in  our  midst.  A  collection  of  dusty,  unlabelled,  badly  arranged 
specimens  does  not  amount  to  much  and  scarcely  justifies  the  expense. 
Such  a  museum  is  the  deadest  of  all  dead  things. 

To  be  practically  useful  a  museum  requires  a  large,  well-lighted, 
readily  accessible  room.  It  should  primarily  contain  typical  specimens 
of  the  most  important  natural  bodies,  arranged  according  to  their 
chemical  or  organic  affinities,  so  that  the  student  may  learn  from  them 
at  a  glance  something  of  their  relationship  and  the  laws  of  nature 


xl  PROCEEDINGS, 

Especial  attention  should  be  given  to  the  products  of  this  Province. 
They  should  be  scientifically  marshalled  and  their  industrial  applications 
carefully  and  suggestively  illustrated.  Raw  products  in  every  stage  of 
their  manufacturing  processes  should  be  exhibited. 

The  museum  should  be  in  charge  of  a  man  of  the  broadest  scientific 
culture,  a  man  of  business  capacity,  and  <i  thorough  teacher. 

A  museum  thus  equipped  would  do  more  for  science  than  any  college 
or  any  other  agency.  Every  visitor  from  the  country  would  return  to 
his  home  with  his  curiosity  awakened,  arid  often  with  scientific  problems 
or  difficulties  solved,  with  a  new  inspiration  for  further  advances. 

Such  an  institution  would  have  organic  connection  with  every  high 
school  and  college  in  the  province,  exchanging  specimens  and  thus 
enriching  the  local  school  museums,  diffusing  scientific  information,  and 
stimulating  scientific  activity. 

How  often  throughout  the  last  sixteen  years  have  our  teachers 
lamented  the  want  of  opportunity  in  this  respect?  During  their 
holidays  they  would  have  made  large  collections  of  interesting  objects 
which  they  would  study  in  classes  formed  at  the  museum.  Long  since 
every  school  in  the  city,  after  the  example  of  the  German  schools,  would 
have  been  supplied  with  a  respectable  collection  of  labelled  specimens 
for  the  instruction  of  their  pupils,  and  the  amount  of  scientific  know- 
ledge and  interest  would  have  been  increased  tenfold. 

For  the  sake  of  economy  and  efficiency  the  museum  and  the  science 
library  should  be  in  the  same  building  and  in  charge  of  the  curator  of 
the  museum. 

Book  arid  specimen  are  complementary  and  should  be  drawn  as  close 
together  as  possible.  "  First  of  all,  their  aims  are  identical,  for  they 
have  the  one  end  in  view,  the  culture  of  the  people  ;  secondly,  they 
appeal  to  the  same  mental  faculties  with  which  all  men  are  endowed  in 
a  greater  or  less  degree,  and  thirdly,  to  a  very  great  extent  one  of  them, 
the  museum,  to  carry  out  its  proper  functions  to  a  great  measure,  is 
dependent  on  the  other.  It  leans  upon  it,  as  it  were  ;  it  looks  to  it  to 
minister  to  the  museum  visitors  that  information  which  the  most 
comprehensive  catalogue  and  labels  in  the  world  would  fail  to  supply."* 

If  all  the  specimens  were  labelled  giving  references  to  the  books  in 
which  they  were  best  described,  placed  on  a  shelf  near  at  hand,  the 

*  C.  W.  Wallis,  Curator  Birmingham  Art  Galleries  and  Museum. 


TREASURER'S  REPORT.  xli 

student's  ability  to  do  better  work  and  the  extent  to  which  both  library 
and  museum  could  be  utilized  would  be  greatly  increased.  The  tendency 
in  England,  Ontario  and  the  United  States  is  towards  combining 
libraries  and  museums  in  the  same  building. 

In  conclusion,  when  the  colleges  come  to  see  that  good  work  in 
science  in  the  high  school  gives,  to  say  the  least,  as  valuable  mental, 
discipline  as  classics,  aud  vastly  more  of  useful  knowledge  ;  when  the 
education  department  provides  adequate  professional  training  for  the 
higher  teachers,  and  subjects  them  to  tests  in  the  laboratory  which  will 
demonstrate  their  fitness  for  teaching  science,  and  when  the  government 
will  supply  us  with  a  well-equipped  museum  and  science  library  in  one 
building,  then  but  not  before  we  will  make  satisfactory  progress  in 
science. 

The  thanks  of  the  Institute  were  presented  to  MR.  McKAY  for  his 
services  as  President. 

The  TREASURER'S  report  was  presented,  and  having  been  audited  and 
found  correct,  was  received  and  adopted.     The  following  is  an  analytical 
statement  of  the  expenditure  for  1898-99  : — 
PUBLICATION  OF  TRANSACTIONS: — 
Vol.  IX,  Part  4  (1897-98)  : 

Printing-  and  binding: $171  40 

Less  received  for  authors'  separates  and  two 

copies  sold 8  oo 

-  $163  40 

Vol.  IX,  Parts  1-4.      Preparation  of  Index  ....  2  oo 

Vol.  X,  Part  i  : 

Printing $  8  oo 

Photographs  for  Portrait i   oo 

Engraving's 14  13 

Expressag-e 75 

23  88 
Vol.  X,  Part  2,  3  or  4  : 

Photograph  for  Portrait 25 

-  $189  53 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  TRANSACTIONS  : — 
Vol.  IX,  Part  4  : 

Wrappers,  receipts,  wrapping",  twine $14  50 

Addressing- 15  oo 

Postag-e,    truckage,    freight,    expressag-e, 

insurance 1 5  39 

44  89 

Carried  fot ivard $234  42 


xlii  PROCEEDINGS. 

Brought  far-ward    $234  42 

LIBRARY  EXPENSES  : — 

Insurance  (including  stock  of  Transactions) $16  88 

Janitor,  Dalhousie  College,  for  services 5  oo 

Asst. -Librarian,  Dalhousie  College,  for  services  10  oo 

Librarian,  clerical  expenses 25  oo 

Fittings 12  77 

Arranging  Library,  preparing  card  catalogue, 

etc 75  oo 

Truckage 3  80 

Binding 9565 

Freight    and    postage    on     back    numbers    of 

Transactions  sent  in  exchange 4  oi 

Petty  expenses 2  55 

•     250  66 

Calling  of  meetings 28  oo 

Advertising 6  oo 

Postage  (Secretaries  and  Librarian) 1 1   85 

P.  O.  Box 4  oo 

Miscellaneous  printing  (including  stationery)   2  50 

Type-writing 50 

$537  93 

The  Report   on  the  Library  was    presented    by    the  Librarian  and 
Corresponding  Secretary. 

During  the  year  the  Transactions  had  been  sent  for  the  first  time 
to  the  following  : — 

*K6nigl.  Landesarchiv,  Agram,   Austria-Hungary. 

Elektrotechnisoher  Verein,  Berlin,  Germany. 

Real  Academia  de  Ciencias  Naturales  y  Artes,  Barcelona,  Spain. 

Naturae  Novitates,  Berlin. 

*Musee  du  Congo,  Brussels. 

Baltimore  Astronomical  Society,  Baltimore,  Md. 

*Maryland  Geological  Survey,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Library,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

New  Hampshire  State  Library,  Concord,  N.  H. 

*Xatnral  History  Association  of  Miramichi,  Chatham,  N.  B. 

*K.  Vetenskaps-  och  Vitterhet^samhallet,  Goteborg,  Sweden. 

Real  Academia  de     Ciencias  Medicas,   Fisicas  y  Xaturale?;  Habana, 

Cuba. 
Periodico  di  Matematica,  Leghorn,  Italy. 


LIBRARIAN'S   REPORT.  xliii 

Lincolnshire  Science  Society,  Lincoln,  G.  B. 
Public  Library,  Museum  and  National  Gallery,  Melbourne. 
*Canadian  Mining  Institute,  Montreal. 
•Club  Alpin  de  Crimee,  Odessa,  Russia. 
Rivista  di  Patologia  Vegetale,  Portici,  Italy. 
Pasadena  Academy  of  Science,  Pasadena.  Cal. 
*Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Rochdale  Literary  and  Scientific  Society,  Rochdale,  G.  B. 
"*Augustana  College,  Rock  Island,  111. 
"Minerva,"  Strassburg,  Germany. 

*Institut  de  Botanique,  R.  Universit^  des  Etudes,  Sienne,  Italy. 
State  Laboratory  of  Natural  History,  Urbana,  111. 
Concilium  Bibliographicum,  Zurich-Neumunster,  Switzerland. 
American  Microscopical  Journal,  Washington,  I).  C. 

Publications  have  been  received  for  the  first  time  from  the  institu- 
tions indicated  by  an  asterisk  in  the  above  list,  and  from  the  following  : 
Observatorio  de  Manila,  Manila. 
Education  Department,  Wellington,  New  Zealand. 
Public  Museum,  Wanganui,  New  Zealand. 
Birmingham  and  Midland  Institute,  Birmingham. 
"  La  Science  Sociale,"  Paris. 
Treasury  Department,  Washington,  D.  C. 
South  Staffordshire  Institute  of  Iron  and  Steel  Works  Managers, 

Dudley,  G.  15. 

Rulcliffe  Observatory,  Oxford,  G.  B. 
K.  Ungarische  Geographieehe  Gesellschaft,  Vienna. 
Socicte  AnvprsoisK  pour  la  Protection  des  Animaux,  Antwerp. 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  Boston. 
Halifax  Scientific  Society,  Halifax,  Eng. 
Universite  Imperiale  de  Moscou,  Russia. 
Carnegie  Museum,  Pittsburg,  U.  S   A. 
K.  Botanische  Gesells^haft,  Regensbnrg. 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  Manhattan,  Ka. 
Public  Library,  New  York. 
Societe  Linneenne  de  Lyon,  Lyons,  France. 
Academic  des  Sciences,  Belles  Lettres  et  Arts,  Lyons,  France. 
Royal  Society  of  Victoria,  Melbourne. 
Academy  of  Science,  Washington,  D.  C. 


xliv  PROCEEDINGS. 

New  England  Zoological  Club,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Public  Library,  Museum  and  Art  Gallery,  Adelaide,  So.  Australia. 

Engineering  Association  of  New  South  Wales,  Sydney. 

Associazione  Mathesis,  Leghorn,  Italy. 

Wisconsin  Geological  and  Natural  History  Survey,  Madison,  Wis. 

Societo  Nationale  des  Antiquaires  de  France,  Paris. 

Lloyd  Mycological  Museum,  Cincinnati. 

The  Transactions  were  now  being  sent  annually  to  779  institutions- 
of  various  kinds,  and  exchanges  had  been  received  from  447. 

The  distribution  of  the  Transactions  to  Corresponding  Societies  and 
other  institutions  in  .all  parts  of  the  world  had  again,  through  the- 
courtesy  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington, 
been  effected  at  small  expense,  through  the  Institution's  Bureau  of  Inter- 
national Exchanges.  The  total  expense  of  distribution  had  been 
$44.89,  which  included  printing  of  wrappers  and  receipt  forms,  wrapping 
and  addressing  as  well  as  postage  (on  Canadian  packages),  and  freight. 

At  the  date  of  the  last  report  113  volumes  were  in  the  binder's 
hands.  Subsequently  89  volumes  were  added  to  these  ;  and  these  202 
volumes  are  now  on  the  shelves.  The  total  cost  of  binding  them  was 
$170.65,  but  as  $75.00  was  provided  for  last  year,  only  the  balance  of 
$95.65  appears  in  this  year's  account.  The  books  bound  were  mostly 
English,  but  some  foreign  publications  which  were  in  demand  by 
members  were  included.  The  number  of  bound  volumes  in  the  Library 
is  now  1,482  ;  and  there  must  be  a  somewhat  larger  number  of  unbound 
volumes,  though  we  have  never  made  a  count  of  the  unbound  volumes. 

The  recommendation  made  la^t  year  that  a  paid  assistant  should  be 
provided  to  get  the  library  into  a  condition  in  which  it  would  be  of 
greater  use  to  the  members,  was  carried  out  during  the  past  year,  the 
services  of  Miss  N.  K.  MacKay,  who  had  previously  been  Asst.-Librarian 
of  D.ilhousie  College,  having  been  secured  for  some  weeks  during  the 
summer. 

The  following  work  was  accordingly  carried  out : — 

(1)  The   arranging  of  books  on   the  shelves    and  the  labelling  of 
shelves  referred  to  in  last  report,  had  been  completed.    It  is  thus  possible 
for  members  to  find  any  books  they  may  desire  without  difficulty,  even 
in  the  absence  ot  the  Librarian. 

(2)  All  unbound  volumes,  in  parts,  were  examined  and  tied  up,  note 
being  made  of  their  defects.     This  had  previously  been  done  in  the  case- 


LIBRARIAN'S  REPORT.  xlv 

of  most  of  the  English  books.     It  has  now    been  done  for  the  whole 
library. 

(3)  Memoranda  were   made  out  for  transmission  to  corresponding 
societies,  of  the  paits  lacking  in  our  sets  of  their  publications. 

(4)  A  card  catalogue  of  the  whole  library  was  prepared  according  to- 
the  method  in  use  in  the  Library  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  and  Science 
of  Philadelphia.     The  catalogue  in  the  case  of  serial  publications  speci- 
fies of  course  only  the  volumes  of  the  various  series  which  are  on  the 
shelves,  without   giving  any   clue  to  their  contents.     In   the  case  of 
publications  which,  though  issued   by  one   institution,  do  not  form  a 
numbered  series,  each  volume  or  report  is  separately   catalogued.     The 
catalogue  consists  of  about  1200  cards. 

While  the  whole  of  the  work,  carried  out  in  an  admirable  manner  by 
Miss  MacKay,  forms  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  issue  of  a  printed 
catalogue  for  the  use  of  our  members,  we  are  not  yet  ready  to  issue  such 
a  catalogue,  at  least  to  issue  one  which  would  be  permanently  useful. 
For  many  of  the  unbound  volumes  in  the  library  are  defective,  and  it 
would  be  well  to  get  these  defects  supplied  as  far  as  may  be  possible 
before  printing.  The  Corresponding  Secretary  hopes  during  the  present 
year  to  transmit  the  memoranda  of  defects  referred  to  above  to  the 
various  corresponding  institutions,  and  to  make  some  progress  in  getting 
the  defects  supplied. 

The  report  was  adopted,  and  the  thanks  of  the  Institute  tendered  to- 
Mr.  Bowman  and  Dr.  MacGregor  for  their  work  in  connection  with  the 
library. 

On  motion  of  DR.  MACKAY,  it  was  resolved  that  the  Council  be 
directed  to  prepare  a  resolution  appreciative  of  the  scientific  career  of 
the  late  Sir  William  Dawson  and  regretting  his  recent  death. 

It  was  resolved  that  the  Council  be  instructed  to  approach  the 
Government  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  if  it  would  be  possible  for 
the  latter  to  provide  space,  in  the  new  Government  building,  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  Institute's  library. 

The  thanks  of  tlie  Institute  were  presented  to  the  HON.  ROBERT 
EOAK,  President  of  the  Legislative  Council,  for  granting  the  use  of  the 
Council  Chamber,  and  to  the  SECRETARY  OP  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITU- 
TION for  his  courtesy  in  continuing  to  admit  the  Institute  to  the  privi- 
leges of  the  Bureau  of  International  Exchanges. 


i  PROCEEDINGS. 

The  following  were  elected  officers  for  the  ensuing  year  (1899-1900): 
President.—  A.  H.  MAC  KAY,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  ex  officio  F.  R., 

M.  S. 
Vice-Presidents.—F.  W.  W.  DOANE,  ESQ.,  C.  E.,  and  HENRYS.  POOLE, 

ESQ.,  F.  G.  S. 

Treasurer. — WILLIAM  C.  SILVER,  ESQ. 

Corresponding  Secretary. — PROF.  J.  G.  MAcGREGOR,  D.  Sc. 
Recording  Secretary.— HARRY  PIERS,  ESQ. 
Librarian.— MAYNARD  BOWMAN,  ESQ.,  B.  A. 
Councillors  -without  Office.—  ALEXANDER  McKAY,  ESQ.  ;  EDWIN  GILPIN, 

JR.,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.  ;  MARTIN  MURPHY,  ESQ.,  D.  Sc.  ; 

WILLIAM  MCKERRON,  ESQ.  ;  PROF.  EBENEZER  MACKAY,  PH.  D. ; 

WATSON  L.  BISHOP,  ESQ.  ;  RODERICK  McCoLL,  ESQ.,  C.  E. 
Auditors.— HERBERT  E.  GATES,  ESQ.,  and  G.  W.  T.  IRVING,  ESQ. 


FIRST  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  20th  November,  1899. 

The  PRESIDENT,  DR.  MACKAY,  in  the  chair. 

The  meeting  was  held  after  the  adjournment  of  the  Annual  Business 
Meeting. 

DR.  H.  M.  AMI  communicated  a  paper  "  On  the  Subdivisions  of  the 
Carboniferous  System  in  Eastern  Canada,"  but  owing  to  the  lateness  of 
the  hour  the  reading  of  the  paper  was  deferred. 


SECOND  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  llth  December,  1899. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

The  council  reported  that  ERNEST  HAYCOCK,  ESQ.,  Instructor  in 
Chemistry,  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  Acadia  College,  Wolfville,  N.  S., 
had  been  elected  an  Associate  member. 

The  following  resolution  was  adopted  : — "This  Institute  has  learned 
with  the  greatest  regret  of  the  death  of  its  distinguished  Corresponding 
Member,  SIR  J.  W.  DAWSON,  and  desire  to  place  on  record  its  profound 
sense  of  the  eminence  of  the  services  rendered  by  him  to  the  cause  both 
of  Science  and  of  Education,  during  a  long  life,  which  was  happily  as 
fully  characterized  by  successful  results,  as  by  unremitting  efforts 
towards  the  attainment  of  a  noble  ideal. 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  xlvit 

"The  Institute  desires  to  convey  to  LADY  DAWSON  and  her  family^ 
an  expression  of  the  deep  sympathy  with  which  its  members  have  heard 
of  the  sad  bereavement  she  andJier  family  have  experienced." 

A  paper  by  HENRY  M.  AMI,  ESQ.,  D.  Sc.,  of  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Canada,  "  On  the  Sub-divisions  of  the  Carboniferous  System  in 
Eastern  Canada,"  was  read  by  DR.  E.  GILPIN  who  gave  an  introductory^ 
statement  of  a  popular  character.  (See  Transactions,  p.  162). 

The  subject  was  discussed  by  DR.  GILPIN,  MR.  J.  FORBES  and  others. 

The  president,  DR.  A.  H.  MAcKAY,  said  he  was  glad  to  have  DR. 
AMI'S  views  presented  to  the  Institute.  He  spent  a  fortnight  with  Mr. 
Fletcher  in  running  over  the  stream-exposed  sections  of  the  southern, 
flanks  of  the  Cobequids  ;  and  became  deeply  interested  in  some  of  the 
problems  discussed  in  the  paper.  The  extremely  careful  work  done  of 
late  years  had  thrown  new  light  on  the  problems  attempted  to  be  solved 
by  the  older  geologists  trom  their  original  but  more  limited  observations: 
Mr.  Flotcher  has  reason  to  feel  gratified  that  Dr.  Ami  and  Dr.  Dawsoa 
admit  that  his  maps  of  the  region  in  question  "  show  clearly  the  true 
and  natural  order  of  sequence  of  the  formations ;"  so  that  the  reference 
to  "  types  that  are  everywhere  held  to  te  of  caiboniferous  age"  must 
indicate  a  revision  of  the  older  geological  nomenclature  of  some  regions. 
Sir  William  Dawson,  a  most  eminent  paleontologist  as  well  as  geologist, 
after  studying  the  fossil  plants  and  animals  of  Eiversdale,  MacKay 
Head,  and  Harrington  River,  placed  them  in  the  Millstone  Grit  forma- 
tion as  intimately  related  to  those  of  the  Coal  Measures.  Dr.  Ami  now 
correlates  them  with  the  Lancaster  fern  ledges  (hitherto  known  as 
Devonian)  of  New  Brunswick  ;  but  he  would  place  them  all  in  his  new 
Eo-carboniferous.  Of  the  twenty-one  fossil  species  enumerated  by  Dr. 
Ami,  fifteen  were  Dawson's  own  species.  Psilophyton  glabrum  belonged 
to  a  genus  hitherto  generally  considered  to  be  characteristic  of  the 
Devonian.  Leaia  Leidyi  (perhaps  identical  with  Leaia  tricarinata) 
was  found  in  rocks  called  Devonian  by  many  geologists.  Belinurus 
grandoevus  and  Estheria  Daicsoni  represented  genera  usually  considered 
common  both  to  the  Devonian  and  the  Carboniferous,  with  specific 
names  given  to  specimens  obtained  from  the  rocks  in  dispute.  Dr. 
Ami's  new  species  Sauropus  Dawsoni  was  stated  to  be  only  "  apparently 
from  rocks  of  this  age."  Mr.  Fletcher  would  appear  to  oppose  the 
assumption  that  the  rocks  underlying  the  New  Glasgow  conglomerate- 


xlviii  PROCEEDINGS. 

are  equivalent  to  the  coal  measures  of  Stellarton,  according  to  his  views 
•given  in  the  Report  of  the  Geological  Survey  for  1886,  which  he  did 
not  appear  to  have  since  changed. 

These  differences  of  opinion  demonstrated  that  new  information  was 
being  acquired,  and  was  in  the  course  of  being  assimilated  by  the 
.geologists.  But  whether  taking  the  upper  slice  from  off  our  old 
slenderly  developed  Devonian  and  attaching  it  with  its  unconformity  to 
the  base  of  our  corpulent  Carboniferous  is  the  true  rectification  of  the 
old  nomenclature,  remained,  perhaps  yet  to  be  indubitably  determined. 
If  the  true  order  of  superposition  of  rocks  can  be  ascertained  at  any  point 
from  the  observation  of  their  actual  bedding,  tho,  paleontologist  must 
modify  his  hypotheses  based  on  defective  biological  horizons  observed 
elsewhere,  so  as  to  harmonize  with  the  facts  of  the  stratigraphist.  It 
was  the  stratigraphist  in  the  first  place  who  determined  the  biological 
'horizons  for  the  palaeontologist.  But  the  palaeontologist  with  his 
biological  horizon  becomes  the  supreme  arbitrator  where  the  strati- 
graphist is  not  sure  of  his  base,  or  of  the  order  of  superposition. 

PROF.  J.  G.  M AcGREGOR,  communicated  a  paper,  "On  Laws  of 
Dilution  for  Aqueous  Solutions  of  Electrolytes." 


THIRD  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax  15th  January,   1900. 
The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

A  communication  was  read  from  the  EIGHTH  INTERNATIONAL  CON- 
GRESS OP  NAVIGATION,  inviting  the  Institute  to  appoint  a  delegate  to 
attend  the  meeting  of  the  Congress  to  be  held  at  Paris  in  July  next. 
The  matter  was  referred  to  the  Council  for  action. 

JAMES     BARNES,    ESQ  ,    B.  A.,    Dalhousie   College,    presented    two 

papers  : — 

1.  "  On  the  Relation  of  the  Viscosity  of  Mixtures  of  Solutions  of 
Certain  Salts  to  their  State  of  Tonization."     (See  Transactions,  p.  113). 

2.  "  On  the  Calculation  of  the  Conductivity  of  Aqueous  Solutions 
Containing  Hydrochloric  and  Sulphuric  Acids."     (See  Transactions,  p. 
129.) 

A  vote  of  thanks  was  presented  to  MR.  BARNES  for  his  communica- 
tions. 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  xlix 

FOURTH  ORDINARY  MEETING. 
City  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  12th  February,  1900. 

The  PRESIDENT  in    the    chair. 

A  paper  entitled  :  "  Nova  Scotian  Minerals  collected  for  the  Paris 
Exhibition,"  was  presented  by  EDWIN  GILPIN,  JR.,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  F.  E. 
•S.  C.,  Inspector  of  Mines.  DR.  GILPIN  answered  a  number  of  inquiries 
made  by  those  present,  relative  to  the  minerals  of  the  Province.  (See 
Transactions,  p.  248.) 

A  communication  by  HENRY  S.  POOLS,  ESQ.,  F.  G.  S.,  entitled 
"  Notes  on  the  Periodical  Appearance  of  Ants  in  a  Chimney,  and  on 
an  Unusual  Site  for  a  Humble-Bee's  Nest,"  was  read  by  the  RECORDING 
SECRETARY  in  the  absence  of  the  author,  as  follows  : 

"  For  many  years,  possibly  fifteen,  a  flight  of  ants  has  annually 
tumbled  down  a  chimney  in  the  office  of  the  Acadia  Coal  Co.,  at 
-Stellarton,  N.  S.,  generally  on  August  24th,  sometimes  a  day  or  two 
later,  and  occasionally  a  few  ants  again  appear  as  late  as  the  niiddle  of 
September.  Fires  are  used  in  the  chimney  each  winter.  A  tinned  roof 
has  been  put  on  the  office  since  the  ants  first  were  seen,  and  the  top  of 
the  chimney  has  been  thoroughly  repaired  by  masons  without  finding  a 
nest.  The  habitat  selected  seems  unusual,  and  so  far  has  not  led  to  the 
similar  adoption  by  colonies  of  other  chimneys  in  the  same  building. 

"  In  a  grove  of  young  fir  trees,  about  eight  feet  from  the  ground,  I 
noticed  one  autumn  a  la^ge  robin's  nest  in  unusually  good  repair.  On 
pulling  down  the  tree-top  the  nest  was  found  to  be  full,  with  a  dome 
shaped  cone.  It  was  occupied  by  humble-bees  and  a  small  comb  with 
larvae  in  it.  Such  a  situation  for  a  humble-bees'  nest,  I  am  told,  has 
been  seen  before,  but  apparently  it  is  unusual." 


FIFTH  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

City  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  12th  March,  1900. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

It  was  announced  that  CHARLES  PICKFORD,  ESQ.,  had  been  elected  a 
Corresponding  Member. 

A  paper  by  C.  M.  PASEA,  ESQ.,  of  Dalhousie  College,  "  On  a  relation 
between  the  lonization  Coefficients  of  Electrolytes,  and  its  application 
as  an  Interpolation  Formula,"  was  presented  by  DR.  J.  G.  MACGREGOR. 


1  PROCEEDINGS. 

JAMES  BARNES,  ESQ.,  B.  A.,  Dalhousie  College,  read  a  paper  "  On. 
the  Depression  of  the  Freezing-point  by  Mixtures  of  Electrolytes."  (See 
Transactions,  p.  139  ) 

The  paper  was  discussed  by  DRS.  MACGREGOR  and  MACKAY,  and  a 
vote  of  thanks  was  presented  to  the  author. 

DR.  A.  H.  MACKAY,  exhibited,  with  comments,  material  taken  from 
the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic  at  four  different  points,  by  the  Cable  S.  S. 
Minia  in  charge  of  Captain  Be  Carteret,  by  whom  the  specimens  were 
presented. 

1.  From    lat.  40°  47 '  N.,    long.  38°  45'  W.,  at  a   depth   of  2544 
fathoms,  in  June,  1899  : — 

a.  A  fragment  of  a  dark  igneous  rock  about  13x8x5cm,  not  very 
unlike  some  massive,  dark  green  traps  of  Nova  Scotia.     The  Cable  was 
hooked  at  the  same  time,  but  broke  and   slipped    over  the  stone  which 
was  abraded  in  two  separate  places.     The    exact    determination  of  the 
rock,  as  well  as  the  other    specimens,    had   to    be  postponed  to  a  future 
opportunity  after  which  the  results  of  their  special  examinations  would 
be  communicated. 

b.  A  fragment  of  gneiss   or  granite   with  dark,  fine-grained  mica, 
about  a  centimeter  cube,  in 

c.  Mud,  which  on    an   average  of  three  samples   gave  72  per  cent 
insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  leaving  28    per    cent    for   carbonate  of  lime  in 
foraminiferal  shells,  and   any    other   soluble    matter    which    might  be 
present.       The    species    of   forarninifera    present    were   left   for    future 
enumeration.     The   mud  was,    therefore,    about   three-quarters   derived 
from  decomposed  rock,   and   contained  specks  of  mica  flakes  among  the 
minute  sand  grains  also  found  in  it. 

2.  From  lat.    49°  30'  K,  Ion.    49°  36'  W.,    at   a  depth   of   2594 
fathoms,  were  taken  on  the  3rd  July,  1894: — 

a.  A  fragment  of   rock    about    8x4x3cm.     It  was  a  very  compact, 
fine-grained,  dark  (with  a  band  of  light  grey)  chocolate  quartzose  felsite 
in  appearance,  breaking  with   a   conchoidal   fracture,  a  portion  of  one 
side  looking  as  even  as  if  it  were  ground  plane.     The  light  grey  band  on 
the  opposite  side  suggested  discoloration  by  weathering,  and  the  con- 
choidal fracture  in  this  portion  was  much  rougher  in  its  surface  texture. 

b.  A  fragment  of  a  water-worn,  whitish,  cryptocrystalline  quartzite 
pebble  about  3cm  in  its  three  dimensions. 

c.  Mud  with  small  pebbles,  containing  what  suggested  the  remains 
of  a  coelenterate   animal   with   slender  stem,    cylindrical   body   a   few 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  H 

centimeters  long,  with  slender  tentacular  processes.  This  material  was 
originally  bottled  in  alcohol  which  had  nearly  all  evaporated  before 
examination,  and  the  organism  was  not  intact.  The  mud  contained 
siliceous  grains  with  occasional  sponge  spicules,  &c. 

3.  From  a  depth  of  30  fathoms,  about  15  miles  E.  N.  E.  (magnetic) 
from  Flat  Point,  Sydney,  C.  B. 

a.  Thin  brachiopod  shells,  the  largest  about  28x22mm. 

b.  What   suggested   arborescent    Polyzoan  Zcecia,   about  ldin  high, 
the  cylindrical  spray  of  branches  having  a  diameter  of  about  15mm. 

c.  A  sheet  of  the  eggs  of  a  gastropod. 

4.  From  between 

lat.  43°  52'    N.,  Ion.  58°  53'    W.  in  500  fathoms, 
Int.  43°  53i'  \.,  Ion.  58°  59i'  W.  in  858  fathoms, 
and  lat.  43'  56'    N.,  Ion.  59°    3'     W.  in  170  fathoms. 
A  coral,  of  the  form  of  caryophilia,  vising  from  a  thin  encrustation 
partly    surrounding   a  pitch-covered  cylinder    (Cable)  about  3cm  in  dia- 
meter, with  a  stem  about  lcm  at  the  base,  gradually  expanding  until  at 
a  height  of  4cm  it  formed  an  elliptical   cup-shaped  corallite  abou  t  3.5cm 
and  4.5cm  in  diameter,  rilled  with  numerous  septae  of  unequal  height,  in 
one  series. 

SIXTH  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  9th  April,  1900. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

The  RECORDING  SECRETARY  read  a  communication  from  the  Royal 
Society  of  Canada,  inviting  the  Institute  to  appoint  a  delegate  to  attend 
the  nineteenth  general  meeting  of  the  Society  to  .be  held  at  Ottawa  on 
the  29th  of  May  next.  The  communication  was  referred  to  the  Council 
for  action. 

PROF.  ERNEST  HAYCOCK  of  Acadia  College,  Wolfville,  X.  S.,  read  a 
paper  entitled  :  "  Records  of  Post-Triassie  Changes  in  Kings  Counly, 
N.  S."  (See  Transactions,  p.  287.) 

The  subject  was  discussed  by  DR.  GILPIN  and  MR.  McKAY,  and  a 
vote  of  thanks  was  presented  to  the  author. 

The  PRESIDENT,  A.  H.  MACKAY,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  read  a  paper  on  "  A 
Fresh-Water  Sponge  from  Sable  Island."     To  this  species  Dr.  MacKay 
proposed  to  give  the  name  Heteromeyenia    Macouni.     The  subject  was 
illustrated  by  microscopic  preparations.     (See  Transactions,  p.  319). 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  PROC  — K. 


Hi  PROCEEDINGS. 

SEVENTH   ORDINARY    MEETI.VG. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber.  Halifax,  14th  May.   1900. 
The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

It  was  announced  that  the  PRESIDENT,  DR.  MACKAY,  had  been 
appointed  delegate  to  represent  the  Institute  at  the  forthcoming  meeting 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada. 

It  was  reported  that  progress  had  been  made  in  fitting  up  a  room 
for  the  library  of  the  Institute,  etc.,  in  the  new  government  building, 
Hollis  Street. 

In  the  absence  of  the  author,  DR.  MACGREGOR  read  a  paper  by 
PROF.  JOHN  DAVIDSON,  of  the  University  of  New  Brunswick,  Fredeiicton, 
on  "The  Natural  History  of  Money."  (See  Transactions,  p.  179.) 

The  paper  was  discussed  by  COLONEL  McSHANE,  DR.  H.  II.  READ* 
FRERERICK  P.  RONNAN,  ESQ.,  and  others,  and  a  vote  of  thanks  was 
presented  to  PROP.  DAVIDSON  for  his  communication. 

A.  K.  MACKAY,  ESQ..  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C  ,  read  a  paper  entitled 
"  Phenological  Observations,  Canada,  1899.  (See  Transactions,  p.  303.) 

A  paper  by  T.  C.  HEBB,  ESQ.,  B.  A.,  Dn.housie  College,  "On  the 
Variation  of  the  Rigidity  of  Vulcanized  India  Rubber  with  Tension,"  was 
presented  by  DR.  MACGREGOR.  (See  Transactions,  p.  273  ) 

The  following  papers  were  read  by  title  : — "  Notes  on  a  Cape  Breton 
Mineral  containing  Tungsten,  and  on  the  effect  of  washing  certain  Cape 
Breton  Coals," — By  HENRY  S.  POOLE,  ESQ.,  F.  G.  S.,  Stellarton,  N.  S. 
(See  Transactions  p.  248.) 

"  Geological  Nomenclature  in  Nova  Scotia," — By  HUGH  FLETCHER, 
ESQ  ,  Geological  Survey  of  Canada.  (See  Transactions,  p.  235.) 

A  collection  of  dried  plants  from  the  vicinity  of  Buffalo.  U.  S.  A., 
made  by  REV.  BROTHER  JUNIAN  PETER,  St.  Joseph's  Commercial  College, 
Detroit,  and  presented  by  him  to  the  Institute,  was  shewn,  and  a  vote 
of  thanks  was  passed  to  BROTHER  PETER  for  his  gift. 

The  council  was  authorized  to  receive  as  having  been  read  by  title, 
any  papers  that  might  be  offered  too  late  for  this  meeting.  [Under  this 
resolution  a  paper  subsequently  submitted  by  PROF.  J  G.  MACGREGOR, 
"  On  a  diagram  of  Freezing-point  Depressions  for  Electrolytes,"  was 
accepted  by  the  Council.  (See  Transactions,  p.  211).] 

HARRY   PIERS, 

Recording  Secretary. 


PROCEEDINGS 

OF    THE       x 

§cotian  Jf  nstttitte  of  <Srienc&- 


SESSION    OF    1900-1901. 


ANNUAL   BUSINESS    MEETING. 
Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,   Wth  November,  1900. 
THE  PRESIDENT,  DR.  A.  H.  MACKAY,  in  the  chair. 

THE  PRESIDENT  addressed  the  Institute  as  follows  : — 
GENTLEMEN, — It  has  been  customary  at  our  Annual  Meetings  for  the 
retiring  President  to  make  a  summary  review  of  the  year's  work — a  sort 
of  annual  inventory.  In  following  this  custom,  were  I  speaking  to  the 
general  public,  I  would  be  required  to  give  some  kind  of  demonstration 
of  the  object  and  value  of  such  work  as  we  are  doing  in  line  with  similar 
organizations  in  every  civilized  country.  For  those  who  see  a  fine 
mushroom  grow  in  one  night  are  generally  unaware  of  the  one  hundred 
nights  and  the  one  hundred  days  during  which  its  invisible  whiter 
silken,  threadlike  mycelial  cells  were  tunnelling  the  surrounding  earth- 
in  myriad  lines  with  ceaseless  activity,  so  that  when  the  appropriate- 
time  should  come  tens  of  thousands  of  microscopic  tubular  lines  of 
transport  should  simultaneously  carry  from  every  quarter  the  duly 
assimilated  matter  to  build  up  and  complete  in  a  few  hours  the  visible- 
and  generally  appreciated  fruit.  Every  great  discovery  or  invention  o£ 
modern  times  popularly  considered  great,  is  in  like  manner  simply  the- 
fruit  of  the  unostentatious,  patient  and  continuous  labor  of  a  multitude 
of  seekers  after  knowledge  of  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing 
but  the  truth,  in  one  or  more  regions  of  the  infinite  domain  in  which  we 
exist.  Without  these  humble  and  severely  accurate  observations  of  fact 
and  measurements  of  force  going  on  from  year  to  year  there  can  be  no 
PRO\  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  PROC.-F.. 

(liii) 


liy  PROCEEDINGS. 

•longer  expected  at  smaller  or  greater  intervals  in  the  future  those  brilliant 
generalizations  which  dazzle  the  mnltitude  and  form  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  man. 

We  may  perhaps  have  met  with  some  indications  that  there  are  people 
who  think  that  an  Institute  of  Science  such  as  ours  should  devote  itself 
to  the  grand  problems  of  human  life  in  such  a  mannur  as  to  electrify  the 
public,  convince  the  sceptic,  and  reform  human  society  on  lines  based  on 
indubitable  principles.  Such  persons  seem  to  expect  that  if  scientific 
anen  are  of  any  use  they  could  by  the  application  of  their  thinking 
powers  discover  these  grand  principles  and  demonstrate  them  with  the 
potency  of  universal  conviction.  They  are  evidently  unaware  of  the 
most  striking  fact  in  the  histoiy  of  man,  jthat  fiom  the  beginning  of 
society  up  to  their  own  appearance  in  the  role  of  thinkers,  men  have  been 
trying  to  solve  these  problems  by  thinking,  striving  to  draw  knowledge 
out  of  brains  into  which  the  knowledge  never  entered.  The  deductive 
•metaphysical  philosophers  of  old  are  still  being  produced,  more  numerous 
than  ever  if  not  more  powerful,  and  the  ancient  problems  are  not  yet 
.solved. 

We  have  never  yet  gained  any  advantage  by  thinking  out  what 
nature  should  be.  We  have  to  find  out  what  it  is,  and  so  far  as  we  know 
what  it  is  we  can  utilize  it  according  to  our  limitations.  And  the  solutions 
of  the  so-called  grand  problems  are  often  dependent  on  what  might  be 
called  the  humblest  facts.  The  grandness  of  a  truth  discovered  cannot 
be  known  until  the  full  train  of  its  effects  can  be  seen  ;  so  that  to  the 
truth  seeker  any  truth  may  well  be  considered  grand.  It  is  a  sound 
principle  for  each  to  seek  whatever  truth  is  nearest  him,  so  that  he  may 
add  it  to  the  common  stock  which  is  now  becoming  the  broad  base  of 
the  so-called  grand  truths  which  humanity  has  learned  to  applaud  after 
a  period  of  suspicion. 

This  is  the  principle  on  which  our  Institute  is  working.  The  geologist 
is  near  to  the  discovery  of  new  geological  facts  by  reason  of  his  previously 
obtained  geological  knowledge  and  his  opportunities  of  studying  for 
years  his  own  local  ground.  He  exercises  his  special  powers  with  the 
result  of  obtaining  further  knowledge  which  through  our  publications  are 
made  the  property  of  the  truth-seekers  throughout  the  world.  And  so 
with  each  of  us.  We  have  our  own  special  opportunities  for  some  kind 
of  exact  observations  on  points  not  hitherto  exactly  observed,  and  in 
making  such  observations  we  are  as  deserving  as  he  who  makes  the  final 


PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS.  Iv 

observation  to  complete  a  grand  theory,  providing  we  have  brought  the 
same  energy  and  ingenuity  to  bear  on  our  problems. 

The  discovery  of  grand  principles — of  great  truths — is  now  more 
than  ever  before  a  composite  work  contributed  to  by  many  knowledge 
makers.  The  South  American  Indian  who  first  by  accident  discovered 
the  anti-malarial  effect  of  the  extract  of  Peruvian  Bark,  discovered  a 
great  fact  without  any  special  preparation  and  possibly  without  the  aid 
of  any  previous  more  or  less  partial  observer.  But  still,  for  over  three 
centuries  the  Hcemammba  vivax  and  Hcemamteba  malarice,  living  jelly 
specks  so  infinite  that  a  blood  corpuscle  is  a  meadow  for  them,  got 
through  the  human  skin  (more  than  a  Chinese  wall  for  them),  and  into 
the  blood  stream,  and  from  thence  into  the  blood  discs  themselves,  which 
they  finally  destroyed. 

It  was  not  until  twenty  years  ago  that  Laveran  discovered  their 
presence  in  the  life  fluid,  but  how  impossible  would  it  have  been  for  him 
to  have  discovered  such  organisms  until  the  microscope  had  been  improved 
to  a  high  degree  of  excellence  and  microscopic  methods  had  been 
discovered  by  other  workers.  Yet  no  one  could  show  how  the  minutely 
microscopic  animal  more  destructive  to  the  human  race  than  all  the 
historical  beasts  of  prey,  found  its  way  into  the  blood.  Multitudes  of 
observers  finally  seemed  to  relegate  the  home  of  the  organism  to  the 
malarial  swamps,  but  it  could  not  be  found  in  the  swamps.  These 
observers,  however,  made  a  very  important  contribution  to  the  general 
stock  of  knowledge,  for  as  the  mosquitoes  pass  their  larval  stage  in  water, 
suspicion  was  finally  extended  to  them.  Yet  people  were  taking  great 
care  to  protect  themselves  from  the  malarial  air  which  poisoned  no  one, 
while  infected  mosquitoes  were  allowed  to  inoculate  them  unsuspectingly 
on  the  adjacent  dry  lands.  Danilewsky,  Golgi,  Antolisei,  Grassi, 
Bignami,  Bastianelli,  Labbe,  Mannaberg,  Manson,  Nuttall,  Metchnikoff, 
Daniels,  McCallum,  and  others,  and  finally  Ronald  Ross,  worked  on  the 
humble  mosquito  until  1899  before  the  problem  was  solved. 

Other  specimens  of  Hcemamceba  were  found  in  the  common  mosquito 
and  in  other  animals  who  were  inoculated  by  the  mosquito,  and  who  in 
turn  could  infect  sound  mosquitos.  Finally  species  of  a  genus  of 
niosquitos,  Anopheles,  were  found  infected  with  the  malaria  Hcemamceba 
in  a  most  unexpected  form.  Sound  Anopheles  were  found  to  be  infected 
by  feeding  upon  the  malarial  patient,  and  infected  ones  communicated 
malarial  fever  to  those  whom  they  were  allowed  to  bite.  For  about 


Jvi  PROCEEDINGS. 

twenty  years  these  men  from  every  country  of  Europe  were  studying  the- 
life  and  particular  habits  of  the  mosquitos,  each  contributing  something 
to  help  the  others.  But  should  it  be  asked  what  species  of  the  mosquito- 
we  have  in  Nova  Scotia,  all  we  could  say  is  that  thirty  different  species- 
are  generally  recognized  on  the  continent.  But  we  could  not  say  how- 
many  are  to  be  found  here.  We  only  presume  that  Culex  pipiens  is  the 
common  if  not  the  only  one. 

If  we  had  some  observer  studying  the  humble  subject  of  our 
mosquitos,  even  were  in  only  demonstrating  the  different  species  to  be- 
found  in  this  Province,  we  should  have  some  share  in  this  important, 
discovery  of  the  close  of  the  century.  In  the  meantime  our  high  flown 
deductive  philosopher  racking  his  brain  in  circling  after  grand  truths,  is 
circling  still,  as  near  and  yet  as  far  as  ever  from  the  mental  mirage  he  is- 
following.  The  grand  truths  oftentimes  come  from  the  most  unexpectedi 
directions  ;  therefore  it  is  wise  for  us  to  hold  all  truth  in  esteem  and 
worth  the  seeking. 

The  past  year  is  also,  to  a  marked  extent,  the  beginning  of  a  new 
epoch  in  the  history  of  our  Institute.  The  Provincial  Museum,  although 
not  the  property  of  the  Institute,  was  built  up  by  the  members  of.  the 
Institute,  and  was  from  the  beginning  its  headquarters.  But  for  the 
last  few  years  it  had  become  so  crowded  by  the  accumulation  of  material 
and  the  lack  of  a  curator,  such  as  it  had  during  the  lifetime  of  Dr.. 
Honeyman,  that  it  served  neither  as  an  efficient  museum  nor  as  a. 
desirable  meeting  place.  Besides,  our  rapidly  accumulating  library,, 
coming  mainly  as  exchanges  from  the  leading  scientific  institutions  and 
societies  all  over  the  world,  could  not  at  all  be  accommodated.  For  the 
last  few  years  the  Council  had  to  procure  temporary  accommodation  for 
it  in  the  University  building  of  Dalhousie,  where  there  was  proper 
library  room  for  but  a  portion  of  its  volumes. 

The  Provincial  Government  having  seen  the  great  importance  of 
stimulating  scientific  study  as  the  foundation  of  a  safe  and  rapid  industrial 
development  of  the  country,  and  having  the  good  fortune  to  be  able  to 
secure  on  good  terms  the  fine  building  adjacent  to  the  Province  Building 
as  an  annex,  with  spare  room  beyond  the  immediate  demands  for  offices,, 
determined  to  provide  the  ways  and  means  for  the  public  utilization  of 
all  this  hidden  wealth.  The  Museum  has  been  transferred  to  the  new 
building  and  re-arranged  on  scientific  lines  under  the  curatorship  of  Mr. 
Harry  Piers,  who  is  rapidly  making  it  a  real  Provincial  Museum.. 


PRESIDENT'S   ADDRESS.  Ivii 

Students  will  already  find  it  well  classified,  so  as  to  show  the  products 
of  the  country  of  scientific  and  economic  interest  to  their  best  advantage. 
The  numerous  blanks  are  being  filled  as  rapidly  as  specimens  caa  be 
secured,  and  each  object  is  in  tho  process  of  being  labelled  so  as  to  give 
not  only  its  name  but  a  summary  of  such  information  respecting  it  as 
is  most  likely  to  be  of  use. 

On  the  adjacent  flat  the  Government  has  provided  ample  library 
accommodation  for  the  Library  of  the  Institute  and  the  books  from  the 
Legislative  Library  bearing  on  science  and  the  arts,  with  a  reading 
room.  There  is  also  sufficient  accommodation  for  the  Library  of  the 
Mining  Society  of  the  Province.  In  this  manner  all  these  scientific 
collections  increasing  from  day  to  day,  all  these  libraries  also  increasing 
from  day  to  day,  are  made  available  freely  to  students,  miners, 
manufacturers,  and  the  public  generally. 

Under  the  capable  management  of  Mr.  Piers,  these  institutions  are 
not  only  sure  to  give  satisfaction  to  the  Government,  but  to  the  public, 
who  are  thus  admitted  to  invaluable  privileges  which  previously  even 
members  of  the  Institute  could  not  avail  themselves  of  without  much 
loss  of  time  and  inconvenience  to  others.  The  Government,  in 
assuming  the  charge  of  this  composite  Library,  are  able  to  open  to  the 
public  the  invaluable,  modern,  and  rapidly  growing  library  of  the 
Institute  ;  and  the  members  of  the  Institute,  on  the  other  hand,  have  also 
gained  thereby  easy  access  to  their  own  literature.  This  co-operation  of 
interests  is  of  mutual  benefit,  and  the  Science  Library  and  the  Museum 
are  likely  to  become  an  important  centre  for  the  scientific  students  of  the 
city  and  the  Province.  The  Museum  is  already  open,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  Library  will  be  in  working  condition. 

There  are  also  signs  that  the  scientific  side  of  educational  work 
throughout  the  Province  is  improving,  notwithstanding  the  defects 
common  to  our  schools  and  colleges  throughout  the  continent.  May  the 
time  be  not  far  distant  when  our  Institute  may  have  more  recruits  to 
undertake  the  infinite  range  of  work  before  us — in  discovering  the  yet 
hidden  truths  of  nature  lying  around  us  on  every  hand  within  our  own 
Province,  without  a  knowledge  of  which  we  cannot  expect  to  solve 
indubitably  what  people  call  the  great  problems  of  the  world. 

The  President  referred  with  regret  to  the  loss  of  two  invaluable 
associate  members,  Captain  Trott,  of  the  Cable  S.  S.  "  Minia,"  and  Rev. 
Arthur  C.  Waghorne,  who  had  done  so  much  in  the  botanical  explora- 
tion of  Newfoundland. 


Iviii  PROCEEDINGS. 

A  vote  of  thanks  was  presented  to  tho  PRESIDENT  for  his  address, 
and  for  his  services  during  his  term  of  office. 

The  TREASURER'S  report  was  presented,  and  hiving  been  audited  and 
found  correct,  was  received  and  adopted. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  presented  to  MR.  SILVER  for  his 
services  as  TREASURER. 

In  the  absence  of  the  LIBRARIAN,  the  report  on  the  Library  was  read 
by  DR.  MACGREGOR.  The  report  was  received  and  adopted. 

In  recognition  of  the  services  of  MR.  BOWMAN  as  librarian  for  several 
years,  it  was  resolved  that  he  be  elected  a  life-member. 

The  thanks  of  the  Institute  were  presented  t;  the  HON.  ROBERT 
BOAK,  President  of  the  Legislative  Council,  for  granting  the  use  of  the 
Council  Chamber  ;  to  His  WORSHIP  THE  MAYOR,  for  the  use  of  the  City 
Council  Chamber  ;  to  the  BOARD  OF  GOVERNORS  OF  DALHOUSIE  COLLEGE, 
for  the  use  of  a  room  in  the  College  building  for  the  purpose  of  accom- 
modating the  society's  Library  ;  and  to  the  SECRETARY  OF  THE  SMITH- 
SONIAN INSTITUTION,  Washington,  for  continuing  to  admit  the  Institute 
to  the  privileges  of  the  Bureau  of  International  Exchanges. 

The  following  were  elected  officers  for  the  ensuing  year  (1900- 
1901):- 

President.—A.  H.  MACKAY,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  ex  officio  F.  R.  M.  S. 
Vice- Presidents. — F.  \V.  VV.  DOANE,  ESQ.,  C.  E.  ;  and  HENRY  S.  POOLE,  ESQ., 

F.  G.  S.,  F.  R.  S.  C. 
Treasurer. — WILLIAM  C.  SILVER,  ESQ. 

Corresponding  Secretary.— PROF.  J.  G.  MACGREGOR,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S. 
Recording  Secretary. — HARRY  PIERS,  ESQ.- 
Librarian. — MAYNARD  BOWMAN,  ESQ.,  B.  A. 
Councillors  vnthout  office.—  ALEXANDER  McKAY,  ESQ.  ;  EDWIN  GILPIN,   JR., 

ESQ.,   LL.  D.,   F.  R-.  S.  C.  ;  MARTIN   MDRPHY,  ESQ.,   D.    Sc  ;    PROF. 

EBEN  MACKAY,  PH.  D.  ;  WATSON  L.  BISHOP,  ESQ.  ;  RODERICK  McCoLL, 

ESQ.,  C.  E.  ;  H.  W.  JOHNSTON,  ESQ.,  C.  E. 
A uditors.  —WILLIAM  MCKERRON,  ESQ.,  and  G.  W.  T.  IRVING,  ESQ. 


FIRST  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  19th  November,  1900. 
The  PRESIDENT,  DR.  MACKAY,  in  the  chair. 
The  meeting  was  held  after  the  adjournment  of  the  Annual  Business 


Meeting. 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  lix: 

It  was  announced  that  J.  R.  DE\VOLFE,  ESQ.,  M.  D.,  Halifax,  and 
WALTER  II.  PREST,  E-JQ  ,  M.  E  ,  Bedford,  N.  S.,  had  been  elected  corres- 
ponding members. 

Owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  hour,  the  reading  of  MR.  FLETCHER'S 
paper  "  On  Geological  Nomenclature  of  Nova  Scotia  :  New  Glasgow 
Conglomerate,"  was  deferred. 


SECOND  ORDINARY  MEETING. 
Legislative  Ciuncil  Chamber,  Halifax,  10th  December,  1900^. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

It  was  announced  that  Miss  A.  LOUISE  JAGSAR,  Smith  Cove,  Digby 
Co.,  N  S.,  had  beeu  elected  an  associate,  and  CHARLES  HENRY  DAVIS, 
ESQ.,  C.  E.,  New  York,  U.  S.  A  ,  an  ordinary  member. 

The  PRESIDENT  read  a  paper  by  HUGH  FLETCHER,  ESQ.,  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  entitled,  "  Geological  Nomenclature  of 
Nova  Scotia  :  New  Glasgow  Conglomerate."  (See  Transactions,  p.  323.) 

The  paper  was  illustrated  by  a  large  geological  map,  by  MR.  POOLE, 
of  the  locality  described. 


THIRD  ORDINARY  MEETING. 
City  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,   14th  January,  1901. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

HENRY  S.  POOLE,  ESQ.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  presented  "A  Description  of  the 
Davis  Calyx  Drill" 

The  subject  was  discussed  by  MESSRS.  BISHOP  and  ANDERSON,  and 
DRS.  MURPHY  and  MACKAY. 

DR.  MACKAY  read  a  paper  by  WALTER  H.  PREST,  ESQ.,  M.  E.,  "  On 
Drift  Ice  as  an  Eroding  and  Transporting  Agent."  (See  Transactions, 
p.  333.) 

The  paper  was  discussed  by  DRS,  MAOKAY  and  MURPHY,  PROP.  H. 
W.  SMITH,  and  MESSRS.  POOLE  and  PIERS. 


Ix  PROCEEDINGS. 

-FOURTH  ORDINARY  MEETING. 
City  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  18th  February,  1901. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

It  was  announced  that  PROP.  EVERETT  W.  SAWYER,  of  Acadia  College, 
Wolfville,  and  PROF.  F.  C.  SEARS,  Director  of  the  N.  S.  School  of 
Horticulture,  Wolfville,  had  been  elected  associate-members. 

A  communication  was  read  by  the  RECORDING  SECRETARY,  from  the 
ENTOMOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  BELGIUM,  announcing  the  death  of  its 
Honorary  President,  the  BARON  DE  SELYS-LONGCHAMPS. 

On  motion  it  was  resolved  that  the  N.  S.  Institute  of  Science  express 
its  deep  sympathy  with  the  Entomological  Society  of  Belgium  in  con- 
nection with  the  irreparable  loss  which  the  society  has  sustained  through 
the  death  of  its  Honorary  President,  the  Baron  de  S  ^lys-Longchamps. 

A  communication  was  also  read  from  the  ZOOLOGICAL-BOTANICAL 
SOCIETY  OF  VIENNA  announcing  the  celebration  of  its  fiftieth  anni- 
versary. 

On  motion  it  was  resolved  that  the  N.  S.  Institute  of  Science  offer 
its  cordial  congratulations  to  the  Zoological-Botanical  Society  of  Vienna, 
on  the  celebration  of  its  fiftieth  anniversary  and  the  completion  of  fifty 
years  of  fruitful  work,  and  express  the  hope  that  the  society's  efforts  for 
the  advancement  of  science  may,  in  the  future,  as  in  the  past,  be  crowned 
with  success. 

PROF.  H.  W.  SMITH,  B.  Sc.,  of  the  Provincial  Agricultural  School, 
read  two  papers,  entitled,  (1)  "Rotation  of  Leguminous  Crops,"  and  (2) 
"  The  Preservation  and  Use  of  the  Tops  of  Turnips  and  other  Root 
Crops." 

The  subjects  were  discussed  by  HON.  T.  R.  BLACK,  Da.  MACKAT, 
MR.  G.  MARSHALL,  and  others. 

A  vote  of  thanks  was  presented  to  PROF.  SMITH  for  his  communica- 
tions. 

Owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  houf,  the  reading  of  MR.  POOLE'S  paper 
on  "  Stigmaria  Structure,"  and  of  DR.  MALAY'S  "  Note  on  Gravel  taken 
by  the  mushroom-anchor  of  the  '  Mackay-Beunett,'"  were  postponed. 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS.  Ixi 

FIFTH  ORDINARY  MEETING. 
City  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  18th  March,  1901. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

It  was  announced  that  GEORGE  M.  EDWARDS,  ESQ.,  B.  Sc.,  Halifax, 
had  been  elected  an  ordinary  member. 

A  communication  was  read  from  the  ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  CANADA, 
asking  the  Institute  to  appoint  a  delegate  to  attend  the  Society's  meet- 
ing to  be  held  at  Ottawa  on  May  21st.  The  matter  was  referred  to  the 
Council. 

On  motion,  the  Council  was  directed  to  prepare  a  resolution  expres- 
sive of  regret  at  the  death  of  the  late  DR.  J.  R.  DE~WOLFE,  one  of  the 
Institute's  oldest  members. 

[The  resolution,  subsequently  prepared,  was  as  follows  : — 
"  Resolved,  That  the  Council  place  on  record  its  deep  sense  of  the 
loss  sustained  by  the  Institute  through  the  death  of  Dr.  De Wolfe, 
who  was  well  known  in  his  profession,  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Institute  on  26th  October,  1863,  was  for  a  number  of  years  a  member  of 
the  Council  and  also  second  Yice-President,  always  took  a  deep  interest 
in  and  actively  furthered  the  aims  of  the  society,  and  was  at  the  date  of 
his  death  the  oldest  living  member. 

Further  resolved,  That  the  Secretary  be  directed  to  send  a  copy  of 
the  resolution  to  the  family  of  the  deceased,  and  to  express  to  them  the 
sympathy  of  tho  Institute  in  their  bereavement."] 

HENRY  S.  POOLE,  ESQ.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  read  a  paper  "  On  a  Polished 
'Section  of  Stigmaria  showing  an  axial  cellular  structure."  (See  Trans- 
actions, p.  345.) 

A.  H.  MAC!\ AY,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  presented  the  results  of  a  microscopic 
examination  of  the  specimen  of  Stigmaria.  (See  Transactions,  p.  346.) 

The  subject  was  discussed  by  MESSRS.  BISHOP  and  A.  McKAY. 

A.  H.  MAC  £AY,  Esq.,  LL.  D.,  read  a  "  Note  on  Gravel  taken  by  the 
mushroom-anchor  of  the  '  Mackay-Bennett,'  cable  steamer,  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  Atlantic,  40  miles  west  of  Sable  Island." 

The  paper  w,as  discussed  by  MR.  POOLE. 


lxii  PROCEEDINGS. 

WATSON  L.  BISHOP,  ESQ.,  read  a  paper  on  "  The  Star-nosed  Mole,"" 
and  exhibited  specimens  of  the  young.  (See  Transactions,  p.  348.) 

PROF.  J.  G.  MACGREGOR,  D.  So.,  communicated  a  paper  "  On  thu- 
use  of  the  Wheatstone  Bridge  with  Alternating  Currents." 


SIXTH  ORDINARY  MEETING. 
City  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  5th  April,  1901. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

A  communication  was  read  from  the  ENGINEERS'  SOCIETY  OF  WESTERN 
YoaK,  Buffalo,  offering  the  use  of  the  society's  rooms  to  any  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute  who  may  visit  the  Pan-American  Exposition.  The 
SECRETARY  was  directed  to  make  a  suitable  reply. 

The  following  paper  was  communicated  : — 

THE  RARE  EARTHS:  THEIR  SCIENTIFIC  IMPORTANCE  AS  REGARDS  THB 
PERIODIC  LAW. — BY  W.  H.  MAGEE,  PH.  D  ,  High  School,  Parrs- 
boro,  N.  S. 

AT  a  meeting  of  scientists,  it  is,  of  course,  unnecessary  for  me  to- 
apologize  for  the  fact  that  the  subject  of  my  paper  is  one  in  which  the 
general  public  takes  no  interest.  There  are  few,  even  among  chemists,, 
who  take  more  th  in  a  passing  interest  in  the  so-called  Rare  Earths.  You, 
however,  who  are  seekers  after  truth,  are  aware  that  even  in  what  might 
seem  the  most  despicable  of  materials  there  are  startling  discoveries  await- 
ing the  patient  investigator  who  will  delve  into  the  hidden  mysteries 
and  bring  to  light  truth,  not  only  of  rare  interest  to  the  scientific  circle 
whose  sympathies  he  enjoys,  but  uf  advantage  to  the  general  public  which, 
though  impatient  of  the  labor  and  details,  is  ever  ready  to  avail  itself  of,, 
and  to  liberally  reward,  results. 

The  term  R  ire  E  irths,  is,  if  not  a  misnomer,  at  least  misleading, 
since  there  are  earths  or  oxides  not  classed  in  the  group  which  are  as  rare,, 
if  not  rarer,  than  these  themselves.  The  usually  accepted  definition  of 
a  rare  earth  is  "  a  substance  precipitable  by  oxalic  acid  from  a  weakly 
acid  solution  and  having  the  formula  R2  03  in  which  R  stands  for  the 
element  of  the  oxide."  This  definition,  however,  if  rigidly  adhered  to, 
excludes  Ce.,  Th.  and  Zr.,  which  are  usually  ranked  with  the  rare  earths 
and,  being  applied  ever  so  generally,  would  place  Tl.,  Gi.,  Ge.,  In.,  etc.,. 
among  the  ordinary  or  at  least  not  rare  earths. 


THE    RARE    EARTHS. — MAGEE.  Ixiii 

The  full  list  of  these  earth  elements  includes  Ce.,  Zr.,  Th.,  La.,  Sc., 
Yt.  and  Yb.,  which  are  looked  upon  by  chemists  as  actually  elemental, 
and  Pd.,  Nd.,  Sm.,  Ho.,  Er.,  Ter.,  Th.,  De.,  Dp.,  Ph.,  and  even  others 
which  appear  to  differ  from  each  other  as  oxides  and  may,  some  of  them 
at  least,  be  elemental,  but  are  probably  in  most  cases  mixtures  of  two  or 
more  elements.  They  are  not,  however,  known  in  the  elemental  con- 
dition but  only  in  the  form  of  oxides  and  salts.  Some  few  have  been 
reduced  to  the  metallic  condition  yielding  then  grayish-white  metals,  but 
in  such  small  quantities,  and  with  such  doubts  regarding  their  purity, 
that  slight  advantages  have  been  derived  from  the  reduction. 

Before  considering  the  properties  of  these  substances  and  discussing 
their  importance  in  the  periodic  system,  it  will  be  well  to  look  into  their 
history.  They  were  first  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  chemical 
world  during  that  period  of  remarkable  activity  at  the  close  of  the  18th 
and  beginning  of  the  19th  centuries.  Probably  the  first  time  that  any 
mineral  containing  these  oxides  in  any  considerable  quantity  was  noticed 
was  in  1751,  when  Cronstedt  obtained  from  an  iron  mine  in  Sweden  a 
sample  of  the  mineral  now  known  to  mineralogists  as  Cerite,  a  silicate  of 
Ce.,  La.  and  Di.,  containing  as  impurities  or  accessories,  however  one 
chooses  to  consider  them,  small  quantities  of  other  rare  oxides,  together 
with  iron,  alumina,  lime  and  traces  of  Mn.,  and  even  other  minerals. 
This  mineral  was  first  analysed  by  D'Elhuyar  in  the  laboratory  of  the 
noted  chemist  Bergmann,  and  stated  to  be  a  silicate  of  Fe.  and  Ca.  It 
may  seem  remarkable  that,  even  in  those  early  days  of  chemistry— thia 
was  in  1784 — such  an  error  as  the  mistaking  of  the  trivalent  oxides  for 
the  very  common  substance  lime  should  occur,  but  if  the  experience  of 
such  a  noted  analytic  chemist  as  Plattner,  so  late  as  1846,  be  considered, 
all  wonder  ceases.  This  chemist  analysed  several  times  the  mineral 
Pollux  froiu  Elba  and,  despite  all  his  care,  and  he  \vas  renowned  as  an 
analyst,  he  could  only  get  his  results  to  foot  up  to  92.75  per  cent.,  nor 
could  any  one  explain  the  matter  until  Bunsen  recognized  a  new  metal, 
Caesium,  in  the  water  of  the  Durkheirn  salt  well-*  and  proved  it  to  be 
of  the  alkali  group  thus  closely  resembling  Xa.  and  K  Plattner  had 
been  reckoning  Cs.  with  an  atomic  weight  of  132  as  K.  with  an  atomic 
weight  of  39,  and  neither  he  nor  his  contemporaries  seemed  capable  of 
proposing  the  very  simple  explanation  that  there  must  be  present  a  new 
element.  This  experience  of  Piattner's  and  its  explanation  probably 
saved  Winkler  from  a  similar  error  in  1886  and  gave  him  the  credit  of 
the  discovery  of  a  new  element.  Repeatedly  analysing  Argryodite,  as 


PROCEEDINGS. 

he  was  chemist  of  a  silver  mining  company  in  the  Freiburg  district  in 
Germany,  he  met  with  a  constant  loss  of  7  per  cent,  in  his  analyses,  and 
a  close  search  with  refined  methods  enabled  him  to  announce  to  the 
world  the  new  metal  Germanium. 

But  I  have  digressed.  The  matter  rested  after  D'Elhuyar's  time  until 
the  fame  of  the  two  great  analysts,  Berzelius  and  Klaproth,  induced  some 
one  to  send  to  each  of  them  a  sample  of  the  mineral.  These  chemists 
soon  decided  that  lime  was  not  the  main  constituent  and  that  though  iron 
was  present  it  was  only  in  mere  traces.  Both  set  themselves  to  solving 
the  problem  and  almost  simultaneously  announced  to  the  world  the 
existence  of  a  hitherto  unknown  element.  There  was  considerable  dis- 
cussion as  to  which  could  claim  the  precedence,  but  the  scientific  world 
has  yielded  the  palm  to  Berzelius  by  adopting  his  name,  Cerium,  instead 
of  ochroit-erde  proposed  by  Klaproth.  In  tracing  out  the  history  of  this 
interesting  mineral  however,  we  have  really  passed  the  date  when  the 
apple  of  discord  was  thrown  among  the  chemical  family.  The  date  of  the 
discovery  of  an  oxide  containing  the  unknown  element  Ce.  was  1804,  the 
date  of  the  discovery  of  the  first  of  the  rare  earths  was  1789  when 
Klaproth  isolated  Zirconia.  If  this  be  disputed,  for  Zr.  does  not  fulfil 
all  the  conditions  of  a  rare  earth,  we  must  yet  anticipate  1804,  for  in 
1794  Gadolin,  a  Finnish  chemist,  gave  to  the  world  Yttria,  the  oxide  of 
Yttrium  which  fulfils  in  every  respect  the  conditions  of  our  definition. 
This  element  was  discovered  in  a  mineral  from  Ytterby,  in  Sweden, 
which  mineral  has  since  been  named  in  honor  of  this  chemist  Gadolinite. 

In  1818  Berzelius  announced  the  discovery  of  a  new  oxide,  Thoria, 
in  some  rare  minerals  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Fahlun,  Sweden.  This 
discovery  he  confirmed  in  1828  when  he  found  the  same  oxide  in  a 
mineral  from  Brewig,  in  Norway.  Before  going  into  the  history  of  the 
very  remarkable  perio  I  which  followed,  let  us  see  just  what  was  known 
up  to  1835.  Ceria,  Zirconia,  Thoria  and  Yttria  were  recognized  as  dis- 
tinct oxides,  each  supposed  to  contain  a  distinct  element.  Only  one  of 
these,  however,  Yttria,  belongs  to  the  rare  earths,  if  we  keep  to  the  strict 
letter  of  our  definition.  Such,  then,  was  the  knowledge  of  the  rare 
earths  ;  they  were  ordinary  oxides  of  no  more  interest  than  lime  or 
baryta,  nay,  not  so  much,  for  they  were  of  no  practical  use,  they  were 
rare,  and  so  of  no  interest  except  to  seekers  after  curios. 

In  1837-38  a  young  Swedish  chemist,  a  pupil  of  Berzelius,  took  up 
the  neglected  earths  and  under  his  magic  touch,  for  he  was  a  genius,  new 


THE  RARE  EARTHS. — MAGEE. 

truths  were  rapidly  unfolded  and  a  new  interest  was  given  to  this  portion 
of  the  chemical  field,  an  interest  which  has  constantly  increased,  and  under 
the  influence  of  which  research  will  goon  until  these  most  subtle  elements 
yield  to  the  scientists  truths  even  more  deeply  and  cunningly  concealed 
than  those  which  are  being  discovered  in  the  realms  of  electiicity  and 
bacteriology.  I  think  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  nothing  would 
give  more  pleasure  to  the  chemical  world  than  to  find  a  solution  to  the. 
mystery  which  surrounds  these  rare  earths,  now  rare  no  longer,  if  by  the 
word,  we  mean  scarce,  but  truly  rare  if  we  consider  it  as  meaning  costly 
or  worthy  as  regards  the  chemical  truth  concealed  among  them.  This 
chemist  was  Mosander — a  name  probably  unknown  outside  the  chemical 
world,  and  not  to  all  chemists.  To  the  advanced  inorganic  chemist,  how- 
ever, he  is  the  pioneer  in  the  field,  since  he  was  the  first  to  show  the 
immense  possibilities  which  lay  concealed  in  the  little  then  known  of 
these  peculiar  earths. 

Beginning  an  examination  of  Ceria  he  soon  announced  that  it  was 
not  a  simple  oxide  but  a  compound  of  at  least  two.  This  was  in  1838. 
In  1843  he  announced  that  one  of  these  two  could  be  still  further  de- 
composed and  so  from  the  earth  Ceria,  long  considered  a  simple  earth, 
there  resulted  a  pale  yellow  oxide,  ceria  proper,  a  brownish  white  oxide, 
lanthanum,  and  a  dark  brown  oxide,  didymia,  the  first  yielding  yellow, 
white,  and  red  salts,  the  second  white  or  colorless,  and  the  third  pink 
salts.  As  a  result  of  this  discovery,  an  immediate  attack  was  made  on 
the  other  rare  earths.  Mosander  himself  in  the  following  year  announced 
Erbia  and,  later,  Tcrbia,  as  earths  separable  from  Yttria ;  these  yield, 
Yitria  colorless  salts,  Erbia  yellow,  and  Terbia  rose  colored,  a  coincidence 
with  the  compounds  from  the  Ceria  earths.  In  I860  Berlin,  as  a  result 
of  long  research,  announced  that  Mosander  had  been  mistaken  as  regards 
Yttria,  but  later  work  has  shown  that  the  Swedish  chemist  had  not 
spoken  heedlessly,  for  Bahr  and  Bunsen,  by  a  very  brilliant  piece  of 
work,  proved  the  presence  of  Erbia  in  so-called  Yttria,  and  in  1873  Cleve 
and  Hoglund  confirmed  this.  About  this  time  Delafontaine  again  deter- 
mined the  existence  of  Terbia.  Later,  Delafontaine  claimed  the  dis- 
covery of  an  earth,  which  he  called  Phillipia,  in  the  Yttria,  but  this  is 
not  as  yet  acknowledged  by  chemists.  Then  came  a  classical  research  by 
Marignac,  a  Swiss  chemist,  in  which,  after  separating  out  several  appar- 
ently distinct  earths,  he  finally  isolated  Ytterbium,  which  is  undoultedly 
a  distinct  element,  though  some  chemists,  keeping  in  view  the  many  sur- 
prises in  this  field,  still  withheld  acknowledgment.  In  1879,  Nilson, 


PROCEEDINGS. 

another  remarkable  Swedish  chemist,  isolated  Scandium,  and  since  that 
time  Cleve  claims  to  have  found  in  Erbia  a  threefold  group  for  one  mem- 
ber of  which  he  retains  the  name  Erbia,  calling  the  others  Thulia  and 
Holmia. 

In  the  meantime,  from  a  sample  of  Didymium  obtained  from  the 
mineral  Samarskite,  first  found  in  North  Carolina,  a  new  oxide,  Samaria, 
was  separated  in  1878  by  Boisbaudran  and  Delafontaine,  acting 
separately,  the  latter  calling  it  Decipium.  Finally,  in  1883,  Didymium, 
which  since  1842  had  held  its  place  as  an  element,  and  from  which  a 
metal  had  been  isolated  'and  which  had  played  a  prominent  part  in 
several  quite  bitter  chemical  discussions,  'all  parties  basing  their  argu- 
ments on  its  being  an  element,  was,  by  Welsbach,  a  chemist  of  Vienna, 
best  known  as  the  inventor  of  the  Auer  or  "Welsbach  Light,  disintregated 
into  what,  for  want  of  better  name,  are  called,  (or  perhaps  I  should  say 
into  tentative  substances,)  Praseodidymium  and  Neodidymium.  Still 
more  recently,  Bettendorf  has  obtained  evidence  of  the  presence  of  still 
another  oxide  in  Yttria,  which  he  proposes  to  name  in  honor  of  the 
original  discover  of  Yttria,  Gadolinum. 

It  has  been  twice  thought  that  Zirconia  was  not  elemental,  once  in 
1845,  when  Svanberg  thought  he  had  isolated  Noria,  and  again  in  1866-7, 
when  Sorby  thought  he  had  found  Jargonia.  Both  were  subsequently 
proven  to  be  Zirconia,  or  it  was  shown,  at  least,  that  there  was  not  enough 
evidence  to  consider  them  elemental  earths. 

You  will  note  then,  that  from  the  two  original  earths,  the  Yttria  of 
1789  and  the  Ceria  of  1804,  not  less  than  eleven  earths  have  been 
isolated  and  probably  two  or  three  more,  though  the  evidence  is  less 
conclusive.  When  I  mention  that  the  knowledge  of  these,  though  very 
accurate,  is  less  than  that  known  of  our  ordinary  elements  at,  say  100 
years  ago,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  wide  field  exists  here  for  investigators. 

Why  is  so  little  known  concerning  them  1  The  answer  might  be 
hazarded  that  it  is  because  of  their  rarity.  This  is  not  so,  however,  as 
several  of  them  have  been  proved  to  exist  in  considerable  quantities. 
The  trouble  lies  in  their  close  resemblance  to  one  another,  chemical 
reagents  acting  similarly  toward  them  all,  and  thus  the  only  means  of 
separating  them  is  by  taking  advantage  of  the  difference  in  basicity  of 
their  compounds.  This  is  a  very  slow  process  and  uncertain,  for,  being 
fractional,  it  is  only  made  exact  by  numberless  repetitions,  and  so  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  get  pure  material  on  which  to  experiment.  This 


THE     RARE     EARTHS. — MAGEE.  Ixvii 

same  trouble,  too,  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the  appearance  on  several 
occasions  of  pseudo  elements  which,  obtained  with  extreme  difficulty, 
seemed  to  have  a  fair  claim  to  separate  existence,  and  which  required 
considerable  time  and  skill  to  prove  their  non-existence. 

Let  me  illustrate.  You  are  all  aware  that  in  the  case  of  our  ordin- 
ary elements  there  are  sharp  points  of  separation.  HC1.  throws  down 
from  a,  silver  salt  solution  all  (or  nearly  all,  for  this  reservation  must  be 
made  in  the  light  of  refined  methods)  the  silver  as  AgCl.  Ha  S  throws 
-down  from  solution  a  large  number  of  sulphides  even  in  acid  solution  we 
must  grant,  but  for  every  one  of  these  elements  there  is  some  known 
reagent  or  some  exact  method  of  treatment,  which  affects  one  and  obly 
one  cf  these  elements.  There  are,  undoubtedly,  difficulties  in  exact 
separations,  but  a  fair  analytical  chemist  can  always  separate  them. 
With  the  rare  eaiths,  however,  each  reagent  seems  to  act  so  similarly  that 
there  is  no  sharp  line  of  demarcation,  and  the  only  methods  applicable  to 
their  separation  are  slow  and  remarkably  difficult  of  application.  Abso- 
lutely quantitative  analytical  processes  are  unknown,  and  no  results 
published  in  the  various  mineralogical  books  as  giving  the  composition  of 
the  minerals  containing  them  are  reliable.  I  put  forward  no  claims  to 
superiority  as  an  analytical  chemist,  but  I  was  occupied  from  October  1st 
to  the  Christmas  vacation,  with  all  the  advantages  of  a  well  equipped 
laboratory  at  my  disposal,  in  obtaining  11  grams  of  pure  Ceria,  using  a 
method  proclaimed  as  the  best  to  date,  but  acknowledged  to  need,  as  my 
experience  also  confirms,  a  seven  times  repetition  to  ensure  so-called 
purity,  and-  leaving  behind  the  suspicion  that,  as  it  was  purified  according 
to  the  standard  of  a  vanishing  test,  it  was  even  then  not  absolutely  pure. 
Yet  this  subject  has  received  some  of  the  best  thought  of  the  ablest 
chemists  of  the  world  during  the  past  50  years.  Bahr,  Bunsen,  Earnmels- 
burg,  Wolf,  Wing,  Gibbs,  Wbhler,  Popp,  Crookes,  Marignac,  Delafon- 
taine,  Boisbaudran,  Nilson,  Cleve,  Kruss,  Bettendorf,  Welsbach,  in  fact 
all  the  advanced  inorganic  chemists  of  the  past  half  century.  There  is 
no  discouragement,  the  fight  goes  on  with  that  grim  deteimination  to 
succeed  which  only  the  scientist  knows.  What  have  they  accomplished 
for  the  world  1  Not  much  in  this  line  !  But  if  these  were  all  the 
scientist  strove  for,  our  discoveries  and  advance  would  be  of  a  low  order. 
Indirectly,  the  close  study  and  wide  experience  with  reagents  and 
methods  has  led  to  many  useful  results,  but  we  need  not  linger  over  this. 
Throughout  all  the  period  during  which  Ni.  an  Co.  have  been  known, 
there  was  no  ready  and  direct  method  of  separating  them  \  but  a  few 


PROCEEDINGS. 

years  since,  on  an  unsuspected  corner  of  the  reagent  shelf,  an  organic 
compound  a-nitroso  /3-naphthol  was  found  to  instantly  and  completely 
separate  them  from  each  other.  Such  being  the  case,  we  may  some  day 
expect  research  to  be  rewarded  and  the  mysterious  doors  to  be  opened. 

I  must  now,  however,  in  the  development  of  my  plan,  state  the 
methods  most  in  vogue  for  separating  any  rare  earth  from  a  mixture  off 
them.  Suppose  we  have  a  mixture  of  all  or  nearly  all  of  these  earths,, 
and  this  is  the  state  in  which  we  usually  get  them  from  the  minerals, 
containing  them,  and  that  we  have,  say  5  litres,  in  solution.  We  remove- 
lOc.c.  and  precipitate  all  the  earths  by  means  of  a  standard  solution  of 
ammonia,  noting  carefully  the  exact  amount  required.  From  this  can 
readily  b6  calculated  the  amount  neceasary  to  precipitate  the  5  litres. 
This  being  determined  we  take  enough  of  a  somewhat  weak  solution  of 
ammonia  to  precipitate  one-tenth  of  the  earths  and  add  it  as  rapidly  as 
possible,  with  violent  agitation,  that  it  may  be  brought  in  contact  with 
as  large  a  portion  of  the  solution  as  possible  at  once.  This  precipitates 
the  most  basic  portion  to  a  large  extent.  The  mixture  is  allowed  to 
settle  and  the  supernatant  liquid  is  drawn  off;  after  which  the  precipi- 
tate is  carefully  washed  and  the  washings  are  added  to  the  liquid.  This 
is  again  treated  with  ammonia,  another  tenth  being  thrown  down.  This 
process  is  repeated  till  the  entire  amount  is  precipitated.  The  first  two- 
or  three  precipitates  are  then  united,  then  the  next  two  or  three  and  so 
on,  and  each  group  is  again  treated  in  a  similar  manner,  till  after  some 
hundreds  of  repetitions  there  collects  at  one  end  of  the  series  a  consider- 
ably basic,  and  at  the  other  a  considerably  acid,  hydroxide.  The  various 
precipitations  are  checked  by  atomic  weight  determinations,  and  when  an 
hydroxide  is  obtained  in  which  the  entire  ten  precipitates  yield  identi- 
cally the  same  atomic  weights,  it  is  considered  as  an  elemental  earth,, 
the  argument  being  that  no  two  elements  will  be  at  all  likely  to  possess 
the  same  basic  qualities.  This  will  probably  give  you  an  idea  of  the- 
time  expended  and  the  difficulty  experienced  in  working  in  this  field..* 
Ammonia  is  by  no  means  the  only  reagent  so  employed,  but  every  one 
likely  to  produce  different  qualities  of  precipitates  is  tried. 

Here,  then,  we  have  a  group  of  elements  whose  compounds  act 
differently  toward  chemical  reagents  from  all  other  bodies.  They 
resemble  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  i.  e.,  the  Li.  and  Gl.  families  in 
their  action  toward  H2S,  and  the  B.  and  Fe.  families  in  their  action 
towards  (NH4)2S.  They  resemble  the  last  two  and  all  the  other  families 
except  the  Li.  and  Gl.  families  in  their  action  toward  NH4OH.  They 


THE    RARE    EARTHS. — MAGEE.  Ixix 

differ  from  all  other  elements  in  their  action  toward  Oxalic  acid.  All 
oxalites  are  more  or  less  soluble  in  acids  ;  but  outside  the  rare  earths, 
the  solubility  is  perfect.  Calcium  oxalate  is  considered  an  insoluble 
precipitate,  but  the  reaction  must  be  alkaline,  the  least  trace  of  mineral 
acid  setting  up  solution,  the  presence  of  oxalic  acid  prevents  the  precipi- 
tation of  alumina,  etc.,  but  here  we  have  a  group  which  precipitates  at 
once  to  oxalic  acid  or  to  a  soluble  oxalate  in  an  acid  solution,  and  if  only  , 
faintly  acid,  say  1  or  2  per  cent,  the  cxalates  separate  out  completely,  in 
fact  a  mere  trace  is  soluble  in  a  5  per  cent  acid.  Thus  we  can  separate 
them  easily  as  a  group.  If  we  render  tne  supernatant  liquid  more  and 
more  acid,  we  can  gradually  get  out  portions  of  which  the  member  first 
removed  will  differ  considerably  from  that  last  removed,  but  probably 
not  in  a  lifetime  would  one  get  one  member  absolutely  free  from  every 
other  member.  Therein  lies  the  difficulty,  and  so  it  is  with  every  reagent 
to  some  degree.  Some  reagents  shorten  the  work,  and  a  number  of 
persons  working  together,  by  being  able  to  do  more  work  get  more  rapid 
results,  but  the  field  is  one  of  great  difficulty. 

There  are  other  troubles,  however,  in  the  path  of  the  investigator  in 
these  fields.  All  who  have  worked  practical  chemistry  are  aware  that 
there  are  qualitative  tests  by  means  of  which  we  can  detect  the  presence 
or  prove  the  absence  of  any  particular  metal  or  acid.  Ammonia  acts 
towards  a  solution  of  a  copper  salt  as  it  acts  towards  nothing  else.  HC1. 
gives  a  white  precipitate  to  silver  as  well  as  to  lead  and  mercurous  salts, 
but  the  chloride  of  lead  is  soluble  in  hot  water  and  can  be  washed  out, 
that  of  silver  dissolves  in  ammonia  and  can  in  turn  be  removed  while  at 
the  same  time  the  mercurous  chloride  turns  black  but  remains  insoluble 
owing  to  the  formation  of  a  compound  with  the  ammonia  so  that  it  is 
easily  determined  whether  neither  one,  two  or  three,  or  which  one  is 
present.  This  makes  the  work  of  Mosander  the  more  remarkable,  as  in 
his  time  there  was  nothing  to  enable  him  to  suspect  the  different  rare 
earths  except  abstract  reasoning  from  slight  color  changes. 

In  1858,  however,  Gladstone,  the  London  chemist,  noted  on  examin- 
ing the  light,  which  had  passed  through  a  solution  of  Didymium  salt,  with 
a  spectroscope,  that  in  certain  parts  of  the  spectrum  there  were  dark  color 
bands  although  the  solution  might  be  perfectly  colorless.  These  have 
been  proved  to  be  due  to  the  absorption  of  some  of  the  light  while 
passing  through  the  solution.  This  fact  of  absorption  is  not  of  itself 
very  remarkable.  All  colored  solutions  absorb  more  or  less  light,  KMn04 
PROG,  &  TRANS.  N.  3.  INST.  Soi.,  VOL.  X.  PROC.-G. 


Ixx  PROCEEDINGS. 

solution,  purple  in  color,  absorbs  certain  light,  colored  glasses  absorb  light, 
etc.,  but  all  manganese  salts,  colored  or  uncolored,  do  not  absorb  light, 
nor  if  the  solutions  are  of  different  colors,  though  of  the  same  element, 
do  they  absorb  the  same  portions  of  light.  Gases  absorb  light,  and  on 
looking  towards  the  sun  with  a  spectroscope,  faint  bands  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  spectrum.  Certain  metals  when  heated,  give  certain  varieties  of 
light  as,  ]STa  yellow,  potassium  blue,  copper  green,  etc.,  and  these  same 
substances,  converted  into  vapour,  absorb  the  same  light  that  in  their 
white  hot  condition  they  emitted,  but  here  we  have  the  phenomenon  of 
a  colorless  solution  acting  like  a  colored  solution  or  like  a  gas.  This  of 
course  gave  a  test  for  Di.  as  soon  as  the  absorption  bands  were  mapped 
and  thoroughly  defined.  This  to  the  rare  earth  chemist  was  a  valuable 
discovery,  but  in  its  application  it  calls  forth  the  highest  skill  of  the 
chemist,  for  he  must  be  able  to  fix  upon  the  exact  bands  and  say  this  is 
given  by  Di.,  this  by  Er.,  etc.  Here' is  displayed  a  fresh  peculiarity  of 
the  rare  earths,  for  while  there  are  no  elements  outside  these  which 
give  bands,  there  are  several  within  the  group  which  do,  viz., — 
Di.  gives  31  well  defined  bands,  Sin.  12  not  so  well  defined  (and 
some  of  them  disputed,  the  subject  is  being  thoroughly  investigated  by 
Boisbaudran),  Ho.  16,  Er.  8  ;  Yb.  shows  none  in  the  visible  part  of  the 
spectrum,  but  many  have  been  mapped  in  the  ultra  red  portion. 

The  qualitative  application  of  this  knowledge  is  as  follows  : — A  mix- 
ture, say  of  Di.  and  Ce.,  is  to  be  freed  from  Di.,  this  being  most  familiar 
to  myself.  The  oxalate,  first  well-washed  in  dilute  IIC1,  is  dried  and 
ignited  to  the  condition  of  an  oxide,  and  then  dissolved  in  HN03  and  a 
preliminary  examination  is  made  with  the  spectroscope  to  make  sure  of 
the  presence  of  Di.,  and  incidently  to  judge  of  its  abundance.  The 
intensity  of  that  band  known  as  the  a  band  is  especially  noted.  It  lies 
near  the  Na.  band  (yellow.)  The  mixed  solution  is  then  subjected  to  one 
of  the  separation  processes,  and  as  strong  a  solution  in  as  deep  a  layer  as 
possible,  is  examined  with  the  spectroscope  and  the  intensity  of  the  a 
band  is  noted.  This  process  is  repeated  until  the  most  intense  baud  has 
entirely  disappeared.  When  I  remind  you,  however,  that  the  removal 
of  the  Di.  by  what  was  undoubtedly  the  best  method  known  until 
lately,  required  a  seven  times  repetition  the  Di.  bands  growing  gradually 
fainter  and  dying  out  one  by  one  until  what  had  been  the  most  intense 
finally  faded  entirely  from  view  it  will  be  seen  that  this  fractional 
method  forces  one  to  the  conclusion  that  possibly  all  the  Di.  has  not 


THE    RARE    EARTHS. — MAGEE.  Ixxi 

been  removed,  but  that  a  more  powerful  spectroscope  in  the  hands  of 
very  experienced  men  might  rediscover,  in  what  appeared  free  from  Di, 
traces  of  it  yet  present.  This  has  actually  happened  more  than  once,  and 
was  what  caused  Prof.  Dennis  and  myself  to  lay  so  much  stress  upon  our 
new  separation  process,  for  the  removal  of  Di.  from  Ce.  We  believe 
that  the  new  method  removes  the  Di.  at  once  and  entirely  ;  for  with  the 
best  spectroscope  at  our  disposal  we  could  find  no  trace  of  Di.  The  pro- 
cess in  other  words  is  not  fractional  but  immediate.  I  can  perhaps 
illustrate  this  better  by  an  example,  familiar  perhaps  to  all  of  us.  Ferro- 
and  Ferri-Cyanides  of  K.  long  served  as  accurate  tests  of  Fe.,  later  Pot- 
assium Sulphocyanate  was  found  to  detect  ferric  Fe,  when  the  Cynanides 
failed  to  do  so.  This  reagent  gives  to  a  solution  containing  ferric  Fe.  in 
solution,  a  blood  red  or,  in  weaker  solution,  a  wine  color.  When,  how- 
ever, some  chemist  proposed  to  add  ether  to  the  solution  after  testing  for 
Fe.  and  failing  to  obtain  a  color,  he  found  on  closing  the  test-tube,  and 
shaking  violently  that  from  a  solution  that  was  colorless  after  adding 
KCNS,  a  red  color  wns  extracted  by  the  ether.  This  of  course  gives  a 
vary  dolicate  test  for  Fe.,  a  delicacy  unsought  for  a  few  years  since. 
The  Di.  test  is  probably  not  so  delicate  at  present. 

But  just  here  comes  in  one  more  of  the  evil  features  of  the  rare  earth 
work,  for  the  test  that  serves  to  prove  the  absence  of  Di  must  serve  also 
as  the  test  for  La.  which  has  no  absorption  bands,  since  La.  being  more 
strongly  basic  than  Di.,  when  the  latter  is  known  to  be  removed  the 
former  must  have  been  previously  gotten  rid  of.  Of  course  the  spark 
spectra  could  be  employed,  and,  unless  some  easier  method  is  discovered, 
must  be  employed  in  very  accurate  work,  but  it  is  tedious  and  requires 
special  apparatus  and  precludes  all  workers,  but  those  who  have  the 
advantages  of  the  finest  university  laboratories,  or  are  themselves 
wealthy.  It  needs,  moreover,  a  much  longer  training  than  is  needed  to 
use  the  absorption  band  method.  It  is  seldom  employed  as  a  test.  The 
other  method,  applicable  also  in  every  case,  but  slow  and  requiring  the 
very  highest  chemical  skill  to  ensure  results  is  to  make  equivalent  weight 
determinations.  This  has  so  far  been  done  gravimetrically,  but  methods 
are  being  sought  by  which  it  may  be  done  volumetrically,  which  will  be 
a  great  shortening,  and  in  skilled  hands,  if  the  methods  are  good,  will 
yield  excellent  results. 

Having  now  given  a  fair  idea  of  what  the  rare  earths  are,  how  they 
act  chemically,  and  the  difficulty  of  experimental  work  with  them,  I  will 


Ixxil  PROCEEDINGS. 

proceed  to  speak  of  their  occurrence,  and  then  give  some  reasons  for  the 
immense  interest  any  work  in  this  line  creates  in  the  advanced  chemical 
world.     For  a  long  time  the  earths  were  supposed  to  be  what  their  name 
implies,   really  rare.     There  were   reasons  for  this  opinion.     The  earliest 
known  specimens  were  among  the  last  discovered  in  that  period  of  intense 
chemical  activity,  the  end  of  the  18th  and  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
centuries,  a  time  honored  by  such  names  as  Lavoisier,  Davy,  Cavendish, 
Priestly,  Dalton,  Scheele,   Berzelius,  Vaquelin,  Klaproth,  and  the  elder 
Eose's.     The  lack  of  refined  chemical   methods,   especially  among  those 
who  had  most  to  do  with  new  minerals,  the  lack   of  sharp  qualitative 
tests,  and  the  fact  that  in  ordinary  analytical   methods  it  was  easy  to 
mistake  these  for  iron  or  alumina,  all  tended  to  the  strengthening  of  this 
belief.     Still  during  all  this  time  the  ablest  chemical  minds  turned  again 
and  again  to  the  subject,  and  from  pure  love  of  the  truth  sought  for  the 
solution  of  their  mysteries.     There  is  scarcely  a  great  chemist  who  has 
not  at  some  time  attacked  the  knotty  question,  and  seldom,  as  we  must 
acknowledge,  did  they  obtain  other  than  negative  results,  and,  as  you 
know,  these  are  seldom  published — a  mistake,  by  the  way,  as  we  could 
avoid  many  pitfalls  and  save  valuable  time  did  we  know  the  experience 
of  others  along  the  same  lines.     When  the  discoveries  of  Mosander  were 
published,    new   interest  was   created,    and   that   indefatigable  worker, 
Eammelsberg,   better  known  possibly  to  the  mineralogical  than  to  the 
chemical  world,    examined    many  rocks   for    traces    of   these    elements. 
Thanks  to  his  efforts,    seconded   by  Hermann,    Wohler  a^id  many  other 
chemists,  as  their  time  permitted,  and  to  the  improved  general  as  well  as 
particular   methods,  the  rare  earths  were  found   here  and  there  and,  we 
can  now  add,  almost  everywhere.     It  would  now  seem  that  like  Fe.  they 
are  everywhere    present,  only  in  very  small  quantities.     Zr.  is  lately,  by 
microscopic    method,  proved  to  be  present  in  every  rock.     Ce.  is  a  com- 
mon companion  of  Zr.,  and  with  Ce.  there  are  always  present  La.  and  Di. 
and  usually  others.     Norway  and  Sweden,  the  land   in  which  they  were 
first   discovered,    produce  but  small   amounts  of    them    now.     In  Brazil 
Monazite  sand  can  be  shovelled  up  on  the  seashore,   it  is  a  phosphate  of 
Ce.,  La.,  Di.,    and  Th.     In  Llano  Co.,  Texas,  Sipylite    is   found  in  con- 
siderable  quantities,    as  also   Gadolinite    and    other    similar   minerals. 
Along   the  Atlantic    seaboard    from  Virginia  to  Georgia,  in  New  Jersey 
and  New  York,  in  Massachusetts,    in  Renfrew  Co.,  Ont.,  and    elsewhere 
in  Canada,  in  Colorado,  along  the  Andes,  in  India,   and  Australia,  along 
the  Ural  Mountains,  in  Germany,  in  England,  and  undoubtedly  in  many 


THE    RARE     EARTHS. — MAGEE.  Ixxiii 

other  places'  when  thorough  investigation  has  been  made.  From  Dana's 
latest  published  textbook  of  mineralogy,  the  unabridged  edition  of  1892, 
I,  a  few  years  ago,  made  out  a  list  of  62  minerals  which  contain  the  Ce. 
group,  so-called,  viz.  : — Ce.,  Di.,  and  La.  Never  did  I  find  our  own  pro- 
vince recorded  as  having  produced  a  single  specimen.  This  I  do  not 
believe  to  be  correct,  when  so  many  rare  and  peculiar  minerals  exist  here, 
where  there  are  rocks  of  every  geological  age,  and  where  every  one  of  the 
ordinary  elements  except  the  Pt.  group  has  been  found,  I  cannot  but 
believe  that  the  presence  of  the  rare  earths  has  been  overlooked.  I  am 
not  conversant  with  Prof.  Hind's  papers,  but  it  would  be  interesting  to 
know  whether,  in  his  numerous  analyses  of  the  minerals  of  the  Province, 
he  ever  sought  for  the  presence  of  the  rare  earths.  It  would  not  be  sur- 
prising if  he  had,  and  yet  failed  to  find  them,  for  the  methods  of  testing 
for  them  are  not  given  in  the  ordinary  text  books  of  analytical  chemistry 
and  in  the  larger  qualitative  works  of  Prescott  and  Johnson,  Fresenius, 
etc.,  very  little  attention  is  paid  to  them  ;  they  are  mentioned  in  foot- 
notes or  in  fine  print,  and  only  the  most  advanced  chemists  are  likely  to 
pay  any  attention  to  them.  This  is  partly  because  they  are  of  little 
importance  to  the  ordinary  analyst,  and  partly  because  the  field  is  so 
difficult ;  and  advanced  chemists  will  of  course  go  to  the  original  papers. 
Still  this  all  tends  to  the  overlooking  of  these  earths.  A  chemist  might 
even  take  the  B.  Sc.  degree,  with  Chemistry  as  his  main  subject,  in  any 
English  or  American  university  and  know  little  beyond  the  fact  of  the 
existence  of  and  the  probable  rarity  of  these  elements.  He  might  even 
obtain  a  Doctorate  in  Chemistry,  and,  unless  his  attention  were  especially 
called  to  the  subject,  know  little  of  them.  They  are  out  of  the  ordinary 
line  of  travel.  I  am  not  saying  this  merely  to  fill  in  the  time  and  make  a 
Jong  paper,  as  some  may  be  tempted  to  think,  but  to  show  that,  even  if 
Prof.  Hind  did  not  look  for  these  elements,  and  I  am  strongly  inclined 
to  think  he  did  riot,  that  it  would  not  be  casting  any  reflections  on  his 
skill  as  a  chemist,  nor  slurs  on  his  reputation  as  an  analyst.  They  are 
considered  out  of  the  line  of  any  one  except  the  chemist  who  specializes 
along  these  lines.  I  need  scarcely  say  that  this  is  a  mistake,  to  some 
extent  at  least.  None  but  an  advanced  specialist  in  inorganic  chemistry 
is  likely  to  work  with  the  earths,  at  least  until  more  is  known  concerning 
them,  but  any  ordinary  chemist  might  easily  look  for  their  presence.  I 
trust,  if  any  especially  heavy  minerals  or  peculiar  ones  are  known  to 
members  of  this  institute,  the  same  being  of  provincial  origin,  they  would 
apply  the  simple  test  I  have  mentioned — precipitation  by  oxalic  acid  in 


Ixxiv  PROCEEDINGS. 

weakly  acid  solution,  or  send  a  small  sample  to  me  when  I  would  be 
pleased  to  report  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  earths.  If  the  suspected 
mineral  contains  Di.  a  direct  vision  spectroscope  will  detect  it  at  once  by 
pimply  looking  through  it  at  the  mineral.  Now,  finally,  to  give  a  little 
attention  to  what,  according  to  my  heading,  ought  to  be  the  most 
important  part  of  my  paper.  Why  are  the  rare  earths  of  especial 
importance  to  the  chemical  world  ?  Why  did  such  a  chemist  as  Kriiss 
give  up  so  much  of  his  too-soon  ended  life  to  their  study?  Why  do 
Brauner,  Wilson,  Cleve,  Boisbaudren,  Debray,  Crookes,  and  scores  of 
lesser  lights  give  all  the  time  they  can  spare  to  solve  the  mystery?  Why 
did  Crookes,  when  a  few  pounds  of  Sipylite,  so  far  a  rare  mineral,  were 
found  not  long  since  in  Texas,  cable  to  reserve  it  all  for  himself  at  any 
price  1  Why  did  chemists  like  Marignac  and  Bunsen  in  the  latter  part 
of  their  life,  with  all  their  vast  accumulations  of  scientific  knowledge  and 
their  tried  analytical  skill,  give  their  finest  work  to  the  unravelling  of 
this  problem?  For  two  reasons  chiefly.  The  desire  to  discover  the 
truth,  the  aim  of  every  true  scientist,  coupled  with  the  knowledge  that 
here  was  a  field  to  test  the  mettle  of  the  bravest  and  ablest,  but  also, 
and  perhaps  more  important  for  proving  the  falsity  of,  or  on  the  other 
hand,  rounding  out  the  periodic  system  of  the  elements. 

The  scientist  ever  seeks  to  bring  the  subject  which  he  studies  under 
the  power  of  mathematics.  lie  recognizes  that  this  is  the  most  power- 
ful of  instruments  with  which  to  work.  All  branches  of  science  have, 
however,  to  pass  the  observational  stage  before  laws  can  be  deduced  and 
classifications  brought  about.  Though  several  chemical  facts  can  be 
discussed  mathematically,  the  subject  as  a  whole  is  but  emerging  from  the 
observational  stage.  Botany  is  still  in  this  stage  as  also  Bacteriology,  the 
latter,  of  course,  far  behind  the  former  ;  and  possibly  it  may  be  claimed 
that  the  former  is  nearer  mathematical  control  than  chemistry.  Its 
classification  is  certainly  superior,  but  its  classification,  at  least  the  one 
now  in  use,  is  a  superficial  one  and  readily  arrived  at.  Not  so  Chemistry. 
The  atom  and  even  the  molecule,  evades  our  grasp  and  laughs  at  our  skill, 
the  balance  alone  conquers  them  and  even  here  we  grasp  them  but 
lightly.  Their  existence,  even,  is  being  disputed  so  evasive  are  they, 
and  those  who  would  claim  their  existence  are  confronted  by  metaphysi- 
cal reasonings  to  prove  them  only  hallucinations.  It  has  been  a  long 
and  weary  search  since  Dalton  propounded  his  atomic  theory  but  the 
reward  seems  nearer.  Thompson,  or  I  should  say  Lord  Kelvin,  is  fixing 


THE    RARE    EARTHS. — MAGEE.  Ixxv 

limits  for  their  size  and  weight,  while  Mcndelejeff  and  Meyer  have 
propounded  a  theory  of  classification.  The  subtle  points  will  yet  be 
chained  and  their  properties  scrutinized. 

For  a  long  time,  ever  since  chemistry  became  a  science  in  fact,  the 
need  of  a  proper  method  of  classification  has  been  felt.  There  was  no 
order,  no  opportunity  therefore  to  apply  mathematics,  there  was  no  compre- 
hensive and  easy  means  of  grasping  the  subject,  each  element  and  almost 
every  compound  must  be  studied  by  itself.  So  greatly  was  the  need 
felt  that,  whenever  a  new  property  common  to  a  lew  or  several  elements 
was  noticed,  attempts  were  made  to  make  it  the  basis  of  a  classification. 
Berzelius  thought  he  had  discovered  a  method  but  this  was  soon  found 
wanting,  not  being  founded  on  sufficient  data  ;  when  Faraday  discovered 
the  relations  of  the  elements  to  the  poles  of  the  electric  battery  it  was  sup- 
posed to  be  settled,  but  this  soon  showed  itself  as  a  common  property  for 
all,  extending  from  one  end  of  the  list  of  elements  to  the  other  and  giving 
no  special  point  where  it  could  be  said  one  class  ended  and  another 
began,  it  soon  resolved  itself  into  the  older  metals  and  non-metals, 
basigens  and  acidigens  and  so  failed, — it  was  founded  on  the  too  narrow 
basis  of  a  single  property.  Inklings  of  the  truth  were,  however, 
obtained  from  time  to  time.  Dobereiner  seems  to  have  made  the  first 
suggestion  which  has  led  to  the  present  system.  He  classified  many  of 
the  elements  into  triads,' taking  as  a  basis  a  property  certainly  common 
to  all,  viz, — weight.  He  first  noted  that  in  many  cases  the  weight  of  one 
element  was  the  mean  of  that  of  two  others  usually  resembling  it,  secondly, 
in  other  cases  three  elements  with  very  similar  properties  possess  very 
nearly  equal  atomic  weights,  viz, — Li.,  Na.,  K.,  and  S.,  Se.,  Te.,  for 
examples  of  the  first  and  Fe.,  Co.,  Ni.,  and  El,  Rh.,  Pd.,  as  examples  of 
the  second.  The  comparisons  were  continued  by  Pettenkofer,  Dumas 
and  others,  clearer  and  still  clearer  signs  of  universal  order  appearing 
as  the  atomic  weights  were  more  and  more  accurately  calculated. 
Newlands  was  able  between  1860  and  1866  to  arrange  the  elements  in 
octads,  but  the  gaps  were  so  many  and  the  table  so  fragmentary,  and 
moreover  so  many  elements  were  forced  to  stand  aside  that  his  friends 
jocularly  suggested  that  he  try  arranging  the  elements  according  to  the 
first  letters  of  their  names.  Had  Newlands  possessed  the  full  courage 
of  his  convictions  England  would  have  received  the  credit  of  the  greatest 
advance  in  Chemistry  since  Liebig  and  Wohler  founded  Organic  Chemis- 
try. It  was  left,  however,  for  bolder  minds.  Lothar  Meyer,  and 


PROCEEDINGS. 

Mendelejeff  attacked  the  question  more  courageously.  The  former  was 
probably  the  first  in  the  field,  but  the  latter  must  be  considered  the  true 
parent  of  the  system,  for  while  the  former  made  up  a  table  and  pointed 
out  many  resemblances  between  the  elements,  some  of  which  indeed 
escaped  Mendelejeff,  the  latter  not  only  proposed  a  table  of  the  elements, 
but  boldly  altered  the  atomic  weights  of  certain  of  the  elements  when 
they  did  not  conform  to  his  table,  and  did  not  merely  lay  them  one  side 
to  await  what  the  future  might  decide  concerning  them.  He  did  more 
than  this,  he  said  in  effect  "  My  classification  is  correct  but  there  are 
many  spaces  where  elements  are  wanting;  this  does  not  effect  the  table 
it  simply  means  that  some  elements  are  as  yet  undiscovered.  I  shall 
describe  three  of  these,"  said  he,  "and  without  claiming  to  be  a  prophet, 
will  indicate  wheie  they  are  likely  to  be  found."  He  named  them  pro- 
visionally Ek a- "boron,  Eka-silicon  and  Eka-cadmiurn.  Within  a  few 
years  two  of  these  were  discovered  and  their  properties  agreed  almost 
identically  with  those  which  he  had  suggested.  He  altered  the  atomic 
weight  of  Ce.  from  92  to  140,  U.  from  120  to  240,  and  made  other 
changes.  His  prophecies  were  unnoticed  or  jeered  at ;  his  suggested 
changes  were  ridiculed.  He  fought  his  cause  single-handed  but  his 
triumph  was  complete,  and  came  quickly.  In  less  than  ten  years  from 
his  announcement  of  the  Law,  the  specific  heat  of  Ce.  was  redeterrnined 
by  means  admitting  of  very  slight  error,  and 'the  atomic  weight  was 
proved  to  be  140  or  nearly  so,  much  nearer  140  than  92.  Uranium  was 
by  the  same  means  soon  proved  to  have  the  proposed  weight,  viz, — 240. 
Chemists  then  began  to  examine  his  predictions  more  respectfully  and 
were  soon  surprised  (if  chemists  are  ever  guilty  of  surprise)  when  in 
1879-SO  Nilson,  followed  by  Cleve,  proved  the  existence  of  Eka-boron 
under  the  name  of  Scandium;  and  when  in  1886  Winkler  proved  Eka- 
silicon  to  exist  as  Germanium,  Mendelejeff's  triumph  was  complete.  Few 
now  doubt  the  truth  of  the  law,  and  it  has  become  a  powerlul  weapon 
in  the  hands  of  the  investigator.  The  line  of  the  classification  is  com- 
plete, the  actual  basis  is  probably  not  known  as  yet,  it  may  be  the  atomic 
weights,  as  is  most  usually  assumed;  it  may  be  a  common  element  as  is 
being  quietly  proposed,  though  as  yet  unsupported  by  experimental 
evidence;  it  may  be  some  property  as  yet  unsuspected  but  that  the  order 
is  nearly  or  quite  correct  no  one  doubts. 

But  where  comes  in  the  importance  of  the  rare  earths?     A  glance  at 
either  form  of  table  will  show  blanks.     No  one  doubts  that  these  will 


THE    RARE    EARTHS. — MAGEE.  Ixxvii 

be  filled  in.  Whence  1  Undoubtedly  in  most  cases  from  the  rare  earths. 
Ni.  and  Co.  according  to  Kriiss'  work  seem  to  conceal  an  element  which 
may  be  found  to  have  an  atomic  weight  of  about  100  and  the  earths 
conceal  many.  Within  a  few  years  Di.  has  been  split  up,  one  component 
showing  absorption  bands  and  the  other  failing  to  do  so.  As  already 
pointed  out,  two  earths  once  considered  simple  have  yielded  at  least 
twelve  and  when  the  means  of  the  separation,  when  the  reagent  or 
method  is.  finally  found,  then  the  vacant  spaces  will  be  filled. 

But  it  is  not  only  that  the  rare  earths  will  probably  fill  these  vacant 
spaces  in  the  table  that  gives  them  importance,  their  similarity  is  such 
in  regard  to  action  towards  reagents  that  they  seem  to  run  contrary  to 
the  law.  If  so  many  of  them  are  of  the  formula  R2.  08,  they  cannot  be 
distributed  over  the  table  but  will  mass  in  groups  and  destroy  the  table. 
Of  course  if  the  table  is  incorrect  the  sooner  it  is  proven  the  better  so 
that  the  mind  of  the  inorganic  chemist  may  be  directed  elsewhere  for 
comparisons,  and  it  is  just  possible  that  in  this  very  thing  lies  the 
importance.  Still  the  periodic  law  seems  to  rest  on  good  foundation. 

The  great  importance  then  seems  to  lie  just  here.  These  rare  earths 
exist,  of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  best  chemical  skill  that  the 
world  has  possessed  have  been  working  upon  them  for  over  a  century, 
and  have  so  far  been  unable  to  confidently  state  their  number  and 
actual  properties.  The  more  work  that  is  put  upon  them  the  greater  the 
number  of  them  seems  to  be.  If  the  ones  now  claimed  are  all  real  there 
is  not  room  for  them  in  the  law,  i.e.  spaces  are  wanting  for  their  apparent 
weight.  Until  this  question  can  be  settled  a  mystery  hangs  over  this 
portion  of  the  Periodic  system.  The  unravelling  of  this  may  work  an 
entire  change  in  our  ideas  of  the  elements.  Their  subtle  resemblances 
have  suggested  to  me  more  than  once,  while  pondering  over  them,  that 
in  these  lies  the  key  to  the  simple  elements  which  many  chemists 
believe  to  be  the  foundation  of  the  so-called  elements.  As  in  the 
Marsh-gas  series  the  time  comes  when  the  Hydrogen-Carbon  chain 
becomes  too  heavy  for  the  bonds  or  affinity  to  sustain  the  weight,  so  in 
our  inorganic  field  something  of  the  same  kind  may  result.  The 
hypothetical  elements  may  in  certain  numbers  of  atoms  or  in  certain 
arrangement  of  atoms  yield  such  similar  properties  that  the  one  compound 
is  distinguishable  with  difficulty  from  another.  Time  and  high  chemical 
skill  alone  can  unravel  the  mystery,  but  so  long  as  things  remain  as  they 
are  there  remains  an  element  of  uncertainty  in  the  periodic  law.  We  have 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  PROC.— H. 


Ixxviii  PROCEEDINGS. 

fortunately  the  key  to  the  organic  compounds  and  can  read  causes  for 
resemblances  and  differences.  The  study  of  these  has  been  of  vast 
importance  to  the  commercial  world,  but  here  is  a  field  unwrought, 
not  for  want  of  workers,  but  by  the  very  difficulty  of  the  work  challeng- 
ing attack.  I  believe  that  here  lies  the  key  which  once  found  will 
unlock  many  of  the  mysteries  of  the  chemical  world.  And  one  thing  is 
certain,  the  skill  required  to  explain  the  mystery  will  give  such  power 
and  grasp  to  the  discoverer  that  he  will  with  ease  unroll  the  panorama 
of  the  elemental  field  and  place  it  under  man's  open  vision. 

The  unfolding  of  the  mystery  of  the  rare  earths  is  not  only  necessary, 
then,  to  complete  the  Periodic  system  but  they  evidently  conceal 
some  chemical  truth  not  known  or  imperfectly  understood,  and  so 
not  properly  applied  by  chemists.  Moreover,  judging  from  the 
number  of  elements  claimed  as  rare  earths  and  their  resemblance 
to  each  other,  it  is  possible  that  they  will  overcrowd  the  Periodic  system 
and  compel  its  modification  or  rejection.  In  either  case  the  examination 
will  lead  to  large  additions  to  the  world's  scientific  knowledge,  to  truth, 
the  aim  of  all  true  scientists. 

The  subject  was  discussed  by  several  of  those  present,  and  a  vote  of 
thanks  was  presented  to  DR.  MAGEE. 

WATSON  L.  BISHOP,  ESQ.,  exhibited  a  collection  of  Nova  Scotian 
birds'  eggs,  and  made  remarks  thereon. 


SEVENTH  ORDINARY  MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  13th  May,  1901. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

On  motion  of  PROF.  E.  HAYCOCK,  seconded  by  PROF.  E.  MACKAY,  it 
was  resolved  that  the  the  K  S.  Institute  of  Science  recognize  as  subordi- 
nate branches,  local  organizations  of  its  members  in  particular  sections  of 
the  Province,  formed  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  scientific  study  and 
investigation;  providing  that  such  orgonizations  are  active  and  report 
yearly  at  the  annual  business  meeting  of  the  Institute.  Members  of 
such  recognized  branch  societies  who  pay  a  yearly  fee  of  one  dollar  to 
the  parent  society  shall  be  entitled  to  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
ordinary  members  of  the  Institute. 


ORDINARY    MEETINGS. 

The  resolution  was  referred  to  the  council  with  directions  to  carry 
out  the  terms  of  the  resolution,  and  to  make  any  further  recommenda- 
tions thereon  to  the  business  meeting. 

The  following  two  papers  were  read  by  title  : — 

(1).  Further  Explorations  in  the  Torbrook  Iron  District. — By 
EDWIN  GILPIN,  JR  ,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  &c. 

(2).  Discription  of  Fish-like  Tracks  from  the  fine-grained  Siliceous 
Mudstones  of  the  Knoydart  formation  (Eo-De-vonian)  of  Autigonish 
County,  Nova  Scotia. — By  HENRT  M.  AMI,  ESQ.,  D.  Sc.,  of  the  Geological 
Survey  of  Canada.  (See  Transactions,  p.  330.) 

PROF.  ERNEST  HAYCOCK,  M.  A.,  of  Acadia  College,  then  read  two 
papers  : — 

(1).  The  Geological  History  of  the  Gaspereau  Valley,  N.  S.  (See 
Transactions,  p.  361.) 

(2).  Fossils,  possibly  Triassic,  in  Glaciated  Fragments  in  the 
Boulder  Clay  of  King's  County,  N".  S.  (See  Transactions,  p.  376.) 

These  papers  were  discussed  by  the  PRESIDENT  and  Messrs.  A. 
McKAY,  POOLE,  and  DOANE. 

A  vote  of  thanks  was  presented  to  PROF.  HAYCOCK  for  his  interesting 
communications. 

The  following  papers  were  then  presented  : — 

(1).  Phenological  Observations  for  1900. — By  A.  H.  MAcKAY} 
ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  <fec.  (See  Transactions,  p.  379.) 

(2).  Rainfall  Notes,  Nova  Scotia.— By  F.  W.  W.  DOANE,  ESQ.,  C.  E 
(See  Transactions,  p.  399.) 

The  Council  was  authorized  to  receive  as  having  been  read  by  title, 
such  papers  as  may  be  presented  too  late  for  this  meeting.  [Under  this 
resolution  a  paper  subsequently  submitted  by  D'ARCY  WEATHERBE,  ESQ., 
C.  E.,  on  "  Recent  Developments  with  the  Calyx  Drill  in  the  Nictaux 
Iron  Field,"  was  accepted  by  the  Council.  (See  Transactions,  p.  3f)0.)] 

HARRY  PIERS, 

Recording  Secretary. 


SKETCH  OF  THE  LIFE  OF  J.  M.  JONES. 

(See  Frontispiece.) 

John  Matthew  Jones  was  born  at  Frontfaith  Hall,  Montgomery, 
Wales,  on  7th  October,  1828.  He  was  a  son  of  Admiral  Sir  Charles 
Thomas  Jones,  K.  C.  B.,  his  mother  having  been  formerly  Miss  Jane 
Helen  Satton. 

In  1840  he  went  to  Osmestry  in  Shropshire,  England,  a  grammar, 
school  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Rev.  Stephen  Doane,  and 
subsequently  he  received  instruction  from  a  private  tutor,  the  Rev.  John 
Whitly,  rector  of  Wargrove  near  Warrington,  Lancashire.  He  became  a 
barrister  of  the  Middle  Temple,  London,  but  being  possessed  of  independ- 
ent means,  did  not  practice  his  profession.  For  some  time  he  was 
a  captain  in  the  Royal  Montgomery  Rifles. 

In  June,  1850,  while  on  his  way  with  his  brother  to  the  latter's 
shooting-box  in  Scotland,  he  was  wrecked  in  the  steamship  "Orion"  off 
Portpatrick.  Over  one  hundred  persons  were  drowned,  but  Mr.  Jones 
and  his  brother  were  among  those  who  were  saved. 

He  came  to  America  about  1854  with  his  eldest  brother  who 
was  flag-lieutenant  to  Admiral  Milne,  intending  to  shoot  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  He  landed  at  New  York,  but  was  only  able  to  proceed  as 
far  as  London,  Ontario,  when  an  outbieak  of  cholera  forced  him  to  go  to 
Halifax.  He  finally  decided  to  reside  in  the  latter  town  where,  about 
the  same  time,  his  relative  the  Earl  of  Mulgrave,  was  stationed  as 
governor. 

He  spent  some  time  in  the  Bermudas,  where  his  researches  into  the 
natural  history  of  those  islands  resulted  in  the  publication  about  1859 
of  a  volume  entitled  ''The  Naturalist  in  Bermuda." 

At  Halifax  he  resided  for  some  time  at  "  Ashbourne,"  a  charming 
country  place  surrounded  by  fields  and  woods,  at  Dutch  Village  not  far 
from  the  city.  Near  him  lived  the  late  Andrew  Downs,  well-known  as  an 
ornithologist,  whose  grounds  were  arranged  as  a  zoological  park ;  while  in 
the  city  were  several  men  who  were  beginning  to  take  a  keen  interest  in 
the  study  of  the  natural  history  of  Nova  Scotia. 

In  this  country  home,  Mr.  Jones's  opportunities  were  excellent  for 
observing  nature'  and  making  extensive  collections  of  the  fauna  of  the 
province,  to  the  investigation  and  gathering  of  which  the  greater  part  of 
his  time  wns  given.  At  "Ash bourne"  he  had  a  private  museum 

(Ixxx) 


SKETCH     OF     THE     LIFE     OF    J.     M.     JONES. 

in  a  building  erected  for  the  purpose,  and  in  1866  the  number  of 
specimens  it  contained  was  estimated  at  from  seven  to  eight  thousand. 

He  was  an  enthusiastic  collector,  and  the  cabinets  of  the  British 
Museum,  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  the  Provincial  Museum 
of  Nova  Scotia,  were  enriched  by  his  generosity.  He  took  great 
interest  in  the  international  exhibition  at  London  in  1862,  the  provincial 
fisheries  department  being  placed  under  his  management. 

During  the  winter  months  Mr.  Jones  usually  resided  in  Bermuda,  at 
his  place  called  "  The  Hermitage,"  Smith's  Parish,  and  gave  further 
attention  to  the  study  of  the  natural  history  of  that  locality. 

Mr.  Jones  married  Mary,  daughter  of  Colonel  W.  J.  Myers  of  the 
71st  Highlanders,  of  Halifax,  by  whom  he  had  seven  sons  and  four 
daughters. 

He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Linnean  Society  of  London,  an  original 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada,  and  one  of  the  founders  and 
ablest  supporters  of  the  Nova  Scotian  Institute  of  Natural  Science,  of 
which  he  soon  became  president. 

Mr.  Jones  died  on  his  sixtieth  birthday,  7th  October,  1888,  at  114 
Tower  Road,  Halifax. 

Among  his  publications  may  be  mentioned  the  following  : — 

The  Naturalist  in  Bermuda ;  a  sketch  of  the  geology,  zoology  and 
botany  of  that  remarkable  group  of  islands  ;  together  with  meteor- 
logical  observations.  Illus.  London,  1859  (?),  pp.  192. 

Extract  from  the  Bermuda  "  Royal  Gazette,"  relating  to  the  recent 
capture  of  a  large  species  of  Gymnetrus. — Proceedings  of  the  Zoo- 
logical Society,  (Lond.),  1860,  (part  xxviii),  pp.  185-187. 

Contributions  to  the  Icthyology  of  Nova  Scotia. — Transactions  N.  S. 
Institute  of  Natural  Science,  vol.  i,  pt.  1,  pp.45-54;  1863. 

Kjoekken-moedding  in  Nova  Scotia  — Smithsonian  Report,  1863. 

Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  Bermudas:  Part  1,  Mollusea, 
—Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  N.  8c.,  vol.  i,  pt.  2,  pp.  14-26;  1864. 

Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  Nova  Scotia:  Reptilia. — 76., 
vol.  i,  pt.  3,  pp.  114-128;  1865. 

Notes  on  certain  species  of  Nova  Scotian  Fishes. — Canadian  Naturalist, 
N.  S.,  vol.  ii,  pp.  128-135  ;  1865. 

On  the  Geological  Features  of  the  Bermudas. — Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  N.  Sc. 
vol.  i,  pt.  4,  pp.  18-26  ;  1866. 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.   X.  PROG.— I. 


Ixxxii  SKETCH    OF    THE    LIFE     OF    J.     M.     JONES. 

A  Fortnight  in  the  Backwoods  of  Shelburne  and    Wey mouth.      Ib,,  vol 

ii,  pt.  1,  pp.  48-60;  1867. 
Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  Bermudas.     [Goralliaria.]  — 

Ib.,  vol.  ii,  pt.  2,  pp.  7-16;  1868. 
On  some  of  the  Rarer  Birds  of  Nova  Scotia. — 76.,  vol.  ii,  pt.  2,  pp.  70-73. 

1868. 
On  Hyla  Squirella,  aBatrachian  new  to  the  Province. — Ib.,  vol.  it,  pt.  2. 

pp.  101-102;  1868. 
[Nova  Scotian   Lepidoptua.     By  Rev.   Chas.   J.    S.    Bethune.]     With, 

additional  notes  by  J.  Matthew  Jones. — Ib.,  vol.  ii,  pt.  3,  pp.  78-87; 

1869. 

Nova  Scotian  Coleoptera.     Part  I. — Ib.,  vol.  ii,  pt  3,  pp.  141-155  ;   1869; 
On  the  Laridse  of  the  Nova  Scotian  Coast. — Ib.,  vol.  ii,  pt.  4,  pp.  52  58; 

1870. 
Notes   on   the    Marine   Zoology  of  Nova  Scotia. — Ib.,   vol.    ii,  pt.    4, 

pp.  93-99;  1870. 
Review  of  Nova  Scotian  Diurnal  Lipidoptera. — Ib.,  vol.  iii,  pp.  18-27  & 

100-103;  1871  &  1872. 
Notes  on  a  small  and  remarkable  Lophioid  recently  taken  off  Halifax 

Harbour.— Ib  ,  vol.  iii,  pp.  103-105;  1872. 

On  the  Vegetation  of  the  Bermudas.—  Ib.,  vol.  iii,  pp.  227-280;  1873. 
The  Visitor's  Guide  to  Bermuda  ;  with  a  sketch  of  its  Natural  History- 
London  and  Halifax,  [1876  1]     12mo.,  pp.  i-xii  and  9-156. 
Mollusca  of  Nova  Scotia  (corrected  to  date,  1877). — Trans.  N.  S.  Inst. 

N.  Sc.,  vol.  iv,  pp.  321  (misprinted  421)-330;  1877. 
List  of  the  Fishes  of  Nova  Scotia.—  Ib.,  vol.  v,  pp.  87-89  ;  1879. 
With  Goode  (George  Brown),  ed. — Contributions  to  the  Natural  History 

of  the  Bermudas.     Washington,  1884. 

H.  P. 


(See  page  cii.) 


PROCEEDINGS 


Jloba  <§cotian  Jnstitute  of  ^cicnce. 


SESSION    OF    1901-1902. 


FIRST   ORDINARY    MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,   7th  November,  1901. 
The  PRESIDENT,  DR.  A.  H.  MACKAY,  in  the  chair. 

It  was  announced  that  AVARD  V.  PINEO,  ESQ.,  barrister,  Wolf- 
ville,  and  PROFESSOR  FRANK  R.  HALEY,  Acadia  College,  Wolfville, 
had  been  elected  associate-members. 

R.  W.  McLACHLAN,  ESQ.,  of  the  Numismatic  and  Antiquarian 
Society  of  Montreal,  read  a  paper  entitled  :  "  A  Talk  on  Roman  Coins," 
illustrated  by  a  number  of  specimens  belonging  co  the  lecturer. 

A.  H.  COOPER  PRICHAHD,  ESQ.,  numismatist,  exhibited  and 
described  a  series  of  Roman  coins  belonging  to  the  Provincial  Museum 
of  Nova  Scotia,  and  drew  attention  to  the  desirability  of  increasing 
the  coin  collection  of  that  institution. 

The  subject  was  further  discussed  by  the  PRESIDENT,  and  MESSRS. 
R.  R.  McLsoD  and  W.  L.  PAYZANT. 

On  motion  of  MR.  MCKERRON  and  REV.  R.  LAING,  a  vote  of  thanks 
was  presented  to  MR.  MCLACHLAN. 

PROC    &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  PROC.— J. 

(Ixxxiii) 


1XXX1V  PROCEEDINGS. 

ANNUAL    BUSINESS    MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,   9th  December,   1901. 
The  PRESIDENT,   DR.  A.  H.  MACKAY,  in  the  chair. 

PRESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS. — BY  A.  H.  MACKAY,  LL.  D.,  «tr. 

Gentlemen, — Since  our  last  annual  meeting  we  have  lost  some  of 
our  members.  It  is  a  tribute  to  the  constitution  of  things  which  every 
human  organization  lias  to  pay. 

OBITUARIES. 

On  the  5th  of  March,  Dr.  James  Ratchforcl  DeWolfe,  who  was  a 
member  from  the  first  session  of  the  Institute  in  1863,  and  who  bore 
his  share  in  its  administration  as  an  officer,  died  in  his  82nd  year. 
He  was  the  son  of  the  Hon.  T.  A.  S.  DeWolfe,  at  one  time  a  member 
of  the  Lord  Falkland  administration  of  the  Province.  He  graduated 
from  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  came  to  Halifax  in  the  year 
1845.  In  1857  he  left  a  very  lucrative  practice  to  take  charge  as  its 
first  Superintendent  of  the  Provincial  Hospital  for  the  Insane.  Under 
his  directing  genius  the  institution  took  rank  as  one  of  the  best 
administered  of  its  class.  While  fulfilling  all  the  duties  of  a  leading 
citizen  for  so  many  years,  he  was  always  a  staunch  friend  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Science,  in  which  he  took  an  interest  from  its  institution  to 
his  death.  Not  being  able  to  be  present  at  one  of  our  meetings  not 
very  long  ago  in  which  the  subject  of  ventilation  of  public  buildings 
was  being  discussed,  he  supplemented  the  report  of  the  discussion 
reported  in  the  morning  papers  by  a  full  and  ably  presented  discussion 
of  some  points  which  he  had  demonstrated  in  his  own  experience, 
which  he  sent  me  for  consideration,  with  special  reference  to  the  ven- 
tilation requirements  of  the  Provincial  Normal  School.  In  him  we 
have  lost  the  last  member  on  our  list  who  joined  the  Institute  during 
its  first  year. 

Captain  William  Henry  Smith,  R.  N.  R.,  F.  R.  G.  S.,  who  was  a 
member  from  the  year  1889,  died  on  the  fifth  of  May,  in  the  sixty- 
fourth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  born  in  Kent,  England,  was  educated 
at  Canterbury  and  Greenwich,  entered  the  Allan  steamship  service 
during  the  Crimean  War,  and  was  present  at  some  of  the  engagements, 


PRESIDENT'S   ADDRESS.  Ixxxv 

and  afterwards  successfully  commanded  the  Allan  steamers,  St.  Geo  ye, 
Hibernian,  Circasian,  Peruvian,  Sardinian  and  Parisian,  and  suc- 
ceeded Captain  Wylie  as  Commodore  of  the  Allan  fleet.  He  was 
appointed  a  lieutenant  in  the  Royal  Naval  Reserve  in  1867,  and  on 
leaving  the  steamship  service  was  made  Ch airman  of  the  Board  of 
Examiners  of  Masters  and  Mates,  Commissioner  for  enquiring  into 
wrecks,  and  one  of  the  nautical  advisers  to  the  Government  of  Canada. 
He  compiled  some  valuable  nautical  distance  tables,  and  was  a  valu- 
able contributer  to  the  press  on  nautical  matters  of  public  import- 
ance. 

Rev.  Moses  Harvey,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  G.  S.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  who  was  a 
corresponding  member  of  this  Institute  since  1890,  died  on  the  third 
of  September,  eighty-one  years  of  age.  He  was  born  at  Armagh, 
Ireland,  educated  at  the  Royal  College,  Belfast,  and  came  to  New- 
foundland in  1852,  and  was  for  26  years  pastor  of  St.  Andrew's 
Church  in  St.  John's.  In  1878  he  retired  from  the  ministry  for  the 
greater  leisure  of  literary  and  scientific  work,  in  which  he  became  the 
most  distinguished  representative  of  that  island.  Apart  from  his 
published  works,  he  contributed  since  1869  a  large  number  of  articles 
and  sketches  on  the  resources  of  Newfoundland,  to  the  leading  news- 
papers and  magazines  of  Britain,  Canada,  and  the  United  States — 
sufficient  to  make  many  volumes.  The  best  known  of  his  published 
works  are,  "The  Characteristics  of  the  Present  Age,"  "  Thoughts  on 
the  Poetry  and  Literature  of  the  Bible,"  "The  Testimony  of  Nineveh 
to  the  Veracity  of  the  Bible,"  "  Lectures  on  the  Harmony  of  Science 
and  Revelation,"  "  Lectures  on  Egypt  and  its  Monuments,"  "  Lectures 
Literary  and  Biographical,"  "Cormack's  Journey  Across  Newfound- 
land," "Across  Newfoundland  with  the  Governor,"  "Newfoundland 
the  Oldest  British  Colony,"  "  Text  Book  of  Newfoundland  History," 
"Where  Are  We  and  Whither  Tending,"  "  Newfoundland  as  it  is  in 
1894,"  "A  Handbook  and  Tourist's  Guide,"  " Newfoundland  in  the 
Jubilee  Year."  He  also  prepared  the  descriptive  and  statistical  arti- 
cles on  Newfoundland  in  the  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica "  and  in 
"Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopedia."  He  was  the  discoverer  and  first 
describer  of  that  gigantic  "  devil-fish  "  which  was  called  after  him  by 
Professor  Verrill  Archilenthus  Hnrveyi. 


Ixxxvi  PROCEEDINGS. 

WORK. 

We  have  also  lost  the  presence  of  Professor  James  Gordon 
MacGregor  from  our  midst  by  his  translation  from  the  University  of 
Dalhousie  College  to  the  Professorship  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh.  He  has  been  a  member  of  this  Institute 
from  the  year  1877,  since  which  time  he  has  served  in  all  of  the  most 
important  offices  with  a  vigor  which  has  transformed  the  institution 
in  many  respects.  Not  only  did  he  furnish  many  valuable  papers  for 
our  Transactions,  but  he  prepared  students  who,  during  the  last  few 
years,  added  most  important  records  of  original  scientific  research  to 
our  list  of  valuable  papers.  And  not  only  did  he  do  these  things,  but 
he  spent  yearly  a  great  deal  of  time  in  developing  our  foreign 
exchanges  and  laying  the  foundation  of  our  present  Provincial  Scien- 
tific Library.  Although  not  likely  to  be  with  us  at  our  meetings, 
Professor  MacGregor  has  put  too  mnch  of  himself  into  our  Institute 
not  to  continue  to  be  interested  in  its  progress,  and  disposed  to  work 
with  us  still.  The  banquet  tendered  him  on  his  departure  for  the 
"  motherland  "  by  this  Institute,  combined  with  the  University  of 
Dalhousie,  was  a  public  testimony  to  his  services,  and  I  am  glad  that 
the  Council  has  added  another  small  testimony  in  unanimously  electing 
him  to  life  membership,  which  we  trust  may  be  a  very  long  member- 
ship. 

At  our  regular  meetings  during  the  year  quite  a  variety  of 
subjects  was  discussed,  the  more  valuable  papers  of  which  will  soon 
appear  in  the  volume  of  the  Proceedings  and  Transactions.  Mr.  Poole 
described  the  new  Calyx  Drill;  and  exhibited  specimens  of  the  great 
cores  of  rock  cut  out  by  it,  and  at  a  subsequent  meeting  presented  for 
examination  a  transverse  section  of  Stigmaria,  showing  the  cellular 
structure  of  its  central  vascular  bundles  with  extraordinary  distinct- 
ness. The  excellence  of  the  preservation  of  this  structure  makes  its 
description  a  valuable  one  for  the  palaeontologist.  Mr.  Prest  utilized 
his  expedition  to  the  Labrador  coast  by  giving  us  a  vivid  picture  of 
his  observations  on  Drift  Ice  as  an  Eroding  and  Transporting  Geologi- 
cal Agent.  Mr.  Weatherbe  demonstrated  the  latest  explorations  in 
the  Torbrook  Iron  District.  Mr.  Fletcher  discussed  the  nomenclature 
of  our  geological  formations,  taking  in  the  New  Glasgow  Conglomer- 
ates this  time — one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  series  on  the  histor- 


PRESIDENT'S   ADDEESS.  Ixxxvii 

ical  development  of  the  geological  exploration  of  the  Province.  Dr. 
Ami,  who  would  add  still  further  terms  to  this  changing  nomenclature, 
described  the  fossil  tracks  of  an  "  Eo- Devonian  "  fish  found  in  the 
fine-grained  silicious  sandstones  of  the  Knoydart  formation  in  Anti- 
gonish.  Professor  Haycock  closed  up  the  series  of  geological  papers 
by  a  picturesque  description  of  the  geological  history  of  the  Gaspereaux 
Valley,  and  by  the  exhibition  of  fossils — probably  Triassic — in  glaci- 
ated fragments  of  rock  in  the  Boulder  Clay  of  King's  County 

Dr.  Magee  represented  the  science  of  chemistry  in  a  graphic  sketch 
of  the  rare  earths  and  their  importance  in  reference  to  the  Periodic 
Law,  a  feat  which  was  made  easy  by  his  research  work  in  this  depart- 
ment for  some  years.  Professor  Smith  followed  the  science  into  its 
industrial  applications  in  the  rotation  of  leguminous  crops,  and  the 
preservation  and  use  of  turnip  tops.  Mr.  Bishop  led  into  the  field  of 
zoology,  exhibiting  and  describing  the  habits  of  the  star-nosed  mole 
and  its  young,  and  on  another  occasion  showing  his  fine  collection  of 
Nova  Scotian  birds'  eggs.  Mr.  Doane  led  us  into  the  region  of  meteor- 
ology in  his  Notes  on  Rainfall,  and  I  presented,  as  usual,  my  annual 
compilation  of  phenological  observations  made  in  the  schools  of  the 
Province. 

PROVINCIAL    MUSEUM. 

During  the  year,  the  Provincial  Museum,  which  although  always 
the  ward  of  the  Government  has  always  been  considered  to  be  the 
child  of  the  Institute  of  Science,  has  been  very  extensively  improved 
by  the  incessant  and  intelligent  labor  of  its  curator,  Mr.  Harry  Piers. 
While  it  is  being  rapidly  made  more  representative  of  the  natural  and 
industrial  history  of  the  Province  by  the  introduction  of  new  material, 
a  great  deal  has  been  accomplished  by  the  arrangement,  accurate 
determination,  and  comprehensive  but  distinct  labelling  of  the  old 
material ;  so  that  now  it  is  becoming  not  only  of  more  value  to  those 
wishing  to  gain  an  idea  of  the  productions  of  the  country,  but  to  the 
scientific  student.  The  curator  is  not  a  man  who  merely  attends 
during  the  hours  the  Museum  is  open  to  the  public.  He  is  always 
working,  and  when  the  doors  are  closed  he  works  most.  In  no 
other  way  could  the  vast  amount  of  work  done  during  the  past  year 
have  been  accomplished. 

The  collections  of  coins  in  the  Museum,  many  of  which  were 
neither  specifically  determined  or  generally  classified,  came  under  the 


Ixxxviii  PROCEEDINGS. 

notice,  ]ast  year,  of  Mr.  A.  H.  Cooper  Prichard,  a  numismatic  expert 
for  some  time  engaged  in  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  and  who 
prepared,  under  the  direction  of  the  Treasury  Department  of  Jamaica, 
the  coin  collection  exhibited  at  the  Jamaica  Exhibition  of  1891.  On 
returning  to  the  Province  this  summer,  after  a  study '  extending  over 
some  months,  he  at  length  completed  his  determinations  of  the  various 
coins  which  are  now  properly  and  minutely  catalogued.  Mr.  Prichard 
undertook  this  work  as  a  labor  of  love,  no  doubt  also  interested  in 
many  of  the  curious  mementoes  of  antiquity  turning  up.  And  it  is 
fortunate  for  us,  for  I  fear  we  could  not  well  afford  to  pay  the  cost  of 
Mr.  Prichard's  very  thorough  work.  I  am  glad,  however,  to  be  able 
to  intimate  that  the  Council  has  just  elected  him  to  corresponding 
membership  in  the  Institute  as  a  token  of  our  appreciation  of  his 
valuable  services,  and  that  he  has  graciously  accepted  the  distinction. 

SCIENTIFIC    LIBRARY. 

On  the  flat  above  the  Museum  we  have  our  new  Provincial  Scien- 
tific Library,  also  under  the  charge  of  Mr.  Piers,  who  deals  with  it  as 
a  part  of  the  Museum.  This  composite  collection  of  publications,  the 
great  nucleus  of  which  is  the  original  library  of  this  Institute,  has 
already  been  reduced  to  order.  The  Government  has  added  to  it 
modern  works  of  science,  both  elementary  and  advanced,  such  books 
as  are  absolutely  necessary  in  such  a  library,  to  the  value  of  $500  ; 
and  we  have  reason  to  hope  that  this  intelligent  appreciation  of  the 
necessity  of  stimulating  the  scientific  development  of  the  thought  and 
industries  of  the  Province  will  continue  to  be  shown  by  a  Government 
which  has  done  so  much  to  make  a  start  in  a  line  deemed  now  so 
essential  by  every  progressive  country 

PROVINCIAL    PROGRESS. 

While  at  headquarters  the  growth  of  our  scientific  equipment  is 
satisfactory,  the  development  of  the  Scientific  spirit  appears  also  to  be 
accelerating  throughout  the  Province.  Under  the  stimulating  influ- 
ence of  Professor  Haycock  a  branch  or  affiliated  organization  has  been 
instituted  at  Wolfville,  which  is  thus  making  a  bid  for  the  second  place 
as  a  scientific  centre  in  the  Province.  While  the  access  to  the  library 
of  the  Institute  and  to  publication  in  our  Proceedings  and  Transactions 
will  be  of  some  value  to  the  local  institucion,  it  will  also  tend  to 


PRESIDENT'S   ADDRESS.  Ixxxix 

develop  scientific  workers  eventually  for  the  central  institution  and 
thus  benefit  both. 

In  Halifax  the  organization  of  the  Halifax  Botanical  Club  last 
summer,  under  the  presidency  of  Mr.-  Waddell,  is  another  and  similar 
sign  of  the  times. 

Throughout  the  province  several  of  our  county  academies  or  high 
schools  have  now  better  laboratories  for  proper  science  teaching  than 
had  our  best  colleges  not  many  years  ago  ;  and  some  of  the  teachers 
are  more  competent  than  many  of  the  good  old  college  professors. 
But  the  Government  has  not  allowed  the  country  to  lead  in  this  line 
of  our  education ;  for  laboratories  have  just  been  completed  for  the 
Provincial  Normal  School  which  are  not  equalled  by  those  of  any  insti- 
tution in  the  Atlantic  Provinces  of  Canada.  We  should  soon  begin 
to  see  signs  of  useful  results  from  these  practical  beginnings.  With 
laboratory  extension  in  the  high  schools  we  are  now  commencing  to 
foster  manual  training  in  the  common  schools  ;  so  that  it  is  hoped  our 
future  students  may  have  not  only  their  minds,  but  their  hands 
directed  in  the  school  room  to  the  personal  and  public  advantages  of 
intelligent  industrial  labor,  as  well  as  to  the  at  present  overcrowded, 
less  important,  less  honorable,  once-called  learned  professions. 

But  while  the  great  majority  of  people  can  understand  the  advan- 
tage of  the  scientific  study  of  the  principles  immediately  underlying 
the  occupations  which  constitute  the  industrial  force  of  the  country, 
they  are  not  far-sighted  enough  to  see  why  we  should  cultivate  the 
sciences  generally — the  sciences  which  at  present  appear  to  be  unpro- 
ductive. Pardon  a  concluding  word  on  this  point. 

I  think  of  science  as  the  application  of  common  sense  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  facts  or  truth  of  things  around  us,  and  the  arrangement 
of  this  knowledge  in  some  system  which  enables  us  to  hold  them  in 
mind  in  their  true  relations.  Science,  therefore,  in  so  far  as  it  ap- 
proaches truth  arid  completeness  in  agriculture,  enables  us  to  do  what 
will  give  us  the  best  crops  at  the  least  expense ;  in  mining  to  do  what 
will  lead  us  most  directly  to  the  valuable  ore  and  enable  us  to  raise  it 
at  the  least  expense ;  metallurgy,  to  reduce  the  metal  from  the  ore 
most  economically  ;  in  medicine,  to  touch  the  hidden  cause  of  disease 
and  remove  it ;  in  manufacture,  to  improve  the  product  or  to  reduce 
the  expense  of  production  ;  in  transportation,  to  save  another  minute 
of  time  or  another  cent  per  ton  of  freight  ;  and  so  on  through  the 


XC  PROCEEDINGS. 

whole  range  of  human  industry.  That  is  the  kind  of  science  in  which 
the  whole  intelligent  world  believes  in  without  dissent.  It  is  the 
ancient  Egyptian  cult  of  utility  as  opposed  to  the  ancient  Grecian  cult 
of  truth  for  truth's  sake. 

I  would  say  a  word,  not  against  the  Egyptian  philosophy  which 
with  the  world  I  approve ;  but  in  favor  of  the  Grecian  ideal,  not  sim- 
ply on  account  of  the  higher  order  of  character  and  of  pleasure  created 
by  it,  but  on  account  of  its  ultimate  utility  in  making  the  develop- 
ment of  the  industrial  sciences  possible. 

The  constitution  of  things  is  so  very  unlike  our  elementary  con- 
ceptions of  the  world  even  after  we  are  some  years  in  investigating  it, 
that  the  most  pious  theologian  as  well  as  the  neglected  street  Arab, 
without  a  single  exception,  becomes  a  sceptic  with  respect  to  his  infan- 
tile philosophy.  The  fairios  have  taken  wing  and  disappeared  for 
ever,  and  Santa  Glaus  with  his  marvelous  powers  over  space  arid  time 
and  the  universal  laws  of  physics  which  chain  puny  men  and  boys  to 
the  ground  and  the  dull  prose  of  fact,  drops  out  of  the  gorgeous  cloud 
of  poetry  and  shrivels  up  at  last  to  a  benevolent  old  man  also  chained 
to  the  ground. 

Now,  many  people  continue  to  learn  more  after  the  infantile  stage 
has  been  passed ;  but  much  of  what  they  learned  had  been  discovered 
and  pointed  out  to  the  world  by  a  few  others.  And  when  all  that 
has  been  discovered  is  known,  we  shall  feel  that  the  world  is  wider 
and  fuller  than  ever  we  thought  it  before.  We  cannot  resist  the  con- 
viction that  there  is  a  great  deal  more  to  be  known  than  we  thought 
when  we  knew  less.  And  the  new  things  are  so  unlike  what  we  were 
expecting  from  what  we  had  previously  learned,  that  we  were  looking 
for  something  else  when  we  tripped  upon  the  new. 

Now  the  man  who  is  roaming  through  the  universe  searching  for 
truth  wherever  it  may  appear,  just  because  he  enjoys  such  an  exercise, 
will  some  day  fall  upon  some  new  thing,  it  may  be  gold,  coal,  or  a 
cocoa-nut,  which  those  digging  in  the  potato  field  for  the  hundredth 
time  can  never  get,  no  matter  how  they  may  long  for  it.  Truths 
picked  up  in  the  simple  search  for  truth,  arranged  and  recorded  so 
that  they  are  always  henceforward  accessible  when  their  complements 
are  found,  may  for  years,  even  centuries  be  unproductive.  The  dis- 
covery of  just  one  point  more  may  complete  the  solution  of  an  old 
industrial  problem,  or  reveal  a  new  power  over  nature. 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS.  XC1 

MALARIA    OBJECT    LESSON. 

As  an  illustration,  let  me  follow  out  my  example  of  last  year,  the 
history  of  the  cause  and  prevention  of  malaria.  No  single  man  made 
this  discovery.  Laveran  in  1880  discovered  the  minute  Haemamoeba 
in  the  malarial  human  blood  corpuscles.  But  five  years  more  of  work 
by  others  merely  proved  the  truth  of  Laveran's  discovery.  Nothing 
was  done  for  the  business  men,  the  soldiers,  the  missionaries,  going 
into  malarial  regions  of  the  world,  nothing  was  done  for  the  millions 
of  natives  having  their  life  sapped  by  the  mysterious  affliction.  They 
were  suffocating  themselves  at  night  by  keeping  out  the  cool  healthful 
night  air,  while  they  allowed  the  sneaking  Anopheles  to  snipe  them 
without  serious  protest.  In  the  meantime  Danelewsky  found  that  the 
birds  had  their  blood  corpuscles  affected  in  many  cases  by  a  somewhat 
similar  organism  which  he  called  a  Proteosoma.  The  bloods  of  all 
animals  were  now  being  searched,  even  the  blood  of  lizards  and  snakes, 
but  the  malaria  still  went  on  from  1885  up  to  1895.  A  tremendous 
amount  of  truth  about  a  great  number  of  animals  was  being  discov- 
ered, but  nothing  productive.  Major  Ross  got  at  length  to  work,  but 
still  there  was  nothing  productive.  Noticing  Danelewsky's  discovery 
of  the  Proteosoma  in  the  blood  of  birds,  he  caused  mosquitoes  hatched 
safe  and  sound  from  eggs  to  feed  upon  birds,  the  Blue  Jay  bearing  his 
share  of  it,  which  had  the  Proteosoma  in  its  blood.  The  mosquitoes 
became  infected.  These  mosquitoes  infected  sound  birds.  Now  in 
1898,  the  mosquito  was  falling  under  deeper  suspicion.  The  mos- 
quitoes would  not  be  affected  by  sucking  the  malarial  blcod  from  a 
sick  human  patient,  however.  Nobody  ever  thought  that  one  species 
of  mosquito  was  likely  to  be  more  dangerous  than  another.  Why 
should  they  ?  But  the  experiments  went  on  with  all  the  different 
species  which  could  be  found,  for  was  it  not  already  proven  that  Culex 
could  infect  the  Blue  Jay  with  Proteosoma — a  bird  malaria.  At  last 
species  of  the  genius  Anopheles  were  found  to  be  capable  of  being 
infected  by  sucking  malarial  human  blood.  Next  in  1899  it  was 
rapidly  proven  by  Ross  and  the  leading  scientists  of  other  countries, 
that  persons  might  sleep  in  the  most  malarial  district  open  to  the 
night  air  if  the  mosquito  netting  guarding  the  room  remained  intact ; 
and  if  a  person  were  in  a  mountain  sanitarium  and  be  but  bitten  by 
an  infected  Anopheles  he  would  be  soon  down  with  the  malaria. 


XCli  PROCEEDINGS. 

Now  came  the  day  of  glory  for  the  fly-catcher  who  with  his  net 
used  to  frequent  the  town  pump,  a  harmless  man  supposed  to  have  a 
bse  in  his  bonnet  as  well  as  a  mosquito  in  his  net.  But  from  over  all 
the  world  except  Nova  Scotia  and  some  other  provinces,  these  fly- 
catchers reported  the  species  native  to  the  country,  so  that  the  malar- 
ial regions  of  the  world  were  soon  proven  to  be  coterminous  with  the 
range  of  certain  species.  The  unproductive  knowledge  which  had  been 
growing  for  twenty  years  and  more,  now  suddenly  became  productive 
with  a  fruition  of  life  and  health  and  wealth  to  the  world. 

But  the  end  of  the  work  of  these  for-so-many-years  unproductive 
toilers  with  the  microscope  and  the  insignificant  flies  did  not  yet  cease. 
A  species  of  Culex,  harmless  from  a  malarial  point  of  view,  has  been 
proven  only  this  year  to  have  been  the  unsuspected,  but  sneaking  and 
most  gigantic  murder  of  tropical  America.  As  Danelewsky's  discovery 
could  not  ha.ve  been  made  without  Laveran's,  and  as  Ross'  discovery 
could  not  have  been  made  without  Danelewsky's,  so  Sternberg  and 
Reed's  could  not  have  been  made  without  Ross'. 

YELLOW    FEVER     OBJECT    LESSOX. 

Before  Laveran,  in  1 880,  demonstrated  the  presence  of  the  jelly- 
speck  parasite  in  malarial  blood,  the  blood  of  the  victim  of  the  terrible 
Yellow  Fever  plague  was  being  examined  ;  but  the  microscope  was 
able  to  show  nothing  which  could  be  proved  to  be  the  cause  of  the 
disease.  From  the  range  of  the  fever  and  its  retreat  before  cold 
weather,  some  species  of  musquito  were  suspected,  and  were  experi- 
mented with  ;  but  the  result  for  over  twenty  years  was  still  negative. 
Dr.  Carlos  Finlay,  in  Havana,  from  1881  to  1893,  had  no  less  than 
eighty-eight  human  subjects  bitten  by  mosquitoes  which  had  fed  a  few 
days  previously  on  Yellow  Fever  patients  from  the  second  to  the  sixth 
day  of  the  disease.  But  the  results  were  so  doubtf  nl  as  to  be  negative, 
for  only  one  case  developed  into  a  slight  attack,  while  thirteen  were 
attacks  of  acclimatization  fever,  generally  at  too  long  and  irregular 
intervals  to  be  deemed  due  to  the  inoculation.  We  now  know  why 
Finlay  came  within  an  ace  of  the  discovery,  but  was  still  so  far  from 
it.  There  was  a  peculiarity  in  the  facts  which  he  never  suspected,  for 
it  was  not  suggested  by  the  cognate  previous  discoveries.  Nature  does 
not  work  in  accordance  with  our  preconceptions.  It  has  its  own 
habits,  which  we  must  discover,  and  we  may  guess  a  thousand  times 


I'KKSI  DENTS     ADDRESS.  XC111 

before  we  hit  the  truth.  Dr.  Daniel  Ruiz,  in  the  presence  of  Dr. 
Sternberg,  who  is  now  Surgeon-General  of  the  United  States  Army,  in 
the  year  1887  injected  blood  from  the  vein  of  a  Yellow  Fever  patient 
into  a  healthy  individual  to  prove  whether  the  germ  was  in  the  blood  ; 
but  even  that  experiment  was  negative — the  germs  in  the  eighth  day 
being  destroyed  in  the  course  of  the  disease.  Still,  it  did  not  appear 
to  be  an  infection  carried  in  the  air,  for  non-immune  nurses  and  others 
were  very  often  not  attacked.  And  the  results  of  the  malarial  demon- 
strations of  1899  stirred  up  the  Havana  Commission  anew  under  the 
general  direction  of  Sternberg  and  the  local  management  of  Dr.  Reed 
and  his  staff. 

Last  year  Dr.  Jesse  W.  Lazear  and  Dr.  James  Carroll,  two 
members  of  the  Commission,  allowed  themselves  to  be  bitten  by 
mosquitoes  fed  on  a  case  in  its  early  stage.  Dr.  Carroll  was  promptly 
taken  down  within  the  incubation  period  of  five  days,  and  Dr.  Lazear, 
who  was  at  first  bitten  by  the  mosquito  within  ten  days  of  its  feeding, 
was  not  affected.  But  on  the  12th  of  September  last  year,  about  a 
month  after  the  first  experiment,  he  allowed  a  mosquito  to  fill  itself 
from  his  hand — one  which  had  been  fed  on  a  patient  about  a  fortnight 
before,  presumably.  Within  five  days,  on  the  18th  of  September,  he 
took  ill,  and  on  the  25th  was  dead.  Nine  other  individuals  voluntarily 
allowed  themselves  to  be  experimented  upon.  In  those  cases  when  the 
mosquito  had  bitten  within  eight  days  of  their  feeding  there  was  no 
result.  The  cases  of  infection  occurred  when  the  mosquitoes  had  bitten 
more  than  twelve  days  after  the  feeding  on  the  Yellow  Fever  patient. 
Thus  dawned  the  light  of  the  facts  on  the  Commission.  Culex  fasciatus 
when  fed  on  the  blood  of  a  Yellow  Fever  patient  during  the  first  few 
days  of  the  disease  did  not  become  capable  of  infecting  a  human  subject 
until  after  twelve  days,  or  more  if  the  weather  was  not  very  warm. 

Now  arose  the  question  :  Is  this  the  only  manner  in  which  this 
plague  is  spread  ?  When  infected  ships  have  to  remain  in  quarantine, 
and  all  clothes  and  fabrics  have  to  be  burned  or  steamed,  when  patrols 
with  shot  guns  surround  quarantined  towns  to  prevent  people  flying 
to  other  places,  when  the  tremendous  expense  of  quarantine,  delay  and 
destructive  disinfection  is  being  endured,  is  it  of  any  use  when  the 
mosquito  is  allowed  to  fiy  past  the  shot  gun  of  the  sentry,  and  past 
the  cauldron  of  tho  disinfector,  while  the  insignificant  gnat  is  not  even 


xciv  PEOCEEDINGS. 

challenged  1  To  settle  this  question,  the  Commission  formed  an  exten- 
sive camp  in  Cuba,  not  very  far  from  Havana,  called  after  their  first 
martyr  for  the  cause  of  science — which  is  the  cause  of  humanity — 
Camp  Lazear.  Special  buildings  were  put  up  for  various  purposes,  and 
the  strictest  regulations  were  enforced,  with  every  action  tested  and 
recorded. 

On  the  30th  of  last  November,  three  men  who  never  had  Yellow 
Fever  agreed  to  go  into  one  of  the  little  cottages,  which  was  furnished 
with  doors  and  windows  perfectly  protected  from  mosquitoes  by  a  fine 
wire  netting  or  gauze,  every  night  to  sleep,  for  twenty  nights.  During 
the  day  they  remained  in  their  own  quarantined  tent  near  by.  In 
this  cottage,  which  was  kept  up  to  tropical  heat,  were  the  clothes  and 
bedding  taken,  soiled,  from  beds  of  Yellow  Fever  patients.  These 
clothes  they  packed  away  in  the  morning  and  opened  out  at  night,  and 
slept  in.  On  the  1 9th  of  December  they  came  out  all  right,  and  after 
quarantine  for  five  days  were  allowed  to  go  at  large,  while  another  set, 
consisisting  of  two  volunteers,  tried  the  experiment  for  the  next 
twenty  days,  and  still  another  set  for  the  next  twenty  days,  from 
January  llth  last  to  the  31st.  These  volunteers  excelled  in  their 
attempts  to  take  Yellow  Fever  from  soiled  clothing  within  their  net- 
protected  cottage.  Boxes  of  filthy  clothing,  stained  with  blood  and 
vomit  from  the  Yellow  Fever  hospitals,  were  opened  up  within  the 
room,  sometimes  causing  such  a  stench  that  they  had  to  retire  tempo- 
rarily when  opening  the  boxes.  Here  they  slept  for  twenty  nights,  in 
the  very  clothing  of  those  who  had  died  from  the  fever.  But  no  fever 
was  taken  during  these  sixty  days  by  these  five  noble  volunteers.  This 
would  appear  to  demonstrate  that  the  mode  of  quarantining  should  be 
adjusted  to  the  specific  nature  of  each  kind  of  disease.  What  may  be 
necessary  for  small-pox  may  be  altogether  unnecessary  for  other 
diseases.  Millions  of  dollars  have  been  spent  on  quararanting  Yellow 
Fever  which  had  little  more  virtue  than  the  incantations  of  the  old 
red  Indian  medicine-men ;  while  the  real  cause  was  practically  allowed 
to  be  limited  by  nature,  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  the  medicine-men. 

But  in  the  camp  at  Lazear,  in  another  cottage,  other  experiments 
were  being  conducted  by  heroes  as  great  as  war  or  missionary  zeal 
ever  produced.  A  cottage  was  divided  in  two  by  a  mosquito-proof 
netting — each  half  alike.  Volunteers  sleep  in  each.  But  in  the  one 


PRESIDENT  S    ADDRESS.  XCV 

apartment  a  few  mosquitoes  which,  twenty  days  ago,  fed  on  a  new 
case  of  fever,  were  set  free.  In  the  other  apartment  was  put  clothing 
soiled  by  Yellow  Fever  patients.  On  the  21st  of  last  December  the 
volunteers  entered  upon  their  strange  preparation  for  Christmas.  On 
Christinas  day,  three  days  and  twenty-three  hours  after  being  first 
bitten,  John  J.  Moren  took  ill  with  the  fever,  of  which  in  due  time  he 
recovered.  Out  of  seven  who  attempted  to  be  infected  by  mosquitoes, 
only  one  escaped.  Of  the  seven  who  were  attempted  to  be  infected  by 
the  Yellow  Fever  filth  in  the  other  half,  all  escaped. 

The  result  of  all  this  was  that  the  regulations  for  the  treatment  of 
Yellow  Fever  epidemics  had  to  undergo  a  complete  revolution,  with 
the  most  satisfactory  results.  It  is  not  found  necessary  to  destroy  all 
the  mosquitoes  of  the  species  Culax  fasciatus,  which  is  the  species  so 
far  found  to  be  capable  of  infection.  It  serves  the  same  purpose  to 
prevent  any  mosquito  from  infection  by  touching  a  fever  patient — a 
regulation  which  must  be  as  agreeable  to  the  patient  as  it  is  useful  to 
the  public. 

SHEEP-FLUKE    OBJECT    LESSON. 

But  the  mosquito  is  not  the  only  dangerous  carrier  of  disease. 
Any  fly  may  carry  the  germs  of  disease  by  simple  contact.  Some  of 
them  may  carry  special  diseases  within  their  bodies,  as  in  the  cases 
discussed.  It  took  a  long  time  before  the  cause  of  the  spread  of  the 
Texas  Cattle  Fever  was  discovered  to  be  by  infected  ticks.  But  as 
soon  as  the  discovery  was  made,  the  control  of  the  disease  was  assured. 

Some  of  the  histories  of  disease  carriers  are  most  complicated. 
And  I  hope  you  will  pardon  me  for  the  reference  to  one  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  value  which  may  eventually  come  from  our  exploring 
all  the  corners  of  our  country  for  the  insignificant  animals  and  plants 
found  on  the  earth  or  in  the  water, — such  work  as  some  members  of 
such  societies  as  ours  are  always  doing,  without  any  immediate  indus- 
trial or  significant  results. 

In  Britain  the  sheep  in  some  localities  began  to  die  in  hundreds, 
and  on  post  mortem  examination  their  livers  were  found  to  be  filled 
with  a  parasitic  animal  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  long,  somewhat 
flat  and  leaf-like.  It  is  known  as  the  Liver  Fluke  or  the  "  Liver-rot." 
I  shall  briefly  sketch  its  life  history,  which  illustrates  my  point.  One 
fluke  produces  about  half  a  million  of  eggs  which  are  expelled  from  the 


XCvi  PROCEEDINGS. 

liver  through  the  bile  duct  into  the  intestines,  whence  they  ultimately 
reach  the  ground.  The  eggs  would  all  die  if  they  did  not  fall  upon 
the  earth  during  cold  weather,  when  at  the  end  of  two  or  three  weeks 
they  may  be  found  as  minute  ciliated  specks  swimming  in  the  water 
of  pools  or  rain  puddles.  These  all  die  in  ten  hours  if  they  do  not 
find  a  certain  species  of  water  snail,  Limncea  truncatula.  Those  which 
find  the  snail  stick  to  it,  burrow  into  it,  and  soon  become  enc)rsted  in 
a  small  round  cell.  After  some  time  it  grows  and  changes  into  a 
minute  somewhat  worm-like  shape,  bores  through  the  cyst  wall  and 
enters  the  liver  of  the  snail.  It  is  now  called  a  Redia,  and  it  produces 
a  number  of  offspring  with  a  large  head  and  slender  tail  called  Cer- 
carise  which  escape  into  the  water  of  the  pond.  They  finally  swim  to 
land  and  climb  up  grass  blades  where  they  become  encysted.  They 
die  here  in  a  short  time  unless  a  sheep  comes  along  and  swallows  the 
Cercaria  with  the  grass.  From  the  stomach  of  the  sheep  it  enters  the 
liver  by  the  bile  duct,  thus  producing  the  disease  from  which  the  sheep 
dies.  The  same  animal  appears  in  many  different  forms.  First  the 
parasite  embedded  in  the  liver  ;  second,  the  ciliated  microscopic  pin- 
head  swimming  in  the  water  ;  third,  the  cyst  in  the  muscle  of  the 
snail  ;  fourth,  numerous  Redire  migrating  to  the  liver  of  the  snail ; 
fifth,  numerous  Cercarise  migrating  from  the  liver  of  the  snail  into  the 
water  ;  sixth,  the  swimming  Cercariie  climbing  the  grass  blades  and 
becoming  encysted,  covered  with  a  tough  skin  making  them  look 
like  seed  or  scale  stuck  on  the  blade.  Let  the  season  be  hot  and  dry 
at  the  critical  stage  and  the  Liver-rot  becomes  extinct  for  the  season. 
In  a  few  years  if  the  climate  is  suitable  they  may  become  numerous 
again.  But  if  the  water  in  the  sheep's  pasturage  should  be  kept  clear 
of  the  said  species  of  snail,  no  condition  of  climate  could  keep  the 
plague  in  existence.  The  extirpation  of  the  snail  is  no  easy  matter, 
and  the  Fluke  is  more  destructive  to  sheep  in  Great  Britain  than  the 
Boer  war  is  to  the  sheep  in  Africa — at  least  a  million  per  annum 
dying  from  this  cause. 

MARINE     BIOLOGICAL    STATION. 

We  have  been  favored  this  year  with  the  Marine  Biological  Station 
of  Canada  at  Can  so.  There,  several  of  the  scientists  of  Central  Can- 
ada were  studying  the  inhabitants  of  our  neighboring  sea  water,  etc., 
a  knowledge  of  which  will  very  soon  be  essential  in  order  to  preserve 
some  of  our  fisheries.  The  duties  of  my  office  have  been  so  engross- 


TREASURERS     REPORT.  XCV11 

ing  that  although  one  of  the  directors,  I  was  not  able  to  visit  the 
station  before  its  close.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  we  had  no  Nova 
Scotian  student  taking  advantage  of  such  a  grand  opportunity  this 
season.  I  hope  that  if  the  station  is  with  us  next  summer  there  may 
l)e  some  of  us  able  to  take  advantage  of  the  great  opportunity  to  study 
effectively  at  least  some  small  portion  of  the  unknown  flora  and  fauna 
of  our  land  and  water. 

Whatever  work  we  do  can  be  recorded  in  our  Transactions  which 
even  last  year  contained  information  deemed  valuable  to  scientific 
men  in  other  countries.  Our  exploration  work  although  proceeding 
at  a  very  slow  rate,  and  although  of  no  immediate  productive  value, 
is  building  up  the  root,  the  stem,  the  branches,  and  the  leaves  of  a 
tree  which  in  due  time  will  flower  and  fruit,  and  its  fruit  will  be  for 
the  healing  of  the  nation.  But  we  cannot  produce  the  fruit  directly. 
The  course  of  nature  is  to  begin  with  the  root  and  branches  without 
which  there  can  never  be  any  fruit. 

From  such  considerations,  I  hope  it  can  be  understood,  that  the 
cult  of  buying  the  truth  and  selling  it  not,  is  not  only  good  in  itself 
as  a  source  of  the  highest  pleasure,  but  that  it  is  also  essential  for  the 
development  of  that  utilitarian  science  which  results  immediately  in 
bread  and  material  power. 

The  TREASURER'S  report  was  presented,  and  having  been  audited 
and  found  correct,  was  received  and  adopted.  The  following  is  an 
analytical  statement  of  the  expenditure  for  1900-1901  : 

PUBLICATION-  OF  TRANSACTIONS  : — 
Vol.  X.,  Part  2,  (1899-1900) : 

Printing  and  binding $126  54 

Engravings 38  00 

$164  54 

Vol.  X  ,  Part  3,  (1900-1901) : 

Photograph  for  portrait  (Jones) $     1  00 

Engraving 3  38 

$    4  88 

$108  92 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  TRANSACTIONS  :— 
Vol.  X.,  Part  2: 

Wrappers,  receipt  forms,  wrapping  and  twine. ...  $  11  75 

Addressing  and  supervising  distribution 15  00 

Postage,  truckage,  porter,   freight,  boxes,  insur- 
ance, expressage 1819 

A  44  94 


Carried  forward  $213  86 


XCV111  PROCEEDINGS. 

Brought  J  or  ward $213  86 

LIBRARY  EXPENSES : 

Stamping  all  books  and  pamphlets  in  Library  ....  $  12  00 

Services,  Janitor  Dalhousie  College 5  00 

Expressage  on  books  received 1  72 

Truckage,  removal  of  books  from  Librarian's  office 

to  Provincial  Science  Library 1  00 

Insurance  on  Library 23  10 

$  42  82 

Calling  of  meetings 22  16 

Advertising 8  00 

Postage  (Secretary's  and  Librarian's) 7  47 

Post  Office  box . . " 4  00 

Miscellaneous  printing  (including  stationery) ....  4  25 

$302  56 

The  Report  on  the  Library  was  read  by  MR.  PIERS,  and  was 
received  and  adopted. 

PROFESSOR  E.  HAYCOCK  presented  a  report  from  the  Wolfville 
branch  of  the  Institute,  which  had  been  organized  on  May  28th,  1901, 
with  the  following  officers ;  President,  ERNEST  HAYCOCK  ;  Vice- 
President,  A.  Y.  PINEO,  ESQ.  ;  Secretary-Treasurer,  PROF.  EVERETT 
SAWYER.  It  was  decided  that  all  members  of  the  parent  society  who 
are  also  members  of  the  branch,  should  form  the  council.  Associate 
members  are  admitted  to  the  branch  on  approval,  and  for  an  annual 
fee  of  twenty-five  cents  to  help  cover  local  running  expenses. 

It  was  resolved  that  the  thanks  of  the  Institute  be  conveyed  to 
the  HON.  ROBERT  BOAK  and  His  WORSHIP  THE  MAYOR  for  their 
courtesy  in  granting  the  Society  the  use  of  the  Legislative  and  City 
Council  Chambers  as  places  of  meeting,  and  to  the  SECRETARY  OF  THE 
SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  for  continuing  to  admit  the  Institute  to 
the  privileges  of  the  Bureau  of  International  Exchanges. 

The  following  were  elected  officers  for  the  ensuing  year  (1901-1902): 

President.—  A.  H.  MACKAY,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  ex-officio  F.  R. 
M.  S. 

Vice- Presidents.  —  F.  W.  W.  DOANE,  ESQ.,  C.  E.,  and  HENRY  S.  PoOLE, 
ESQ.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  Assoc.  Roy.  Sch.  Mines. 

Treasurer.— W.  C.  SILVER,  ESQ. 

Corresponding  Secretary. —PROF,  E.  MAcKAY,  PH.  D. 

Recording  Secretary.— HARR\  PIERS,  ESQ. 

Librarian.— M.  BOWMAN,  ESQ.,  B.  A. 

Councillors  -without  Office.— ALEXANDER  McKAY,  ESQ.,  EDWIN  GILPIN, 
JR.,  ESQ.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  MARTIN  MURPHY,  ESQ.,  D.  Sc., 
H.  H.  READ,  ESQ.,  M.  D.,  WATSON  L.  BISHOP,  ESQ.,  RODERICK 
MCCOLL,  ESQ.,  C.  E.,  H.  W.  JOHNSTON,  ESQ.,  C.  E. 

A uditors.— WILLIAM  MCKERRON,  ESQ.,  G.  W.  T.  IRVING,  ESQ. 


ORDINARY     MEETINGS.  XC1X 

SECOND   ORDINARY   MEETING. 
Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,   9th  December,    1901. 

The  PRESIDENT,  DR.  MACKAY,  in  the  chair. 

The  meeting  was  held  after  the  adjournment  of  the  Annual  Business 
Meeting. 

It  was  announced  that  J.  B.  MCCARTHY,  ESQ.,  B.  Sc.,  teacher  of 
science  in  the  Halifax  County  Academy,  had  been  elected  an  ordinary 
member. 

It  was  also  announced  that  the  council  had  elected  PROF.  J.  G. 
MACGREGOR,  D.  Sc.,  F.  B.  S.,  of  Edinburgh  University,  a  life  member, 
and  A.  H.  COOPER  PRICHARD,  ESQ.,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  a  corresponding, 
member. 

The  PRESIDENT,  DR.  A.  H.  MACKAY,  exhibited  a  condensed  form 
of  Boiryjhium  temitum  found  by  Mrs.B.  B.  McLgod  at  Blomidon,  N.  S. 
There  sterile  fronds  of  different  ages  encircled  the  stipe  of  the  fertile- 
frond.  The  variety  was  provisionally  named  Aynetis,  in  honour  of 
the  discoverer. 

The  PRESIDENT  reported  progress  in  consideration  of  the  resolution 
of  13th  May,  1901,  relative  to  the  establishment  of  Branch  Societies. 


THIRD   ORDINARY   MEETING. 

Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,   13th  January,  1902. 

The  PRESIDENT,  DR.  MACKAY,  in  the  chair. 

A  paper  by  11.  W.  ELLS,  ESQ.,  Lu  D.,  F.  G.  S.  A.,  entitled,  "  The 
Progress  of  Geological  Investigation  in  Nova  Scotia,"  was  read  by  the 
PRESIDENT.  (See  Transactions,  p.  433.) 

The  subject  was  discussed  by  MESSRS.  H.  S.  POOLE,  B.  H.  BROWN, 
and  HON.  S.  HOLMES. 

The  PRESIDENT  exhibited  a  set  of  mounted  plants  collected  in 
Labrador  from  June  to  August,  1901,  by  WALTER  H.  PREST,  ESQ., 
M.  E.  (See  Transactions,  p.  507.) 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  PROG.— K, 


t;  PROCEEDINGS. 

FOURTH   ORDINARY   MEETING. 
Legislative  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  10th  February,  1902. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

It  was  announced  that  HECTOR  H.  MAC-KAY  ESQ.,  M.  D.,  of  New 
"Glasgow,  N.  S.,  had  been  elected  an  associate  member. 

H.  S.  POOLE,  ESQ.,  read  a  paper  by  DR.  H.  M.  AMI,  entitled,  "The 
Upper  Cambrian  Age  of  the  Dictyonema  Slates  of  Angus  Brook,  New 
Canaan,  and  Kentville,  N.  S."  (See  Transactions,  p.  447.) 

MR.  POOLE  presented  a  paper  entitled,  "  Notes  on  Dr.  Ami's  Paper 
on  Dictyonema  Slates."  (See  Transactions,  p.  451.) 

MR.  POOLE  then  exhibited  and  made  remarks  upon  supposed  worm- 
trails  in  slate  from  the  syncline  at  Green  Bank,  Point  Pleasant, 
Halifax.  (See  Transactions,  p.  453.) 

The  subject  was  discussed  by  DR.  MURPHY,  MR.  BISHOP,  and  the 
PRESIDENT. 

MR.  POOLE  took  the  chair  while  the  PRESIDENT  read  a  paper  by 
Miss  A.  LOUISE  JAGGAR,  of  Redlands,  California,  entitled  :  "  Notes  on 
the  Flora  of  Digby  County,  N.  S."  Appended  was  a  list  of  the 
phanerogamous  flora  of  the  county,  observed  by  her,  which  was 
recommended  to  be  compiled  into  a  general  Provincial  Flora. 

The  RECORDING  SECRETARY  read  a  paper  by  THOMAS  C.  HEBB,  ESQ., 
M.  A.,  of  Dalhousie  College,  "  On  a  Determination  of  the  Freezing- 
point  Depression  Constant  for  Electrolytes."  (See  Transactions,  p. 
409.) 

The  subject  was  discussed  by  PROF.  DIXON. 


FIFTH   ORDINARY   MEETING. 
City  Council  Chamber,  Halifax,  10th  March,  1902. 

The  PRESIDENT  in  the  chair. 

The  RECORDING  SECRETARY  read  a  communication  from  the  Royal 
"Society  of  Canada,  inviting  the  Institute  to  appoint  a  delegate  to 
attend  the  May  meeting  of  the  Society.  The  communication  was 
referred  to  the  council  for  action. 


ORDINARY     MEETINGS.  Cl 

A  paper  by  WALTER  H.  PREST,  ESQ.,  M.  E.,  entitled,  "  Supplemen- 
tary Notes  on  Drift  Ice  as  an  Eroding  and  Transporting  Agent,"  was 
read  by  MR.  POOLE.  (See  Transactions,  p.  455.) 

Specimens  of  sand  and  gravel  from  drift  ice  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador  near  Cape  Smoky,  collected  by  Mr.  Prest,  were  exhibited, 
and  described  by  DR.  A.  H.  MACKAY. 

The  subject  was  discussed  by  Dr.  Murphy. 

A  paper  by  PROF.  JOHN  DAVIDSON,  PHIL.  D.,  of  the  University  of 
New  Brunswick,  entitled,  "  Agricultural  Credit,"  was  read  by  MR^ 
McKAY.  (See  Transactions,  p.  458.) 

The  paper  was  discussed  by  MESSRS.  MCKERRON,  POOLE,  and 
BISHOP. 

The  following  papers  were  read  by  title  :-  — 

(1).  On  the  Standardization  of  Hydrochloric  Acid  with  Borax. — 
By  R.  S.  BOEHNER,  ESQ.,  B.  So.,  Dalhousie  College. 

(2).  On  the  Determination  of  the  Freezing-point  Depressions  of 
Dilute  Solutions  of  Electrolytes. — By  THOMAS  C.  HEBB,  ESQ.,  M.  A.,. 
Dalhousie  College.  (See  Transactions,  p.  422.) 

HARRY    PIERS, 

Recording  Secretary. 


SKETCH  OP  THE  LIFE  OF   ANDREW   DOWNS,    FOUNDER  OF  THE  FIRST 
ZOOLOGICAL  GARDEN  IN  AMERICA. — BY  HARRY  PIERS. 

(See  frontispiece. ) 

ANDREAV  DOWNS  was  born  in  the  town  of  New  Brunswick,  New 
Jersey,  U.  S.  A.,  on  27th  September,  1811.  His  father,  Robert,  left 
Scotland,  of  which  he  was  a  native,  with  the  intention  of  taking  a 
position  in  Quebec,  Canada.  Some  of  his  possessions  having  been 
landed  at  Halifax,  N.  S.,  he  came  here,  but  afterwards  left  for  New 
Jersey,  where  he  remained  for  some  years.  There  he  married  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  John  and  Catherine  Plum,  who  was,  I  understand, 
of  German  descent.  With  recollections  in  his  mind  of  the  city  by  the 
sea,  Robert  returned  to  Halifax  in  1825,  bringing  with  him  his 
family,  including  his  son  Andrew,  then  a  lad  of  about  fourteen. 

Andrew  was  for  sometime  engaged  in  the  plumbing  business  with 
his  father,  and  later,  on  his  own  account.  His  tastes,  however,  were 
entirely  of  another  kind,  and  he  gradually  gave  more  and  more  of  his 
time  to  the  study  of  nature,  the  preserving  of  birds  and  other  animals 
and  the  propagation  of  the  same,  and  to  this  work  he  finally  devoted 
all  his  energies. 

I  would  like  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  to  him  belongs  the  honour 
of  founding  the  first  zoological  garden  in  America.  This  he  started 
at  Halifax  in  1847,  sixteen  years  before  the  Central  Park  collection  at 
New  York  was  opened  to  the  public.  The  Philadelphia  garden  did 
not  open  till  July,  1874,  although  the  society  was  incorporated  a  num- 
ber of  years  before  ;  while  the  "zoo  "  at  Cincinnati  opened  in  1875, 
that  at  St.  Louis  in  1877,  and  the  Lincoln  Park  Garden,  Chicago,  in 
1881. 

Mr.  Downs  commenced  with  a  piece  of  land  of  five  acres,  but  by 
1863  he  had  enlarged  his  premises  to  one  hundred  acres  ("  Walton 
Cottage "),  near  Dutch  Village,  North-West  Arm,  Halifax  County, 
embracing  wood  and  field,  stream  and  pond,  hill  and  valley.  This 

(cii) 


SKETCH   OF   THE   LIFE   OF    ANDREW   DOWNS — PIERS.         Clll 

place  soon  became  a  most  popular  resort  for  the  curious  and  for  those 
students  and  lovers  of  natnre  and  good  fellowship  who  found  keen 
pleasure  in  the  proprietor's  company,  and  many  anecdotes  are  con- 
nected with  the  naturalist's  life  in  this  lovely  spot.  The  Prince  of 
Wales,  now  King  Edward,  paid  a  visit  to  the  place  when  in  Halifax 
in  1860,  as  did  nearly  every  notable  person  who  came  this  way, 
including  Prince  Jerome  Bonaparte,  King  Victor  Emmanuel's  daughter, 
Lord  and  Lady  Falkland,  Capt.  Sir  Richard  Grant,  and  many  others. 

In  1864  Downs  visited  Europe,  being  complimented  by  a  free  pa«- 
sage  across  the  Atlantic  in  one  of  Her  Majesty's  war  vessels,  the 
"  Mersey,"  Capt.  Caldwell.  On  this  occasion  he  carried  with  him 
several  living  specimens,  two  cases  of  mounted  birds  and  a  stuffed 
moose,  which  he  presented  to  the  London  zoological  garden.  In 
Europe  he  received  courtesies  from  many  scientific  men. 

On  his  return  to  Halifax  his  zoological  garden  was  much  improved, 
and  the  following  extract  from  an  article  by  his  friend  Charles  Hallock, 
author  of  "The  Fishing  Tourist,''  and  founder  and  proprietor  of 
"  Forest  and  Stream,''  graphically  describes  the  place  in  these, its  best 
days* : — 

"  I  recall  his  premises  as  if  it  were  but  yesterday.  From  a  rustic 
gate  in  the  enclosing  hedge  a  gravelled  road  wound  under  interlacing 
trees  to  a  Gothic  cottage  over-hung  with  woodbines  and  honeysuckles, 
and  surmounted  at  all  points  with  antlers  of  elk  and  moose.  This 
was  at  once  the  residence  of  the  proprietor  and  the  outpost  of  the 
realm.  Beside  the  porch  were  bird  houses  perched  on  poles,  whose 
chattering  tenants  hovered  round,  entering  and  departing  at  will. 
Pigeons  of  all  sorts  tumbled  and  circled  overhead,  and  strange  noises 
were  emitted  from  a  neighboring  copse.  Here  and  there  were  rude 
boxes  of  cocoons  of  many  varieties,  kept  for  experiments.  Not  far 
from  the  door  a  pair  of  whale's  ribs  and  some  huge  vertebrate  lay  upon 
the  lawn. 

"  Entering  the  house  by  the  main  hall-door  ajar,  we  find  it  alive  with 
the  more  delicate  species  of  songsters.  The  parlors  and  reception 

*  "  The  First  American  Zoo,"  by  Charles  Hallock  ;  Nature,  New  York,  Vol  1.  No- 
10  (Jan.  4,  189"),  pp.  130-131.  The  reader  is  also  referred  to  another  article  by  Mr. 
Hallock,  "Andrew  Downs,  F.  R.  s.  [error  for  c.  M.  z  a.],  Naturalist,"  in  Forest  and 
Stream,  New  York,  Vol.  53,  No.  10  (S.  pt.  2, 1899),  p.  181,  with  portrait,  p.  182.  In  both 
of  these  papers  ho  strongly  appeals  for  public  recognition  tf  Downs  as  the  founder  of 
the  first  zoological  garden  in  America. 


civ          SKETCH   OF   THE   LIFE   OF    ANDREW   DOWNS — PIERS. 

rooms  constitute  a  museum  of  natural  history  and  art,  perfect  in  clas- 
sification and  detail  of  arrangement, — paintings,  engravings,  water 
colors,  herbaria,  busts  and  miniature  sculptures.  And  what  a  view 
from  the  verandah  and  bay  windows  !  The  '  North-west  Arm ' 
stretching  away  toward  the  ocean,  with  its  bays,  inlets,  wooded  hills, 
island  and  far-reaching  points  of  land  that  are  blue  and  only  half- 
distinct  in  the  hazy  atmosphere  of  a  summer  day.  Yonder  is  the 
devoted  naturalist  in  his  shirt  sleeves  feeding  his  poultry.  He  is 
fairly  surrounded  by  multitudes  of  the  feathered  and  four-footed  tribes. 
Shaggy  skye  terriers  of  different  colors,  which  have  the  freedom  of 
the  yard,  greet  our  approach  by  rubbing  their  dusty  paws  on  our 
boots  ;  tumbler  pigeons  throw  summersets  in  the  air  and  plump  down 
at  our  feet ;  pouters  and  fantails  strut  and  flutter  among  the  throngs. 
Chinese  and  Egyptian  geese  with  huge,  bulbous  bills,  squawk  discord- 
ant notes  ;  cranes  stalk  majestically  ;  monkeys  grimace  and  marmosets 
chatter  in  a  cage  close  by,  and  a  big  Brazilian  monkey  gives  a  sly  tug 
at  our  coat  tail  through  the  wires  of  his  cage.  There  are  bantams  and 
game  fowls,  ducks,  geese  and  pheasants,  all  of  rare  breeds,  and  for 
each  he  has  a  peculiar  call  and  a  handful  of  seeds  or  grain,  or  bread  or 
biscuit,  suited  to  its  peculiar  taste.  All  about  the  immediate  vicinity 
are  cages,  coops,  perches  and  shelter-houses,  some  closed  on  their  in- 
mates and  others  open  for  free  ingress  and  egress.  A  little  beyond 
this  part  of  the  premises,  at  the  edge  of  a  lawn,  is  a  lake  where  China 
swans,  odd-looking  geese  and  ducks  with  uncouth  topknots  are  play- 
ing under  the  douche  of  a  fountain.  Tall  cranes  stalk  along  the  reedy 
margin,  herons  on  one  leg  stand  motionless  among  the  lilypads,  wood 
ducks  skulk  beneath  the  overhanging  bushes,  and  wild  wood  birds  dart 
in  and  out  of  the  trees  which  fringe  the  border.  Farther  on  a  cas- 
cade tumbles  into  the  lake,  and  the  rocky  basin  at  its  foot  provides 
cooling  refreshment  for  a  large  polar  bear.  The  stream  leads  to  a 
pond  above,  where  a  seal  sports  and  comes  to  the  beach  at  call.  Here 
are  beavers,  mink  and  otters,  all  suitably  secured  in  mesh-wire  in- 
closures.  Anon  we  cross  a  rustic  bridge  which  spans  a  ravine,  and 
thence  traverse  a  shadowy  path  to  a  bower  with  a  table  inside  made  of 
the  ponderous  bone  of  a  whale's  tail.  Near  at  hand  is  a  flower  garden 
laid  out  in  artistic  designs,  and  in  a  clump  of  trees  just  aside  are  nest- 
ing birds  which  receive  the  naturalist's  daily  attention.  Next  come 


SKETCH    OF    THE    LIFE    OF    ANDREW    DOWNS — PIERS.  CV 

enlosures  for  Spanish,  Mexican  and  Virginian  deer,  a  large  yard  for 
moose,  enclosing  trees  for  browse,  others  for  elk  and  caribou,  and 
another  for  black  bears.  And  so  the  visitor  passes  on  through  this 
hundred-acre  domain,  with  its  alternate  woods  and  open  intervals,  to 
gaze  successively  at  the  long-billed  bitterns,  whooping  cranes,  gold,  silver, 
English  and  Amherst  pheasants,  California  and  native  quails,  eagles, 
hawks,  foxes,  lynxes,  prairie  wolves,  owls,  fancy  rabbits,  Guinea  pigs, 
China  sheep,  Angora  goats,  silver-bearded  Polands,  Hamburg  fowls, 
Indian  and  Egyptian  doves,  ring  doves,  and  so  on. 

"  In  another  part  of  the  grounds  is  an  Oriental  kiosk  filled  with 
every  variety  of  stuffed  birds,  live  snakes,  lizards  and  turtles,  and 
containing  an  extensive  aquarium. 

"  What  particularly  strikes  the  observant  visitor  is  the  nicety  with 
which  the  habits  of  the  creatures  are  satisfied  by  the  adaptation  of 
environment ;  and  it  is  easy  to  perceive,  from  such  results  accomplished, 
what  is  possible  for  our  public  gardens  in  the  United  States,  with 
sufficient  area  and  liberal  money  appropriations.  Certainly  no  exist- 
ing zoological  collection  is  as  thoroughly  and  suitably  provided  for  as 
this  of  Downs'  was  twenty-five  years  ago,  as  I  have  just  described  it." 

In  January,  1865,  Downs  read  his  first  paper  before  the  N.  S. 
Institute  of  Natural  Science,  on  the  land-birds  of  Nova  Scotia,  which 
was  the  result  of  forty  years'  observation  of  bird  life  in  this  province. 
This  subject  he  continued  in  a  paper  read  in  May  of  the  following 
year. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1867  he  was  proposed  for  superintendent  of 
the  Central  Park  menagerie,  New  York,  being  recommended  by  Prof. 
Spencer  F.  Baird,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  In  the  following 
year  he  disposed  of  his  animals  and  grounds  and  went  to  New  York  ; 
but  being,  it  it  said,  displeased  by  what  he  considered  an  over-abrupt 
and  apparently  cool  reception  from  one  of  the  commissioners,  he  did  not 
accept  the  appointment  and  returned  to  Halifax  at  the  end  of  about 
three  months. 

Soon  afterwards  he  purchased  a  new  property  (subsequently  S.  A. 
White's  and  Capt.  W.  H.  Smith's)  adjoining  his  old  place,  built  a 
house  and  started  a  new  zoological  garden.  This  he  continued  to 
improve  for  about  three  years,  gathering  around  him  birds  and  other 
animals,  and  continuing  his  taxidermic  work,  in  which  he  excelled. 


Cvi          SKETCH   OF   THE    LIFE    OF    ANDREW   DOWNS — PIERS. 

Subsequently  he  lived  for  years  on  Agricola  Street,  surrounded  by 
living  animals  and  specimens,  where  his  house  was  well-known  to 
naturalists.  A  couple  of  years  before  his  death,  he,  with  the  vigor 
which  characterized  him,  although  venerate  in  years,  built  a  museum 
annex  to  his  house  arid  placed  therein  his  extremely  fine  collection  of 
mounted  native  birds.  The  writer  remembers  with  pleasure  many 
pleasant  hours  spent  there  in  conversation  with  the  aged  and  kindly 
naturalist,  surrounded  by  hundreds  of  reminiscent  specimens. 

He  died  after  a  brief  illness  at  Halifax,  on  26th  August,  1892, 
wanting  but  one  month  of  eighty-one  years. 

He  was  twice  married,  first  to  Mary  Elizabetn  Matthews  of  Hali- 
fax, who  died  in  1858,  having  had  four  daughters,  two  of  whom 
survive  ;  and  secondly  to  Matilda  E.  Muhlig  of  Halifax,  by  whom 
he  had  one  daughter  who  survives. 

Ornithology  was  his  chief  study,  and  the  store  of  knowledge  he 
possessed  of  our  birds  was  very  large  arid  always  freely  at  the  service 
of  enquirers.  He  took  particular  delight  in  encouraging  the  study  of 
nature  in  young  people.  He  was  distinctly  a  field  naturalist  rather 
than  a  student  of  books. 

His  taxidermic  work  was  very  fine  and  was  evidence  of  much  loving, 
faithful  labour.  The  preliminary  operations  were  accomplished  with 
skilful  rapidity,  but  the  final  manipulations  were  done  with  great  care. 
I  have  seen  him  sit  in  conversation  for  hours,  with  a  recently  mounted 
specimen  beside  him,  from  time  to  time  adjusting  feathers,  often  one 
at  a  time,  or  slightly  altering  the  pose  here  or  there,  until  all  satisfied 
his  critical  eye.  He  had  the  rare  ability  of  giving  his  specimens  the 
appearance  of  having  actual  flesh  within  them.  For  his  taxidermic 
work  he  received  many  awards  at  exhibitions  in  England  and  else- 
where, including  a  bronze  medal  at  London  in  1851  and  in  1862,  a 
bronze  medal  at  Dublin,  1865,  and  a  silver  medal  at  Paris,  1867.  Sir 
Wyville  Thomson,  in  a  critical  article  on  the  natural  history  section 
of  the  Paris  exhibition,  writes  ("Illustrated  London  News,"  24th 
August,  1867) :— « In  the  Nova  Scotia  Court  there  is  a  very  beautiful 
collection  of  birds  stuffed  by  .  .  Mr.  Downs.  These  birds  are  nearly 
perfect  in  their  way ;  perhaps  there  is  a  little  too  much  sameness  in 
the  attitudes,  but  the  form  and  the  proportions  of  the  body  are  per. 
fectly  preserved,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  feather  out  of  place." 


SKETCH    OF    THK    LIFE    OF    ANDREW    DOWNS — PIERS.         CV11 

Mr.  Downs  claimed  lie  had  stuffed  about  eight  hundred  moose- 
heads  and  supplied  King  Victor  Emmanuel  with  many  thousand 
dollars'  worth  of  animals  and  specimens.  At  one  time  this  sovereign 
had  in  his  acclimatization  garden  at  Pisa  a  number  of  living  moose  and 
caribou  supplied  by  the  Nova  Scotian  naturalist.  Specimens  of  his 
taxidermic  work  were  supplied  other  European  sovereigns,  and  large, 
quantities  went  to  the  great  museums  and  private  collections  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic,  and  a  number  are  incorporatsd  in  the  collection 
of  the  Provincial  Museum  at  Halifax.  His  own  private  collection  of 
some  fourteen  cases,  which  he  had  at  the  time  of  his  death,  is  still  the 
property  of  his  estate. 

He  was  one  of  those  connected  with  the  foundation  of  the  Nova 
Scotian  Institute  of  Natural  Science,  although  he  did  not  take  up  his 
membership  until  December,  1863.  He  was  also  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  having  been  elected  early 
in  1862. 

He  published,  unfortunately,  but  little.  His  papers,  all  in  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  N.  S.  Institute  of  Natural  Science,"  were  : 

On  the  Land  Birds  of  Nova  Scotia.  Vol.  i,  pt.  3  (1864-5),  pp. 
38-51  (read  Jan.  9,  1865) ;  vol.  i,  pt.  4  (1865-6),  pp.  130-136  (read 
May  3,  1866). 

[An  annotated  list,  giving  a  total  of  91  nominal  species,  being  the  result  of 
"  forty  years'  experiences  in  bird  life."] 

Pied,  or  Labrador,  Duck.  Vol.  vi,  (Trans,  for  1885-6),  pp.  326-327 
(read  May  10,  1886). 

[Notes  on  two  specimens  in  Dalhousie  College  Museum,  Halifax,  and  other 
notes  regarding  the  occurrence  of  the  species  in  Nova  Scotia,  &c.] 

A  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Nova  Scotia.  Vol.  vii,  (Trans,  for 
1887-8),  pp.  142-178. 

[An  annotated  list,  giving  240  nominal  species,  the  result  of  "  sixty-six 
years  of  practical  field  work."  Prepared  in  summer  of  1888.  The  note  to  the 
title,  "  read  May  14,  1888,"  should  be  struck  out.] 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada  in  May,  1888,  he 
presented  a  paper  "On  the  Birds  and  Mammals  of  Nova  Scotia," 
which  was  not,  however,  published. 

He  was  a  man  of  very  quiet  and  retiring  disposition,  disseminating 
his  stores  of  knowledge  mostly  verbally  or  through  a  large  correspon- 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  PKOC.-L. 


Cviii        SKETCH    OF   THE    LIFE   OF    ANDREW    DOWNS — PIERS. 

dence  with  the  foremost  naturalists  of  his  day.  He  had  a  high  sense 
of  honour  and  was  of  a  genial,  kindly  disposition,  and  was  much 
respected  by  all  who  knew  him.  It  has  been  truly  said  of  him  by  his 
friend,  Charles  Hallock,  that  "  his  modesty  was  always  such  that  his 
name  is  hardly  known  outside  of  scientific  circles,  while  his  credentials 
he  folded  away  in  a  napkin."  He  remembered  once  seeing  Audubon, 
with  whom  he  also  corresponded,  and  was  a  friend  and  great  admirer 
of  Charles  Waterton,  the  naturalist,  at  whose  house,  Walton  Hall, 
in  England,  he  had  been  a  guest,  and  whose  "  Wanderings  in 
South  America  "  he  greatly  admired  and  frequently  quoted.  He  also 
corresponded  with  Frank  Buckland  and  most  of  the  foremost  zoolo- 
gists of  his  time. 

Jan.  26,  1903. 


THE  KINGS  COUNTY  BRANCH  OF  THE  NOVA  SCOTIAN  INSTITUTE  OF 
SCIENCE  :  OUTLINE  OF  PURPOSES  AND  AIMS  OF  THE  SOCIETY. — 
BY  PROFESSOR  ERNEST  HAYCOCK,  Acadia  College,  Wolfville. 

The  Kings  County  Branch  of  the  Nova  Scotian  Institute  of  Science 
was  organized  on  May  29th,  1901.  The  society  was  formed  primarily 
to  meet  the  needs  of  such  Kings  County  members  of  the  Institute  of 
Science  as  were  unable  to  attend  the  meetings  of  the  parent  society 
at  Halifax,  ,and  who  believed  that  much  personal  encouragement  and 
stimulus  was  to  be  derived  from  the  meetings  of  such  a  society. 
Furthermore  it  was  believed  that  there  were  many  others,  young  and 
old,  who  might  be  brought  within  the  sphere  of  its  influence,  and  that 
the  scientific  spirit  would  be  stimulated  and  knowledge  disseminated 
by  such  an  organization. 

The  highest  work  in  science  is  investigation  of  the  unknown.  By 
such  investigation  new  facts  are  brought  to  light  and  added  to  the 
existing  sum  of  knowledge,  to  be  handed  down  as  the  heritage  of 
succeeding  generations.  The  marvellous  attainments  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  the  civilization  of  the  present,  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  earlier  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  are  due  to  such  an  inherit- 
ance, and  it  is  the  duty  as  well  as  the  pleasure  of  the  present  genera- 
tion to  add  its  mite  to  this  epitome  of  progress.  The  purpose  of  the 
parent  society  is  to  foster  this  investigating  spirit  in  its  members? 
and  to  add  the  results  of  their  labors  to  the  body  of  the  world's 
literature.  This  will  be  the  chief  object  of  the  branch  society  also, 
and  we  believe  that  the  papers  presented  at  its  meetings  will  show  a 
definite  and  real  accomplishment. 

As  a  rule  the  investigator  needs  considerable  preliminary  training, 
and  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  what  is  already  known  about  his 
subject,  in  order  to  work  to  advantage,  and  achieve  results  that  will 
be  new  to  the  world.  The  promoters  of  this  society  hope  to  provide 
this  preparation,  as  far  as  lies  in  their  power,  and  since  it  consists  of 
two  parts — 1st,  training  in  power  of  observation,  and  2nd,  the 
acquisition  of  facts  already  known — the  work  of  the  society  will  like- 
wise consist  of  two  parts,  the  presentation  and  discussion  of  the 

(cix) 


CX          KINGS    COUNTY    BRANCH    OF   THE    INSTITUTE. — HAYCOCK. 

results  of  original  investigation  by  its  members,  and  the  presentation 
and  discussion  of  papers  on  contemporary  discoveries  in  science,  or  on 
scientific  subjects  pertinent  to  our  especial  needs.  The  former  will 
suggest  methods  and  point  the  way  to  exploration  of  the  unknown  ; 
the  latter  will  aid  in  furnishing  the  basis  of  knowledge  necessary  to 
fruitful  investigation. 

Although  an  arduous  preparation  is  absolutely  necessary  for  work 
of  the  above  character  in  many  branches  of  science,  yet  in  many  more 
departments  of  scientific  study  anyone  with  a  love  for  truth  and  an 
honest  interest  in  the  world  about  him,  whether  he  be  young  or  old, 
whether  he  has  or  has  not  had  a  scientific  training,  may  make  contri- 
butions to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge.  These  departments  lie 
mainly  within  the  domain  of  what  are  known  as  the  Natural  Sciences, 
and  in  them  we  hope  to  achieve  our  best  results.  The  distinct  aim  of 
the  society  should  be,  in  my  judgment,  to  explore  the  natural  history 
of  Kings  County,  and  in  order  to  train  workers  for  that  purpose,  to 
disseminate  knowledge  of  the  natural  sciences  in  the  widest  possible 
way. 

In  designating  this  as  the  work  of  the  society,  we  assign  a  field  that 
lies  all  about  us,  that  lias  scarcely  been  touched  by  the  investigator, 
and  in  which  the  maximum  results  can  be  secured  with  the  minimum 
amount  of  preparation.  A  few  hours  reading  would  put  one  in  pos- 
session of  all  the  facts  that  have  as  yet  been  recorded  in  regard  to  the 
geology  of  the  county.  A  smaller  number  of  hours  would  enable  one 
to  read  the  mineralogical  record.  I  know  of  but  one  paper  on  the 
microscopic  study  of  a  Kings  County  rock,  and  this  new  science  of 
petrography  offers  to  one  who  is  willing  to  make  the  necessary  pre- 
paration, an  outlook  that  is  very  fascinating.  An  admirable  begin- 
ning in  the  zoology  of  the  county  has  been  made  by  Mr.  Harold  Tufts, 
who  has  published  a  list  of  250  birds  that  occur  within  its  borders. 
This  list  is  without  doubt  still  incomplete,,  and  further,  every  bird 
enumerated  should  be  on  exhibition  either  in  a  public  county  museum 
or  in  a  private  collection,  in  order  that  the  correctness  of  the  identifi- 
cations might  be  verified  at  any  time.  Similar  work  in  the  land 
animals,  the  marine  vertebrates  and  invertebrates,  is  waiting  to  be 
done,  and  the  collection  of  all  the  known  insects  of  the  county  and  the 
study  of  their  metamorphoses  and  habits,  is  a  work  not  only  of  scien- 
tific interest,  but  likely  to  prove  of  untold  value  to  the  fruit  growers 


KINGS   COUNTY    BRANCH   OF   THE    INSTITUTE. — HAYCOCK.       Cxi 

and  agriculturists  of  the  county.  The  botanical  exploration  of  the 
county  is  still  another  equally  attractive  and  important  field  for  study. 
Since  many  of  the  diseases  that  injure  the  cultivated  plants  are  lower 
forms  of  plant-life,  investigation  along  this  line  is  also  likely  to  prove 
valuable  from  an  economic  standpoint.  The  geography  of  the  county, 
its  tidal  phenomena,  its  meterology,  are  all  subjects  that  will  prove 
fruitful  in  result  to  the  investigator.  Our  need  will  never  be  a  lack 
of  work  but  a  lack  of  workers. 

Advance  along  these  lines  can  only  be  made  by  the  slow  and 
patient  accumulation  of  material  and  facts,  extending  over  years,  but 
my  hope  is  before  long  to  see  workers  within  the  county  in  every 
department  enumerated.  Already  beginnings  have  been  made  in 
several  of  them,  and  these  beginnings  are  indicative  of  a  real  interest 
at  present,  and  significant  of  great  results  in  the  future. 

Thinking  men  are  convinced  that  our  progress,  as  a  people  and  as 
a  nation,  is  being  and  will  be  decided  by  the  way  in  which  we  meet 
and  settle  the  scientific  question.  If  we  foster  the  teaching  of  science 
in  our  schools,  and  the  scientific  spirit  in  our  people,  the  adoption  of 
scientific  methods  in  the  manifold  industries  of  our  country  will  follow 
as  a  natural  consequence,  and  place  us  in  the  front  ranks  of  the  com- 
peting nations  ;  but  if  we  are  content  to  go  along  in  the  systems  of 
education  and  methods  of  industry  followed  by  our  fathers  we  must 
expect  to  take  a  rear  place  and  see  ourselves  outstripped  by  peoples  of 
a  more  progressive  spirit. 

I  regard  this  fact,  among  others,  that  Kings  County  is  the  first  in 
the  province  to  form  an  affiliated  society  with  the  Nova  Scotian 
Institute  of  Science  at  Halifax,  the  centre  of  the  scientific  life  of  the 
province,  as  an  indication  that  this  county  is  ready  to  accept  the  con- 
ditions of  twentieth  century  progress,  and  proposes  to  take  no  second 
place  among  the  county  units  in  scientific  and  industrial  achievement. 
Let  us  not  measure  our  influence  by  our  numbers,  but  grapple  boldly 
with  the  difficulties  that  confront  us,  and  strive  to  carry  out  the 
purpose  for  which  we  have  united. 


PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  Vou.  X. 


PROC.— M. 


TRANSACTIONS 

OF  THE 

<£oba  ;Scotmn  Institute  of 

V^x  >.  <x 


SESSION"    OF    1898-99. 


I. — STATISTICS  OF  EXPENDITURE  AND  CONSUMPTION  IN  CANADA. 
—By    PROFESSOR    JOHN    DAVIDSON,    M.   A.,    PHIL.  D., 

Fredericton,  N.  B. 

(Read  Nov.  Uth,  189S.) 

The  ultimate  test  of  a  nation's  prosperity  is  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  goods  it  contains.  Other  tests  are  relative  and 
indicate  business  activity  rather  than  national  welfare.  All 
wealth  is  produced  to  be  consumed,  and  the  whole  process  of 
production  is  carried  on  for  the  benefit  of  the  consumer.  For 
him  there  is  seedtime  and  harvest ;  for  him  the  factories  and 
the  stores  are  run  ;  for  him  railroad  and  steamship  lines  operate, 
and  banks  conduct  their  business.  It  is  conceivable  that  the 
volume  of  business  may  be  large  within  a  nation  which  yet  is 
poor  and  relatively  unprosperous.  Increased  activity  does  not 
always  mean  increased  welfare  ;  and  that  community  alone  is 
rich  and  prosperous  at  whose  command  this  activity  places  a 
large  stock  of  consumable  goods  ;  and  the  most  satisfactory  evi- 
dence of  this  command  is  provided  by  the  statistics  of  the 
consumption  of  the  community.  That  is  direct  evidence  ;  all 
other  evidence  is  indirect  and  presumptive. 

Unfortunately,  direct  evidence  is  not  always  available.  We 
depend  for  information  almost  entirely  upon  government  bureaus 
and  departments  ;  and  these  are  concerned  chiefly  with  their  own 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— A. 


2  STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 

affairs.  They  collect  figures  of  exports  and  imports  because  of 
the  obvious  bearing  of  such  figures  upon  the  collection  of  a 
revenue  ;  and  in  some  cases  provide  us  with  information  regard- 
ing the  industry  carried  on  within  the  country  because  certain 
articles  of  manufacture  are  subject  to  internal  revenue  duties- 
Where  there  is  no  question  of  collecting  revenue,  the  information 
afforded  us  is  not  usually  carefully  collected.  We  know  more 
accurately  what  is  imported  than  what  is  exported  ;  we  know 
better  how  much  beer  is  consumed  than  we  do  how  much  meat 
or  grain  is  consumed  ;  how  much  tobacco  better  than  how 
much  clothing.  The  interest  of  the  government  is  •  mainly 
in  the  collection  of  revenue.  An  enlightened  government  may 
make  provision  for  the  collection  of  other  statistics  ;  it  may 
establish  labor  bureaus  and  agricultural  departments  ;  it  may 
publish  banking  returns  and  railroad  earnings  ;  but  since  the 
interest  of  these  things  is  not  so  immediately  practical,  the  infor- 
mation afforded  is  apt  to  be  meagre  and  to  cease,  short  of  the 
point  of  completeness.  For  instance,  the  main  industry  in 
Canada  is  agriculture  ;  but  we  know  less  of  the  output  of  our 
farms  than  we  do  of  the  output  of  our  brew.eries.  Ontario  and 
Manitoba  collect  elaborate  agricultural  statistics  ;  but  in  the  other 
provinces  the  gathering  of  information  is  perfunctorily  performed 
or  not  performed  at  all  ;  and,  consequently,  we  cannot  even  use 
•what  information  we  have,  because  statistics  of  interprovincial 
trade  are  lacking.  In  the  census  years,  elaborate  returns  are 
made ;  but  even  here  there  are  gaps  in  our  information,  and  too 
much  of  what  is  set  down  depends  on  the  memory  of  the  private 
citizen,  which  is  not  a  scientific  instrument.  In  Canada  there  is 
an  additional  difficulty  in  the  way  of  obtaining  adequate  con- 
sumption statistics.  Nearly  half  of  our  population  is  dependent 
on  agriculture.  In  time,  and  with  organization,  we  may  learn 
the  amount  of  eggs  and  potatoes,  milk  and  meat  and  vegetables, 
maple  sugar  and  cordwood  marketed  ;  but  it  will  always  be  next 
to  impossible  to  ascertain  how  much  of  these  commodities  the 
autonomous  producer  uses  in  his  own  consumption.  Private 
investigation  may  step  in  to  make  up  for  the  deficiencies  of 


CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON.  3 

governmental  machinery  ;  but  until  the  community  is  so  far 
educated  that  there  is  a  statistical  or  economic  association  in 
every  parish,  we  can  hardly  hope  for  the  fullest  information. 
Consumption  is  in  its  nature  a  private  concern,  and  man  will 
require  to  be  much  more  methodical  than  he  is  at  present  before 
we  can  present  anything  like  a  picture  of  the  consumption  of  a 
people.  At  the  present  time  we  are  compelled  to  use  what  infor- 
mation we  have  as  an  indication  of  the  complete  result ;  and 
generalizing  from  the  experience  of  individuals,  treat  the  con- 
sumption of  certain  articles,  for  which  the  government  provides 
statistics  which  may  be  relied  upon,  as  representing  the  whole. 

It  is  necessary  first  to  shew  in  what  proportions  the  people 
of  Canada  expend  their  incomes,  because  otherwise  we  should 
not  be  able  to  estimate  the  importance  of  the  results  obtainable 
for  the  consumption  of  specific  articles.  If  the  total  expenditure 
of  a  people  on  food  amounts  to  no  more  than  fifty  per  cent,  of 
its  income,  an  increase  in  the  consumption  of  coffee  will  mean  a 
less  increase  of  prosperity  then  it  does  for  a  people  which  spends 
seventy  per  cent,  of  its  income  on  food.  In  the  latter  case  it 
means  that  the  people  are  rising  fiom  the  lowest  class,  where  the 
necessaries  of  life  absorb  the  greatest  part  of  the  income,  to  a 
condition  where  other  considerations  are  becoming  important ;  in 
the  former  case  it  may  mean  a  change  in  the  form  of  consump- 
tion only.  This  aspect  of  the  question  has  some  immediate 
practical,  importance.  In  the  discussion  of  the  financial  aspects 
of  prohibition,  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  fact  that  not 
all  the  expenditure  of  the  Canadian  citizen  is  on  taxable  goods. 
Prohibitionists  claim  that  the  fifty  million  dollars  annually  spent 
upon  intoxicants  will  necessarily  be  spent  on  other  articles,  and 
that  the  government  need  not  confuse  the  issue  by  dark  sugges- 
tions of  direct  taxation;  for  consumption  will  not  be  reduced,  but 
simply  changed.  But,  though  the  same  amount  will  still  be  spent, 
it  does  not  follow  that  it  will  be  spent  in  such  a  way  as  will 
provide  a  reveuue.  In  so  far  as  it  is  spent  on  food,  there  would 
be  an  increased  consumption  of  food-stuffs  on  which,  while  the 
consumer  may  be  paying  a  tax  in  the  shape  of  enhanced  prices, 


4  STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AXD 

due  to  protection,  the  government  may  realize  little  or  no 
reve\\ue ;  while  in  so  far  as  it  is  spent  on  education  or  on  better 
house  accommodation,  the  government  would  gain  nothing  what- 
ever to  make  up  for  the  revenue  from  the  taxes  on  beer  and 
spirits.  No  doubt,  there  would  be  increased  expenditure  on 
clothing  ;  but  the  percentage  of  income  spent  in  Canada  is  but 
17  ;  and  the  tax  is  already  as  heavy  as  it  can  be  to  be  productive 
of  revenue.  Probably  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  changed  con- 
sumption would  yield  no  revenue  whatever. 

The  investigation  of  expenditures  has  been  carried  so  far  that 
certain  empirical  laws  have  been  established.  Jt  may  seem  to 
some  that  the  forms  of  expenditure  are  so  much  a  matter  of  indi- 
vidual taste  and  caprice  that  no  general  conclusion  can  be 
established  ;  but,  after  all,  the  differences  among  men  are  not 
very  great.  The  fundamental  necessities  of  life  are  the  same  for 
all,  and  caprice  does  not  enter  in  till  the  dominant  wants  have 
been  satisfied  ;  and  by  taking  a  large  number  of  instances,  the 
effects  of  individual  caprice  may  be  eliminated  and  an  average 
set  down.  The  first  fairly  complete  investigation  in  this  sphere 
was  made  by  Engel,  and  subsequent  investigation  has  served  to 
establish  his  conclusions  more  firmly. 

These  are: — That  the  greater  the  income,  the  smaller  the 
relative  percentage  of  outlay  for  subsistence  ; 

That  the  percentage  of  outlay  for  clothing  is  approximately 
tihe  same,  whatever  the  income  ; 

That  the  percentage  of  the  outlay  for  rent  and  for  fuel  and 
light  is  invariably  the  same,  whatever  the  income; 

That  as  the  income  increases  in  amount,  the  percentage  of 
outlay  for  sundries  becomes  greater. 

We  are  fortunately  able  to  present  results  for  Canada,  which 
may  be  compared  with  the  statistical  data  brought  forward  by 
Engel  and  other  investigators.  The  Ontario  Bureau  of  Statistics 
during  several  years  presented  statistics  on  the  expenditure  of 
the  working  classes  in  certain  cities  of  Ontario;  and  in  countries 


CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON.  5 

like  Canada,  where  there  are  few  extremes  of  wealth  and  poverty,* 
the  results  thus  established  may  be  accepted  as  tolerably 
accurate  for  the  whole  Dominion.  Local  variations  there  must, 
of  course,  always  be.  Rent  is  higher  and  fuel  dearer  in  the 
towns  than  in  the  country;  while  in  the  country  food  probably, 
and  clothing  certainly,  on  the  whole,  are  dearer  than  in  the 
cities.  The  figures  cover  a  period  of  four  years,  and  their  accur- 
acy has  been  tested  by  the  statistician  and  verified  by  comparisons. 
The  statistics  of  five  of  the  more  important  towns  in  Ontario 
have  been  selected  by  the  writer  for  further  analysis  and 
calculation,  and  the  results  are  set  forth  in  the  tables  on  the  next 
page. 

When  these  tables,  which  are  extracted  from  the  Bureau 
Reports,  are  reduced  to  percentages  and  expressed  in  terms  of 
the  number  of  day's  labor  necessary  to  command  the  various 
goods  enumerated,  we  get  the  results  in  a  form  which  permits 
comparison  with  other  countries.  The  results  in  this  form  are 
contained  in  the  tables  on  p.  7. 


"Compare  the  sections  of  this  paper  dealing  with  house  accommodation  later  for 
n  enquiry  into  the  existence  of  extremes  of  wealth  in  Canada. 


STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 


Earnings. 

Day's  labour 
in  year. 

Rent. 

Fuel. 

Clothing, 
per  head. 

Food, 
per  head 

CITY  OF  HAMILTON. 

1886 
1887 
lc  88 
1889 
Average. 

$449 
415 
417 
418 
424.7 

216 
234 
230 
244 
231 

$76 
81 
81 
90 

$41 
41 

38 
37 

$16.45 
12.89 
13.43 
13.89 

$53.65 
45.76 
47.74 

38.65 

CITY  OF  KINGSTON. 

1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
Average. 

$469 
453 
482 
379 
446 

293 
2(56 
2<80 
244 
271 

$70 
70 
70 
68 

$36 
42 
41 
31 

$18.12 
12.91 
1892 
22.28 

$43.90 

43.19 
49.63 

CITY  OF  LONDON. 

1886 
1887 
1888 
18b9 
Average. 

$425 
421 
436 
431 
428 

270 
265 
268 
244 
261 

$73 
70 

77 
66 

$40 
40 
40 
37 

$17.66 
15.58 
18.59 
15.91 

$45.63 
50.39 
47.31 
46.54 

CITY  OF  OTTAWA. 

1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
Average. 

$523 
385 
505 
440 
463 

305 
223 
228 
255 
253 

$  81 
97 
71 
110 

$34 
32 
37 
•S3 

$21.96 
10.52 
13.14 
11.94 

$35.46 
36.55 
45.70 
35.15 

CITY  OF  TORONTO. 

1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
Average. 

487 
480 
526 
474 
492 

272 
246 
270 
262 
263 

$  92 
112 
121 
110 

$40 
41 
45 
39 

$23.96 
1(1.93 
15.87 
16.67 

$54.32 
47.92 
45.62 
56.89 

CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON. 


DATS  OF  LABOR  NECESSARY  TO  PROCDRB 

PERCBNTAGKS  OF  INCOME  EXPENDED  ON 

Rent. 

Fuel. 

Clothing 
per 

Food. 

Rent. 

Fuel. 

Clothing 
per 

Food. 

Family. 

Family. 

HAMILTON. 

1886 

H6 

19 

38 

123 

17 

9 

18 

57 

1887 

45 

23 

35 

124 

19 

9 

15 

50 

1888 

45 

21 

34 

123 

19 

9 

15 

55 

1889 

52 

22 

37 

103 

21 

9 

15 

42 

Aver. 

44.5 

21.2 

36 

118.2 

19 

9 

15.7 

51 

KINGSTON. 

1886 

44 

22 

52 

124 

15 

7 

18 

43 

1887 

41 

25 

35 

15 

9 

15 

1888 

40 

23 

46 

105 

14 

8 

16 

38 

1889 

45 

20 

58 

127 

18 

8 

24 

52 

Aver. 

42.5 

22.5 

47.7 

118.6 

15.5 

8 

18.2 

44.3 

OTTAWA. 

1886 

47 

19 

64 

123 

15 

6 

20 

40 

1887 

53 

18 

32 

106 

23 

8 

14 

49 

T888 

32 

16 

34 

124 

14 

8 

15 

53 

1889 

64 

19 

39 

109 

25 

8 

14 

49 

Aver. 

49 

18 

42.2 

115.5 

19.2 

7.5 

15.7 

47.7 

LONDON. 

1886 

46 

25 

54 

141 

17 

9 

20 

43 

1887 

41 

25 

43 

141 

16 

9 

16 

50 

1888 

47 

24 

58 

107 

17 

9 

19 

40 

1889 

37 

20 

44 

130 

15 

8 

18 

53 

Aver. 

42.7 

22.5 

49.7 

129.7 

16.2 

8.7 

18.2 

46.5 

TORONTO. 

1886 

51 

22 

53 

143 

19 

8 

20 

50 

1887 

51 

21 

36 

107 

23 

8 

17 

43 

1888 

62 

16 

34 

124 

23 

8 

14 

57 

1889 

61 

21 

37 

93 

23 

8 

14 

49 

Aver. 

58 

20 

40 

117 

22 

8 

16.2    49.7 

i 

8 


STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 


For  purposes  of  comparison,  however,  the  corresponding 
figures  and  percentages  for  the  whole  number  of  towns  taken 
together,  and  for  the  whole  province,  are  more  useful  ;  and  suit 
our  purpose  of  international  comparison  better  : — 


PROVINCE  OF  ONTARIO. 


Earnings. 

Davs  of 
Labor. 

Rent. 

Fuel. 

Clothing 
per 
Head. 

Food  per 
Head. 

1886 

$451 

270 

$76 

$40 

$20.83 

$42.30 

1887 

449 

257 

82 

39 

15.85 

44.37 

1888 

479 

269 

77 

37 

17.41 

42.76 

1889 

467 

272 

81 

41 

17.10 

44.14 

Aver. 

462 

267 

DAYS  LABOR  NECESSARY  TO  PROCURE 

PERCENTAGES  OF  INCOME  EXPENDED  ON 

Rent. 

Fuel. 

Clothing 
per 
Family. 

Food  per 
Family. 

Rent. 

Fuel. 

Clothing 
per 
Family. 

Food  per 
Family. 

1886 

45 

24 

57 

91 

17 

8 

21 

33 

1887 

45 

22 

41 

91 

18 

8 

16 

35 

1888 

41 

20 

46 

115 

16 

7.7 

18 

43 

1889 

47 

23 

46 

122 

17 

8.8 

17 

44 

Aver. 

44.5 

22.2 

47.5 

105 

17 

8.1 

18 

39 

The  average  of  the  averages  of  the  five  cities  above  may  be 
placed  beside  the  provincial  average  (taken  from  returns  made 
by  artisans  in  the  smaller  towns  and  villages) : — 


Earnings. 

Days  La- 
bor in 
year. 

PERCENTAGES  EXPENDED  ON 

Rent 
18.4 

Fuel. 

Clothing 
per 
Family. 

Food 
per 
Family. 

City  average,  1886-89 

$451 

256 

8.3 

17 

47.8 

Prov.  average,  1886-89 

462 

267 

17 

8.1 

18 

39. 

The  results  thus  obtained  are  in  substantial  agreement  with 
the    results    established    under   greatly    varying    conditions    in 


CONSUMPTION     IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON. 


Europe  and  America,  as  the  following  tabular  comparison  shews. 
The  table  is  taken  in  part  from  Schonberg's  Handbuch  and  in 
part  from  U.  S.  Labor  Reports  : — 


Percentages  on 

Great  Britain. 

Prussia. 

Ontario. 

Massachusetts. 

Illinois. 

Food  

51.36 

50.00 

39.0 

49.28 

41.38 

Clothing..  .  . 

18.12 

18.00 

18.0 

15.94 

21.00 

Rent  

13.48 

12.00 

17 

19.74 

17.42 

Fuel    .. 

3.50 

5.00 

8.1 

4.30 

5.63 

Sundries.  .. 

13.54 

15.00 

18.9 

10.73 

14.57 

These  percentages  are  all  calculated  from  working-class 
family  budgets,  except  in  the  case  of  Prussia,  where  a  family  of 
intermediate  class  was  taken  to  give  gross  incomes  of  something 
like  the  same  amount.  The  real  measure  of  well-being  probably 
consists,  at  least  for  men  of  the  same  race,  in  the  amount  which 
may  be  expended  on  the  vague  class  of  sundries  ;  and  in  this 
comparison,  Canada  comes  out  well.  The  shewing  would  not 
have  been  so  favorable  had  we  taken  the  average  of  the  five 
cities,  for  then  it  would  have  been  8.5  per  cent  of  the  income  only. 

The  question  of  the  value  of  these  returns  is  almost  settled 
by  the  large  degree  of  correspondence  between  independent^ 
reached  results;  but  the  Provincial  Statistician,  Mr.  Blue,  was 
at  the  trouble  to  meet  the  objection  that,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
conclusions  based  on  them,  the  figures  themselves  were  untrust- 
worthy, by  carefully  examining  the  food  expenditures  of  various 
public  institutions.  The  force  of  the  objection  is  that  while  most 
householders  can  tell  how  much  they  spend  on  rent  and  fuel,  and 
perhaps  also  on  clothing,  they  can  make  a  rough  estimate  only 
of  the  household  expenditure  on  food.  Mr.  Blue  went  into  the 
matter  exhaustively  and  examined  the  food  accounts  of  colleges, 
asylums,  military  barracks,  etc.,  and  embodied  his  conclusions  in 
a  paper  read  before  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  and 
reprinted  in  the  Ontario  Bureau  of  Statistics  Report,  1886,  in 
which  he  says  : — 


10  STATISTICS    OF     EXPENDITURE    AND 

"  Now  let  us  see  how  the  cost  of  food,  as  computed  from  the 
working  men's  returns,  compares  with  its  cost  in  the  schools  and 
colleges  and  public  institutions.  At  the  average  of  summer  and 
winter  returns  in  these,  it  is  $44.17  (,per  cap.);  at  the  prison's 
rate  it  is  $35.51  ;  at  the  asylum  rate  it  is  $47.12  ;  at  the  infantry 
school  rate  it  is  $54.75  ;  at  the  college  winter  rate  it  is  $59.  . 
.  .  .  The  working  man's  average,  $47.67  per  cap.,  is  therefore 
something  more  than  a  probable  one  ;  it  is  well  verified  by  sta- 
tistics gathered  from  other  sources,  and  I  am  disposed  to  think 
that  the  cost  of  living  is  better  known  and  more  accurately 
gauged  in  the  families  of  the  working  classes  than  in  the  families 
of  any  other  class  in  the  community."  .... 

We  are  justified,  therefore,  in  accepting  the  average  budget 
based  on  these  returns  as  representative  of  the  actual  expendi- 
ture of  some  hundreds  of  working  men  throughout  Ontario.  It 
is  true,  no  doubt,  that  men  capable  of  intelligently  making  such 
returns  are  likely  to  spend  their  incomes  more  rationally  than 
others  of  their  class ;  but  the  extravagances  and  waste  of  the  less 

*  o 

prudent  and  thrifty  in  part  offset  each  other,  and  must  for  the 
rest  be  neglected.  We  may  assume,  therefore,  that  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Ontario  39.0  per  cent,  is  expended  on  food,  18.0  per  cent, 
on  clothing,  8.1  per  cent,  on  fuel,  and  17  per  cent,  on  rent  ;  or  if 
we  take  the  average  of  the  4  year  averages  of  the  five  important 
towns  as  our  standard,  47.8  per  cent,  on  food,  17  per  cent,  on 
clothing,  18.4  per  cent,  on  rent,  and  8.3  per  cent,  on  fuel. 

These  percentages  are  not  without  meaning  even  as  an  indi- 
cation of  absolute  well-being.  The  smaller  the  percentage 
expended  on  food  and  subsistence  the  larger  the  total  provision 
for  the  wants  of  our  nature.  Here  and  there  an  individual  may 
be  found  who  stints  himself  of  the  imperious  necessities  of  life 
to  obtain  some  coveted  comfort  or  luxury  ;  but  the  great  majority 
satisfy  the  lower  wants  first  and  rise  to  the  higher  if  sufficient 

o 

provision  is  made.  Consequently,  the  smaller  percentage  in 
Canada  expended  on  food  is  an  indication  of  a  higher  well-beino- 

T~»  ^ 

But  it  is  necessary  to  investigate  still  further  to  find  the  degree 
of  well-being  and  to  present  quantities  rather  than  percentages. 


CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA— DAVIDSON.  11 

What  value  does  the  average  Canadian  receive  in  food,  house 
accommodation,  fuel  and  clothing  for  the  percentages  of  income 
thus  expended  ?  This  is  not  a  question  of  prices,  but  of  weights 
and  measures.  Prices  are  of  importance  only  as  they  indicate 
whether  an  increased  or  decreased  consumption  of  any  article  is 
due  to  a  change  in  price  or  to  an  increased  command  over  the 
goods  of  life.  The  increased  consumption  of  tea  and  sugar,  for 
instance,  is  due  to  the  fall  in  price  ;  but  the  increased  consump- 
tion of  coffee,  in  so  far  as  it  is  not  simply  a  transfer  of  taste  from 
one  article  to  another,  shows  an  extending  margin  of  consumption. 
An  increase  of  consumption  due  to  a  fall  in  the  price  of  an 
article  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  citizens  are  better  off. 
Their  real  wages  and  incomes  have  risen  but  their  money  wages 
may  be  constant ;  but  an  increased  use  of  an  article  whose  price 
has  not  fallen  indicates  an  increase  of  money  wages  and  a  more 
extended  command  over  the  goods  of  life. 

It  is  not  possible,  unfortunately,  to  enter  into  a  detailed 
examination  of  the  absolute  values  received  in  each  class  of 
expenditure.  In  the  case  of  rent  and  food,  we  are  able  to  present 
some  of  the  more  important  items ;  but  fuel  and  clothing 
remain  indefinite. 

The  item  of  fuel  is  the  only  one  which  takes  a  higher  per- 
centage in  Canada  than  in  any  other  country.  The  cause  is  not 
an  enhanced  price,  but  the  fact  that  a  larger  quantity  must  be 
used.  The  amount  of  fuel  consumed  per  head  of  the  population 
is  una.scertainable.  From  the  mining  statistics  and  the  tables  of 
trade  and  commerce,  we  can  estimate  how  much  coal,  bituminous 
and  anthracite,  is  used  ;  but  how  many  of  the  people  of  Canada 
use  coal?  Probably  the  majority  of  the  population  do  not  use 
it  in  any  form  ;  even  in  industry  coal  is  not  always  used  ;  and  it 
is  in  the  larger  cities  only  that  coal  is  used  exclusively.  The 
quantity  of  wood  consumed  as  fuel  is  not  ascertainable  ;  and  since 
the  quantity  varies  according  to  the  house  and  according  to  the 
habits  of  the  individual,  no  estimates,  even  approximately  cor- 
rect, can  be  made. 


12  STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 

Whether,  under  the  head  of  fuel,  lighting  is  also  included,  as 
it  usually  is  in  the  statistics  of  other  countries,  is  not  stated  ;  but 
the  omission  is  not  of  serious  importance,  because  we  are  unable 
to  discover  how  much  the  individual  spends  and  what  value  he 
receives  for  his  expenditure.  The  three  chief  illuminants,  gas, 
electricity,  and  oil,  are  being  used  in  increasing  quantities.  The 
Census  Reports  of  1891  give  figures  for  the  production  of  gas 
and  electric  lighting  works ;  but  there  has  been  a  very  great 
extension  in  the  use  of  electric  lighting  since  1891,  and  possibly 
some  increase  in  the  use  of  gas  also  ;  and  figures  taken  from  the 
Census  Reports  would  give  a  wrong  impression.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  in  spite  of  the  increase  in  the  use  of  these  methods 
of  lighting,  the  consumption  of  petroleum  is  increasing  steadily 
year  by  year.  The  urban  population  of  Canada  (those  residing 
in  towns  and  villages  of  more  than  1,500  inhabitants)  has 
increased  from  9.1 2  934- in  1881  to  1,390,910  in  1891  ;  or  from  21.1 
per  cent,  to  23.77  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  the  Dominion  ; 
and  the  number  of  towns  of  more  than  3,000  inhabitants  which 
may  be  taken  as  the  minimum  for  which  gas  or  electric  lighting 
is  provided,  has  increased  from  G8  to  94.  Gas  lighting  held  its 
own  during  the  decade  1881-1891,  and  electric  lighting  was  prac- 
tically introduced  in  the  decade  (in  1881  there  were  two  men 
employed  in  electric  lighting  works  ;  in  1891  there  were  1,190;) 
yet  the  consumption  of  petroleum  increased  per  capita  more  than 
fifty  per  cent.,  although  there  was  no  corresponding  decrea=e  in 
the  retail  price.  In  1882  the  consumption  was  2.0  galls,  per 
head,  in  1891  it  was  3.2  galls.,  and  in  1896  3.1  galls,  (a  decrease 
from  3.5  galls,  in  1894  and  1895).  The  increased  use  of  the  more 
primitive  illuminant,  alongside  of  the  development  of  the  more 
modern  methods,  shews  a  real  increase  in  well-being  in  the 
community. 

The  expenditure  on  clothing  must  remain  in  the  obscurity  of 
percentages.  It  might  be  possible,  by  help  of  the  Census 
Reports  and  the  trade  tables,  to  determine  how  much  cloth  and 
clothing  was  manufactured  or  imported  in  the  year  1891  ;  but  it 
is  not  possible  to  shew  how  much  was  consumed.  Trade  tables 


CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON.  13 

are  trustworthy  only  when  they  extend  over  a  number  of  years, 
and  speculative  influences  can  be  discounted.  An  alteration  in 
the  tariff,  for  instance,  may  affect  the  imports  for  a  given  year, 
as  it  did  in  the  case  of  sugar,  and  strictly  ao  average  of  several 
years  ought  to  be  taken.  The  census  year  is  no  more  likety  to- 
escape  such  fluctuations  than  any  other  year ;  and  it  might  be 
seiiously  misleading  to  take  the  manufacture  and  importation  of 
textiles  as  typical.  Moreover,  there  has  not  as  yet  been  estab- 
lished in  the  matter  of  clothing  any  standard  of  consumption  as 
has,  in  a  measure,  been  done  in  the  case  of  food.  Caprice  and 
local  climatic  causes  have  here  an  undue  influence.  All  we  can 
say  is  that  in  Canada  the  average  family  spends  on  the  average 
$83.79  on  clothing,  the  family  expenditure  in  the  United  States 
being  $112.23  ;  in  Great  Britain,  $80.59  ;  in  Germany,  $57.21  ; 
in  France,  $72  60 ;  in  Belgium,  $84.61  ;  in  Switzerland,  $65.38*. 
The  statistics  available  for  the  further  analysis  of  the  expen- 
diture on  rent  are  not  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  comparison 
either  of  classes  or  of  different  periods.  With  the  exception  of 
some  interesting  sociological  studies  of  a  portion  of  the  city  of 
Montreal  by  Aid.  Ames  of  that  city,f  we  have  the  Census  Reports 
alone  to  rely  on  ;  and  the  Census  Reports  of  1881  offer  but  a 
very  meagre  amount  of  information.  The  Ontario  tables  quoted 
above  shew  that  on  the  average  in  the  province  of  Ontario  the 
respectable  working  classes  spend  17%  of  their  income  in  rent. 
Since  there  is  comparatively  little  class  distinction  in  Canada,  we 
might,  perhaps,  assume  that  17%  represents  the  propprtion  spent 
by  the  average  Canadian  on  house  rent.  In  the  city  below  the 
hill  in  Montreal  rental  absorbs,  according  to  Mr.  Ames,  18%  of 
the  earnings  : — "  For  families  of  the  real  industrial  class  16  per 
cent,  is  a  fair  average.  .  .  It  is  among  the  well-to-do  and  the 
very  poor  that  rental  is  permitted  to  absorb  from  20  to  25  per 
cent,  of  the  earnings."  (The  City  Below  the  Hill,  p.  40).  Mr. 


*U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Labor,  Report  1891,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  864-5. 

t  (1)  The  City  Below  the  H  11 :  privately  printed.  (2)  Incomes,  Wages  and  Rents  in 
Montreal  (U.  S.  Department  of  Labor,  Bulletin  14,  Jan.  1848) ;  and  a  lecture  on  House. 
Accommodation  which  I  have  been  privileged  to  see  in  manuscript. 


14  STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 

Ames,  in  a  letter  in  answer  to  some  queries  made,  has  further 
explained  that  the  last  sentence  refers  only  to  families  with  an 
annual  income  of  $1000  or  less.  "  My  experience,  he  adds,  has 
gone  to  prove  that  rental  consumes  from  one-fifth  to  one-third  of 
the  income  of  the  very  poor.  Then  the  proportion  grows  gradu- 
ally less  as  we  reach  the  classes  where  the  family  income  runs 
from  $8.00  to  $12.00  per  week.  Those  families  receiving  from 
$12.00  to  $15.00  seem  to  pay  a  smaller  proportion  of  income  as 
rent,  but  classes  receiving  from  $15.00  to  $20.00  seem  to  grow 
ambitious  and  desire  to  move  into  larger  quarters.  I  am  of  the 
opinion,  although  I  have  no  facts  to  substantiate  it,  that  if  we 
were  to  take  classes  receiving  annually  $1000  a  year  and  over, 
we  would  find  the  rental  proportionately  diminishing  the  higher 
we  go"  Thus,  Mr.  Ames's  results  hardly  bear  out  Engel's  law, 
that  the  percentage  expended  on  rent  is  invarirbly  the  same 
whatever  the  income  ;  and  it  appears  necessary  to  modify  the 
law,  at  least,  if  we  admit  subdivisions  of  the  working  classes. 
The  proportion  is  highest  for  the  very  poor,  varying  from  25  to 
30  per  cent.  ;  for  the  '  real  industrial '  classes  it  falls  to  16  per 
cent.  ;  and  then  rises  to  25  per  cent,  for  highly  skilled  mechanics, 
and  then  gradually  falls  for  families  whose  income  exceeds  one 
thousand  dollars. 

Before  we  go  on  to  enquire  what  sort  of  accommodation  is 
obtained  for  this  expenditure  of  income,  it  is  necessary  to  verify 
the  assumption  made  in  last  paragraph  that  there  is  compara- 
tively little  distinction  of  classes  in  Canada.  In  a  sense  this  is 
an  obvious  fact,  a  matter  of  ordinary  remark  by  every  observer. 
While  there  are  few  in  Canada  who  are  very  wealthy,  there  are 
probably  as  few  who  are  in  actual  distress.  The  Census  Report, 
1891,  enables  us  to  verify  to  a  certain  extent  this  common  obser- 
vation. For  each  census  district  we  have  given,  in  a  series  of 
tables,  the  number  of  houses  and  the  number  of  rooms  in  each 
house.  It  would  be  obviously  impossible,  having  regard  to  the 
limits  of  time  and  space,  to  analyze  the  returns  for  the  whole 
Dominion  ;  and  since  in  the  country  districts  there  is  little  differ- 
ence of  class,  it  is  necessary  only  to  examine  the  returns  for  the 


CONSUMPTION    ]N    CANADA — DAVIDSON. 


15 


larger  towns.  In  the  large  towns,  if  anywhere,  we  shall  find 
distinctions  of  class  appearing.  The  first  of  the  following  tables 
is  taken  directly  from  the  Census  Reports  ;  the  second  is  based 
on  it  and  expresses  the  same  facts  in  terms  of  percentages  which 
have  been  calculated  : — 


No.  OF  HOUSES  WITH  ROOMS— 

CITY. 

Popula- 

Total 
No  of 

tion  .  * 

Houses. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6—10 

11-15 

Over 
15. 

Vancouver 

13709 

2231 

140 

148 

194 

331 

223 

1023 

81 

81 

"Winnipeg. 

256*9 

4543 

34 

296 

367 

702 

594 

2309 

162 

79 

St.  John  ,  / 

40385 

6630 

1 

135 

467 

723 

740 

2996 

1012 

339 

Halifax...  . 

38495 

5181 

3 

63 

126 

447 

523 

3361 

529 

1Q8 

Toronto   .  . 

144023 

25810 

30 

184 

752  2480 

3094 

17070 

1749 

451 

London  .  . 

22281 

4317 

6 

54 

128 

434 

775 

2603 

223 

80 

Kingston  . 

19263 

4725 

37 

148 

445 

700     708 

2397 

240 

50 

Hamilton.. 

47245 

9221 

8 

72 

279 

870 

1779 

5596 

488 

109 

Montreal  .. 

182695 

31931 

153 

1990 

4672:7815 

3325 

10782 

2542 

651 

Quebec 

63090 

8313 

43 

479 

827 

1508 

791 

3373 

954 

440 

Ottawa  .  .  . 

37269 

6557 

17 

150 

246 

911 

1025 

3485 

583 

140 

The  populations  are  taken  from  Table  II,  Vol.  1,  Census  Report,  1891. 


CITY. 

Persons 

PERCENTAGE  OF  TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  HOUSES  WITH  ROOMS 

House. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6—10 

11—15 

Over 
15. 

4  and 

less. 

10  and 
more. 

Vancouver 

6.1 

6.2 

6.6 

8.7 

14.8 

10.0 

45.8 

1.6 

1.6 

36.3 

3.2 

Winnipeg. 

5.6 

0.7 

6.5 

8.0 

15.4 

13.0 

50.8 

3.5 

1.7 

30.6 

5.2 

St.  John.  .  . 

6.0 

0.0  2.0 

7.0 

10.9 

11.1 

45.1 

15.2 

5.1 

19.9 

20.3 

Halifax  .  .  . 

7.4 

0.1  1.2 

2.4 

8.6 

10.0 

64.6 

10.2 

2.1 

12.2 

12.3 

Toronto  .  .  . 

5.5 

0.10.6 

2.9 

9.6    11.9 

66.1     6.7 

1.7 

13.2 

8.4 

London  .    . 

5.1 

0.1  1.2 

2.9 

10.0 

17.9 

60.2     5.1 

1.8 

14.2 

6.9 

Kingston  . 

4.0 

0.7|1.1 

3.1 

16.4 

16.4 

50.7 

5.0 

1.2     22.3 

6.2 

Hamilton.. 

5.1 

0.0 

0.7 

3.0 

9.4 

19.2 

61.7 

5.2 

1.0 

13.1 

6.2 

Montreal  . 

5.7 

0.4 

6.2 

14.6 

24.4 

10.4 

33.7 

8.0 

2.0 

45.6 

10.0 

Quebec  .    . 

7.5 

0.5 

5.7 

9.9 

18.1 

9.5 

40.5 

11.4 

5.2 

34.2 

16.6 

Ottawa  .  .  . 

5.6 

0.2'2.2 

3.7 

13.8 

15.6 

53.1 

8.8     2.1 

19.9 

10.9 

With  the  exception  of  four  cities,  Vancouver,  Montreal,  Que- 
bec and  St.  John,  more  than  half  of  the  population  live  in  houses 
containing  from  6  to  10  rooms ;  in  the  case  of  Toronto  the  per- 
centage rises  to  66  per  cent;  while  in  three  others,  Halifax, 
London  and  Hamilton,  the  percentage  exceeds  60.  Those  cities 


16 


STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 


which  shew  a  low  percentage  of  houses  containing  6  to  10  rooms 
per  house  (which  gives  something  more  than  the  standard 
accommodation  of  one  room  one  person)  shew  generally  a  high 
percentage  of  houses  of  four  rooms  or  less,  and  also  of  houses  of 
more  than  10  rooms.  Thus,  in  Montreal,  45.6  of  the  houses  are 
of  4  rooms  and  less  ;  Quebec,  St.  John,  Vancouver,  Winnipeg  and 
Ottawa,  also  give  high  percentages  of  houses  of  rather  less  than 
the  standard  accommodation  ;  and  with  the  exception  of  Van- 
couver and  Winnipeg,  where  the  poor  accommodation  is,  as  we 
shall  see,  due  to  the  newness  of  the  cities,  the  same  towns  shew 
a  high  percentage  of  large  houses  of  more  than  ten  rooms. 
Montreal  has  a  percentage  of  10.0  ;  Quebec,  16.6  ;  Ottawa,  10.9  ; 
and  St.  John,  the  astonishing  percentage  of  20.3.  Halifax  is  the 
only  other  city  where  the  percentage  of  large  houses  reaches 
double  figures.  If  we  combine  the  results  of  the  last  table  and 

~ 

recognize  three  classes  of  houses  only,  those  of  4  rooms  or  less, 
those  of  5  to  10  rooms,  and  those  with  more  than  ten,  we  shall 
see  at  a  glance  where  the  conditions  are  extreme  and  where  the 
arithmetical  average  expresses  the  truth  of  the  situation  : — 


4  rooms  or  less. 

5  to  10  rooms. 

More  than  10  rooms. 

Vancouver  

38.3 

55.8 

3.2 

Winnipeg  

30.6 

63.8 

5.2 

St.  John  

19.9 

56.2 

20.3 

Halifax    

12.2 

64.6 

12.3 

Toronto  

13.2 

78.0 

8.4 

London    

14.2 

78.1 

6.9 

Kingston    

223 

67.1 

6.2 

Hamilton   

13.1 

80.9 

6.2 

Montreal  

45.6 

44.1 

10.0 

Quebec  

34.2 

50.0 

16.6 

Ottawa  

19.9 

687 

10.9 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  class  distinctions  are  marked  in 
three  or  four  towns  only:  in  St.  John,  Montreal,  and  Quebec, 
and  possibly  in  Ottawa  ;  that  the  three  best  housed  towns  where 
there  are  few  extremes  of  wealth  and  poverty,  are  Toronto, 
London  and  Hamilton — which,  with  Kingston  and  Ottawa, 


CONSUMPTION    IN     CANADA — DAVIDSON.  17 

where  also  the  conditions  do  not  show  violent  extremes,  are 
the  five  towns  selected  from  the  Ontario  Bureau  of  Statistics 
Reports  for  detailed  analysis.  It  is  probable  that  the  very  large 
percentage  of  large  houses  in  St.  John  is  an  indication,  not  of  a 
large  wealthy  class,  but  of  lack  of  prudence  and  foresight  in  the 
inhabitants  in  the  years  which  followed  the  great  fire.  We 
might  therefore  conclude  that  in  two  towns  only,  Quebec  and 
Montreal,  do  the  extremes  of  wealth  and  poverty  show  them- 
selves ;  and  that  the  average  condition  is  also  the  condition  of 
the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Canada.  We  might, 
perhaps,  also  conclude  that  the  average  income  obtained  from  the 
returns  made  to  the  Ontario  Bureau  is  not  far  below  the  average 

O 

income  in  Canada.  Mr.  Ames  shows  that  in  the  district  he  has 
investigated  there  is  a  weekly  average  income  of  $10.20  per 
family,  an  average  monthly  rental  of  $8.73  per  family,  or  18  per 
cent,  of  the  family  income,  and  an  accommodation  of  5.02  rooms 
per  family  (U.  S.  Bulletin  of  Labor,  p.  44  .  The  average  weekly 
income  of  the  towns  in  Ontario  is  nearly  $9.00,  of  which  17  per 
cent,  is  expended  on  rent  in  places  where  rents  must  be  much 
lower  than  they  are  in  industrial  districts  of  Montreal,  and  where 
accordingly  better  accommodation  will  be  given  for  the  money. 
We  may  readily  infer  that  the  returns  have  been  made  by  the 
occupants  of  houses  of  7  or  8  rooms  ;  and  an  overwhelming  pro- 
portion of  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns,  of  which  an  analysis  of 
the  house  accommodation  has  been  made  above,  occupy  houses 
containing  from  5  to  10  rooms.  Since,  according  to  Engel,  and 
according  also  to  the  best  canons  of  local  taxation,  the  expendi- 
ture on  house  rent  is  the  best  indication  of  income,  we  might  be 

o 

safe  in  concluding  that  the  average  income  set  down  above  is  the 

o  o 

average  for  Canada  ;  but  at  the  best  the  conclusion  is  problematic 
and  based  on  a  series  of  assumptions  and  inferences  from  data 
which  are  themselves  only  approximately  correct. 

The  main  question  is  the  actual  accommodation  obtained  for 
PKOC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— B. 


18  STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 

the  expenditure.  The  best  test,  perhaps,  would  be  the  cubic  feet 
of  air  space  obtained  for  a  given  rent.* 

But  statistics  are  lacking  in  Canada  to  determine  the  actual 
space  received  in  return  for  the  payment  made.  There  may  be 
more  actual  air  space  in  a  log  cabin  or  a  dug  out  of  one  room  in 
the  North-West  and  British  Columbia  than  in  a  three  or  four 
roomed  house  in  a  back  tenement  in  Montreal  ;  and  the  general 
sanitary  conditions  are  without  doubt  superior.  Mr.  Ames  has 
taken  the  provision  of  water  closets  as  his  test,  and  shews  how 
a  smaller  house  with  sanitary  conveniences  may  rent  for  as  much 
as  a  larger  without  them.  But  his  investigation  was  confined  to 
a  section  of  Montreal  only.  For  the  rest  of  the  city,  and  for  the 
Dominion  as  a  whole,  we  must  rest  content  with  a  less  satisfac- 
tory test,  viz.,  the  number  of  rooms,  the  material  of  construc- 
tion, the  number  of  stories,  the  number  of  families  in  each 
house,  and  the  number  of  persons  to  a  house  and  to  a  room. 

The  average  house  in  Canada  is  constructed  of  wood,  is  of 
one  story,  or  a  story  and  a  half,  contains  probably  from  5  to  10 
rooms,  more  likely  5  than  10,  and  accommodates  under  its  roof 
1.08  families,  or  5.6  persons,  and  thus  gives  the  standard  accom- 
modation— one  room  one  person.  The  standard  of  accommodation 
is  rising.  In  1881  there  were  1.10  families  under  each  roof  and 
5.8  persons.  The  one  story  house  seems  to  be  going  out  of 
fashion,  for  while  39  per  cent,  of  all  the  inhabited  houses  are  one 
story  buildings,  more  than  50  per  cent.  (23,227  out  of  46,000 
classified)  of  the  uninhabited  houses  are  of  one  story  only,  and 
33  per  cent,  only  (2,704  out  of  8,077  enumerated)  of  the  houses 
under  construction.  (Census  Bulletin,  No.  6).  It  is,  moreover, 
a  well  recognized  fact  that  the  sanitary  conveniences  are  being 
improved.  So  that  we  may  conclude  that  the  people  of  Canada 
are  receiving  better  value  for  their  money,  or  that  through 
increased  prosperity  they  are  able  to  spend  a  larger  absolute 
amount  in  house  rent  though,  perhaps,  the  percentage  of  their 
expenditure  on  house  rent  is  decreasing. 

*The  poor  probably  pay  more  for  rent,  according  to  this  standard,  than  the  rich 
It  has  been  found  by  comparison  in  Vienna  that  in  a  house  in  one  of  the  slum  districts 
each  cubic  metre  of  air  space  cost  3  fl.  24  kr.,  while  in  a  house  in  the  most  fashionable 
Ringstrasse,  and  on  the  first  floor,  the  cubic  metre  cost  2  fl.  85  kr.  only.  (Schonberg's 
Handbuch,  I.,  p.  700.) 


CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON. 


19 


Wooden  houses  constitute  81.6  per  cent,  of  the  total  number ; 
brick  houses  15.34,  and  stone  houses  3.1.  The  brick  and  stone 
houses  are  probably  mainly  in  the  larger  cities  and  occupied  by 
the  wealthier  classes.  Thirty-nine  per  cent,  of  the  total  houses 
inhabited  are  of  one  story,  while  43  per  cent,  of  the  wooden 
houses  are  of  that  humble  size,  and  19  per  cent,  and  20  per  cent, 
only  of  the  brick  and  stone  houses  fail  to  reach  the  dignity  of  a 
second  story  or  even  of  an  additional  half  story.  The  story  and 
a  half  and  two  story  buildings  are  57  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  but 
60  per  cent,  of  the  stone  and  67  per  cent,  of  the  brick  houses 
are  of  these  dimensions.  Of  the  houses  which  have  three  stories 
or  more  14,211,  or  59  per  cent,  are  brick,  4,658,  or  19  per  cent, 
are  stone,  and  5,746  only,  or  22  per  cent.,  are  of  wood. 

The  Census  Reports  do  not  enable  us  to  discover  whether 
there  is  a  larger  number  of  rooms  or  of  stories  in  a  stone  or  brick 
house  then  in  a  wooden  house.  Probably,  the  advantage  in  size 
is  in  favor  of  the  stone  and  brick  houses  ;  but  there  is  no  definite 
information  on  the  subject,  and  we  must  rest  content  with  the 
statement  given  in  the  Census  Report,  1891  (Vol.  IV.,  Table  A., 
pp.  378,  379)  of  the  percentage  of  houses  of  different  sizes  in  the 
several  provinces  of  the  Dominion  : — 


PERCENTAGES  OF  HOUSES  WITH  ROOMS— 

OF  HOUSES  WITH 

STORIES— 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6-10 

11-15 

Over 
15. 

1 

3 

4 

Canada  

2.9 

8.0 

11.0 

15.8 

12.2 

43.3 

5.6 

1.2 

63.5 

33.6 

2.5 

0.4 

Br.  Columbia   . 

21.1 

13.6 

10.2 

13.5 

11.4 

25.9 

2.6 

1.6 

72.4 

26.3 

1.2    0.1 

Manitoba  

12.0 

20.2 

17.3 

17.0 

10.1 

21.4 

1.3 

0.6 

56.9 

42.1 

0.8 

0.2 

N.  Brunswick  . 

2.4 

8.7 

9.8  14.4 

11.6 

43.2 

8.2 

1.7179.9 

16.7 

3.0 

0.4 

NovaScotia..   . 

1.0 

5.4 

8.4 

15.4 

12.9 

50.2 

5.8 

0.9i85.7 

127 

1.5 

0.1 

Ontario  

1.2 

5.1 

7.9 

13.3 

12.7 

52.3 

6.3 

1.21  52.4 

45.11   2.4 

0.1 

P.  E.  Island  .    . 

0.9 

7.3 

9.7 

16.4 

12.8 

45.7 

6.5 

1.7180.8 

17.7 

1.4:   0.1 

Quebec  

3.7 

10.9 

16.2 

20.2 

11.7 

31.2 

4.7 

1.3 

69.8 

25.9 

3.4 

0.9 

The  Territories. 

19.5 

24.3 

16.7 

i:;.:; 

8.1 

14.1 

1.3 

0.7 

66.9 

30.5 

0.5 

0.1 

The  house  accommodation  afforded  varies  from  province  to 
province.  The  largest  percentage  of  brick  houses  occurs  in 
Ontario,  the  smallest  in  Nova  Scotia,  where  99.4  of  the  houses 
are  built  of  wood.  The  largest  percentage,  though  not  the 


20 


STATISTICS    OF     EXPENDITURE    AND 


greatest  absolute  number  of  stone  houses,  are  found  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec,  the  smallest,  0.1  per  cent.,  in  British  Columbia, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island.  The  proportion  of 
houses  of  one  story  only  is  greatest  in  the  Maritime  Provinces, 
where  Nova  Scotia  heads  the  list  with  85.7  per  cent.,  and  Prince 
Edward  Island  and  New  Brunswick  follow  with  80.8  per  cent, 
and  79.9  per  cent.  Manitoba  and  Ontario  show  the  largest 
percentages  of  two  story  houses,  while  Quebec  and  New  Brun- 
swick show  the  highest  percentages  of  three  storied  dwellings. 
Quebec  contains  73  per  cent,  of  all  the  4-storied  buildings  in 
Canada;  and  twice  as  high  a  percentage  of  the  buildings  in  the 
province  are  of  that  height  or  higher  as  in  any  other  province. 
Quebec  and  the  North-West  Territories  have  highest  average 
number  of  persons  under  one  roof  (6.0),  the  Maritime  Provinces 
coming  next,  and  British  Columbia  giving  the  low  number  of  4.9- 
But  British  Columbia  is  the  province  where  the  largest  number 
of  one-roomed  houses  exist.  Twenty-one  per  cent,  of  the  houses 
there  have  one  room  only,  and  58.4  per  cent,  have  four  rooms  or 
less.  In  Manitoba,  which  stands  next  to  British  Columbia  in  the 
number  of  persons  to  the  house  (5.2),  12.0  per  cent,  of  the  houses 
are  one  roomed,  and  66.5  per  cent,  have  four  or  less.  Prince 
Edward  Island,  on  the  other  hand,  which  crowds  5.9  people  under 
every  roof,  sees  that  they  have  some  room  under  it, for  less  than 
one  per  cent.  (0.9)  of  her  houses  are  of  one  room,  and  65.3  of  her 
houses  have  more  than  four  rooms. 

These  facts  are  collected  in  the  following  table  : — 
COMPARISON  OF  HOUSE  ACCOMMODATION  IN  THE  PROVINCES. 


Stone 
Houses. 

Brick 
Houses. 

Wooden 
Houses. 

One 
room. 

4  rooms  or 

less. 

Persons 
under  one 
roof. 

Canada  

30 

15  4 

81  5 

2  9 

37  7 

5  6 

British  Columbia.. 
Manitoba  

0.1 
09 

2.3 

3  7 

97.6 
95  2 

21.1 
12  0 

58.4 
66  5 

4.9 
^  2 

New  Brunswick.  ,  . 
Nova  Scotia  
Ontario  

0.1 
0.2 
33 

lie 

0.3 
21  1 

98.2 
99.4 

7T  ^ 

2.4 
1.0 
1  2 

35.3 
32.2 
27  5 

5.8 
5.7 
5  2 

Pr.  Edward;  Island 
Quebec  

0.1 
5  0 

0.4 

no 

99.5 

77  1 

0.9 

q  7 

34.7 

Kf)  0 

5.9 
fi  n 

The  Territories  

1.0 

1.0 

96.0 

19.5 

73.8 

6.0 

CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON.  21 

From  these  figures  it  is  possible  to  construct  an  index  number 
which  shall  express  the  relative  house  accommodation  of  the 
various  provinces  more  readily  than  the  actual  figures.  There 
are  four  possible  tests  within  our  reach  : — The  material  of  which 
the  dwelling  is  constructed,  the  number  of  rooms  it  contains,  the 
number  of  stories  in  it,  and  the  number  of  people  who  inhabit 
it.  But  these  are  obviously  not  all  ot  equal  importance.  The 
number  of  rooms  is  of  much  greater  importance  than  the  number 
of  stories.  A- house  of  five  rooms  with  only  one  story  is  better 
than  a  house  of  three  or  four  rooms  with  a  story  and  a  half  or 
two  stories  ;  and  for  many  purposes  it  is  indifferent  whether  the 
house  is  built  of  wood  or  of  stone,  or  brick.  The  material  out  of 
which  a  house  is  built  is  determined  sometimes  by  the  relative 
cheapness  of  materials  on  the  spot  and  sometimes  by  municipal 
regulations  about  a  fire  district.  But  from  the  figures  quoted 
above,  it  is  evident  that  a  stone  or  brick  house  is  at  least  more 
fashionable  than  a  wooden  house  ;  and  in  the  slum  districts  of 
our  cities  the  worst  houses  are  built  of  wood.  We  must  allow 
some  importance  to  these  two  considerations;  but  not  by  any 
means  as  much  as  to  the  others.  If  to  the  two  taken  together 
we  allow  half  as  much  importance  as  to  each  of  the  others,  taken 
separately,  we  will  not,  perhaps,  exaggerate  its  importance  ;  but 
in  case  of  error,  the  index  number  will  be  stated,  both  including 
and  excluding  these  minor  considerations.  The  figures  quoted 
above  are  taken  negatively,  i.  e.,  instead  of  saying  how  many 
houses  have  fou.r  rooms  or  less,  we  calculate  on  the  number  of 
houses  which  have  more  than  four  rooms ;  but  this  is  a  matter 
of  arithmetical  detail.  The  average  for  Canada  is  expressed  as 
100  in  the  cases  of  the  number  of  houses  containing  more  than 
four  rooms  and  of  the  number  of  persons  in  each  house,  and  by 
50  in  the  case  of  the  two  minor  considerations  : — 


22 


STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 


%  of  houses 
with  more 
than  four 
rooms. 

Index  No. 

n 

83 

<D  o 

&J3 
&S 

Index  No. 

%  of  houses 
of  more 
than  one 

story. 

%  of  houses 
of  material 
other  than 
wood. 

Index  No. 

Canada  

62.3 

100 

5.6 

100 

36.5 

18.5 

50 

Brit.  Columbia 
Manitoba  
N.  Brunswick. 
Nova  Scotia  .  . 
Ontario  

41.6 
33.5 
64.7 

67.8 
72.5 

66.7 
537 
102.2 
107.2 
116.3 

4.9 
5.2 
5.8 
5.7 
52 

114.6 
107.6 
96.4 
98.4 
107.6 

27.6 
40.1 
20.1 
14.3 
47.6' 

2.4 

4.8 
1.8 
0.6 
24.5 

19.6 
33.7 
16.1 
10.6 
65.7 

P.  E.  Island  .  . 
Quebec  .... 

65.3 
50.0 

104.8 
80.2 

5.9 
6.0 

94.9 
93.3 

19.2 

30.2 

0.5 
22.9 

13.8 
51.2 

Territories  

26.2 

42.0 

6.0 

93.3 

33.1 

4.0 

28.1 

The  index  of  relative  bouse  accommodation  of  the  provinces 
would  be  therefore  according  as  we  did  or  did  not  include  the 
minor  considerations  expressed  in  the  first  or  in  the  second 
column  below  : — 


Two  Considerations. 

Four  Considerations. 

Canada  

200 

250 

British  Columbia  

181  3 

1999 

Manitoba  .     

161.3 

1950 

New  Brunswick  

198.6 

214  7 

Nova  Scotin  

2056 

2162 

Ontario  

223.9 

2896 

Prince  Edward  Island.  . 
Quebec    .  . 

199.7 
173  5 

213.5 
2247 

Territories  

1353 

163  4 

The  inclusion  of  the  minor  considerations  reduces  the  rank 
of  all  the  Maritime  Provinces,  and  raises  Quebec  from  one  of  the 
lowest  to  the  second  place,  and  still  further  increases  the  lead  of 
the  Province  of  Ontario.  In  all  probability  the  index  number 
depending  on  the  two  considerations  alone  gives  the  fairest 
representation  of  relative  housing  in  the  various  provinces. 

Though  the  item  of  food  continues,  whatever  the  income,  ta 
absorb  the  largest  share  of  individual  and  national  income,  our 
information  on  this  point  is  far  from  being  complete.  Practically 
we  may  say  that  so  far  as  the  foodstuffs  consumed  in  Canada  are 
produced  in  Canada  we  have  no  adequate  information.  Esti- 


CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON.  23 

mates  have  been  made  of  the  consumption  of  wheat  and  potatoes  ; 
but  too  much  reliance  should  not  be  placed  upon  them.  The 
consumption  of  meat  might  be  approximately  estimated  after  an 
elaborate  calculation,  taking  into  account  exports  and  imports 
and  annual  mortality  among  farm  stock  ;  but  to  give  the  esti- 
mate even  a  semblance  of  accuracy  we  require  to  have  at  least  as 
complete  an  enumeration  of  the  stock  in  the  country  during 
successive  years  as  we  have  for  the  isolated  census  years.  Of 
the  consumption  of  fish  and  game,  of  butter  and  eggs,  and  milk 
and  cheese  and  vegetables,  we  have  no  means  whatever  of  form- 
ing an  estimate  ;  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  an  estimate 
can  be  formed  so  long  as  45  per  cent,  of  the  population  are 
engaged  in,  or  dependent  on,  agriculture.  The  only  accurate 
statistics  we  have  of  the  consumption  of  food  are  those  relating 
to  articles  not  produced  in  Canada  at  all,  or  produced  under  such 
conditions  that  the  whole  industry  is  under  the  constant  super- 
vision of  the  government.  We  can  tell  how  much  tea  and  sugar 
and  coffee,  how  much  beer  and  spirits  and  tobacco,  how  much  wine 
and  dried  fruit  is  consumed  in  Canada  ;  and  it  is  fortunate  that 
these  are  the  articles,  the  large  consumption  of  which  indicates 
prosperity.  We  are  not  concerned  with  the  ethical  question 
whether  the  consumption  of  spirits  is  right  or  wrong.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  and  many  a  Finance  Minister  has  had  to  confess 
it  with  chastened  sorrow,  an  increased  consumption  of  intoxi- 
cants is  a  sign  of  increasing  prosperity. 

Bread  stuffs  and  meats  are  for  English  speaking  people 
necessities,  and  a  diminution  in  the  quantity  would  indicate,  or 
at  least  might  indicate,  increasing  prosperity.  The  poorer  a 
nation  or  a  family  is  the  larger  the  proportion  of  its  income  it 
spends  on  bread  and  potatoes.*  This  is  one  of  the  established 

'Prof.  Lexis,  in  his  article  on  Consumption,  Schonberg's  Handbuch  I.,  697  n. quotes 
the  following  estimate  of  the  distribution  of  expenditure  on  food  by  various  classes  : — 

Expenditure  on  Food.  Bread.  Potatoes.  Meat. 

(6  persons)  2,175  marks                        14.9  4.1  26.5 

4  persons)  1.285      "                             10.6  2.4  290 

688      "                             31.3  '  4.8  17.0 

403      "                            38.7  10.3  11.6 

395      "                             39.4  15.9  3.5 


24 


STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 


conclusions  of  the  theory  of  consumption  ;  and  it  stands  to  reason 
that  the  more  of  the  luxuries  of  the  table  a  family  consumes  the 
less  need  has  it  for  the  grosser  necessaries.  But  this  conclusion 
must  be  taken  to  apply  to  percentages  rather  than  to  absolute 
amounts  ;  for  where  the  great  majority  of  the  population  are  in 
the  condition  of  working  class  people,  prosperity  may  show  itself 
both  in  a  decreasing  percentage  and  in  an  increasing  absolute 
amount.  With  a  better  use  of  the  consumption  power  at  their 
command,  probably  the  working  classes  in  America  would  come 
to  consume  less  of  the  grosser  necessaries  of  bread  and  potatoes 
and  meat,  and  rise  to  a  higher  conception  of  well-being  than 
mere  profusion.  The  large  consumption  of  bread  stuffs  in  the 
exporting  countries  i-»  due  to  profusion  rather  than  to  a  low 
standard  of  living.  It  exists  alongside  of  a  large  consumption 
of  the  comforts  and  commoner  luxuries  of  the  table. 

Speaking  in  general  terms,  Europeans  eat  more  bread  and 
potatoes  than  Americans.  Australians  consume  more  meat  and 
less  bread  and  potatoes  than  either  the  Americans  or  the  Euro- 
peans. In  Canada  the  consumption  both  of  bread  and  potatoes 
is,  according  to  statistics,  high,  probably  much  too  high,  consider- 
ing the  standard  of  living  common  in  the  community.  In  the 
Statistical  Year  Book  for  1891  the  average  consumption,  calcu- 
lated by  deducting  the  net  exports  and  the  estimated  amount 
retained  for  seed  from  the  estimated  crop  during  the  10  years, 
1881-1891,  is  given  as  6.75  bushels  per  head  : — 

CONSUMPTION  PER  HEAD,  IN  BUSHELS. 


1881 

6.48 

1884 

8.96 

1888 

6.02 

1882 

8.19 

1885 

7.41 

1889 

5.38 

1883 

6.16 

1886 

5.70 

1890 

6.60 

1887 

6.63 

But  the  authors  of  this  estimate  do  not  themselves  place 
much  reliance  on  it ;  and  if  it  were  accurate,  one  would  almost 
be  justified  in  inferring  that  in  the  lean  years  Canada  was  on 


CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON.  25 

the  verge  of  starvation  ;  for  the  consumption  varies  more  than 
three  bushels  and  a  half.  The  probability  is,  as  the  authors 
suggest,  that  the  crop  estimates  are  by  no  means  accurate.  In 
the  following  year,  in  1892,  this  estimate  is  dropped,  and  a  com- 
parative estimate  of  the  consumption  of  wheat  per  head  in  various 
countries  gives  Canada  an  average  consumption  of  5.5  bushels  per 
head,  which  is  continued  down  till  1895,  the  last  year  in  which 
this  comparative  estimate  appears.  The  estimate  continues  to  be 
put  forward  as  an  approximation  only  ;  but  no  reason  is  offered 
for  the  reduction  from  6.75  to  5.5  bushels. 

The  consumption  of  potatoes  may  be  estimated  in  the  same 
way  for  the  single  year  3891,  the  census  year.  This  gives  an 
average  consumption  of  10  bushels  per  head,  or  about  600  pounds 
— undoubtedly,  by  comparison  with  other  nations  which  have  a 
similar  or  a  lower  standard  of  living,  an  excessive  estimate.  If 

c5  J 

the  estimates  framed  annually  by  the  Statistical  Bureaus  of 
Ontario  and  Manitoba  are  scarcely  trustworthy,  the  casual  esti- 
mates of  a  census  enumerator,  or  of  the  farmer  he  questions,  are 
still  less  likely  to  be  trustworthy  ;  and  all  such  estimates  are 
liable  to  err  on  the  side  of  excess. 

Mr.  Mulhall  gives  the  annual  consumption  of  meat  in  Canada 
at  90  Ibs.  per  head,  as  compared  with  109  Ibs.  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  150  Ibs.  in  the  United  States,  and  276  Ibs.  in  Australia  ; 
but  imagination  fails  to  suggest  the  source  from  which  such  an 
estimate  can  be  made  for  Canada. 

The  statistics  at  our  disposal  regarding  the  consumption  of 
certain  typical  comforts  arid  luxuries,  is  as  full  as  occasion 
requires,  and  as  accurate  as  returns  made  at  the  customs  or  to  the 
internal  revenue  officers  usually  are.  The  list  might  be  made 
indefinitely  long,  but  we  confine  ourselves  to  such  as  are  typical 
and  in,  fairly  common  use, — sugar  and  tea  and  coffee,  wine  and 
beer,  and  spirits  and  tobacco.  Dried  fruit  we  shall  also  include, 
selecting  that  rather  than  green  fruit,  the  extension  in  the  use  of 
which  is  one  of  the  best  si<*ns  of  a  prosperous  consumption, 
because,  in  the  case  of  green  fruits,  we  have  estimates  of  value 
only  which  can  be  used,  while  the  quantity  of  dried  fruits  can 


26 

be  more  readily  estimated  in  a  single  one  of  the  tables  of  weights 
and  measures.  The  tables  from  which  the  per  capita  consumption 
of  suerar,  tea.  coffee  and  dried  fruit  has  been  calculated,  were 

O         ' 

compiled  from  the  Annual  Sessional  Papers  on  Trade  and  Com- 
merce ;  the  per  capita  consumption  of  beer,  spirits,  etc.,  is  the 
calculation  of  the  inland  revenue  officials,  and  may  be  found  in 
Statistical  Year  Book  for  the  current  year.* 

The  consumption  of  these  articles  is  recognized  as  one  of  the 
best  tests  of  the  prosperity  of  a  country.  The  middle  classes 
everywhere  are  well  provided  with  the  comforts  and  decencies  of 
life,  in  which  class  these  articles  are  placed,  although  sugar  is 
rapidly  becoming  a  necessary  of  life  ;  and  an  extension  of  the 
consumption  of  these  goods  means  that  the  working  classes  are 
consuming  more,  the  middle  class,  it  being  presumed  already, 
using  as  much  as  they  desire.  In  a  country  like  Canada,  where  as 
we  have  seen  there  are  few  extremes  of  wealth,  an  increased 
consumption  means  that  the  whole  body  of  the  people  are  con- 
suming more. 

An  increased  consumption  of  any  article  may  mean  one  of 
three  things, — (1)  it  may  result  from  a  fall  in  price,  which  enables 
the  people  to  consume  more  without  spending  more  ;  (2)  it  may 
mean  a  rise  in  the  average  income,  which  enables  the  people  to 
spend  more  on  one  article  than  they  have  been  doing,  without 
curtailing  their  consumption  of  other  articles;  (3)  it  may  mean 
simply  that  the  form  of  consumption  has  changed  and  that  the 
well-being  of  society  is  the  same,  or  but  slightly  increased.  In 
all  probability,  the  increased  use  of  cccoa,  from  the  value 
of  $44,249  in  ISSOf  to  $158,849  in  1896  has  been  due  to  a 
mere  change  in  the  form  of  consumption  ;  and  the  addition  of 
this  amount  to  the  consumption  of  the  community  probably  does 
not  indicate  a  corresponding  increase  of  spending  power.  Tha 
increase  in  the  use  of  sugar  and  tea  is  due,  not  to  increased 


*I  take  this  opportunity  of  acknowledging  my  indebtedness  to  the  Dominion 
Statistician,  Mr.  George  Johnson,  whose  work  I  have  freely  used  in  the  preparation  of 
this  paper. 

tAverage  of  three  years. 


CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON. 


27 


spending  power,  but  almost  entirely  to  a  fall  in  price.  The  per 
capita  consumption  of  1896,  47  Ibs.  of  sugar  and  4.4  Ibs.  of  tea> 
cost  no  more  than  the  26  Ibs.  of  sugar  and  the  2.7  Ibs.  of  tea  in 
the  year  1880.  The  increased  use  of  tobacco,  of  coffee,  and  the 
but  slightly  decreased  consumption  of  spirits,  in  spite  of  a  large 
rise  in  price,  indicate  a  larger  spending  power.  An  attempt  has 
been  made  in  the  third  of  the  following  tables  to  indicate  how 
far  the  increased  consumption  is  due  to  a  fall  in  prices,  the  prices 
being  taken  from  a  table  of  Montreal  prices  given  in  the  Statisti- 
cal Year  Book  of  1896. 

CONSUMPTION  PER  CAPITA  OF  CERTAIN  ARTICLES  IN  CANADA. 


Tea 

(Ibs.) 

Coffee 
(Ibs.) 

Sugar 
(Ibs.) 

Dried 

Fruits  (Ibs). 

Beer 

(gals.) 

Spirits 
(gals  ) 

Wine 

(gals.) 

Tobac- 
co (Ibs)- 

Cigars 
(No) 

1880 
1881 

2.7 
3.8 

0.40 
0.47 

26 
31 

1.9 

3.0 

225 

2.29 

071 
0.92 

0.08 
0.10 

1.94 
2.03 

1882 

4.3 

0.71 

30 

3.4 

2  75 

1.01 

0.12 

2  15 

1883 

4.0 

0.60 

34 

5.0 

2.88 

1.09 

0.13 

2/28 

1884 

38 

0.53 

38 

5.2 

2.92 

1.00 

0  12 

248 

19 

1885 

4.0 

094 

43 

4.1 

2.64 

1  13 

0.11 

262 

17 

1886 

4.9 

0.85 

38 

3.6 

2.84 

071 

0  11 

205 

20 

1887 

38 

0.41 

43 

4.2 

3.08 

0.75 

009 

2.0(5 

18 

1888 

37 

0.60 

43 

4.5 

3.25 

064 

0.09 

2.09 

19 

18S9 

36 

0.66 

47 

4.6 

3.26 

078 

0.10 

2  15 

19 

1890 

3.8 

0.66 

35 

4.7 

3.36 

0.88 

0.10 

2  14 

20 

1891 

3.7 

0.69 

40 

4.8 

379 

0.74 

0.11 

229 

20 

1892 

4.4 

0.73 

'68 

4.7 

3.52 

0.70 

0.10 

2.29 

21 

1893 

36 

0.77 

51 

4.4 

3.48 

074 

0.09 

2.31 

23 

1894 

4.1 

070 

61 

5.3 

3.72 

0.74 

009 

2.26 

23 

1895 

4.0 

0.72 

70 

5.2 

347 

0.67 

0.09 

2.16 

21 

1896 

4.4 

0.70 

47 

5.6 

353 

062 

0.07 

2.12 

21 

These  tables  are  sufficiently  clear  to  explain  themselves  ;  but 
it  should  be  observed  that  for  some  reason  the  year  1880,  which 
has  been  chosen  as  starting  point,  is  an  exceptional  year  of  low 
consumption,  as  we  shall  see  more  clearly  when  we  come  to- 
present  an  Index  No.  of  consumption  ;  and  it  has  the  additional 
disadvantage  of  being  the  year  of  high  prices  in  sugar,  which 
was  then  20  per  cent,  higher  than  in  1875,  and  higher  than  it  has- 
been  since. 


28 


STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 


It  would  be  interesting  to  compare  the  consumption  of  the 
different  provinces;  but  there  are  no  statistics  available  for  such 
a  comparison.  Mr.  Johnson,  in  his  Graphic  Statistics  of  Canada 
(1886)  has  shewn  the  relative  provincial  consumption  of  wine  and 
beer,  and  spirits  and  tobacco,  in  a  graphic  form  ;  and  from  his 
representation  we  learn  that  on  the  average  of  19  years  to  1886, 
each  inhabitant  of  Ontario  drank  1.11  gals,  of  spirits,  0.4  gals,  of 
wine,  and  3.2  gals,  of  beer,  and  smoked  1.8  Ibs.  of  tobacco  ;  and 
so  on  for  the  other  provinces  as  in  the  accompanying  table: — 

PER  CAPITA  CONSUMPTION'  ACCORDING  TO  PROVINCES. 


Prov. 

Spirits  (gal.) 

Beer  (gal.) 

Wine  (gal  ) 

Tobacco  (Ibs.) 

Ontario  

1.11 

3  1 

04 

1.8 

Quebec  

1.6S 

1  9 

0.28 

2.4 

New  Brunswick   . 
Nova  Scotia     .... 
P.  E.  Island    .... 
Manitoba  

089 
0.5)3 

o.r>2 

0  68 

0.  66 
0.7 
0.46 

008 
007 
0.03 
0  06 

2  17 
1  7 
1.4 
26 

Brit    Columbia      . 

1.45 

377 

0.62 

3.0 

In  all  probability  this  proportion  holds  in  1898  as  in  1886; 
and  Mr.  Johnson's  conclusions  are  still  true  : — 

"  Ontario  drinks  nearly  three  times  more  beer  than  spirits  ; 
Quebec,  nearly  as  much  spirits  as  beer  ;  New  Brunswick,  more 
spirits  than  beer;  Nova  Scotia,  more  beer  than  spirits  ;  Prince 
Edward  Island,  more  spirits  than  beer  ;  and  Manitoba  and  British 
Columbia,  more  beer  than  spirits,"  p.  .36.  To  which  we  might 
add  that,  according  to  this  shewing,  Prince  Edward  Island  and 
New  Brunswick  are  the  most  temperate  of  the  provinces.* 


*The  consumption  of  spirits  in  the  Maritime  Provinces  and  in  Quebec  i?  probably 
greatly  underestimated.  The  figures  above  shew  only  the  consumption  on  which  duty 
was  paid ;  but  there  has  always  been  a  large  amount  smuggled  into  these  provinces 
from  St.  Pierre  which  exists  practically  as  an  entrepot  for  smuggling.  Probably  15/16ths 
of  the  imports  of  the  island  are  smuggled  into  Canada  and  Newfoundland.  In  1885  the 
amount  intended  to  be  smuggled  exceeded  that  proportion.  It  is  said  that  half  the 
spirits  and  tobacco  consumed  in  Quebec  pays  no  duty.  Since  1890  the  import  trade  of 
St.  Pierre  has  fallen  50  per  cent,  in  consequence  of  the  increased  activity  of  the  Cana- 
dian revenue  cruisers  preventing  the  usual  exports. 


CONSUMPTION    IN     CANADA— DAVIDSON. 


'29 


It  is,  unfortunately,  not  possible  to  compare  the  quantities 
consumed  of  the  articles  enumerated  with  their  retail  prices  to 
ascertain  exactly  the  relation  between  prices  and  consumption. 
Where  prices  have  fallen,  it  is  generally  assumed  that  the  whole- 
sale prices  have  fallen  further  and  more  rapidly  than  retail  prices, 
though,  in  the  case  of  sugar,  all  but  the  very  poorest  who  may 
buy  in  very  small  quantities  have  beneh'tted  to  the  full  extent  of 
the  fall.  Where  prices  have  risen,  retail  prices  may  have  risen 
higher  than  wholesale,  or  not  so  far,  according  to  circumstances. 
Tobacco  has  probably  risen  higher  in  retail  price  than  in  whole- 
sale ;  but  the  dealers  in  cigarettes  last  year  were  not  able  to  raise 
prices  to  follow  the  wholesale  price.  The  following  comparison, 
however,  is  with  Montreal  wholesale  prices  as  stated  in  the 
Statistical  Year  Book.  18U6 : — 

CONSUMPTION  AND  PRICES. 


COFFEE 

SUGAR. 

TEA. 

TOBACCO. 

SPIRITS. 

Cx 

C  i 

Ca5 

—   03 

§"3 

cS 

YEAR 

'•£  *• 

•—• 

*S    *• 

i—i 

!2    *• 

_-( 

'£?      „ 

i^ 

^     »• 

M 

P/O 

h 

P/^ 

h 

p.'C 

t^ 

P/O 

^, 

P.'w 

5g 

V 

ft 

S  2 

O 

p. 

Eg 

o 
Pi 

E  g 

o 
A 

£  S 

P- 

E*^ 

CJ 

C£    , 

0 

?""^ 

o 

£3« 

V 

3  ~ 

o 

G   *"• 

0 

s  u 

o 

—  — 

o 

o 

P 

E 

Is 

i 

5s- 

i 

p 

6s 

£ 

1880 

.4 

27  cts. 

26 

104  cts 

2.7 

51 

1.94 

54  cts 

0.71 

$150 

1881 

.47 

25 

31 

10 

3.8 

52 

203 

55| 

0.92 

1.60 

1882 

.71 

23 

30 

94 

4.3 

51 

2.15 

574 

1.01 

1.60 

1883 

.6 

22 

34 

9 

40 

51 

2.28 

47 

1.09 

1.60 

1884 

.53 

21 

38 

7f 

3.8 

51 

2.48 

53^ 

1.00 

1.60 

1885 

.94 

20 

43 

7 

4.0 

51 

2.62 

51 

1.13 

1.67 

lbS6 

.85 

19 

38 

6& 

4.9 

49 

2.05 

53 

0.71 

1  81 

1887 

.41 

24 

43 

6i 

3.8 

43 

2.06 

51 

075 

1  81 

188" 

.6 

25 

43 

7J 

3.7 

45 

2.09 

51 

064 

1  81 

1889 

.66    26 

47 

8 

36 

45 

2.15 

51 

0.73 

1.83 

1890 

.66    |26 

35 

6S 

38 

45 

2.14 

.51 

0.88 

1.84 

18911     -69 

27 

40 

6 

3.7 

42 

229  |53i 

0.74 

2.48 

1892 

.73 

29 

68 

44 

4.4 

39 

2.29 

56 

C.70 

288 

1893 

.77 

29 

PI 

4  A 

3.6 

384 

2.31 

544 

0.74 

2.53 

1894 

.7 

28 

61 

A 

4.1 

384 

2.26 

534 

0.74 

251 

1895 

.72 

27 

70 

4 

40 

354 

2.16 

56 

067 

251 

1896 

.70 

26 

47 

4.4 

334 

2.12 

56 

0.62 

268 

i 

30  STATISTICS    OF    EXPENDITURE    AND 

From  this  table  it  appears  that  though  the  price  of  coffee  has 
not  declined  the  consumption  has  increased  80  per  cent.,  shewing 
at  once  an  increased  desire  for  coffee  and  a  larger  spending  power 
in  the  community.  This  is  probably  a  real  increase  in  the  con- 
sumption of  the  nation  and  not  a  transfer  of  taste  ;  for  cocoa  and 
tea,  the  substitutes  for  coffee,  have  also  been  consumed  in 
increased  amounts,  and  there  has  been  no  such  diminution  of 
consumption  of  alcoholie  drinks,  for  which  coffee  may  be  regarded 
as  a  substitute,  as  would  set  free  such  an  amount  of  consuming 
power  as  would  purchase  the  additional  quantity  of  coffee.  On 
the  contrary,  although  the  consumption  of  spirits  has  declined 
somewhat  (13  per  cent,  since  1880),  more  is  being  spent  on  spirits 
to-day  per  head  than  in  1880.  The  price  has  increased  78  per 
cent.,  and  had  the  consumption  moved  downwards  at  the  same 
rate  as  the  price  moved  upwards,  the  quantity  used  in  1896 
should  have  been  44  per  cent,  less  than  in  1880.  The  decrease, 
instead  of  shewing  a  diminution  of  consumption  power,  indicates 
either  an  increase  of  money  to  spend  or  a  growing  desire  on  the 
part  of  the  people  for  spirits  such  as  would  lead  them  to  transfer 
their  taste  to  alcohol  from  some  other  article.  In  face  of  the 
temperance  sentiment  of  the  country,  it  is  improbable  that  the 
desire  has  increased,  and  we  may  safely  conclude  that  the  relation 
between  consumption  and  prices  of  spirits  indicates  increased 
consumption  power.  The  slight  increase  in  the  consumption  of 
tobacco  (11  per  cent.),  in  spite  of  a  rise  in  price,  points  to  the 
same  conclusion,  viz ,  that  the  nation  is  growing  more  prosperous 
and  has  a  larger  income  to  expend.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
increased  consumption  of  tea  and  sugar  justify  no  such  con- 
clusion. They,  of  course,  indicate  a  higher  level  of  general  well- 
being,  but  not  an  increased  consumption  power  on  the  part  of  the 
community.  They  afford  no  evidence  against  such  an  increase 
of  income  ;  the}'  simply  do  not  afford  any  evidence  in  its  favor. 
The  consumption  of  sugar  has  increased  almost  in  the  same  rates 
as  the  price  has  declined.  The  consumption  of  1895  has  risen  168 
per  cent.;  the  price  has  declined  (1^95  price)  62  per  cent.  The 
consumption  has  risen  just  5  per  cent,  more  than  the  decline  of 


CONSUMPTION    IN    CANADA — DAVIDSON.  31 

price  warranted — if  the  community  was  to  continue  to  spend  the 
same  money  per  head  in  1895  as  in  1880.  Tea,  however  has  not 
increased  so  much  as  the  price  has  declined.  The  consumption 
is  48  per  cent,  greater  than  in  1880,  hut  the  1895  price  is  35  per 
cent,  lower  than  the  1880  price.  To  preserve  the  same  expendi- 
ture of  income  on  this  article  the  consumption  should  have  risen 
54  per  cent,,  or  6  per  cent,  more  than  it  has  risen. 

From  this  comparison  of  consumption  and  prices  it  is  evident 
that  there  has  been  not  only  an  increase  of  well-being  due  to  the 
larger  quantity  of  these  commodities  used,  but  an  increase  of 
consumption  power  as  well,  and  judging  from  the  instances 
before  us,  an  increase  of  consumption  power  of  considerable 
extent.  We  can  carry  the  investigation  a  little  further,  to  find 
out,  so  far  as  figures  can  tell  us,  how  far  the  well-beino-  of  the 

™  O 

community  has  increased.  The  most  obvious  method  of  esti- 
mating this  increase  is  by  constructing  an  index  number  for 
consumption.  Into  the  problem  whether  a  permanent  index 
number  of  consumption  is  possible,  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter; 
the  following  attempt  is  intended  only  as  a  method  of  illustra- 
tion, not  as  an  indication  of  cause.  It  is  the  more  important  to 
state  this  limitation,  as  the  year  1880  was,  as  the  table  shews,  a 
year  of  very  low  consumption — a  fact  which  was  not  apparent  to 
the  writer  till  this  calculation,  the  last  made  for  this  paper,  was 
made.  So  long  as  the  result  is  not  used  by  politicians  for 
partisan  purposes,  and  is  regarded  merely  as  a  summary  of  the 
earlier  table,  it  does  not  matter  much  which  year  is  taken. 

The  method  of  construction  was  to  take  the  seven  articles — 
tea,  coffee,  sugar,  dried  fruits,  spirits,  beer  and  tobacco — as  typical 
of  the  consumption  power  of  the  community,  and  to  take  the 
quantity  consumed  per  head  in  1880  in  each  case  as  equal  to  100 
— the  sum  700  being  taken  as  the  index  number  of  the  consump- 
tion of  that  year.  The  articles  are,  of  course,  not  all  equally 
important,  and  therefore  it  must  be  repeated  that  the  index 
number  is  intended  for  purposes  of  illustration  only  : — 


32     STATISTICS   OF   EXPENDITURE   AND   CONSUMPTION — DAVIDSON. 
INDEX  NUMBER  OF  CONSUMPTION  IN  CANADA. 


YEAR. 

Tea. 

Coffee. 

Sugar. 

Dried  Fruits. 

Spirits. 

Tobacco. 

Beer. 

T'l  Index 
Number. 

18SO 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

700 

1881 

140 

117 

119 

159 

129 

106 

101 

871 

1882 

159 

177 

115 

178 

142 

113 

122 

1006 

1883 

148 

150 

130 

210 

153 

120 

128 

1039 

1884 

140 

132 

146 

273 

141 

131 

129 

1092 

1885 

148 

235 

163 

215 

159 

137 

117 

1174 

1886 

181 

212 

146 

189 

100 

107 

126 

1071 

1887 

140 

102 

163 

221 

105 

lu8 

136 

975 

1888 

137 

150 

J63 

233 

90 

110 

144 

1030 

1889 

133 

165 

180 

242 

109 

113 

144 

1086 

1890 

140 

165 

134 

247 

124 

112 

149 

1071 

1891 

137>   172 

153 

252 

104 

120 

168 

1106 

1892 

1(52 

182 

261 

247 

98 

120 

156 

1226 

1893 

133 

192 

192      231 

104 

124    154 

1130 

1894 

151 

175 

234  •    278 

.104 

118  ;  162 

1222 

1895 

148 

180 

268 

273 

94 

113 

154 

1231 

1896 

167 

175 

180 

294 

87 

111 

155 

1169 

The  year  1880  is  evidently  not  an  average  year,  and  there 
were  probably  trade  influences  at  work  inducing  a  small 
importation.  And  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  figures  on  which 
these  index  numbers  are  originally  based  are  figures  of  trade 
and  not  of  consumption.  In  order  to  attain  something  like  strict 
accuracy  by  eliminating  the  effects  of  anticipatory  importations 
to  avoid  a  threatened  tax,  and  such  like  influences  visible  in 
all  trade  returns,  it  would  be  necessary  to  make  the  consumption 
for  each  year  the  average  of  a  period  of  three  or  four  years — 
thus  the  figures  for  18»6  would  be  the  average  of  1884,  1885 
and  1880  ;  the  figures  for  1887  the  average  of  1885,  188G,  1887. 
But  such  exactitude  would  be  tedious,  and  the  process  might  be 
liable  to  the  objection  that  it  sought  to  attain  a  greater  degree 
of  accuracy  than  the  nature  of  the  subject  admits. 

Within  the  limits  set  down  this  index  number  illustrates  the 
steady  growth  of  the  national  prosperity  and  well-being — a 
movement  not  uniform  or  without  backward  steps — but  none  the 
less  indicating  that  the  command  the  nation  has  over  the  material 
sources  of  satisfaction  has  increased. 


II. — ON  A  TEST,  BY  THE  FREEZING-POINT  METHOD,  OF  THE 
IONIZATION  COEFFICIENTS  DETERMINED  BY  THE  CONDUC- 
TIVITY METHOD,  FOR  SOLUTIONS  CONTAINING  POTASSIUM 
AND  SODIUM  SULPHATES. — BY  E.  H.  ARCHIBALD,  M.  Sc., 
1851  Exhibition  Science  Scholar,  Dalhousie  College, 
Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Communicated  by  Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregor;  Received  September  15th,  1898.) 

The  experiments  described  below  were  undertaken,  at  e 
suggestion  of  Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregor,  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
the  values  of  the  ionization  coefficients  obtained  by  means  of  his 
graphical  method,*  in  the  case  of  a  mixture  of  solutions  of  two 
electrolytes  with  a  common  ion,  by  employing  them  in  the  calcu- 
lation of  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point,  and  comparing  the 
calculated  values  with  values  obtained  by  experiment. 

The  time  at  my  disposal  was  very  limited,  and  in  consequence 
I  was  able  to  make  the  test  only  in  the  case  of  equimolecular 
solutions  of  two  electrolytes.  Potassium  and  sodium  sulphates 
were  selected  as  the  electrolytes,  not  because  of  their  being  the 
most  suitable  for  the  purpose,  but  because  I  had  been  observing 
their  conductivity  and  had  already  obtained  some  of  the  requisite 
data. 

As,  in  determining  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point,  the 
solutions  must  be  at  a  temperature  of  about  0°  C.,  it  was  neces- 
sary that  the  ionization  coefficients  should  be  determined  for 
approximate!}'  the  same  temperature.  Both  the  specific  con- 
ductivities of  simple  solutions  of  the  two  electrolytes  throughout 
the  range  of  concentration  of  the  simple  solutions  used  in 
preparing  the  mixtures,  and  their  equivalent  conductivities  at 
infinite  dilution,  had  therefore  to  be  determined  for  0°  C.,as  well 
as  the  depression  or  the  freezing-point  for  the  mixtures.  In 

*Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  9, 101,  (1895-6). 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— C. 

(33) 


34  IONIZATION    COEFFICIENTS    OF    CERTAIN 

addition,  in  order  to  determine  how  closely  the  depression  in  the 
case  of  simple  solutions  can  be  calculated  by  means  of  ionization 
coefficients  determined  by  conductivity  measurements,  I  observed 
the  depression  in  the  case  of  simple  solutions  also. 

The  work  involved  in  making  the  desired  test  therefore 
included  the  following:  —  (1)  The  purification  or  testing  of 
the  materials  ;  (2)  the  preparation  and  analysis  of  series  of 
simple  solutions  and  the  preparation  of  the  mixtures;  (3)  the 
measurement  of  the  conductivity  of  series  of  simple  solutions 
at  0°  C. ;  (4)  the  determination  of  the  equivalent  conductivity 
at  0°  C.  of  the  two  electrolytes  at  infinite  dilution;  (5)  the 
calculation  of  the  ionization  coefficients  of  the  simple  solutions ; 
(6)  the  measurement  of  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point  for 
the  simple  solutions  ;  (7)  the  calculation  of  the  depression  for 
the  simple  solutions  by  means  of  the  ionization  coefficients 
obtained  from  the  conductivity  measurements  ;  (8)  the  measure- 
ment of  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point  in  the  case  of  the 
mixtures;  (9)  the  determination  of  the  ionization  coefficients  of 
the  electrolytes  in  the  mixtures,  and  (10)  the  calculation  of  the 
depression  of  the  freezing-point  of  the  mixtures  by  means  of 
these  coefficients. 

The   Materials, 

The  salts  were  obtained  as  chemically  pure  from  Eimer  and 
Amend  of  New  York,  and  were  re-crystallized  carefully  three 
times,  after  which  treatment  no  appreciable  impurities  could  be 
detected. 

he  water  used  was  purified  by  Hulett's*  method,  except 
that  a  block  tin  condenser  was  employed  instead  of  a  platinum 
one.  Portions  of  the  distillate  were  treated  in  the  same  manner 
as  to  exposure  to  air,  etc.,  as  a  solution  would  be,  and  their 
conductivity  measured.  It  was  found  to  vary  from  0.88  X  10~10 
to  0.96  X  10~10,  expressed  in  terms  of  the  conductivity  of  mer- 
cury at  0°  C.  It  was  kept  in  bottles  which  had  been  used  for 
this  purpose  for  several  years. 

*Journ.  Phys.  Chem.  1,  91,  (1896). 


COMPLEX    SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.  35 

Preparation  and  Analyses  of  Solutions. 

The  potassium  sulphate  solutions  were  prepared  by  adding 
to  water  a  known  weight  of  anhydrous  salt  which  had  been 
dried  to  constant  weight  in  an  air  bath,  so  as  to  form  a  known, 
volume  of  solution  at  18°  C.  In  the  case  of  the  sodium  sulphate, 
a  solution  was  prepared,  and  analysed  by  gravimetric  determina- 
tion of  the  sulphuric  acid  present  in  a  known  volume  of  solution. 
Several  solutions  of  both  salts  of  different  concentrations  were 
prepared  in  the  above  manner,  and  others  were  prepared  from 
these  by  addition  of  water,  their  concentrations  being  calculated. 
Check  analyses  were  made  whenever  any  portion  had  gone 
through  two  or  three  dilutions,  and  if  found  necessary  the 
calculated  concentrations  were  corrected  from  these  results. 

The  complex  solutions  were  prepared  by  mixing  equal 
volumes  of  the  constituent  solutions  at  18°  C.,  the  same  pre- 
cautions being  observed  for  securing  equality  of  volume  of  the 
constituents  as  are  described  in  a  former  paper  communicated 
to  the  Institute  on  the  conductivity  of  these  salts.* 

The  concentrations  of  the  solutions  at  18°  C.  would,  of  course, 
be  slightly  less  than  their  concentrations  at  0°  C.,  but  with 
solutions  as  dilute  as  those  which  I  used,  the  difference  could 
hardly  affect  the  third  significant  figure. f  I  have  therefore 
regarded  the  concentrations  at  the  two  temperatures  as  the  same. 

As  the  method  of  calculation  required  a  knowledge  of  any 
appreciable  change  of  volume  which  might  occur  on  mixing, 
simple  solutions  of  each  of  the  salts  were  prepared,  and  density 
determinations  were  made  of  such  solutions  before  and  after 
mixing.  These  measurements  were  carried  out  at  18°  C.  with 
Ostwald's  form  of  Sprengel's  Pycnometer.  They  might  be  in 
error  by  about  5  in  the  fifth  decimal  place.  No  change  of  volume 

*Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  9,  291,  (1897-8). 

tFrom  Kerch's  observations  on  the  thermal  expansion  of  solutions  of  potassium 
sulphate  (Wied.  Ann.,  55,  100(1895)),  and  Marignac's  on  sodium  sulphate  (Ann.  Chim 
Phys.,  (1),  22,  385,  (1871)),  I  find  that  the  difference  of  temperature  referred  to  would 
affect  the  third  significant  figure  of  the  concentrations  only  in  the  case  of  the  stronger 
solutions  examined,  and  in  the  case  of  these  only  to  the  extent  of  1  or  2  units.— 
J.  G.  M. 


36  IONIZATION    COEFFICIENTS    OF    CERTAIN 

was  found  to  occur  on  preparing  the  most  concentrated  mixture 
examined,  which  would  appreciably  affect  its  concentration  with 
respect  to  the  two  electrolytes,  when  calculated  on  the  assumption 
that  no  such  change  of  volume  occurred. 

Method  of  Measuring  Conductivity. 

The  method  used  was  Kohlrausch's  Telephone  method,  and 
the  apparatus  was  the  same  as  described  in  the  paper  just 
referred  to. 

Two  electrolytic  cells  were  used,  one  for  strong,  the  other  for 
more  dilute  solutions.  The  first  was  U-shaped  of  the  form 
shown  by  Ostwald  in  his  Physico-Chemical  Measurements,  page 
226,  Fig.  178.  The  second  was  cylindrical,  about  14  cm.  long, 
with  an  internal  diameter  of  3.3  cm.  It  was  provided  with 
circular  electrodes  of  stout  platinum  foil  not  easily  bent.  The 
stout  wire  supports  of  these  electrodes  were  fused  into  glass 
tubes  which  passed  through,  and  were  sealed  to,  the  ebonite 
cover  of  the  cell.  The  electrodes  were  kept  firmly  in  position  by 
means  of  a  rubber  band  passing  over  the  cover  and  around  the 
bottom  of  the  cell.  This  cell  being  long  and  of  the  same 
diameter  throughout,  could,  by  variation  of  the  distance  between 
the  electrodes,  be  used  for  solutions  extending  through  a  wide 
range  of  dilution. 

The  platinizing  of  the  electrodes  was  carried  out  as  described 
in  the  paper  cited  above. 

The  water-bath  described  in  the  above  paper  was  used  for 
these  experiments  also,  modified,  however,  when  working  at  0°  0. 
as  follows  : — A  cylindrical  screen  made  of  wire  gauze  about  15 
cm.  in  diameter  was  hung  from  a.  support  so  as  to  reach  from  the 
top,  to  within  6  or  8  cm.  of  the  bottom,  of  the  bath.  Inside 
this,  the  electrolytic  cell  containing  the  solution  to  be  measured, 
was  placed,  while  outside  was  a  mixture  of  snow  and  a  very 
little  sodium  chloride.  The  screen  thus  prevented  the  snow 
from  coming  into  contact  with  the  cell,  while  the  water  around 
it  could  be  thoroughly  stirred.  By  varying  the  amount  of  salt 
the  temperature  could  be  kept  within  a  twentieth  of  a  degree  of 


COMPLEX    SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.  37 

zero  for  half  an  hour  at  a  time.  An  error  of  this  amount  in  the 
determination  of  the  temperature  of  the  solution  would  cause 
an  error  of  about  0.1  per  cent,  in  the  determination  of  the  resist- 
ance. The  temperature  of  the  room  in  which  the  observations 
were  made  was  from  2°  to  5°  C.  That  one  might  be  sure  that 
the  temperature  of  the  solution  to  be  measured  had  come  to  be 
that  of  the  bath,  measurements  of  the  resistance  were  made  at 
short  intervals,  and  that  reading  taken  which  was  found  to  be 
constant  for  successive  interval*.  The  thermometer  used  was 
graduated  to  tenths  of  a  degree  centigrade,  and  could  easily  be 
read  to  twentieths.  Its  errors  had  recently  been  determined  at 
the  Physik/alisch-Technische  Reichsanstalt,  Berlin. 

The  factor  for  reducing  the  observed  conductivities  to  mer- 
cury units  was  found  by  plotting  observed  conductivities  at  18° 
C.  against  concentrations,  reading  off  from  these  curves  the 
conductivity  values  for  concentrations  examined  by  Kohlrausch, 
and  comparing  them  with  his  results.  The  value  thus  obtained 
was  found  to  be  the  same  for  each  salt  and  to  be  practically 
constant  throughout  the  concentration  range  of  my  experiments. 
As  the  cell  was  of  glass  the  reduction  factor  would  not  be 
appreciably  different  at  0°  C.  from  what  it  was  found  to  be  at 
18°  C.  To  make  sure  that  no  change  occurred  in  the  position  of 
the  electrodes  during  the  course  of  the  experiments  that  would 
appreciably  affect  the  reduction  factor,  every  second  or  third 
solution  was  measured  at  18°  C.  before  reducing  its  temperature 
to  0°  C.,  and  the  value  of  the  conductivity  obtained  was  compared 
with  that  previously  obtained  at  the  same  temperature. 

Determination  of  equivalent  conductivity  at  infinite  dilution 

for  0°  C. 

For  this  purpose  a  series  of  simple  solutions  of  each  electro- 
lyte, of  concentrations  ranging  from  O'OL  to  O'OOOl  gramme- 
equivalents  per  litre,  were  prepared,  and  their  conductivities  were 
measured  both  at  18°  C.  and  at  0°  C.  The  conductivity  of  the 
water  used  in  their  preparation  was  also  measured  at  both  tem- 
eratures  and  subtracted  in  each  case  from  the  conductivity  of 


38 


IONIZATION    COEFFICIENTS    OF    CERTAIN 


the  solution.  The  following  table  gives  the  results  of  the  obser- 
vations together  with  the  values  of  the  temperature  coefficients, 
(/"is  —  i«o)/j"i8-  Concentrations  are  expressed  in  gramme-equiva- 
lents of  anhydrous  salt  per  litre  and  conductivities  in  terms  of 
10~8 times  the  conductivity  of  mercury  at  0°  C.  The  conduc- 
tivities at  18°  were  tested  by  comparison  with  Kohlrausch's 
values,  these  values  when  plotted  on  coordinate  paper  being 
found  to  lie  practically  on  the  same  curve  as  mine. 

TABLE    I. 


POTASSIUM  SULPHATE  SOLUTIONS. 

SODIUM  SULPHATE  SOLUTIONS. 

Concen- 
tration at 
18°C. 

Equivalent 
Conductivity  (/")• 

"ig-^o 

Concen- 
tration at 
18°C. 

Equivalent 
Conductivity  (/")• 

^18-^0 

^18. 

% 

Atl8°C. 

At  0°C. 

At  18°C. 

At  0°C. 

.010 

1099 

687 

.375 

.010 

907 

555 

.388 

.008 

1116 

698 

.375 

.008 

919 

562 

.389 

.005 
.004 
.002 

1142 
1155 
1180 

716 
723 

740 

.373 
.374 
.373 

.005 

946 

577 

.390 

.002 

981 

596 

.393 

.001 

1206 

757 

.372 

.001 

997 

604 

.394 

.0008 

1213 

762 

.372 

.0008 

1003 

607 

.395 

.0006 

1221 

768 

.371 

.0006 

1008 

609 

.396 

.0005 
.0004 
.0002 

1225 
1230 
1240 

771 
775 

781 

.371 
.370 
.370 

.0005 

1012 

611 

.396 

.0002 

1027 

620 

.396 

.0001 

1248 

786 

.370 

.0001 

1036 

626 

.396 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  temperature  coefficients  for  potas- 
sium sulphate  solutions  diminish  with  increase  of  dilution 
while  those  for  sodium  sulphate  increase.  This  result*  was  so 


*  The  results  of  this  table  are  in  close  agreement  with  those  obtained  by  Deguisne 
(Dissertation,  Strassburg,  1895),  of  which  Mr.  Archibald  was  not  aware.— J.  G.  M. 


COMPLEX    SOLUTIONS — ARCHIBALD.  39 

^unexpected  that  I  thought  it  well   to  repeat  the  observations, 
the  result  being  substantiated  by  the  repetition. 

It  will  be  seen  also  that  in  both  cases  the  coefficients  reach 
constant  values  as  concentration  is  diminished,  in  the  case  of 
\  K2  SO4  from  a  concentration  of  '0004  on,  in  that  of  \  Na2S04 
from  "0006  on.  Assuming  then  that  theee  values  will  hold  for 
infinite  dilution,  the  equivalent  conductivities  at  infinite  dilution 
for  0°  C.  may  be  determined  from  Kohlrausch's  values*  for  18°C, 
Viz.,  1270xlO-8  and  1070xlO-8  for  |K2  S04  and  \  Na2  S04 
respectively.  They  were  found  thus  to  have  the  values  800  X 
10~8  and  646  X  10— 8  respectively,  expressed  in  terms  of  the 
conductivity  of  mercury  at  0°C. 

Determination   of  the   lonization  coefficients   of  simple 

solutions. 

Both  for  the  purpose  of  finding  how  closely  the  lowering  of 
the  freezing  point  could  be  calculated  for  simple  solutions  and 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  ionization  coefficients  of  the 
electrolytes  in  the  mixtures,  it  was  necessary  to  know  the 
ionization  coefficients  of  a  sufficiently  extended  series  of  simple 
solutions  of  the  two  electrolytes.  The  following  table  contains 
the  observations  of  conductivity  made  for  this  purpose,  together 
with  the  values  of  the  ionization  coefficients  calculated  on  the 
assumption  that  for  simple  solutions  they  are  equal  to  the  ratios 
of  the  equivalent  conductivity  to  the  equivalent  conductivity  at 
at  infinite  dilution.  The  table  gives  also  the  ionization  coeffi- 
cients at  18°C.  obtained  from  the  conductivity  observations 
of  former  papers,  f  These  quantities  'are  not  needed  for 
the  present  purpose.  But  the  knowledge  of  the  ionization 
coefficients  at  0°  enables  us  to  determine  how  in  the  case  of 
the  electrolytes  under  consideration  the  state  of  ionization 
in  simple  solutions  varies  with  the  temperature.  Concen- 
tions  and  conductivities  are  expressed  in  terms  of  the  same  units 
as  in  Table  I. 

*Wied.  Ann.,  50,  406,  (1893). 

t  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  9,  291  and  307,  (1897-8.) 


40 


IONIZATION    COEFFICIENTS    OF    CERTAIN 


TABLE    II. 


Concentration 
at  18JC. 

Equivalent  Conductivity 
at  0°C. 

lonization   Coefficients. 

K2S04. 

Na2SO4. 

i  K2SO4. 

£Na2SC>4. 

At  18°C. 

At  0°C. 

At  18'C. 

At  0°C. 

.050 

604.2 

486.0 

.757 

.755 

.733 

.752 

.055 

598.0 

480.0 

.750 

.748 

.728 

.743 

.060 

594.1 

475.5 

.745 

.743 

.723 

.736 

.070 

585.4 

466.5 

.736 

.732 

.715 

.722 

.080 

577.5 

460.0 

.723 

.722 

.703 

.712 

.100 
.125 
.150 
.200 

'       564.0 
547.5 
535.0 
516.0 

448.5 
434.0 
422.5 
403.1 

.706 

.705 
.684 
.669 
.645 

.686 

694 
.672 
.654 
.624 

.650 

.601 

.250 

503.0 

387.4 

.634 

.629 

.586 

.600 

.300 

493.0 

373.5 

.620 

.616 

.570 

.578 

.350 

485.0 

362.4 

.605 

.606 

.556 

.561 

.400 

478.0 

353.0 

.595 

.598 

.545 

.546 

.450 

473.0 

345.5 

.587 

.591 

.533 

.535 

.500 

470.0 

339.6 

.580 

.588 

.522 

.525 

.600 

466.0 

330.0 

.567 

.583 

.506 

.511 

.700 

464.0 

324.2 

.551 

.580 

i 

.498 

.501 

It  appears  from  these  results  that  in  the  case  of  solutions  of 
potassium  sulphate  the  ionization  coefficient  increases  very 
slightly  with  rise  of  temperature  between  0°  and  18°C  from  a, 
concentration  of  0.05  to  one  of  about  0.35,  and  that  from  this 
ntration  to  one  of  at  least  0.7  it  decreases,  the  magnitude  of 
the  decrement  increasing  rapidly  with  the  concentration,  and 
amounting  at  a  concentration  of  0.7  to  5  per  cent.  In  the  case 
of  sodium  sulphate,  the  coefficient  diminishes  with  rise  of 


COMPLEX  SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.  41 

temperature  throughout  the  whole  range  of  concentration 
observed,  the  amount  of  the  decrement  diminishing  with  increase- 
of  concentration,  until  at  a  concentration  of  0.7  it  is  only  0.6 
per  cent. 

Method  of  measuring  Depression  of  the  Freezing-point. 

Of  the  different  methods  described  for  the  determination  of. 
the  freezing  point  of  salt  solutions,  that  of  Loomis*  appeared  to 
me  the  best,  and  to  give  the  most  concordant  results.  His 
method  was  accordingly  followed  in  making  the  measurements 
below. 

As  it  is  most  essential  that  the  temperature  of  the  room 
where  the  observations  are  made  should  be  near  zero  and  as 
constant  as  possible,  the  measurements  were  carried  out  during 
the  winter  months  in  a  basement  room  of  Dalhousie  College 
building,  where  it  was  found  possible  to  keep  the  temperature 
below  2°C  and  constant  to  within  0.5  of  a  degree  for  a  couple  of 
hours  at  a  time.  No  measurements  were  made  while  the  tem- 
perature of  the  room  was  above  2°C. 

The  thermometer  was  of  the  ordinary  Beckman  form, 
graduated  to  0.01  of  a  degree.  No  reading  microscope  being 
available,  I  had  to  be  satisfied  with  the  use  of  an  ordinary  hand 
lens  for  this  purpose.  Neveitheless,  as  the  divisions  of  the 
scale  were  about  0.6  mm.  in  length,  I  am  quite  satisfied  that 
I  was  able  to  read  the  temperatures  to  at  least  .001  degree. 
The  following  readings  of  the  thermometer  made  in  an  experi- 
ment for  determining  the  freezing  point  of  water  would  seem  to 
imply  that  I  succeeded  in  reading  'even  more  closely  : — 2.3415, 
2.3410,2.3420,2.3415,  2.3420.  Mean  reading,  2.341C.  Greatest 
divergence  from  mean,  .0006. 

The  thermometer  had  never  been  calibrated,  and  as  appara- 
tus for  this  purpose  was  not  available,  I  did  not  attempt  to 
calibrate  it  myself.  The  length  of  scale  used  for  the  following 
measurements,  however,  was  less  than  what  corresponded  to 
1.4  degree,  and  for  the  more  dilute  solutions,  say  below  0.1 

*  Phys.  Review,  1,  199  and  274  (1893)  and  3.  270  (1896). 


42  IONIZATION    COEFFICIENTS    OF    CERTAIN 

gramme-equivalent  per  litre,  less  than  what  corresponded  to  0.2 
of  a  degree. 

The  freezing  and  melting  baths  were  each  of  earthenware, 
about  32  cm.  long  and  with  an  internal  diameter  of  about  9 
cm.  In  the  former  was  a  mixture  of  snow  and  water  with 
enough  common  salt  added  to  keep -the  temperature  at  about 
— 12°C.  The  latter  contained  a  mixture  of  snow  and  water,  the 
temperature  of  which  was  about  0.2°C. 

The  protection  bath,  which  was  of  glass  35  cm.  deep  and  8 
cm.  in  diameter,  was  provided  with  a  covering  of  felt  to 
minimize  the  effect  of  the  surrounding  air.  It  contained  a  mix- 
ture of  snow  and  water  with  sufficient  salt  added  to  keep  the 
temperature  from  0.3  to  0.28  degree  below  the  freezing  point  of 
the  solutions  to  be  measured.  After  some  experience  had  been 
gained,  little  trouble  was  found  in  keeping  the  temperature  of 
this  bath  constant  within  a  twentieth  of  a  degree  during  several 
observations  of  any  one  solution. 

The  freezing  tubes  first  tried  were  of   the  following  dimen- 

O  *  J 

sions  : — the  inner  one  22  cm.  long  with  an  external  diameter 
of  2.4  cm.,  the  outer  one  20  cm.  long  with  an  internal 
diameter  of  2.7  cm.,  the  thickness  of  the  glass  of  both  tubes 
being  1  mm.  There  was  thus  an  air  space  of  about  1.5  mm. 
between  the  tubes.  This  was  found  to  be  too  great  as  shewn 
by  its  being  difficult  to  prevent  ice  from  forming  around  the 
bulb  of  the  thermometer  despite  the  most  vigorous  stirring. 
The  next  ones  tried  were  as  follows  : — The  inner  tube  was  28 
cm.  long,  with  an  external  diameter  of  2.7  cm.,  the  outer  tube 
26  cm.  long  with  an  internal  diameter  of  2.85  cm.,  the  thick- 
ness of  the  glass  being  the  same  as  before.  There  was  thus  an 
air  space  of  about  0.7  mm.  between  the  tubes.  This  was  found 
to  be  hardly  enough  as  there  was  a  tendency  for  the  ice  to  form 
on  the  walls  of  the  tube  and  thus  cause  much  delay.  As  I  worked 
with  75  c.c.  of  solution,  the  greater  length  of  these  tubes  allowed 
the  solution  to  be  immersed  well  into  the  bath,  rendering  it 
almost  free  from  the  influence  of  the  outside  temperature.  The 


COMPLEX    SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.  43 

inner  tube  was  therefore  retained  and  an  outer  tube  provided  of 
about  the  same  length  and  thickness  of  walls,  but  with  an 
internal  diameter  of  2.88  cm.,  thus  leaving  an  air  space  of  about 
0.9  mm.  between  the  tubes.  This  gave  complete  satisfaction. 
With  uniform  stirring  no  tendency  was  observed  for  the  ice  to 
form  on  the  walls  of  the  tube  or  on  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer, 
or  to  freeze  in  a  mass.  The  inner  tube  had  its  lower  end 
re-entrant,  as  recommended  by  Lootnis. 

I  should  like  to  draw  attention  to  the  importance  of  having 
the  air  space  between  the  two  tubes  of  the  proper  size.  If  the 
importance  of  this  point  has  been  noted  by  former  observers  it 
has  escaped  me. 

The  hammer  used  for  tapping  the  thermometer  was  part  of  a 
small  electric  bell  and  was  covered  with  a  piece  of  thick  rubber 
tubing.  It  was  found  to  be  very  essential  to  drive  the  hammer 
so  that  the  blows  on  the  thermometer  might  be  of  uniform 
strength.  Some  difficulty  was  met  with  in  attaining  that  end ; 
but  by  careful  attention  to  the  strength  of  the  current  what 
appeared  to  be  sufficient  uniformity  was  attained. 

The  stirrer  was  of  the  ordinary  ring  form,  the  upright  rod 
passing  through  a  glass  tube,  the  upper  end  of  which  was  con- 
stricted, a?id  the  lower  so  far  from  the  solution  that  the  wetted 
portion  of  the  stirrer  could  not  touch  it.  A  stop  on  the  upright 
rod  limited  the  extent  of  the  stroke  so  that  the  ring  would  not 
leave  the  solution,  and  ensured  the  equality  of  the  strokes.  It 
was  worked  by  hand  as  uniformly  as  possible. 

The  over-cooling  was  seldom  over  0.1  degree,  owing  doubt- 
less to  the  low  temperature  of  the  room  in  which  the  observa- 
tions were  made.  There  was  consequently  no  need  of  correcting 
for  over-cooling. 

The  freezing  point  of  water  was  determined  each  day  before 
determining  that  of  the  solutions,  and  in  the  event  of  any 
appreciable  change  occurring  in  the  atmospheric  pressure  during 
the  observations  on  the  solutions,  the  observation  on  water  was 
repeated. 


IONIZATION    COEFFICIENTS    OF    CERTAIN 


Observed  and  Calculated  Values  of  the  Depression  of  the 
Freezing-point  for  Simple   Solutions. 

The  following  table  contains  the  observations  of  the  depres- 
sion of  the  freezing-point  of  simple  solutions,  together  with 
observations  on  solutions  of  about  the  same  concentration  by 
Loomis*  and  Jones-f-  for  comparison.  The  depressions  are 
expressed  in  centigrade  degrees. 

TABLE    III. 


Concentration 
gr.-eq.  /  litre. 

Depression  of  Freezing-point. 

Observer. 

K2SO4. 

Na2SO4. 

.03949 
.04 

.0975 
.0952 

Jones. 
Loomis. 

.0974 

.050 

.118? 

.1191 

Author. 

.055 
.0579 
.060 

.1296 
.1397 
.1407 

.1304 

ii 

Jones. 
Author. 

.1416 

.070 
.  07556 
.080 
.10 
.10 

.1629 
.1792 
.1851 
.2307 
.2271 

.1638 

ii 

Jones. 
Author. 
Jones. 
Loomis. 

.1856 

.2297 

.100 
.116 
.  19685 
.20 

.2285 
.2655 
.42525 
.4317 

.2286 

Author. 

Jones. 
ii 

Loomis. 

.4340 

.200 

.4322 

.4330 

Author. 

.250 

.5295 

.5300 

<( 

.300 

.6240 

.6252 

(C 

.350 

.7196 

.7157 

II 

.40 

.8134 

.8141 

Loomis 

.400 

.8128 

.8100 

Author. 

.450 

.9063 

.8968 

it 

.500 

.9950 

.9875 

« 

.60 

1.1672 

1.1604 

Loomis. 

.600 

1.170 

1.155 

Author. 

.700 

1.341 

1.323 

« 

*  Phys  Review,  3,  277,  (1898). 

t  Ztschr.  f.  phys.  Chem.,  11,  536,  (1893). 


COMPLEX    SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 


45 


It  will  be  seen,  especially  if  the  above  results  be  plotted,  that 
all  three  sets  of  observations  agree  very  well  with  one  another, 
but  that  mine  agree  better  with  Loomis's  than  with  those  of 
Jones.  Their  agreement  with  Loomis's  is  very  close. 

The  following  table  contains  the  observed  and  calculated 
values  of  the  freezing-point  depressions  for  simple  solutions,  with 
the  differences  expresssd  as  percentages  of  the  observed  values. 
In  the  calculations  Van  't  HofF's  constant  was  taken  to  be  1.86, 
and  the  expression  used  for  the  depression  was 

A  =  1.86   (l+2«)   N/2, 

where  N  is  the  concentration  of  the  solution  in  gr.-equivalents 
per  litre. 

TABLE   IV.— DEPRESSION   or  FREEZING-POINT. 


Concentra. 
(gr.-eq.  /  1.) 

Potassium  Sulphate  Solutions. 

Sodium  Sulphate  Solutions. 

Observed. 

Calculated. 

Diff. 
percent. 

Observed. 

Calculated. 

Diff. 
per  cent. 

.050 

.1185 

.1168 

—1.4 

.1191 

.1164 

-2.3 

.055 

.1296 

.1277 

—1.5 

.1304 

.1272 

—  2.5 

.060 

.1407 

.1387 

—1.4 

.1416 

.1379 

-2.6 

.070 

.1629 

.1604 

—1.5 

.1638 

.1591 

-2.9 

.080 

.1851 

.1818 

—1.8 

.1856 

.1803 

—  2.9 

.100 

.2285 

.2241 

—1.9 

.2286 

.2221 

-2.9 

.200 

.4322 

.4259 

—1  5 

.4330 

.4181 

-3.4 

.250 

.5295 

.5250 

—0.8 

.5300 

.5115 

—  3.5 

.300 

.6240 

.6227 

—0.2 

.6252 

.6015 

-  3.8 

.350 

.7196 

.7200 

+  0.1 

.7157 

.6907 

-3.5 

.400 

.8128 

.8169 

+  0.5 

.8100 

.7782 

—  3.9 

.450 

.9063 

.9131 

+  0.8 

.8968 

.8663 

-3.4 

.500 

.9950 

1.0118 

+  1.7 

.9875 

.9532 

-3.5 

.600 

1.170 

1.209 

+  3.3 

1.155 

1.128 

-2.3 

.700 

1.341 

1.406 

+  4.9 

1.323 

1.303 

-1.5 

46  IONIZATION    COEFFICIENTS    OF    CERTAIN 

The  above  table  shews  the  degree  of  accuracy  with  which 
the  depression  of  the  freezing-point  can  be  calculated  in  the  case 
of  simple  solutions.  If  the  ionization  coefficients  for  the  mix- 
tures are  determined  by  Prof.  MacGregor's  method  as  closely  as 
they  are  for  the  simple  solutions  by  putting  a=///u<»,  the  differ- 
ences between  the  calculated  and  observed  values  of  the  depres- 
sions in  the  case  of  the  mixtures  may  be  expected  to  be  no 
greater  than  those  of  the  above  table. 

Depression  of  the  Freezing -point  by  the  Mixtures. 
The  following  Table   contains    the   observed   and   calculated 

CT 

values  of  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point  in  the  case  of  the 
mixtures  examined.  The  observations  were  made  in  the  manner 
described  above.  The  calculations  were  made  by  the  following 
formula  for  which  I  am  indebted  to  Professor  MacGregor  : — 

A=1.86(l+a1+aa)N/2 

where  a^  and  a2  are  the  ionization  coefficients  of  the  respective 
electrolytes  in  the  mixture  and  N  the  number  of  gramme-equiva- 
valents  per  litre  in  the  solutions  mixed,  which  were  in  all  cases 
equimolecular.  This  expression  may  be  readily  obtained  as. 
follows  : — In  each  litre  of  the  mixture  there  will  be  N/4  gramme- 
molecules  of  each  electrolyte.  There  will  therefore  be  (1 — o^)  N/4 
and  (1  —  «2)  N/4  undissociated  gramme-molecules  of  the  respec- 
tive electrolytes,  and,  if  we  assume  the  ionization  in  each  case 
to  be  complete,  3al  N/4  and  3  a2  N/4  free  gramme-ions.  Hence 
the  total  number  of  undissociated  gramme-molecules  and  free 
gramme-ions  will  be  (l  +  al+a2)  N/2,  and  the  expression  for 
the  depression  will  consequently  be  as  above. 

The  first  column  of  Table  V  gives  the  concentration  of  the 
solutions  mixed,  in  gramme-equivalents  of  anhydrous  salt  per 
litre  at  18°C.  The  fifth  and  sixth  columns  give  the  ionization 
coefficients  of  the  respective  electrolytes  in  the  mixture  at  0°C 
as  determined  by  Prof.  MacGregor's  method.  The  second,  third 
and  fourth  give  the  quantities  obtained  directly  by  this  method, 
viz.,  the  common  concentration  of  ions,  and  the  dilutions  of  the 
respective  electrolytes  in  the  mixture.  (By  the  concentration  of 


COMPLEX  SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 


47 


ions  in  the  mixture  is  meant  the  number  of  dissociated  gramme- 
equivalents  of  either  electrolyte  in  any  volume  of  the  mixture 
divided  by  the  volume  of  that  portion  of  the  mixture  which  may 
be  regarded  as  occupied  by  it.  The  dilutions  of  the  electrolytes 
in  the  mixture  are  the  volumes  of  such  portions  divided  by  the 
number  of  gramme-equivalents  of  the  electrolytes  they  contain. 
The  product  of  these  two  quantities  for  each  electrolyte  gives 
the  ionization  coefficient  of  such  electrolyte  in  the  mixture.) 
The  data  of  the  other  columns  are  sufficiently  specified  by  the 
headings. 

TABLE   V. 


Concentration  of 
constituent  so- 
lutions at  18°C. 
(gr.-eq.  perl.) 

Concentration  of 
ions  in  mix- 
ture at  0°C. 

Dilution  in  Mixture 
at  0°C. 

loniza.  Coeffts. 
in  Mixture  at 
0°C. 

Depression  of  Fr.-point. 

iK2S04. 

4Na2S04. 

K2SO4 

Na2SO4. 

Observed 

Calcu- 
lated. 

Diff. 
per  cent. 

.050 

.0377 

20.04 

19.96 

.7555 

.7525 

.1187 

.1166 

-  1.8 

.055 

.0410 

18.22 

18.14 

.7470 

.7437 

.1299 

.1274 

-  1.9 

.060 

.0443 

16.72 

16.60 

.7407 

.7354 

.1411 

.1382 

-  2.1 

.070 

.0509 

14.40 

14.18 

.7330 

.7218 

.1634 

.1598 

—  2.2 

.080 

.0574 

12.60 

12.40 

.7232 

.7118 

.1854 

.1812 

-  2.3 

.100 

.0698 

10.18 

9.92 

.7106 

.6924 

.2284 

.2235 

-  2.1 

.150 

.0998 

6.73 

6.60 

.6717 

.6587 

.3327 

.3250 

—  2.3 

.200 

.1266 

5.10 

4.90 

.6457 

.6203 

.4324 

.4215 

—  2.5 

.250 

.1528 

4.10 

3.90 

.6265 

.5959 

.5295 

.5166 

-  2.4 

.300 

.1784 

3.46 

3.21 

.6173 

.5727 

.6246 

.6110 

—  2.2 

.400 

.228 

2.63 

2.37 

.5996 

.5404 

.8096 

.7961 

-  1.7 

.500 

.227 

2.12 

1.88 

.5872 

.5208 

.9885 

.9802 

—  0.8 

.600 

.327 

1  79 

1.54 

.5853 

'.5036 

1.1604 

1.1657 

+  0.5 

.700 

.376 

1.54 

1.31 

.5790 

.4926 

1.3300 

1.3489 

+   1.4 

48  IONIZATION    COEFFICIENTS. — ARCHIBALD. 

If  we  compare  the  percentage  differences  of  the  above  table 
with  the  corresponding  differences  in  the  case  of  the  constituent 
simple  solutions  (Table  IV,  p.  45),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  former 
are  in  general  equal  to  the  arithmetic  means  of  the  latter.  Hence 
the  depressions  of  the  freezing-point  of  the  mixtures  have  been 
calculated  with  the  same  degree  of  accuracy  as  those  of  the 
simple  solutions. 

The  test  which  has  thus  been  applied  to  Prof.  MacGregor's 
method  of  determining  the  ionization  coefficients  in  a  solution 
containing  two  electrolytes  with  a  common  ion,  and  which  the 
method  has  completely  satisfied,  .is,  however,  not  a  severe  one. 
It  was  intended,  after  the  experiments  on  equimolecular  solu- 
tions, to  take  up  mixtures  of  solutions  of  different  concentra- 
tion with  respect  to  the  two  electrolytes.  Unfortunately  I  was 
prevented  from  doing  so  by  lack  of  time. 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  express  my  thanks  to  Prof. 
MacGregor  for  valuable  suggestions  kindly  given. 


III. — ON  THE  CONDUCTIVITY,  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  SURFACE 
TENSION  OF  AQUEOUS  SOLUTIONS  CONTAINING  POTASSIUM 
CHLORIDE  AND  SULPHATE. — BY  JAMES  BARNES,  B.  A., 

Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

f Communicated  on  May  10th,  1899,  by  Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregorJ 

In  papers  read  before  this  Society  it  has  been  shown  that  it 
is  possible,  by  the  aid  of  the  dissociation  theory  of  electrolytic 
conduction,  to  predict  the  conductivity  and  other  physical  pro- 
perties of  a'  solution  containing  two1  chlorides  or  two2  sulphates, 
with  data  as  to  the  conductivity  and  the  other  physical  properties 
obtained  by  observations  on  simple  solutions  of  these  salts. 

At  Prof.  MacGregor's  suggestion,!  have  carried  out  the  experi- 
ments described  in  this  paper,  with  the  object  of  testing  this 
possibility  for  a  solution  containing  a  chloride  and  a  sulphate 
with  a  common  cation. 

The  electrolytes  selected  were  potassium  chloride  and  sul- 
phate. The  observations  on  conductivity  and  specific  gravity 
were  made  by  the  writer,  while  "Rother's  observations  on  surface 
tension  were  used.  The  observations  were  made  in  the  Physical 
and  Chemical  Laboratories  of  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  during 
the  session  of  J  898-99. 

Apparatus  and  Methods. — Chemical  Analysis. 

The  salts  were  obtained  from  Eirner  &  Amend  of  New  York, 
as  chemically  pure.  They  were  re-crystallized  twice.  No  traces 
of  iron  or  sodium  were  found  in  the  salts.  For  the  detection  of 
iron,  the  ammonium  sulphocyanide  test  was  applied ;  for 
sodium,  the  flame  test. 

The  water  used  in  making  the  solutions  was  puri- 
fied ,  by  boiling  ordinary  distilled  water  with  a  few 

1  Mclntosh,  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  9,  120, 1805-6. 
McKay,  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci..  9,  321, 1897-8. 

2  Archibald,  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  9,  pp.  291,  307,  335. 

3  Wied.  Ann.,  21,  576, 1884. 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— D. 

(49) 


50  ON    THE    CONDUCTIVITY,    SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    AND 

grammes  of  barium  hydroxide  in  a  copper  boiler  lined 
with  tin,  and  condensing  in  a  block  tin  worm.  The  iirst 
portion  of  about  200  cc.  that  came  off,  was  always  thrown 
away.  The  water  thus  purified  had  at  18°  C.  a  conductivity 
ranging  from  .95  x  10~6  to  1.03  X  10~6  expressed  in  aKohlrausch's 
new  unit  (Ohm"1  cm."1) 

The  amount  of  potassium  chloride  in  a  solution  was  deter- 
mined volumetrically  by  Mohr's  method.  Two  solutions  of 
KC1,  about  deci  normal,  were  made  by  direct  weighing  of  the 
pure  fused  salt.  These  were  employed  in  obtaining  a  standard 
solution  of  Ag  NO3.  Weaker  solutions  of  Ag  N03  were 
obtained  by  known  dilution  from  this  standard  one.  Neutral 
potassium  chromate  was  used  as  the  indicator.  The  following 
results  will  show  with  what  accuracy  this  method  of  titration 
could  be  performed  : 

(1)  1  cc.  solution  contained ,   0.02444 

(2)  1  cc.  0.02445 

(3)  1  cc.         "  "          0.02448 


Mean 0.024457 

Thus    it    seems    that    results    which  differed  from  the  mean 
value  by  about  0.1  per  cent  could  be  obtained. 

The  amount  of  potassium  sulphate  in  a  solution  was  deter- 
mined gravimetrically  by  precipitation  writh  barium  chloride. 
Results  in  this  case  were  found  to  differ  about  0.1  per  cent  from 
the  mean  value,  as  shown  in  the  following  example :  , 

(1)  1  cc.  solution  contained 0.05229 

(2)  1  cc.  0.05238 

(3)  I  cc.  0.05235 


Mean 0.05234 

The  burettes  and  pipettes  used  in  the  above  analyses  were 
calibrated  by  the  weight  of  distilled  water  they  delivered.  The 
burettes  had  a  capacity  of  50  cubic  centimetres,  and  were  gradu- 
ated to  a  tenth  of  a  cubic  centimetre.  By  means  of  an  Erdmann 

3  Kohlrausch  u.  Holborn:  Leitvermogen  der  Elektrolyte,  1898,  p.  1. 


SURFACE    TENSION    OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.        51 

float  one  could  read  to  0.1  cc.  Corrections  for  the  volume  of  the 
water  contained  between  every  two  cubic  centimetre  marks 
were  found  and  plotted  on  co-ordinate  paper  against  the  reading. 
The  pipettes  were  all  employed  as  much  as  possible  in  the  same 
way,  and  none  required  less  than  40  seconds  to  flow  out.  Two 
flasks  holding  a  litre  and  a  half  litre  respectively,  were  the  only 
ones  used.  These  were  calibrated  by  the  weight  of  water  they 
held  at  18°  C. 

Measurement  of  Specific  Gravity. 

The  specific  gravity  observations  were  made  with  a  pycno- 
meter  of  the  Ostwald-Sprengel  form,  holding  about  22  cc.  All 
observations  were  made  at  18°  0.  To  obtain  this  temperature  it 
was  necessary,  after  filling  the  pycnometer  with  the  solution  at 
about  this  temperature,  to  place  it  in  the  bath  described  below,  in 
which  the  temperature  remained  at  18°  C.  for  a  considerable  time. 
After  remaining  in  the  bath  fifteen  minutes  or  more  the  meniscus 
was  adjusted  to  the  mark.  If  the  meniscus  now  remained 
stationary  for  a  few  minutes,  the  pycnometer  was  removed, 
carefully  cleaned  and  dried,  and  then  weighed.  The  barometer 
and  thermometer  readings  in  the  balance  case,  where  the  air 
was  kept  as  dry  as  possible  by  means  of  calcium  chloride,  were 
taken,  and  corrections  applied  for  the  buoyancy  of  air.  The 
specific  gravity  of  a  certain  solution  of  potassium  chloride  was 
found  by  this  method  to  have  the  following  values  : 

(1)  1.04455 

(2)  1.04458 

(3)  1.04449 

(4)  1.04450 


Mean  1.04453 

Thus  results  which  differed  by  about   5    in   the  fifth  place  of 
decimals  from  the  mean  value  could  be  obtained. 

Measurement  of  Conductivity. 

The  method  employed   by  Kohlrausch  with  the  alternating 
current  and  telephone  was  used. 


52  ON    THE    CONDUCTIVITY,    SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    AND 

TheWheatstone's  bridge  consisted  of  four  resistance  coils,  which 
were  certified  by  Queen  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  to  be  correct  to 
one-fiftieth  of  one  per  cent,  and  a  platinoid  bridge  wire  wound 
on  a  marble  drum.  This  wire  had  a  resistance  of  about  0.9  ohm, 
and  was  divided  into  ]000  parts,  each  part  being  capable  of  sub- 
division by  the  eye  into  tenths.  It  was  calibrated  before  and 
after  the  observations,  by  ^trouhal  and  Barus's  method,  ten 
german-silver  wires  of  equal  length,  with  ends  firmly  soldered 
into  stout  copper  wire  being  used.  Corrections  were  plotted 
against  the  length,  and  a  smooth  curve  drawn  through  the 
points,  and  thus  intermediate  readings  could  be  corrected.  The 
greatest  correction  found  was  1.2  divisions.  The  small  induction 
coil  used  had  a  very  rapid  vibrator,  and  was  kept  in  an  adjoining 
room,  that  its  noise  might  not  interfere  with  the  clearness  of  the 
sound  minimum  in  the  telephone.  The  telephone  recommended 
by  Ostwald,  and  made  by  Ericsson  of  Stockholm,  was  used. 

With  these  appliances  the  minimum  point  could  be  deter- 
mined to  0.3  of  a  division,  corresponding  to  an  error  of  0.12  per 
cent  in  the  determination  of  the  resistance  at  the  centre  of  the 
bridge,  and  0.16  per  cent  at  the  point  farthest  from  the  centre 
used  in  the  experiments. 

Electrolytic  Cell. 

The  cell  in  which  the  solutions  were  placed  for  the  determina- 
tion of  the  resistance  was  of  the  Arrhenius  form,  a  deep  cylindri- 
cal vessel,  of  diameter  3  cm.,  and  depth  14  cm.  The  electrodes 
were  of  stout  platinum  foil,  firmly  joined  by  heavy  platinum 
wire  to  the  glass  tubes.  These  electrodes  after  being  well-cleaned 
with  alcohol  and  a  strong  solution  of  sodium  hydroxide,  were 
platinized  in  a  solution  of  platinum  chloride  and  lead  acetate. 
This  solution  was  prepared  from  2Lumrner  and  Kurlbaum's 
recipe.  When  the  electrodes  had  received  a  good  coating  of 
platinum  black,  they  were  removed  and  well  washed  in  hot  water. 

Stout  copper  wires,  well  insulated,  connected  this  cell  with 
the  Wheatstone  bridge.  They  had  a  resistance  of  .023  ohm. 

1  Wied  Ann.,  10,  326,  1880. 

2  Wied.  Ann.,  60,  315,  1897. 


SURFACE    TENSION    OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.        53 

These    wires,   and  also   those  between  the  induction  coil   and . 
the  Wheatstone    bridge,  were  run  parallel  and  close  together  to 
diminish  any  effects  from  self-induction. 

Reduction  Factor. 

The  capacity  of  the  electrolytic  cell  was  obtained  by  plotting 
the  conductivities  obtained  against  the  concentrations.  l  Kohl-, 
rausch's  values  of  the  conductivity  for  various  concentrations  of 
the  same  salt  were  plotted  to  the  same  scale  on  the  same  co- 
ordinate paper.  The  ratio  of  the  two  conductivities  for  the  same 
concentration  gives  the  factor  by  which  the  observed  values  are 
reduced  to  the  standard  employed  by  Kohlrausch.  This  ratio 
was  found  to  be  practically  the  same  for  both  electrolytes, 
and  in  the  case  of  both,  constant  throughout  my  range  of 

dilution. 

Bath. 

As  the  conductivity  of  a  solution  varies  with  the  temperature, 
it  was  necessary  to  have  a  bath  whose  temperature  could  be  kept 
constant  for  a  sufficient  time  in  which  to  make  the  measurement. 
Tap  water,  kept  continually  stirred  by  a  mechanical  stirrer 
driven  by  a  small  hydraulic  motor,  made  an  excellent  bath.  A 
thermostat  was  not  found  necessary  ;  for,  as  the  temperature  of 
the  room  was  generally  near  18°  C.,  the  temperature  of  the  bath 
would  not  change  one-fiftieth  of  a  degree  in  thirty  minutes. 
The  thermometer  used  was  graduated  to  a  fiftieth,  and  could 
easily  be  read  to  a  hundredth,  of  a  degree.  This  thermometer 
had  had  its  errors  determined  at  the  Physikalisch-Technische 
Reichsanstalt,  Berlin. 

All  solutions  were  allowed  to  remain  in  the  bath  ten  minutes 
at  least  before  observations  were  taken.  After  a  few  minutes 
another  observation  of  the  resistance  was  taken.  This  was  done 
to  insure  that  the  solution  had  taken  the  temperature  of  the 
bath. 

•  Preparation  of  Sim/ile  Solutions. 

The  method  adopted  was  to  make  up  a  few  solutions  of 
different  concentrations  of  each  salt.  These  solutions  were  care- 

1  Kohl.  u.  Hoi.,  loc.  tit.,  p.  159,  tab.  2. 


54  ON    THE    CONDUCTIVITY,    SPECIFIC    GRAVITY     AND 

fully  analysed.  Seventy-five  cc.  of  a  solution  was  introduced 
into  the  electrolytic  cell,  and  successive  dilutions  prepared  therein 
by  the  withdrawal  of  a  certain  volume  and  the  addition  of  an 
equal  volume  of  water  at  the  temperature  18°  C.  This  process 
was  continued  till  the  dilution  reached  that  of  the  next  formerly 
prepared  solution,  when  the  new  one  was  introduced  and  the 
same  process  repeated.  After  each  solution  had  gone  through 
two  dilutions  the  volume  removed  was  analysed,  the  result 
serving  as  a  check  upon  the  calculated  strength  of  the  solution 

in  the  cell. 

Preparation  of  Mixtures  of  Solutions. 

Simple  solutions  of  each  electrolyte  were  prepared  and 
analysed.  These  were  kept  in  the  bath  till  they  had  taken  the 
temperature  18°  C ,  when  50  cc.  of  each  solution  was  removed, 
and  the  two  mixed.  The  50  cc.  pipette  used  was  thoroughly 
washed  with  a  portion  of  the  solution  before  the  removal. 

Results  of  Conductivity  Observations  on  Simple  Solutions. 

For  the  purpose  of  calculating  the  ionization  coefficients  of 
the  salts  in  the  mixture,  it  is  necessary  to  draw  curves  for 
-simple  solutions  of  each  salt,  showing  the  relation  of  the  dilution 
to  the  ionic  concentration.  The  following  tables  give  the  data 
for  the  drawing  of  these  curves,  obtained  from  observations  on 
the  concentrations  and  conductivities  of  a  number  of  solutions 
of  each  salt. 

The  dilutions  are  expressed  in  terms  of  litres  per  gramme 
equivalent  at  18°  C.  The  atomic  weights  used  were  relative  to 
oxj^gen  (16.00)  and  the  same  as  employed  by  1  Kohlrausch.  The 
specific  conductivities  are  those  at  18°  C,  expressed  in  terms  of 
10~*  times  Kohlrausch's  new  unit  (Ohm-^m."1) 

The  concentrations  of  ions  are  the  quotients  obtained  by 
dividing  the  specific  conductivities  by  the  specific  molecular 
conductivities  at  infinite  dilution.  2  Kohlrausch's  values  for  the 
specific  molecular  conductivities  at  infinite  dilution  were  used, 
namely,  for  potassium  chloride  1312  X  lO"*.  and  potassium  sul- 
phate, 1350  x  10-*. 

1  Kolil.  u.  Hoi.,  lot:  cit.,  p.  205,  tab.  14. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  200,  tab.  8. 


SURFACE    TENSION    OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.        55 


TABLE  T.— POTASSIUM  CHLORIDE  (KC1). 


DILUTION. 

SPECIFIC 
CONDUCTIVITY. 

CONCENTRATION 
OF  IONS. 

497.4 

2.540 

.00194 

331.6 

3.789 

.00298 

221.1 

5.646 

.00430 

147.4 

8.362 

.00637 

98.26 

12.44 

.00948 

93.46 

13.06 

.00995 

62.25 

19.35 

.0147 

41.50 

28.61 

.0218 

27.72 

42.44 

.0323 

22.50 

51.78 

.0395 

18.48 

62.39 

.0475 

15.44 

74.05 

.0564 

15.00 

76.10 

.0580 

10.30 

108.7 

.0829 

10.00 

111.8 

.0852 

6.866 

159.5 

.122 

4.577 

234.2 

.178 

3.051 

243.8 

.262 

2.024 

506.1 

.386 

1.383 

724.9 

.553 

1.046 

939.8 

.716 

.922 

1056 

.805 

TABLE  H.-POTASSIUM  SULPHATE  (iK2SO4). 


DILUTION. 

SPECIFIC 
CONDUCTIVITY. 

CONCENTRATION 
OF  IONS. 

9.661 

99.22 

.0735 

3.336 

253.4 

.187 

2.596 

313.2 

.232 

1.068 

458.3 

.339 

1.298 

570.3 

.422 

56 


ON    THE    CONDUCTIVITY,     SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    AND 


These  were  the  only  observations  made  upon  potassium  sul- 
phate, because  E.  H.  Archibald1  had  made  a  sufficient  number  of 
observations  on  solutions  of  this  salt,  and  his  results  were  found 
to  agree  with  mine.  Archibald's  results  were  expressed  differ- 
ently. The  atomic  weights  used  for  determining  his  dilutions 
were  relative  to  Hydrogen.  These  dilutions  can  be  changed 
to  the  above  by  multiplication  by  the  factor  1.0026.  His 
specific  conductivities  were  expressed  in  terms  of  10~8 
times  the  specific  conductivity  of  mercury  at  0°  C.  These  values 
of  the  conductivity  can  be  expressed  in  Kohlrausch's  new  unit 
by  multiplication  by  1.069xl()4.  The  new  values  for  the 
concentration  of  ions  can  thus  be  calculated  as  in  the  former  case. 
The  following  table  gives  the  reduced  results  : 

TABLE  III.— POTASSIUM  SULPHATE. 


DILUTION. 

SPECIFIC 
CONDUCTIVITY. 

CONCENTRATION 
OF  IONS. 

100.26 

11.72 

.00868 

66.85 

16.87 

.0125 

40.11 

27.27 

.0202 

as.  42 

32.26 

.0239 

20.06 

51.18 

.0379 

15.67 

63.72 

.0472 

12.54 

78.30 

.0580 

10.03 

95.58 

.0708 

8.628 

110.7 

.0820 

7.193 

130.7 

.0968 

5.990 

152.6 

.118 

4.991 

179.5 

.133 

3.466 

244.4 

.181 

2.888 

286.2 

.212 

2.407 

334.8 

.248 

2.079 

380.7 

.282 

2.005 

392.8 

.291 

1.444 

523.8 

.388 

1.203 

610.2 

.452 

1.003 

716.8 

.531 

1  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Can.  (2),  3,  Sec.  3,  69,  1897-8. 


SURFACE    TENSION    OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS.  —  BARNES.       57 


Method  of  Calculating  the  Conductivity  of  Mixtures. 

According  to  the  dissociation  theory  the  specific  conductivity 
of  a  mixture  of  two  solutions  of  electrolytes  is  given  by  the 
equation 


where  v^,  v^  are  the  volumes,  and  njt  ??2  the  concentrations  of 
the  solutions  mixed,  n0il,  1*^2  the  specific  molecular  conductivi- 
ties of  simple  solutions  of  the  electrolytes  at  infinite  dilution, 
«!  and  «2  the  ionization  co-efficients  of  the  respective  electro- 
lytes in  the  mixture,  and  p  is  the  ratio  of  the  volume  of  the 
mixture  to  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  the  constituent  solutions. 
This  ratio  was  found,  for  the  solutions  used,  to  be  practically 
equal  to  the  unity  ;  and  as  the  volumes  of  the  solutions  mixed 
were  in  all  cases  equal,  the  equation  applicable  to  my  experi- 
ments becomes  : 

fe=i(«I»1Mooi4-«ansM0,9)- 

Of  the  data  requisite  for  calculating  k,  the  n's  were  obtained  by 
chemical  analysis,  the  «'s  by  Prof.  MacGregor's  method,  while 
the  jw^'s,  in  the  case  of  sufficient  dilution,  might  be  taken  to  be 
the  same  in  value  as  in  the  case  of  simple  solutions  of  the  respec- 
tive electrolytes. 

Determination  of  p. 

As  equal  volumes  of  the  simple  solutions  were  mixed,  the 
ratio  expressed  by  p  is  equal  to  the  ratio  of  the  mean  specific 
gravity  of  the  constituent  solutions  to  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
mixture.  By  referring  to  the  following  Table  IV,  it  is  at  once 
seen  that  this  ratio  is  practically  equal  to  unity  for  the  most 
concentrated  solutions  examined. 


58 


ON    THE    CONDUCTIVITY,    SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    AND 


TABLE  IV. 


SIMPLE    SOLUTIONS. 

SP.  GR. 

OK 

MIXTURE. 

CONCENTRATION. 

SPECIFIC  GKAVITY  AT  18°. 

MEAN 
SP.  GR. 

i  K2S04. 

KC1. 

i  K2S04 

KC1 

.5998 

.9558 

1.0410 

1.0445 

1.0428 

1.0427 

.5998 

.09454 

1.0410 

1  0045 

1.0228 

1.0229 

.1035 

.05412 

1.0073 

1.0026 

1.0049 

1.0050 

Determination,  of  lonization  Coefficients  in  the  Mixtures. 

The  method  of  determining  the  coefficients  of  ionization  of 
the  two  electrolytes  in  a  mixture  has  been  fully  described  by 
lProf.  MacGregor.  Curves  are  drawn  showing  the  relation  of 
the  dilution  to  the  concentration  of  ions  for  simple  solutions  of 
each  salt.  From  these  curves  the  concentration  of  ions  and  the 
dilution  in  the  regions  of  the  mixture  occupied  by  the  respective 
electrolytes  are  found  by  a  graphical  process,  and  the  products 
of  these  quantities  give  the  ionization  coefficients. 

Results  of  Observation*  and   Calculations  of  Conductivity  of 

Mixtures. 

Table  V  gives  the  necessary  data  for  the  calculation  of  the 
conductivity  of  the  mixtures  examined,  and  the  results  obtained. 
The  concentrations  of  the  constituent  solutions  are  expressed  in 
terms  of  gramme-equivalent-i  per  litre  at  18°  0.  The  regional 
dilutions  are  in  litres  per  gramme-equivalent  at  18°  C.  The 
specih'c  conductivities  are  expressed  as  in  Table  I.  The  differ- 
ences between  the  calculated  and  observed  values  of  the 
conductivity  are  given  as  percentages  of  the  observed  value. 


1  Trans.  X.  S.  lust.  Sci.,  9,  101,  1895-6. 


SURFACE    TENSION     OF     AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.        59 
TABLE  V. 


Concentration  of 
Constituent  Solutions. 

Conccntrat'n 
of  Ions  in 
Mixture. 

Regional  Dilution. 

Specific  Conductivity  of 
Mixture. 

i  K2S04 

KC1. 

iK2so4 

KC1. 

Observed 

Calcu- 
lated. 

IMff. 
per  cent- 

.7707 

.4941 

.405 

1.86 

1.91 

536.2 

537.2 

+  0.18 

•« 

.09454 

.264 

2.22 

3.03 

354.1 

354.5 

+  0.11 

» 

.05412 

.251 

2.37 

3.18 

337.9 

337.8 

-0.03 

it 

.01018 

.235 

2.55 

3.43 

317.9 

317.2 

-0.22 

.5998 

.9558 

.528 

1.01 

1.45 

684.0 

695.9 

+  0.27 

« 

.09454 

.220 

2.  70 

3.69 

295.5 

296.1 

+  0.20 

i« 

.05412 

.206 

2.98 

3.S9 

275.5 

276.4 

+  0.32 

» 

.01018 

.190 

3.25 

4.28 

255.3 

255.3 

±0.00 

.3853 

.2470 

.218 

2.79 

3.73 

288.7 

289.9 

+  0.41 

M 

.02706 

.138 

4.75 

5.97 

184.0 

184.6 

+  0.32 

.2999 

.2470 

.183 

3.21 

4.23 

258.6 

257.7 

-0.35 

.1035 

.9558 

.400 

1.38 

1.94 

524.3 

525.2 

+  0.17 

•• 

.4941 

.233 

2.58 

3.47 

303.4 

303.8 

+  0.16 

>« 

.05412 

.0611 

11.8 

14.3 

81.51 

8137 

+  0.18 

ii 

.01018 

.0431 

17.4 

20.4 

58.42 

58.27 

-0.26 

.05175 

.02706 

.0324 

24.2 

27.6 

43.48 

43.50 

+  0.05 

i< 

.00509 

.0231 

24.7 

39.4 

31.11 

31.04 

-0.23 

From  this  table  it  appears  that  the  difference  between  the 
calculated  and  observed  values  of  the  conductivity  for  all  the 
mixtures  examined,  is  within,  or  but  little  beyond,  the  limit  of  the 
error  of  observation,  which  is  estimated  at  about  0.25  per  cent. 


GO  ON    THE    CONDUCTIVITY,    SPECIFIC     GRAVITY     AND 

It  might  be  well  to  note  that  in  each  series  having  a  constant 
concentration  of  potassium  sulphate,  the  differences  seem  to 
change  from  a  negative  to  a  positive  per  cent.1 

Considering  the  many  sources  of  error  in  the  calculations  of 
the  conductivity,  the  agreement  between  the  observed  and 
calculated  values  is  very  satisfactory,  and  leads  one  to  draw  the 
conclusion  that  the  conductivity  of  mixtures  of  solutions  of  these 

1  Note  by  the  communicator  of  the  paper.— Mr.  Barnes  points  out  that  in  series  of 
mixtures  whose  constituent  solutions  have  in  the  case  of  one  electrolyte  the  same  con- 
centration (n  i  say)  in  all.  and  in  that  of  the  other  a  variable  concentration  (n%  say),  the 
excess  (e)  of  the  calculated  over  the  observed  value  of  the  conductivity  increases  with 
n-2,  being  usually  negative  for  small  values  of  n%  and  positive  for  larger  values.  At 
first  sight  it  might  appear  that  he  had  over-estimated  his  limit  of  error,  and  that  the 
conductivity  was  thus  shown  to  be  calculable  only  for  a  particular  value  of  n%  in  each 
case.  There  are,  however,  two  sources  of  error  which  will  account  for  this  regular 
progression  in  the  relative  magnitude  and  sign  of  the  e's,  viz..  (1)  The  employment, 
of  the  quotients  of  the  specific  equivalent  conductivity  by  the  specific  equivalent  con- 
ductivity at  infinite  dilution  (///,«»)  as  the  values  of  the  ionization  coefficients  (a) 
for  simple  solutions,  and  (2)  the  impossibility  of  drawing  with  perfect  accuracy  the 
dilution-ionic-concentration  curves.  The  more  concentrated  the  solutions  the  greater 
will/>/«ao  differ  from  «  ;  and  the  greater  tho  liability  to  error  in  the  drawing  of  the 
curves  the  greater  the  possible  error  in  the  determination  of  the  ionization  coefficients 
of  the  electrolytes  in  the  mixture.  The  dilution-ionic-concentration  curves  are  nearly 
rectilinear  for  very  weak  and  for  strong  solutions  but  curve  rapidly  in  the  region  of 
moderate  dilution,  and  it  is  in  this  region  that  it  is  most  difficult  to  draw  them 
accurately.  Hence  in  the  case  of  strong  solutions,  the  magnitude  and  sign  of  the  e's  will 
be  determined  largely  by  the  error  due  to  using  values  of  fi//iiao  as  the  ionization  coeffi- 
cient* of  the  simple  soi ut ions.  In  the  case  of  moderately  dilute  solutions  they  will  be 
determined  by  both  sources  of  error.  In  the  case  of  dilute  solutions  neither  source  of 
error  will  have  so  large  an  effect  on  the  result.  Hence  a  regular  progression  of  the  e's 
the  same  in  kind,  may  be  expected  in  different  series  of  mixtures  of  strong  solutions  of 
two  given  electrolytes  ;  a  regular  progression  may  be  expected  also  in  series  of  moder- 
ate dilution,  but  since  the  error  due  to  inaccurate  drawing  of  curves  will  depend  on  the 
portion  of  the  curve  which  is  used,  it  may  be  different  in  kind  for  different  series ;  and 
in  sufficiently  dilute  solutions  no  regular  progression  is  likely  to  occur.  The  most  of 
Mr  Barnes'  series  are  of  moderate  dilution,  and  in  all  of  them  the  e's  show  a  regular 
progression  of  the  same  kind,  as  they  would  if  the  errors  involved  did  not  conflict  in 
sign,  or  if  the  error  due  to  the  one  source  were  large  relatively  to  that  due  to  the  other. 
His  series  of  dilute  solutions  exhibit  the  same  progression  in  the  e's,  but  they  consist  of 
only  two  mixtures  each.  In  my  calculations  of  the  conductivity  of  mixtures  of 
NaCl  and  KC1  solutions  (Trans  N.  S.  I.  S.,  9,  116),  the  three  more  concentrated  series 
showed  a  progression  of  the  e's  of  the  same  kind,  the  two  weakest  series  showed  no 
progression.  In  Mr.  Macintosh's  calculations  (Ibid.,  9,  132),  for  HC1  and  XaCl, 
the  two  stronger  series  gave  a  progression  of  the  same  kind,  the  weakest  no  progression. 
And  in  Mr.  Archibald's  calculations  (/6»W.,9,  299),  for  K2So4  and  NaaS04  solutions,  the 
four  stronger  series  gave  progressions  of  the  e's,  differing  in  kind,  and  the  three  series 
of  weaker  solutions  gave  either  a  very  doubtful  progression  or  no  progression  at  all. 
All  these  results  are  thus  consistent  with  the  assumption  that  this  regular  progression  in 
the  e's  is  due  ma  nly  at  least  to  the  two  sources  of  error  mentioned  above.  J.  G.  M. 


SUKFACE    TEIS7SION    OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.       61 

salts  up  to  an  average  concentration  of  0.8  gramme-equivalent 
per  litre  at  least,  can  be  predicted  within  the  limit  of  error  of 
tny  observations. 

Specific  Gravity  and   Surface  Tension. 

Prof.  MacGregor1  has  proposed,  in  the  case  of  simple  solutions 
of  electrolytes,  so  dilute  that  the  ions  and  the  undissociated 
molecules  may  be  regarded  as  without  mutual  action,  to  express 
any  of  their  physical  properties,  such  as  specific  gravity,  surface 
tension,  &c ,  by  the  following  formula  : 

P=PW  +k  (l-«)  n  +  l>i  n, 

where  P  is  the  numerical  value  of  the  property  for  the  solution, 
Pw  that  of  the  same  property  for  water  under  the  same  physical 
conditions,  n  the  concentration  expressed  in  gramme-equivalents 
per  unit  volume,  «  the  ionization  coefficient  of  the  electrolyte 
in  the  solution,  and  k  and  I  constants,  called  ionization  constants. 

He  has  also  shown  how  to  predict  the  value  of  any  such 
property  for  a  mixture  of  simple  solutions,  by  the  aid  of  the 
ionization  constants  determined  for  the  simple  solutions.2 

1  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci ,  9,  219,  1896. 

2  Note  by  the  communicator  of  the  paper.— The  fact  that  values  of  k  and  I  in  the 
above  formula  can  be  found  which  make  the  formula  represent  the  observed  values  of 
a  property  for  simple  solutions  of  an  electrolyte  has  of  course  little  theoretical  interest. 
The  ionization  coefficient,  a,  is  a  complex  function  of  the  concentration,  n.  If  expressed 
in  terms  of  powers  of  n  the  expression  would  involve  several  powers.   (See  Trans.  N.  S. 
I.   S.,  9,  112).    The  above  expression  for  P  is  thus  equivalent  to  an  expression  in  terms 
of  three  or  more  powers  of  n  with  coefficients  which  are  functions  of  constants  deter- 
mined by  the  electrical  character  of  the  electrolyte  and  of  two  additional  arbitrary 
constants.    As  the  concentration  curves  of  specific  gravity  and  surface  tension  for 
solutions  are  but  slightly  curved,  it  is  thus  to  be  expected  that  the  above  expression 
would  represent  them.  It  is  of  theoretical  interest,  however,  to  find  whether,  when  the 
ionization  constants  for  any  property  have  been  determined  for  simple  solutions  of 
two  electrolytes,  it  is  possible  to  predict  the  value  of  the  property  for  mixtures  by  the 
method  referred  to.    For  (1)  there  are  no  arbitrary  constants  in  the  expression  by 
which  the  prediction  is  made,  (2)  the  expression  itself  is  derived  from  the  dissociation 
theory,  and  (3)  the  ionization  coefficients  of  the  electrolytes  in  the  mixture,  involved  in 
the  expression,  are  determined  by  a  direct  application  of  that  theory.  I  think  it  well  to 
make  this  remark  because  several  reviewers  of  former  papers  have  written  under  the 
apprehension  that  the  k's  and  I's  of  the  expression  for  the  value  of  a  property  for  a 
mixture  (see  p.  65  of  this  paper)  were  arbitrary  constants  determined  by  the  observa- 
tions on  the  mixtures.  They  are,  however,  the  ionization  constants  .already  determined 
by  observations  on  simple  solutions.  J.  G.  M. 


G2  ONf    THE    CONDUCTIVITY,    SPECIFIC     GRAVITY    AND 

In  what  follows  I  endeavor  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  the 
above  formula  is  applicable  to  the  specific  gravity  and  surfaec 
tension  of  simple  solutions  of  KC1  and  K2S04  and  whether  or 
not  it  is  possible  to  predict  the  values  of  these  properties  for 
mixtures  of  such  solutions. 

The  observations  of  specific  gravity  requisite  for  this  purpose 
were  made  by  the  writer  in  the  way  described  above. 

On  surface  tension  Rother's  observations  were  used.  They 
were  made  at  15°C  and  his  values  are  therefore  not  strict!}' 
comparable  with  calculated  values  based  on  ionization  coefficients 
for  18°C.  I  have,  however,  reduced  a  few  of  the  ionization  co- 
efficients of  the  salts  to  1 5°C,  by  using  temperature  coefficients, 
and  found  that  the  difference  between  the  values  for  the  two 
different  temperatures  is  not  sufficient  to  cause  any  appreciable 
error  in  my  calculated  results.  Rother's  paper  has  sufficient 
data  for  determining  the  concentration  in  gramme-equivalents 
per  litre,  with  atomic  weights  as  used  in  Table  I.  Rother 
regards  his  observations  as  possibly  in  error  by  +5  to  +8  in 
the  third  place  of  decimals.  The  surface  tension  of  the  water 
he  used  was  7.357. 

The  following  table,  VI,  contains  the  ionization  coefficients 
for  simple  solutions,  used  in  the  calculations.  They  were 
obtained  either  from  direct  observations  on  the  conductivity  of 
the  solution  or  by  interpolation  of  the  results  of  Tables  I — III. 
The  concentrations  are  expressed  in  gramme-equivalents  per  litre 
at  18°C. 


JKohl.  u.  Holb.,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  195-19y,  Table  7. 


SUUFACE    TENSION    OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.       63 


TABLE   VI. 


KC1. 

4K2  SO4. 

Concentration. 

lonization  Co- 
efficient. 

Concentration. 

lonization  Co- 
efficient. 

,01018 

.932 

.0517 

.756 

.05412 

.880 

.1035 

.710 

09454 

.854 

.2098 

.666 

.2185 

/ 

.817 

.2999 

.626 

.3400 

.794 

.3209 

.617 

.4941 

.780 

.3853 

.603 

.6851 

.769 

.4277 

.594 

.9558 

.749 

.5817 

.569 

1.046 

.743 

.5998 

.566 

1.085 

.742 

.7047 

.558 

1.428 

.723 

.7707 

.549 

2.138 

.705 

.8000 

.545 

1.2125 

.526 

Determination  of  the  lonization  Constants. 

The  values  of  the  ionization  constants  (k  and  1}  for  either 
property  of  either  salt  were  found  by  the  method  of  least 
squares  from  the  data  of  Tables  VII  and  VIII  for  the  four 
weakest  solutions,  for  the  specific  gravity  and  surface  tension 
respectively.  The  values  thus  found  were  employed  in  calcu- 
lating the  values  of  the  properties  of  the  various  mixtures. 

Results  of  the  Calculations  on' Simple  Solutions. 

Tables  VII  and  VIII  contain  the  results  of  the  calculations 
from  the  above  formula  for  the  two  properties. 

The  concentrations  are  expressed  as  in  the  tables  above. 


ON    THE    CONDUCTIVITY,    SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    AND 


TABLE  VII. 
SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AT  18°  C.  REFERRED  TO  WATER  AT  18°  C. 


K  Cl. 

k=.  045775,                           l  =  .  048251. 

*K2S04. 
A  =.062911.                            1=  073959. 

Concen- 
tration. 

Observed 
Value. 

Calculated 
Value. 

Difference. 

s  5 
•23 

l| 

O—1 
O 

.0517 

Observed 
Value. 

C  alculated 
Value. 

Difference. 

.01018 

1.00045 

1.00049 

+  0.044 

1.00374 

1.00369 

-0.045 

.05412 

1.00259 

1.00259 

±0.040 

.1035 

1.00731 

1.00732 

+  0.041 

.09454 

1.00452 

1.00454 

+  0.042 

.2999 

1.02088 

1.02093 

+  0.045 

.2185 

1.01045 

1.01044 

-0.041 

.3853 

1.02683 

1.02680 

-0.043 

.4941 

1.02351 

1.02357 

+  0.046 

.5998 

1.04097 

1.04149 

+  0.035 

.9558 

1.04453 

1.04554 

+  0.021 

.7707 

1.05266 

1.05457 

+  0.022 

1.085 

1.05066 

1.05166 

+  0.021 

TABLE  VIII, 
SURFACE  TENSION  AT  15°  C. 


KCl. 
k=.  25067.                             l  =  .  12272. 

i  K2S04. 
A;  =.12302.                            l  =  .  15919. 

Concen- 
tration. 

Observed 
Value. 

Calculated 
Value 

Difference. 

Concen- 
tration. 

Observed 
Value. 

Calculated 
Value. 

6 
B 

E 

b 

I 

Q 
—0.001 

.3400 

7.411 

7.408 

-0.003 

.2098 

7.389 

7.388 

.6851 

7.460 

7.461 

+  0.001 

.3209 

7.402 

7.404 

+  0.002 

1.0459 

7.518 

7.520 

-f-0.002 

.4277 

7.419 

7.419 

±0.000 

1.4280 

7.584 

7.583 

—0.001 

.5817 

7.441 

7.440 

-0.001 

2.1829 

7.705 

7.707 

+  0.002 

.7047 

7.458 

7.458 

±0.000 

.8000 

7.459 

7.471 

+  0.012 

1.2125 

7.529 

7.529 

±0.000 

SURFACE  TENSION  OF  AQUEOUS  SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.   65 

From  Table  VII  it  seems  that  the  specific  gravity  of  solutions 
of  these  salts  between  the  concentration  of  about  0.01  and  0.5 
can  be  calculated  by  aid  of  the  formula  and  with  the  values  of 
k  and  I  given,  while  for  surface  tension  (Table  VIII)  the  calcula- 
tion seems  possible  from  a  concentration  of  0.2  to  1.0. 

Mixtures  of  Solutions. 

For  a  solution  containing  two  salts,  the  equation  for  the 
value  of  a  property,  if  there  is  no  change  of  volume  on  mixing, 
is  of  the  form 


vi  '  V2 

where  the  ris  are  the  concentrations  of  the  constituent  solutions, 
the  as  the  ionization  coefficients  of  the  respective  electrolytes 
in  the  mixture,  and  the  -y's  the  volumes  of  the  constituent  solu- 
tions, the  electrolytes  being  indicated  by  1  and  2. 

The  ionization  coefficients  of  the  salts  in  the  mixture  are 
obtained  by  the  before-mentioned  graphical  method  from  the 
same  curves  as  were  used  in  the  conductivity  determinations  for 
mixtures  of  solutions  of  these  salts.  The  k's  and  I's  are  the 
ionization  constants  obtained  for  the  simple  solutions,  and  given 
in  Tables  VII  and  VIII. 

For  the  specific  gravity  measurements,  equal  volumes  of  the 
constituent  solutions  were  mixed  ;  while  Rother  mixed  equal 
weights  of  the  simple  solutions.  He,  however,  gives  sufficient 
data  for  the  calculation  of  the  concentration  and  volume  of  the 
constituent  solutions. 

The  following  table  contains  the  requisite  data  for  deter- 
mining the  values  of  the  two  properties  from  the  above  equa- 
tion, and  also,  for  the  comparison  of  the  results  thus  calculated 
with  the  observed  values.  The  volumes  of  the  constituent 
solutions  in  Table  X,  are  expressed  in  litres  at  18°C.  The 
concentrations  are  expressed  as  in  the  former  tables. 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— E. 


66        CONDUCTIVITY,     ETC,,    OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 

TABLE     IX. 
SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AT  18°  C.  REFERRED  TO  WATER  AT  18°  C. 


Concentration  of 
Constituent  Solutions. 

lonization  Coefficients 
in  Mixture. 

C3 

•9S 

?^s 

-d  <o 

Ifi 

cs  ce 

i 

P 

r 

2 

tS 

| 

a 

G 

iK2SO4. 

KCl. 

iK2SO4. 

KCl. 

O 

O 

0 

.1035 

.01018 

.750 

.879 

1.00389 

1.00393 

+  0.04  4 

,. 

.05412 

.721 

.874 

1.00497 

1.00496 

-0.04  1 

.7707 

.09454 

.586 

.800 

1.02899 

1.02899 

i0.04  0 

.5998 

.9558 

.533 

.766 

1.04271 

1.04341 

+  0.08  7 

TABLE     X. 
SURFACE  TENSION  AT  15°  C. 


Constituent  Solutions. 

Tonization 
Coefficients 
in  Mixture. 

Observed 
Value. 

~3 

Jji.  Calculated 
w  Value. 

Difference. 

Conceatration. 

Volume. 

iK2SO4. 

KCl. 

J  K2SO4. 

KCl. 

JK2SO4. 

KCl. 

.7243 

.2718 

.49124 

.50902 

.581 

.769 

7.438 

-0.003 

.2423 

.7483 

.50535 

.49466 

.569 

.788 

7.447 

7.430 

-0.017 

.8917 

.6869 

.49330 

.50693 

.535 

.763 

7.471 

7.475 

+  0.004 

.4921 

1.7115 

.51100 

.48989 

.470 

.742 

7.527 

7.529 

+  0.002 

1.1936 

1.4158 

.49646 

.50354 

.445 

.740 

7.554 

7.550 

-0.004 

According  to  Table  IX  it  appears  that  the  specific  gravity  of 
a  solution  of  these  salts  from  an  average  concentration  of  about 
0.05  to  0.5  can  be  calculated  by  the  above  formula,  and  with  the 
above  values  of  the  ionization  constants. 

From  Table  X  this  formula  applies  for  surface  tension  of 
solutions  of  these  salts  from  a  concentration  of  0.5  to  1.3. 

Summary   of   Results. 

According  to  the  above  results  it  is  possible,  by  the  aid  of 
the  dissociation  theory  and  with  data  obtained  from  the  simple 
solutions,  to  predict  the  conductivity,  specific  gravity  and  surface 
tension,  of  fairly  dilute  solutions  of  potassium  chloride  and 
potassium  sulphate,  within  the  limit  of  experimental  error. 


IV. — ON   FINDING  THE   lONIZATION    OF   COMPLEX   SOLUTIONS    OF 

GIVEN  CONCENTRATION,  AND  THE  CONVERSE  PROBLEM  :  By 
PROF.  J.  G.  MACGREGOR,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Received  September  30th,  1S99.) 

In  a  paper  communicated  to  this  Institute  in  1895,1  I 
described  a  method  of  determining  the  ionization  coefficients  of 
two  electrolytes,  with  one  ion  in  common,  in  the  same  dilute 
aqueous  solution.  The  method  described  was  developed  in  the 
study  of  complex  solutions  which  had  been  formed  by  the 
mixture  of  simple  solutions  of  known  concentration,  and  involves 
a  knowledge  of  their  concentrations.  Even  if  the  complex  solu- 
tions have  not  been  formed  in  this  way,  but  have  been  prepared, 
say,  by  the  addition  of  known  quantities  of  the  electrolytes  to  a 
known  quantity  of  water,  they  may  always  be  imagined  to  have 
been  formed  by  mixture  of  simple  solutions ;  and  in  the  usual 
case  in  which  the  solutions  are  so  dilute  that  no  change  of 
volume  would  have  occurred  in  forming  them  by  mixture,  the 
concentrations  of  the  simple  solutions  by  the  mixing  of  which 
the  given  complex  solution  might  be  formed,  can  readily  be 
determined.  But  a  simple  modification  of  the  method  renders 
it  applicable  in  such  cases  directly ;  and  when  so  modified,  its 
application  is  found  both  to  require  fewer  data  with  respect  to 
the  conductivity  of  simple  solutions  of  the  electrolytes  involved, 
and  to  be  subject  to  fewer  sources  of  error,  than  in  its  old  form. 
As  modified  also,  it  is  found  to  be  readily  applicable  conversely 
to  the  determination  of  the  concentration  which  such  complex 
solutions  must  have  in  order  that  they  may  have  any  given 
possible  state  of  ionization. 

In  the  present  paper,  I  wish  to  describe  this  modified  form 
of  the  method,  and  to  point  out  how  it  may  be  used  in  deter- 

iTrans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  9, 101, 1895-96:  See  also  Phil.  Mag.  (5),  41, 276, 1896,  and  Trans. 
Roy.  Soc.  Can.,  (2),  2,  sec.  3,  65, 1896-7. 

(67) 


68  IONIZA.TTON    OF    COMPLEX 

mining  concentration  when  state  of  ionization  is  given.  And  I 
take  this  opportunity  also,  of  comparing  it  with  two  other 
methods  which  have  recently  been  employed,  of  determining  the 
ionization  coefficients  for  solutions  of  the  same  degree  of  com- 
plexity. 

Determination  of  the  ionization,  concentrations  being  given. 

It  was  shown  in  the  papers  cited  above,  that  if  the  two 
electrolytes  in  a  complex  solution  may  be  supposed  to  occupy 
distinct  portions  or  regions  of  the  solution,  if  the  law  of  kinetic 
equilibrium  may  be  supposed  to  be  applicable  both  to  these 
regions  singly  and  to  the  whole  volume  of  the  solution,  and  if 
the  concentration  of  ions  of  each  electrolyte  in  its  own  region 
may  be  supposed  to  depend  at  a  given  temperature  on  the  dilu- 
tion of  the  electrolyte  in  its  region,  merely,  and  to  depend  on 
dilution  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  case  of  a  simple  solution  of 
the  same  electrolyte,  the  relations  between  the  ionization  coeffi- 
cients, the  amounts  of  the  electrolytes  present,  and  the  dilutions 
which  they  must  be  supposed  to  have  in  their  fictitious  regions, 
may  be  expressed  by  four  equations.  If  we  denote  the  electro- 
lytes by  1  and  2,  the  concentrations  (in  gramme-equivalents 
per  litre)  of  the  solution  with  respect  to  them  by  Nx  and  N2 
respectively,  their  ionization  coefficients  by  al  and  a2  and  their 
regional  dilutions  (in  litres  per  gramme-equivalent)  by  V  l  and 
V2  respectively,  these  equations  take  the  form  : 


(1) 


N1V1  +  N2V2  =  1  ,  ...      (2) 

'      •  •     (3) 

V5),       -         -         -      (4) 

the  functions  f^  and/2  being  determinable  by  means  of  suffi- 
ciently extended  observations  of  the  conductivity  of  simple 
solutions  of  1  and  2  respectively. 


SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR.  69 

The  first  equation  is  given  by  the  law  of  kinetic  equili- 
brium. It  may  be  expressed  as  follows  :  The  regional  ionic 
concentrations  of  the  two  electrolytes,  i.  e ,  the  numbers  of  their 
free  gramme-ions  per  unit  volume  of  their  respective  regions,  are 
equal.  The  second  states  that  the  volume  of  the  solution  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  the  regions  of  the  respective 
electrolytes.  The  third  and  fourth  assert  that  the  regional 
ionic  concentrations  are  functions  of  the  respective  regional 
dilutions. 

As  f  and  f  are  very  complex  functions,  these  equations 
could  not  be  solved  algebraically  even  if  the  functions  were 
known.  They  can  be  solved  graphically,  however,  without 
actually  determining  what  the  functions  are. 

For  this  purpose  we  first  find,  from  conductivity  obser- 
vations made  on  simple  solutions  of  1  and  2  respectively, 
corresponding  values  of  dilution  and  ionic  concentration  for  a 
sufficient  number  of  solutions  of  each,  and  plot  dilution-ionic- 
concentration  curves,  i.  e.,  curves  with  dilutions  as  ordinates 
and  ionic-concentrations  as  abscissse.  To  get  precise  values  of 
the  ionization  coefficients  for  the  complex  solutions,  these  curves 
must  be  accurately  drawn.  They  have,  very  roughly  speaking, 
the  shape  of  rectangular  hyperbolas,  and  thus,  both  at  great 
dilution  and  at  great  concentration,  have  but  slight  curvature, 
while  at  moderate  dilution  they  have  very  rapid  curvature.  In 
working  with  solutions  at  moderate  dilution  therefore,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  considerable  number  of  corresponding 
values  of  dilution  and  ionic  concentration,  in  order  to  plot  the 
curves  accurately.  When  but  few  are  available,  it  is  helpful  to 
plot  first  a  concentration-ionic-concentration  curve,  i.  e.,  one 
having  concentrations  of  solutions  as  ordinates  and  ionic-con- 
centrations as  abscissae.  As  the  dilution- ionic-concentration 
curves  are  something  like  rectangular  hyperbolas,  the  concen- 
tration-ionic-concentration  curves  have  comparatively  slight 
curvature,  and  thus  lend  themselves  readily  to  interpolation. 
Corresponding  values  of  concentration  and  ionic  concentration 
obtained  from  these  curves,  when  the  concentrations  are  trans- 
formed into  dilutions,  may  be  used  to  eke  out  the  values 


70 


IONIZATION    OF    COMPLEX 


obtained  from  the  few  available  observations.  In  some  cases 
also  Kohl rausch's  a  observation  may  be  utilised,  viz.,  that  the 
curves  obtained  by  plotting  equivalent  conductivity  against 
linear  concentration  (i.e.,  the  cube  root  of  the  concentration), 
are  for  univalent  salts,  through  considerable  ranges,  practically 
rectilinear. 

The  dilution-ionic-concentration  curves,  having  been  drawn 
for  the  simple  solutions  (curve  A  for  electrolyte  ],  and  B  for  2, 
in  the  figures  below),  the  problem  resolve  itself  into  finding  two 
points,  one  on  each  curve,  having,  according  to  equation  (1),  the 
same  abscissa,  and  having  ordinates  which  satisfy  the  condition 
of  equation  (2).  This  may  be  done  of  course  by  inspection, 
but  more  accurately,  and  usually  more  quickly,  by  one  or  other 
of  several  graphical  processes. 

(1.)  Plot  a  new  curve 
C  (Fig.  1)  with  the 
same  abscissae  as  A 
and  B,  but  with  ordi- 
nates equal  to  the  sum 
of  Nj  times  the  ordi- 
nates of  A  and  N2 
times  the  ordinates  of 
B.  Then  draw  the 
straight  line  F  G  par- 
allel  to  the  axis  of 

—  ,        .  ionic     concentrations 

3"'  and      at     a     distance 

unity  from  it  (I  assume  for  simplicity  that  the  dilutions  and 
ionic  concentrations  have  been  plotted  to  the  scale  unity).  Let 
F  G  cut  C  in  G ;  and  through  G  draw  the  straight  line  G  J  par- 
allel to  the  axis  of  dilutions  and  cutting  A  and  B  in  I  and  H 
respectively.  I  and  H  are  the  two  points  required.  For  they 
have  the  same  abscissa  O  J,  and  their  ordinates,  I  J  and  H  J, 
are  such  that 

Nx.  1  J  +  N2.  HJ  =  GJ  =  1. 

Then  ar  =OJ  .  IJ,  and4a2  =  OJ.HJ. 


'Wied.  Ann.,  26,  201,  1885. 


SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR. 


71 


(2.)    As  equation  (2;  may  be  written  : 


+ 


we  may  proceed  as  follows  : — 

Plot  a  new  curve  D 
(Fig.  2)  with  the  same 
abscissae  as  A  and  B, 
but  with  ordinates 
equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  ordinates  of  A  and 
N2/NL  times  the  or- 
dinates of  B.  Draw 
K  L  parallel  to  the 
ionic-concentration 
axis  and  at  a  distance 
1/N1  from  it,  and  let 
it  cut  D  in  L.  Draw 

L  Q  parallel   to  the    dilution   axis    and    cutting    A    and  B   in 

P  and  M  respectively.     P  and  M  are  the  two  points  required. 

For  they  have  the  same  abscissa  0  Q,  and  their  ordinates,  P  Q 

and  M  Q,  are  such  that 


Then 


NX  N/ 

a,  =  OQ.PQ,anda2  =  OQ.MQ. 


(3)  Plot  a  new  curve 
E  (Fig  3),  having  the 
same  abscissae  as  A  and 
B,  but  with  ordinates 
equal  to  Na/Nj  times  the 
ordinates  of  B.  Draw 
R  S  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  ionic  concentrations 
and  at  a  distance  from 
it  of  l/(2  N  t).  Find,  by 
inspection,  the  line  T  Y 
parallel  to  the  axis  of 


72  IONIZATION    OF    COMPLEX 

dilutions,  of  which  the  intercept  T  X,  between  the  curves  A  and 
E,  is  bisected  by  R  S,  W  being  the  point  of  bi-section.  Let  T  Y 
cut  B  in  U.  X  and  U  are  the  points  required.  For  they  have 
the  same  abscissa  0  Y,  and  their  ordinates,  X  Y  and  U  Y,  are 
such  that 

XY  +-^2  UY=  2WY  = 

N!  ]N1 

Then  ot  =  OY.  XY,  and  a2  =  OY.   U  Y. 

The  second  and  third  of  these  methods  involve  less  arith- 
metical work,  and  are  less  liable  to  error,  than  the  first,  and  the 
second  does  not  require  the  procedure  by  inspection  which  is 
required  by  the  third.  The  second  is  therefore  the  most  satis- 
factory. But  the  limited  area  of  co-ordinate  paper  frequently 
gives  the  third  a  practical  advantage. 

Only  such  portions  of  the  curves  A,  B,  C,D,  E,  need  be  drawn 
of  course  as  may  be  seen  by  inspection  to  be  required  for  the 
purpose  in  hand. 

Determination   of  Ihe   concentration,  when  the    required 
ionization   is  given. 

The  determination  of  the  concentration  which  must  be  given 
a  complex  solution  in  order  that  it  may  have  any  required  state 
of  ionization,  is  of  importance  as  facilitating  the  conducting 
of  research  based  on  the  dissociation  theory  of  electrolysis. 

It  is  not  sufficient  for  the  determination  of  the  concentra- 
tion which  the  solution  must  have  with  respect  to  the  two 
electrolytes,  that  the  required  ionization  coefficients  al  and  aa 
should  be  given,  because  they  are  not  independent.  For  a  given 
value  of  al  the  regional  ionic  concentration  of  electrolyte  1  has 
a  determinate  value,  which  may  be  found  by  plotting  a  curve 
for  simple  solutions  of  1,  with  ionization  coefficients  as  ordinates 
and  ionic  concentrations  as  abscissae.  The  regional  ionic  con- 
centration of  electrolyte  2,  must  by  equation  vl)  be  the  same  as 
that  of  electrolyte  1  ;  and  since  it  is  thus  determined,  the  ioniza- 
tion coefficient,  a2,  can  have  but  one  value  which  may  be  found 
by  the  aid  of  an  ionization-coefficient-ionic-concentration  curve 


SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR.  73 

for  electrolyte  2.  Thus  any  one  of  the  quantities  alt  a2,  and 
the  common  regional  ionic  concentration,  which  is  of  course 
equal  to  the  total  ionic  concentration  of  the  whole  solution, 
being  given,  the  others  may  be  found,  if  we  have  sufficient  data 
as  to  the  conductivity  of  the  simple  solutions. 

Even  if  the  ratio  only  of  the  ionization  coefficients  is  given, 
the  state  of  ionization  is  in  many  cases  completely  determined. 
For  as 

fi         ^_ 
V     ~  V    ' 

»   1  >   2 

we  have  —*—  =  — l-t 

a2       V2 

and  the  dilution-ionic-concentration  curves  are  frequently  of 
such  forms  that  a  given  value  of  Vj/V^  corresponds  to  a  definite 
value  of  \T!  and  V2,  which  may  be  found  by  inspection  of  the 
curves. 

Some  datum  in  addition  to  the  state  of  ionization  is  there- 
fore requisite,  if  the  concentration  of  the  solution  is  to  be  fully 
determined.  It  may  be  the  concentration  with  respect  to  one 
of  the  electrolytes,  or  the  ratio  of  the  concentrations  with 
respect  to  the  two,  or  the  total  concentration,  or  any  such  func- 
tion (the  conductivity  for  example)  of  the  concentrations  with 
respect  to  the  two.  If  the  state  of  ionization  is  not  fully  given, 
an  additional  datum  is  obviously  required. 

(1.)  Given  the  required  state  of  ionization  and  the  concen- 
tration with  respect  to  one  electrolyte  :  to  find  the  concentration 
with  respect  to  the  other. — A  and  B  (Fig.  3)  being  the  dilution- 
ionic-concentration  curves,  OY  is  given;  and  Nt  being  also 
given,  we  have  only  to  find  N2/Nt  in  order  to  determine  N2. 
From  Y  draw  YT  parallel  to  the  dilution-axis,  cutting  A  and 
B  in  X  and  U  respectively.  Draw  the  line  R  S  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  ionic  concentrations  and  distant  from  it  by  l/(2  Nt).  Let 
R  S  cut  Y  T  in  W.  Cut  off  W  T  equal  to  X  \V.  Then  T  Y/UY 
will  be  the  value  of  N^N^  (The  curve  E  in  Fig.  3  is  of  course 
not  required.) 

(2.)   Given  the  required  state  of  ionization  and  the  ratio  of 


74  IONIZATION    OF    COMPLEX 

the  concentrations  with  respect  to  the  two  electrolytes :  to  find 
the  concentrations. — As  before,  OY  (,Fig.  3)  is  given.  From  Y 
draw  Y  T  parallel  to  the  dilution  axis,  making  it  of  such  length 
that  T  Y/U  Y  is  equal  to  the  given  ratio  of  the  concentrations 
NN.  Bisect  X  T  in  W.  Then 


N2  also  may  therefore  be  found. 

(3.)  Given  the  required  state  of  ionization  and  the  total 
concentration  (N l  +  N2)  or  the  difference  of  the  concentrations 
(Nj  —  N2):  to  find  Nt  and  N2. — The  state  of  ionization  being 
given,  not  only  are  al  and  a2  known,  but  also  the  total  ionic 
concentration,  al  Nj  +  «2  Na,  which  is  equal  to  the  regional 
ionic  concentration  common  to  the  two  electrolytes.  Nt  and  N2 
may  therefore  be  determined. 

(4.)  Given  the  required  state  of  ionization  in  a  solution  which 
is  to  have  a  given  conductivity  :  to  find  the  concentrations  Nt 
and  N2. — As  in  (3),  a^  a2,  and  ax  Nt  +  a2  Ns  are  known.  The 
conductivity  is  expressed  by  the  equation  : 

k  =  al  N^j  +  «2  N2  ^2, 

the  /"a/8  being  the  equivalent  conductivities,  at  infinite  dilution, 
of  simple  solutions  of  1  and  2,  and  being  thus  known.  Nt  and 
N2  may  therefore  be  determined. 

Other  methods   of  determining   the   ionization   for   complex 

sol  at  ions. 

(1.)  Schrader1  has  attempted  to  determine  the  ionization 
coefficients  for  solutions  containing  two  electrolytes  with  a  com- 
mon ion,  by  a  combination  of  observations  of  their  conductivity 
and  their  electrolysis.  The  expression  of  the  dissociation  theory 
for  the  conductivity  of  such  a  solution  may  be  put  into  the 
form  : 


JZur  Elektrolyse  von  Gemischen,    Inaug.  Dies.,  Berlin,  1897. 


SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR.  75 

As  al  Nj  and  a2  N2  are  the  numbers  of  gramme-equivalents  of 
dissociated  molecules  of  (1)  and  (2)  respectively  in  unit  volume 
of  the  solution,  and  as  i^aol  and  ^3,  the  respective  equivalent  con- 
ductivities at  infinite  dilution,  of  simple  solutions  of  1  and  2, 
may  in  sufficiently  dilute  solutions,  whether  simple  or  complex, 
be  regarded  as  equal  to  the  velocity  of  either  ion,  relative  to  the 
other,  of  1  and  2  respectively,  the  quantity  a2  N2  pw2/ al  Nj  pool 
may  be  taken  to  be  the  ratio  of  the  number  of  gramme-ions  of 
2  and  1  separating  out  primarily  at  the  appropriate  electrode, 
during  electrolysis.  This  ratio  Schrader  determined  by  electro- 
lytic observations.  Calling  it  x,  we  have  : 

k 


a,  = 


kx 


The  values  of  the  ionization  coefficients  obtained  in  this  way 
are  affected  not  only  by  the  error  involved  in  the  measurement 
of  conductivity,  but  by  the  more  serious  error  involved  in  elec- 
trolytic determinations.  They  cannot  be  expected  therefore  to 
have  any  high  degree  of  precision. 

While  Schrader  determined  the  ionization  coefficients  for 
solutions  containing  potassium  chloride  and  iodide,  and  hydro- 
gen and  copper  sulphates,  and  drew  certain  conclusions  from 
their  relative  magnitudes  in  each  case,  he  made  no  attempt  to 
test  the  values  obtained.  They  cannot  of  course  be  tested  by 
applying  them  to  the  calculation  of  the  conductivity  of  the 
solutions  or  the  results  of  their  electrolysis  ;  for  these  have  been 
used  as  data  in  their  determination.  But  they  mny  be  tested  by 
being  compared  with  the  values  given  \>y  the  method  described 
above.  For  the  values  given  by  this  method  have  stood  the  test 
of  application  to  the  calculation  of  the  conductivity1,  results  of 


1  MacGrcgor:  Trans.  N.  S   Inst.  Sci.,  9,  101,  1895-6. 
Mclntosh  :  Ibid.  9,  120,  1895-96. 
Archibald:  Ibid.  9,  291  and  307,  1897-9S;  and  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.Can.,  (2),  3,  sec.  3, 

69,  1897-98. 

McKay:  Trans.  N.  S.Inst.  Sci.,  9,  321  and  343, 1897-98. 
Barnes  :  Ibid.,  10,49,  1898-99. 


76 


IONIZATION    OF    COMPLEX 


electrolysis1,  lowering  of  the  freezing  point2,  specific  gravity  and 
other  physical8  properties,  of  complex  solutions,  in  all  cases 
in  which  the  attempt  has  been  made,  except  in  the  case  of 
Schrader's  solutions  containing  copper  sulphate  and  sulphuric 
acid,  in  which  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  acid  sulphate 
had  formed.  In  the  case  of  Schrader's  solutions  of  potassium 
iodide  and  chloride,  his  observations  of  conductivity  and  his 
electrolytic  observations  have  been  shown  to  be  consistent  with 
calculability  though  they  are  not  sufficiently  precise  to  demon- 
strate it.  We  may  thus  fairly  test  Schrader's  electrolytically 
determined  ionization  coefficients  by  comparing  them  with  those 
obtained  by  the  above  method. 

I  have  accordingly  determined  the  coefficients  for  the  four 
solutions  examined  by  him,  and  they  are  given  in  the  following 
table.  In  determining  them  I  have  used  Kohlrausch's  observa- 
tions of  the  conductivity  of  simple  solutions,  and  as  the  equiva- 
lent conductivities  at  infinite  dilution,  not  Kohlrausch's  most 
recent  determinations,  but  those  employed  by  Schrader.  As 
Schrader  does  not  state  at  what  temperature  he  made  his 
observations,  he  may  be  supposed  to  have  made  them  at  ordi- 
nary laboratory  temperature,  which  is  not  far  removed  from 
Kohlrausch's  temperature,  18°  C. 


Concentration 
(gr.-eq.  per  litre) 
with  respect  to 

IONIZATION   COEFFICIENTS. 

SCIIRADKR'S. 

MINE. 

Difference  per  cent. 

KI. 

KC1. 

KI. 

KC1. 

KI. 

KCl. 

KI. 

KCl. 

.02595 

.02571 

.857 

.868 

.915 

.897 

-6.3 

-3.2 

.03442 

.04748 

.866 

.892 

.886 

.866 

-2.3 

+  3.0 

.03074 

.06176 

.861 

.857 

.879 

.860 

-2.0 

-0.3 

.01992 

.03720 

.819 

.901 

.907 

.890 

-9.7 

+  1.2 

1MacGregor:  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Can.,  (2).  4,  sec.  3,  117, 1898-99. 
*  Archibald:  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci  ,  10,  33, 1898-99. 
3MacGregor:  Ibid.  9,  219, 1896-97- 

Archibald:  Ibid.,  9,  335,  1897-98. 

Barnes  :   loc.  cit. 


SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR.  77 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  Schrader's  coefficients  differ  from 
mine  by  various  amounts  up  to  about  10  per  cent.,  being  in 
most  cases  smaller,  but  in  some  greater.  It  should  be  noted  also, 
that  while  my  coefficients  are  in  all  cases  greater  for  the  iodide 
than  for  the  chloride,  Schrader's  are  in  three  out  of  four  cases 
greater  for  the  chloride  than  the  iodide. 

(2)  Kay1  has  recently  employed  an  approximation  method 
based  upon  one  previously  used  by  Arrhenius.  As  a  first  approxi- 
mation the  ionization  coefficients  of  the  two  electrolytes  in  a  com- 
plex solution  were  assumed  to  be  the  same  as  they  would  be  in 
simple  solutions  of  concentration  equal  to  the  total  concentration 
of  the  complex  solution.  The  total  concentration  of  ions  of  the 
complex  solution  (equal  to  the  regional  ionic  concentrations  of 
the  respective  electrolytes)  was  then  calculated,  and  gave  a  first 
approximation  to  the  value  of  the  regional  ionic  concentration. 
From  curves  plotted  with  ionization  coefficients  of  simple  solu- 
tions as  ordinates  and  ionic  concentrations  of  the  same  solutions 
as  abscissae,  the  values  of  the  ionization  coefficients  correspond- 
ing to  the  first  approximation  to  the  regional  ionic  concentra- 
tions were  read  off  and  formed  second  approximations  to  the 
ionization  coefficients  required.  Calculation  of  the  second 
approximation  to  the  total  ionic  concentration  and  a  repetition 
ot  the  above  procedure  gave  a  third  approximation  to  the 
ionization  coefficients  In  dealing  with  solutions  containing 
sulphuric  acid  and  a  neutral  sulphate,  he  found  that  in  general 
the  second  approximation  was  so  close  to  the  first  that  a  third 
was  not  necessary ;  and  he  seems  to  have  found  that  the  third 
in  no  case  differed  appreciably  from  the  second. 

As,  in  the  case  of  electrolytes  with  a  common  ion,  the  varia- 
tion of  ionizatiou  with  dilution  is  in  general  not  very  different, 
this  method  may  be  expected  to  give  very  closely  approximate 
results.  By  way  of  a  test  I  have  made  a  few  determinations 
for  solutions  containing  zinc  and  potassium  sulphates,  using 
Kohlrausch's  conductivity  data.  The  result  is  shown  in  the 
following  table  in  which  zinc  sulphate  is  indicated  by  1  and 

lProc.  R.  S.  Edin.,  22,  502,  1898-99. 


78 


COMPLEX    SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR. 


potassium  sulphate  by  2,  concentration  in  gramme-equivalents 
per  litre  by  N,  and  ionization  coefficient  by  a. 


Nl 

N2 

BY    KAY'S    METHOD. 

BY  MY 
METHOD. 

1st 
Approx. 

2nd 
Approx. 

3rd 
Approx. 

4th 
Approx. 

al 

a2 

«l 

«2 

0, 

«2 

at 

H2 

al 

«2 

.01 
.01 
.002 
.2 
.4 

.03 
.04 
.2 
.002 
.1 

.509 
.457 
.342 
.342 
.276 

.799 
.759 
.658 
.658 
.583 

.469 
.407 
.281 
.341 
.259 

.807 
.766 
.658 
.712 
.636 

.470 
.408 
.282 
.341 
.260 

.808 
.767 
.658 
.712 
.637 

.469 
.404 
.280 
.341 
.256 

.807 
.777 
.659 
.712 
.639 

.260 

.6£6 

The  above  table  shows  that  for  the  solutions  to  which  it 
applies,  the  ionization  coefficients  given  by  Kay's  method  agree 
closely  with  those  given  by  mine,  the  differences  being  in  no 
case  greater  than  a  little  over  1  per  cent.,  and  in  most  cases  a 
small  fraction  of  1  per  cent.  It  is  worth  noting  that  in  the  cases 
in  which  a  difference  exists,  the  second  approximation  values  of 
Kay's  method  are  in  general  less  divergent  from  mine  than  those 
given  by  higher  approximations. 

If  Kay's  method  involved  considerably  less  labour  than  mine 
it  would  be  worth  while  to  carry  out  a  more  extensive  com- 
parison in  order  to  determine  its  general  trustworthiness.  But 
the  saving  of  labour,  after  a  little  practice  with  my  method,  is  so. 
slight,  that  such  a  comparison  is  uncalled  for.  In  cases  in  which 
either  the  available  data  do  not  admit  of  the  determination  of 
precise  values  of  the  ionization  coefficients  or  only  approximate 
values  are  desired,  sufficiently  good  values  may  be  obtained, 
with  somewhat  less  trouble,  by  the  use  of  Kay's  method.  But 
in  cases  in  which  precise  values  are  desired,  and  the  data  are 
sufficiently  exact  to  give  them,  the  more  exact  method  is  to  be 
preferred,  notwithstanding  the  slightly  greater  labour  which  it. 
involves. 


V. — NEW  MINERAL  DISCOVERIES  IN  NOVA  SCOTIA. — BY  EDWIN 
GILPIN,  JR.,  A.  M.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  Inspector  of 
Mines,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Read  13th  March,  1899.) 

The  early  operations  in  mining,  metallurgy,  engineering,  etc., 
were  much  more  simple  than  those  of  the  present  day.  They 
were  based  of  course  upon  the  same  general  principles  that 
underlie  them  to-day.  The  difference,  however,  in  exactness  and 
precision  have  permitted  of  vastly  greater  and  cheaper  pro- 
ductions. In  smelting  iron  ore,  for  instance,  the  composition, 
weight,  and  relative  proportions  of  the  fluxes,  fuels,  and  ores,  are 
calculated  to  a  nicety,  so  that  the  analysis  and  composition  of 
the  resulting  pig  iron  can  be  safely  predicted.  The  direct  out- 
come of  the  application  of  exactness  is  the  opportunity  for 
increasing  and  cheapening  productions.  The  day  of  the  rule  of 
thumb  has  passed  in  iron  making  as  well  as  in  other  metallur- 
gical processes. 

In  this  Province  we  are  to  some  extent  interested  in  iron 
ore,  but  at  present  the  adaptability  of  our  coals  for  coke  making 
is  a  subject  of  much  enquiry.  For  many  years  coal  was  made 
into  coke  by  burning  off  its  volatile  ingredients  in  round  ovens, 
resembling  bee  hives,  with  more  or  less  admission  of  air.  The 
matter  driven  off  somewhat  resembled  in  composition  the  gas 
made  in  gas  works,  and  contained  a  large  amount  of  combus- 
tible matter.  The  illuminating  gas  made  in  gas  works  was 
produced  from  retorts  into  which  no  air  was  admitted  during 
the  operation  of  heating.  The  problem  was  the  production  of 
coke  in  ovens,  on  a  large  scale,  equal  to  that  used  in  the  blast 
furnace,  and  at  the  same  time  to  secure  the  largest  amount  of  gas, 
or  volatile  matter,  from  the  coking  coal,  with  as  little  deteriora- 
tion as  possible  from  the  admission  of  the  nitrogen  bearing 
atmosphere. 

(79) 


80        NEW    MINERAL    DISCOVERIES   IN    NOVA    SCOTIA. — GILPIX. 

This  problem  has  been  gradually  solved,  and  now  it  is 
possible  to  produce  a  good  coke,  on  a  commercial  basis,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  save  large  volumes  of  gas  adapted  for  illumin- 
ating and  heating  purposes.  No  doubt  many  improvements 
remain  to  be  introduced. 

The  works  of  the  Halifax  Gas  Company,  at  the  North-West 
Arm,  are  the  first  established  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  to 
carry  out  this  principle,  which  has  already  been  practised  at 
several  places  iii  Europe.  The  experience  gained  here  has  led  to 
the  establishment  of  an  enormous  plant  on  similar  lines,  to 
supply  gas  in  Boston.  The  result  of  this  enterprise  is  being 
watched  with  much  interest  in  the  United  States,  and  its 
success  will  lead  to  the  establishment  of  similar  plants  at  many 
commercial  centres.  The  application  of  gas  in  that  country,  for 
engine  power,  and  many  other  uses,  was  no  doubt  largely  due 
to  the  supply  of  natural  gas  available  for  many  years.  The 
gradual  decrease  of  natural  gas  excites  interest  in  any  scheme 
proposed  to  fill  its  place. 

The  proposal  to  utilize  Cape  Breton  coal  in  the  new  works  at 
Boston  led  to  a  number  of  tests  of  the  coal  as  to  its  gas,  coke 
values,  etc.,  as  well  as  to  the  quantity  and  nature  of  the  impuri- 
ties present.  This  evening  I  propose  to  give  briefly  some  results 
arrived  at,  that  they  may  be  on  record  for  comparison  with 
future  tests  I  have  also  a  few  remarks  on  new  discoveries  of 
ores  in  Nova  Scotia. 

At  the  Halifax  works,  the  coal  used  is  washed  slack  from  the 
Phalen  and  Harbor  seams,  of  the  Dominion  Coal  Company, 
approximating  GO  per  cent  of  fixed  carbon.  The  gas  is  divided 
into  that  available  for  illuminating  purposes,  and  the  poorer  gas 
to  be  used  for  heating  the  ovens,  and  for  sale  for  heating 
purposes.  In  24  hours,  37  short  tons  yield  310,000  cubic  feet  of 
gas,  of  which  100,000  cu.  ft.,  32.26  per  cent,  are  illuminating  gas, 
and  210,000  cu.  ft.,  67.74  per  cent,  heating  gas ;  of  the  latter 
170,000  cu.  ft.  are  consumed  in  the  process  of  coking,  and  the 
balance  40,000  cu.  ft.  can  be  used  as  heating  gas.  A  long  ton 
furnishes,  on  the  average,  5  Ibs.  ammonia  gas,  and  12  gallons, 


NEW    MINERAL    DISCOVERIES    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA. — GILPIN.      81 

120  lbs.,of  tar.  The  ammonia  liquor  is  distilled  with  milk  of 
lirne,  and  furnishes  a  shipping  ammonia  liquor  with  17  per  cent 
ammonia.  The  tar  is  available  for  distillation  for  creasote, 
pitch,  etc.  Finally  the  coke,  forming  75  per  cent  of  the  coking 
charge,  is  available  as  a  very  excellent  fuel.  No  doubt  these 
results  will  be  improved  on. 

More  interesting  information  is  given  by  a  test  made  of  the 
Harbor  seam  at  the  Glassport,  Pa.,  ovens  of  the  United  Coke 
and  Gas  Company*  The  coal  used  in  these  ovens  was  run  of 
mine  from  the  Upper  Youghiogheny  River,  with  the  following 
composition  :  Moisture,  60  ;  fixed  carbon,  59.18  ;  volatile  matter, 
33.01;  ash,  7.21;  phosphorus,  .0071  ;  total  sulphur,  1.27.  The 
resulting  coke,  74.2G  per  cent,  had  the  following  composition  : — 
Volatile  matter,  1.00;  carbon,  86.47;  ash,  11.57;  sulphur,  .96 ; 
phosphorus,  .0107.  A.  net  ton  furnishes  10,000  cubic  feet  of  gas, 
of  which  70  per  cent  is  used  for  heating  the  ovens,  and  the 
remainder  is  piped  to  steel  works. 

The  coal  from  the  Harbor  seam  was  slack,  washed  in  Cape 
Breton,  and  at  the  time  of  coking  contained  as  much  as  9  per 
cent  of  moisture,  as  the  cars  stood  for  some  months  exposed  to 
winter  weather.  As  under  normal  conditions  this  percentage 
would  be  very  much  less,  allowances  should  be  made  for 
purposes  of  comparison. 

An  average  of  several  analyses  gave  the  following  as  the 
composition  of  the  coal  : — 

Carbon 75.10 

Hydrogen 3.75 

Nitrogen 1.51 

Oxygen,  Sulphur 13.80 

Ash  .    5.84 


100.00 

Volatile   matter   34.60 

Fixed  Carbon   59.56 

Ash  ...   5.84 


100.00 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— F. 


82      NEW    MINEBAL    DISCOVERIES    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA. — GILP1N. 

In  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal  the  sulphur  is  divided 
between  the  gas  and  the  coke.  From  the  former  it  can  be 
removed  by  increasing  the  purification  plant,  but  its  removal 
from  the  latter  is  still  practically  an  unsolved  problem.  It  may 
be  said  in  general  terms  that  about  half  the  sulphur  is  usually 
driven  from  the  coal  in  the  coking  process. 

As  the  sulphur  in  the  coke  is  largely  transmitted  to  the 
pig  iron  made  in  a  blast  furnace,  its  presence  in  any  large 
amount  is  a  serious  matter.  As  yet,  attempts  to  lessen  the 
amount  of  this  impurity  have  been  confined  to  taking  advantage 
of  its  higher  specific  gravity,  as  compared  with  that  of  coal,  to 
separate  it  more  or  less  thoroughly  by  washing  processes.  In 
this  connection  some  figures  on  the  practical  use  of  Cape  Breton 
coke  in  the  Ferrona  furnace  may  be  of  interest.  The  percentage 
of  sulphur  in  the  coal  may  occasionally  reach  3  per  cent ;  again 
it  runs  down  to  a  few  tenths  of  1  per  cent.  This  difference 
exists  between  different  layers  of  the  same  bed,  and  different 
localities  in  the  same  mine.  The  average  percentage  is  low. 
The  coke  made  from  unwashed  Dominion  coal  contains,  as 
impurities,  1.08  per  cent  of  sulphur,  and  8.2  per  cent  of  ash. 
Coals  running  higher  in  sulphur  are  washed  before  being  coked. 
In  the  manufacture  of  Bessemer  pig  the  amount  of  phosphorus 
in  the  coke  is  an  important  item.  It  is  exceptionally  low  in 
this  coke,  averaging  .0028  per  cent.  The  calorific  value  of  the 
dry  fuel,  containing  5.84  per  cent  of  ash  is,  according  to  the 
Dulong-Mahler  formula,  12.437,  B.  T.  U.  The  coke  is  of  good 
quality,  hard  and  compact. 

The  pig  iron  has  the  following  composition: — 

Basic  pig.         Foundry  pig. 

Silicon 50  2  32 

Manganese 87  .65 

Phosphorus    1.23  1.20 

Sulphur 017  .02 

G.  Carbon 3.64 

C.  Carbon .23 

Iron                                            ..97.00  9200 


NEW    MINERAL    DISCOVERIES    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA. — GILPIN.        83 

In  an  oven  18  inches  wide,  if  the  coke  be  not  required  for 
blast  furnaces,  the  time  of  coking  would  be  about  23  hours. 

The  following  summary  shows  the  results  obtained  per  long 
ton  from  a  series  of  charges  coked  under  usual  working  condi- 
tions at  Giassport : — 

Lbs.  Per  cent., 

{large  coke    >!"•  —  60.09  p.  cent  ^ 

small    "    I— 1"         1.64       "        VI  593.4  71.13 
dust      "       <|"         2.80       "       j 

Tar 75.7  3.38 

Ammonia   (1.373  per  cent  sulphate) 7.6  .34 

Gas,  total,  10,390  cu.  ft.  of  .466  sp.gr 36S.O  16.43 

Sulphur  compounds  in  gas  : — 

Hydrogen  Sulphide   10.8  .48 

Carbon  Disulphide 1.6  .07 

Gas  Liquor  and  Loss,  by  difference   182.9  8.17 

Totals 2,240.0       100.00 

Of  the  gas  produced,  49.5  per  cent  was  "  surplus  "  gas,  that  is, 
gas  not  required  for  heating  the  ovens.  This  had  the  following 
composition  : — 

defines,  Cm  Hn    5.2 

Marsh  gas,  C  H4 38.7 

Carbon    monoxide,   C  0 6.1 

Carbon  dioxide,  C  O2 .- .     3.6 

Oxygen,   O 3 

Nitrogen,  N 7.7 

Hydrogen,   H 38.4 


100.0 

Its  calorific  power,  the  hydrogen  burnt  to  water,  was  686 
B.  T.  U.,  its  candle  power  14.7,  and  its  specific  gravity,  .51. 
The  coke  contains  in  addition  to  the  fixed  carbon,  volatile  matter, 
1.27 ;  ash,  8.91 ;  phosphorus,  .0041  ;  moisture,  3.67.  The  ash 
contains  27.71  per  cent  of  silica,  13.04  per  cent  of  aluminia,  and 
50.60  peroxide  of  iron,  with  small  quantities  of  alkalies  and 
alkaline  earths. 


84      NEW    MIINERAL    DISCOVERIES    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA. — GILPIN. 

The  yield  of  tar  per  long  ton  was  75.7  Ibs.,  or  3.38  per  cent. 

The  following  table  shows  its  behaviour  under  fractional 
distillation  : — 

Fractions.  Temperature. 

Light  oil   80-170  3.7 

Middle  oil 170-230  9.8 

Heavy  oil 230-270  120 

Anthacine  oil over  270  43 

Pitch    67.0 

Water  2.3 

Loss .9 

As  the  ultimate  analysis  shows  1.51  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  in 
the  coal,  and  the  .34  per  cent,  ammonia,  7.6  Ibs.  per  long  ton,  in 
the  gas  liquor  requires  .28  per  cent,  nitrogen,  it  follows  that  18.5 
per  cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen  in  the  coal  is  converted  into 
ammonia,  instead  of  usually  13£  to  15  per  cent. 

Three  periods  may  be  observed  during  the  process  of  cok- 
ing, in  the  composition  and  value  of  the  gases  given  off.  At 
first  the  proportion  of  marsh  gas  (C  H4)  is  high  but  gradually 
lessens. 

The  following  is  the  surplus  gas  produced  during  the  first 
14|  hours  : 

Average   calorific   value 685.8  B.  T.  U. 

Average  illuminating  value 14.7  C.  P. 

Volume  per  long  ton 5143.   C.  F. 

The  oven  heating  gas  produced  during  the  remaining  19  hours 
is  as  follows : 

Average  calorific   value   ........   566.7   B.  T.  U. 

Average  illuminating  value 9.0  C.  P. 

Average  per  long  ton 5247.0  C.  F. 

The  gas  during  the  last  few  hours  is  very  low  in  calorific  and 
candle  power,  but  owing  to  its  carrying  a  large  per  cent,  of 
hydrogen,  it  can  after  being  purified,  be  enriched  with  benzole 
or  oil  vapors  and  be  added  to  the  first  gas.  Practically,  however, 
the  third  gas  is  added  to  the  oven  heating  gas,  and  the  following 
table  shows  the  composition  of  the  two  : — 


NEW    MINERAL    DISCOVERIES    IN    NOVA  SCOTIA.  —  GILP1N.     85 

First,  or  Second,  or  Avprac-n 

Surplus  Gas.  Oven  Gas.  Av 

Olefines  ..................   5.2  2.4  3.8 

Marsh   Gas   ..............  38.7  29.2  33.9 

Hydrogen  ................  38.4  50.5  44.5 

Carbon  Monoxide  ..........   6.1  6.3  6.2 

Carbon  Dioxide   ..........   3.6  2.2  2.9 

Oxygen  ...................  3  .3  .3 

Nitrogen    ................   7.7  9.1  8.4 


100.0  100.0         100.0 

The  foregoing  figures  are  interesting  from  a  chemical  stand- 
point, but  no  doubt  as  experience  is  gained  the  results  will  be 
modified  and  improved. 

Oil  shale  in  Cape  Breton. 

Experiments  have  been  made  recently  on  the  oil  values  of 
some  shale  deposits  in  Cape  Breton  County,  which  may  appro- 
priately follow  the  notes  on  the  distillation  of  Cape  Breton  coals. 
At  Macadam's  Lake,  on  the  North  side  of  East  Bay,  the  lower 
carboniferous  measures  rest  on  silurian  and  precambrian  strata. 
Here  a  number  of  beds  of  black  lustrous  shale  are  found 
associated  with  conglomerates,  gray  shales,  and  sandstones 
pitching  heavily  to  the  south,  away  from  the  older  rocks. 
These  black  shales  are  so  highly  charged  with  carbonaceous 
matter  as  to  be  capable  of  combustion.  Explorations  have 
shown  a  number  of  beds  of  this  character  from  two  to  ten  feet 
in  thickness,  extending  for  several  miles  in  an  easterly  and 
westerly  direction. 

The  following  results  are  stated  to  have  been  obtained  from 
working  tests.  The  distillation  in  retorts  yields  beside  a  little 
water,  a  quantity  of  heavy  oil,  a  little  gas,  and  coke  available  for 
fuel.  The  yield  of  oil  is  from  15  to  20  gallons  per  ton  of  2000  Ibs. 
In  refining  this  crude  distillate,  the  products  may  be  divided 
into  different  varieties,  according  to  the  market.  A  convenient 
division  yields  20  per  cent  kerosene,  20  per  cent  white  spindle 
or  sewing  machine  oil,  40  per  cent  heavy  lubricating  oil,  and 
20  per  cent  pitch. 


86       NEW    MINERAL    DISCOVERIES    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA. — GILPIN. 

The  kerosene  does  not  practically  differ  from  ordinary 
American  petroleum  kerosene.  It  refines  white  and  is  very  free 
burning.  .  White  Spindle  oils  are  the  most  costly  in  the  market. 
There  are  none,  however,  in  the  United  States  obtained  from 
petroleum  so  white  and  so  heavy  as  this  from  East  Bay.  The 
lubricating  oil  is  heavy,  while  it  is  as  light  in  color  as  the 
heaviest  parafine  oil  in  America.  The  yield  of  crude  oil  is 
found  to  be  about  6.25  per  cent,  and  the  proportions  per  ton 
would  be : — 

Kerosene  oil    J  .25  per  cent. 

White  Spindle   oil 1.25  " 

Heavy  Lubricating  oil 2.50  " 

Pitch   1.25 

Water 5.75  " 

Coke    87.50 

Loss,   gas,  etc 50  " 


100.00 

It  is  also  ascertained  that  this  material  is  readily  distilled 
and  refined  by  methods  and  apparatus  in  general  use  in  shale 
and  petroleum  industries  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 
The  pitch  is  of  good  quality. 

If  these  statements  are  verified  by  actual  practice,  and  the 
costs  permit,  a  large  and  important  industry  may  be  counted  on 
here.  Should  these  oils  find  a  market  and  demand  abroad,  no 
doubt  the  shales  in  various  parts  of  the  province,  known  to  be 
bituminous,  will  receive  attention. 

Iron  Ore. 

The  district  lying  between  little  Bras  d'Or  and  East  Bay  in 
Cape  Breton  County  is  traversed  diagonally  by  lower  silurian 
strata  and  by  the  felsitic  and  limestone  divisions  of  the  pre- 
cambrian,  which  are  flanked  by  lower  carboniferous  strata. 
The  presence  of  iron  ore  near  the  junction  of  the  George's  River 
limestone  and  lower  carboniferous  has  long  been  known  near 
Gillies'  Lake,  and  outcrops  are  known  at  Upper  French  Vale 


NEW    MINERAL    DISCOVERIES    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA. — GILPIN.       87 

and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Barasois  River,  emptying  into  the 
Little  Bras  d'Or.  At  the  latter  place  the  silurian  slates  are 
literally  soaked  in  iron  oxide,  and  at  several  points  they  present 
deposits  which  may  on  further  investigation  prove  of  economic 
value. 

To  the  south-west  of  the  railway  bridge  at  Barasois,  on  aline 
running  towards  Eskasonie  on  East  Bay,  are  several  large  out- 
crops of  magnetite.  As  yet  little  work  has  been  done  to  test  the 
value  of  these  deposits.  Should  these  deposits  prove  to  be  free 
from  titanic  acid,  they  should,  judging  from  the  following 
analysis.be  available  for  the  operations  of  the  miner  : — 

Oxide  of  Manganese  and  Alumina CO 

Lime 11 

Magnesia  . 10 

O 

Sulphur 05 

Phosphoric  Acid 04 

Siiica   2.12 

Volatile 84 

Metallic  Iron    67.298 

The  question  of  the  amount,  quality,  and  cheapness  of  iron 
ore  is  one  of  the  great  problems  of  the  day.  The  United  States 
are  exceptionally  fortunate  in  having  in  its  North-Western 
States  what  may  be  termed  the  greatest  deposits  of  Bessemer 
ore  yet  discovered.  The  size  of  these  deposits,  their  purity, 
their  accessibility,  and  the  lavish  expenditure  for  their  cheap 
mining  and  transportation  have  combined  to  build  up  at  Chicago, 
Pittsburg,  and  other  points,  the  greatest  individual  steel  works 
of  the  world.  Without  the  iron  ores  of  Michigan,  the  United 
States  would  to-day  occupy  a  position  much  less  menacing  to 
the  commercial  destinies  of  England  and  the  Continent.  It  is 
true  that  the  competition  England  has  had  hitherto  to  meet  in 
the  iron  industry  has  come  chiefly  from  the  pig  iron  of 
Tennessee,  but  this  can  be  largely  met  by  the  English  furnace 
masters  building  larger  furnaces  and  securing  lower  local  rail- 
way freights.  Although  these  precious  deposits,  more  valuable 
than  gold  and  silver  mines,  were  heralded  as  everlasting  already 
their  exhaustion  is  a  question  of  not  many  years,  as  new  dis- 


88       NEW    MINERAL    DISCOVERIES    IX    NOVA    SCOTIA. — GILPIN. 

coveries  are  seldom  announced.  Already  the  vast  iron  ore  deposits 
on  the  Canadian  side  of  the  great  lakes  are  engaging  the  atten- 
tion of  the  more  far-seeing  of  the  United  States  iron  masters 
At  present  these  deposits  are  not  available.  England,  France 
and  Germany  draw  large  supplies  of  Bessemer  ore  from  Spain 
and  Algiers,  This  source  now  shows  signs  of  weakening,  and 
the  magnetic  ores  of  Sweden  and  Norway  are  gradually  being 
drawn  upon  in  amounts  annually  increasing. 

There  is  no  known  geological  reason  why  Labrador,  New- 
foundland, and  Cape  Breton  should  not  contribute  to  this 
demand,  ever  increasing  and  never  satisfied.  The  existence  of 
iron  ore  at  many  points  in  Cape  Breton  is  already  known.  The 
attempts  made  to  find  deposits,  and  to  test  them  are  scarce 
worth  noticing.  In  the  forest  and  swamp-covered  tracts  there 
may  be  masses  of  iron  ore  worth  an  empire's  ransom. 

It  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  these  deposits,  to  be  of 
any  value,  must  be  pure,  extensive,  and  capable  of  cheap  mining 
and  shipping.  The  output  must  be  large  and  the  expenses  low 
to  enable  the  Cape  Bretoner  to  enter  into  the  world's  competi- 
tion in  selling  iron  ore  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

Wolframite. 

Last  spring  a  discovery  of  this  mineral  was  made  at  North- 
East  Margaree,  Inverness  County.  Full  particulars  of  this  deposit 
are  not  yet  available.  It  is  stated  to  occur  in  a  vein,  in  places 
three  feet  wide,  and  to  be  present  in  amounts  permitting  readily 
of  concentration  to  a  high  percentage.  The  mineral  is  of  a  dull 
gray  color,  in  places  almost  black,  and  with  a  somewhat 
metallic  lustre.  Jts  specific  gravity  is  7.1 — 7.5,  and  its  hardness 
5 — 5.5.  It  is  sometimes  feebly  magnetic,  and  contains  67.47 
WO  .  The  price  quoted  for  the  mineral  on  the  continent  is 
stated  to  be  $375.00  per  ton  of  65  per  cent  ore.  The  demand  at 
present  is  not  large,  and  is  met  by  an  annual  output  of  a  few 
hundred  tons.  Its  principal,  if  not  its  only  commercial  value,  is 
as  an  alloy  for  steel.  It  is  believed  that,  if  a  large  and  per- 
manent supply  of  the  mineral  could  be  secured,  it  would  be 
utilised  for  hardening  armor  plate  and  similar  purposes. 


NEW    MINERAL    DISCOVERIES    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA. — GILPIN.       89 

Coal. 

In  1897  I  gave  some  analyses  of  the  coal  from  the  lower 
levels  of  the  Springhill  seams,  and  compared  them  with  earlier 
analyses  of  the  coal  from  parts  of  the  seams  nearer  the  outcrops. 
The  analyses  show  that  as  the  coals  have  been  followed  down 
they  have  increased  in  their  percentage  of  fixed  carbon,  and 
consequently  in  their  steam-raising  qualities.  This  is  borne  out 
by  the  result-of  analyses  made  since  that  date.  The  average  of 
a  number  giving  the  composition  of  Springhill  coal  at  present  is 
as  follows  : — 

Moisture 2.05 

Volatile  combustible  matter 30.21 

Fixed  Carbon 63.52 

Ash  .  4.?2 


100.00 

During  the  past  year  a  tunnel  has  been  started  in  the  lower 
workings  of  the  underlying  seam  to  cut  some  lower  beds  of  coal 
known  to  exist  some  distance  to  the  dip.  It  has  already  cut  one 
seam  holding  about  4|  feet  of  coal,  which  gives  the  following 
analysis : — 

Moisture 3.00 

Volatile  matter 31.30 

Fixed  Carbon 62.50 

Ash  .  3.20 


100.00 
Sulphur 1.19 

The  question  of  the  adaptability  of  the  coals  of  the  Dominion 
Coal  Company  for  iron  ore  smelting  has  been  a  matter  of  much 
interest  for  some  time.  The  principal  seam  worked  by  this 
company  is  the  Phelan.  At  its  outcrop  the  sulphur  average  per 
cent  was  about  2.5.  This  would  of  course  be  a  prejudicial 
amount  in  coals  destined  for  blast  furnace  purposes.  It  is 
satisfactory  to  learn  that  as  the  workings  in  this  seam  are 
extended  to  the  dip  the  percentage  of  sulphur  has  materially 


90      NEW    MINERAL    DISCOVERIES    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA. — GILPINT. 

decreased.  While  of  course  it  is  possible  to  materially  decrease 
the  percentage  of  sulphur  by  crushing  and  washing  the  coal,  it 
is  the  ambition  of  every  mine  manager  to  work  a  coal  searn 
which  can  be  charged  into  the  coke  ovens  without  preliminary 
treatment.  While  this  point  may  not  yet  be  actually  reached 
in  the  Phalen  seam,  it  is  gratifying  to  notice  that  the  lowering 
of  the  percentage  of  sulphur  is  rapidly  reaching  this  desirable 
point.  The  following  average  of  nearly  two  hundred  analyses 
of  this  seam  in  the  lower  levels  of  the  various  workings  will 
show  approximately  its  present  ash  and  sulphur  contents: — 

Average.  Per  cent. 

Ash    392 

Sulphur N 1 

The  ash  varying  from  2.95  to  5.20,  and  the  sulphur  from  .8  to  .93. 
These  results  compare  more  than  favorably  with  the  percentages 
of  the  corresponding  impurities  met  in  the  standard  American 
coking  coals,  and  warrant  the  presumption  that  in  Cape  Breton, 
now  that  the  sulphur  question  is  removed,  there  are  available 
unlimited  quantities  of  the  highest  grade  of  coking  coal. 

The  importance  of  the  possession  of  a  store  of  such  high 
grade  coal  is  at  once  seen  on  reading  an  editorial  in  a  late 
number  of  the  Engineering  and  Mininfj  Journal,  New  York, 
which  states  that  parts  of  the  great  Pittsburg  coking  searn  show 
signs  of  partial  exhaustion,  and  that  leading  operators  in  the 
coke  trade  are  turning  their  attention  to  the  acqisition  of  coal 
lands  in  Virginia  as  containing  the  next  best  available  coal  for 
coke  making. 


VI.— PHENOLOOICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1898,  COMPILED 
BY  A.  H.  MAC-KAY,  LL.D.,  Halifax,  from  Observations 
of  the  Botanical  Club  of  Canada,  and  of  over  seven 
hundred  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Nova  Scotia. 

(Read  April  17th,  18!)9J 

In  order  to  continue  the  publication  of  the  series  of  the 
observations  of  the  Botanical  Club  of  Canada,  1  give  hereafter  a 
table  of  the  observations  made  by  the  thirteen  members 
making  a  phenological  report  for  1898.  I  can  but  give  a  sum- 
mary of  selections  from  seven  hundred  reports  from  as  many 
localities  in  the  Province  of  Nova  Scotia.  That  these  observa- 
tions are  of  very  great  value  in  measuring  the  phenological 
conditions  of  the  various  portions  of  the  province  can  be  readily 
inferred  from  the  facts,  that  each  report  comes  from  a  school  in 
which  numbers  of  pupils  were  observing  on  their  way  to  and 
from  school  under  the  direction  and  stimulation  of  the  teacher, 
and  is  therefore  likely  to  be  in  most  cases  more  accurate  than 
one  made  by  a  single  observer ;  that  the  reports  represent 
every  part  of  the  province  ;  and  that  they  represent  more  or  less 
numerous  localities  in  each  county  of  the  province. 

For  the  compilation  of  the  tables  which  immediately  follow, 
ten  of  the  most  complete  schedules  or  reports  from  each  county 
were  selected  (except  in  the  cases  of  the  counties  of  Queens, 
Antigonish  and  Guysboro,  where  the  full  schedules  were  not 
sufficiently  numerous,  and  were  respectively  five,  five  and  six). 
From  these  were  selected  the  same  TEN  plants  which  had  the 
time  of  "first  flowering  "  and  the  time  when  "flowering  was 
becoming  common "  both  recorded.  From  these  averages  or 
mean  dates  of  flowering  have  been  found,  which  we  may 
speak  of  as  "  phenochrons,"  the  times  of  the  appearances  of 
the  phenomena  observed  expressed  in  the  terms  of  the  days  of 
the  year.  For  such  computations  it  is  necessary  to  have  some 

(91) 


92      PHEXOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1898. — MACK  AY. 


simple  method  of  indicating  the  point  of  time.  For  the  con- 
version of  the  ordinary  mensual  date  to  this  annual  one,  or 
vice  versa,  all  that  is  necessary  to  assist  the  operation  of 
mental  arithmetic,  is  to  have  such  a  scheme  as  the  following- 
before  the  eye : — 


Day  of  the  year,  corresponding  to  the  last  day  of 
each  month. 


January 31 

February    59 

March 90 

April 120 

May 151 

June  . .  . .  181 


July 212 

August  243 

September    273 

October 304 

November 334 

December  . .  .  365 


(For  leap  years  increase  each  number  except  the  first  by  1.) 


Below  is  a  table  of  phenochrons  for  the  flowering  of  ten 
plants  in  each  county,  and  for  each  county,  for  the  spring  of 
1898,  in  Nova  Scotia,  based  on  ten  of  the  best  sets  of  observa- 
tions made  in  each  county.  The  first  column  is  the  average 
date  of  the  '•  first  flowering  "  observed,  the  second  is  the  average 
date  when  the  flowering  was  considered  to  be  "becoming 
common."  The  counties  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 
phenochrons  based  on  the  average  of  both  columns. 


YARMOUTH. 
130.68. 

ANNAPOLIS. 
132.22. 

KINGS. 
134.19. 

Mayflower   
Blue  Violet  
Red  Maple  

83.0        100.7 
113.7        126.5 
120.6        129.1 

89.2        103.8 
122.5        130.3 
119.0        130.2 

93.9        104.7 
122.1        133.1 
117.7        129.2 

Dandelion    

113.6        126.4 

120.2        130.1 

124.0        134.4 

Strawberry  

115.0        130.8 

132.3        131.3 

116.6        136.5 

Wild  Red  Cherry.... 
Buttercup    .         

137.9        146.9 
131.5        145.3 

134.7        142.0 
142.0        150.7 

141.3        146.9 
140.3        151.0 

Indian  Pear  

139.5        144.9 

136.2        140.0 

139.8        143.7 

Apple.  . 

142.6        152.5 

142  2        147.2 

144.5        151.5 

Lilac  

154.7        162.7 

151.8        158.1 

152.5        160.2 

125.21      136.56 

128.07      136.37 

129.27      139.12 

PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1898. — MACKAY.       93 


DIGBY. 
134.27. 

HANTS. 
134.97. 

SHELBURNE. 
135.19. 

Mayflower  

92.4        104.4 

96.0        109.3 

86.1       102.9 

Blue  Violet  

122.8        132.9 

122.8        131  2 

120.9        128.7 

Red  Maple   

127.9        184.8 

119.2        127.0 

122.7        131.5 

Dandelion    

111.9        127.1 

124.0        133.2 

121.8        129.8 

Strawberry  

117.5        132.1 

123.4        133.5 

126.0        135.4 

Wild  Red  Cherry 
Buttercup    

140.7        150.9 
145.4        155  8 

141.1        145.8 
140  3        152.5 

144.7        150.5 
139  9        152.1 

Indian  Pear  

138.4        143.7 
141.6        150.5 

140.2        144.5 
146  2        151.5 

139.2        145.1 
146.8        153.2 

151.7        1630 

156  0        161.8 

159.0        166.4 

129.03      139.52 

130.92      139.03 

130.71      139.56 

PICTOU. 
135.41. 

LUNENBURG. 

135.43. 

QUEENS. 
135.72. 

Mayflower      

97  9        in  Q 

93  4        105  5 

90  8        112  0 

Blue  Violet  

121  2        133  4 

119  1        132.2 

123  4        131.0 

Red  Maple  

122  3        132  3 

116  4        127.1 

119  4        128.0 

Dandelion    

120  4        132  3 

126  2        134  4 

126  2        133.2 

Strawberry  

124  2        135  5 

123  8        133  9 

125  4        133  8 

Wild  Red  Cherry.. 
Buttercup  

143.3        148.8 
142  0        149  6 

140.8        146.2 
149  5        158.0 

140.8        145.4 
148  8        157.2 

Indian  Pear   

139  2        144  5 

138  2        143.7 

139  0        144.6 

Apple  

146  4        151  7 

145  0        151  3 

142  6        150.2 

Lilac  

152  3        159  3 

159  2        164.8 

157  6        165.0 

131.92      139.90 

131.16      139.71 

131.40      140.04 

COLCHESTER. 
137.23. 

HALIFAX. 
137.29. 

CUMBERLAND. 
J  39.20. 

Mayflower  

96.8        110.5 

92.8        107.2 

101.4       111.7 

Blue  Violet  

125.6        136.2 

123.7        131.8 

132.0        139.0 

Red  Maple  

125.6        133.9 

122.7        129.7 

130.4        136.1 

Dandelion    

125.3        134.8 

124.7        132.4 

131.1        137.8 

Strawberry  

125.5        136  5 

124.9        134.0 

130.9        138.8 

Wild  Red  Cherry.. 
Buttercup    

141.1        146.6 
148.0        156.8 

146.6        151.4 
148.4        156.5 

142.7        146.9 
147.1        155.7 

Indian  Pear   

142.5        148.2 

139.7        144.7 

139.8        146.1 

Apple  

145.4        151.4 

150.4        155.6 

147.1        151.3 

Lilac  

153.7        160.2 

161.0        167.7 

155.6        162.5 

132.95      141.51 

1.33.49      141.10 

135.81      142.59 

94       PHENOLOGTCAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1898. — MACK  AY. 


ANTIGONISH, 
140.93. 

CAPE  BRKTON. 
143.05. 

GUYSBORO. 

143.28. 

Mayflower  

106.2        120.8 

101.5        114.8 

100.2       124.2 

Blue  Violet  

130.2        135.6 

131.2       137.9 

132.5       141.2 

Red  Maple  

129.6        134.2 

133.9       141.6 

126.3        138.0 

Dandelion      

130.0        132.6 

130.2        136.5 

125.2        139.2 

Strawberry  

120.6        136.8 

129.2        141.2 

130.2        140.5 

Wild  Red  Cherry  . 
Buttercup    

146.8        152  8 
149.0        157.2 

151.9        158.7 
153.5        160.2 

148.2        151,5 
154.3        164.7 

Indian  Pear   

143.6        147.8 

144.9        150.1 

146.5       149.8 

Apple  .  , 

154.2        158.8 

155.6        160.5 

152.0       161.0 

Lilac  

162.6        169.2 

160.9        166.8 

167.7       172.7 

134.28      144.58 

139.28      146.83 

138.30      148.26 

INVERNESS. 
14507. 

RICHMOND. 
146.65. 

VICTORIA. 
147.97. 

Mayflower  

111.0        122.4 

105.2        121.7 

108.2       121.6 

Blue  Violet  

126.9        139.4 

132.9       142.0 

131.1        138.3 

Red  Maple  

141.7        149.0 

137.0        143.2 

146.0        150.4 

Dandelion    

125  8        139.9 

134.7        142.4 

134.2        142.5 

Strawberry  

129.4        142.0 

135.5        145.9 

134.4       145.3 

Wild  Red  Cherry 
Buttercup    

146.0        154,2 
154.9        164.1 

149.2        156.9 
152.9        162.9 

152.7        159.1 
152.6        162.3 

Indian  Pear    
Apple  .  .   

136.0        151.3 
153.6        162.2 

146.0        154.4 
161.4        167.6 

148.6        157.3 
159.5        164.2 

Lilac  

171.3        180.3 

166.4        174.9 

172.5        178.7 

139.66      150.48 

142.12      161.19 

143.98      151.97 

PHENOLOG1CAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1898. — MACK  AY.      95 


Mean  Flowering  Phenochrons  of  ten  plants  in  each  County  of  the 
Province  of  Nova  Scotia  for  the  year  1S98,  being  the  Means  of 
Observations  at  ten  stations  in  each  County  (excepting  Antigonish, 
Guysboro  and  Queens,  where  they  are  five,  six  and  five  respectively). 
These  Phenochrons  are  the  means  of  the  ttoo  series  of  observations, 
"When  first  seen"  and  "When  becoming  common." 


FLOWER. 

YARMOUTH. 

ANNAPOLIS. 

KINGS. 

Mayflower   

91.85 

96.50 

99.30 

Blue  Violet     

120.10 

126.40 

127.60 

Red.  Maple  

124.85 

124.60 

123.45 

Dandelion        

120.00 

125.15 

129.20 

Strawberry  

122.80 

126  80 

126.55 

Wild  Red  Cherrv  

142.40 

138.35 

144.10 

Buttercup  

138.40 

146.65 

145.65 

Indian   Pear        

142.20 

138.10 

141.75 

Apple  . 

147.55 

144.70 

148.00 

Lilac  

153.70 

154.95 

156.  35 

Co.  Phenochrons  .    

130.88 

132.22 

134.19 

DlOBY. 

HANTS. 

SHELBURNE. 

Mayflower   

98.40 

102.65 

94.50 

Blue  Violet  

127.85 

127.00 

124.80 

Red  Maple  

131.35 

123.10 

127.10 

Dandelion    

119.50 

126.60 

125.30 

Strawberry  .  .  . 

124.80 

128.45 

130.70 

Wild  Red  Cherry  

145.80 

143.45 

147.60 

Buttercup    

150.60 

146.40 

146.00 

Indian  Pea.r   

141.05 

142.35 

142.15 

Apple  ,  

146.05 

148.85 

150.00 

Lilac   

157.35 

158.90 

162.70 

Co.  Phenochrons    

134.27 

134.97 

135.13 

PlCTOU, 

LUNENBURG. 

QUEENS. 

Mayflower   

104.75 

99.45 

101.4 

Blue  Violet  

127.30 

125.65 

127.2 

Red  Maple   

127.30 

121.75 

123.7 

Dandelion     

126.35 

130.30 

129.7 

Strawberry         

129.85 

128.85 

129.6 

Wild  Red  Cherrv  

146.05 

143.50 

143.1 

Buttercup  

145.80 

153.75 

153.0 

Indian  Pear  

141.85 

140.95 

141.8 

Apple  . 

149.05 

148.15 

146.4 

Lilac   

155.80 

162.00 

161.3 

Co.  Phenochrons  .. 

135.41 

135.43 

1&5.72 

96       PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1898. — MACKAY. 


FLOWER. 

COLCHESTER. 

HALIFAX. 

CUMBERLAND 

Mayflower       

103.63 

100.00 

106.55 

Blue  Violet              

130.00 

127.75 

135.50 

Red  Maple         .       

129.85 

126.20 

133.25 

Dandelion            

130.05 

128.55 

134.45 

Strawberry      

131.00 

129.45 

134.85 

Wild  Red  Cherry  

143.85 

149.00 

144.80 

152  40 

152.45 

151.40 

Indian  Pear       

145.35 

142.20 

142.95 

Apple            

148.40 

153.00 

149.20 

156.95 

164.35 

159.05 

Co.  Phenochrons  

137  23 

137.29 

139.20 

ANTIGONISH. 

CAPE  BRETON. 

GUVSBORO. 

Mayflower   

113.50 

10S.15 

112.20 

Blue  Violet                     

132.90 

134.55 

136.85 

Red  Maple   

131.90 

137.75 

132.15 

1    Dandelion      

131.30 

133.35 

132.25 

Strawberry  

128.70 

135.20 

135.35 

Wild  Red  Cherry  

149.80 

155.30 

149.85 

Buttercup      

153.10 

156.  85 

159.50 

Indian    Pear  

145.70 

147.50 

148.15 

Apple  ,  ,  ,  

156.50 

158.05 

156.50 

Lilac  

165.90 

163.85 

170.20 

Co.  Phenochrons  

140  93 

143.05 

143.28 

INVERNESS. 

RICHMOND. 

VICTORIA. 

Mayflower   

116.70 

113.45 

114.90 

Blue  Violet  

133.15 

187.45 

134.70 

Red  Maple     

145.35 

140.10 

148  20 

Dandelion    

132.85 

138.55 

138.35 

Strawberry  

135.70 

140.70 

139  ^5 

Wild  Red  Cherry  

150.10 

153.05 

155  90 

Buttercup    

159.50 

157.90 

157  45 

Indian  Pear  

143.65 

150.20 

152  95 

Apple  

157.90 

164.50 

161  85 

Lilac  

175.80 

170.65 

175  60 

Co.  Phenochrons.. 

145.07 

146  65 

147.97 

On  the    opposite  page  these  phenochrons  are  plotted  so  as 
to  show  the  characters  of  the  curves. 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS     CANADA,   1898. — MACKAY,       97 


PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Set.,  VOL.  X. 


TKANS.— G. 


98      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,   1808. — MACKAY. 


An  interesting  irregularity  in  the  phenochrons  of  the 
different  counties  is  shown  in  nearty  every  part  of  this  table. 
Their  order  is  not  parallel  in  the  different  counties.  Very  often 
it  is  reversed.  As  the  phenochrons  are  averages  of  ten  observa- 
tions, it  cannot  be  laid  altogether  to  the  charge  of  defective 
observation.  The  rarity  of  certain  species  in  certain  counties, 
or  in  the  districts  in  which  the  observations  were  made,  tends 
to  make  the  phenochron  later  there,  for  the  plants  may  be  in 
flower  before  they  are  met  with.  But  the  character  of  the  soil, 
the  elevation,  the  slope.  &c.,  must  have  had  some  influence. 
And  then,  may  it  not  be  possible  that  the  same  species  may 
develop  a  tendency  to  an  earlier  or  later  maturing  in  different 
regions  ?  These  are  questions  which  careful  future  observations 
may  help  to  answer. 

To  illustrate  the  effect  of  asymmetry  of  stations  on  the 
phenochrons  of  a  large  district  of  country,  I  select  five  of  the 
best  observed  plants,  giving  first  their  phenochrons  for  a  period 
of  seven  years,  1892  to  1898,  based  on  the  few  irregularly  dis- 
tributed stations  of  the  Botanical  Club  of  Canada ;  secondly 
their  phenochrons  for  the  year  1898,  based  on  the  observations 
made,  at  the  eight  stations,  Berwick,  Windsor,  Musquodoboit, 
Wallace,  Pictou,  New  Glasgow  and  Port  Hawkesbury ;  and 
giving,  thirdly,  their  phenochrons  derived  from  180  stations,  ten 
in  each  of  the  eighteen  counties  of  the  province,  observed  in 
connection  with  the  public  schools  of  the  province. 


First  Flowering  of  the 

Seven  Year 
Phenochrons,— 
Bot.  Club. 

Phenochrons 
for  1898,— 
Bot.    Club. 

Phenochrona 
for  1898,— 
180  SchooK 

Mayflower  

103.0 

93.1 

97.0 

Maple  

125.0 

121.8 

126.0 

Strawberry  

129.1 

125.7 

125.3 

Amelanchier  .  .  ,    .  

142.6 

140.7 

140.9 

Lilac  

155.3 

155.1 

159.2 

General  Phenochrons 

131.0 

127.3 

129.7 

PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1898. — MACKAY.      99 


From  the  general  phenochrons  we  infer  that  the  Spring  of 
1898  in  the  Province  of  Nova  Scotia,  was  according  to  the 
Botanical  Club,  3.7  days  earlier  than  the  average  of  the  seven 
years  preceding,  and  according  to  the  Schools  only  1.3  days 
earlier.  But  what  is  the  cause  of  this  difference  of  2.4  days 
difference  between  the  Club  and  the  Schools  ?  Not  defective 
observations,  but  the  fact  that  of  the  eight  stations  of  the 
Botanical  Club,  nearly  all  were  either  southern  or  central, 
while  those  of  the  Schools  were  evenly  distributed  from  Cape 
Sable  to  Cape  North. 

Average  flowering  dates  of    five  plants    selected    from  the 
preceding  tables,  (a)  for  the  first  nine  counties  of  the  Province 
in  the  series, — the  South-Western  ;  (6)  for  the  second  nine  coun- 
ties,— the  North-Eastern  ;   and  (c)  for  the  w  hole  Province  : 
A.— "FIRST   FLOWERING,"   1898. 


SPECIES. 

(a)  S.  W.  Coun- 
ties. 

(6)  N.  E.  Coun- 
ties. 

(c)  All  Counties. 

Mayflower  

91.4 

102.6 

97.0 

Strawberry  

121.6 

128.9 

125.3 

Maple  .  ....   , 

120.6 

132.6 

126.6 

Indian  Pear  

138.8 

143.1 

140.9 

Lilac  

155.0 

163.5 

159.2 

Averaee    . 

125.48 

134.14 

129.80 

B. — "FLOWERING  BECOMING  COMMON,"  1898. 


SPECIES. 

(a)  S.  W.  Coun- 
ties. 

(b)  N.  E.  Coun- 
ties. 

(c)  All  Counties. 

Mayflower  
Maple  

106.1 
129.9 

117.1 
139.6 

111.6 
134.7 

Strawberry  ....    ...   . 

133.6 

140.1 

1368 

Indian  Pear   

143.9 

150.0 

146.9 

Lilac  

162.3 

170.3 

166.3 

Average    

135.16 

143  42 

13926 

This  table   shows  at  a  glance  the  phenological  differences 
between  the  warmer  and  colder  halves  of  the  Province,  and 


100      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,   1898.— MACKAY. 


also  the  average  difference  between  the  first  flowering  and  when 
the  observers  thought  it  might  be  said  that  "flowering  was 
becoming  common."  In  other  words,  the  South- Western  half  of 
the  Province  was  in  advance  of  the  North-Eastern  half  as  mea- 
sured by  the  "  first  flowering  "  and  when  "  flowering  was  becom- 
ing common  "  so  far  as  the  said  five  plants  are  concerned  as 
follows : 


Flowering,  1898. 

First 
Flowering. 

Becoming 
Common. 

Average. 

Mayflower       

11.2  days. 

11.1  days. 

11.15  days. 

Maple     

12.0      " 

9.7      " 

10.85      " 

Strawberry  

7.3      " 

6.5      " 

6.90      " 

Indian  Pear  

4.3      " 

6.1      " 

5.20      " 

Lilac  

8.5      " 

8.0      " 

8.25      " 

Average    

8.66  days. 

8.28  days. 

8.47  days. 

That  is,  the  one  half  of  the  Province  is  on  the  average  eight 
and  a  half  days  in  advance  of  the  other  half  as  divided 
above.  The  difference  between  the  extreme  counties  is  very 
much  greater,  however,  as  shown  by  some  of  the  other  tables. 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1898. — MACK  AY.      101 


MEANS    OF    TWENTY    PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,  NOVA    SCOTIA, 
FOR    THE    SEVEN    YEARS,    1892    TO    1898,    (BOTANICAL    CLUB). 


S 

52 

38 

'0 

rf 

& 

& 

Species  common  to 
the  Tables  of  the 
seven  years. 

Average 
Date,  18 

Average 
Date,  18" 

Average 
Date,  18< 

Average 
Date,  18 

Average 
Date,  18! 

oo 
a>-H 

?j 

>Q 
<5 

Average 
Date,  18 

Seven  Year 
Normals  or  Phen-; 
ochrons  of  the 
Species. 

(First  appearance). 

Mayflower,  flower. 

98 

108 

104.7 

107.0 

102.70 

106. 

93.14 

102.79 

12  Apr. 

Alder,            /  •' 
Aspen, 

102 
131 

114 
123 

116.3 
122.2 

103.8 
117.5 

107.55 
121.90 

119. 
128. 

103.50 
118.66 

109.45 
123.18 

19     " 
3  May. 

Maple, 

123 

130 

126.3 

123.85 

124.55 

124.8 

12180 

124.90 

4     " 

Strawberry,     " 

129 

133 

131.6 

128.55 

128.50 

126.5 

125.75 

128.99 

8     " 

Dog-tooth  V.,  " 

135 

136 

132.2 

125. 

128.50 

131. 

126. 

130.53 

10     " 

Cherry  (Cult.)  " 

146 

142 

146.3 

136.6 

143.00 

146. 

141.80 

143.10 

23     " 

Indian  Pear,    " 

145 

144 

146. 

138.35 

141.65 

141.8 

140-71 

142.50 

22     " 

Cherry  Wild   " 

150' 

144 

147. 

138.15 

145.25 

142.6 

143.20 

144.31 

24     " 

Apple, 

146 

146 

152.1 

143.7 

151.10 

155.3 

148.40 

148.94 

28     " 

Lilac, 

154 

160 

162.3 

153.5 

160.50 

157.. 

155.14 

157.49 

6  June. 

Hawthorn,       " 
Wild  Goose  

163 

54 
96 
99 
105 
106 
128 
143 

160 

88 
94 
115 
113 
119 
137 
159 

160.3 

70.6 
73.2 
79. 
112.8 
119. 
128.7 
143,0 

148.75 

78.00 
9930 
96.65 
110.55 
125.75 
127.50 
137.25 

160.25 

80.00 
96.14 
94.66 
106.30 
117.76 
122.00 
139.30 

156. 

80. 
91. 
95.6 
113.2 
(117.5 
141.6 
143. 

158. 

73.80 
58. 
71. 
101.80 
(117.5) 
130.50 
143.50 

158.04 

74.91 
86.81 
92.99 
108.95 
(117  50) 
130.76 
144.01 

7     " 

15  Mar. 

27     " 
2  Apr. 
18     " 
27     " 
10  May. 
24     " 

Robin  

Song  Sparrow  

Swallow  

Kingfisher   

Humming  Bird  — 

Night  Hawk  

150 

134 

158.8 
126.62 

148.00 

154.33 

165.5 

145.30 

120.88 

152.28 

1  June. 

Annual    Phenochr 
ons,  1892  to  1898. 

125.15 

130.45 

124.39 

126.30 

129.07 

126.12 

Corresponding  day 

6 
May. 

10 
May 

6 

May 

4 

May. 

6 
May. 

9 
May, 

30 
April. 

6     . 
May. 

6  May. 

102      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1898.— MACKAY. 

To  conclude  this  exhibit  of  phenological  observations,  I  give 
a  few  from  those  made  by  the  Botanical  Club  extending  across 

Canada. 

CANADA,  1898. 


- 

4 

CS  0 

gi 

55 

Muskoka, 
Ontario. 

Pheasant 
Forks, 
Assa 

4 

E 

J 

a>r-> 
T3-^ 

5 

Vancou- 
ver, B.  C. 

Frogs  (first  Piping)  

101  8 

98 

112 

106 

41 

Dandelion  (first  flowering). 
Strawberry             " 
Wild  Red  Cherry  " 

124.4 

125.7 
143.2 

121 
130 
136 

150 
142 
161 

153 
142 

84 
96 
110 

Apple                         

148.4 

146 

116 

I  J  lac                              ... 

155.1 

147 

182 

To  further  illustrate  what  has  been  done  and  what  has  not 
teen  done,  I  give  the  figures  for  each  of  the  above  six  phenomena, 
so  far  as  obtained,  for  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Ontario 
(Muskoka  and  Niagara),  Winnipeg,  Pheasant  Forks  in  Assini- 
boia,  Olds  in  Alberta,  and  Vancouver  in  British  Columbia,  for 
the  series  of  four  years  from  1895  to  1898. 

CANADA,    1895   TO    1898. 
FROGS   (First   Piping). 


YEAR. 

CO 

fc 

H 
£ 

Ontario. 

Winnipeg. 

CO 

M 

o 
n 

£ 

•o 
O 

Vancouver. 

1895.    
1896   . 

110.6 
106.3 
113.2 

101.8 

120 
116 

106.5 
104.5 
92 
98 

925 
112. 
104. 

98 

53 
50 
33 
41 

115 
105 
112 

1897   
1898  

106 

1895 

D; 
125.4 
128.5 
132.4 
124.4 

iNDELION 

131 
133 

(First  F 
118.5 
121.5  ' 
118 
121 

lowering) 
123 

143 

99 

88 
89 
84 

1896 

149 

1897  
1898  

135 

150 

153 

PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1898 — MACKAY.      103 


STRAWBERRY  (First  Flowering). 


YEAR. 

03 
ti 

« 
£ 

Ontario. 

1 

Winnipeg. 

CO 

•§ 

m 

i 

gl 

g 

0 

Vancouver. 

1895  

1285 
128.5 
128.6 
1257 

126.8 
128.5 

126 
127.5 

128.5 
130 

129 
144 
140 

136 

110 
102 
89 
96 

1896     ...     . 

134 
140 
142 

1897  
1898  

142 

1895  

WILD 

139.8 
145.2 
1426 
1432 

RED  CHI 

130.5 
144 

:RRY  (Fit 

128 
130 
137.5 
146 

~st  Flower 

ing). 

124 
126 
111 
116 

1896  

1897  

140 

1898  

1895  

143.7 
151.  L 
155.3 

APPLE  ( 

145 
152 

First  Flo 

129 
131.5 
143 

veriny). 
128 

• 

1896  

126 
117 
116 

1897  

1898  

148.4 

146 



1895  
1896  

153.7 
160.5 
157 
155.1 

LILAC  (  i 

150 
158 

Wrst  Floi 

137.5 
133.5 
148 
147 

jeringj. 
136 

125 
133 
131 

1897  

145 

1898  

182 

1 

The  blanks  in  the  table  above  show  that  the  great  difficulty 
is  to  obtain  observers  who  can  keep  up  their  observations 
regularly  for  a  series  of  years. 


104      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1898. — MACKAY. 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1898. 


Number  1 

Day  of  the  year  1898, 
corresponding  to  the 
last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan..      31    July  ..212 
Fob  .   .  59    AUK   -.243 
Mar.    .  90    Sept...  273 
April   .120    Oct...  304 
May.   .151    Nov...  334 
June    .181    Dec...  .365 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

Windsor,  N.  S. 

CO 

fc 
K" 

«w 

i 

Musquocloboit  Harbor, 

N.  S. 

Wallace,  N.  S. 

02 
% 

1 

0 

2 

New  Glasgow,  N.  S. 

Hawkesbury,  N.  S. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E  I.  | 

Muskoka,  Ont. 

Pheasant  Forks, 
Aasiniboia. 

Olds,  Alberta. 

Vancouver.  B.  C. 

1 

Wild  Plants  Flowering 
Alder  

95 

106 

107 

87 

I'M 

'i 
140 

110 

60 

2 

Aspen   

ra 

107 

1?,1 

135 

113 

133 

8 

Mayflower   

11 

78 

96 

101 

86 

94 

106 

105 

4 

Blue  Violet   

197 

113 

1?4 

135 

I1") 

195 

144 

116 

140 

ft 

White  Violet   . 

120 

122 

127 

125 

Mi 

6 

Red  Maple  

108 

1%> 

193 

191 

139 

107 

7 

Bluets  (Houston  ia)  

1?,8 

8 

Equisetum  

110 

113 

in 

191 

130 

9 

123 

106 

125 

135 

131 

125 

118 

119 

iis 

1  V< 

81 

10 

Adder's-Tonguc  Lily  .  .  . 

196 

121 

ll 

Hepatica  — 

12 

Gold-Thread  

131 

141 

13? 

140 

136 

140 

1  !  1 

140 

13 

Strawberry     

1°? 

190 

loq 

128 

131 

128 

113 

134 

142 

130 

119 

119 

Oft 

ll 
15 

do.         Fruit  ripe.. 
Wild  Red  Cherry  

159 

155 
140 

161 
144 

174 

163 
138 

168 
147 

158 
147 

182 

167 
136 

175 
161 

173 

144 
110- 

16 

do.       Fruit  ripe 

192 

17 

Blueberry  

13? 

121 

14? 

179 

1*} 

IS 

18 
20 

do.       Fruit  ripe  
Ranunculus  acris  
Ranunculus  repens  

196 
142 

204 
156 

154 

202 
152 

139 

16? 

152 

21 

Clintonia  

139 

151 

IS? 

1)8 

2-2 

Trilium  . 

139 

136 

150 

145 

114. 

23 

Trientalis    

140 

149 

15fi 

157 

I'l 
26 

Cypripedium  
Calla  

149 

156 

156 

166 

96 

Indian  Pear  

138 

i39 

140 

137 

143 

141 

154 

129 

142 

118 

PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1898. — MACKAY.      105 


PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1898,-Continued. 


Day  of  the  year,  1898, 
corresponding  to  the 
last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan..  .  31    July    .212 
Feb.     .  59    Aug.    .243 
Mar.  .  90    Sept.    .273 
April  .120    Oct   .   .304 
May     .151    Nov.  .334 
June    .181    Dec  .  .365 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

Windsor,  N.  S. 

Halifax,  N.  S. 

Musquodoboit  Harbor, 

N.  S. 

Wallace,  N.  S. 

aj 

£ 

jS 
o 
"o 

£ 

New  Glasgow,  N.  S. 

Hawkesbury,  N.  S. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I. 

Muskoka,  Ont. 

Pheasant  Forks, 
Assiniboia. 

Olds,  Alberta. 

Vancouver,  B.  C. 

Wild  Plants  Flowering. 
Indian  Pear,  Fruit  

Raspberry  

149 

155 

179 

171 

do.       Fruit  ripe  .... 

203 

202 

176 

213 

182 
^0 

197 
165 

212 

Blackberry  
do.          Fruit  ripe 

166 
WJ 

179 

113 

Pale  Laurel  

169 

177 
168 

157 
173 

157 

•w 

IV 

Sheep  Laurel  

144 

182 
148 

Pigeonberry  

138 

134 

148 

1">8 

do.           Fruit  ripe.  . 

Blue-eyed  Grass 

157 

149 
173 

159 
175 
194 

161 

177 

155 
1W 

171 

Linntea    

Linaria  

211 

Rhinanthus  

179 

Sarr<vcenia  

174 

Brunclla  

180 

173 

192 
197 
195 
178 

179 

200 
.... 

195 

.... 

175 
191 

201 
WO 

169 
189 

Epilobium  

Rosa  lucida  
Hypericum    
Leontodon  

172 
187 
211 
138 
1% 

156 
133 

... 
192 

182 

197 
165 

176 

198 

Cherry  (cult.)  Flower, 
do,          Fruit  .  . 

144 

147 
<W 

144 

147 

155 

102 
155 

English  Hawthorn 

Ifi^ 

American  Hawthorn  .  . 

164 
145 

152 
144 
147 
149 

157 
136 
146 

161 

133 
116 

Plum  (cultivated)  .'.  
Apple  (early)  Flower. 

143 

134 
140 

148 
147 

155 
155 

152 

153 

do.     (late)        do.    .  .  . 

145 

106      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1898. — MACKAY. 


PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1898,-Continued. 


Day  of  the  year,  1898, 
corresponding  to  the 
last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan..      31    July    .212 
Feb.       59    Aug.    .243 
Mar.       90    Sept.   .273 
April     120    Oct..   .304 
May.    151    Nov.  .334 
June     181    Dec  .  .365 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

02 

fc 

C 
o 

CO 

-a 

c 

£ 

Halifax,  N.  S. 

Musquodoboit1  Harbor, 

N.  S. 

Wallace,  N.  S. 

02 

&5 

1 
o 

£ 

New  Glasgow,  N.  S. 

Hawkesbury,  N.  S. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I. 

Muskoka,  Out. 

Pheasant  Forks, 
Assiniboia. 

Olds,  Alberta. 

Vancouver,  B.  C. 

Wild  Plants  Flowering. 
Currant  (red),  Flower 

141 

134 

145 

140 

147 

138 

146 

do            Fruit  — 
Currant  (black)  Flower 

197 

197 

200 

213 
155 

189 

138 

148 

.... 

100 

10S 

123 

Lilac,  Flower  

153 

14? 

1fi3 

160 

157 

160 

151 

Ifi? 

147 

18? 

Potato  Flower   .... 

180 

101 

170 

151 

191 

909 

Clover  (white),  Flower, 
do.    (red),  Flower  
\Vheat,   Flower 

135 
153 

148 
140 

163 
156 

156 
156 

163 
164 

153 
153 

176 
163 

158 
158 

.... 

Oats,  Flower    .... 

Buckwheat    Flower 

Earliest  Leafing 

ISO 

(First  Phenomena). 
Plowing  

1?7 

100 

Sowing 

11S 

126 

106 

199 

Planting  Potatoes 

no 

ISO 

14f> 

137 

Sheep  Shearing 

143 

141 

no 

ISO 

1S1 

15fi 

Hay  Cutting  . 

130 

909 

180 

•>oo 

Grain  Cutting 

223 

231 

990 

99^ 

Potato  Digging 

•W 

?68 

">8S 

Rivers  Opening  
Lakes  Opening 

66 

87 

79 

82 

107 

94 

110 

.... 

Ground  Snow,  Spring  . 
Air               "       "  .... 

117 

116 

116 

117 

96 
116 

109 
109 

118 
119 

PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1898. — MACKAY.      107 


PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1898  -Continued. 


b 

CJ 

-= 

s 

X 

Day  of  the  year,  1898, 
corresponding  to  the 
last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan....  31    July.  .212 
Feb....  59    Aug    .243 
Mar.  ..  90    Sept.   .273 
April..  120    Oct..   .304 
May   ..151    Nov.  .334 
June  ..131    Dec.     365 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

Windsor,  N.  S. 

Halifax,  N.  S. 

Musquodoboit  Harbor, 

N.  S. 

Wallace,  N.  S. 

02° 

_o 
o 

£ 

New  Glasgow,  N.  S. 

Hawkesbury,  N.  S. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I.  1 

Muskoka,  Ont. 

Pheasant  Forks, 
Assiniboia.  | 

Olds,  Alberta. 

Vancouver,  B.  C. 

7-n 

(First  Phenomena,) 

130 

77 

165 

119 

751. 

Hoar  Frost,  Spring  

168 

161 

108 

187 

Till) 

77a 

TTli 

Hoar  Frost,  Autumn  .  . 
Hard  Frost          " 

255 

255 
331 

268 
983 

283 

240 
305 

285 

316 
254 

251 

241 

7Sa 
7S1. 

Air  Snow,            " 

316 
319 

319 

264 

315 

287 

246 

?73 

7<t;i 

7!)b 

Rivers  Closing  

23 

343 

... 

363 

319 

.... 

43 

10F 

105 

77 

116 

140 

106 
182 

182 

.... 

159 
163 

18? 

131 

149 

122 
151 

130 

149 

183 

184 

176 

153 

158 

184 

185 

158 

163 

160 

185 

175 

171 

170 

vii 

181 

177 

171 

189 

IS? 

17? 

199 

183 

175 

191 

178 

198 

179 

180 

183 

185 

1 

108      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1898. — MACKAY. 


PHENTOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,  1898,— Continued. 


Number.  i. 

Day  of  the  year,  1898. 
corresponding  to  the 
last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan....  31    July     .212 
Feb    ..  59    Aug       243 
Mar.  ..  90    Sept.       273 
April..  120    Oct  .     .304 
May...  151    Nov      .334 
June  ..181    Dec.     .365 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

Windsor,  N.S. 

Halifax,  N.  S. 

Musquodoboit  Harbor, 

N.  S- 

Wallace,  N.  S. 

03 
* 
3~ 

o 

o 

s 

New  Glasgow,  N.S. 

Hawkesbury,  N.  S. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I.I 

Muskoka,  Ont. 

Pheasant  Forks, 
Assiniboia. 

Olds,  Alberta. 

Vancouver,  B.  C. 

(First  Phenomena.) 
t 

186 

iqo 

10? 

197 

199 

227 

235 

235 

221 
9oq 

218 

201 
214 

212 
001 

200 
*>09 

204 
205 

202 
203 

.... 

•70fi 

209 

212 

'10 

221 

215 

215 

215 

Thunder  (Continued)-( 

220 

WT 

90S 

??•! 

225 

99/1 

W 

226 

09fi 

231 

93? 

«*M 

9<n 

PM 

232 

9?T 

237 

248 

237 

237 

247 
"MS 

237 
238 
247 

237 

236 
?48 

239 

'TO 

245 

238 
246 

9fi9 

959 

*>58 

266 

W» 

270 

•>fi*> 

97fi 

288 

'fi'i 

\ 

303 

w> 

W 

114 

XI 

(First  Migration.) 
Wild  Duck  

103 

9fi 

S2 

Wild'Goose,  going  north 

75 

62 

72 

74 

86 

73 

SOO 

95 

96 

">1K 

i 

PHENOLOG1CAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1898. — MACKAY.      109 


PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1898, 


Number.  i 

Day  of  the  year,  1898, 
corresponding  to  the 
last  or  each  month  : 

Jan....  31    July.  .212 
Feb....  59    Aug.    2i:i 
Mar...  90    Sept.   .273 
Apl  ...120    Oct  .   .304 
May...  151    Nov.   .334 
June..  181    Dec..  .3(55 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

Windsor,  N.  S. 

Halifax,  N.  S. 

Musquodoboit  Harbor,  1 

N.  S. 

Wallace,  N.  S. 

02 
fc 
O 

_o 

New  Glasgow,  X.  S. 

Hawkesbury,  N.  S 

Charlottctown,  P.  E.  I. 

Muskoka,  Ont. 

Pleasant  Forks, 
Assiniboia.  1 

Olds,  Alberta. 

Vancouver,  B.  C. 

S3 

(First  Migration.) 
Song  Sparrow  

71 

73 

r<6 

78 

78 

SI 

84 

American  Robin  

fi7 

65 

74 

?fi 

93 

108 

100 

85 

Junco  

71 

84 

85 

90 

5 

s<; 

Spotted  Sandpiper  

143 

is? 

87 

Meadow  Lark  

88 

Kingfisher  

1W 

13? 

89 

Yellow  Crown  Warbler 

Ill 

% 

Summer  Yellow  Bird  .  . 

130 

135 

no 

91 

White  Throat  Sparrow. 

Iftfi 

14'7 

Oft 

Humming  Bird  

141 

131 

142 

111 

155 

145 

13fi 

143 

93 

King  Bird  

U? 

147 

94 

Bobolink  

Af>\ 

134 

15 

American  Goldfinch  .  .  . 

13fi 

144 

% 

American  Redstart  

151 

97 

Cedar  Wax  wing  

98 

Night  Hawk  

145 

144 

flOfl 

147 

1  III 

115 

99 

Frogs  heard  

89 

104 

ion 

100 

110 

107 

98 

112 

UK; 

11 

100 

Snakes  seen  

1<X) 

1T> 

inn 

118 

VII. — OBSERVATIONS  ON  A  FISH  (Chylomycterus  schcepfi)  NEW 
TO  THE  FAUNA  OF  NOVA  SCOTIA.    BY  HARRY  PIERS. 

(Read  May  8th,  1S99.) 

In  the  summer  of  about  1896  a  curious  fish  was  brought  to 
the  Provincial  Museum  by  a  fisherman  who  had  taken  it  in  deep 
water  off  Sambro  near  Halifax. 

At  Dr.  Gilpin's  request  I  examined  the  specimen  and  found 
that  it  belonged  to  the  species  Chylomycterus  schcepfi,  (Walbaum) 
which  is  the  same  as  Chilomycterus  geometricus,  Kaup,  and 
Diodon  maculostriatus,  Mitchell.  It  is  variously  known  as  the 
Common  Burr-fish,  Rabbit-fish,  Swell-toad,  or  Swell-fish.  The 
specific  name  schoepfi  was  given  it  in  honour  of  its  discoverer,  Dr. 
Johann  David  Schopf,  a  Hessian  surgeon  in  the  American 
revolutionary  war  and  a  noted  botanical  collector. 

It  is  a  small,  elliptical-oval  shaped  species  of  remarkable 
appearance.  The  bones  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  are  con- 
fluent, forming  a  short  beak  with  a  trenchant  edge,  without 
teeth.  Unlike  those  of  the  Tetrodons,  these  plates  are  without. 
a  median  suture.  The  body  is  covered  with  short,  stout, 
triangular,  dermal  spines,  each  with  three  roots  and  consequently 
immovable.  It  is  thus  well  protected  from  enemies,  and  would 
prove  a  thorny  morsel  to  any  marine  animal  foolish  enough  to 
capture  it. 

When  fresh  from  the  water  the  upper  parts  are  greenish- 
black  with  a  series  of  undulating  blackish  stripes  running  from 
the  head  backward  ;  a  similar  series  between  eyes  and  across, 
face  ;  an  ocellated  black  spot  above  pectoral ;  a  larger  one  behind 
the  same  fin ;  another  ocellated  spot  at  the  base  of  the  dorsal^ 
with  a  smaller  spot  below  it.  The  specimen  has  now  lost  much 
of  its  colour  in  alcohol,  but  the  markings  may  still  be  traced. 

(110) 


A    FISH    NEW    TO    NOVA     SCOTIA. — PIERS.  Ill 

Length  3  inches*,  of  which  the  tail  forms  about  f  inch.  Fin 
rays  :  dorsal,  12  ;  pectoral,  21  ;  anal,  about  10  ;  caudal,  9. 

This  species  has  not  previously  been  taken  in  Nova  Scotian 
waters,  in  fact  it  has  never  hitherto  been  captured  so  far  north. 
According  to  Jordan  and  Evermann  (Fishes  of  North  and  Middle 
America,  1898),  its  range  is  from  Cape  Cod  to  Florida.  It  is 
very  abundant  southward  in  shallow  water,  being  particularly 
plentiful  on  the  coast  of  the  Carolinas  and  Florida. 

C.  schoepfi  belongs  to  the  Diodontidce  family  (Porcupine 
Fishes),  all  the  members  of  which  are  sluggish,  living  on  the 
bottom  among  weeds  and  corals,  in  tropical  seas.  When  dis- 
turbed, they  swallow  air  until  considerably  inflated,  and  then 
float  belly  upward  on  the  water.  In  such  a  condition  they 
could  be  easily  driven  before  the  wind.  They  are  popularly 
regarded  as  poisonous. 

*  The  usual  length  is  from  6  to  10  inches. 


Date    of  publication  ;    December^  Slst,  ,  1899. 


TRANSACTIONS 

OF  THE 

Jforba  ,Scotian  Institute  of 


SESSION    OF    1899-1900. 


I. — ON  THE  RELATION  OF  THE  VISCOSITY  OF  MIXTURES  OF 
SOLUTIONS  OF  CERTAIN  SALTS  TO  THEIR  STATE  OF 
IONIZATION.  —  BY  JAMES  BARNES,  B.  A.,  Dalhousie 
College,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Communicated  by  Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregor  on  December  15th,  1899  ) 

The  present  paper  is  the  result  of  a  piece  of  work  undertaken 
at  the  suggestion  of  Prof.  MacGregor,  for  the  summer  vacation 
of  1899,  the  object  being  to  find  out  in  the  case  of  mixtures  of 
aqueous  solutions  of  certain  electrolytes  with  a  common  ion, 
whether  or  not  it  is  possible,  by  the  aid  of  the  dissociation  con- 
ception, to  predict  the  viscosities  of  the  mixtures,  when  sufficient 
data  as  to  the  viscosities  and  conductivities  of  the  constituent 
solutions  are  available. 

The  salts  selected  were  sodium  chloride,  potassium  chloride, 
barium  chloride,  sodium  sulphate,  potassium  sulphate,  and 
copper  sulphate,  the  viscosities  of  simple  solutions  of  these  salts 
having  been  determined  by  1  Reyher  and  2  Wagner,  and  that  of 
mixtures  of  them  by  8  Kanitz,  and  extensive  series  of  observa- 
tions on  the  conductivity  by  Kohlrausch  and  by  former  students 
of  Dalhousie  College,  being  available.  As  will  be  seen  below  I 
found  4  Kohlrausch's  values  of  the  conductivity  sufficient  for  my 
purpose. 

'Ztschr.  f.  phys.  Chemie,  2,  744, 1888. 
*  Ibid.,  5,  31, 1890. 

3  Ibid.,  22,  336,  1897. 

4  Kohlrausch  u.  Holborn  :  Leitvcrmogen  der  Elektrolyte,  1898,  pp.  159, 160,  tab.  2. 

PROG.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci..  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— H. 

(113) 


114  ON    THE    VISCOSITY 

1  Professor  MacGregor  has  pointed  out  that,  both  on  theoretical 
grounds  and  because  of  the  way  in  which  the  ionization  coeffi- 
cients and  such  physical  properties  as  specific  gravity,  viscosity, 
etc.,  in  general,  vary  with  the  concentration  in  simple  solutions, 
it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  value  of  any  such  property,  for  a 
simple  solution  which  is  so  dilute  that  the  dissociated  and  undis- 
sociated  molecules  may  be  regarded  as  without  mutual  action, 
will  be  expressed  by  the  formula  : 

P  =  PW  +  k(l-a)n  +  lan  .................  (1) 

where  P  is  the  numerical  value  of  the  property  for  the  solution, 
Pio  that  of  the  same  property  for  water  under  the  same  physical 
conditions,  n  the  concentration  expressed  in  gramme-equivalents 
per  unit  volume,  a  the  ionization  coefficient  of  the  electrolyte 
in  the  solution,  and  /.'  and  I  constants,  called  ionization  constants. 
He  has  further  shown  that  the  value  of  a  property  for  a 
mixture  of  two  electrolytes  will  be  given  in  terms  of  the  values 
of  the  ionization  constants  as  determined  for  the  simple  solu- 
tions, by  the  expression  : 


+  fk,  (\-a,)  n,  +  l,  a,n,)  —->-  "I  .  .  (2) 

V  /  fj  -f-  V%  J 

where  the  n's  are  the  concentrations  of  the  constituent  solutions 
(the  electrolytes  being  indicated  by  1  and  2),  the  as  the  ioniza- 
tion coefficients  of  the  respective  electrolytes  in  the  mixture,  the 
?/s  the  volumes  of  the  constituent  solutions,  and  p  the  ratio  of 
the  volume  of  the  mixture  to  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  the 
constituent  solutions. 

The  application  of  the  first  expression  to  simple  solutions  is, 
as  2Prof.  MacGregor  has  shown,  of  little  theoretical  interest;  but. 
that  of  the  second  to  mixtures,  because  of  its  being  based  on 
the  dissociation  theory  and  involving  no  arbitrary  constants,  is 
of  very  considerable  interest.  It  is  the  applicability  of  this 
expression  (2)  that  the  present  paper  is  intended  to  test  with 
mixtures  of  solutions  of  the  above-mentioned  salts. 

1  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  9,  219,  1896-97. 

2  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  10,  61  (foot  note),  1898-99. 


OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.  115 

The  observations  of  Reyher,  Wagner  and  Kanitz  were  made 
on  somewhat  stronger  solutions  than  those  for  which  the  above 
expressions  might  be  expected  to  hold,  but  they  were  considered 
as  probably  sufficiently  dilute  to  warrant  the  expectation  of  an 
approximate  applicability  of  the  expressions. 

Simple  Solutions. 

For  the  determination  of  the  ionization  constants  in  expres- 
sions (1)  and  (2),  one  must  know  the  ionization  coefficients  for 
the  four  solutions  examined  in  the  case  of  each  salt  by  Reyher 
and  Wagrler.  Unfortunately  all  the  observations  on  the  vis- 
cosity of  these  salts  were  made  at  25°  C.,  while  all  the  available 
conductivity  data,  from  which  the  ionization  coefficients  are 
obtained,  were  at  18°C.,  and  thus  it  was  necessary  either  to 
reduce  the  viscosity  values  from  25°  to  18°  or  the  conductivity 
values  from  18°  to  25°.  This  latter  reduction  was  carried  out, 
as  data  for  the  former  were  not  available.  This  involved 
much  work  ;  because  for  the  determination  of  the  ionization 
coefficients  at  25°,  it  was  necessary  to  obtain  both  the  specific 
molecular  conductivity  at  25°  and  the  specific  molecular  con- 
ductivity at  infinite  dilution  for  25°. 

Determination  of  the  Specific  Molecular  Conductivity  at 

Infinite  Dilution  for  %5°C. 

The  value  of  the  specific  molecular  conductivity  at  infinite 
dilution  for  25°  for  each  salt  was  obtained  from  1  Kohlrausch's 
value  at  18°  by  aid  of  2  De'guisne's  data.  These  data  were 
employed  in  obtaining  the  specific  molecular  conductivity  at 
25°  from  the  values  at  18°,  for  the  three  weakest  solutions 
given  in  8  Kohlrausch's  and  De'guisne's  tables  ;  and  the  ratio 

8  was   then    determined,  where    ^25    and    fiJ8    are  the 

f*l  8 

specific  molecular  conductivity  at  25°  and  18°  respectively. 

Table  I  gives  the  values  thus  obtained.  The  concentrations 
are  expressed  in  gramme-equivalents  per  litre,  and  the  specific 
molecular  conductivities  in  terms  of  this  unit  and  of  10~4  times 
4  Kohlrausch's  new  unit  of  conductivity  (ohm—1  cm.—1). 

1  Kohl.  u.  Holb.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  200,  tab.  8. 

1  Ibid.,  p.  195,  tab.  7. 

3  Ibid.,  pp.  159,  160,  tab.  2. 

« Ibid.,  p.  1. 


116 


ON    THE    VISCOSITY 


TABLE    I. 


Concentration. 

Sp  Mol.  Cond. 
at  18"  C. 

Sp.  Mol.  Cond. 
at  25°  C. 

(/"*) 

AW  -  n* 

rnt 

Na.  Cl. 

.0005 

1085 

1262 

.163 

.0002 

1092 

1270 

.163 

.0001 

1097 

1276 

.163 

K  Cl 

.0005 

12S3 

1484 

.156 

.0002 

1291 

1494 

.157 

.0001 

1295 

1499 

.157 

iBaC!2. 

.0005 

1183 

1375 

.162 

.0002 

1198 

1394 

.163 

.0001 

1205 

1402 

.163 

iK3S04. 

.0005 

1308 

1516 

.159 

.0002 

1327 

1540 

.160 

.0001 

1335. 

1549 

.160 

i  Nan  SO 

2    4* 

.0005 

1083 

1266 

.169 

.0002 

1096 

1281 

..169 

.0001 

1105 

1292 

.169 

OF    AQUEOUS     SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 


117 


As  the  ratio  ~ — —  was  thus  found  to  be  constant  for  the 

two  most  dilute  solutions  of  every  salt,  and  as  these  solutions 
are  very  dilute,  this  ratio  may  be  assumed  to  approximately 
hold  for  infinite  dilution.  Observations  on  the  conductivity  of 
weaker  solutions  at  different  temperatures  were  not  at  hand  ; 
and  the  writer  used  the  value  of  this  ratio  for  the  solution  of 
concentration  .0001  for  the  calculation  of  the  specific  mole- 
cular conductivity  at  infinite  dilution  for  25°  C. 

The  following  Table  II  gives  the  values  of  the  specific 
molecular  conductivity  at  infinite  dilution  for  25°  C.  as  thus 
obtained  from  the  values  at  18°  C.  In  the  case  of  copper  sul- 
phate this  method  could  not  be  employed  for  want  of  data.  A 
somewhat  doubtful  value  obtained  by  aBredig  was  therefore 
used.  The  conductivities  are  expressed  as  in  Table  I. 

TABLE    II. 


Electrolyte. 

Specific  Molecular  Conductivity  at  Infinite 
Dilution. 

18"  C. 

25"  C. 

Na  01  , 

1103 
1312 
1232 
1350 
1141 

1283 
1519 
1433 
1566 
1334 
1423 

K  Cl  

£BaCl2    

i  K0  SO.. 

£Na2  SO4  

\  Cu  SO4   

Determination  of  the   lonization    Coefficients   at    25°  0. 
for   Simple   Solution*. 

The  ionization  coefficient  for  a  simple  solution  is  taken  to  be 
the  ratio  of  the  specific  molecular  conductivity   to  the  specific 


1  Ztschr.  f.  phys.  Chem.,  13,  220,  1894, 


118  ON    THE    VISCOSITY 

molecular  conductivity  at  infinite  dilution.  Before  this  ratio 
could  be  found  for  2">°C.  it  was  necessary  to  determine  the 
values  of  the  specific  conductivity  at  25°  from  l  Kohlrausch's 
values  at  18°  by  means  of  2Deguisne's  and  8Kohlrausch  and 
Grotrian's  temperature  coefficients.  The  concentrations  of  solu- 
tions of  the  salts  for  which  Kohlrausch  gives  conductivity 
values,  did  not  in  all  cases  correspond  to  the  concentrations  of 
solutions  for  which  Reyher  and  Wagner  determined  the  vis- 
cosity. In  such  cases  (concentrations  0.2.">  and  0.125).  the  values 
of  the  specific  conductivities  at  25°  were  obtained  by  inter- 
polation. 

Table  III  gives  both  the  values  of  the  specific  conductivity 
at  25°C.  determined  as  above  from  the  values  at  18°,  and  the 
calculated  ionixation  coefficients  at  25°.  Only  those  coefficients 
are  given  which  are  necessary  in  the  calculation  of  the  vis- 
cosities. Under  copper  sulphate  are  given  a  few  conductivity 
values  of  higher  concentration,  these  being  necessary  for  the 
determination  of  the  ionixation  coefficients  in  the  mixtures  by 
the  method  used.  The  concentrations  are  expressed  as  in  Table  I, 
and  conductivities  in  terms  of  10~4  times  Kohlrausch's  new 
unit. 


1  Kohl.  u.  Holb.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  159,  table  2. 

a  Loc.  cit. 

5  Kohl.  u.  Holb.,  p.   145,  tab.  1. 


OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS — BARNES. 


119 


TABLE    III. 


Concentration. 

Specific 
Conductivity 
at  18"  C. 

Specific 
Conductivity 
;it  -25'  C. 

lonization 
Coefficients 
at  25°  C. 

Na  Cl. 

1.0 
0.5 
0.3 
0/25 
0.2 
0.125 
0.1 

744.0 
404.5 
255.6 

862 
469 
296 
252 
205 
131 
107 

.672 
.732 

.786 

176.4 

.817 

92.5 

KC1. 

1.0 
0.5 
03 
0.25 
0.2 
0.125 
0.1 

982.0 
511.5 
315.9 

1128 
588 
363 
308 
248 
159 
129 

.743 

.774 

.811 

215.4 

.838 

111.9 

iBaC!2. 

1.0 
0.5 
0.3 
0.25 
0.2 
0.125 
0.1 

703 
388 
249 

811 
448 
287 
245 
200 
130 
106 

.566 
.624 

.684 

173.4 

.726 

92.2 

120 


ON    THE    VISCOSITY 


TABLE    III.— (Continued.) 


Concentration. 

Specific 
Conductivity 
at  18°  C. 

Specific 
Conductivity 
at  25°  C. 

lonization 
Coefficients 
at  25°  C. 

iK2S04 

1.0 

05 
0.3 
0.25 
0.2 
0.125 
0.1 

718.0 
393.5 
253.2 

827 
453 
292 
251 
205 
135 
111 

.528 

.578 

.640 

177.8 

.690 

95.9 

i  Naa  S04. 

1.0 
0.5 
0.3 
0.25 
0.2 
0.125 
0.1 

5080 
298.5 
199.8 

142.8 

591 
347 
230 
201 
166 
110 
91.4 

.443 
.520 

.604 

.662 

78.4 

J  Cu  SO4. 

2.631 
2.194 
1.0 
0.5 
0.3 
0.25 
0.2 
0.125 
0.1 

45S 
421 
258 
154 
106.5 

534 
489 
297 
177 
122 
107 
89.9 
61.7 
51.6 

.209 
.249 

.302 
.347 

78.4 

45.0 

OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 


121 


Determination  of  the  lonization  Constants. 
Table  IV  gives  the  values  of  the  ionization  constants  (k  and 
I)  determined  by  the  method  of  least  squares  from  the  data 
given  in  Tables  III  and  V,  the  observed  values  of  the  viscosity 
of  the  four  solutions  of  each  salt  being  used.  The  relative 
magnitude  and  the  sign  of  the  ionization  constants  would  seem, 
to  show  that  the  undissociated  molecules  exert  the  greater 
influence  in  increasing  the  viscosity,  while  the  free  ions  have 
in  some  cases  a  diminishing  effect. 

TABLE    IV. 


Electrolyte. 

k. 

l. 

NaCl. 

+  0.11213 

+  0.089765 

K  01. 

+  0.30645 

-0.12289 

\  Ba  C12. 

+  0.20327 

+  0.061009 

iK2S04. 

+  0.21347 

+  0.0088236 

\  Na2  SO4. 

+  0.30418 

+  0.13348 

iCuS04. 

+  0.46500 

-0.058144 

Results  of  Calculations  on  Simple  Solutions. 
Table  V  gives  a  comparison  of  the  calculated  and  observed 
values  of  the  viscosity  of  simple  solutions,  the  calculated  values 
being  determined  by  expression  (1)  with  the  ionization  coeffi- 
cients and  ionization  constants,  as  given  in  the  above  tables.  In 
this  table  all  the  viscosity  results  are  relative  to  water  at  25°C., 
and  the  concentrations  are  expressed  as  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  V. 
VISCOSITY  AT  25°  C. 


i 

Observed  Value. 

Calculated  Value. 

Difference. 

Na  Cl.  (Key  her.) 

1.0 

1.0973 

1.0971 

-0.032 

0.5 

1.0471 

1.0479 

+  0.038 

0.25 

1.0239 

1.0236 

-0.033 

0.125 

1.0126 

1.0117 

-0.039 

122 


ON    THE    VISCOSITY 


TABLE  V.— (Continued). 


Concentration. 

Observed  Value. 

Calculated  Value. 

Difference.      , 

K  Cl.    (Wagner.) 

1.0 

.9872 

.9874 

+  0.032 

0.5 

.9874 

.9871 

-0.033 

0.25 

.9903 

.9896 

-0.037 

0.125 

.9928 

.99133 

-f  0.035 

i  Ba  C12.   (Wagner.) 

1.0 

1.1228 

1.1228 

±  0.030 

0.5 

1.0572 

1.0572 

±0.030 

0.25 

1.0263 

1.0265 

+  0.032 

0.125 

1.0128 

1.0125 

-0.033 

J-  K2SO4>  (Wagner.) 

1.0 

1.1051 

.     1.1054 

+  0.033 

0.5 

1.0486 

1.0476 

-0.021 

0.25 

1.0206 

1.0206 

±  O'OsO 

0.125 

1.0078 

1.0090 

+  0  0212 

i  Na2SO4-   (Wagner.) 

1.0 

1.2291 

1.2286 

-0  035 

0.5 

1  .  1058 

1.1078 

+  0.022 

0.25 

1.0522 

1.0502 

-0.022 

0.125 

1.0235      • 

1.0239 

+  '0.034 

i  Cu  SO4.  (Wagner.) 

1.0 

1.3580 

1.3556 

-  0.0224 

0.5                           1.1603 

1.1675 

+  0.0272 

0.25                        1.0802 

1.0767 

—  0.0235 

0.125 

1.0384 

1.0354 

-  0.0230 

OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.  123 

As  both  Reyher  and  Wagner  regard  their  results  as  affected 
by  a  possible  error  of  about  ±  3  in  the  third  decimal  place,  it  is 
seen  that  the  agreement  between  the  calculated  and  observed 
values  for  all  the  salts  except  copper  sulphate  is  very  satis- 
factory, the  differences  being  well  within  the  limit  of  experi- 
mental error.  In  the  case  of  copper  sulphate,  the  agreement 
is  not  so  satisfactory.  But  it  was  noticed  on  plotting  the 
observed  values  against  the  concentration  that  the  points  do  not 
lie  on  a  smooth  curve,  and  that  the  point  corresponding  to  the 
concentration  0.5  is  at  quite  a  distance  from  this  curve,  which 
leads  one  to  think  that  this  observed  value  cannot  be  correct. 
The  poor  agreement  in  this  case  might  also  be  partly  due  to  the 
doubtful  value  of  the  specific  molecular  conductivity  at  infinite 
dilution  used.  Thus  it  seems  that  for  all  the  salts  examined, 
copper  sulphate  perhaps  excepted,  expression  (1)  gives  the  vis- 
cosity of  a  solution  within  the  limit  of  experimental  error 
throughout  a  concentration  range  of  1.0  to  0.125. 

Mixtures   of  Solutions. 

As  there  is  no  change  of  volume  on  mixing  the  constituent 
solutions  of  the  above  electrolytes  of  the  concentrations  given 
below1,  and  as  the  solutions  mixed  were  of  equal  volume  and 
also  equimolecular,  the  expression  (2)  for  the  value  of  a  property 
in  the  case  of  a  mixture  of  two  electrolytes  with  a  common  ion, 
reduces  to  : 

p  =  P»  +  -^[&i  (I  -  «i)  +  *i  «i  +  fc,  (1  -  «,)  +  I* ",]  •  (3) 

where  n  is  the  concentration  of  the  solutions  and  the  k's  and  I's 
have  the  values  obtained  above  for  simple  solutions  of  the 
respective  electrolytes.  For  the  application  of  this  equation  to 
the  calculation  of  the  viscosity  of  a  mixture,  all  the  quantities 
required  are  known  except  the  a's,  the  ionizatiou  coefficients  in 
the  mixture. 


1  See  Trans.  X.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  9,  125, 1895-%  ;  also  9,  297  and  310, 1897 


124  ON    THE    VISCOSITY 

Determination  of  Ionization   Coefficients  in  the  Mixture. 

The  method  proposed  by  1  Prof.  MacGregor  for  finding  the 
ionization  coefficients  in  a  mixture  of  two  electrolytes  having  an 
ion  in  common,  is  by  solving  graphically  the  following  equa- 
tions : 

fl       --      ^  /4N 

Vl  V3 

' 


where  the  electrolytes  are  denoted  by  1  and  2,  the  concentra- 
tions (in  gramme-equivalents  per  litre)  of  the  mixture  with 
respect  to  them  by  Nt  and  N2  respectively,  their  ionization 
coefficients  by  al  and  an,  and  their  regional  dilutions  (in  litres 
per  gramme  equivalent)  by  Vl  and  V2,  the  regional  dilutions 
being  the  dilutions  of  the  electrolytes  in  the  regions  which  they 
are  supposed  to  occupy  in  the  mixture,  or  the  dilutions  of  the 
constituent  isohydric  solutions. 

His  graphical  mode  of  solving  these  equations  involves  the 
drawing  of  dilution-ionic-concentration  curves,  which,  as  they 
have  great  curvature  for  moderately  dilute  solutions,  cannot  be 
drawn  with  great  accuracy  unless  a  large  number  of  observa- 
tions of  the  conductivity  are  available.  As  mentioned  above, 
extensive  series  of  observations  of  the  conductivity  in  the  case 
of  the  salts  under  consideration  were  available  ;  but  they  were 
all  made  at  18°  C.  and  required  therefore  to  be  reduced  to  25°  C. 
before  they  could  be  used.  In  order  to  reduce  this  labour  as 
much  as  possible  I  devised  another  mode  of  solution  which 
requires  only  a  comparatively  small  number  of  observations.  It 
is  based  on  the  fact  that  ihe  specific-conductivity-concentration 

1  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  9,  101,  1895-96;  also  10,  68,  1898-99. 


OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS.  —  BARNES.  125 

curve  of  an  electrolyte  exhibits  only  slight  curvature  and  can 
therefore  be  drawn  with  fair  accuracy  from  a  small  number  of 
observations. 

The  above  equations  may  be  expressed   in  terms  of  specific 
conductivity  and  concentration  as  follows.     Since 


lf(aoi        wl 
and  T*=^''-         '         '         T        <») 

*   2  "oo2 

where  fct  and  L9  are  the  specific  conductivities  of  the  electrolytes 
in  the  regions  which  they  respectively  occupy  in  the  mixture, 
and  the  JM^-'S  the  specific  molecular  conductivities  at  infinite  dilu- 
tion for  each  electrolyte,  equation  (4)  becomes  : 

A    !«.  , 


or,  ^=^L1^2.          .         •         •       (10) 

r«s 

From    equation   (5)   we  obtain  : 


where  Ct  and  C9  are  the  regional  concentrations.  Equations  (6) 
and  (7)  are  based  on  the  fact  that  at  a  definite  temperature  the 
conductivity  is  a  function  of  the  concentration  alone.  They 
therefore  take  the  following  forms  : 


and  k,=f,(C9).      •  •  (13) 

There  are  thus  four  equations  (10  —  13)  for  the  determination  of 
the  four  unknown  quantities  :  /q,  &2,  Ca,  and  C2. 

These  equations  can  be  solved  graphically.  Equation  (12)  is 
employed  by  drawing  a  curve  having  as  abscissfe  the  values  of 
the  specific  conductivities  and  corresponding  values  of  the  con- 
centrations as  ordinates.  Before  equation  (13)  is  used  the  values 


126  ON    THE    VISCOSITY 

of  the  conductivities  are  multiplied  by  the  constant  -^-25-1  .   Then 

^oo2 

these  new  values  are  plotted  against  the  corresponding  concen- 
trations. on  the  same  coordinate  paper,  to  the  same  scale  as 
employed  for  equation  (12).  From  these  two  curves  one  finds 
by  inspection  two  points,  one  on  each  curve,  having  a  common 
abscissa,  according  to  equation  (10),  and  ordinates  (Ct  and  Ca) 
such  that  by  substituting  their  values  in  equation  (11)  it  will  be 
satisfied.  These  points  can  be  found  after  two  or  three  trials. 
Thus  one  has  determined  klt  GI}  and  C2  ;  &2  being  found  by 

multiplying  k.  by  the  constant  —  —  a.    The  as  are  now  obtained 


from  equations  (8)  and  (9)  ;  for  the  reciprocals  of  the  C's  give 
the  Vs. 

Results  of  the   Calculations  on   Mixtures. 

The  following  Table  VI  contains  the  requisite  data  for  the 
calculation,  by  formula  (3),  of  the  viscosity  of  mixtures  of  solu- 
tions of  the  salts  under  consideration  ;  and  it  shows  the  agree- 
ment of  the  values  thus  calculated  with  the  observed  values 
The  ionization  coefficients  of  the  salts  in  the  mixture  are  deter- 
mined as  above  and  the  concentrations  are  expressed  as  in  the 
former  tables. 


OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 


127 


TABLE    VI. 

VISCOSITY  AT  25°.    (KANITZ). 


Concentration 
Constituent 
Solutions. 

lonization  Coefficients 
in 
Mixture. 

Observed 
Values. 

Calculated 
Values. 

Differ- 
ence. 

KC1. 

NaCl. 

KC1. 

Na  Cl. 

1.0 

1.0 

.745 

.667 

1.0390 

1.0419 

+  0.0229 

0.5 

,      0.5 

.775 

.728 

1.0180 

1.0173 

-  0.087 

0.25 

0.25 

.807 

.783 

1.0070 

1.0069 

-  0.081 

KC1. 

j:BaC!2. 

KC1. 

iBa  C12. 

1.0 

1.0 

.756 

.552 

1.0429 

1.0533 

+  0.0101 

0.5 

0.5 

.779 

.613 

1.0159 

1.0220 

+  0.0261 

0.25 

0.25 

.811 

.675' 

1.0049 

1.0082 

+  0.0a33 

*KaSO4. 

iNa2SO4. 

iK2S04. 

iNaa  SO4. 

1.0 

1.0 

.535 

.434 

1.1660 

1.1670 

+  0.021 

0.5 

0.5 

.597 

.517 

1.0773 

1.0768 

-0.085 

0.25 

0.25 

.641 

.604 

1.0334 

1.0354 

+  0.022 

iK2SO4. 

J  Cu  SO4. 

JK2  SO4. 

iCuSO4. 

1.0 

1.0 

.559 

.152 

1.2240 

1.2423 

+  0.0183 

0.5 

0.5 

.612 

.210 

1.1060 

1.1107 

•f  0.0247 

0.25 

0.25 

.668 

.256 

1.0485 

1.0510 

+  0.0  225 

Kanitz  regards  his  observed  values  as  affected  by  a  possible 
error  of  ±  3  in  the  third  decimal  place.  Considering  the  many 
calculations  necessary  to  obtain  the  calculated  values, — first,  in 
finding  the  specific  molecular  conductivity  at  infinite  dilution  for 
25°C.,  and  also  ionization  coefficients  at  25°  from  data  at  18°. 
and  then  in  the  determination  of  the  ionization  coefficients  of 
the  salts  in  the  mixture  by  the  graphical  method, — the  agree- 
ment between  the  observed  and  the  calculated  values  (calculated, 


128     ON    THE    VISCOSITY    OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 

it  should  be  noted,  with  the  ionization  constants  obtained  for  the 
simple  solutions),  is  very  satisfactory,  especially  in  the  case  of 
solutions  of  potassium  chloride  and  sodium  chloride  and  solu- 
tions of  potassium  sulphate  nnd  sodium  sulphate,  where  the 
differences  are  all  within  the  limit  of  experimental  error.  In  the 
case  of  the  stronger  solutions  of  potassium  chloride  and  barium 
chloride  and  of  potassium  sulphate  and  copper  sulphate,  the 
differences  are  not  within  the  limit  of  error ;  but  a  close  agree- 
ment, as  was  pointed  out  in  the  beginning,  could  not  be 
expected.  It  will  be  noticed,  however,  that  the  differences  in 
these  cases  diminish  and  approach  the  experimental  error  as 
concentration  diminishes.  Observations  on  the  viscosity  of 
weaker  solutions  of  these  salts  were  not  available. 

From  these  results,  therefore,  it  may  be  concluded,  that  the 
viscosity  of  mixtures  of  dilute  solutions  of  the  salts  under  con- 
sideration can  be  predicted,  by  the  aid  of  the  dissociation  theory, 
within  the  limit  of  experimental  error,  from  data  as  to  the  vis- 
cosity and  conductivity  of  the  constituent  solutions  only. 


II. — ON  THE  CALCULATION  OF  THE  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  AQUEOUS 
SOLUTIONS  CONTAINING  HYDROCHLORIC  AND  SULPHURIC 
ACIDS. — BY  JAMES  BARNES,  B.  A.,  Dalhousie  College, 
Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Communicated  by  Prof.  J.  G.  MacOregor,  on  the  15th  January,  1900.) 

The  prediction  of  the  conductivity  of  dilute  aqueous  solutions 
containing  two  electrolytes,  which  have-one  ion  in  common,  has 
been  shown  to  be  possible,  according  to  the  dissociation  theory, 
when  the  electrolytes  are  salts,  or  a  salt  and  a  diatomic  acid 
such  as  hydrochloric  acid.1  The  experiments  described  in  the 
present  paper  were  made,  at  Prof.  MacGregor's  suggestion,  in 
order  to  ascertain  if  it  is  possible  to  make  the  prediction  in  the 
case  of  solutions  formed  by  mixing  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric 
acid  solutions. 

The  attempt  to  calculate  the  conductivity  of  a  complex  solu- 
tion containing  sulphuric  acid  as  one  constituent  is  of  special 
interest  because  of  the  fact  that  it  is  supposed  to  have  a  mode  of 
ionization  which  varies  with  the  concentration  of  the  solution, 
its  molecules  in  dilute  solutions  dissociating  into  2  H  and  SO4, 
but  in  stronger  solutions  partly  into  H  and  H  S04.  It  is  of 
course  impossible  to  calculate  the  conductivity  of  a  complex 
solution,  one  of  the  constituents  of  which  has  a  mixed  mode  of 
ionization.  I  have  therefore  assumed  that  the  mode  of  ioniza- 
tion in  the  moderately  dilute  solutions  which  I  examined  would 
be  the  same  as  it  is  usually  supposed  to  be  at  great  dilution. 

The  conductivity  of  a  mixture  of  two  solutions  of  electrolytes 
1  and  2,  with  a  common  ion  and  definite  modes  of  ionization 

1  MacGregor:  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  9,  101,  1895-6. 
Mclntosh :  Ibid.,  9,  120,  1895-6. 
Archibald  :  Ibid.,  9,  pp.  291,  307, 1897-8. 
McKay :  Ibid.,  9,  321,  1897-8. 
Barnes:  Ibid.,  10,  49, 1898-9. 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL  X.  TRANS.— I. 

(129) 


130  ON    THE    CALCULATION    Of    THE    CONDUCTIVITY 

is  given,  according  to   the   dissociation    theory,  by   the   equa- 
tion : 

,  ..  (A) 


pv   +v 

where  v1}  v2  are  the  volumes,  and  nlt  n2  the  concentrations  of 
the  solutions  mixed,  pgol,  n^^  ^ne  specific  molecular  conductivi- 
vities  of  simple  solutions  of  the  electrolytes  at  infinite  dilution, 
al  and  «2  the  ionization  co-efficients  of  the  respective  electro- 
lytes in  the  mixture,  and  p  the  ratio  of  the  volume  of  the 
mixture  to  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  the  constituent  solutions. 
1  Prof.  MacGregor  has  shown  that  the  ionization  coefficients 
in  a  mixture  of  this  kind  may  be  found  by  the  solution  of  four 
equations,  and  I  have  pointed  out  in  a  former  paper2  that  by 
throwing  these  equations  into  other  forms  and  applying  a 
graphical  method  they  may  be  solved  with  little  trouble,  even 
in  cases  in  which  but  few  observations  of  the  conductivity  of 
simple  solutions  of  the  electrolytes  in  the  mixtures  are  avail- 
able. The  forms  of  the  equations  referred  to  are  as  follows  : 


k,  =  /2(C2), 

where  the  /c's  and  C's  are  the  regional  conductivities  and 
regional  concentrations,  and  the  N's  the  concentrations  of  the 
mixture,  with  respect  to  the  electrolytes  1  and  2  respectively. 
By  the  regional  conductivity  and  the  regional  concentration  of 
an  electrolyte  in  a  mixture  are  meant  the  conductivity  and  con- 
centration of  the  portion  or  region  of  the  mixture  which  the  one 
electrolyte  may  be  supposed  to  occupy  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
other.  If  there  is  no  change  of  volume  on  mixing,  they  are  the 
conductivities  and  concentrations  of  the  isohydric  constituents 
of  the  mixture. 

1  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  10,  68,  1898-9. 
*  Trans.  N.  S.  lost.  Sci.,  10,  113,  1899-1900. 


OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS.  —  BARNES.  131 

The  method  of  obtaining  the  ionization  coefficients  by  means 
of  these  equations  is  described  in  my  former  paper,  the  first  stage 
in  the  process  being  the  determination  of  the  k's  and  C's.  In 
the  calculation  of  the  conductivity,  however,  we  save  labour  if 
instead  of  determining  the  ionization  coefficients,  we  express 
the  conductivity  in  terms  of  the  k's  and  C's. 

For  this  purpose  we  have  : 


" 


and  a    =  —  2 


Equation  (A)  thus  becomes  : 

,  1          Ik.  n.  v. 

k  = 


Oj  C2 

In  my  experiments  p  was  found  to  be  practically  equal  to 
unity,  and  the  volumes  of  the  solutions  mixed  were  in  all  cases 
equal.  Hence  the  above  equation  becomes  : 


The  work  involved  in  finding  k  by  means  of  equation  (B), 
included  the  following  :  —  (1)  The  preparation  and  analysis  of 
series  of  simple  solutions  of  both  acids,  and  the  preparation  of 
the  mixtures  ;  (2)  observations  on  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
simple  constituent  solutions  and  their  mixtures;  (3)  the  measure- 
ment of  the  conductivity  of  series  of  simple  solutions  ;  (4)  the 
measurement  of  the  conductivity  of  mixtures  of  solutions  ;  (5) 
the  determination  of  the  regional  conductivity  and  regional 
concentration  of  the  electrolytes  in  the  mixtures;  (6)  the  calcu- 
lation by  the  aid  of  these  data,  of  the  conductivity  of  the 
mixtures. 

The  observations  were  carried  out  in  the  Physical  and 
Chemical  Laboratories  of  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  during 
the  spring  and  autumn  of  1899. 


132          ON    THE    CALCULATION    OF    THE    CONDUCTIVITY 

Experimental  Methods. 

The  hydrochloric  acid  was  obtained  from  Eimer  &  Amend, 
and  the  sulphuric  from  Merck  &  Co.  Both  were  guaranteed 
chemically  pure.  The  redistilled  water  used  in  the  preparation 
of  the  solutions  was  obtained  by  the  method  described  in 
a  former  1paper,  and  it  had  a  conductivity  ranging  from 
0.95  x  10~6  to  1.01  X  10~6  expressed  in  2Kohlrausch's  new  unit 
(ohm"1  cm."1). 

The  amount  of  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acid  in  a  solution 
was  determined  volu  metrically  by  means  of  aqueous  solutions  of 
potassium  hydroxide,  the  strength  of  these  being  determined 
daily  by  titration  with  known  quantities  of  dry  oxalic  acid. 
Phenol-phthalein  was  the  indicator  used.  The  potassium 
hydroxide  solutions  were  kept  in  bottles  with  stoppers,  each 
containing  a  soda  lime  tube.  The  pipettes,  burettes  and  flasks 
were  calibrated  and  used  as  described  in  the  paper  referred  to 
above.  The  specific  gravity  at  18°C.  was  determined  for  many 
of  the  simple  solutions  with  a  pyknometer  of  the  Ostwald- 
Sprengel  form.  The  comparison  of  the  values  thus  obtained 
with  the  values  as  given  by  Kohlrausch,  acted  as  a  check  upon 
the  concentration  as  determined  above. 

Kohlrausch's  method  with  the  alternating  current  and  tele- 
phone was  employed  in  the  measurement  of  the  conductivity. 

The  bath  used  to  obtain  a  constancy  of  temperature,  for  a 
time  sufficient  to  make  the  determination  of  the  resistance  in, 
contained  tap  water  kept  continually  stirred  by  a  mechanical 
stirrer  driven  by  one  of  Henrici's  small  hot  air  motors.  This 
motor  worked  without  noise  and  on  this  account  was  found 
more  serviceable  than  the  hydraulic  motor  formerly  employed. 
The  thermometer  used  could  be  read  to  a  hundredth  of  a  degree, 
and  had  been  tested  at  the  Physikalisch-Technische  Reichsanstalt, 
Berlin. 

The  resistance  of  the  solutions  was  measured  in  a  U-shaped 
cell  having  electrodes  of  stout  platinum  foil  connected  by  thick 

'Trans.  N.  S.  lust.  Sci.,  10,  49,  1898-9. 

*  Kohlrausch  u.  Holborn :  Leitvermogen  der  Elektrolyte,  1898,  p.  1. 


OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS.  —  BARNES.  133 

platinum  wires  to  the  ebonite  covers.  These  electrodes  were 
platinized  in  the  solution  proposed  by  Summer  and  Kurlbaum. 
The  reduction  factor  by  which  the  conductivities  obtained  in 
this  cell  are  reduced  to  the  standard  employed  by  Kohlrausch, 
was  obtained  by  comparing  the  value  of  the  conductivities  of 
two  solutions  of  pure  potassium  chloride,  twice  recrystallized, 
of  different  concentrations,  with  values  given  by  2Kohlrausch 
for  the  same  concentrations  of  the  same  salt.  The  ratio  of 
Kohlrausch's  value  to  the  observed  value  gives  the  reduction 
factor.  It  was  always  determined  before  and  after  a  series  of 
observations,  and  was  found  to  be  the  same  in  value  at  both 
times. 

Solutions  of  different  concentrations  of  each  acid  were  pre- 
pared and  carefully  analysed.  Fifty  cubic  centimetres  of  one 
of  these  solutions  was  placed  in  the  electrolytic  cell  at  a  time, 
and  two  successive  dilutions  prepared  in  the  cell  by  the  addition 
of  known  volumes  of  water  at  18°C.  Then  the  other  prepared 
solutions  were  introduced  in  order,  and  the  same  process  of 
dilution  repeated  till  a  sufficient  number  of  conductivity  values 
had  been  obtained.  In  the  case  of  mixtures,  equal  volumes 
(fifty  cubic  centimetres)  of  the  constituent  solutions  were  mixed 
at  18°  C.,  and  the  mixture  was  then  placed  in  the  cell. 

For  a  more  detailed  description  of  some  of  the  above  instru- 
ments and  methods,  see  my  former  paper  on  conductivity. 

Results  of  the  Conductivity  Observation*  on  Simple  Solutions. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  determination  of  the  regional  con- 
ductivities (k)  and  the  regional  concentrations  (C)  in  the 
mixture  (see  my  former  paper),8  to  draw  curves  showing  the 
relation  of  conductivity  to  the  concentration  for  each  acid.  In 
the  case  of  one  of  the  electrolytes,  (hydrochloric  acid  was 
selected),  the  values  of  the  conductivity  must  be  multiplied  by 
a  constant  before  plotting,  this  constant  being  the  ratio  of  the 
specific  molecular  conductivities  at  infinite  dilution  for  the  two 


.  Ann.,  66,  315,  1897. 
"Kohl.  u.  Holb.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  159.  tab.  2. 
8  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  10,  113,  1899-1900. 


134 


ON    THE    CALCULATION    OF    THE    CONDUCTIVITY 


acids.  Kohlrausch's  latest  determinations1  of  the  values  of  the 
specific  molecular  conductivity  at  infinite  dilution  at  18°  C.  for 
the  two  acids  were  used,  viz. :  for  hydrochloric  acid,  3774,  and 
for  sulphuric  acid,  3955,  both  expressed  in  terms  of  10~*  times 
Kohlrausch's  new  unit  (ohm"1  cm."1).  Therefore,  the  ratio  is 
1.048. 

Table  I  gives  the  data,  obtained  from  the  conductivity 
observations,  for  the  drawing  of  these  curves.  The  concentra- 
tions are  expressed  in  terms  of  gramme  equivalent  per  litre 
at  18°C.  The  atomic  weights  used  are  relative  to  Oxygen 
(16.00),  and  the  same  as  employed  by  2Kohlrausch.  The  specific 
conductivities  are  those  at  18°C,  expressed  in  terms  of  1()~4  times 
Kohlrausch's  new  unit  (ohm"1  cm."1). 

TABLE   I. 


H  Cl.    (36.46.) 

i  H2  SO 

t.    (49.04.) 

Concentration 
(»l). 

Specific 
Conductivity 
(*i). 

'""'fci    i 

/V  1 

"°°1      1 

Concentration 
1          (ni). 

Specific 
Conductivity 
(k2). 

2.66 

6018. 

6305. 

4.11 

6158. 

2.13 

5281. 

5534. 

2.95 

4948. 

1.74 

4627. 

4848. 

2.20 

3947. 

1.42 

3994. 

4185. 

1.74 

3255. 

1.02 

3055. 

3201. 

1.28 

2472. 

.716 

2268. 

2376. 

.890 

1779. 

.502 

1640. 

1718. 

.523 

1070. 

.844 

1148. 

1203. 

.452 

932.5 

.265 

898.3 

941.2 

.304 

637.4 

.188 

645.3 

676.2 

.197 

421.8 

.126 

439.7 

460.8 

.108 

241  5 

.0951 

334  9 

350.9 

.0967 

218.8 

.0810 

287.9 

301.6 

.0603 

148.4 

.0559 

201.0 

210.6 

.oa52 

93.77 

.0356 

129.3 

135.5 

.0262 

94  67 

99.20 

1  Wied.  Ann.,  50,  385, 1893. 

1  Kohl.  u.  Holb.,  loc.  cit..  p.  205,  tab.  14. 


OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 


135 


Determination   of  p. 

When  equal  volumes  of  simple  solutions  are  mixed  the  ratio 
expressed  by  p  is  equal  to  the  ratio  of  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
mixture  to  the  mean  specific  gravity  of  the  constituent  solutions. 
Table  II  shows  that  the  ratio  is  practically  equal  to  unity  for 
the  most  concentrated  solutions  examined. 

TABLE    II. 


SIMPLK  SOLUTIONS. 

Sp.  Gr. 
of  Mixture 
at  18°C. 

Concentration. 

Specific  Gravity  at  18°C. 

Mean 
Sp.  Gr. 

HC1. 

JH2  SO4. 

HC1. 

iH2S04. 

3.05 

2.95 

1.0525 

1.0912 

1.0719 

1.0720 

2.13 

1.74 

1.0371 

1.0549 

1.0460 

1.0462 

1.02 

ii 

1.0182 

" 

1.0366 

1.0365 

.502 

ii 

1.0091 

ii 

1.0320 

1.0319 

Results  of  the  Observations  and  Calculations  of  the  Conductivity 

of  Mixtures. 

Table  III  contains  the  results  of  the  observations  and  the 
calculations,  by  means  of  the  data  given  therein,  of  the  con- 
ductivity of  mixtures  of  the  acids  under  consideration.  The 
regional  concentration  kl  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  may  be 
obtained  from  the  value  kz  by  means  of  the  expression 

^°°i  7 
fcj  =^~kz, 

where  &2  is  the  regional  concentration  of  the  sulphuric  acid. 
The  specific  molecular  conductivities  at  infinite  dilution  have 
the  values  given  above.  In  this  table  the  conductivities  and 
concentrations  are  expressed  as  in  Table  I.  The  differences 
between  the  calculated  and  observed  values  of  the  conductivity 
are  given  as  percentages  of  observed  values. 


136  ON    THE    CALCULATION    OF    THE    CONDUCTIVITY 

TABLE  III. 


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OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.  137 

In  this  table  it  will  be  noticed  in  the  first  series  of  observa- 
tions, where  the  concentration  of  the  constituent  solution  of 
sulphuric  acid  is  constant,  while  the  constituent  solution  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  has  a  variable  concentration,  that  the  calculated 
values  are  all  greater  than  the  observed,  and  that  the  differences 
gradually  increase  as  the  concentration  of  the  hydrochloric  acid 
increases.  This  is  also  true  for  the  second  and  third  series, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  weaker  hydrochloric  acid  solutions 
where  the  calculated  is  now  less  than  the  observed  value.  Prof. 
MacGregor  has  shown  in  a  note  to  my  former  ^aper,  in  which 
I  drew  attention  to  a  regular  progression  similar  to  the  above 
for  series  of  solutions  of  potassium  chloride  and  potassium  sul- 
phate, which  were  for  the  most  part  of  moderate  concentration, 
that  the  regular  progression  observed  may  be  due  to  two  sources 
of  error.  '  The  second  source,  namely,  the  impossibility  of  draw- 
ing with  perfect  accuracy  the  dilution-ionic-concentration 
curves,  has,  I  think,  been  considerably  reduced,  for  in  place  of 
drawing  these  curves,  which  for  moderate  concentration  curve 
quite  rapidly,  concentration-specific-conductivity  curves  were 
employed,  these  curves  having  but  slight  curvature  and  being 
thus  easily  interpolated.  The  other  source  of  error,  namely, 
the  using  for  the  value  of  the  ionization  coefficient  the  quotient 
of  the  specific  molecular  conductivity  by  the  specific  molecular 
conductivity  at  infinite  dilution,  still  remains.  In  the  above 
fourth  series  where  the  first  two  mixtures  are  of  moderate  con- 
centration and  the  other  four  may  be  called  dilute  solutions,  this 
regular  progression  has  disappeared  and  the  differences  are  all 
negative,  except  in  the  first  mixture.  The  disappearance  of 
the  progression  is  consistent  with  its  being  due  to  the  above 
sources  of  error ;  for  in  dilute  solutions  they  both  produce  a 
very  small  effect  upon  the  result.  Two  reasons  may  be  assigned 
for  the  signs  being  all  negative  in  the  fourth  series: — (1)  The 
use  of  the  above  values  of  the  specific  molecular  conductivity  at 
infinite  dilution  ;  for  if  either  of  the  values  used  should  not  be 
correct  then  it  would  clearly  produce  an  error  of  the  same  sign 

1  Loc.  cit. 


138          CONDUCTIVITY    OF    AQUEOUS    SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 

in  all  the  calculated  values  of  the  conductivity.  There  is  also  (2) 
the  possibility  referred  to  abore,  of  the  sulphuric  acid  breaking 
up  not  only  into  ions  of  2  H  and  SO4,  but  also  into  H  and 
HSO4. 

It  is  also  possible  by  plotting  the  above  series  to  obtain  series 
of  mixtures  having  a  constant  concentration  for  the  constituent 
hydrochloric  acid  solutions  and  variable  concentrations  for  the 
sulphuric  acid  constituent  solutions  ;  and  it  will  be  found  in 
series  of  this  kind  that  the  same  regular  progression  is  exhibited 
as  in  the  above.  It  may  be  well  to  note  that  in  the  last  three 
series  of  the  above  Table  where  the  sign  of  the  difference 
changes,  this  change  happens  for  all  when  the  average  concen- 
tration of  the  mixture  is  about  0.6  gramme-equivalents. 

Finally,  since  my  experiments  are  estimated  as  affected  by 
an  error  which  may  amount  to  about  ±0.3  per  cent.,  it  is  seen 
in  the  table  that  as  the  differences  for  the  three  last  series  are  all 
within  or  in  a  few  cases  but  little  beyond  this  error,  it  may  be 
concluded  that  the  conductivity  of  mixtures  of  dilute  solutions 
of  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric  acid  can  be  calculated  within  the 
limit  of  my  experimental  error,  by  the  expression  of  the  dissocia- 
tion theory  and  on  the  assumption  that  the  sulphuric  acid  dis- 
sociates into  2  H  and  SO4  as  ions,  up  to  an  average  concentration 
of  about  0.5  in  cases  in  which  the  concentration  with  respect  to 
sulphuric  acid  is  relatively  large,  and  up  to  an  average  concen- 
tration of  about  0.9  in  cases  in  which  the  concentration  with 
respect  to  this  acid  is  relatively  small. 


III.  —  ON    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT    BY 
MIXTURES  OF  ELECTROLYTES. — BY  JAMES  BARNES,  B.  A., 

Dalhoiisie  College,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Communicated  by  Professor  J.  G.  MacGregor  on  March  12th,  1900.) 

In  a  1  paper  communicated  last  winter  to  this  Society,  Mr. 
E.  H.  Archibald  described  experiments  he  had  made  to  test  the 
ionization  coefficients,  obtained  by  2  Prof.  MacGregor's  method, 
for  mixtures  of  equimolecular  solutions  of  two  electrolytes 
having  an  ion  in  common.  With  these  coefficients  and  Yan't 
Hoff's  constant  as  data,  he  calculated  the  depression  of  the 
freezing-point  of  the  mixtures ;  and  he  then  compared  the 
calculated  with  the  experimental  values.  It  was  found  that  the 
difference  between  these  values  was,  in  general,  equal  to  the 
arithmetic  mean  of  the  differences  between  the  calculated  and 
experimental  values  of  the  depressions  of  the  constituent  simple 
solutions,  and  the  test  was  therefore  concluded  to  be  satis- 
factory. 

At  Prof.  MacGregor's  suggestion,  I  undertook  similar 
experiments  with  mixtures,  not  of  equimolecular  solutions, 
but  of  solutions  of  different  concentrations.  The  electrolytes 
selected  were  potassium  chloride,  sodium  chloride,  and  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

In  the  case  of  mixtures  of  solutions  which  are  not  equi- 
molecular Mr.  Archibald's  method  of  testing  the  ionization 
coefficients  is  not  applicable.  I  found  it  necessary,  therefore,  to 
obtain  an  expression  for  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point  for 
such  mixtures  in  terms  of  the  ionization  coefficients. 

In  a  simple  solution  containing  n  gramme-molecules  of  an 
electrolyte  per  litre,  if  a  is  the  ionization  coefficient,  the 
number  of  dissociated  molecules  is  n  a  and  the  number  of  undis- 
sociated  (1  —  a)  n.  If  a  molecule  of  this  electrolyte  breaks  down 


1  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  10,  33, 
*  Ibid.,  9,  101,  1895-96. 

(139) 


140  ON    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT 

into  m  ions,  then  the  number  of  free  ions  is  n  m  a,  and  therefore 
the  total  number  of  undissociated  molecules  and  free  ions  in  this 
solution  is 

(l  —  a)n  +  nma,    or    n(l  +  a  (m  —  1)Y 

On  the  assumption  that  a  free  ion  produces  the  same  amount  of 
depression  of  the  freezing-point  as  a  molecule,  and  that  in  a 
solution  the  molecules  are  so  far  apart  that  no  association  of 
molecules  occurs,  if  rf  is  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point  and 
M  the  molecular  depression,  i.  e.,  the  depression  produced  by 
one  gramme-molecule  or  one  gramme-ion,  we  have 

_  6  _ 

=  n(\+a(m-\}}  ................  (1) 

In  the  case  of  mixtures  of  simple  solutions,  according  to  the 
above  assumption,  A  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point  will  be 
represented  by  the  expression  :  — 

= 


where  1,  2,  etc.,  denote  the  electro  ytes,  the  m's  the  numbers  of 
ions  into  which  the  molecules  of  the  respective  electrolytes  break 
down,  them's  the  ion'7  »!•'•>  i  coefficients  in  the  mixture,  the  N's  the 
concentrations  (in  grain  me-molecules  per  litre)  of  the  mixture 
with  respect  to  the  respective  electrolytes,  and  the  M's  the 
depressions  produced  by  one  gramme-molecule  or  one  gramme. 
ion  of  the  undissociated  and  dissociated  portions  respectively  of 
the  electrolytes.  The  as  in  this  expression  are  given  by  the 
method  to  be  tested  ;  the  m's  in  the  case  of  the  electrolytes 
selected  can  have  only  one  value  ;  and  the  N's  are  of  course 
known  ;  but  what  values  the  M's  are  to  be  regarded  as  having 
is  doubtful.  It  was  found  for  simple  solutions  of  the  three 
electrolytes  employed,  that  the  molecular  depressions  increased 
as  the  solutions  became  more  concentrated.  This  appears  to 
indicate  that  one  molecule  or  one  ion,  when  in  the  presence 
of  a  large  number  of  molecules  and  ions,  produces  a  greater 
depression  than  when  it  is  in  the  presence  of  a  smaller 
number.  Thus  in  the  case  of  a  solution  made  by  mixing 
simple  solutions  of  different  electrolytes,  since  the  number 


BY    MIXTURES    OF    ELECTROLYTES — BARNES.  141 

of  molecules  and  ions  present  seems  to  affect  the  power  which 
one  molecule  or  ion  has  of  lowering  the  freezing-point,  it  was 
assumed  that  the  depression  produced  by  a  molecule  or  an 
ion  of  say,  the  electrolyte  1,  which  is  surrounded  by  mole- 
cules and  ions  of  this  electrolyte  1  and  of  the  other  electro- 
lytes 2,  3,  etc.,  would  have  the  same  value  as  if  all  the  molecules 
and  ions  surrounding  it  were  of  electrolyte  1.  Thus  the  M's 
of  the  above  expression  have  been  regarded  as  equal  to  the 
molecular  depressions  in  simple  solutions  of  the  concentration 

Ni+N2+  etc- 

The  application  of  this  expression  to  the  calculation  of  the 
depression  in  mixtures  will  form  at  once  a  test  of  the  above 
assumption  and  a  test  of  the  ionization  coefficients  employed. 
I  have  applied  it  (a)  to  mixtures  of  potassium  chloride  and 
sodium  chloride,  these  salts  being  selected  because  of  their 
simple  molecular  structure  and  the  approximate  equality  in  their 
grade  of  ionization  ;  (b)  to  mixtures  of  sodium  chloride  and 
hydrochloric  acid,  selected  because  of  their  simple  molecular 
structure  and  the  considerable  difference  in  their  grade  of 
ionization ;  (c)  to  mixtures  of  potassium  chloride,  sodium 
chloride  and  hydrochloric  acid,  selected  for  testing  in  addition 
the  method  of  finding  the  ionization  coefficients  in  a  mixture  of 
three  electrolytes. 

The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  work  involved  : — Purifica- 
tion of  materials ; — construction  and  calibration  of  the  instru- 
ments used  in  the  conductivity  and  freezing-point  observations  ; 
— preparation  and  analysis  of  a  series  of  simple  solutions  of  the 
three  electrolytes ; — determination  of  the  specific  molecular 
conductivities  at  infinite  dilution  for  0°C. ; — observations  on  the 
conductivity  at  0°  for  the  series  of  simple  solutions; — calcula- 
tion of  the  ionization  coefficients  at  0°  from  the  conductivity 
observations ; — measurement  of  the  depression  of  the  freezing- 
point  of  the  simple  solutions; — calculation  of  the  molecular 
depression  for  each  solution  of  the  three  electrolytes  ; — prepara- 
tion of  mixtures  of  two  and  of  the  three  electrolytes  ; — measure- 
ment of  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point  of  the  mixtures  ; — 


142  ON    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT 

determination  of  the  ionization  coefficients  of  the  electrolytes  in 
the  mixtures; — calculation  of  the  depression  of  the  freezing- 
point  in  the  mixtures. 

The  experiments  were  carried  out  during  the  session  of 
1899-1900  in  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax. 

Materials,  Apparatus  and  Methods. 

The  salts  and  acids  were  obtained  from  Merck.  The  salts 
were  recrystallized  once,  and  it  was  found  that  solutions  of 
them,  and  also  of  the  acid,  had  conductivity  values  showing 
satisfactory  agreement  with  the  values  as  given  by  l  Kohlrausch. 
These  electrolytes  were  therefore  considered  sufficiently  pure 
for  the  purpose.  The  water  used  in  making  the  solutions  was 
purified  by  the  method  described  in  my  former  2  paper,  and  it 
had  a  conductivity  at  18°C.  of  about  0.93  x  10~6  expressed  in 
terms  of  Kohlrausch's  new  8unit  (ohm"1  cm."1). 

The  solutions  of  potassium  and  sodium  chloride  were 
prepared  by  direct  weighing;  the  salts  being  first  dried  to 
constant  weight  in  an  air-bath.  The  hydrochloric  acid  solutions 
were  analysed  volumetrically  by  means  of  a  standardized  solu- 
tion of  potassium  hydroxide  with  phenol-phthalein  as  indicator. 
All  burettes  and  pipettes  used  in  the  preparation  and  analysis 
of  these  solutions  were  calibrated  by  the  weight  of  distilled 
water  they  delivered,  and  the  flasks  by  the  weight  of  water  they 
held  at  0°C. 

Observations  were  made  on  the  specific  gravity  at  18°C.  of 
the  simple  solutions  and  their  mixtures  with  a  pycnometer  of 
the  Ostwald-Sprengel  form.  These  observations  were  made  to 
obtain  the  knowledge  whether  or  not  there  was  any  change  of 
volume  on  mixing  the  simple  solutions.  It  was  found  that  with 
solutions  of  the  concentrations  used,  there  was  no  appreciable 
change,  and  it  was  assumed  that  such  would  also  be  the  case 
atOc. 


1  Kohlrausch  u.  Holborn  :  Leitvermogen  der  Elektrolyte,  1898,  pp.  159, 160,  tab.  2. 

2  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  10,  49, 1898-99. 

3  Kohl.  u.  Holb.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  1. 


BY    MIXTURES    OF    ELECTROLYTES — BARNES.  143 

Conductivities  were  determined  by  Kohlrausch's  method 
with  the  alternating  current  and  telephone.  The  Wheatstone's 
bridge  consisted  of  four  coils,  two  of  which,  the  100  and  1000 
ohms,  were  the  only  ones  used.  These  coils  were  correct  at 
17.5°C.  and  had  a  temperature  coefficient  of  0.000267  per  centi- 
grade degree  per  ohm.  The  correction  for  temperature  was 
applied  when  the  observations  were  made  in  the  basement  room 
referred  to  below.  The  platinoid  bridge  wire  was  calibrated  by 
the  method  proposed  by  l  Strouhal  and  Barus  with  ten  gerrnan 
silver  wires  of  equal  length.  A  telephone  made  by  Ericsson  of 
Stockholm,  and  an  inductorium  made  after  a  plan  of  Ostwald's 
anjl  giving  a  clear  high  note  were  employed.  For  a  detailed 
account  of  the  pycnometer,  and  of  the  instruments  employed  in 
the  conductivity  observations,  with  the  methods  used,  see  my 
paper  referred  to  above. 

Three  electrolytic  cells  of  two  types  were  used.  One,  with 
the  shape  of  a  U-tube,  was  employed  for  the  stronger  solutions 
of  the  hydrochloric  acid.  The  other  two  were  of  the  Arrhenius 
form.  One  of  these,  with  electrodes  at  a  distance  from  one 
another  of  about  \  cm.,  was  used  for  the  weak  solutions 
employed  in  the  determination  of  the  specific  molecular  conduc- 
tivities for  0°C.  ;  the  other  with  electrodes  at  a  distance  of  about 
5  cm.,  for  the  stronger  solutions  of  the  two  salts.  The  electrodes 
were  all  of  stout  platinum  foil  firmly  fixed  to  the  platinum  wire 
and  glass  connections,  so  that  the  capacity  of  the  cell  once 
determined  would  remain  the  same  throughout  a  series  of 
experiments.  These  electrodes  were  platinized  in  a  solution 
prepared  from  2  Lummer  and  Kurlbaum's  recipe.  The  reduction 
factor  of  each  of  these  cells,  by  which  the  observed  conductivities 
were  reduced  to  the  standard  employed  by  Kohlrausch,  was 
obtained  by  comparing  the  values  determined  for  two  carefully 
prepared  solutions  of  potassium  chloride,  with  the  values  given 
by  8  Kohlrausch  for  the  same  concentrations.  Data  for  the 

1  Wiod.  Ann.,  10,  326, 1880. 

»  Wied.  Ann.,  60,  315,  1897. 

s  Kohl.  u.  Holb.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  159.  tab.  2. 


144  ON    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT 

determination  of  the  reduction  factors  were  available  only  at 
18°,  but  as  the  cell  was  of  glass  its  value  at  0°  would  not  be 
practically  different  from  that  at  18°. 

The  water  bath  used  in  the  observations  of  the  conductivity 
at  18°  was  the  same  as  that  described  in  my  former  paper.  In 
the  case  of  the  observations  at  0°  the  bath  was  modified  so  that 
the  temperature  could  be  kept  constant  at  0°  by  means  of  pieces 
of  ice  floating  in  it,  while  the  water  was  kept  continually  stirred. 
The  ice  was  prevented  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  cell  by 
placing  around  the  cell  a  cylindrical  screen  of  wire  gauze  17  cm. 
in  diameter,  and  reaching  to  within  10  cm.  of  the  bottom 
of  the  bath.  By  the  addition  or  the  removal  of  pieces  of 
ice  from  the  salt  water,  the  temperature  of  the  bath  could 
easily  be  kept  within  one  twenty-fifth  of  a  degree  for  a  sufficient 
time  to  make  the  measurement  of  conductivity.  The  observa- 
tions were  made  in  a  basement  room  of  the  college,  where  the 
temperature,  during  the  winter  months,  was  generally  below  6°C- 
The  thermometer  used  was  graduated  to  a  fiftieth  of  a  centi- 
grade degree  and  its  zero  point  was  determined  by  the  writer. 
Each  solution  was  brought  to  about  0°  before  it  was  placed  in 
the  cell,  and  while  in  the  cell  successive  observations  of  the 
conductivit}7  were  made  to  insure  that  the  temperature  of  the 
bath  had  been  taken. 

The  method  employed  for  finding  the  freezing-point  of  the 
solutions  was  the  same  in  principle  as  that  proposed  by  1Loomis 
The  size  of  the  protection  bath  was  larger  than  that  used  by 
Loomis,  and  the  stirring  was  done  mechanically. 

The  thermometer  used  was  of  the  Beckmann  form.  It  was 
graduated  to  a  hundredth  of  a  degree,  and  could  be  read  to  a 
thousandth  by  aid  of  a  small  microscope,  mounted  on  an  upright 
stand.  This  thermometer  was  at  a  certain  place  on  its  stem 
firmly  fixed  in  the  cork  of  the  inner  freezing-tube  (the  freezing- 
tubes  consisted  of  an  inner  and  outer  tube,  the  inner  containing 
the  solution  whose  freezing-point  was  measured)  so  that  when 
in  position  its  bulb  was  within  2  cm.  of  the  bottom  of  the  tube. 

1  Phys.  Review,  1, 199,  1893  and  9,  257,  1897. 


BY  MIXTURES  OF  ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.      145 

This  inner  freezing-tube  was  28  cm.  in  length  and  2.8  cm.  in 
diameter  and  had  its  lower  end  re-entrant.  The  outer  tube  was 
25  cm.  in  length  and  3.15  cm.  in  diameter.  The  thickness  of  the 
glass  being  about  1  mm.,  there  was  an  air  space  of  about  1.5  mm. 
between  the  tubes.  This  space  was  found  to  be  quite  sufficient 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  ice  on  the  wall  of  the  tube.  The 
inner  tube  was  supported  in  the  outer  by  means  of  two  rubber 
bands,  one  at  the  top  and  the  other  at  the  bottom.  These  bands 
also  prevented  the  walls  from  touching  one  another.  The 
length  of  the  tubes  allowed  the  solution  to  be  well  submerged  in 
the  protection  bath  and  therefore  almost  freed  it  from  the 
influence  of  the  outside  temperature. 

In  the  determination  of  the  freezing-point  of  a  solution  these 
tubes  were  surrounded  by  a  mixture  of  salt  water  and  pieces  of 
ice,  contained  in  a  vessel  of  glass  35  cm.  high  and  11  cm.  in 
diameter  (called  the  protection  bath).  The  cover  for  this  vessel 
was  one  taken  from  the  protection  bath  of  a  Beckmann  apparatus. 
The  glass  of  this  vessel  was  \  cm.  thick  and  was  covered  with 
asbestos  paper  that  the  effect  of  the  temperature  of  the  room 
might  be  lessened.  It  was  found  necessary  to  keep  this  bath 
at  a  constant  temperature  within  a  fiftieth  of  a  degree,  if  values 
of  the  freezing-point  agreeing  with  the  mean  value  to  less  than 
a  thousandth  of  a  degree  were  desired.  This  was  obtained  by 
keeping  the  bath  continually  stirred.  Any  change  of  tempera- 
ture was  quickly  recorded  by  means  of  a  thermometer  graduated 
to  a  fiftieth  of  a  degree.  The  temperature  of  the  bath  could  be 
raised  by  the  addition  of  water  at  the  temperature  of  the  room, 
or  lowered  by  the  addition  of  pieces  of  ice,  snow  when  obtain- 
able being  preferable. 

The  platinum  stirrer  for  the  freezing-tube  was  of  the  common 
ring  shape,  having  wound  around  its  ring  a  thin  platinum  wire, 
which  would  rub  against  the  wall  of  the  tube  and  thereby 
prevent  the  formation  of  an  ice  sheath.  With  constant  stirring 
there  was  found  no  tendency  for  the  ice  to  mass  itself  together 
and  float  to  the  surface,  but  it  could  be  seen  moving  through  the 
whole  solution  in  tiny  glistening  particles.  The  stirrer  for  the 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL  X.  TRANS.  J. 


146  ON    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT 

protection  bath  was  of  thick  brass  wire  with  two  rings,  one  for 
the  upper  aud  the  other  for  the  lower  portion.  Both  these 
stirrers  were  worked  mechanically  by  means  of  one  of  Henrici's 
hot  air  motors  placed  at  a  distance  of  about  3  metres  from  the 
freezing-point  apparatus.  By  means  of  a  light  belt  this  motor 
turned  a  small  wooden  wheel  placed  over  the  protection  bath. 
A  connecting-rod  connected  this  wheel  to  a  slider  on  a  vertical 
guiding  rod  ;  and  to  this  slider  also  were  attached  the  two 
stirrers.  Any  range  of  stroke  could  be  obtained  by  varying  the 
distance  of  the  connecting-rod  from  the  centre  of  the  wheel. 
As  about  70  cc.  of  solution  were  used,  a  stroke  of  11  cm.  was 
required  to  cause  the  ring  of  the  stirrer  in  the  freezing-tube  just 
to  touch  the  bottom  of  the  tube  and  reach  to  within  £  cm.  of 
the  surface  of  the  solution.  Thus  all  solutions  were  throughout 
uniformly  stirred,  and  as  the  stroke  of  the  engine  was  quite 
constant  every  solution  was  stirred  in  exactly  the  same  manner. 

Another  glass  vessel  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  protection 

bath  contained  salt  water  and  ice  at  a  temperature  of  about 

-  10°C.  (called  the  freezing  bath).     The  purpose  of  this  bath 

was  to  reduce  the  solution  in  the  freezing-tube  to  about  0.3 

degree  below  the  freezing-point. 

The  hammer  of  a  common  electric  bell  covered  with  a  piece 
of  rubber  tubing,  and  supported  on  a  frame  over  the  freezing- 
point  apparatus,  was  used  for  tapping  the  thermometer.  A 
current  from  an  Edison-Lalande  cell  had  sufficient  strength  to 
give  rapid  and  vigorous  blows. 

The  following  method  of  1  Raoult's  was  employed  for  deter- 
mining the  elevation  above  the  temperature  of  the  protection 
bath,  of  the  convergence  temperature  of  this  apparatus,  i.  e.,  the 
temperature  finally  assumed  by  a  solution  which  is  being  stirred 
and  has  no  ice  in  it,  when  it  comes  into  thermal  equilibrium 
with  the  protection  bath.  The  freezing-point  of  water  was  first 
obtained.  The  ice  formed  in  this  observation  was  then  melted 
and  the  freezing  tubes  containing  the  water  returned  to  the 
protection  bath  and  the  stirring  begun.  With  the  protection 

1  Ztschr.  f.  Phys.  Chem.,  27,  636, 1898. 


BY  MIXTURES  OF  ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.       147 

bath  kept  constantly  at  0°  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the 
freezing-tubes  at  first  fell  rapidly,  then  more  slowly,  till  it 
remained  constant  at  0.05°.  This  experiment  was  repeated  with 
the  same  result,  and  thus  the  convergence  temperature  was 
shown  to  be  0.05  degree  above  the  temperature  of  the  protection 
bath.  In  all  experiments,  therefore,  the  temperature  of  the 
protection  bath  was  adjusted  so  as  to  be  0.05  degree  below  the 
freezing-point  of  the  solution.  It  was  also  found  with  water 
that  the  protection  bath  required  to  be  this  same  amount  (0.05 
degree)  below  the  freezing-point  in  order  that  the  value  of  the 
freezing-point,  with  a  very  small  quantity  of  ice  present,  might 
agree  with  that  obtained  with  a  large  amount  of  ice. 

The  method  of  carrying  out  an  observation  of  the  freezing- 
point  was  as  follows  : — The  freezing-tube  was  filled  with  the 
solution  up  to  a  mark  on  the  glass  (about  70  cc.)  It  was  then 
placed  in  the  freezing  bath  where  it  remained  till  the  tempera- 
ture was  lowered  with  constant  stirring  to  about  0.3  degree 
below  the  freezing-point  of  the  solution,  this  point  having  been 
determined  by  a  preliminary  experiment.  The  freezing-tubes 
were  now  quickly  removed  to  the  protection  hath  which  was  at 
the  required  temperature  (0.05  degree  below  the  freezing-point 
of  the  solution),  and  the  stirring  started.  After  ten  minutes 
time,  in  which  the  solution  had  risen  to  within  0.1  degree  of 
its  freezing-point,  a  small  crystal  of  ice  was  introduced  through 
a  glass  tube  in  the  cork.  As  the  particles  of  ice  gradually  formed 
throughout  the  solution  the  mercury  in  the  thermometer  rose, 
and  in  about  a  minute  assumed  a  fixed  position.  The  tapping  was 
begun  and  continued  for  half  a  minute  when  both  it  and  the 
stirring  were  stopped,  the  microscope  brought  into  position  and 
a  reading  made.  After  again  stirring  and  tapping,  the  ther- 
mometer was  read  again,  this  reading  acting  as  a  check  upon 
the  former.  Care  was  taken  to  keep  the  protection  bath  constant 
at  the  required  temperature  throughout  both  these  readings. 
The  tubes  were  now  removed,  the  ice  melted,  and  the  same 
operation  repeated  for  a  second  observation. 


148  ON    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT 

As  a  change  in  the  atmospheric  pressure  would  cause  a  corres- 
ponding change  in  the  thermometer,  the  freezing-point  of  the 
water  used  was  determined  about  every  three  hours.  The 
temperature  of  the  room  was  kept  as  low  and  as  constant  as 
possible  during  the  experiments,  and  no  observation  was  made 
when  it  was  above  5°G. 

Since  the  freezing  of  my  solutions,  was  started  about  0.1 
degree  below  the  freezing-point,  the  amount  of  ice  formed  was  so 
small  that  the  correction  usually  applied  for  the  change  in  con- 
centration, and,  therefore,  in  the  depression,  comes  within  my 
limit  of  error.  Thus  the  results  are  recorded  without  any 
correction. 

Simple  Solutions. 

With  the  electrolytes  K  Cl,  Na  Cl,  and  H  Cl,  there  is  only 
one  possible  way  for  their  molecules  to  dissociate,  namely,  into 
two  ions.  Hence  expression  (1)  reduces  to 


For  the  determination  of  the  values  of  M,  the  other  quanti- 
ties, <?,  n  and  a  are  obtained  from  observations  on  simple  solu- 
tions ;  a  being  taken  equal  to  the  ratio  of  the  specific  molecular 
conductivity  to  the  specific  molecular  conductivity  at  infinite 
dilution.  As  the  solutions  are  at  a  temperature  of  about  0°C.  in 
the  determination  of  the  freezing-point,  the  ionization  coefficients 
should  be  obtained  at  approximately  the  same  temperature. 
For  this  purpose  measurements  were  made  of  the  conductivity 
at  0°,  both  of  solutions  of  the  range  of  concentration  used  in  the 
observations  of  the  freezing-point  and  also  of  very  dilute 
solutions  of  the  electrolytes.  These  latter  measurements  are 
required  for  the  determination  of  the  specific  molecular  con- 
ductivities at  infinite  dilution  for  0°C. 

Determination  of  the  Specific  Molecular  Conductivities  at 

Infinite  Dilution  for  0°C. 

A  series  of  simple  solutions  varying  in  concentration  from 
•01  to  .0001  in  the  case  of  the  salts,  and  from  .01  to  .001  for  the 


BY    MIXTURES     OF    ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.  149 

acid,  were  prepared  and  their  conductivities  measured  at  18° 
and  at  0°.  The  conductivity  of  the  water  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  these  solutions  was  measured  at  both  temperatures,  and 
its  value  substracted  in  each  case  from  the  conductivity  of  the 
solution.  Considerable  care  was  required  with  these  dilute 
solutions  to  obtain  good  results.  The  electrodes  were  thoroughly 
washed  with  a  portion  of  the  solution  before  placing  them  in 
the  cell.  Both  the  solutions  and  the  water  used  were  exposed 
as  little  as  possible  to  the  air,  and  the  measurements  were  taken 
immediately  after  a  solution  was  made.  The  measurements 
were  repeated  three  times,  and  the  mean  of  the  values  obtained 
was  taken  as  the  most  probable  value. 

The  following  Table  I  gives  the  values  thus  obtained,  and  the 
ratio  — — — ,  where  ^  8  and  JMO  are  the  specific  molecular  con- 

1*18 

ductivities  at  18°  and  0°  respectively.  The  concentrations  are 
expressed  in  gramme-molecules  per  litre  at  0°,  and  the  specific 
molecular  conductivities  in  terms  of  this  unit  and  of  10~4  times 
Kohlrausch's  new  unit  of  conductivity. 


150 


ON    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT 


TABLE    I. 


Concentration. 

Sp.  Mol.  Cond. 
at  18'C. 

(/"is)- 

Sp.  Mol.  Cond. 
at  0°C. 

(/*<>)• 

^18—^0 

^18 

KC1.  (74.59). 

.010 

1224 

775 

.367 

.005 

1244 

787 

.367 

.001 

1278 

809 

.367 

.0005 

1284 

814 

.366 

.0002 

1293 

821 

.365 

.0001 

1298 

824 

.365 

NaCl.  <58.50). 

.010 

102S 

638 

.379 

.005 

1049 

651 

.380 

.001 

1075 

664 

.382 

.0005 

1084 

670 

.382 

.0002 

1094 

676 

.382 

.0001 

1098 

679 

.382 

H  Cl.  (36.46). 

.010 

3706 

25% 

.300 

.005 

3731 

2608 

.301 

.002 

3753 

2625 

.301 

.001 

3757 

2626 

.301 

The  ratio  — —     -  appears  to   increase  as  the  concentration 

^18 

diminishes,  except  in  the  case  of  potassium  chloride  where  it 
decreases.  This  peculiarity  is  also  shown  in  the  values  as  calcu- 
lated by  means  of  1Deguisne's  data.  The  agreement  between 
Deguisne's  conductivity  values  at  0°  and  the  above  for  the  solu- 
tions of  concentration  .01  is  very  close,  but  with  the  dilute 
solutions  it  is  not  so  good.  It  was  found  impossible  to  obtain 


1  Kohl.  u.  Holb.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  199,  tab.  7. 


BY    MIXTURES    OF    ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES. 


151 


concordant  results  with  solutions  of  greater  dilution  than  those 
above.  It  is  seen,  however,  that  the  ratio  appears  to  reach  a 
constant  value  in  these  dilute  solutions,  and  the  writer  has 
assumed  that  the  value  of  this  ratio  for  the  solution  of  concen- 
tration .0001  of  the  salts  and  .001  of  the  acid  would  hold  for 
infinite  dilution. 

Table  II  gives  the  values  of  the  specific  molecular  conductivi- 
ties at  infinite  dilution  for  0°  obtained  from  Kohlrausch's  values 
at  18°  by  aid  of  the  above  ratios.  The  conductivities  are 
expressed  as  in  Table  I. 

TABLE   II. 


Electrolyte. 

Specific  Molecular  Conductivity 
at  Infinite  Dilution. 

For  18*C. 

For  0°C. 

K  Cl  

H312 
ll]Q3 
23774 

833 

682 
2638 

Na  Cl  

H  01  

Determination  of  the   lonization    Coefficients  at   0°C.  for 
Simple  Solutions. 

For  this  purpose  the  specific  conductivities  at  09C.  for  series 
of  simple  solutions  of  each  electrolyte  were  found.  These  conduc- 
tivity values  are  also  necessary  for  the  drawing  of  the  curves 
showing  the  relation  between  the  concentration  and  the  conduc- 
tivity ;  these  curves  being  required  in  the  determination  of  the 
ionization  coefficients  in  the  mixtures. 

Table  III  contains  the  observed  values  and  also  the  ioniza- 
tion coefficients  calculated  therewith.  The  concentrations  are 
expressed  in  gramme-molecules  per  litre  at  0°C.,  and  the 
conductivity  in  terms  of  10~4  times  Kohlrausch's  new  unit. 


1  Kohl.  u.  Holb.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  200;  tab.  8. 
»  Wied.  Ann.,  50,  385, 1893. 


152 


ON     THE    DEPRESSION    OF     THE    FREEZING-POINT 
TABLE   III. 


Concentration. 
(n). 

Specific 
Conductivity 
at  0°C. 
(k). 

lonization 
Coefficients 
at  0°C. 
(a). 

K  Cl. 

.03 

22.73 

.910 

.05 

37.15 

.892 

.08 

58.32 

.875 

.10 

71.  S3 

.862 

.20 

138.5 

.832 

.30 

204.5 

.819 

.40 

268.1 

.804 

Na  Cl. 

.03 

18.34 

.896 

.05 

29.92 

.877 

.08 

46.93 

.860 

.10 

58.03 

.850 

.20 

111.2 

.815 

.30 

161.0 

.787 

.40 

208  9 

.765 

H  Cl. 

.03 

76.43 

.966 

.05 

126.1 

.956 

.08 

198.9 

.942 

.10 

246.1 

.933 

.20 

480.3 

.910 

.30 

710.6 

.898 

.40 

933.4 

.884 

Determination  of  the  Values  of  M. 

The  following  Table  IV  contains  the  values  of  the  depression 
of  the  freezing-point  of  the  simple  solutions.  These  values, 
being  the  means  of  three  observations,  are  given  to  four  places  of 
decimals.  It  also  contains  the  values  of  the  lowering  (M)  pro- 
duced by  each  gramme-molecule  or  gramme-ion  of  the  electrolyte 


BY    MIXTURES    OF    ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES. 


153 


in  the  solution,  calculated  by  expression  (3)  with  the  data  given 
in  this  Table  and  in  Table  III.  The  concentrations  are  expressed 
as  in  former  tables  and  the  depressions  in  centigrade  degrees. 


TABLE  IV. 


Concentration. 
(n). 

Depression  of 
Freezing-point. 
(6). 

Molecular 
Depression. 
(M). 

KC1. 

.03 

.1060 

1.85 

.05 

.1752 

1.85 

.08 

.2776 

1.86 

.10 

.3458 

1.86 

.20 

.6795 

1.86 

.30 

1.0L71 

1.86 

.40 

1.3487 

1.87 

Na  Cl. 

.03 

.1072 

1.89 

.05 

.1768 

1.88 

.08 

.2824 

1.90 

.10 

.3515 

1.90 

.20 

.6885 

1.90 

.30 

1.0292 

1.92 

.40 

1.3646 

1.93 

H  Cl. 

.03 

.1078 

1.88 

.05 

.1786 

1.83 

.08 

.2835 

1.83 

.10 

.3552 

1.84 

.20 

.7138 

1.87 

.40 

1.4553 

1.93 

By  comparing  Loomis'  values  of  the  depression  of  the  freez- 
ing-point with  these  values,  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  agreement 
in  many  cases  is  very  close.  If  both  results  are  plotted  the 
curve,  formed  by  joining  the  points  given  by  the  above  values, 


154  OX    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT 

will  be  a  little  above  that  obtained  from  Loomis'  values.  As 
mentioned  above,  the  molecular  depression  increases  as  the  solu- 
tions become  stronger. 

According  to  Van't  HofFs  theory  the  value  of  the  molecular 
depression  should  be  1.86.  1Loomis  found  experimentally  that, 
with  a  large  number  of  non-eleetrolytes  in  aqueous  solutions, 
the  molecular  depression  was  1.86  for  the  dilute  solutions.  In 
the  case  of  the  electrolytes  used  above,  with  the  ionization  coeffi- 
cients determined  by  the  conductivity  method,  the  values  of  the 
molecular  depression  are  seen  to  be  grouped  around  this  value. 
The  divergence  from  this  value  may  partly  be  accounted  for  by 
the  use  of  the  doubtful  values  of  the  specific  molecular  conduc- 
tivities at  infinite  dilution  for  0°,  employed  in  the  calculations  of 
the  ionization  coefficients. 

Mixtures  of  Solutions   of  Two   Electrolytes. 
Since  equal  volumes  of  simple  solutions  of  two  electrolytes, 
having  one  ion  in  common,   were  mixed,  and  the  molecules  of 
the  electrolytes  used  dissociate  each  into  two  ions,  expression  (2), 
as  there  was  no  change  of  volume  on  mixing,  reduces  to  : 
A  =  i[MlWl  (1  +a,)   +  M27i2(l  +*,)] (4) 

in  which  n^  and  71 2  are  the  concentrations  of  the  simple  con- 
stituent solutions.  For  the  calculation  of  A  the  depression  of 
the  freezing-point  of  the  mixture  by  this  expression,  the  n's  are 
known,  the  as  are  obtained  by  the  modification  of  Prof. 
MacGregor's  method  fully  described  in  my  former  2  paper,  and 
the  M's  in  the  manner  referred  to  above. 

Results   of  the  Calculations. 

Table  V  gives  the  data  necessary  for  the  calculation  of  the 
depression  of  the  freezing-point  of  mixtures  of  potassium 
chloride  and  sodium  chloride,  and  of  sodium  chloride  and  hydro- 
chloric acid.  It  also  shows  the  agreement  of  the  calculated 
with  the  observed  values.  The  concentrations,  molecular  depres- 
sions of  the  constituent  solutions,  and  the  depressions  of  the 
freezing-points  of  the  mixtures  are  expressed  as  in  Table  IV. 

1  Phys.  Review,  9,  257, 1899. 

*  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci ,  10,  124,  1899-1900. 


BY    MIXTURES    OF    ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES. 


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ON    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT 


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BY    MIXTURES    OF    ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.  157 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  limit  of  error  of  the  above 
observations.  The  observed  values  are  in  all  cases  means  of  at 
least  three  observations,  which  were  found  to  differ  from  their 
mean  values  in  different  cases  by  very  different  amounts  up  to 
0.001  degree.  There  are  also  many  sources  of  error  in  the 
calculations  and  they  do  not  admit  of  exact  valuation.  As  & 
rough  estimate  the  limit  of  error  due  to  both  observation  and 
calculation  may  probably  be  put  at  0.0015  degree. 

If  this  estimate  is  approximately  correct,  the  above  table 
shows  that  the  agreement  between  the  observed  and  calculated 
values  is  very  satisfactory  for  both  mixtures  of  potassium 
chloride  and  sodium  chloride,  and  of  sodium  chloride  and  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

Mixtures  of  Solutions  of  Three  Electrolytes. 

In  the  case  of  mixtures  of  the  three  electrolytes  used  as 
equal  volumes  of  the  simple  solutions  were  mixed,  and  there 
was  no  change  of  volume  on  mixing,  and  as  each  molecule  of 
these  electrolytes  breaks  down  into  two  ions,  expression  (2) 
becomes 

A=$LMi  wi(1+*i)  +  M27i2(l  +  «2)  +  M3  na  (l  +  «a)] (5) 

where  the  ris  are  the  concentrations  of  the  constituent  solutions. 
Thus  in  any  mixture  the  ris  are  known,  the  M's  can  be  obtained 
as  above,  and  the  as  can  be  determined  by  the  method  given 
below. 

Determination  of  the  lonization   Coefficients  in  Mixtures  of 
Three  Electrolytes. 

1  Professor  MacGregor  has  shown  how  to  obtain  equations 
sufficient  for  finding  the  ionization  coefficients  in  a  mixture  of 
any  number  of  electrolytes  having  a  common  ion,  and  how  to 
solve  them  by  a  graphical  procedure.  As  in  the  case  of  mixtures 
of  two  electrolytes, 2 1  have,  in  the  present  case  also,  transformed 


1  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Can.  (2),    2,  69,  1896-97. 
*  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  10, 124,  1899-1900, 


158  ON    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT 

Professor  MacGregor's  equations  so  as  to  express  them  in  terms 
of  regional  conductivities  and  concentrations. 

In  the  case  of  mixtures  of  three  electrolytes  the  transformed 
equations  are  as  follows  : — 

I..   _ f*°°i  /,.  _^°°i  /,.  ,rv 

"'i —         "'a  —  u       Iv3> • \P) 

7^+    ^-  +  ^-  =  1. (7) 


k,=f  ! 


.(8) 


=/• 


where  1,  2,  and  3  denote  the  electrolytes,  the  k's  the  specific 
conductivities  of  the  electrolytes  in  the  regions  which  they 
respectively  occupy  in  the  mixture,  (these  conductivities  having 
the  same  values  as  in  simple  solutions  of  equal  concentrations), 
the  juoo's  the  specific  molecular  conductivities  at  infinite  dilution, 
the  N's  the  concentrations  of  the  mixture  with  respect  to  each 
electrolyte,  and  the  C's  the  regional  concentrations,  which  in  the 
case  of  dilute  solutions  are  the  concentrations  of  the  constituent 
isohydric  solutions. 

We  have  thus  six  equations  for  the  determination  of  three 
k's  and  three  C's. 

These  equations  can  be  solved  by  a  graphical  process.  In 
the  first  place  the  values  of  the  specific  conductivities  of  elec- 
trolyte 2,  (&2),  are  multiplied  by  the  constant  5*1,  and  those  of 

/*oo2 

electrolyte  3,  (7c3 ),  by  ™i.     Equations  (8)  are  now  employed  by 

ftw  3 

drawing  curves  having  as  abscissae  the  values  of  the  specific 
conductivities,  and  the  corresponding  values  of  the  concentrations 
as  ordinates.  Three  points  are  now  found  by  inspection,  one  on 
each  curve,  having  a  common  abscissa,  according  to  equations  (6)» 


BY  MIXTURES  OF  ELECTROLYTES.  —  BARNES.       159 

and  ordinates,  (Clt  C3  and  C3),  whose  values  when  substituted 
in  equation  (7),  satisfy  this  equation.  By  this  method  we 
have  found  kl,  C  C3  and  C3  ;  and  k^  and  k3  are  easily  obtained 
from  equations  (6).  The  a'»,  the  ionization  coefficients  in  the 

k 
mixture,  are  then  determined  from  the  relation,  a  =  —  ~« 


Results  of   the  Calculations. 

The  following  Table  VI  contains  the  results  of  the  calculations 
by  expression  (5);  also  the  experimental  values  obtained  for  the 
depression  of  the  freezing-point  of  mixtures  of  solutions  of 
potassium  chloride,  sodium  chloride  and  hydrochloric  aid.  The 
results  in  all  the  columns  are  expressed  as  in  Table  V. 


160 


ON    THE    DEPRESSION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT 


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BY    MIXTURES    OF    ELECTROLYTES— BARNES.  161 

The  calculated  values  in  this  Table  will  have  a  greater  pos- 
sible error  than  those  in  Table  V,  due  to  the  greater  number  of 
experimental  data  required.  In  the  observed  values  the  possible 
error  is  the  same  as  before.  Considering  the  many  sources  of 
error  in  both  these  values  the  above  agreement  between  them  is 
very  satisfactory. 

Conclusions. 

The  above  results  show  that  in  the  case  of  mixtures  of  solu- 
tions of  potassium  chloride  and  sodium  chloride,  and  of  sodium 
chloride  and  hydrochloric  acid,  and  of  all  three,  it  is  possible, 
with  the  ionization  coefficients  obtained  by  the  method  referred 
to  above,  and  on  the  assumption  that  the  molecular  depression 
of  an  electrolyte  in  a  mixture  is  the  same  as  it  would  be  in  a 
simple  solution  of  the  same  total  concentration,  to  predict  the 
depression  of  the  freezing-point  within  the  limit  of  the  error 
involved  in  observation  and  calculation. 


PBOC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— X. 


IV. — ON  THE  SUBDIVISIONS  OF  THE  CARBONIFEROUS  SYSTEM 
IN  EASTERN  CANADA,  WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  THE 
POSITION  OF  THE  UNION  AND  RIVERSDALE  FORMATIONS 
OF  NOVA  SCOTIA,  REFERRED  TO  THE  DEVONIAN  SYSTEM 
BY  SOME  CANADIAN  GEOLOGISTS. — By  H.  M.  Ami,  M.  A., 
D.  Sc.,  F.  G.  S.,  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada, 
Ottawa. 

(Read  December  llth,  1899.) 

Considerable  discussion  has  arisen  of  late  amongst  European 
as  well  as  North  American  geologists,  as  to  where  certain  series 
of  sedimentary  strata  occurring  near  the  summit  of  the  Palaeozoic 
should  be  placed,  either  in  the  Carboniferous  or  in  the  Devonian 
system. 

Whether  certain  other  geological  formations,  occurring  in  the 
Maritime  Provinces  of  Canada,  should  be  described  as  Permian, 
or  classed  as  Upper  Carboniferous  or  Permo-Carboniferous,  con- 
stitutes another  problem.  It  is  not  within  the  province  of  this 
paper,  however,  at  this  time,  to  discuss  this  latter  question,  which 
it  is  hoped  may  form  the  subject  of  another  paper  before  long> 

Where  to  draw  the  line  between  the  Carboniferous  and 
Devonian  sj'stems  in  Eastern  Canada,  is  therefore  the  question 
at  issue.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  writer  to  enter  this  field  of 
enquiry  without  any  leaning  or  bias  to  any  one  view,  but  to  take 
up  the  evidence  as  it  presents  itself  to  him  and  as  it  was  collected 
by  him  during  the  last  four  years  in  the  Counties  of  Pictou, 
Colchester,  Cumberland,  Antigonish,  Hants,  and  Kings,  in  Nova 
Scotia,  referring  to  such  other  localities  and  additional  evidence 
only  as  the  occasion  may  require. 

Numerous  and  varied  opinions  have  been  given  by  many 
writers  on  this  important  question  of  the  dividing  line  between 
the  Devonian  and  the  Carboniferous.  These  were  consulted 
merely  with  the  purpose  of  obtaining  notes  of  records  of  obser- 
vations  that  might  help  to  throw  light  upon  the  problem,  without. 

(162) 


CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM    IN    EASTERN    CANADA. — AMI.       163 

any  prejudice  or  desire  to  accept  one  view  or  another,  unless  the 
facts  adduced  proved  to  be  wholly  reliable  evidence. 

Abram  Gesner,  Sir  William  Dawson,  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  Dr. 
Jackson,  Prof.  Alger,  Prof.  J.  P.  Lesley,  M.  de  Koninck,  M.  de 
Verneuil,  Mr.  Hugh  Fletcher,  Dr.  R.  W.  Ells,  Mr.  Henry  S. 
Poole,  Richard  Brown,  Prof.  T.  Rupert  Jones,  F.  R.  S,  J.  W. 
Kirkby,  Mr.  J.  W.  Salter,  Dr.  Henry  Woodward,  Dr.  G.  F. 
Matthew,  Prof.  Bailey,  Mr.  A.  Smith  Woodward,  Mr.  Robert 
Kidston,  and  Prof.  David  White,  have  all  contributed  by  their 
writings,  published  or  in  manuscript,  to  the  literature  of  this 
interesting  controversy. 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  review  the  difference  of  opinion  which 
may  exist  between  what  may  be  tunned  the  two  schools  of 
geology  as  regards  the  constitution  of  the  Devonian  system, 
especially  as  regards  the  uppermost  members  of  that  system, — 
The  Lonsdalean  School,  whose  characteristics  of  the  Devonian  age 
are  based  more  especially  upon  the  life-zones  or  pal  aeon  tological 
evidence  which  the  formations  hold,  and  the  M  urchisonian 
School,  which  emphasizes  more  especially  the  stratigraphical 
succession,  with  little  reference  to  palseontological  evidence. 

From  a  considerable  study  of  the  origin  or  genesis  of  the 
various  geological  formations  in  question,  or  of  the  cycles  of 
constructive  forms  affecting  them,  the  periods  of  erosion  noticed, 
together  with  the  life-zones  which  these  formations  contain,  and 
characterize  them,  one  has  been  able  to  arrive  at  a  conclusion 
which,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  in  accord  with  the  views  of  the  rest 
of  the  world,  so  that  whatever  interpretation  is  given  to  the 
Carboniferous  system  in  one  continent,  the  same  should  likewise 
hold  good  for  another.  The  same  with  the  Devonian  system. 

Just  as  Time  was  a  constant  factor  during  the  evolution  or 
history  of  the  Carboniferous  system  of  this  world,  and  that  the 
amount  of  time  involved  is  a  definite  period,  so  also  was  Life  a 
constant  factor ;  and  the  several  subdivisions  of  the  Carbonifer- 
ous system — the  Eo-,  Meso-,  and  Neo-Carboniferous,  must  be 
marked  by  corresponding  series  of  Life-zones  of  the  game 
system. 


164  SUBDIVISIONS    OF    THE    CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM 

No  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  separating  the  various 
geological  formations  in  the  Counties  of  Nova  Scotia  mentioned 
above,  nor  of  understanding  their  taxonomic  relations.  The  most 
excellent  work  of  Mr.  Hugh  Fletcher,  of  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Canada,  who  kindly  furnished  me  with  maps  and  plans  of  the 
region  in  question,  shows  clearly  the  true  and  natural  order  of 
sequence  of  the  formations.  The  main  question  at  issue,  how- 
ever, has  been  where  to  place  the  series  of  sediments  hitherto 
known,  and  designated  by  Mr.  Hugh  Fletcher  as  the  "Rocks  of 
Union  and  Riversdale  " :  in  the  Carboniferous  or  in  the  Devonian 
system.  Mr.  Fletcher  would  place  them  in  the  Devonian.  I 
include  them  as  formations  in  the  Carboniferous  system  (and 
would  also  classify  in  the  same  system  the  red  rocks  of  Mispec 
and  the  Lancaster  fern-ledges  of  New  Brunswick,  which  hold 
much  the  same  flora  and  fauna).  The  various  formations  of  the 
Carboniferous  system  do  not  form  an  unbroken  succession  of 
sedimentary  strata  in  the  disputed  region  either  of  Pictou,  Col- 
chester and  adjacent  counties.  Great  breaks  and  unconformities 
appear  on  every  hand. 

It  may  not  be  considered  out  of  place  here  to  look  for  a 
moment  at  some  of  the  principles  involved  in  such  questions  as 
arise  in  this  problem.  Portions  of  formations  constituting  cycles 
of  sedimentation  or  of  constructive  forms,  marking  peculiar 
physical  conditions  of  deposition,  followed  by  periods  of  erosion, 
and  subsequent  depositions,  occur  at  various  horizons,  and  were 
it  not  for  their  entombed  faunas  it  would  be  most  difficult  to 
state  in  which  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  Palaeozoic  column  to 
place  them.  Where  sedimentation  as  marked  by  cycles  of  con- 
structive forms  is  not  continuous,  the  basis  or  principle  upon 
which  the  separation  of  the  different  members  of  the  series 
depends,  must  obtain  in  the  palseontological  evidence  collected 
in  the  various  members  whose  succession,  though  not  perfect, 
is,  nevertheless,  known  as  to  its  order. 

Similarity  in  the  types  or  organic  forms  found,  assists  one  in 
uniting  series  of  sediments  as  part  and  parcel  of  one  system,  just 
as  dissimilarity  enables  one  to  separate  series  of  sediments  from 


IN    EASTERN    CANADA. — AMI.  165 

which  they  were  derived.  Comparisons  must  be  instituted 
between  the  various  life-zones  occurring  in  the  natural  succession 
of  strata,  and  wherever  they  are  exposed  they  can  easily  be 
recognized  however  fragmentary  or  isolated  they  may  be,  pro- 
vided they  are  fossiliferons,  and  that  the  evidence  thus  obtained 
can  be  compared  with  standard  sections  recognized  the  world 
over.  The  characteristic  life-zones  of  the  Carboniferous  System, 
as  they  have  been  elaborated  the  world  .over,  can  be  very  easily 
prepared,  and  in  order  to  be  recognized  as  typical  they  must  be 
in  accord  with  the  concensus  of  opinion  with  the  rest  of  the  world- 
They  must  not  contain  assemblages  of  organisms  or  types 
which  are  not  in  harmony  with,  but  must  be  organically  and 
chronologically  related  to,  the  types  that  are  everj^where  held  to 
be  of  Carboniferous  age.  Fortunately  for  the  geologist,  although 
there  are  unconformities  or  breaks  in  the  succession  of  strata 
there  is  abundant  evidence  of  life  of  various  orders  and  classes 
entombed  in  the  various  formations. 

THE  JOGGINS  SECTION. 

One  grand  and  continuous  section  of  strata  of  the  Carbon- 
iferous system  to  very  near  the  summit  thereof,  in  which  are 
entombed  myriads  of  organisms,  plants  and  animals  in  regular 
succession  also,  is  found  along  the  Joggins  shore,  in  the  western 
portion  of  Cumberland  County,  Nova  Scotia.  This  section  was 
described  in  detail  by  Sir  William  Logan,  and  subsequently  by 
Sir  William  Dawson  and  Dr.  R.  W.  Ells.  It  extends  from  Min- 
udie  to  McCarren's  Cove,  along  the  shore  of  the  Cumberland 
Basin.  This  forms  one  standard  section.  No  other  such  exists 
in  Nova  Scotia,  and  a  systematic  collection  of  the  fossil  organic 
remains  entombed  in  its  strata  ought  to  be  made  for  reference, 
in  order  to  compare  the  succession  of  life-zones  here  with  those 
of  other  portions  of  Nova  Scotia  and  North  America.  In  the 
United  States,  Mr.  David  White  informs  me  that  there  have  been 
noted  not  less  than  seven  standard  sections  of  the  Carbon- 
iferous System,  in  distinct  fields  :  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Ohio, 
Missouri  and  other  States.  These  all  have  their  peculiar  charac- 


166  SUBDIVISIONS    OF    THE    CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM 

ters,  and  may  be  described  as  local  series.  Whereas  each 
particular  basin  of  Carboniferous  rocks  or  sediments  may  have 
its  own  particular  conditions  of  sedimentation  which  led  to 
peculiar  local  differences  existing  between  the  several  basins 
which  may  be  under  examination  and  comparison,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  at  all  about  the  series  belonging  to  the  Carboniferous 
System,  when  the  results  obtained  in  Great  Britain,  France» 
Germany,  and  the  world  over,  have  been  consulted. 

Such  a  recognized  succession  as  the  consensus  of  opinion  in 
the  world  has  established  as  marking  the  Carboniferous  System, 
must  be  a  term  which  includes  within  its  scope  the  various 
members  of  the  different  local  series  under  examination. 

Unequal  amounts  of  sedimentation  at  different  horizons  in  a 
System  and  in  different  districts,  have  created  difficulties,  but 
formed  an  interesting  feature  in  the  study  of  the  correlation  of 
strata.  It  has  been  conceded  that  in  the  case  of  the  14,000  feet 
of  strata  which  constitute  the  Joggins  section  in  Nova  Scotia, 
sedimentation  must  have  been  very  rapid,  and  though  deposited 
in  a  perfectly  unbroken  succession,  such  strata  may  have  taken 
much  less  time  actually  to  be  laid  down  than  a  few  hundred  feet 
of  shales  and  sandstone  belonging  to  the  same  system  in  another 
section. 

It  follows  from  this,  that  local  series  of  Carboniferous  strata 
may  be  of  very  great  thickness  in  one  part  of  the  continent,  or 
comparatively  thin  in  another  part.  It  is  possible  for  the  whole 
system  of  the  Carboniferous  to  be  unusually  extensive  in  its 
development  of  sediments,  as  has  certainly  been  the  case  in  Nova 
Scotia  when  compared  with  sediments  of  the  same  age  in  Penn- 
sylvania. There  is  evidence  of  great  rapidity  in  sedimentation. 
Evidence  of  rapidity  in  sedimentation  is  clearly  seen  in  the 
strata,  what  I  refer  to  the  Eo-Carboniferous  of  Colchester  and 
Pictou  Counties  in  Nova  Scotia,  as  represented  by  the  Union  and 
Riversdale  formations.  Ripple-marked  surfaces  and  shallow 
water  indications  occur  on  all  sides.  Hundreds  of  feet  of 
unbroken  succession  of  strata,  practically  each  stratum  beauti- 
fully marked  by  ripples  and  wind  action,  as  well  as  by  the  foot- 


IN     EASTERN    CANADA. — AMI.  167 

prints  and  trails  of  reptilian  and  other  animals,  such  as  are  seen 
to  occur  at  East  and  West  Bay,  near  Partridge  Island,  Parrsboro, 
and  point  clearly  to  rapid  deposition  or  accumulation  of  sediment 
along  a  fast-sinking  floor. 

The  main  reason  for  introducing  this  argument  is  to  combat 
the  view  advanced  in  certain  quarters,  that  by  placing  the  Union 
and  Riversdale  formations  into  the  Carboniferous  system,  it 
would  make  the  latter  too  cumbersome  and  unwieldly  a  system, 
and  take  away  from  an  older,  underlying  system — the  Devonian, 
and  rob  it  of  parts  of  its  sediments.  The  following  occur  to  me 
to  constitute  the  successive  series  or  sediments  which  belong  to 
the  Carboniferous  system  in  certain  portions  of  Nova  Scotia. 

I. — THE  EO-CARBONIFEROUS. 

In  this  lower  portion  of  the  Carboniferous  system,  I  would 
place  the  Union  and  Riversdale  series  of  sediments,  which  are 
well  and  extensively  developed  in  Pictou,  Colchester  and  Cum- 
berland Counties  ;  at  Union  and  Riversdale  ;  along  Harrington 
River ;  on  the  Moose  River ;  at  East  and  West  Bay,  near 
Parrsboro  ;  Archibald's  Brook  ;  Oliver's  Mills  ;  McKay's,  etc.,  on 
the  East  River  of  Pictou,  and  at  numerous  other  localities. 

The  expressions  "  Rocks  of  Union  and  of  Riversdale,"  I  would 
describe  as  formations,  calling  one  the  Union  formation,  the 
other,  the  Riversdale  formation.  These  are  easily  recognized 
over  wide  areas,  geographically,  and  are  characterised  by  a  well- 
defined  fauna  and  flora,  at  least  as  far  as  the  Riversdale 
formation  is  concerned,  the  Union  formation  owing  to  its  highly 
ferruginous  character  proving  almost  everywhere  to  be  very 
destitute  of  fossil  organic  remains. 

FOSSILS   FROM    THE    RlVERSDALE   FORMATION. 

The  two  principal  localities  from  which  the  fossils  of  this 
formation  may  best  be  obtained,  occur  in  the  Riversdale  Station 
district,  close  to  the  boundary  line  between  Colchester  and 
Pictou  Counties,  and  in  the  Harrington  River  district  near  the 
boundary  between  Colchester  and  Cumberland  Counties. 


168  SUBDIVISIONS    OF    THE    CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM 

Riversdale  District. — Fossils  from  this  locality  were 
obtained  along  the  Black  River  branch  of  the  Salmon  River, 
along  the  Calvary  Brook,  just  east  of  Riversdale  ;  also  in  the 
numerous  cuttings  along  the  line  of  the  Intercolonial  Railway 
between  West  River  Station  (Pictou  County)  and  Riversdale 
Station  (Colchester  County). 

In  the  rather  fine  grained  dark  gray  or  greenish  gray 
arenaceous  and  black  or  dark  carbonaceous  shales  of  the  cuttings 
along  the  I.  C.  R.,  plants,  as  well  as  animal  remains,  occur. 
Amongst  the  groups  of  organic  remains  examined  and  reported 
upon  up  to  date  are  a  series  of  plants  sent  to  Mr.  Robert  Kidston 
of  Stirling,  Scotland.  The  entomostraca  were  submitted  to 
Prof.  T.  Rupert  Jones,  F.  R.  S.,  and  the  Crustacea  (Podophthal- 
mata)  to  Dr.  Henry  Woodward. 

PLANTS. 

1.  Arterophyllites  acicularis,  Dawson,(  =  Calamocladns  equi- 

setiformis,  Schl.) 

2.  Sphenopteris  marginata,  Dawson. 

3.  Neuropteris,  sp. 

4.  Alethopteris,  sp. ;  allied  to  Alethopteris   valida,  Boulay. 

5.  Cordaites  principalis,  Germar. 

6.  Robbii,  Dawson. 

7.  Cyclopteris  (Nephropteris)  varia,  Dawson. 

8.  Calamites,  sp.  (?) 

9.  Cardiocarpum   cornutum,  Dawson. 

CRUSTACEA,  (Xiphosura). 
Belinuridce. 

1.     Belinurus  grandsevus,  Henry  Woodward  and  T.  R.  Jones. 

CRUSTACEA,  (Entomostraca). 
Phyllopoda. 

1.  Leaia  tricarinata,  Meek  and  Worthen. 

2.  Leaia  Leidyi,  var.  Baentschiana,  Beyrich  and  Geinitz. 

3.  Estheria  Dawsoni,  Jones. 


IN  EASTERN  CANADA. — AMI.  169 

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

1.  Anthiacomya  elongata,  Dawson. 

2.  "  obtusa,  Dawson. 

Insecta. 

1.  "  A  neuropteroid  insect  allied  to  Miamia  Bronsoni " — 
determined  by  Prof.  Charles  Brongniart,  of  the 
Mus6um  d'histoire  Naturelle,  Paris,  France. 

Vermes. 

I.  Spirorbis    Eriaia,    Dawson,  attached  to  leaves  of  Cor- 

daites  Robbii,  Dawson. 

Harrington  River  District. — The  shales  and  sandstones, 
from  which  the  fossils  of  the  Riversdale  formation  were  obtained, 
occur  along  the  boundary  of  the  counties  of  Colchester  and 
Cumberland — the  strike  of  the  strata  being  generally  across  the 
direction  of  the  stream.  As  pointed  out  by  Mr.  H.  Fletcher, 
this  locality  proved  to  be  particularly  rich  in  fossils. 

PLANTS. 

1.  Arterophyllites  acicularis,  Dawson. 

2.  Calamites,  sp. 

3.  Sphenopteris  dilatata,  Dawson. 

4.  "  Harttii,  Dawson. 

5.  "  splendens,  Dawson. 

6.  "  marginata,  Dawson. 

7.  "  sp. 

8.  Aneimites  valida,  Dawson. 

9.  Adiantites  ?  or  Archseopteris,  sp. 
10.  Neuropteris,  sp. 

II.  Alethopteris  discrepans,  Dawson,  (  =  Alethopteris  decur- 

rens,  Artis,  sp.) 

12.  Cyperites-like  leaves. 

13.  Cardiocarpum  cornutum,  Dawson. 

14.  Psilophytum  ?  glabrum,  Dawson. 

Animalia. 
BATRACHIA. 

1.     Hylopus  Logani,  Dawson. 


170  SUBDIVISIOXS    OF    THE     CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM 

2.  Sauropus  Dawsoni,  (M.  S.) — From  rocks  apparently 
of  this  age  which  occur  at  East  Bay  near  West  Bay 
and  Partridge  Island,  two  miles  below  Parrsboro. 

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

1.  Anthracomya  elongata,  Dawson. 

2.  obtusa,  Dawson. 

CRUSTACEA. 

1.  Leaia  tricarinata,  Meek  and  Worthen. 

2.  Carbonia,  sp. 

3.  Estheria  Dawsoni,  Jones. 

4.  A.nthracopalaemon  ?     n.  sp. 

The  Riversdale  formation  thus  carries  a  flora  and  fauna, 
\vhich  cannot  be  taken  as  one  appertaining  to  any  other  system 
than  the  Carboniferous,  inasmuch  as  the  types  are  all  akin,  and 
generally  conceded  to  be  closely  related,  even  to  types  in  the 
productive  coal  measures  higher  up  in  the  system. 

I  hare  no  hesitation  to  state  that,  in  the  Union  and  Rivers- 
•dale  formations,  we  have  obtained  in  Nova  Scotia  a  fauna  and 
flora,  which,  while  not  as  extensive  nor  as  varied  as  that  obtained 
in  the  productive  coal  measures  of  the  same  Province,  are  never- 
theless remarkably  similar  in  their  biological  characteristics, 
imbedded  in  a  series  of  sediments,  terrigenous  in  character,  and 
for  the  most  part  estuarine,  carrying  Carbonaceous  shales  and 
sandstones,  underclays  and  conglomerates,  constituting  just  a 
series  of  strata  as  that,  which,  having  begun  in  Eo-Carboniferous 

~  O 

time,  were  interrupted  by  an  encroachment  of  the  Carboniferous 
Sea  (Windsor  formation)  in  which  marine  conditions  prevailed, 
and  limestones  were  deposited,  holding  abundance  of  marine 
shells  and  other  fossil  organic  remains  peculiar  to  salt-water 
conditions,  and  were  followed  by  newer,  or  higher,  or  later  strata, 
such  as  are  met  in  the  "  Millstone  grit  "  and  "  Coal  measures  "  of 
the  same  region,  of  various  writers,  characterised  also  by  terrig- 
enous deposits,  and  enclosing  a  fauna  and  flora  whose  affinities 
are  remarkably  akin  to  the  forms  found  in  the  Eo-Carboniferous 


IN    EASTERN     CANADA — AMI. 


171 


formations  of  Union  and  Riversdale,  giving  us  the  following 
natural,  though  interrupted  general  succession  of  strata,  in 
•descending  order : — 


SUCCESSION. 

CONDITIONS. 

FOSSILS. 

III.     Coal     Measures     and 
Millstone  grit, 

Estuarine. 

Land  plants,  land  animals, 
shallow   water  conditions 
and  forms. 

II.     Windsor  formation. 

Marine. 

Marine   shells,    corals,    sea- 
life. 

I.     Union  and  Riversdale 
formations. 

Estuarine. 

Land  plants,  land  animals, 
shallow  water  conditions 
and  forms. 

As  evidence  of  the  similarity  of  forms  peculiar  to  the  Eo- 
Carboniferous  of  Colchester  and  Pictou  Counties  and  the  Coal 
measures  of  the  same,  let  us  take  the  different  orders  or  groups 
•of  fossil  organic  remains  affording  Pala3ontological  evidence  as 
noted  on  page  181  of  the  "  Summary  Report  of  the  Geological 
Survey  Department  for  1898  and  1899." 

EVIDENCE  FROM  ANIMAL  LIFE. 

Insecta — Neuropterous  insects  have  been  discovered  in  the 
•shallow  water  deposits  of  Riversdale  age,  in  a  cutting  on  the 
Intercolonial  Railway  east  of  Riversdale  and  Campbell's  Siding, 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  west  of  West  River  Station,  and  the 
wing  obtained  and  sent  to  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelles,  is 
referred  to  a  Carboniferous  genus  by  Prof.  Brongniart,  of  Paris, 
France — a  most  eminent  authority  on  the  Fossil  Insects  of  the 
Carboniferous. 

Phyllopoda. — The  numerous  specimens  of  Leaia  and  Estheria 
from  the  Carbonaceous  and  other  shales  of  the  Riversdale  form- 
ation of  Colchester,  Pictou,  and  Cumberland  Counties,  are  very 
similar  to  the  forms  described  from  the  Coal  Measures  of  Pictou, 
County,  and  also  from  the  Coal  Measures  of  the  United  States. 
All  the  species  of  Leaia  recorded  in  North  America  so  far,  are 


172  SUBDIVISIONS    OF    THE    CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM 

referred  to  the  Coal  Measures.  This  genus,  however,  was  abun- 
dant in  early  Carboniferous  times,  as  may  be  gathered  from  those 
specimens  obtained  by  me  in  the  red,  black  and  gray  shales  of 
the  Union  and  Riversdale  formations  of  Nova  Scotia,  which* 
though  they  underlie  the  Marine  limestones  of  the  Windsor 
formation,  are  nevertheless  referred  to  the  Eo-Carboniferousi 
a  position  which  the  enclosed  fauna  of  Phyllopods  warrants 
in  assigning. 

Crustacea. — Several  specimens  of  a  new  genus,  and  new 
species  of  one  of  the  Podophthalmata  and  Xiphosura,  occur  in 
the  Harrington  River  and  Riversdale  collections  in  Colchester 
County.  These  Crustaceans  are  highly  characteristic  of  the 
Carboniferous  system  in  Europe  and  America,  and  their  occur- 
rence at  this  horizon,  together  with  their  generic  characters, 
point  to  them  as  prototypes  of  higher  forms  found  in  the  higher 
subsequent  cycle  of  sedimentation  in  the  series  of  sediments 
referred  to  in  the  Coal  measures  above.  Of  these,  B'elinurus 
grandcevus,  T.  R.  Jones  and  H.  Woodward,  has  been  recently 
described,  and  the  authors  describe  it  as  a  Carboniferous  form, 
related  to  Carboniferous  species  in  Great  Britain. 

Amphibia. — Of  these  animals  there  are  both  footprints  and 
trails  in  the  collection  of  the  Geological  Survey  or  National 
Museum  at  Ottawa,  which  are  referable  to  the  genera  Sauropus 
and  Hylopus,  which  were  obtained  from  rocks  of  Union  and 
Riversdale  horizon,  and  some  are  of  gigantic  size.  All  other 
footprints  referable  to  this  genus  in  North  America,  have  been 
described  as  Carboniferous  and,  consequently,  the  Parrsboro 
and  Spencer's  Island  specimens  are  Carboniferous,  rather  than 
any  other  horizon. 

In  his  "  Geology,  Chemical,  Physical  and  Stratigraphical," 
Oxford,  1888,  Professor  Prestwich  gives  a  table  "Showing  the 
character  and  distribution  of  the  species  of  organic  remains  in 
the  several  main  groups  of  the  Palaeozoic  series  in  the  British 
area."  Under  the  head  of  Amphibians  (including  footprints)  he 
notes  the  occurrence  of  these  in  the  Carboniferous,  but  none  in 
the  Devonian. 


IN    EASTERN    CANADA. — AMI.  173 

Dr.  S.  A.  Miller,  in  his  "  North  American  Geology  and  Palae- 
ontology," containing  that  useful  Catalogue  of  North  American 
Palseozoic  Fossils,  does  not  record  a  single  Amphibian  from  rocks 
older  than  the  Carboniferous,  and  the  genera  Sauropua  and 
Uylopus  occurring  in  the  Riversdale  formation  of  Nova  Scoti^ 
are  identical  with  and  similar  to  those  found  in  the  Carbonifer- 
ous, or  other  regions  of  North  America. 

Prof.  James  D.  Dana,  in  his  "  Manual  of  Geology,"  Sir  Arch- 
ibald Geikie  in  his  "  Text  Book  of  Geology,"  also,  all  the  leading 
nomenclators  and  writers  on  North  American  or  European 
Geology  and  Palaeontology,  agree  in  placing  the  genera  Sauropus 
and  Hylopus  to  which  I  have  referred  the  footprints  from 
Parrsboro  and  Harrington  River,  of  Cumberland  and  Colchester 
County,  from  the  Riversdale  formation,  as  Carboniferous. 

Lamellibr<mchiata.—Ot  these  the  most  conspicuous  are  the 

AnthracomycB  of  Sal  tor,  which  Sir  William  Dawson  described 

under  the  name  of  Naiadites.     These  shells  are  abundant  in  the 

Coal   Measures  of  the  Joggins,  Springhill,  Plctou  and  Sydney 

Basins  of  Nova  Scotia,  also  in  the  Pennsylvania,  Virginia  and  other 

coal  areas  of  the  United  States,  not  to  speak  of  their  occurrence 

in  the  Carboniferous  of  England  and  France,  and  many  other 

countries  of  Europe.     They  occur  in  bands  in  the  Riversdale 

formation  at  Riversdale,  and  in  numerous  outcrops  along  the 

banks  of  the  Harringtoh  River,  on  the  dividing  line    between 

Colchester  and  Cumberland  Counties,  and  the  term  "  Naiadites 

Bands "  or  "  Naiadites  Shales,"  which   are   usually  associated 

with  Ostracoda  of  the  genus  Carbonia,  and  other  allied  genera 

of  Carboniferous  affinity,  is  applicable  to  these  Eo-Carboniferous 

bands.     All  writers  on   Geology  and  Palaeontology,  concur  in 

placing  these  shells  in  the  Carboniferous.   All  the  species  recorded 

from  the  United  States  are  referred  to  the  Coal  Measures,  whilst 

those  from  the  Union  and  Riversdale  formations  of  Colchester 

and  Cumberland  Counties  in  Nova  Scotia,  are,  by  the  writer, 

placed  in  the  Eo-Carboniferous.     It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 

palseentological  evidence  adduced  in  the  geological  collections  so 

far  obtained  from   the   Riversdale  formation  of  Nova  Scotia, 


17-i  SUBDIVISIONS    OF    THE    CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM 

including  Insects,  Phyllopods,  Crustaceans,  Amphibians  and1 
Lamellibranchiata,  are  all  types  which  are  markedly  akin  to 
types  well  known  to  occur  in  the  Carboniferous  of  other 
countries,  and  more  than  that,  such  are  usually  met  with  in  the- 
Coal  Measures  of  the  same.* 

It  has  been  one  of  my  constant  endeavours  to  obtain 
Devonian  fossils  from  those  areas  of  Nova  Scotia  ascribed  to- 
the  Devonian  in  the  Riversdale  and  Harrington  River  Sections ;. 
but  I  have  found  only  Carboniferous  types. 

EVIDENCE  FROM  PLANT  LIFE. 

Besides  the  above,  there  is  the  evidence  adduced  from  the- 
flora  collected  in  the  strata  which  yielded  the  forms  of  animal 
life  just  cited  above,  and  it  can  be  truly  said  that  it  also  has  a 
decided  Carboniferous  facies.  The  genera  Asterophyllites,  Spken- 
opteris,  Alethopteris,  Cardiopteris,  Stigmaria,  Calamites,  Poac- 
ites,  Gordaites  are  all  represented.  From  communications  recently 
received  from  Mr.  Robert  Kidston,  of  Stirling,  Scotland,  the  well- 
known  author  of  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  of  Carboniferous 
Plants,  who  has  examined  the  forms  sent  him,  we  learn  that  he  is 
satisfied  that  the  flora  is  truly  a  Carboniferous  one. 

Quite  independently.  Prof.  David  White  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  and  United  States  Geological  Survey  at  Washington^ 
arrived  at  the  same  conclusion  when  he  kindly  made  a  prelimin- 
ary examination  of  the  collections  from  Nova  Scotia  cited  above, 
and  then  in  our  possession  at  Ottawa,  and  invariably  referred 
the  forms  detected  to  the  Carboniferous  system. 

From  our  own  study  of  the  numerous  collections  obtained  in 
the  so-called  disputed  areas  in  question,  from  the  areas  of  the 
Riversdale  formation,  we  cannot  but  come  to  the  conclusion  that, 
instead  of  finding  Devonian  types  of  plants  and  animals,  they 
proved  in  almost  every  case  to  be  Carboniferous.  Neither  is  it. 
to  be  wondered  at,  that,  on  studying  the  affinities  and  relations 
of  the  fossil  plants,  etc.,  of  Riversdale,  McKay's  Head,  and  Har- 

*  The  term  "  Coal  Measures  "  is  an  unfortunate  one  to  designate  a  Geological  formation, 
and  should  never  be  used  to  designate  horizon.  It  is  a  purely  lithological  or  econ- 
omic term,  and  conveys  no  idea  of  the  Geological  position  in  the  Time  scale- 
Productive  Coal  Measures  can  occur  at  any  horizon  in  the  Garbonif  erous. 


IN    EASTERN    CANADA. — AMI.  175 

rington  River,  from  strata  now  referred  to  the  Riversdale 
formation,  Sir  William  Dawson  placed  them  in  the  Millstone 
Grit  formation,  so  intimate  are  their  relations  to  the  plants  of 
the  Coal  Measures;  and  from  my  own  observations  also  to 
the  faunas  and  floras  which  are  now  known  to  immedi- 
ately underlie  the  Millstone  Grit  of  certain  portions  of  Nova 
Scotia. 

The  Riversdale  formation  must  now,  therefore,  both  on 
account  of  its  position  in  the  succession  of  sediments  and  especially 
from  the  life-zones  it  holds,  be  classed  as  an  Bo-Carboniferous 
formation.  This  formation  clearly  underlies  that  series  of 
marine  limestones  referable  to  the  Windsor  formation,  as  this 
has  been  described  and  mapped  out  fully  by  Sir  Wm.  Dawson, 
and  more  lately  and  with  special  care  and  accuracy  by  Mr. 
Hugh  Fletcher. 

II. — THE  MARINE  SEDIMENTS. 

In  the  districts  of  Nova  Scotia  under  examination,  besides, 
the  Eo-Carboniferous  formations  of  Union  and  Rivesdale,  con- 
sisting of  red  shales  and  sandstones  and  conglomerates,  more  or 
less  strongly  cemented  together,  together  with  the  series  of 
dark  grey  coloured,  and  black  or  greenish  and  rusty  shales  as 
defined  by  Mr.  Hugh  Fletcher,  forming  a  great  thickness  of 
sediments,  constitute  one  of  the  cycles  of  sedimentation  peculiar 
to  the  Carboniferous  System,  there  occur  certain  other  strata 
overlying  these  unconformably,  viz. :  the  marine  limestones 
and  associated  gypsum,  marls,  shales  and  sandstones. 

These  marine  limestones,  &c.,  hold  abundance  of  fossil  organic 
remains,  as  shown  on  the  East  Branch  of  the  East  River  of 
Pictou  at  Springville  ;  at  Brookfield  ;  and  Miller's  Lime  Kiln  near 
the  D.  A.  R.  Bridge,  Windsor,  N.  S.,  where  the  series  is  highly 
fossiliferous  and  the  forms  are  well  preserved.  The  term, 
"  Windsor  Series,"  is  quite  applicable  to  these  strata  and 
deserves  to  be  recognized  as  constituting  a  typical  formation 
or  phase  of  the  Carboniferous  system  in  this  portion  of 
Eastern  Canada. 


176  SUBDIVISIONS    OF    THE    CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM 

Just  where  to  place  this  Windsor  formation  in  the  column 
of  Palaeozoic  formations  has  not  yet  been  definitely  ascertained. 
Whether  it  is  to  be  classed  as  one  of  the  Eo-Carboniferous  sedi- 
ments, or  whether  it  constitutes  a  factor  or  part  ot  what  may  be 
termed,  according  to  Prof.  H.  S.  Williams'.s  very  appropriate 
classfication,  Meso-Carboniferous,  is  the  question  occupying  our 
mind  at  present.  It  is,  nevertheless,  to  be  remarked  that  the 
fauna  it  contains  is  one  in  which  so  far  not  one  of  the  Upper- 
most Devonian  fossils  of  the  Gaspe  and  other  regions  of  Eastern 
Canada  have  been  detected. 

The  occurrence  of  this  formation  in  certain  basins  of  Nova 
Scotia  marks  a  cessation  of  the  conditions  existing  in  the  areas 
which  these  limestones  cover,  showing  that  the  sea  or  Atlantic 
waters  in  Carboniferous  times  extended  over  the  Eo-carboniferous 
deposits  previously  laid  down,  which  had  been  subjected  to 
subsidence  and  erosion  previous  to  their  being  overlaid,  whilst 
the  vegetation  and  climate  did  not,  probably,  change  very 
materially  in  the  high  land  during  this  period  of  submergence 
and  encroachment  of  the  sea.  A  period  of  elevation  evidently 
must  have  followed  the  deposition  of  the  limestones,  marls,  &c., 
and  sandstones  and  mudstones  and  shales  were  deposited,  to  be 
followed  later  again  by  sandstones  with  shales  and  coal  seams 
peculiar  to  the  "Coal  Measures  "  and  "  Millstone  Grit "  formations. 

Such  deposits  are  essentially  terrigenous  as  to  their  origin 
and  the  structure,  as  well  as  origin  and  mode  of  deposition  of 
the  Coal  Measures  need  not  be  described.  The  flora  and  fauna 
they  hold  mark  the  estuarine  conditions  existing  and  prevailing 
at  the  time,  also  the  luxuriant  growth  of  plants  on  land  with 
the  contemporaneous  animal  life  of  the  period  both  in  the  water 
and  on  the  land  also. 

A  brief  summary  of  the  succession  of  the  sediments  in  the 
Carboniferous  of  Nova  Scotia  in  Pictou,  Colchester  and  Cumber- 
land counties  in  part,  such  as  the  writer  has  observed  it  in 
numerous  outcrops  and  localities,  gives  the  following  section  in 
ascending  order : — 

1.     Riversdale  and   Union  formations:  Consisting  of  red 


IN    EASTERN    CANADA.— AMI.  177 

sandstones  and  conglomerates,  carbonaceous  shales  and   mud- 
stones,  besides  diorites  and  other  basic  intrusive  rocks. 

2.  An  unconformity. 

3.  Windsor  limestones  and  Hopewell  sandstones,  constitut- 
ing distinct  formations  which  overlie  the  Union  and  Riversdale 
formations. 

4.  (An  unconformity,  according  to   Mr.  Fletcher.)     I  have 
not  yet  been  able  to  detect  any  unconformity  at  this  juncture. 
There  is  no  unconformity  between  the  Millstone  grit  and  the 
underlying  shales,  calcareous  and  other  conglomerates  and  sand- 
stones of  Cumberland  Basin. 

5.  Millstone  grit  of  Skinner  McDonald's  Brook. 

6.  In  certain  portions  of  Pictou  County,  N.  S.,  an  uncon- 
formity    occurs,    e.  g.,    at     Blackwood   Brook,    opposite    New 
Glasgow,  where  the   upturned    edges  of  the  "Millstone  Grit" 
(Logan)   are   overlaid   by  the  New  Glasgow   conglomerate    of 
Fraser's  Mountain,  &c.,  whereas  in  other  portions  the  Millstone 
grit  is  directly  superimposed   by  the  Coal   Measures,  e.  g.,  at 
Westville  and  the  Joggins. 

This  peculiar  geological  succession  in  these  two  areas  give  us 
two  series  of  sediments  in  the  succession  of  formations  which  in 
part  only  are  synchronous,  hold  similar  organic  remains,  but 
exhibit  great  variety  in  sedimentation. 

A.  Joggins  and  Westville  Areas.        B.  New  Glasgow  Region. 

V.  Millstone  grit.         V.  Millstone  grit. 
VI.  Coal  Measures.*      VI.  Unconformity  (of  Blackwood  Brook). 

VII.  New  Glasgow  conglomerate. 
VIII.  Spirorbis  limestone. 

IX.  Smelt  Brook  shales  and  sandstones. 
X.  Pictou  sandstones. 
XI.  Cape  John  formation,  red  sandstones 
and  conglomerate. 

*  The  Coal  Measures  of  Pictou  County  at  Stellarton  and  Westville  consisting  of 
bituraous  shales,  clays  and  sandstones,  are  not  anywhere  seen  to  be  overlaid  by  any  of 
the  formations  in  series  B. 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Set.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS  — L. 


178      CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM    IN    EASTERN    CANADA. — AMI. 

We    would    thus   have   the   following  tentative   TABLE  OP 
FORMATIONS  in  the  Carboniferous  of  part  of  Nova  Scotia : — 


FORMATIONS. 

Northern  Areas. 

Southern  Areas. 

Order. 

XII. 

1  Pictou 

XI. 

NEO-CAK-      J  s,11Pif  Rr0nk 

x 

BONIFEROUS  j  S^rook  !  '. 

(Spirorbis  limestones  



IX. 
VIII. 

/Stellarton          1 

Unconformity. 
/  Millstone  grit         

Coal  Measures  . 
(  Millstone  grit  •  . 

VII. 
VI. 

jVlFSO  CAR-     j  \Vestville          / 

J  Unconformity  (?) 

V. 

i  Hope  well  and  > 

IV. 

(:.:::::::::  ::: 

(    Windsor  .  .  .  .  / 

III. 

II. 

Union   \ 

Riversdale  .  .  .  .  / 

NOTE.— It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the  Smelt  Brook  formation  (IX.)  overlying 
the  New  Glasgow  (conglomerate)  formation  is  equivalent  to  the  Stellarton  (VI.)  or 
"  Coal  Measures  "  formation,  which  would  indicate  clearly  the  existence,  as  in  other 
portions  of  the  palreozoic  in  Eastern  America,  of  two  distinct  series  of  formations 
which  are  nevertheless  synchronous.  The  writer  hopes  shortly  to  describe  each  of  the 
formations  indicated  in  the  above  tentative  Table  of  Formations  for  a  portion  of  Nova 
Scotia,  together  with  the  relations  of  the  latter  to  other  palaeozoic  sediments  in  the 
same  and  adjoining  Province  of  New  Brunswick. 


V. — THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MONEY,  BY  PROF.  J.  DAVIDSON. 
PHIL.  D.,  Fredericton,  N.  B. 

(Read  May  Ikth,  1900). 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  determine  whether  there  ever  was  a 
time  in  the  history  of  the  race  when  each  individual  was  self- 
sufficient,  and,  like  the  Homeric  Cyclops,  paid  no  regard  to 
others.  Some  of  the  Australian  tribes  are  so  low  in  the  scale 
of  civilization  that  even  barter  is  unknown  amongst  them,  but 
whether  these  represent  the  universal  primitive  type  cannot  be 
determined  one  way  or  the  other.  It  is  evident,  however, 
wherever  we  find  the  first  germs  of  social  life,  we  find,  at  the 
same  time,  a  kind  of  rude  division  of  labor  which  necessitates, 
and  renders  possible,  the  beginnings  of  trade.  Trade  in  its 
origin  is  simply  barter,  the  direct  exchange  of  one  article  for 
another.  But  barter,  however  simple  in  appearance,  is  more 
complicated  than  modern  exchange.  It  must  often  have  hap- 
pened in  the  early  history  of  trade  that  two  parties  failed  to 
make  a  trade  for  the  simple  reason  that,  while  both  were  anxious 
to  give  what  they  had,  in  exchange  for  what  they  wanted,  neither 
of  them  needed  or  desired  what  the  other  had  to  offer.  This 
lack  of  coincidence  has  frequently  placed  travellers  in  very 
great  straits.  If  the  native  who  holds  the  store  of  food  does 
not  find  in  articles  which  the  explorer  displays  to  catch  the 
aboriginal  fancy,  something  which  attracts  him,  he  passes  on, 
and  the  traveller  and  his  party  have  to  go  hungry.  Sir  R. 
Burton  warns  the  would-be  explorer  against  assuming  that  any 
sort  of  trinkets  will  suffice  for  the  purchase  of  supplies  and  the 
hiring  of  labor.  The  African  native  has  his  own  standard  of 
taste,  and  no  matter  how  gaudy  and  how  gimcrack  the  stock  of 
Brummagem  goods  displayed  may  be,  the  native  will  take  such 
things  only  as  agree  with  his  standard  of  taste.  Nothing  wilt 
induce  the  primitive  savage  to  take  what  he  does  not  immed- 
iately require  in  exchange  for  the  food  the  traveller  desires, 

(179) 


180  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

unless  the  articles  offered  in  exchange  conform  to  his  standard 
of  taste. 

The  inconveniences  of  this  primitive  state  of  barter  are  so 
evident  that  no  race  or  tribe  which  has  made  the  first  step  away 
from  barbarism,  can  for  long  remain  without  some  sort  of 
medium  of  exchange.  There  is  need  of  some  commodity  which 
will  be  readily  received  by  every  one,  although  at  the  moment 
he  may  not  wish  to  consume  it,  in  the  full  assurance  that  he  can 
easily,  in  his  turn,  exchange  it  for  the  article  he  does  desire. 
Such  an  interposed  commodity  will  greatly  facilitate  exchanges, 
and  to  all  intents  and  purposes  may  be  regarded  as  money. 
What  this  interposed  commodity  is  depends  almost  entirely  on 
circumstances.  At  first,  almost  any  commodity  which  is 
esteemed  by  everybody  in  the  community  will  serve  the  purpose. 
There  is  no  more  foundation  for  the  idea  that  there  was  a 
sort  of  social  contract  regarding  some  one  article  to  be  used  as  a 
medium  of  exchange  than  there  is  for  the  other  historical 
fiction  that  law  and  language  are  due  to  a  primitive  contract 
or  convention.  No  one  article  has  been  adopted  as  if  by  natural 
right.  The  original  medium  of  exchange  was  simply  a  market- 
able article  with  a  recognized  value.  Metallic  money  has 
reached  its  present  supremacy  because  in  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence it  has  demonstrated  its  superiority.  There  is  no  natural 
desire  for  the  precious  metals  ;  and  even  for  gold  there  does  not 
seem  to  be  any  natural  and  inherent  desire  apart  from  its  utility. 
The  sacra  fames  auri  is  a  fiction  of  the  poet  and  a  description 
of  the  civilized  mind  ;  and  the  first  discover  of  a  gold  nugget 
possibly  viewed  it  as  a  sort  of  substitute  for  a  bead  or  a  shell 
for  a  necklace.  Even  to  this  day,  there  are  peoples  who  do  not 
esteem  gold,  and  will  give  nothing  for  it.  The  various  British 
and  Egyptian  Soudan  expeditions  were  compelled  to  take  along 
with  them  bulky  Maria  Theresa  dollars,  because  the  Arab  would 
not  take  gold  in  exchange.  The  taste  of  the  Arab  is  for  silver 
ornaments.  He  is  no  fanatical  silver  man  desirous  of  seeing 
silver  remonetised.  Gold  he  could  not,  or  at  least  was  not 
accustomed  to,  use  as  ornaments  for  his  person,  his  horse,  or  his 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  181 

weapons.  Hence,  gold  had  little  utility  for  him,  and  the  trans- 
port service  was  burdened  with  large  quantities  of  bulky 
Austrian  silver  dollars.  There  are  certain  qualities  which 
civilized  communities  require  in  the  medium  of  exchange  ;  but 
in  early  commerce  these  were  not  always  demanded,  perhaps 
often  not  even  thought  of.  Each  community  has  selected  the, 
commodity  which  best  suits  its  conditions,  and  in  the  course  of 
progress  each  has  adopted  and  in  time  abandoned  many  kinds 
of  monev.  But  whatever  the  nature  of  the  medium  of  exchange 
adopted,  it  served  as  money  ;  and  it  is  justly  entitled  to  be  called 
money,  even  although  not  metallic,  or  not  coined  ;  for,  after  all, 
as  Prof.  Walker  says,  "  Money  is  that  money  does."  For  the 
needs  of  modern  trade,  primitive  money  materials  are  entirely 
unsuited  ;  but  they  serve  their  own  purpose,  and  as  in  the  eyes 
of  an  early  missionary  to  the  Mexicans  who,  contemplating  the 
bags  of  cocoanuts  used  by  the  Aztecs,  exclaimed,  "  Blessed 
money  !  which  exempts  its  possessors  from  avarice  since  it  can 
not  be  long  hoarded  or  hidden  under  ground,"  primitive  money 
may  have  peculiar  advantages  of  its  own  ! 

When  in  any  district  or  community  any  particular  com- 
modity comes  into  general  use,  and  is  readily  available,  it 
generally  comes  in  time  to  be  unit  of  value  and  the  medium  of 
exchange.  Its  nature  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  climate  and 
geographical  position  of  the  district ;  and  may  be  changed  when 
the  community  advances  to  another  stage  of  culture.  The 
natural  medium  of  exchange  may  be  altered,  even  although  the 
community  has  made  no  such  advance.  When  a  primitive  com- 
munity comes  into  commercial  contact  with  a  more  advanced 
race,  an  entirely  new  medium  of  exchange  may  be  adopted. 
Thus,  gin  and  gunpowder  are,  according  to  Bishop  Tugwell,  of 
Uganda,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  the  only  currency  in  certain 
parts  of  Africa.  The  foreign  trader  may  create  a  new  value  by 
his  demand  for  produce  which  hitherto  has  been  little  esteemed. 
In  the  Caroline  Islands  stone  money  in  the  form  of  quartz 
wheels,  varying  from  six  inches  to  twelve  in  diameter,  was 
formerly  the  money  the  natives  used  ;  but  since  the  advent  of 


182  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

the  white  trader  bags  of  copra  or  dried  cocoanut  kernel  have 
come  into  general  use.*  The  usual  effect  of  such  a  contact  of 
races  has  been  the  substitution  of  a  corresponding  manufactured 
article  for  the  original  commodity  used  by  the  natives.  Thus, 
among  the  Pacific  Coast  Indians,  blankets  have  become  the 
medium  of  exchange  in  place  of  furs.  Since  all  exchange  is 
mutual,  the  civilized  trader  must  abandon  his  natural  medium 
of  exchange  and  adopt  the  medium  of  exchange  prescribed  by 
the  character  of  the  trade.  Thus,  in  the  New  England  colonies, 
wampum,  a  form  of  shell  money,  and  in  French  Canada,  beaver 
skins,  were  used  naturally  in  the  trade  with  the  Indians  at  all 
times  ;  and  on  occasion,  owing  to  the  scarcity  in  the  colonies  of 
small  change,  these  articles  were  used  as  money  between 
Europeans.  Indeed,  in  many  communities  where  money,  as  we 
know  it,  is,  for  one  reason  or  other,  scarce,  commodities  may 
come  into  use  as  money,  not  because  the  people  know  no  better, 
but  because  they  have  no  better.  Thus,  on  the  north-east  coast 
of  Newfoundland  at  this  day,  cod  alone  is  currency."!* 

The  natural  currency  of  a  community  is  that  commodity  in 
which  its  wealth  mainly  consists.  In  the  hunting  stage  of 
society  property  consists  in  weapons  of  war  and  the  chase,  in  a 
few  simple,  natural  ornaments  made  of  shells  or  teeth,  and  in 
the  skins  of  animals,  which  serve  for  clothing,  and  for  the  cover- 
ing of  the  hut  or  wigwam.  But  as  man  advances  in  civilization, 
he  succeeds  in  taming  animals,  whose  flesh  and  milk  form  his 
foods,  whose  skins  or  wool  form  his  clothing.  This  is  the  pas- 
toral stage  in  which  a  man's  wealth  is  reckoned  by  his  herds. 
In  the  more  settled  agricultural  stage,  property  consists  not  only 
of  slaves  and  domesticated  animals,  but  of  dwellings  and  grain, 
and  above  all,  of  stocks  of  the  precious  and  other  metals, 
though  indeed,  in  early  history,  all  metals  are  precious.  These 
later  forms  of  wealth  man  has  come  to  value  according  to  his 
earlier  standards  of  wealth  ;  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  original  standards  of  value  of  metallic  coins  are  based 
on  mere  primitive  ox  and  cow  units.  When  man  has  come  into 

*F.  W.  Christian.    Geographical  Journal,  Feb.,  1899. 

tLant :  Cruising  on  the  French  shore      Westminster  Review,  March,  1899. 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  183 

the  possession  of  the  metals,  and  has  acquired  the  power  of 
working  them,  a  long  course  of  monetary  development  is  possible 
for  him.  He  finds  out  by  experience  which  metal  suits  his 
purpose  best ;  and  that  purpose  may  change  as  the  centuries 
pass.  Our  present  currencies  are  the  result  of  the  law  of  the 
survival  of  the  fittest.  The  primitive  condition  was  general 
use  ;  and  that  always  remains  the  first  condition  of  the  use  of 
an  article  as  currency.  But  along  with  that,  there  are  other 
conditions  which  are  stated  in  every  monetary  text-book.  All 
the  metals  have  been  used  in  turn.  Iron  was  used  in  Sparta, 
and  is  used  to-day  in  the  Dark  Continent.  Lead  and  tin,  and 
platinum,  gold,  and  silver,  and  copper,  have  all  been  used.  But 
experience  has  shown  that  gold  and  silver  pre-eminently,  and 
copper,  or  some  alloy  of  it,  in  a  less  degree,  are  best  suited  for 
currency  purposes. 

This  has  been  the  general  course  of  development ;  but  though 
it  is  sometimes  hard,  amid  all  the  talk  about  progress  to  realize 
that  the  stationary  state  of  society  is  the  usual  phenomenon, 
yet  it  is  true  that  most  peoples  have  not  become  civilized,  and 
since  many  remain  in  the  most  primitive  stages  of  society,  we 
still  have  many  actual  instances  of  primitive  currency  in  present 
day  use.  Progress  seems  alike  impossible  in  the  frozen  north 
and  in  the  torrid  south  ;  and  in  these  regions  the  conditions  of 
life  are  almost  unchanged,  and  there  we  may  see  the  kinds  of 
money  our  forefathers  of  untold  generations  ago  employed. 

The  rigour  of  the  northern  winters  prevents  the  rearing  of 
domestic  animals,  or  the  systematic  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and 
there  the  primitive  hunting  stage  still  exists.  The  wealth  of 
these  Arctic  communities  consists  in  skins,  and  in  some  cases  of 
dried  fish,  which  they  exchange  with  the  trader  from  the  south 
for  their  few  luxuries  or  use  for  their  own  clothing  and  sus- 
tenance. Under  these  conditions  skins,  or  their  modern  equiva- 
lents, form  the  natural  medium  of  exchange.  A  writer  in  a 
popular  magazine  gives  a  graphic  description  of  the  skin  money 
used  in  the  Hudson  Bay  Territories : 

"  In  old  times,  when  an  Indian  wanted  a  rifie,  the  rifle  was 
stood  on  end,  and  the  Indian  laid  furs  flat  on  the  ground  till 


184  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

they  were  heaped  to  the  top  of  the  gun  barrel  ;  then  the  Indian 
took  the  rifle,  worth  possibly  $50,  and  the  Hudson  Bay  Company 
took  the  furs,  worth  from  $100  to  $1000,  the  large  variation 
being  due  to  the  absense  of  discrimination  on  the  part  of  the 
Indian 

"  At  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  posts,  on  the  Mackenzie 
River,  actual  money  is  unknown  ;  all  trade  being  conducted  b)T 
means  of  a  curious  imaginary  currency,  the  unit  of  value  of 
which  is  '  one  skin.'  What  sort  of  skin  ?  No  one  knows  ;  in 
fact  it  is  no  sort  of  skin  in  particular.  It  is  merely  an  imag- 
inary skin,  about  equivalent  in  value  to  half  a  dollar.  The  hide 
of  a  beaver  is  worth  ten  skins ;  a  musk  ox  hide  is  worth  thirty 
skins  ;  a  fine  silver  fox  hide  is  worth  300  skins.  These  are  the 
big  bills  of  this  unique  currency. 

"  Small  change  is  made  by  musk  rat  hides,  worth  one-tenth 
of  a  skin  ;  by  mink  hides  worth  two  skins,  and  by  lynx  hides 
worth  four  skins.  A  wolverine  hide  is  worth  sixteen  ski.ns. 
There  is  a  fluctuation  in  the  value  of  this  currency  just  as 
there  is  a  fluctuation  in  the  value  of  silver,  consequent  upon  the 
increase  or  decrease  in  its  production."* 

But  skin  currency  is  not  so  unique  as  this  writer  imagines 
it  to  be.  We  have  no  modern  instance  so  complete,  but  we 
have  many  traces  of  the  same  practice.  In  Northern  Asia  the 
skin  of  the  Siberian  squirrel  was  and  is  the  monetary  unit ;  and 
etymology  shows  that  many  of  the  northern  nations  were  in 
the  same  position.  "  In  the  Esthonian  language  the  word  rutra 
generally  signifies  money,  but  its  equivalent  in  the  kindred 
Lappish  tongue  has  not  yet  altogether  lost  the  original  meaning 
of  skin  or  fur."-f*  And  the  name  of  a  Russian  small  coin,  the  J 
kopeck,  is  said  to  mean  half  a  hare  skin,  showing  that  the 
Muscovites  had  originally  a  skin  currency — a  fact  which  is  also 
established^  by  the  circulation  of  leather  money  in  Russia  as 
late  as  Peter  the  Great.  Even  in  regions  where  there  were 
possibilities  of  development,  the  earliest  money  was  of  this 

*Lce  Merrithew  :  "  Cosmopolitan,"  Nov.,  1899. 

tJcvons  :  Money  and  the  Mechanism  of  Exchange,  p.  20. 

JRidgeway  :  Origin  of  Currency  and  Weight  Standards,  p.  13. 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  185 

character.  "  Skin  for  skin,  yea,  all  that  a  man  hath  will  he 
give  for  his  life,"  is  a  text  we  generally  understand  in  some 
obtuse  way  to  mean  a  reference  to  a  man's  own  skin.  What  it 
really  points  to  is  that,  even  in  the  pastoral  stage  of  society 
which  the  book  of  Job  describes,  skins  were  the  standard  of 
value  ;  and  classical  writers  record  the  traditions  that  the  earliest 
currency  used  in  Rome,  Sparta,  and  Carthage,  was  formed  of 
leather.  Sir  John  Mandeville,  or  his  unacknowledged  authority, 
tells  us  that  in  China,  when  he  visited  it,  leather  money  was  in 
circulation. 

We  find  what  seems  a  still  more  modern  instance  in  the  fact 
that  Saint  Louis,  the  great  king  of  France,  finding  a  great 
scarcity  of  silver  coin  wherewith  to  pay  his  soldiers,  caused 
pieces  of  silver  wire  to  be  fixed  on  leather  and  so  circulated. 
But  this  was  rather  a  device  for  protecting  the  silver  than  an 
actual  leather  money.  The  silver  gave  the  value,  and  the 
leather  served  only  as  a  case  to  preserve  the  small  piece  of  silver 
(9  or  18  grs.)  from  being  lost. 

In  some  communities,  particularly  those  brought  into  closer 
contact  with  the  traders  of  advanced  race,  the  blanket  of  the 
trader  has  supplanted  the  original  skin  currency.  This  has 
taken  place  in  some  parts  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  terri- 
tory and  eleewhere.  Along  the  British  Columbia  coast  also  the 
Indians  use  blankets  as  the  unit  of  exchange.  The  blankets  are 
distinguished  by  prints  or  marks  on  the  edge  woven  into  the 
texture,  the  best  being  four-point,  the  smallest  and  poorest  one 
point.  The  unit  of  value  in  trade  is  a  single  two-and-a-half 
point  blanket,  worth  about  a  dollar  and  a  half.  All  commodities 
are  exchanged  according  to  this  standard  ;  even  the  four-point 
blanket  is  said  to  be  worth  so  many  blankets.* 

In  the  case  of  these  Indians  the  development  may  have  been 
due  to  a  growing  scarcity  of  fur  bearing  animals,  and  perhaps 
from  the  same  reason,  and  also  from  natural  development,  we 
find  in  Scandinavia,  in  Iceland,  and  in  the  Orkney  Islands, 

*Dawson :  Report  on  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands.    Geol.  Survey  Report  of  Canada, 

looU« 


186  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

that  cloth  was  the  standard.  Wadmail,  or  coarse  woollen  cloth 
formed  the  basis  of  an  elaborate  system  of  currency  in  Norway.* 

In  Iceland  this  cloth  currency  gave  place  with  the  develop- 
ment of  trade  to  a  currency  of  stockfish.  The  foreign  traders 
•did  not  desire  the  northern  coarse  cloth  ;  but  there  was  a  steady 
market  in  Southern  Europe  for  fish.  There  is  extant  a  procla- 
mation for  the  regulation  of  trade  between  England  and  Iceland 
in  which  an  elaborate  scale  of  prices  for  articles  of  all  kinds  is 
drawn  up  in  terms  of  dried  codfish. •}•  And  in  Newfoundlond 
cod  was  for  a  long  time,  and  still  is  in  many  parts,  the  only  coin. 

In  general,  one  may  say  that  whenever  there  arises  a  scarcity 
of  metallic  money  in  a  community  which  produces  one  chief 
article  for  trade,  that  article  will  serve  as  money.  Thus  cod 
was  used  in  Newfoundland,  tobacco  in  Virginia,  wheat  and  maple 
sugar  in  Nova  Scotia,}  tenpenny  nails,  as  Adam  Smith  tells  us, 
in  Kirkaldy,  olive  oil  in  the  Levant,  tea  in  Central  Asia,  block 
salt  in  Abyssinia,  and  in  various  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

The  history  of  the  currency  experiments  of  the  European 
colonies  in  North  America  is  instructive.  These  communities 
suffered  from  a  chronic  want  of  coin,  one  of  the  results  of  an 
ill-considered  colonial  policy.  Tobacco  was  a  form  of  currency 
in  Virginia  sanctioned,  not  only  by  custom,  but  by  actual  legis- 
lation. In  1619,  the  first  General  Assembly  of  the  colony 
established  a  ratio  between  tobacco  and  silver  ;  and  almost  every 
succeeding  Assembly  dealt  with  the  same  question.  In  1642, 
tobacco  became  the  sole  legal  tender ;  and  it  was  not  till  1656 
that  silver  could  again  be  used  if  required.  But  tobacco 
remained  the  actual  medium  of  exchange,  and  in  1730  paper 
money,  like  our  modern  grain  receipts  and  pig  iron  warrants, 
was  issued  against  tobacco.  These,  along  with  the  commodity, 
formed  the  main  money  in  Virginia  down  to  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  and  were  preferred,  because  more  stable  in 
value,  to  the  continental  currency.  In  the  New  England  colonies 
a  very  great  variety  of  articles  of  trade  was  made  legal  tender. 

*Morris  and  Bax  :  Socialism,  its  Growth  and  Outcome,  p.  249  n. 

tRidgeway  :  op.  cit.,  pp.  18,  19. 

JPatterson  :  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  James  MacGregor,  D.  D.,  p.  82. 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  187 

Beaver  skins  formed  the  greater  part  of  the  circulating  medium, 
and  in  1631  it  was  enacted  that  grain  could  be  paid  unless 
beaver  or  money  (that  is  metallic  money)  were  called  for  by  the 
contract.  This  law  remained  in  force  for  half  a  century  ;  and 
other  agricultural  commodities  were  added  to  the  list  as  occasion 
seemed  to  demand.  Corn,  wheat,  barley,  and  peas,  at  fixed  prices 
per  bushel,  were  sanctioned  by  law  as  currency,  and  taxes  could 
be  paid  in  them  at  the  discretion  of  the  taxpayer.* 

A  similar  colonial  policy  produced  similar  results  in  French 
Canada.  The  scarcity  of  metallic  money  was  even  greater  than 
in  the  English  colonies  ;  and  at  all  times  commodity  substitutes 
for  metallic  coinage  were  in  use.  The  scarcity  was  so  great  that 
in  addition  to  the  beaver  skin,  which  was  practically  the  unit  of 
value,  wheat  was  declared  a  legal  tender  in  1669  at  four  livres 
the  mint,  while  in  1673  the  council  further  ordered  that  bear 
skins  could  be  tendered  in  payment  at  their  current  value.^f- 

But  to  return  to  the  monetary  practice  of  primitive  communi- 
ties. In  the  torrid  zone  clothing  is  a  burden,  and  nature  supplies 
plenteous  store  of  the  food  suited"  to  the  climate.  The  chief 
objects  of  desire  are  ornaments.  The  instinct  for  personal 
adornment  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  instincts  of  the  race 
Shells  were  the  earliest  and  simplest  articles  so  employed  ;  and 
we  find  shell  money  used  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  the 
torrid  zone  they  still  form  the  principal  medium  of  exchange. 
The  cowries  of  the  countries  round  the  Indian  Ocean  have  many 
of  the  qualities  which  we  require  in  the  money  material.  They 
are  durable,  portable,  and  are  universally  esteemed.  In  India 
and  Siam,  in  West  Africa,  as  well  as  in  East  Africa,  and  indeed 
at  one  time  or  another  in  every  country  in  the  world  on  whose 
shores  they  are  found,  cowries  serve  as  the  small  change  of  com- 
merce. They  are  to-day  collected  in  vast  quantities  in  the 
Maldive  and  Laccadive  islands  to  be  exported  to  serve  as  money 
elsewhere.  The  value  fluctuates  enormously,  depending  on 
their  abundance  or  scarcity.  In  Africa  traders  estimate  a 

*White :  Money  and  Hanking,  Chap.  1. 
tKingsford  :  History  of  Canada,  Vol.  1,  p.  156. 


188  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

thousand  shells  at  a  shilling,  while  in  India  5000  represent  a 
rupee.  The  area  over  which  they  circulate  is  very  large  ;  and 
we  have  evidence  that  they  were  at  one  time  used  in  countries 
which  have  long  since  abandoned  them.  The  familiar  Chinese 
cash,  which  are  estimated  by  the  string,  is  at  least  part  proof 
that  shell  money,  which  is  usually  strung  for  convenience  sake, 
was  once  the  currency  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  although  the 
cash  itself  is  a  survivor,  not  of  this  shell  money,  but  of  an 
original  knife  money  of  which  we  shall  hear  later.  The  money 
of  the  Solomon  Islands  consists  of  neatly  worked  pieces  of  shell 
about  the  size  of  a  shirt  button.  These  are  strung  on  strings 
about  four  yards  long,  and  are  distinguished  under  the  names 
of  white  and  red  money.  In  the  Caroline  Islands  shell  money 
circulates,  not  as  shells,  but  as  real  money,  without  immediate 
reference  to  adornment.  The  shells  are  chipped  all  round  till 
they  form  disks  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  then  are 
smoothed  down  with  sand  and  pumice.  The  porcelain  money  of 
China,  and  perhaps  the  clay  tablets  of  Assyria  and  the  seals  of 
Egypt,  may  be  perhaps  regarded  as  more  developed  forms  of  the 
same  kind  of  money.  In  other  places  shells  of  other  sorts  were 
used.  In  early  China  perhaps,  also,  among  the  early  Greeks, 
tortoise  shell  was  used,  and  in  China  to  this  day  the  phrase 
tortoise  shell  is  still  used  to  indicate  money.* 

The  wampum  of  America  is  another  instance  of  shell  cur- 
rency. It  consisted  of  black  and  white  shells  polished  and 
fashioned  into  beads,  and  then  strung  in  necklaces,  etc.  Black 
ones  were  twice  as  valuable  as  white.  Wampum  wa«  so  well 
established  as  currency  among  the  Indians  that  it  was  made 
legal  tender  among  the  settlers,  not  that  white  men  valued  it  as 
ornament,  but  because  it  was  in  constant  demand  by  the  natives 
and  also  because  there  was  a  scarcity  of  small  coin.  The  unit 
of  wampum  money  was  the  fathom  consisting  of  three  hundred 
and  sixty  white  beads,  and  was  worth  about  sixty  pence.  At 
first  wampum  was  legal  tender  only  to  the  extent  of  12  pence, 
or  the  limit  of  the  legal  tender  of  bronze  coin  to-day.  But  in 

*  Ridge  way :  op.  cit.,  p.  21. 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  189 

1G41,  owing  to  a  greater  scarcity  of  coin,  wampum  was  made 
legal  tender  up  to  £10,  though  in  1643  the  limit  was  reduced  to 
£2.  The  decline  of  the  beaver  trade  drove  it  out  of  circulation. 
When  it  could  no  longer  be  exchanged  in  large  amounts  for 
beaver  skins,  an  article  of  international  trade,  the  basis  of  its 
value  was  gone,  although  its  use  was  continued  in  the  frontier, 
districts  well  down  into  the  eighteenth  century.* 

Shell  money  is  still  used  by  North  American  Indians.  The 
tribes  of  California,  according  to  Mr.  Powers,  make  use  for 
money  not  only  of  the  red  scalps  of  woodpeckers,  but  also  "  of 
the  dentalium  shell,  of  which  they  grind  off  the  top  and  string  it 
on  strings  ;  the  shortest  pieces  are  worth  twenty-five  cents,  the 
longest  about  two  dollars,  the  value  rising  rapidly  with  the 
length.  The  strings  are  usually  about  as  long  as  a  man's  arm." 
When  these  Indians  became  familiar  with  the  silver  coinage  of 
the  United  States,  the  use  to  which  they  put  the  dimes  and 
quarters  shows  how  the  new  money,  as  well  as  the  old,  derived 
its  value  as  a  medium  of  exchange,  because  it  was  prized  as  an 
adornment  of  the  person.  "  Some  of  the  young  bloods  array 
their  Dulcineas  for  the  dance  with  lavish  adornments,  hanging 
on  their  dress  30,  40,  or  50  dollars  worth  of  dimes,  quarter  dol- 
lars, and  half  dollars,  arranged  in  strings."^  The  same  aboriginal 
instinct  appears  sometimes  among  semi-civilized  aldermen.  The 
Bowery  saloon,  which  was  paved  with  silver  dollars,  used  to  be, 
and  perhaps  still  is,  one  of  the  sights  of  New  York  ;  and  it 
would  not  have  been  inappropriate  had  Silver  Dollar  Smith,  the 
owner,  been  a  member  of  Tammany,  which  in  the  day  of  its 
political  power,  still  tricks  its  members  out  in  paint  and  feathers 
on  gala  days  and  sends  them  down  Third  Avenue  under  their 
Sachems,  brandishing  tobacco  store  tomahawks. 

Other  articles  which  have  been  desired  for  purposes  of  orna- 
ment have  also  been  used  as  money.  The  Californian  Indians 
use  not  only  shells,  but  the  red  scalps  of  woodpeckers  for  their 

*White  :  Money  and  Banking,  Chap.  1. 

tQuoted  Ridgeway,  op.  cit.,  p.  15.  Conversely  solid  brass  buttons  with  the  eye  ham- 
mered flat  were  extensively  used  half  a  century  ago  in  St.  John,  New  Brunswick,  for 
small  change. 


190  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

greater  units  of  value.  In  Fiji,  whales'  teeth  were  used  instead  of 
shells,  and  white  teeth  were  exchanged  for  red  teeth  somewhat 
in  the  ratio  of  shillings  to  sovereigns.*  In  Africa  ivory  tusksv 
and  in  the  Solomon  Islands  dog  teeth,  which  are  worn  in  neck- 
laces, express  the  higher  values,  while  shells  are  used  for  the 
smaller.  The  currency  of  the  Solomon  Islands  includes  many 
different  articles,  and  the  value  of  each  relatively  to  the  others, 
is  carefully  determined.  The  currency  table,  as  set  forth  by 
Mr.  Cook.-f-  is  : 

10  cocoanuts  =  1  string  of  white  money. 

10  strings  of  white  money  =  1  string  of  red  money,  or 

=  1  dog  tooth. 

10  strings    of    red    money  =  1  string  dolphins'  teeth. 

10  strings  of  dolphins' teeth  =  1  fine  woman. 

1  mable  ring  (for  ornament)  =  I  good  hog  or  1  useful  young  man.. 

When  man  becomes  a  worker  in  rnetals,  the  primitive  shell 
ornaments  are  replaced  by  gold  and  copper,  and  silver ;  and 
much  of  the  money  used  in  Africa  to-day  is  of  this  character. 

But  man  is  a  creature  of  customs,  and  the  forms  of  his  neck- 
laces did  not  change  to  utilize  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
new  materials.  Nuggets  of  native  gold  may  have  been  here 
and  there  threaded  on  a  string;  but  there  is  little  doubt  that 
man's  first  attempt  in  metal  working  consisted  in  imitating  thfr 
old  shell  ornaments,  and  in  imitating  those  shell  ornaments 
which  had  come  to  be  used  as  money.  In  Siam  there  are  silver 
coins  in  the  shape  of  shells  ;  and  in  China  we  have  a  copper 
coin  known  as  a  Dragon's  eye,  which  was  fashioned  in  the  shape- 
of  a  cowry.  But  long  before  the  precious  metals  were  coined, 
they  were  in  circulation  by  weight,  as  they  still  are  in  the  East. 
The  commonest  form  in  which  the  metals  circulated  was  in  the 

Mevons :  Money,  p.  25. 

tFor  these  details  regarding  the  Solomon  Islands,  I  am  indebted  to  a  note  in  an 
issue  of  the  "  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  which  I  cannot  find  again.  In  the  same  note 
it  is  said  that  rope  ends,  ornamented  with  red  feathers,  to  be  worn  about  the  waist,  are 
also  used  as  money. 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  191 

shape  of  ornaments  ;  and  some  writers  have  spoken  familiarly 
of  ring  money  as  if  it  were  really  stamped  and  coined  money 
such  as  we  use  to-day.  In  reality,  the  so-called  ring  money  was 
an  article  of  barter,  circulating  by  weight.  The  ancient  ring 
money  of  Egypt,  and  of  the  early  Celts  and  Teutons,  is  repre- 
sented in  Africa  to-day  by  the  coin  currency  of  Calabar,  and  the 
rod  currenc}7  of  the  Congo  region,  these  being  simply  brass  or 
copper  wire,  soft  enough  to  be  bent  into  the  rings  and 
bracelets,  and  other  ornaments  in  which  the  African  black  takes 
delight. 

When  man  advances  to  the  pastoral  stage,  which  he  has  done, 
and  apparently  can  do,  only  in  the  temperate  climes  in  which 
cattle  can  live,  we  find  him  estimating  his  wealth  in  cattle  ;  and 
naturally  the  medium  of  exchange  adopted  by  such  societies  is 
that  which  all  desire,  and  all  in  a  measure  possess.  Most  of  the 
civilized  nations  have  long  since  left  their  cattle  currencies  cen- 

o 

turies  behind  ;  but  still  in  their  language  and  archaeological 
remains,  in  their  literatures  and  their  religious  customs,  there 
survive  traces  of  the  days  when  cattle  formed  their  standard  of 
value  and  their  medium  of  exchange.  "  It  is  very  possible  that 
kine  were  first  exclusively  valued  for  their  flesh  and  milk  ;  but 
it  is  .clear  that  in  very  early  times  a  distinct  and  special 
importance  belonged  to  them  as  the  instrument  or  medium  of 
exchange."* 

The  Latin  term  "pecunia"  is  derived  from  "  pecus,"  a  herd  ; 
the  English  "  fee  "  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  "  feoh,"  which  sur- 
vives in  the  cognate  German  from  Vieh  cattle  ;  and  rupae  is  said 
to  be  derived  from  the  Sanskrit  rupa,  which  also  means  cattle ; 
and  in  the  Book  of  Job  the  word  K/sitch  (=  a  lamb)  is  employed 
to  signify  a  piece  of  money. "f 

The  veneration  in  which  the  cow  is  held  in  modern  India  by 
a  people  to  whom  the  eating  of  beef  is  an  abomination,  is  held 
by  some  to  point  back  to  the  ages  when  the  ancestors  of  these 
people  in  some  more  northern  region  had  a  great  respect  for 

•Maine :  The  Early  History  of  Institutions,  p.  149. 
t  Wilkinson  ;  The  Ancient  Egyptians,  Vol.  II.,  p.  151. 


192  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

cattle  as  forming  the  principal  item  in  their  wealth.  And 
although  every  shepherd  was  an  abomination  to  the  Egyptians 
(Genesis,  c.  46,  v.  34«),  as  Joseph  instructed  his  brethren,  yet  the 
Egyptians  worshipped  their  great  divinity  Apis  under  the  form 
of  a  bull,  and  worshipped  also  a  sacred  ram  ;  customs  which  pro- 
bably show  that  at  some  time  or  other  their  ancestors,  whether 
in  the  northern  Soudan  or  in  Asia,  and  still  in  the  pastoral  stage, 
had  regarded  with  proper  veneration  the  cattle  and  the  sheep 
which  constituted  their  wealth. 

The  earliest  literatures  both  of  Aryans  and  of  Semites  show 
that  cattle  were  wealth,  and  the  measure  of  wealth  and  the 
medium  of  exchange.  The  wealth  of  the  Patriarchs  was  meas- 
ured by  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  we  need  only  refer,  in  the 
almost  equally  familiar  stones  in  Homer,  to  the  one-sided 
exchange  between  Glaucon  and  Diomede  "  of  golden  arms  for 
brazen,  those  worth  one  hundred  oxen  for  those  worth  nine." 
When  history  opens,  most  of  the  nations  which  afterwards 
played  leading  parts  were  still  in  the  pastoral  stage.  Egypt 
had  already  passed  beyond  it,  and  the  Greeks  were  making 
the  transition  to  the  agricultural  and  settled  conditions 
of  life.  And  as  each  nation  first  demands  our  notice  whether 
in  the  Mediterranean  region,  in  northern  Europe,  or  in  Central 
Asia,  it  is  almost  always  the  same  picture  that  is  presented  of  a 
pastoral  people  whose  wealth  consists  in  flocks  and  herds.  And 
not  only  have  we  a  priori  reason  to  suppose  that  the  chief  item 
of  their  wealth  formed  their  rudimentary  medium  of  exchange ; 
but  we  know  from  literature  and  from  archaeology  that  the  ox 
was  their  unit  of  value.  We  have  scales  of  value  preserved  to 
us  in  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East ;  and  of  these  scales  we 
have  what  might  be  almost  exact  transcripts  among  the  semi- 
civilized  tribes  of  the  Caucasus  and  Central  Asia,  and  of  Northern 
and  Southern  Africa  at  the  present  day.  The  earliest  coins  of 
Greece  which  have  been  discovered  are  stamped  with  the  head 
of  an  ox  ;  and  the  legal  code  of  Draco  retains  with  true  legal 
conservatism  the  otherwise  obsolete  practice  of  expressing  values 
in  terms  of  oxen.  Indeed  there  is  more  than  probability,  there 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  193 

is  proof  as  strong  as  the  nature  of  the  subject  permits,  that  our 
present  system  of  metallic  coins  are  translations  of  the  earlier 
cattle  currency.  The  Greek  talent  of  gold  and  the  ox  were 
undoubtedly  equivalent ;  and  the  ox  is  of  course  the  older 
standard  of  the  two  ;  and  the  small  change  of  this  commodity 
currency  was  likewise  translated  into  corresponding  silver  and 
copper  coins.  We  find  the  same  equating,  the  presence  of  which 
we  partly  detect  and  partly  infer  in  the  Greek  world,  going  on 
to-day  among  peoples  which  are  just  passing  from  the  pastoral 
to  the  settled  mode  of  life. 

When  this  change  takes  place  man  generally  has  some  rudi- 
mentary knowledge  of  metallurgy  ;  and  the  agricultural  products 
have  not  often  formed  a  unit  of  value.  We  have  local 
instances  and  temporary  instances  ;  but  these  are  by  no  means 
confined  to  the  beginnings  of  the  agricultural  stage.  They 
appear  in  colonial  history  almost  as  frequently  as  in  semi-- 
barbarous societies  ;  and  are  generally  due,  then  and  now,  to  a 
scarcity  of  precious  metals.  Wheat  has  some  advantages  as  a 
standard  of  value  over  the  precious  metals,  as  those  colleges  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  know  tjo  their  advantage  who  were 
restricted  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  to  corn  rents  ;  but  as  a 
medium  of  exchange  agricultural  produce  has  such  obvious 
disadvantages  that  no  people  which  was  able  to  use  the  precious 
metals  has  ever  systematically  used  grain  and  other  produce  of 
the  earth. 

The  metals  are  so  much  better  suited  than  any  other  com- 
modities to  serve  as  the  medium  of  exchange  that  it  was 
inevitable  that  they  should  rapidly  supplant  all  other  forms  of 
currency,  so  soon  as  gold  and  silver  and  the  others  had  come  to 
possess  the  fundamental  requisite  in  a  medium  of  exchange,  viz., 
that  it  should  be  an  article  in  general  use  and  demand.  But 
the  metals  came  but  slowly  to  possess  this  fundamental  requisite  ; 
and  we  are  certainly  not  justified  in  assuming  that  metallic  cur- 
rency superseded  all  others  as  soon  as  man  had  discovered  the 
means  of  mining  and  working  the  metals.  On  the  contrary,  it 
is  certain  that  the  older  currencies  remained  in  circulation  long 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  X.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— M. 


194  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

after  man  had  acquired  the  necessary  metallurgical  knowledge 
In  the  Homeric  poems  we  have  evidence  of  the  concurrent  use 
of  definite  weights  of  gold  and  silver,  and  iron,  with  the  older 
ox  unit. 

The  metals  acquire  value  as  all  other  articles  acquire  value, 
because  they  are  suited  to  satisfy  certain  human  needs.  After 
the  metals  have  been  adopted  as  money,  they  acquire  a  distinct 
and  special  importance  because  of  their  utility  as  the  medium  of 
exchange  ;  but  first  of  all  they  must  acquire  the  direct  value  that 
arises  from  direct  utility.  The  metals  are  valued  by  man  chiefly 
as  ornaments,  or  as  the  material  out  of  which  the  implements  of 
industry  or  the  weapons  of  war  may  be  fashioned.  The  precious 
metals  are  valued  for  their  utility  as  ornaments  only.  Neither 
gold  nor  silver  had  been  put  to  serious  use  either  in  war  or  in 
industry.  They  obtained  their  value  because  of  their  attrac- 
tiveness as  ornaments  for  adorning  the  person,  and  in  all 
probability  the  earliest  form  in  which  gold  circulated  was  in 
strings  of  nuggets  or  beads  resembling  the  older  shell  necklaces. 
Ancient  geographers  tell  us  that  in  Arabia  native  nuggets  were 
used  as  ornaments.  "  Having  perforated  these  they  pass  a 
thread  of  flax  through  them  in  alternation  with  transparent 
stones  and  make  themselves  chains,  and  put  them  round  their 
necks  and  wrists."*  But  with  increasing  knowledge  of  how  to 
work  the  metals,  gold  dust,  as  well  as  "  fireless  gold,"  as  these 
Arabian  natives  called  it,  was  fashioned  into  ornaments,  and  at 
first,  no  doubt,  after  the  older  models.  Primitive  coins  are  in 
existence,  and  in  some  cases  still  in  circulation,  in  which  the 
evolution  from  the  ring  and  shell  can  be  traced. 

As  man's  chief  employment  in  the  early  stages  of  society 
was  war  and  the  chase,  weapons  of  war  were  greatly  prized  and 
jealously  guarded.  Consequently  we  find  many  traces  of  the 
employment  of  the  implements  of  war  as  a  medium  of  exchange. 
Even  in  the  stone  age  we  know  that  this  was  the  case.  Tough 
green  stone  slabs,  valuable  for  making  hatchets,  form  the  unit  of 
value  among  the  lowest  Australian  natives  who  have  hardly  yet 

*Strabo  and  Diodorus  Siculus,  quoted  Ridgeway,  op.  cit.,  pp.  75-77. 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  195 

advanced  far  enough  to  carry  on  trade  by  means  of  barter.* 
Weapons  formed  part  of  the  currency  of  Homeric  times  and 
among  the  ancient  Norsemen.  By  the  laws  of  Hakon  the  Good 
penalties  for  breaches  of  the  law  could  be  paid  among  other 
things  in  weapons.-f-  Gunpowder  competes  with  gin  in  the 
battle  of  the  African  standards  introduced  by  European  traders ; 
and,  not  long  since,  an  English  newspaper,  in  commenting  on  a 
petition  of  a  philanthropic  committee  that  some  other  form  of 
currency  than  that  of  gin  should  be  adopted  in  the  Delta  of  the 
Niger,  suggested  more  than  half  seriously  that  Lord  Salisbury 
should  use  his  influence  with  the  concert  of  Europe  "  to  make 
the  Liverpool  powder  keg  the  only  legal  tender  in  the  gin  lati- 
tudes." Among  all  the  aboriginal  tribes  which  have  been 
brought  into  contact  with  European  traders,  the  musket  quietly 
takes  its  place  in  the  native  standard  of  value.  But  in  Borneo 
they  have  gone  a  step  further.  A  brass  cannon,  or  as  it  is  called 
by  the  natives,  a  brass  gun,  is  the  standard  of  value,  and  in  all 
parts  of  the  island  one  may  still  hear  prices  reckoned  in  brass 
guns.  Any  one  who  has  transactions  of  such  importance,  for  the 
brass  guns  will  correspond  to  our  larger  notes,  will  instantly 
translate  the  sum  into  dollars  at  the  present  day  ;  but  there  was 
a  time  when  ten  or  twenty  pounders  did  actually  pass  from 
hand  to  hand  J 

In  more  recent  times,  and  if  not  among  ourselves,  at  least 
among  the  ancestors  of  many  of  us,  bullets  have  circulated  as 
small  change.  Leaden  bullets  were  legal  tender  in  the  New 
England ;  and  the  reason  was  no  doubt  partly  the  atmosphere  of 
warfare  and  danger  in  which  the  early  colonists  lived.  But 
there  was  another  reason.  The  want  of  small  coin  in  the  reign 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  had  induced  tradesmen  and  others  to  issue 
token  money  ;  and  in  consequence  there  was  great  distress  often 
among  the  poorer  classes  for  the  issuer  not  infrequently  refused 

*Tylor  :  Anthropology,  p.  281. 
tRidgeway :  op.  cit.,  p.  35. 

JThis  fact  is  on  the  authority  of  an  undated  second-hand  clipping  from  the  "  London 
Standard. 


196  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

to  honor  these  tokens.  Accordingly,  in  the  reign  of  James  I., 
the  striking  of  copper  farthings  was  made  a  monopoly,  and  in 
the  spirit  of  the  times  given  to  a  court  favorite,  Lord  John 
Harrington,  who  took  unreasonable  advantage  of  his  opportuni- 
ties. The  circulation  was  encouraged  in  various  ways  with 
disastrous  results  to  the  commerce  of  the  country.  But  not  con- 
tent with  the  fraudulent  profits  made  at  the  expense  of  the 
commerce  of  the  country,  he  caused  large  parcels  to  be  shipped 
to  the  colonies.  The  Pilgrim  Fathers,  however,  would  have  none 
of  them  ;  and  it  stands  in  the  records  of  Massachusetts  on 
"  March  4th,  1634,  at  the  General  Court  at  New  Town,  brass  (or 
copper)  fathings  were  forbidden,  and  bullets  were  made  to  pass 
for  farthings." 

But  the  useful  metals  could  also  be  put  to  the  more  fruitful 
use  of  serving  as  implements  of  industry,  where  their  superiority 
over  stone  and  wood  is  no  less  obvious  than  when  they  are 
fashioned  into  weapons  of  war.  In  Africa,  which,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  native  copper,  never  had  a  bronze  age,  but  passed  at 
once  into  the  iron  age,  we  find  still  in  full  force  the  systems  of 
currency  which  have  either  completely  disappeared,  or  have  left 
but  indistinct  traces  elsewhere.  There  we  find  hoe  money  and 
axe  money  in  practically  their  original  forms.  Iron  in  its 
natural  state  was  a  means  of  exchange  in  the  Homeric  age,  and 
the  iron  money  of  Sparta  was  probably  traditional  in  origin,  like 
the  Hindu  reverence  for  the  cow.  But  in  Africa  to-day  iron  is 
an  almost  universal  medium  of  exchange.  On  the  west  coast 
the  bar  is  the  unit ;  and  all  things  are  reckoned  in  "  bars  " 
pretty  much  as  they  are  reckoned  in  blankets  among  the  Pacific 
Coast  Indians.  Originally  the  bar  was  what  its  name  denotes, 
a  bar  of  iron  of  fixed  dimensions,  one  of  the  chief  articles  of 
trade  between  the  natives  and  the  early  European  traders.  Now 
it  has  a  conventional  value,  which,  in  Sierra  Leone,  is  two  shill- 
ings and  threepence.  In  Central  Africa,  among  the  Madis, 
according  to  Dr.  Felkin,  "  the  nearest  approach  to  money  is  seen 
in  the  flat  round  pieces  of  iron  which  are  of  different  sizes  .  . 
.  .  They  are  much  employed  in  exchange.  This  is  the  form  in 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  197 

which  they  are  kept  and  used  as  money,  but  they  are  intended 

to  be  divided  into  two,  heated  and  made  into  hoes 

Ready  made  hoes  are  not  often  used  in  barter.  Iron,  as  above 
mentioned,  is  preferred,  and  is  taken  to  the  blacksmith  to  be 
fashioned  according  to  the  owner's  requirements."*  But  in 
Darfur  the  actual  hoe  serves  as  currency.  "  It  is  simply  a  plate 
of  iron  fitted  with  a  socket.  A  handle  is  fitted  into  this  socket 
and  one  has  an  implement  suited  for  chopping  the  weeds  in  the 
cornfields.  Purchases  of  small  value  are  made  with  the  hoe 
from  one  to  twenty ,"-|-  which  may  be  said  to  be  its  legal  tender 
limit.  Larger  purchases  are  made  by  means  of  cotton  cloth  and 
oxen.  Among  the  wild  tribes  of  Annam,  in  Asia,  also,  the  hoe 
serves  as  currency,  and  in  ancient  times  many  nations  seem  to 
have  ueed  it.  We  know  that  the  Chinese  had  originally  a 
barter  currency  of  real  hoes  and  real  knives,  articles  in  great 
demand  among  them.  These  in  time  became  conventionalised  in 
form,  and  were  reduced  in  size  to  serve  as  real  money.  The 
Chinese  cash  is  the  survival  of  the  original  knife  money,  while 
the  hoe,  in  a  certain  form,  still  circulates  in  Thibet,  as  it  did  in 
China  hundreds  of  years  ago.  Within  recent  years  the 
Thibetans  have  adopted  the  Indian  rupee;  but  have  not  pre- 
served its  integral  form.  They  cut  it  up  for  purposes  of  small 
change  into  little  pieces  which  represent  the  conventionalized 
form  of  their  own  original  hoe  currency. 

The  hoe  served  as  a  general  article  of  barter  because  of  its 
indispensability  in  agriculture  ;  but  among  fishermen  the  fish- 
hook was  a  more  useful  and  desirable  implement.  Among  the 
fishermen  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  round  the  coast  to  Ceylon 
and  the  Maldive  Islands,  there  was  originally  a  fish-hook  cur- 
rency ;  and  when  true  money  was  adopted  the  old  form  was 
retained.  Down  till  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  larins, 
a  bent  piece  of  silver  wire,  the  conventionalized  form  of  the 
fish-hook,  were  in  circulation  ;  and  it  is  possible  that,  had  the 
natural  process  of  evolution  gone  on  without  interference  from 

•Quoted  Ridge  way,  op.  cit.,  p.  43. 
+Ridgeway,  op.  cit.,  p.  45. 


198  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

the  outside,  in  course  of  time  the  piece  of  double  wire  would 
have  become  a  bullet-shaped  piece  of  metal,  just  as  the  bullet  coins 
of  Siam  struck  in  European  fashion  represent  the  last  stage  of 
the  original  ring  currency  of  that  country.* 

At  one  time  axes  served  as  money  in  many  countries.  At 
first  it  was  the  actual  implement  or  weapon  itself;  but  in  time  a 
conventionalized  form  was  adopted.  In  West  Africa  to-day 
almost  the  sole  currency  in  many  districts  has  the  form  of  an 
axe.  These  are  too  small  now  to  be  actually  used,  either  as 
weapons  of  war  or  as  implements  of  industry  ;  but  the  shape 
has  been  preserved  unchanged,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  days 
are  not  long  past  when  a  currency  of  actual  axes  was  employed. 

We  have  evidence  from  archaeology  and  from  literature  of  a 
similar  usage  among  the  Greeks.  There  seems  to  be  little  ground 
for  doubting  that  the  earliest  coins  were  imitations  in  metal  of 
the  older  article  which  the  metallic  currency  replaced.  Thus, 
the  coins  of  many  Greek  states  and  cities  bear  on  their  faces 
evidence  of  the  nature  of  the  commodity  currency  they  replaced. 
When  the  coins  were  for  circnlation  among  a  purely  Greek 
people,  there  could  be  no  difficulty  in  passing  at  once  from  the 
commodity  to  a  piece  of  metal  stamped  with  the  image  of  the 
article  whose  value  the  coin  represented.  For  instance,  the 
Greeks  of  Cyzicus  stamped  their  coins  with  the  image  of  a 
tunny  fish  which  was  probably  a  part  of  their  commodity  cur- 
rency at  an  earlier  date  ;  and  these  coins  are,  in  most  respects, 
like  modern  coins.  But,  in  Olbia,  a  Greek  colony  on  the  Black 
Sea,  where  the  Greeks  traded  with  the  barbarians,  and  the 
population  moreover  was  of  mixed  race,  the  tunny  fish  was  also 
the  chief  article  of  trade.  There  it  was  found  necessary  to 
make  a  concession  to  the  lower  level  of  intelligence  of  those  with 
whom  they  traded,  and  perhaps  also  of  many  of  their  own 
citizens  ;  and  consequently  a  coin  in  the  actual  shape  of  a  tunny 
fish  was  struck  to  represent  the  probable  original  commodity 
currency.  In  the  same  way  the  axe  appears  on  the  coins  of 

*Dcl  Mar :  A  History  of  Money  in  Ancient  Countries,  p.  109. 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  199 

Tenedos,  and  there  is  more  than  probability  that  just  as  the 
tunny  fish  coin  of  Cyzicus  represented  the  earlier  form  so  the 
axe  stamped  coins  of  Tenedos  represented  an  earlier  axe  cur- 
rency. We  know  from  the  Iliad  that  axes  were  given  along 
with  oxen,  slaves,  kettles,  etc.,  as  prizes  in  the  funeral  games  for 
Patroclus.  "  But  he  (Achilles)  set  for  the  archers  dark  iron,  and 
he  set  down  ten  axes  and  ten  half  axes,"  Iliad  XXIII.,  11.  850-1 ; 
where  the  half  axe  is  obviously  the  single  headed  axe.  The 
earliest  coins  of  the  Island  of  Tenedos,  which  lies  off  the  Troad, 
bear  the  device  of  the  double  headed  axe  and  represent  an 
original  axe  currency  such  as  we  find  in  Africa  to-day. 

While  the  ox  undoubtedly  formed  the  unit  of  value  and  a 
medium  of  exchange  over  the  whole  of  the  wide  area  from  the 
Straits  of  Dover  to  the  Himalayas,  as  indeed  in  every  other 
region  where  it  can  flourish,  it  was  nowhere  the  sole  medium  of 
exchange.  In  almost  every  region  of  which  we  have  any  infor- 
mation, there  is,  or  was,  a  regular  scale  of  value  in  which  the  ox 
was  simply  the  chief  unit.  Some  writers  have  tried  to  show 
that  the  ox  was  unsuited  for  currency  purposes,  because  it  was 
incapable,  without  the  adoption  of  the  Scythian  practice  of  cut- 
ting steaks  from  the  flanks  of  the  living  animal,  or  the  Celtic 
practice  of  bleeding  the  cattle  to  make  the  unleavened  bread 
more  nutritious,  of  sub-division  to  transact  the  smaller  exchanges; 
and  that  their  use  must  quickly  on  that  account  have  been 
abandoned.  Cattle  were  unsuitable  in  many  ways,  though  they 
had  considerable  stability  and  uniformity  of  value  throughout 
their  continental  range  ;  but  the  reason  their  use  as  money  was 
given  up  was  not  their  lack  of  divisibility,  for,  as  we  have  said, 
they  never  formed  more  than  the  principal  article  in  a  carefully 
constructed  scale  of  exchange  values. 

To  this  day  in  the  Soudan  we  find,  that  while  the  ox  is  almost 
universally  the  standard  of  value  and  the  medium  ot  exchange 
for  more  valuable  articles,  each  particular  district  has  its  own 
peculiar  lower  units,  generally  selected  from  the  articles  most  in 

•For  this  and  the  other  instances  from  the  Greek  coinage  which  follow,  and  for 
many  others  from  which  these  are  selected,  see  Ridgcway,  op.  cit.,  Ch.  XII. 


200  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

demand  in  the  district,  or  from  those  which  the  district  has 
special  facilities  for  producing.  In  one  Dlace  it  is  sticks  of  salt, 
in  another  tobacco,  in. another  cotton  thread,  in  another  raw 
cotton  in  the  pod,  in  another  onions,  in  another  hoes,  in  another 
copper  rings,  beads,  shells,  etc.,  and  in  most  districts  more  than 
one  of  them.  These  are  for  small  change,  so  to  speak.  But  all 
of  them  are  recognized  submultiples  of  the  standard  unit,  the 
ox,  as  our  quarters  and  ten  cent  pieces  are  of  the  dollar ;  and  in 
the  same  way,  slaves  are  in  many  districts  there  now.  as  they 
were  in  Homeric  times,  the  larger  currency,  being  recognized 
multiples  of  the  standard  ox. 

From  Greek  coins  which  have  been  preserved,  it  is  inferred 
that  the  Greeks  had  the  same  system.  There  are  traces  of  it 
not  only  in  Homer,  but  on  the  silver  coins  themselves.  With 
the  introduction  of  metallic  currency,  the  Greeks  equaled  the  ox 
with  the  gold  talent,  while  its  submultiples  were  represented  by 
corresponding  silver  coins.  At  first,  at  least,  these  silver  coins 
often  bore  as  their  stamp  the  representation  of  the  commodity 
currency  with  which  they  were  equaled  and  which  they  dis- 
placed. In  many  cases  no  doubt  the  image  and  superscription 
were  religious  ;  but  there  is  no  reasonable  ground  for  doubting 
that  in  their  origin  many,  perhaps  all,  of  these  coins  bore  on 
their  face  the  evidence  of  the  particular  commodity  they  had 
displaced  as  currency.  In  some  cases  the  representation  was 
carried  so  far  that  the  coin  reproduced  the  actual  shape  of  the 
commodity ;  and  even  where  the  stamp  on  the  coin  is  of  a 
religious  character,  there  is  a  striking  resemblance  between  the 
stamp  and  the  article  for  which  the  district  was  famous.  In 
many  cases  this  correspondence  is  so  clear  that  it  is  impossible 
otherwise  to  explain  the  peculiar  form  and  image  of  the  coin. 

Thasos,  for  instance,  was  famous  for  its  wine  ;  and  the  wine 
cup  or  measure  appears  on  its  early  coins.  The  unit  of  capacity, 
in  the  case  of  wine  was  the  measure,  and  the  measure  is  stamped 
on  the  coins  to  express  the  fact  that  this  silver  coin,  bore  the 
same  relation  to  the  sold  talent  as  the  actual  measure  of  wine 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  201 

bore  to  the  original  ox  unit  with  which  the  gold  talent  had  been 
equaled.  The  olive,  again,  was  the  most  important  product  of 
Attica,  and  was  probably,  as  it  still  actually  is  in  many  of  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  whether  in  the  shape 
of  olives  or  of  olive  oil,  an  actual  medium  of  exchange  ;  and  the 
silver  coins  of  Attica  which  replaced  this  olive  currency  most 
appropriately  bore  the  olive  sprig.  The  cuttle  fish  was  an 
esteemed  dainty  by  the  Greeks,  as  it  is  to  this  day  in  Naples, 
and  also  along  the  Levant ;  and  the  coins  of  Croton  bore  its 
image.  The  ear  of  wheat  appears  on  the  coins  of  Metaportum, 
which  grew  wealthy  because  of  the  agricultural  resources  of 
Magna  Graecia. 

Before  the  invention  or  discovery  of  the  art  of  pottery,  man 
made  use  of  natural  shells,  and  many  of  the  Greek  names  for 
earthenware  vessels  are  the  names  of  sea  shells.  Even  after 
earthenware  and  wood  had  replaced  these  primitive  and  natural 
utensils,  vessels  were  fashioned,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  museums 
of  antiquities  to-day,  in  the  old  shapes.  Thus  there  are  Greek 
vases  in  the  British  Museum  which  reproduce  the  shape  of  the 
tortoise,  and  in  the  South  Sea  Islands  to  this  day  the  natives 
imitate  the  tortoise  shell  in  wood  and  earthenware.  The  tortoise 
shell  was  always  specially  valued,  and  in  China  it  was  used,  and 
perhaps  is  still  used,  to  make  bowls  of  great  beauty.  It  is  to  be 
expected  that  we  should  find,  as  we  do,  the  tortoise  shell  stand- 
ing at  the  top  of  the  ancient  Chinese  scale  of  values.  Among 
the  Greeks  and  other  Mediterranean  peoples  it  was  also  valued ; 
and  it  was  the  principal  article  with  which  the  citizens  of  Aegina 
carried  on  their  trade  with  the  Phrenicians.  It  naturally,  there- 
fore, was  a  unit  in  their  scale,  and  when  the  shell  and  commodity 
currency  was  replaced  among  them,  as  among  the  other  Greek 
peoples,  by  silver  coins,  they  stamped  their  silver  coin  with  the 
image  of  the  tortoise.  And  they  took  pains  to  make  the  coin 
actually  represent  the  tortoise,  for  it  has  a  high  round  upper 
side  with  a  flat  under  side  and  markings  to  indicate  the  shell. 
The  scarabs  of  Egypt,  pieces  of  baked  clay  or  porcelain,  cut  or 
moulded  in  the  shape  of  beetles  and  tortoises,  were  in  all  proba- 


202  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

bility  used  as  money  and  represent  an  earlier  shell,  probably 
tortoise  shell  currency.* 

In  time  the  mercantile  significance  of  these  symbols  was 
forgotten,  and  a  religious  interpretation  placed  on  them.  But 
even  in  the  peculiar  deities  of  a  district  we  may  often  trace  the 
history  of  its  early  commerce  ;  and  the  religious  symbolism  of 
the  later  coins  does  not  contradict  the  mercantile  significance  of 
the  images  on  the  early  ones.  Early  peoples,  and  later  ones, 
very  easily  discover  grandiose  explanations  for  what  in  their 
origin  are  commonplace  facts.  To  take  but  one  instance.  The 
famous  iron  money  of  Sparta,  which,  according  to  tradition, 
Lycurgus  caused  to  be  dipped  in  vinegar  while  red  hot  to  render 
it  worthless  as  a  commodity,  thus  to  restrain  the  cupidity  of  the 
citizen  soldiers,  was  in  all  probability  not  adopted  from  any 
ascetic  motive.  The  current  explanation  was,  without  doubt,  an 
aetiological  myth,  a  grandiose  explanation  long  after  the  com- 
monplace event.  The  iron  money  was  the  survival  of  a  time 
when  iron  was  a  favorite  article  of  exchange,  as  it  was  in  the 
Homeric  age,  and  as  it  still  is,  as  we  have  seen,  in  Africa  to-day. 
But  the  Spartans  were  a  very  conservative  people,  and  clung  to 
their  primitive  money  long  after  the  superiority  of  other  metals 
for  coinage  had  been  demonstrated  by  experience ;  and  long 
after  the  real  origin  of  their  money  had  been  forgotten.  To 
explain  their  own  backwardness,  they  gave,  as  so  many  other 
peoples  have  given,  a  religious  and  moral  sanction  to  their  own 
lack  of  progressiveness/f- 

After  the  introduction  of  metallic  money  there  was  room  for 
a  long  process  of  development.  Man  had  still  to  determine 
which  of  the  metals  was  the  most  suitable  for  his  purposes  ; 
and  the  actual  selection  which  civilized  man  has  made  is  the 
result  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest.  There  are  certain  qualities 
which  we  have  come  to  look  for  in  money,  qualities  which  all 
metals  seem  to  possess  in  a  greater  degree  than  any  one  sub- 
stance, but  qualities  which  all  metals  do  not  possess  in  the  same 

*Del  Mar:  op.  cit.,  p.  147. 
tEnc.  Brit.,  Art.  Money. 


THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON.  203 

degree.  These  are  Utility,  Portability,  Indestructibility,  Homo- 
geneity, Divisibility,  Stability  of  Value,  (Cognizability.  These 
qualities  are  possessed  in  an  especial  degree  by  gold  and  silver, 
and  in  a  less  degree  by  copper.  Iron  was  used,  and  is  still  used 
in  many  regions ;  but  it  is  not  the  best  money  material  because 
of  its  cheapness.  It  does  not  contain  great  value  in  small  bulk, 
and  it  is  not  indestructible.  Lead  was  used  in  classical  times, 
and  is  still  current  in  Burmah,  but  it  is  too  soft  to  be  made  into 
good  coins  which  will  retain  their  stamp  and  be  always  cogniz- 
able. Tin  was  early  adopted  as  a  money  material.  It  was 
coined  by  Dionysius,  of  Syracuse,  who  was  the  first  to  use  it  of 
whom  we  can  speak  with  certainty  ;  and  it  has  remained  in  use 
as  a  money  material  ever  since.  In  1680,  Charles  II.  issued  tin 
farthings,  and  his  example  was  followed  by  William  and  Mary 
in  1690;  and  it  was  employed  in  Java,  Mexico,  and  elsewhere. 
But  it  has  the  defect  of  being  too  soft.  Copper,  either  pure  or 
in  alloy,  has  been  extensively  employed,  and  it  possesses  almost 
all  the  qualities  requisite,  except  that  it  does  not  contain  great 
value  in  small  bulk,  and  has  comparatively  little  stability  of 
value.  Platinum  is  in  many  respects  suited  for  currency  pur- 
purposes,  but  it  is  in  but  slight  demand,  and  the  stock  on 
hand  is  very  small.  Consequently  any  change  in  the  demand 
is  apt  to  cause  great  fluctuations  in  value.  Russia,  which  owns 
platinum  mines  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  began  to  coin  it  in  1828, 
but  abandoned  the  experiment  in  1845,  because  of  the  cost  of 
striking  coins.  Nickel  has  been  largely  used  in  alloy,  but  it  is 
subject  to  the  disadvantage  of  fluctuations  in  value  owing  to  the 
limited  number  of  mines.  Silver  and  gold  are  pre-eminently 
the  metals  suitable  for  coinage.  They  possess  all  the  qualities 
necessary  in  a  currency  material.  These  qualities,  of  course, 
they  do  not  possess  in  a  perfect  degree  ;  but  they  possess  them 
in  a  higher  degree  than  any  other  substances.  They  have  great 
utility.  They  contain  great  value  in  small  bulk  and  are  readily 
portable.  Except  by  the  slow  process  of  wear  and  tear  they  are 
practically  indestructible.  They  are  almost  perfectly  homo- 
genous after  they  have  been  reduced  to  uniform  degrees  of 


204  THE    NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    MONEY — DAVIDSON. 

fineness,  which  can  be  easily  done,  so  that  equal  weights  of  them 
have  practically  equal  values.  They  can  be  easily  divided  into 
the  weights  and  fractions  desired  so  as  to  express  large  values 
and  small  values.  They  have  a  very  large  degree  of  stability 
of  value,  not  so  much  perhaps  as  wheat,  but  more  than,  most 
articles  which  could  be  employed  as  money.  And  lastly,  they 
are  readily  recognizable  and  cannot  be  easily  counterfeited,  and 
above  all,  are  soft  enough  and  yet  hard  enough  to  be  coinable, 
"  so  that  a  portion,  being  once  issued  according  to  proper  regu- 
lations with  the  impress  of  the  state,  may  be  known  to  all  as 
good  and  legal  currency  equal  in  weight,  size  and  value  to  all 
similarly  marked  currency."* 

The  precious  metals  are  simply  those  commodities  which 
experience  has  shown  to  be  the  most  suitable  for  general  money 
purposes.  This,  or  than  money  article,  may  have  this  or  that 
money  quality  in  a  higher  degree  than  gold  or  silver,  but  taking 
them  all  in  all,  the  precious  metals  have  been  found  to  be  the 
most  suitable.  They  have  survived,  not  because  of  any  prejudice 
in  favor  of  the  metals,  but  because  they  have  shown  themselves 
to  be  the  fittest  to  survive. 

Mevons  :  Money  and  the  Mechanism  of  Exchange,  p.  40. 


VI. — ON  THE  PRESENCE  OF  ACID  SULPHATE  OF  COPPER  IN 
MIXTURES  OF  AQUEOUS  SOLUTIONS  OF  SULPHURIC  ACID 
AND  COPPER  SULPHATE  — By  CHARLES  F.  LINDSAY,  Dal- 

housie  College,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Communicated  on  8th  May,  1899,  by  Prof.  E.  Mackay,  Ph.  D.) 

Anton  Schrader*  in  a  paper  on  the  "  Electrolysis  of  Mixtures,'' 
measured  the  conductivity  and  other  properties  of  solutions 
containing  mixtures  of  sulphuric  acid  and  copper  sulphate, 
analysing  his  mixtures  for  the  amount  of  acid  present  by  titra- 
tion.  In  his  paper,  no  methods  of  any  kind  are  given  for  the 
analyses.  Prof.  MacGregorf  has  held  that  Schrader's  results 
point  towards  the  presence  of  acid  sulphate  of  copper  in 
the  solution.  At  the  suggestion  of  Prof.  Mackay  this  work  was 
undertaken  to  find  if  any  light  could  be  obtained  on  this  ques- 
tion by  chemical  analytical  methods. 

The  work  was  carried  out  in  the  Chemical  and  Physical 
laboratories  of  Dalhousie  College,  and  consisted  primarily  in 
making  up  solutions  of  sulphuric  acid  and  copper  sulphate, 
analysing  them,  and  determining  their  densities.  In  the  begin- 
ning the  densities  were  taken  only  as  a  means  of  calculating  the 
concentration  of  the  mixtures  from  the  concentration  of  the 
simple  solutions.  The  work  also  included  the  purification  of  the 
materials  used,  and  the  calibration  of  burettes  and  pipettes. 

Calibration  of  Burettes  and  Pipettes. 

All  burettes  and  pipettes  were  carefully  calibrated,  by  weigh- 
ing the  amount  of  water  of  known  temperature  which  they 
delivered.  The  burettes  used  could  be  read  to  .01  c.c.  They 
were  calibrated  for  every  2  c.c.  throughout  their  length. 

The  pipettes,  in  emptying,  were  held  against  the  side  of  the 
vessel  into  which  they  were  being  emptied,  the  last  drops  of 
water  being  removed  by  blowing  sharply  once. 

*  Inaugural  Dissertation,  Berlin,  1897. 
t  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Canada,  (2),  4,  Sec.  3, 117, 1898-9. 

(205) 


206  SOLUTIONS    OF    SULPHURIC    ACID 

Purification  and  Analysis  of  Copper   Sulphate. 

The  copper  sulphate  was  obtained  as  chemically  pure,  and 
after  careful  re-crystallization,  was  found  to  be  free  from  iron 
and  the  members  of  the  ammonium  sulphide  group. 

The  copper  sulphate  solutions  were  analysed  by  precipitating 
the  sulphate,  in  known  volume,  with  barium  chloride,  and  weigh- 
ing as  barium  sulphate. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  three  analyses  of  the  same 
solution : — 

Cu  S04  in  5  c.c.  of  solution  =  .5782  grammes. 

=  .5788 
=  .5790 

Mean =  .5787 

These  figures  would  seem  to  show  that  my  results  might  be 
in  error  about  0.1  per  cent. 

Purity  and  Analysis  of  Sulphuric  Acid. 

The  sulphuric  acid  was  the  best  obtainable  from  Merck,  and 
was  taken  as  chemically  pure.  The  sulphuric  acid  solutions 
were  analysed  volumetrically  with  standard  caustic  potash, 
using  as  an  indicator  phenol  phthalein. 

The  following  results  show  with  what  accuracy  such  analyses 
could  be  carried  out : — 

2  c.c.  H2  S04  solution  contained  .1627  grammes  H2  S04 


"      .1624 

Mean -    .16253       " 

Thus,  the  possible  error  of  a  single  measurement  would  seem 
to  be  about  0.11  per  cent. 

Preparation  and  Analysis  of  Mixtures. 

Equal  volumes  of  the  simple  solutions,  whose  concentrations 
and  densities  were  known,  were  mixed  at  18°C.  The  density  of 
the  mixture  being  obtained,  the  concentration  of  the  mixture 
with  respect  to  each  of  the  constituents,  was  obtainable. 


AND    COPPER    SULPHATE — LINDSAY.  207 

The  ordinary  methods  of  acid  titration  are,  of  course,  unavail- 
able in  this  case,  for  not  only  does  the  copper  sulphate  itself 
affect  alkalimetric  indicators,  but  the  sulphate  is  precipitated  as 
hydroxide,  by  the  base  used  for  titration.  The  latter  fact  isthe 
one  used  in  the  method  of  titration  which  was  employed. 

Standard  caustic  potash  solution  is  added  from  a  burette  to 
the  mixture,  with  constant  stirring,  until  the  solution  just  begins 
to  become  cloudy,  owing  to  the  beginning  of  the  precipitation  of 
the  hydroxide  of  copper.  I  found  that,  using  this  precipitating 
point  as  an  indicator,  very  good  determinations  of  the  acid 
present  could  be  obtained,  and  would  suggest  that  copper  sul- 
phate might  be  used  as  an  indicator  in  the  determination  of  free 
sulphuric  acid,  in  cases  where  the  ordinary  indicators  are  of 
no  use. 

The  following  results  of  an  analysis  will  show  with  what 
accuracy  the  determination  of  this  precipitating  point  could  be 
ascertained  : 

5  c.c.  of  a  mixture  CuS04  +  H2  S04,  began  to  be  cloudy  on 
addition   of   43.88  c.c.  decinormal  caustic  potash. 
43.97 
43.99 
44.86 


43.92   =  mean. 

Tnus,  in  these  determinations,  the  difference  between  the  greatest 
and  least  values  would  be  about  .3%. 

A  second  set  of  determinations  is  added : 

5  c.c.  of  a  mixture  CuSO4  +  H2SO^,  began  to  become  cloudy 
on  addition  of  28  94  c.c.  of  decinormal  caustic  potash. 
28.91 
28.99 


28.95  =   mean 

In  this   case,  the  difference    between    the  greatest    and    least 
values  is  about  .27%. 


208 


SOLUTIONS    OF    SULPHURIC    ACID 


It  is  thus  seen  not  only  that  the  precipitating  point  is  a  per- 
fectly definite  one,  but  that  it  can  be  determined  with  consider- 
able accuracy. 

The  next  question  is,  whether  it  expresses  accurately  th& 
amount  of  acid  present. 


Concentration. 

H2  S04 

Error. 

H2  S04 

CuS04 

Calculated. 

Found. 

.416 
.277 

.364 
.727 

.2036 
.1356 

.2039 
.1357 

+  •!&% 

+  .08% 

Column  I.  contains  the  concentration  of  H2S04  in  mixture  in 

gramme-molecules  per  litre. 
"      II.  contains  the  concentration   of  CuSO4  in  mixture  in 

gramme-molecules  per  litre. 
"    III.  contains  the  amt.  of  H28O4  in  grammes,  calculated  to 

be  in  every  5  c.c.  of  mixture. 

"     IV.  contains  the  same,  as  found  in  every  5  c.c.  of  mixture. 
"      V.  contains  the  percentage  error. 

We  thus  see  that  by  this  means,  the  sulphuric  acid  present 
can  be  determined  with  considerable  accuracy. 

In  the  above  analyses,  the  mixture  under  analysis  was  dilu- 
ted very  much,  the  reason  being,  that  so  far  the  work  has  been 
only  to  find  a  good  method  of  analysis,  and  not  to  prove  or 
disprove  the  presence  of  acid  sulphate. 

But  now  a  number  of  analyses  were  performed  on  the  above 
mixtures,  keeping  the  mixtures  concentrated,  and  in  no  case  was 
there  any  appreciable  difference  in  the  amount  of  caustic  potash 
needed  before  precipitation  would  commence. 

The  results  obtained  from  analyses  of  the  concentrated  mix- 
tures, gave,  as  a  rule,  slightly  less  quantities  of  sulphuric  acid. 
But  this  I  would  attribute  to  the  fact  that  the  precipitate  would 
be  more  easily  noticed  in  the  smaller  volume  than  in  the  larger^ 


AND    COPPER    SULPHATE — LINDSAY.  209 

I  also  made  a  number  of  determinations,  using  standard 
ammonia  in  place  of  the  standard  potash,  but  although  the  pre- 
cipitating point  could  be  fairly  well  determined,  the  results  did 
not  agree  as  well  with  the  amount  of  sulphuric  acid  known  to  be 
present. 

We  thus  see  that  this  method  of  chemical  analysis  for  sul- 
phuric acid,  while  it  gives  us  a  good  method  of  analysis  for  such 
mixtures,  sheds  no  light  on  the  presence  of  acid  sulphate  in 
solution. 

While  any  recognizable  decrease  in  the  amount  of  sulphuric 
acid  given  up  to  analysis  from  that  known  to  be  present,  would 
yield  an  almost  conclusive  proof  of  the  presence  of  acid  sulphate, 
the  result  obtained  here,  does  not  of  necessity  lead  to  the  reverse 
conclusion. 

Specific  Gravity  Measurements. 

All  specific  gravity  measurements  were  made  at  18°,  and  are 
referred  to  water  at  18°.  In  these  measurements,  a  pycnometer 
of  the  form  recommended  by  Ostwald,  and  holding  about  25  c.c. 
was  used. 

The  pycnometer  was  brought  to  18°  by  being  placed  in  a 
water  bath,  provided  with  a  mechanical  stirrer,  whose  tem- 
perature could  easily  be  kept  constant  to  1/20  of  a  degree. 
When  the  liquid  had  come  to  the  temperature  of  the  bath,  the 
meniscus  was  brought  to  the  mark,  the  pycnometer  taken  out, 
dipped  in  distilled  water,  dried  carefully  with  a  linen  towel,  and 
weighed. 

From  several  successive  measurements  of  the  same  solution, 
it  would  appear  that  my  measurements  of  density  might  be  in 
error  by  about  5  in  the  fifth  place  of  decimals. 

Favre  and  Valson*  have  found  that,  in  the  case  of  concentra- 
ted solutions  of  K2SO4  and  CuSO4,  and  K2S04  and  H2SO4,  the 
density  of  a  mixture  of  equal  volumes  of  the  constituents,  is  less 
than  the  mean  value  of  their  densities.  From  these  results  they 

*Compt.  Rend.,  77, 907. 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— N. 


210 


SOLUTIONS   OF  SULPHURIC   ACID,   ETC. — LINDSAY. 


drew  the  conclusion  that  acid  or  double  sulphate  was  present  in 
solution.  Also  McKayf-  has  noticed  the  same  for  mixtures  of 
potassium  and  magnesium  sulphates. 

In  the  case  of  more  concentrated  solutions  of  CuSO4  and 
H2S04)  I  have  found  the  same  result  to  hold.  But  from  lack  of 
time  I  was  unable  to  push  this  far. 

I  give  two  of  my  measurements,  showing  the  concentration 
and  density  of  the  constituents,  the  density  of  the  mixture,  and 
its  departure  from  the  mean  value. 


Parts   of 
Ha  SO*  in  100 
parts  Sol'tion. 

Parts  of 
CuSO4  in  100 
parts  Sol'tion. 

Density 
H2  SO4 

Density 
CuSO*. 

Mean 
Value. 

Density 
of 
Mixture. 

Differ- 
ence. 

17.41 

16.083 

1.12586 

1.19108 

1.15842 

1.15603 

.00239 

16.23 

13.877 

1.11525 

1.14802 

1.13163 

1.12952 

.00211 

t  Trans.  N.  S.  lust.  Sci.,  9,  348,  1897-98. 


VII.  —  ON  A  DIAGRAM  OF  FREEZING-POINT  DEPRESSIONS  FOR 
ELECTROLYTES.  —  BY  PROF.  J.  G.  MACGREGOR,  Dalhousie 
College,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Received  June  20th,  WOO.) 

The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  describe  a  diagrammatic  method 
of  taking  a  bird's-eye  view  of  such  knowledge  as  we  possess  of 
the  relation  of  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point  to  the  state 
of  ionization  in  aqueous  solutions  of  electrolytes,  and  to  show 
that  such  diagrammatic  study  gives  promise  of  throwing  much 
light  upon  the  following  questions:  (1.)*  —  Has  the  depression 
constant  a  common  value  for  all  electrolytes,  and  if  so,  what 
is  it  ?  And  (2),  What  is  the  state  of  association,  and  what  the 
mode  of  ionization  of  electrolytes,  in  solution  ? 

Construction  and  Properties  of  the  Diagram.  . 

If  an  extremely  dilute  solution  contain  an  electrolyte  whose 
molecule,  as  it  exists  in  solution,  contains  p  equivalents,  and  dis- 
sociates into  q  free  ions,  and  if  a  is  its  ionization  coefficient  and 
k  its  depression  constant,  the  equivalent  depression  will  be  : 


If  therefore  we  plot  a  diagram  of  curves  with  ionization  coeffici- 
ents as  ordinates,  and  equivalent  depressions  as  abscissae,  the 
resulting  curves  must,  at  extreme  dilution  (a  =  1),  be  tangential 
to  the  straight  lines  represented  by  the  above  equation,  provided 
the  proper  values  of  k,  p,  and  q  be  employed.  These  straight 
lines,  which,  for  shortness,  we  may  call  the  tangent  lines  of  the 
curves,  can  readily  be  drawn  in  the  diagram,  with  any  assumed 
value  of  k,  and  on  any  admissible  assumptions  as  to  the  values 
of  p  and  q.  In  the  diagram  on  page  235  the  dashed  lines  are  the 

*  On  this  question,  see  also  a  paper  recently  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society 
of  Canada,  and  to  be  published  in  its  Transactions  for  1900. 

(211) 


212  ON    A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 

tangent  lines  for  the  electrolytes  examined,  on  various  assump- 
tions as  to  constitution  in  solution  and  mode  of  ioniZation,  and 
for  k=  1.85.  They  are  indicated  by  the  inscriptions  1 — 2,  2 — 3, 
etc.,  the  first  figure  in  each  giving  the  number  of  equivalents  in 
the  molecule  as  it  is  assumed  to  exist  in  solution,  and  the  second, 
the  number  of  free  ions  into  which  the  molecule  is  assumed  to 
dissociate.  Thus  1 — 2  is  the  tangent  line  for  an  electrolyte  such 
as  NaCl,  on  the  assumption  that  it  exists  in  solution  in  single 
molecules,  each  of  which  has  therefore  1  equivalent,  and  disso- 
ciates into  2  ions.  If  assumed  to  associate  in  double  molecules, 
with  unchanged  mode  of  ioni/ation,  its  tangent  line  would  be 
indicated  by  2 — 4,  and  if  the  double  molecules  were  assumed  to 
dissociate  into  Na  and  NaCl2,  by  2 — 2.  The  line  for  HaS04,  on 
the  assumption  that  its  molecules  undergo  no  association,  and 
have  thus  2  equivalents,  and  that  they  dissociate  each  into  3 
ions,  would  be  2 — 3  ;  and  4 — 6  would  be  its  line  if  it  associated 
into  double  molecules,  dissociationg  each  into  6  ions. 

In  a  few  cases  dotted  lines  have  been  introduced,  to  show 
what  the  tangent  lines  would  be  with  other  values  of  k, — 1.83, 
1.84,  1.86,  1.87,  the  constant  used  in  such  cases  being  indicated. 
The  curve  for  any  given  electrolyte,  must  start  at  the  inter- 
section of  its  tangent  line  with  the  line :  a  =  1,  to  which  point  we 
may  refer,  for  shortness,  as  the  intersection  of  its  tangent  line. 
What  its  form  will  be,  may  be  anticipated  from  the  following 
theoretical  considerations  : — The  equivalent  depression  in  dilute 
solutions  of  non-electrolytes,  is  proportional  to  the  osmotic  pres- 
sure, P,  and  the  dilution,  V,  which  corresponds  to  the  product  of 
the  pressure,  p,  and  the  specific  volume,  v,  in  the  case  of  a  gas. 
If  pv  is  plotted  against  v,  the  resulting  curve  is  convex  towards 
the  axis  of  v,  and  passes,  in  general,  through  a  point  of  minimum 
value  of  pv.  Hence,  if  PV,  and  therefore  equivalent  depression, 
be  plotted  against  V,  we  may  expect  to  get  curves  of  the  same 
general  form.  And  experiment  shows,  in  some  cases  at  least, 
that  we  do.  As  in  the  case  of  gases  the  variation  of  pv  is 
ascribed  to  the  mutual  action  of  the  molecules  and  their  finite 
volume,  so  in  the  case  of  solutions,  the  variation  of  PV  is  attrib- 
uted to  similar  disturbing:  influences. 


DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.  213 

Owing  to  ionization,  the  curve  of  an  electrolyse  will  differ 
from  that  of  a  non-electrolyte,  (1)  because  of  the  change  thereby 
produced  in  the  number  of  molecules  (including  free  ions)  in  unit 
of  volume,  and  (2)  because  of  the  change  produced  in  the  dis- 
turbing influences  referred  to.  The  former  change  is  doubtless 
the  more  important,  and  I  shall  assume  the  latter  to  be  negligible 
for  the  present  purpose.  Now  dissociation  increases  continu- 
ously with  dilution.  If,  therefore,  association  of  molecules  does 
not  occur,  and  if  the  mode  of  ionization  does  not  change,  the 
equivalent  depression  must  be  increased  by  the  dissociation,  in  a 
ratio  which  increases  continuously  with  dilution.  The  change 
produced  in  the  curve  by  dissociation,  therefore,  will  be  a  shear 
parallel  to  the  equivalent  depression  axis,  and  increasing  with 
dilution.  The  resulting  curve  will  consequently  remain  convex 
towards  the  axis  of  dilution,  but  it  will  be  less  likely  than  the 
curve  of  a  non-electrolyte,  to  exhibit  the  minimum  point. 

If,  now,  we  plot  equivalent  depression  against  ionization 
coefficient,  instead  of  dilution,  the  result  will  be  the  same  as  if 
we  shortened  the  dilution  ordinates  of  the  various  points  of  the 
curve  just  mentioned,  in  ratios  increasing  with  the  dilution, 
which  process  must  leave  the  curve  convex  towards  what  was 
the  dilution  axis,  but  is  now  the  ionization  coefficient  axis. 

If,  therefore,  no  change  occur  in  the  association  of  molecules 
or  in  the  mode  of  ionization,  the  curve  of  an  electrolyte  on  the 
diagram  must  start  at  the  intersection  of  its  tangent  line,  tangen- 
tially  to  that  line,  and  bend  away  from  it,  as  dilution  diminishes, 
to  the  right,  possibly  passing  through  a  point  of  minimum 
equivalent  depression.  We  may  speak  of  such  a  curve  as  the 
normal  curve  for  the  tangent  line,  corresponding  to  the  given 
conditions  as  to  constitution  in  solution,  and  mode  of  ionization. 

If,  the  constitution  of  the  electrolyte  in  the  solution  remaining 
constant,  the  mode  of  ionization  changes  as  dilution  diminishes, 
say,  in  such  a  way  that  the  molecules  dissociate,  on  the  average, 
into  a  smaller  number  of  ions,  the  equivalent  depression  will 
diminish  more  rapidly  than  it  otherwise  would.  The  curvature 
of  the  curve  will  therefore  diminish,  and  may  possibly  become 


214  ON    A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 

zero,  and  change  sign,  the  curve  thus  becoming  concave  towards 
the  ionization  coefficient  axis,  and  possibly  crossing  the  tangent 
line.  In  such  a  case,  it  will  at  the  start  coincide  with  the  normal 
curve  of  the  tangent  line  determined  by  the  initial  conditions  as 
to  association  and  mode  of  ionization,  and  at  the  finish,  with  the 
normal  curve  of  the  tangent  line,  determined  by  the  final  con- 
ditions; and  between  the  start  and  the  finish  it  will  gradually 
change  from  the  one  to  the  other. 

If,  as  dilution  diminishes,  association  of  molecules  into  double 
or  other  multiple  molecules  occurs,  the  mode  of  ionization 
remaining  the  same,  the  equivalent  depression  will  be  thereby 
made  to  diminish  more  rapidly  than  it  otherwise  would,  and  the 
general  effect  on  the  form  of  the  curve,  will  be  of  the  same  kind 
as  under  the  conditions  just  considered.  But  the  normal  curves 
of  the  tangent  lines  determined  by  the  final  conditions,  will  be 
quite  different  in  the  two  cases. 

It  follows  that  by  plotting,  so  far  as  experiment  allows,  the 
curves  of  observed  equivalent  depression  against  ionization 
coefficient,  and  drawing  in  the  tangent  lines  for  different  values 
of  the  depression  constant,  and  on  different  assumptions  as  to 
association  and  mode  of  ionization,  we  may  be  able  to  determine, 
with  a  smaller  or  greater  probability,  what  the  state  of  associa- 
tion and  the  mode  of  ionization  are,  what  are  the  tangent  lines 
to  whose  intersections  the  curves  would  run  out  if  observations 
at  extreme  dilution  could  be  made,  and  what  the  values  of  the 
depression  constant  are,  to  which  these  lines  correspond. 

Data  for  the  Diagram. 

To  draw  the  experimental  curves,  we  must  have  correspond- 
ing values  of  the  depression,  and  of  the  ionization  coefficient,  at 
the  freezing  point,  or,  what  in  most  cases  would  be  sufficiently 
near,  at  0°C.  The  former  are  obtained  by  direct  measure- 
ment ;  but  the  latter  only  indirectly,  from  conductivity  observa- 
tions. It  is  not,  of  course,  known  how  closely  the  ionization 
coefficients,  even  during  the  passage  of  the  current,  can  thus  be 
determined,  or  if  the  state  of  ionization  during  the  passage  of  the 


DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.  215 

current  is  to  be  regarded  as  being  the  same  as  when  the  current 
is  not  flowing.  But  as  it  has  been  shown  that  electrically  deter- 
mined coefficients  enable  us  to  predict  within  the  limit  of  error 
of  observation,  not  only  the  conductivity  and  the  results  of 
electrolysis*  of  moderately  dilute  complex  solutions,  but  also  their 
density,  viscosity,  and  other  non-electrical  properties,^  it  would 
appear  to  be  probable  that  for  moderately  dilute  and  very  dilute 
solutions,  electrically  determined  coefficients  are  approximately 
exact,  not  only  for  a  solution  through  which  a  current  is  passing, 
but  generally. 

The  available  data  as  to  ionixation  coefficients  at  0°,  are 
unfortunately  few.  Whethanrf  has  recently  published  some 
most  valuable  determinations,  having  measured  the  conductivity 
at  0°,  of  series  of  solutions  down  to  extreme  dilution,  with  what 
one  may  call  appareil  de  luxe,  and  found  the  ratio  of  the  equiv- 
alent conductivity  to  the  maximum  equivalent  conductivity.  For 
neutral  salts,  his  coefficients  must  inspire  great  confidence.  But 
in  the  case  of  the  acids,  they  seem  to  me  to  be  probably  too  high. 
For  the  maximum  equivalent  conductivity  of  an  acid  is  probably 
lower  than  it  would  be,  were  it  not  for  the  disturbing  influence 
whatever  it  is,  which  makes  the  equivalent-conductivity-con- 
centration curve  not  only  reach,  but  pass  through  a  maximum 
point. 

Archibald  and  Barnes,:}:  working  in  my  laboratory- ,  measured 
the  conductivity  at  0°  and  18°  for  series  of  solutions,  down  to 
dilutions,  at  which  the  ratio  of  the  two  conductivities  became 
constant ;  and  assuming  that  the  same  ratio  would  hold  at 
extreme  dilution,  they  calculated  the  equivalent  conductivity  at 
extreme  dilution  for  0°  from  Kohlrausch's  values  for  18°.  They 
used  this  method  only  because  appliances  were  not  available, 
with  which  observations  at  extreme  dilution  could  be  made.  If 

*  MacGregor :   Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Can.  (2),  4,  Sec.  3, 117, 1898. 

t  MacGregor :  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.  9.  219.  1895-7,  and  Phil.  Mag.  (5),  43,  46  and 
99,1897.  Also  Archibald  :  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.  9, 335,  1897-8,  and  Barnes  :  Ibid.,  10,  49. 
and  113, 1899-1900. 

t  Ztschr.  f.  phys.  Chem.,  33, 344, 1900. 

t  Archibald  :  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  10.  33,  1898-9.  Barnes  :  Ibid.,  10.  139,  1899- 
1900,  and  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Canada,  (2),  6,  — ,  1900. 


216  ON    A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 

the  ratio  mentioned  really  does  become  constant  as  dilution 
increases,  the  method  is  likely  to  give  coefficients  with  too  low 
or  too  high  values,  according  as  the  ratio  at  moderate  dilutions 
diminishes  or  increases  with  dilution  (it  was  found  to  increase 
with  KC1  and  K2SO4.)  For  it  will  probably  become  constant 
within  the  limit  of  error  of  observation, before  it  has  really  reached 
constancy.  And  if  it  changes  with  dilution  in  a  slightly  wavy 
manner,  even  though  on  the  whole  tending  to  constancy,  it  may 
be  regarded  as  having  become  constant,  when  really  passing 
through  a  maximum  or  a  minimum  point. 

Deguisne's*  observations  on  the  variation  of  conductivity 
with  temperature  between  2°C  and  34°  have  enabled  me,  by  the 
method  just  mentioned,  to  make  rough  determinations  of  the 
ionization  coefficients  at  0°  in  some  cases,  on  the  assumption  that 
his  empirical  constants  might  be  used  down  to  0°.  According  to 
Deguisne's  observations,  the  ratio  of  the  conductivities  at  0°  and 
18°  usually  changes  gradually  down  to  dilutions  of  1,000  litres 
per  gramme-equivalent,  and  between  that  and  2.000,  undergoes 
rapid  change.  As  observations  at  great  dilution  are  attended  by 
considerable  difficulty,  I  have  assumed  that  these  sudden  changes 
were  probably  due  to  errors  of  observation.  If  they  were  not, 
my  Deguisne  coefficients  (for  which  De'guisne  himself  is  of  course 
not  to  be  held  responsible)  may  be  considerably  out. 

In  some  cases,  1  have  obtained  coefficients  from  the  above 
data  by  extrapolation,  in  order  to  make  use  of  available  depres- 
sion data.  In  such  cases  I  have  plotted,  side  by  side,  ionization- 
coefficient-concentration  curves,  for  both  0°  and  18°,  using  values 
for  18°  based  on  Kohlrausch's  conductivities,  and  I  have  then 
produced  the  0°  curve  beyond  the  limit  of  observation,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  18°  curve. 

I  have  used  all  the  accessible  observations  of  depression  in  the 
case  of  the  electrolytes  for  which  data  were  available  for  deter- 
ing  the  ionization  coefficients  at  0°,  including  observations  by 


*  Temperatur-CoefHcienten  des  Leitvermogens  sehr  verdiinnter  LSstingen,  Dis- 
sertation, Strassburg,  1895.  See  also  Kohlrausch  u.  Holborn  :  Leitvermogen  der  Elek- 
trolyte,  Leipzig,  1898. 


DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES— MACGREGOR.  217 

Arrhenius,1  Raoult,2  Loomis,8 Jones,4  Abegg,5  Wilderraann,6Ponsot,7 
Archibald8  and  Barnes8.  The  methods  used  by  these  observers 
are,  for  the  most  part,  well  known.  Archibald  and  Barnes  used 
modified  forms  of  Loomis's  method.  Arrhenius's  observations, 
and  some  of  Raoult's,  were  made  before  important  improvements 
in  freezing-point  determinations  had  been  recognised,  as  neces- 
sary. 

In  cases  in  which  there  was  but  one  series  of  observations 
available,  I  have  plotted  the  actual  observations  in  the  diagram, 
though  sometimes  smoothing  the  curves  a  little.  In  cases  in 
which  two  or  more  series  were  available,  I  first  plotted  the  vari- 
ous observations,  and  then  drew  mean  curves,  making  them 
represent  all  the  observations  as  well  as  I  could,  but  giving 
greater  weight  to  recent  observations  than  to  those  of  earlier 
date,  and  to  long  series  of  consistent  observations  than  to  short 
series,  or  to  series  which  were  more  erratic. 

The  following  table  gives  the  data  employed  in  plotting  both 
the  curves  given  in  the  diagram,  and  those  not  so  given,  which 
are  referred  to  below.  The  table  includes  the  concentration  in 
gramme-equivalents  per  litre,  the  ionization  coefficient  at  0°,  and 
the  equivalent  depression  in  degrees  centigrade  per  gramme- 
equivalent  in  one  litre  of  solution.  The  interpolated  coefficients 
are  indicated  by  i,  and  those  extrapolated  by  e,  and  the  observers 
from,  or  by  the  aid  of,  whose  observations  they  were  obtained, 
by  A,  B,  D,  W,  representing  Archibald,  Barnes,  D6guisne  and 
Whetham.  Non-significant  figures  are  printed  in  italics. 


1  Ztschr,  f.  phys.  Chemie.  2,  491. 1888. 

2  Ibid.,  2,  501.  1888,  and  27,  617, 1898. 

3  Phys.  Review,  1,  199  and  274,  1893-4  ;  3,  270,  1896,  and  4,  273,  1897. 

4  Ztschr.  f.  phys.  Chem.,  11,  110  and  529, 1893 ;  and  12,  623,  1893. 
8  Ibid.  20,  207, 1896. 

«  Ibid.  19,  233, 1896. 

7  Recherches  sur  la  Cong61ation  des  Solutions  Aqueuses  :  Paris,  Gauthier-Villars, 
1896. 


218 


ON    A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 


Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
at  0°C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization      Trm,jVaipnf 
C°aCtfflO'C?nt     SesS 

KC1.  (Barnes.) 

KC1.   (Abegg.) 

.0001 
.0002 
.0005 
.001 
.005 
.010 
.03 
.05 
.08 
.10 
.20 
.30 
.40 

.989 
.986 
.977 
.971 
.944 
.930 
.910 
.892 
.871 
.862 
.832 
.819 
.804 

.00488 
.00972 
.0118 
.0145 
.0193 
.0237 
.0240 
.0286 
.0354 
.0469 
.0583 
.0697 

.976  i.W. 
.%2 
.958 
.953 
.944 
.917i.  B. 
.917 
.912 
.904 
.895 
.887 
.878 

3.70 
3.63 
3.64 

3.63 
3.53 
3.51 
3.49 
3.51 
3.50 
3.47 
3.45 
3.43 

3.533 
3.504 
3.470 
3.458 
3.398 
3.390 
3.372 

KC1.  (Wildermann.) 

KC1.  (Loomis.) 

.009818 
.009822 
.01954 
.03883 
.0*.884 
.07652 
.07668 

.9431.  B. 
.943 
.924 
.900 
.900 
.873 
.873 

3.538 
3.583 
3.542 
3.515 
3.532 
3.491 
3.487 

.01 
.02 
.03 
.035 
.05 
.1 
.2 
.4 

.943i.  B. 
.923      ' 
.910      ' 
.905      ' 
.892      ' 
.862      ' 
.832     " 
.804    " 

3.60 
3.55 
3.52 
3.53 
3.50 
3.445 
3.404 
3.353 

KC1.  (Ponsot) 

KC1.    (Jones.) 

.0234 
.0439 
.1465 
.1688 
.2344 
.2456 
.2472 
.2544 

.915i.  B. 

.896 
.846 
.840 

.827 
.825 
.825 
.824 

3.419 
3.417 
3.413 
3.406 
3.392 
3.375 
3.378 
3.377 

.001 
.00299 
.00499 
.00698 
.00897 
.01095 
.02 
.04 
.0592 
.078 
.09646 
.2 
.28 

.992i.W. 

.983    " 
976     " 
.970    " 
.965    " 
.960    " 
.944    " 
.897i.  B. 
.885    " 
.873    " 
.863     " 
.832    " 
.821    " 

3.80 
3.675.0 
3.707^ 
3.62#> 
3.6120 
3.59.V2 
3.5750 
3.5325 
3.5367 
3.492,3 
3.468* 
3.4300 
3.41072 

NaCl.  (Barnes.) 

.0001 
.0002 
•  .0005 
.001 
.005 
.010 
.03 
.05 
.08 
.10 
.20 
.30 
.40 

.996 
.991 
.982 
.974 
.955 
.936 
.896 
.877 
.860 
..850 
.815 
.787 
.765 

KC1.  (Raoult.) 

3.573 
3.536 
3.530 
3.515 
3.443 
3.431 
3.412 

.01445 
.02895 
.05825 
.1168 

.953  i.W. 

.933    " 
.904e.W. 

.878    " 

3.523 
3.561 

3.478 
3.431 

DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 


219 


Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
at  O'C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
atO'C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

NaCl.  (Loom  is.) 

NaCl.  (Abegg.) 

.01 
.02 
.03 
.04 
.05 
.06 
.07 
.08 
.09 
.10 
.20 

.936  i.  B. 
.916    " 
.896    " 
•886    " 
.878    " 
.870    •' 
.864    " 
.860    " 
.855    " 
.850    " 
.815    " 

3.674 
3.597 
3.560 
3.541 
3.531 
3.529 
3.510 
3.501 
3.494 
5.484 
3.439 

.00241 
.00478 
.00714 
.00948 
.01180 
.01410 
.0221 
.0439 
.0653 
.0871 
.1083 

.9651.B. 
.956 
.945 
.937 
.931 
.925 
.906 
.882 
.867 
.856 
.847 

3.91 
3.91 
3.84 
3.82 
3.70 
3.66 
3.56 
3.57 
3.55 
3.50 
3.47 

NaCl.  (Jones.) 

NaCl.   (Arrhenius.) 

.001 
.002 
.<  02999 
.004 
.004998 
.005995 
.006995 
.007985 
.008985 
.01 
.02 
.0298 
.0395 
.04955 
.05975 
.0697 
.0790 
.0882 
.0973 
.1063 
.15 
.1925 
.2329 
.300 

.9741.  B. 

.967    " 
.963    " 
.959    " 
.955      ' 
.950      ' 
.947      ' 
.942      ' 
.939      ' 
.936      ' 
.915      ' 
.896      ' 
.887      ' 
.878      ' 
.870      ' 
.865      ' 
.861      ' 
.856      ' 
.851      ' 
.848      ' 
.831      ' 
.818      ' 
.805      ' 
.787     ' 

3.7500 
3.7500 
3.683 
3.650 
3.68/ 
3.675 
3.63^ 
3.625 
3.625 
3.605 
3.578 
3.544 
3.538 
3.519 
3.507 
3.500 
3.492 
3.483 
3.477 
3.469 
3.447 
3.418 
3.414 
3.410 

.0467 
.117 
.194 
.324 

.879  i.  B. 

.843    «• 
.816    " 
.781    " 

3.79 
3.64 
3.54 
3.51 

NaCl.   (Ponsot.) 

.1318 
.1808 
.2016 

.2248 
.2288 
.3136 

.836i.  B. 

.821       ' 
.814       • 
.808       ' 
.806       ' 

.784      • 

3.445 
3.418 
3.413 
3.403 
3.405 
3.402 

HC1.   (Barnes.) 

.001 
.002 
.005 
.010 
.0207 
.0518 
.0829 
.104 
.207 
.305 
.40 

.996 
.995 
.989 
.984 
.971 
.955 
.941 
.932 
.909 
.897 
.884 

NaCl.    (Raoult.) 

3.638 
3.595 
3.569 
3.556 
3.585 
3.633 
3.638 

.0300 
.0584 
.1174 
.2370 

.896  i.  B. 
.870    " 
.843    " 
.804    " 

3.656 
3.550 
3.473 

3.465 

_ 

220 


ON    A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 


Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
at  0°C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
at  0°C. 

Equiva  ent 
Depression. 

HCl.'(Loomis.); 

HN08.    (Loomis.) 

.01 
.02 
.05 
.1 
_2 
'.3 

.982  i.  B. 
.972    ' 
.955    ' 
.933    ' 
.910    ' 
.897    ' 

3.61 
3.60 
3.59 
3.546 
2.565 
3.612 

.01 
.02 
.03 
.05 

.977  i.  D. 
.967e.  D. 
.959    " 
.950    " 

3.50 
3.56 
3.53 
3.51 

HNO3.   (Jones.) 

HC1.    (Jones.) 

.001054 
.003158 
.005253 
.007378 
.009456 
.01153 
.03119 
.05103 

.994  i.  D. 
.989 
.982 
.981 
.978 
.9756.  D. 
.958 
.949 

3.795.? 
3.7682 
3.7695 
2.7409 
3.735-? 
3.7294 
3.7179 
3.7076 

.001222 
.003662 
.000112 
.008538 
.01222 
.03619 
.05919 
.08127 
.1025 
.1228 

.996  i.   B. 
.991 
.987 
.984 
.979 
.962 
.951 
.940 
.933 
.928 

3.76£S 
3.74// 
3.7467 
3.705,? 
3.674? 
3.6750 
3.661/ 
3.5856 
3.5609 
3.5692 

KOH.   (Loomis.) 

NH4C1.    (Loomis.) 

.01 
.02 
.05 
.1 

.965  i.  D. 
.956  e.  D. 
.943    " 
.932    " 

3.43 
3.45 
3.44 
3.43 

.01 
.02 
.035 
.05 

.951  i.  D. 
.931    " 
.914    " 
.900    " 

3.56 
3.56 
3.50 
3.48 

KOH.    (Jones.) 

NH4C1.   (Jones.) 

.001069 
.003202 
.005327 
.007443 
.009550 
.01069 
.03163 
.05174 
.07481 

.983  i.  D. 
.973 
.969 
.967 
.9(55 
.964e.  D. 
.950 
.942 
.935 

3.7418 
3.7477 
3.7169 
3.69^7 
3.68-59 
3.6296 
3.6265 
3.5756 
3.6142 

.001 
•00599 
.00997 
.0595 

.987  i.  D. 
.963    '• 
.951    " 
.892e.  D. 

3.8 
3.7062 
3.61ft? 
3.5145 

KNO8.   (Loomis.) 

Bad  2.  (Loomis.) 

.01 
.02 
.025 
.05 
.1 
.2 

.938i.  D. 
.915    " 
.899    " 
.876     " 
.832e.  D. 
.789    " 

3.46 
3.52 
3.46 
3.41 
3.314 
3.194 

.02 
.04 
.1 
.2 
.4 

.860'i.  W. 
.820e.  W. 
.768    " 
.724     " 
.658    " 

2.495 
2.475 
2.385 
2.345 
2.3275 

DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES— MACGREGOR. 


221 


Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
at  0°  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
at  0"  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

BaCl2.    (Jones.)* 

K2ssO4.    (Archibald.)—  Continued. 

.002 
.003996 
.005988 
.008 
.009984 
.011964 
.01394 
.01592 
.01788 
.02 

.953  I  W. 
.932 
.917 
.906 
.8% 
.889 
.880 
.872 
.866 
.860 

2.7500 
2.7027 
2.6720 
2.6250 
2.&142 
2.582* 
2.5755 
2.575^ 
2.5560 
2.5500 

.002 
.004 
.005 
.008 
.010 
.050 
.055 
.060 
.070 
.080 
.100 
.200 
.250 
.300 
.350 
.400 
.450 
.500 
.600 
.700 

.925 
.904 
.895 
.871 
.859 
.755 
.748 
.743 
.732 
.722 
.705 
.645 
.629 
.616 
.606 
.598 
.591 
.588 
.583 
.580 

2.370 
2.356 
2.345 
2.327 
2.314 
2.285 
2.161 
2.118 
2.080 
2.056 
2.032 
2.014 
1.990 
1.950 
1.916 

BaCl2.    (Ponsot) 

.00926 
.00994 
.01030 
.01290 
.01304 
.02500 
.02740 
.03310 
.03588 
.03676 
.03824 
.04810 
.05112 
.05520 
.0620 
.0680 
.0774 
.2060 
.2095 
.2235 
.3100 
.3280 
.3470 

.900  i.  W. 

.897 
.895 
.887 
.883 
.845 
.839 
.827  e.  W. 
.822 
.820 
.818 
.803 
.802 
.796 
.790 
.785 
.771 
.717 
.716 
.710 
.685 
.682 
.679 

2.484 
2.575 
2.524 
2.457 
2.531 
2.480 
2.482 
2.477 
2.487 
4.475 
2.455 
2.45.3 
2.445 
2.446 
2.436 
2.426 
2.416 
2.316 
2.320 
2.309 
2.297 
2.308 
2.317 

K2SO4.  (Loomis.) 

.02 
.04 
.1 
.2 
.4 
.6 

.821  i.  A. 

.772    " 
.705    " 
.645    " 
.59$    " 
.583    " 

2.46 

2.38 
2.271 
2.1585 
2.0335 
1.9455 

K^SO4.    (Jones.) 

.002 
.003992 
.005990 
.007970 
.009930 
.012 
.01396 
.01590 
.01784 
.01976 
.03949 
.0579 
.07556 
.10 

.925  i.  A. 
.904 

.886 
.871 
.859 
.850 
.842 
.836 
.829 
.823 
.771 
.745 
.727 
.705 

2.725 
2.693 
2.663 
2.641 
2.613 
2.613 
2.593 
2.582 
2.545 
2.525 
2.469 
2.413 
2.372 
2.307 

K2SO4.    (Archibald.) 

.0001 
.0002 
.0004 
.0005 
.0006 
.0008 
.001 

.983 
.976 
.969 
.964 
.960 
.953 
.946 

*  I  have  by  oversight  used  one  of  Jones'  two  sets  of  observations,  instead  of  the 
mean  of  his  two  sets  ;  but  the  curve  of  mean  values  would  not  differ  appreciably  from 
the  curve  of  single  values. 


222 


ON   A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 


Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre- 

lonization 
coefficient 
at  0°  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
coefficient 
at  0°  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

K2  804.    (Jones.)—  Continued. 

Na2  SO4.    Archibald.—  (Continued.) 

.116 
.1357 
.152 
.16765 
.1826 
.19685 

.692  i.  A. 
.677    " 
.668     " 
.661     " 
.624    " 
.647    " 

2.289 
2.231     . 
2.208 
2.197 
2.178 
2.160 

.250 
.300 
.350 
.400 
.450 
.500 
.600 
.700 

.600 
.578 
.561 
.546 
.535 
.525 
.511 
.501 

2.120 
2.084 
2.045 
2.025 
1.993 
1.975 
1.925 
1.890 

K2  SO  4.    (Abegg  ) 

Na2  SO4.   (Loomis.) 

.00876 
.01306 
.01734 
.0216 
.0258 
.0299 

.865  i.  A. 
.846     " 
.829    " 
.815    " 
.803    " 
.794    " 

2.79 
2.60 

2.47 
2.43 
2.40 

2.385 

.02 
.04 
.10 
.20 
.40 
.60 

.821  i.  A. 
.771 
.694 
.624 
.546 
.511 

2.545 
2.435 
2.295 
2.170 
2.036 
1.938 

K2  SO4.    (Arrhenius.) 

Na2  SO4.   (Raoult.) 

.0728 
.182 
.454 

.729  i.  A. 
.654    " 
.590    " 

2.53 
2.225 
2.09 

.1174 
.2866 
.426 

.678i.  A. 
.584    " 
.540    " 

2.39 

2.18 
2.68 

K2  SO  4.   (Ponsot.) 

Na2  804.   (Arrhenius.) 

.0724 
.0752 
.2295 
.2360 
.4140 
.4280 

.731  i.  A. 

.726    " 
.635    " 
.633    " 
.596    " 
.594     " 

2.307 
2.301 
2.113 
2.110 
2.012 
2.002 

.056 
.1402 
.234 
.390 

.741  i.  A. 
.661     " 
.607    " 
.549     " 

2.515 
2.325 
2.205 
2.095 

H2  SO4.    (Barnes.) 

Na2  SO4.    (Archibald.) 

.002 
.004 
.010 
.020 
.0406 
.1016 
.1622 
.204 
.406 
.608 

.883 
.831 
.783 
.734 
.720 
.644 
.609 
.596 
.569 
.553 
1 

.005 
.008 
.010 
.050 
.055 
.060 
.070 
.080 
.100 
.200 

.893 
.870 
.859 
.752 
.743 
.736 
.722 
.712 
.694 
.624 

2.382 
2.371 
2.360 
2.340 
2.320 
2.286 
2.165 

2.224 
2.084 
2.017 
1.979 
1.940 
1.918 

DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 


223 


Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
at  0°  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
at  0°  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

H2SO4.    (Loomis.) 

H2  SO4.    (Wildermann.)—  Continued. 

.02 
.04 
.10 
.20 
.40 

.770  i.  B. 
.721     " 
.645     " 
.598     " 
.570    " 

2.247 
2.155 
2.065 
1.984 
1.925 

.06244 
.09216 
.1358 
.1930 

.688  i.  B. 
.653    " 
.622    " 
.599    " 

2.098 
2.049 
2.004 
1.970 

Na2CO3.  (Loomis.) 

&2  SO4.    (Jones.) 

.02 
.04 
.10 

.735i.  D. 
.684    " 
.6lle.  D. 

2.535 
2.465 
2  32 

.002696 
.007182 
.011650 
.016106 
.02054 
.02696 
.07100 
.11358 
.15472 
.19450 
.2330 

.962i.  W. 
.906      ' 

.870     « 
.844      ' 
.823      ' 
.796      ' 
.678  i    B. 
.633      ' 
.612      ' 
.598      ' 
.586      ' 

2.7077 
2.5620 
2.5150 
2.  4091 
2.3710 
2.310* 
2.2185 
2.051^ 
1.9952 
1.9732 
1.9498 

Na2  COa-  (Jones.) 

.003030 
.008068 
.013090 
.018096 
.02120 
.04802 
.07736 
.09588 

.859  i.  D. 
.803 
.770 
.743 
.730 
.670 
.632e.  D. 
.613    " 

2.805 
2.764 
2.755 
2.741 
2.722 
2.676 
2.494 
2.335 

H2SO4.   (Ponsot.) 

.0149 
.0181 
.0365 
.0395 
.0503 
.0669 
.0727 
.0876 
.2570 
.2580 
.4476 
.4216 
.8872 

.790e.  B. 
.770 
.726 
.720  i    B. 
.706 
.681 
.674 
.658 
.587 
.587 
.565 
.565 
.535 

2.282 
2.265 
2.192 
2.205 
2.147 
2.105 
2.09^ 
2.045 
1.895 
1.899 
1.850 
1.849 
1.859 

Mg  SO4  (Loomis.) 

.02 
.04 
.06 

.594  i.  D. 
.522    " 
.485    " 

1.331 
1.277 
1.237 

Mg  SO4  (Jones.) 

.002 
.003996 
.005998 
.007976 
.009960 
.011994 
.01400 
.015972 
.017940 
.019904 
.03950 
.05872 

.8171.  I>. 
.773 
.728 
.694 
.669 
.651 
.634 
.614 
.608 
.596 
.521 
.502 

1.7000 
1.6767 
1.6555 
1.6174 
1.606^ 
1.59^5 
1.5785 
1.5590 
1.5496 
1.5325 
1.4912 
1.4392 

H2SO4.    (Wildermann.) 

.009208 
.009216 
.016808 
.016834 
.01690 
.03206 
.03212 
.06238 

.8891.  W. 
.889 
.842 
.842 
.840 
.776 
.735  i.  B. 
.688    " 

2.422 

2.388 
2.297 
2.293 
2.325 
2.190 
2.183 
2.10 

224 


ON*    A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 


Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
atO°  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Gramme- 
equivalent 
per  litre. 

lonization 
Coefficient 
at  0  °C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

H3  PO4  (Loomis.) 

1 
H8  PO4  (Jones). 

.03 
.06 

.614  i.  D. 
.513     " 

0.94 
0.893 

.003279 
.009843 
.019605 
.027705 
.03279 

.881  i.  D. 
.771    " 
.669    " 
.627    " 
.602    " 

1.18SJ 

1.15/5 
1.0967 
1.072.? 
1  .0522 

The  curves  of  the  diagram  are  so  labelled  with  the  initial 
letters  of  observers'  names,  (Ab  for  Abegg),  as  to  show  both  the 
depression  observations,  on  which  they  are  b«sed,  and  the  ioni- 
ization  coefficients  used  in  plotting  them.  Thus  the  inscription 
KC1  (J — W),  means  that  Jones'  depressions  and  Whetham's 
coefficients  were  used ;  H2S02  (J  L  B — B),  that  the  curve  is  a  mean 
curve  based,  mainly  at  least,  on  depression  observations  by  Jones, 
Loomis,  and  Barnes,  and  plotted  with  Barnes'  coefficients.  The 
limits  of  concentration  for  the  curves,  are  indicated  also,  in 
gramme-equivalents  per  litre. 

Some  of  the  curves  are  entered  on  an  inset,  drawn  on  four 
times  the  scale  of  the  main  diagram. 

In  interpreting  the  curves,  we  must  not  only  bear  in  mind 
what  has  been  said  above  about  the  probable  accuracy  of  the 
ionization  coefficients,  but  must  in  addition  note  the  tendency 
exhibited  by  the  curves  of  the  various  observers,  as  dilution 
increases,  to  run  off  at  great  dilution  in  directions  characteristic 
of  the  observers,  to  the  left  or  right  relatively  to  the  course  pur- 
sued by  them  at  moderate  dilution.  Thus  Abegg's  curves  (see 
Nad,  KC1,  K2S04),  and  Jones's  (see  NaCl,  KC1,  NH4C1,  HC1) 
run  off  to  the  right.  So  do  Arrhenius's  in  a  marked  manner. 
Raoult's  tendency  is  also  to  the  right,  (see  NaCl ;  his  K2SO4,  not 
plotted,  shows  it  also ;  his  most  dilute  KC1  observation,  he  him- 
self clearly  regards  as  accidentally  out.)  On  the  other  hand, 
Loomis's  curves  (see  HC1,  KN03)  NH4C1,  BaCl2)  go  to  the  left. 


DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.  225 

So  do  Ponsot's,  and  probably  Wildermann's  (not  plotted),  and  I 
gather  from  Ponsot's  diagrams  of  Pickering's  observations,  to 
which  I  have  not  access,  that  Pickering's  also  have  the  leftward 
tendency.  Archibald's  and  Barnes'  curves  show  less  tendency  to 
diverge  than  those  of  any  other  observers.  And  although  this 
may  be  partially,  it  is  not  wholly,  due  to  their  having  worked  at 
moderate  dilutions  only.  For  in  several  cases,  pointed  out  below, 
the  curves  of  other  observers  start  on  a  divergent  course  within 
their  limit  of  dilution.  But  the  fact  that  their  curves  usually 
agree  with  Loomis's,  would  lead  one  to  suspect  them  of  a  left- 
ward tendency. 

The  divergence,  as  shown  on  the  diagram,  is  most  marked  in 
the  case  of  highly  dissociated  electrolytes  (NaCl,  HC1,  etc.)  in 
which,  at  great  dilution,  the  rate  of  increase  of  ionization  with 
dilution  is  small,  the  curves  being  crushed  up,  therefore,  into  a 
small  space.  But  it  is  obvious  also,  in  the  K9S04  curves  (espec- 
ially Abegg's)  and  the  BaCl2  curves  (including  Ponsot's,  not 
shown).  And  although  for  MgSO4  and  H8P04,  whose  ionization 
increases  rapidly  with  dilution,  the  single  curves  do  not  reveal  it, 
the  relative  positions  of  the  two  curves  in  each  case  are  what 
they  might  be  expected  to  be,  if  they  were  tending  unduly, 
Jones's  to  the  right,  and  Loomis's  to  the  left. 

This  tendency  is  explicable  at  once,  when  we  reflect  that  as 
it  is  equivalent  depression  that  is  plotted,  the  errors  of  the  obser- 
vations are  brought  into  greater  and  greater  prominence  as 
dilution  increases.  According,  therefore,  as  the  characteristic 
error  of  an  observer's  method  of  measuring  total  depression  is 
positive  or  negative,  will  his  curves  of  equivalent  depression 
diverge  at  great  dilution  to  the  right  or  left  of  their  true 
course.  And  they  must  diverge  even  if  the  error  is  very 
small. 

The  equivalent  depression  curves  of  single  observers  are 
therefore  open  to  grave  suspicion  at  high  dilutions ;  and  since  one 
can  never  be  sure  that  the  errors  of  different  methods  will  even 
approximately  neutralise  one  another,  mean  curves  are,  at  high 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— O. 


226  ON    A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 

dilution,  not  much  more  trustworthy  than  their  components.* 
It  is  much  safer,  therefore,  to  base  conclusions  as  to  depression 
constant  on  moderate  dilution  curves,  although  the  conclusions 
they  admit  of  may  not  be  so  exact  as  we  might  wish. 

Discussion  of  the  Curves. 

Electrolytes  such  as  NaCl,  HN08,  KOH,  have  1  equivalent 
in  the  single  molecule,  and  2  ions.  If,  therefore,  they  exist  in 
solution  in  single  molecules,  their  curves  should  be  normal  1 — 2 
curves.  If  the  molecules  are  all  double  or  triple,  the  curves 
should  be  2 — 4  or  3 — 6  curves,  provided  the  association  does 
not  involve  change  in  the  mode  of  ionization.  If  it  does,  they 
may  be  2 — 2,  or  3 — 4,  3 — 3,  3—2  curves  respectively,  according 
to  the  change  that  may  occur.  If  the  molecules  are  single  at 
extreme  dilution,  but  become  double  or  triple  as  dilution  dimin- 
ishes, the  curves  should  start  as  1 — 2  curves,  and  undergo 
the  appropriate  transformation. 

The  electrolyte  for  which  we  have  the  most  complete  and 
trustworthy  data,  is  KC1.  The  LB — B  curve  is  based 
on  two  series  of  observations  in  close  agreement  and 
by  a  method  exhibiting  less  divergence  than  the  others. 
Jones's  runs  a  little  to  the  right  of  it ;  Abegg's  a 
little  to  the  left.  Both  Raoult's  and  Wildermann's  cross  it,  the 
latter  being  somewhat  steeper,  the  former  less  steep.  Ponsot's 

*  It  follows  that  it  is  inadmissible  to  proceed  as  Raoult  has  done  in  determining 
depression  constants,  (loc.  cit.  p.  658),  viz.,  by  selecting  high  dilution  curves  which  are 
in  agreement,  and  applying  extrapolation  to  a  mean  curve  derived  from  them  ;  for  such 
procedure  may  mean  the  selection  of  observations  made  by  methods  which  have  char, 
acteristic  errors  of  the  same  sign.  In  fact,  a  mean  curve  based  on  observations  whicn 
agree  well  at  low  dilution,  but  disagree  markedly  at  high  dilution,  would  be  likely  to 
give  a  better  result,  as  more  probably  combining  observations  with  small  characteristic 
errors  of  opposite  sign.  Raoult's  procedure  is  open  to  other  objections.  For  (1 )  his 
curves  of  equivalent  depression  against  total  depression,  make  series  of  observations 
appear  to  be  in  greater  disagreement  than  they  really  are,  and  are  thus  not  helpful  in 
making  a  judicious  selection  of  observations  to  be  used  ;  and  (2.)  extrapolation  of  such 
curves  not  only  gives  a  result  affected  by  the  average  of  the  characteristic  errors  of  the 
observations  used,  but  also  neglects  the  possibility,  in  some  cases  the  probability,  that 
owing  to  change  in  association  and  mode  of  ionization,  the  law  of  the  change  of  curv- 
ature may  be  very  different  beyond  the  limits  of  observation,  from  what  it  is  within 
these  limits. 


DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.  227 

coincides  with  the  lower  part,  but  in  the  upper  part  diverges  to 
the  left.  In  form  the  curve  is  thus  probably  trustworthy.  But 
being  plotted  with  Barnes'  coefficients  it  may  be  too  high  or  too 
low.  The  R — W  and  J — W  curves  (see  inset)  are  not  open  to 
this  suspicion,  but  at  the  dilutions  to  which  even.their  lower  and 
more  trustworthy  parts  apply,  they  may  have  begun  to  diverge 
unduly  rightwards.  If  the  L  B — B  curve  (see  inset)  be  raised 
about  2.5  per  cent.,  as  is  shown  to  be  necessary  by  a  comparison 
of  Whetham's  and  Barnes'  coefficients,  it  comes  into  a  position 
to  the  left  of  the  R — W  and  J — W  curves,  the  usual  relative 
position  of  the  curves  of  these  observers.  Loomis's  own  curve 
for  somewhat  greater  dilutions  than  those  of  the  L  B— B  curve, 
when  plotted  with  Whetham's  coefficients,  coincides  very  nearly 
with  the  boundary  line  of  the  inset ;  Wildermann's  is  a  little  to 
the  left  of  Loomis's,  and  somewhat  steeper.  Both  exhibit  a 
slight  rightward  bending,  as  do  all  the  others. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  draw  a  mean  curve  with  any  confi- 
dence ;  but  any  such  curve  would  run  about  midway  between  the 
1 — 2  and  2 — 4  (1.83)  lines,  would  have  a  slight  rightward  bending 
at  its  upper  end,  and  if  produced  with  diminishing  curvature, 
would  run  out  to  a  point  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  1 — 2  (1.85) 
intersection. 

If  this  intersection  were  the  starting  point  of  the  curve,  and 
if  there  were  no  association,  the  curve  should  lie  wholly  to  the 
right  of  the  1 — 2  (1.85)  line.  If,  as  dilution  diminished, 
sufficient  doubling  of  molecules  with  unchanged  mode  of  ioniza- 
tion  should  occur,  the  curve,  after  first  bending  away  from  that 
line  to  the  right,  would  change  its  curvature,  bend  towards  the 
line.and  cross  it,  and  then  run  towards,  and  finally  away  from,  the 
2 — 4  line,  as  the  mean  curve  appears  to  do. 

As  the  2 — 2  line  is  far  to  the  left,  the  mean  curve  might  be 
accounted  for  also,  on  the  assumption  of  a  very  slight  formation 
of  double  molecules  dissociating  into  two  ions ;  and  a  slight 
formation  of  such  molecules  would  probably  involve  no  greater 
variation  of  the  migration  numbers  with  concentration  than 
has  been  observed. 


228  ON    A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 

If  the  1 — 2  (1.80)  intersection,  were  assumed  as  the  starting 
point  of  the  curve,  the  mean  curve  would  cut  the  2 — 4  (1.86) 
line.  If,  therefore,  association  in  molecules  with  unchanged 
mode  of  ionization  were  assumed,  some  formation  of  triple  mol- 
ecules would  be  indicated,  and  if  the  associated  molecules  were 
assumed  to  dissociate  into  two  free  ions,  a  greater  extent  of  such 
association  would  bo  indicated.  Thus,  with  this  starting  point, 
less  probable  assumptions  as  to  association  must  be  made,  to 
account  for  the  observations. 

If  the  1 — 2  (1.84)  or  even  the  1 — 2  (1.845)  intersection  were 
taken  as  the  starting  point,  the  curve  must  bend  considerably  to 
the  left  before  running  out, — of  which  bending  none  of  the 
experimental  curves  give  any  indication  whatever. 

The  most  probable  conclusion,  then,  that  we  can  draw  from 
the  observations,  is  that  the  depression  constant  is  1.85,  with  a 
limit  of  error  of  .01,  or  perhaps  .005,  that  the  electrolyte  has 
single  molecules  at  great  dilution,  and  that  as  dilution  diminishes, 
either  double  molecules  with  unchanged  mode  of  ionization  form 
to  a  considerable  extent,  or  double  molecules  dissociating  into 
two  ions,  to  a  small  extent. 

Loomis's  and  Barnes'  observations,  on  which  the  NaCl 
(L  B — B)  curve  is  based,  are  also  in  close  agreement;  but  as 
Loomis's  curve  for  slightly  greater  dilution  bends  slightly  to  the 
right,  the  upper  part  of  the  L  B — B  curve  should  probably 
have  greater  curvature.  Jones'  curve  for  moderately  dilute 
solutions  runs  a  little  to  the  left  of  it,  and  at  higher  dilutions 
diverges  markedly  to  the  right,  as  separately  shown.  Abegg's 
observations  are  on  both  sides  of  it,  but  at  higher  dilutions  his 
curve  also  goes  to  the  right.  Raoult's  touches  it,  but  goes  off  to 
the  right.  Arrhenius's  is  considerably  to  the  right,  and  goes 
widely  rightward  at  greater  dilutions.  Ponsot's  is  a  little  to  the 
left.  As  the  L  B — B  curve  is  plotted  with  Barnes'  coefficients, 
it  is  probably  too  low.  If  it  be  raised  about  as  much  as  was 
found  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  KClcurve.it  will  lie  along  the 
1 — 2  line,  or  a  little  above  or  below  it,  with  its  upper  end,  as 
drawn,  so  directed,  as  to  run  out  probably  at  a  point  nearer  the 


DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES— MACGREGOR.  229 

1 — 2  (1.85)  intersection,  than  either  the  1 — 2  (1.83)  or  the  1 — 2 
(1.87)  .intersection.  Thus  the  defective  data  as  to  ionization 
prevent  our  drawing  a  more  definite  conclusion  than  that  the 
association  indicated,  if  any,  is  less  than  in  the  case  of  KCl,  and 
that  the  depression  constant  is  1.85,  with  a  limit  of  error  of 
perhaps  .02. 

The  HC1  curve  is  interesting  as  exhibiting  a  point  of  mini- 
mum equivalent  depression.  The  observations  on  which  the 
L  B — B  curve  is  based,  are  in  good  agreement.  Jones'  curve 
almost  coincides  with  it  in  the  lower  part,  but  goes  off  to  the 
right  in  the  upper  part  and  at  higher  dilutions,  as  shown  separ- 
ately. Loomis's  curve  at  higher  dilutions  (also  separately  shown) 
goes  to  the  left,  but  in  a  less  marked  manner.  As  drawn,  the 
upper  part  of  the  mean  curve  lies  between  the  1 — 2  and  2 — 4 
(1.85)  lines,  and  it  is  running  out  to  a  point  a  little  beyond  the 
1 — 2  (1.86)  intersection  (see  inset).  But  as  it  is  plotted  with 
Barnes'  co-efficients  it  is  perhaps  too  low.  If  raised  1  or  2  per 
cent,  it  would  appear  to  run  out  at  some  point  between  the  1 — 2 
(1.84)  and  1 — 2  (1.86)  intersections.  The  data  are  of  course  very 
defective  ;  but  they  are  consistent  with  a  depression  constant  of 
about  1.85,  and  they  seem  to  indicate  a  greater  extent  of  associ- 
ation than  in  the  case  of  KCl. 

The  L — D  and  J — D  curves  for  NH4C1  are  not  in  agreement, 
having  the  usual  relative  position  of  Loomis's  and  Jones'  curves. 
A  mean  curve  based  on  their  lower  parts  would  be  slightly  to 
the  left  of  the  1 — 2  (1.85)  line,  and  directed  to  a  point  consider- 
ably to  the  right  of  the  1 — 2  (1.86)  intersection.  It  might  thus 
indicate  anything  between  a  high  value  of  the  depression  con- 
stant accompanied  by  very  considerable  association  of  molecules, 
and  a  constant  of  about  1.85,  with  no  association  in  dilute 
solutions,  and  only  a  slowly  increasing  association  in  stronger 
solutions. 

The  HNO8  curve  (see  inset)  is  a  mean  curve  based  on 
Loomis's  and  Jones's.  Both  are  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  inset, 
the  former  to  the  left,  the  latter  to  the  right.  Neither  this  curve 
nor  that  of  KN08  is  sufficiently  trustworthy  to  warrant  any 


230  ON    A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 

close  inspection,  but  both  are  clearly  consistent  with  the  1.85 
value  of  the  depression  constant.  If  the  leftward  bending  of  the 
KNO8  curve  in  its  lower  part  were  actual,  as  well  as  the  position 
of  the  curve,  the  formation  of  triple  molecules  might  be  indicated. 
But  being  a  Loomis  curve,  it  is  open  to  the  suspicion  of  being  as 
a  whole,  too  far  to  the  left ;  and  it  is  plotted  with  doubtful 
coefficients. 

The  KOH  curves,  Loomis's  on  the  main  diagram  and  Jones's 
on  the  inset,  are  useful  only  to  illustrate  the  difficulty  of  making 
concordant  observations  by  different  methods.  As  usual,  Loomis's 
is  to  the  left,  and  Jones's  to  the  right. 

Electrolytes  such  as  BaCl2,  H2SO4,  Na2C08,  have  2  equiva- 
lents in  the  single  molecule,  which  may  dissociate  into  3  or  into 
2  ions.  If  there  is  no  association,  they  will  therefore  have  2 — 3 
or  2 — 2  curves,  according  to  the  mode  of  ionization.  If  there  is 
complete  doubling  of  molecules,  the  curves  will  be  4 — 6  or  4 — 4 
curves,  provided  the  doubling  does  not  involve  change  in  mode 
of  ionization.  Otherwise  they  might  be  4 — 5,  4 — 3  or  4 — 2 
curves.  (The  corresponding  tangent  lines  are  so  far  to  the  left 
of  the  experimental  curves  that  they  are  not  entered  on  the 
diagram.)  If  the  molecules  are  associated  in  threes,  the  curves 
will  be  0 — 9  or  6 — 6  curves,  with  the  above  proviso. 

Both  Loomis's  and  Jones'  curves  for  BaCl2  are  shown  on  the 
diagram,  plotted  with  Whetham's  coefficients  (rough  extrapol- 
ated values,  however,  in  the  case  of  the  former).  Ponsot's  curve 
agrees  very  closely  with  Loomis's.  Bearing  in  mind  the  right- 
ward  and  leftward  tendencies  of  Jones's  and  Loomis's  curves, 
respectively,  we  may  conclude  from  the  curves  of  the  diagram 
that  the  actual  curve  runs  down  to  the  right  of  the  2 — 3  line, 
bending  away  from  it  to  the  right,  and  that  it  would  intersect 
the  a  =  \  line  at  a  point  between  the  2 — 3  (1.85)  and  2 — 3(1.87) 
intersections,  probably  nearer  the  former  than  the  latter.  The 
curve  is  thus,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  a  normal  2 — 3  (1.85  ±  .01) 
curve,  running,  however,  very  close  to  the  2 — 3  line.  The  dia- 
gram, therefore,  indicates  that  BaCI2  exists  in  solution  in  single 
molecules,  dissociating  into  3  ions,  at  least  for  the  most  part,  and 
that  it  has  a  depression  constant  nearer  1.85  than  1.87. 


DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.  231 

The  H2SO4  (J — W)  curve  for  high  dilutions,  being  a  Jones 
curve,  is  probably  too  far  to  the  right,  and  being  plotted  with 
Whetham's  coefficients,  is  probably  too  high.  Wildermann's 
curve  for  high  dilutions  runs  parallel  to  it,  considerably  to  the 
left.  The  J  L  B — B  curve,  for  lower  dilutions,  is  very  nearly 
coincident  with  Barnes'  curve,  and  in  its  lower  part  with  Jones's 
and  Loomis's  as  well.  But  in  the  upper  part,  Jones'  curve  goes 
off  markedly  to  the  right,  and  Loomis's  markedly  to  the  left- 
Wildermann's  is  slightly  to  the  left  at  the  lower  end,  and  diver- 
ges somewhat  leftwards  in  the  upper  part.  Ponsot's  runs  nearly 
parallel  to  it,  somewhat  to  the  left,  and  diverging  to  the  left  at 
higher  dilutions.  The  J  L.B — B  curve  is  thus  trustworthy  as  to 
form  ;  but  being  plotted  with  Barnes'  coefficients,  it  is  probably 
too  low.  The  actual  curve  would  thus  appear  to  cross  the  2 — 3 
(1.85)  line  not  far  from  its  starting  point,  bend  towards  the  4 — G 
line,  and  run  down  below  that  line,  finally  bending  slightly 
towards  it.  Its  course  is  therefore  what  it  would  be  if  it  started 
as  a  2 — 3  curve,  for  k=  1.85  or  thereabout,  changed  its  curvature 
at  a  somewhat  early  stage,  and  tended  to  be  transformed  slowly 
into  either  a  double  molecule  curve  or  a  2 — 2  curve,  or  perhaps 
both.  The  diagram  would  therefore  indicate  that  at  extreme 

o 

dilution  H2S04  exists  in  solution  in  single  molecules,  dissociating 
into  three  ions,  that  at  an  early  stage  and  in  a  somewhat  marked 
manner,  either  doubling  of  molecules  sets  in,  or  partial  dissocia- 
tion into  two  ions,  or  perhaps  both,  that  the  change  increases 
slowly  and  steadily  as  dilution  diminishes,  and  that  at  a  concen- 
tration of  about  0.6,  if  the  coefficients  at  this  concentration  are 
to  be  trusted,  the  change  is  increasing  in  rate ;  also  that  the 
depression  constant  may  quite  readily  be  about  1.85. 

The  K2SO4  (L  J  A — A)  curve,  is  based  on  series  of  observa- 
tions which  in  the  main  are  in  good  agreement.  It  very  nearly 
coincides  with  the  Loomis  and  Archibald  curves,  and  Ponsot's 
runs  down  slightly  to  the  left.  In  its  lower  part  it  coincides 
with  the  Jones  curve,  but  in  its  upper  part  the  Jones  curve, 
which  is  separately  represented  for  great  dilutions,  runs  off  to 
the  right.  Abegg's  curve  for  higher  dilutions  runs  even  more 


232  ON    A    DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT 

markedly  to  the  right,  although  it  is  farther  to  the  left  at  its 
lower  end.  Arrhenius's  is  considerably  to  the  right,  and  diverges 
widely  rightwards.  The  Na2SO4  (L  A — A)  curve  is  also  almost 
coincident  with  both  the  Loomis  and  the  Archibald  curves.  Both 
Raoult's  and  Arrhenius's  are  considerably  to  the  right,  and 
diverge  slowly  rightwards.  Such  of  these  curves  as  are  entered 
on  the  diagram,  being  plotted  with  Archibald's  coefficients,  are 
probably  somewhat  too  high  or  too  low,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Those  for  great  dilutions  are  too  discordant  to  admit  of  dis- 
cussion. The  mean  curves  for  both  salts  have  the  fame  general 
form,  and  run  down,  as  drawn,  a  little  below  the  2 — 3  line. 
Their  upper  ends  are  so  directed  as  to  suggest  their  running  out 
at  the  2 — 3  (1.85)  intersection,  or  thereabout.  At  their  lower 
ends  they  turn  sharply  to  the  left  and  cross  the  2 — 3  line,  going 
towards  the  region  of  the  double  molecule  curves,  or  of  the  2 — 2 
curve.  The  turns  are  too  sharp,  and  the  4 — 6  and  6 — 9  lines 
too  near,  to  make  their  transformation  into  double  or  triple  mol- 
ecule curves,  with  unchanged  ionization,  probable.  The  diagram 
suggests  rather  their  transformation  into  4 — 5,  4,  or  2  or  2 — 2 
curves.  If  this  be  accepted,  it  means  that  at  extreme  dilution 
these  sulphates  exist  in  solution  in  single  molecules,  dissociating 
into  three  ions,  that  partial  dissociation  into  two  ions  or  doubling 
of  molecules  sets  in,  apparently  at  an  early  staije,  but  increases 
more  slowly  than  in  the  case  of  H2SO4,  until  the  dilution  has 
been  considerably  diminished,  when  it  undergoes  a  rapid  increase. 
A  close  determination  of  the  depression  constant  cannot  be  made; 
but  even  if  the  curves  have  to  be  either  raised  or  lowered  a  little, 
and  if,  Loomis's  tendency  being  leftward,  their  upper  parts  have 
to  be  shifted  somewhat  to  the  right,  they  will  be  consistent  with 
its  being  about  1.85. 

The  Na2CO8  curves  are  too  discordant  to  form  a  basis 
for  discussion.  But  either  Loomis's  curve  or  a  mean 
curve,  or  even  Jones's  curve  itself,  is  quite  consistent 
with  a  depression  constant  of  about  1.85 ;  and  both  curves  indi- 
cate the  occurrence  of  rapid  association  or  of  rapid  change  of  ioni- 
zation after  considerable  diminution  of  dilution.  The  fact  that 


DEPRESSIONS    FOR    ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.  233 

Loomis's  curves  bend  towards  the  left,  suggests  that  the  actual 
curve  after  starting  at  the  2 — 3  intersection,  may  bend  consider- 
ably to  the  right  before  association  or  change  of  mode  of 
ionization  has  advanced  sufficiently  to  change  the  direction  of  its 
curvature. 

An  electrolyte  such  as  MgS04,  according  as  it  may  exist  in 
solution  in  single,  double  or  triple  molecules,  and  according  to  its 
mode  of  ionization  in  associated  molecules,  may  have  a  2 — 2, 
4 — 4  or  2,  or  6 — 6,  4,  3  or  2  curve.  Jones'  curve  lies  to  the 
right  of  the  2 — 2  (1.85)  line,  bending  towards  it,  and  may  quite 
readily  be  a  2 — 2  (1.85)  curve,  changing  to  a  4 — 4t  or  4 — 2  curve. 
Loomis's  lies  between  the  2 — 2  and  4 — 4  lines.  A  mean  curve 
would  already,  at  a  concentration  .02,  have  crossed  the  2 — 2  line. 
The  data,  such  as  they  are,  are  consistent  with  the  depression 
constant  having  a  value  of  about  1.85,  and  would  indicate  single 
molecules  in  dilute  solutions,  doubling  of  molecules  at  a  very 
early  stage,  and  a  steady  increase  in  association  through- 
out. 

According  asH8P04,if  it  exist  in  solution  in  single  mole- 
cules, may  dissociate  into  4,  3  or  2  ions,  will  it  have  a  3 — 4,3 — 3, 
or  3 — 2  curve.  If  it  have  double  molecules,  its  curve  may  be  a 
6 — 8,  G — 7,  etc.,  to  6 — 2  curve,  according  to  the  mode  of  ioniza- 
tion. Jones'  curve  runs  down  to  the  right  of  the  3 — 2  (1.85) 
line,  bending  towards  the  line.  Loomis's  lies  between  the  3 — 2 
and  G — 4  lines.  A  mean  curve  would  be  just  to  the  right  of  the 
3—2  line,  and  might  readily  run  out  at  the  3 — 2  (1.85)  inter- 
section. This  would  indicate  single  molecules  in  dilute  solutions 
dissociating  into  two  ions,  an  early  occurrence  of  doubling  of 
molecules,  and  steady  increase  in  the  extent  of  association  as 
dilution  diminished,  the  double  molecules  formed  dissociating 
into  4,  3,  or  2  ions,  but  not  into  more.  Although  the  coefficients 
with  which  the  curve  is  plotted  are  doubtful,  the  curve  is  so 
nearly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  ionization  coefficients,  that  even  a 
considerable  error  in  their  values  would  not  affect  the  above 
conclusions. 


ON   A    DIAGRAM     OF    FREEZING-POINT    DEPRESSIONS,    ETC. 


General  Conclusions. 

Although  the  observations  on  which  the  above  discussion  is 
based  are  defective,  and  the  particular  conclusions  drawn  are 
consequently  tentative,  I  think  it  may  be  held  with  some  con- 
fidence (1)  that  the  curves  of  equivalent  depression  against  ioni- 
zation coefficient,  have  positions,  forms,  and  slopes,  such  as  they 
might  be  expected  to  have,  on  reasonable  assumptions  as  to 
mode  of  ionization  and  constitution  in  solution,  according  to  the 
Van  't  Hoff-Arrhenius  theory  of  the  depression  of  the  freezing- 
point  in  solutions  of  electrolytes,  (2)  that  for  all  the  electrotytes 
examined,  they  are  consistent  with  the  depression  constant 
having  a  common  value  of  about  1.85,  and  that  in  the  case  of  the 

O 

electrolyte  for  which  we  have  the  best  data,  the  curve  is  not 
consistent  with  a  greater  limit  of  error  in  this  value  than  about 
.01,  unless  improbable  assumptions  are  made  with  respect  to  the 
constitution  of  the  electrolyte  in  solution,  and  (3)  that  the  dia- 
gram enables  us  to  reach  in  some  cases,  conclusions  of  considerable 
probability  with  respect  to  the  constitution  of  the  electrolyte  in 
solution,  and  its  mode  of  ionization. 


DIAGRAM    OF    FREEZING-POINT    DEPRESSIONS. 


235 


VIII.  —  GEOLOGICAL  NOMENCLATURE  IN  NOVA  SCOTIA. —  BY 
HUGH  FLETCHER,  ESQ.,  B.  A.,  of  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Canada. 

(Communicated  on  the  Uth  Mfiy,  1900.) 

THE  DEVONIAN. 

In  the  summer  of  1876,  a  great  series  of  metamorphic  rocks, 
cut  by  masses  of  granite  and  trap,  was  separated  in  Cape 
Breton  from  the  overlying  Carboniferous  conglomerate  made 
up  of  their  detritus.  These  rocks  were  then  traced  from  Loch 
Lomond  to  St.  Peters,  through  Isle  Madame  and  into  Guysboro 
and  Antigonish  counties,  as  recorded  in  the  reports  of  the 
Geological  Survey  between  1877  and  1881. 

Localities  were  described  at  which  the  Carboniferous,  com- 
paratively unaltered,  comes  in  contact  with  and  contains  pebbles 
of  these  metamorphic  rocks ;  several  sections  indicating  a  thick- 
ness of  at  least  10,000  feet  were  given  in  detail  and  mention 
was  made  of  carbonized  plants,  fish  remains,  ostracods  and 
other  fossils  found  in  many  of  the  beds,  the  plants  including 
forms  like  Psilophyton,  a  characteristic  Devonian  genus. 

Above  them  lies  a  formation,,  several  thousands  of  feet  in 
thickness,  containing  marine  fossils  of  the  Carboniferous  Lime- 
stone series  of  England  and  characterized  everywhere  from 
Newfoundland  to  the  western  boundary  of  New  Brunswick,  a 
distance  of  450  miles,  by  the  occurrence  of  thick  beds  of 
gypsum  ;  while  at  their  base  lie  about  3,000  feet  of  limestones 
and  other  beds  of  marine  origin,  shown  by  Dr.  Honeyman, 
in  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of  combined  stratigraphical  and 
palseontological  geology  yet  done  in  Nova  Scotia,  to  range  at 
Arasaig  from  Medina  to  Lower  Helderberg. 

Rocks  in  this  position,  precisely  similar  in  lithological 
character,  had  been  called  Devonian  in  New  Brunswick,  New- 
foundland, Gaspe'  and  on  Logan's  map  of  the  Pictou  Coal  field, 
and  this  name  was  accordingly  applied  to  them  in  Cape  Brecon. 

(235) 


236  GEOLOGICAL    NOMENCLATURE 

It  was  subsequently  found  that  the  large  Pre-carboniferous 
area,  eighteen  miles  wide  at  the  Strait  of  Canso  and  five  miles 
in  width  at  Lochaber,  thirty-five  miles  to  the  south-west,  instead 
of  being  Silurian  as  claimed  by  Sir  William  Dawson,  contains 
only  these  plant-bearing  Devonian  strata  which  are  divisible 
into  three  groups  corresponding  closely  with  those  into  which 
the  Devonian  rocks  of  New  Brunswick  had  already  been  sub- 
divided. They  extend  from  Lochaber  along  the  East  River  of 
St.  Mary's  and  the  East  River  of  Pictou  to  strike  the  Inter- 
colonial railway  near  Glengarry,  form  the  high  land  south  of 
Truro  and  pass  unconformably  beneath  the  Carboniferous  of 
Stewiacke  River;  and  a  small  area  is  found  at  MacAra  Brook, 
from  which  come  the  fish  remains  and  Pterygotus  subsequently 
described  by  A.  Smith  Woodward  as  homotaxial  with  the  upper 
Silurian  or  lower  Devonian  of  England. 

As  this  grouping  affected  also  rocks  referred  by  Sir  William 
Dawson  *  on  the  evidence  of  their  fossil  plants  "  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  coal  formation  or  Millstone  Grit "  and  even  higher, 
it  was  naturally  called  in  question;  and  in  1885  Mr.  T.  C. 
Weston  was  sent  to  Nova  Scotia,  assisted  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Robert, 
to  collect  fossils  between  Riversdale  and  the  Strait  of  Canso. 
They  found  everywhere  Lepidodendron  corrugatum,  Stigmaria 
ficoides  and  Cyclopteris  acadica,  forms  supposed  to  be  charac- 
teristic of  the  Horton  series ;  on  the  East  River  of  St.  Mary's 
plants  which  resemble  rhizomes  of  Psilophyton ;  and,  near 
Sunnybrae,  Cordaites  and  numerous  markings  of  Psilophyton 
allied  to  P.  glabrum  and  P.  elegans ;  at  and  near  Riversdale 
they  obtained  Catamites,  Sphenopteris,  Anthracomya  elongata 
and  A.  laevis,  Lepidodendron  corruyatum,  Stigmaria  ficoides, 
ferns  and  erect  trees,  characteristic  again  of  the  Horton  series. 

These  rocks  near  Truro  and  on  Cobequid  Bay  and  Minas 
Basin  had  in  the  meantime  been  recognized  by  Dr.  Ells  as 
probably  identical  with  the  Devonian  of  New  Brunswick. 


*  Acadian  Geology,  pages  485  and  489;    Plants  of   the  Lower  Carboniferous  and 
Millstone  Grit,  p.  13. 


IN    NOVA    SCOTIA— FLETCHER.  237 

The  Reports  of  the  Geological  Survey  for  1885  and  1886 
were  sharply  assailed  by  Sir  J.  W.  Dawson  for  their  disregard 
of  fossils ;  they  were  assumed  to  cast  doubt  upon  the  value  and 
accuracy  of  the  work  done  in  Cape  Breton.  "  As  to  the  rocks 
of  the  Riversdale  section  and  that  at  MacKay  Head,  I  have  no 
hesitation  in  saying  that  it  would  be  contrary  to  all  analogy, 
not  only  in  Nova  Scotia  but  everywhere  else,  that  they  should 
be  as  low  as  the  Horton  series.  They  are  unequivocally  Mill- 
stone Grit  and  the  flora  of  these  sections  is  so  well  known  that 
there  can  scarcely  be  any  mistake  respecting  it.  The  opinion 
advanced  by  Dr.  Ells  that  the  rocks  of  MacKay  Head  are  like 
those  of  Riversdale  is  quite  correct,  they  being  the  same  series  ; 
but  the  comparison  of  them  with  the  St.  John  Devonian  is 
quite  unwarrantable,  the  fossils  being  quite  distinct." 

This  strong  dissent  induced  Dr.  Selwyn  in  1892  to  visit  the 
region  and  see  for  himself  the  position  of  these  strata.  His 
view  of  their  relations  was  emphatically  expressed  in  the  Sum- 
mary Report  for  that  year.  In  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by 
Mr.  Fletcher  he  fully  agreed.  In  1895,  Dr.  Selwj'n  was  suc- 
ceeded as  director  of  the  Geological  Survey  by  Dr.  G.  M. 
Dawson.  Maps  of  Pictou  and  Colchester  counties  were  then 
being  engraved.  The  compilation  of  Sheets  43  to  48  was  com- 
pleted and  that  of  Sheets  56  to  65,  76,  83,  100  and  101  well 
advanced.  In  the  same  year  Dr.  Ami  was  sent  to  Nova  Scotia 
to  obtain  palaeontological  evidence  of  the  age  of  the  rocks  in 
question  ;  in  the  following  seasons  he  was  accompanied  by  the 
director,  and  in  one  season  by  Dr.  Ells. 

But  in  1898  "  certain  points  connected  with  the  geological 
structure  of  that  region  remained  still  critical,"  although  it  was 
hoped  that  the  special  investigations  of  that  year  might  render 
it  possible  to  complete  the  information  for  several  of  the  above 
sheets,  which  in  that  event  would  be  promptly  issued.  At  this 
time,  Dr.  Ami  was  protesting  against  the  publication  of  a  report 
in  which  he  was  represented  as  advocating  the  Carboniferous 
age  of  these  rocks.  On  the  contrary,  he  believed  the  evidence 
to  show  "  that  the  strata  of  Union  and  Riversdale  may  be 


GEOLOGICAL    NOMENCLATURE 

regarded  as  equivalent  to  those  in  Lancaster  township,  New 
Brunswick,  described  and  held  to  be  of  Devonian  age,"  adding 
that  several  typical  Horton  fossils,  such  as  Lepidodendron  cor- 
rugatum  and  Cyclopteris  acadica  are  common  to  the  Riversdale 
and  Union  rocks  and  to  the  Devonian  of  New  Brunswick. 

In  the  following  year,  however,  he  states  that  so  far  as  the 
faunas  are  concerned  they  clearly  indicate  a  Carboniferous  facies 
for  the  New  Brunswick  Devonian,  the  rocks  of  Harrington 
River,  Parrsboro,  Riversdale,  Union  and  Horton  Bluff.  The 
only  proof  adduced  for  this  radical  change,  and  the  addition  of 
15,000  feet  of  strata  beneath  the  Limestone  to  the  already 
enormously  developed  Carboniferous  of  Nova  Scotia,  is  that  of 
certain  fossils,  assumed  to  have  a  definite  range,  in  regard  to 
some  of  which  he  is  surety  mistaken.  For  "  the  protolimuloid 
crustacean,  usually  referred  to  the  Carboniferous  system  "  is  on 
the  contrary*  also  found  associated  with  such  characteristic 
Lower  Devonian  forms  as  Pterygotus,  Coccosteus,  Pterichthys 
and  Glyptolepis ;  Estheria  is  not  "  all  the  world  over  recognized 
as  Carboniferous  "  any  more  than  Pterinea  is  peculiar  to  the 
Devonian  ;  Leaia  occurs  in  Pennsylvania  in  rocks  regarded  by 
most  geologists  as  Devonian  ;  and  Professor  Marsh  has  described; 
from  the  Devonian,  amphibians  as  highly  developed  as  the 
Dendrerpeton  found  by  Sir  William  Logan  at  Horton  Bluff  in 
1841  and  by  Dr.  Ami,  at  Parrsboro  in  1898,  the  affinities  of 
which  the  latter  regards  as  Permian. 

Collections  of  fossil  plants  from  these  rocks  in  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick  were  examined  by  Mr.  David  White  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  in  1898,  and  by  Mr.  R. 
Kidston  of  Stirling,  Scotland,  in  1899,  who  came  to  almost 
the  same  conclusions  on  perfectly  independent  grounds.  Their 
views  are  given  at  length  by  Dr.  Whiteaves  in  his  "  Address  on 
the  Devonian  System  in  Canada."  and  may  be  thus  summarized  : 
(1)  The  Horton  series  is  nearly  contemporaneous  with  the 
Pocono  formation  of  the  eastern  United  States  and  the  lower 

*  Ottawa  Naturalist  for  January,  1900,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  10,  p.  256. 


IN    NOVA    SCOTIA — FLETCHER.  239 

Carboniferous  of  England.  (2)  The  Riversdale  and  Harrington 
River  series  are  assuredly  newer  than  the  Horton  and  have  a 
most  pronounced  Upper  Carboniferous  facies.  (3)  The  plant- 
bearing  beds  near  St.  John,  N.  B.  are  not  Middle  Devonian  but 
Carboniferous  and  are  the  exact  equivalents  of  the  Riversdale 
series. 

Dr.  Whiteaves  adds :  "  Our  knowledge  of  the  organic 
remains  of  the  Devonian  of  Nova  Scotia  is  still  in  its  infancy,, 
and  it  would  seem  that  the  plant-bearing  beds  near  St.  John, 
N.  B.,  which  have  so  long  been  regarded  as  Devonian,  may 
possibty  be  Carboniferous." 

Admitting  apparently  that  "  a  classification  by  faunas  alone 
is  one-sided  and  that  the  physical  history  of  the  strata  should  also 
be  considered,"  Dr.  Ami,  in  1899,  set  aside  the  authority  of  the 
palaeontologists  mentioned  above  and  accepted  the  order  of  super- 
position* given  by  "  the  two  geologists  on  the  Canadian  Survey 
staff,  who  have  studied  the  question  from  a  stratigraphical  and 
lithological  point  of  view,"  but,  as  a  sort  of  compromise,  for  their 
name  Devonian  he  substituted  <%Eo-Carboniferous,"  just  as  he  had 
previously  employed  the  word  "  Eo-Devonian  "  for  the  so-called 
Lower  Oriskany  of  Nictaux.  This  stratigraphical  sequence  has 
indeed  been  admitted  by  all  geologists  who  have  examined  it  in 
the  field.  Richard  Brown,  Campbell,  Gesner,  Lyell,  Honeyman, 
Logan,  Poole,  Ells,  Fletcher,  Selwyn  and  others  in  Nova  Scotia ; 
Gesner,  Hartt,  Matthew,  Bailey  and  Ells  in  New  Brunswick  ; 
Murray  in  Newfoundland  ;  Ells  and  Whiteaves  in  Gaspe — all 
place  these  rocks  beneath  the  Carboniferous  Limestone,  near 
the  debatable  line  between  Carboniferous  and  Devonian,  in 
man}''  indisputable  sections  where  no  thrust-faults,  outliers, 
overturned  fossil  trees  or  other  agency  of  theoretical  biologists 
are  available  to  make  part  Devonian,  part  Coal  Measures. 

It  becomes,  then,  a  question  of  the  transference  across  this 
line  not  of  a  few  feet  of  strata  but  of  a  system  of  10,000  to 
15,000  feet  of  beds  cut  off  from  a  marine  formation  both  above 

*  Ottawa  Naturalist,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  9,  p.  207. 


240  GEOLOGICAL    NOMENCLATURE 

and  below  by  great  unconformities  and  intrusions  of  granitic 
rocks.  The  only  evidence  brought  against  the  name  Devonian 
is  that  of  certain  fossils  assumed  to  have  a  definite  range  in 
geological  time.  Were  such  a  means  of  classification  possible  in 
the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  and  we  were  to  understand 
that,  for  example,  rocks  must  not  be  called  Devonian  above  the 
horizon  of  the  appearance  of  amphibians,  or  Silurian  above  that 
of  fishes,  such  a  classification  would  be  quite  satisfactory. 
Paleontology  is  not,  however,  one  of  the  mathematical  or 
exact  sciences,  but  has  its  limitations  even  in  the  countries  .in 
which  it  has  been  most  diligently  studied  ;  consequently,  uncer- 
tainty exists  both  in  Europe  and  America  regarding  the  proper 
limits  of  this  and  other  formations.  We  have  heard,  for 
example,  the  work  of  the  Second  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, a  most  important  and  thorough  industrial  investigation, 
described  as  conducted  on  the  plan  that  correlations  can  best  be 
made  by  lithological  means.  "  Frequently  one  meets  with 
expressions  of  lack  of  confidence  in  the  evidence  offered  by 
fossils."  And  in  a  recent  report  on  the  Devonian  and  Car- 
boniferous* "  the  whole  subject  of  the  value  of  fossil  plants 
as  means  of  correlation  "  is  said  to  be  "  under  consideration." 

It  is  only  necessary  to  read  this  report  to  realize  the  diffi- 
culty met  with  in  attempting  to  group  these  rocks  by  their 
fossils  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Virginia,  Illinois,  Michigan  and 
other  statesf — a  difficulty  well  stated  in  a  report  of  the  Ameri- 
can committee  of  the  International  Congress  of  Geologists  J  as 
follows  :  (1)  "  Shall  we  include  the  Catskill  rocks  (and,  when  no 
marine  faunas  occur,  up  to  the  base  of  the  Olean  conglomerate  and 
equivalents)  in  the  Devonian  ?  (2)  Shall  the  Chemung  marine 
fauna  be  taken  as  the  uppermost  fauna  of  the  Devonian  ?  Or 
shall  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  marine  faunas  between  the 
middle  Devonian  and  the  conglomerate  which  introduces  the 
Coal  Measures  be  called  Devonian  ?  If  an  arbitrary  line  is  to 

*  Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  No.  80,  pp.  123, 208  and  228. 

t  Cf.  also  "  Science  "  for  26th  Jan.  1900,  p.  140. 

J  Rep.  Geol.  Congress,  1888,  A.  pp.  102,  144 ;  B.  pp.  144,  153,  154, 156. 


IN    NOVA    SCOTIA— FLETCHER.  241 

be  drawn  faunally  it  should  be  between  the  Chemung  and  the 

Waverley The   difficulties  are   not  less   serious   in 

England,  and  the  Pilton  and  Baggy  beds  hold  faunas  which  it  is 
as  difficult  to  settle"  on  the  Devonian  or  Carboniferous  side  as  it 
has  been  with  the  Waverley,  Kinderhook  or  Marshall."  Pro- 
fessor J.  S.  Newberry  then  proposes  a  classification  in  which  he, 
includes  in  the  Carboniferous  system  all  strata  from  the  Permian 
to  the  Chernung,  both  inclusive  ;  whereas  Professor  Hall  adopts 
the  first  alternative  suggested  above  and  restricts  the  term 
Catskill  group  to  the  beds  known  as  X  and  XI  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania survey  (Pocono  and  Mauch  Chunk)  ;  and  others  speak  of 
the  latter  as  distinct  from  and  overlying  the  Catskill.  Adopting 
Professor  Hall's  grouping  it  would  seem  that  the  Mauch  Chunk 
and  Pocono  may  represent  respectively  the  Union  and  Rivers- 
dale  series  of  the  Nova  Scotian  Devonian  ;  and  that,  unless  the 
littoral  and  estuarine  sediments  of  Pennsylvania  represent  the 
pelagic  rocks  of  the  east,  there  must  be  a  great  unconformity 
by  which  the  gypsiferous  formation,  traced,  as  above  stated, 


from  Newfoundland  to  the  Aroostook,  is  lost.  It  h 
that  in  working  up  from  the  lower  Palaeozoic, 
to  carry  the  Catskill  to  XI  of  the  Pennsylvania 
in  working  downward  from  the  upper  Palseozo 
seem  to  carry  the  Permian  to  VIII  (Venango). 

The  International  Congress  proposes  to  place  t 


s  been  found 

fossils  seem 

classification, 

the  fossils 


e  upper  limit 


of  the  Devonian  at  the  base  of  the  Carboniferous  Limestone 
and  to  include  in  the  former  the  Catskill  and  the  so-called 
Lower  Carboniferous  or  Tweedian  group  of  Scotland.  The 
Tweedian  has  been  also  correlated  with  the  Condroz  beds  of 
Belgium,  from  which  one  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  Devonian 
(Condrusian)  in  the  classification  of  the  Congress  takes  its 
name. 

The  annexed  tabular  view  of  various  classifications  proposed 
for  these  rocks  will  show  at  once  their  radical  inconsistency  and 
the  indefinite  range  of  the  fossils  : — 

PKOC.  &  TKANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.-P. 


242 


GEOLOGICAL    NOMENCLATURE 


I 

CANADIAN  GEOLO- 
GICAL SURVEY. 

2 

ELLS  &  FLETCHER. 

3 

DAWSON 
IN  NEW  HRUNSW'K. 

4 

DAWSON 
IN  NOVA  SCOTIA. 

CARBONIFEROUS 
SYSTEM. 

Permian. 

Permian,  or  Upper 
Carboniferous. 

Upper 
Carboniferous. 

Coal  Measures. 

Coal  Measures. 

Coal  Measures. 

Union    or    Salmon 
River. 

Millstone  Grit. 

Millstone  Grit. 

Millstone  Grit. 

Riversdale. 

Carboniferous 
Limestone. 

Carboniferous 
Limestone. 

Windsor  Series. 

Windsor  Series  (Up- 
per   Carboniferous 
of  Schuchert.) 

Carboniferous 
Conglomerate. 

Carboniferous 
Conglomerate. 

Horton  Series  or 
''Albert  Shales. 

Horton  Tweedian  of 
Scotland.! 

DEVONIAN 
SYSTEM,     t  j 

Catekill. 

Union,   including 
rocks   of  MacAra 

Perry. 

Chemung. 

Brook,     Lochaber 
and  Economy. 

Mispec. 

Logan's   Devonian 
of  Middle  River  of 
Pictou.     Rocks    of 
Brookfleld. 

Hamilton. 

Riversdale,  Harring- 
ton   River  (4000  ft). 
MacKay    Head  and 
Horton.t 

Cordaite  Shales 
Dadoxylon  Sand- 
stone. 

Corniferous. 

Basal  Conglomerate. 

Bloomsbury. 

Oriskany. 

SILURIAN  SYSTEM. 

Dr.  G.  F.  Matthew 
suggests       placing 
the  Cordaite  Shales 
in  the  Silurian. 

*An  unconformable  series  beneath  the  lower  carboniferous  limestone  and  con- 
glomerate. 

t  The  relation  of  the  Horton  to  the  beds  immediately  overlying  the  Silurian  has  not 
yet  been  worked  out. 


IN    NOVA    SCOTIA — FLETCHER. 


243 


5 

R.    K  1  1  ISTI  IN. 

6 
DAVID  WHITE. 

7 

PENNSYL- 
VANIA. 

8 
JAMES  HALL. 

9 

J.S.NEWBERRY. 

Union  ? 

Permian. 

Riversdale.Harring- 
ton  River,  and 
Cordaite  Shales 
(St.  John  Devon- 
ian). 

Union 

Coal  Measures. 

Riversdale  and  Cor- 
daite Shales  (Dev- 
onian of  St.  John, 
N.  B.) 

Pottsville 
XII 
(Olean.) 

Millstone  Grit 

Mauch 
Chunk  XI. 

Carboniferous 
Limestone. 

Horton  —  (Lower 
Carboniferous  of 
England).! 

Horton  (Pocono  of 
Pensylvania.Wav- 
erly.  Newer  than 
Kiltorcan). 

Pocono  X 
(White 
Catskill  of 
Lesley). 

Waverley. 

Catskill  IX. 

Mauch 
Chunk  XI. 
Pocouo  X. 

Catskill. 

Chemung 
VIII 
(Venango). 

Chemung. 
DEVONIAN 

SYSTEM. 
Hamilton. 

Corniferoua. 

Oriskany. 

SILURIAN 

SYSTEM. 

t  Referred  by  the  International  Congress  of  Geologists  to  the   Devonian  (Con- 
drusian). 


.244     GEOLOGICAL   NOMENCLATURE  IN    NOVA  SCOTIA— FLETCHER. 

'Only  the  knowledge  that  palaeontologists  sometimes  "give 
more  consideration  to  the  results  of  theoretic  biologic  studies 
than  to  the  already  established  stratigraphic  succession  of  the 
faunas  "  can  explain  the  foregoing  table,  which  offers  the  alter- 
native of  correlating  with  the  Nova  Scotian  productive  coal 
measures,  lying  thousands  of  feet  above  the  Riversdale,  either 
the  Coal  Measures  of  England  or  the  Cretaceous  coal-bearing 
rocks  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  Horton  cannot  be  at  the  same  time  above  and  below 
and  on  the  same  horizon  as  the  Riversdale ;  and  Dr.  Ami  has 
perhaps  acted  wisely  in  omitting  it  from  his  classification,  its 
prominence  in  the  others  being  due  to  its  being  easily  accessible 
and  first  examined.  At  Horton  Bluff  it  contains  only  287  feet 
•of  strata  well  exposed  on  one  side  of  a  syncline,  and  459  feet, 
not  so  well  exposed,  on  the  other ;  whereas  the  section  at  Har- 
rington River  shows  nearly  4000  feet  of  black  and  gray  beds ; 
that  near  Union  station  6468  feet  of  red  beds  of  the  upper  * 
group  alone  (of  which  684  feet,  containing  fish  remains  through- 
out, were  remeasured  at  MacAra  Brook);  while  a  great  thickness 
of  the  lower  gray  and  black  beds  is  exposed  along  the  railway 
from  Riversdale  to  West  River  and  in  every  brook  flowing  south 
from  the  Cobequid  Hills,  these  exposures  being  sometimes  almost 
•continuous  for  several  miles,  as  recorded  in  the  reports  of  the 
•Geological  Survey. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  fossils  thus  studied  and 
-applied,  having  fixed  no  definite  horizon  higher  than  the  Lower 
Helderberg,  have  hindered  not  helped  in  mapping  the  com- 
jparatively  simple  geological  structure  of  these  formations,  while 
imost  satisfactory  progress  has  been  made  by  Mr.  Fairbault  in 
.an  investigation  of  27,000  feet  of  more  complicated,  non- 
fossiliferous  rocks  comprising  the  gold-bearing  series  of  the 
province. 

*  Goal.  Survey  Report  for  1886,  Part  P,  page  65. 


IX.  —  NOTES  ON  A  CAPE  BRETON  MINERAL  CONTAINING 
TUNGSTEN,  AND  ON  THE  EFFECT  OF  WASHING  CERTAIN 
CAPE  BRETON  COALS. — BY  HENRY  S.  POOLE,  F.  G.  S., 
F.  R.  S.  C.,  Assoc.  Roy.  Sch.  Mines,  etc.,  Stellarton,  N.  <SL 

(Read  April  Uth,  1900.) 

In  the  last  issue  of  the  Transactions  of  this  Institute  there" 
was  published  a  paper  read  March  13th,  1899,  entitled  "  New 
Mineral  Discoveries  in  Nova  Scotia."  The  paper  made  reference 
to  the  finding  at  North  East  Margaree,  C.  B.,  of  a  mineral  con- 
taining tungsten  and  speaks  of  it  as  Wolframite  with  67.47  per 
cent,  of  W  O3,  but  makes  no  note  of  its  other  constituents.  &.. 
month  later,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Mining  Society,  Mr.  A.  C.  Ross 
read  a  paper  on  the  same  mineral,  and  in  the  discussion  which 
followed  an  analysis  made  by  Mr.  Mason,  the  assayer  at  Hali- 
fax, was  given  by  Mr.  Missener.  This  analysis,*  of  concentrated 
ore,  showed  but  a  trace  of  iron,  and  was  as  follows  : — 

Tungsten  Trioxide 6(3.32 

Silica 6.25 

Manganese 12.02 

Iron. .  .12 


8471 


*  The  following  letter  from  Mr.  Mason  gives  additional  information  about  this 
analysis : — 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  April  23rd,   WOO. 
MY  DEAR  MR.  POOLE  : 

The  analysis  was  made  for  commercial  purposes,  not  for  scientific  ones.  How- 
ever, being  of  a  curious  turn  of  mind  I  am  able  to  give  you  some  further  information, 
although  unfortunately  only  qualitative,  not  quantitative.  A  close  inspection  of  the 
mineral  (I  fancy  I  gave  you  a  sample)  will  I  think  reveal  that  it  is  composed  of  Quartz 
and  Hiibnerite  principally,  but  there  is  also  a  little  Scheelite.  With  regard  to  the 
missing  15  per  cent.,  the  Manganese  is  reported  as  metal.  I  fancy  it  exists  in  the 
mineral  as  Mn3  O4,  and  if  so,  that  accounts  for  a  difference  of  about  4.5  %.  The  bal- 
ance was  ihade  up  of  mixed  oxides  of  Niobium  and  Tantalum,  and  also  of  Lime. 
Whether  the  lime  all  belongs  to  the  scheelite  or  whether  part  of  it  should  join  the 
quartz  as  gangue,  I  did  not  determine.  I  regret  that  I  have  mislaid  the  memo,  of  the 
quantities.  I  did  not  discover  that  the  mineral  also  contained  Scheelite  until  I  panned 
some  of  it,  but  afterwards  clearly  detected  it  in  some  samples  but  could  not  find  it  in 
others.  Yours  very  truly, 

F.  H.  MASON 

(245) 


246       NOTES  ON  A  CAPE  BRETON  MINERAL  AND 

The  absence  of  iron  and  the  comparatively  large  amount  of 
Manganese  in  the  composition  of  this  mineral  would  class  it  as 
more  nearly  allied  to  Hiibnerite  than  to  Wolframite. 

In  the  same  paper  reference  is  made  to  the  beneficial  effects 
from  washing  certain  Cape  Breton  coals,  whereby  the  quantity 
of  Sulphur  ordinarily  contained  in  coal  as  supplied  from  the 
slack  heaps  is  greatly  reduced,  and  the  resulting  Coke  is  made 
suitable  for  Iron  smelting.  The  experience  at  the  Ferrona  fur- 
nace is  spoken  of,  but  as  the  reference  to  the  operations  at  that 
furnace  are  somewhat  incomplete,  the  following  data  supplied 
by  the  Manager,  Mr.  J.  D.  Fraser,  will  doubtless  on  comparison 
prove  of  interest.  A  test  made  in  September  and  October,  1895, 
with  fifty-ton  samples  from  each  of  the  following  Mines,  gave 

as  follows : — 

RAW  COAL.  WASHED  COAL. 


Hub  

Ash. 
7.507 

Sulphur.  . 

3.24-7 

Ash. 

4.377 

Sulphur. 

2.387 

Caledonia  .  . 

/o 

15.00  ,. 

/o 

3.02  „ 

/o 

7.05  .. 

/o 

2.87  .. 

Stirling  ... 
Gowrie  .... 

11.09  ,. 
11.55  „ 

4.23  „ 
5.26  „ 

5.50  „ 
6.01  ii 

3.12  „ 
3.15  „ 

D.  HERTING,  Chemist. 

A  test  of  10,000  tons  of  small  coal  in   December,  1897,  and 
January,    1898,  received  from   the   Dominion    Coal   Company, 

gave  the  following  average  results  : — 

RAW  COAL.  WASHED  COAL. 

Moisture , 2.10%  1.97% 

Volatile  Combustible  Matter.  31.00  ..  33.21  „ 

Fixed  Carbon 56.83  .,  60.00  „ 

Ash 10.07  ii  4.82  .. 

Sulphur 2  38  ..  1.79  .. 

Coke  made  from  this  washed  coal  analysed  : — 

Ash 9.16% 

Volatile  Combustible  Matter 1.86  •• 

Fixed   Carbon    88.98  „ 

Sulphur 1.62,, 

I.  MACFARLAN,  Chemist 


ON   WASHING   CAPE   BRETON   COALS. — POOLE. 


247 


For  comparison  with  the  work  done  in  the  coal  washer,  a 
laboratory  test  was  made.  An  average  sample  of  the  coal  was 
treated  in  a  solution  of  Calcium  Chloride  of  1.40  Sp.  Gr.,  the 
coal  of  1.30  Sp.  Gr.  floated  on  the  solution,  and  the  shale  of 
2.04  Sp.  Gr.  sank  to  the  bottom.  Thus  separated,  the  coal  and 
shale  were  thoroughly  washed  and  dried,  and  severally  bore  to 
the  unwashed  material  the  following  proportion  : — 

Coal 81  % 

Shale,  etc 90  „ 

Dried  at  212°  Fahr.  they  yielded  on  analysis  : — 

RAW  WASHED          CTT  . 

COAL  COAL. 

Volatile  Combustible  Matter.  33.06  %     33.79  %  31.43  % 

Fixed  Carbon    55.93  „      61.33  ,t  15.33  .. 

Ash     11.0 1  i,        2.89  .,  48.08  ., 

Sulphur 2.41  n       1.64  u  5.16  n 

The  same  Coal  treated  in  the  coal  washer  yielded  : — 

RAW  WASHED          cprATii- 

COAL.  COAL. 

Volatile  Combustible  Matter.  33.06  %     34.07  %      30.82  % 

Fixed  Carbon   55.93,,      61.26,,      23.21,, 

Ash     11.01,,        4.67-      41.22,, 

Sulphur     2.41,,        1.70  »        448,, 

On   cokino-,  204  ovens   made  683  tons  of  coke  which  showed 

O  * 

•an  average  composition  as  follows,  after  being  dried  at  212°  F. : — 

Moisture      0.40 

Volatile  Combustible  Matter    1.60 

Fixed  Carbon     89.82 

Sulphur  1.65 

Silica   3.52 

Metallic  iron 1.71 

Alumina 46 

Manganese 03 

Lime    82 

Magnesia     16 

Phosphorus 02 

Available    Carbon,    87.02. 


X. — MINERALS  FOR  THE  PARIS  EXHIBITION. — BY  E  GILPIN,  JR.,. 
LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  Inspector  of  Mines. 

(Communicated  12th  February,  1900.) 

The  Government  of  Nova  Scotia  having  decided  to  assist  the 
Canadian  Geological  Survey  in  the  preparation  of  the  Canadian 
Mineral  Exhibit  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  the  work  of  collection 
was  assigned  to  the  Mines  Office.  In  the  process  of  collection 
opportunity  has  been  afforded  of  procuring  some  interesting 
information.  I  do  not  contemplate  giving  a  detailed  account  of 
each  mineral  locality  represented,  as  that  would  occupy  an 
undue  space  in  the  Transactions,  but  will  confine  myself  more 
especially  to  those  exhibits  which  were  accompanied  by  descrip- 
tive matter,  analyses,  etc.  It  may  be  remarked  that  no  trouble 
has  been  spared  by  the  Survey  to  make  the  mineral  exhibit  a 
leading  feature  of  the  Canadian  representation  at  Paris,  so  that 
all  the  mining  districts  will  undoubtedly  receive  a  most  impor- 
tant and  valuable  advertisement.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  so- 
many  mining  men  have  neglected  the  opportunity  offered  of 
presenting  not  only  their  own  operations,  but  also  those  of  their 
country  to  the  gaze  of  the  world.  At  no  time  has  ihere  been  on 
the  continent  of  Europe  so  marked  a  difficulty  in  procuring  the- 
raw  material,  and  the  unworked  metals,  and  there  is  also  a  great 
demand  for  opportunities  for  investment  of  capital.  This 
interest  is  not  confined  to  the  precious  metals,  but  extends  to 
every  mineral  that  can  be  utilized  in  the  arts.  In  many  cases, 
the  Department,  instead  of  receiving  samples  from  mine  ownera 
only  too  pleased  to  have  their  products  exhibited,  was  obliged 
to  send  to  the  quarries,  etc.,  and  procure  specimens,  while  the- 
owners  showed  no  interest  whatever.  Paternalism  may  be  good, 
but  the  individual  should  show  an  interest  in  his  own  welfare. 

Coal 

As  would  be  expected  the  coal  fields  are  well  represented. 
The  Springhill  coals  were  shown   in   their  different  forms  as- 

(248) 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 


249 


presented  for  consumption.  These  coals  Are  largely  used  for 
steam  purposes,  especially  in  locomotives,  they  are  also  good 
coking  and  domestic  coals.  In  recent  communications  to  the 
Institute  I  have  given  a  number  of  analyses  of  these  coals, 
showing  the  increase  of  their  steam  values,  etc.,  as  they  have 
been  followed  to  the  dip. 

The  Dominion  Coal  Company  exhibited  the  various  forms  of 
round,  run  of  mine,  slack,  pea,  nut  coals,  etc.,  required  by  the 
trade.  This  company  also  presented  a  column  of  coal,  a  section 
of  the  Phalen  seam  .which  attains  a  thickness  of  nine  feet.  This 
column  is  to  stand  by  a  similar  one  from  British  Columbia,  an 
illustration  of  the  resources  of  Canada  on  the  Pacific  and  on  the 
Atlantic.  In  my  last  paper  I  drew  attention  to  the  interesting 
diminution  in  ash  and  sulphur  in  the  Phalen  seam  as  it  was 
followed  away  from  its  outcrop.  I  also  gave  a  summary  of  the 
tests  of  coal  made  at  Glassport,  Pa.,  U.  S.  A.  I  now  give,  as  an 
interesting  comparison,  the  results  of  similar  tests  of  the  Phalen 
and  Hub  seams  made  at  the  Solway  ovens,  in  Syracuse,  New 
York,  U.  S.  A.  Owing  to  rainy  weather  the  car  loads  were 
saturated  with  moisture.  Allowing  for  the  moisture  the  sample 
of  the  Phalen  seam  weighed  405  tons,  and  that  from  the  Hub 
seam  weighed  307  tons.  There  were  obtained  from  these  coals 
respectively  302  tons,  74.68  per  cent;  and  224.74  tons,  72.37  per 
cent,  of  dry  coke  and  breeze. 

The  Phalen  seam  yielded  11,012  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  long 
ton.  Of  the  gas  55.47  per  cent  was  used  under  the  ovens.  The 
average  calorific  power  of  the  gas  was  571.85  B.  T.  U.  The 
average  illuminating  value  of  the  gas,  with  a  fishtail  burner  was 
9.9  candle  power,  with  a  Welsbach  burner,  54.34  candle  power. 

The  following  is  the  average  analysis  of  the  gas: — 


Carbon  dioxide 2.7  per  cent. 

Illuminants 2.9 

Oxygen 13      " 

Carbon  monoxide . .  5.8 


Marsh  gas   32.3  per  cent. 

Hydrogen   51.1 

Nitrogen 5.07 

Total . .        .  100.0 


250         MINERALS    FOfe   THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — G1LPIN. 

The  Hub  seam  yielded  10,539  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  long  ton, 
of  which  55.46  per  cent  was  used  under  the  ovens.  The  average 
calorific  "power  of  the  gas  was  576.54  B.  T.  U.  The  average 
illuminating  value  of  the  gas  with  a  fishtail  burner  was  9.8 
candle  power,  with  a  Welsbach  burner  54.  candle  power. 

The  average  analysis  of  the  gas  was  as  follows  : — 


Hydrogen    50.7  per  cent. 

Marsh  gas 30.9 

Nitrogen.  .......    5.0        " 


Carbon  dioxide  ....  3.1  per  cent. 

Illuminants 2.7 

Oxygen 2 

Carbon  monoxide.  .7.4 

Total 100.0 

The  Phalen  seam  yielded  per  ton  32.91  Ibs.  of  ammonium 
sulphate,  and  the  yield  from  the  Hub  seam  was  32.24  Ibs.  In 
commercial  estimates  a  deduction  of  from  5  to  10  per  cent 
should  be  made  for  loss  of  ammonia  during  the  process  of  con- 
centration. 

The  Phalen  seam  yielded  per  ton  12.89  gals,  of  tar,  128.9  Ibs., 
and  the  Hub  seam  yielded  13.89  gals,  of  tar,  138  9  Ibs.  The 
Phalen  seam  yielded  .103,  and  the  Hub  seam  .111  gals,  of 
benzole. 

In  considering  the  illuminating  power  and  composition  of  the 
gases  given  above  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  are  averages. 
It  was  pointed  out  in  my  last  paper  that  the  gas  obtained  from 
the  first  portion  of  the  period  of  coking  is  much  higher  in  illum- 
inating power,  etc.,  than  that  given  off  during  the  latter  portion 
of  the  period  of  coking. 

The  General  Mining  Association. — This  company  has  a 
large  number  of  valuable  coal  seams,  but  has  hitherto  confined 
its  operations  to  one,  known  as  the  Sydney  Main  Seam.  This 
seam  has  been  worked  for  over  one  hundred  years,  and  still 
remains  one  of  the  most  valuable  assets  of  the  Province.  The 
average  thickness  of  the  seam  is  five  fest  two  inches.  The 
annual  output  271,000  tons.  The  portion  of  the  seam  now  being 
worked  is  entirely  under  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  samples 
exhibited  being  taken  from  a  point  2,200  yards  from  the  nearest 
land,  and  at  a  depth  of  1,000  feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.  251 

The  following  analyses  made  at  different  periods  will  show  the 
general  uniformity  of  the  seam  : 

(1871.)    Analysis  by  Dr.  How. 


Moisture 3.04 

Volatile  Combust.  Matter.31.14 

Fixed  Carbon 61.50 

Ash   .  .   4.32 


100.00 


Average  Coke   70.30 

Theoretical    Evapora- 
tive power 9.06  Ibs. 

Sulphur 1.24 

Specific   Gravity  ....   1.30 


(1890.)      Analysis  by  the   Writer. 

Slow  Coking.  Fast  Cokiug. 

Moisture  « 420  .420 

Volatile  Combustible  Matter 34.962  37.1 10 

Fixed  Carbon 59.993  57.845 

Ash  .                                                  .   4.625  4.625 


100000  100.000 

Sulphur    . . . .' 95  .95 

(1891.)  Average  Samples  from  Five  Sections  of  the  Mine. 


Moisture 1.536 

Volatile    Combustible 

Matter  ..36.372 


Fixed   Carbon   57.008 

Ash 5.084 

Sulphur 1.894 


Of  the  underlying  seams  in  the  North  Sydney  district,  not 
much  can  yet  be  said.  The  General  Mining  Association  has 
recently  proved  them  by  a  shaft  to  the  fourth  seam.  These 
seams  are  of  good  quality,  and  from  three  to  four  feet  thick.  I 
append  an  analysis  of  the  third  seam,  made  a  few  years  ago, 
from  samples  taken  from  the  openings  of  the  North  Sydney 
Mining  Company,  along  its  outcrop  : — 


Moisture 2.06 

Volatile    Combustible 

Matter ..30.16 

Fixed  Carbon  .  . .  60.32 


Ash    .  .    7.46 


100.00 

Subhur  .84 


These  seams  are  now  receiving  attention  at  the  hands  of  the 
Sydney  Coal  Company,  and,  although'  thinner  than  the  main 
seam,  will  undoubtedly  in  the  near  future  prove  valuable  from 
their  uniformity  and  proximity  to  deep  water. 


252  MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 

The  coals  of  Pictou  County  are  represented  by  samples  from- 
the  mines  of  the  Acadia  Coal  Company.  These  deposits  have 
long  been  worked.  Samples  of  coal  are  also  shown  from  the 
Chignecto,  Jogoins  and  Springhill  Colleries.  Interesting 
analyses,  etc.,  of  the  seams  found  at  the  last-named  district  have 
been  furnished  by  me  in  late  numbers  of  the  Transactions  of  the- 
Institute. 

Manganese. 

At  present  the  production  of  manganese  is  at  a  low  ebb  i» 
this  province.  For  many  years  the  Tenny  Cape  Mines  had  a. 
world-wide  reputation  for  the  production  of  small  amounts  of 
extremely  pure  ore.  For  some  time  past  little  ore  has  been 
mined.  It  is  not  doubted  that  the  resources  of  the  district  are 
exhausted ;  but  the  researches  of  the  chemist  have  pointed  out 
methods  for  the  production  of  pure  manganese  oxide  as  a  by 
product,  which  have  lessened  the  demand  for  a  native  ore  almost 
chemically  pure.  However  the  demand  for  manganese  for  steel 
making  purposes  has  again  offered  a  market  for  manganese  ores> 
high  in  grade,  and  phosphorus  free.  Attention  is  now  being 
directed  to  the  ores  of  this  district,  and  with  modern  appliances 
for  prospecting  and  mining  it  is  anticipated  that  Tenny  Cape 
will  again  become  a  producer.  The  samples  collected  exhibit 
well  the  celebrated  crystalline  pyrolusite  characterising  the 
district. 

The  following  analysis  will  serve  to  show  the  character  of 
the  ores  of  this  district,  which  occur  in  lower  carboniferous 
limestones : — 

I.  II. 

Moisture 1.66  2.05 

Water   of    Composition 3.63  .... 

Iron  peroxide 603  2.55 

Oxygen     7.036          

Baryta 724  1.12 

Insoluble 1.728  2.80 

Phosphoric  acid 1.029 

Manganese  oxides    84.620  .... 

Peroxide  of  manganese 90.15 

Lirne..  trace. 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.  253 

Ores  less  crystalline  but  equally  pure  occur  at  Loch  Lomond 
in  Cape  Breton  County,  at  the  Moseley  Mines.  The  ore  is  found 
in  both  the  crystalline  and  amorphous  forms  in  a  red  shale  of 
lower  carboniferous  age  about  five  feet,  thick.  It  is  presented 
as  layers  and  beds  from  one  to  eighteen  inches  in  thickness. 
The  enclosing  material  being  soft  it  is  readily  extracted.  The 
position  of  the  mine  has  necessitated  unfavorable  conditions  for 
shipment,  but  the  construction  of  the  railway  now  under  con- 
tract between  the  Strait  of  Canso  and  Louisburg  will  furnish  a 
ready  access  to  admirable  shipping  facilities. 

The  following  analyses  will  serve  to  show  its  quality : — 

I.  II.  ill. 

Peroxide  of  manganese  (available). ..  .91.84         87.64         92.C5 

Peroxide  of  iron , 12         trace.          4.14 

Insoluble 2.71  8.51         trace. 

The  ores  of  this  metal  occnr  in  workable  amounts  in  Onslow, 
near  Truro,  as  veins,  and  in  the  partings  of  the  lower  carboni- 
ferous sandstones. 

During  the  past  few  months  New  Ross,  in  the  northern  part 
of  Lunenburg  County,  has  promised  to  become  a  producer  of 
manganese  ores.  Miner  T.  Foster  has  opened  a  number  of  veins 
which  are  of  high  grade,  and  available  for  economic  extraction. 
A  few  tons  have  been  shipped,  and  have  found  a  ready  sale. 
The  extent  of  the  manganiferous  ground,  and  the  age  of  the 
strata  holding  the  ores,  has,  I  believe,  not  yet  been  worked  out. 
Explorations  made  during  the  past  season,  have  shown  that  the 
Dean  and  Chapter  lands  adjoining  the  Foster  properties  contain, 
at  several  points,  deposits  which  promise  to  be  valuable.  The 
ores  of  this  district  have,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  not  been  exhaus- 
tively analysed.  They  contain,  however,  manganese  in  amount 
suitable  for  steel  and  chemical  purposes. 

The  Mineral  Products  Company  of  Bridgeville.Pictou  County, 
also  exhibit  samples  of  manganite,  and  of  manganiferous 
limonite.  It  is  reported  that  recent  developments  in  the  iron 
ore  mines  of  this  locality  have  shown  the  presence  of  consider- 
able amounts  of  the  latter  mineral. 


254          MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 

Gold  Ores. 

The  collection  of  gold  specimens  procured  for  the  exhibition 
although  not  as  rich  as  could  be  desired,  may  be  termed  repre- 
sentative of  a  number  of  the  best  known  districts.  I  will  refer 
briefly  to  the  districts  represented.  The  department  contributed 
a  set  of  Montagu  specimens,  valued  at  Si, 200.00,  at  present  on 
exhibition  at  the  Imperial  Institute,  London,  also  specimens  from 
Renfrew,  Mt.  Uniacke,  and  Waverly.  Another  handsome  set, 
approaching  in  value  that  first  named,  was  secured  from  Messrs. 
Jack  &  Bell.  Another  sample  was  from  the  famous  "  Plough 
Lead  "  at  Isaacs  Harbor. 

The  following  parties  also  contributed  samples,  some  of 
which  were  very  handsome,  accompanied  by  samples  of 
concentrates,  wall  rocks,  photos,  eic. : 

J.  J.  Withrow South  Uniacke Gold-beariug  quartz. 

"  "  Concentrates. 

J.  Hirschfield Goldenville 

Guflfey  Jennings Caribou Gold-bearing  quartz. 

W.  C.  Sarre Cow  Bay 

Cashon  &  Mines Leipsigate 

"          Concentrates. 

Elk  Mining  Co Caribou Gold-bearing  quartz. 

"        Concentrates. 

Montreal  &  London  Gold 

Dev.  Co Salmon  River Gold-bearing  quartz. 

Gue  &  Wilson Waverley " 

R.  R.  McLeod Malaga 

J.  H.  Townsend . .        ,  .Lawrencetown. .  " 


"  Wall  rocks,  etc. 

W.  L.  Libbey N.  Brookfield Gold-bearing  quartz. 

"  Wall  rocks. 

"          "  Concentrates. 

Note. — At  this  mine  there  is  a  successful  chlorination  plan, 
the  first  in  the  Province. 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.          255 

J.  D.  Huntingdon Yarmouth Gold  bearing  quartz. 

"          Concentrates. 

W.  C.  Anderson Montagu Gold-bearing  quartz. 

Jack  &  Bell "        

Cunningham  &  Curren. Mount  Uniacke " 

Concentrates. 

J.  D.  McGregor Fifteen  Mile  Stream.Gold-bearing  quartz. 

Lead. 

As  yet  the  development  of  our  lead  ores  has  not  reached  the 
productive  stage. 

In  Inverness  County,  in  Laurentian  felsites,  at  many  points, 
are  visible  the  effects  of  solfataric  action,  in  deposits  of  copper, 
lead  and  zinc  ores,  often  noticeably  enriched  with  gold  and 
silver.  Some  measure  of  development  has  been  attained  at 
Cheticamp  by  Halifax  capitalists,  who  have  opened  a  promising 
silver  lead  deposit.  It  is  expected  that  these  ores  will  be  shipped 
to  the  smelter  at  Pictou,  or  to  Swansea.  Openings  show  the 
deposit  to  be  from  3  to  10  feet  thick,  and  to  continue  for  several 
hundred  feet.  Roughly  speaking,  the  ore  carries  one  ounce  of 
silver  for  each  unit  of  lead,  some  samples  showing  as  high  as 
78  per  cent,  of  lead  and  80  ounces  of  silver.  Gold  also  shows  in 
quantities  varying  from  3  to  14  dwts.  per  ton  of  2,000  Ibs. 
Similar  results  in  gold  and  silver  have  been  obtained  from  the 
Silver  Cliff  deposits  and  from  zinc  blende  deposits  in  the  same 
locality. 

As  yet  the  auriferous  alluvium  in  the  Cheticamp  River  has 
not  received  systematic  attention.  If  there  are  gravels  in  the 
river  worth  working,  they  will  be  found  where  the  river  leaves 
the  mountain,  and  not  in  its  narrow  gorges  subject  to  frequent 
and  severe  freshets.  No  free  gold  veins  have  yet  been  reported, 
and  the  alluvial  gold  which  attracted  so  much  attention  some- 
time ago  is  probably  derived  from  the  felsites,  which  are 
reported  to  occasionally  show  fine  flakes  of  gold. 

At  Red  Head,  a  few  miles  to  the  north,  some  development 
work  has  been  done  on  copper  deposits,  also  auriferous.  Galena 


256  MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 

ore    running   high    in    lead    and    silver    occurs    at    Caledonia, 
Guysboro  County,  and  at  Smithfield,  Hants  County. 

Graphite. 

The  upper  or  slate  division  of  the  Nova  Scotia  gold  fields 
frequently  shows  beds  highly  carbonaceous,  but  I  am  not  aware 
tnat  they  have  been  practically  tested.  In  the  prccambrian 
felsites  and  gneisses  of  Cape  Breton,  plumbaginous  slates  are 
not  uncommon.  Samples  have  been  secured  from  the  River 
Dennys  district,  and  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Grand  Narrows. 
The  rock  from  the  latter  locality  yielded  to  the  analyst  of  the 
Geological  Survey : 

Graphite  Carbon 50.23 

Rock  matter 43.27 

Water 6.50 

100.00 
Copper. 

An  interesting  set  of  specimens  and  photos  show  the 
development  work  of  the  Cape  Breton  Copper  Company  at 
Coxheath,  Cape  Breton  County.  Here  a  number  of  deposits 
have  been  traced  for  several  thousand  feet,  and  proved  to  depths 
upwards  of  300  feet.  The  deposits  vary  in  thickness  up  to  12 
feet,  and  may,  so  far  as  exploration  work  has  been  carried,  be 
described  as  very  long  lenses,  bedded  in  precambrian  felsites 
and  slates. 

While  some  of  the  lenses  carry  copper  contents  up  to  10  per 
cent.,  the  ore  will  presumably  belong  to  the  class  requiring 
concentration.  Working  tests  have  shown  that  concentration 
readily  presents  a  suit-able  furnace  material,  unusually  free  from 
injurious  ingredients.  The  following  tables  of  analyses  and  of 
working  tests  of  concentration  are  of  interest : 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILHN.         257 


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258 


MINERALS     FOR     THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 


CAPE  BRETON  COPPER  COMPANY,  (LIMITED),  NOVA  SCOTIA,  CANADA. 
TABLE  I. 

WASTE. 

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MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 


259 


CAPE  BRETON  COPPER  COMPANY,  (LIMITED),  NOVA  SCOTIA,  CANADA. 
TABLE  II. 

WASTE. 

d 

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260 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 


Samples  of  similar  ores  are  shown  from  St.  George's  River, 
Eagle  Head  and  French  Road,  in  the  same  County. 

In  Antigonish  County  the  traces  of  copper  ore  are  wide 
spread.  At  some  points  prospecting  work  has  given  promising 
results,  but  as  yet  the  various  licenses  to  search  have  received 
little  attention. 

A  sample  of  copper  ore  from  St.  Joseph's  is  from  a  bed  of 
mixed  chalcopyrite  and  shale  in  lower  carboniferous  strata  close 
to  their  junction  with  precarboniferous  rocks,  presumably  of 
lower  silurian  age.  There  are  about  eight  beds,  reported  to  be 
from  two  to  six  feet  in  width  The  following  analysis  of  a 
sample  from  the  No.  2  vein  is  by  the  Geological  Survey  Depart- 
ment : 


Copper 27.00 

Iron 29.70 

Sulphur 33.50 

Silica.  3.40 


Moisture 20 

Carbonate  of  Iron 6  20 

100.00 


At  Poison's  Lake  somewhat  extensive  development  work  has 
shown,  in  Devonian  strata,  beside  a  dioritic  dyke,  a  large  mass 
of  carbonate  of  iron  and  calc  spar  carrying  copper  pyrites.  The 
ore  is  stated  to  average  from  9  to  16  per  cent,  of  copper,  and  to 
carry  several  dollars'  worth  of  gold  and  silver.  On  the  opposite 
or  west  side  of  the  Lochaber  lake,  similar  but  richer  ores  occur 
in  numerous  veins  with  spar  and  specular  iron.  Exploratory 
work  done  here  a  number  of  years  ago  was  fairly  promising. 

In  addition  to  these  deposits,  carbonates,  sulphides  and 
silicates  of  copper  are  not  uncommon  in  the  carboniferous  shales 
and  sandstones  in  irregular  masses,  frequently  rich,  but  limited 
in  extent.  Further  work  may,  however,  show  localities  where 
this  class  of  deposits  will  reach  economic  values. 

In  Pictou  County  similar  ores  occur  at  a  number  of  places  in 
the  permo-carboniferous  and  in  the  millstone  grit  and  lower 
carboniferous.  Traces  of  copper  sulphide  also  occur  in  the 
district  forming  the  water  shed  between  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.          261 

the  Strait  of  Northumberland.  The  deposits  near  Pictou  and 
River  John  have  received  some  attention  and  will  probably  prove 
sources  of  this  metal.  At  Dalhousie  Mountain  a  good  deal  of 
surface  exploration  has  been  done  on  a  vein  from  2  to  3  feet 
wide  carrying  copper  pyrites.  Samples  have  shown  up  to  15 
per  cent,  of  copper  and  about  $2G.OO  of  gold  per  ton. 

It  may  be  anticipated  that  where  the  Devonian  strata  of 
this  district  are  intersected  by  dioritic  and  granitic  dykes  oppor- 
tunity v/ill  be  afforded  for  copper  ores,  in  some  cases,  of 
commercial  value.  The  rocks  referred  to  appear  again  in  the 
southern  part  of  New  Annan,  and  indications  cf  copper  ore  are 
wide  -spread  in  quartzites  and  felsites  associated  with  dioritic 
dykes,  etc. 

Developments  have  been  made  at  New  Annan,  on  the  East 
Branch  of  the  French  River,  about  five  miles  from  Tatarnagouche 
Station.  The  property  being  developed  presents  a  bed  about 
four  feet  thick,  carrying  stringers  of  black  sulphide  and  carbonate 
with  nodules  of  various  copper  sulphides  in  a  fine  sandstone 
conglomerate  resting  on  a  blue  clay  floor.  Similar  deposits  also 
occur  at  the  Palmer  mine,  near  Wentworth.  Here  the  bed  is 
about  ten  feet  thick  and  much  mixed  with  clay,  The  quality  of 
these  ores  varies  very  much,  according  to  the  state  of  concen- 
tration reached  in  the  process  of  formation.  Samples  can  be 
had  running  up  to  50  per  cent  of  copper,  with  gold  and  silver 
in  varying  amounts.  It  is  expected  that  these  deposits  and 
others  of  a  similar  character  scattered  from  Amherst  to  Pictou 
will  furnish  material  for  the  smelter  at  Pictou.  More  extended 
development  will  be  required  to  determine  this  point.  It  is, 
however,  extremely  probably  that  the  older  rocks  lying  to  the 
south  of  the  carboniferous  will  yield  deposits  of  ore  larger  and 
more  uniform  in  quality. 

Copper  pyrites  also  occurs  on  the  Portapique  River,  Col- 
chester Co.,  in  a  stratum,  presumably  of  Devonian  age,  over  a 
tract  several  hundred  feet  wide  and  a  mile  in  length.  Samples 
show  up  to  20  per  cent,  copper,  with  traces  of  gold. 


262         MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 

Iron. 

Among  the  most  interesting  of  the  exhibits  under  this  head 
is  that  of  the  Nova  Scotia  Steel  Company.  This  company  is  an 
example  of  the  successful  progress  of  enterprise  combined  with 
commercial  and  technical  skill.  The  forge  works  of  New 
Glasgow,  which  acquired  well-deserved  notice  for  their  work  in 
ship  frames,  shafts,  steins,  etc.,  gradually  grew  and  prospered 
With  the  iron  ores  and  coal  of  Pictou  County  at  the  doors  of 
New  Glasgow,  it  needed  one  step  and  the  company  produced 
its  own  raw  material.  A  railway  was  built  from  Hopewell  to 
the  head  of  the  East  River,  to  open  the  Bridgeville  iron  ores 
and  limestones.  A  furnace  was  built  at  the  junction  of  the 
East  and  West  branches  of  the  East  River,  and  a  large  steel 
works  made  Trenton  another  New  Glasgow. 

This  measure  of  progress  has  not  limited  the  company's 
ambition.  By  a  lucky  stroke  of  business  they  acquired  possession 
of  an  enormous  iron  ore  deposit  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland. 
This  deposit  was  capable  of  yielding  at  the  cheapest  rate  an  ore 
suitable  for  the  basic  process.  Accordingly  large  amounts  have 
been  annually  imported  for  mixture  with  the  limonite  ores  of 
Bridgeville.  Exports  have  also  been  made  to  the  United  States 
and  Europe.  The  company  has  sold  part  of  this  deposit  to  the 
Dominion  Iron  and  Steel  Company,  it  is  said,  for  the  sum  o£ 
$1,000,00000.  Now  they  propose  to  absorb  the  22  square  miles 
of  coal  area  of  the  General  Mining  Association  and  to  erect  at 
North  Sydney  a  steel  plant  rivaling  that  of  the  Dominion  Steel 
Company. 

The  ores  of  the  Pictou  iron  field  comprise  limonites,  red 
hematites,  and  spathic  and  specular  ores.  As  yet  operations 
have  been  confined  to  the  limonites  mined  by  the  Steel  Co. 
There  are  enormous  deposits  of  red  hematites  and  specular  ores 
yet  untouched,  and  affording  material  for  the  establishment  of 
an  iron  industry  surpassing  that  contemplated  at  the  Sydneys. 

The  samples  exhibited  by  the  company  comprise  ores,  fluxes, 
fuels,  pig  iron,  and  the  steel  products. 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.          263 


The  transactions  of  the  Nova  Scotia  Mining  Institute 
contain  a  full  description  of  the  plant  of  this  company.  The 
following  analyses  are  self-explanatory  : 

Nova  Scotia  Steel  Company,  Trenton  and  Ferrona. 

Iron  Ores. 

Red  Hematite  from  Wakana  Mine,  Newfoundland,  owned 
by  N.  S.  Steel  Co.  Average  analysis  for  year  1898  at  150,000 
tons.  Dried  at  212°  F.  Moisture,  0.66. 


Loss  on  ignition ....   2.08  p.  c. 

Silica 11.57  " 

Iron  Oxide 77.67  " 

Manganese  Oxide.. ..  0.08  " 

Alumina 4.55  " 

Lime(CaO.) 1.81  " 

Magnesia 0.44  " 


Phos-Acid 1.62  p.  c 

Sulphuric  Acid 0.07 

Titanic  Acid 0.25 

Metallic  Iron 54.37 

Phosphorus 071 

Sulphur 0.03 


Magnetic  Iron  ore  from    Cuba,   dried   at    212  F.     Average 
analysis  : 


Silica 991  p.  c. 

Alumina 0.85     " 

Lime 0.50     " 

Magnesia 0.32     " 


Manganese 0.41  p.  c. 

Metallic  Iron 61.02     " 

Phosphorus 0.04     " 

Sulphur 0.087     " 


Red  Hematite.     (High  phosphorus.)     Torbrook,  N.  S. : 


Silica 13.00 

Ferric  Oxide 77.60 

Alumina 4.28 

Manganese  Dioxide . .  0.38 

Calcium  Oxide 1.90 

Maonesium  Oxide  .   .  0.35 


p.  c. 


Titanium Trace. 

Barium  Oxide " 

Volatile  matter Nil. 

Carbonic  Oxide " 

Phosphorus 1.21  p.  c. 


Lirnonite  Iron  ore,  washed  sample,  from  East  River,  Pictou. 


Average  analysis : 

Comb,  water 12.40  p.  c. 

Silica 11.25     " 

Ferric  Oxides 73.23     " 

Alumina 1.49     " 

Lime..  .   0.39     " 


Magnesia 0.16  p.  c- 

Manganese 0.33     " 

Phosphorus 0.032     " 

Sulphur 0.084     " 

Metallic  Iron..         ..51.26     " 


264         MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION.— GILPIN. 


Limonite — Lump  sample  from  East  River: 


Comb,  water 10.50  p.  c. 

Silica 8.18     " 

Ferric  Oxide 76.30     " 

Alumina 210     " 

Lime  .  .   0.31     " 


Magnesia 0.21  p.  c. 

Manganese 1.25     " 

Phosphorus 0.02     " 

Sulphur ....  0.06     " 

Metallic  Iron..          ..53.41     " 


Limestone,  Springville, 

Moisture 0.20 

Silica 3.10 

Alumina 0.24 

Ferric  Oxide 1.86 

Calcium  Carbonate.  .88.94 


Fluxes. 
Pictou  Co. 
p.  c. 


Average  analysis : 


p.  c. 


No.  1  Foundry. 

Silicon 2.85 

Manganese 0.54 

Phosphorus 0.90     " 

Sulphur 0.01     " 

Gr.  Carbon 3.70     " 

Comb  Carbon 0.16     " 

Copper. Nil. 

Arsenic " 

Barium Trace. 

Hematite  Iron. 

Silicon 1.00  p.  c. 

Manganese 0.95     " 

Phosphorus 008     " 

Sulphur 0.08     " 

Gr.  Carbon 3.12     " 

Comb.  Carbon 0.70     " 

Copper Nil. 

Arsenic " 

Barium . .  . .  Trace. 


Magnesium  Carbonate  4.90 
Calcium  Sulphate  . ..  0.20 

Organic  matter — 

Lime         )  ( 49.81 

Magnesia  jAvailable\    2.35 

Pig  Iron. 

Basic  Iron. 

Silicon 0.40 

Manganese , . . .   0.75 

Phosphorus 1.00 

Sulphur 0.03 

Graphitic  Carbon 3.27 

Combined  Carbon  . ..  0.63 

Copper Nil. 

Arsenic " 

Barium..  ..Trace. 


p.c. 


p.  c. 


No.  3  Foundry. 

Silicon 2.10  p. 

Manganese 0.60  ' 

Phosphorus 0.91  ' 

Sulphur 0.02  ' 

Gr.  Carbon 2.50  ' 

Comb.  Carbon 0.60  ' 

Copper Nil. 

Arsenic " 

Barium  .  . .  Trace. 


c. 


No.  2  Foundry. 

Silicon 2.50  p.  c. 

Manganese 0.55  " 

Phosphorus 0.90  " 

Sulphur 0.012  " 

Gr.  Carbon 3.20  " 

Comb  Carbon 030  " 

Copper Nil. 

Arsenic " 

Barium Trace. 

No.  4  Foundry. 

Silicon 1.75  p.  c. 

Manganese 0.65     " 

Phosphorus 0.92     " 

Sulphur 0.03     " 

Gr.  Carbon 2.00     " 

Comb.  Carbon 0.90     " 

Copper Nil. 

Arsenic " 

Barium..  ..Trace. 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION.— GILPIN.          265 

Fuels. 

48  hour  (Retort)  Coke.    Made  in  "  Bernard's  "  Coke  oven,  from 
washed  coal  at  Ferrona,  Iron  Works. 

Moisture 0.40  p.  c. 

Vol.  Comb  Matter...  1.60     " 
Fixed     Carbon     (by 


Ash 7.22  p.  c. 

Sulphur 1.15     " 

Phosphor  as 0.01     " 


diff.) 90.78 

Slate,  etc.,  from  coal  washer  from  coal  used  in  making  coke. 


Moisture 1.00  p.  c. 

Vol.  Comb.  Matter.. .18.14     " 


Ash 76.31  p.  c. 

Sulphur 6.23     " 


Fixed  Carbon 4.55     ' 

Washed  coal  used  for  making  coke. 


Moisture 1.07  p.  c. 

Vol.  Comb.  Matter.  ..31.69     •' 
Fixed  Carbon ..       ..63.14     " 


Ash 4.17  p.  c. 

Sulphur 1.46     " 


Culm    Coal,     one-third     Springhill     and     two-thirds    Reserve 

Coal,  (C.  B.) 


Moisture 0.82  p.  c. 

Vol  Comb.  Matter... 28.31     " 
Fixed  Carbon..      ..59.87     " 


Ash 11.06  p.  c. 

Sulphur 2.12     " 


Another  interesting  exhibit  is  that  of  the  Mineral  Products 
Company,  of  Bridgeville,  Pictou  County.  These  people  leased 
the  Charcoal  furnace  at  that  place  for  the  manufacture  of  ferro- 
manganese.  The  manganese  was  obtained  from  a  deposit  in 
New  Brunswick.  This  deposit  consisted  of  bog  ore,  which  was 
dried  and  made  into  briquettes.  It  was  smelted  with  the 
limonite  ore  of  the  East  River,  and  made  a  product  of  good 
marketable  value.  The  expense  incurred  in  handling  the  man- 
ganese ore  and  its  freight  has  b'een  assigned  as  the  cause  of  the 
abandonment  of  the  enterprise.  I  regret  to  say  that,  owing  to 
the  absence  of  the  manager  from  the  Province,  I  am  unable  to 
give  analyses  of  the  raw  materials  and  of  the  product. 

In  this  district,  in  addition  to  the  limonite  ores,  there  are 
large  deposits  of  specular,  red  hematite,  spaltic  and  clay  ironstone 
ores,  which  will  no  doubt  before  long  be  mined  for  the  smelter. 


266          MINERALS    FOR   THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 

In  Cape  Breton  as  yet  there  has  been  little  iron  ore 
development.  An  extensive  and  valuable  deposit  at  Gillis  Lake, 
is  known  as  the  Moseley  mine. 

The  following  set  of  analyses  will  tend  to  show  its  quality  : 
1.  2.  3.  4. 

Iron C3.45  63.20  58.90  64.10 

Silica 6.96  6.42  13.38  4.71 

Phosphorus 0212  .014  .0257  nil. 

Sulphur 0631  .0604  .0041  .0027 

The  bed,  which  has  been  traced  for  several  miles,  averages 
about  seven  feet  in  thickness,  and  is  associated  with  a  crystalline 
limestone,  presumably  of  laurentian  age.  It  is  within  about 
four  miles  of  deep  water,  and  about  eight  miles  from  the 
Intercolonial  Railway. 

In  the  devonian  strata  in  the  neighborhood  of  St.  Peter's, 
Richmond  County,  there  are  a  number  of  deposits  of  specular 
ore,  similar  to  those  found  in  strata  of  the  same  age  in  Guysboro 
County. 

The  following  analysis  from  the  Micmac  mine,  about  six 
miles  from  St.  Peter's,  will  serve  to  show  the  class  of  this  ore: 

Iron 68.18     Sulphur 15 

Silica 2.48  |  Phosphorus 05 

Prospecting  work  at  Whycocomagh,  Cape  Breton,  has  shown 
the  presence  of  a  number  of  beds  of  magnetite  and  red  hematite 
up  to  twelve  feet  in  thickness.  Judging  from  surface  indications, 
there  is  an  extensive  iron  field  in  this  locality.  Analyses  show 
metallic  iron,  from  49.13  to  63.20  ;  Silica,  up  to  21.90  ;  Sulphur, 
trace  to  .55 ;  Phosphorus,  trace  to  .49. 

Very  extensive  deposits  of  a  similar  character  occur  at 
Nictaux,  Annapolis  Co.,  and  are  represented  by  a  number  of 
samples.  A  deposit  of  red  hematite,  at  Torbrook,  in  this 
district,  about  six  feet  thick,  was  worked  for  some  years,  until 
the  Londonderry  Furnaces  were  closed.  A  description  of  the 
ores  and  analyses  will  be  found  in  a  paper  on  the  Iron  Ores  of 
Nictaux  read  by  me  before  this  Institute  a  few  years  ago. 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.          267 

Other  localities  which  have  been  drawn  upon  for  samples 
are  briefly  as  follows :  Mira  River,  Cape  Breton  County,  where 
there  are  several  beds  of  red  hematite  from  three  to  six  feet 
thick. 

Extensive  deposits  of  magnetite  and  red  hematite  are 
reported  from  George's  River,  in  the  same  county.  As  yet  the 
explorations  in  these  deposits  have  not  been  carried  to  any 
extent.  The  following  analysis  by  F.  A.  Mason,  of  Halifax,  will 
show  that  rich  ore  exists  : 


Metallic  Iron 58.56 

Manganese 1.98 

Silica  .  ,    5.79 


Phosphorus 019 

Sulphur 013 

Titanium  .  .95 


Londonderry,  Colchester  County,  has  for  many  years 
yielded  limonite  ore  of  very  high  quality.  A  very  elaborate 
report  and  analyses  were  made  some  years  ago  by  Dr.  Selwyn, 
and  published  in  the  report  of  the  Canadian  Geological  Survey 
Samples  of  the  varieties  of  limonite  and  specular  ores,  and  of 
the  carbonates,  etc.,  worked  here  have  been  forwarded. 

Quarries. 

These  notes  refer  to  the  Quarries  in  the  northern  part  of 
Cumberland  County,  which  furnished  samples  of  their  pro- 
ducts. 

Quarries  at  River  John. — No.  1.  This  is  the  only  quarry  at 
present  working  in  this  district.  It  is  situated  at  River  John 
and  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  I.  C.  Railway,  and  con- 
nected therewith  by  a  good  road. 

It  contains  a  reddish  sandstone  of  fine  grain,  and  has  been 
opened  for  about  350  feet  in  length,  exposing  a  face  so  far  of 
about  14  feet.  Stones  are  cut  here  up  to  about  33  cubic  feet, 
though  almost  any  size  could  be  obtained  with  larger  machinery. 
The  seams  are  very  regular  in  formation  and  lie  nearly 
horizontal.  Worked  for  nearly  a  year. 

No.  2.  Adjoins  the  first  quarry,  and  resembles  it  in  general 
•characteristics,  though  the  stone  is  of  a  lighter  colour. 


268  MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 

No.  3.  About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  up  the  river  from  No.  1, 
was  worked  for  six  years  intermittently.  Many  grindstones 
were  cut  in  this  quarry,  which  yields  a  firm  grey  sandstone. 

Wallace  Harbor. — The  Wallace  Grey  Stone  Co.,  Wallace 
Harbor,  John  Stevenson,  Manager.  This  quarry  is  situated  at 
Wallace,  and  a  great  part  of  the  stone  is  shipped  by  water, 
though  it  is  connected  with  the  I.  C.  Railway  by  a  good  waggon 
road  about  two  miles  long. 

Though  the  stone  is  carried  to  the  wharf  by  horses,  a 
tramway  (gravity)  could  easily  be  operated,  the  quarry  being 
situated  on  a  hill.  The  distance  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile* 
This  quarry  has  been  worked  for  a  period  of  nearly  thirty  years 
off  and  on,  and  is  still  only  partially  developed.  It  produces  an 
average  of  about  1,500  tons  ("  quarry  ")  a  year,  of  fine  grained 
sandstone  in  two  colours — "  olive  "  and  "  bluish." 

Blocks  up  to  ten  tons  in  weight  and  measuring  fourteen  feet 
are  cut,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  stone  is  shipped  to  the  Bos- 
ton and  New  York  markets.  The  poorer  stone  is  sold  locally. 

Wallace  Harbor.— The  G.  P.  Sherwood  Co.,  T.  C.  Dobson, 
Manager.  This  quarry  adjoins  the  quarry  of  the  Wallace  Grey 
Stone  Co.,  and  the  same  remarks  apply  to  it  also. 

At  Wallace  Bridge  the  famous  Battye  Quarry  is  being- 
operated  by  George  Battye.  Stone  has  been  taken  from  this 
quarry  since  the  year  1809,  and  there  is  still  much  in  sight.  It 
is  situated  on  the  I.  C.  Railway  and  the  Wallace  River.  Chief 
market  New  York  and  Eastern  States'  cities.  Blocks  up  to  ten 
tons  are  cut.  At  present  25  feet  of  rock  is  shown  in  the  face, 
with  seams  measuring  from  2  to  6  feet  in  thickness.  This  is 
composed  of  a  very  uniform  and  beautiful  sandstone,  suitable 
for  monumental  as  well  as  construction  work. 

On  the  River  Philip,  about  five  miles  from  Pugwash,  is 
situated  the  quarry  of  McLeod  &  Embree.  It  produces  a 
handsome  red  sandstone  contained  in  seams  from  2  to  7  feet,  and 
shows  altogether  VQ  feet  in  the  face.  Blocks  cut  to  8  tons.  Has 
been  operated  for  upwards  of  30  years  and  usually  ships  to  the 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.  269 

States.     This  year  all  the  stone  quarried  is  being  supplied  to 
Toronto. 

The  Atlantic  Stone  Co.,  Limited,  R.  S.  Hibbard,  Manager. — 
The  quarry  of  this  company  is  situated  on  Cumberland  Basin, 
3£  miles  from  Joggins  Station,  on  the  Canada  Coal  Company's 
Railway,  and  16  miles  from  I.  C.  Railway.  The  stone  is  shipped 
chiefly  by  water,  in  vessels  up  to  about  300  tons.  The  market 
is  mainly  in  the  New  England  States,  though  the  stones  are  sent 
much  further  west  occasionally.  2,000  tons  shipped  per  year. 
This  quarry  produces  a  very  superior  form  of  grindstone. 
Stones  from  half  an  inch  to  14  inches  thick,  arid  up  to  7  feet  in 
diameter  are  cut,  though  almost  any  size  that  could  be  handled 
are  procurable. 

At  Lime  Rock,  West  River,  Pictou  Co  ,  are  sandstone  quarries 
yielding  good  building  stone.  Samples  are  shown  by  Mr.  J.  H. 
Fraser.  In  the  Merigomish  district  the  strata  lying  above  the 
productive  measures  yield  grindstones  and  fair  qualities  of 
freestone. 

The  owners  of  quarries  of  granite,  syenite,  etc.,  neglected  to 
respond  to  the  invitation  of  the  Department  to  send  samples. 
The  demand  for  granite  is  limited  practically  to  the  City  of 
Halifax,  where  this  stone  is  used  to  some  extent  for  foundations, 
trimmings,  and  in  the  fortifications.  The  present  available 
sources  of  supply  are  Shelburne,  and  the  North-West  Arm,  near 
Halifax.  At  Nictaux  there  are  blue  varieties  of  granite  of  very 
fine  quality,  and  in  Cape  Breton  there  are  syenites,  gneisses, 
etc.,  available  for  decorative  and  other  purposes. 

An  interesting  deposit  of  sandstones  yielding  building 
stone,  grindstones,  whetstone,  etc.,  is  found  at  Lower  Cove, 
Joggins,  Cumberland  County.  Samples  of  the  raw  and 
manufactured  article  are  contributed  by  Mr.  R.  L.  Hibbard. 
These  quarries  have  been  worked  continuously  for  many  years, 
and  an  extended  market  has  been  found  for  the  grindstones. 
The  quarry  yields  stones  one-half  to  seven  inches  in  thickness 
and  up  to  seven  feet  in  diameter.  The  superior  quality  of  these 


270  MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 

stones  has  secured  a  reputation  for  the  district  second  only  to 
that  acquired  by  quarries  more  favorably  situated  in  large 
industrial  districts.  Similar  deposits  are  known  at  several 
places  along  the  Joggins  shore. 

Marbles  are  represented  by  a  sample  from  Escasoni,  Cape 
Breton  County,  contributed  by  Mr  E.  T.  Bown. 

The  following  list  shows  the  building  store  quarries  from 
which  samples  have  been  secured  for  the  Exhibition : — A.  Allen, 
W.  W.  Gannon,  River  John  ;  T.  C.  Dobson,  Wallace ;  McLeod  & 
Embree,  Pugwash  ;  Wallace  Graystone  Company,  Wallace;  A. 
McPherson,  Eight  Mile  Brook;  R.  L.  Hibbard,  Joggins;  J.  H. 
Fraser,  Limebrook. 

Barytes. 

This  mineral  is  known  at  Five  Islands,  Stewiacke,  River 
John,  and  at  Lake  Ainslie,  in  Cape  Breton.  At  present  a  few 
hundred  tons  are  annually  mined  at  the  last-named  locality. 
The  ore  occurs  in  a  vein  about  nine  feet  wide,  and  is  extracted 
through  a  tunnel.  It  is  of  excellent  color  and  quality,  and  low 
in  carbonate  of  lime  Samples  of  this  mineral  are  exhibited  by 
Messrs.  Henderson  &  Potts. 

Gypsum. 

This  mineral  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  Nova  Scotia. 
It  is  presented  as  hard  and  soft  gypsum  in  every  variety  of 
texture  and  purity.  The  annual  production  is  about  150,000 
tons,  principally  from  Hants  County.  Small  amounts  are 
quarried  at  other  localities  for  local  use,  as  an  ingredient  for 
fertilizers,  etc.  The  exports  from  Hants  County  go  to  the 
United  States,  and  a  considerable  shipment  is  made  from 
Victoria  County  to  Montreal  and  Philadelphia.  Samples  are 
exhibited  from  Windsor,  Wentworth,  St.  Croix,  Newport  and 
other  localities,  in  Hants  County.  Selenite  is  also  shown  from 
Enfield,  in  the  same  county,  which  has  yielded  a  few  hundred 
tons. 


MINERALS    FOR    THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION.— GILPIN.         271 

The  Windsor  Plaster  Company  also  show  the  following 
products  :  (1)  "Calcined  plaster  "  used  for  putty  coating,  finishing, 
etc.  (2)  "  Selenite  cement "  used  for  under  coating,  etc.  (3) 
"  Land  plaster,"  ground  gypsum,  used  for  fertiliser  manufacture, 
stables,  etc. 

Tripolite. 

Of  late  years  considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
infusorial  earth  deposits  of  the  province,  and  to  deposits  of  very 
fine  grained  quartz  available  for  polishing,  insulating,  and  other 
purposes. 

Among  the  localities  represented  may  be  mentioned  River 
Dennys,  Inverness  Co.,  where  the  Cairo  Polishing  Company  are 
doing  development  work ;  Bass  River,  Colchester  Co.,  where 
extensive  works  are  curried  on,  the  shipments  for  the  last  fiscal 
year  amounting  to  21  tons.  The  Bass  River  Infusorial  Earth 
Company  procure  the  raw  material  from  Bass  River  Lake, 
where  it  is  found  in  a  bed  about  three  feet  thick,  and  purify  it 
in  a  large  plant,  which  has  been  in  operation  for  over  two 
years. 

The  Victoria  Tripolite  Company  have  commenced  extensive 
operations  near  St.  Ann's,  in  Victoria  County,  and  are  making  a 
specialty  of  insulating  material. 

Molybdenite  occurs  at  many  points  in  the  Province,  but  as 
yet  deposits  of  workable  size  have  not  been  reported.  New 
Ross,  Lunenburg,  yields  very  large  and  fine  crystals.  A  sample 
is  shown  from  this  district.  A  few  tons  have  been  shipped 
from  Gabarus,  Cape  Breton  County.  From  the  Margaree 
district,  Inverness  County,  are  shown  samples  of  ores  of 
Tungsten,  fuller  reference  to  which  will  be  found  in  these 
Transactions. 

Antimony.  The  sulphide  of  this  metal  was  some  years  ago 
worked  intermittently  at  West  Gore,  Hants  Co.  The  Messrs. 
McNeil,  of  Halifax,  have  lately  given  some  attention  to  the 
district,  and  have  proved  three  leads.  The  ore  carries  consider- 


272          MINERALS    FOR   THE    PARIS    EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 

able  gold  values,  and  there  appears  to  be  some  difficulty  found 
in  extracting  it.     Assays  show  the  following  values  : 

I.  II. 

Antimony 60.29  p.  c.  43.73  p.  c. 

Gold 2.06  oz.  per  ton  2,000  Ibs.  2.48  oz. 

Silver .10" 

Fire  clays  occur  at  several  places  in  the  coal  measures,  and 
other  horizons  of  the  carboniferous,  and  are  apparently  valuable. 
The  manufactnre  of  fire  brick  was  carried  on  for  some  time  at 
Stellarton,  but  is,  I  believe,  at  present  discontinued. 

Allied  economically  to  the  fire  clay  is  a  sample  of  felsite  from 
Coxheath,  Cape  Breton  Co ,  which  has  been  proven  experiment- 
ally to  make  a  good  fire  brick  when  mixed  with  about  one  per 
cent,  of  lime. 

Samples  of  coal  oil  shale  and  their  products  of  parafine,  wax, 
illuminating  and  lubricating  oil  are  shown  from  East  Bay, 
Cape  Breton  Co.,  where  a  plant  is  being  erected  to  treat  them  on 
a  large  scale.  These  shales  occur  in  lower  carboniferous  con- 
glomerates and  sandstones  near  their  junction  with  laurentian 
measures. 


XL— Ox  THE  VARIATION  OF  THE  RIGIDITY  OF  VULCANIZED 
INDIA-RUBBER,  WITH  TENSION.— BY  THOMAS  C.  HEBB, 
B.  A.,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

f  Communicated  by  Prof  J.  G.  MacGregor  on  the  lUfi  May,  1900.) 

Mr.  W.  A.  Macdonald*  found  in  the  course  of  experiments 
conducted  in  Dalhousie  College  last  year,  that  the  rigidity 
(kinetically  determined)  of  a  fresh  or  partially  fatigued  vulcan- 
ized india-rubber  cord,  when  subjected  to  increasing  tension,  at 
first  diminished,  then  reached  a  minimum,  and  finally  increased  ; 
while  in  the  case  of  a  sufficiently  fatigued  cord,  the  minimum 
point  seemed  to  disappear.  But  owing  to  a  doubtful  mode  of 
gripping  the  ends  of  the  cord,  his  experiments  were  not 
conclusive. 

At  Prof.  MacGregor's  suggestion,  I  have  made  the  experi- 
ments described  below  with  the  object  of  settling  this  question 
and  finding  out  what  I  could  about  the  phenomenon. 

For  this  purpose  I  have  (1)  used  the  method  of  gripping  the 
cord  which  Mr.  Macdonald  employed  in  his  last  series  of  experi- 
ments in  order  to  exclude  the  source  of  error  affecting  his  earlier 
observations  ;  (2)  applied  the  static  as  well  as  the  kinetic  method 
of  determining  the  rigidity  ;  (3)  made  experiments  both  on  the 
cord  which  Mr.  Macdonald  used  and  on  fresh  cords,  and  (4) 
adopted  modes  of  procedure,  suggested  by  the  results  of  my 
earlier  experiments,  with  respect  to  the  time  between  the 
loading  of  the  cord  and  the  determination  of  the  rigidity,  and 
to  the  rnagnitn.de  of  the  angle  of  torsion. 

The  cords  used  were  cylindrical  in  section,  about  forty 
inches  in  length,  and  one-third  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  grips 
consisted  of  pieces  of  brass  tubing  of  the  same  diameter  (inside) 
as  the  cord,  in  one  end  of  each  of  which  three  longitudinal  cuts 
had  been  made.  The  ends  of  the  rubber  cord  were  drawn  into 

*  Proc,  N.  S.  Inst.  Set.,  10,  28, 1898-99. 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Set.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— R. 

(273) 


274  ON    THE    RIGIDITY 

the  cut  ends  of  these  brass  tubes  and  firmly  fastened  there  by- 
wire  twisted  around  the  tubes  outside.  Cords  of  considerable 
length  were  used,  in  order  that  the  eHect  of  the  gripping  at  the 
ends  might  be  inappreciable. 

The  cords  were  suspended  from  an  iron  bracket,  moveable 
on  vertical  guide-posts  which  were  attached  to  the  wall  of  the 
laboratory,  and  capable  of  being  firmly  clamped  to  these  posts 
at  any  desired  elevation. 

The  upper  brass  tube  passed  through  a  wooden  socket 
firmly  fixed  in  the  bracket.  It  was  held  in  this  socket  by 
friction,  and  while  it  could  be  rotated  by  hand,  there  was  no 
danger  of  its  shifting  its  position  otherwise.  The  brass  tube 
projected  above  the  socket,  and  carried  a  wooden  disk,  on  which 
was  a  divided  circle.  A  pointer  fixed  over  the  disk  indicated 
the  number  of  degrees  through  which  the  cord  was  twisted. 
Thus  any  desired  torsion  could  be  given  to  the  cord  at  the 
upper  end. 

The  brass  tube  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cord  carried,  in  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  it,  a  light  wooden  arm  for  the  application 
of  the  twisting  force  in  the  static  experiments,  and  which 
served  as  a  platform  for  the  stretching  weights. 

These  weights  were  square  leaden  plates  of  about  four 
inches'  edge.  They  had  holes  of  the  size  of  the  brass  tube  cut 
in  the  centres,  and  slits  leading  to  them  from  the  edge,  so  that 
they  could  be  easily  put  on  and  taken  off. 

In  applying  the  kinetic  method,  the  cord  was  kept  fixed  at 
the  top,  while  the  lower  end,  with  the  plates  attached,  was 
twisted  through  some  angle  and  then  let  go.  The  time  of 
oscillation  was  then  determined  by  means  of  a  stop-watch. 
This  datum,  together  with  other  data  easily  obtained,  viz., 
length  and  diameter  of  cord,  and  moment  of  inertia  of  plates,, 
gave  the  means  of  finding  the  rigidity.  In  determining  the 
time  of  oscillation,  it  was  soon  noticed  that  it  varied  with  the 
angle  through  which  the  cord  was  twisted.  Hence  the  cord 

o  «* 

was  always  twisted  through  known  angles.     In  the  static,  as  in 


OF    VULCANIZED    INDIA-RUBBER.— HEBB.  £75 

the  kinetic  method,  the  rigidity   varied    with   the   angle,  and 
here,  also,  definite  angles  of  twist  were  always  used. 

In  using  the  static  method,  the  twisting  force  was  applied  at 
the  end  of  the  arm  carried  by  the  lower  brass  tube.  In  the 
earlier  experiments  it  was  applied  by  means  of  a  thin  silk 
string,  horizontal  and  perpendicjlar  to  the  arm,  which  passed 
over  the  pulley  of  a  set  of  frictionless  wheels  taken  from  an. 
Attwood's  machine,  and  carried  a  small  plummet  of  known, 
weight.  The  plummet  was  so  light  that  the  cord  was  not 
appreciably  deflected  from  the  vertical.  In  order  to  make  the 
friction  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  in  all  experiments  with 
the  same  plummet,  I  observed  the  position  of  the  end  of  the 
aim  before  the  plummet  was  attached  or  the  cord  twisted, 
and  then  having  attached  the  plummet,  I  determined  the 
amount  of  twist  to  be  applied  in  order  that  the  arm  might 
make  small  oscillations  about  this  position. 

Even  with  this  procedure,  however,  successive  observations 
showed  a  lack  of  agreement  which  was  traceable  to  friction. 
Hence,  in  the  later  experiments,  I  used  Mallock's*  method  of 
applying  the  force,  which  I  found  not  only  to" give  more  con- 
sistent results,  but  to  occupy  less  time.  A  small  plummet  of 
known  weight  which  was  suspended  from  the  end  of  the  arm, 
by  a  tine  silk  string  was  drawn  aside  by  a  second  silk  string, 
which  was  kept  horizontal,  the  two  strings  being  in  a  plane 
perpendicular  to  the  arm.  The  distance  to  which  it  was  drawn 
aside  was  determined  by  the  aid  of  a  second  plummet  hanging 
freely  from  the  end  of  the  arm.  The  horizontal  force  at  the- 
end  of  the  arm  was  then  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  first 
plummet  multiplied  by  the  ratio  of  the  distance  to  which  it  was 
drawn  aside  to  the  distance  below  the  end  of  the  arm  of  the 
point  of  junction  of  the  two  strings.  These  distances, 
together  with  the  length  of  the  arm,  could  be  measured  with 
consifieiable  accuracy,  and  thus  the  torque  to  which  the  cord 
was  subjected  determined. 

•  Proc.  R.  S.  L.,  46, 233, 1889. 


276  ON    THE    RIGIDITY 

In  most  of  the  measurements  made,  the  quantity  under  con- 
sideration was  determined  as  a  mean  of  several  observations. 

Lengths  were  measured  by  means  of  a  beam  compass  reading 
to  .01  inch.  The  limit  of  error  of  a  mean  value  was  found  by 
comparing  a  number  of  such  mean  values  with  their  mean,  the 
greatest  divergence  being  taken  to  be  the  possible  error  of  a 
determination.  It  was  found  to  be  different  according  as  it  was 
the  length  of  the  cord  or  of  a  side  of  the  Mai  lock  triangle  or 
of  the  arm,  that  was  determined.  In  the  two  former  cases  the 
greatest  divergence  from  the  mean  was  .01  in.,  in  the  latter 
.005  in. 

The  diameters  of  the  cords,  which  were  approximately 
cylindrical,  were  found  by  means  of  a  screw-gauge  reading 
to  .001  inch.  The  possible  error  was  found  by  the  above 
method  to  be  .0005  in.  Owing  to  the  difference  in  diameter  at 
different  parts  of  the  cord,  it  was  found  necessary  to  have 
marks  on  the  cord,  at  which  the  measurements  were  always 
made. 

The  error  that  might  be  made  in  determining  the  angle  of 
twist  in  the  static  method  was  estimated  to  be  about  a  quarter 
of  a  degree. 

The  weight  of  the  small  plummet  used  in  twisting  the  cord 
was  found  by  means  of  a  balance  weighing  to  .001  grm.  The 
method  of  weighing  was  that  of  substitution,  and  the  limit  of 
error  was  estimated  to  be  .0005  grm. 

The  time  of  oscillation  was  found  by  means  of  a  stop-watch 
divided  into  fifth-seconds,  but  capable  of  estimation  to  .1  sec. 
The  limit  of  error  was  determined  in  the  same  way  as  in  the 
case  of  length,  and  found  to  be  about  .04  sec. 

In  the  static  method  the  formula  used  for  the  calculation  of 
the  rigidity  was  the  following  :  n  =  2  Tl/^r  *o  in  which  T  is  the 
torque  in  Ib.-inch  units,  applied  at  lower  end  of  cord,  I  is  length 
of  cord  in  inches,  r  is  radius  of  cord  in  inches,  and  f>  is  angle 
twisted  through  measured  in  radians.  For  the  kinetic  method 
the  formula  :  n  =  S^lI/t2r*g  was  used,  in  which  I  and  r  were 


OF    VULCANIZED    INDIA-RUBBER  — HEBB.  277 

expressed  as  in  the  previous  formula,  /  is  moment  of  inertia 
expressed  in  Ibs.  and  inches,  and  t  is  the  time  of  a  complete 
oscillation  expressed  in  seconds.  The  moment  of  inertia  of  the 
plates  used  in  stretching  the  cords  was  found  by  means  of  the 
following  formula  :  I  =  M  (a2  —  62)  /1 2,  in  which  M  is  mass  of 
plates  in  Ibs.  and  a  and  6  are  the  lengths  of  sides  of  plates  in 
inches.  The  moment  of  inertia  of  the  brass  tube  at  the  end  of 
the  cord  was  found  to  be  negligible. 

The  values  of  the  rigidity  determined  as  above  would  thus 
be  expressed  in  inch-lb-second  gravitational  units. 

The  effects  on  the  calculated  values  of  the  rigidity,  of  the 
above  possible  errors  of  the  component  observations,  were 
calculated  in  a  few  cases,  and  were  found  in  the  static  observa- 
tions to  be  between  1.5%  and  2.5%,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
kinetic  observations  to  be  between  2.5^/  and  3°/. 

My  first  observations  were  made  on  the  cord  which  Mr. 
Macdonald  had  previously  used.  He  had  subjected  it  to  repeated 
and  prolonged  extension,  and  found  that  the  minimum  point 
which  in  the  earlier  series  of  observations  seemed  to  characterize 
the  variation  of  its  rigidity  with  tension  finally  disappeared. 
Since  the  time  of  his  experiments  it  had  lain  for  six  months 
unstretched. 

The  static  method  was  the  only  one  employed,  the  torque 
being  applied  by  means  of  the  frictionless  wheels.  The  proce- 
dure was  as  follows  :  First  a  weight  was  hung  on  the  cord,  and 
left  there  for  at  least  a  day.  Then  its  rigidity  was  determined, 
after  which  the  load  was  increased  and  the  cord  left 
for  another  day.  On  the  third  day  the  same  process  was 
repeated,  and  so  on.  It  was  not  until  later  on  in  the 
experiments  that  the  importance  of  allowing  the  loads  to  act 
for  corresponding  intervals  of  time  was  realized.  The  following 
table  «rives  the  results  obtained  : 


278 


ON    THE    RIGIDITY 


TABLE   I. 


DATE. 

Temp. 

re.) 

Length, 
(inches  ) 

Diam. 
(inches). 

Angle 
of 
Torsion, 
(degrees.) 

Torque 
(Ib  -in.) 

Rigidity. 

Load 
lib") 

Oct.    20.. 



1.611 

"      23  . 

17.5 

46.82 

.322 

917 

.0209 

58 

it 

"      24  . 

17.4 

49.68 

.313 

1013 

.0209 

62 

2.150 

"      20.. 

21.4 

52.98 

.303 

625 

.0117 

69 

2.678 

"      26  . 

20.5 

53.07 

.302 

1093 

.0209 

71 

" 

"      27.. 

19.5 

56.96 

.291 

1235 

.0209 

78 

3.216 

"    30.. 

18.5 

57.28 

.291 

713 

.0117 

77 

'• 

"     30. 

18.8 

57.28 

.291 

1256 

.0209 

78 

•' 

"      31. 

17.8 

61.82 

.278 

1373 

.0209 

92 

3.758 

Nov.    1 

19.5 

66.88 

.270 

1545 

.0209 

99 

4.289 

Although  the  above  table  shows  considerable  disagreement 
"between  successive  observations,  due  probably  in  some  measure 
to  friction,  to  difference  of  temperature  slightly,  and  to 
inequality  in  the  times  of  application  of  the  loads,  the  values 
obtained  clearly  increase  with  the  tension,  and  give  no  indication 
of  a  minimum  point.  This  result  is  in  agreement  with  Mr.  Mac- 
donald's  last  series  of  observations,  and  seems  to  show  that  the 
rigidity  increases  steadily  with  tension  in  a  cord  which  has 
been  subjected  to  sufficiently  prolonged  extension,  provided  at 
least  a  day  is  allowed  to  intervene  between  increasing  the  ten- 
sion and  determining  the  rigidity. 

The  next  observations  were  made  on  a  fresh  cord  of  a 
different  rubber  from  Mr.  Macdonald's.  It  was  harder,  and 
contained  60  per  cent  of  pure  rubber,  according  to  the  state- 
ment of  the  manufacturer.  A  freshly-cut  surface  showed  a 
dark  gray  colour. 

All  the  series  of  observations  given  below  were  made  on 
rubber  cords  of  this  kind. 

Both  static  and  kinetic  methods  were  applied,  very  little 
time  being  allowed  to  intervene  between  the  two  determina- 
tions, in  order  that  the  cord  might  be  in  the  same  state,  as 


OF    VULCANIZED    INDIA-RUBBER. — HERB. 


279 


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280  ON    THE    RFGIDITY 

nearly  as  possible,  in  both.  In  the  static  determinations  of  this, 
and  of  all  subsequent  series,  Mallock's  mode  of  applying  the 
twisting  force  was  used.  The  kinetic  observations  were  made 
with  different  amplitudes  of  angle  of  oscillation,  and  the  static 
observations  with  different  angles  of  torsion.  The  general 
procedure  was  as  in  the  former  case.  Table  II  contains  the 
results. 

In  none  of  the  columns  of  rigidity  values  of  this  table 
do  the  values  found  indicate  any  simple  law  of  variation  with 
tension.  They  do  not  even  increase  or  decrease  continuously  as 
tension  increases,  but  appear  to  oscillate  between  increment  and 
decrement,  and  by  amounts  which  are  not  accounted  for  merely 
by  errors  of  observation.  The  variations  cannot  be  accounted 
for  even  by  errors  of  method,  because  in  general  both  methods 
give  similar  variations.  They  may,  perhaps,  be  partially  at 
least,  accounted  for  by  defective  procedure.  Nevertheless,  two 
conclusions  may  be  drawn  : — (1)  The  smaller  the  angle  of 
torsion  in  the  static  determinations  and  the  angle  of  oscillation 
in  the  kinetic  determinations,  the  greater  is  the  value  of  the 
rigidity  obtained.  Mallock  drew  the  same  conclusion  as  to 
kinetic  rigidities  from  his  observations.  (2)  The  kinetic 
determinations  show  a  point  of  minimum  rigidity  as  tension 
increases ;  but  the  static  determinations  are  not  sufficiently 
exact  to  be  decisive  as  to  whether  or  not  the  existence  of  this 
point  is  independent  of  the  method.  Thus  the  kinetic  observa- 
tions bear  out  Mr.  Macdonald's  result  that  the  kinetic  rigidity 
exhibits  the  minimum  puint  in  the  case  of  a  cord  previously 
unstretched. 

The  cord  used  in  the  last  experiment  being  now  in  a  state  of 
tension,  was  experimented  on  in  a  reverse  manner.  It  was  left 
a  day  under  the  full  load,  when  its  rigidity  was  determined. 
Then  one  of  the  weights  was  taken  off,  and  it  was  again  left  for 
a  day  under  the  diminished  load,  and  its  rigidity  determined  > 
and  so  on. 


OF    VULCANIZED    INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB. 


281 


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282  ON    THE     RIGIDITY 

Table  II T  gives  the  results  of  the  observations.  There  is  a 
•greater  uniformity  in  the  way  in  which  the  values  of  the 
rigidity  vary  with  change  of  tension  than  there  was  when  the 
tension  was  increasing,  which  may  be  ascribed  in  part  to  the 
somewhat  greater  uniformity  of  the  time  intervals  between 
changing  the  load  and  determining  the  rigidity,  and  in  part  to  a 
greater  permanence  of  internal  structure  produced  by  the 
previous  prolonged  extension.  It  will  be  noticed  (i)  that  the 
values  of  the  rigidity  run  through  pretty  much  the  same 
•course  as  they  did  in  Table  II,  when  the  tension  was  being 
increased,  though  the  final  values  of  Table  III,  in  the  case  of 
the  static  rigidity  for  the  greater  angle  of  torsion  and  in  the 
case  of  the  kinetic  rigidity  for  the  greater  angles  of  oscillation, 
are  less  than  the  initial  values  of  Table  II,  and  (2)  that  the 
minimum  point  is  given  not  only  by  the  kinetic  results  for  the 
amplitudes  180°  and  90°,  but  also  by  the  static  results,  which 
shows  that  the  occuri'ence  of  the  minimum  point  is  not  due  to 
a  defect  peculiar  to  the  kinetic  method. 

To  see  what  effect  the  time  interval  between  the  putting  on 
of  the  load  and  the  finding  of  the  rigidity,  had  on  the  rigidity,  a 
new  cord  was  experimented  with  in  the  following  manner: — A 
weight  having  been  put  on  the  cord,  the  rigidity  was  deter- 
mined both  immediately  afterwards  and  after  the  lapse  of  certain 
intervals  of  time.  Then  nnother  weight  was  added  and  the  pre- 
vious process  repeated.  Owing  to  lack  of  time,  only  the  kinetic 
method  was  used.  Table  IV  gives  the  results. 


OF    VULCANIZED    INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB. 


283 


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284  ON    THE    RIGIDITY 

It  appears  from  these  results  that  increase  of  tension  in  a 
cord  which  has  been  under  tension  for  some  time  immediately 
decreases  the  rigidity,  but  that  if  the  cord  is  left  under  the 
tension  the  rigidity  increases  again.  According  to  the  longest 
series  of  observations  made,  the  rigidity  of  a  cord  thus  left 
under  a  constant  load  seerns  to  pass  through  a  maximum  point* 
but  that  is  perhaps  doubtful. 

Since  the  immediate  effect  of  increase  of  tension  is  to 
decrease  the  rigidity,  it  might  be  expected  that  the  twisting  of 
the  cord  in  the  determination  of  its  rigidity  would  increase  the 
rigidity,  and  that  consequently  the  greater  the  angle  the  cord  is 
twisted  through  the  smaller  will  be  the  value  of  the  rigidity 
found.  This  expectation  is  borne  out  by  the  results  as  given 
in  the  tables.  It  was  also  noticed  when  taking  several  obser- 
vations of  the  time  of  oscillation  in  order  to  get  a  mean  value, 
that  the  first  values  were  always  the  smallest,  a  fact  which 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  rigidity  decreases  with  strain. 

From  the  preceding  it  is  easily  seen  that  the  procedure 
followed  above  was  not  such  as  could  give  a  simple  relation 
between  the  observed  rigidity  and  the  tension.  For  since  the 
rigidity  of  a  cord  under  tension  varies  with  time,  the  experiments 
must  always  be  made,  if  they  are  to  give  a  definite  result,  when 
the  rigidity  is  at  a  minimum  or  a  maximum.  Now  the  minimum 
value  of  the  rigidity  of  a  cord  under  tension  appears  from  the 
last  table  to  be  immediately  after  the  tension  is  applied.  If, 
however,  we  decide  to  determine  the  rigidity  when  at  its 
minimum,  not  only  must  the  rigidity  be  found  immediately 
after  the  tension  is  applied,  but  the  rigidity  of  the  cord  due  to 
its  previous  tension  must  not  have  had  time  to  change  from  the 
minimum  value.  Hence  the  procedure  should  be  as  follows : 
Load  the  cord  and  find  the  rigidity  immediately,  then  increase 
the  load  and  find  the  rigidity  immediately,  and  so  on,  the  whole 
series  of  experiments  being  carried  out  in  the  shortest  time 
possible. 

With  a  new  cord  of  the  same  kind  as  before,  this  pro- 
cedure was  followed,  and  the  results  of  Table  V  obtained. 


OF    VULCANIZED    INDIA-RUBBER.— IIEBB. 


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28G         RIGIDITY   OF   VULCANIZED    INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB. 

There  is  some  lack  of  regularity  in  the  results  of  this  table- 
so  far  as  the  determinations  with  smaller  loads  are  concerned, 
but  the  divergence  from  regularity  is  probably  within  the  limit 
of  error  of  the  observations.  The  results  obtained  with  the 
larger  loads  exhibit  much  greater  regularity  than  the  results  of 
the  previous  series  of  observations.  The  table  shows  that  if  the 
tension  be  increased  as  rapidly  as  is  consistent  with  the  deter- 
mination of  the  rigidity  at  successive  stages,  the  rigidity 
increases  with  the  tension  continuously,  at  first  comparatively 
slowly,  and  finally  with  greater  rapidity. 

The  comparatively  slow  increment  of  the  rigidity  under  the 
smaller  loads  would  suggest  the  possibility  that  the  rigidity 
may  not  appreciably  vary  with  the  tension  at  all  under  the 
circumstances  aimed  at  in  the  experiments.  For  in  the  light  of 
the  results  of  Table  IV  the  larger  values  of  the  rigidity  under 
the  greater  loads  may  be  due  entirely  to  the  time  effect  of 
the  previous  increments  of  load. 


XII. — RECORDS  OF  POST-TRIASSIC  CHANGES  IN  KINGS  COUNTY, 
N.  S. — BY  PROF.  E.  HAYCOCK,  Acadia  College,  Wolfville, 

N.S. 

(Read  9th  April,  1900.) 

It  WHS  my  privilege  last  Autumn  to  make  a  hasty  survey 
of  that  part  of  Kings  County  lying  north  of  Canning,  including 
Cape  Blomidon.  Several  interesting  problems  were  suggested 
during  this  trip,  which  I  hope  to  follow  up  in  the  future. 

I  had  in  view  two  definite  aims  in  visiting  this  region.  The 
first  was  to  look  for  the  contact  of  the  basaltic  trap  of  the  North 
Mountain  with  the  underlying  north-westerly  dipping  sandstone, 
and  I  hoped  to  find  this  contact  laid  bare  and  accessible  to 
observation  in  the  natural  cross  section  formed  by  the  line  of 
cliffs  which  extends  westwardly  from  Cape  Blomidon  to  Cape 
Split.  This  line  of  cliff's  was  carefully  examined  from  Amethyst 
Cove,  where  the  trap  extends  beneath  the  sea,  eastward  to  Cape 
Blomidon  where  red  sandstone  cut  into  many  fantastic  shapes 
by  wind  and  water  rises  nearly  two  hundred  feet  and  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  sheet  of  black  basaltic  trap  some  two  hundred 
feet  in  thickness  ending  abruptly  in  vertical  cliffs  behind  and 
above  the  towers  and  bastions  of  the  sandstone.  Although  the 
place  where  the  contact  of  the  two  formations  reaches  the  beach 
is  easily  determinable,  and  is  marked  by  a  long  sloping  line  of 
springs,  the  talus  of  loose  blocks  and  debris  from  the  trap  above 
is  so  great  that  at  no  point  was  the  actual  contact  visible  or 
accessible,  so  that  the  problem  to  be  settled,  whether  the  trap 
was  poured  out  on  a  smooth  sea  bottom  or  on  an  old  eroded 
land  surface,  remained  undetermined. 

The  second  object  of  the  trip  was  to  examine  the  coast 
section  south-west  from  Scot's  Bay.  In  the  Transactions  of  the 
Institute  for  1893-9*,  (Volume  VIII,  pp.  416,419,)  Mr.  R.  W. 
Ells  mentions  the  occurrence,  in  this  vicinity,  of  a  calcareous 

(287) 


288 


RECORDS    OF    POST-TRIASSIC    CHANGES 


NORTH-EAST  PAKT  OF  KINGS  COUNTY,  N.   S. 

Scale :  About  four  miles  to  one  inch.    Vertical  scale  2400  feet  to  one  inch.     Depth  of 
water  in  fathoms.— For  Mines,  read :  Basin  of  Mines. 


IN    KINGS    COUNTY,    N.    S.— HAYCOCK.  289 

sedimentary  formation  overlying  the  trap  of  the  North  Mountain 
which  was  hurriedly  observed  by  him  in  1876.  He  states  that 
no  fossil-*  had  been  found  in  these  rocks,  but  concludes  from  the 
superposition  of  this  formation  on  the  trap  that  it  is  of  more 
recent  date.  He  does  not  hint  at  its  probable  age  further  than 
the  above,  but  remarks  that  Prof.  Bailey  has  reported  rocks  of 
somewhat  similar  nature  in  association  with  the  trap  of  Bigbv 
Neck.  Having  been  unable  to  find  the  statement  in  any  of 
Prof.  Bailey's  writings  accessible  to  me  I  made  inquiry  of  him 
a.nd  found  that  he  did  not  know  of  such  a  formation,  or  of 
having  made  the  statement  ascribed  to  him.  This  being  the  state 
of  knowledge  in  regard  to  these  rocks  I  hoped  to  find  some- 
thing that  would  throw  light  upon  their  age  and  possibly  reveal 
a  part  of  the  geological  history  of  this  region  during  that  long 
period  so  blank  in  records  in  Eastern  Canada  and  New  England, 
from  early  Mesozoic  to  the  Glacial  period. 

In  pursuit  of  this  purpose  I  examined  the  shore  south-west 
from  Scot's  Bay  and  was  pleased  to  find  for  about  four  miles 
occasional  good  exposures  in  the  coves  of  the  formation  men- 
tioned by  Dr.  Ells,  until  Ira  Woodvvorth  Bay  was  reached.  This 
is  the  exposure  mentioned  by  him  and  was  the  most  westerly 
outcrop  seen.  Beyond  this  according  to  local  authority  none  of 
the  rocks  mentioned -are  found.  Considerable  value  can  be 
ascribed  to  the  local  accounts  in  this  case  owing  to  the  search 
for  amethysts  which  occur  in  cavities  of  masses  of  red  jasper  in 
some  of  the  layers  of  limestone,  and  are  collected  by  the  inhabi- 
tants to  supply  the  tourist  trade.  Only  a  hurried  survey  was 
made  on  thin  occasion  and  but  one  fossil  was  found,  which,  tho' 
poorly  preserved,  was  plainly  the  coiled  shell  of  a  gastropod. 
The  general  appearance  of  the  strata,  however,  led  me  to  hope 
that  better  results  would  repay  a  careful  and  systematic 
search. 

On  November  Gth,  I  left  Wolville  for  a  further  study  of  this 
interesting  formation.  The  results  of  my  observations  on  this 
trip  I  will  endeavor  to  put  before  you. 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Scr.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.-S. 


290 


RECORDS    OF    TOST-TRIASSIC    CHANGES 


»y  «J  ft»*-«U 


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S. 


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The  general  topography  of  the- 
region  alluded  to  is  probaMy  familiar 
to  you  all,  as  well  as  the  common 
explanation  of  the  geological  sti  ucture,. 
which  appears  to  be,  in  the  main,  cor- 
rect. From  the  parallel  east-north- 
east and  west-south-west  ridges  of 
slate  and  sandstone  of  later  Palaeozoic 
age,  which  extend  along  the  south- 
east side  of  the  Cornwall?*  Valley,  a 
slightly  undulating  rich  farming  coun- 
try stretches  away  to  the  north-west 
for*  some  ten  miles  to  the  abrupt 
escarpment  bounding  the  valley  on  its. 
opposite  side.  The  principal  topo- 
graphic features  of  this  beautiful 
valley  are  three  low  ridges  parallel  in 
general  trend  with  the  older  hills 

o 

before  mentioned  and  separated  from 
each  other  and  from  the  bounding 
ridges  by  long  tongues  of  fertile 
dyked  marsh  in  the  basins  of  the 
Cornwallis,  Canard,  Habitant,  and 
Pet  eau  rivers.  The  existence  of  these 
ridges  seems  to  be  due  to  the  occur- 
rence of  coarser  harder  groups  of 
strata  in  the  underlying  red  sandstone 
which  dips  with  considerable  unifor- 
mity and  regularity  to  the  north-west 
at  angles  of  from  eight  to  ten  degrees. 
The  ridges  correspond  with  the  strike 
of  the  formation  and  the  valley  topo- 
graphy is  apparently  one  of  erosion. 
The  wearing  out  of  the  valleys  took 
place  when  the  country  stood  at  a 
higher  level,  and  the  marsh  deposits  of 


IN    KINGS    COUNTY,    N.   S. — HAYCOCK.  291 

recent  times  now  extend  for  several  miles  up  the  drowned 
valleys.  That  this  topography  is  ptobably  Pre-glacial  is  indi- 
cated by  the  occurence  of  a  layer  of  Boulder  clay  of  variable 
thickness  mantling  both  hill  and  valley.  The  changes  in  topo- 
graphy since  the  disappearance  of  the  ice  of  the  Glacial  period  are 
exceedingly  slight  in  this  region  and  are  confined  almost  wholly 
to  the  deposition,  during  a  subsequent  slight  submergence,  of 
some  banks  of  stratified  sand  and  gravel,  some  wearing  away 
and  retreat  of  the  coast  cliffs,  and  the  tilling-in  of  the  river 
basins  mentioned. 

The  North  Mountain  has  the  prevailing  trend  of  the  other 
ridges,  and  would  appear  to  owe  its  present  elevation  above  the 
valley  to  the  harder  and  more  resistant  character  of  the  sheet  of 
volcanic  rock,  which  protects  the  underlying  soft  sandstone  from 
the  action  of  the  eroding  agents  that  have  worked  with  such 
effect  upon  the  unprotected  sandstone  to  the  south-east.  The 
junction  of  the  sandstone  and  trap  is  some  two  hundred  feet  or 
more  above  the  floor  of  tne  valley,  and  the  conviction  is  forced 
upon  the  observer,  when  looking  south-eastward  from  this  point- 
that  not  only  the  smaller  valleys  mentioned  but  also  the  whole 
broad  depression  he  has  crossed  has  been  worn  out  of  the  soft 
red  sandstone,  and  that  excepting  minor  inequalities  of  surface 
the  present  relief  of  this  part  of  the  Province  is  wholly  due  to 
differential  resistance  of  the  underlying  rocks. 

The  trap  sheet  retreats  more  rapidly  along  its  edges  than 
the  sandstone  owing  to  frostwork  and  its  vertical  jointing,  and 
when  they  both  appear  in  the  face  of  the  escarpment  the  over- 
lying trap  is  never  overhanging  but  always  well  behind  the 
sandstone  which  generally  forms  a  steep  slope  upon  which  the 
fragments  of  the  trap  are  precipitated,  forming  broken  masses 
which  conceal  the  contact  of  the  two  formations.  Because  of 
the  soft  nature  of  the  sandstone  and  its  calcareous  cement  it 
weathers  much  more  rapidly  than  the  trap  wherever  exposed  to 
the  action  of  rain  and  wind,  but  since  the  jointing  is  not  well 
developed  it  is  not  affected  to  a  very  great  extent  by  the  action 
of  the  frost. 


292  RECORDS    OF    POST-TRIASSIC    CHANGES 

From  the  top  of  the  divide,  which  is  near  the  edge  of  the 
escarpment,  the  surface  slopes  away  to  the  north-west  at  angles 
of  from  eight  to  ten  degrees.  This  is  about  the  inclination  of 
the  beds  of  trap  rock,  and  the  present  surface  therefore  corres- 
ponds in  general  inclination  with  the  original  surface  of  the 
formation.  This  ridge  is  cut  by  transverse  valleys,  the  bottoms 
occupied  by  small  brooks  which  seem  altogether  too  small  to 
have  excavated  the  trenches  they  now  occupy.  A  bank  of 
boulder  clay  containing  glaciated  pebbles  was  seen  resting  in 
the  bottom  of  a  ravine  on  the  floor  of  trap  rock  over  which  one 
of  the  larger  brooks  is  now  flowing.  If  these  depressions  were 
filled  with  the  boulder  clay  of  the  Glacial  period,  the  work  since 
that  time  has  been  wholly  expended  in  clearing  out  their  ancient 
channels  and  the  brooks  have  but  just  begun  to  renew  their 
excavation  on  the  Trap  rock. 

The  four  miles  of  coast  examined  form  the  south-east  shore 
of  Scot's  Bay,  and  from  Ira  Woodworth  Bay,  Cape  Split,  the 
terminating  point  of  the  huge  wall  of  rock  forming  the  opposite 
side  of  Scot's  Bay,  bears  nearly  north.  At  this  point  the  shore 
swings  from  south-west  to  about  west-south-west  which  is  the 

O 

general  trend  of  the  coast  for  some  sixty  or  seventy  miles.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Arnygdaloidal  character  of  the  Trap,  the 
shore  below  high  water  mark  is  not  unlike  many  other  portions 
of  this  Bay  of  Fundy  coast.  Beachy  coves  are  more  common 
because  of  the  relatively  sheltered  position,  but  between  these 
the  black  rough  rocks  slope  seaward  in  sheets  and  reefs  with 
very  few  outlying  rocks  and  ledges.  The  sea  at  high  tide  washes 
the  bases  of  a  line  of  low  cliffs  some  twenty  to  forty  feet  high, 
except  in  the  deeper  coves,  where  a  narrow  strip  of  gravel  beach 
is  left  uncovered  by  all  but  the  highest  tides.  Several  brooks 
empty  in  small  coves  within  the  area  examined  and  in  their 
beds  the  extent  of  the  shore  formations  landward  can  be 
traced. 


IN    KINGS    COUNTY,    N.   S. — HAYCOCK. 


293 


Diagram  2.— Section  in  Ira  Woodworth  Bay. 

In  the  shore  cliffs  four  distinct  formations  are  revealed  and 
in  the  ascending  order  they  occur  as  follows  : — 

1.  Trap  Rock. 

2.  Sandstone  and  Impure  limestone,  20-30  feet. 

3.  Boulder  clay   with   striated   stones  in   irregular  masses, 
20-30  feet. 

4.  StratiHed  sand  and  gravel  4  to  6  feet  in  thickness  about 
thirty  feet  above  high  water  mark. 

Trap  Rock. 

The  Basaltic  Trap  is,  in  this  locality  mainly  amygdaloidal 
and  occurs  in  sheets  varying  from  two  or  three  to  many  feet  in 
thickness.  The  strike  corresponds  to  the  general  trend  of  the 
shore.  In  many  places  the  beds  are  intersected  by  a  network 
of  shrinkage  cracks  which  have  been  subsequently  filled  with  a 
dark  reddish  brown  jasper.  This  is  more  resistant  than  the 
trap  and  the  veins  form  a  network  of  intersecting  riilges  separat- 
ing saucer  shaped  depressions  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  As 
the  Trap  approaches  its  contact  with  the  limestone  it  becomes. 


294  RECORDS    OF   POST-TRIASSIC    CHANGES 

more  and  more  decayed  until  at  the  contact  the  rock  is  so  loose 
and  unconsolidated  that  it  will  scarcely  hold  together  to  form  a 
hand  specimen. 

Sandstone  and  Impure  Limestone. 

The  lower  layers  of  the  calcareous  formation  are  largely 
made  up  of  this  disintegrated  material  but  it  is  not  found  more 
than  two  or  three  feet  from  the  contact.  These  lower  layers 
are  poorly  defined  and  conform  to  the  minor  inequalities  of  the 
eroded  surface  of  the  Trap.  The  Trap  debris  then  gives  place 
to  a  fine  grained  light  grey  to  green  sandstone  with  calcareous 
cement,  in  thin  laminae,  which  is  overlain  by  beds  of  impure 
limestone  from  one  to  three  feet  thick  alternating  with  thinner 
layers  containing  flint-like  quartz  bands.  At  one  spot  in  Broad 
Cove  a  brown  sandstone  in  beds  three  or  four  feet  in  thickness 
is  seen  overlying  the  limestone.  The  maximum  thickness  of 
this  sedimentary  formation  would  be  about  twenty-five  feet. 
Altho  several  brooks  cut  across  these  beds  at  right  angles,  in 
only  one  can  the  limestone  be  traced,  and  there  for  a  distance  of 
but  twenty  or  thirty  yards  from  the  beach  where  the  trap 
appears  in  the  bed.  The  other  brooks  have  cut  completely 
through  and  flow  over  the  underlying  trap  until  the  beach  is 
reached.  This  shows  how  little  remains  of  what  must  have  been 
an  extensive  formation  and  explains  in  part  why  it  remained  so 
long  unnoticed. 

The  dip  of  these  beds  is,  at  first,  somewhat  confusing.  On 
the  north-east  sides  of  the  coves  it  is  always  to  the  south-west, 
and  at  angles  as  high  as  twenty  degrees.  On  the  south-west 
sides  of  the  coves  it  is  correspondingly  high  to  the  north-east. 
In  the  bed  of  the  brook  mentioned,  which  is  in  the  centre  of  one 
of  the  coves,  the  dip  proved  to  be  from  three  to  five  degrees  to 
the  north-west.  At  several  places  the  trap  was  visible  beneath 
the  apparent  synclines  arid  showed  no  corresponding  deformation. 
Moreover,  the  variable  inclination  of  the  layers  was  there  seen 
to  be  that  of  the  contact  surface  of  the  trap  on  which  they  rest. 
As  the  layers  recede  from  this  surface  they  become  more  uniform 
in  inclination  which  is  seen  to  be  to  the  north-west  at  an  angle 


TRANS.N.S.INST.SCI.      VOL.  X. 


PLATE  I. 


FIG.   i. 

BROAD   COVE,    LOOKING   EAST,    SHOWING    LIMESTONE    AND    SHALE     RESTING    ON     AMYGDALOIDAL  TRAP. 


FIG.    2.  UNCONFORMABLE   CONTACT   OF    GREENISH    SHALE  WITH    AMYGDALOIDAL   TRAP    IN    BROAD   COVE. 

To  face  page  294. 


IN     KINGS    COUNTY,    N.    S. — HAYCOCK.  295 

slightly  smaller  than  that  of  the  trap,  or  the  same  as  the  obser- 
vation taken  in  the  brook. 

In  some  of  the  lower  fine  grained  calcareous  shales  sun  cracks 
frequently  occur  and  together  with  trail-like  mat  kings  and 
carbonaceeus  impressions  of  branching  fucoid-like  plants  point 
to  shallow  water  or  tidal  conditions  prevailing  during  the 
•deposition  of  the  lowest  layers.  The  fineness  of  the  material  of 
these  lowest  layers  also  indicates  a  very  gradual  quiet  submer- 
gence of  the  disintegrated  Trap  rock  and  the  absence  of  heavy 
waves  upon  the  .subsiding  benches.  The  heavier  bedded  lime- 
stone is  quite  free  from  inorganic  sediment,  and  is  a  deposit  in 
deeper  and  purer  water.  The  heavy  bedded  brown  sandstone 
marks  some  change  bringing  about  a  ureat  increase  of  inorganic 
sediment.  Whether  it  was  a  re-elevation  bringing  the  area 
nearer  shore,  or  advent  of  currents  carrying  such  sediment  is  at 
present  undetermined. 

Fossils  occur  in  the  underlying  shale  and  limestone,  altho' 
they  are,  as  a  rule,  poorly  preserved.  Among  those  collected 
•are  fish  scales  and  teeth,  objects  resembling  the  .*eed  cones  of 
gymno^perms,  marine  fucoids,  and  long,  tapering,  generally 
straight,  objects  that  are  thought  to  be  the  shells  of  cephalopods. 
These  occur  in  the  limestone  and  calcareous  sandstone  often  in 
great  profusion  and  may  reach  a  length  of  eight  or  ten  feet,  and 
•a  diameter  at  the  larger  end  of  eight  or  nine  inches.  The 
smaller  ends  are  rounded,  and  usually  about  one,  though  some- 
times two  or  three,  inches  in  diameter.  They  are  cylindrically 
or  longitudinally  knobbed,  hollow  in  the  centre,  and  composed 
mainly  of  a  red  jasper.  That  these  forms  are  of  organic  origin 
and  aie  not  concretions  is  indicated  by  their  similarity  in  form 
and  by  their  lying,  in  one  bed,  in  such  numbers  that  they  cross 
each  other  in  every  conceivable  way,  but  always  the  character- 
istic form  of  each  individual  can  be  determined.  In  all  cases 
the  finer  laminae  of  the  beds  are  pressed  down  beneath  by  the 
weight  of  the  object,  and  those  deposited  after  curve  up  over  it 
without  interruption.  Other  forms  occur  here  also.  One  cf 
these  was  twenty-seven  inches  in  diameter  and  appeared  cup- 
like  in  shape. 


296  RECORDS    OF    POST-TRIASSIC     CHANGES 

Ifc  has  been  stated  that  these  strata  rest  unconformably  on  a 
surface  of  decomposed  trap,  and  that  the  lower  layers  are  made 
up.  in  part,  of  the  triturated  fragments  of  the  trap.  This  would 
indicate  that  after  the  pouring  out  of  these  lava  sheets  their 
surface  was  above  water,  was  carved  into  valleys  and  hills,  by 
the  streams  of  the  time,  and  subjected  to  the  decomposing  action 
of  atmospheric  agencies  and  vegetation,  until  the  ancient  surface 
came  to  present  the  irregular  and  weathered  aspect  that  we  may 
now  see  on  portions  that  have  been  subjected  to  similar  action 
during  recent  geological  time.  This  necessarily  long  exposure 
preceded  the  subsidence  and  submergence  during  which  the 
stratified  formation  was  deposited  and  would  indicate,  to  my 
mind,  that  at  least  a  whole  geological  period  had  intervened 
between  the  outpouring  of  the  trap  and  the  deposition  of  the 
marine  formation  unconformably  upon  its  weathered  surface. 
The  trap  is  considered  to  be  of  Triassic  age  and  I  would  place 
that  of  the  limestone  as  probably  Cretaceous.  Again,  from  Cape 
Cod  southwards  marine  deposits  were  laid  down  along  the 
Atlantic  border  during  Cretaceous  times.  Altho'  I  have  as  yet 
been  unable  to  find  any  traces  of  foraminifera  in  the  soft  greenish 
sandstone  that  occurs  in  one  of  the  coves,  yet  the  general  aspect 
of  the  fossils  so  far  found  is  also  suggestive  of  Cretaceous  age. 

The  hollows  or  depressions  in  which  these  remnants  are 
preserved  are  at  present  small  valleys,  occupied  by  brooks  and 
terminating  on  the  shore  in  small  coves  which  also  owe  their 
existence  to  the  erosion  preceding  the  deposition  of  this  forma- 
tion. The  Topography  of  this  portion  of  the  North  Mountain  is 
thus  shown  to  be  much  older  than  the  Glacial  period  and  not 
only  are  the  brooks  flowing  in  Mesozoic  channels  but  the  Bay 
of  Fundy  waves  are  again  washing  the  shores  of  coves  from 
which  they  have  been  excluded  since  the  Mesozoic  period. 

The  facts  observed  here  are  in  accord  with  the  conclusion 
ariived  at  from  a  comparison  of  the  present  stream  beds  with 
the  streams  that  now  occupy  them.  Some  of  the  gorges  in  this 
area  are  equal  in  magnitude  to  those  of  the  secondary  streams 
of  the  South  Mountain,  although  the  volume  of  wa^er  now  flow- 


IN    KINGS    COUNTY,    N.  S.— HAYCOCK.  297 

ing  in  them  is  insignificant.  The  cro&s  trenches  in  this  particular 
locality  are,  however,  small  as  compared  with  those  that  cross 
the  mountain  at  intervals  of  a  few  miles  throughout  its  length, 
some  of  which  are  scarcely  above  sea  level,  others  as  Digby  Gut 
and  Petite  Passage  150  to  200  feet  below. 

These  deep  gorges  are  probably  Pre-glacial,  as  well,  since 
they  are  partly  filled  with  boulder  clay  and  usually,  if  not 
always,  set  opposite  to  corresponding  depressions  in  the  older 
hills  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley.  The  ice  of  the  Glacial 
epoch  flowed  over  ridge  and  through  hollow  alike,  and  beyond 
sweeping  away  the  decayed  and  shattered  layer  down  to  the 
undecomposed  rock  seems  to  have  had  little  effect  in  transform- 
ing the  general  topography  of  the  county.  These  gorges  then 
are  doubtless  Pre-glacial,  but  how  much  older  ?  Though  much 
larger  they  are  of  the  same  character  as  the  smaller  hollows 
tilled  with  the  sedimentary  limestone,  and  ate  probably  of  the 
same,  or  Mesozoic  age.  Although  direct  evidence  of  this  has 
not  yet  been  obtained  it  may  exist,  only  awaiting  the  coining  of 
a  careful  observer. 

The  most  significant  features  of  these  greater  gorges  is  their 
positions,  just  mentioned,  nearly  opposite  to  corresponding  river 
gorges  on  the  south-east  side  of  the  valley.  Almost  every  deep 
gorge  in  the  North  Mountain  has  its  corresponding  river  valley 
in  the  higher  ground  of  the  South  Mountain  opposite.  The 
depressions  reaching  the  Bay  of  Fundy  coast  at  Parker's  Cove, 
Digby  Gut,  Sandy  Cove,  opposite  the  Lequille,  Bear,  and  Wey- 
mouth  rivers  are  striking  examples.  A  possible  if  not  the  only 
plausible  explanation  of  this  fact,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
evidence  of  the  great  age  of  these  depressions,  is  that  they  are 
respectively  the  old  outlets  of  Mesozoic  rivers  that  flowed  north- 
westwardly across  the  sandstone  and  its  overlying  trap  sheet, 
draining  a  country  more  extensive  than  the  present  Nova  Scotia, 
because  of  its  greater  elevation,  and  with  their  greater  volume 
wearing  broad  channels  through  the  red  sandstone  but  abrupt 
and  precipitous  trenches  in  the  trap.  The  effect  would  be  the 
same  in  the  basins  of  the  smaller  streams  such  as  those  now 


298  RECORDS    OF    POST-TRIASSIC    CHANGES 

heading  back  to  a  low  divide  some   three  or  four  miles  from  the 
coast. 

During  the  submergence  of  the  region  in  late  M^sozoic  or 
early  Tertiary  times,  the  streams  were  drowned  by  the  sea  and 
the  silicious  and  calcareous  deposits  described  were  laid  down  in 
the  old  river  valleys  Deposits  forming  in  this  way  would  be 
protected  from  the  disturbances  of  the  open  shore,  and  probably 
be  composed  of  fine  sediment  laid  bare  at  each  low  tide  and  dried 
and  sun  cracked  in  bright  warm  days  until  carried  below  the 
tidal  limits  by  the  slow  subsidence  of  the  whole  region.  The 
limestone  deposits  indicate  a  submergence  great  enough  to  have 
forme  1  large  inland  basins  in  the  broad  valleys  in  the  sandstone 
country  .south-east  of  the  edge  of  the  trap  sheet.  These  were  pos- 
sibly separated  from  each  other  by  low  divides  which  would  be 
gradually  lessened  by  the  rapid  vertical  decay  of  this  rock  refer- 
red to  earlier  in  this  paper.  When  once  covered  by  the  sea,  the 
swiftly  moving  north-east  and  south  west  tidal  currents  char- 
acteristic of  this  region  would  scour  out  the  valley  at  a  rapid 
ivte,  while  the  trap  sheet  would  not  retreat  along  its  edges  at  a 
corresponding  rate  since  the  frost  work  had  not  yet  been 
inaugurated,  mild  and  warm  climates  extending  at  this  time 
even  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  On  the  re-elevation  of  the  country 
in  middle  or  late  Tertiary  times,  the  rivers  would  not  return  to 
their  ancient  channels  across  the  trap  which  were  now  higher 
than  the  valley  floor  and  filled  in  with  deposits  of  the  kind 
described,  but  would  flow  along  the  valley  parallel  with  the 
mountain  in  either  direction  only  discharging  at  the  lowest  out- 
lets as  Digby  Gut  at  the  south-west  and  Minas  Basin  and  Channel 
at  the  north-east. 

The  colder  climates  of  late  Tertiary  times  were  now  setting 
in  with  winter  frosts  and  snow,  and  the  sheet  of  trap  would 
b-gin  the  rapid  horizontal  retreat  which  has  continued  until  the 
present  day. 

Boulder  Clay. 

Boulder  clay  containing  many  striated  stones  from  local 
sources  occurs  throughout  this  whole  region  and  is  seldom  absent 


IX     KINGS    COUNTY,     X.    S — HAYCOCK.  299 

except  from  the  loftier  and  more  exposed  portions  of  the  ridges. 
The  prevalence  of  compact  and  arnygdaloidal  trap  from  the 
North  Mountain  in  the  Boulder  clay  all  over  the  south  side  of  the 
valley,  as  well  as  the  rounded  and  worn  north  facing  slopes  of 
the  elevations  indicate  that  the  general  movement  of  the  trans- 
porting agent  vva.s  from  the  north.  The  general  trend  of  all  the 
striations  I  have  yet  seen  in  this  vicinity  is  in  the  same  direction. 

Although  Boulder  clay  is  rarely  seen  along  the  exposed  side 
of  the  North  Mountain  except  when  sheltered  by  the  precipitous 
walls  of  the  deep  gorges  which  have  been  alluded  to,  on  the 
stretch  of  shore  south-east  of  Scot's  Bay,  deposits  of  considerable 
thickness  rest  alike  on  trap  and  limestone  and  contain  striated 
fragments  of  both  formations.  In  general  the  nws  has  the 
same  decided  red  color  as  the  sandstone  cliffs  underlying  the 
trap  at  Tape  Blomidon.  One  exception  to  this  occurs  in  Ira 
Woodworth  Bay  where  the  underlying  portion  of  this  deposit  is 
completely  made  up  of  a  calcareous  light  gre}'  clay  mixed  with 
angular,  occasionally  striated  fragments  of  the  sedimentary 
formation.  It  is  wholly  composed  of  the  broken  and  pulverized 
layers  of  this  sedimentary  formation  and  passes  up  abruptly 
into  the  red  clay  and  trap  boulders  among  which  no  trace  of 
limestone  could  be  found. 

The  abundance  of  boulder  clay  on  this  strip  of  coast  proves  it 
to  have  been  a  region  of  deposit  rather  thnn  of  erosion  during 
its  burial  beneath  the  ice  of  the  Glacial  Period.  That  deposition 
was  not  continuous  is  shown,  however,  by  the  occurrence  of  the 
debris  of  the  adjacent  calcareous  strata  at  the  most  westerly 
point  at  which  these  strata  were  seen.  Farther  east  the  red 
deposits  seemed  to  rest  directly  upon  the  light  grey  limestone 
nnd  sandstone  and  these  portions  do  not  seem  to  have  sufferer] 
as  much  from  the  grinding  action  of  the  ice  sheet. 

The  evidence  from  stnations  and  from  travelled  boulders 
prove  that  the  general  movement  of  this  ice  sheet  wa*<  from  the 
north.  From  Ira  Woodworth  Bay,  Cape  Split  bears  due  north 
•and  from  this  bold  Cape  a  line  of  vertical  cliffs  from  two  to  four 
Iwndied  feet  in  height  extends  eastward  for  eight  miles  to  Cape 


300  RECORDS  OF    POST-TRIASSIC    CHANGES 

Blomidon,  offering  a  huge  barrier  to  the  advancing  ice  sheet 
which  would  deflect  the  main  current,  and  leave  a  sheltered 
area  behind  where  the  eroding  action  would  be  small  or  absent 
altogether,  and  the  conditions  favorable  for  deposition  during 
the  decline  and  disappearance  of  the  ice. 

This  protected  area  would  extend  about  to  Ira  Woodworth 
Bay,  whence  westwardly  the  shore  would  be  exposed  to  the  full 
sweep  of  the  mas-»  passing  to  the  westward  of  Cape  Split.  It  is 
significant  that  east  of  this  Bay  occur  the  heavy  deposits  of 
boulder  clay  while  to  the  west  a  bold  bare  coast  of  black  for- 
bidding trap  extends  for  a  hundred  and  twenty  miles  with  but 
an  occasional  heap  of  red  boulder  clay  that  has  been  deposited 
behind  some  projecting  cliff.  Have  we  not  here  a  simple 
explanation  of  the  preservation  of  this  fragment  of  marine  lime- 
stone, this  mere  remnant  of  what  must  have  been  a  formation 
of  considerable  extent,  the  sole  representative  in  north-eastern 
America,  containing  the  only  known  records  for  that  region,  of 
the  Geological  history  of  the  long  period  of  time  between  the 
Triassic  and  the  Glacial  periods. 

Stratified  Sand  and  Gravel. 

But  the  records  preserved  in  this  strip  of  coast  do  not  end 
with  those  of  the  Glacial  period.  Overlying  the  boulder  clay  is 
a  deposit  of  stratified  sand  and  gravel  several  feet  in  thickness, 
the  base  of  which  is  now  some  thirty  feet  above  high  tide  level. 
The  upper  limit  of  this  formation  was  not  determined,  but  the 
coarse  and  water  worn  character  of  the  material  classes  it  as  a 
shore  deposit.,  laid  down  within  or  but  slightly  below  tidal 
limits.  This  formation  has  been  noticed  at  Wolfville,  Pereau 
and  at  several  localities--  in  Digby  County.  In  the  Cornwallis- 
Valley  it  consists  mainly  of  stratified  sands  in  which  the  cross- 
bedding  indicates  that  during  their  deposition  the.  currents 
flowed  strongly  both  to  the  north-east  and  to  the  south-west,  or 
parallel  with  the  general  trend  of  the  valley. 

These  deposits  tell  of  a  submergence  succeeding  the  Glacial 
period  of  at  least  thirty  or  forty  feet  and  a  re-elevation  of  at- 


IN    KINGS    COUNTY,    N.   S.  301 

least  the  same  magnitude.  It  is  probable  that  during  the 
deposition  of  these  beds  the  waters  of  Minas  Basin,  Digby  Basin 
and  St.  Mary's  Bay  were  connected  and  that  the  present  flat 
and  fertile  valley  stretching  from  the  base  of  the  North  Moun- 
tain to  the  low  Palaeozoic  hills  on  the  south  was  a  shallow  strait 
through  which  twice  a  day  the  ebb  and  flood  swept  swiftly 
planing  down  the  valley  to  a  uniform  level  but  sweeping  up 
here  and  there  long  bars  of  shifting  sands.  These  still  remain 
but  form  minor  features  in  the  topography  of  the  valley. 

This  shallow  strait  was  sheltered  from  the  rougher  waters  of 
the  Bay  of  Fundy  by  the  protecting  barrier  of  the  North 
Mountain  and  the  deposits  in  the  valley  are  much  finer  than 
those  of  the  same  age  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy  coast.  The  North 
Mountain  itself  was  cut  up  into  a  line  of  nairow  islands  by  the 
submergence  which  brought  the  bottoms  of  several  of  the  deeper 
gorges  below  sea  level,  and  the  old  shore  lines  in  some  of  these 
may  still  be  seen.  The  length  of  the  chain  was  practically  the 
same  as  at  present  since  Briar  Island  the  westermost  extension 
of  the  trap  ridge  then  formed  two  small  islands  rising  some  fifty 
feet  above  the  sea  as  shown  by  the  old  shore  line  about  eighty 
feet  above  the  present  sea  level. 

When  the  land  again  arose,  the  waters  left  the  valley,  the 
rivers  extended  seaward  removing  the  sand  and  gravel  from 
their  old  channels,  wearing  them  deeper,  and  the  now  submerged 
forests  grew. 

But  again  a  gradual  subsidence  followed.  The  sea  slowly 
advanced  up  the  river  channels.  The  fine  sediment  brought 
down  by  the  rivers  was  arrested  by  the  tidal  currents  and 
deposited  in  their  shallow  estuaries,  and  the  marine  marshes 
were  formed. 

This  is  as  we  find  it  at  the  present  day.  The  changes  are 
still  in  progress.  The  history  of  this  region  which  we  have 
followed  from  early  Mesozoic  times  to  the  present,  or  as  much 
of  it  as  the  records  known  to  us  reveal,  is  still  being  written  in 
the  changing  surface  features  of  the  land,  the  retreating  coast 
line,  and  the  strata  now  forming  off  our  shores.  Every  change, 


302    POST-TRIASSIC   CHANGES    IN    KINGS   COUNTY,   N.  S. — HAYCOCK. 

no  matter  how  small  is  thus  recorded,  and  this  account  is  merely 
an  attempt  to  read  aright  such  records  as  have  come  under  the 
observation  of  the  writer  in  a  few  hasty  journeys  among  the 
newer  formations  of  our  Province. 

Brief  and  limited  as  these  opportunities  for  observation  have 
been,  they  have  convinced  me  that  the  field  for  Geological 
investigation,  in  this  region  at  least,  is  ample;  that  it  is  wonder- 
fully rich  in  undiscovered  facts ;  and  that  for  variety  in  litho- 
logical,  in  palaeoritological  and  in  structural  features,  it  is 
unequalled  by  any  area  of  similar  extent  in  eastern  North 
America.  That  such  is  the  case  is  shown  by  the  results  achieved 
by  Sir  J.  Win.  Dawson  during  the  third  quarter  of  the  century 
and  set  forth  by  him  so  clearly  and  interestingly  in  his  "  Acadian 
Geology,"  a  work  which  must  ever  remain  for  us  a  model  of 
close  observation,  broad  and  scientific  induction,  and  elegant 
expression. 

Because  of  its  exceptional  richness,  however,  the  field  has 
not  yet  been  exhausted,  in  the  region  of  Minas  Basin  and  west- 
ward the  soil  has  merely  been  broken.  The  broader  relations  of 
the  crreac  formations  to  one  another  have  been  worked  out  and 

o 

their  relative  age  established,  hut  in  knowledge  of  their  litho- 
logical  composition,  fossil  contents,  structural  peculiarities, 
conditions  of  deposition,  relation  to  present  topographic  features, 
etc.,  we  are  almost  wholly  deficient.  The  field  is  alluring  and 
full  of  promise  to  the  Geologist.  Let  us  who  are  native  born 
reap  the  rich  harvest  of  facts  before  we  are  anticipated  by 
workers  from  the  over-crowded  fields  of  New  England. 


XIIL— PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1890,  BY  A.  H. 
MACKAY,  LL.  D. 

(Read  9th  April,  1!)00.) 

The  schedule  on  which  the  observations  referred  to  here 
were  recorded  specifies  100  different  objects,  some  with  sub- 
divisions. Of  the  great  majority  of  them,  two  classes  of 
observations  are  asked  to  be  recorded  :  "  When  h'rst  seen,"  and 
"  When  becoming  common."  In  the  tabulated  dates  recorded 
by  the  Botanical  Club  of  Canada,  given  at  the  end  of  this, 
paper,  the  first  series  only  is  taken.  The  character  of  the 
schedule  is  also  indicated  in  these  tables  of  observations  at  the 
thirteen  stations  throughout  Canada. 

The  identical  schedule  is  also  used  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  Province  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  observations  here  are 
made  by  the  pupils  in  attendance  as  a  part  of  their  "  nature 
study,"  when  going  to  and  returning  from  school,  and  are 
tested  and  recorded  by  the  teacher  in  duplicate,  one  copy  of 
which  is  preserved  as  a  local  record,  and  the  other  is  sent  with 
the  school  returns  to  the  Inspector  for  the  Education  Office. 

Seven  hundred  and  twenty-five  school  sections  (school 
districts,  localities,  or  stations)  returned  schedules  of  observa- 
tions, the  majority  more  full  than  those  of  the  thirteen  stations 
of  the  Botanical  Club  reporting.  The  summation  of  these  in 
tabular  form  would  require  a  large  volume,  and  cannot,  there- 
fore, be  attempted  here.  The  schedules  are  bound  up  in  a 
volume  for  each  year,  so  that  the  information  may  not  only  be 
preserved  for  the  future  use  of  students,  but  may  be  conveniently 
accessible.  The  series  of  volumes  will  be  a  mine  of  information 
bearing  on  at  least  one  phase  ot  the  problem  of  secular  variation 
of  climate. 

The  same  ten  plants  taken  last  year  are  here  selected  from 
the  list  of  one  hundred  objects  for  the  purpose  of  comparison 

(308) 


304      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899. — MACKAY. 

as  to  the  average  time  of  first  flowering  and  when  flowering 
was  beginning  to  become  common.  In  some  counties  the 
observations  were  so  full  that  thirty  good  stations  could  be 
selected  for  averaging,  ten  from  the  sea  coast,  ten  from  low 
inland  settlements,  and  ten  from  high  land  settlements.  These 
average  dates  or  phenochrons  of  flowering  are  arranged  in 
parallel  columns  for  the  sake  of  comparison.  In  some  counties 
only  twenty  satisfactory  stations  for  averaging,  and  in  others 
only  ten,  were  found,  as  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  from  the 
tabulation  of  the  figures. 

The  average  phenochron  for  each  plant's  first  flowering  and 
flowering  becoming  common  is  calculated  for  each  county,  and 
the  mean  of  the  two  series  is  finally  taken  for  comparison 
with  the  similar  general  phenochron  for  the  same  phenomenon 
in  1898.  These  general  phenochrons  are  plotted  on  the  accom- 
panying diagram  so  as  to  show  their  curves  through  the 
Bounties  of  the  Province  arranged  in  a  linear  series  beginning  at 
the  west  and  south,  and  proceeding  to  the  east  and  north. 

This  order  of  the  counties  will  be  uniformly  followed  in 
future  plottings  of  the  phenochronic  curves,  for  the  greater  ease 
of  comparing  those  of  one  year  with  those  of  another.  Last 
year  the  counties  were  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  most 
general  phenochrons.  Were  the  same  rule  followed  this  year 
the  positions  of  some  of  the  counties  would  be  changed ;  but  if 
•the  positions  of  the  counties  remain  fixed  the  configurations  of 
the  phenochronic  curves  will  illustrate  the  variations  very 
clearly  from  year  to  year. 

On  a  future  occasion  I  propose  to  plot  the  phenochrons  of 
the  same  /phenomena  running  through  the  counties  of  the 
province  for  two  or  three  consecutive  years,  in  order  to  study 
the  character  of  the  annual  observations,  or  the  peculiarities  of 
climate  or  flowering.  Unfortunately,  we  cannot  be  sure  of 
the  degree  of  variation  originating  in  the  latter  causes  until  we 
are  sure  of  a  uniform  system  of  correct  observations  symmetric- 
ally distributed. 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899. — MACK  AY.      305 

Apart  from  any  generalization  of  value  which  may  be 
expected  from  such  work  carried  on  continuously  for  years,  it  is 
found  to  be  a  valuable  stimulus  to  the  formation  of  habits  o£ 
accurate  observation  in  the  pupils  of  the  public  schools,  and! 
to  the  study  of  nature  on  the  road  to  and  from  school,  when  it 
does  not  interfere  with  any  other  study,  and  when  it  adds- 
interest  and  often  amusement  to  otherwise  monotonous  road 
travel.  For  this  purpose  alone  the  trifling  cost  of  supplying  the 
schedules  are  many  thousands  of  times  repaid. 

The  names  of  the  ten  plants  whose  average  dates  of 
flowering  are  given  in  the  columns  following,  as  described, 
cannot  be  given  on  the  same  page  with  their  phenochrons  without 
overcrowding.  The  names  are,  therefore,  to  be  understood  to 
be  prefixed  in  the  following  order  to  each  column  : 

1.  The  Mayflower  ( Epigcea  repens). 

2.  The  Blue  Violet  (Viola  cucullata). 

3.  The  Red  Maple  ( Acer  rubrum). 

4.  The  Dandelion  (Taraxacum  officinale). 
4.  The  Strawberry  (Fragaria  Virginiana  ). 

6.  The  Wild  Red  Cherry  (Prunus  Pennsylvanicum). 

7.  The  Tall  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  acris). 

8.  The  Indian  Pear  (Amelanchier  Canadensis  ). 

9.  The  Cultivated  Apple  (Pyrus  malus). 
10.  The  Lilac  (Syriiiga  vulgaris}. 


PROC.  &  TKANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS  ~T. 


306      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899. — MACKAY. 


FLOWERING    PHENOCHRONS 

Of  the  foregoing  ten  Plants  in  the  Eighteen  Counties  of  Nova  Scotia, 
for  the  year  1899. 

YARMOUTH    COUNTY,    1899. 


First  Seen. 

Becoming  Common. 

General  Phenochrons. 

Coast. 

Low 
Inlands 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast. 

IX)W 

Inlands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver-  ' 
age. 

Annual 
date. 

Menwual 
date. 

98.2 
117.8 
125.2 
117.4 
118.3 
135.9 
141.8 
142.8 
147.5 
160.4 

87.8 
118.2 
129.2 
119.7 
115.6 
137.3 
130.6 
136.6 
139.0 
151.6 

93.0 
118.0 
127.2 
118.5 
116.9 

109.7 
127.4 
130.5 
129.6 
131.8 

103.7 
124.2 
134.2 
127.5 

125.8 



106.7 
125.8 
132.3 
128.5 
128.8 
143.5 
147.5 
145.0 
153.1 
162.4 

99.85 
I  121.90 
129.77 
123.55 
122.87 
140.05 
141.85 
142.35 
148.20 
159.22 

10  April. 
2  May. 
10    ' 
4     ' 
3 
21 
22 
23 
29 
9  June.1 

136.6 
136.2 
139.7 
143.2 
156.0 

144.1 
153.8 
146.6 
157.4 
166.9 

142.9 
141.2 
143.4 
148.9 
158.0 

130.  531  126.56 

128.54 

139.78 

134.98 

137.38 

132.96 

13  May. 

SHELBURNK    COUNTY,    1899. 


99.9 

101.2 

100.5 

108  2 

110  9 

109  5 

|  105  05 

16  April. 

122.0 

121.0 

..  .  121.5 

129.5 

127.0 

128.2 

1  124  87 

5  May. 

125.5 
120.0 

124.0 
123.5 

124.7 
121  7 

[134.2 
132  7 

133.9 
131  1 

134.0 
131  9 

129.40 
126  82 

10 

7 

121.8 
142.0 

121.9 
140.5 

:121.8 

...  .  141.2 

133.2 
150.0 

130.1 
146.8 

131.6 
148.4 

12*5.75 
144.82 

7 
25 

135.7 

144.8 

140.2 

148.4 

151.0 

149.7 

144.97 

25 

138.1 
147.0 
156.7 

137.6 
147.0 
157.8 

'137.8 
;147.0 
157.2 

146.7 
155.1 
163.9 

146.6 
155.4 
163.3 

146.6 
155.2 
163.6 

142.25 
151.12 
160.42 

23 
31 
10  June. 

130.87 

131.93 

.  ..  .  131.40 

140.19 

139.61 

139.90 

135.65 

16  May. 

DIGBY    COUNTY,    1899. 


* 

* 

* 

* 

102.4 

102.6 

104.1 

103.0 

110.6 

117.4 

122.0 

116.6 

109.86 

20  April. 

119.7 

120.2 

122.6 

120.8 

127.2 

130.6 

127.3 

128.3 

124.58 

5  May. 

130.4 

133.4 

126.2 

130. 

137.8 

138.8 

132.0 

136.2 

133.10 

14 

118.4 

121.4 

123.9 

121.2 

128.0 

127.8 

121.3 

125.7 

1  123.46 

4 

116.4 

120.2 

119.7 

118.7 

128.8 

130.4 

128.2 

129.1  | 

1  123.95 

4 

136.8 

143.6 

136.9 

139.1 

148.2 

153.8 

143.6 

148.5 

143.81 

24 

145.8 

146.4 

143.6 

145.2 

153.2 

156.4 

150.7 

153.4 

149.35 

30 

141.0 

136.8 

132.5 

136.7 

149.6 

148.2 

138.2 

145.3 

141.05 

22 

144.8 

142.4 

140.0 

142.4 

154.2 

151.6 

147.3 

151.0 

146.71 

27 

156.6 

157.6 

152.6 

155.6 

162.0 

164.8 

159.3 

162.0 

158.81 

8  June. 

131.24 

132.46 

130.21 

131.20 

139.% 

141.98 

136.99 

139.64 

135.47 

16  May. 

PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899.— MACKAY.      307 


FLOWERING    PHENOCHRONS  —  Continued. 

QUEENS    COUNTY,    1899. 


First  Seen. 


Coast. 

Low 
Inlands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

103.2 

106.2 

104.7 

124.2 

121.4 

122.8 

128.6 

120.4 

124.5 

125.5 

123.7 

124.6 

125.9 

123.3 

124.6 

140.7 

138  4 

139.5 

149.9 

148.3 

149.1. 

136.2 

133.0 

134  6 

146.9 

144.2 

145.5 

157.0 

152.6 

154.8 

133.81 



131.15 

132.48 

Becoming  Common. 

General  Phenochrons. 

Coast- 

Low 
Inlands. 

High 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Annual 
date. 

Mensual 
date. 

!  112.7 

113.8 

113.2 

108  97 

19  April 

131.6 

127.4 

129.4 

126  12 

7  May 

136.9 

125.8 

130.8 

127.67 

8    " 

134.4 

134.1 

134  9. 

129  42 

10     " 

1  138.4 

134.0    13(i.2 

1  130.40 

11     " 

147.4 

145.5 

146.4 

143  00 

23    " 

158.9 

157.9 

158.4 

153.75 

3  June. 

145.2 

i  137.2  i!41   >>, 

137  90 

18   .M;iv 

152.5 

151.1 

151.8 

148.67 

29    " 

164.2 

157.0 

160.6 

157  70 

7  June. 

142.11 



138.38 

140.24 

136.36 

17  May. 

ANNAPOLIS    COUNTY,    1899. 


99.9 

107  7 

103  8 

110.1 

117.1 

113.6 

198  70 

19  April. 

124.7 
129.3 
125.3 

126.0 
123.7 

128.8 

125.3 
126.5 
127.0 

132.2 
134.0 
133.6 

133.1 
128.4 
135.1 

132.6 
131.2  j 
134.3 

129.00 
128.85 
130.70 

9  May. 
9  " 
11  " 

122  2 

123  5 

122  8 

130.7 

133.5 

132.1 

127  47 

8  " 

137  8 

140  7 

139  2 

143.6 

146.9 

145.2 

142  25 

23  " 

145.9 
133.4 

147.5 
136  0 

146.7 
134  7 

155.1 
137.5 

156.  3 
141.2 

155.7 
139.3 

151.20 
137.02 

1  June. 
18  May. 

139.9 
152.3 

145.7 
153.7 

142.8 
153  0 

148.3 
159.1 

152.3 
159.4 

150.3 
159.2 

146.55 
156.12 

27  " 
6  June. 



131.07 

133.33 

132.20 



138.42 

140.33 

139.37 

1  135.78 

16  May. 

LUNENBURG    COUNTY,    1899. 


102.4 

104.6 

105.3 

104.1 

111.1 

114.2 

114.7 

113.3 

108.71 

19  April 

123.5 

123.9 

122.8 

123.4 

130.4 

129.9 

129.6 

129.9 

j  128.  68 

7  Way. 

123.6 

120.2 

122.0 

121.9 

129.7 

129.4 

127.5 

128.8 

1125.40 

6    " 

126.2 

128.3 

127.0 

127.1 

131.3 

137.2 

134.0 

134.1 

130.66 

11     " 

126.0 

125.3 

1-22.7 

124.6 

131.6 

134.1     1130.2 

131.9 

128.31 

9    " 

139.1 

137.2 

139.9 

t38.7 

144.2 

143.2 

146.5 

144.6    '141.68 

22    " 

150.5 

149.7 

148.9 

149.7 

157.6 

156.6 

155.0 

156.4 

153.05 

3  June. 

142.0 

130.5 

132.0 

134.8 

148.6 

139.4 

138.2 

142.0 

138.45 

19  May. 

144.3 

145.8 

144.6 

144.9 

!  155.0 

152.3 

152.3 

153.2 

149.05 

30     " 

158.5 

154.5 

153.0 

155.3 

164.5 

159.8     1156.7 

160.3 

157.83 

7  June. 

133.61 

132.00 

131.82 

132.47 

140.401  139.61    138.47  139.49 

135.98 

16     May. 

308      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899. — MACKAY. 


FLOWERING   PHENOCHROXS  —Continued. 

KINGS    COUNTY,    185)9. 


First  Seen. 

Becoming  Common. 

General  Phenochrons. 

Coast. 

Low     |  High- 
Inlands.  lands. 

1 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast. 

IjOW 

Iniauds. 

High- 
lands 

Aver- 
age. 

Animal 
date. 

Mensual 
date. 

103.8 
120.7 
124.1 
123.6 
122.5 
142.0 
140.2 
136.2 
141.6 
152.9 

130.76 

109.9 
125.8 
12.1.6 
127.5 
123.5 
141.5 
152.7 
134.7 
145.8 
154.6 

106.8 
123.2 
124.8 
125.5 
123.0 
141.7 
146.4 
135.4 
143.7 
153.7 

114.8 
126.  7 
132.3 
133.6 
133.fi 
150.2 
153.8 
144.0 
152.6 
159.1 

118.0 
134.4 
133.0 
135.8 
131.7 
14(5.3 
157.!) 
140.7 
152.4 
161.3 

116.7 
130.5 
132.6 
134.7 
132.6 
148.2 
155.8. 
142.3 
152.5 
160.2 

111.77 
126.90 
128.75 
130.12 
127.60 
145.00 
151.15 
138.90 
148.10 
156.97 

22  April. 
7  May. 
9     " 
11     " 
8     " 
25     v' 
1  June. 
19  May. 
29     " 
6  June. 

17  May. 



134.16 

132.46 

140.06 

141.21  140.63 

136.54 

HANTS   COUNTY,    1899. 


103.8 

109.3 

106.5 

114.9 

119.1 

117.0 

111.77 

22  April. 

123.8 

127.8 

125.8 

129.4 

134  .  8 

132.1 

128.95 

9  Mny. 

126.6 
125.2 

126.9 
129.6 

126.7 
127.4 

131.0 
134.3 

131.8 
136.7 

131.4 
135.5 

129.07 
131.45 

10     ' 
12    " 

123.2 

126.6 

124.9 

134.7 

132.7 

133.7 

129.30 

10     " 

138.6 

146.2 

142.4 

147.2 

151.3 

149.2 

145.82 

26    " 

141.3 
135.6 

153.3 
144.0 

147.3 
139.8 

154.6 
142.6 

159.7 
149.5 

157.1 
146.0 

152.22 
342.92 

2  June. 
23  May. 

144.7 

150.8 

147.7 

151.1 

157.5 

154.3 

151.02 

1  June. 

153  1 

156  9 

155.0 

160.6 

163.7 

162.1 

158.57 

8      " 

131.59 

137.14 

134.36 

140.04 

143.68 

141.86 

138.11 

19  May. 

HALIFAX    COUNTY.    1899. 


104.6 

105.9 

108.2 

106.2 

119.2 

114.9 

118.8 

117.6 

111.93 

22  April. 

123.3 

123.9 

128.7 

125.3 

132.2 

130.1 

136.7 

133.0 

129.15 

10  May. 

124.6 

126.3 

122.7 

124.5 

132.7 

133.9 

133.0 

133.2 

128.86 

9    '• 

126.3 

127.5 

130.1 

127.9 

135.9 

134.4 

138.6 

136.3 

132.13 

13    " 

126.9 

124.0 

125.8 

125.5 

137.1 

135.3 

135.5 

135.9  ||  130.76 

11     " 

144.1 

144.1 

142.6 

143.6 

152.9 

150.1 

147.3 

150.1   ,|  146.85 

27     " 

151.8 

149.6 

150.0 

150.4 

161.5 

157.2 

161.0 

159.9 

155.18 

5  June. 

143.5 

138.1 

138.1 

139.9 

150.7 

145.5 

145.6 

147.2 

143.58 

24  May. 

154.5 

148.3 

151.1 

151.3 

164.1 

156.8 

157.5 

159.4 

155.38 

5  June. 

167.7 

158.0 

156.9 

160.8 

175.6 

164.6 

162.7 

167.6 

164.25 

14      " 

136.73 

134.57 

135.42 

135.571  146.19 

142.28 

143.67 

144.04 

139.81 

20  May. 

PHEXOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1890. — MACKAY.       309 


FLOWERING   PHENOCHRONS  —  Continued. 

GUYSBORO    COUNTY,    1899. 


First  Seen. 

Becoming  Common. 

General  Phenochrons. 

Coast. 

Low 
In  land. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast. 

Low 
Inland. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Annual 
date. 

Mensnal 
date. 

i 

113.8 

122.4 
135.2 
131.3 
141.8 
144.4 
153.2 
165.0 
150.8 
162.3 
169.0 

118.10 
132.45 
127.50 
138.75 
138.65 
150.90 
162.35 
148.10 
159.40 
166.85 

29  April. 
13  May. 
8     " 
19     " 
19    " 
31    " 
12  June. 
29  May. 
9  June. 
16      " 

129.7 

123.7 

135.7 

1 

132.9 

|  il48.6 

159.7 

145.4 

156.5 
164.7 

.'141.07 

147.54 

144.30 

25   Mav. 

CUMBERLAND    COUNTY,   1899. 


1 

116.7 

111.  9 

110.7 

113.1 

123.5 

121.7 

118.5 

121.2 

117.16 

28  April. 

124.8 

127.3 

127.5 

126.5 

131.2 

136.0 

134.4 

133.8 

130.20 

11  May. 

127.4 

126.8 

123.1 

125.7 

134.6 

132.7 

130.9 

132.7 

129.25 

10     " 

131.4 

130.2 

128.8 

130.1 

137.6 

13U.7 

136.0 

137.7 

133.95 

14     " 

126.8 

129.0 

123.7 

126.5 

134.3 

141.3 

134.7 

136.7 

131.63 

12     " 

145.9 

141.1 

140.4 

142.4 

151.2 

146.9 

146.4 

148.1 

145.31 

26     " 

154.7 

149.1 

150.3 

151.3 

160.3 

159.5 

155.8 

158.5 

154.95 

4  June. 

141.0 

137.4 

135.5 

137.9 

147.1 

145.3 

142.7 

145.0 

141.50 

22  May. 

152.4 

149.3 

149.5 

150.4 

158.6 

154.3 

155.7 

156.2 

153..  JO 

3  June. 

156  5 

155.2 

155.5 

155.7 

162.6 

161.5 

161.2 

161.7 

158.75 

8      " 

137.76 

135.73 

134.50 

135.99 

144.10 

143.89 

141.63 

143.20 

139.60 

20  May. 

COLCHESTER    COUNTY,   1899. 


106.1 

112.2 

118.9 

112.4 

118.1 

117.6 

125.4 

120.3 

116.38 

27  April. 

124.4 

126.3 

127.3 

126.0 

132.9 

132.6 

I'M.  2 

133.2- 

129.61 

10  May. 

129.5 

127.9 

128.9 

128.7 

135.3 

132.5 

134.6 

134.1 

131.45 

12    " 

128.4 

129.7 

128.9 

129.0 

137.2 

136.3 

136.6 

136.7 

132.85 

13     " 

126.8 

126.5 

126.0 

126.4 

134.7 

136.2 

135.0 

135.3 

130.86 

11     " 

141.3 

140.3 

147.4 

143.0 

147.3 

147.8 

152.4 

149.1 

146.08 

27     " 

149.3 

148.6 

149.5 

149.1 

157.5 

156.7 

156.1 

156.7 

152.95 

2  June. 

141.2 

138.4 

141.2 

140.2 

147.1 

143.7 

148.7 

146.5 

143.38 

24  May. 

148.1 

146.5 

152.0 

148.8 

155.5 

154.6      158.5 

156.2 

152.53 

2  June. 

156.5 

157.4 

160.8 

158.2 

163.4 

162.3 

166.8 

164.1 

161.20 

11     " 

135.16 

135.38    138.09  136.21 

142.90 

142.03 

144.83 

143.25 

139.73 

20  May. 

310       PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1899. — MACKAY. 
FLOWFRING   PHENOCHBONS  -  Continued. 

PICTOU    COUNTY,    1899. 


First  Seen. 

Becoming   Common. 

General  Phenochrons. 

Coast. 

Low 
Inland. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast. 

Low 
Inlands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Annual 
date. 

Mensual 
date. 

107.4 

111.8 

112.2 

110.4 

118.0 

122.5 

119.2 

119.9 

115.18 

26  April. 

126.4 

127.1 

127.1 

126.8 

134.4 

134.8 

134.8 

134.6 

130.76 

11  May. 

126.7 

123.3 

126.2 

125.4  i 

133.0 

130.1 

131.9 

131.6 

128.53 

9     " 

127.  3 

128.6 

180.4 

128.7 

134.5 

135.5 

137.2 

135.7 

132.25 

13    " 

128.8 

126.2 

126.7 

127.2 

135.8 

136  8 

137.2 

136.6 

131.91 

12    " 

148.5 

144.6 

145.9 

146.3 

152.8 

149.7 

151.0 

151.1 

148.75 

29     " 

148.8 

148.7 

150.0 

149.1 

155.7 

155.9 

156.4 

156.0 

152.58 

2  June. 

142.0 

141.3 

140.9 

141.4 

147.4 

145.4 

145.3 

146.0 

143.71 

24  May. 

150.9 

146.7 

149.4 

149.0 

156.1 

153.5 

1%.3 

155.3 

152.15 

2  June. 

156.1 

156.2 

157.2 

156.5 

161.3 

160.9 

162.7 

161.6 

159.06 

9      " 

136.  29  !  135.45 

136.60ll36.ll 

142.90 

142.51  1  143.  20 

142.87 

139.49 

20  May. 

ANTIGONISH    COUNTY,    1899. 


117.4 

125.9 

121.65 

2  May. 

127.6 

134.6 

131.10 

12 

132.8 





136.6 

134.70 

15 

130.1 
128.2 

;:;;;. 

;;;;;;;; 



136.8 
139.9 

133.45 
134.05 

14 
15 

146.9 
153.8 

153.4 
161.0 

150.15 
157.40 

31 
7  June. 

145.4 

151.2 

148.30 

29  May. 

152.9 

158.1 

155.50 

5  June. 

.. 

160.4 

165.8 

163.10 

13   " 

139.55 

146.33 

142.94 

23  MHV. 

RICHMOND    COUNTY     1899. 


110.7 

121.5 

J29.9 
138.2 

136.5 
145.9 

131.6 

140.6 

132.0 

140.4 

154.0 

159.1 

159.2 

166.4 

146.9 

152.4 

160.3 

16H.9 

167.8 

172.2 

143.06! 

150.  K 

116.10 
133.20 
142.05 
136  10 
136.20 
156.55 
162.80 
149.65 
163.60 
170.00 


April. 


June. 

May. 
June. 


146.62  |     27  May. 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    189P. — MACKAY.      311 


FLOWERING    PHENOCHRONS  —  Continued. 

CAPE    BRETON    COUNTY,    1899. 


First  Seen. 

I 

Becoming   Common. 

General  Phenochrons. 

Coast. 

Low 
Inlands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast. 

Low 
Inlands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age 

Annual 
date. 

Mensual 
date. 

111.8 

120.8 
137.9 
134.5 
139.4 

116.30 
134.95 
131.25 
135.80 

27  April. 
15  Mny. 
12     " 

16    " 
14     " 
3  June. 
4      " 
31  May. 
10  June. 
17      " 

132.0 
128.0 

132  2 



127.7 

138.7 
156.3 
163.  7   | 

133.20 
153.45 
154.95 

150.6 

149  2 

147.2 



152.9   1 
163.4 
170.3 

150.05 
160.00 
167.60 

156.6 

164.9 

Jl40.2 

I 

147.49 

143.75  '     24  May. 

INVERNESS    COUNTY,    1899. 


116.5 

122.8    ' 

119.65 

30  April. 

128.1 
134.1 

135.3 
141.2 

131.70 
137.65 

12  M«y. 

18    ' 

131.9 

138.9 

135.40 

16    ' 

129.7 

136.6 

133.15 

14    • 

151  9 

157.7 

151.80 

4  June. 

:::::::: 

151.2 

148.7 
152.9 
163.8 

159.3 
159.6 
158.5 
170.1 

155.25 
154.15 
155.70 
166.95 

5       ' 

4       « 
5       ' 
16       ' 

140.88 

148.00 

144.44 

25  May. 

VICTORIA    COUNTY,    1899. 


117.2 

122.3 

119.75 

30  Apr.l. 



129.9 

1:33.6 

131.75 

12  May. 



130.3 

136.8 

133.55 

14  " 

131  7 

137.3 

134.50 

15  " 

127.9 
149.8 
155.8 

135.5 
155.2 
163.5 

131.70 
152.50 
159.65 

12  " 
2  June. 
9   " 

147.2 
157.1 

152.7  : 

162.8 

149.95 
159.95 

30  May. 
9  June. 

164.7 

171.8 

168.25 

18   " 

141.16 

147.15 

144.15 

23  Mny. 

312      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899.— MACKAY. 

PHENOCHRON   CURVES  OF  FLOWERING. 

(Moan  of  "first  seen  "  and  "  becoming  common  "). 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899.— MACKAY.      313 

Observations  of  Botanical   Club  of  Canada. 

In  order  to  keep  unbroken  the  series  of  observations  made 
"by  the  Botanical  Club  of  Canada,  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Institute,  especially  as  they  have  not  yet  become  too  voluminous, 
the  following  tabular  summation  of  them  for  1SD9  is  given. 
The  seven  stations  in  the  other  provinces  of  the  Dominion 
;show  observations  which  will  be  interesting  in  comparison  with 
those  made  in  Nova  Scotia. 

Phenological    Stations   and    Observers   of  the   Botanical  Club 
of  Canada,  1S90. 

St.  Stephen,  N.  B.— J.  Vroom,  Esq. 

Yarmouth,  N.  S. —  S.  A.  Starratt,  Esq.;  Seymour  Critcher,  Esq. 

Berwick,  N.  S. — Miss  Ida  A.  Parker. 

Halifax,  N.  S. —  Harry  Piers,  Esq. 

Musquodoboit  Harbour,  N.  S. — Rev.  James  Rosborough. 

New  Glasgow,  N.  S. — Miss  Maria  Cavanagh. 

Wallace,  N.  S. — Miss  Mary  E.  Charman. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I. — John  McSwain,  Esq. 

Beatrice,  Muskoka,  Ontario. — Miss  Alice  Hollingworth. 

Pliea^ant  Forks,  Assiniboia. — Thomas  R.  Donnelly,  E*q. 

Olds,  Alberta.— T.  N.  Willing,  Esq. 

Willoughby,  Saskatchewan. — Rev.  C.  W.  Bryden. 

Vancouver,  B.  C. — J.  K.  Henry,  Esq.,  B.  A. 


Explanation  of  Annotation*  over  the  Date   Fiyurt*  in  the  following  Table: 


* — "  When  becoming  common." 
b — Ruhus  spectabilis  (flowering). 
c —  "  "  (fruiting). 


«  —  Ranunculus  rhomboiileus. 
t —  Fragaiia  Chilensis. 
u —  Primus  emarginata. 


f—  Rubus  occidentalis.  »•  —  Tri-ium  ovatum. 

'k— Turdus  propinqua.  "-'  —  Tiientalis  Europcea. 


o — Sturnella  neglecta. 
q — Chordeiles  Uenryei. 


x  —  Amelancliier  alnifolia. 
y  —  Kosa  Nutkana. 


314      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1899. — MACK  AY. 


PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1899. 


Number. 

Day  of  the  year  1899  cor- 
responding   to  the   last 
day  of  each  month. 
Jan.  ...  31    July       .212 
Feb.  .  .   .59    Aug       -243 
March  .  90    Sept       .273 
April.  .120    Oct  .       .304 
May  ..   .151    Nov.      .334 
June    .   .181    Deo.       .365 
(First  flowering  or  fruit- 
ing of  plants  and  first  ap- 
pearance of  migratory  ani- 
mals, etc.) 

« 

fc 

£ 

a 
o, 

S 

X 

03 

Yarmouth,  N.  S. 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

Halifax,  N.  S. 

Musquodoboit,  N.  S. 

New  Glasgow,  N.  S. 

Wallace,  N.  S. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I. 

Beatrice,  ?»luskoka,  Ont. 

Pheasant  Forks,  Assa. 

Olds,  Alberta. 

Willoughby,  Sask. 

Vancouver,  B.  C. 

1 

Alnus  incana,  Willd    .  * 

103 

11' 

11' 

Ill 

T1 

* 

in 

68 

2 

Populus  tremuloides 

ion 

TO 

1'1 

138 

116 

114 

1?6 

3 

Michx. 
Epigeea  repens,  L  

11? 

99 

% 

10ft 

105 

IT 

115 

4 

Viola  cucullata  Gray 

1'3 

in 

T6 

I") 

T4 

* 

119 

144 

5 

V.  blanda  Willd. 

119 

199 

111 

119 

122 

Tl 

* 
119 

IIS 

6 

Acer  rubrum,  L  

118 

133 

191 

* 
119 

7 

130 

122 

8 
9 

Equisetum  arvense,  L  — 
Taraxacum  officinale 

Tl 

115 
115 

134 
11? 

T3 

1'5 

120 
119 

* 
132 

Tl 

92 

10 
11 

Weber. 
Erythronium  Amer.,  Ker. 

Hepatica  triloba  Chaix 

115 

132 

126 

» 

119 

12 

Coptis  trifolia,  Salisb. 

133 

T3 

111 

* 
157 

1^9 

13 
14 

Fragaria  Virginia,  Mill  .  . 
(fruit  ripe) 

... 

127 
167 

117 
15' 

122 

158 

* 
132 

175 

126 

122 

160 

* 
146 

128 
176 

152 
186 

127 

t 
114 

15 

Primus  Pcnnsyl  .  L  

14? 

119 

151 

146 

IT 

u 
122" 

L6 

991 

IT 

137 

IT* 

127 

157 

18 

159 

190 

19 

Ranunculus  acris,  L  

150 

? 

147 

163 

T3 

• 
163 

.s 
1'6 

20 

R.  repens  L.  .   . 

151 

151 

132 

91 

Clintonia  borealis  Raf 

155 

111 

157 

• 
157 

•>•> 
83 

Trillium    erythrocarpum, 
Michx. 
Trientalis  Ameri.,  Pursh. 

131 

Tin 

119 

142 
1?7 

151 

157 
158 

114 

151 

151 

139 
139 

V 

88 
111 
131 

•'I 

15' 

160 

117 

•>:, 

Calla  palustris  L  

158 

15' 

L'I; 
87 

Amelanchier   Canadensis 
T.  &G. 
"                (fruit  ripe) 

129 

131 

143 

?04 

131 

141 

123 

X 

126 

PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899. — MACKAY.      315 


PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1899. 


Day  of  the  year  1899,  cor- 
responding; t,o   the    last 
day  of  each  month. 
Jan  31    July  212 
Feb....    59    Aug  ....243 
March..  90    Sept  ...  273 
April..  .120    Oct  3"4 
May  151    Nov  334 
June..     181    Dec  365 

X 
53 
o 

CO 

fc 

£ 

CO 

fc 

co' 
5? 

CO 

Z. 

'o 

,2 
O 
*«? 

CO 
55 

1 

CO 

>5 

w 

OH* 
O 

5 

j,  Muskoka.  Ont. 

it  Forks,  Assa.  i 

5 

t. 

^ 

J 

1 

CO 

X 

JS 
JS 

c3 

pa 

u 

V 

^ 

Numbel 

(First  flowering  or  fruit- 
ing of  plants  and  first  ap- 
aearance  of  migratory  ani- 
nals,  etc.) 

5. 

OJ 
CO 

co 

Yarmot 

Berwicl 

Halifax 

O1 
3 

s 

New  Gl« 

[3 

I? 

Chariot 

Beatric 

Pheasar 

< 

•f. 

•o 

0 

\Villoug 

0 

8 
1 

28 

171 

Ti? 

l-l 

ft 

7ff 

29 

"             (fruit  ripe) 

101 

100 

r 
159 

30 

175 

163 

4 

31 

232 

99R 

32 

150 

156 

140 

33 

151 

213 

179 

171 

31 

140 

161 

* 
~\f4 

16"* 

m 

35 

36 

1V> 

15C 

163 

37 
38 

Linneea  borealia,  L  
Linaria  Canaden.,  Duni..  . 

168 

2°1 

170 

155 

39 

18° 

40 

L. 

178 

182 

41 

17^ 

182 

42 

195 

9Q1 

19S 

198 

104 

11 

119 

1OT 

w 

144 

44 

Hypericum  pcrforat  ,  L.  . 

213 

189 

171 

192 

1(V7 

155 
1 

46 

it 

Pmnus  Cerasus  (cultiv  ). 
"              (fruit  ripe) 

135 

150 

146 

r.H 

154 

llfr 

174 

111.' 

» 
163 

152 

Ti0 

50 
51 

Prunus  domestica  (f.ul'd). 
Pyrus  mains  (cul  d)  early. 
"                "           late 

133 

158 
157 

14G 

153 

146 
150 
1V 

157 

128 
144 

'  12i 

II- 

128 

154 

54 

(fruit  ripe) 

161 

.... 

PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899. — MACKAY. 


PHE^OLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1899. 


Number. 

Day  of  the  year  1899,  cor- 
responding   to   the    last 
day  of  each  month. 
•Ian  31    July  212 
Feb  .59    Aug  243 
March..  90    Sept    ...273 
April.  ..120    Get  304 
May....  151    Nov  334 
June  .   .181    Dec  365 
(First  flowering  or  fruit- 
ing of  plants  and  first  ap- 
pearance of  migratory  ani- 
mals, etc.) 

n 
x 

o 

p, 

W 
OQ 

Yarmouth,  N.  S. 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

Halifax,  N.  S. 

Musquodoboit,  N.  S. 

i 

New  Glasgow,  N.  S. 

Wallace.  N.  S. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I. 

Beatrice,  Muskoka,  Ont  ' 

Pheasant  Forks,  Assa. 

Olds,  Alberta. 

Willoughby,  Sask. 

Vancouver,  B.  C. 

,55 

R.  nigrum  (cultivated).  .   . 

1T> 

56 

(fruit  ripe) 

,57 

Syringa  vul..  L.  (cultiv.).. 

143 

160 

153 

160 

153 

161 

144 

168 

128 

.58 

Solanuii  tuberosum  L. 

171 

182 

<>10 

.59 

Phleum  pratensc,  L  

150 

185 

GO 

Trifolitim  rcpens,  L  

139 

150 

132 

61 

T.  pratensc,  L  

1.51 

156 

157 

174 

155 

* 
166 

62 

Triticum  vulgarc,  L  

9]") 

«3 

Avena  sati  va,  L  

«4 

Fagopyrum  esculen.,  L... 

65a 

Earliest  full  Icaf'g  of  tree. 

151 

I'M 

«5b 

Latest          "              " 

06 

Ploughing  (first  of  season) 

% 

121 

115 

67 

Sowing 

T>6 

126 

T>8 

117 

68 

Potato-planting          •' 

1'1 

130 

141 

T>8 

«9 

Sheep-shearing 

136 

153 

156 

70 

100 

193 

210 

19S 

71 

Grain-cutting             " 

* 
•xffi 

°33 

*M1 

7? 

258 

968 

258 

276 

73a 

73h 

Opening  of  rivers       " 

II9 

100 

110 



111 

107 

74a 

00 

11fi 

I'M 

I'M 

133 

V'3 

74b 

I'M 

135 

156 

135 

75b 

149 

113 

155 

76a 

111 

115 

76b 

"           "           low  .. 

PHKNOLOGICAL    OBSEUVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899.—  MACK  AY.       317 


PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1899. 


Number. 

Day  of  the  year  1899.  cor- 
responding   to    the    last 
day  of  eat-h  month. 
.Ian  31    July  212 
Feb  59    Aug  242 
March..  90    Sept  273 
April...  120    Oet  304 
May  ...  131    Nov..  ..334 
June.   ..181    Dec  365 
(First  flowering  or  fruit- 
ing of  plant*  and  first  ap- 
pearance of  migratory  ani- 
mals, etc.) 

« 
55 

0 

P. 
q 

<M 
«! 

CO 

Yarmouth,  N.  S. 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

Halifax.  N.  S. 

Musquodoboit,  N.  S. 

New  Glasgow,  N.  S. 

Wallace,  N.  S. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I. 

Beatrice,  Muskoka,  Out. 

Pheasant  Forks,  Man. 

Olds,  Alberta. 

Willoughby,  Sask. 

Vancouver.  B.  C. 

77a 
77b 

First  autumn  frost,  hoar. 

227 

258 
3(17 

258 

251 

254 

221 

221 

... 

78a 

^76 

977 

315 

78h 

"01 

316 

?07 

<X)| 

317 

79a 

310 

370 

79b 

?11 

on 

64 

64 

64 

61 

5 

64 

]90 

78 
1<w 

64 
1'1 

104 

T>O 

1% 

108 

146 
156 

156 

128 
164 

148 
110 

, 

142 

.... 

H7 

157 

V")7 

165 

151 

16? 

165 

155 

160 

170 

166 

166 

167 

156 

171 

157 

17<> 

188 

n9 

172 

163 

173 

176 

176 

171 

165 

175 

200 

177 

177 

176 

176 

174 

177 

?,19 

185 

181 

177 

184 

178 

187 

1S6 

108 

107 

?W 

194 

104 

104 

104 

?14 

W4 

Ml 

*.v" 

202 

105 

90*> 

105 

904 

•>10 

208 

WO 

?33 

fllfl 

236 

"in 

•'"•, 

W1 

?is 

?.V» 

•Ml 

216 

•>46 

•'•10 

202 
??0 

221 

Wto 

?,i9 

.... 

971 

99fi 

260 

031 

318      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,     1899. — MACKA.Y 


PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1899 


Number1. 

Day  of  the  year  1899,  cor- 
responding  to    the   last 
day  of  the  month. 
Jan.  ...  31    July...  .212 
Feb...    .  59    Aug.  ..   .243 
March  .  90    Sept  ..   .273 
April  .     120    Oct...     .304 
May...  .151    Nov  ..  .334 
June..    181    Deo...   .365 
(First  flowering  or  fruit- 
ing of  plants  and  first  ap- 
pearance of  migratory  ani- 
mals, etc.) 

m 
fc 

r 
P. 
£ 

O3 

-J 
02 

Yarmouth,  N.  S. 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

Halifax,  N.  S 

Musquodoboit,  N.  S. 

New  Glasgow,  N.  S. 

Wallace,  N.  S. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I. 

Beatrice,  Muskoka,  Ont. 

Pheasant  Forks,  Man.  1 

Olds,  Alberta. 

Willoughby,  Sask. 

Vancouver,  B.  C. 

80 

Thunderstorms  —  dates.  .  .  . 

??8 

^87 

">46 

''Ofi 

"57 

SI  a 

Wild  ducks  migrating,  N. 

86 

110 

00 

81  b 

S. 

82a 

"    geese        "            N. 

100 

04 

78 

81 

00 

110 

100 

sfln 

S. 

317 

9  16 

<X)j 

286 

S3 

Melospiza  fasciata.  North. 

105 

9-' 

04 

94 

98 

.84 
.8.5 

Turd  us  migratorius,    " 
Junuo  hit-malls,             " 

102 

80 
10" 

88 
81 

97 
00 

100 

96 
11? 

k 
116 

k 
97 

k 
116 

•8fi 

Actitis  macularia,       " 

.87 

Sturnella  magna          " 

0 

10T 

88 

Ceryle  Alcyon.              •' 

10* 

80 

Dendrceca  coronata,    " 

140 

144 

00 

D.  testiva, 

? 

146 

91 

Zonotrichia  alba,          " 

1?0 

134 

fl? 

Trochilus  colubris,       " 

143 

1?8 

135 

144 

03 

Tyrannus  Carolinen  ,  " 

145 

9+ 

Dolychonyx  oryzivor.," 

95 

Spinis  tristis, 

141 

9G 

Setophaga  ruticilla,     " 

116 

07 

Ampelis  cedrorum,      " 

88 
99 
100 

Chordeiles  Viginian.,  " 
First  piping  of  frogs  
First  appearance,  snakes. 

115 

151 
1C6 
109 

97 

149 
112 

144 

156 
117 

107 
123 

& 
115 
127 

108 

110 

XIV. — A  FRESH  WATER  SPONGE  FROM  SABLE  ISLAND. — BY  A. 
H.  MACK  AY,  LL.  D.,  Halifax. 

(Read  Oth  April,  1900.) 


{ 


L   i    i    i    i    I    i    i    i    i   j 


This  sponge  was  collected  in  considerable  abundance  on  the 
18th  of  August,  1899,  by  Professor  John    Macoup,  Botanist  of 

(319) 


320     A   FRESH   WATER   SPONGE   FROM   SABLE   ISLAND. — MACKAY. 

the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  in  the  fresh  water  pond  found 
in  the  centre  of  that  great  sand-shoal  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
well  known  as  Sable  Island,  nearly  one  hundred  miles  from 
Nova  Scotia,  the  nearest  part  of  the  continent.  It  was  growing 
around  the  submerged  portion  of  the  slender  stems  of  Mi/ri- 
ophyllum  tenellum,  Bigelow,  in  green,  compact,  lobular  masses, 
showing,  where  broken,  numerojs  orange  yellow  gemmules. 

It  appears  to  approach  most  nearly  to  the  following  fresh 
water  sponges  described  by  Potts :  II eteromeyenia  ryderi,  v. 
baleni,  found  from  Florida  to  New  Jersey,  in  its  epicnlation  ; 
and  Heteromej/enia  ryderi  v.  walshii,  from  Gilder  Pond,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  the  fasciculation  of  its  skeleton  spicules. 

General  form  :  Encrusting  the  submerged  stems  of  Myri- 
ophyllum  tenellum,  (which  in  the  specimens  examined  are  about 
2  mm.  thick),  in  a  smooth,  compact,  green,  lobular  mass  extend- 
ing to  a  gross  diameter  of  about  one  centimeter,  and  to  a  height 
or  length  along  the  stem  of  about  5  or  6  centimeters  in  some 
cases,  the  lobes  suggesting  an  abortive  attempt  at  branching; 
pores  and  osteoles  very  minute ;  gemmules  very  abundant, 
appearing  wherever  the  central  mass  is  broken. 

Gemmules  :  Light  orange  in  color,  spherical,  varying  from 
500  to  800  microns  in  diameter,  but  generally  between  600  to 
700  microns ;  foraminal  aperture  from  30  to  70  microns  in 
diameter,  not  produced  into  a  tube  beyond  the  crust;  dense 
inner  (chitinous)  coat  of  gemmule  nearly  10  microns  thick, 
surrounded  by  the  light  cellular  crust  (in  which  the  short 
siliceous  birotules  or  amphidisks  are  vertically  embedded)  to  a 
depth  of  about  25  microns ;  both  short  and  long  birotules  or 
amphidisks  with  one  disk  or  rotule  resting  on  the  chitinous  coat, 
their  shafts  radially  directed,  packed  as  closely  as  their  disks 
allow,  the  long  birotules  being  fewer  with  the  distal  rotules 
extending  beyond  the  crust,  their  few  slightly  incurved  rays 
somewhat  adapted  for  attaching  the  gemmule  to  any  finely 
fibrous  environment. 

Short  birotules  :  From  18  to  26  microns  in  length, 
generally  from  20  to  24,  with  a  smooth  uniform  shaft 


A  FRESH  WATER  SPONGE  FROM  SAHLG  ISLAND.— MACRAY.    321 

ranging  from  1.5  to  £  microns  thick;  the  rotules  being  plane 
disks  less  than  "2  microns  thick  from  the  point  where  the  shaft 
begins  to  swell  into  them,  and  from  10  to  16  microns  in  diameter, 
commonly  near  12  microns,  laciniately  blunt-lobed  around  their 
margins,  the  shaft  occasionally  extending  1  micron  beyond  the 
disks,  making  the  exterior  of  the  rotule  slightly  umbonate. 

Long  birotules :  From  35  to  50  microns,  commonly  from  40 
to  45,  with  usually  a  smooth,  uniform  shaft  about  "2  microns 
thick  ;  the  rotules  generally  of  3,  to  4  or  5  rays  which  are  slightly 
incurved,  the  rotule  ranging  from  8  to  14  microns  in  diameter, 
commonly  from  10  to  11  microns. 

Larger  skeleton  spicules  :  Slightly  curved,  microspined  or 
rough,  tapering  gradually  from  the  middle,  then  more  rapidly 
towards  the  ends;  ranging  from  150  to  260  microns  in  length, 
commonly  from  180  to  220;  and  from  3.5  to  5  microns  in 
breadth  at  the  thickest  part. 

Intermediate  skeleton  spicules:  Generally  smooth,  and  from 
2  to  3  microns  thick,  and  from  150  to  200  microns  in  length, 
numerous  and  generally  fascicled  into  strands  which  are  often 
connected  transversely  by  the  larger  spicules. 

Smaller  strand  spicules  and  filament  strands  :  Finer  strands 
than  those  referred  to  above,  appearing  as  if  made  up  of  continu- 
ous filaments  instead  of  spicules:  strands  commonly  from  10  to 
15  microns  across,  made  up  of  about  20  filaments  or  more,  each 
about  one  micron  thick,  where  broker,  across  appearing  as  if 
they  were  flexible  to  some  extent,  the  ends  of  the  filaments 
showing  a  more  or  less  distinct  curvature.  Under  the  micro- 
scope they  appear  identical  with  the  more  slender  spicules  with 
the  exception  that  they  appear  to  be  continuous  in  the  strand. 
Examined  with  polarized  light  they  are  visible  in  the  dark  field, 
as  are  also,  more  or  less,  the  strands  made  up  of  the  interme- 
diate spicules  while  the  spicules  are  cemented  together,  suggest- 
ing a  peculiar  colloidal  siliceous  or  a  spongin  cement.  When 
heated  with  nitric  acid  these  filaments  appear  first  to  separate 
and  break  into  pieces,  then  partly  at  least  to  disappear.  At  the 
earliest  opportunity  I  purpose  to  examine  the  nature  of  these 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sri.,  VOL  X.  TUANS.-U. 


322      A   FHESH    WATER   SPONGE   FROM   SABLK   ISLAND — MACKAY. 

strands  and  their  relationship  to  the  other  portions  of  the  skele- 
ton ;  hut  this  crude  provisional  treatment  of  them  suggested 
that  the  filaments  might  be  spongin  fibres  partly  silicified,  or 
nascent  siliceous  spicules. 

The  two  classes  of  birotules  arming  the  gemmule  put  the 
sponge  int'>  Potts's  genus  Hete>-omeyenia.  I  therefore  propose 
the  name  Heteromeyenia  macouni,  in  allusion  to  the  distin- 
guished naturalist  who  discovered  it.  It  is  possible  that  a  com- 
parison of  the  sponge  with  the  two  varieties  referred  to  first 
ab)ve  as  approximating  to  this  species  may  reduce  it  to  Hetero- 
meyenia  ryderi  v.  macouni ;  but  from  the  descriptions  publish- 
ed it  appears  to  be  specifically  distinct. 

The  sponge  is  especially  interesting  on  account  of  its  habitat 
in  the  only  fresh  water  pond  of  a  sand  island  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  nearly  100  miles  from  the  continent.  The  island  is 
about  20  miles  long  at  present  and  about  one  mile  broad.  It 
has  been  described  as  consisting  of  "  two  parallel  ridges  of  loose 
grey  sand,  in  a  bow  or  crescent  shape,  with  the  inner  side  to  the 
north.  In  the  valley  between  these  is  a  lake,  now  not  more 
than  eight  miles  long,  formerly  nearly  twice  that  length."*  This 
is  the  pond  in  which  Heteromeyenia  macouni  has  been  growing 
in  abundance. 

*  Sable  Island  :  Its  History  and  Phenomena,  by  Rev.  George  Patterson,  D.  D.,  in 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada,  Section  II.,  1894,  (3). 


Date  of  Publication  ;  December  31st,  1900. 


TRANSACTIONS 

OF   THE 

rt  Scotran  Jnstitute  of  Science. 


SF:SSION  OF  1900-1001. 


I. — GEOLOGICAL  NOMENCLATURE  is  NOVA  SCOTIA. — BY    HUGH 
FLETCHER,  B.  A.,   of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada. 

(Communicated  lOfi  December,  1900. ) 

NEW  GLASGOW  CONGLOMERATE. 

Another  of  the  debatable  questions  in  Nova  Scotian  geological 
classification  is  that  of  the  age  of  the  New  Glasgow  Conglomerate. 
This  formation  is  thus  described  by  Sir  William  Logan : 
"At  the  bridge  of  New  Glasgow  is  exposed  a  series  of  con- 
glomerates, which,  in  general  colour,  are  between  a  brick-red 
and  chocolate  or  Indian-red,  and  whose  inclosed  masses,  varying 
from  the  smallest  pebbles  to  boulders  of  two  feet  in  diameter, 
are,  for  the  most  part,  unmistakabty  derived  from  the  red  and 
greenish-gray  sandstones,  red  shales  and  impure  nodular  lime- 
stones of  the  Millstone  Grit,  some  of  them  containing  the  same 
vegetable  organic  remains.  With  these  pebbles  and  boulders 
are  associated  a  few  from  the  rocks  still  lower  down.  The  whole 
are  inclosed  in  a  matrix  of  the  same  mineral  character,  constitut- 
ing an  argillo-arenaceous  cement,  which  is  also  calcareous,  and 
in  the  interstices  of  the  boulders  and  pebbles  is  often  observed  a 
network  of  white  calcspar  aiding  to  keep  them  together.  There 
are  interstratified  in  the  rock,  bands,  from  a  few  inches  to  several 
feet  in  thickness,  of  fine  red  sandstone  and  red  shale,  which 
serve  to  give  assurance  of  the  dip,  and  these  occur  at  such  dis- 
tances apart  as  to  render  the  conglomerate  beds  thick  and 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— V. 

(323) 


324  GEOLOGICAL    NOMENCLATURE 

massive,  their  transverse  measure  varying  from  ten  to  sometimes 
nearly  100  feet. 

"  From  a  point  a  short  distance  above  the  bridge,  to  one  much 
farther  below,  these  conglomerates  have  a  breadth  of  very  nearly 
a  mile,  giving  a  total  thickness  of  about  1,600  feet.  This  great 
mass  of  conglomerate  composes  Eraser's  Mountain,  towards  the 
south  flank  of  which,  presenting  the  outcrop  escarpment  of  the 
inferior  part,  the  red  and  gray  strata  of  the  Millstone  Grit  dip 
in  such  a  way  as,  without  other  evidence,  to  induce  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  one  series  overlies  the  other  comformably.  But  on 
the  west  side  of  the  East  River  Mr.  Hartley  has  evidence  to 
show  that  there  is  a  want  of  conformity,  at  least  in  some  places. 

"  Three  miles  eastward  of  New  Glasgow  these  conglomerates 
have  a  breadth  of  about  fifty-four  chains,  and  they  are  here 
immediately  and  conformably  overlaid  by  the  following  ascend- 
ing section : 

ft       in. 

Gray  limestone  which  has  been  quarried  for  burning  ...  .20     0 

Measures  concealed 10     0 

Bluish-gray  slightly  calcareous  sandstone 5 

Bluish-brown  concretionary  limestone,  the  surface  of  which 
presents  concentric  botryoidal  thinly  laminated  con- 
cretions, with  grayish  and  red  clay  in  the  interstices 

and  inequalities 10 

Gray  and  red  clay 8 

Reddish  concretionary  limestone,  with  concentric  botryoidal 

laminae  as  before 1     0 

Whitish-gray  limestone 1     0 

Gray  and  red  mottled  clay,  resembling  fireclay 1     4 

Glay  flaggy  sandstone 1     8 

Gray  clay 6 

Whitish  arenaceous  limestone,  holding  abundance  of  Spir- 

orbis  arietina 2     2 

Grayish-blue,  spotted,  slightly  argillaceous  sandstone  ....    1     0 
Measures  concealed,  including  several  feet  of  underclay  .  .24     0 
Coal  and  black  carbonaceous  shale,  including  about  eigh- 
teen inches  of  good  coal  at  the  bottom,  which  used  to 
be  mined  by  Mr.  W.  Fraser,  for  the  purpose  of  burn- 
ing the  limestone  in  the  lower  part  of  the  section ....   4     5 

69  0 


IN   NOVA  SCOTIA — FLETCHER.  325 

"  Very  nearly  on  the  strike  they  are  again  met  with  on  a 
brook  on  the  property  of  Mr.  James  Small,  on  the  road  to  Little 
Harbour,  Merigomish.  The  one  locality  is  as  much  as  three 
miles  from  the  other ;  but  the  botryoidal  concretionary  limestone 
layers  in  both  are  so  peculiar  and  so  strikingly  like  in  appear- 
ance, and  in  their  relation  to  any  overlying  seam  of  coal,  that 
no  doubt  can  be  entertained  of  their  equivalence  ;  and  I  have  no 
evidence  yet  to  shew  that  the  mass  is  here  of  less  volume  than 
farther  to  the  west." 

Another  exposure  of  these  rocks,  1,372  feet  in  thickness, 
occurs  at  Alrna  mills  bridge  on  the  Middle  River,  beyond  which 
they  reappear  in  Rogers  Hill  and  Mount  DaJhousie  at  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Cobequid  range,  also  at  the  head  of  River 
John,  and  in  considerable  thickness  on  Waugh  River.  To  the 
eastward,  they  have  been  followed  through  Quarry  and  Olding 
Islands  to  the  Big  Island  of  Merigomish. 

O  CT 

In  tracing  them  west  from  New  Glasgow  to  the  Middle 
Eiver,  they  appear  along  the  northern  flank  of  Waters  Hill  to 
directly  overlie  the  altered  Devonian  rocks  of  that  locality. 
Exposures  would  seem  to  give  direct  proof  of  the  unconformity 
of  the  conglomerate  with  the  rocks  of  the  Millstone  Grit,  which 
unconformity  we  should  naturally  have  expected  from  the  pre- 
sence of  pebbles  derived  from  rocks  of  the  latter  division  in  the 
former.1 

Of  these  rocks  Gesner  wrote  thus  in  1836  :2  "  The  red  sand- 
stone *  *  *  covering  the  great  coal  basin  of  Pictou  *  *  * 
is  often  associated  with  beds  of  conglomerate  *  *  *  these 
towards  the  surface  seem  to  pass  insensibly  into  a  red  soft  sand- 
stone, which  from  its  ready  disintegration  yields  a  rich  and 
fertile  soil."  At  the  same  time,  however,  he  correlates  the 
Mountain  Limestone  with  the  Permian  of  Caribou  Harbour  and 
Pictou  Island  ;  while  certain  fossils  of  that  limestone  at  Economy 
and  Merio-omish  he  calls  Belemnites  and  Ammonites. 


1  Logan  and  Hartley— Geol.  Survey  Report  1866-69,  pages  13  to  15  and  64  to  66. 
1  Geology  and  Mineralogy  of  Nova  Scotia,  pages  141,  134, 126  and  29. 


326  GEOLOGICAL  NOMENCLATURE 

In  1845,  Sir  J.  W.  Dawson  described  these  rocks  as  follows  r 
"  The  coal  measures  of  the  Albion  Mines,  on  the  banks  of  the  East 
River  of  Pictou  *  *  *  are  succeeded,  in  ascending  order* 
by  a  great  bed  of  coarse  conglomerate,  which,  as  it  marks  a 
violent  interruption  of  the  processes  which  had  accumulated  the 
great  beds  of  coal,  shale  and  ironstone  beneath,  and  as  it  is. 
succeeded  by  rocks  of  a  character  very  different  from  that  of 
these  older  coal  measures,  forms  a  well-marked  boundary,  which 
we  may  consider  as  the  commencement  of  the  Newer  Coal 
Formation.1" 

The  fossils  of  this  latter,  he  adds,  show  the  continuance  of 
the  coal  flora  with  terrestrial  vertebrate  animals  through  a 
thickness  of  5,000  feet  or  more. 

This  description  indicates  what  seems  to  be  the  true  struc- 
ture ;  yet  in  18532  he  prefers  to  regard  the  conglomerate  as  a 
gravel  beach  contemporaneous  with  the  Albion  coal  measures,, 
which  it  "guarded  against  the  disturbing  causes  which  in  other 
localities  prevented  the  continuous  accumulation  of  coal." 

In  186b8  he  argues  in  favor  of  the  theory  that  "  the  New 
Glasgow  conglomerate  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  anomalous  and 
peculiar  modification  of  the  Millstone  Grit,  succeeded  in  ascend- 
ing order  on  the  south  side  by  the  great  coal  measuress  of  the 
Albion  Mines,  and  on  the  north  by  a  depauperated  representative 
of  these  beds,  graduating  upward  into  the  Upper  or  Newer  Coal 
measures  ;"  and  in  18764  again  assigns  it  to  "the  upper  part  of 
the  Millstone  Grit  or  lower  part  of  the  Middle  Coal  formation,'* 
the  depauperated  Albion  mines  measures  being  the  660  feet  next 
overlying,  succeeded  conformably  by  the  "  Upper  Coal  formation." 

The  physical  conditions  under  which  a  beach  of  shingle  could 
accumulate  1,600  feet  of  coarse  conglomerate  contemporary  and 
in  juxtaposition  with  5,567  feet  of  beds  of  entirely  different 
character,  including  more  than  2,000  feet  of  black  bituminous 

1  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  Vol.  I.,  p.  322.  ,Cf.  also 
Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Nat.  Sc.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  95,  Vol.  II.,  Part  3,  page  155. 

1  Geol.  Jour.  X,  pp.  42-47  ;  Acadian  Geology,  First  Edition,  1855,  p.  249. 
»  Acadian  Geology.  Second  Edition,  pp.  322-326. 
4  Suppl.  Acad.  Geol.,  pp.  34  and  49. 


IN   NOVA   SCOTIA— FLETCHER.  327 

shales  and  many  large  seams  of  coal,  seemed  so  anomalous,  that 
Sir  William  Logan  naturally  set  aside  as  untenable  the  supposi- 
tion of  contemporaneity  with  the  Albion  coal  measures,  tacitly 
classified  the  conglomerate  beneath  the  latter,  but  coloured  it  on 
his  map  of  the  Pictou  coal  field  as  distinct  from  both  the  Coal 
Measures  and  the  Millstone  Grit.  "  No  rocks,"  he  says,1  "  having 
the  typical  character  of  this  conglomerate  appear  to  have  been 
brought  to  the  surface  by  either  the  south  or  the  east  fault,  or 
by  Mr.  Hartley's  west  fault.  This  does  not,  however,  disprove 
their  possible  presence  beneath  the  whole  of  the  productive  area 
abutting  against  these  faults  and  constituting  the  base  of  Dr, 
Dawson's  Middle  Coal  formation,  as  inferred  by  Mr.  Hartley." 

"  This  inference  seems  to  be  supported  by  the  presence, 
immediately  on  the  summit  of  the  conglomerate,  of  the  coal 
seam  worked  by  Mr.  William  Eraser  (Moose)  for  the  burning  of 
his  limestone,  and  another  said  to  overlie  it;  and  although  the 
occurrence  of  these  is  not  strengthened  by  the  known  existence 
of  any  of  the  larger  workable  coal  seams  in  the  Pictou  synclinal, 
the  deposits  of  which  have  yet  to  be  examined  by  the  officers  of 
the  Survey,  it  would  not  be  surprising  to  find,  in  a  country 
apparently  so  broken  by  great  dislocations,  that  the  absence  of 
the  larger  seams  may  be  due  to  a  structure  resulting  from  some 
of  these  faults,  of  as  important  a  character  as  those  affecting 
the  productive  part  of  the  field  above  New  Glasgow." 

Since  1869,  however,  the  district  referred  to  has  been  closely 
examined  by  the  Geological  Survey,  shown  to  be  broken  by  no 
great  dislocations,  but  on  the  contrary  to  be  occupied  by 
undisturbed  strata  which  conformably  overlie  the  conglomerate 
and  are  equivalent  to  those  above  the  productive  coal  measures 
of  the  Joggins  section.  A  glance  at  the  geological  map  of  this 
district  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  conglomerate  is  the  natural 
base  of  the  Upper  Carboniferous  or  Permian  rocks  of  Merigomish, 
Pictou,  River  John  and  Wangh  River. 

In  support  of  Sir  J.  W.  Dawson's  later  views  it  has  been 
stated  that  the  fossils  of  the  strata  immediately  overlying  the 

1  Geol.  Surv.  Rep.  for  1866-69,  page  52. 


328  GEOLOGICAL   NOMENCLATURE 

conglomerate  at  the  East  River  more  nearly  resemble  those  of 
the  coal  measures  of  McLellan  Brook  than  those  from  Permian 
rocks.1  But  when  we  remember  the  vagaries  of  this  method  of 
classification  with  regard  to  fossils  from  the  Millstone  Grit  in 
Cape  Breton2  and  in  New  Brunswick,8  and  the  sinking  similarity 
of  fossils  from  these  formations  both  in  Europe  and  America, 
too  much  importance  need  not  b^  attached  to  such  a  statement 

Mr.  R.  G.  Haliburton  in  18675  inferred,  on  evidence  obtained 
from  explorations  undertaken  for  the  practical  purpose  of  dis- 
covering and  developing  coal  mines,  that  discoveries  similar  to 
those  already  made  must  soon  be  made  in  other  directions.  He 
described  the  Pictou  coal  basin  as  constituting  two  distinct 
basins,  the  one  lying  to  the  southward  and  the  other  to  the 
northward  of  the  conglomerate,  which,  according  to  him,  under- 
lies the  productive  measures.  But  he  could  find  no  equivalents 
of  the  southern  coal  measures  in  the  northern  basin  and  assumes 
that  they  were  always  distinct  basins,  and  now  differ  from  their 
measures  having  been  formed  under  different  circumstances. 

On  the  assumption  that  the  conglomerate  was  the  base  of  a 
coal  formation,  the  productive  portion  of  which  was  concealed 
by  unconformity  and  might  be  reached,  a  borehole  was  in  1876 
put  down  734  feet,  under  the  direction  of  Sir  Win.  Dawson,  at 
Sutherland  Point  on  the  East  River  below  New  Glasgow.  No 
such  coal  measures  were,  however,  found  to  intervene. 

In  1893,  Mr.  FT.  S.  Poole,  whose  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  field  is  the  result  of  many  years  of  close  observation  and 
study,8  discussed  the  geological  position  of  the  New  Glasgow 
Conglomerate  in  a  paper  on  the  Pictou  coal  field,  classifying  it 
as  the  base  of  his  Permian  series  while  pointing  out  that  it 
has  an  interest  of  a  practical  character  in  connection  with  the 

1  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst,  Sc.  Vol.  X.  Session  1899-1900.  p.  178;  Sum.  Rep.  Geol.  Surv.  1897, 
p.  134. 

'Geol.  Survey  Report  for  1874-75,  page  192. 

1  Geol.  Sur.  Can.  Report  for  1872-73,  page  222  and  subsequent  reports  and  maps. 

4  Geol.  Mag.,  London,  May  9,  1900  ;  Acadian  Geology,  p.  283  ;  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sc. 
Vol  X,  p.  235. 

8  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sc.,  Vol.  II,  Part  1.  p.  93  and  Vol.  II,  Part  3,  p.  155. 

8  Tranr.  N.  S.  Inst.  So.,  Ser.  2,  Vol.  I,  Part  3,  p.  240. 


IN   KOVA   SCOTIA — FLETCHER.  329 

possible  extension  of  the  coal  seams  beneath  it.  He  showed 
clearly  that  there  is  no  recognized  unconformity  between  the- 
Millstone  Grit  and  Coal  Measures  in  Nova  Scotia,  that  no  beds 
equivalent  to  the  conglomerate  are  known  in  the  southwest  part 
of  the  Pictou  field,  where  the  Millstone  Grit  is  best  exposed  in 
regular  sequence  under  the  coal  measures,  ami  that  the  supposi- 
tion that  "  the  underlying  strata  of  the  Richardson  seam  rested 
upon  the  conglomerate  dipping  to  the  southward,"1  which  largely 
led  Dawson  to  put  the  New  Glasgow  Conglomerate  at  the  base 
of  the  coal  measures,  arose  from  an  entire  misconception  of  the 
relation  of  this  seam,  (which  lies  high  up  in  the  coal  measures, 
1129  feet  above  the  main  seam),  to  the  north  fault. 

Mr.  Poole  showed  further  that  although  the  conglomerate 
apparently  coincides  in  dip  with  the  strata  underlying  it  in  the 
district  ot  Pine  Tree,  its  unconformity  near  the  East  River  west 
of  New  Glasgow  is  indisputable.  In  the  country  about  Green- 
hill,  the  Middle  River  and  Plainfield,  it  rests  only  on  metamor- 
phic  and  Lower  Carboniferous  rocks.  The  Devonian  rocks  of 
Waters  Hill  "  are  certainly  not  overlaid  by  deposits  of  an  age 
intermediate  between  Lower  Carboniferous  and  the  conglom- 
erate," while  the  latter  contains  pebbles  of  strata  evidently 
newer  than  the  Lower  Carboniferous,  regarded  by  Logan  as 
Millstone  Grit,  by  Poole,  as  possibly  upper  coal  measures. 

The  coal  measures  are  nowhere  known  to  rest  on  the  con- 
glomerate and  "  the  strata  overlying  it  are,  with  the  exception 
of  the  till,  the  highest  in  the  field,"  comparatively  little  dis- 
turbed, everywhere  comformable  to  it  and  in  some  parts  of  their 
course  holding  fossils  supposed  to  be  characteristic  of  the  upper 
Carboniferous  or  Permian  and  Triassic.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
unconformity  found  below  it  is  characteristic  of  the  contact  of 
the  base  of  those  so-called  Permo-Carboniferous  rocks,  as  shown 
on  Dr.  Ells'  geological  map  of  Cumberland  County.1 

>  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sc..  Vol.  II,  Part  1,  p.  96  and  Vol.  II,  Part  2.  p.  156. 

*  O.  S.  C.  Report  for  1885,  Part  E. 

NOTE— Reference  to  the  m>vp  accompanying  Mr.  Pooled  paper  on  the  Picto  i  Coal 
Field.  Tran«.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sc..  vol.  viii.  (2nd  ser..  vol.  1).  p  223,  will  facilitate  the  under- 
standing of  these  notes  on  the  New  Glasgow  Conglomerate  On  Mr.  Poole  a  map  the 
limits  of  that  Conglomerate  and  of  the  other  rock-formations  of  the  coal-Held  are  well 
defined. 


IT. — DESCRIPTION  OF  TRACKS  FBOM  THE  FINE-GRAINED  SILICEOUS 

MUDSTONES  OF  THE  KNOYDART  FORMATION  (EO-DEVONIAN) 

OF  AKTIGONISH  COUNTY,  XOVA  ScoTiA.1 — BY  H.  M.  AMI, 
M.  A.,  D.  Sc.,  F.  G.  S.,  of  the  Geological  Survey  of 
Canada. 

(Read  May  ISth,  1901.) 

ICHTHYOIDICHNITES  ACADIENSIS,  n.   sp. 
Plate  no.  2. 

1897,  Protichnites  carbonarius,  Fletcher,  (partim)  Annual  Report,  Geol.  Survey 
of  Canada,  new  series  Vol.  2,  p.  68  P. 

These  tracks  are  arranged  in  pairs  and  indicate  an  animal 
possessing  bilateral  symmetry  with  powers  of  locomotion  and 
suspension  in  water  without  leaving  a  trail  or  mark  of  the  body 
proper.  They  were  evidently  made  by  some  fin  or  spine-like 
appendage  attached  to  the  body  of  the  organism,  which  may 
have  been  that  of  an  acanthodian  or  other  early  form  of  fish 
existing  in  the  early  Devonian  lake,  sea  or  estuaries  of  Nova 
Scotia. 

There  are  eight  pairs  of  tracks  preserved  on  one  slab  showing 
seven  completed  strides,  steps  or  series  of  advances.  They  con- 
sist of  two  more  or  less  parallel  linear  depressions,  which  spread 
slightly  anteriorly  in  the  direction  of  progress  or  advance  for- 
ward, accompanied  posteriorly  by  two  somewhat  raised  ridges 
or  monticules,  the  result  of  the  accumulation  of  the  once  soft 
fine  mud  or  sediment  by  the  fine  or  spine-like  pointed  appendage 
in  the  forward  motion  of  advance.  As  preserved,  the  eight 
pairs  of  tracks  indicate  that  at  the  time  they  were  made  the 
animal  took  a  turn  to  the  left  and  changed  the  direction  of  its 
course  by  an  angle  of  thirty-eight  degrees. 

1  Published  with  the  permission  of  the  Director  of  the  Geol.  Survey  of  Canada. 

(330) 


TRANS.    N.    S.    INST.    SC.,   VOL.    X. 


PLATE    II. 


ICHTHYOIDICHNITES     ACADIENSIS,    N.    SP. 

(TO  ILLUSTRATE  PAPER  BY  DR.   H.  M.  AMI.) 


Face  p.  jjo. 


DESCRIPTION   OF   DEVONIAN   TRACKS,   ETC. — AMI. 


331 


The  impression  or  track  made  by  the  left  fin  or  spine  appears 
slightly  in  advance  of  that  made  \)y  the  right  appendage  in  all 
the  eight  pairs  preserved  on  the  type  specimen,  which  seems  to 
indicate  that  the  creature  used  its  appendages  in  locomotion  in 
-a  slightly  alternating  manner,  striking  the  mud  with  the  left 
appendage  first.  The  average  distance  in  advance  of  the  left 
imprint  or  track  from  the  right  is  between  three  and  four  milli- 
metres measured  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the  course 
taken  by  the  organism  from  the  apices  of  the  monticules. 

The  slabs  on  which  these  tracks  are  preserved  consists  of  a 
thin-bedded,  fine-grained,  greenish  and  chocolate-red  coloured, 
siliceous  sandstone  with  numerous  minute  glistening  scales  and 
pai tides  of  mica  along  the  divisional  planes  of  stratification. 

The  following  table  is  prepared  with  a  view  of  giving  the 
number  of  pairs  of  tracks  preserved  on  the  type-specimen,  the 
•exact  measurements  of  the  linear  depressions  or  imprints  made 
by  the  spine-like  appendages  as  well  as  the  distances  between 
them,  the  relative  size  and  distance  between  each  and  the 
•different  pairs  of  the  monticules  measured  from  their  apices, 
together  with  the  length  of  the  stride : 

MEASUREMENTS  IN  MILLIMETRES  TAKKX  FROM  TYPE-SPECIMEN. 


PAIRS  OF  TRACKS. 

Length  of 
left  linear 
depressions 

Length  of 
right  linear 
depressions 

Greatest 
diameter  of 
the  left 
monticules. 

Greatest 
diameter  of 
the  right 
monticules. 

Distance 
between  the 
monticules. 

First  pair  

5.00  mm. 

2.50  mm. 

2.50  mm. 

1.50  mm. 

5.00  mm. 

Second  pair  

5.50  mm. 

1.50  mm. 

2.50  mm. 

1.50  mm. 

4.00  mm. 

Third  pair  

4.50  mm. 

3.25  mm. 

3.50  mm. 

1.25  mm. 

5.00  mm. 

Fourth  pair  

4.25  mm. 

1.50  mm. 

2.00  mm. 

1.00  mm. 

8.00  mm. 

Fifth  pair  

6.50  mm. 

4.00  mm. 

2.75  mm. 

1.00mm. 

5.50  mm. 

Sixth  pair  

4.50  mm. 

3.50  mm. 

2.00  mm. 

2.00  mm. 

7.00  mm. 

Seventh  pair  

5.00  mm. 

3.75  mm. 

2.50  mm. 

1.75  mm. 

5.50  mm. 

Eighth  pair  

5.00  mm. 

2.25  mm. 

2.25  mm. 

1.75  mm. 

5.50  mm. 

332 


DESCRIPTION   OF    DEVONIAN   TRACKS,   ETC. — AMI. 


TABLE  SHOWING  LENGTH  OF  STRIDE,  STEP,  OR  SPACE  BETWEEN  IMPRESSIONS 

MEASURED   FROM   THE   APICES   OF   THE   MONTICULES. 


PAIRS  OP 
TRACKS. 

Between 
1st  &  2nd 

Between 
2nd  &  3rd. 

Between 
3rd  &  4th 

Between 
4th  &  5th. 

Between 
5th  &  6th. 

Between 

6th  &  7th. 

Between 
7th  &  8th. 

Left  

18.00mm. 

16  00mm 

14  50mm 

17  00mm 

17  50  mm 

Right  

17.50mm. 

15  50  mm 

16  50mm 

17  00mm 

17  50mm 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  length  of  steps  or  space  between 
the  impressions  are  at  comparatively  equal  distances,  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  seventeen  millimetres.  The  sixth  and  seventh 
pairs  of  tracks  are  the  most  normal  in  the  series. 

These  tracks  are  unlike  any  recorded  from  North  America.,, 
and  the  name  Ichthyoidichnites  Aca<liensis  is  suggested  with  a 
view  of  indicating  the  localit}'  where  the  tracks  were  found,  as 
well  as  the  possible  organism  that  made  it. 

Locality  and  Horizon  : — A  few  yards  below  the  earth  and 
stone  bridge  over  the  Me  Arras  Brook  along  the  shore  or  post- 
road  near  the  schoolhouse  at  McArras  Brook,  P.  O.,  Antigonish 
Co..  Nova  Scotia;  in  the  dark  red  and  drab,  evenly-bedded,  fine- 
grained siliceous  and  jointed  mudstones  of  the  Knoydart  forma- 
tion of  early  Devonian  (Eo-Devonian)  age,  supposed  to  be  the 
equivalents  of  the  Lower  Cornstone  or  old  Red  Sandstone  of 
Herefordshire,  England.  [Between  stations  No.  5  and  No  6  of 
Mr.  Hugh  Fletcher's  section]1  and  a  few  feet  below  the  bed  of 
tufaceous  rock  'holding  Pteraspis,  Cephalaspis  and  Psammosteus. 

Collector :— Mr.  T.  C.  Weston,  F.  G.  S.  A.  Date :  August  Gth, 
1886.  The  sp^cim^n  is  now  deposited  in,  and  forms  part  of  the 
collection  of  Knoydart  fossils  in  the  Museum  of  the  Geological 
Survey  of  Canada. 

Geological  Survey  of  Canada, 

Ottawa,  April  19th,  1901. 


1  See  Can.  Rec.  Science,  Vol.  viii,  No.  5,  p.  303,  Montreal,  January  loth,  1901. 


III. — ON  DRIFT  ICE  AS  AN  ERODING  AND  TRANSPORTING  AGENT. 
-BY  W.  H.  PREST,  Bedford,  N.  S. 

(Communicated  lUh  January,  1901.) 

Introductory. 

In  the  following  notes,  although  I  may  not  be  able  to  bring 
forward  any  new  facts  of  importance,  I  can  at  least  ad'l  my 
testimony  to  that  of  those  who  have  studkd  in  the  same  line. 

Having  had  an  opportunity,  while  in  Labrador,  during  the 
the  past  summer,  of  observing  the  action  of  drift  ice  as  an  erod- 
ing and  transporting  agent,  I  submit  the  following,  prefaced  by 
a  few  notes  on  the  elevation  now  going  on  there. 

On  the  north-fast  coast  of  Labrador,  where  my  observations 
were  made,  the  action  of  purely  drift  ice  is  more  marked  than 
anywhere  else  in  the  same  latitude;  and  during  the  melting  and 
transportation  of  the  northern  ice  there  is  abundant  opportunity 
for  gathering  information  relating  to  the  subject. 

During  the  short  Arctic  summer  the  northern  ocean  pours 
forth  a  tremendous  stream  of  ice.  This  stream,  borne  southward 
on  the  bosom  of  an  Arctic  current,  sweeps  fiom  side  to  side,  the 
sport  of  ever-changing  winds,  like  the  tail  of  a  gigantic  kite. 
Sometimes  this  stream  or  tail  is  swept  out  into  the  Atlantic, 
then  against  the  rock-bound  coast  of  Labrador,  and  often  through 
the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The 
field-  or  pan-ice  inshore,  and  the  bergs  in  deeper  water,  here 
exhibit  their  capabilities  under  many  varying  conditions.  Their 
action  in  deep  and  shoal  waters,  or  on  steep  shores  and  sub- 
merped  ridges,  and  their  power  as  erosive  and  transporting  agents, 
can  be  seen  to  advantage.  There  are  several  reasons  why  this 
c^ast  should  be  considered  the  best  known  station  for  the  obser- 
vance of  the  effects  of  drift  ice  : — 

1st.  Its  convenient  nearness  to  civilization  and  the  source 
of  ice  supply. 

(333) 


334  OX   DRIFT   ICE   AS   AN    ERODING 

2nd.  The  direct  and  continuous  action  of  ice  upon  a  coast 
line  nearly  1000  miles  in  length,  and  reaching  from  the  source 
of  supply  almost  to  the  limit  of  its  drift. 

3rd.     The  phenomenon  of  a  rapidly  rising  coast  line. 

My  enforced  detention  here  by  ice  blockades  drew  my  atten- 
tion to  these  advantages  for  study  and  evinced  the  close  connec- 
tion between  present  conditions  in  Labrador  and  the  later 
Pleistocene  of  the  Maritime  Provinces. 

General  Appearance. 

The  shore  along  the  northern  side  of  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle 
is  generally  sloping,  sometimes  steeply  so,  rising  at  a  shrrt 
distance  into  high  rounded  or  rugged  hills.  On  these  slopes  the 
sea  has  written  both  history  and  prophecy,  the  record  being 
marked  by  ancient  shore  lines.  Here  and  there,  as  at  Henley 
Harbor,  bold  cliffs  line  the  shore  and  give  variety  to  what  would 
otherwise  be  an  intensely  monotonous  waste  of  rock  and  moss. 
North  of  Battle  Harbor  the  mountains  approach  the  shore  more 
closely,  and  being  of  a  rugged  outline  and  pierced  by  deep  inlets, 
and  often  faced  with  precipices,  present  a  wild  and  forbidding 
appearance.  Along  the  whole  outer  coast,  for  nearly  100  miles 
north  of  the  straits,  a  tree  is  not  to  be  seen.  The  islands 
especially  are  barren  and  storm-swept  to  a  degree  that  makps 
this  coast  more  like  perfect  desolation  than  any  other  place  in 
the  same  latitude.  The  fine  doep  harbors,  however,  partly  com- 
pensate for  the  extreme  desolation  of  their  surroundings. 
Thence,  onward  to  Hamilton  Inlet,  the  coast  is  lower;  and  long 
gentle  slopes  run  up  from  the  sea,  and  the  hillsides  are  often 
clothed  with  trees.  The  headlands  and  islands,  however,  con- 
tinue bare,  even  moss  being  absent  on  some  of  the  most  exposed 
points  and  headlands.  Such  a  thing  as  tillable  soil,  as  we  know 
it  in  Nova  Scotia,  I  have  not  seen  on  this  barren  shore.  Only 
on  the  flowage  plains  of  the  large  rivers  is  there  any  soil  worthy 
of  the  name  ;  and  on  this  ice-scoured  shore  its  presence  would 
be  strange  indeed.  There,  sin2e  the  last  glacial  eposh,  through 


AND   TRANSPORTING   AGENT—  PREST.  335 

subsidence  and  elevation,  the  annual  stream  of  Arctic  ice  has 
washed  and  scoured  until  every  vestige  of  lighter  material  has- 
been  slowly  but  surely  swept  into  the  ocean. 

Elevation  of  Land. 

A  condition  that  has  influenced,  somewhat,  ice  erosion  ia 
Labrador,  is  the  elevation  now  in  progress  in  that  region.  The 
resulting  raised  beaches  and  escarpments  on  the  Straits  of  Belle 
Isle  and  elsewhere,  are  the  most  marked  of  the  minor  features 
of  that  coast.  These  evidences  of  former  subsidence  extend  from 
the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  around  the  whole  coast  of 
Labrador  and  Arctic  America.  The  subsidence  reached  its 
greatest  development  in  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  and  on  the 
shores  of  Hudson  Bay,  where  ancient  shore  lines  are  seen  at 
heights  of  600  to  875  feet  The  highest  of  the  shore  lines  of 
south-eastern  Labrador  are  between  150  arid  180  feet  above  the 
sea  level.  They  are  four  to  seven  in  number,  of  which  the 
second  is  the  most  prominent  and  shows  the  longest  period  of 
rest  for  the  elevating  agencies.  Then  follows  the  third,  while 
the  fourth  and  fifth  are  barely  traceable  in  some  places.  These 
escarpments  do  not  mark  the  full  number  of  pauses  in  elevation 
on  the  Labrador  coast,  but  only  the  principal  ones.  Mr.  Low,  of 
the  Canadian  Geological  Survey  staff,  noticed  14  small  terraces 
within  a  few  yards  at  the  mouth  of  the  Northwest  River, 
Hamilton  Inlet.  This  process  is  also  shared  in  by  the  west 
coast  of  Newfoundland,  the  evidence  of  which  can  be  seen 
almost  to  Cape  Ray.  On  this  coast,  however,  there  appears  to 
be  a  pivot  or  centre  of  oscillation,  as  the  south  coast  of  New- 
foundland is  sharing  in  the  subsidence  now  general  from  Prince 
Edward  Island  to  New  Jersey. 

The  rise  in  Labrador  does  not  seem  to  have  been  gradual,  but 
to  have  proceeded  in  a  series  of  pulsations  which,  apparently,  are 
still  going  on.  In  fact  the  recent  rise  of  "  Mad  Moll,"  a  ledge  of 
Sandwich  Bay,  seems  to  indicate  the  present  as  another  period 
of  elevation.  The  oldest  inhabitants  claim  to  remember  when 
this  ledge  was  visible  only  at  low  water.  Now  it  is  seldom 


336  ON   DRIFT   ICE   AS   AN    ERODING 

covered  even  by  spring  tides.  The  first  appearance  of  "  Mad 
Moll"  was  a  noteable  event  in  the  life  of  the  preceding  genera- 
tion. The  north  or  main  passage  of  Sandwick  Bay,  not  many 
years  ago  navigable  for  small  vessels,  is  now  impassable  for  any- 
thing but  boats  At  Mullen's  Cove  and  Black  Island,  raised 
beaches  are  seen  composed  almost  entirely  of  mussel  shells,  some 
of  them  unbroken  and  clean  as  if  thrown  up  yesterday.  These 
shell  deposits  are  of  course  seen  only  in  the  more  sheltered  coves 
where  they  are  protected  from  the  grinding  action  of  drift  ice. 
The  rate  of  elevation  here  indicated  is  considerably  greater  than 
some  recent  estimates,  and  I  would  like  to  hear  new  evidence  on 
this  point. 

One  noticeable  point  is,  that  the  hillsides  above  the  escarp- 
ments show  the  same  smooth  and  storm-swept  appearance  as 
between  and  below  them,  as  if  they  had  been  subject  to  the  same 
influences  and  wear  by  drift  ice.  Whether  the  upper  escarp- 
ment marks  the  limit  of  subsidence  or  not,  the  natural  inference 
seems  to  be,  that  a  gradual  and  regular  elevation  of  a  sloping 
exposed  surface,  especially  when  comparatively  rapid,  leaves  no 
traces  of  ice  action.  The  retiring  sea  and  ice  washes  off  and 
carries  to  lower  levels  the  debris  formerly  covering  the  solid 
rock.  Only  when  the  downward  movement  is  arrested,  does  it 
form  escarpments  and  beaches,  and  the  fact  that  no  escarpments 
nor  beaches  are  seen  above  the  highest  shore  line  is  no  proof 
that  the  sea  level  had  not  once  been  higher.  Neither  on  nor 
around  any  of  the  hills  near  Battle  Harbor  and  Cape  Charles 
(some  of  which  are  700  feet  high),  is  there  any  sign  of  glacial 
debris ;  and  had  it  once  been  there  it  does  not  seem  possible 
that  either  land-slides  or  fluvatile  action  could  have  banished  it 
so  thoroughly  from  both  hill  and  valley. 

The  raised  beaches  are  seen  only  in  sheltered  bays  where  not 
exposed  to  the  possibility  of  being  swept  away  by  water  or 
landslides  from  above,  or  intense  ice  action  from  the  sea  below. 

A.  C.  Low,  from  observations  on  Hudson  Straits,  supposes 
that  part  of  the  coast  to  have  come  to  a  standstill.  But  on  the 
Straits  of  Belle  Isle  the  last  escarpment  seems  to  be  rapidly 
advancing  beyond  the  level  of  mean  tide. 


AND   TRANSPORTING   AGENT — PREST.  337 

Drift  Ice  as  an  Eroding  Agent. 

A  great  part  of  the  erosion  now  acknowledged  as  due  to 
other  causes  has  often  been  ascribed  to  drift  ice.  Formerly 
great  stress  was  placed  on  erosion  by  drift  ice,  particularly  by 
icebergs  as  in  opposition  to  drift  ice.  No  doubt  some  erosion 
was  actually  effected,  but  that  its  traces  in  the  form  of  striations 
are  still  retained  above  the  sea  level  is  very  doubtful. 

In  the  official  reports  of  some  of  the  Canadian  Geological 
Survey  staff,  and  also  in  the  writings  of  other  geologists,  we  can 
trace  a  gradual  conversion  from  the  old  theory  to  the  new,  in 
which  ice-action  is  confined  almost  solely  to  the  polishing  out  of 
former  inequalities  and  striae  In  some  of  the  latest  reports, 
erosion  by  drift  ice  is  considered  possible  only  under  exceptional 
circumstances.  The  cause  is  often  proved  by  circumstantial 
evidence,  or  entered  with  a  mark  of  interogation.  It  is  also 
admitted  that  only  where  a  low  point  or  ridge  is  exposed  to  an 
ice  jam  forced  over  it  by  a  storm,  is  striation  possible,  and  then 
only  when  the  ridge  can  also  be  reached  by  stones  to  act  as 
graving  tools. 

Some  of  the  results  of  my  observations  on  ice  action  are  as 
follows:  Ice  action  on  a  steeply  sloping  shore  occurs  with  an 
onward  rush  of  water  carrying  immense  masses  of  ice  5  to  15 
feet  in  thickness.  When  reflex  action  begins  the  ice  is  poised 
for  a  few  seconds  on  the  rocks  until  the  water  drains  partly 
away.  Then,  being  deprived  of  support,  it  slides  back  with  a 
tremendous  plunge  into  the  next  advancing  wave,  dragging  with 
it  into  deep  water  such  rock  fragments  as  it  may  have  been  able 
to  reach.  And  what  is  very  important,  these  rock  fragments 
are  never  carried  forward  again  ;  for  the  next  wave  lifts  the  ice 
pans  forward,  high  over  every  obstruction.  The  scoring,  if  any, 
in  this  case  is  done  while  the  ice  mass  is  sliding  into  the  water 
with  stones  beneath  it,  as  it  exerts  little  downward  pressure 
when  rising  with  the  rush  of  water.  Where  exposed  to  the 
Atlantic  swell,  ice  pans  15  feet  thick  and  50  feet  in  diameter 
are  often  carried  forward  through  a  perpendicular  distance  of 


338  ON   DRIFT  ICE  AS   AN   ERODING 

25  feet,  sweeping  everything  clean  before  them.  The  result  is, 
that  in  very  few  places  in  Labrador  are  there  any  boulder  ridges 
such  as  we  see  in  Nova  Scotia.  Therefore,  these  latter  can 
hardly  have  been  the  product  of  exactly  the  same  conditions  as 
are  present  in  Labrador. 

Ice  action  on  ridges,  shoals  and  low  points,  consists  of  an 
onward  rush  of  ice  as  described  above,  but  the  ice  in  front  is  left 
poised  on  the  ridge  until  pushed  forward  by  other  ice  masses 
brought  in  by  succeeding  waves.  Loose  stones  moved  on  those 
nearly  flat  or  slightly  sloping  surfaces  are  nearly  always  rolled, 
and  not  pushed.  But  any  stones  caught  beneath  the  ice,  act  as 
gravers  and  score  the  rock  over  which  they  slide.  Striae  made 
by  stones  in  such  a  position  are  easily  distinguished  from  the 
straight  scratches  left  by  retiring  ice  on  a  sloping  shore,  and 
also  from  striae  of  acknowledged  glacial  origin.  Such  striae  are 
sometimes  curved  owing  to  the  swinging  of  the  ice  mass  and 
consequent  change  of  course  of  the  graver  beneath.  But  they 
often  form  a  furrow  of  which  different  parts  run  in  different 
directions.  This  latter  is  owing  to  irregular  and  repeated  pushes 
from  ice  in  the  rear. 

Another  form  of  marking  is  made  when  a  large  quartz  or 
granite  boulder  is  rolled  on  a  soft  slate  bottom.  It  then  produces 
a  series  of  notches  and  irregular  scratches. 

But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  first  ice  thrown  up  in 
the  spring  usually  cleans  off  the  debris  previously  gathered, 
after  which  it  is  exposed  to  months  of  continuous  wear  by  ice, 
sand,  and  water.  And  should  such  striae  be  covered  by  a  layer 
of  debris,  this  is  certain  to  be  worked  over  to  a  great  extent 
before  being  swept  into  deep  water,  or  thrown  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  highest  tides.  Therefore,  the  preservation  of  striae  in 
such  positions  seems  to  be  well  nigh  impossible,  except  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  ridge  or  point,  where  its  formation  is  extremely 
doubtful. 

There  are,  however,  two  classes  of  marine  striae  which  are 
not  usually  polished  out. 


AND    TRANSPORTING    AGENT — PREST.  339 

To  one  class  belong  the  scratches  caused  by  the  expansion  of 
harbor  ice  holding  large  stones  which  are  pushed  up  from  shoal 
water.  These  are  most  prominent  in  the  best  protected  positions, 
where  it  appears  impossible  for  glaciers  or  drift  ice  to  act. 

The  other  class  of  marine  striae  is  formed  by  large  boulders 
lying  usually  at  high  watermark,  and  which  have  been  rolled 
down  from  frost-shattered  cliffs  near  by.  They  are  pushed  back 
by  ice  jams  or  by  ice  hurled  against  them  in  a  scorm,  and  move 
a  foot  or  a  few  inches  at  a  time.  These  strite  are  partly  pro- 
tected from  obliteration  by  the  boulder  itself. 

In  regard  to  the  question  of  erosion  by  icebergs,  the  first 
point  to  be  considered  is  whether  bergs  carry  stones  in  positions, 
suitable  for  eroding. 

Observers  in  the  far  north,  as  well  as  those  who  have  exam- 
ined glaciers  in  more  temperate  latitudes,  maintain  that  debris 
falls  into  cracks,  or  is  lodged  on  the  surface  of  those  ice  masses 
and  are  then  carried  to  sea  when  the  bergs  are  detached.  But 
it  is  plain  that  stones  attached  to  the  sides  and  bottoms  would 
melt  off  during  their  long  voyage,  and  this  contention  is  sup- 
ported by  much  negative  evidence.  Although  I  saw  many 
overturned  bergs  I  saw  no  stones  attached.  I  therefore  feel 
compelled  to  fall  back  on  the  theory  that  bergs  striate  the  sea 
bottom  only  by  bringing  their  great  weight  to  bear  on  loose 
rocks.  Should  such  striae  have  been  formed  before  the  old  shore- 
lines were  raised  to  their  present  positions,  they  could  not 
possibly  have  emerged  above  the  polishing  influence  of  the  field 
ice.,  Being  formed  only  in  the  positions  afterward  exposed  to 
the  wear  of  pan  ice.  I  am  thoroughly  convinced  that  such  a 
phenomenon  asstrise  by  ice-bergs  does  not  exist  above  the  sea  level. 

A  rising  coast  as  in  Labrador,  exposes  a  well  worn  rock 
bottom,  smoothed  by  ice  action  during  the  preceding  subsidence  ; 
and  in  an  exposed  position  all  protecting  debris  is  speedily- 
washed  into  deep  water,  and  oil  signs  of  berg  erosion  obliterated. 
A  sinking  coast  carries  its  strife  with  it,  if  such  striae  can  be 
retained  long  enough  to  get  below  the  intense  ice  action  seen  ia 
Labrador. 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  XL  TRANS.  X. 


340  DRIFT    ICE    AS    AN    ERODING 

Finally  some  of  the  most  exposed  situations  show  no  signs 
of  abrasion  by  floating  ice.  Such  are  the  Magdalen  Islands  and 
Labrador,  although  in  the  latter  place  I  have  made  special  search 
for  such  evidence.  And  though  sea-borne  ice  may  be  counted 
on  as  an  eroding  agent  of  moderate  possibilities,  as  a  factor  in 
the  production  of  existing  continental  striations  it  can  be  allowed 
only  a  very  minor  position,  if  indeed  it  cannot  be  altogether 
eliminated. 

Transportation  of  Debris  by  Sea-borne  Ice. 

It  has  been  maintained  by  some  of  our  foremost  geologists, 
that  the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland  as  well  as  the  banks 
off  the  Nova  Scotia  coast  are  chiefly  of  sub-Arctic  origin. 
Concerning  this,  questions  like  the  following  may  arise  in  the 
mind  of  an  inquirer :  If  so,  where  are  the  moraines,  the  certain 
results  of  glacial  transportation  from  the  provinces  mentioned  ? 
What  has  become  of  all  the  debris  carried  from  these  provinces 
when  the  river  valleys  were  excavated,  and  when  they  stood  at 
a  higher  level  than  now  ?*  Also,  is  the  quantity  of  material 
brought  south  equal  to  the  formation  of  such  immense  accumu- 
lations ? 

I  do  not  know  that  any  very  extended  observations  have 
been  made  to  find  out  to  what  extent  this  debris  is  being  trans- 
ported. Several  observers  in  the  polar  regions  have  noticed 
large  quantities  of  loose  stones  and  earthy  matter  on  pan  ice  or 
attached  to  icebergs,  notably,  Scoresby,  Wilkes,  and  Sir  John 
Ross.  Based  on  these  statements,  many  investigators  have  given 
great  prominence  to  the  transporting  power  of  Arctic  ice,  and 
write  as  if  earth-laden  ice  was  a  common  sight  off  the  New- 
foundland and  Labrador  coasts.  But  of  those  who  have  given 
their  time  to  the  question,  I  know  of  none  who  have  made 
actual  observation  among  the  drift  ice  the  basis  of  their  theories. 
Only  by  getting  a  fair  idea  of  the  quantity  of  debris  remaining 
on  the  ice  toward  the  close  of  its  long  voyage,  can  a  just  opinion 
be  given  of  its  capabilities  as  a  transporting  agent. 

1  See  papers  by  W.  H.  Prestin  Transactions  of  N.  S.  Institute  of  Science,  1891-92, 
page  143 ;  1895-96,  page  153. 


AND    TRANSPORTING    AGENT — PREST.  341 

I  think  that  a  great  mistake  is  made  in  making  no  allowance 
for  the  melting  of  drift  ice  by  water  and  air  during  its  1000  or 
2000  miles  journey  to  the  temperate  zone.  When  we  reflect 
that  icebergs  300  feet  in  height  are  common  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  that  very  few  of  these  are  seen  off  the  Newfound- 
land and  Labrador  coasts,  the  waste  must  be  enormous.  Many 
thousand  tons  of  ice  from  the  exterior  of  the  bergs,  containing, 
of  course,  the  greater  part  of  the  debris,  have  been  dissolved  by 
air  and  water  or  have  been  washed  away  by  the  waves  and  surf 
of  these  stormy  seas  near  their  starting  point.  Icebergs,  of 
which  I  saw  several  hundred  from  40  to  200  feet  high,  were 
washed  as  clean  as  surf  and  melting  water  could  wash  them 
Overturned  bergs  showed  the  same  cleanly  condition.  Icebergs 
excavated  to  a  dept  of  100  feet  by  wave-washed  caverns  showed 
the  purest  and  most  beautiful  blue,  untinged  by  the  slightest 
impurity.  This  melting  process  which  is  done  chiefly  by  the 
sea,  is  so  rapid  at  the  water's  edge  that  before  they  reach  the 
Straits  of  Belle  Isle  many  of  the  smaller  bergs  assume  the  form 
of  gigantic  umbrellas  and  finally  topple  over.  These  ice 
umbrellas,  by  the  way,  are  one  of  the  most  fantastic  sights  of 
the  northern  seas.  Often  the  caps  are  30  to  60  feet  in  diameter 
with  a  stem  3  to  6  feet  thick,  and  5  to  15  feet  high.  They  do 
not  appear  to  be  always  perfectly  poised,  but  the  immense  weight 
of  the  lower  portion  keeps  the  upper  part  erect.  And  this  ice 
is  always  free  from  impurities. 

In  regard  to  field  or  pan  ice,  I  have  examined  it  from  high 
hills  with  a  powerful  glass,  and  have  chopped  my  way  through 
it  in  an  open  boat,  but  have  very  seldom  seen  a  discoloured  pan. 

The  only  ice-borne  debris  worthy  of  mention  is  that  frozen 
to  the  bottom  of  field  or  pan  ice  while  grounded  on  shoals  at 
low  tide.  Sand  or  mud  is  frozen  to  the  bottom;  then  at  high 
tide  this  is  covered  by  a  layer  of  pure  ice,  which  process  is  often 
repeated.  Though  the  probabilities  are  that  nearly  all  shoal- 
water  ice  from  the  far  north  will  be  inter-stratified  with  debris 
yet  the  fact  is  that  an  exceedingly  small  part  of  what  came 
under  my  observation  was  thus  stratified.  Though  watching 


342  DRIFT    ICE    AS    AN    ERODING 

for  many  days  the  upturned  edges  of  the  ice  floes  as  they  were 
driven  on  shore,  I  saw  very  few  with  debris  thus  frozen  in.  The 
deposits  seen  by  me  were  often  very  unequally  laid  on,  and 
frequently  absent  near  the  bottom,  where  they  naturally  should 
be.  Sometimes  an  overturned  ice  pan  showed  sand,  but  for  the 
old  idea  that  field  ice  obtained  most  of  its  debris  from  overhang- 
ing precipices  I  could  find  no  evidence. 

Conclusions. 

After  having  spent  two  months  surrounded  by  ice  fields,  and 
often  beset  on  all  sides  with  its  difficulties,  I  have  concluded 
that  very  little  of  all  the  debris  seen  on  the  ice  in  polar  regions 
ever  reaches  the  latitude  of  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  and  also 
that  the  Grand  Banks  are  only  receiving  a  fraction  of  the  amount 
of  material  formerly  supposed.  Consequently  the  Banks  from- 
Newfoundland  westward  aie  almost  solely  the  products  of  the 
period  of  the  greatest  extension  of  ice  erosion  when  the  source 
of  the  debris  was  our  own  provinces.  It  appears,  therefore, 
that  those  submerged  banks  are  but  the  marine  representatives 
of  the  sand  dunes  and  flats  of  New  Jersey,  Long  Island,  Cape 
Cod  and  other  places,  and  are  principally  the  natural  result  of 
greatly  prolonged  wave  action  on  true  glacial  moraines  ;  with,, 
however,  this  difference,  that  while  the  western  deposits  were 
formed  almost  solely  from  the  detritus  from  Apalachian  and 
local  glaciers,  the  eastern  have  been  added  to  in  the  later  Pleis- 
tocene by  an  Arctic  current.  The  paucity  of  transported  material 
on  the  ice  in  the  latitude  of  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  convinces 
me  that  it  takes  but  a  short  time  for  storm  and  surf  to  clean 
thoroughly  all  the  ice  brought  down  by  the  Greenland  current. 
Therefore,  we  cannot  look  farther  north  than  Eastern  Labrador 
and  Newfoundland  for  the  source  of  any  debris  that  may  have 
been  added  to  the  Grand  and  Sable  Island  Banks.  In  regard  to 
Sable  Island,  a  recent  paper  by  Dr.  A.  H.  MacKay,  on  a  fresh 
water  sponge  found  there,  may  furnish  food  for  speculation  as 
to  its  origin.  This,  however,  I  do  not  think  would  affect  my 
conclusions.  The  sponge,  if  not  an  evolution  from  a  marine 


AND    TRANSPORTING    AGENT— PREST.  343 

form,  may  have  been  transported  from  the  continent  in  a  block 
of  river   ice. 

As  to  the  period  of  this  age  of  transportation,  it  probably 
coincided  with  the  retirement  of  the  continental  ice-cap  and  the 
elevation  of  Canada  and  the  Arctic  regions.  Before  this,  the 
glacier  ice  was  shed  directly  into  the  ocean  in  front.  The 
elevation  of  the  polar  sea-bottom  probably  greatly  strengthened 
the  otherwise  weak  Greenland  current,  thus  turning  the  debris- 

o 

laden  Labrador  and  Newfoundland  ice  to  the  southward. 

In  connection  with  this,  the  beautifully  precise  theories  of 
oceanic  currents  do  not  seem  to  apply  fully  to  the  Labrador 
and  other  northern  currents,  as  the  constant  outpouring  of  polar 
waters  is  not  met  by  an  equal  inflow.  Even  the  most  northern 
branch  of  the  Gulf  Stream  is  stopped  at  Spitzbergan,  and  returns 
by  way  of  the  east  coast  of  Greenland,  apparently  forced  to  do 
so  by  the  current  which  carried  the  "  Fram  "  in  a  southwesterly 
direction.  The  rapid  rise  of  the  north  Polar  regions  seems  to 
•contribute  largely  to  all  the  currents  which  flow  outward  from 
that  point.  The  great  depth  of  the  Polar  ocean  as  proved  by 
Nansen  would  supply  the  surplus  water  needed,  through  the 
•constant  rise  of  its  bottom. 

With  the  increasing  amelioration  of  the  climate  of  the  north 
temperate  zone,  came  the  gradual  retirement  of  the  Labrador 
glaciers  and  the  consequent  cessation  of  the  supply  of  the  build- 
ing material  to  the  Newfoundland  banks.  Therefore,  the  trans- 
portation of  sea-borne  detritus  has  been  gradually  lessening 
owing  to  the  retirement  of  the  source  of  ice  supply,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  the  power  of  the  Greenland  current  had  been 
probably  increasing  until  it  reached  its  maximum  a  few  centuries 
ago,  when  the  flow  of  ice  to  the  southward  was  much  larger 
than  it  is  now. 

The  building,  or  increase  of  submarine  banks,  is  doubtless  still 
going  on,  but  the  work  in  now  confined  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
Greenland  and  northern  Labrador. 

How  long  this  ice-bearing  Arctic  current  will  continue  to 
flow,  must  depend  largely  en  the  rise  of  the  land  in  the  polar 


344    DRIFT  ICE  AS  AN  ERODING  AND  TRANSPORTING  AGENT — PREST. 

regions.  The  narrow  channels  through  which  the  water  flows 
from  the  north  and  northwest  have  been  gradually  getting 
shallower  and  narrower,  and  should  the  present  elevating  process 
continue  the  force  and  bulk  of  this  current  must  be  greatly 
lessened,  if  not  altogether  extinguished. 

There  is  much  room  for  investigation  in  this  subject ;  but 
circumstances  compel  me  to  leave  to  my  more  professional 
brethren  the  work  of  proving  or  disproving  fully  the  conclusions 
I  have  arrived  at. 


IV. — STIGMARIA  STRUCTURE. — BY  HENRY  S.  POOLE,  F.  R.  S.  C. 

F.  G.  S.,  &c. 

(Read  March  18th,  1901.) 

The  specimen  of  Stigmaria  here  exhibited  is  from  the  Coal 
Measures  at  Stellarton,  and  from  a  fireclay  bed  between  two  of 
the  working  coal  seams.  The  original  fragment,  about  9  inches 
long  and  3.5  by  2.25  in  cross-section,  was  given  to  the  Geological 
Survey  Museum  with  a  preferred  right  to  a  section  should  the 
piece  ever  be  cut.  This  was  done  on  the  advice  of  the  Director, 
the  late  Dr.  Dawson.  who  also  sent  another  section  to  Mr. 
Kidston  of  Stirling,  Scotland. 

The  special  interest  in  the  specimen,  lies  in  the  exceptionally 
well  preserved  condition  of  the  heart  or  medulla  due  to  infiltration, 
the  whole  root  having  been  converted  into  clay  ironstone.  The 
piece  here  shown  presents  a  cross  section  only  of  the  beautifully 
preserved  scalariform  tissue  of  the  medulla  which  is  placed  below 
the  centre  of  the  root  and  nearest  the  concave  underside.  Mr. 
Kidston  in  his  acknowledgment  to  Dr.  Dawson,  remarked  that 
the  section  was  one  of  considerable  interest  from  a  botanical 
point  of  view,  shewing  more  numerous  and  finely  radiating 
wedges  of  vascular  tissue  than  other  stigmaria  roots  he  has  lately 
been  studying. 

Stigmaria,  when  first  found,  were  considered  a  distinct  g^nus 
but  are  now  known  to  be  but  the  roots  ot  Sigillaria.  The  late 
Mr.  R.  Brown  of  Sydney  Mines,  Cape  Breton,  found  in  the  cliffs 
near  the  pits  a  tree  trunk  that  clearly  showed  the  passage  of  the 
Sigillaria  stem  into  the  Stigmaria  roots,  and  similar  specimens 
have  been  found  elsewhere. 

The  Sigillaria,  Mr.  Carruthers  describes  as  consisting  of  a 
central  cellular  pith  or  medulla  surrounded  by  a  sheath  consist- 
ing wholly  of  scalariform  vessels,  the  whole  enveloped  in  an 

(345) 


346  STIGMAIilA    STRUCTURE— POOLE. 

external  cortical  mass  of  cellular  tissue.  The  medullary  sheath 
is  perforated  by  meshes  for  the  passage  outwards  of  the  vascular 
bundles  which  go  to  the  aerial  appendages  (the  leaves  and 
branches),  but  there  are  no  true  medullary  rays.  Hence  he 
classes  the  Sigillaria  as  Cryptogamic  and  Lycopodiaceous. 

The  external  surface  of  Stigmaria  is  without  the  vertical  and 
parallel  fluting  between  the  pits  or  shallow  tubercles  distinctive 
of  the  Sigillaria,  and  in  this  particular  specimen  the  pits  are 
rounder),  depressed  and  widely  separated  and  not  sharply  defined. 
No  rootlets  were  attached.  When  found  the  fire-clay  bed  had 
weathered  away  from  the  specimen. 

The  internal  structure  exhibits  a  central  pith  surrounded  by 
a  sheath  of  scalariform  vessels,  the  wh  >lo  enclosed  in  a  cellular 
envelope.  Dr.  A.  H.  MacKay,  our  President,  kindly  undertook 
to  examine  this  specimen,  and  I  am  glad  to  be  able  to  append 
his  description  with  reproductions  of  photographs  of  magnified 

portions  of  the  section. 

I  would  merely  add  that  it  is  now  believed  that  such  piths  as 
this  specimen  illustrates  have,  when  separated  from  their 
envelope,  given  rise  to  fossils  classed  as  Sternbergia,  which  are 
described  as  comprising  cylindrical  transversely  marked  casts  of 
pith}'  cylinders  of  other  plants,  belonging  chiefly  to  conifers,  but 
referable  also  to  sigillaria. 

Dr.  MacKay  s  Description  of  the  Section. 

The  section  is  transverse,  about  21mm  thick,  black,  with  infil- 
trations of  brown  to  white  in  some  crack-like  lines,  and  is 
polished  where  cut.  This  polished  black  surface  (clay  iron- 
stone) can  be  scratched  by  the  point  of  a  hard  steel  knife,  but 
does  not  effervesce  under  a  drop  of  hydrochloric  acid.  The 
whitish  infiltrated  lines  referred  to  effervesce  as  if  calciferous. 

The  contour  of  the  section  is  an  irregular  oval  with  rectan- 
gular axes  respectively  about  95mm  and  60mm-  An  approxi- 
mately concentric  crack-like  line  partly  infiltrated  with  whitish 
material  runs  around  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  periphery, 
about  4mm  from  the  edge,  suggesting  an  exterior  bark  layer. 


TRANS.    N.    S.    INST.    SC.,    VOL.   X. 


PLATE   III. 


Photograph  by  DR.  \.  H.  MAcKxv. 
TRANSVERSE    SECTION    OF    VASCULAR    CORE   OF   STIGMARIA. 

Magnified  about  3%  diameters. 
(TO   ILLUSTRATE    PAPER   BY    MR.    POOLE.) 
Face  p.  3*6. 


TRANS.  N.  S.  INSTITUTE  SCM  VOL.  X. 


PLATE  IV. 


Photograph  by  DR.  A.  H. 

TRANSVERSE    SECTION    OF    VASCULAR    BUNDLE    FROM    CORE 
OF    STIGMARIA. 

Magnified   16  diameters. 

(TO   ILLUSTRATE    PAPER    BY   MR.    POOLE.) 
Face  p.  j<f6. 


STIGMARIA     STRUCTURE — POOLE.  347 

Eccentrically  placed  within  the  dark  and  apparently  struc- 
turless  surface,  about  30mm  from  one  side  and  less  than  ten  from 
the  opposite  side,  is  a  nearly  circular  band  of  over  thirty  slightly 
wedge-shaped  bundles  of  rectangular  cells,  surrounding  a  struc- 
tureless central  circular  area  like  the  rest  of  the  section  surface 
about  llmm  in  diameter. 

The  bundles  of  cells  are  in  radial  direction  from  6  to  7mm  in 
length  and  from  less  than  1  to  about  2mm  in  breadth,  containing 
from  5  to  15  radial  rows  of  cells,  each  having  about  40  or  more 
rectangular  ce)ls  in  a  row.  The  bundles  are  separated  by  the 
uniform  black  material  within  and  without  the  ring  of  bundles 
of  cells,  each  bundle  being  separated  by  a  space  of  more  or  less 
than  lmm- 

The  lumen  of  the  cell  is  white  (a  calcium  carbonate  infiltra- 
tion), rectangular,  100  microns  by  175  being  a  common  size. 
The  cell  wall  is  black  and  thin,  less  than  10  microns  thick. 
The  smaller  cells  are  often  nearly  square.  50  to  75  microns,  but 
the  tendency  is  to  a  greater  length  radially  than  in  breadth. 
•Cells  125  microns  by  200  are  the  largest  commonly  found.  The 
<jells  become  larger  generally,  as  they  recede  from  the  centre, 
and  the  widening  of  the  bundles  in  the  same  direction  is  also 
caused  by  the  appearance  of  interstitial  rows  of  cells,  so  that 
the  bundle  has  a  few  more  rows  of  cells  across  the  wider  than 
across  the  narrower  end,  as  a  rule. 


V. — THE  STAR-NOSED  MOLE  (Condylura  cristata) — ITS  BREED- 
ING HABITS,  ETC. — BY  WATSON  L.  BISHOP,  Dartmouth,  N.  S. 

(Read  March  18th,  1901.) 

The  Star-Nosed  Mole  occurs  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Indiana  and 
northward,  but  as  far  as  I  am  aware  is  not  anywhere  abundant. 
The  soil  where  it  is  most  commonly  found  is  sedimentary 
and  quite  near  to  water.  Intervale  or  meadow  land  is  almost 
invariably  selected  as  its  place  of  abode.  In  such  a  locality,  during 
the  spring  and  autumn  months,  little  mounds  of  black  soil  are 
thrown  up  in  zig-zag  rows  marking  the  course  of  its  subterra- 
nean roadways. 

To  dig  one  of  these  little  fellows  out  of  the  ground  is  no  easy 
task,  although  the  holes  are  quite  easily  found  and  readily 
followed  ;  there  are  so  many  angles  and  turns  that  one's  labours 
are  seldom  rewarded  with  as  much  as  a  glimpse  of  the  little 
creatures. 

On  May  22nd,  1890,  while  having  some  apple  trees  planted,  I 
had  the  good  luck  to  find  a  nest  containing  four  of  the  young. 

The  locality  where  the  nest  was  found  was  two  miles  south 
of  Kentville  in  King's  County,  Nova  Scotia.  The  land  had  been 
cleared  of  small  forest  trees  several  years  before  and  had  grown 
up  with  grass  and  was  mowed  every  year. 

The  particular  spot  where  the  nest  was  found  was  a 
little  hillock  or  cradlehill  which  had  been  formed  appar- 
ently by  a  tree  having  been  blown  down.  When  the  roots  had 
rotted  away  a  small  dry  mound  of  soft  black  sedimentary 
earth  was  formed,  and  in  this  the  nest  was  built.  This  mound 
was  high  enough  to  be  out  of  reach  of  storm-water  during  wet 
weather. 

The  excavation  containing  the  nest  was  ten  inches  below  the 
surface,  and  was  made  in  a  circular  form,  seven  inches  in 
diameter.  The  nest  was  built  of  old  dry  grass,  and  was  very 

(348) 


STAR-NOSED  MOLE  :   ITS  BREEDING  HARITS. — BISHOP. 

compact  aud  neatly  made.  Although  the  mound  contained  a 
complete  network  of  roadways,  no  earth  was  thrown  to  the 
surface  within  ten  feet  of  the  nest. 

The  young  were  probably  ten  days  old,  the  fur  just  begin- 
ning to  start,  which  gave  the  skin  a  dark  brown  colour.  They 
were  at  once  taken  and  preserved  in  spirits,  and  have  since  been 
presented  to  the  Provincial  Museum  at  Halifax  (accession, 
no.  149.) 


VI. — RECENT  DEVELOPMENTS  WITH  THE  CALYX  DRILL  IN 
THE  NICTAUX  IRON  FIELD.— BY  D'ARCY  WEATHERBE,  C.  E , 
Mines  Dept.  of  N.  8.,  A.  M.  Can.  Soc.  C.  E. 

(Received  August  20th,  1901.) 

Introductory  :  Geological  and  Historical. 

It  would  be  as  well  perhaps  for  the  benefit  of  those 
unacquainted  with  this  district  to  preface  the  following  account 
with  a  few  descriptive  remarks  on  its  general  geology.  The 
measures  which  accompany  the  ferriferous  deposits  here  are 
generally  considered  to  be  of  Lower  Devonian  age:  The 
area  with  which  the  operations  herein  to  be  described 
deal,  may  be  said  to  be  bounded  as  follows  : — On  the  north 
by  the  Triassic  red  sandstones  which  underlie  the  con- 
temporaneous trap  diorites  of  the  North  Mountain  range;  on 
the  west  by  a  band  of  granite  extending  northerly,  partly 
across  the  valley  between  the  North  and  South  Mountain,  and 
lying  about  a  mile  west  of  the  Nictaux  River.  This  latter  is 
not  strictly  speaking  a  geological  boundary,  as  the  same  veins 
of  ore  have  been  followed  west  of  the  granite,  and  are  possibly 
overlain  by  it.  On  the  south  alonsj  the  summit  ridge  of  the 
South  Mountain  begins  that  enormous  mass  of  granite  which 
extends  half  way  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  effectually  prevents 
prospecting  in  that  direction.  Towards  the  east,  the  boundary, 
as  far  as  these  veins  are  concerned,  may  be  said  at  present  to  be 
indcfiiite,  though  they  can  be  traced  several  miles  east  of  the 
Nictaux  River. 

Until  1891  little  practical  attention  had  been  devoted  to  the 
prospecting  of  the  region,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  early 
attempts  at  mining  and  smelting,  no  development  of  any  import- 
ance had  been  undertaken.  In  that  year  (1891),  the  Torbrook 
Iron  Co.  commenced  operations  on  a  vein  of  red  hematite 

(350) 


DEVELOPMENTS   WITH   THE   CALYX   DRILL— WEATHERBE.        351 


averaging   about  9  feet  in  thickness  and  showing  from  various 
tests  the  following  analyses:* 


Metallic 
Iron. 

Silica. 

Phosphorus. 

Sulphur. 

Lime,  Mang. 
and  Alumina. 

52.44 
60.72 

11.00 
10.28 

1.66 
.17 

none 
trace 

8.64 

59.00 
61  38 

12.86 
26.50 

trace 

trace 

trace 

47.<'0 
55  74 

10.12 
14.97 

1.08 
„  trace 

trace 
trace 

5.30 

74.59 

17.21 

.18 

.23 

11.57 

5.93 

.17 

.08 

57  93 

.16 

.09 

59.86 

none 

.36 

From  which  it  will  be  seen  that  though  rather  asilicious  ore, 
it  is  low  in  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  and  high  in  metallic  iron. 

The  vein  dips  at  an  angle  of  about  80°  to  the  south  at  the 
surface,  and  flattens  to  45°  at  a  depth  of  350  feet  (as  proved  by 
the  workings  of  the  Torbrook  Iron  Co.),  and  the  general  strike 
throughout  the  district  is  about  N.  62  E. 

This  company  in  1896  completed  their  contracts,  and  no 
immediate  market  offering  elsewhere,  they  closed  their  mine, 
after  having  shfpped  in  the  live  years  135,000  tons  of  ore  to  the 
Londonderry  and  Ferrona  furnaces.  When  closed  down,  th& 
mine  showed  large  quantities  of  good  ore  in  sight,  and  a  vein 
from  6  ft.  to  12  ft.  in  thickness. 

About  65  feet  to  the  south  of  this  vein  lies  another  deposit  of 
red  hematite,  called  from  its  fossiliferous  character  the  "  Shell 
ore  vein,"  which  from  several  analyses  runs  about  54%  metallic 
iron.  This  vein  measures  about  6  to  9  feet  in  width.  The 
fossil  shells  occuring  in  this  bed  consist  of  varieties  of  Spirifer, 
Strophomena,  A  try  pa,  Avicula,  Bellerophon,  etc.,  etc. 

North  of  the  vein  worked  by  the  above  company,  and  about 
a  mile  west  of  their  mines,  another  vein  five  feet  in  width  has 
been  found,  which  at  this  point  presents  in  common  with  most  of 
the  iron  deposits  in  the  district,  different  characteristics,  as  it  is- 

These  analyses  are  from  a  paper  on  the  Iron  Ores  of  Nictaux,  by  Dr.  EL 
Gilpin,  Nova  Scotian  Institute  Science— session  1894-95. 


352          RECENT    DEVELOPMENTS    WITH    THE    CALYX    DRILL 

found  further  to  the  west.     The  most  marked  of  these  changes 

~ 

is  the  magnetic  property  probabl}*  imposed  by  the  inetamorphism 
nduced  by  the  proximity  of  the  granite.  On  the  abandonment 
of  the  mines,  the  district  remained  for  some  years  undisturbed, 
a  state  from  which  it  was  aroused  early  in  1900  by  the  energetic 
prospecting  operations  of  a  syndicate  of  Halifax  gentlemen,  who 
it  is  understood  control  practically  all  of  the  ground  described 
above,  which  may  now  under  the  light  of  recent  developments 
be  fairly  termed  the  Torbrook  orNjctaux  "synclinal." 

Description  of  Drill. 

A  few  words  may  not  be  amiss  as  to  the  parts  and  working 
of  this  drill.  It  cuts  a  4  or  5  inch  core  as  desired,  and  the 
satisfactory  results  attained  may  be  judged  by  the  fact  that  the 
writer  recently  saw  several  complete  unbroken  cores  5  inches  in 
diameter  and  measuring  nearly  7  feet  in  length.  An  idea  of 
the  valuable  record  secured  by  such  a  core  is  gathered  from  the 
fact  that  they  contained  slate,  quartzite,  and  magnetite  with 
crystallized  geodes  of  quartz  and  stringers  of  calcspar,  all 
dipping  obliquely  across  the  vertical  axis  of  the  core. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  an  upright  boiler  and  compound 
engine  (about  12  h.  p.),  drum,  chain  and  sprocket  wheels 
driving  shaft  and  bevel  wheel,  rotating  device,  drill  head  and 
hoisting  derrick. 

The  drill  proper  consists  of  the  "  cutter,"  a  hollow  steel 
cylinder  with  peculiarly  shaped  teeth  at  the  bottom,  set  alter- 
nately at  approaching  and  diverging  angles  with  its  axis.  This  is 
screwed  to  the  bottom  of  the  core  barrel  which  is  simply  an  iron 
tube  of  the  same  diameter  into  which  the  core  passes  when  cut 

In  hard  rock,  instead  of  the  cutter  and  core-barrel,  the  shot 
bit  and  barrel,  a  fifteen  foot  steel  cylinder  of  the  same  diameter 
is  used,  and  under  its  edges  are  fed  chilled  steel  shot,  and  the 
friction  caused  cuts  the  core. 

The  drill  rods  are  of  3  in.  hollow  steel,  and  are  screwed  by 
means  of  a  "  reducing  plug  "  into  the  upper  end  of  the  core- 
barrel. 


IN    THE    NICTAUX    IRON    FIELD — WEATHERBE.  353 

The  "calyx,"  or  as  it  has  been  aptly  termed  the  "chip 
barrel,"  is  also  a  tube  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  core-barrel, 
and  surrounds  the  lower  drill  lod.  ]t  rests  on  the  reducing  plug, 
and  is  open  at  the  upper  end.  Water  being  fed  down  the  drill 
rods,  passes  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  and  is  forced  up 
between  the  rock  wall  and  the  core-barrel  and  calyx. 
This  water  naturally  carries  with  it  the  sand  and  rock  chips 
formed  during  the  process  of  cutting  the  core,  until  when  the 
top  of  the  calyx  is  reached,  the  pressure  is  lessened  by  the  space 
being  increased,  and  the  chips  fall  into  the  calyx,  thus  forming 
a  perfect,  though  inverted  record  of  the  formation  passed 
through.  To  the  top  of  the  pulley-head  is  screwed  the  feed  pipe, 
and  to  the  bottom  a  square  rotating  rod  which  is  screwed  to  the 
highest  drill  rod,  and  fitting  through  the  rotating  device  is  held 
by  a  clutch,  and  thus  the  motion  is  given  to  the  drill. 

Method  of  Operation. 

After  setting  up  the  drill,  the  first  operatiou  is  to  insert  the 
pipe-casing — an  iron  tube  slightly  larger  in  diameter  than  the 
outside  of  the  core-barrel — through  the  loose  surface  material, 
and  a  short  distance  into  the  bed  rock. 

This  is  done  by  placing  on  top  of  the  pipe-casing  a  wooden 
block  (about  12"  thick),  and  using  a  pounder  worked  with  the 
hoisting  gear.  A  heavy,  flanged  iron  pipe,  weighing  probably 
400  Ibs.  has  been  used  for  this  purpose  with  success.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  piping  plumb,  as  mistakes  at  this 
stage  will  probably  necessitate  abandoning  the  hole. 

Another  error  that  is  sometimes  made,  and  which  by  experi- 
ence has  been  corrected  here,  is  the  digging  of  a  shaft  in  which 
to  sink  the  casing.  Even  with  the  greatest  care  being  exercised, 
it  is  found  that  though  the  shaft  outside  the  pipe  may  be  filled 
and  thoroughly  tamped,  there  is  great  liability  of  the  hole  being 
blocked,  and  of  the  top  of  the  calyx  catching  on  withdrawal  of 
the  drill. 

Having  successfully  placed  in  position  the  casing,  the  cutter, 
and  core-barrel,  or  if  the  rock  is  very  hard,  the  shot  bit  is  intro- 


354          RECENT    DEVELOPMENTS     WITH    THE    CALYX    DRILL. 

duced,  and  the  engine  set  going.  When  a  sufficient  depth  s 
reached  the  calyx  chip-cup  is  coupled  on  and  the  rods  success- 
ively placed  between  the  chip-cup  rod  and  the  square 
rotating  rod. 

It  occasionally  happens  that  a  rod-coupling  breaks  at  a  depth 
below  the  surface.  The  portion  of  the  drill  above  the  break  is 
withdrawn,  and  a  threaded  cone  called  a  "  tap  "  is  inserted  on 
the  end  of  a  rod,  and  screwed  into  the  broken  coupling  and  the 
bottom  portion  is  withdrawn. 

When  the  core  breaks  accidentally  it  immediately  becomes 
known  by  the  riding  motion  of  the  drill,  and  the  drill  runner 
should  be  on  the  alert  at  such  a  time  to  prevent  much  weight 
being  placed  on  the  drill  head,  as  the  couplings  at  once  become 
endangered. 

When  it  is  desired  to  withdraw  or  break  a  core,  the  motion  is 
stopped,  and  a  heavy  flush  of  water  is  forced  down  the  drill 
rods,  coarse  gravel  being  at  the  same  time  fed  with  it.  The 
gravel  becomes  jammed  between  the  core  and  core  barrel,  thus 
holding  the  former  firmly ;  the  pipe  wrenches  are  now  placed  on 
the  square  rotating  rod  at  the  top,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  engine 
a  sharp  twist  is  given  to  the  drill,  and  the  core  breaks. 

In  the  event  of  a  piece  of  the. core  splitting  off  below,  and  it 
being  found  impossible  to  re-insert  the  cutter  or  shot-bit,  the 
chopping-bit,  a  steel  head  like  a  blunt  chisel  is  placed  on  the  end 
of  a  rod,  and  repeatedly  dropped  into  the  hole,  breaking  up  the 
offending  piece  of  rock. 

As  little  water  as  possible  is  used  with  the.  shot,  as  it  tends 
to  waste  by  depositing  it  in  the  chip  cup,  or  bringing  it  up  to 
the  surface.  On  the  other  hand,  with  the  cutter  in  softer 
rock  all  the  water  possible  is  used. 

Records  of  Boring. 

Boring  was  commenced  on  October  13th,  1900,  on  the  "  Ber- 
teaux  "  Farm,  at  Torbrook,  the  drill  being  under  the  charge  of 
Mr.  Burnett,  the  drill  company's  expert. 


IN   THE   N1CTAUX   IRON   FIELD — WEATHKRBE.  355 

A  position  was  chosen  for  the  first  hole  at  a  point  about  12 
feet  south  of  the  hanging  wall  of  the  "Shell  Ore"  vein.  This 
vein,  as  mentioned,  has  been  proved  for  a  long  distance  east  and 
west,  and  the  dip  at  this  point  was  supposed  to  be  about  85°  to 
to  the  south.  Thus  the  vein  should  have  been  tapped  at  a 
depth  of  about  137  feet  from  the  surface;  but  this,  as  will  be 
shown  by  the  records  given  below,  did  not  prove  to  be  the  case. 

In  this  first  hole  the  following  section  was  exhibited: 


/ 

No.   1  Hole. 

Material. 

Feet. 

Detritus, 

clay  and  loose 

boulders  

12 

Reddish 

shale  (soft  and 

friable)  

48 

Total  

60 

At  this  depth,  60  feet  from  the  surface,  the  hole  was  aban- 
doned in  consequence  of  its  being  blocked  by  boulders  getting 
jammed  in  it  under  the  metal  pipe  casing,  which  it  seems  had 
not  been  properly  inserted  below  the  surface  of  the  bed  rock. 
A  shaft  had  been  dug  for  its  insertion. 

The  next  hole,  15  feet  to  the  eastward  of  no.  1,  was  the 
same  distance  from  the  supposed  position  of  the  hanging  wall. 
Owing  to  a  delay  in  the  arrival  of  piping,  it  was  not  commenced 
uniil  Oct.  2Gth.  From  this  date  it  was  sunk  continuously  till 
Nov.  2lst,  when  a  depth  of  201  feet  was  reached. 


PKOC.  &  TKANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci ,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.  Y. 


350 


RECENT   DEVELOPMENTS   WITH   THE   CALYX   DRILL 


The  following  section  shows  all  particulars  with  regard  to 
the  boring: 


No.  2  Hole. 

Date. 

No.  of  Hours 
of  Boring. 

Material. 

Feet. 

Oc 
X 

t.  26 
27  . 
29.. 
30  .. 
31  .. 
v.    1  .  . 
2 
3  .'. 
5  .. 
6  .. 
7  .. 
8  .. 
9  .. 
10  .. 
12  .. 
13  .. 
14  .. 
15  .. 
16  .. 
17  .. 
19  .. 
20  .. 

1 

34 

42 

5* 

64 
74 
8" 
5 
10 
8J 
8 
9 
10 
9A 
8A 

84 
94 
10 
9 
9 
14A 
(i 

R( 

B 

I! 

V 

sdSha 

< 

< 

ue  sla 
rd  br 

ry  ha 

les           .    

4 
17 
22 
24 
19 
7 
6 
6 

54 
10 

7 
7   ' 
6 
7 
6 

54 
7 
64 

5* 
6 
13 
4 

and  blu 

3  slate  

te                                         

oken  slates  with  quartz  

rdbl 

ue  sla 

tes  and  spar  stringers  .  .  . 

Total  .  .  . 

171^ 

201 

It  will  be  noticed  how  the  rate  of  boring  decreased  when  the 
drills  left  the  soft  shales,  and  entered  the  hard  blue  slate,  and 
although  not  shown  in  the  section,  bands  of  quartzite  were  also 
met  with.  As  seen  by  the  record  the  cores  would  seem  to  show 
that  the  vein  had  feathered  out  into  the  shales  or  that  the  angle 
of  dip  was  much  more  nearly  vertical  than  at  first  assumed.  In 
support  of  this  latter  theory  it  must  be  stated  that  the  cores 
showed  the  dip  of  the  rock  to  be  practically  vertical  throughout. 

The  drill  was  now  moved  over  to  a  position  12  feet  to  the 
north  or  actually  on  the  hanging  wall  of  the  vein,  and  No.  3 
hole  was  commenced  on  Nov.  26th.  It  should  be  mentioned 
that  Mr.  Burnett  (the  Drill  Company's  expert)  left  towards  the 
end  of  October,  and  Mr.  Phinney  took  charge  of  the  drill  on 


IN    THE    NICTAUX    IRON   FIELD — WE.ATHERBE. 


357 


behalf  of  the  Government.     The  drill  was   finally  drawn  from 
this  hole  on  Dec.  27th,  after  operating  about  396  hours. 


No.  3  Hole. 

Material. 

Feet. 

Surface  clay  and  boulders  

10 

Slate  ond  soft  shales    

3 

Red  shales  with  spots  of  spar  and  hematite  

13 

Blue  slate  and  spar  (very  hard)   

3 

Red  shale  (hematite  in  spots)  

13 

Blue  and  red  shale  (hematite  in  streaks)  

14 

Soft  red  shale  (hematite)  

30 

Slate  and  brownish  ore  

37 

(Hematite  with  red  shale)  

27  -V 

Brown  ore,  shsle  with  spar  (very  hard)  

11" 

"         "     blue  and  red  shale  (hard)  

19^ 

Red  and  brownish  ores  

3 

"    and  slate  

28 

Brown  ore  and  slate  

15^ 

Softish  shales  showing  spar  stringers  

102 

Total   

330 

Ou  examining  the  record  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  drill 
encountered  ore  from  a  depth  of  13  feet  at  intervals  down  to 
228  feet.  At  the  same  time  it  is  a  fact  that  no  solid  vein  of  any 
thickness  was  passed  through  in  this  hole,  though  the  ore 
actually  brought  up  iu  the  core-barrel  appeared  to  be  of  good 
quality,  and  to  run  high  in  metallic  iron. 

Unfortunately  it  is  a  disadvantage  of  the  large  sizes 
of  this  drill  that  with  its  present  arrangement  of  high  top 
gear,  it  cannot  be  manipulated  successfully  at  an  inclination  to 
the  vertical,  and  the  results  of  this  hole  leave  one  in  consider- 
able doubt  as  to  whether  any  thing  of  value  has  been  proven  here. 

Owing  to  a  peculiarity  of  the  strike  of  the  measures  in  this 
part  of  the  district,  it  appears  that  they  are  subjected  to  a  series 
of  twists,  or  that  short  faults  occur  at  intervals,  throwing  the 
portions  affected  to  the  south,  when  followed  in  a  westerly 
direction.  It  may  be  therefore,  that  this  hole  has  been  sunk 


358 


RECENT   DEVELOPMENTS    WITH    THE    CALYX    DRILL 


exactly  at  one  of  these  points  where  the  strata  would  probably 
be  much  distoited  and  broken.  However,  be  that  as  it  may,  it 
will  be  adm  itted  that  the  following  attempts  on  the  part  of  the 
operators  have  proved  eminently  successful,  not  only  in  estab- 
lishing the  fact  that  large  bodies  of  ore  exist;  but  in  assisting 
to  prove  that  the  formation  here  is  a  true  synclinal  basin. 

The  position  for  this  hole  was  ch  osen  after  some  deliberation, 
and  it  proved  to  be  a  happy  one.  At  a  point  on  F.  Wheelock's 
farm,  about  2  miles  to  the  west  of  the  above  workings,  the 
three  veins  spoken  of  in  the  first  part  of  the  paper,  were  proved 
on  the  surface,  and  the  drill  was  set  up  40  feet  to  the  south  of 
the  most  southerly  of  the  three  (the  "  Shell  Ore  "  vein).  (See 
Plate  V.)  The  crops  of  the  other  two  were  respectively  84  feet, 
and  124  feet  northerly  from  the  drill.  The  three  veins  were 
intersected  at  the  depths  shown,  and  by  reference  to  the  sectional 
view,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  are  widening  and  flattening  as 
they  descend.  Boring  commenced  here  on  Jan.  3,  1901,  and 
finished  on  April,  the  drill  operating  for  K60  hours: 


No.  4  Hole. 

Dip. 

Material  Bored  Through. 

Thick- 
ness in 
Feet. 

Total  No.  of 
feet  from 
surface. 

84° 

Surface  material    .  .    .        

14 

14 

76 

Red  and  blue  slates  with  bands  of  quartzite  (  very  hard) 
Brown  hematite  ore  (showing  fossil  shells)  

98 
38 

112 
150 

Slates  as  above                

176£ 

326£ 

70° 

Brownish  hematite  ore  

38  A 

365 

Slates  and  small  seams  of  brown  ore     

75 

440 

76° 

Brown  ore  

36 

476 

Slates  and  bands  of  ouartzite             

144 

620 

On  the  completion  of  this  very  satisfactory  boring,  the  drill 
was  moved  over  on  the  south  side  of  the  valley,  formed  by  the 
Torbrook  or  Black  River,  and  boring  was  commenced  well  up 
on  the  South  Mountain  ridge.  The  drill  was  situated  close  to  a 
vein  of  compact  magnetite,  whose  surface  measurements  gave 
the  writer  the  following  results  taken  from  north  to  south  : 


IN    THE    NICTAUX    IRON    FIELD — WEATHERBE. 


359 


Material. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Feet, 

Inches. 

Ore                

5 

Slute            

i> 

10 

Ore  

1 

Slate  

1 

1 

Ore                                ...    

1 

10 

Total  

7 

10 

3 

11 

It  should  be  stated  that  at  the  time  of  measurement  the 
width  given  in  the  above  section  shows  all  the  ground  then 
opened,  but  it  is  possible  that  7  feet  10  inches  may  not  repre- 
sent the  extreme  width  of  ore  in  the  vein. 

This  and  other  deposits  on  the  south  side  of  the  valley  have 
been  traced  on  the  surface  for  long  distances,  and  analyses  of 
these  southern  beds  show  the  following  results  :  * 


No. 

Metallic 
Iron. 

Silica. 

Phosphorous. 

Sulphur. 

Manganese  . 

Titanic 
Acid  . 

1 
2 

3 
4 
5 

54.70 
42.80 
54.84 
53.10 
55.40 

11.6 

10.39 
10.80 
14.10 
20.35 

.66 
3.96 
1.40 

.70 
.50 

.007 
.01 
.02 
.14 

".52 
.41 
.24 

.28 

1.44 

Thus  it  appears  that  their  characteristics  are  practically  the 
same  as  the  beds  elsewhere  in  the  district. 
No.  5  hole  produced  a  section  as  follows  : 


No.  5  Hole. 

Dip. 

Hours 
of 
Boring. 

Material. 

Thick- 
ness in 
Feet. 

Total 
Measure- 
ment from 
surface. 

Remarks. 

Surface    

5 

5 

Casing 

changes 
from  87° 

99i 
17" 
53 

Dark  slate,  loose  and  broken 
Slate  mixed  with  iron  
Ore                             

50 
7 
30 

55 
62 
92 

put  down. 
Rock 
generally 

to  83°  at 

&i 

68 

Slate  mixed  with  iron  
L)ark  slates    

4 
27 

96 
123 

loose  and 
broken. 

hole. 

19 
76 

Slate  mixed  witn  iron  
Ore                          

7 
29 

130 
159 

36 
51 

Slate  mixed  with  iron  

13 
20 

172 
192 

SeeGilpin,  Iron  Ores  Nictaux,  Nova  Scotian  Institute  Science— session  1894-95. 


360        RECENT   DEVELOPMENTS   IN   THE   NICTAUX    IRON    FIELD. 

From  this  it  is  obvious  that  two  veins  were  passed  through, 
both  of  which  flatten  with  depth.  (See  Plate  V.) 

Plate  VI  is  a  plan  showing  the  surface  features  of  the  locality. 

A  few  notes  collected  by  the  writer  relative  to  the  rate  and 
cost  of  boring  with  this  drill  as  proved  by  practical  experience 
may  be  found  interesting  : 

In  boring  the  620  feet  hole  on  the  Wheelock  Farm  1560 
hours  were  employed,  which  time  included  that  taken  up  in  the 
drawing  of  rods,  sharpening  bits  and  cutters,  and  other  minor 
delays,  so  that  fairly  deducting  say  25%  of  this,  it  would  leave 
620  feet  of  core  produced  in  1170  hours  of  actual  drilling,  or  an 
average  rate  of  boring  was  attained  of  over  6  inches  per  hour. 

The  cost  of  boring  this  hole  may  be  very  approximately  set 
down  at  $2.00  per  foot,  made  np  as  follows  : 

Labor    $670.00 

Management  250 . 00 

Fuel ; 195.00 

Lighting,  oil,  waste,  etc 35 .00 

Shot 50.00 

Wear  and  tear   .                            ...  50.00 


$1250.00 
In  considering  the  above,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 

o  * 

rock  here  though  composed  of  slates  and  shales,  is  very  hard, 
and  often  intercalated  with  quart/ite,  and  highly  ferruginous 
bands;  and  further,  though  the  drill  runner  is  a  competent 
man,  all  the  conditions  at  first  were  new,  and  consequently  both 
the  cost  and  rate  of  boring  will  probably  be  materially  reduced 
as  the  operations  progress. 

In  order  to  show  that  this  hole  was  a  severe  test,  the  record 
of  no.  2  may  be  taken  in  comparison,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  on 
the  average- over  1  foot  per  hour  was  bored,  while  from  4  feet 
to  6  feet  per  hour  was  done. in  the  softer  portions  of  the  rock. 

The  cost  of  boring  in  this  softer  rock  is  also  reduced  by  the 
fact  that  the  cutter  is  used  instead  of  shot,  which  latter  method 
is  not  only  expensive  in  the  consumption  of  shot  but  also  of  shot 
barrel,  which  costs  about  $2.25  per  foot,  and  wears  away  at  the 
rate  of  about  1  foot  of  barrel  in  50  feet  of  rock. 


BOD 


VII. — THE  GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  GASPEREAU  VALLEY, 
NOVA  SCOTIA.— BY  PROFESSOR  ERNEST  HAYCOCK,  Acadia 

College,  Wolfville,  N.  S. 

^(Received  for  publication  18th  Dec.,  1901.) 

A  line  drawn  across  the  eastern  portion  of  King's  County 
from  the  Bay  of  Fundy  to  the  southeast  county  line,  a  distance 
of  about  eighteen  miles  in  a  southeasterly  direction,  will  cross 
three  distinct  bands  of  country  which,  with  slight  local  variations, 
run  parallel  with  the  coast  and  represent  the  soil  and  surface  of 
that  part  of  Nova  Scotia  bordering  this  bay  on  the  southeast  and 
draining  into  its  waters. 

From  the  shore  the  surface  of  the  land  rises  for  about  four 
miles  in  gentle  undulating  slopes  to  the  crest  of  the  ridge,  which 
marks  the  boundary  of  this  northernmost  band.  At  short 
intervals  the  brooks  have  cut  deep  trenches  at  right  angles  to 
the  coastline,  and  these,  from  their  steep  sides  and  generally 
abrupt  character,  are  locally  known  as  vaults  Thus  the  surface, 
though  sloping  but  gently  seaward,  is  very  uneven  and  the 
drainage  good.  The  soil  is  dark  grey,  thin  und  stony,  scarcely 
concealing,  in  many  places,  the  underlying  rock,  and  largely  made 
up  of  its  more  resistant  constituents.  Where  not  boggy  the  land 
is  thus  subject  to  drouth,  and  adapted  to  pasturage  rather  than 
to  tillage. 

The  underlying  rock  is  an  ancient  lava-flow,  or  a  mass  formed 
by  successive  lava-flows,  and  the  peculiar  features  of  the  soil  and 
surface  arc  the  natural  results  of  the  chemical  and  mechanical 
action  of  subaerial  forces  upon  its  gently  sloping  sheets. 

From  the  crest  of  the  ridge  the  surface  drops  suddenly  away 
to  'an  undulating  plain  but  little  above  sea-level,  about  .seven 
miles  wide,  made  up  of  alternate  strips  of  level  marsh  and 
smoothed  and  rounded  ridges.  When  one  leaves  behind  the 
rough  roads,  lined  with  the  rail  fences  of  stony  pasture  and 
hay  lands  or  flanked  by  steep  slopes  with  their  scanty  covering 

(361) 


362  THE     GEOLOGICAL     HISTORY     OF     THE 

of  spruce  and  fir,  and  emerges  upon  the  crest  of  the  ridge,  this 
lovely  plain  lies  spread  out  beneath  like  a  picture.  With  white 
Jure  clouds  sailing  across  a  blue  sky,  patches  of  shadow  and 
sunlight  sweeping  across  the  squares  and  parallelograms  of  deep 
brown  ploughed-land,  pink  and  white  apple-orchards  and  grass- 
green  marsh  to  the  purple  slopes  of  tidal  flats  and  blue  sparkling 
waters  of  the  basin,  this  plain  presents  a  picture  to  the  onlooker 
that  is  in  the  strongest  contrast  to  the  rough  hard  lines  and 
sombre  coloring  of  the  land  and  life  at  his  back  ;  for  the  life 
necessarily  reflects  the  character  of  the  land  whence  it  draws 
its  sustenance. 

Here  again,  to  the  underlying  rock,  hidden  by  its  own  debris 
except  where  tidal  scour  has  swept  away  the  crumbling  fragments 
from  the  shore,  is  due  the  soil  and  surface  that  makes  Cornwallis 
the  garden  of  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  red  sandstone,  in  some  parts 
coarse  and  gravelly  but  mainly  fine-grained,  rapidly  breaking  up 
with  rain  and  frost  and  forming  a  sandy  loam  particularly 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  root-crops  and  fruit  trees. 

The  southern  edge  of  this  plain  meets  the  northern  edge  of  a 
gentle  slope  which,  within  a  mile  or  two,  rises  to  an  older  loftier 
plain  some  five  hundred  or  six  hundred  feet  above  the  sea. 
Although  carved  and  sculptured  along  its  borders  by  water- 
courses, the  uniform  elevation  of  the  detached  ridges  and  the 
main  mass,  and  the  regular  and  even  sky-line  when  viewed  from 
the  crest  of  the  North  Mountain  opposite,  point  to  it  as  a  base- 
leveled  and  then  elevated  and  dissected  plain,  and  to  the  essential 
unity  of  the  separated  ridges  and  the  central  portion. 

This  third  band  stretches  for  about  seven  miles  to,  and  then 
beyond,  the  southeast  county  line.  Towards  the  eastern  border 
of  the  county  it  descends  somewhat  and  is  abruptly  truncated 
by  the  Avon  River,  forming  the  well-known  Horton  Bluffs.  Its 
south westetn  extension  forms  the  central  watershed  of  the 
province. 

Within  this  strip  the  surface  is  generally  level,  with  low  hills, 
sluggish  drainage  and  abundant  lakes  in  the  inner  portions,  steep 
slopes,  rapid  streams  and  deep  water-courses  along  the  borders- 


GASPEREAU     VALLEY,     NOVA     SCOTIA — HAYCOCK.  363 

The  soil  is  more  variable.  Boulder-clay  lies  in  thin  sheets  or 
in  thick  masses  in  some  places  on  the  North  Mountain  ;  it  is 
more  abundant  in  the  Cornwallis  Valley  ;  but  it  reaches  its 
greatest  development  along  the  bordering  slopes  and  in  the  minor 
depressions  of  the  elevated  southern  band.  This  deposit  almost 
always  forms  deep  and  heavy  but  workable  soils.  Along  the 
lower  slopes  it  is  made  up  in  large  part  of  debris  dragged  and 
pushed  from  the  adjacent  valley,  and  to  that  extent  it  possesses 
the  fertility  of  the  valley  soils ;  but  farther  south  the  slates 
make  up  a  larger  and  larger  portion  and  the  soils  are  correspond- 
ingly poorer.  Where  the  boulder-clay  is  wanting,  the  underlying 
slates  are  hare  or  thinly  covered  by  a  worthless  soil  ;  while 
farther  south  towards  the  granite  country  the  surface  is  thickly 
strewn  with  granite  boulders  and  wholly  given  over  to  forest 
growth. 

The  town  of  Wolfville  lie*  at  the  foot  of  the  northern  slope 
of  this  elevated  band  of  country,  but  the  slate  ridge  to  the  south 
of  the  town,  though  essentially  a  part  of  the  plain  above  des- 
cribed, is  cut  off  from  it  by  a  river  valley  and  narrow  strip  of 
fertile  land  which  duplicates  in  every  essential  character  the 
broader  Cornwallis  Valley  to  the  north.  The  Gaspereau  Valley  is 
as  essentially  an  outlying  fragment  of  the  Cornwallis  Valley  as 
the  Wolfville  ridge  is  an  outlier  and  separated  fragment  of  the 
broad  southern  tableland. 

This  ridge,  some  three  hundred  feet  in  height  behind  the  town 
of  Wolfville,  gradually  rises  towards  the  southwest  and  within 
a  few  miles  becomes  level  with  and  a  part  of  the  plain  to  the 
southeast.  To  the  northeast  it  descends  with  long  and  convex 
sweeps,  sinking  beneath  the  marsh  at  Lower  Horton.  From  its 
southern  brow  of  slate  the  observer  looks  down  upon  a  silvery 
stream  winding  through  double  lines  of  drooping  willows,  or 
through  level  intervales  rising  into  broad  low  terraces,  which 
sweep  with  many  a  curve  up  into  the  bounding  hills,  the  whole 
presenting  a  scene  of  quiet  and  tranquil  beauty  that  the  broader 
valley  cannot  equal. 

Opposite  Wolfville  the  valley  bottom  is  rather  more  than  a 
mile  in  width.  Eastwardly,  as  the  enclosing  northern  ridge 


36-fc  THE     GEOLOGICAL     HISTOR\'     OF     THE 

becomes  less  pronounced,  drurnlin-like  hills  of  boulder-clay 
increasing  in  abundance  encroach  from  both  sides  upon  the 
valley  and  veneer  the  eastward  extension  of  the  table-land 
beyond.  Westwardly  this  table-land  curves  gradually  in  around 
the  head  of  the  valley  which,  within  a  few  miles,  becomes  a  deep 
gorge  within  steep  walls. of  slate. 

These  topographic  features  are  in  part  dependant  on  the 
characters  of  the  underlying  geological  formations  ;  in  part  they 
depend  on  structural  features,  subsequent  to  the  deposition,  and 
independent  of  the  characteristics,  of  the  rocks. 

In  the  region  under  discussion  these  rocks  present  consider- 
able variety  in  texture  and  composition.  Passing  over  the  newer 
and  unconsolidated  sediments,  that  form  the  marine  marshes, 
the  terrace  gravels,  and  the  hills  and  sheets  of  boulder-clay,  to 
the  foundation  rocks  of  the  district,  we  find  uppermost  and 
resting  against  the  lower  slopes  of  the  ridge  at  Wolfville  a  dull 
red  sandstone  composed  of  a  variable  mixture  of  grains  of 
different  minerals.  Rounded  particles  of  white  and  colorless 
quartz  appear  to  predominate,  and  minute  gleaming  flakes  of 
both  muscovite  and  biotite  are  scattered  through  the  rock. 
Bright  red  specks  are  numerous,  and  according  to  their  relative 
abundance  the  sandstone  varies  considerably  in  coloring  between 
red  and  grey.  The  cementing  matter  is  calcite,  which  is  present 
in  considerable  quantity  filling  the  interstices  between  the  other 
minerals  and  effervescing  briskly  when  the  rock  is  touched 
with  acid  The  size  of  the  grains  also  varies  considerably  and 
rounded  pebbles  of  white  vein  quartz  are  not  uncommon.  The 
stratification  is  uneven  and  the  beds  dip  north  at  angles  of  from 
10  to  12  degrees. 

This  sandstone,  possessing  the  same  general  characters,  but 
varying  in  texture  and  in  the  relative  abundance  o£  its  constitu- 
ents, underlies  the  whole  Cornwallis  Valley  and  extends 
westwardly  for  upwards  of  90  miles.  Eastwardly  it  forms  a 
narrow  interrupted  band  along  the  margin  of  the  Basin  of  Minas, 
which  appears  to  lie  in  a  slight  depression  of  its  surface. 

Near    Wolfville    this    formation,    which  is    regarded    as   of 


GASPEREAU      VALI.EY,     NOVA     SCOTIA— HAYCOCK.  365 

Triassic  age,  is  "only  found  along  the  base  of  the  hills.  Deeply 
buried  by  heavy  accumulations  of  boulder-clay  it  forms  the  first 
low  rise  or  step,  but  is  not  known  to  ascend  the  slopes  of  the 
southern  tableland.  Its  contact  with  the  rocks  that  form  these 
slopes  is  not  visible  here,  but  the  inclination  of  the  beds  is  such 
that  their  continuation  would  carry  them  up  over,  and  thus  indi- 
cate that  they  rest  upon,  the  next  appearing  beds  to  the  south.* 

These  older  beds,  dipping  northeasterly  at  angles  of  from  12 
to  20  degrees,  first  appear  at  or  near  the  surface  within  a  few 
hundred  yards  of  the  above  mentioned  Triassic  sandstone.  They 
are  dark  grey,  drab,  purplish  and  black  shales,  in  thin  layers, 
containing  abundant  plant  remains.  These  shales  become  more 
sandy  to  the  south,  passing  first  into  fine-grained  sandstones 
which  separate  in  weathering  into  remarkably  uniform  thin 
laminae.  These  in  turn  are  underlaid  by  coarser  and  coarser 
grey  sandstones,  with  occasional  interstratified  beds  of  black 
mud-rock  and  occasional  layers  of  conglomerate,  in  more  and 
more  variable  uneven  or  lenticular  strata,  as  the  crest  of  the  ridge 
and  the  base  of  the  formation  are  approached.  This  whole  series 
is  inclined  to  the  northeast  at  angles  varying  from  5  to  20  degrees. 
If  the  strata  were  continued,  this  inclination  would  carry  them 
up  over  the  slates  which  are  the  next  appearing  rocks  to  the 
south. 

The  contact  of  the  sandstone  and  slate  is  concealed  by  surface 
mateiial,  but  the  above  mentioned  geographical  and  structural 
relations  point  to  the  sandstones  as  the  newer  rocks.  The  occur- 
rence of  pebbles  and  partial!}'  worn  fragments  of  slate  in  the 
coarse  sandstone  beds,  and  the  unmetamorphosed  condition  of 
the  occasional  black  carbonaceous  layers  very  near  the  contact 
with  the  slate,  are  convincing  proofs  of  the  subsequent  deposition 
of  the  sandstone  and  shale  series. 

This  sandstone  is  largely  made  up  of  sub-angular,  grey, 
translucent,  quartz  grains.  Muscovite  is  common,  and  the 
presence  of  small  ironstained  cavities  points  to  the  former  presence 

*At  Avonport,  this  unconformable  superposition  is  revealed  by  a  fault  which  brings 
up  the  base  of  these  red  beds  to  the  surface  of  the  beach. 


366  THE     GEOLOGICAL     HISTORY"     OF     THE 

of  some  iron-containing  mineral,  now  decomposed  and  in  part 
removed.  Soft  slate-colored  specks  and  pieces,  which  are  doubt- 
less fragments  of  the  slate  formation  beneath,  are  also  present. 
The  cementing  matter  of  the  rock  is  a  light  grey  powdery 
substance,  probably  decomposed  feldspar,  which  appears  to  be 
quite  easily  removed  by  the  mechanical  action  of  rain.  There 
is  no  effervescence  with  acids,  showing  the  absence  of  carbonates. 
Because  of  its  constituent  minerals  the  rock  is  light  grey  in 
color,  although  the  joint  surfaces  are  frequently  stained  a  dark 
red  by  iron  oxide.  This  is  a  further  indication  of  removal  of 
iron  oxide ;  and  the  absence  of  carbon  from  these  coarse  and 
somewhat  porous  sandstones  when  compared  with  its  abundance 
in  the  accompanying  fine-grained  argillaceous  beds,  is  suggestive 
of  the  mutual  decomposition  of  the  organic  substances  and  iron- 
containing  minerals,  and  their  subsequent  removal  in  solution  by 
the  underground  water. 

The  prevalent  red  color  of  the  overlying  Triassic  red  sand- 
stones, which,  without  doubt,  were  derived  in  large  part  from 
these  older  sandstones,  is  probably  due  to  the  subsequent  oxida- 
tion and  precipitation  of  these  same  dissolved  iron  compounds. 

Because  of  their  relations  to  adjacent  formations,  and  their 
fossil  contents,  this  series  of  beds  has  been  regarded  as  of  Lower 
Carboniferous  and  even  of  Devonian  age.* 

A  short  distance  south  of  the  last  outcrop  of  sandstone, 
greenish-grey  compact  slates  with  clean-cut  joint  planes  come 
to  the  surface  in  many  places  along  the  summit  of  the  ridge, 
and  generally  underlie  the  country  to  the  south  and  west.  At 
this  locality  the  cleavage  is  nearly  vertical  and  the  beds 
dip  northwesterly  at  angles  of  from  20  to  70  degrees.  Several 
almost  vertical  veins  of  quartz,  from  one  to  two  feet  in  thickness, 
lie  in  the  slate  along  the  southern  brow  of  the  ridge  approxi- 
mately parallel  with  the  cleavage  planes  of  the  rock. 

Just  below  the  southern  brow,  a  narrow  band  of  sandstone, 
exactly  similar  to  the  coarser  beds  of  Carboniferous  sandstone 
above  described,  crops  out  at  the  top  of  the  slope.  Its  elevation 

*See  H.  M.  Ami,  Summary  Report  of  the  Geol.  Surv.  Dept.  for  1898.    Pp.  180-182. 


GASPEUEAU     VALLEY,     NOVA     SCOTIA — HAYCOCK.  307 

above  the  Gaspereau  Valley  is  about  200  feet,  and,  like  the  similar 
beds  on  the  northern  slope,  it  dips  to  the  northeast  or  directly 
into  the  hill,  and  seemingly  must  pass  beneath  the  slate.  That  it 
does  not  is  proved  by  the  presence  of  fragments  of  the  slate  and 
vein  quartz  in  the  sandstone  itself,  and  some  other  explanation 
of  this  relation  must  be  sought. 

Along  the  lower  slopes  to  the  south,  and  in  the  bottom  of 
the  Gaspereau  Valley,  the  underlying  rock  is  concealed  by  sur- 
face material ;  but  along  its  south  side  the  brooks  from  the 
southein  tableland  have  plowed  deep  furrows  at  right  angles  to 
the  valley  in  the  surface  material  and  rock  formations  beneath, 
and  have  revealed  the  whole  structure  from  the  top  of  the 
terraces  which  flank  the  river  to  the  level  of  the  high  land  beyond. 
The  first  rocks  to  appear  from  beneath  the  terraces  in  the 
Angus  brook  are  grey  or  brown  sandy  shales  in  rather  thin 
layers.  Their  surfaces  are  abundantly  ripple-marked,  the  ridges 
of  the  ripples  running  generally  north  70°  west.  Worm  trails 
are  common  ;  and  the  surfaces  frequently  bear  the  imprints  of 
stems  of  Lepidodendra.  These  beds  dip  to  the  north  at  an  angle 
of  about  20  degrees,  and  the  brooks  flow  directly  across  them 
at  right  angles  to  the  strike  and  in  the  direction  of  the 
dip,  so  that  in  stepping  from  bed  to  bed  as  they  successively 
come  out  from  beneath  each  other,  one  is  passing  to  older  and 
older  strata  while  ascending  the  brook  and  the  slope.  There  is 
a  good  deal  of  local  variation  in  the  direction  of  the  strike  and 
in  the  amount  of  inclination  from  the  horizontal.  An  average 
strike,  however,  would  be  a  little  north  of  west ;  an  average 
dip  about  15  degrees  in  a  general  direction  a  little  east  of  north. 

The  beds  vary  in  composition  from  sandy  to  argillaceous  and 
carbonaceous  shales,  and  in  coloring  from  grey  or  brown  to  black 
according  to  the  abundance  of  organic  matter  and  the  degree  to 
which  they  have  been  open  to  the  passage  of  underground  water. 
Here,  as  in  the  series  of  strata  lying  on  the  north  slope  of  the 
Wolfville  ridge,  the  finer  sediments  are  succeeded  by  coarser  and 
coarser  materials  with  occasional  interstratifiod  layers  of  black 
mud-rock  as  we  pass  down  into  the  series  and  up  the  slope  of  the 


368  THE     GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY     OF     THE 

hill,  until  we  come  to  massive  beds  of  coarse  irregularly  bedded 
sandstone  with  sub-angular  quartz  grains  powdery  cementing 
matter  and  all  the  conspicuous  features  of  the  sandstones  form- 
ing the  basal  members  of  the  Horton  series  before  described. 

In  the  Duncan  Brook  the  sandstones  finally  change,  rather 
abruptly,  in  character,  a  soft  reddish-brown  substance  appearing 
and  making  up  a  larger  and  larger  portion  of  the  rock,  until  it 
passes  at  a  well-defined  boundary,  into  a  soft  argillaceous  rock 
with  bright  ribbon-like  bands  of  coloring  where  the  edges  of 
highly  inclined  green,  brown  and  drab  layers  have  been  smoothed 
and  rounded  by  the  stream.  This  rock  is  evidently  the  source 
of  the  soft  brown  constituent  of  the  immediately  over-lying 
sandstones,  and  furnishes  certain  proof  that  they  are  newer  than 
and  laid  down  upon  these  argillaceous  beds. 

Cleavage  is  not  well-marked  in  these  underlying  clay  rocks 
at  this  point,  but  the  bedding  is  plainly  shown  by  the  color 
banding  and  by  the  occurence  of  occasional  gritty  layers.  The 
dip  at  the  contact  is  to  the  southeast,  but  in  passing  up  the 
brook  the  beds  gradually  become  vertical  and  then  dip  to  the 
northwest,  suggesting  an  overturn.  The  rocks  also  change 
gradually  to  compact  bluish  slates  with  well-deffned  cleavage. 

The  succession  in  the  next  brook  to  the  east  is  the  same,  but 
the  contact  of  the  two  formations  is  concealed  by  loose  material 
in  the  bed  of  the  brook.  The  argillaceous  color-banded  beds 
are  well  exposed,  dipping  to  the  southeast  at  an  angle  of  45 
degrees.  Dr.  Ami  has  found  Dictyonema  Websteri  in  these  beds 
and  considers  them  as  of  Silurian  age.*  Farther  south,  these  are 
succeeded  by  blue  slates,  as  in  the  Duncan  Brook. 

The  topographic  features  of  the  region  have  been  stated  to 
be  due  in  part  to  the  characteristics  of  the  underlying  geological 
formations,  in  part  to  structural  phenomena  subsequent  to  the 
deposition,  and  independent  of  the  characteristics  of  these  rocks. 

Wolfville  rests  at  the  junction  of  the  slate  with  the  overlying 
sandstone.  From  the  town  this  junction  extends  eastwardly, 
ascending  the  ridge  obliquely  to  the  crest,  where  it  suddenly 

"Summary  Report  of  the  Geol.  Surv.  of  Canada  for  year  1893.    Pp.  180-182 


GASPEREAU     VALLEY,    NOVA     SCOTIA — HAYCOCK.  309 

curves  to  the  southwest  and  just  below  the  brow  of  the  hill  con- 
tinues along  in  that  direction  for  about  half  a  mile  to  the 
westernmost  outcrop  of  the  sandstone  on  the  north  side  of  the 
valley.  The  next  outcrop  of  sandstone  occurs  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Gaspereau  Valley,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  to  the 
southwest,  in  a  brook  just  west  of  Gaspereau  Village.  It  is  here 
about  two  hundred  feet  below  its  last  mentioned  occurrence  on 
the  brow  of  the  ridge,  and  its  contact  with  the  slate  lies  within 
a  few  rods  of  this  exposure,  as  the  next  watercourse  to  the 
west  lies  in  compact  bluish  slates.  The  line  of  contact  next 
ascends  the  slope,  but  curves  eastwardly  before  reaching  the  edge 
of  the  southern  tableland  and  extends  in  that  direction  for  about 
three  miles,  when  it  again  sweeps  around  southerly,  and  then 
southwesterly,  up  the  valley  of  the  Half-way  River. 

The  slate  is  tough  and  resistant,  and  the  country  occupied  by 
it  to  the  southwest  of  this  bounding  line  presents  smooth  level 
outlines  gashed  by  sudden  gorges.  The  sandstones  and  shales  to 
the  north  and  east  of  it  are  variable  in  hardness  but  relatively 
less  resistant  than  the  slates,  and  the  country  underlaid  by  these 
younger  rocks  lies,  as  a  rule,  at  a  lower  level  and  presents  broadly 
undulating  outlines. 

The  Cornwallis  Valley  has  a  geological  history  which  has 
already  been  traced  out  as  far  as  the  records  have  been  available 
and  intelligible  to  the  writer  up  to  the  present  time.*  The 
Gaspereau  outlier  has  been  subject  to  the  same  general  changes, 
but  its  separation  from  the  main  portion  calls  for  additional 
explanation. 

If  we  imagine  a  vertical  plane  cutting  deep  into  the  earth's 
crust  and  extending  north  and  south  from  the  borders  of  the 
Minas  Basin  at  Wolfville  to  the  edge  of  the  elevated  southern 
plain,  and  if  the  part  on  the  west  side  were  removed  so  that  we 
could  see  the  underlying  structure  of  the  whole  district,  the 
surface  exposures  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  rocks  in  the 
geological  section  thus  laid  bare  are  arranged  as  in  the  accom- 

*  "  Records  of  Post-triassic  Changes  in  Kings  County,  N.  S."     Transactions  of  the 
Nova  Scotian  Institute  of  Science,  Vol.  X.,  Session  1899-1900.    Pp.  287-302. 


370  THE     GEOLOGICAL     HISTORY     OF     THE 

panying  Plate  VII,  Fig.  1,  in  which  the  horizontal  and  vertical 
distances  are  represented  on  the  same  scale  of  two  inches  to  one 
mile. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  this  section  is  the  repetition  of 
geological  formations.  The  red  Triassic  sandstone  of  the  margin 
of  the  Basin  is  underlaid  by  the  shales  and  sandstones  of  the 
Horton  series,  which  are  in  turn  underlaid  at  the  summit  of  the 
ridge  by  slates.  Upon  the  corresponding  slope  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  valley,  shales  and  sandstones  are  again  underlaid  by 
slates.  The  red  sandstone  is  not  found  in  the  Gaspereau  Valley 
along  the  line  of  the  section. 

Several  interpretations  of  the  underlying  structure  are 
suggested  by  the  surface  indications.  The  beds  are  all  water- 
formed,  and  all  dip  to  the  northern  quadrant  of  the  compass,  so 
that  the  first  and  simplest  explanation  is  that  they  form 
successively  deposited  series,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the  southern- 
most slate  older  than  and  succeeded  unconformably  by  the 
southern  series  of  sandstone  and  shale,  this  clipping  beneath  and 
therefore  older  than  the  slates  of  the  Wolfville  ridge,  and  these 
again  unconformably  overlaid  by  the  Wolfville  sandstone  and 
shale  series,  and  these  again  by  the  calcareous  red  sandstones  of 
the  Cornwallis  Valley. 

A  brief  study  of  the  rocks,  however,  reveals  the  fact  that  the 
sandstone  and  shale  formations  of  both  slopes  are  alike,  not  only 
in  mineralogical  composition  but  also  in  fossil  contents,  and  that 
they  are  merely  geographically  separated  parts  of  the  same  for- 
mation. If  further  reasons  for  rejecting  this  explanation  were 
necessary,  the  slates  also  possess  similar  characteristics,  and  we 
know  of  no  way  in  which  the  clay-slates  of  the  Wolfville  ridge 
could  have  been  cleaved  and  altered  while  the  sedimentary  beds 
beneath,  often  as  fine  in  texture,  remained  unchanged. 

A  second  explanation  is  that  the  rocks  appearing  at  the  sur- 
face are  the  northern  limbs  respectively  of  two  anticlines,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3,  the  joining  limb  being  concealed  by  the  thick 
surface  deposits  of  the  lower  slopes  of  the  north  side  and  bottom 
of  the  Gaspereau  Valley. 


GASPEREAU    VALLEY,    NOVA    SCOTIA — HAYCOCK.  371 

An  objection  to  this  view  is,  that  the  bit  of  north-dipping 
sandstone  on  the  southern  brow  of  the  Wolfville  ridge  lies  where 

O 

the  south-dipping  limb  of  the  northern  anticline  should  be 
found ;  and  this  explanation  must  also  be  rejected. 

Still  a  third  explanation  remains.  The  repeated  outcrop  of 
the  same  set  of  beds  can  be  accounted  for  by  a  theory  that  is  not 
in  opposition  to  known  facts  and  even  has  some  special  evidence 
in  its  favor.  If  a  fault,  concealed  by  the  heavy  accummulations 
of  surface  material,  is  supposed  to  extend  east  and  west  along 
the  north  side  of  the  valley,  and  the  rocks  on  the  north  to  have 
moved  upwards  relatively  to  those  on  the  south  side  of  the  fault, 
as  in  Fig.  4,  the  same  strata  that  dip  northerly  from  the  southern 
side  of  the  valley  would  be  cut  off,  a  mile  or  more  to  the  north, 
along  with  the  formation  on  which  they  rest.  Erosion  would 
act  more  effectively  along  the  elevated  surface,  and  the  soft 
overlying  shales  would  be  quickly  removed  down  to  the  coarse 
and  more  resistant  sandstones,  and  these  even  worn  through  to 
the  underlying  slates. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  fault,  the  relatively  lower  position 
would  be  less  favorable  to  removal  and  the  softer  shales  would 
remain  to  furnish  evidence  of  the  amount  of  material  that  had 
been  worn  away  to  lay  bare  the  sandstones  and  slates  of  the 
Wolfville  ridge.  The  northerly  dips  in  the  south-sloping  surface 
of  this  ridge  are  what  we  would  expect  on  this  theory. 

Some  additional  facts  in  support  of  this  explanation  exist. 
A  line  of  springs  lies  along  the  north  side  of  the  valley  well  up 
on  the  slopes  of  the  ridge,  and  quartz  veins  a  footer  more  in 
thickness,  extend  along  in  the  same  direction,  very  near  the 
line  of  springs.  If  these  springs  rise  in  the  line  of  fracture 
caused  by  the  fault,  as  appears  probable,  their  occurrence  is 
explicable.  The  water  for  these  can  scarcely  be  supplied  from  the 
almost  bare  rock  surface  of  the  part  of  the  ridge,  or  escarpment* 
above,  but  its  source  must  be  rather  in  the  more  distant  and  higher 
lands  to  the  southwest.  A  somewhat  long  underground  journey 
for  the  water  is  thus  required,  and  this  is  favorable  to  the  removal 
of  silica  from  the  rocks  along  the  path  and  its  deposition  along 
PROC.  AND  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.— Z. 


372  THE    GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY    OF    THE 

the  sides  of  the  fissure  as  the  waters  approach  the  surface,  giving 
rise  to  the  mineral  veins  that  have  been  mentioned. 

If  this  be  the  correct  explanation,  the  amount  of  displacement 
that  has  taken  place  along  the  fault  can  he  approximately  esti- 
mated from  the  average  dip,  and  the  present  position  and 
elevation  of  corresponding  portions  of  the  same  formation.  This 
dip  is  about  15  degrees,  and  the  horizontal  distance  between  the 
outcrop  of  the  coarse  carboniferous  sandstones  on  the  south  side 
of  the  valley,  and  the  outcrop  of  the  same  set  of  beds  on  the 
ridge  on  the  north  side,  is  about  two  miles  ;  so  that  a  displace- 
ment of  about  2,500  feet  would  be  necessary  to  bring  the  coarse 
basal  sandstones  that  dip  beneath  the  surface  on  the  south  side 
of  the  valley  to  the  same  elevation  on  the  Wolfville  ridge. 

The  scenic  effects  of  this  displacement  upon  the  surface  of 
this  portion  of  the  county,  are  more  conspicuous  than  those 
described  as  due  to  the  characteristics  of  the  underlying  rocks. 
By  it  the  harder,  more  resistant  sandstones  and  compact  under- 
ing  slates  are  again  brought  to  the  surface  and  produce  the 
Wolfville  ridge.  By  it  a  long  tongue  of  the  Cornwallis  Valley, 
with  its  fertile  farms  and  apple  orchards,  has  been  cut  off  to  form 
the  Gaspereau  Valley.  If  this  fault  had  not  occurred,  the 
broader  valley  would  have  swept  without  a  break  up  to  the  base 
of  the  main  southern  table-land  beyond,  and  the  most  charming 
bit  of  scenery  of  this  portion  of  Nova  Scotia  would  have  no 
existence. 

There  are  indications  that  the  movement  taking  place  along 
this  line  of  fracture  has  been  exceedingly  slow ;  that  the  Gas- 
pereau Valley  is  even  more  sncient  than  the  Carboniferous 
sandstones  that  rest  in  it ;  that  it  bordered  a  loftier  land  to  the 
south  which,  even  in  that  remote  time,  supported  upon  its 
sheltered  slopes  and  bottom-lands  a  luxuriant  forest  of  Lepido- 
dendra  and  magnificent  ferns  whose  remains  have  been  partially 
preserved  in  the  muddy  sediments  of  an  ancient  river  flowing 
from  this  southern  land. 

Reasons  have  been  advanced  for  believing  that  the  quartz 
veins  of  the  slate  of  the  Wolfville  ridge  have  been  deposited  by 


GASPEREAU    VALLEY,    NOVA    SCOTIA— HAYCCCK.  373 

the  action  of  underground  water  while  finding  its  way  to  the 
surface  through  the  fissures  of  the  fractured  zone  of  the 
Oaspereau  fault.  These  veins,  though  newer  than  the  slate  in 
which  they  occur,  are  still  older  than  the  Carboniferous  sand- 
stones that  overlie  them  and  contain  abundant  fragments  of 
the  white  quartz  of  which  they  are  composed.  If  the  interpre- 
tation of  their  origin  be  correct,  it  follows  that  the  fault  along 
which  they  were  formed  had  its  beginnings  before  the  Car- 
boniferous period.  The  outlining  of  the  Wolfville  ridge  was 
contemporaneous  with  the  formation  of  the  fault,  and  its 
Pre-Carboniferous  origin  is  thus  indicated. 

The  simplest  interpretation  of  the  strip  of  sandstone  dipping 
into  the  southern  brow  of  this  ridge  is  that  it  was  deposited 
along  the  southern  shore  when  the  ridge  projected  eastwards, 
as  a  low  point,  into  the  Carboniferous  sea.  Contemporaneous 
bed*  of  similar  material  were  deposited  on  the  north  side  of  the 
point  of  land.  The  whole  area  gradually  subsiding,  the  coarse 
sandstones  that  lined  the  coast  in  shallow  water  crept  farther 
and  farther  up  the  slopes,  covering  the  low  point  of  slate  as  the 
water  level  rose  upon  the  land.  Subsequently,  as  farther  move- 
ment along  the  fault  plane  took  place,  these  newer  beds  were 
broken  and  their  ends  pushed  upward  along  its  northern  side 
until  elevated  above  the  sea  and  laid  bare  by  ages  of  erosion,  we 
now  see  them  apparently  dipping  into  the  hill  of  slate  along 
which  they  were  deposited  as  approximately  horizontal  beds 
when  the  hill  itself  was  a  low  point  of  land  on  the  coast  of  a 
Carboniferous  bay. 

The  Triassic  sandstones  have  not  yet  been  observed  in  the 
Oaspereau  Valley  along  the  line  of  section,  although  there  seems 
to  be  no  good  reason  for  there  not  being  found  if  they  exist 
there.  A  reasonable  interpretation  of  their  absence  is  that  when 
the  Triassic  sandstones  that  occur  at  corresponding  levels  on  the 
north  side  of  the  ridge  in  the  Cornwallis  Valley  were  being  laid 
down  as  a  shallow  water  formation,  along  a  slowly  subsiding 
coast,  the  displacement  along  this  fault  plane  had  not  taken  place 
to  its  present  extent  and  the  land  surface  south  of  the  fault  was 


374  THE    GEOLOGICAL    H1STORY    OF    THE 

relatively  higher  and  thus  above  sea-level.  If  subsequently- 
submerged  and  buried  by  deposits,  as  seems  not  unlikely,  tln> 
beds  have  been  removed  along  with  those  that  have  disappeared 
from  above  the  present  surface  of  the  Triassic  beds  to  the  north. 

From  the  above  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  displacement 
along  this  fault  began  in  Pre-Carboniferous  times,  continued  after 
the  deposition  or  the  Horton  series  of  beds,  and  had  not  reached 
its  present  proportions  when  the  Triassic  rocks  of  the  valley 
were  being  laid  down.  There  has  probably  been  no  perceptible 
displacement  within  recent  times,  but  the  slow  movement  of 
elevation  or  subsidence  that  separated  the  broken  ends  of  the 
same  beds  one  half  a  mile  in  the  lapse  of  time  between  the 
earliest  Carboniferous  and  the  Glacial  Periods,  may  still  be  pro- 
ceeding at  the  same  rate  and  the  movement  since  the  Glacial 
Period  remain  unnoticed. 

We  can  scarcely  leave  the  subject  without  attempting  to 
decipher  some  of  the  faint  records  of  that  Palaeozoic  valley  land 
and  bay,  the  traces  of  which  lie,  for  the  most  part,  beneath  the 
surface  accummulations  of  more  recent  geological  periods.  The 
slate  was  then,  as  now,  a  surface  rock,  along  the  coast  at  least,. 
as  its  unconformable  contact  with  the  sandstones  and  the  presence 
of  its  fragments  among  their  constituents  plainly  indicate.  The 
region  was  also  subsiding,  as  the  passage  of  coarse  shallow-water 
sediments  up  into  fine  muddy  beds,  characteristic  of  deeper, 
quieter  water  as  plainly  proves.  The  land  lay  to  the  south  as 
the  derivation  of  the  sediments  testifies.  As  the  sea  advanced, 
the  coast  line  must  have  retreated  and  its  changing  outline,  for 
any  particular  time,  is  very  difficult  to  fix.  It  would  seem,  how- 
ever, that  for  the  time  represented  by  the  basal  Wolfville 
sandstones  the  coast  line  must  have  followed  approximately  their 
present  line  of  contact  with  the  slates,  outlined  earlier  in  the 
paper,  which  was  then  more  nearly  horizontal ;  its  present 
departure  from  that  level  being  readily  explainable  by  the 
subsequent  displacement  along  the  Gaspereau  fault  plane. 

The  early  existence  of  the  Wolfville  ridge  and  its  undoubted 
westwardly  continuation,  would  form  a  barrier  then  as  now  to- 


GESPEREAU    VALLEY,    NOVA    SCOTIA — HAYCOCK.  375 

the  direct  northward  flow  of  the  drainage  from  that  ancient 
land  ;  and  this  little  indentation  of  the  coast  line  was  doubtless 
the  estuary  of  a  small  river.  The  absence  of  coarse  conglomerates 
from  the  basal  sandstones,  indicates  quiet  sheltered  waters  along 
the  shores.  With  the  exception  of  ice-transported  material, 
the  shore  deposits  of  the  Minas  Basin  average  about  the  same  in 
coarseness  as  these  Lower  Carboniferous  or  Devonian  deposits. 
This  would  lead  to  the  inference  that  the  ancient  Bay  was  but 
little  more  extensive  than  the  Minas  Basin  of  to-day,  and  that 
the  shores  were  not  exposed  to  more  violent  wave  action  than 
the  more  exposed  portions  of  the  borders  of  the  present  Basin. 

This  absence  of  conglomerates  also  indicates  gentle  slopes  of 
the  land,  but  we  can  scarcely  do  more  than  speculate  as  to  the 
character  of  the  interior.  The  lowest  sandstones  are  evidently 
made  up  of  the  more  or  less  decomposed  constituents  of  a  granitic 
rock.  The  present  boundary  of  the  granite  country  is  to  the 
south,  not  nearer  than  from  seven  to  ten  miles,  and  because  of 
the  lowering  of  the  surface  of  the  land  by  erosion  in  subsequent 
geological  times,  this  boundary  must  be  nearer  now  than  when 
these  beds  were  laid  down.  In  what  manner  all  this  material 
could  have  been  transported  from  the  inland  areas  whence  it 
evidently  was  derived,  is  a  most  perplexing  problem. 

The  land  was  clothed  with  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  ns  the 
abundant  plant  remains  testify,  but  the  picture  of  the  life  that 
inhabited  it  must  be  sketched  by  the  palaeontologist.  The 
Geological  Record  is  not  one  of  living  forms  alone,  but  geo- 
graphical and  scenic  features  have  a  histor}"  that  forms  a  too- 
often  overlooked  part  of  that  record.  This  history  of  the 
Oaspereau  Valley  is  but  a  single  instance  in  the  evolution  of  the 
topographic  features  of  the  Nova  Scotia  of  to-day.  Whether 
the  facts  have  been  rightly  arranged  and  interpreted,  must  be 
left  to  the  judgment  of  those  who  follow  ;  but  the  great  age  of 
this  valley,  and  its  checkered  history,  the  latest  stages  of  which 
have  not  been  looked  into,  are  reminders  of  the  wealth  of 
material  about  us  for  study,  and  of  the  exceedingly  slow  and 
labored  process  by  which  the  landscape  has  come  to  be  as  it  to-day. 


VIII. — FOSSILS,  POSSIBLY  TRIASSIC,  IN  GLACIATED  FRAGMENTS 
IN  THE  BOULDER-CLAY  OF  KINGS  COUNTY,  N.  S. — BY 
PROFESSOR  ERNEST  HAYCOCK,  Acadia  College,  Wolf- 
ville,  N.  S. 

(Received  for  publication,  ISth  December,  1901.) 

The  belt  of  red  Triassic  sandstones  that  extends  from  St. 
Mary's  Bay  to  Truro,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles, 
has  not  as  yet  yielded  any  fossils 

It  has,  for  several  years,  seemed  to  me  unlikely  that  living- 
things  were  absent  throughout  this  region  when  this  great  series 
of  water-formed  beds,  often  showing  ripple-marks  and  current- 
bedding,  was  being  laid  down.  It  has  seemed  equally  improba- 
bly that  at  no  time  or  place  were  the  conditions  favorable  for 
the  preservation  of  the  remains  of  those  living  things,  if  they 
were  present.  For  these  reasons  I  have  believed  that  such 
remains  exist  and  are  likely  to  be  discovered  if  carefully 
searched  for. 

In  many  of  the  finer  laj'ers  of  the  red  sandstone  where  it 
forms  bare  red  cliffs  along  the  north  shore  of  St.  Mary's  Bay  afc 
Rossway,  occur  spherical  greenish-gray  blotches  with  a  black 
central  spot,  which  vary  in  size  from  minute  specks  to  spheres 
an  inch  in  diameter.  They  appear  to  be  due  to  the  original 
presence  of  some  organism,  the  carbon  of  which  has  been  oxi- 
dized from  the  red  oxide  of  iron  which  forms  the  coloring 
matter  of  the  beds,  producing  soluble  compounds  which  have 
been  removed,  leaving  a  bleached  zone  surrounding  the  former 
position  of  the  organism. 

In  beds  of  the  same  formation  near  Pereau,  Kings  County, 
the  same  bleached  spheres  were  noticed  in  the  sandstone,  at 
about  the  same  stratigraphical  horizon,  taking  the  surface  of 
contact  with  the  overlying  trap  as  a  datum  line. 

When  examining,  last  summer,  the  splendid  coast  section 
along  the  southwest  side  of  Minas  Basin  between  Kingsport  and 

(376) 


FOSSILS  IN  THE  BOULDER-CLAY  OF  KINGS  COUNTY — HAYCOCK.    377 

Pereau  river,  a  fragment  of  a  very  fine-grained,  laminated, 
reddish-brown,  calcareous  shale  was  noticed  on  the  beach  which 
when  broken  open  was  found  to  contain  beautifully  preserved 
impressions  of  small  shells  that  suggested  the  small  bivalve 
Crustacea  usually  known  as  ostracods.  The  origin  of  the  frag- 
ments was  for  some  time  in  doubt.  Careful  search  of  the  north- 
dipping  beds  in  the  immediate  vicinity  failed  to  reveal  it,  but 
several  other  fragments  of  the  same  material,  some  of  which 
contained  fossils,  were  found  within  a  mile  or  two  of  the  place 
where  the  first  piece  of  shale  was  found. 

The  surface  of  the  red  sandstone  is  here  surmounted  by  a 
rather  thick  coating  of  boulder-clay.  About  midway  between 
Kingsport  point  and  Pereau  river  this  sheet  descends  to  near 
the  level  of  the  beach,  and  is  well  exposed  and  accessible  to 
examination  where  a  small  brook  meets  the  shore.  A  brief 
search  in  this  formation  brought  to  light  a  glaciated  fragment 
of  the  same  material,  which  when  broken  open  revealed  the  same 
fossils  and  the  problem  of  the  immediate  origin  was  solved. 

The  location  of  the  strata  from  which  these  fragments  were 
detached  by  the  ice  of  the  Glacial  Period  has  not  been  fixed  as 
yet.  The  striation  of  the  bed-rock  in  this  county,  and  the 
presence  of  arnygdaloidal  trap  from  the  North  Mountain  in  the 
boulder-clay,  indicate  that  the  ice  moved  and  brought  its  load  of 
clay  and  stones  from  the  northwest.  The  source  of  these  frag- 
ments must  also  be  to  the  northwest,  but  in  that  direction  the 
Triassic  red  sandstone  extends  to  the  trap  of  the  North  Moun- 
tain. Beyond  the  trap,  on  the  very  shore  of  the  Bay.  is  a  newer 
formation  of  greenish  calcareous  shale ;  but  a  careful  study  of 
every  exposed  section  of  these  newer  beds  has  revealed  no  layers 
in  any  respect  resembling  the  fragments  in  color,  composition  or 
fossil  contents,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  were  derived 
from  that  formation.  That  they  were  derived  from  beds  on  the 
Cumberland  shore,  the  more  distant  New  Brunswick  coast  or 
the  bottom  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  is  also  unlikely,  so  that  we 
must  look  to  the  Triassic  beds  intervening  between  the  Kings- 
port  shore  and  the  North  Mountain  as  the  source  of  the  frag- 
ments. 


378    FOSSILS  IN  THE  BOULDER-CLAY  OF  KINGS  COUNTY— HAYCOCK. 

Some  internal  evidences  of  this  derivation  are  found  in  the 
fragments  themselves.  The  material  differs  from  the  usual  red 
sandstone  beds  only  in  fineness  of  texture.  It  contains  the 
minute  spherical  blotches  that  have  been  described  as  occurring 
in  these  sandstones  at  Rossway  and  Pereau,  and  the  Pereau 
locality  lies  about  two  miles  to  the  north.  Again,  the  glaciation 
of  the  fragments  does  not  indicate  a  long  journey;  though 
deeply  scratched,  the  corners  are  only  partially  rounded.  The 
rather  soft  and  brittle  nature  of  the  rock  is  also  unfavorable  to 
a  long  exposure  to  ice  action.  Thus  there  seems  to  be  little 
doubt  that  these  fossils  were  derived  from  the  Triassic  sand- 
stones ;  that  the  layers  from  which  they  were  derived  lie  between 
Kingsport  point  and  the  contact  of  the  sandstone  and  trap  on 
the  southern  slope  of  the  North  Mountain,  and  that  they  are 
more  likely  to  be  found  on  the  north  side  of  the  Pereau  river. 

If  the  origin  of  the  fossils  proves  to  be  as  supposed,  they  are, 
so  far  as  my  knowledge  goes,  the  first  recorded  animal  remains 
from  this  formation  in  Nova  Scotia ;  and  they  may  help  to  fix 
the  age  of  a  series  of  beds  that  heretofore  have  had  their  posi- 
tion in  the  Geological  Record  determined  by  their  lithological 
resemblances  to  a  formation  in  the  Connecticut  Valley  several 
hundred  miles  distant. 


IX. — 1 : — PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS    OF    THE    BOTANICAL 
CLUB  OF  CANADA,  1900  ; 

2  : — ABSTRACT  OF  PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  FLOWER- 
ING OF    TEN    PLANTS    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA,    1900  ;    WITH 

3: — REMARKS  ON  THEIR  PHENOCHRONS  — BY  A.   H.  MACKAY, 
LL.  D.,  Halifax. 

(Read  May  ISth,  1901.) 

1. 
PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. 

STATIONS  AND  NAMES  OF  THE  OBSERVERS. 

Nova  Scotia. 

Yarmouth,  Yarmouth  Co. —  Miss  Janet  Keith  Bruce  Kelley. 
Berwick,  Kings  Co. — Miss  Ida  A.  Parker. 

Musquodoboit  Harbour,  Halifax  Co. — Rev.  James  Rosborough. 
Wallace,  Cumberland  Co. — Miss  E.  G.  Charman. 
East  Wallace,  Cumberland  Co. — Miss  A.  B.  Mackenzie 

Prince  Edward  Island. 
Charlottetown — Principal  John  MacSwain. 

Ontario. 
Beatrice,  Muskoka — Miss  Alice  Hollingworth 

Assiniboia. 
Pheasant  Forks — Mr.  Thomas  Donnelly. 

Saskatchewan. 
Willoughby— Rev.  C.  W.  Bryden,  B.  A. 

British  Columbia. 
Vancouver — Mr.  J.  K.  Henry,  B.  A. 


(379) 


380      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. — MACKAY. 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. 


Day  of  the  year  1900  corresponding  to  the 
last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan  31           July  212 

02 

£B 
^ 

M 

w 

&H 

1 

_<i 

M 

03 

ri 

Feb  59           Aug  243 

*iXJ 

a 

•a 

CO 

March  .  .   90           Sept  273 

'A 

<5V 

g 

i 

o 

, 

m 

April  120           Oct    301 

£ 

* 

c8 

R 

-i- 

J3 

S' 

May  lot            Nov  334 

- 

•91 

. 

73 

I 

(S 

*-> 

•f3 

6 

June       181           Dec  365 

o 

1 

^ 

> 

§ 

2 

s 
X 

(First  flowering  or  fruiting  of  plants  and 
first  appearance  of  migratory  animals,  etc.) 

1 

es 

p< 

t* 

• 

M 

rs 

f 

1 

1 

JS 

O 

JX 

05 

a 
$ 

o 

A 

OH 

5 
§ 

o 

fl 

1 

1 

95 

110 

105 

10° 

137 

in 

6& 

fl 

Populus  tremuloides.  Michx  

111 

109 

137 

in 

111 

3 

Epigeea  repens,  L  

10?, 

80 

101 

119 

11.5 

119 

m 

4 

Viola  cucullata  Gray  

m 

115 

141 

140 

1% 

119 

1?6 

1 
91 

K 

V.  blanda,  Willd  

11? 

T>8 

197 

Iffi 

131 

19fi 

13? 

6 

I0) 

134 

174 

199 

148 

190 

rf 
1?5 

2 
91 

7 

Houstonia  cserulca,  L  

its 

8 

Kquisct  inn  arvcnse,  L  

118 

i^n 

I  .Vi 

140 

143 

77 

0 

30 

I'M 

136 

138 

1°8 

144 

196 

13? 

10 

Erythronium  Amcricanum   Ker  

116 

11 

Hepatica  triloba,  Chaix  

196 

a 

98 

a 

11? 

1" 

Coptis  trif  olia   Salfcb  

137 

199 

132 

144 

140 

110 

i:i 

Fragaria  Virginiana,  Mill    

1°6 

1?l 

136 

1^7 

I'M 

151 

140 

13? 

14 

168 

169 

169 

u 

Primus  Pennsylvanica,  L  

150 

159 

156 

140 

140 

3 

107 

in 

"              (fruit  ripe)  

* 
?10 

?05 

17 
18 

Vaccinium  Penn.  v.  Can..  Lam  
"              (fruit  ripe)  

143 

150 
•>10 

152 

140 

4 

71 

Tl 

Ranunculus  acris   L  

147 

151 

161 

157 

157 

161 

•'(1 

R.  repens,  L  

147 

176 

''1 

Clintonia  borealis  Raf     

159 

155 

169 

.,.> 

Trillium  erythrocarpum,  Michx  

141 

141 

vn 

139 

•_':! 

24 

'") 

Trientalis  Americana  Purah  
Cypripedium  acaule,  Ait  
Calla  palustris  L  

150 
159 

160 

158 
161 
155 

... 

152 
170 
115 

M 

148 

152 

139 

130 

27 

"               (fruit  ripe)  .  .  . 

191 

*  =  Year  1899.         1  =  V.  palustris.         2  =  A.  macrophyllum.         3=  P.   emarginata 
4  =  V.  myrtilloides.       a= Anemone  patens.       d  =  Acer  Negundo. 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. — MACKAY.      381 
PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. 


Day  of  the  year  1900,  corresponding  to  the 
last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan  81           July..               212 

a3 
^ 

*J 
H 

* 

X 

^ 

d 

Feb             .           59            Aug                    243 

. 

i?CD 

. 

.jPJ 

M 

1: 

1 

March  90           Sept  273 

z 

'Sy 

!f 

. 

O 

0Q 

April  120           Oct  804 

• 

fc 

jS< 

fc' 

_^ 

O 

fi 

ja 

b 

. 

May         151            Nov                     384 

£ 

TI  y- 

8 

eS 

••J 

f 

£• 

5 

June  181           Dec  .                  305 

o 

c£ 

g 

•g 

^ 

«5 

a 

6 
& 

(First  flowering  or  fruiting  of  plants  ard 
first  appearance  of  migratory  animals,  etc.) 

E 

1 

> 

(4 

8 
K 

T* 

s« 
^ 

"5 

^ 

1 

'C 

1 

O 

-t 
<n 

3 

~- 

] 

— 

a, 

_£ 
1 

1 
1 

'fi 

Rubus  strigosus,  Michx  

<*) 

30 

171 

11 

32 

173 

154 

33 

186 

156 

170 

14 

Cornus  Canadensis,  L  

l:-t! 

140 

16? 

ISO 

1.15 

154 

35 

•JC 

155 

163 

159 

161 

37 

38 

Linneea  borealis,  L  

163 

165 

157 

.... 

.... 

9O 

174 

V?> 

40 

172 

41 

176 

175 

40 

202 

?()! 

190 

43 

186 

181 

147 

5 

134 

AA 

* 
2°6 

186 

18" 

i\ 

186 

184 

AC 

147 

IV) 

1^4 

157 

9ft 

1% 

100 

18 

163 

49 

149 

142 

148 

165 

141 

R7 

1M 

i  ".M 

150 

151 

158 

14? 

100 

TiS 

11° 

1 

53 
M 

Ribes  rubrum  (cultivated)  
!            '*              (fruit  ripe)  

14/> 

145 
193 

141 

143 

182 

132 

=  Year  1899.       5=R.  Nutkana. 


382     PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. — MACKAY. 
PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. 


•- 
<o 

x> 

1 

55 
56 
57 
53 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65a 
65b 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
73a 
73b 
74a 
74b 
75a 
75b 
76a 
76b 

Day  of  the  year  1900  corresponding  to  the 
last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan  31            July  212 

Yarmouth,  N.  S. 

Berwick,  N.  S. 

Musquodoboit, 
Halifax,  N  S. 

Wallace,  N.  S. 

East  Wallace,  N.  S. 

Charlottetovvn, 
P.  E.  I.  ! 

Muskoka,  O. 

Pheasant  Forks, 

Assa.  i 

Willoughby,  Sask. 

Vancouver,  B.  C. 

Feb    69            Aug  243 

March  90            Sept          273 

April  120           Oct.             ...  304 

May  151           Nov     334 

June  181           Dec  365 

(First  flowering  or  fruiting  of  plants  and 
first  appearance  of  migratory  animals,  etc.) 

R.  nigrum  (cultivated)  

155 

* 

117 

141 

143 

100 

"           (fruit  ripe)  

Syringa  vulgaris,  L.  (cultiv.)  

157 

159 

163 

163 

148 
179 

188 

148 

203 

Phleum  pratenso,  L  

202 

167 
167 
165 

168 
168 

T  pratense  L  

7r>R 

161 

135 

Triticum  vulgare,  L    

159 

1W 

.... 

^i 

Earliest  full  leafing  of  tree  ... 

111 

147 

Ifil 

158 

Ploughing  (first  of  season)  
Sowing                         "        

115 

199 

113 
14? 

125 

121 

127 
130 
136 
194 
221 
?f>7 

95 
103 
121 

209 
221 

109 
111 
121 

Potato-planting         "       

141 

Sheep-shearing          '•       

138 

143 

237 

238 

•>6S 

Opening  of  rivers       "         

80 

% 

91 

Last  snow  to  whiten  ground  
"        to  fly  in  air  
Last  spring  frost    hard  ....           

102 
147 

116 
132 
139 
1fi8 

155 

134 

104 
123 
130 
139 

123 

111 

"           "           low  

| 

'= Year  1899. 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. — MACKAY.     383 


PHEXOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA.    1900. 


Day  of  the  year  1900  corresponding  to  the 
last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan                        31           July            ....212 

02 

55 

03 

W 

<£ 

n 

Feb  59           AUJ?  243 

. 

^j 

j 

C 

CB 

March        ....      90           Sept                   273 

j^ 

o 

§ 

. 

o 

— 

April  120           Oct    304 

55 

4 

55 

I 

9 

X 

b 

May  161            Nov  334 

•d 

. 

"3 

o 

ce 

•*» 

0 

June  181           Dec   365 

o 

o 

o 

w 

>> 

• 

bo 

3 

s 

3 

55 

(First  flowering  or  fruiting  of  plants  and 
first  appearance  of  migratory  animals,  etc.) 

E 

c 

o 

a 

3 

"3 

I 

t. 

6 

•g 

3 

£ 

1 

S 

fl 

77a 
77b 

78n 

First  autumn  frost,  hoar  
"             "           hard.  

259 

* 

293 

*>90 

.... 

246 

* 

279 

* 

?77 

251 

313 

239 

258 

78h 

316 

306 

79a 

sn 

%<> 

?(. 

80 

111 

99 

109 

108 

112 

115 

113 

133 

114 

138 

136 

134 

126 

1??, 

13?; 

151 

158 

Ti8 

134 

153 

17° 

I"9 

147 

147 

177 

179 

179 

153 

153 

180 

190 

156 

197 
198 

181 

182 

181 

165 

189 

194 

193 

190 

202 

194 

196 

°08 

200 

.... 

* 

207 

209 

210 

210 

... 

213 
214 

219 
226 

211 

218 

.... 

* 
225 

239 

216 
236 

237 

224 

229 

'  =  Year  1899. 


384     PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900.— MACKAY. 


PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. 


Day  of  the   year  1900  corresponding  to  the 
last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan  31           July  212 

CO 

03 

HH 

w 

d 

'O 
V. 

•¥ 

Feb  5!)            Aug  243 

>4 

aj 

March  90            Sept  273 

£ 

-tT 

o 

^ 

C 

n 

April  120            Oot    .    .              304 

- 

ft 

3 

£ 

<a 

o 

O 

^ 

iT 

. 

May  151           Nov.                  334 

2 

rf 

jS 

<o 

• 

June    181           Dec    ...           36o 

1 

0 

O 

i 

M 

C 

do 

3 

I 
1 

(First  flowering  or  fruiting  of  plants  and 
first  appearance  of  migratory  animals,  etc.) 

c« 
>< 

C 
o 

M 

o- 

3 
Z 

13 

£ 

East\ 

< 

JS 

o 

^t 

a 
% 

i 
<o 

'JS 
OH 

5 
1 

8 
1 

80 

Thunderstorms—  dates  

260 

* 

261 

246 

238 
"W 

259 
262 

233 

* 

273 

280 
299 

Wi 

81a 

Wild  dncks  migrating,  N  

93 

100 

81  h 

S  

82a 

"    geese                      N  ....  

91 

78 

70 

110 

81 

82h 

S  

9;il 

285 

83 

Melospiza  f  asciata,  North  

8? 

101 

110 

84 

Turdus  miKratorius      "      

M 

67 

71 

10) 

99 

it 

98 

k 
112 

85 
86 

.1  1  1  n  no  liiemalis               "    
Actitis  macularia          "    

74 

95 

111 

94 

87 

Sturnella  magua           "    

n 

88 

Ceryle  Alcyon               "    

89 

Dendrceca  coronata      "    

90 

D.  sestiva                       "    

91 

Zonothrichia  alba          "    

92 
93 

Trochilus  colubris         "    •  
Tyrannus  Carolinensis  "    

138 
143 

144 
1"9 

141 

.... 

.... 

94 

Dolychonyx  oryzivoms"    

116 

110 

9o 

Spinis  tristis                   "    

98 

Setophaga  ruticilla       "    

97 

Ampelis  cedrorum        " 

98 

Chordeiles  Viginianus  "    

144 

IVi 

H7 

99 
100 

First  piping  of  frogs  
First  appearance,  snakes  

94 
111 

106 
134 

111 

108 
110 

97 
103' 

105 
119 

61 

*= Year  1899.       &=M.  propinqua. 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. — MACKAY.     385 

2. 
PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    NOVA    SCOTIA. 

THE     TIME     OF     FLOWERING     OF     TEN    PLANTS,    SPRING    OF   1900, 
THROUGHOUT  THE   PROVINCE   OF   NOVA  SCOTIA. 

•(Compiled  from  Phenological  Observations  made  in  the  Public 
Schools  of  the  Province.) 

The  counties  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  latitude  and  longi- 
tude, beginning  with  the  South  and  West.  For  the  ease  of 
comparison  the  same  order  will  hereafter  be  followed. 

The  tables  contain  merely  the  phenochrons  or  average  dates 
of  appearance  at  ten  stations  on  the  "  coast,"  "  lowlands  "  or 
"  highlands,"  as  the  case  may  be — the  names  of  the  plants  being 
omitted  for  the  purpose  of  condensation.  But  the  ten  plants  in 
•order  are  the  following  throughout  the  whole  table  : 

1.  Mayflower  (Epigaea  repens). 

2.  Blue  Violet  (Viola  cucullata). 

3.  Red  Maple  (Acer  rubrum). 

4.  Dandelion  (Taraxacum  officinale). 

5.  Strawberry  (Fragaria  Virginiana). 

6.  Wild  Red  Cherry  (Prunus  Pennsylvanica). 

7.  Blueberry  (Vaccinium  Can.  and  Penn.) 

8.  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  acris). 

9.  Apple — cultivated  (Pyrus  malus). 
10.     Lilac  (Syringa  vulgaris). 

The  phenochrons  of  "  first "  flowering,  and  flowering  "  becom- 
ing common  "  of  these  ten  plants  on  coast,  tow  inlands  and  high 
inlands,  and  their  general  averages,  are  all  lined  across  the  page 
for  the  ease  of  comparison  of  the  effects  of  coast  waters  and 
altitude.  The  classification  of  the  observation  stations  into 
these  three  groups  was  made  by  the  Inspectors  through  whom 
the  schedules  were  sent  to  the  Education  Office. 

As  a  rule,  ten  of  the  best  schedules  are  averaged  in  each 
column.  When  ten  good  schedules  for  each  of  the  three  divi- 
sions of  each  county  could  not  be  had,  the  ten  best  schedules  for 
the  county  are  averaged,  etc. 


386     PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. — MACK  AY. 

PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 
YARMOUTH  COUNTY,  1900. 


First  Seen. 

Becoming  Common. 

General  Phenochrons 

Coast. 

Low 
Inlands. 

H  gh- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast. 

Low 
Inlands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver 
age. 

Annual 
date. 

Mensual 
date. 

88.9 

104.6 
132.8 
131.9 
133.2 
134.2 
147.7 
153.1 
150.8 
155.8 
167.0 

96.75 
128.10 
127.05 
126.35 
126.85 
146.70 
144.35 
147.25 
148.70 
162.80 

7  April. 
9  May. 
8  May. 
7  May. 
7  May. 
27  May. 
25  May. 
28  May. 
29  May. 
12  June. 

123.4 

122.2 

119.5 

119  5 

145.7 

135.6 

143.7 

141  6 

158.6 



129.87 

141.  ll! 

135.49 

16  May. 

SHELBURNE   COUNTY,    1900. 


96.4 

106.3 

101.35 

12  April. 

125.6 

132  9 

129  25 

10  May 

128.1 

134.1 

131  10 

12  May 

121.3 

129.8 

125.55 

6  May 

125.8 
143.0 

132.5 
148  9 

129.15 
145  95 

10  May. 
26  May 

134.7 

145.3 

140.00 

20  May 

143  6 

150  3 

146  95 

27  May 

144.7 

153.1 

148  90 

29  May 

157.9 

162.9 

160.40 

10  June. 

132.11 

139.61 

135  86 

17  May 

DIGBY   COUNTY,    1900. 


105.3 

100.4 

106.7 

104.1 

111.2 

109.0 

113.8 

111.3 

107.70 

18  April. 

123.2 

126.1 

122.3 

123.9 

133.3 

133.3 

131.5 

132.7 

128.30 

9  May. 

135.0 

124.3 

129.0 

129.4 

140.4 

132.3 

134.9 

135.9 

132.65 

13  May. 

121.6 

123.3 

126.1 

123.7 

138.8 

134.6 

139.6 

137.7 

130.70 

11  May. 

119.6 

124.5 

124.3 

122.3 

134.9 

135.9 

135.1 

135.3 

129.05 

10  May. 

145.4 

145.9 

146.1 

145.8 

150.0 

150.8 

152.9 

151.2 

148.50 

29  May. 

145.4 

143.4 

145.1 

144.6 

152.2 

151.3 

147.9 

150.5 

147.55 

28  May. 

148.7 

150.1 

147.0 

148.6 

154.9 

155.9 

152.6 

154.5 

151.55 

1  June. 

147.9 

150.3 

147.8 

148.7 

153.8 

154.4 

156.3 

154.8 

151.75 

1  June. 

157.5 

160.0 

156.6 

158.0 

164.6 

165.0 

161.9 

163.8 

160.90 

10  June. 

134.96 

134.83 

135.10 

134.96 

143.41 

142.25 

142.65 

142.77 

138.87 

19  May. 

PHILOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,   1900. — MACK  AY.       387 


PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS — Continued. 

QUEENS  COUNTY,  1900. 


First  Seen. 

Becoming  Common. 

General  Phcnochrons. 

Coast 

Low 
Inlands. 

Higli- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast. 

Low 
Inlands. 

High- 
la  'ids. 

Aver- 
age. 

Annual 
date. 

MciiAual 
date. 

102.1 

97.1 

99.4 

99.5 

112.9 

110.8 

Ill  0 

111.6 

105.55 

16  April. 

128.1 

131.6' 

129.4 

129.7 

138.8 

133.5 

136.8 

136.4 

133.05 

14  May. 

127.9 

120.8 

1  •_>.->.! 

124.6 

136.1 

129.0 

130.2 

131.8 

128.20 

9  May. 

123.1 

123.8 

134.8 

127.2 

134.3 

131.8 

142.0 

130.0 

131.60 

12  May. 

128.9 

132.0 

1  .'{•_>.  7 

131.2 

141.9 

145.1 

142.6 

143.2 

137.20 

'  18  May. 

142.0 

142.8 

147.4 

144.1 

152.7 

149.8 

151.7 

151.4 

147.75 

28  May. 

139.2 

1  45.  6 

143.2 

142.6 

149.2 

151.5 

15±.4 

151  .0 

140.80 

27  May. 

150.6 

150.0 

153.5 

151.4 

156.8 

156.3 

156.2 

156.4 

153.90 

3  June. 

148.6 

147.3 

148.1 

148.0 

156.9 

154.1 

155.4 

155.5 

151.75 

1  June. 

161.6 

156.1 

154.8 

157.5 

168.4 

160.6 

160.3 

163.1 

160.30 

10  June. 

135.21'  134.70    136.84135.58 

144.80 

142.25    143.86 

143.  641 

139.61 

20  May. 

ANNAPOLIS   COUNTY,   1900. 

104.0 
128.6 
124.9 
129.6 
128.5 
145.6 
139.0 
150.9 
150.3 
156.5 

107.1 
132.9 
127.6 
133.8 
133.2 
144.7 
144.5 
150.6 
150.8 
158.7 

105.6 
130.7 
126.3 
131.7 
130.8 
145.2 
142.0 
150.8 
150.5 
157.6 

115.9 
135.9 
128.0 
139.6 
141.3 
151.0 
150.6 
156.0 
156.0 
102.0 

114.5 
137.9 
133.5 
140.9 
139.5 
148.5 
148.3 
150.4 
154.2 
162.2 

115.2 
1X6.9 
130.8 
140.2 
140.4 
149.8 
152.4 
150.2 
155.1 
162.1 

110.40 
133.80 
128.55 
135.95 
135.60 
147.50 
147.20 
153.50 
152.80 
159.85 

21  April. 
14  May. 
9  May. 
16  May. 
16  May. 
28  M*y. 
28  May. 
3  June. 
2  June. 
9  June. 

i   ..... 

135.85 

138.39137.12 

144.23 

143.59143.91 

140.52 

21  M 

LUNENBURG  COUNTY,  1900. 


102.6 

100.6 

101.2 

101.5 

111.7 

115.7 

111.2 

112.9 

107.20 

18  April. 

131.7 

128.3 

131.8 

130.0 

138.2 

138.3 

136.5 

137.7 

134.15 

15  May. 

127.1 

128.1 

123.5 

126.2 

131.5 

127.8 

129.3 

129.5 

127.85 

8  May. 

127.4 

12!).  5 

133.2 

130.0 

135.2 

136.2 

139.2 

136.9 

133.45 

14  Mny. 

130.1 

129.9 

131.9 

130.6 

139.3 

137.3 

141.1 

139.2 

134.93 

15  May. 

144.7 

^141.8 

144.4 

143.6 

150.6 

147.7 

148.0 

148.  8 

140.20 

•J7  .May. 

141.8 

144.6 

144.6 

143.7 

140.4 

153.5 

151.4 

150.4 

147.01 

28  May. 

151.7 

147.8 

153.0 

150.8 

158.3 

157.0 

157.8 

157.7 

164.26 

4  June. 

150.4 

149.0 

150.2 

149.9 

166.3 

156.0 

154.  9 

166.7 

152.80 

2  June. 

160.4 

157.7 

157.3 

158.5 

165.5 

164.0 

162.4 

164.0 

1C,  I/.'.-) 

11  June. 

136.79 

135.72 

137.11 

136.54 

143.30 

143.35 

143.18 

143.28 

139.91 

20  May. 

PROC.  AND  TRANS.  N.  S.  I  VST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X. 


TKANS.  A  A. 


388       PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,   1900. — MACKAY. 


PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS — Continued. 

KINGS   COUNTY,    190C. 


Firs   Seen. 

Becoming  Common. 

General  Phenochrona. 

Coast. 

Low- 
lands. 

High- 
lands 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast. 

Lovr- 
lands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Annual 
date. 

Mensual 
date. 

103.0 
124.0 
123.1 

110.2 
182.6 
1.16.1 

106.6 
128.3 
129.1 

111.8 
139.2 
129.6 
138.9 
139.6 
152.6 
155.8 
157.5 
153.5 
162.3 

119.2 
141.8 
140.2 
143.9 
14.S.9 
153.4 
155.3 
159.9 
157.3 
164.8 

115.5 
140.5 
134.9 
141.4 
141.8 
153.0 
155.5 
158.7 
155.4 
163.6 

111.05 
134.40 
132.00 
138.20 
134.65 
150.30 
152.90 
155.20 
152.95 
161.60 

22  April. 
15  May. 
12  May. 
19  May. 
15  May. 
31  May. 
2  June. 
5  June. 
2  June. 
11  June 



131.4 
121.9" 
147.0 

148.8 
148.8 

138.5 
133.2 
148.1 
151.8 
154.6 

135.0 
127.5 
147.6 
150.3 
151.7 





147.5 

158.0 

153.5 
161.2 

150.5 
159.6 

135.35 

141.  88'  138.  62 

144.08 

147.97 

146.03 

142.32 

23  M«y. 

HANTS   COUNTY,    1900. 




99.3 
130.3 
125.7 
132.1 
134.3 
149.9 
150.1 
152.3 
151.8 
159.2 

107.0 
129.1 
124.0 
136.7 
133.7 
149.9 
152  0 
154.0 
152.7 
161.4 

103.2 
129.7 
124.8 
134.4 
134.0 
149.9 
151.1 
153.1 
152.3 
160.3 

113.3 
136.6 
134.3 
138.5 
142.3 
155.2 
156.4 
156.4 
157.1 
162.4 

116.7 
137.0 
130.4 
143.7 
142.6 
152.4 
155.6 
158.6 
155.6 
166.0 

115.0 
136.8 
132.4 
141.1 
142.4 
153  8 
156.0 
157.5 
156.4 
164.2 

109.10 
133.25 
128.60 
137.75 
138.20 
151.85 
153.55 
155.30 
154.35 
162.25 

20  April. 
14  May. 
9  May. 
18  May. 
19  May. 
1  June. 
3  June. 
5  June. 
4  June. 
12  June. 



138.50 

140.05 

139.  28! 

145.25 

145.86 

145.56 

142.42 

25  May. 

HALIFAX    COUNTY,    19DO. 


103.9 

104.3 

105.2 

104.5 

118.1 

117.0 

120.0 

118.4 

111.45 

22  April. 

133.9 

126.7 

134.0 

131.5 

141.8 

136.5 

145.2 

141.2 

136.35 

17  May. 

132.2 

124.0 

127.8 

128.0 

141.6 

131.0 

136.0 

136.2 

132.10 

13  May. 

130.1 

134.4 

135.3 

133.3 

143.0 

140.8 

142.0 

141.9 

137.60 

18  May. 

132.0 

128.6 

132.7 

131.1 

144.0 

141.4 

145.6 

143.7 

137.40 

18  May. 

154.1 

150.9 

146.6 

150.5 

158.4 

152.3 

151.5 

154.1 

152.30 

2  June. 

143.7 

147.3 

1J5.9 

145.6 

153.3 

153.0 

153.2 

153.1 

149.35 

30  May. 

156.4 

153.9 

152.7 

154.3 

162.6 

160.0 

162.0 

161.5 

157.90 

7  June. 

155.2 

153.4 

152.0 

153.5 

160.8 

158.5 

160.8 

160.0 

156.75 

6  June. 

162.1 

162.6 

156.7 

160.5 

169.0 

166.5 

163.1 

166.2 

163.35 

13  June. 

140.36 

138.61 

138.89 

139.28 

149.261  145.70  Il47.94 

147.63 

143.45 

24  May. 

• 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,   1900. — MACKAY.       389 


PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS — Continued. 

GUYSBORO    COUNTY,    1900. 


First  Seen. 

Becoming  Commen. 

General  Phcnochrona. 

Coast. 

Low- 
lands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast 

Low- 
lands. 

High- 
lands. 

Arer- 
age. 

Annual 
date. 
f 

M'-n-na 
date. 

1 
109.1 

120.5 
142.1 
139.0 
145.1 
14U.7 
159  0 

) 
114.80 
138.10 
137.30 
141.10 
144.70 
156.40 
158.95 
160.6ft 
163.00 
170.80 

25  April. 
19  May. 
18  May. 
21  May. 
25  May. 
6  June. 
8  June. 
10  June. 
12  June. 
20  June. 

1  34  1 

135.6 



'  ,137.1 

1  39.  7 

153  8 

155.9 

162.0 
164.2 
Iti5.9 
173.7 

157.1 

160.1 

|167.9 

1  

..     .   '145.  04l!... 

i 

152.12 

1  148.58 

29  May. 

CUMBERLAND   COUNTY,    1000. 

116.6 

110.9 

119.0 

115.5 

122.2 

121.1 

129.5 

124.3 

119.90 

30  April. 

134.7 

131.4 

137.3 

134.5 

142.2 

l:!8.3     146.7 

142.4 

138.45 

19  May. 

132.7 

127.3 

130.6 

130.2 

138.9 

135.0      135.2 

136.4 

133.30 

14  May. 

138.7 

140.0 

142.2 

140.3 

144.9 

144.6 

150.1 

146.5 

143.40 

24  May. 

137.0 

133.9     |138.0 

136.3 

142.8 

141.7 

148.8 

144.4 

140.35 

21  May. 

148.3 

147.5 

148.4    148.1 

154.1 

152.3     1154.7 

153.7 

150.90 

5  Jnne. 

150.9 

146.9 

148.0    148.6 

154.4 

153.8 

155.9 

154.7 

151.65 

1  June. 

156.5 

152.2 

158.1  |155.6 

162.2 

159  5 

162.9 

161.5 

158.55 

8  June. 

154.0 

153.0 

154.8    153.9 

160.4 

157.6 

159.9 

159.3 

156.60 

6  June. 

160.9 

160.6 

160.9 

160.8 

166.1 

164.3 

166.3 

165.6 

163.20 

13  June. 

143.031  140.37  |l43.  73  142.38 

148.82   146.82 

150.98 

148.88 

1  145.63 

26  May. 

COLCHESTER   COUNTY,   1900. 


111.0 

106.5 

115.3  !l!0.9 

120.5 

114.5 

121.8 

118.9 

114.90 

25  April 

131.5 

127.0 

132.9 

130.5 

13S.3 

138.0 

139.2 

138.  5 

134.50 

15  May. 

127.9 

124.2 

126.5 

126.2 

133.  5 

133.2 

136.3 

134.3 

130.25 

11  May- 

133.4 

130.9 

137.6 

134.0 

141.3 

138.0 

143.1 

140.8 

137.40 

18  May. 

130.1 

133.4 

136.8 

133.4 

140.2 

141.1 

147.0 

142.8 

138.10 

19  May. 

146.7 

146.7 

147.7 

147.0 

152.7 

151.3    |154.1 

152.7 

149.85 

30  May. 

151.7 

148.7 

153.8  1151.4 

1156.3 

155.3 

159.7 

157.1 

154.25 

4  June. 

153.1 

155.4     1156.4  ;155.0 

158.4 

161.6 

161.5 

160.5 

157.75 

7  June. 

154.7 

154.8 

156.2  1155.2 

1159.3 

159.0 

159.6 

159.3 

157.25 

7  June. 

164.0 

162.3 

163.9  J163.4 

168.4 

166.4 

168.2 

167.7 

165.55 

15  June. 

140.41 

138.99  !142.7l'l40.70 

146.89 

145.84  '149.05 

147.26 

143.93 

24  May. 

390       PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,   1900. — MACKAY. 
PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS — Continued. 

PICTOU    COUNTY,    1900. 


First  Seen. 

Becoming  Common. 

General  Phenochrons. 

Coast. 

Low 
lands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast. 

Low- 
lands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Annual 
date. 

Mensual 
date. 

112.1 

112.5      121.2 

115.3 

122.3 

122.7 

129.1 

124.7 

120.00 

30  April. 

132.9 

133.4      133.1 

133.1 

137.8 

142.6     1139.9 

140.1 

136.60 

17  Mny. 

135.7 

122.7      126.9 

128.4 

138.0 

128.7     1131.0 

132.6 

130.50 

HMny. 

141.7 

135.6 

139.4 

138.9 

146.9 

141.5     144.4 

144.2 

141.55 

22  May. 

138.7 

135.4 

138.7 

137.0 

147.1 

147.1     1145.5 

146.7 

142.15 

23  May. 

140.  5 

151.7 

149.7 

14'.).:$ 

153.7 

160.1 

154.3 

156.0 

152.65 

2  June. 

151.6 

151.1 

153.0 

1.YL.9 

159.4 

lfiO.2 

158.2 

159.2 

155.55 

5  June. 

154.3 

152.8 

155.8    154.3 

160.4 

159.9 

161.7 

160.7 

157.50 

7  June. 

153.9 

156.5 

155.5 

155.3 

158.3 

159.3 

160.0    159.2 

157.25 

7  June. 

160.8 

162.2 

161.5 

161.5 

165.7 

106.9 

165.7  |166.1 

163.80 

13  June. 

142.82'  141.39 

143.48142.56' 

148.% 

148.90  '148.  98  148.  93 

145.75 

26  May. 

ANTIGOXISH   COUNTY,    19CO. 


118.1 

124.9 

121.50 

2  May. 

135.5 

141  1 

138  30 

19  Msiy 

131.8 

140.7 

136  25 

17  May. 

136  1 

143  6 

139  85 

20  May 

136.1 

149  0 

142  55 

23  May. 

149  8  ' 

156  8 

153  30 

155.9 
157.7 

162.9 
163.2 

159.40 
160  45 

9  June. 
10  June. 

157.1 

]62  2 

159  65 

161.2 

167  0 

164  10 

14  June. 

143.93 

151  11 

147  53 

28  May 

. 

RICHMOND    COUNTY,    1900. 


119  1 

128  9 

124  00 

4  May 

139.4 

147  6 

143  50 

24  May. 

138  5 

145  6 

142  05 

2.3  May 



144.2 
142.2 

152.4 
153  9 

148.30 
148  05 

29  May. 
29  May  . 

159  7 

165  1 

162  40 

12  June 

163.6 

170  3 

106  95 

16  June. 

163  0 

168  5 

165  75 

15  June. 

168.5 

175.0 

171  75 

21  June. 

178  3 

183  9 

181  10 

1  July. 

151.65 

159.12 

155.38 

5  June. 

PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,    1900. —  MAf'KAV.      391 
PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS — Continued. 

CAPE   BRETON    COUNTY,    1900. 


First  Seen. 

Becoming  Common. 

General  Phenochronn. 

Coast. 

Low- 
lands. 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Coast. 

Low- 
lands 

High- 
lands. 

Aver- 
age. 

Annual 
date. 

Monsual 
date. 

110.1 

116.2 
140.0 
139.4 
140.0 
141.0 
156.3 
162.7 
164.8 
166.1 
172.2 

113.15 
137.85 
137.80 
137.80 
138.35 
153.80 
160.50 
161.55 
164.20 
170.25 

24  April. 
18  MHy. 
18  May. 
18  May. 
19  M*y. 
3  June. 
10  June. 
11  June. 
14  Jane. 
20  June. 

135  7 

136.2 

135  6 

135.7 

151  3 

158  3 

158  3 

162  3 

IfiS  3 



i 

i 

..  145.18 

149.87,'  147.52 

28  Mav. 

INVERNESS   COUNTY    1000. 


117  8 

'  128  4 

193  10 

4  May 

134.7 

1142  1 

138  40 

19  May 

145.0 
141  6 

1153.2 

148  7 

149.10 
145  15 

30  May. 
26  M«y 

137  4 

148  4 

142  90 

23M»y 

' 

158  9 

164  0  ' 

161  75 

11  June 

159  G 

...     1167.1  1 

163  35 

13  June. 

163  0 

168  I  | 

165  55 

15  Juno. 

159  7 

1(15  3 

162  50 

12  .Tune. 

162  8 

.    170.3 

166.55 

16  June. 



148.  05' 

155.62 

151.83 

1  June. 

VICTORIA   COUNTY,    1900. 


119.5 

125.1 

12-2.30 

3  May. 



137.0 
139  3 

142.1 
144.4 

139.55 
141.85 

20  M»y. 
22M*y. 

140.9  | 
136.1 

146.9 
146.5 

143.90 
141.30 

24  M*y. 
22  May. 

154.4 
158.9 

159.9 
164.fi 

157.15 
161.75 

7  June. 
11  June. 

161.1 

165.6 

16:;.  35 

13  Juno. 

160.7 

162.9 

161.80 

11  Jun«. 

170  5 

175.4 

172.95 

22  June. 

147.84 

153.34 

1E0.59 

31  May. 

392       PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,    1000. — MACKAY. 

PHENOCHRON    CURVES    OF    FLOWERING. 
(Meao  of  "Jtrtf  seen  "  and  •'  becoming  o&mmon  "). 


in  oiacr 

from 
SOUTH  tc 
NORTH. 
and  froni 
WEST  10 
EAST. 


PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATION^   CANADA,    1900. —  MACK  AY.      393 

3. 

REMARKS  ON  THE  NOVA  SCOTIAN  PHENOCHRONS. 

The  Nova  Scotian  phenochrons  are  based  on  observations 
made  in  from  ten  to  thirty  observation  stations  in  each  county, 
on  the  100  phenomena  briefly  indicated  on  pages  386  to  391 
— preceding  "  Phenological  Observations  in  Canada,  1900." 

The  observations,  as  a  rule,  are  carried  on  by  the  pupils  of 
the  public  schools,  who  are  in  competition  with  each  other  as  to 
who  will  be  the  first  observer  of  each  phenomenon  each  year 
As  these  pupils  often  radiate  as  many  as  two  miles  from  the 
school  house  each  day,  the  observations  "  when  first  seen  "  are 
likely  to  be  as  early  as  the  most  favorable  spot  in  each  school 
section  will  allow.  The  second  date  recorded — "  when  becom- 
ing common " — is  more  a  matter  of  judgment ;  but  must 
practically  be  as  near  the  date  "  whin  first  seen"  in  the  most 
unfavorable  spots  of  each  school  section  as  can  be  determined. 

The  average  differences  between  these  two  dates  of  flowering 
— "  when  first  seen  "  and  "  when  becoming  common  " — in  each 
county  of  the  Province  for  the  ten  plants  selected  for  our  study 
are  as  follows  : 

Days.  Days. 

Yarmouth 11.24  Guysboro   7.08 

Shelburne 7.50  Cumberland G.50 

Digby 7.81  Colchester 6.56 

Queens   8.06  Pictou 6.39 

Annapolis 6.79  Antigonish 7.21 

Lunenburg . 6.74  Richmond 7.47 

Kings 7.41  Cape  Breton 4.69 

Hants 6.28  Inverness 7.57 

Halifax 8.35  Victoria 5.50 

The  average  difference  between   the  two  dates  for  the  Pro- 

o 

vince  is  7.175  days — about  one  week  and  four  hours. 

Owing  to  the  mild  winter  weather  in  Yarmouth,  some  plants 
flower  very  early  in  sunny  spots ;  but  the  general  flowering  is 
so  retarded  as  to  be  less  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  the  Province 
than  the  "  first "  flowering.  On  the  average,  it  appears  that 
flowering  becomes  common  about  one  week  after  the  first 
blossoms  are  seen. 


394      PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. — MACKAY. 


ORDER  OF   FLOWERING   (MEAN   OF  "  WHEN   FIRST   SEEN  "    AND 

"  WHEN  BECOMING  COMMON  ")  IS  THE  PROVINCE  AND 

IN  EACH  COUNTY. 


Mean  flowering  phcnochron.s  for 
whole  Province  of  Nova  Scotia. 


113.01  Mayflower  25  Apr . 

133.69  Red  Maple     14  May 

135.33  Blue  Violet 16 

137.53  Dandelion 18 

137.86  Strawberry 18 

151.96  Wild  Red  Cherry. . . .  1  June 

153.39  Blueberry 3 

156.93  Apple 6 

157.05  Buttercup 7 

165.05  Lilac    .  ...15 


Order  of  flowering  in  each  County. 

o     '-G 

•-• 

a 

Order  of  fl 
ering  for 
Nova  Sco 

Yarmouth. 

Shelburne. 

A 

M 

2 

X 

H 
5 

Annapolis. 

Lunenburg 

•f. 

M 

c 

5 

. 

J 

X 

S 

Guysboro. 

Cumberlan 

Colchester. 

Pictou. 

Antigonish 

Richmond. 

Cape  Breto 
Inverness. 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1    1 

2 

t 

4 

8 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

'2 

2 

2 

•2 

a 

2 

2 

2   3 

3 

0 

ft 

ft 

4 

1 

4 

8 

:: 

8 

1 

8 

I 

3 

3 

3 

4    5 

4 

2 

8 

4 

3!  5 

8 

5 

4 

ft 

4 

ft 

4 

4 

4 

5 

3    4 

5 

8 

2 

2 

5 

1 

5 

1 

5 

4 

ft 

4 

ft 

ft 

5 

4 

5    2 

k 

i 

6 

7 

7    7 

7 

T 

6 

(i 

6 

7 

6 

76 

6 

6 

6   6 

7 

0 

6 

e 

6 

0 

7 

7 

j 

6 

7 

6 

7 

7 

7 

9 

7    8 

8 

8 

0 

8 

8 

B 

B 

9 

B 

8 

B 

9 

9 

9 

8 

81  9 

1 

9 

B 

9 

9 

9 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

B 

8 

8 

8   8 

7|  9   7 

i 

10 

10  10  10  10  10  10 

1010 

10 

10  10  10 

10  10  10  10  10 

1 

1 

We  see  from  the  above  that  the  order  of  the  ten  plants  in 
our  schedule  and  the  tables,  is  not  the  exact  order  of  flowering 
in  the  Province  as  a  whole.  The  Red  Maple  and  Blue  Violet 
change  places,  as  do  also  the  Apple  and  the  Buttercup.  And  the 
order  for  the  Province  is  noc  that  for  each  county.  In  Yarmouth 
and  Shelburne,  the  Dandelion  (4)  and  Strawberry  (o)  come 
ahead  of  the  Red  Maple  and  the  Violet.  The  Blueberry  (7)  in 
the  five  South  Southwestern  counties  comes  ahead  of  the  Wild 
Cherry  (6);  while  in  the  case  of  the  Apple  (8)  and  Buttercup 
(9)  they  are  in  normal  order  while  in  the  following  counties  they 
are  mostly  reversed. 

The  plate  (page  392)  of  curves  of  the  "  mean  "  flowering 
phenochrons  for  1900  of  eight  plants  (two,  the  Maple  and  Violet, 
omitted  because  they  would  crowd  4  and  5)  throughout  the 
eighteen  counties  of  the  Province,  which  represent  the  "general 


PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,   1900. — MACKAY.      395 

phenochrons  "  given  in  the  last  two  columns  of  the  tables  pre- 
ceding, show  to  the  eye  the  general  trend  as  well  as  several 
peculiarities  of  the  time  of  flowering. 

The  general  trend  is  seen  in  the  later  flowering  as  the  coun- 
ties lie  north  and  east.  There  is  a  general  conformity  in  this 
trend  between  the  eight  plants  which  fall  into  four  groups,  the 
Mayflower  averaging  113.01  (24th  April),  the  Dandelion  and 
Strawberry  137  +  (18th  May;,  the  Wild  Cherry,  Blueberry, 
Buttercup  and  Apple  154  +  (4th  June),  and  the  Lilac  165  + 
<15th  June). 

A  general  trend  is  also  seen  in  passing  from  Guysboro  in  the 
east  back  to  Cumberland  in  the  west;  although  moving  on  the 
whole  northward,  the  flowering  becomes  earlier.  A  similar 
change  takes  place  in  passing  from  Richmond  to  Cape  Breton. 
This  latter  is  more  remarkable,  for  Cape  Breton  is  not  only  north 
but  also  east  of  Richmond.  This  seems  to  suggest  that  the 
observers  in  Guysboro  and  paiticularly  in  Richmond,  might  not 
have  been  so  keen  in  the  search  for  the  first  flowering  as  those 
in  Cumberland  and  Cape  Breton  The  small  number  of  obser- 
vers in  these  counties  also  suggests  such  a  possibility.  But  by 
reference  to  the  table,  it  will  be  seen,  that  as  a  rule,  in  counties 
where  the  observation  stations  are  so  numerous  that  ten  could 
be  selected  from  the  coast,  ten  from  the  low  inlands,  and  ten 
from  the  high  inlands,  the  earliest  flowering  is  on  the  low  inlands, 
then  on  the  coast,  and  latest  on  the  highlands.  It  must  be 
remembered,  that  there  is  a  very  great  difference  in  the  altitudes 
of  what  are  called  the  low  and  high  inlands  in  the  different 
counties. 

From  such  considerations,  it  is  proposed  in  future  to  divide 
the  Province  into  meteorological  districts  and  sub-districts, 
instead  of  counties — the  sub-districts  being  the  coast  belt,  low 
inland  belt  and  highland  belt  of  each  district;  each  district 
including  a  simple  meteorological  region  or  geographical  slope. 

Among  the  peculiarities  shown  by  these  curves  are,  for 
instance,  the  lateness  of  the  Strawberry  as  compared  with  th« 


396       PHENOLO6ICAL   OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,    1900. — MACKAY. 

Dandelion  in  Shelburne,  Queens  and  Guysboro ;  and  its  advanced 
appearance  in  Kings,  Cumberland,  Inverness  and  Victoria. 
Does  the  breath  of  the  Atlantic  retard  the  flowering  of  the 
Strawberry  as  compared  with  the  Dandelion  ? 

It  al*o  appears  that  the  southern  and  sea  surrounded  Yar- 
mouth is  favorable  to  the  early  flowering  of  the  Mayflower,  but 
comparatively  not  so  favorable  to  the  Lilac.  The  manner  in 
which  the  other  curves  intersect  each  other  have  also  their 
explanations.  But  we  are  not  yet  in  a  position  to  be  able  to- 
state  them. 

The  stations  of  observations  are,  necessarily,  not  the  same  in 
each  county  each  year.  It  is  therefore  possible  that  the  pheno- 
chrons  might"  be  affected  by  a  change  in  the  relative  number  of 
coastal,  inland  and  highland  stations. 

As  all  these  observations  are  bound  carefully  into  a  large 
volume  for  each  year,  anyone  having  the  time  can  use  the  facts 
recorded  in  any  combination  promising  the  most  useful  results. 
The  present  selection  of  ten  plants,  and  the  comparison  of  their 
flowering  pbenochrons  in  each  county  is  merely  a  sort  of  pre- 
liminary or  provisional  testing  of  the  possibilities  and  probable 
value  of  such  observations — sufficient  to  interest  the  observers, 
while  they  are  developing  accuracy — and  a  record  of  facts  for 
future  generalization. 

In  the  second  plate  (page  397)  there  is  a  comparison  of  the 
"  mean  "  flowering  phenochrons  of  the  Mayflower,  Strawberry,. 
Apple  and  Lilac,  for  the  years  1898,  1899  and  1900. 

It  indicates  that  the  Spring  of  1898  gave  early  promise,, 
while  those  of  1899  and  1900  were  later  as  measured  by  the 
Mayflower.  The  averages  of  these  two  years  over  the  whole 
Province  are  nearly  the  same,  the  differences  in  the  different 
counties  being  explicable  as  due  to  prevalent  winds  and  degrees 
of  sunshine. 

As  measured  by  the  Strawberry,  the  first  half  of  May  1900, 
was  nearly  a  week  more  backward  than  in  1898  and  1899. 

As  measured  by  the  Lilac,  inhere  was   not  much    difference 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,   CANADA,   1900. — MACK  AY      897 

PHRNOCHRON    CURVES    OF    FLOWERING. 
(Mean  of  "yfrV  seen  "  and  "  becoming  common  "). 


Arranged 

in  oider 

from 

tO 

NORTH, 

and  from 

Wevr  to 

EAST. 


398       PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1900. — MACKAY. 

between  the  three  seasons  in  the  state  of  vegetation  during  the 
first  week  or  two  of  June. 

But  the  continuous  black  line  of  1900  is  the  lowest  and  latest 
for  the  Strawberry,  Apple  and  Lilac ;  so  that  generally  the 
month  of  May  and  the  first  week  in  June  of  this  year  was  later 
from  the  "flowering"  or  estivation  point  of  view. 

It  will  be  noticed  on  this  table  that  the  curves  for  the  three 
years  are  to  a  great  extent  conformable,  which  demonstrates  the 
important  effect  of  the  position  of  each  county.  The  variations 
from  con  form  ability,  are  probably  due  to  the  differences  in  the 
winds  and  sunshine. 

In  the  meantime  we  can  make  no  mistake  in  recording  and 
preserving  at  many  accurate  local  phenological  facts  as  possible. 
In  a  few  years  we  shall  be  better  able  to  estimate  their  value 
for  many  purposes. 

In  the  future  arrangements  may  be  made  for  the  publication 
of  the  observations  of  each  year,  as  Dr.  Ihne  of  Darmstadt  is 
now  doing  for  Europe.  Our  observations  are  more  voluminous, 
however,  and  the  cost  of  full  publication  would  be  great. 


X.— RAINFALL  NOTES,  NOVA  SCOTIA.— %    F.    \V.    W.  DOAXE, 
M.  Can.  Soc.  C.  R,  City  Engineer,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Read  May  13th,  190 1.) 

If  officials  in  charge  of  water  works,  water  power  and  sewer 
systems  are  inclined  to  profit  by  knowledge  acquired  in  the 
school  of  experience,  the  lessons  presented  to  them  during  the 
year  just  closed  have  been  severe  and  extraordinary  ones.  The 
long  drought  of  1900  will  be  remembered  and  referred  to  by 
meteorologists  and  others  for  many  years  to  come.  One  of  the 
severest  ever  recorded,  occurred  between  the  months  of  May  and 
November.  This  condition  was  far-reaching,  and  extended 
throughout  the  whole  of  New  England  and  New  Brunswick, 
but  does  not  seem  to  have  reached  Nova  Scotia.  The  scarcity  of 
water  in  public  supplies  as  a  result  of  the  unusually  dry  season, 
was  one  of  the  most  unpleasant  features  of  the  year.  Water 
supplies,  heretofore  considered  inexhaustible,  failed.  The  fields 
and  forests  became  thoroughly  wilted  and  parched.  The  rural 
population  suffered  not  only  frpm  the  failure  of  wells,  but  more 
from  the  failure  of  their  crops ;  and  added  to  this,  was  the 
devastation  and  damage  caused  by  numerous  forest  fires  which 
covered  large  areas  of  country. 

There  were  many  superintendents  of  water  works  who,  in  the 
spring,  contemplated  with  satisfaction  the  overflowing  reservoirs 
and  the  abundant  sources  of  supply  which  fed  them,  and  who 
thouo-ht,  no  matter  how  much  their  fellow  citizens  consumed  and 

P5          * 

wasted,  nature  had  provided,  and  would  continue  to  provide, 
sufficient  water  for  all  purposes.  Before  the  summer  had  far 
advanced,  the  fast  receding  water  lines  on  the  reservoir  embank- 
ments and  the  steady  decrease  of  the  "  meadow  stream  and 
mountain  torrent "  warned  them  of  the  approaching  short  supply, 

(399) 


400  RAINFALL    NOTES,     NOVA    SCOTIA. — DOANE. 

and  not  until  late  fall,  and  not  even  then  in  many  localities,  did 
the  dreaded  water  famine  come  to  an  end. 

With  this  condition  all  around  us,  Nova  Scotia  is  to  be  con- 
gratulated. Precipitation  reports  from  Yarmouth,  Halifax, 
Truro  and  Sydney,  show  that  the  rainfall  during  the  summer 
was  about  the  average. 

In  St.  John,  New  Brunswick,  Mr.  Murdoch,  the  engineer  in 
charge  of  sewers  and  water  works,  states  that  the  whole  rainfall 
during  the  months  o£  Jnly,  August  and  September,  amounted  to 
only  4.65  inches,  or  an  average  of  1.55  inches  per  month,  which 
was  the  lowest  in  six  years. 

During  the  same  months  in  Halifax,  the  rainfall  was  10.908 
inches,  or  very  little  below  the  average.  Truro  had  a  rainfall 
of  11.11  inches,  Sydney,  8.76,  and  Yarmouth,  11.09,  inches, 
while  the  total  rainfall  in  Nova  Scotia  was  above  the  average. 
The  total  precipitation  at  Sydney  was  the  highest  on  record. 

The  last  paper  read  before  you  on  this  subject  (Trans.,  vol.  ix, 
p.  279,)  gave  the  maximum  storms  to  December  31,  1896.  Since 
that  date  new  records  have  been  made  for  minimum  as  well 
as  maximum  rainfall.  In  August,  1899,  the  rainfall  at  Halifax 
was  1.542  inches,  the  lowest  on  lecord  for  that  month.  In  Octo- 
ber, 1897,  the  rainfall  was  0.746  inches,  the  lowest  record  for  any 
month.  In  November,  1898,  the  highest  rainfall  for  that  month, 
viz.,  10.248  inches,  was  recorded. 

On  the  18th  of  June,  1897,  a  heavy  storm  occurred  at 
Halifax.  It  was  reported  by  Mr.  Augustus  Allison,  Dominion 
Government  Meteorological  Agent,  as  0.577  inches,  and  4.2  hours 
in  duration.  Mr.  R.  Cogswell  gave  the  precipitation  as  0.5  for 
the  heaviest  part  of  the  storm.  It  Is  to  be  regretted  that  the 
actual  time  of  the  heaviest  downpour  was  not  noted.  Several 
observers  give  the  time  as  about  15  minutes,  which  would  make 
the  rate  of  fall  two  inches  per  hour. 

Mr.  James  Little,  meteorological  observer  at  Truro,  reports  a 
thunderstorm  of  great  severity,  accompanied  by  heavy  rain,  on 


RAINFALL     NOTES,    NOVA    SCOTIA. — DOANE.  401 

August  1st,  1900.  Rain  began  to  fall  at  11.30  a.  in.,  and  in  25 
minutes  measured  0.765  inches,  a  rate  of  1.83  inches  per  hour. 
On  the  same  day  a  second  heavy  rain  and  thunderstorm  lasted 
from  3.15  p.  m.  to  4.30  p.  m.,  the  measurement  being  0.85  inches, 
a  rate  of  0.68  inches  per  hour.  No  heavy  rain  was  observed 
elsewhere  in  Nova  Scotia  on  that  date. 

The  tables  appended  show  further  details  of  the  rainfall  at 
Halifax,  Truro,  Sydney  and  Yarmouth  during  1900: — 


402 


RAINFALL    NOTES,    NOVA    SCOTIA. — DOANE. 


PRECIPITATION  AT  HALIFAX,   N.    8.,    1900. 

TABLE  COMPILED  FROM    RETURNS  OF  MR.  AUGUSTUS  ALLISON,  MET.  AGENT, 

SHOWING  DEPTH  OF  RAINFALL  AND  MELTED  SNOW  IN  INCHES  AND 

DURATION  OF  EACH  STORM. 


Day  of  Month. 

JANUARY. 

FEBRUARY. 

MARCH. 

APRIL. 

MAY. 

JUNE 

2 

o 

w 

02 

9 

ja 

V 

t—t 

2 
a 

o 

a 

cc 

a 

0 

h-  1 

2 

a 

0 

tt 

CO 

2 
"o 

a 
i—  i 

2 

s 
o 

w 

o 

hH 

2 

§ 
W 

d 

• 

o 

h-  1 

tn 

!* 

O 

to 

CO 

E 

o 
i—  t 

1 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 

8.9 
1.2 
2  1 

.800 
.020 
.140 

1.0 

.120 

20 
17  3 

.020 
.692 

4.0 

.060 

3.4 
6.2 
2.5 

.208 
.357 
.162 

2.0 

'2!5 
5.0 
9.8 

.015 

"oeo 

.030 
.620 

6.5 
1.2 

.310 
.048 

5.0 
5.0 
1   3 

.409 
.124 
.016 

2.0 
14.5 
3.7 
4.0 

.020 
1.340 
.058 
.050 

3.5 

.060 

7.0 
13.7 
15.0 
4.5 
0  9 
1.0 

.160 
.599 
.330 
.060 
.010 
.018 

0.4 

4.7 
4.0 
7.5 

T. 
.142 

.200 
.498 

4.6 

.213 

1.5 

.110 

4.0 

.167 

.020 

7.1 
3.1 

.634 
.030 

15  7 
3.4 

2  3(54 
.178 

0.2 
9.6 

T. 

.842 

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1.502 
.110 

17.5 
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3.5 

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1.212 

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1.7 

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0.5 

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9,  0 

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6.0 

.333 

10  1 

522 

8.532 

5.277 

6.577 

3.949 

4.254 

2.656 

RAINFALL    NOTES,    NOVA    SCOTIA. — DOANE. 


403 


PRECIPITATION   AT  HALIFAX,   N.    S.,    1900. 

TABLE  COMPILED  FROM   RETURNS  OF   MR.  AUGUSTUS  ALLISON,  MET.  AGENT, 

SHOWING  DEPTH  OF  RAINFALL  AND  MELTED  SNOW  IN  INCHES,  AND 

DURATION  OF  EACH  STORM. 


4 

1 

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3.321 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X. 


Tit  AN  s.— BB. 


404 


RAINFALL    NOTES,    NOVA    SCOTIA. — DOANE. 


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RAINFALL    NOTES,    NOVA    SCOTIA. — DOANE. 


405 


PRECIPITATION  AT  HALIFAX,  N.  S. 

TABLE  SHOWING,  IN  INCHES,  MONTHLY  RAINFALL  DURING  1900,  IN  COMPARISON 

WITH  MAXIMUM,  MINIMUM  AND  AVERAGE  MONTHLY  PRECIPITATION, 

FROM  1869  TO  1900. 


Month. 

Year. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Average, 
1869-1900. 

Rainfall, 
1900. 

January    

1895 

10.131 

5  757 

8KOO 

« 

1896 

1.72 

February  

1870 

10.34 

4.892 

5  277 

« 

1873 

1.61 

March  

1878 

10.274 

5  449 

fi  177 

« 

1889 

2.046 

April  

1889 

7.403 

4  075 

3  949 

1886 

0.82 

May  

1886 

8  82 

4  170 

4  254 

1894 

1.769 

June  

1874 

7.92 

3.675 

2  656 

ii 

1879 

1.191 

July  

1896 

8.729 

3.918 

1  872 

1894 

1.059 

August  

1887 

8  351 

4.272 

3  993 

« 

1899 

1.542 

September   .... 

1896 

12.092 

3.613 

5.043 

1878 

0.800 

October  

1896 

15.039 

5.688 

7.365 

« 

1897 

0.746 

November    .... 

1898 

10.248 

5.753 

6.858 

« 

1882 

1.392 

December     .... 

1893 

10.167 

5.136 

3.321 

« 

1875 

1.61 

Totals 

1896 

69  862 

56.332 

09.697 

« 

18!)4 

45.808 

RAINFALL    NOTES,    NOVA    SCOTIA. — DOANE. 


PRECIPITATION    AT    HALIFAX,    N.  S. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  MONTHLY  AND  ANNUAL  DEPTH  OF  RAIN  AND  MELTED 
SNOW,  EXPRESSED  IN  INCHES  ;  ALSO  THE  AMOUNT  THAT  HAS  FALLEN  FROM 
JANUARY  IST  TO  THE  END  OF  EACH  MONTH,  INCLUSIVE,  DURING  EACH  YEAR. 

Compiled  from  Observation*  and  Records   made  by  the  Meteorological  Agent  of 
the  Dominion  Government. 


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1869 

4.53 

4.38 

8.91      7.95 

16.86 

2,57 

19.43 

5.57 

25.00 

3.92 

28.92 

1870 

7.11 

10.34 

17.45 

3.02 

20.47 

3.91 

24.38 

3.19 

27.57 

1.69 

29.26 

1871 

3.73 

5.88 

9.61 

6.16 

15.77 

4.88 

20.65 

2.59 

23.24 

2.96 

26.20 

1872 

3.88 

4.49 

8.37 

5.37 

13.74 

2.85 

16.59 

4.44 

21.03 

4.23 

25.26 

1873 

7.83 

1.61 

9.44 

4.09 

13.53 

2.86 

16.39 

2.34 

18.73 

2.96 

21.69 

1874 

5.42 

531    10.73 

3.98 

14.71 

4.55 

19.26 

4.77 

24.03 

7.92 

31.95 

1875 

3.48 

5.90 

9.380 

2.11 

11.49  j  3.38 

14.87 

3.96 

18.83 

4.07 

22.90 

1876 

3.576 

6.401    9.977 

6.329 

16.306   3208 

19.514 

5.66225.176 

3.376 

28.552 

1877 

4.200 

1.809    6.009 

8.666 

14.675    3  801 

18.476 

4,02422.500 

3.841 

26.341 

1878 

7.534 

2.697  10.231 

10.  274  20.  505'  3.  452  23.  957 

5.76929.726 

4.477 

34.203 

1879 

4.400 

3.001    7.401 

604413.445   3.481 

16.926 

4.68721.613 

1.191 

22.804 

1880 

7.738 

5.12212.860 

3.365 

16.225   4797 

21.022 

4.08825.110 

1.34326.453 

1881 

3.607 

5.329    8.936 

6.55615.492   3.498 

18.990 

2.46021.450 

530826.751 

1882 

6.840 

5.94912.789 

7.068  19.857i  4.824 

24.681 

4.67729.358 

5.50734.865 

1883 

4.930 

3.860   8.790 

494113.731    3.703 

17.434 

8.61326.047 

3.32229.369 

1884 

4.406 

6.161  10.567 

7  034  17.601 

7.213 

24.814 

3.62928.443 

3.77332.216 

1885 

6.388 

5.09011.478 

3.889 

15.367 

3.520 

18.887 

3.28222.169 

2.749 

24.918 

1886 

8.67 

3.84    12.51 

4.03 

16.54 

0.82 

17  36 

8.82 

26  18 

2.71 

28.89 

1887 

7.656 

6.735  14.391 

4629 

19.020   6.38625.406 

2.12627.532 

2.121 

29.653 

1888 

5.442 

6.28411.726 

4.310 

16.036    3.67519.711 

2.87722.588 

4.939 

27.527 

1889 

4.391 

6.181  10.572 

2.046 

12.618 

7.40320.021 

3.871  23.892 

3.755 

27.647 

1890 

3.963 

4.645   8.608 

9.889 

18.497 

2.958 

21  455 

3.  970  2.->.  425 

3440 

28.865 

1891 

8.383 

8.74017.123 

2.685 

19.808 

4.010 

23  818 

4.19528.013 

4.131 

32.144 

1892 

6321 

2.605    8.926 

5.986 

14.912 

2.653 

17.565 

5.45923.024 

3.638 

26.662 

1893 

4.781 

5.979 

10.760 

2.303 

13063 

4.209 

17.272 

5.05422.326 

1.75324.079 

1894 

7-122 

3.571 

10.693 

3.623 

14.316 

5.648 

19.964 

1.76921.733 

3.803,25.536 

1895 

10.131 

4.605 

14.736 

5.931 

20.667 

3.95624.623 

4.08928.712 

1.827 

30.539 

1896 

1.720 

4.199 

5.919 

8.786 

14.705 

1.41316.118 

2.532  18.650 

4.671  23.321 

1897 

S.896 

2.898 

8.794 

5.470 

14.264 

6.211  20.475 

4.61325.088 

6.07031.158 

1898 

4.060 

4.422 

8.482 

4.058 

12.550 

7.346 

19.896 

236622.262   5.59827.860 

1899 

5.083 

3.613 

8.696 

7.178 

15.874 

3278 

19  152 

3.67722.829   3875 

26.704 

1900 

8.532   5.27713.809   6.57720.386 

394924.335   4.25428.589   2.656 

31.245 

RAINFALL    NOTES,    NOVA    SCOTIA. — DOANE. 


407 


PRECIPITATION    AT    HALIFAX,   N.   S. 
TABLE  SHOWING   THE    MONTHLT   AND    ANNUAL    DEPTH   OF  RAIN  AND   MELTKD 

SNOW,    EXPRESSED     IN     INCHES  ;   ALSO    THE    AMOUNT    THAT    HAS    FALLEN   FROM 

JANUARY  IST  TO  THE  KND  OF  EACH  MONTH,   INCLUSIVE,  DURING   EACH   YEAR. 

Compiled  from    Observations  and  Records   made  by    the   Meteorological   Agent  of 
the   Dominion   Government. 


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2.92 

31.84 

2.58 

34.42 

1  57 

35.99 

7.30 

43.29 

5.47 

48.76 

5.77 

54.53 

1870 

3.21 

32.47 

2.20 

34.67 

3.33 

38.00 

6.85    4-1.85 

6.28 

51.13 

6.06 

57.19 

1871 

3.38 

29.58 

3.69 

33.27 

4.81 

38.08 

4.49   42.57 

4.18 

46  75 

4.39 

51.14 

1872 

2.88 

28.14 

6.82 

34.96 

1.41 

36.37 

4.88    41.25 

6.65 

47.90 

6.16 

54.06 

1873 

3.90 

25.59 

4.45 

30.04 

4.48 

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7.98 

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4.31 

55.44 

1874 

2.29 

34.24 

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37.61 

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3.58 

48.69 

5.49 

54.18 

1875 

5.61 

28.51    3.56 

32.07 

2.06 

34.  13 

9.98    44.11 

5.54 

49.65 

1.61 

51.26 

1876 

3.914 

32.4461.909 

34.375 

6.094 

40.469 

4.076  44.545 

7.397 

51.942 

3.16455106 

1877 

4.468 

30.8093.539 

34.348 

3.164 

37.512 

6.85744.369 

8.678 

">3.047 

4.49357.540 

1878 

1.483, 

35.6863.127 

38.813      .800 

39.613 

5.06044.673 

6.909 

r>1.582 

5.12056.702 

1879 

3.843 

26.6474.827 

31.474   2.600 

34.074 

4.76038.834 

4.837 

43.671 

4.029 

47.700 

1880 

3.086 

29.5393.920 

33.459   5.702 

39.161 

4.59043.751 

4.710 

48.461 

4.291  52.752 

1881 

3.177 

29.  935  3.  062  32.  990   3.  1  05 

36.095 

4.206'40.301 

4.420 

44.721 

7.03451.755 

1882 

5.071 

39.9363.925 

43.861 

5.914 

49.775 

7.40357.178 

1.392 

18.570 

3.45262.022 

1883 

3540 

32.9095.342 

38.251 

3.864 

42.115 

5.841  47.956   3.478 

51.434   6.678 

38.112 

1884 

8.294 

40.5102.771 

43.281 

1.788 

41069 

3.09348.162   5.992 

54.154   9.124 

63.278 

1885 

5.817 

30.7353.001 

33.736 

2.497 

36.233 

6.28042.513    5.423 

47.936'  8.693 

56.629 

1886 

6.53 

35.42   4.53 

39.95 

4.46 

44.41 

2.13   46.54 

5.28 

51.82 

5.47 

57.29 

1887 

2.045 

31.6988.351 

40.049   3.308 

43.357 

3.0584(5.415   6.718 

53.133   4.120 

57.253 

1888 

5.001  32  528  7.000 

39.528    5.331 

44.859 

685951.718    6.802 

58.520   7.774 

66.294 

1889 

2  668  30.315 

2.633 

32.948 

1.399 

34.347    4.179 

38.526    7.145 

45.671    2.988 

48.659 

1890 

2.141:31.006 

7.04238.048 

4.534 

42.582   6.603 

49.185    3.716 

52.901    7.202 

60.103 

1891 

4.00336.147 

3.38539.532 

3.052 

42.584 

9.621  52.205   2.388 

54.593   4.076 

58.669 

1892 

2.71029.3726.80936.181 

1.744 

37.925 

3.47241.397 

9.240 

50.637 

3.053 

53.690 

1893 

4.75728.8365.95434.790 

4.391 

39.181 

5.64044.821 

3.760 

48.581  10.167 

58.748 

1894 

1.059  26.595  3.993  30.588 

1.01031.598 

3.863  35.461 

5.  785  41.241!    4..Mi2 

45.808 

1895 

3.924  34.463  5.502  39.965 

2.491  42.456 

5.627  48  083 

8.22356.306   5.846 

62.  152 

1896 

8.729  32.050  3.037  35.087 

12.09247.179 

15.039 

52.218 

4.39666.614    3.24X 

69.862 

1897 

3.66134.8195.18540.004 

1.16941.173 

0.746 

41.919 

6.051 

47.970 

3.552 

51.522 

1898 

5.66231.6125.65137.163 

4.158'41.321 

4.845 

46.166 

10.248 

")6.414 

4.066 

60.480 

1899 

5.747J32.451  1.54233.993 

3.20137.194 

6.191 

43.385 

4.590 

47.975 

5.038 

53  013 

1900 

1.872  33.  11713.993  37.110 

5.043'42.153 

7.365 

49.518   6.858 

36.376   3.321  59.697 

408 


RAINFALL    NOTES,    NOVA    SCOTIA. — DOANE. 


PRECIPITATION    AT    SYDNEY,    N.   S. 
TABLE  COMPILED  FROM  RETURNS  OF  MR.  R.  L.  LAFFIN,   MET.  AGENT. 


MONTH  (1900). 

Precipitation. 
(1900.) 

Year. 

Total. 

January  

7.72 

1893 

33.49 

February    

5  60 

1894 

35  88 

March  

7.12 

1895 

38  81 

April  »  

6.66 

1896 

38  61 

May  

3.28 

1897 

29.23 

June    

3.44 

1898 

37  47 

July  

2.14 

1899 

39.58 

August   

2.54 

1900 

53.18 

September  

4.08 

October  

2.36 

November  

7.40 

December  

.84 

Totals  

53  18 

Average. 

38  28 

PRECIPITATION    AT    TRURO,    N.    S.,    1900. 
TABLE  COMPILED  FROM  RETURNS  OF  MR.  JAMES  LITTLE,  MET.  AGENT. 


MONTH. 

Rainfall. 

Snow. 

Melted 
Snow. 

Total. 

January  

4.37 

16  7 

1.30 

5.67 

February   

2  66 

20  0 

1  52 

4.18 

March 

3  55 

18  7 

1  44 

4  99 

April  

3.23 

15.2 

1.17 

4.40 

May    

3  60 

3  60 

June   

4  55 

4.55 

Julv    

2.51 

2.51 

August  

6.06 

6.06 

September  

2  54 

2.54 

October  

6.22 

0.5 

0.04 

6.26 

November  

4.97 

8.1 

0.63 

5.60 

December  

0.89 

25.5 

1.96 

2.85 

Totals.. 

45.15 

104.7 

8.06 

53.21 

PRECIPITATATION    AT    YARMOUTH,   N.  S.,  1900. 
FROM  RETURNS  OF  MR.  J.  E.  MURPHY,  MET.  AGENT. 


MONTH. 
July   ...        

Precipitation. 
2.65 

August  ....                     

3.28 

5.16 

October  •.  

11.38 

Total  for  year  .  , 

60.32 

TRANSACTIONS 

OK    THE 

Scotian  Jnstitute  of  .Science. 


SESSION    OF    1901-1902. 


I  —  ON  A  DETERMINATION  OF  THE  FREEZING-POINT  DEPRESSION 
CONSTANT  FOR  ELECTROLYTES.  —  BY  THOS.  C.  HEBB, 
M.  A.,  Dalkousie  College,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Communicated  on  10th  February,  190S,  by  Prof.  J.  O.  MacGreyor.) 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada,*  Dr. 
MacGregor  has  described  a  method  of  combining  the  observa- 
tions of  different  observers  on  the  freezing-point  depressions  of 
electrolytes,  for  which  the  ionization  coefficients  at  0°C.  are 
known,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  depression  constant 
for  electrolytes.  He  also  applied  the  method  to  a  few  sets  of 
observations  made  in  the  Dalhousie  College  Laboratory,  and 
found  that  the  value  so  obtained  agreed  very  closely  with  what 
one  would  expect  from  theory.  In  a  subsequent  paperf  pub- 
lished by  the  Nova  Scotian  Institute  of  Science,  he  described  a 
second  method,  and  applied  it  to  all  the  available  data  for 
electrolj'tes,  in  which  both  determinations  of  the  freezing-point 
depressions,  and  of  the  ionization  coefficients  had  been  made. 
At  his  suggestion,  I  have  applied  the  first  method  to  the  experi- 
mental material  contained  in  the  second  paper,  and  to  a  few 
observations  of  my  own  as  well,  with  the  result  given  below. 

The  method  is  based  upon  the  assumption,  verified  by 
experience,  that  the  formula:  6  =  k  (1  —  a)  +  fa  —  where  <f  is  the 


*  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Can.  (2),  Vol.  6,  Sec.  3,  3,  1900-01. 
t  Proc.  &  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  Vol.  x.  p.  211.  1899-00. 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.  CC. 

(409) 


410      DETERMINATION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT    DEPRESSION 

equivalent  depression,  i.  e.,  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point 
divided  by  the  concentration,  «  is  the  ionization  coefficient  at 
O°C.  and  k  and  I  are  constants — holds  for  electrolytes,  in  which 
the  dilution  is  sufficient  to  make  the  mutual  action  between  the 
molecules  probably  negligible.  If,  in  the  above  formula,  the 
concentration  be  expressed  in  gramme-equivalents  per  litre,  the 
constant  k  will  be  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point  caused  by 
a  gramme-equivalent  of  the  undissociated  electrolyte,  and  I  will 
be  the  depression  caused  by  a  gramme-equivalent  of  the  dissoci- 
ated electrolyte. 

Since  this  hold?,  it  is  evident  that,  if,  for  any  electrolyte,  we 
plot  equivalent  depressions  s  against  ionization  coefficients  a,  we 
will  at  sufficient  dilution  get  a  straight  line.  Hence,  knowing 
the  equivalent  depressions,  and  the  ionization  coefficients  for 
different  concentrations,  for  any  electrolyte,  we  can  draw  in  the 
ionization-equivalent  depression  curve.  Then,  finding  that 
portion  of  the  curve,  which  seems  to  be  rectilinear,  we  can  draw 
in  the  straight  line,  which  best  represents  the  results.  The 
equation  of  this  line  from  the  above  is  A  =  k  (1—  a)  +  la;  and  we 
may  determine  k  and  I  by  taking  two  points  on  the  line,  substi- 
tuting the  values  of  6  and  a  so  obtained  in  the  equation,  and  then 
solving  the  two  simultaneous  equations  obtained. 

Now  it  is  clear  that  the  constants,  k  and  I,  bear  a  simple 
relation  to  the  depression  constants,  i.  e.,  to  the  depression  of  the 
freezing-point  produced  by  a  gramme-molecule  of  the  undissoci- 
ated electrolyte,  and  the  depression  produced  by  a  gramme-ion 
of  the  free  ions.  Call  these  two  constants  m  and  i. 

In  the  case  of  NaCl,  KC1,  HC1,  NH4C1,  KNO3,  HN03  and 
KOH,  since  each  gramme-equivalent  is  a  gramme-molecule,  we 
have/c  =  m;  also,  since  each  molecule  breaks  up  into  two  ions 
each  of  which  is  equally  effective  in  lowering  the  freezing-point, 
^we  have  l  =  2i. 

In  the  case  of  BaCl2,  K2S04,  Na2S04  and  HaS04,  sines 
•each  gramme-molecule  contains  two  gramme-equivalents,  we 
have  fc=£ra;  and  we  have  l  =  %i,  if  we  assume  the  molecule  in 


CONSTANT    FOR    ELECTROLYTES — IIEBI5. 


411 


each  case  to  break  up  into  three  ions,  as,  according  to  Prof. 
MacGregor's  Diagram  of  Freezing-point  depressions,  it  seems  to 
do. 

In  the  case  of  MgS04  'each  gramme-molecule  contains  two 
gramme-equivalents,  hence  fc—  Jm ;  and  since  each  molecule 
breaks  up  into  two  ions  we  get  l  =  i. 

In  the  case  of  H3P04,  if  each  gramme-molecule  contains 
three  gramme-equivalents,  we  have  k  =  \m  ;  also,  if  each  molecule 
breaks  up  into  two  ions,  as  Loomis's  and  Jones's  results  seem  to 
imply,  we  have  l  =  % i. 

As  the  constants,  m  and  i,  depend  so  simply  on  the  constants, 
k  and  I,  the  accuracy  of  their  determination  will  depend  on  the 
accuracy  with  which  we  can  determine  k  and  I.  Dr.  MacGregor 
has  shewn  that  the  values  of  I  can  be  determined  with  a  much 
greater  degree  of  accuracy  than  can  k. 

Thus  if  AB  or  AB'  be  the  true  curve  representing  the  rela- 
tion between  6  and  a — the  curves  for  different  electrolytes  bend 
in  different  ways — then  the  equation  6=k  (1  —  a)-{-la  will  repre- 
sent the  straight  line  AE,  i.  e.,  the  tangent  to  the  curve  at 
infinite  dilution  if  AC  represents  unity. 

a  / 

A  A  f 


412     DETERMINATION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT    DEPRESSION 

If  in  this  equation  n  =  l  then  6=1  which  is  represented  OD 
the  diagram  by  DA.  Again  if  a=o  then  6-—h  which  is  repre- 
sented by  OE  on  the  diagram.  Now  suppose  that  in  drawing 
in  our  straight  line  we  consider  somfe  portion  as  QP  or  Q'P'  a& 
straight,  and  hence  get  the  line  as  represented  by  our  formula, 
to  be  A"E"  or  A'E'.  In  this  case  our  I  will  be  A"D  or  A'D- 
instead  of  the  true  value  AD,  and  k  will  be  OE'  or  OE"  instead 
of  OE.  The  error  in  I  is  A"A  or  A'A,  while  that  in  k  is  EE"  or 
EE'.  It  is  plain  that  A  A"  or  A  A'  is  less  than  EE"  or  EE',  i.  e., 
that  the  accuracy  with  which  I  is  determined  is  greater  than 
that  with  which  k  is  determined.  Hence  the  values  of  i  are 
affected  with  a  smaller  error  than  are  those  of  m. 

Since  the  depressions  for  dilute  solutions  are  affected  with  a 
considerable  error,  the  part  of  the  ionization-equivalent  depres- 
sion curve  near  A  is  very  untrustworthy.  This  is  shewn  by  Dr^ 
MacGregor  in  one  of  the  papers  referred  to  above.  He  has 
pointed  out  that  the  curves  of  the  different  observers  for  the- 
same  electrolyte  deviate  at  great  dilution,  some  to  the  right 
and  others  to  the  left  of  what  their  general  course  is  at  moderate 
dilution.  Not  only  this,  but  the  different  observations  of  the 
same  observer  become  very  irregular  as  dilution  increases. 

As,  therefore,  the  curves  of  the  different  observers  have  this 
rightward  or  leftward  tendency — and  sometimes  to  a  great 
extent — as  dilution  increases,  it  is  evident  that  wo  get  better 
values  of  k  and  I,  if  we  obtain  them  from  a  part  of  the  ionization- 
equivalent  depression  curve,  which  corresponds  to  a  concen- 
tration at  which  trustworthy  determinations  of  the  depressions 
can  be  made,  than  if  we  use  the  very  erratic  observations  at  high 
dilution.  1  have,  therefore,  in  the  determinations  of  k  and  I 
used  only  the  observations  on  solutions  of  moderate  dilution. 
As,  however,  some  curves  begin  to  curve  rapidly  as  the  concen- 
tration increases,  even  at  an  early  stage,  one  has  to  use  some 
discretion  in  choosing  a  part  of  the  curve,  which  is  least  affected 
on  the  one  hand  by  the  natural  bend  of  the  curve,  and  on  the 
other  by  the  bend  due  to  the  error  of  method  of  the  observer. 


CONSTANT  FOR  ELECTROLYTES — HEBB         413 

The  data,  as  I  have  indicated,  are  taken  from  the  second  of 
the  papers  referred  to  above.  Before,  however,  plotting  the 
ionization-eqnivalent  depression  curve,  I  plotted  in  each  case  the 
equivalent  depression  against  concentiation,  and  drew  in  the. 
smooth  curve  which  best  represented  the  results,  so  that  approxi- 
mately as  many  points  fell  on  one  side  of  the  curve  as  on  the 
other.  In  drawing  in  this  curve,  however,  I  did  not  use  many 
of  the  observations — only  those  of  the  stronger  concentrations* 
This  was  done  in  order  to  get  rid,  as  much  as  possible,  of  the 
error  due  to  the  rightward  or  leftward  tendency  of  the  observa- 
tions ;  for,  had  I  plotted  all  the  points  and  then  drawn  in  the 
smooth  curve  which  best  represented  them,  these  latter  erratic 
points  would  have  given  a  rightward  or  leftward  tendency  even 
to  the  part  of  the  curve  corresponding  to  the  stronger  concentra- 
tions. Hence,  as  a  general  thing,  I  discarded  all  but  three  or 
four  of  the  observations  on  the  stronger  concentrations.  In 
cases  where  I  have  kept  more  it  is  due  to  one  of  three  things  : 
(1)  because  the  points  were  close  together;  (2)  because  there  was 
very  little  rightward  or  leftward  tendency  to  the  ionization- 
equivalent  depression  curve,  or  (3)  because  the  ionization-equi- 
valent  depression  curve  for  these  stronger  concentrations  had  a 
rapid  natural  bend  to  it.  The  information  in  (2)  and  (3)  was 
ascertained  by  a  preliminary  plotting  of  ionization  coefficients 
against  equivalent  depressions.  Having  thus  drawn  in  the 
smooth  concentration-equivalent  depression  curve,  I  read  off 
the  values  of  the  equivalent  depressions  corresponding  to  the 
given  concentrations,  and  have  given  them  in  brackets  alongside 
of  the  observations  themselves. 

1  then  plotted  these  corrected  equivalent  depressions  against 
their  corresponding  ionization  coefficients,  and  finding  by  inspec- 
tion the  portion  of  the  curve  thus  obtained,  which  was  straight, 
I  drew  in  the  straight  line  which  I  thought  best  represented  the 
results.  In  drawing  in  this  straight  line  I  generally  gave  more 
weight  to  points  corresponding  to  solutions  of  greater  concen- 
tration. This  straight  line  was  then 'treated  as  pointed  out 
above,  and  k  and  I  were  thus  obtained. 


414    DETERMINATION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT    DEPRESSION 

The  following  table  gives  all  the  data  together  with  the 
values  of  k  and  I  thus  obtained.  The  values  of  the  ionization 
coefficients  given  were  taken  directly  from  the  second  of  Dr. 
MacGregor's  papers  referred  to  above.  The  letters  i  and  e 
which  follow  the  coefficients  indicate  as  to  whether  the  values 
were  obtained  by  interpolation  or  extrapolation.  While  the 
letters  A,  B,  D  and  W  refer  to  the  observers  Archibald,  Barnes, 
De-iuisne  and  Whetham. 


CONSTANT    FOR    ELECTROLYTES— HEHB. 


415 


TABLE    1. 


Concen- 
tration, 
(gr  eq  ID 

Toni/.ntion 
Coefficients 
at  0°  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Concen- 
tration, 
(gr.  eq.//). 

Toniwition 
Coefficients 
at  0*  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

KC1.    (Loomis.) 
fc=2.065;   £  =  3.673. 

KC1.    (Ponsot.) 
Jk=1.920;    J=3.687.) 

.01 
.02 
.03 
.035 
.05 
.1 
.2 
.4 

.943  i.  B. 
.923     " 
.910     " 
.905     " 
.892     " 
.862     " 
.832     " 
.804     " 

3.60 
3.55 
3.52    (3.528) 
3.53    (3.519) 
3.50    (3.498) 
3.445  (3.450) 
3.404 
3.353 

.1468 
.1688 
.2344 
.2456 
.2472 
.2544 

.846i.  B. 
.840     " 
.827     " 
.825  '  " 
.825     " 
.824     " 

3.413  (3.415) 
3.406  (3.404) 
3.392  (3.381) 
3.375  (3.378) 
3.378 
3.377 

KC1.    (Wildermann.) 
k  -2.034;  J-3.6&. 

KC1.    (Jone.s.) 
A:=2.180  ;  J=3.678. 

.03883 
.03884 
.07652 
.07668 

.900  i.  B. 
.900     " 

.873    " 
.873    " 

3.515  (3.5235) 
3.532  (3.5235) 
3.491  (3.489) 
3.487  (3.489) 

.04 
.0592 
.078 
.03646 
.2 
.28 

.900  i.  B. 
.885     " 
.873     " 
.863     " 
.832     " 
.821     " 

3.5325 
3.5067 
3.4923(3.487) 

3.4688(3.473) 
3.4300 
3.4,107 

KC1.     (Hcbb.) 
A  =1.755;   f=3G95. 

.0628 
.1065 
.2121 
.3186 

.882  i.  B. 
.859     " 
.830*    " 
.817     " 

3.451  (3.465) 
3.415  (3.430) 
3.404  (3.375) 
3.340 

KC1.    (Raoult.) 
fc  =  1846;    i  =  3.652. 

.05825 
.1168 

.904e.W. 

.878     " 

3.478 
3.431 

NaCl.    (Loc 

mis.) 
3722. 

KC1.    (Abegg.) 
fc  =  1.344;    /=3.719. 

A=2.140;  /= 

.08 
.09 
.10 
.20 

.860  i.  B. 
855     " 
.850     " 
.815     " 

3.501 
3.494  (3.493) 
3.484  (3.485) 
3.439 

.0469 
.0583 
.0697 

.895  i.  B. 
.887     " 
.878     " 

3.47 
3.45 
3.43 

416       DETERMINATION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT    DEPRESSION 
TABLE    I.— Continued. 


Concen- 
tration. 
<gr.  eq.  ID 

lonlzation 

Coefficients 
at  0°  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Concen- 
tration, 
(gr.  eq.  /I.) 

lonization 
Coefficients 
at  0*  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

NaCl.     (Jones.)" 
A  —  **'  050  *    1  —  3  726 

HC1.    (Loomis.) 
A.-=2O95;   Z=3.643. 

.01 
.02 
.05 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.982  i.  B. 
.972     " 
.955     " 
.933     " 
.910    " 
.897     " 

3.61    (3.615) 
3.60    (3.599) 
3.59    (3.574) 
3.546  (3  555) 
3.565 
3.612 

.0790 
.0882 
.0973 
.1063 
.15 
.1925 
.2329 

.861  i.  B. 
.856     " 
.851     " 
.848     " 
.831     " 
.818     " 
.805     " 

3.492 
3.483  (3.484) 
3.477  (3.476) 
3.469 
3.447  (3.442) 
3.418  (3.424) 
3.414 

HC1.    (Jones.) 
fc=1.950;   Z=3.684. 

Naf  1.    (Abegg.) 
/t=.800  ;    1=3.957. 

.08127 
.1025 
.1228 

.940  i.  B. 
.933     " 
.928     " 

3.5856  (3.580) 
3.5609  (3.568) 
3.5692  (3.565) 

.0439 
.0653 
.0871 
.1083 

.882  i.  B. 
.867     " 
.856     " 

.847     " 

3.57  (3.580) 
3.55  (3.537) 
3.50 
'3.47 

NH^Cl.    (Loomis.) 
fc=13SO;   Z=3.700. 

.01 
.02 
.035 
.05 

.951  i.  D. 
.931     " 
.914    " 
.900    " 

3.56    (3.585) 
3.56    (3.540) 
3.50 
3.48 

Nad.    (Arrhenius.) 
A:=1992;    J=3697. 

.194 
.324 

.816  i.  B. 
.781     " 

3.54 
3.51 

NH^Cl.    (Jones.) 
fc=2.050;   1=3.692. 

00997 
.0595 

.951  i.  D. 

.892e.  D. 

3.6108 
3.5143 

NaCl.    (Ponsot  ) 
fc=2.000;    Z=3.728. 

.1318 
.1808 
.2016 
.2248 
.2288 

.836  i.  B. 
.821     " 
.814     " 
.808     " 
.806     " 

3.445 
3.418  (3.419) 
3.413  (3.411) 
3.403(3.405) 
3.405  (3.404) 

K  NO,  .    (Loomis.) 

3 

&  =  1.580;  1  =  3.682: 

.025 
.05 

i 

.899i.  D. 
.876     " 
.832e.  D. 
.789     " 

3.46 
3.41 
3.314 
3.194 

CONSTANT  FOR  ELECTROLYTES. — HEHB. 


417 


TABLE    I.— Continued. 


Concen- 
tration. 
(gr.eq./Z.) 

lonization 
Coefficients 
at  0*  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Concen- 
tration, 
(gr.  eq.  11.) 

lonization 
Coefficients 
at  0'  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

K2  S  04.    (Ponsot.) 
fc-.874;   J-2.834. 

H2  S  O4.   (Ponsot.) 
&=.617;  1=2.797: 

.0724 
.0752 
.2295 
.2360 
.4140 
.4280 

.731  i.  A. 
.726    " 
.635    '« 
.633     " 
.596     " 
.594    " 

2.307 
2.301 
2.113(2.115) 
2.110(2.109) 
2.012  (2.010) 
2.002  (2.005) 

.2570 
.2580 
.4476 
.4516 

.587LB. 
.587     " 
.565     " 
.565     " 

1.895  (1.897) 
1.899  (1.897) 
1.850 
1.849 

H2  SO4.    (Wildermann.) 
&=1.080;   1=2.565. 

.1358 
.1930 

.6221  B. 
.599    " 

2.004 
1.970 

Na2  S  64.   (Loomis.) 
£=1.100;    J=2.815. 

.20 
.40 
.60 

.624  i.  A. 
.546    " 
.511     " 

2.170 
2.036 
1.938 

Mg  SO4.    (Loomis.) 
fc=.713;   1=1.793. 

.04 
.06 

.522i.  D. 

.485     " 

1.277 
1.237 

Na2  S  O4.    (Arrhenius.) 
ft=  1.180;   1=2.950. 

Mg  SO4.    (Jones.) 
A-=1074;   1=1849. 

.234 
.390 

.607  i.  A. 
.549     " 

2.205 
2.095 

•015972 
.017940 
.019904 
.03950 
.05872 

.614i.  D. 
.608     " 
.596     (< 
^.521     " 
'.502    " 

1.5590 
1.5496  (1.545) 
1.5323  (1.535) 
1.4912  (1.486) 
1.4391  (1.444) 

H2  SO4.    (Loomis.) 
k=  731  ;    1=2  826. 

.20 
.40 

.598  i.  B. 
.570     " 

1.984 
1.925 

H3  P  O4.   (Loomis.) 
A-=.654;   1=1.1198. 

H2  SO4.   (Jones.) 
A:-.  792;    1-2.767. 

.03 
.06 

.614  i.  D. 
.513     " 

0.94 
0.893 

.11358 
.15472 
.19450 
.2330 

.633  i.  B. 
.612     " 
.598     " 
.586     " 

2.0514  (2.042) 
1.9952  (2.001) 
1.9732 
1.9498 

H3  P  O4.   (Jones.) 
fr=620;   1=1.338. 

.019605 
.027705 
.03279 

.669i.  D. 
.627     " 
.602     " 

1.0967(1.101) 
1.0721  (1.069) 

L.00B2 

i 

418     DETERMINATION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT    DEPRESSION 
TABLE    I.— Continued. 


Concen- 
tration 
(gr.  eq.  /I.) 

lonization 
Coefficients 
at  0°  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Concen- 
tration, 
(gr.  eq.  //.) 

lonization 
Coefficients 
at  0°  C. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

K  O  H.     (Loomis.) 
&=2256;   Z=3.516 

Ba  C12.    (Ponsot.) 
fc=l,136;   Z-2.786. 

.05 
.10 

.943e.  D. 
.932     " 

3.44 
3.43 

.05520 
.0620 
.0680 
.0774 
.2060 
.2095 
.2235 
.3100 

.796e.W. 
.790     " 
.785     " 
.771     " 
.717    " 
.716    " 
.710    " 
.685     " 

2.446 
2.436 
2.426  (2.427) 
2.416  (2.415) 
2.316 
2.320  (2.315) 
2.309(2.311) 
2.297 

HNO3.    (Jones.) 
fc=2.640;   1=3.765. 

.03119 
.05103 

.958e.  D. 
.949     " 

3.7179 
3.7076 

KOH.    (Jones) 
&=  2.019;   1  =  3.699. 

K2  S  O4.   (Loomis.) 
fc=1.118  ;    /=2.752. 

.01069 
.03163 
.05174 
.07481 

.964e.D. 
.950     " 
.942     " 
935     " 

3.6296  (3  640) 
3.6263(3.616) 
3.5756  (3.600) 
3.6142  (3  590) 

.02 
.04 
.1 
.2 
.4 
.6 

.821  i.  A. 
.772    " 
.705     " 
.645     " 
.598     " 
.583     " 

2.46 
2.38 
2.271 
2.1585 
2.0335 
1.9455 

Ba  CI2    (Loomis.) 
&=1.198;   Z=2743. 

.02 
.04 
.1 
2 
.4 

.860i.  W. 
.820e.  \V. 
.768     " 
.724     " 
.658     " 

2.495  (2.505) 
2.475  (2  465) 
2.3fe 
2.345 
2.3275 

K2  SO4.    (Jones  ) 
A=.849;  Z=2.879. 

.1357 
.152 
.16765 
.1826 
.19685 

.677  i.  A. 
.668     " 
.661     " 
.654     " 
.647     " 

2.231  (2.234) 
2.208  (2.210) 
2.197  (-M92) 
2.178(2.176) 
2.160(2.162) 

BaCJg.   (Jones) 
&=1.4U;   i=2.731. 

K2  S  04    (Abegg.) 
k=  901  ;    Z=2.771. 

.011964 
.01394 
01592 

.01788 
.02 

889  i.  W. 

.880     " 
.872     " 
.866     " 
.860     " 

2.5823  (2.590) 
2.5753 
2.5754  (2.565) 
2.5560 
2.550 

.01734 
.0216 
.0258 
.0299 

.829  i.  A. 
.815     " 
.803     " 
.794     " 

2.47 
2.43  (2.428) 
2.40  (2.402) 
2.385 

CONSTANT    FOR    ELECTROLYTES — HE15B. 


419 


The  following  table  gives  the  values  of  the  constants  k  and  I 
given  in  table  I.  together  with  the  values  of  m  and  i — i.  e.,  the 
depressions  of  the  freezing-point  due  to  a  gramme-molecule  of 
the  undissociated  salt,  and  that  due  to  a  gramme-ion  of  the  dis-, 
sociated  salt — as  obtained  from  them. 

TABLE  II. 


Electro- 
lyte. 

Observer. 

lonization  Constants. 

Depression  Constanta  for 

k 

I 

Undissociated 
Molecules  (m). 

Free  Ions  (»). 

KC1  

2.065 
2.180 
1.846 
1.344 
2.034 
1.920 
1.755 
2.140 
2.050 
.800 
1.992 
2.000 
2.095 
1.950 
1.380 
2.050 
1.580 
2.640 
2.256 
2.019 
1.198 
1.414 
1.136 
1.118 
.849 
.901 
.874 
1.180 
1.100 
.731 
.792 
.617 
1.080 
.713 
1.074 
.654 
.620 

3.673 
3.678 
3.652 
3.719 
3.689 
3.687 
3.695 
3.722 
3.726 
3.957 
3.697 
3.728 
3.643 
3.684 
3.700 
3.692 
3.682 
3.765 
3.516 
3.699 
2.743 
2.734 
2.786 
2.752 
2.879 
2.771 
2.834 
2.950 
2.815 
2.826 
2.767 
2.797 
2.565 
1.793 
1.849 
1.120 
1.338 

_  _  • 

2.065 
2.180 
1.846 
1.344 
2.034 
1.920 
1.755 
2.140 
2.050 
.800 
1.992 
2.000 
2.095 
1.950 
1.380 
2.050 
1.580 
2.640 
2.256 
2.019 
2.396 
2.828 
2.272 
2.236 
1.698 
1.802 
1.748 
2.360 
2.200 
1.462 
1.584 
1.234 
2.160 
1  426 
2.148 
1.962 
1.860 

1  837 
1.839 
1.826 
1.860 
1.845 
1.844 
1.848 
1.861 
1.863 
1.979 
1.849 
1  864 
1.822 
1.842 
1.850 
1.846 
1.841 
1.883 
1.758 
1.850 
1  829 
1.823 
1.857 
1.835 
1.919 
1.847 
1.889 
1.967 
1.877 
1.884 
1.845 
1.865 
1.710 
L79J 
1.848 
1.080 
2.007 

—  -                     -* 

'     Jones  

Tfannlt. 

Wilder  maun. 

Wplih 

NaCl  |Loomis  



Arrhenius.  .  . 
Ponsot 

HC1  

!NH4ci" 

KN08  .  . 
HNOg  .  .  . 
KOH  .... 

Bad  2*  !  !  ! 

K2S04  '.  ! 
« 

Na2SO4  ! 

H2S04  .  ! 
« 

Mgso4  :  ; 
H.p<>4:: 

Jones  
Loomis  

Jones  

Loomis  .... 
Jones  
Loomis  .... 
•Tones  
Loomis  .... 
Jones  
Ponsot  .... 
Loomis  .... 
Jones  
Abeae  .  . 

Ponsot  
Arrhenius  .  .  . 
Loomis  
Loomis  
Jones  

Ponsot  
Wildermann 
Loomis  ...'.. 
Jones  
Loomis  
Jones  

One  sees  from  an  inspection  of  this  table  that  the  values  of  i, 
though  they  vary  considerably,  are  in  most  cases  not 


420        DETERMINATION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT    DEPRESSION 

the  value  expected  from  theory.  In  the  case  of  the  undissociated 
molecules,  however,  the  variation  of  their  values  is  much  greater- 
As  the  depression  produced  by  molecules  is  supposed  on  theore- 
tical grounds  to  be  the  same  as  that  produced  by  free  ions,  the 
difference  between  the  variations  of  m  and  i  is  probably  due  to 
the  different  degrees  of  accuracy  with  which,  as  seen  above,  m 
and  i  are  capable  of  determination. 

If  we  assume,  as  is  customary,  that  the  depression  produced 
by  the  molecules,  whether  they  are  undissociated  molecules  or 
free  ions,  is  the  same  for  all  electrolytes  in  dilute  solution,  we 
can  arrive  at  better  values  of  both  m  and  i  by  finding  the  mean 
values.  This  becomes  obvious  when  we  take  into  consideration 
the  sources  of  error  which  affect  the  values  of  k  and  I.  For  the 
straight  line,  from  which  k  and  I  are  determined,  may  be  either 
too  high  or  too  low  ;  or  it  may  be  too  much  or  too  little  inclined 
to  the  equivalent  depression  axis.  The  line  may  be  too  high  or 
too  low  because  of  defective  observations  of  depression,  defective 
values  of  ionization  coefficients,  or  the  way  in  which  I  have 
drawn  it  in.  So  far,  at  least,  as  two  of  these  sources  of  error 
are  concerned,  the  resulting  errors  will  in  some  cases  be  positive 
and  in  others  negative;  and  in  finding  the  average  these  errors 
will  in  part  cancel  one  another.  Defective  inclination  of  the 
line  may  be  due,  in  addition,  to  the  characteristic  error  of  the 
observer's  method,  which  may  be  such  as  to  make  the  curve  at 
great  dilution  go  off  either  to  the  right  or  the  left  as  dilution 
increases,  or  to  the  natural  bend  of  the  curve  itself  which  may 
be  either  to  the  right  or  left  as  concentration  increases.  The 
errors  due  to  these  sources  will  also  be,  in  some  cases,  positive, 
and  in  others  negative,  and  hence  will  practically  neutralize  one 
another  on  averaging. 

The  determinations  of  the  above  table  are  not  all  of  the  same 
oider  of  trustworthiness  Some  are  based  on  freezing-point 
observations  made  by  means  of  old  methods ;  others  on  those 
of  newer  and  more  accurate  methods.  Some  are  based  on  many 
observations,  others  on  few  ;  some  on  observations  in  good  agree- 
ment, others  on  more  erratic  series.  In  some  cases,  also,  the 
ionization  coefficients  employed  are  more  trustworthy  than  in 


CONSTANT  FOR  ELECTROLYTES — HEBB.         421 

others  If  an  estimate  could  be  made  of  the  relative  value  of  the 
various  determinations,  the  weighted  mean  would  give  a  closer 
approximation  to  the  true  values  of  the  depression  constant", 
than  can  be  given  by  a  mere  average.  I  have  not  attempted, 
however,  to  attach  weights  to  the  determinations,  being  unable 
to  do  so  with  any  confidence. 

Assuming  that  averaging  will  eliminate  the  greater  part  of 
the  errors  we  get  as  the  values  of  TO  and  i,  1.932  and  1.851 
respectively.  The  value  for  i  is  undoubtedly  the  more  accurate 
of  the  two ;  and,  as  we  assume  that  undissociated  molecules  have 
the  same  effect  as  free  ions,  the  value  of  TO  is  to  be  taken  as 
1.851  also.  That  the  average  value  of  TO  is  so  much  greater 
than  that  of  i  may  be  due  not  only  to  the  defects  of  the  method 
employed  in  determining  it,  but  to  the  fact  that  the  bend  of  the 
curve  of  an  electrolyte  is  more  likely  to  be  to  the  right  than  to 
the  left,  as  concentration  increases.  For  it  is  only  where  associa- 
tion of  molecules  takes  place  that  it  bends  to  the  left. 

Some  of  the  sets  of  observations  given  in  the  paper,  from 
which  I  have  taken  my  data,  I  did  not  use.  A  few  of  these 
sets  were  so  erratic  that  I  could  make  nothing  out  of  them. 
The  other  cases,  however,  had  been  worked  out  by  Dr.  Mac- 
Gregor,  and,  hence,  I  did  not  think  it  worth  my  while  to  do  so. 
If,  now,  I  combine  my  results  with  those  obtained  by  him,  I  will, 
with  the  exception  of  the  few  sets  mentioned  above,  have  made, 
use  of  all  available  data.  The  mean  values  of  TO  and  i,  as 
given  by  him,  are  1.895  and  1.850  respectively  and  hence  the 
values  of  TO  and  i  as  given  by  averaging  his  mean  values  with 
mine  are  1.913  and  1.851. 

The  above  result  is  in  agreement  with  that  reached  by  Prof. 
MacGregor  by  means  of  the  second  method  referred  to  above 
The  conclusion  he  arrived  a.t  was  that,  for  all  the  electrolytes 
examined,  the  curves  of  his  diagram  were  consistent  with  the 
depression  constant  having  a  common  value  of  about  1.85.  That 
the  two  methods  should  give  results  which  are  not  only  in  close 
agreement  with  one  another,  but  are  also  in  close  agreement  with 
the  value  of  the  depression  constant  given  by  Van  't  Hoff's 
theoretical  expression  for  it,  must  be  regarded  as  of  considerable 
interest. 


II. — ON  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  THE  FRKEZING-POINT  DEPRES- 
SIONS OF  DILUTE  SOLUTIONS  OF  ELECTROLYTES — BY 
THOS.  C.  HEBB,  M.  A.,  Dalkousie  College,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

(Read  March  10th,  1001.) 

Dr.  MacGregorhas  shown,*  that,  if  for  any  electrolyte  curves 
be  plotted  using  ionization  coefficients  as  ordinates  and  the 
equivalent  depressions  of  different  observers  as  abscissae,  the 
curves  so  drawn  diverge,  as  dilution  increases,  some  to  the  right 
and  some  to  the  left  of  what  their  general  course  is  at  moderate 
dilution.  He  has  also  shown,  that  this  tendency  to  diverge  is 
less  for  the  results  of  Archibald  and  Barnes,  both  of  whom 
worked  in  the  Dalhousie  Physical  Laboratory.  This  indicates 
that  the  method  they  adopted  was  free  from  some  source  or 
sources  of  error  which  affected  the  methods  of  other  observers. 
As  they  had  not  carried  their  observations  to  solutions  of  great 
dilution,  he  suggested  that  1  should  go  over  the  ground  with 
one  or  two  electrolytes  and  see  if,  for  higher  dilutions,  their 
results  were  borne  out.  This  I  have  done  for  potassium 
chloride  with  the  results  given  below. 

I  chose  this  electrolyte  for  the  following  reasons: — (1)  It  is 
one  of  the  salts  for  which  Whethamf  has  made  determinations  of 
the  ionization  coefficients  for  dilute  solutions  at  0°C. ;  (2)  The 
rightward  or  leftward  tendency,  above  mentioned,  is  most 
marked  for  this  electrolyte  ;  and  (3)  solutions  of  known  con- 
centrations are  quite  easily  made  up. 

Salt. 

The  salt  was  obtained  as  chemically  pure  from  Merck.  On 
testing  it,  however,  I  detected  free  acid.  This  disappeared  on 
once  re-crystallizing  and  heating  to  constant  weight.  Solutions 

*  Proc.  and  Trans.  N.  S  Inst.  Sci..  Vol.  X.,  p.  211, 1899-00. 
t  Phil.  Trans.,  A,  Vol.  194. 1900,  pp.  321-360. 

(422) 


DETERMINATION   OF   FREEZING-POINT   DEPRESSIONS,    ETC.      423 

of  it  gave  values  of  conductivity  agreeing  very  well  with  those 
given  by  Kohlrausch.* 

Water. 

The  water  used,  both  in  making  up  the  solutions  and  in. 
determining  the  freezing-point  of  water,  was  purified  by  boiling 
distilled  water,  containing  a  few  grammes  of  barium  hydroxide 
in  a  copper  boiler  and  condensing  it  in  a  block-tin  worm.  It 
was  kept  in  glass  bottles,  which  had  been  used  several  years  for 
that  purpose.  The  conductivity  of  the  water,  obtained  by  once 
distilling,  was  never  more  than  1.25  x  10~"  at  18°C.  expressed  in 
Kohlrausch's  new  unit  (ohm~l  cm."1).-!-  The  determination  of 
the  conductivity  was  ir-ade  by  means  of  Kohlrausch's  method 
with  the  alternating  current  and  telephone.  The  constant  of  the 
electrolytic  cell  used  was  determined  by  comparing  the  conduc- 
tivities of  known  solutions  at  18°  with  those  given  by 
Kohlrausch.J  I  did  not  try  to  obtain  water  of  a  greater  degree 
of  purity,  for  the  amount  of  any  electrolyte  present  to  give  it 
this  conductivity  is  so  small  that  the  freezing-point  would  not  be 
affected  in  the  fourth  place  of  decimals.  This  I  have  deter- 
mined by  using  Kohlrausch's  §  table  of  conductivities,  together 
with  observations  made  on  the  freezing-point  depressions  of 
electrolytes  of  different  observers.  Of  course  theie  is  the  possi- 
bility of  a  non-electrolyte  being  present,  but  we  may  safely 
assume  that  the  amount  of  it  present  is,  at  least,  not  greater 
than  that  of  the  electrolyte,  and  even  twice  the  amount  of  salt 
present,  which  would  be  necessary  to  give  the  above  conduc- 
tivity, will  not  affect  the  freezing-point  of  water  in  the  fourth 
place  of  decimals. 

Solutions. 

All  solutions  were  made  up  at  0°C.  The  greater  number  of 
them  were  made  by  putting  a  known  amount  of  the  water- 
free  salt  in  a  1000  c.  c.  flask,  and  tilling  it  up  with  water  at  0°C. 
A  few  of  the  diluter  solutions  were  made  from  these  by  means 

•  Kohlrausch  u.  Holborn  :  Leitvertnogen  der  Elektrolyte,  1898,  p.  159,  tab.  2. 
t  Kohlrausch  u.  Holborn  :  Loitveruiogen  der  Elektrolyte,  1898,  p.  1. 
I  Loc.  cit. 
i  Loc.  cit. 


424       DETERMINATION   OF   THE   FREEZING-POINT   DEPRESSIONS 

of  another  flask  of  200  c.  c.  capacity.  Both  flasks  were  calibrated 
at  0°C.  The  concentrations,  in  gramme-equivalents  per  litre  of 
solutions  at  0°C.,  were  hence  easily  calculated.  But  in  some  of 
the  cases  I  was  not  sure  of  the  dryness  of  my  salt,  and  hence 
determined  their  concentrations  gravimetrically  by  precipitating 
the  KC1  of  a  known  quantity  of  the  solution  with  Ag  NO,. 

Measurement   of  Freezing-Points. 

The  method  used  in  determining  the  freezing-points  was  a 
modification  of  that  used  by  Loomis.*  The  principal  changes  were: 

(1)  the  stirring  was  done   mechanically   and  at  a  constant  rate; 

(2)  the  stirrer  was  not  simply  of   the  ring   form  but  had   vanes 
attached    to    it;   (3)    the    temperature    surrounding   the    whole 
apparatus  was  kept  within  .5  degree  of  0°C.      The  work   was 
clone  in  a  basement  room  of  the  college  in  which  there  was  no 
source  of    heat,    and    experiments    were   only    made   when  the 
temperature  of  the  air  could   be  kept  at  0°C.  by  raising  the 
windows. 

The  freezing-apparatus  consisted  of  three  parts  as  follows  : 
(1)  an  outer  bath  containing  ice  and  water  ;  (2)  a  bath  which 
stood  in  this  called  the  protection-bath,  and  which  contained  a 
mixture  of  salt  water  and  snow,  at  a  temperature  of  .005  degree 
centigrade  below  the  freezing-point  of  the  solution,  whose 
freezing-point  was  being  determined ;  (3)  the  freezing-tubes 
immersed  in  this,  which  contained  the  solution  under  experiment. 

The  freezing-tubes  consisted  of  two  glass  tubes  one  inside  the 
other,  the  outer  being  about  3.2  cm.  in  diameter.  The 
space,  of  about  1  mm.,  between  the  two  was  kept  uniform 
throughout  by  winding  silk  thread  about  the  inner  one  at  two 
distinct  places.  This  air-space,  together  with  one  at  the  bottom 
of  the  tubes,  caused  by  the  bottom  of  the  inner  tube  being 
re-entrant,  kept  an  ice  sheath  from  being  formed  on  the  wall  of 
the  tube.  The  two  tubes  were  sealed  together  at  the  top,  in 
order  to  keep  moisture  from  getting  in  between  them,  and  in 
order  to  have  their  relative  positions  always  the  same.  These 

*Phys.  Review,  1, 199, 1893,  and  9,  257, 1899. 


OF   DILUTE    SOLUTIONS   OF   ELECTROLYTES. — HEBB.         425 

tubes  fitted  tightly  into  the  cover  of  the  protection  bath,  and, 
as  the  outer  tube  was  30  cm.  in  length,  they  extended  to  a 
considerable  distance  into  this  bath.  A  cork  made  of  vulcanite 
and  pierced  by  three  holes  fitted  into  the  inner  tube.  Through 
the  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  cork  a  thermometer  passed.  It  was 
fastened  tightly,  and  in  such  a  manner,  that  its  bulb  came 
within  2  cm.  of  the  bottom  of  the  inner  tube.  A  stirrer  passed 
through  one  of  the  other  holes,  while  the  third  was  kept  for  the 
introduction  of  an  ice  crystal.  The  last  two  mentioned  holes 
were  lined  with  platinum  foil. 

The  stirrer  which  was  made  in  the  usual  form  with  a  ring  at 
the  bottom,  was  of  platinum  wire.  This  ring,  which  was  smaller 
than  the  internal  diameter  of  the  inner  tube,  had  fastened  to  it 
vanes  of  platinum  foil.  These  were  fastened  on  by  platinum  wire 
and  extended  in  towards  the  centre.  This  form  of  stirrer  I 
found  to  be  much  more  effective  in  stirring  than  the  ring 
commonly  used. 

In  order  to  guide  this  stirrer,  and  in  order  to  keep  the 
thermometer  in  the  centre  of  the  freezing-tube,  another  cork,  of 
rubber,  was  fastened  on  to  the  thermometer,  some  distance  above 
the  highest  point  reached  by  the  solution  when  the  thermometer 
was  in  position  in  the  freezing-tube.  Through  this  cork  there 
were  two  holes — one  for  the  stirrer  and  one  for  the  introduction 
of  an  ice  crystal.  These  holes  were  linei  with  glass  tubing. 

The  above  arrangement  kept  the  stirrer  from  scraping  against 
the  sides  of  the  freezing-tubes.  And,  in  order  to  keep  it  as  much 
as  possible  from  rubbing  against  the  sides  of  the  holes  in  the 
corks,  a  link  was  introduced  in  the  part  of  the  wire  outside  of 
the  tubes.  This  allowed  it  to  hang  in  a  perfectly  vertical 
position. 

The  protection  bath  was  38  cm.  in  height  and  13  cm.  in 
diameter.  Its  cover  consisted  of  a  brass  plate  through  which 
passed  the  freezing-tubes,  a  thermometer  and  a  stirrer.  This 
stirrer  consisted  of  a  wire  shaft,  which  had  two  rings  fastened  to 
it — one  for  the  upper  and  one  for  the  lower  portions  of  the 
mixture.  The  rings  held  vanes  of  tin.  This  kept  the  mixture 
PROC.  &  TRANP.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.  DD. 


426      DETERMINATION   OF   THE   FREEZING-POINT    DEPRESSIONS 

well  stirred,  and  any  change  in  temperature  was  quickly  recoicled 
by  the  thermometer. 

It  was  so  arranged  that  both  these  stirrers — viz.,  the  one  in 
the  protection  bath  and  the  one  in  the  freezing-tubes — should 
have  the  same  stroke.  Hence  they  were  both  fastened  to  a 
slider  on  a  vertical  guide-post.  This  slider  was  worked  by  a 
crank  vertically  above  it.  The  axis  carrying  the  crank  was- 
turned  by  a  hot-air  motor.  The  stroke  of  the  crank  was  equal 
to  the  stroke  required  by  the  stirrers. 

The  two  thermometers — viz.,  the  one  in  the  protection  bath, 
and  the  one  in  the  freezing-tubes — were  both  of  the  Beckmann 
form,  and  were  graduated  to  .01  degree.  The  one  used  in  the 
freezing-tubes  had  been  calibrated  at  the  Physikalisch-Technische 
Reichsanstalt,  Berlin.  The  value  of  its  degree — its  length  being- 
about  5.4i  cm. — was  given  to  the  third  place  of  decimals.  As^ 
however,  it  had  been  tested  with  its  bulb  at  O°C.  and  its  scale 
at  15°C.,  I  had  to  make  a  correction  due  to  the  fact  that  I  used 
it  with  its  scale  also  at  O°C.  In  the  corrected  form  the  value 
of  the  degree  was  correct.  For  some  time  before  it  was  used, 
and  while  it  wa*  being  used,  it  was  kept  hanging  in  a  vertical 
position  with  its  bulb  and  scale  approximately  at  zero.  This 
precaution  is  indispensible,  as  the  constancy  of  the  thermometer 
depends  on  it.  This  thermometer  was  read  by  means  of  a 
microscope,  which  was  firmly  mounted  on  an  adjustable  stand. 
The  eye-piece  of  the  microscope  contained  a  micrometer  scale, 
thirty-seven  divisions  of  which  corresponded  to  .01  degree.  As 
half  divisions  were  easily  estimated  I  could  read  to  .0001  degree. 
To  get  a  clear  imagine  of  scale  and  mercury,  a  small  incandescent 
lamp.driven  by  a  current  from  several  Samson  cells,  was  placed, 
when  a  reading  was  being  taken,  directly  behind  the  thermometer. 
As,  however,  the  mercury  and  scale  are  at  different  distances 
from  the  microscope,  one  cannot  focus  the  both  at  once.  Hence 
I  always  made  a  reading  with  the  mercury  focussed,  for  it  waa 
quite  easy  to  estimate  the  centre  of  the  blurred  image  of  the 
scale  line.  In  the  course  of  my  experiments,  I  found  out  how 
important  it  was  to  have  the  microscope  always  inclined  at  the 


OF  DILUTE  SOLUTIONS  OF  ELECTROLYTES. — HEBB.    427 

same  angle  to  the  thermometer.  This  one  sees  when  he  takes 
into  consideration,  that  the  distance  between  the  mercury  column 
and  the  scale,  which  is  back  of  it,  is  at  least  120  times  as  great 
as  the  smallest  distance  read  on  the  scale.  In  order  to  keep  the 
microscope  always  at  the  same  inclination  to  the  thermometer,  I 
had  two  arms  rigidly  attached  to  the  microscope — one  above 
and  one  below  it.  Before  a  reading  was  taken,  the  stand  of 
the  microscope  was  so  adjusted  that  the  arms  touched  the 
thermometer. 

Directly  over  the  top  of  the  thermometer  was  placed  aw 
electric  hammer,  driven  by  a  current  from  a  Samson  battery, 
It  gave  quick,  sharp  taps  and,  hence,  prevented  the  mercury 
from  sticking  at  one  place. 

The  following  method  was  used  to  find  the  convergence 
temperature.  The  apparatus,  as  described,  was  set  in  order  with* 
a  mixture  at  0°C.  in  the  protection  bath,  and  water  in  the 
freezing-tubes,  and  then  the  stirring  was  begun  and  kept  run- 
ning until  the  apparatus  arrived  at  a  state  of  thermal  equili- 
brium. With  the  apparatus  working  at  50  complete  strokes  per 
minute,  I  found  it  to  be  .005  degree  above  that  of  the  protection 
bath.  Hence  in  all  of  my  determinations  of  freezing-points,  the 
temperature  of  the  protection  bath  was  kept  .005  degree  below 
the  freezing-point  of  the  solution  under  experiment — it  having: 
been  approximately  determined  beforehand.  This  convergence 
temperature  is  much  smaller  than  that  found  by  other  experi- 
menters. Its  smallness  may  be  due  to  two  things  :  (1)  the 
freezing-tubes  may  be  too  easily  affected  by  the  protection  bathv 
or  (2)  the  apparatus  may  be  free  from  friction  and  other  sources- 
of  heat.  I  am  fully  convinced  that  its  snmllness  in  my  case  was 
noi  due  to  the  former,  but  due  to  the  fact  that  the  amount  of 
friction  was  very  small,  and  that  the  nir  temperature  was  0°C. 

The  following  was  the  method  used  in  making  a  determina- 
tion of  the  freezing-point.  The  approximate  freezing-point  of 
the  solution  having  been  found,  the  temperature  of  the  protec- 
tion bath  was  brought  to  be  .005  degree  below  this.  The  portions 
of  the  apparatus,  in  contact  with  the  solution  were  then- 


428     DETERMINATION    OF    THE    FREEZING-POINT    DEPRESSIONS 

thoroughly  cleaned  and  rinsed  with  the  solution.  The  inner 
freezing-tube  was  then  filled  up  to  a  mark  on  its  side — this  mark 
being  about  2mm.  above  the  highest  position  reached  by  the 
stirrer.  The  cork  bearing  the  thermometer  wa=«  put  in  its  place, 
the  tubes  were  then  placed  in  a  mixture  cf  snow  and  salt,  and 
the  solution  kept  continually  stirred  until  its  temperature  fell  to 
•3°C.  below  its  freezing-point.  They  were  then  placed  in  position 
in  the  protection  bath,  and  the  stirring  was  begun.  When  the 
mercury,  which  rose  very  slowly,  arrived  at  .1  degree  below  the 
freezing-point,  an  ice-crystal  was  introduced  through  the  holes 
in  the  corks.  After  the  mercury  became  stationary,  the  tapping 
of  the  electric  hammer  was  begun  and  lasted  for  half  a  minute. 
The  stirring  was  then  stopped,  the  light  put  into  position,  and  a 
reading  made  with  the  microscope.  The  stirring  was  then  begun 
again  and  after  a  few  minutes  a  second  reading  made.  With  my 
apparatus,  I  found  no  difficulty  whatever  in  getting  the  mercury 
to  remain  stationary  for  at  least  five  minutes.  In  cases  where 
more  than  one  observation  was  made  on  the  same  solution,  the 
mean  value  was  taken.  As  it  was  only  the  depressions  that  I 
wanted,  I  found  the  freezing-point  of  water  immediately  before 
or  immediately  after  the  above  determination.  The  water  used 
was  of  the  same  degree  of  purity  as  that  used  in  making  up  the 
solutions.  Other  conditions,  such  as  the  introduction  of  the  ice- 
crystal,  were  kept  the  same  in  both  cases.  If  the  barometer  was 
varying  rapidly,  the  freezing-point  of  water  was  taken  immedi- 
ately before  and  after  that  of  the  solution,  and  the  mean  taken. 

The  depression  is  the  difference  between  the  freezing-point 
of  water  and  that  of  the  solution  under  consideration.  I  found 
by  experiments  performed  on  different  days,  that  of  a  series  of 
depressions,  a  single  value  varied  from  the  mean  value  by  not 
more  than  .0005  degree.  As  this  would  be  large  for  dilute 
solutions,  I  was  unable  to  deal  with  solutions  of  greater  dilution 
than  I  have  used. 

To  correct  for  the  change  in  concentration,  due  to  the  intro- 
duction of  an  ice-crystal  .1  degree  below  the  freezing-point,  I 
made  use  of  Raoult's  method*  for  determining  the  depression 

«  Ztechr.  f.  phys.  chem.,  27  6i3, 1899. 


OF  DILUTE  SOLUTIONS  OF  ELECTROLYTES. — HEBB.   429 

when  the  over-cooling  is  zero.  For  this  purpose  I  took  a  solu- 
tion and  found  its  depressions  for  different  over-coolings.  These 
depressions  I  plotted  as  ordinates  against  the  over-coolings  as 
abscissae.  This  gives  practically  a  straight  line  which,  if  pro- 
duced to  cut  the  depression  axis,  cuts  off  a  portion  from  it 
representing  the  depression  when  the  over-cooling  is  zero, 
Raoult  has  shewn  that  the  following  relation  holds  for  solutions 
of  different  concentrations 

C1=C(1+KS) 

where  C1  is  the  observed  depression  for  over-cooling  S,  C  is  the 
depression  for  over-cooling  zero,  and  K  is  a  constant.  Hence. 
determining  C  and  S  for  different  solutions,  and  knowing  K  to 
hold  for  all  solutions,  we  can  find  C  in  each  case.  I  determined 
K  to  have  the  value  .02.  Hence  it  can  easily  be  seen  that  for  an 
over-cooling  of  .1  degree  the  values  of  the  depressions  will  be 
.02%  too  great. 

The  ionization  coefficients  are  taken  from  a  paper  by 
Whetham.*  Since  he  only  carried  his  concentrations  to  .03 
gramme-equivalents  per  1000  grammes  of  solution,  I  have 
extended  the  curve  under  guidance  of  extrapolated  values  given, 
by  Dr.  MacGregor.-f*  He  obtained  his  extrapolated  values  by 
plotting,  alongside  of  one  another,  the  ionization  coefficient- 
concentration  curves  for  0°  and  18° — the  latter  being  obtained 
from  data  given  by  Kohlrausch. 

In  the  following  table  the  concentrations  are  given  in 
gramme-equivalents  per  litre  of  solution  at  O°C.  The  depressions* 
which  have  been  corrected  for  over-cooling,  as  pointed  out,  are 
given  in  degrees  Centigrade.  The  ionization  coefficients  are  for 
0°C.,  and  the  equivalent  depressions  are  the  depressions  in 
degrees  Centigrade  divided  by  the  concentration  in  gramme- 
equivalents  per  litre  of  solution  at  0°C.  The  letters  i  and  e  after 
the  coefficients  shew  whether  they  were  obtained  by  interpola- 
tion or  extrapolation. 

*  Loc.  cit. 

t  Proc.  and  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  Vol.  X.  p.  218. 1899-90. 


430      DETERMINATION   OF   THE   FREEZING-POINT   DEPRESSIONS 


The  table  also  contains  the  values  of  the  depression  constant, 
i.  e.,  the  lowering  produced  by  each  gramme-molecule  or  gramme- 
ion  of  the  electroyte  in  solution.  It  has  been  calculated  by  aid 
of  the  expression  :  B  =  i  (1  +  a)  where  8  is  the  equivalent  depres- 
sion, i  is  the  constant  and  a  is  the  ionization  coefficient.  This 
formula  only  holds  for  electrolytes  such  as  KC1  where  the 
gramme-molecule  is  equal  to  the  gramme-equivalent  and  the 
molecule  breaks  up  into  two  ions. 

TABLE    I.-KC1.  (74.59). 


Concentration. 
<gr.  eq.  11.) 

Depression  of 
Freex.ing- 
Point. 

Equivalent 
Depression. 

Ionization 
Coefficients 
at  0°  C. 

Depression 
Constant  (i). 

.004124 

.0151 

3.66 

.979   i. 

1.850 

.006207 

.0228 

3.67 

.972    " 

1.863 

.006363 

.0233 

3.66 

.972   " 

1.857 

.009310 

.0341 

3.66 

.964   " 

1.867 

.009544 

.0344 

3.60 

.963   •' 

1.836 

.01009 

.0362 

3.59 

.962  " 

1.829 

.01060 

.0381 

•     3.60 

.961    " 

1.833 

.01085 

.0395 

3.64 

.960  " 

1.858 

.01473 

.0531 

3.61 

.952   " 

1.847 

.01514 

.0549 

3.63 

.952  " 

1  857 

.01862 

.0673 

3.614 

.946   " 

1.857 

.01909 

.0688 

3.60 

.946   " 

1.852 

.020596 

.0738 

3.583 

.943   " 

1.844 

.02402 

.0860 

3.580 

.938   " 

1.847 

.03031 

.1086 

3.583 

.932   " 

1.854 

.03161 

.1131 

3.578 

.930  e. 

1.854 

.05541 

.1950 

3.519 

.906   " 

1.846 

.05583 

.1958 

3.507 

.906   " 

1.840 

.05673 

.2001 

3.527 

.905   " 

1.851 

.05770 

.2033 

3.523 

.905   " 

1.849 

.07383 

.2578 

3.492 

.894   " 

1.844 

.07408 

.2597 

3505 

.894   " 

1.851 

OF  DILUTE  SOLUTIONS  OF  ELECTROLYTES. HEBB.    431 

In  these  results  I  have  not  continued  my  determinations  to 
as  concentrated  solutions  as  I  would  have  liked,  but  I  was 
unable  to  do  so  on  account  of  lack  of  cold  weather.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  would  be  useless  for  me  to  attempt  to  deal  with 
diluter  solutions  than  I  have  used,  for  my  possible  error  is  too 
great. 

The  values  of  the  depression  constant  seem  to  oscillate  about 
the  value  1.85  and  if  the  mean  be  taken  we  get  1.849.  This  is 
the  value  arrived  at  by  two  methods  suggested  by  Dr.  MacGregor. 
The  one  he  applied*  and  the  other  I  appliedf  to  a  considerable 
number  of  data. 

If  from  the  above  table  we  plot  concentrations  as  ordinates 
against  equivalent  depressions  as  abscissae,  we  get  points  which, 
though  they  do  not  lie  on  a  smooth  curve,  can  be  represented  by 
drawing  a  smooth  curve  through  them  in  such  a  manner  that  as 
many  points  fall  on  one  side  of  it  as  on  the  other.  If  we  draw 
in  this  curve  we  find  that  it  is  convex  towards  the  concentration 
axis.  Further,  if  we  plot  alongside  of  it  similar  concentration- 
equivalent  depression  curves  for  other  observers,  we  find  that 
in  all  cases  their  curves  lie  nearer  the  concentration  axis  than 
mine,  although  no  two  of  them  pursue  exactly  the  same  course. 
That  the  values  of  my  depressions  are  greater  than  those  of 
other  observers  might  be  expected,  for  I  am  not  aware  that  any 
of  them  worked  with  their  air  temperature  at  zero.  Also  the 
fact,  that  the  values  of  the  depression  constant,  as  obtained  from 
my  results,  agree  so  well  with  what  is  expected,  would  lead  one 
to  suppose  that  my  values  of  the  equivalent  depressions  are  not 
too  great. 

The  following  table  will  give  some  idea  as  to  how  Loorais',J 
Jones',!  an^  ray  concentration-equivalent  depression  curves  lie. 
I  have  roughly  drawn  smooth  curves  through  each  observer's 
results,  and  then  read  off  the  results  for  the  different  concen- 
trations. 

»  Proc.  and  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  211, 1899-00. 
t  Proc.  and  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  409, 1901-02. 

t  Not  having  access  to  their  papers,  I  have  taken  the  data  from  a  paper  by  Prof. 
MacGregor  :  Proc.  and  Trans.  N.  S.  Inst.  Sci.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  211,  189COO. 


432     DETERMINATION   OF   FREEZING-POINT   DEPRESSIONS,   ETC. 

TABLE    II. 


Concentration, 
(gr.  eq.  /I.) 

Equivalent  Depression. 

Loom  is. 

Jones. 

Hebb. 

.075 

3.470 

3.495 

3495 

.05 

3.50 

3518 

3528 

.03 

3528 

3553 

3.570 

.02 

3.550 

3575 

3598 

.01 

3.60 

3605 

3.64 

.005 

.... 

3665 

3.67 

If  now  we  plot  ionization  coefficients  as  ordinates,  against 
equivalent  depressions  as  abscissae,  it  is  generally  assumed  that 
at  great  dilution  we  shouid  get  a  straight  line.  My  results  are 
too  erratic  to  lie  on  a  straight  line,  but  the  general  course  of 
them  is  no  doubt  a  straight  line,  and  does  not  tend  to  either  the 
right  or  left,  as  do  the  curves  of  others — at  least  up  to  the  con- 
centration .01.  Above  this  it  seems  to  have  a  slight  rightward 
tendency,  but  not  nearly  as  great  as  Jones'.  Of  all  the  observer's 
results  to  which  I  have  access,  and  this  includes  Loomis,  Jones, 
Raoult,  Abegg,  Ponsot  and  Wildermann,*  there  are  none  which 
give  a  curve  as  high  or  higher  than  mine.  Jones'  curve  at  the 
lower  part  seems  to  coincide  with  mine,  but  from  the  concentra- 
tion of  about  .08  to  .007  it  goes  to  the  left  of  mine,  and  from 
this  on  it  passes  away  to  the  right.  Loomis'  curve  is  to  the  left 
of  both  Jones'  and  mine  and  has  the  leftward  tendency,  but  looks 
as  if  it  would  pass  off  to  the  right,  if  dilution  were  carried  far 
enough.  Abegg's  curve  is  to  the  left  of  Loomis'.  It  starts  at  a 
concentration  of  .07,  runs  parallel  to  mine  for  a  space  and  then 
passes  off  to  the  right.  Wildermann's  curve  has  the  leftward 
tendency,  while  Raoult's  seems  to  be  inclined  towards  the  right. 
In  plotting  all  the  above  curves  I  have  used  Whetham's 
coefficients. 

Hence  it  appears  to  rne  that  my  results  have  bourne  out — at 
least  to  a  large  degree — what  Archibald's  and  Barnes'  results 
seem  to  imply. 

•These  data  are  all  takcu  from  MacGregor's  paper  cited  above. 


in. — THE  PROGRESS  OF  GEOLOGICAL  INVESTIGATION  IN  NOVA 
SCOTIA.— BY  R.  W.  ELLS,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  of  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  Canada. 

(Read  13th  January,  190!.) 

Probably  in  no  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  is  there  a 
more  interesting  field  for  geological  research  than  is  found  in 
Nova  Scotia  and  in  the  sister  province  of  New  Brunswick.  The 
formations  range  from  the  top  of  the  Triassic  to  the  lowest  known 
rocks,  presumably  the  fundamental  gneiss,  and  there  is  a  large 
development  of  the  strata  peculiar  to  the  Carboniferous,  Devonian 
and  Cambrian  systems,  in  all  of  which  important  geological  ano! 
economic  problems  are  presented. 

It  has  been  found  impossible  to  classify  and  arrange  the 
different  roc's  formations  of  the  maritime  provinces  in  accordance 
with  the  scheme  of  nomenclature  laid  down  more  than  half  a 
century  ago  by  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  state  of  Nevr  York> 
and  subsequently  adopted  by  Sir  W.  E.  Logan  for  the  province 
of  Ontario  and  Quebec.  In  consequence  of  this  difficulty,  the 
necessity  has  arisen  of  placing  large  groups  of  strata  in  division* 
which  have  been  designated  by  local  names,  and  this  feature  has- 
been  the  cause  of  some  confusion  to  many  persons  who  are  not 
familiar  with  the  localities  and  the  points  of  structure  peculiar 
to  each. 

Too  often,  also,  there  has  been  an  attempt  made  to  parallel 
the  rock  formations  there  found  with  those  which  they  are  sup- 
posed to  represent  in  England  on  the  one  hand,  and  in  distant 
portions  of  the  United  States  on  the  other,  ignoring  the  possibility 
that  the  succession  of  life  forms  on  the  globe  in  early  years  may 
not  have  moved  forward  simultaneously  over  the  whole  surface* 
but  that  their  distribution  may  have  followed  some  law  of  evo- 
lution or  development  which  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently 
considered.  Geological  problems  in  connection  with  certain 

(433) 


434  THE    PROGRESS    OF    GEOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION 

formations  in  the  maritime  provinces  have  thus  occasionally 
presented  features  difficult  to  reconcile  with  those  which  are 
found  in  supposed  similar  formations  elsewhere,  when  the  attempt 
at  interpretation  has  been  made  purely  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  contained  fossils  by  those  who  were  not  familiar  with  the 
local  conditions  of  structure  or  the  nature  of  the  rock  formations 
which  are  there  presented. 

In  the  present  paper  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  discuss  the 
different  views  which  have  been  put  forth  from  time  to  time 
regarding  the  horizons  of  the  several  rock  groups  in  Nova  Scotia. 
To  do  justice  to  this  aspect  of  the  subject  would  extend  the 
limits  of  the  paper  to  great  length.  It  is  proposed,  therefore,  to 
give  merely  a  brief  statement  of  some  of  the  work  which  has 
been  done  in  this  field,  with  a  short  notice  of  the  men  who  have 
been  largely  instrumental  in  elucidating  the  principal  points  of 
structure  throughout  the  province. 

Much  of  this  early  work  in  the  field  was  carried  out  by  two 
Nova  Scotians,  viz.,  Dr.  Abraham  Gesner,  a  name  well-known  in 
the  central  portion  of  the  province,  and  by  Sir  William  Dawson, 
a  native  of  Pictou.  Both  of  these  men,  under  many  difficulties, 
partly  inseparable  from  that  early  date,  devoted  much  of  the 
time  taken  from  their  otherwise  arduous  duties  to  the  study  of 
the  somewhat  complicated  geological  problems  there  presented. 

The  task  which  these  two  distinguished  men,  who  may  well 
be  styled  the  pioneers  in  geological  science  in  the  eastern  prov- 
inces, thus  voluntarily  assumed  in  the  first  half  of  the  last 
century  was  no  easy  one.  Even  in  England,  the  actual  work  of 
a  geological  survey  had  scarcely  been  commenced.  The  nomen- 
clature of  the  science  was  in  its  infancy,  and  the  many  helps 
towards  deciphering  the  writings  in  the  great  book  of  the  rock 
formations,  which  are  now  available  to  the  students  of  geological 
structure,  were  altogether,  or  almost  entirely,  lacking. 

When  these  men  began  their  work  the  country  was  com- 
paratively but  little  opened  up  for  settlement.  Roads  were  few 
and  far  between  when  once  the  main  lines  of  communication 


IN    NOVA    SCOTIA — ELLS.  435 

were  left  behind,  so  that  the  facilities  for  detailed  careful 
examination  and  comparison  were  rarely  found.  That  so  large 
an  amount  of  really  valuable  information  was  obtained  in  those 
early  days  is  matter  for  gratulation  and  clearly  proves  that  these 
early  students  of  the  earth's  crust  were  not  only  careful  obser- 
vers but  were  imbued  with  the  true  scienti6c  spirit. 

Probably  the  earliest  description,  from  the  scientific  stand- 
point, of  the  rocks  found  in  Nova  Scotia,  is  contained  in  a 
somewhat  lengthy  paper,  contributed  to  the  American  Journal 
of  Science  by  Messrs.  Jackson  and  Alger,  two  leading  American 
geologists,  in  1828-29.  This  paper  was  illustrated  by  a  sketch 
map  of  a  portion  of  the  province,  which  is  probably  the  first 
attempt  at  a  geological  map  issued  in  Canada. 

Without  going  into  details  as  to  the  points  of  structure  which 
are  there  described,  it  may  be  said  that  this  paper  contains  much 
interesting  information  relative  to  the  trap  formations  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  and  to  their  contained  minerals.  The  gypsum 
deposits,  found  along  the  south  side  of  the  Basin  of  Minas,  also 
received  a  fair  amount  of  attention,  and  there  is  a  good  descrip- 
tion of  the  iron  ores  which  occur  in  portions  of  the  South 
Mountain  range  at  different  points. 

At  that  early  date  the  long  list  of  names  now  employed  to 
distinguish  the  many  formations  to  which  the  various  rocks 
which  form  the  earth's  crust  are  now  assigned  was  not  formu- 
lated. The  use  of  the  term  Primitive  for  certain  granite  masses 
was  common,  and  these  were  supposed  to  represent  the  oldest 
group  of  rocks.  The  term  Transition  was  also  employed  to 
designate  certain  altered  sediments  which  are  in  contact  with 
the  granites  at  different  points ;  but  such  names  as  Silurian, 
Devonian,  Carboniferous  and  Triassic  were  not  yet  invented. 

The  terms  trap,  sandstone  and  slate  are,  in  this  early  paper, 
in  general  use,  but  details  of  geological  structure  are  almost 
entirely  wanting.  The  article,  however,  is  interesting  from 
its  very  full  description  of  the  trap  formation  found  in  the 
North  Mountain  range,  and  to  some  extent  valuable  from  t 
description  therein  contained  relative  to  tie  mode  of  occurrence 


436          THE    PROGRESS    OF    GEOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION 

and  distribution  of  some  of  the  leading  economic  minerals.  Ir* 
this  connection  the  iron  ores  of  the  South  Mountain  range  which- 
are  seen  at  Mictaux  and  Bear  River  are  regarded  as  probabljr 
continuous  throughout  the  entire  mountain  range,  passing  to 
the  rear  of  the  village  of  Horton,  and  possibly  continuing  further 
east  to  connect  with  theiron  deposits  found  in  Pictou  county. 

Considerable  information  is  also  given  as  to  the  coal  and 
copper  deposits  in  Cumberland,  Colchester  and  Pictou  counties,, 
in  the  latter  of  which  the  coal  mines,  now  of  so  much  importance,, 
were  then  just  being  opened. 

Probably  the  most  important  of  the  early  writings  on  the 
subject  of  Nova  Scotian  geology  are  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Abraham 
Gesner.  The  first  of  his  publications  to  appear  has  the  date- 
1836,  and  is  entitled,  "  Remarks  on  the  Geology  and  Mineralogy 
of  Nova  Scotia."  The  volume  contains  the  results  of  his  obser- 
vations throughout  the  province  during  several  preceding  years,, 
and  is  the  first  attempt  made  to  place  the  geological  formations, 
there  found  in  regular  order.  Gesner  arranged  the  several  rock 
groups  into  districts,  and  placed  the  granites,  which  he  found  so- 
persistent  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  in  the  Primary  district, 
regarding  these  as  his  oldest  division.  A  second  belt  which  he- 
outlined  throughout  a  great  part  of  the  central  area  of  the  prov- 
ince, and  which  consisted  largely  of  slates,  he  styled  the  Slate- 
district,  and  regarded  them  as  more  recent  in  age  than  the 
granite. 

These  were  succeeded  northward  by  a  great  series  of  reddish 
sandstones,  shales,  and  some  slaty  beds,  which  now  include  for* 
mations  from  the  Silurian  to  the  Trias,  both  inclusive,  which  he 
termed  the  Red  Sandstone  district.  This  division  embraced  also- 
what  is  now  known  as  the  Coal  formation,  while  to  the  great 
ridge  of  volcanic  rocks,  including  basalts,  diabase  and  amygda- 
loids,  which  are  found  chiefly  in  the  North  Mountain  range,  he 
gave  the  name  of  the  Trap  district. 

This  classification,  it  will  be  observed,  was  based  largely  on 
physical  and  lithological  characters  and  upon  the  predominant 
rock  masses  in  each. 


IN    NOVA    SCOTIA — ELLS.  437 

This  volume  of  Gesner's  was  accompanied  by  a  small  map  of 
the  province  on  which  the  limits  of  the  several  divisions  were 
outlined  as  then  understood. 

Of  Dr.  Gesner,  it  may  be  truly  said  that  he  was  a  remarkable 
man  for  his  times.  The  collection  and  preparation  of  the  great 
mass  of  facts  contained  in  his  first  book  must  have  involved  a 
large  amount  of  hardship  in  the  field  and  in  his  study,  and  in 
the  preface  he  states  that  "  amidst  the  arduous  duties  of  a 
laborious  profession,  and  under  the  annoyance  of  perpetual 
interruption,  most  of  the  following  pages  have  been  written  ;  or 
•during  the  silent  hours  of  midnight,  when  the  labours  but  not  the 
fatigues  of  the  day  had  departed." 

Gesner's  subsequent  publications  relative  to  the  subject  of 
Nova  Scotia  geology  may  be  briefly  mentioned.  In  1843  an 
important  paper  was  read  before  the  Geological  Society  of 
London,  Eng.,  which  was  accompanied  by  a  geological  map  of  a 
large  portion  of  the  province,  and  this  shews  a  marked  advance 
-as  compared  with  those  which  had  previously  appeared  ;  and  a 
similar  paper  was  published  in  the  London  Mining  Journal  in 
1845. 

A  second  volume  styled  "  The  Industrial  Resources  of  Nova 
Scotia  "  appeared  in  1849.  This  contained  two  chapters  devoted 
to  the  geology  and  mineral  resources  of  the  province.  In  this 
volume  it  will  be  readily  noticed  that  a  great  advance  has  been 
made  in  geological  science  since  the  date  of  the  first  book  in  1836. 
The  several  formations  have  been  fairly  well  arranged  in  accord- 
ance with  modern  ideas  of  nomenclature,  though  the  work  was 
necessarily  done  on  the  broad  scale.  The  rocks  were  arranged 
tinder  seven  heads,  as  follows  : — 

1st.  The  granites  or  hypogene  rocks  of  the  south  coast, 
including  the  syenites  and  traps.  2nd.  The  stratified  non- 
fossiliferous  rocks  of  the  interior,  now  known  as  the  gold- 
bearing  and  other  associated  slates,  which  he  called  ^Cambrian, 
in  which  classification  they  still  remain.  3rd.  The  fos- 
siliferous  clay  slates,  with  greywackes,  which  he  styled 


438          THE    PROGRESS    OF    GEOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION 

Silurian,  the  term  being  still  held  as  applicable  to  a  large 
part  of  these  sediments.  4th.  The  overlying  series  to  the  base 
of  the  Carboniferous,  regarded  as  of  the  age  of  the  old  Red  sand- 
stone or  Devonian.  5th.  The  Carboniferous  proper  or  Coal 
formation.  6th.  The  New  Red  sandstone  and  the  intrusive  or 
igneous  rocks  associated,  now  regarded  as  probably  of  Triassic 
age  ;  and  7th,  the  overlying  drift  or  boulder  formation. 

The  arrangement  of  so  many  groups  of  rock  formations 
throughout  the  province  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  fairly  well 
sustained  by  more  recent  and  detailed  investigation,  conclusively 
establishes  the  fact  that  in  Dr.  Gesner  the  province  possessed  a 
geologist  of  no  mean  order,  having  a  wonderful  grasp  of  the 
difficult  problems  everywhere  presented  in  connection  with  the 
rock  structure  in  the  eastern  provinces,  and  indicating  a  marvel- 
lous capacity  for  scientific  investigation. 

During  the  years  from  1838  to  1843,  Gesner,  at  the  request 
of  the  government  of  New  Brunswick,  made  a  comparatively 
close  study  of  the  rock  formations  found  in  that  province.  The 
results  of  his  work  appeared  in  five  separate  reports  of  great 
interest,  the  terms  employed  to  designate  the  several  rock  groups 
corresponding  closely  with  those  which  he  employed  in  his  work 
in  Nova  Scotia.  He  also  published  a  volume  on  the  general 
resources  of  New  Brunswick  which  appeared  in  1847,  in  which 
several  chapters  were  devoted  to  the  geological  features  there 
observed,  so  that  it  will  be  readily  seen  the  life  work  of  Dr. 
Gesner  was  of  great  importance  and  value  to  both  the  eastern 
provinces. 

As  a  sample  of  his  style  of  writing,  the  following,  taken  from 
his  description  of  the  Cornwallis  valley,  as  contained  in  his  first 
volume,  1836,  may  be  given  : — 

"  Before  the  visitor  descends  from  the  South  Mountains  near 
Kentville,  let  him  take  a  view  of  the  extensive  valley  before  him, 
On  the  north  side  rise  those  mountains  of  basaltic  columns^ 
which,  with  proud  elevation,  line  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
protecting  the  beautiful  and  fertile  Township  of  Cornwallis,  and 
all  the  settlements  situated  at  their  base  from  the  bleak  north- 


IN  NOVA  SCOTIA — ELLS.  439 

wester,  so  well-known,  and  so  little  admired  in  Nova  Scotia.    Let 
him   turn  his  eyes  towards   the  western   horizon,  and  as  far  as 
vision  extends,  the  red  sandstone  supports  the  soil  of  the  almost 
level  country   before  him,  while  rocks  of  different  classes  are 
thrown  up  like  walls  on  each  of  its  sides,  affording  shelter  from 
southern  and  northern  gales  ;  and  lastly,  let  a  glance  be  taken  at 
the  bustling  little  village  beneath  his  feet,  and  he  will  admire 
not  only  the  grand  and   beautiful  spectacle  before  him,  but  also 
the  infant  town  below,  prepared  to  afford  him  those  refreshments 
his  stroll  will  have  rendered  necessary.     In  the  neighbourhood 
of  Kentville,  the  new  red  sandstone  is  in  contact  with  the  old  red 
sandstone,   the   members   of   the  mountain   limestone  and  coal 
groups  being  deficient.     The  great  bed  of  iron,  represented  as 
occupying  a  place  throughout  the  whole  South  Mountain  range, 
has  not  yet  been  discovered  south  of  that  village ;  but  from  the 
occurrence  of  detached  pieces  of  the  ore,  iron  pyrites,  and  the 
carbonate  of  iron  at  Beech  Hill,  no  doubt  can  be  entertained  of 
its  uninterrupted  existence, even  farther  eastward  than  that  place." 
An  important  feature  in  the  history  of  Nova  Scotian  geology 
was  the  visit  of  Sir  Charles  Lyell  who,  in  1842,  made  a  geological 
excursion  through  portions  of  the  province.     In  this  work  he  was 
aided  by  Dr.  Gesner  and  also  by  Sir  William  Dawson,  the  latter 
at  that  time  a  young  man  of  about  twenty-three  years  of  age. 
The  results  of   this  visit  of   Sir  Charles  Lyell  are  given  in  his 
book,"  Travels  in  North  America,"  published  in  1845.     He  paid 
much  attention  to  the  group  of  rocks  which  had  been  classified  in 
large  part  by  Gesner  under  the  head  of  the  red  sandstone  division, 
and  as  a  consequence  of  his  examination  these  were  separated  into 
three  portions  styled  respectively,  the  upper  carboniferous,  the 
productive  coal  measures,  and  the  lower  carboniferous  or  gypsif 
erous  formation.     The  last  named  was  placed  in  its  true  position 
beneath  the  coal  measures,  while  the  soft  red  sandstones,  so  con- 
spicuous around  the  shores  of  Minas  Basin,  were  regarded  as  an 
upper  division  and  regarded  as  probably  belonging  to  the  Trias. 
The  visit  of  Sir  Charles  Lyell  was  therefore  important  as  serving 
to  determine  more  clearly  the  true  horizons  of  this  important 
series  of  rocks. 


440  THE    PROGRESS    OF    GEOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION 

Among  the  workers  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  province 
who  have  aided  materially  in  elucidating  points  of  structure  may 
be  mentioned  the  name  of  Mr.  R.  Brown.  From  his  intimate 
connection  with  some  of  the  leading  coal  mines  of  Sydney,  Mr. 
Brown  enjoyed  great  facilities  for  studying  the  rocks  of  the  Car- 
boniferous formations  in  that  area,  and  he  has  contributed  much 
valuable  information  regarding  the  arrangement  and  distribution 
of  these  rocks  for  that  portion  of  the  province.  Some  of  the 
results  thus  obtained  have  appeared  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Geological  Society  of  London,  the  first  article  being  apparently 
printed  in  1853,  as  well  as  in  more  recent  publications. 

The  association  of  Sir  William  Dawson  with  Sir  Charles 
Lyell  in  1842,  greatly  stimulated  the  love  of  the  former  for 
scientific  investigation,  and  for  many  years  thereafter  much  of 
his  spare  time  was  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  rocks  in  his  native 
province.  From  his  position  as  Superintendent  of  Education, 
•which  appointment  he  held  for  some  years  previous  to  his  removal 
to  Montreal  as  principal  of  McGill  University,  he  was  enabled  to 
visit  many  localities  where  interesting  problems  of  structure 
were  presented. 

Sir  William  was  an  early  contributor  to  the  scientific  journals, 
since  we  find  a  communication  from  his  pen  in  the  Journal  of  the 
•Geological  Society  for  1842  on  some  geological  phenomena  which 
he  had  observed  in  Prince  Edward  Island.  Many  of  his  papers, 
more  especially  in  the  early  years  of  his  work,  were  read  before 
the  Geological  Society,  of  which  body  he  soon  was  appointed  a 
fellow.  Up  to  the  date  of  his  death,  which  occurred  near  the 
close  of  1899,  his  pen  was  rarely  idle,  the  list  of  his  published 
writings  reaching  a  total  of  nearly  four  hundred,  in  which  are 
included  many  books  of  much  interest,  some  of  which  dealt 
exclusively  with  scientific  matters,  while  others  had  a  wider 
scope. 

The  first  of  these  volumes  relating  to  the  geology  of  the 
maritime  provinces  was  his  "  Acadian  Geology,"  the  first  edition 
of  which  appeared  in  1855.  A  second  edition,  much  enlarged, 
was  published  in  1868,  and  this  was  added  to  by  a  supplement 


IN    NOVA    SCOTIA — ELLS.  441 

in  1878  and  another  in  1891,  in  which  the  latest  information  on 
the  subject  was  supposed  to  be  incorporated. 

The  "  Acadian  Geology"  has  for  many  years  been  regarded 
as  a  standard  work  in  the  field  of  S2ientific  research,  though,  as 
more  detailed  investigitions  have  been  carried  out,  severaUtate- 
ments  regarding  the  structure  of  certain  formations  have  of 
necessity  undergone  revision.  A  large  portion  of  Sir  William's 
life  work  was  spent  in  the  study  of  fossil  plants,  in  which  line  of 
investigation  he  was  justly  regarded  as  an  eminent  authority. 
These  studies  embraced  the  fossil  remains  found  in  the  Devonian 
and  Silurian  of  Gaspe  and  New  Brunswick,  and  in  the  Carbon- 
iferous rocks  of  all  the  maritime  provinces,  as  well  as  the  fossil 
plants  found  in  the  newer  formations  of  the  Pacific  slope.  Like 
Gesner,  Sir  William  Dawson  may  rightly  be  considered  as  one  of 
Nova  Scotia's  most  distinguished  sons  in  the  line  of  scientific 
investigation. 

Among  other  zealous  workers  in  the  geological  field  in  Nova 
Scotia  must  be  mentioned  the  name  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Honeyman- 
Formerly  a  minister  of  the  Presbyterian  church  and  settled  in 
Antigonish,  his  fondness  for  geological  study  early  led  him  to  a 
close  investigation  of  the  complicated  rock  formations  which  are 
found  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  province.  Afterwards,  being 
transferred  to  Halifax,  he  became  the  curator  of  the  Provincial 
Museum.  Here  his  field  of  work  became  somewhat  enlarged, 
and  his  researches  extended  over  many  parts  of  the  province. 
The  results  of  his  field  work  appeared  in  a  number  of  interesting 
and  valuable  papers,  many  of  which  were  published  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Nova  Scotian  Institute  of  Science,  though  others 
were  read  before  the  scientific  societies  both  of  England  and  the 
United  States. 

The  first  of  these  contributions  by  Dr.  Honeyrnan  on  the 
geology  of  Nova  Scotia  was  apparently  presented  before  the 
Literary  and  Scientific  Society  of  that  province  in  1859,  and  from 
that  date  to  the  time  of  his  death  in  1889,  articles  from  his  pen 
appeared  at  frequent  intervals.  Though  the  chief  field  of  his 
labours  for  many  years  was  the  classic  ground  of  Arisaig,  where 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci  ,  VOL  X.  TRANS  — EE. 


442  THE    PROGRESS    OF    GEOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION 

probably  his  best  work  was  accomplished,  his  eyes  were  open  to 
the  natural  phenomena  which  are  everywhere  presented  to  him 
who  cares  to  read  the  story  of  the  earth. 

A  full  list  of  his  publications  has  apparently  never  been  pub- 
lished, and  the  collecting  of  these  in  proper  order  is  a  duty  yet 
devolving  upon  some  one  of  those  with  whom  he  was  intimately 
associated  in  the  scientific  work  which  has  been  and  is  still  being 

o 

carried  on  in  the  Acadian  provinces. 

Prior  to  the  admission  of  the  eastern  provinces  into  the 
Canadian  confederation  the  work  of  the  Geological  Survey  did 
not  extend  east  of  Quebec. 

Almost  the  earliest  work,  however,  of  the  first  director,  Sir 
William  Logan,  was  the  examination  and  measurement,  in  1843, 
of  the  celebrated  Joggins  section  on  the  western  coast  of  Cum- 
berland county,  embracing  a  total  measured  thickness  of  14,570 
feet  of  Carboniferous  strata,  in  which  were  included  a  large  part 
of  the  Lower  Carboniferous  formation,  the  Millstone-o[nt,  the 

O  ' 

Productive  Coal-Measures,  and  the  Upper  Carboniferous  in  part- 
The  work  so  ably  done  at  that  early  date  has  since  been  revised 
by  several  other  workers  in  the  field,  notably  by  Sir  William 
Dawson,  the  results  of  whose  examinations,  stated  in  much  detail, 
will  be  found  in  the  second  edition  of  the  Acadian  Geology, 
1868.  The  section  as  originally  published  has  ever  remained  as 
the  standard  basis  of  classification  for  the  rocks  of  the  Carbon- 
iferous system  in  the  maritime  provinces. 

With  the  advent  of  Confederation  in  1867,  the  work  of  .the 
Geological  Survey  was  extended  to  New  Brunswick  and  Nova 
Scotia.  In  1868  Sir  William  Logan  and  Mr.  Edward  Hartley 
began  a  detailed  examination  of  the  coal  fields  in  Pictou  county 
which  was  carried  on  till  the  death  of  the  latter  at  the  close  of 
1870.  The  results  of  these  examinations  in  the  Pictou  coal-field 
were  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  the  coal  basin  was  mapped 
with  great  accuracy. 

.  In  consequence  of  the  importance  which  the  gold-fields  of 
Nova  Scotia  had  assumed,  Dr.  Selwyn  who  had  been  appointed 
director  of  the  Geological  Survey  in  1869,  made  a  somewhat 


IN    NOVA    SCOTIA — ELLS.  443 

•detailed  examination  of  that  district  in  1870,  and  published  a 
-valuable  report  on  the  subject  in  the  annual  volume  of  the 
Department  for  1870-71.  In  this  report  the  gold-bearing  rocks 
of  the  province  were  fully  described  and  compared  with  those 
found  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  and  also  with  those  of  the  gold- 
fields  of  Australia  in  which  district  he  had  already  worked  for 
some  years  as  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  that  colony. 
In  1871  Dr.  Selwyn  also  made  a  study  of  the  iron-ore  deposits 
of  the  Londonderry  district,  the  results  of  which  were  stated  in 
the  Report  of  the  Department  for  1872-73. 

In  1870  work  was  commenced  in  the  Springhill  coal  basin 
by  Mr.  Scott  Barlow,  and  carried  on  continuously  by  him  till  the 
close  of  1878.  In  addition  to  mapping  the  Springhill  areas, 
Mr.  Barlow's  work  extended  over  a  large  portion  of  the  county 
•of  Cumberland,  the  results  appearing  in  several  important  reports 
to  the  Geological  Survey  Department.  In  1873  Mr.  Walter 
McOuat  began  a  series  of  surveys  in  parts  of  the  same  field,  but 
more  particularly  in  the  area  to  the  north-east  of  that  assigned 
to  Mr.  Barlow,  which  were  carried  on  till  his  death  at  an  early 
age  in  1875.  The  results  of  his  explorations  also  appear  in 
several  valuable  reports  addressed  to  the  same  Department. 

In  1872  Mr.  Charles  Robb,  after  several  seasons  spent  in  New 
Brunswick,  began  a  systematic  exploration  of  the  Cape  Breton 
coal-fields.  In  this  work  he  was  associated  with  Mr.  Hugh 
Fletcher,  who,  on  the  retirement  of  Mr.  Robb  in  1875,  assumed 
control  of  and  completed  the  mapping  of  the  coal-basin.  The 
explorations  were  thereupon  extended  and  the  whole  of  the  island 
carefully  surveyed  and  mapped  in  great  detail. 

Upon  the  completion  of  this  work,  Mr.  Fletcher's  field  of 
operations  was  transferred  to  the  main  land,  and  the  same  detailed 
series  of  surveys  which  had  been  inaugurated  in  Cape  Breton 
were  there  continued.  In  this  way  much  of  the  northern  and 
eastern  portions  of  the  province  have  been  carefully  mapped  and 
the  geological  details  indicated  with  great  minuteness,  including 
the  counties  of  Guysboro,  Antigonish,  Colchester  and  Cumber- 
land, and  large  portions  of  Hants  and  Kings.  The  minuteness 


444  THE     PROGRESS    OF    GEOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION 

of  detail  shewn  in  such  of  these  map-sheets  as  have  been  pub- 
lished, attest  the  scientific  training  of  their  author  and  the  extreme 
care  which  has  been  taken  in  their  preparation.  Much  attention 
has  been  devoted  to  the  accurate  mapping  of  the  important  coal- 
basins  of  Pictou  and  Cumberland  counties,  and  to  the  determin- 
ation of  the  economic  value  of  other  deposits  of  economic 
minerals  which  are  found  in  the  area. 

The  mapping  of  the  great  belt  of  rocks  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  including  the  slates,  quartzites  and  granites,  which  in  the 
early  days  of  Gesner  were  styled  Primitive  and  Transition,  and 
in  which  the  gold  mines  of  the  province  are  principally  located, 
has  been  carried  out  along  similar  lines  by  Mr.  E.  R.  Faribault, 
also  of  the  Geological  Survey  staff.  In  addition  to  the  general 
maps,  shewing  the  distribution  of  the  several  rock  formations  of 
that  district,  a  valuable  series  of  map-sheets  shewing  the  detailed 
structure  of  the  principal  gold  areas  has  been  prepared.  Some 
of  these  have  been  already  published,  while  others  are  in  course 
of  preparation  and  are  of  inestimable  value  to  the  mining  com- 
munity of  the  province.  The  complicated  series  of  rocks  which 
were  broadly  outlined  half  a  century  ago  by  Gesner  and  Dawson 
have  thus  been  worked  out  in  the  greatest  detail,  and  the  several 
geological  divisions  indicated  in  the  clearest  manner. 

Among  those  who  have  done  more  or  less  work  in  the  prov- 
ince, it  may  be  said  that  the  writer  of  this  article,  in  1884,  in 
connection  with  his  work  in  south-eastern  New  Brunswick,  spent 
some  weeks  in  tracing  out  the  formations  in  the  area  between 
the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  Northumberland  Straits  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  map  of  Cumberland  county. 

In  1S91  and  1892,  Mr.  R.  Chalmers  made  a  series  of  careful 
examinations  in  connection  with  the  surface  deposits  of  Cumber- 
land county,  with  particular  reference  to  the  glaciation  of  that 
district ;  and  in  the  years  from  1890  to  1896,  Dr.  L.  W.  Bailey, 
of  the  University  of  New  Brunswick,  carried  on  a  somewhat 
extended  examination  of  the  southern  and  western  portions  of 
the  province,  including  the  counties  of  Digby,  Yarmouth,  Queens 
and  Annapolis.  A  detailed  report  of  the  work  thus  done, 


IN    NOVA    SCOTIA — ELLS.  445 

accompanied  by  a  map  of  the  area,  was  prepared  and  published 
in  the  annual  volume  of  the  Geological  Survey  for  1896.  in  which 
the  leading  geological  formations  were  outlined  and  many  import- 
ant facts  relating  to  the  structure  and  mineral  resources  were 
given.  The  detailed  mapping  of  portions  of  this  district  is  still 
in  progress,  in  order  that  the  map-sheets  of  that  portion  of  the 
province  may  conform  with  those  already  published  of  the 
northern  and  eastern  divisions. 

Valuable  papers  have  also  appeared  from  time  to  time  from 
the  pen  of  Mr.  H.  S.  Poole,  for  many  years  connected  with 
important  mining  operations  in  the  Pictou  coal-fields,  which 
afforded  him  excellent  opportunities  for  the  study  of  the  rocks 
of  the  Carboniferous  system,  and  also  from  Dr.  E.  Gil  pin,  of  the 
Department  of  Mines,  Halifax,  who  has  ably  dealt  with  certain 
points  of  structure  presented  by  the  rocks  of  that  district,  and 
also  with  many  questions  relating  to  the  occurrence  of  economic 
minerals  at  many  points  throughout  the  province. 

In  connection  with  Acadia  College,  Professor  Haycock  has 
recently  published  two  valuable  papers,  dealing  largely  with  the 
question  of  local  geology,  which  are  of  much  interest.  In  the 
area  about  Wolfville  and  along  the  Gaspereau  Valley,  as  well  as 
in  connection  with  the  rocks  of  the  North  Mountain  range, 
there  is  a  most  interesting  field  for  investigation  which  has  been 
as  yet  scarcely  touched.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  area  will 
now  receive  that  attention  from  local  geologists  which  it  well 
deserves. 

In  a  paper  of  this  kind  it  is,  of  course,  very  evident  that 
many  points  of  great  interest  must  be  omitted.  The  merest 
outlines  of  the  subject  have  of  necessity  been  stated,  and  there 
are  other  names  which  have  been  associated  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  with  the  work  of  investigation,  to  which  but  slight 
reference  can  be  made.  Among  those  who  have  thus  contributed 
papers  relating  to  the  geological  structure  and  mineral  resources 
of  the  province  at  a  comparatively  early  date,  may  be  mentioned 
by  Mr.  J.  Campbell  of  Halifax,  whose  reports  on  the  gold-fields, 
in  1863  are  of  much  interest,  and  Dr.  H.  Y.  Hind  of  Windsor, 


446     GEOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA — ELLS. 

who,  from  1869  to  1872,  published  several  articles  on  the  same- 
subject.  Papers  of  more  or  less  importance  relating  to  the  gold 
of  Nova  Scotia,  have  also  been  printed  by  Mr.  C.  Fred  Hartt  in 
1864  and  by  Mr.  H.  F.  Perley  in  1865,  both  in  the  Canadian 
Naturalist  of  Montreal,  and  by  Professors  Marsh  in  183  L  and 
Silliman  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science. 

• 

Among  contributors  to  the  literature  pertaining  to  the  coal- 
fields of  the  province,  in  addition  to  those  already  referred  to,  may 
be  mentioned  Mr.  H.  Poole  who  contributed  two  papers,  one  in 
the  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society  of'  London,  1853,  the  other 
in  the  Canadian  Naturalist  in  1860,  and  Professor  J.  P.  Lesley, 
whose  elaborate  article  on  the  stiucture  of  the  Cape  Breton  areas 
was  published  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  for  1863.  . 

From  the  pen  of  the  late  Dr.  H.  How  of  Windsor,  several 
valuable  articles  appeared  between  1857  and  1866,  principally  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  N.  S.  Institute  of  Natural  Science.  These, 
for  the  most  part,  described  the  occurrence  of  valuable  and  some- 
times rare  minerals,  found  at  different  places  in  the  province. 
Various  publications,  more  particularly  relating  to  the  occurrence 
and  determination  of  fossils  from  various  localities  have  also 
appeared  from  time  to  time,  both  in  the  official  reports  of  the 
Geological  Survey  and  in  various  scientific  journals,  and  represent 
the  work  of  Messrs  E  Billings,  T.  C.  Weston,  D.  Honeyrnan,  H. 
Poole,  H.  M.  Ami  and  others.  These  can  only  be  thus  briefly 
alluded  to,  since  the  aim  of  this  paper  has  been  to  give  broadly 
some  slight  sketch  of  the  leading  workers  in  this  field,  and  a  brief 
statement  of  the  results  of  their  labours.  The  details  of  the  sub- 
ject may  well  be  left  to  others,  who  through  a  moie  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  progress  of  geological  science  in  the 
province,  both  as  regards  men  and  localities,  are  better  fitted 
than  the  writer  for  the  task  of  elaboration. 


IV. — ON  THE  UPPER  CAMBRIAN  AGE  OF  THE  DICTYONEMA 
SLATES  OF  ANGUS  BROOK,  NEW  CANAAN  AND  KENTVILLE, 
N.  S.— BY  H.  M.  AMI,  D.  Sc.,  F.  G.  S.,  of  the  Geological 
Survey  of  Canada. 

(Read  10th  February,  1902.) 

In  his  "  Acadian  Geology,"  second  edition,  1868,  p.  563,  Sir 
William  Davvson  figures  Dictyonema  Webateri  and  places  it  as  a 
Silurian  (Upper  Silurian)  species.  In  describing  the  slates  from 
which  the  type-specimens  of  this  species  were  obtained  he 
writes :  "  Passing  from  the  Cobequid  Mountains  to  the  slate 
hills  of  the  south  side  of  the  Bay  "  --meaning  the  Bay  of  Fundy 
— "  in  Kings  County,  we  find  slates  not  very  dissimilar  from 
those  of  the  Cobequids," — which  he  had  described  on  the  previous 
page,  562 — "  in  the  promontory  northward  of  the  Gaspereau 
River.  Here  the  direction,  both  of  the  bedding  and  of  the 
slates  structure,  is  N.  E.  by  S.  W. ;  but  the  planes  of  cleavage 
dip  to  the  S.  E.,  while  the  bedding,  as  indicated  by  lines  of 
different  color,  dips  to  the  N.  W.  These  slates  with  the  quartzite 
and  coarse  limestones,  are  continued  in  the  hills  of  New 
Canaan,  where  they  contain  crinoidal  joints,  fossil  shells,  corals, 
and  in  some  beds  of  fawn-coloured  slate,  beautiful  fan-like 
expansions  of  the  pretty  Dictyonema  represented  in  fig.  196. 
Very  fine  specimens  of  this  fossil  were  found  by  the  late  Dr. 
Webster  of  Kentville.  It  was  the  habitation  of  thousands  of 
minute  polypes,  similar  apparently  to  those  of  the  modern 
Sertalaria.  The  general  strike  of  the  rocks  in  New  Canaan  is 
N.  E.  and  S.  W.,  and  they  extend  from  that  place  westward  to 
the  Nictaux  River.  Westward  of  Nictaux  River,  as  already 
mentioned  in  describing  the  Devonian,  the  beds  of  the  Upper 
Silurian,  as  well  as  those  of  the  last  mentioned  formation,  are 
nterrupted  by  great  masses  of  granite  which  form  the  hills 
along  the  south  side  of  the  Annapolis  River,  from  a  place  called 

(447) 


448       UPPER    CAMBRIAN   AGE   OF   DICTYONEMA   SLATES   OF 

Paradise  to  Bridgetown,  and  with  some  interruptions  nearly  as 
far  as  the  town  of  Annapolis." 

In  my  "  Synopsis  of  the  Geology  of  Canada,"*  the  following 
paragraph  refers  to  the  Silurian  of  the  region  in  question  as  pre- 
sented and  systematized  from  the  accepted  and  available  sources 
of  information  : — 

''  In  the  County  of  Annapolis,  Nova  Scotia,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Nictaux,  Silurian  strata  occur,  including  the  Nictaux 
iron  ore  beds  and  the  Torbrook  sandstone  formation,  whilst  near 
Kentville,  the  Kentville  formation  is  seen  as  well  as  on  Angus 
Brook  in  the  Gaspereau  Valley,  also  at  New  Canaan  with 
Dictyonema  Wcbsteri,  Dawson." 

Slates  holding  Dictyonema  Websteri,  Dawson,  and  thus 
known  to  occur :  (I)  At  New  Canaan,  the  t\pe  locality  ;  (2)  At 
Kentville,  N.  S.,  and  (3)  along  the  upper  portion  of  the  valley 
of  Angus  Brook,  a  small  stream  entering  the  Gaspereau  River 
between  the  village  of  Gaspereau  and  the  Avon  River  shore. 

The  general  section  of  the  rocks  holding  the  specimens  of 
Dictyonema  and  the  truly  Silurian  fossil-bearing  strata  of  the 
district,  in  which  corals  and  encrinites  and  brachiopods  occur,  as 
furnished  me  by  Sir  William  Dawson  some  years  ago,  distinctly 
showed  that  he  connected  the  two  in  a  general  way  only,  follow- 
ing the  inclination  and  strike  of  the  strata  in  that  part  of  Nova 
Scotia  which  have  been  affected  by  the  same  physical  forces 
that  disturbed  rocks  belonging  to  various  members  of  the  Palaeo- 
zoic succession.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  intrusive  masses  of  the 
district  have  affected  not  only  the  Cambrian  strata,  but  likewise 
the  later  deposits,  exclusive  of  the  rocks  of  the  Horton  and  its 
underlying  co-formation,  the  Gaspereau  formation,  and  the 
Grand  Pre  formation  of  later  Triassic  Age. 

Heretofore,  the  slates  which  have  yielded  the  specimens  of 
Dictyonema  Websteri  have  been  invariably  referred  to  the 
Silurian  system,  but  more  recent  examination  of  the  type 
specimens  of  D.  Websteri,  have  revealed  a  remarkable  resem- 
blance to,  and  the  close  affinity  of  this  species  with  the 

«  Trans.  Royal  Soc.  Can.,  2nd  Ser.,  1900-1901,  Vol.  VI.,  Sect.  VI.,  p.  203. 


ANGUS  BROOK,  NEW  CANAAN  AND  KENTVILLE. — AMI.     449 

Dictyonema  flabelliforme,  Eichwald,  which  finds  a  synonym  in 
the  D.  sociale,  Salter,  a  characteristic  Upper  Cambrian  fossil. 

In  his  "  Niagara  Fossils,"  Part  I,  Graptolitidse  of  the  Upper 
Silurian,  Prof.  J.  W.  Spencer  writes  of  Dictyo-nema  Websteri, 
Dawson  : — 

"  This  beautiful  frond  occurs  at  New  Canaan,  Nova  Scotia,  in 
fawn-colored  slate  of  the  Upper  Silurian  System.  It  iscelluli- 
ferous  on  one  side,  and  in  appearance  it  is  more  closely  related 
to  D.  retiforme  than  to  D.  gracile," 

In  comparing  the  microscopical  characters  of  D.  Websteri  with 
those  of  D.  flabellifor me,  Eichwald,  especially  as  they  are  pre- 
sented and  illustrated  in  Carl  Wiman's  classic  workf  the  relative 
size  and  proportions  of  the  peculiar  rope-like  structure  of  the 
main  skeleton  in  the  rhabdosome  is  clearly  discernible,  so  that 
there  is  practically  no  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of  the  two 
species. 

It  will  therefore  now  be  necessary  to  refer  D.  Websteti,  as  a 
synonym  of  D.  flabelliforme,  Eichwald,  and  to  refer  the  Kent- 
ville  formation,  not  to  the  Silurian  (Upper)  System,  but  to  the 
Cambrian.  In  fact,  the  slates  of  the  Kentville  formation  of 
Kings  and  Annapolis  Counties  in  Nova  Scotia,  are  equivalent  in 
age  or  are  taxonomically  similar  to  the  slates  of  Barachois,  and 
associated  localities  in  the  Mira  Series  of  Cape  Breton,  as  well  as 
to  the  Dictyonema  slates  of  Navy  Island,  near  St.  John  City, 
and  the  slates  of  Eel  River,  near  Benton,  in  New  Brunswick. 
All  of  these  are  referable  to  the  Upper  Cambrian. 

The  first  rapprochement  made  between  Dictyonema  flabelli- 
forme and  D.  Websteri,  took  place  some  two  years  ago  when  the 
Dictyonema,  obtained  by  Prof.  L.  W.  Bailey,  near  Benton,  along 
the  Eel  River,  in  York  Co.,  N.  B.,  was  compared  with  the 
specimens  of  D.  Websteri,  at  present  in  the  collections  of  the 
Geological  Survey  Department,  and  they  were  found  to  be  so 
closely  related  as  not  to  be  practically  separable.  From  speci- 
mens of  D.  flabelliforme,  obtained  on  Navy  Island,  and  kindly 


1892? 


See  Bull.  Mus.  Univ.,  State  of  Missouri,  vol.  I,  no  1.  p.  26,  St.  Louis,  1884. 
t  Ucber  die  Graptoliten,  Bull.  Geol.  last.  Upsala.    PI   x.  figures  13  and  14,  p.  53. 


450         UPPER   CAMBRIAN   AGE   OF   DICTYONEMA   SLATES. — AMI. 

loaned  to  me  for  study  and  reference  by  Prof.  L.  W.  Bailey  of 
the  University  of  New  Brunswick,  it  was  readily  seen  that  the 
Benton  specimens  were  also  Upper  vJambriau  in  age. 

In  order  to  ascertain  definitely  whether  D.  Websteri, 
Dawson,  from  New  Canaan,  was  identical  with  D.  flabelliforme, 
the  type  specimens  of  the  former,  which  formed  part  of  the 
Dawson  collections  in  the  Peter  Redpath  Museum  of  McGill 
University,  were  sought,  and  kindly  loaned  to  the  writer  by  Prof. 
F.  D.  Adams.  These  are  preserved  on  two  slabs  of  more  or  less 
hardened  sericeous  or  glossy  red  shale  or  slate,  and  scattered 
over  the  surface  of  the  slates  in  a  rather  fragmentary  state  of 
preservation,  'except  in  one  specimen,  from  which  the  illustration 
on  p.  563,  (fig.  196,)  was  very  probably  made  when  the  "  Acadian 
Geology  "  was  prepared. 

From  a  careful  study  of  all  the  material  in  hand,  the  writer 
is  satisfied  that  the  upper  beds  of  the  Cambrian  System  are  thus 
represented  in  that  portion  of  Nova  Scotia  where  the  Dict- 
yonema  flabelliforme  beds  of  Kentville,  New  Canaan,  and  the 
Gaspereau  Valley,  (south  side,)  occur. 

We  thus  find  that  the  zone  or  horizon  of  Dictyonema  flabelli- 
forme, Eichwald,  occurs  at  the  following  localities  in  Canada, 
which  may  consequently  be  referred  to  the  Upper  or  Neo- 
Cambrian  : — 

(1.)     Matane,  Quebec,  South  Shore  of  St.  Lawrence  River. 

(2.)     Cape  Rosier,  Gasp6,  Que.,  near  Lighthouse. 

(3.)     Barachuis,  Cape  Breton,  Nova  Scotia. 

(4.)     Navy  Island,  near  St.  John,  New  Brunswick. 

(5.)     Shales  near  Benton,  above  Fredericton,  York  County, 

New  Brunswick. 

(6.)     New  Canaan,  Annapolis  Count}',  Nova  Scotia. 
(7.)     Kentville,  Annapolis  County,  Nova  Scotia. 
(8  )     Angus  Brook,  Gaspereau  Valley,  Kings  County,  Nova 

Scotia. 

Associated  with  Dictyonema  flabelliforme  at  Angus  Brook, 
are  found  obscure  remains  of  a  Bryograptus,  allied  to  B.Kjeridjl 
from  the  Upper  Cambrian  of  Scandinavia. 


V. — NOTES  ON  DR.  AMI'S  PAPER  ON  DICTYOXEMA  SLATES  OF 
ANGUS  BROOK,  NEW  CANAAN,  AND  KEXTVILLE,  N.  S. — 
BY  HENRY  S.  POOLE,  F.  0.  S.,  F.  R.  S.  C.,  ETC. 

(Read  10th  February,  1902.) 

When  handed  Dr.  Ami's  paper  to  read  at  this  meeting,  I  was 
requested  to  make  some  remarks  on  it.  I  comply,  but  only  do 
so  with  the  understanding  that  I  can  speak  with  no  authority, 
nor  am  I  able  to  properly  discuss  it. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  some  present  to  know  that  the  fossil 
in  question,  Dictyonema,  is  classed  with  the  curious  fossil  forms, 
Graptolites,  and  the  modern  Sertularia  among  the  order  of 
Hydrozoa.  These  beautiful  zoophites  are  like  branching  plants 
and  are  found  on  temperate  coasts.  They  have  two  rows  of  cells 
on  the  horny  branches. 

The  Dictyonema  also  reminds  one  of  the  coral  Fenestella 
which  occurs  in  the  limestones  at  Windsor  and  Brookfield  in 
lower  carboniferous  rocks  ;  but  the  branches  of  Fenestella  which 
frequently  biforate  are  connected  by  narrow  bands,  with  charac- 
teristic round  cellules  on  a  calcareous  frond.  The  skeleton  of 
Dictyonema  is  striated,  serrated  and  horny.  The  animals  of 
this  class  are  jelly-like,  radially  symmetrical,  living  in  colonies, 
and  building  up  for  the  common  good  these  horny  structures 
which  have  been  preserved  as  fossils  while  all  trace  of  the 
animal  has  disappeared.  The  allies  of  the  Dictyonema,  the 
Graptolites,  reached  their  maximum  in  Silurian  times,  and  dis- 
appeared with  that  age  after  evolving  many  varieties  of  form 
and  habit. 

Sir  A.  Geikie  speaks  of  Dictyonema  as  a  characteristic  fossil 
of  the  primordial  zone  in  Scandinavia,  where  it  is  associated 
with  allied  but  doubtful  forms.  In  Canada  it  also  occurs  at 
Point  Levis  and  other  places,  with  graptolites. 

(451) 


452   NOTES  OX  DR.  AMI'S  PAPER  ON  DICTYONEMA  SLATES— POOLE. 

It  certainly  is  new  to  place  these  Dictyonema  beds  as 
Cambrian,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  understand  how  Dr.  Ami  came 
to  change  the  views  he  expressed  before  the  Royal  Society  in 
1900,  without  visiting  the  locality,  unless  he  has  been  influenced 
by  the  examination  lately  made  by  Mr.  H.  Fletcher.  I  .should 
like  to  know  what  Mr.  Fletcher  has  to  say  of  the  stratigraphy 
and  the  age  of  these  fossils.  I  know  he  has  suspected  some 
rocks  in  this  locality  to  be  Cambrian,  and  that  he  got  Mr. 
Faribault  to  go  over  the  ground  with  him.  Mr.  Faribault,  as 
we  all  know,  has  for  years  made  a  study  of  the  Cambrian  in 
Nova  Scotia,  and  has  written  a  bulletin  of  the  greatest  practical 
value  to  miners,  on  the  structure  of  these  rocks  and  the  manner 
of  occurrence  in  them  of  auriferous  leads  and  paystreaks.  So 
much  has  this  pamphlet  been  appreciated  that  our  Mining 
Society  has  issued  nearly  1000  copies  to  miners,  engineers  and 
students.  I  may  also  say  I  hestitate  to  accept  Dr.  Ami's  interpre- 
tation of  the  paragraph  he  quotes  from  "  Acadian  Geology,"  in 
which  Sir  W.  Dawson  says  :  "  These  slates  .  .  .  are  continued  in 
the  hills  of  New  Canaan,  where  they  contain  crinoidal  joints, 
fossil  shells,  corals,  and  in  some  beds  of  fawn-colored  slate,  beau- 
tiful fanlike  expansions  of  the  pretty  Dictyonema."  Therefore 
before  accepting  a  supposition  that  he  meant  otherwise  than  he 
wrote,  I  would  like  to  know  the  views  of  Mr.  Fletcher.  Prof. 
Haycock,  of  Wolfville,  has  been  with  Mr.  Fietcher  in  this  field, 
and  has  besides  made  explorations  on  his  own  account.  What 
are  his  views  ?  If  the  crinoid,  shell  and  coral  beds  mentioned 
are  associated  with  the  Dictyonema  beds,  the  series  of  fossils 
they  probably  yield  should  determine  beyond  doubt  the  age 
of  Dictyonema  Websteri.  These  associate  fossils  are  not 
enumerated. 

Sir  W.  Dawson,  it  is  true,  spoke  of  them  as  Upper  Silurian, 
but  then  he  clasaed  the  overlying  beds  of  Bear  River  as 
Devonian.  Dr.  Honeyman  put  them  down  as  Lower  Silurian, 
and  the  overlying  beds  as  Upper  Silurian,  and  thus  maintained 
the  same  relative  positions. 

Dr.  Ami  quotes  from  his  "  Synopsis  of  the  Geology  of 
Canada,"  in  which  many  references  are  made  to  Nova  Scotian 


NOTES  ON  DR.  AMl'.S  PAPER  ON  DICTYONEMA  SLATES. POOLE.    453 

geology.  Some  of  these  have  brought  out  papers  in  reply  in 
our  own  "  Transactions,"  in  the  Ottawa  "Naturalist,"  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Mining  Society,  etc.  The  comments  make  itclearthat 
the  groups  of  beds  he  then  proposed  as  typical  formations,  and 
the  names  he  suggested,  have  not  been  generally  acceptable. 

As  issued,  this  Synopsis  has  some  paragraphs  not  easy  of 
interpretation,  e.  g.,  he  says  :  "  The  most  fossiliferous  limestones, 
as  at  Windsor  and  Brooktield  have  been  referred  to  the  Windsor 
formation.  .  The  Windsor  is  followed  or  accompanied  by  an 
extensive  aeries  .  .  to  which  the  term  Millstone  Grit  has  been 
applied.  The  Westville  formation  is  equivalent  to  the  so-called 
Millstone  Grit,  below  the  productive  coal  measures. — Uncon- 
formably  above  the  Westville  is  the  New  Glasgow  formation, 
which  is  overlaid  by  Smelt  Brook  formation.  Then  follows  the 
Picton  formation,  overlaid  by  the  Cape  John  formation"  Then 
we  are  told — "  The  Cape  John  rocks,  sometimes  called  Permo- 
carboniferous,  are  well  developed  in  Prince  Edward  Island  .  .  . 
and  probably  represent  the  equivalent  of  the  Windsor  and  West- 
ville formations  of  Nova  Scotia."  If  not  a  mistake  of  the 
printer,  a  veritable  round  robin — a  complete  cycle  of  formations 
here  exists. 

Further  on  he  says, "  It  is  very  possible,  however,  that  the 
Cape  John  formation  and  associated  formation  may  be  equiva- 
lent to  '  Permian  '  strata  in  other  portions  of  North  America 
or  Europe ;"  thus  he  leaves  the  situation  still  obscure. 

To  a  student  of  our  Cambrian  rocks  the  presence  of  fossils 
in  any  members  or  any  reputed  members  of  the  series  is  of 
interest.  Discoveries  of  a  few  have  been  leported,  some  of 
which  have  been  adjudged  to  be  only  concretions.  But  Mr. 
Prest  has  found  in  the  quartzites  of  Bedford  and  Lockport 
Island  radiating  obscure  structures  called  Astropolithon.  Dr. 
Selwyn,  late  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  in  1871  dis- 
covered in  the  dark  slates  at  the  Ovens  in  Lunenburg  County, 
markings  which  Mr.  Billings  determined  to  be  Eophyton, 
similar  °to  that  found  at  St.  John,  N.  B.  Worm  tracks,  I 
believe,  have  been  before  seen,  but  the  specimen  I  show  is 


454    NOTES  ON  DR.  AMI'S  PAPER  ON  DICTYONEMA  SLATES. — POOLE. 

from  the  syncline  at  Green  Bank,  Point  Pleasant  Park,  Halifax. 
I  obtained  it  last  autumn,  but  could  not  detect  other  structures 
in  the  same  beds  * 

D.  Websteri  was  named  by  Hall  forty  years  ago;  if  it  be  the 
same  as  D.  fldbelliforme  or  D.  sociale,  I  for  one  am  not  disposed 
to  take  later  names  "  made  in  Germany,"  but  contend  we  should 
maintain  our  oldest  Nova  Scotian  name  of  D.  Websteri. 

A  consideration  of  dates  shows  that  the  Eel  River  fossils 
were  reported  on  a  year  before  Dr.  Ami  wrote  his  Synopsis,  and 
it  is  hard  to  understand  how  their  discovery  influenced  Dr.  Ami 
AFTER  he  wrote  his  Synopsis. 

Nor  can  we  cannot  accept  Dr.  Ami's  conclusion,  that  the 
specimens  of  D.  Websteri  at  McGill  are  the  type  specimens. 
Hall  named  it,  and  Dr.  Webster's  collection  of  some  two  dozen 
slabs  are  in  the  Provincial  Museum  at  Halifax.  They  show 
cellules,  etc.,  and,  I  fancy,  a  second  species. 

Any  examination  in  criticism  of  the  finding  of  Hall  should 
"be  made  of  the  large  collection  in  the  Halifax  Museum,  and  at 
Wolfville,  and  not  be  restricted  to  the  two  specimens  at  McGill. 

*  The  specimen  i9  now  in  the  Provincial  Museum  at  Halifax. 


VI— SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTES  ON  DRIFT  ICE  AS  A  TRANSPORTING 
AGENT.— BY  WALTER  H.  PHEST,  Bedford,  N.  S. 

(Read  10th  March,  190J.) 

A  second  visit  to  Labrador  has  largely  confirmed  my  obser- 
vations of  1900*,  and  convinced  me  that  the  transportation  of 
debris  by  floating  ice  has  been  greatly  overrated.  Although 
again  in  the  midst  of  icebergs  and  field-ice  for  over  three  months, 
I  could  find  extremely  few  icebergs  carrying  earthy  material. 
The  field-ice,  in  huge  pans,  often  several  acres  in  extent,  and  40 
or  50  feet  thick,  seemed  almost  as  destitute  of  debris  as  the 
bergs.  The  only  drift-bearing  ice  was  comparatively  thin, 
usually  much  broken  up  arid  refro/en.and  without  doubt  formed 
in  shallow  coast  waters.  Near  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  the  little 
remaining  djbris  on  this  was  nearly  all  marine  or  much  mixed 
with  marine  organisms.  Further  north,  especially  in  the  bays, 
the  transported  material  was  largely  of  littoral  origin.  This 
difference  was  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  surf  had  nearly 
completed  its  cleansing  process  before  the  arrival  of  the  ice  at  the 
Straits.  Some  of  this  debris-bearing  ice,  when  examined  closely, 
is  found  to  be  merely  discoloured  by  a  very  fine,  dust  like 
material,  probably  not  T^a  part  °f  the  weight  of  the  ice  bearing  it. 

I  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  how  the  harbor  ice  received  its 
burden,  on  a  shallow,  sandy  shore  called  the  Strand,  a  short 
distance  north  of  Sandwich  Bay.  Parts  of  this  coast,  even  in 
the  month  of  June,  were  fringed  with  ice  near  high- water  mark. 
Over  this  ran  rivulets  carrying  mud  and  gravel  from  the  banks 
above,  while  the  waves  contributed  their  share  of  debris  in  the 
form  of  sand,  seaweed,  and  shells. 

One  fact  strongly  supporting  my  contention  of  1900,  was 
brought  the  more  prominently  to  my  notice  as  I  went  north. 
This  was  the  ever  increasing  quantity  of  debris  on  the  thin  ice 

*  See  paper  by  the  writer  in  Trans.  N.  S.  I.  S..  vol.  x,  pt.  3. 

(455) 


456  SUPPLEMENTARY     NOTES    ON     DRIFT    ICE 

as  I  proceeded  toward  its  source,  showing  that  the  ice  drops  the 
greater  part  of  its  burden  near  the  northern  Labrador  coast. 
But  the  heavy  field-ice  and  bergs  even  in  the  latitude  of  Nain, 
showed  very  few  traces  of  impurities.  Further  south  the 
remarkable  cleanliness  of  the  heavy  ice  was  more  noticeable. 
Along  the  southern  150  miles  of  the  north-east  Labrador  coast, 
although  icebergs  were  constantly  in  sight.  I  saw  only  five  that 
carried  impurities,  the  most  of  these  having  merely  discoloured 
patches  and  bands.  The  pure  white  sides  of  the  vast  number  of 
these  ice  masses  gave  evidence  of  the  cleansing  power  of  sun  and 
surf  since  leaving  their  northern  home. 

I  have  made  many  enquiries  concerning  the  presence  of  earth 
and  stones  on  the  ice  in  the  North  Atlantic.  Among  the  men 
questioned  was  Captain  Nordby,  an  old  Norwegian  mariner,  now 
at  Parrsboro,  N.  S.;  Captains  James  and  William  McConnell,  of 
Port  Hilford,  N.  S.,  who  have  had  life  long  experiences  in  these 
northern  seas;  and  also  several  Newfoundland  sealing  captains, 
men  who  have  had  more  experience  with  drift  ice  than  any 
other  seamen  in  the  world.  I  find  among  them  an  almost 
unanimous  opinion  that  the  quantity  of  debris  brought  south  by 
the  bergs  and  field-ice  is  extremely  small,  and  that  the  addition 
to  the  Grand  Banks  by  these  means  would  be  hardly  noticeable 
even  in  a  hundred  centuries. 

That  the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland  are  not  the  immense 
deposits  of  ice-transported  mud  and  other  debris  formerly 
supposed,  I  may  instance  the  Virgin  Ledges,  awash  at  low  water. 
The  Tertiary  fragments  dredged  up  there  indicate  the  existence 
of  large  areas  of  exposed  rocky  ledges,  rather  than  the  results 
of  drift  transportation  from  more  northern  regions.  The  disin- 
tegration of  these  rocks,  no  doubt,  greatly  assisted  in  the 
formation  of  outlying  portions  of  the  banks  at  a  time  when  the 
eastern  part  of  the  American  continent  was  much  higher  and 
more  extensive  than  at  present.  The  evidence  seems  to  point 
to  the  existence  there  of  an  undulating,  rocky  plateau,  which, 
like  the  adjacent  provinces,  had  its  morraines,  karnes,  and  other 
accumulations  of  drift,  subsequently  slightly  added  to  by  oceanic 
circulation. 


AS  A  TRANSPORTING  AGENT. — PREST.         457 

In  reference  to  erosion  by  drift  ice — noticed  in  my  former 
paper — an  exact  counterpart  of  the  peculiar  markings  and 
furrows  seen  in  Labrador  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Mount  Uniacke 
gold  district,  Nova  Scotia.  There,  about  three-quarters  of  a 
mile  east  of  the  30-stamp  mill,  on  several  large  exposures  of 
quartzite,  are  seen  hundreds  of  the  curved  furrows  and  scratches 
possible  only  with  the  irregular  movements  of  storm-tossed 
boulders.  These  scratched  surfaces  incline  slightly  toward  a 
shallow  valley  to  the  northwest,  and  show  on  that  side  the 
strongest  evidences  of  ice  action.  Some  of  the  more  protectedv 
portions  show  evidences  of  earlier  glacial  action,  the  striations- 
varying  from  S.  8°  to  S.  16°  E. 

In  concluding  these  notes,  I  can  only  reiterate  my  opinions 
of  a  year  ago  : — 1st,  that  the  drift  ice  from  the  Arctic  performs 
but  an  extremely  infinitesimal  part  in  the  building  of  the  accu- 
mulation known  as  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  ;  2nd,  that 
these  banks  had  their  origin  in  Pleistocene  times,  and  are  simply- 
glacial  debris  worked  over  by  the  sea  ;  3rd,  that  their  terrestrial, 
equivalents  can  be  traced  in  the  broad  belt  of  morraines,  kames, 
dunes,  and  other  modified  deposits  which  reach  in  a  huge, 
irregular  curve  from  Nova  Scotia  and  the  southern  part  of  the 
New  England  States  to  the  prairies  of  the  Canadian  Northwest. 


PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X  TRANS.-FF. 


VIL— AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT.— BY  JOHN  DAVIDSON,  PHIL.  D., 
Professor  of  Political  Economy,  University  of  New 
Brunswick,  Fredericton. 

(Head  10th  March,  1903.) 

The  great  business  of  agriculture  has  generally  shown  itself 
conservative  in  character  and  slow  to  adopt  innovations  in  the 
methods  and  organization  which  have  been  freely  adopted  in 
other  industries  ;  and  the  result  has  not  infrequently  been  an 
agrarian  crisis  arising  out  'of  the  conflict  of  old  established  ways 
and  new  ideas.  Such  a  crisis  occurs  when  a  nation  or  a  people 
is  passing  from  a  natural  economy  to  a  money  economy,  that  is, 
from  a  condition  when  each  farm  was  almost  a  self-sufficing 
unit,  to  a  condition  in  which  rents  and  wages  are  paid  in  money. 
At  such  periods  there  has  usually  been  a  good  deal  of  distress. 
To  a  smaller  degree  the  same  difficulties  arise  with  every  exten- 
sion of  the  market  and  every  improvement  of  transportation 
which  separates  producer  and  consumer,  and  brings  in  a  greater 
competition.  The  farmers  of  Europe  have,  during  the  last  half 
century,  been  experiencing  such  difficulties  ;  and  apparently  the 
farmers  in  the  newest  countries,  whether  in  America  or  in  the 
antipodes,  have  found  that  their  enterprise  in  forcing  an  entrance 
into  the  European  market  has  made  a  decisive  change  in  their 
own  conditions.  Briefly  speaking,  the  change  is  that  farming 
has  become  a  business  requiring  all  the  aids  and  assistance  that 
modern  businesses  require.  The  days  of  the  self-sufficing  farmer 
have  gone,  never  to  return.  Men  will  never  again  carve  out 
homes  for  themselves  in  the  wilderness.  It  is  not  that  the  men 
of  to-day  have  not  the  grit  and  the  energy  and  the  perseverance 
of  the  heroic  pioneers.  It  is  simply  that  the  farmer  has  become 
a  producer  for  a  market,  and  that  his  success  is  measured  by  his 
achievements  in  that  market.  He  no  longer  measures  himself 
by  the  old  standard.  He  expects  to  buy,  not  to  make,  much  of 

(458) 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.  459 

what  he  needs  to  use.  He  does  not  fashion  his  implements, 
"  knock  together  "  his  furniture,  weave  his  own  cloth.  These 
things  he  buys,  and  is  the  better  for  buying.  Nor  does  he  look 
to  consume  in  his  own  household  most  of  that  which  his  farm 
produces.  He  has  become  a  member  of  another  kind  of  society. 
He  is  a  business  man  perforce,  and  produces  for  a  market ;  and 
access  to  markets  on  the  most  profitable  terms  is  as  vital  to  him 
-as  to  any  other  producer. 

When  it  began  to  be  perceived  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago 
that  farming  had  become  a  business,  many  people,  both  practical 
men  and  theorists,  jumped  to  the  conclusion  that  the  tendency 
towards  production  on  a  large  scale  would  show  itself  in  agri- 
culture. But  time  has  shown  that  production  on  a  large  scale  is 
not  so  profitable  in  agriculture  as  in  manufacturing,  and  many 
ot  the  large  farms  which  were  started  have  been  broken  up.  It 
was  claimed  for  the  large  farmer,  that  he  would  have  the  very 
.great  advantage  of  being  able  to  command  the  large  capital 
which  a  business  which  produces  for  a  distant  market,  as  farm- 
ing had  become,  required.  Farming  under  the  regime  of  world 
•competition  could  be  profitable  to  those  only  who  could  obtain 
credit  and  take  advantage  of  the  liuctuations  of  the  market. 
This,  the  small  fanner  could  not  do,  because  he  had  little  capital 
and  less  credit.  The  advantage  of  the  large  farmer  has  not  been 
so  great;  but  the  disadvantages  of  the  small  farmer  have  nob 
•been  less  than  is  thus  stated.  And  the  world  over,  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  in  the  Old  Country,  in  the  United  States  and 
in  Canada,  and  in  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  there  is  the  same 
•cry  and  demand  from  the  farmer,  that  he  is  handicapped  because 
of  the  high  rates  of  interest  he  has  to  pay  to  obtain  the  capital 
and  the  credit  his  business  requires.  His  occupation  has  become, 
and  is  daily  more  and  more  becoming,  a  business  that  depends 
on  markets  and  marketing.  The  fanner  has  to  measure  himself 
•by  the  business  standard,  and  his  complaint  is  that  he  is  not 
provided  with  the  necessary  requisites  for  so  conducting  his 
•business  as  a  business.  Various  devices  and  proposals  have  been 
put  forward  to  assist  the  farmer  on  easier  terms  to  the  two 


460  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

requisites  of  business,  viz.,  capital  and  credit ;  and  to  the  exam- 
ination of  some  of  these,  and  to  an  investigation  of  the  relation 
of  the  Canadian  farmer  to  our  existing  credit  institutions,  this 
paper  is  devoted.  The  greater  part  of  it  was  presented*  as  a 
report  to  a  committee  of  the  New  Brunswick  Fanners'  Congress, 
which  had  been  appointed  to  discuss  the  problem  of  cheaper 
money  for  the  farmer.  It  was  presented  after  a  statement  by 
the  committee  of  the  abuses  and  wrongs  to  which  the  farmer 
has  to  submit.  In  the  opinion  oi  the  writer,  the  committee  did 
not  make  out  a  very  strong  case,  although  some  striking  instan- 
ces of  usurious  rates  of  interest  and  of  the  disabilities  of  reput- 
able farmers  in  approaching  a  bank,  were  given.  The  negative 
character  of  the  conclusions  drawn  in  the  report  was  thus,  in  a 
measure,  justified  by  the  failure  of  the  committee  to  make  out 
its  case,  and  there  is  not,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  much 
room  for  general  regret  that  schemes  successful  elsewhere  are 
not  adapted  to  our  Canadian  conditions. 

The  description  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  farmer 
obtaining  the  credit  the  modern  conditions  of  his  business 
demands,  which  has  been  given  by  Mr.  Hubbard,  naturally 
raises  the  question  why  it  is  that  the  farmer  has  not  shared,  to 
the  full,  the  benefits  which  a  developed  banking  system  has  con- 
ferred on  other  industries.  Is  there  any  reason  in  the  nature  of 
things,  or  has  it  been  simply  an  accident,  that  the  banks  have 
not  served  the  farmer  as  they  serve  the  merchant  or  the  manu- 
facturer ?  Credit  is  just  as  necessary  in  agriculture  as  in 
commerce  and  industry,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  enquire 
whether  agriculture  and  commerce,  for  instance,  are  so  different 

o  ' 

in  character  that  the  credit  they  require  cannot  be  provided  by 
one  institution.  Only  after  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  our 
present  banking  system  is  not  suited  to  provide  agricultural 
credit,  as  it  provides  commercial  credit,  need  we  take  the  trouble 
to  consider  remedies  adopted  in  other  countries  to  deal  with  a 
similar  situation. 

Broadly  speaking,  there  is  a  marked  difference.  Returns  in 
agriculture  are  slower  than  returns  in  trade  and  industry.  The 

*  28th  January,  1902. 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSOX.  461 

latter  require,  or  should  require,  loans  for  short  periods  only  ; 
the  former  needs  advances  for  long  periods  which,  however,  and 
unfortunately,  are  too  long  for  lending  and  too  short  for  invest- 
ment, if  such  investment  were  permitted  by  our  banking  laws. 
Generally  speaking,  capital  is  not  turned  over  in  agriculture  in 
a  period  much  short  of  a  twelvemonth,  and  should  the  season 
prove  unfavourable,  and  the  crop  fail,  credit  may  be  required 
for  still  longer  periods  than  a  twelvemonth.  It  is  a  maxim  of 
good  banking  and  good  business  that  loans  should  be  repaid, 
after  earning  a  profit  for  the  borrower,  out  of  the  property 
in  which  the  loan  has  been  invested. 

When  a  bank  lends  to  a  merchant,  it  lends  on  the  security 
of  a  stock  of  finished  and  marketable  commodities,  which  both 
merchant  and  manufacturer  have,  using  their  knowledge  of 
market  conditions,  considered  to  be  marketable,  the  manufac- 
turer because  he  produced  these  commodities  to  sell  them,  and 
the  merchant  because  he  bought  to  sell.  The  bank  has,  therefore, 
every  reason  to  be  confident  that  the  goods  on  which  it  lends 
will,  in  this  case,  find  a  market,  provide  a  profit  for  the  merchant, 
and  a  fund  from  which  the  loan  can  be  repaid.  The  manufac- 
turer has  not,  other  things  being  equal,  quite  such  a  good 
standing  with  the  banks.  The  bank  has  one  judgment  only 
guaranteeing  that  the  goods  being  pro  luced  will  find  a  market. 
So  far  as  the  raw  material  is  concerned,  the  bank  may  confidently 
advance,  because  what  has  foun  I  a  market  once  will  find  it 
again  ;  but  with  regard  to  the  commodities  into  which  this  raw 
material  is  to  be  converted"  the  bank  has  at  the  best  the  security 
only  of  the  manufacturer's  judgment  that  the  goods  will  sell. 
It  is  true  that  the  manufacturer  has  often  a  better  standing 
than  the  merchant  ;  but  this  advantage  arises  from  the  larger 
amount  of  capital  invested.  The  small  manufacturer  has  not, 
as  a  rule,  as  good  a  standing  as  the  merchant  using  the  same 
amount  of  capital.  The  farmer,  again,  has  not  as  good  a  standing 
as  fcue  manufacturer,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  normal  basis 
of  agricultural  credit  is  raw  material  yet  to  be  produced  ;  and 
the  bank  has  the  farmer's  judgment  only  that  the  goods  when 


462  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

produced  will  find  a  ready  market.  It  is  true  that  they  do  find 
a  market,  for  man  must  live  on  the  fruits  of  the  soil ;  and  there 
is  a  pretty  sure  market  for  the  staple  agricultural  products. 
Except  on  staple  crops,  banks  lending  to  farmers  are  making 
speculative  loans,  for  the  market  is  not  assured  ;  and  even  with 
staple  crops,  there  are  greater  risks  in  agriculture  than  in  manu- 
factures, owing  to  seasons,  etc. 

It  is  true  that  loans  are  sometimes  made  on  other  security 
than  the  property  in  which  the  loan  is  to  be  invested.  The 
bank  may  lend  on  the  basis  of  personal  earnings  from  other 
sources,  or  it  may  lend  on  the  security  of  character  or  of  other 
property  ;  but  such  loans  are  likely  to  be  small  in  amount,  and 
the  ordinary  type  of  business  loan  is  made  on  the  security  of  the 
property  in  which  the  loan  is  to  be  invested,  and  on  the  judg- 
ment that  the  product  of  the  investment  will  find  a  ready  sale. 
When  the  producer  is  well  known  in  business  circles,  and  his 
judgment  is  accepted  readily  regarding  market  conditions,  the 
producer  even  of  raw  materials  may  have  little  difficulty  in 
finding  accommodation  at  the  banks.  The  lumber  operator  is 
not,  in  many  respects,  in  a  much  better  position  than  the  farmer. 
He,  too,  requires  advances  for  long  periods,  and  he,  too,  has,  as 
the  security  he  offers,  a  raw  product  on  which  no  judgment  but 
his  own  has  been  expressed  ;  and  his  industry  is  to  an  even 
greater  extent  than  the  farmer's  the  plaything  of  the  seasons. 
But  the  operator  has  little  difficulty  in  getting  the  necessary 
advances,  even  from  the  commencement  of  his  season's  opera- 
tions, and  in  getting  larger  and  larger  advances  as  his  material 
product  comes  nearer  to  his  market;  for  he  is  generally  a  man 
of  capital,  known  in  the  business  community  and  accepted  as  a 
man  on  whose  judgment  reliance  can  be  placed.  But  the  farmer 
is  not  a  man  of  capital,  and  the  banks  have  no  confidence  in  his 
individual  judgment,  for  they  do  not  know  him.  And  so  the 
poor  farmer  gets  none. 

It  is  perhaps  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  banks  are  not 
animated  by  any  hostility  to  the  farmer.  The  dreaded  "  money 
power  "  is  the  creation  of  politicians  and  demagogues  of  the 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.  463 

wild  west.  The  banks  are  ready  for  any  kind  of  business  that 
is  profitable,  and  does  not  depart  radically  from  their  methods  of 
doing  business.  Agriculture  requires  a  kind  of  credit  they  have 
not  been  in  the  habit  of  giving.  The  farmer  asks  credit  for  too 
long  a  period,  and  above  all,  for  an  uncertain  and  indefinite 
period,  if  it  is  to  be  of  the  fullest  advantage  to  him.  Moreover, 
the  banker  knows  little  of  the  individual  farmer,  and  has  but 
very  limited  opportunities  for  watching  the  business  proceedings 
of  a  farmer  who  borrows  ;  and  the  ordinary  process  of  everyday 
business  does  not  bring  the  farmer  debtor  under  the  banker's 
observation  as  it  does  the  merchant  or  manufacturer  who  bor- 
rows. When  the  farmer  is  ready  to  market  his  crop,  the  bank  is 
more  ready  to  do  business,  although  the  business  is  usually  done 
by  middlemen  ;  but  as  a  producer,  as  a  farmer  pure  and  simple, 
he  has  not,  and  in  the  nature  of  things  cannot  expect  to  have, 
the  same  credit  facilities  as  the  merchant.  What  may  be  the 
case  when  the  government  does  fully  what  in  Australasia  and  to 
a  much  less  extent  in  Canada,  governments  are  beginning  to  do, 
viz.,  to  guarantee  a  market  for  the  farmer's  produce,  and  even  to 
advance  the  price,  or  part  of  the  price,  is  another  question.  In 
such  cases  the  banks  ought  to  be  willing  to  treat  the  farmer  on 
the  most  favourable  terms ;  bnt  in  such  a  case  the  farmer  is 
likely,  having  cash  in  hand,  to  be  comparatively  independent  of 
bank  advances.  But  till  that  time  the  farmer  has  not  much  to 
look  for  from  the  banks.  It  is  true,  as  the  Hon.  Mr.  Blake  has 
asserted  (Hansard,  1890,  p.  4295)  that, 

"  The  moment  a  farmer  can  show  that  he  can  give  the  same 
prospect  of  a  return,  with  the  same  advantage,  with  the  same 
security  that  other  competitors  for  the  stock  of  available  money 
can  give,  he  will  get  all  the  money  he  wants ;  and  to  the  extent 
he  cannot  show  that  he  will  never  get  it." 

But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  difficulty  lies  in  the 
nature  of  the  business,  not  in  the  honesty  of  the  borrower.  The 
problem  of  agricultural  credit  is  not  the  problem  how  fco  supply 
money  at  low  rates  of  interest  to  those  who  do  not  deserve  to 
get  it  and  do  not  know  how  to  use  it.  That  is  likely  to  remain 


464  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

a  problem,  but  it  is  not  of  any  interest  to  the  community.  The 
problem  of  agricultural  credit  is  how  to  supply  money  at  low 
rates  of  interest  to  those  who  are  competent  to  manage  it,  so  as 
to  make  it  yield  enough  to  repay  the  loan  with  a  profit  to  the 
borrower.  For  it  must  always  be  remembered  in  this  connection 
that"  what  the  lender  wants  is  interest,  not  farms ;  and  when, 
owing  to  incompetence  on  the  part  of  the  borrower,  the  lender 
runs  a  risk  of  getting  a  farm  instead  of  his  principai  and  interest, 
he  will  insist  on  being  paid  for  the  risk  he  runs.  The  farm  may 
be  just  as  good,  but  the  lender  does  not  want  it,  and  does  not 
care  for  the  risk  of  having  it  left  on  his  hands.  Lending  monev 

O  ^ 

is  a  matter  of  business,  and  a  bank  exists  chiefly  for  this  purpose  ; 
but  the  borrower  must  show  that  he  has  a  legitimate  use  for  the 
loan,  and  that  he  is  competent  to  use  it  so  as  to  provide  for 
repayment  at  maturity.  As  business  is,  the  farmer  cannot  satisfy 
these  commercial  requirements  ;  and  the  problem  for  which  a 
solution  is  sought  is  how  the  farmer  can  obtain  the  credit  his 
business  requires. 

Is  is  desirable,  in  order  to  promote  an  understanding  of  the 
situation,  that  we  should  distinguish  carefully  between  the 
general  and  the  special  advantages  which  arise  from  an  efficient 
banking  system.  Our  banking  system  is  designed  primarily  as 
an  agent  of  commerce  and  of  industry,  but  it  confers  great  and 
undoubted  benefits  upon  the  whole  community.  It  provides 
a  sound  and  elastic  money  ;  it  gives  facilities  to  the  investor  and 
the  depositor,  and  by  affording  real  services  to  the  merchant  and 
the  manufacturer,  it  promotes  the  interests  of  every  member  of 
the  community.  Fortunnately  it  is  not  true  that  one  man's  gain 
is  another  man's  loss,  and  we  all  reap  some  advantage,  directly 
or  indirectly,  from  the  prosperity  of  our  neighbours.  Whatever 
general  benefit  a  good  banking  system  confers  on  the  community 
at  large,  that  the  farmer  shares  with  all  his  fellow  citizens,  and 
in  our  own  case  these  benefits  are  large. 

The  farmer  also  has  his  share  in  the  personal  credit  which 
the  banks  give,  and  this  for  him  and  for  others  under  stress  of 
competition  may  be  of  considerable  amount.  But  this  is  not 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.  465 

really  legitimate  credit.  It  is  consumer's,  not  producer's  credit ; 
it  is  accommodation  which  is  intended  to  cover  expenditure 
already  made,  credit  which  is  not  intended  to  yield  a  profit.  It  is 
not  a  credit  of  which  a  man  may  be  proud,  and  it  hurts  or  ought 
to  hurt  the  standing  of  a  man  to  be  known  to  receive  it.  This 
kind  of  credit  the  farmer  may  receive  ;  but  it  is  precisely  this 
fact  that  requires  a  remedy.  He,  a  producer,  should  be  entitled 
to  legitimate  or  producer's  credit,  and  should  not  be  held  down 
to  that  which  non-producers,  in  an  overdeveloped  banking  prac- 
tice, may  be  given.  The  farmer's  just  ground  of  complaint  is 
that,  while  he  may  share  with  the  general  public  in  the  general 
benefits  which  a  banking  system  confers,  he  is  debarred,  from 
one  reason  or  another,  from  a  perfectly  legitimate  producer's 
credit  as  a  matter  of  business,  although  he  may  receive  a  limited 
amount  of  personal  credit  as  accommodation. 

Our  banking  system  is  not  specially  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  farmer  as  farmer.  In  so  far  as  agiiculture  is  a  branch  of 
commerce,  that  is,  in  so  far  as  the  farmer  has  finished  goods  to 
sell,  he  may  be  specially  benefitted.  He  is  then  in  almost  as 
good  a  position  as  the  manufacturer,  who,  too,  like  the  farmer, 
markets  his  wares  at  second  hand  ;  and  the  whole  process  of 
exchange  is  facilitated  by  sound  banking  as  much  for  the  wheat 
from  the  farm  as  for  the  cloth  from  the  factory.  For  commerce 
we  have  a  most  excellent  system,  eminently  well  fitted  to  assist 
in  marketing  goods  of  all  kinds.  It  provides  us  with  an  elastic 
currency  which  makes  money  easy  at  the  time  when  most  business 
is  to  be  done.  It  facilitates  the  moving  of  the  crops  in  the  latter 
end  of  the  year,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  farming  community 
realizes  how  much  it  benefits  in  this  way,  and  how  much  harder 
the  case  would  be  if  our  bankiug  system  was  less  perfect,  than  it 
is.  In  a  general  way,  there  is  a  recognition  of  its  excellence, 
because  the  banks  have  served  the  communitj  so  well  that  ^ye 
have  heard  but  the  faintest  echoes  of  a  "silver  question"  in 
Canada. 

But  we  have  to  consider  the  farmer,  not  merely  as  having 
something  to  sell,  but,  in  his  more  important  aspect,  as  a  pro- 


466  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

ducer.  Like  the  manufacturer,  the  farmer  benefits  when  he  has 
to  market  his  produce,  but,  unlike  the  manufacturer,  he  receives 
little  or  no  assistance  from  the  banks  to  assist  him  in  production  ; 
and  it  is  precisely  here  that  the  pinch  comes.  Our  banking 
system  provides  no  credit  facilities  for  the  farmer  as  producer- 
Where,  in  other  countries,  farming  is  carried  on  on  a  large  scale, 
and  where  the  farmer  is  as  well-known  in  the  business  world  as 
the  manufacturer  using  the  same  capital,  the  question  of  agri- 
cultural credit  does  not  specifically  arise  ;  and  if  all  farmers  were 
farmers  on  a  large  scale,  like  the  typical  tenant-farmer  of  Great 
Britain,  who,  because  he  operates  with  a  comparatively  large 
capital  and  is  .well-known,  can  command  credit,  like  any  other 
producer,  on  tolerably  easy  terms,  we  could  trust  the  farmer  to 
get  what  credit  his  standing  warranted.  But  large  tenant-farm- 
ing is  not  common  with  us,  and  the  farmer  who  is  in  a  moderate 
or  small  way  of  business  is  not  known  in  the  business  world,  and 
does  not  obtain  the  credit  he  requires  from  the  banks  on  any- 
thing like  as  easy  terms  as  the  small  manufacturer  or  tradesman, 
or  retail  shopkeeper.  Wherever  agriculture  is  followed  as  a 
business,  pure  and  simple,  little  difficulty  has  been  found  in 
granting  the  farmer  the  necessary  credit  for  his  business;  and  as 
agriculture  is  coming  to  be  pursued  more  and  more  as  a  busi- 
ness, with  the  market  in  constant  view,  it  is  possible  that  the 
farmer  in  the  future  may  get  more  special  benefit  from  our 
banking  system. 

Even  as  it  is,  the  Canadian  banks  do  more  for  the  farmer 
than  any  other  banking  system  does.  Some  eulogists  of  our 
banking  system  have  applied  the  term  agricultural  to  it,  and 
this,  at  least,  is  true,  that  if  ever  a  commercial  banking  system 
was  entitled  to  the  term  agricultural  our  national  system  is.  It 
is  significant  that  where  it  is  proposed  to  amend  the  banking 
system  of  the  United  Slates  so  as  to  afford  better  credit  facilities 
for  the  farmer,  the  proposal  takes  the  form  of  a  system  of  branch 
banks  such  as  we  hive  in  Canada.  The  only  system  which  can 
compare  with  our  own  in  this  respect  is  the  Scottish,  where  the 
famous  "  cash  credits  "  had  an  enormous  influence  in  developing 


AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.  467 

the  industry  and  the  agriculture  of  the  country.  One  writer  says 
enthusiastically  : — "  In  the  space  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  it 
raised  its  country  from  the  lowest  state  of  barbarism  to  its  pres- 
ent proud  position,"  and  '  the  far-famed  agriculture  of  the 
Lothians,  the  manufactures  of  Glasgow  and  Paisley,  the  unri- 
valled steamships  of  the  Clyde,  are  its  proper  children."  This, 
as  applied  to  agriculture,  is  no  exaggeration,  and  it  is  not  a  little 
significant  that  the  founders  of  the  agricultural  banks  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  to  which  reference  will  be  made  later, 
adopted  from  the  Scottish  Cash  Credit  System  the  idea  of  per- 
sonal responsibility,  which  was  its  essence.  We  have  not  now 
the  cash  credit  system  in  Canada,  It  was  tried  in  the  early  days 
and  had  definitely  to  be  abandoned  because  it  was  not  suited  to 
a  country  where  the  population  was  as  migratory  as  it  is  with 
us.  But  the  system  of  overdraft  is  quite  as  useful,  and  our  banks 
are  able  to  maintain  the  essential  benefits  of  the  cash  credit 
system  which  did  so  much  for  agriculture  in  Scotland. 

Our  banks  to-day  do  more  for  the  farmer  than  the  Scottish 
banks  can  now  dor.  In  Scotland  itself,  the  cash  credit  as  applied 
to  agriculture  is  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  has  been  little  used  for 
half  a  century.  The  cash  credit  was  partly,  at  least,  a  device 
for  increasing  the  note  circulation  of  the  bank.  An  extra  risk 

o 

was  taken  on  the  loan  to  secure  an  extra  profit  on  the  notes 
which  were  thus  got  into  circulation.  When  the  right  of 
issuing  notes  at  discretion,  secured  only  by  the  general  assets  of 
the  bank,  was  withdrawn  in  1845,  the  banks  no  longer  had  any 
motive  for  encouraging  borrowers  in  this  way,  and  the  cash 
credit  system  was  gradually  withdrawn  from  agriculture  and 
confined  in  a  restricted  way  to  commerce  and  industry.  And  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  farmers  of  the  Lothians  were 
already  men  of  some  financial  standing,  and  that  the  benefits  of 
the  cash  credit  were  never  experienced  by  the  small  farmer  and 
crofter  of  the  north.  Our  Canadian  banks,  however,  still  prac- 
tically retain  the  right  and  privilege  of  note  issues  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  bank,  and  they  are  thus  able  to  extend  crrdit  facilities 
to  districts  which  would  otherwise  go  unserved.  They  still  have 


468  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

the  motive  of  seeking  an  extra  profit  on  their  note  issues  to 
induce  them  to  take  some  risk  on  their  loans.  The  Canadian 
public  and  the  Canadian  farmer  are,  when  all  is  taken  into  con- 
sideration, the  scattered  population  and  the  imperfect  means  of 
communication  in  particular,  better  served  by  the  banks  than  the 
Scottish  public  and  the  Scottish  fanner.  The  Scottish  banks 
are  praised  because  they  assisted  the  farmer,  and  it  was  the 
peculiar  feature  of  the  Scottish  system  that  suggested  the  Euro- 
pean Popular  Banks.  The  Canadian  bank  is  in  most  respects 
like  the  Scottish,  and  has  done  even  more  for  the  farmer. 

Our  banking  system  is,  like  the  Scottish,  a  system  of  branch 
banks,  and  the  number  of  the  branches  is  continuously  increas- 
ing. By  this  means  the  banks  are  adapted  to  local  needs,  and  it 
is  their  policy  to  extend  their  services  to  the  remotest  districts. 
In  the  eighties  of  last  century  there  was  considerable  agitation 
which  found  expression  in  parliament,  for  a  system  of  far- 
mers' banks,  and  since  that  time  the  banks,  having  apparently 
become  conscious  of  the  danger  in  which  the  system  was  if  more 
attention  was  not  paid  to  the  agricultural  districts,  have  steadily 
increased  the  number  of  their  branches.  In  1881  there  were  287 
branches  in  Canada  ;  in  1890  this  number  had  increased  to  444; 
and  in  1900  there  were  64;  1,  of  which  a  large  number  are  in 
purely  agricultural  districts.  These  branches  are  distributed  all 
over  the  Dominion,  and  if  the  Canadian  farmer  has  not  all  the 
banking  facilities  he  ought  to  have,  the  reason  is  not  here,  what- 
ever may  be  the  case  in  other  countries,  that  the  bank  is  not  at 
his  door. 

An  attempt  is  sometimes  made  to  show  that  our  banking 
system  confers  a  special  benefit  upon  the  farmer  because  it  is 
calculated  to  equalize  the  bank  rate  all  over  the  country,  but 
that,  at  the  best,  is  a  blessino-  for  which  the  farmer  in  the  west 

*  '  o 

has  more  reason  to  be  thankful  than  the  farmer  in  the  east. 

It  is  said  that  our  system  gathers  up  the  surplus  money  of 
one  district  and  uses  it  elsewhere  where  money  is  scarce  ;  but 
the  New  Brunswick  farmer  who  borrows  is  not  likely  to  regard 
this  as  an  advantage.  For  if  the  rate  of  interest  is  equalized  all 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.  469 

over  the  Dominion,  some  districts  must  be  made  to  pay  more 
that  others  may  pay  less.  If  the  surplus  savings  of  the  east  are 
sent  to  the  west,  it  is  the  western  borrower  and  the  eastern 
depositor  who  gain  ;  the  eastern  borrower  has  to  pav  a  higher 
rate  of  interest.  Broadly  speaking,  the  eastern, and  particularly 
the  maritime,  provinces  save  more  than  the  banks  find  local 
investment  for  at  seven  per  cent.  There  are  no  figures  published 
to  show  the  relative  discounts  and  deposits  in  the  105  banks  and 
branches  in  the  maritime  provinces,  but  the  Upper  Canadian 
banks  which  are  coming  down  here  are  seeking  deposits,  and 
the  maritime  banks  which  are  seeking  openings  in  the  west  are 
seeking  a  better  outlet  for  their  deposits.  The  Savings  Bank 
returns  are  evidence,  at  least,  of  the  relative  instinct  of  saving 
in  theditferent  provinces.  New  Brunswick  has  $27.35  deposited 
per  head  of  population;  P.  E.  Island,  §19.25;  Nova  Scotia, 
$17.73  ;  Manitoba  has  $5.41 ;  N.  VV.  Territories,  $1.79.  7.  do  not 
desire  to  be  guilty  of  sectionalism  in  any  shape  or  form,  and  that 
is  one  of  the  prevailing  political  vices  of  the  maritime  provinces  ; 
but  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  the  Canadian  banking  system 
does  not  work  quite  so  much  for  the  benefit  of  the  maritime 
borrower  as  it  does  elsewhere.  For  the  business  man  the  slight 
disadvantage  of  slightly  dearer  money  is  more  than  made  up  to 
him  by  the  advantages  of  membership  in  a  great  banking 
system  ;  but  for  the  farmer  there  is  not  the  same  compensation. 
The  great  merit  that  is  claimed  for  People's  Banks  in  the 
continent  of  Europe  is  that  they  fix  savings  in  the  locality  in 
which  they  are  made.  It  is  there  felt  as  a  grievance  in  the 
country  districts  that  the  savings  of  the  people  are  drawn  to  the 
great  money  centres  and  help  there  to  build  up  the  towns  at  the 
expense  of  the  country,  and  accelerate  the  drift  of  population  to 
the  cities.  That  does  not  happen  with  us  ;  but  we  have  our 
own  difficulty.  The  savings  of  the  east  are  taken  for  the 
development  of  the  west,  and  this  has  been  regarded  by  some 
who  professed  to  speak  for  the  agricultural  interests  as  an  evil 
to  be  remedied.  During  the  eighties  of  last  century  several 
motions  to  introduce  bills  to  adapt  the  banking  system  of  the 
Dominion  to  the  needs  of  the  farmer  were  debated,  and  it  was 


470  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

then  repeatedly  urged  that  "  a  measure  which  would  provide 
facilities  for  the  establishment  of  local  banks  .  .  .  would 
confer  a  great  benefit."  (Can.  Hansard,  1885,  p.  119.)  And  the 
advantage  was  supposed  to  be  that  savings  would  by  this  means 
be  fixed  in  fcheir  own  localities,  to  the  great  benefit  of  borrowers, 
at  least  in  such  provinces  as  New  Brunswick,  which  saves  more 
than  it  can  lend.  Whether  this  difficulty  can  be  overcome  is 
another  question.  It  is  not  overcome  by  any  European  system, 
for  People's  Banks  were  devised  to  provide  a  remedy  for  this 
evil.  Nor  is  it  overcome  under  the  highly  decentralized  system 
of  the  United  States.  The  Canadian  banking  system  is  not  an 
agricultural  system,  ar\d  perhaps  never  has  been  any  more  fitted 
to  supply  agricultural  credit  than  it  is  to-day;  but  it  is  a  better 
system,  even  for  the  farmer,  than  any  other  that  has  been 
devised  as  an  ordinary  banking  system.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
fixing  local  savings,  which  seems  so  desirable  to  the  borrower 
who  resides  in  a  district  that  saves  more  than  it  invests,  is  not 
realisable  under  modern  business  conditions.  Sooner  or  later, 
economically  or  otherwise,  surplus  savings  will  find  their  way  to 
the  district  where  there  is  demand  for  them.  The  distant  bor- 
rower may  be  made  to  pay  more,  but  the  money  cannot  be  kept 
at  home. 

There  have  been  various  proposals  to  amend  our  own  and 
other  banking  systems  in  the  interests  of  the  farmers.  So  far 
as  the  Dominion  is  concerned,  these  proposals  have  been  either 
to  adopt  the  Dominion  system  of  local  banks  or  to  establish  land 
banks — neither  of  which  promises  any  relief.  The  small  local 
bank  is  not  forbidden  by  our  Canadian  banking  act,  though 
new  banks  with  less  than  $500,000  cannot  now  be  established 
with  rights  of  issuing  paper  money.  Such  local  banks  do  continue 
to  exist,  and  chiefly  in  the  maritime  provinces.  Of  fourteen 
banks  with  a  paid  up  capital  of  less  than  a  million,  ten  are  in 
the  maritime  provinces.  None  of  the  New  Brunswick  banks  has 
an  authorized  capital  of  more  than  $500,000,  and  the  average  is 
only  $293,000 ;  one  of  these,  the  People's  Bank,  the  smallest  in 
the  Dominion.  Yet  these  small  banks  do  not  serve  to  fix  savings 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.  471 

in  their  own  localities.  All  of  them  have  large  deposits  with 
other  banks  in  Canada  and  elsewheie;  and  it  is  the  Fanners' 
Congress  of  New  Brunswick,  the  home  of  the  small  bank  in  the 
Canadian  system,  that  calls  for  this  report  on  Agricultural  Credit. 
The  proposals  to  establish  land  banks  are  generally  charac- 
terized by  an  entire  absence  of  knowledge  of  banking  conditions 
and  of  the  history  of  credit  institutions.  If  any  principle  has 
been  established  by  bitter  experience  it  is  that  land  is  not  a 
satisfactory  basis  for  a  bank.  One  agitator  declared  in  the 
House  of  Commons  (Hansard,  1884,  p.  213,)  that  money  based 
on  the  landed  property  of  a  country  is  perfectly  safe,  whereas 
experience  has  shown  again  and  again  that  money  might  as  well 
be  issued  based  on  the  rings  of  Saturn.  To  attempt  to  modify  our 
banking  system  in  this  way  would  destroy  all  its  present  value, 
which  is,  however,  commercial  rather  than  agricultural.  And 
the  problem  before  us  is  not  how  to  destroy  the  credit  which 
the  merchant  and  the  manufacturer  enjoy,  but  how  to  make 
that  credit,  or  some  credit,  available  for  the  farmer.  In  my 
opinion,  the  Canadian  banking  system  is  doing  all  it  can  do,  and 
one  might  even  venture  the  assertion  that  it  is  sometimes  doing, 
by  "  liberal  banking  "  in  this  province  and  elsewhere,  and  by 
undue  concession  of  purely  personal  accommodation,  more  than 
it  is  safe  for  banks  to  do.  For  the  farmer,  as  a  seller  of 
produce,  it  does  and  can  do  much  ;  for  the  farmer,  as  a  member 
of  the  general  public,  it  does  and  can  do  much  ;  for  the  farmer, 
as  a  farmer,  it  can  do  but  little  ;  and  it  is  strictly  forbidden  by 
law  to  attempt  more  than  it  does  do.  The  banks  are  forbidden 
to  lend  on  mortgage  or  the  security  of  land.  They  may,  and  do, 
to  a  large  extent,  I  believe,  evade  this  prohibition  by  making 
land  the  basis  on  which  personal  accommodation  is  given.  But 
the  prohibition  stands.  Further,  the  wording  of  the  act  was 
amended  so  as  to  stand  in  the  way  of  the  bank  making  advances 
to  a  farmer  as  a  "producer."  This  was  done  professedly  to 
protect  the  interests  of  the  farmer.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the 
general  credit  of  the  farmer  "  with  merchants  and  others  rests 
on  the  visible  possession  of  certain  personal  property,  such 


472  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

chattels  as  grain,  cattle  and  implements.  An  assignment  of 
these,  according  to  the  form  prescribed  by  the  act,  would  not, 
like  a  chattel  mortgage,  become  notorious,  and  the  basis  of  a 
farmer's  credit  would  be  badly  impaired,  no  creditor  being  able 
to  know  whether  the  ownership  o£  property  is  in  the  person 
whom  he  is  asked  to  trust  or  in  some  bank."  (Breckenridge, 
p.  348.)  The  principles  of  our  banking  system  are  so  well 
established  and  its  practice  so  well  approved  by  experience,  that 
the  farmer  has  nothing  more  to  hope  for  in  that  quarter.  He 
has  still  less  to  hope  for  from  any  tinkering  and  amendment  of 
that  system  which  might  destroy  its  present  perfect  adaptation 
to  our  commercial  and  currency  needs  without  being  able  to 
improve  the  farmer's  position  in  the  slightest  degree. 

But  the  problem  still  remains  how  the  farmer  is  to  be 
accommodated  with  the  capital  and  the  credit  his  business 
require.  We  may  acquiesce  in  the  political  wisdom  of  rigidly 
confining  the  banks  to  their  proper  function  of  providing  com- 
mercial credit,  but  must  we  acquiesce  in  the  absence  of  credit 
facilities  for  the  farmer  ?  Agriculture  is  in  all  countries  the 
most  important,  and  in  most  the  dominant,  industry,  and  its  pro- 
gress cannot  be  hampered  and  hindered  without  national  loss. 
We  may  ask,  therefore,  whether  it  is  not  possible  to  develope 
credit  institutions,  under  government  regulation,  it  may  be,  to 
supply  this  need,  or  whether  it  is  possible  for  the  government  of 
the  country  to  supply  the  lack  directly.  Such  attempts  have 
been  made,  and  we  now  turn  to  a  description  of  what  has  been 
done,  and  is  being  done,  in  other  countries,  or  among  ourselves, 
to  meet  the  demand.  There  are  two  great  methods,  people's 
banks  and  government  loans.  Both  are  of  comparatively  recent 
origin,  and  both  have  the  same  aim  of  providing  the  farmer  with 
what  the  banks  have  not,  and,  in  my  opinion,  cannot  adequately 
provide. 

The  People's  Banks  of  Europe  were  established  to  provide 
farming  credit,  and  it  is  difficult  to  realise  the  amount  of  busi- 

o 

ness  that  is  done  through  them.  They  are  of  two  classes  :  one 
better  adapted  for  providing  credit  to  small  merchants  and  pro- 
ducers, the  other  distinctively  agricultural.  They  aim  at  making 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT.— DAVIDSON.  473 

the  principle  of  self-help  productive  as  well  as  provident.  They 
are  not  mere  savings  banks  instituted  to  encourage  habits  of 
thrift;  they  endeavour  to  supply  credit  to  their  members.  This 
they  do  by  one  of  two  methods.  They  may  issue  shares  of  small 
amounts  to  form  a  capital  of  guarantee  and  then  borrow  on  the 
security  of  this  capital  and  lend  out  to  their  members.  This  first 
class  is  co-operative  in  character,  but  they  often  manage  to  com- 
bine co-operation  with  high  dividends  on  shares,  and  the  dividend 
earning  instinct  may  influence  their  business  to  a  greater  extent 
than  their  co-operative  principle.  These  are  known  as  the 
Schulze  Delitsch  banks,  after  their  founder,  and  are  mainly 
industrial  in  character.  They  have  not  been  found  peculiarly 
well  adapted  to  agriculture.  The  other  type  is  peculiarly  suited 
for  the  needs  of  small  farmers  and  cultivators,  and  the}'  do  a 
very  large  and  a  very  safe  business.  They  are  entirely  co-oper- 
ative in  character,  and  are  almost  invariably  managed  by  an 
unsalaried  committee,  and  confine  their  operations  to  a  very  small 
area,  such  as  the  parish.  They  borrow  the  money  they  lend 
again  to  their  members;  but  this  money  is  not  secured  by  any 
capital  of  guarantee.  The  members  are  jointly  and  severally 
liable  to  an  unlimited  extent  for  what  they  borrow  to  lend  again. 
To  put  the  matter  in  another  way,  they  borrow  on  a  joint  note, 
to  which  every  member  is  a  party,  and  the  money  so  obtained 
is  loaned  out  to  individual  members.  This  unlimited  liability 
makes  members  very  careful  about  the  character  of  those  admit- 
ted or  retained,  as  a  man  is  careful  about  the  character  of  a  man 
whose  paper  he  endorses.  The  loans  are  made  for  specfic  pur- 
poses to  individuals  known  to  the  committee  who  are  able  to 
ascertain  whether  the  loan  is  applied  to  the  purpose  for  which  it 
was  borrowed.  As  there  are  no  expenses  of  management  worth 
mentioning,  the  bank  is  able  to  lend  to  its  members  at  a  very 
small  advance  on  what  it  pays,  and  every  member  shares  in  the 
joint  credit  of  all,  and  the  system  has  been  well  characterized  as 
the  capitalization  of  character  and  honesty.  The  system  is  well 
developed  and  it  has  not  resulted  in  loss.  Not  a  penny  has  been 
lost  to  any  one  in  all  the  forty-seven  years'  experience  of  these 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.--GG. 


474  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

Raffeissen  banks,  as  they  are  called.  They  do  not  lend  on  mort- 
gages, but  on  simple  acceptances,  and  yet  their  business  has 
proved  not  only  safe  tut  much  safer  than  the  ordinary  business 
of  the  commercial  banks.  It  has  been  estimated  that  at  least 
$750,000,000  is  made  available  for  the  small  producer,  farmer 
and  merchant,  by  these  popular  credit  institutions,  and  the  gain 
is  not  economic  alone.  Germany,  Austria  and  Italy  have 
thousands  of  these  co-operative  banks  in  operation. 

The  movement  has  extended  to  Ireland  during  recent  years. 
It  had  to  meet  not  only  the  opposition  of  ignorance,  I  ut  the 
political  prejudice  of  the  mass  of  the  people  who  saw  in  people's 
banks  nothing  but  another  device  for  killing  Home  Rule  by 
kindness.  The  man  most  directly  responsible  for  the  establish- 
ment of  these  co-operative  people's  banks  is  Mr.  Plunkett,  who 
was  defeated  in  the  recent  election  by  Col.  Lynch  of  the  Boer 
army.  Yet,  in  spite  of  prejudice  in  Ireland,  in  five  years  since 
the  movement  was  started,  75  Raffeissen  banks  have  been  estab- 
lished. Last  year  these  banks  loaned  out  $45,000,  on  which  the 
loss  amounted  to  $7,  and  what  is  more  remarkable,  there  are  no 
overdue  accounts.  One  of  the  objections  which  the  commercial 
bank  has  to  the  farmer  as  a  borrower  is  that  he  is  not  punctual 
in  his  payments.  In  these  co-ope  ration  banks,  whether  in  Ire- 
land or  on  the  continent,  punctuality  in  payment  is  universal. 
In  one  of  the  Irish  banks  536  loans  were  made  last  year,  and  in 
twelve  cases  only  was  there  a  week's  lateness  in  making  pay- 
ment. This  is  the  more  remarka  ble  when  it  is  remembered  that 
these  loans  are  made  for  strictly  productive  purposes,  and  that 
the  borrowers  are  strictly  held  to  their  declared  purpose.  Loans 
are  made  for  short  or  for  long  periods,  though  generally  for 
three  months  with  the  privilege  of  renewal  in  full  if  the  purpose 
is  still  approved  and  the  borrower's  character  remains  good. 

Within  the  Dominion  at  least  one  attempt  has  been  made  to 
establish  People's  Banks  on  a  co-operative  basis  to  assist  the 
farmer  to  obtain  cheaper  agricultural  credit.  British  Columbia 
has  legislation  on  its  statute  book  authorizing  the  formation  of 
and  offering  a  subsidy  to  such  agricultural  credit  institutions. 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT.— DAVIDSON.  475 

But  so  far  the  law  is  a  dead  letter,  and  the  British  Columbia 
Department  of  Agriculture  explains  the  absence  of  interest  in 
the  scheme  by  the  lack  of  the  co-operative  spirit.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  the  legislation  seems  to  be  of  almost  a  pure  academic 
character,  answering  to  no  popular  demand  and  inspired  by  the 
instinct  of  revelation  which  leads  people  to  suppose  that  an 
institution  that  has  succeeeded  elsewhere  must  be  needed  and  do 
good  here.  British  Columbia  is  probably  the  least  agricultural 
of  all  our  provinces,  and  is  likely  long  to  remain  so  ;  and  British 
Columbia  is  very  well  supplied  with  what  banking  facilities  our 
system  can  provide  for  the  farmer.  The  failure  is  not  due  to 
the  absence  of  the  co  operative  spirit,  but  to  the  absence  of  any 
great  need  for  co-operation  All  that  is  secured  so  laboriously 
and  so  painfully  by  co-operative  production  and  co-operative 
banking  in  European  countries,  is  without  effort  secured  for  us 
in  the  natural  organisation  of  business.  America  has  few  exam- 
ples of  co-operative  enterprises,  because  the  spirit  of  co-operation 
is  already  largely  embodied  in  our  every-day  business  institu- 
tions, and  we  enjoy  in  Canada  very  largely  all  the  benefits 
which  co-operative  banking  secures  in  Europe  without  any  of 
the  inconveniences  which  accompany  conscious  co-operation.  In 
Europe,  co-operation  affords  scope  for  the  latent  abilities  of  men 
who  have  little  hope  of  rising  above  the  class  in  which  they 
were  born ;  in  America  there  is  a  free  career  for  the  latents,  and 
the  born  co-operators  become  independent  managers  of  men. 
Briefly,  the  Canadian  banking  system  may  be  said  to  do  as  much 
for  the  farmer  as  the  European  system  of  popular  banks  accom- 
plishes there,  and  it  is  very  doubtful  whether,  among  men  of 
our  race,  co-operative  banking  would  accomplish  any  good  result. 
Our  areas  are  too  vast,  our  population  is  too  much  scattered,  our 
people  too  migratory  and  too  anxious  to  rise  to  positions  of  com- 
mand, to  make  co-operation  a  success.  We  have  tried  and 
abandoned  the  Scotch  Cash  Credit  System  as  not  well  adapted 
to  our  needs  ;  and  as  we  have  already  noted  the  cash  credit 
system  originally  suggested  the  European  co-operative  banks. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  are  two  distinct  questions 
involved  in  the  use  of  the  terms  Agricultural  Credit,  and  I  do 


476  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

not  know  which  of  these  was  in  the  mind  of  those  who  moved 
for  the  committee  which  asked  me  to  report.  There  is  the 
question,  which  is  rapidly  becoming  a  very  important  question, 
of  credit  for  carrying  on  the  business  of  farming,  with  which 
question  I  have  been  dealing.  There  is  the  entirely  different 
question  of  loans  for  the  improvement  of  property.  Last  fall 
there  was  a  great  drought  on  the  North  Shore,  and  farmers  had 
to  sell  their  cattle  because  of  lack  of  fodder  to  carry  them  through 
the  winter.  Co-operative  banking  is  designed  to  meet  just  such 
cases  as  this,  and  positively  to  enable  the  farmer  to  extend  his 
operations  wherever  there  is  a  prospect  of  profit.  These  banks 
are  not  mortgage  banks,  though  some  of  them  do  lend  on  mort- 
gage— a  position  which  the  apostles  of  the  movement  regard  as 
illegitimate.  There  are  in  Europe,  in  addition  to  these  popular 
banks,  many  institutions  which  exist  for  the  purpose  of  lending 
money  on  mortgage  for  the  improvement  of  land.  These  banks 
have  more  than  a  century  of  successful  history,  but  their  opera- 
tions are  confined  to  the  landlord  class,  and  do  nothing  for  the 
business  of  farming  as  such.  We  have  had  similar  institutions 
in  America,  and  in  Canada  in  particular,  although  they  are  here 
called  by  another  name.  We  know  them  as  Loan  Companies 
and  Trust  Companies,  which  do  a  very  large  business  in  lending 
money  on  mortgage,  particularly  in  the  province  of  Ontario. 
These  are  purely  private  undertakings,  and  are  not  backed,  as  in 
Germany,  by  the  explicit  approval  of  the  state.  In  1899  there 
was  real  estate  mortgaged  to  these  loan  companies  to  the  value 
of  216  millions  for  loans  amounting  to  111  millions,  or  51  per 
cent,  of  the  value.  These  companies  are  said  by  a  very  com- 
petent observer,  Professor  Shortt  of  Queen's  College,  to 
provide  an  efficient  and  not  very  costly  credit  instrument  for 
the  farmer.  Such  institutions,  however,  are  making  loans  for 
improvement,  not  for  making  the  business  of  farming  profitable. 
It  is  true  that  money  is  often  borrowed  on  mortgage  for  other 
than  improvement  purposes,  but  such  "  calamity  loans,"  as  the 
United  States  Census  of  1890  called  them,  are  not  made  to 
promote  the  business  of  farming.  "  People  mortgage  their  real 
estate  to  get  married,  to  obtain  divorces,  and  to  pay  alimony ; 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.  477 

to  pay  their  taxes,  to  pay  rent,  and  to  pay  the  money  lender. 
They  raise  money  by  mortgage  in  order  that  they  may  travel,  and 
that  they  may  expend  it  in  extravagant  living ;  they  speculate 
with  it,  and  they  relend  it.  Politicians  pay  their  political  debts 
by  means  of  mortgages.  Wives  pay  the  debts  of  their  husbands 
and  educate  them  for  the  ministry.  Men  mortgage  their  real 
estate  to  pay  their  physician,  their  undertaker,  and  their  lawyers, 
to  help  their  friends  and  relatives  to  make  good  their  defalca- 
tions, to  educate  their  children,  and  to  support  their  parents." 
(U.  S.  Census,  1890,  Mortgage  Vol.,  p.  279).  But  after  all,  loans 
for  such  purposes  form  but  a  small  part  of  the  whole,  not  G  per 
cent,  of  the  number,  not  2  per  cent,  of  the  amount  in  the  United 
States ;  and  probably  this  proportion  holds  true  of  Canada, 
although  we  have  no  definite  information.  Most  of  the  mort- 
gages are  incurred  to  effect  improvements  of  a  more  or  less 
permanent  character. 

Information  is  lacking  regarding  the  rate  of  interest  which 
is  paid  on  mortgages  in  Canada.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  is 
high,  although  in  New  Brunswick,  at  least,  the  rate  is  falling, 
and  corporations  which  have  money  which  they  must  invest  in 
first-class  securities  are  being  forced  to  consider  whether  it  is 
worth  while  to  invest  in  mortgages  which  now  bring  a  grudging 
six  per  cent,  only,  with  a  prospect  that  five  will  soon  be  all  that 
is  obtainable.  It  is  because  the  rate  of  interest  is  high  that 
there  is  a  demand  in  some  quarters  that  the  state  should  place 
its  credit  at  the  disposal  of  the  farmers  to  enable  them  to  borrow 
at  less  than  the  present  market  rate.  Such  a  proposal  is  regarded 
with  great  alarm  in  some  quarters,  but  there  is  ample  and 
conservative  precedent  for  it.  The  English  Royal  Commission 
on  Agriculture,  recognizing  the  demand  for  "  increased  outlay  on 
improvements  necessitated  by  changes  in  agriculture,"  recom- 
mended state  loans  to  farmers,  for  which  they  claimed  rightly 
that  there  was  ample  precedent  in  English  agrarian  legislation. 
The  gist  of  the  evidence  laid  before  this  commission  brings  out, 
according  to  Mr.  Wolff  (People's  Banks,  p.  54.)  that  "  wherever 
in  agriculture  there  is  ample  command  of  money  for  working  a 


478  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

farm,  for  manuring,  feeding,  cultivating,  and  holding  over 
produce,  just  as  circumstance  may  dictate,  without  stint  and 
without  limit,  the  effects  of  distress  are  very  much  mitigated  ;" 
and  it  was  to  afford  such  a  mitigation  to  all,  that  the  commission 
recommended  a  system  of  state  loans. 

In  English  and  in  Scottish  land  legislation  to  a  slight  extent, 
and  in  Irish  legislation  to  a  very  great  extent,  the  principle  of 
using  the  state  credit  to  improve  the  position  of  the  farmer  has 
been  adopted  and  carried  out.  The  chief  object  is  one  which  has 
little  meaning  under  Canadian  conditions,  but  the  same  principle 
is  involved  in  using  state  credit  to  create  a  class  of  small  land- 
owners as  in  using  it  to  reduce  the  rate  of  interest  on  mort^a^es. 

O  o       O 

Irish  land  legislation  has  advanced  far  from  the  tentative 
proposals  in  the  Bright  clauses  of  the  Land  Act  of  1870.  This 
first  act  proposed  that  the  state  advance  two-thirds  of  the 
money  required  to  convert  the  tenant  into  owner,  to  be  repaid, 
capital  and  interest,  in  equal  instalments  of  5  per  cent,  in  35 
years.  The  famous  Land  Act  of  1881  incidentally  made  it 
possible  to  advance  state  money  to  the  amount  of  three-quarters 
of  the  purchase  price,  repayable  in  49  years  But  the  outstand- 
ing pieces  of  legislation  are  Conservative  in  origin.  The  Land 
Purchase  Act  of  1885  permitted  the  advance  of  the  whole 
purchase  money,  repayable,  capital  and  interest,  with  4  percent, 
interest,  over  49  years.  Under  this  act  purchases  were  made  on 
behalf  of  13,700  Irish  tenants,  at  a  cost  of  about  45  million 
dollars,  and  the  Irish  tenant  could,  and  did,  become  the  owner 
of  his  farm  by  making,  for  that  period,  annual  payments  41  per 
cent,  less  than  his  former  rent  had  been.  "  This  great  boon/' 
says  Mr.  Shaw  Lefevre  (Agrarian  Tenures, p.  142,)  "is  due  to  the 
use  of  money  borrowed  from  the  state  at  3  per  cent,  to  purchase 
the  landlord's  interest  on  the  very  low  terms  of  17J  times  the 
rent."  Mr.  Balfour's  Land  Purchase  Act  of  1891  went  still 
further  in  the  same  direction.  It  involves  the  use  of  Imperial 
credit  on  a  very  large  scale,  and  was  distinguished  by  an  effort 
to  provide  some  security  to  the  Imperial  Government  for  lepay- 
ment  of  the  loans — a  provision  not  unlike  the  process  by  which 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.  479 

the  Dominion  Government  can  deduct  allowances  from  the 
Dominion  subsidies  to  the  provinces.  And  still  further  legislation 
is  demanded  by  the  Irish  party. 

The  Irish  land  question  stands  by  itself,  and  perhaps  it  were 
as  well  not  to  quote  Irish  agrarian  legislation  as  a  precedent ; 
but  there  is  no  such  objection  to  the  precedent  established  in  our 
sister  colonies  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia.  There  the  prin- 
ciple of  using  state  credit  to  assist  the  farmer  has  been  carried 
out  on  a  very  large  scale.  The  policy  has  still  to  stand  the  test 
of  experience,  and  particularly  the  experience  of  hard  times.  At 
present  the  policy  is  still  popular.  The  New  Zealander,  accord- 
ing to  his  eulogist,  Mr.  Lloyd,  uses  his  national  credit  to  get 
money  in  London  to  lend  again  in  advances  to  settlers  and  free 
the  farmer  from  the  high  rates  of  interest  he  is  paying  the  pri- 
vate bankers.  (Newest  England,  p.  151.)  New  Zealand  began 
this  policy  in  1893,  and  since  then  its  example  has  been  followed 
by  New  South  Wales,  South  Australia  and  Victoria.  The  system 
is  described  thus  by  Mr.  Lloyd  : 

"  The  world  over,  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
the  small  farmer,  and  the  large  one,  is  the  difficulty  of  getting 
capital.  Often  there  is  no  money  to  be  borrowed  in  the  district 
where  he  lives,  or  if  there  is,  it  is  in  the  hands  of  rich  neigh- 
bours or  banks,  who  know  nothing  but  their  bond  and  the 
pound  of  flesh.  But  in  New  Zealand  the  settler  has  only  to  go 
to  the  nearest  post  office  to  get  into  communication  with  a 
money  lender  who  charges  no  commission  or  brokerage,  and  no 
fees,  except  for  actual  expenses,  never  exacts  usury,  offers  no 
cut-throat  mortgages  for  signature,  will  let  him  have  any 
amount  from  as  little  as  $125  to  as  much  as  $15,000,  has  never 
foreclosed,  does  not  try  to  induce  him  to  borrow  more  than  he 
really  needs  ;  if  he  has  no  freehold,  will  lend  on  leasehold  and 
good  will  and  improvements,  gives  him  thirty-seven  and  a  half 
years  to  pay  the  money  back,  and  accepts  it  from  him  in  small 
instalments  of  principal  with  every  payment  of  interest,  so  as 
to  make  it  as  little  of  a  burden  as  can  be,  will  allow  him  if  he 
happens  to  have  $25  to  spare,  to  pay  it  in  at  any  time  to  reduce 


480  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

his  indebtedness,  and  when  it  finds  itself  making  a  protit  out  of 
the  business,  instead  of  accumulating  a  fortune,  gives  him  the 
benefit  by  reducing  his  rate." 

New  Zealand  charges  interest  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent.,  and 
up  till  1900  had  made  about  7000  loans,  amounting  to  more  than 
ten  million  dollars,  and  it  is  claimed  that  not  a  cent  has  been 
lost,  and  that  in  1900  there  was  not  a  penny  of  interest  or  prin- 
cipal due  which  had  not  been  collected.  The  entrance  of  the 
government  into  the  business  of  lending  money,  brought  rates 
down  all  over  the  country,  and  not  only  those  who  borrowed 
from  the  government,  but  all  borrowers,  had  the  benefit  of  a 
reduction  in  the  rate  of  interest  of  something  like  two  per  cent- 
One  supporter  of  the  New  Zealand  government  claimed  that  "  the 
action  of  the  slate  in  entering  the  money-market  has  made  an 
average  reduction  of  2  per  cent,  on  £32,000,000  of  landed 
indebtedness,  and  £32,000,000  of  other  debts."  The  benefit  may 
not  have  been  as  great  as  this  and  yet  have  been  very  great  in 
its  immediate  effects. 

The  state  advances  money  to  the  Australasian  farmer  at 
both  ends.  It  advances  money  on  his  farm,  and  then  lends  him 
money  on  its  produce  and  helps  him  to  market  it  at  the  best 
terms.  With  this  latter  activity  of  the  state  on  behalf  of  the 
farmer  we  are  more  familiar  in  Canada.  Neither  Dominion  nor 
provincial  governments  have  yet  found  it  necessary  or  advisable 
to  lend  its  credit  to  its  farmers.  Ontario  is  a  slight  exception, 
that  province,  I  believe,  making  slight  advances  for  purposes  of 
drainage.  But  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  with  all  its  mani- 
fold paternal  activity  on  behalf  of  the  farmer,  has  not  advanced 
money  for  improvement  or  for  cultivation — at  least  to  the  native 
farmer.  To  some  classes  of  immigrants  small  advances  have  been 
made  by  another  department.  The  Mennonites  received  a  loan 
of  nearly  $100,000,  which  has  all  been  repaid  with  interest ;  the 
early  Icelandic  settlements  received  some  $30,000,  which,  owing 
to  adverse  circumstances  in  the  settlement,  had  to  be  written  off 
as  a  bad  debt,  the  security  being  destroyed  by  disastrous  floods ; 
and  similar  small  advances  have  been  made  to  the  Dcukhobors 


AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.  481 

and  to  individual  Galician  settlers,  the  loans  being  secured  by 
liens  on  the  land.  Beyond  these,  I  know  of  no  direct  lending  by 
the  Canadian  government. 

Yet  the  Canadian  governments,  in  their  own  way,  are  doing 
a  great  deal  to  make  the  business  of  farming  profitable.  The 
provision  of  cheap  credit  is  not  the  sole  condition  of  success,  and 
many  of  the  other  conditions  are  provided.  I  need  not  say  any- 
thing about  the  assistance^  which  the  government  gives  in 
establishing  and  maintaining  creameries  and  cheese  factories,  or 
of  the  instruction  how  to  make  the  best  use  of  his  opportunities 
offered  the  farmer  by  means  of  the  agents  of  the  departments. 
From  one  point  of  view,  this  assistance  might  be  regarded  as  a 
system  of  technical  education  for  farmers  ;  from  another  point 
of  view,  as  the  quid  pro  quo  given  to  the  farmer  who  has  borne 
the  chief  part  of  the  burden  of  the  attempt  to  build  up  indus- 
tries by  protection.  These,  however,  are  but  the  beginning  of 
what  the  government  does,  and  when  one  contemplates  the  vast 
projects  upon  which  we,  as  a  people,  have  embarked,  or  are 
likely  to  embark,  it  seems  almost  necessary  to  call  caution. 
Practically,  the  agricultural  departments  have  made  it  their  aim 
to  remove  all  obstacles  in  the  way  of  finding  a  market.  It  uses 
its  vast  power  and  machinery  to  form  an  intelligence  bureau  in 
the  interests  of  the  farmer.  It  has  improved  the  means  of  trans- 
portation ;  it  has  insisted  on  coal  storage  on  train  and  steamer, 
and  it  has  erected  cold  storage  facilities  in  farming  districts  and 
at  seaports  ;  in  some  cases  it  insures  the  farmer  against  some  of 
the  ravages  of  nature  ;  it  has  brought  the  best  of  all  markets  to 
his  door  ;  it  buys  eg^s  and  butter  and  poultry  from  him  at  a 
fixed  price,  and  pays  over  to  him  any  surplus,  and  events  may 
force  it  to  l.uy  the  fruit  crop  in  so  far  as  that  is  intended  for 
export;  it  buys  oats  from  him  on  account  of  the  imperial 
government,  and  when  it  succeeds  in  making  a  better  bargain 
than  anticipated  with  the  steamship  companies, hands  the  profit 
over  to  the  farmer.  And  as  I  write,  ray  evening  paper  comes  to 
tell  me  that  in  order  to  encourage  poultry-raising  in  the  mari- 
time provinces,  the  Dominion  Department  of  Agriculture  has 
decided,  in  the  event  of  cold  storage  facilities  not  being  forth- 


482  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

coming  on  any  steamer  from  St.  John  or  Halifax  to  Liverpool 
during  the  year,  to  pay  all  freight  charges  on  poultry  shipped  to 
Montreal  in  excess  of  one  dollar  per  hundred  pounds.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  almost  equal  care  and  anxiety  is 
shown  by  the  agents  of  the  department  that  the  produce  o^ 
Canadian  farms  shall  receive  the  best  price  and  gain  the  best 
reputation  that  can  be  obtained. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  the  president  of  a  Farmers'  Supply 
Association  in  the  old  country,  with  whom  I  had  some  corres- 
pondence in  relation  to  this  report,  should  declare  that  in  the 
provision  of  facilities  of  all  kinds  the  Canadian  farmer  is  a  full 
generation  ahead  of  the  farmer  in  the  mo  therland. 

But  it  may  be  asked  why  should  the  Government  not  go  one 
step  further  and  adopt  the  Australasian  policy  of  assisting  the 
farmer  in  producing  as  well  as  in  marketing  ?  Why  not  lend 
the  credit  of  the  state  to  the  farmer  to  enable  him  to  borrow 
money  more  cheaply  to  make  improvements  or  simply  to  make 
the  business  of  farming  profitable  ?  It  is  true  that  we  need  not 
trouble  ourselves  much  about  words,  for  if  state  lending  on  mort- 
gage is  socialistic,  what  shall  we  say  about  the  manifold  activi- 
ties of  the  agricultural  departments?  The  New  Zealander  has 
not  been  frightened  at  the  word,  and  indeed  declares  that  the 
epithet  is  misapplied.  The  essence  of  socialism  is  state  owner- 
ship of  the  means  of  production,  and  the  effect  of  this  kind  of 
state  activity  is  to  establish  individual  ownership  more  firmly. 
The  New  Zealander  is  of  the  opinion,  according  to  Mr.  Lloyd 
(Newest  England,  p.  375)  that  his  action  simply  amounts  to  "the 
state  giving  its  principal  efforts  to  the  stimulation,  as  a  silent 
partner,  wise  counsellor  and  democratic  co-operator,  of  the 
enterprise  and  industry  of  the  individual."  It  may,  moreover, 
be  easily  argued  that  in  a  democratic  country,  government  aid  is 
simply  a  highly  organized  form  of  self-help,  that  the  people  are 
using  the  machinery  of  the  state  for  the  ends  for  which  it  was 
devised,  viz.,  the  good  of  the  citizens. 

This  is  true.     At  times  we  may  look  at  things  in  this  way, 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

yet  the  usual  way  is  to  regard  a  government  as  an  external 
benefactor  who  favours  us,  or  our  district,  at  the  expense  of 
others.  It  is  true  that  it  is  our  own  money  that  constructs  our 
roads  and  our  bridges,  builds  our  railwa)s  and  executes  our  pub- 
lic work,  yet  when  some  protesting  writer  or  some  opposition 
candidate  points  this  very  fact  out  to  us,  we  feel  instantly  that 
he  is  talking  not  of  things  as  they  are.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  we 
do  not  regard  government  aid  as  a  highly  organised  form  of  self- 
help,  but  rather  as  a  highly  organised  form  of  helping  ourselves 
at  the  general  expense.  And  it  is  not  well  that  we  should  come 
to  look  too  much  for  government  aid  in  the  management  of  our 
business.'  There  is  already  too  much  leliance  upon  government 
and  too  little  individual  initiative.  There  are,  for  instance,  too 
many  men  wasting  time  looking  for  government  jobs,  and  too 
many  people  who  think  that  five  dollars  of  government  money 
is  worth  ten  dollars  offered  by  any  one  else.  There  is  some  dan- 
ger to  national  character  in  too  great  a  reliance  upon  government 
assistance. 

Nor  can  we  regard  the  resources  of  a  government  as  illimit- 
able. A  state  can  borrow  cheaply  because  it  borrows  moder- 
ately and  with  discretion.  It  is  true  that  a  government  may 
borrow  at  three  per  cent,  or  a  little  more,  while  the  private 
borrower  has  to  pay  six  or  a  little  more.  Why  should  not  the 
government  of  Canada  or  the  government  of  New  Brunswick 
fend  again  to  the  fanner  ?  For  the  very  good  reason  that,  if  it 
did  to  any  extent,  it  would  not  long  be  able  to  borrow  at  three 
per  cent,  and  the  whole  community  would  be  burdened.  New 
Zealand's  experience  is  riot  quite  conclusive,  because  it  has  not 
continued  long  enough.  We  have  had  in  our  history  some 
experience  of  lending  the  state's  credit.  The  legislature  of 
Canada  passed  in  1849  a  guarantee  act,  guaranteeing  the  interest 
on  railway  bonds,  as  Manitoba  is  doing  to-day,  and  the  result 
was  that  the  credit  of  the  colony  was  quick  to  show  the  effects, 
and  the  guarantee  system  had  to  be  withdrawn.  New  Zealand, 
during  the  first  depression  of  trade,  may  have  an  even  more 
disastrous  experience. 


484  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 

Nothing  need  be  said  regarding  the  political  aspect  of  the 
proposal,  though  that  is  the  first  which  occurs  to  most  people. 
What  would  be  the  relation  between  the  borrower  and  the 
government  about  election  time  ?  Would  concessions  be  made 
to  partizans,  in  the  matter  of  time,  if  the  interest  was  not  ready  ? 
It  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  no  evidence  of  similar  discrimi- 
nation in  other  business  conducted  by  the  government.  After 
extensive  enquiries,  of  Liberals  regarding  Conservative  admin- 
istration, and  of  Conservatives  regarding  Liberal  administration, 
of  the  Intercolonial  Railway,  I  have  heard  of  one  instance  only 
of  discrimination  in  freight  rates  in  favour  of  a  partizan.  and 
that  was  in  the  shape  of  a  tacit  permission  to  overload  a  car. 
That  is  rather  remarkable,  and  along  with  it  we  must  take  the 
fact  that  advances  to  settlers  are  generally  repaid  in  full — 
though  this  is  not  so  remarkable,  for  these  men  are  not  voters. 
Still  there  remains  the  general  impression  that  politics  would 
inevitably  enter  into  the  question  of  government  loans  to 
farmers,  and  politics  are  already  so  complicated  that  both  parties 
would  fight  shy  of  such  a  measure. 

To  sum  up: — The  farmer  need  not  look  to  any  amendment 
of  the  banking  system  to  provide  him  with  cheaper  credit,, 
though  possibly  an  improved  banking  practice  might  help  him  a 
little  The  European  system  of  agricultural  credit  on  a  co-opera- 
tive basis  could  not  be  adopted  in  this  country,  and  need  not  be, 
for  our  farmer  is  not  as  helpless  and  as  much  subject  to  the 
usurer  as  the  continental  peasant.  The  results  of  this  co-operative 
system  do  not  place  the  European  on  as  good  a  footing  as  the 
Canadian  farmer  now  has.  No  government  will  ever  attempt 
the  task  of  lending  money  to  make  the  business  of  farming 
profitable.  The  action  of  governments  in  relation  to  agricultural 
credit  has  been  confined  10  lending  on  mortgage.  This  is,  in  my 
opinion,  not  desirable  in  Canada,  either  for  the  Dominion  or  for 
the  provinces.  The  safe  line  is  to  develop  the  present  activities 
of  the  government  on  behalf  of  the  farmers,  for  cheaper  credit 
is  only  one  of  the  conditions  of  success. 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.  485 

If  we  trace  the  farmer's  activity  from  start  to  finish,  we  can 
see  at  a  glance  what  is  being  done  : 

I.  Agricultural  education  for  adults  at  present — for  the  young 

in  the  immediate  future ;  this  includes  lectures  by 
experts,  continuous  experimentation,  etc. 

II.  Assistance  in  certain  kinds  of  production — creameries  and 

cheese  factories,  etc. 

III.  For  improvements — practically    nothing.      The    Canadian 

governments  do  not  lend  on  mortgage,  nor  is  it  desirable 
that  they  should.  But  something  might  readily  be 
done  to  cheapen  law  costs  and  to  facilitate  the  transfer 
of  lands  ;  perhaps,  also,  to  encourage  local  agricultural 
societies  to  form  themselves  into  local  co-operative 
mortgage  banks,  borrowing  on  mortgage  bonds  to  lend 
on  mortgage. 

IV.  For  the  provision  of  credit  to  carry  on    the  business  of 

farming,  the  government  does  nothing  and  can  do 
nothing,  though  here,  again,  it  might  encourage  the 
agricultural  societies  to  greater  practical  usefulness  as 
co-operative  supply  associations. 

v.  Markets.  This  has  been  assumed  by  the  government  in  so 
far  as  export  is  conceined  ;  and  since  the  government 
advances  the  price,  it  may  thus  assist  the  farmer  more 
than  by  providing  cheaper  credit.  With  a  practical 
government  guarantee  of  a  market,  indeed,  the  banks 
might  safely  advance  to  the  farmer  almost  as  fully  as 
they  do  to  the  lumber  operator  and  the  manufacturer  ; 
and  if  this  were  to  prove  the  case,  the  demand  for 
cheaper  money  for  the  farmer  would  no  longer  be  heard. 


VI1L— PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS   IN    NOVA    SCOTIA    AND 
CANADA,  190 L— By  A.  H.  MACKAY,  LL.  D. 

(Received  for  Publication  May,  IMS.) 

I  present  herewith  a  summary  of  the  phenological  observa- 
tions made  in  about  450  of  the  public  schools  of  the  Province 
of  Nova  Scotia,  each  county  being  represented  by  a  greater  cr 
less  proportion  of  observers. 

The  observations  were  for  the  most  part  made  by  the  pupils 
of  the  schools  under  the  supervision  and  direction  of  the  teachers 
who  are  responsible  for  their  accuracy.  The  observers  are 
specially  directed  to  the  determination  of  two  dates  (pheno- 
chrons) — one  for  the  first  app  earance  of  the  event  (leafing,  flower- 
ing, ripening  of  fruit,  etc.),  the  other  for  the  date  when  it  may 
be  said  to  be  "becoming  common."  As  pupils  radiate  from  the 
school-house,  in  rural  districts  especially,  to  a  distance  of  one  or 
even  two  miles  daily,  and  as  the  monotony  of  the  walk  home 
and  back  again  to  school  next  morning  is  very  much  lightened 
by  the  eager  lookout  for  the  first  appearance  of  each  phenom- 
enon during  the  procession  of  the  season,  (which,  when  reported 
to  the  teacher  and  demonstrated  by  the  presentation  of  the 
specimen,  is  recorded  to  the  credit  of  the  observer),  these  obser- 
vations must  be  much  more  accurate  than  those  made  by  a 
single  observer,  especially  if  he  can  only  go  out  into  the  fields 
or  the  woods  at  intervals  of  sometimes  several  days.  In  fact, 
while  it  must  be  acknowledged  from  the  investigation  of  the 
schedules  that  mistakes  are  sometimes  made  in  noting  the  first 
date,  or  mistaking  the  species  of  the  plant,  and  even  in  record- 
ing a  correct  observation,  the  general  agreement  of  many  school 
sections  proves  that  the  phenomena  are  most  promptly  noticed 
and  correctly  reported. 

These  450  schedules  (the  best  of  a  larger  list  sent  in)  were 
divided  between  four  of  the  leading  botanists  of  the  Province 

(486) 


PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,    1901. — MACKAY.  487 

for  the  purpose  of  their  detailed  study  and  compilation  to  find 
average  dates  (phenochrons)  of  occurrence  in  each  meteorological 
district,  of  which  there  are  twelve  defined  in  Nova  Scotia.  A 
summary  of  the  reports  of  this  staff — consisting  of  C.  B.  Robin- 
son, B.  A.,  of  the  Pictou  Academy.  Principal  E.  J.  Lay  of  the 
Amherst  Academy,  Principal  B.  McKittrick  of  the  Lunenhurg, 
and  Miss  Antoinette  Forbes,  B.  A.,  of  the  Windsor 
Academy — was  published  in  the  Journal  of  Education,  April, 
1902.  The  repurts  pointed  out  some  of  the  errors  likely  to  be 
made  by  observers,  and  suggested  improvements  on  the  schedule, 
which  have  already  been  adopted.  They  also  summed  up  the 
observations  so  as  to  show  the  general  phenochron  for  each 
object  in  the  shore  or  coast  belt,  the  low  inland  belt,  and  the 
highland  belt  of  each  county  and  of  each  region,  some  of  which 
contain  portions  of  seve»al  counties.  These  phenochrons  would 
be  very  interesting  to  the  numerous  localities  throughout  the 
whole  Province,  but  they  are  too  voluminous  for  publication. 
They  were  still  further  generalized,  so  as  to  give  the  pheno- 
chrons for  each  region,  by  Mr.  G.  M.  J.  MacKay.  This  table  is 
presented  on  pages  492  to  495. 

The  table  of  observations  throughout  Canada,  made  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Botanical  Club  of  Canada  by  individual 
observers  who  made  only  the  first  series  of  observations,  is  also 
presented  here,  pages  497  to  501,  as  in  the  report  of  the  Botanical 
Club  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada.  This  is  done,  first, 
to  keep  the  series  of  Canadian  observations  uninterrupted  in  our 
transactions;  secondly,  for  the  purpose  of  instituting  compari- 
sons, and,  thirdly,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  greater  fullness 
and  accuracy  of  the  observations  as  conducted  in  the  public 
schools. 

Thpn  again,  it  must  be  considered  that  by  far  the  greatest 
value  of  the  Nova  Scotian  plan  appears  to  be  the  stimulation  of 
the  pupils  of  the  public  schools  to  observe  and  record,  and 
eventually  to  compare.  It  is  found  to  be  a  great  aid  to  the 
teacher  in  interesting  the  pupils  in  many  departments  of  Nature 
study ;  it  cultivates  those  powers  of  the  mind  without  which 


488  PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS   IN   NOVA   SCOTIA 

future  learning  is,  for  general  purposes,  of  little  real  value,  and 
at  the  same  time  it  makes  the  life  of  the  pupil  on  the  road  a 
healthful  and  happy  one  by  the  added  interest  of  the  chase. 

For  some  years  Professor  Ihne  of  Darmstadt,  Germany,  has 
been  collecting  and  puUishing  annually  similar  observations, 
covering  Europe  from  Wales  to  Austria  and  from  the  Baltic  to 
Switzerland,  with  nearly  pne  hnndied  individual  observers. 
The  object  here  is  the  minor  one  of  obtaining  phenological  data, 
as  it  is  with  the  Botanical  Club  of  Canada. 

But  within  the  last  year  the  Natural  History  Society  of 
British  Columbia  issued  a  similar  schedule,  specially  adapted  to 
the  west  side  of  the  continent,  which  has  been  sent  to  the 
teachers  of  the  public  schools,  in  order  to  obtain  the  educational 
benefit  for  the  pupils  all  over  the  country,  while  at  the  same 
time  securing  more  valuable  phenological  data  than  is  possible 
otherwise. 

In  Denmark  the  same  plan  is  also  being  tried  this  year  on 
the  recommendation  of  Carl  Michelsen,  School  Inspector,  Skan- 
derborg.  M.  J.  Mathiassen,  Mullerup,  Skole  pr.  Slagelese, 
issues  an  admirable  schedule,  with  very  effective  instructions 
for  teachers. 

The  phenochrons  in  the  tables  being  the  means  of  a  number 
of  dates,  as  a  rule  contain  fractions,  which  for  the  sake  of 
compactness,  as  no  material  difference  is  made,  are  omitted. 

The  treatment  of  the  thunderstorm  observations  in  a  compact 
form  appeared  to  be  impossible,  so  that  they  are  omitted  from 
the  Nova  Scotian  table.  They  may  be  considered  by  themselves 
on  a  future  occasion. 

The  original  schedules  are  carefully  preserved,  bound  up  in 
a  handsome  volume, — one  each  year.  Over  five  hundred  obser- 
vations have  been  sent  in  with  some  schedules.  The  com- 
pendiums  made  for  each  belt  of  each  region  are  also  thus 
preserved  for  the  use  of  future  students  of  weather  and  of  the 
changes  of  climate. 

As  a  portion  of  the  result  of  the  study  of  the  schedules  of 
the  n  jrth  and  eastern  meteorological  regions,  I  have  pleasure  in 


AND    CANADA,   1001. — MACKAY.  489 

presenting  also  a  paper  on  the  "  Early  Intervale  Flora  of 
Northern  Nova  Scotia,"  by  Mr.  C.  B.  Robinson,  B.  A.,  of  Pictou 
Academy.  It  will  be  found  following  the  tables  referred  to, 
on  pages  502  to  506. 

The  following  are  the  instructions  printed  on  the  ruled 
blanks  for  the  summation  of  the  individual  schedules  into  the 
sheets  showing  the 

"REGION"    OR    "BELT"    PHENOCHRONS. 

"  Each  province  may  be  divided  into  its  main  climatic  slopes 
or  regions  which  may  be  seldom  coterminous  with  the  bound- 
aries of  counties.  Slopes,  especially  those  on  the  coast,  should 
be  subdivided  into  belts,  such  as  (a)  the  coast  belt,  (6)  the  low 
inland  belt,  and  (c)  the  high  inland  belt." 

"  In  Nova  Scotia  the  following  regions  are  marked  out  :— 

No.  REGIONS  OR  SLOPES.  BELTS. 

1.  Yarmouth  and  Digby  Co.'s (a)  Coast,  (6)  Low  Inlands,  (c)  High  Inlands. 

2.  Shelburne,  Queens  and  Lunen- 

burg  Co.'s " 

3.  Annapolis  and  Kings  Co.'s (a)  South  Mts. ,  (b)  Annapolis  Valley,  (c)  Corn- 

wallis  Valley,  (rf)  North  Mts. 

4.  Hants  and  Colchester  Co.'s.  .  (a)  Coast,  (b)  Low  Inlands,   (c)  High  Inlands. 

5.  Halifax  and  Guysboro  Co.  's   .  " 

6.  Cobequid  Slope  (to  the  South).  " 

7.  Northumberland  Straits  Slope 

(to  the  North) " 

8.  Richmond  and  Cape  Breton  Go's  " 

9.  Bras  d'Or  Slope  (to  South-East)  " 
10.     Inverness  Slope  (toGulf.N.W.)  " 

Averaging  Local  Phenochrons  for  "  Region "  or  "  Belt " 

Phenochrons. 

"If  ten  or  fewer  good  phenological  observation  schedules  can 
be  selected  from  those  belonging  to  any  given  belt,  they  may  be 
averaged  as  indicated  in  the  columns  within.  If  there  are  not 
ten  from  each  belt,  then  it  may  be  better  to  combine  two  belts, 
or  if  necessary,  the  three  belts,  on  the  form  within.  In  the 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TRANS.- HH. 


490  PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS   IN   NOVA   SCOTIA 

latter  case,  the  average  will  be  the  "  region  "  phenochrons. 
When  a  full  sheet  can  be  made  out  for  each  belt,  the  averages  of 
the  phenochrons  for  the  three  "  bells"  will  give  the  phenochrons 
for  the  "  region  " 

Blanks. 

"  There  is  a  convenience  in  averaging  the  dates  of  the  ten 
stations,  which  accounts  for  the  ten  columns  for  stations  in  the 
form  within.  When  a  few  dates  are  not  given,  it  may  be  fair 
to  enter  in  the  blanks  the  dates  from  a  similar  neighboring 
station  which  is  not  otherwise  utilized  for  the  sheet.  Gieat 
care  should  be  taken  that  such  observations  taken  from  a 
schedule  not  summarized  should  appear  to  be  what  might  have 
been  observed  at  the  station  indicated  in  the  heading;  and  to 
indicate  such  a  transference  the  date  should  be  surrounded  by 
a  circle  with  the  pen,  which  will  always  mean  that  the  obser- 
vation was  not  made  in  the  station  heading  the  column,  but  in 
a  neighbouring  one,  and  was  taken  from  a  supernumerary 
schedule." 

Thunder-storms. 

"  These  dates  will  be  entered  in  their  respective  columns  and 
opposite  the  month  indicated.  They  will  not  be  averaged,  of 
course." 

A  ccuraci/. 

"Care  must  be  exercised  in  selecting  schedules,  the  observa- 
tions of  which  appear  to  have  been  carefully  made,  neglecting 
any  which  give  reason  for  doubt,  when  selecting  for  summation 
on  the  form  within.  Great  care  must  also  be  exercised  in 
copying  the  figures  and  entering  them,  so  that  no  slip  may 
occur.  Every  entry  should  be  checked.  One  slip  may  spoil  the 
effect  of  all  the  accurate  numbeis  entering  into  the  summation. 
In  like  manner,  great  care  has  to  be  taken  in  adding  and  aver- 
aging the  figures  ;  and  for  this  purpose  every  sum  should  be 
done  twice  in  reverse  order,  so  as  to  give  absolute  confidence  in 
the  accuracy  of  the  work." 


AND   CANADA,    1901. — MACK  AY.  491 

Remarks. 

"  The  Compiler  filling  one  of  these  blanks  should  keep  one 
copy  for  himself  while  sending  the  other  to  the  compiler-in- 
chief." 

"  The  set  of  stations  on  the  right,  under  "  when  becoming 
common,"  must  be  exactly  the  same  as  on  the  left,  under  "  when 
first  seen." 

A  plate  of  graphs  showing  the  relation  between  the  flower- 
ing phenochrons  in  each  region  of  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia, 
for  the  dates  "  when  first  seen  "  and  "  when  becoming  common  " 
is  given  on  page  496.  "  When  becoming  common  "  must  always 
be  a  matter  of  personal  judgment ;  so  that  the  general  conform- 
ity of  the  five  pairs  of  curves  for  the  flowering  of  the  Mayflower, 
Strawberry,  Apple,  Lilac,  and  Blackberry,  on  the  said  plate  is 
very  interesting. 


492 


PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS    IN    NOVA   SCOTIA 


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496  PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS   IN   NOVA   SCOTIA 


AND  CANADA,  1901.— MACKAY.  497 


LIST  OF  OBSERVERS  AND  STATIONS  FOR  TABLE  OF  BOTANICAL 
CLUB  OF  CANADA,  1901,  ON  THE  FOLLOWING  PAGES. 

Nova  Scotia  :   Four  hundred  and  fifty  School  Sections. 
New  Brunswick  :    Mr.  J.  Vroom,  St.  Stephen. 
Prince  Edward  Island  :    Mr.  John  MacSwain,  Charlottetown. 
Quebec:    Miss  A.  L.  Beckett,  Richmond  (1). 
Miss  J.  M.  Varney,  (2) 

"          Miss  Annie  M.  Dresser,  Nicolet. 
Ontario  :   Dr.  James  Fletcher,  Ottawa  (I). 
Dr.  Cephas  Guillet,        "        (2). 
"  Miss  Alice  Hollingworth,  Beatrice,  Muskoka. 

Manitoba:    Mr.  B  J.  Hales,  Macgregor. 
Assiniboia :    Mr.  T.  H.  Donnelly,  Pheasant  Forks. 
Saskatchewan  :  Rev.  C.  W.  Bryden,  B.  A.,  Willoughby. 
Alberta:    Mr.  Percy  B.  Gregson,  Waghorn. 
British  Columbia  :    Mr.  J.  K.  Henry,  B.  A.,  Vancouver. 

REFERENCES  IN  "  VANCOUVER  "  COLUMN  OF  THE  TABLE 

FOLLOWING  : 
a.     Alnus  rubra. 
6.     Acer  macrophyllum. 

c.  Prunus  emarginata. 

d.  Vaccinium  myrtilloides. 

e.  Rubus  occidentalis. 
/.     Rosa  Nutkana. 


498 


PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS   IN   NOVA   SCOTIA 


PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,    1901. 

(The  Phenochrws  for  Nova  Scotia  are  averages  based  on  observations  made   at  about 
450  stations,  and  have  fractions  which  are  omitted  in  this  table.  J 


Number. 

YEAR,  1901. 

Day  of  the  year  corresponding 
to  the  last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan  31       July       .212 
Feb  59        Aug        .243 
March    .  90       Sept       .273 
April..   .120       Oct..      .304 
May.  ..   .151        Nov        .334 
June  ..   .181       Dec.        .365 

Average  dates  for  Nova  II 
Scotia.  || 

OBSERVATION  STATIONS. 

St.  Stephen, 
New  Brunswick. 

Charlottlitown, 
P.  E.  I. 

Richmond, 
Quebec. 

Richmond, 
Quebec. 

colct,  Quebec. 

Ottawa,  Ontario. 

Ottawa,  Ontario. 

Muskoka,  Ontario. 

Mncgregor,  Manitoba- 

Pheasant  Forks, 
Assiniboia 

Willoughby, 
Saskatchewan. 

Waghorn,  Alberta. 

t 

I 

C 

•i; 
>.. 
•3* 
0  • 

"->: 
c 
a 
> 

d 

<N 

fc 

s 

£i 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 

104 
109 
101 
121 
117 
118 
134 
126 
123 
130 
129 
128 
117 
151 
139 
204 
138 
199 

104 

126 

140 
145 
126 

113 
113 

110 

118 

!()!» 

110 
111 
111 
12  1 

108 
108 
108 

113 

109 
108 

107 
113 

.... 

i>l 

Populus  tremuloides,  Michx. 
Epigeea  repens,  L  ... 
Viola  cucullata,  Gray  
V   blanda,  Willd  

141 

147 
151 

119 

142 
153 

118 

106 

123 
123 
116 

135 
139 

98 

Acer  rubrum,  L  

107 

ns 

J 

t 

Taraxacum  offlcinalc,  Weber. 
Erythronium    Amer,  Ker  — 
Hepatica   triloba,  Chaix  
Coptis  trifolia  Salisb 

132 

155 
141 
140 

139 
125 

123 

118 

in 

114 
115 
105 

118 
114 
104 
124 
99 
164 
128 

121 
118 

143 

122 
147 
132 
167 

169 

132 
132 
182 
132 

Fragaria  Virginiana,  Mill  
"                "          (fruit  ripe) 
Prunus  Pennsylvanicum,  L... 
"                (fruit  ripe)  . 

135 

141 

191 

112 

ir>« 

121 

161 

139 

137 

11 

12C 

162 

127 

141 

142 

138 
201 

147 

1?1 

Cl. 

•w 

Ranunculus  acris,  L  

144 
149 
146 
140 
I'll 

161 

172 

141 
144 

170 
140 

147 
150 
i   1 

ll'.l 

144 

149 
129 

143 
143 

169 

116 

147 

11 

R.  repens,  L  

Clintonia   borcalis,  Raf  
Trilliumerythrocarpum,  Michx 

HI 

Cypripedium  acaule,  Ait  

152 
HI 

160 

151 

11)3 

117 
128 

148 

169 

... 

Amelanchier  Canaden.,  T.&  G. 
"                    "   (fruit  rice) 

137 

190 

143 

128 

123 

138 

136 

198 

13 

AND    CANADA,    1901. — MACK  A  V. 


499 


PHKNOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA,  1901. 


1 
") 

>3 
1 

IT) 
I! 

S 
(!) 
if) 

n 
;L' 
I 

;i 
,-. 
6 

7 
1 

'.I 

n 

i 

0 

a 

i 
i 

YEAR,  1901. 

Day  of  the  year  corresponding 
to  the  last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan.     .   .  31       July  .     .212 
Feb.    ..   .69       Aug.       .243 
March    .  90       Sept.        273 
April..  .120       Oct.  .        304 
May  ..   .151       Nov..     .334 
June  ..  .181       Dec  ..     .365 

Average  dates  for  Nova 
Scotia. 

OBSERVATION  STATIONS. 

St.  Stephen, 
New  Brunswick. 

Charlottetown, 
P.  E.  I. 

(1)  Richmond, 
Quebec. 

(2)  Richmond, 
Quebec. 

Xicolet,  Quebec. 

(I)  Ottawa,  Ontario. 

(2)  Ottawa,  Ontario. 

Muskoka,  Ontaria. 

Macsrregor,  Man  i  toba. 

Pheasant  Korka, 
Aminiboia. 

Willoughby, 
Saskatchewan. 

VVaghorn,  Alberta. 

Vancourer. 
British  Columbia. 

Rubus  strigosus.  Michx  
"                   (fruit  ripe) 
Rubus  villosus,  Ait  

156 
193 
1*55 

H'.i 

151 

190 
201 

146e 

IV 

"                   (fruit  ripe).  . 

fl?5 

T> 

Kalmia  glauca,  Ait  

149 
159 

162 

121 

K.  angustif  olia,  L  

Cornus  Canadensis,   L  

H? 

117 

Ill 

134 

"                    (fruit  ripe) 
Sisyrinchium   angustifolium.. 
Linnnea  borealis    L 

190 
155 
159 
17? 

^8 

167 

177 

181 

<:,:• 

151 

170 

137 

.... 

Linaria  Canadensis    Dum 

117 

,-., 

Rhinantbus  Crista-galli,  L.  . 

IfiS 

166 

169 

18? 

ITS 

1<K1 

192 
166 

m 

148/ 

177 

Ills 

189 

189 

131 

164 

193 
191 

168 

•>fi<l 

Prunus  Cerasus  (cultivated)., 
n                 (fruit  ripe) 

113 

189 

147 

143 

188 

132 

107 
167 

153 

153 

153 
139 

160 
167 
140 

143 
140 

145 
124 

146 
129 
138 

142 
141 

.... 

104 
117 

Prunus  domcstica  (cultivated) 
Pyrus  malus  (cultivated)  early 
"                   "           late  . 
Ribes  rubrum  (cultivated)  — 
11              (fruit  ripe)  .... 
R.  nigrum  (cultivated)  

144 
146 
153 
138 

187 
141 
194 

147 

129 
187 

ill 

143 

1  1.', 

129 

141 

... 

.... 

!  I.'. 

136 

133 

.... 

139 

.... 

500 


PHENOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS    IN    NOVA    SCOTIA 


PHENOLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS,    CANADA,    1901. 


Number. 

YEAR,  1901. 

Day  of  the  year  corresponding 
to  the  last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan  31       July         212 

Average  dates  for  Nova 
Scotia. 

OBSERVATION  STATIONS. 

St.  Stephen, 
New  Brunswick. 

Chariot  tetown, 
P.  E.  I. 

(1)  Richmond, 
Quebec. 

(2)  Richmond, 
Quebec. 

Nicolet,  Quebec. 

(1)  Ottawa,  Ontario. 

(2)  Ottawa,  Ontario. 

1 

3 

s 
O 

03 
^ 
O 

p 

S 

Macgregor,  Manitoba. 

Pheasant.  Forks, 
Assiniboia. 

Willoughby. 
Saskatchewan. 

Waghorn,  Alberta. 

Vancouver. 

Hritinh  Columbia. 

Fob  59       Aug.       .243 
March  ..  90       Sept.     ..273 
April.  ...120       Oct  .     ..304 
May   ....151       Nov      .  334 
June  ....181       Dec.      ..365 

57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65a 
65b 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
73a 
73b 
7ia 
74b 
75a 
75b 
76a 
76b 
77a 
77b 
78 
78 

Syringa  vul.,  L.  (cultivated).. 
Solanum  tuberosam,  L  
Phleum  pratense,  L  

165 

183 

177 

153 

150 

ilii 
id 
]->•> 

133 

129 
133 

140 
193 
193 

12' 
Hi! 

1» 
14 

201 
205 
190 

Trif  olium  repens,  L  
T.  pratense,  L.  ...... 

155 

15? 

171 
178 

185 

Hit 
HI 

Triticum  vulgare    L 

193 

9fl9 

Avena  saliva,  L  

19"> 

?0fi 

Fagopyfum  esculentum,  L    . 

1<M 

Karl  irst  full  loafing  <>f  tree 

135 

129 

Latest  full  leafing  of  tree  

T»7 

Ploughing  (first  of  season)  
Sowing                   "                
Potato-planting    " 

108 
119 
118 

108 

130 

118 
123 
121 
121 

121 

ill 

99 

119 
133 
134 
153 
237 
245 
263 
10( 

115 
116 
137 
158 

205 

105 
102 
110 
147 
193 

191 
83 
1*0 

Sheep-shearing     »               
Hay  -cutting          " 
Grain-cutting        "                
Potato-digging     " 

122 
192 
239 
"fifi 

213 

181 

Opening  of  rivers"                
Opening  of  lakes  " 

81 

!M 

97 

127 

93 

<W 

Last  snow  to  whiten  ground  .  . 
Last  snow  to  fly  in  air  
Last  spring  frost  —  hard  

107 
116 

129 
153 
97 

217 
256 
28(3 
294 
306 

130 
145 

129 

159 
179 
191 

121 

121 

110 

110 

111 
111 

89 
117 

T>6 

166 
132 

155 
157 

252 

155 

156 
156 
156 
117 
330 
229 
307 
248 
248 

IS 

Water  in  streams—  high  
"           low  
First    autumn  frost—  hoar  .  . 
"             »               hard  .  .  . 
First  snow  to  fly  in  air  
First  snow  to  whiten  grounc 

270 

356 

311 

314 

314 

277 
280 
276 
27C 

94 

•••• 

111 

144 

AND    CANADA,     1901. — MACK  A  V. 


501 


PHENOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  CANADA.   1901. 


Xumber. 

YEAR,  1901. 

Day  of  the  year  corresponding 
to  the  last  day  of  each  month. 

Jan...     .  31       July        .212 
Feb.  ...  59       Aug.       .243 
March    .  90       Sept.       .273 
April..   .120       Oct..       .304 
May   ..  .151       Nov.        334 
June  ..   .181       Dec.         365 

CJ 

0 

b 

a> 

o 

"S 

-a 

8,3 

—  ^ 

-   O 

OBSERVATION  STATIONS. 

St.  Stephen, 
New  Brunswick. 

Charlottetown, 
P.  E.  I. 

(1)  Richmond, 
Quebec. 

(2)  Richmond. 
Quebec. 

Nicolet,  Quebec. 

(1)  Ottawa,  Ontario. 

(2)  Ottawa,  Ontario. 

Muskoka,  Ontario. 

Macgregor.;Manitoba 

Pheasant  Forks, 
Assi  niboia. 

Willoughby. 

.^.l-k.ll.  lir-u  .in. 

Waghorn.  Alberta. 

Vancouver, 
British  Columbia. 

79a 
79b 
81a 
81  b 
82a 
82b 
83 
84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 
91 
92 
93 
94 
95 
96 
97 
98 
99 
100 

Closing  of  lakes  

343 

Closing  of  rivers  

5 

Wild  ducks  migrating,  north.  . 

83 

SIS 

126 

103 

103 

96 

84 

.... 

Wild  geese  migrating,  north.. 
"                   »          south.. 
Melospzia  fasciata,    north  — 
Turdus  migratorius,       " 
Junco  hiemalis,                "    — 

83 
325 
92 
84 
81 
134 

77 
244 
104 
99 
105 

125 
108 

118 
100 

112 

82 
81 
87 

114 

85 

108 

.... 

83 
245 

86 
88 
92 

116 

99 

88 

.... 

117 

127 

95 

70S 

100 

g 

130 

134 

ISO 

D.  Bestiva,                         "    — 
Zonotrichia  alba,             "    .... 
Trochilus  colubris,         »    — 

136 
127 
146 
135 

126 

171 

124 
115 

181 

135 
94 

128 

129 
105 
141 
131 

138 

Dolychonyx  oryzivorus,  "    .... 
Spinis  t  rist  is,                    "    — 

126 
139 
no 

144 

161 

138 

127 

136 
116 
136 

118 

148 

48 

Chordeiles  Viginianus,  "    — 
First  piping  of  frogs  
First  appearance  of  snakes.  .  .  • 

133 

100 
109 

132 

152 
99 

141 

162 

118 
118 

Hi- 
lls 

135 

141 

100 
103 

162 
101 
103 

94 

96 

145 
112 
114 

Ill 

108 
121 

59 

502  EARLY   INTERVALE   FLORA 

EARLY    INTERVALE    FLORA  OF    EASTERN    NOVA  SCOTIA. — BY 
C.  B.  ROBINSON,  B.  A.,  Pictcu  Academy. 

[Report  on  Phonological  Schedules  of  Northern  Nova  Scotian  Public  Schools,  1901  ] 

Information  regarding  the  distribution  of  several  of  our  most 
interesting  specimens  of  flowering  plants  has  been  so  greatly 
extended  of  late,  especially  through  the  increased  attention 
given  to  this  subject  in  the  public  schools,  that  some  generaliza- 
tions are  becoming  possible,  and  it  will  be  the  aim  of  this  paper 
to  attempt  a  modest  beginning  along  these  lines  in  the  case  of 
one  society  of  plants,  that  composed  of  the  earlier  blooming 
species  of  the  intervale  flora  of  Eastern  Nova  Scotia. 

Even  in  Macoun's  Catalogue  only  two  references  each  for 
the  entire  Province,  are  given  to  Sanguinaria  Canadensis  L., 
Bicuculla  C  u,cu,llaria  (L.),  Millsp.,  and  Erythronium  Ameri- 
canum,  Ker.  Now,  all  three  of  these  species  grow  abundantly, 
either  upon  the  intervales  themselves  or  still  more  commonly  on 
shaded  banks  bordering  them,  in  the  case  of  each  of  the  three 
rivers  flowing  into  Pictou  harbor,  beginning  just  beyond  the 
farthest  point  reached  by  the  tide  and  continuing  towards  their 
head-waters  as  far  as  any  observations  have  been  made. 

Nor  are  these  exceptional  cases.  While  no  school  in  the 
Coast  belt  of  Cumberland  reported  in  1901  any  of  these  three, 
seven,  possibly  eight,  in  the  Lowland  belt  record  Erythronium, 
and  four  of  these  in  additional  observations  include  at  least  one 
of  the  others. 

Of  the  eleven  Cumberland  Highland  Stations  sending  in 
schedules  no  less  than  six  have  credible  dates  for  Erythronium, 
though  none  have  noted  either  of  the  others.  It  should  be 
stated  that  while  Erythronium  is  among  the  plants  listed  for 
observation,  the  others  are  not,  so  that,  in  view  of  the  facts 
elsewhere,  such  negative  evidence  is  of  little,  perhaps  of  no 
value. 

In  West  Colchester  four  out  of  six  Coast  and  threi  out  of 
seven  Highland  Stations  report  Erythronium.  In  Northern 
Colchester  (Stirling)  only  one  Coast  and  no  Lowland  Stations 


OF    EASTERN    NOVA     SCOTIA. — ROBINSON.  503 

assign  a  date  to  Erythronium,  though  one  of  the  latter  notes 
Bicuculla,  but  in  the  Highlands  this  is  changed,  as  four  out  of 
five  report  at  least  two  and  one  of  them  all  three  species. 

Only  one  Coast  Section  in  Pictou  County  records  any  of  these, 
but  it  has  two,  Erythronium  and  Sang uinaria.  An  interesting 
isolated  fact  may  be  related  here.  At  Brown's  Point,  on  the 
I.  C.  R.,  just  outside  Pictou,  Erythronium  grows  in  the  open, 
and  not  one  hundred  yards  from  salt  water.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  been  accidentally  introduced  by  students  bringing  speci- 
mens from  their  homes  on  East  or  West  River  for  class 
examination  at  the  Academy. 

Two  Pictou  Lowland  Stations  report  Sanguinaria,  one  the 
others  also  ;  but  nine  out  of  fifteen  Highland  Sections  have 
Erythronium,  and  six  of  these  at  least  one  of  the  others. 

East  of  Pictou  County  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  these 
species  are  any  longer  co-existent.  From  Antigonish  the  only 
reference  to  Erythronium  is  clearly  an  error  for  Clintoniat 
while  beyond  the  Strait  there  is  not  at  present  any  sufficient 
proof  of  its  occurrence. 

One  of  the  Highland  Districts  of  Antigonish  reports 
Sanguinaria  and  Bicuculla  Cucullaria,  another  Sanguinaria 
and  B.  Canadensis  (Goldie)  Millsp.  The  latter  is  very  likely  to 
have  been  the  more  common  species,  as  this  error  is  rather 
frequent.  But  from  Richmond  and  Cape  Breton  Counties  there 
is  no  mention  of  any  of  these,  though  four  out  of  the  five  Inver- 
ness stations  on  the  Bras  d'Or  Slope  report  Bicuculla  and  one  of 
these  Sanguinaria  as  well,  and  one  of  the  two  Victoria  schools 
to  send  in  a  schedule  assigns  a  date  to  B.  Canadensis. 

Finally  on  the  Gulf  Slope,  the  only  Lowland  and  one  of  the 
three  Coast  sections  report  Bicuculla,  the  former  Sanguinaria 
also. 

These  facts  seem  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that,  with  the 
exception  noted,  all  three  of  these  species  are  regularly  found 
upon  most  of  the  river  intervales  in  this  district,  beyond  the 
reach  of  salt  water.  In  most  of  the  Coast  and  many  of  the  Low- 
land districts  cultivation  has  so  far  proceeded  that  they  must 


504  EARLY     INTERVALE     FLORA 

often  have  been  exterminated ;  but,  in  addition  to  this,  the  con- 
ditions prevailing  in  the  more  hilly  districts  seem  to  favor  their 
growth.  Indeed,  the  more  probable  presence  of  a  shaded  hillside 
beside  the  stream  would  go  far  in  itself  to  explain  this. 

These  species  have  been  chosen  as  both  eminent!}'-  typical 
and  likely  to  have  been  noticed.  With  them  would  almost 
everywhere  be  found  the  Spring  Beauty  (Claytonia  Caroliniana, 
Michx.),  but  its  distribution  is  very  much-  wider,  as  it  is  found 
in  rich  woods  even  on  the  summits  of  some  of  our  highest  hills. 

Just  outside  the  limits  of  shade  will  nearly  always  be  found 
the  Downy  Yellow  Violet,  Viola  scabriuscula  (T.  &  G.),  ISchwein, 
which  is  widely  reported  throughout  the  district  from  Cumber- 
land to  Cape  Breton.  V.  rotundifolia,  Michx.,  is  said  to  occur 
in  several  localities,  all  such,  however,  that  the  preceding  species 
would  be  expected,  and  to  it  these  references  probably  belong. 
V.  Labradorica,  Schrank,  and  V.  arenaria,  D.  C.,  are  likely 
found  throughout  the  district,  the  latter  on  drier  sandy  soil,  and 
apparently  the  commoner  in  Pictou  Co. 

Uvularia  sessilifolia,  L.  has  been  noticed  by  a  much  smaller 
number  of  observers,  but  it  is  widely  distributed,  and  probably 
on  the  whole  nearly  as  common  as  the  others. 

To  complete  this  list,  so  far  as  the  common  earlier  flowers 
are  concerned,  there  should  be  added  Ranunculus  abortivus,  L., 
Actaea  rabra  (Ait.)  Willd,  and  Dentaria  diphylla,  Michx.,  though 
none  of  these  is  strictly  restricted  to  such  localities.  Prof. 
Macoun,  (Catalogue,  Part  III.,  p.  480),  states  that  his  N.  S.  speci- 
mens of  R.  abortivus  belong  to  Var.  Micranthus,  as  then 
understood.  Careful  study  of  plants  gathered  at  various  points 
along  West  River,  Pictou,  where  they  are  abundant,  leaves  no 
doubt  that  they  at  least  should  be  referred  to  R.  abortivus. 

Panax  tri/olium,  L  is  less  often  reported,  and  is  certainly 
not  found  in  some  localities  where  all  of  the  preceding  are  com- 
mon, but  its  distribution  is  probably  pretty  general. 

Interesting  and  beautiful,  but  rare,  is  Hepatica  Hepatica 
(L.),  Karst,  not  certainly  known  except  from  the  East  River  of 


OF    EASffifcN    NOVA  SCOTIA.— -fcOfitNSOtf.  505 

Pictou  and  Antigonish.     Equally  so  is  Primula  Mistansinica, 
Michx.,  found  in  only  two  places. 

The  Northern  Inverness  stations  are  responsible  for  the 
addition  of  Caltha  palustris,  L.  Anemone  Americana,  L.  is 
another  contribution  from  this  district,  but  blooms  later. 

Much  more  common  is  Trillium  cernuum,  L.,  but  it  grows 
also  in  other  situations.  Moreover,  on  the  West  River  of 
Pictou  there  occur  some  unusual  forms,  which  seem  intermediate 
between  this  species  and  T.  erectum.  Some  Antigonish 
references  to  T.  grandiflorum  may  indicate  a  similar  fact. 

The  trees  and  shrubs  first  to  bloom  in  such  localities  are  the 
Elm  (Ulmus  Americana},  which  has  everywhere  been  left  on 
account  of  its  striking  beauty,  and  the  Beaked  Hazel  (Corylus 
rostrata.)  But  still  more  typical,  though  later  blooming,  are 
the  species  of  Cratoegus,  which  so  often  occur  along  the  banks, 
forming  in  many  cases  almost  impenetrable  thickets.  Until 
recently  these  have  all  been  referred  to  C.  coccinea,  L.,  but  it  is 
now  known  that  there  are  several  species,  at  least  five  and 
probably  six,  including  some  new  to  science,  C.  coccinea  being, 
however,  the  commonest  and  in  the  greatest  numbers  where 
found,  C.  acutiloba,  the  next  in  order  of  frequency,  being  hardly 
an  intervale  plant. 

During  June  the  intervales  become  covered  with  verdure, 
including  most  of  the  plants  of  field  and  roadside,  whether 
native  or  introduced.  But  there  are  again  some  rather  typical 
forms.  'Among  them  should  first  be  noted  tianicula  Marilan- 
dica,  L. ;  Washingtonia  Claytoni  (Michx.),  Britton  ;  W.  longisty- 
lis  (Torr),  Britton,  (which  is  much  commoner  than  usually 
supposed) ;  Geum  Virginianum,  L. ;  G.  Canadense,  Jacq. ; 
Heraclcum  lanatum,  Michx.,  which  seem  to  be  found  nearly 
everywhere.  Some  others  call  for  more  particular  attention. 
Ranunculus  recurvatus,  Poir,  is  known  from  two  localities  on 
West  and  one  on  East  River,  Pictou  County.  Thalesia  uniflora 
(L.),  Britton,  is  found  at  nearly  the  same  places.  The  former 
has  recently  been  reported  from  Inverness. 

PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  TKANS.-!!. 


506      EARLY  INTERVALE  FLORA  Of  fiASfERtf  tf.  S.— ROBINSOtf. 

Triosteum  perfoliatum,  L.,  occurs  at  Riverton,  and  near 
it  is  Anemone  Virginiana,  L.  Polygonatum  biflorum  (Walt.), 
Ell.,  which  is  widely  though  sparingly  reported,  prefers 
the  shade,  as  does  Juncoides  pilosum  (L),  Kuntze,  while 
on  steep,  stony  banks  Rhus  radicans  is  frequent.  Rough 
places  beside  the  stream  are  almost  sure  to  contain  Senecio 
obovatus,  Muhl.,  S.  Balsamitae,  L.,  and  Apocynum  canna- 
binum,  L. ;  A.  androsaemifolium,  L.,  being  even  commoner, 
but  in  richer  soil.  With  them  on  each  of  the  three  Pictou 
rivers  will  be  seen  the  leaves  of  Meibomia  Canadensis  (L.), 
Kuntze,  the  flowers  not  appearing  before  the  middle  of  July.  It 
is,  however,  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  distribution  of 
almost  all  of  these  species  is  as  yet  insufficiently  known. 

Many  plants  found  in  other  locations  are  also  frequent  here. 
Such  are  B dbtnaria  dilatata  (Pursh),  Hook,  Vagnera  racemosa, 
L.,  Myrica  Gale,  L.,  and  Ranunculus  reptans,  L.,  but  it  has  not 
been  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  enumerate  them. 

Why  this,  the  richest  and  most  interesting  division  of  our 
flora,  should  have  received  such  scanty  attention  is,  perhaps,  a 
rjuzzle,  and  even  yet  not  enough  is  known  of  the  later  species  to 
make  many  general  statements.  It  is,  of  course,  a  matter  of 
common  knowledge  that  the  most  characteristic  plant  during 
the  middle  of  July  is  Lilium  Canademe,  L.,  which  later  gives 
way  to  Clematis  Virginiana,  L.,  and  this  in  its  turn  to  the 
Asters,  but  much  more  work  must  be  done  before  the  subject 
can  be  accurately  treated. 


IX.  —  LABRADOR  PLANTS  [COLLECTED  BY  W.  H.  PREST  ON  THE 
LABRADOR  COAST  NORTH  OF  HAMILTON  INLET,  FROM 
THE  25TH  OF  JUNE  TO  THE  12TH  OF  AUGUST,  1901.] 
-BY  A.  H.  MACKAY,  LL.  D. 

(Communicated  lltth  January,  190S.J 

The  plants  which  I  present  herewith,  mounted,  were  col- 
lected by  Mr.  Walter  H.  Prest,  of  Halifax,  when  exploring  the 
Labrador  coast  north  of  Hamilton  Inlet  last  summer  (1901), 
between  the  25th  of  June  and  the  12th  of  August.  The  speci- 
mens were  collected  merely  as  flowers  to  be  taken  back  as 
mementos  of  a  visit  to  this  far-off  region,  so  that  only  the  more 
striking  portions  of  the  plants,  such  as  could  be  easily  accom- 
modated between  the  pages  of  a  magazine,  were  taken.  These 
portions  were  characteristic  enough,  however,  to  enable  the 
species  in  nearty  every  case  to  be  determined.  They  have  also 
been  referred  to  Professor  John  Macoun,  Dominion  Botanist. 
In  the  list  following  I  observe  the  order  of  the  "  List  of  Plants 
known  to  occur  on  the  Coast  and  in  the  Interior  of  the  Labra- 
dor Peninsula,"  compiled  by  James  M.  Macoun,  and  published 
in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  vol. 
viii.,  part  L.,  Appendix  vi.  Nearly  all  the  plants  of  our  list  are 
also  on  Macoun's  list,  which  is  compiled  from  at  least  four  other 
lists  —  all  except  possibly  four  or  five  species  and  varieties.  The 
list  is  as  follows  : 

RANCNCULACE^E.  Arenaria  Groenlandica,  Spreng. 

Linn"  var'  tri' 


„  Stellaria  humifusa,  Rottb. 

Coptis  trifoha,  Sahsb.  Cerastium  alpinum,  Linn. 

CRUCIFER"*:.  LEGCMINOS.K. 

,  Linn.,  var.  Groen-  ^^^^^ 

VIOLACE*,  Lathyrusmaritimus.Bigel. 

Viola    canina,    Linn.,    var.  sylvestris, 

Regel.  Rubus  Chamaemorus,  Linn. 

CABYOPHYLLACE^E.  Rubus  articus,  Linn. 

Silene  acaulis,  Linn.  Rubus  strigosus,  Michx. 

Lychnis  alpina,  Linn.  Sibbaldia  procumbens,  Linn. 

(507) 


508 


LABRADOR    PLANTS. — MACKAY. 


Potentilla  Norvegica,  Linn. 
Potentilla  maculata,  Poir. 
Potentilla  palustris,  Scop. 
Potentilla  tridentata,  Sol. 
Potentilla  anserina,  Linn. 
Pyrus  Americana,  D.  C. 
Amelanchier  Canadensis,   T.    and    G., 
var.  oligocarpa,  T.  and  G. 

SAXIFRAGACE.E. 

Saxifraga  rivularis,  Linn. 
Parnassia  palustris.  Linn. 
Ribe?  prostratum.  L'Her. 

CRASSULACE.1E. 

Sedum  Rhodiola,  D.  C. 


Hippuris  vulgaris,  Linn. 

ONAGRACE.*. 

Epilobium  latifolium,  Linn. 
Epilobium  palustre,  Linn. 

UMBELLIFERA:. 
Archangelica  Gmelini,  D.  C. 

CORNACEA;. 

Cornus  Canadensis,  Linn. 
Cornus  Suecica,  Linn. 

CAPRIFOLIACE^I 

Viburmim  pauciflorum,  Pylaie. 
Linnaea  borealis,  Gronov. 
Lonicera  caerulea,  Linn. 

COMPOSITE. 

Solidago  multiradiata,  Ait. 

Solidago. 

Aster  Novi  Belgii,  Linn. 

Achillea      Millefolium,      Linn., 

nigresoens,  E.  Meyer. 
Senecio  Pseudo-Arnica,  Less. 
Taraxacum     officinale,     Weber, 

alpinum,  Koch. 

VACCINIACE.«. 

Vaccinium  nliginosum,  Linn. 
Vaccinium  Vitis-Idaea,  Linn. 
Vaccinium  Oxycoccus,  Linn. 

ERICACEAE. 

Cassiope  hypnoides,  Don. 
Andromeda  polifolia,  Linn. 
Loiseleuria  procumbens,  Desv. 
Bryanthus  taxifolius,  Gray. 


Kalmia  glauca,  Ait. 
Ledum  palustre,  Linn. 
Ledum  latifolium,  Ait. 

PRIMULACE^E. 

Primula  farinosa,  Linn. 
Primula  Mistassinica,  Michaux. 
Primula  Egaliksensis,  Hornem. 
Trientalis  Americana,  Pursh. 

GENTIANACE^;. 

Gentiana  Amarella,  Linn.,  var.  acuta, 

Hook. 

Pleurogyne  rotata,  Griesbach. 
Menyanthes  trifoliata,  Linn. 

BORRAGINACE^E. 

Mertensia  maritima,  Don. 

SCROPHULARIACKA;. 
Veronica  alpina,  Linn. 
Castilleia  pallida,  Kunth. 
Euphrasia  officinalis,  Linn.,  var.   Tar 

tarica,  Benth. 

Pedicularis  Croenlandica,  Retz. 
Pedicularis  Lapponica,  Linn. 
RhinanthusCrista-galli,  Linn. 

LENTIBULARIACE.E. 

Pinguicula  vulgaris,  Linn. 
Pinguicula  villosa,  Linn. 

PLANTAGINACE^. 

Plantago  maritima,  Linn. 

POLYGONIACEjE. 

Polygonum  viviparum,  Linn. 

SANTALACE^E. 

Comandra  livida,  Rich. 

ORCHIDACE^E. 

Habenaria  hyberborea,  R.  Br. 
Habenaria  obtusata,  Rich. 
Habenaria  dilatata,  Gray. 

IRIDACE.*;. 
Iris  Hookeri,  Penny. 

LILLIACE^E. 

Streptopus  amplexifolius,  D.  C. 
Tofieldia  borealis,  Wahl. 

GRAMINEA;. 
Elymus  mollis,  Trin. 


APPENDIX.— I. 


LIST   OF    MEMBERS,   1898~99. 


ORDINARY    MEMBERS. 

Date  of  Admission. 

Allison,  Augustus,  Halifax    Feb.     15.  1869 

Anderson,  James  F.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S Jan.       2,  1894 

Austen,  James  H.,  Crown  Lands  Department,  Halifax Jan.       2,  1894 

Bayer,  Ruf us,  Halifax March   4,  1890 

Bennett,  Joseph Nov.       3,  1886 

Bishop,  \\  atson  L.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S  Jan.       6,  1890 

Bliss,  Donald  M.,  Boston,  U.  S.  A Jan.      31,  1890 

Bowman,  Maynard,  Public  Analyst,  Halifax March  13,  1884 

Brown,  R.  B.,  Yarmouth,  N.  S Jan.      10,  1891 

Butler,  Professor  W.  R.,  c.  E.,  Royal  Military  College,  Kingston,  Ont. . .  .Nov.    27,   1889 

Campbell,  Donald  A.,  M.  D.,  Halifax Jan.      31.  1890 

Campbell,  George  Murray,  M.  D.,  Halifax Nov.     10,  1884 

Clements,  E.  F.,  Yarmouth,  N.  S Jan.      10,  1891 

Cowie,  A.  J.,  M.  D.,  L.  R   c.  P.  E.,  Halifax   Jan.      27,  1893 

DesBrisay,  A.  E.,  Halifax  Jan.       4.   1891 

DeWolfe,  James  R.,  M.  D.,  L.R.C.S.E.,  Halifax Oct.      26,  1865 

Dick,  Alexander,  M.  E.,  Halifax Nov.     29.  1894 

Doane,  F.  W.  W.,  City  Engineer,  Halifax Nov.       3.  1886 

Donkin,  Hiram,  c.  E..  Point  Tupper,  Cape  Breton Nov.     30.   1892 

Egan,  Thomas  J.,  Halifax Jan.        6,   1890 

Elliott,  Miss  Bertha March    4.  1895 

Fearon,  James,  Principal,  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institution,  Halifax May       8.  1894 

Finn,  Wm.  D.,  M.  D.,  Halifax Oct.      29.   1S94 

Faville,  E.  E Nov.     29,   1894 

Forbes,  John,  Halifax  March  14.  1883 

Foster,  James  G.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S March  14,  1883 

Fraser.  C.  F.,  Principal,  School  for  the  Blind,  Halifax March  31,  1890 

Fraser,  Rev.  W.  M.,  B.  A.,  B.  sc.,  Halifax    Nov.    29,  1894 

Fyshe,  Thomas,  Montreal    Jan.        9,  1888 

Gates,  Herbert  E.,  Architect,  Dartmouth,  N.  S April    17,  1899 

Gilpin.  Edwin.  M.A.,  LL.  D..  F.B.  B.C.,  Inspector  of  Mines,  Halifax April    11,  1873 

Greer,  T.  A.,  M.  D.,  Colborne,  Ontario April     7,  1893 

Hall,  Charles  Frederick,  Halifax    Dec.     31,  1894 

Hare,  Alfred  A Dec.     12,  1881 

Harris  Herbert,  Vancouver,  British  Columbia Jan.      31,  1880 

Hattie,  William  Harrop,  M.D., Halifax Nov.     12.  1892 

Hendry,  William  A.,  Jr.,  c.  E.,  Halifax Jan.        1.  1892 

Irving,  G.  W.  T.,  Halifax Jan.       4,  1892 

Jacques,  Hartley  S.,  M.  D.,  Halifax    May       8,  1894 

Johnston.  H.  W.,  c.  E.,  Halifax Dec.      31,  1894 

Keating,  E.  H.,  c.  !•:.,  ( 'ity  Engineer,  Toronto,  Ontario April    12.  1882 

Kennedy,  \V.  T.,  Principal,  County  Academy.  Halifax Nov.     27,  1889 

PROC.  &  TRAXS.  X.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  APP.—  A 


II  LIST    OF    MEMBERS. 

Date,  of  Admission. 

Laing.  Rev,  Robert,  Halifax Jan.  11,  1885 

Locke,  Thomas  J Jan.  4,  1892 

McColl,  Roderick,  c.  E.,  Halifax Jan.  4,  1892 

Macdonald,  Simon  D.,  F.  o.  s..  Halifax March  14,  1881 

Macdonald,  W.  A.,  c.  E.,  Halifax April  17,  1899 

MacGregor,  Prof.  J.  G.,  M.  A.,  D.  sc. ,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax Jan.  11,  1877 

Mclnnes,  Hector,  LL.  B. ,  Halifax  Nov.  27,  1889 

Macintosh,  Kenneth,  Mabou,  Cape  Breton Jan.  4,  1892 

*McKay,  Alexander,  Supervisor  of  Schools,  Halifax Feb.  5.  1872 

MacKay,  A.  H.,  B.A.,  B.SC..LL.D.,  K.R.S.C.,  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion, Halifax  Oct.  11,  1885 

MacKay.  Prof.  Ebenezer,  PH.  D. ,  Dalhousie  College.  Halifax Nov.  27,  1889 

McKerron,  William,  Halifax    Nov.  30,  1891 

MacNab,  William;  Halifax Jan  31,  1890 

Mai-shall,  G.  R. .  Principal,  Richmond  School,  Halifax    April  4,  1894 

Ma'son,  F.  H.,  F.  c.  s..  Halifax     Dec.  31,1894 

Morrow,  Arthur,  M  .  D.  ,  Sand  Coulee,  Montana,  U.  S.  A Nov.  27,  1889 

Morton,  S.  A.,  M.  A.,  County  Academy,  Halifax Jan.  27,  1893 

Murphy,  Martin,  c.  E.,  D.  sc.,  Provincial  Engineer,  Halifax  Jan.  15,  1870 

Newman,  C.  L.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S Jan.  27,  1893 

O'Hearn,  P. .  Principal,  St.  Patrick's  Boys'  School,  Halifax   Jan.  16,  1890 

'Parker,  Hon.  Daniel  McN..  M.  D.,  M.  L.  c.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S  1871 

Pearson,  B    F.,  Barrister,  Halifax March  31,  1890 

Piers.  Harry,  Halifax     Nov.  2,  1888 

Poole,  Henry  S.,  F.  G.  s.,  Stellarton,  N.  S Nov.  11,  1879 

Read,  Herbert  H.,  M.  D.,  i.    R.  c.  s.,  Halifax Nov.  27,  1889 

Ritchie.  Thornas,  c.  E Jan.  2,  1894 

Robb,  D.  W..  M.  E.,  Amherst,  N.  S March  4,'  1890 

Rutherford.  John,  M.  E..  Stellarton,  N.  S r Jan.  8,  1865 

Shine,  Michael.  Halifax Dec.  3,  1891 

Silver  Arthur  P.,  Halifax  Dec.  12,  1887 

Silver,  William  C..  Halifax  May  7,  1864 

Smith,  Capt.  W.  H.,  R.  N.  R.,  F.  R.  G.  s.,  Halifax Nov.  27,  1889 

Spike,  C.  J.,  Halifax May  8,  1894 

Stewart,  John,  M.  B.  C.  M..  Halifax Jan.  12,  1885 

Tremaine,  Harris  S. ,  Halifax   Jan.  2,  1894 

Twining,  Charles,  Bank  of  B.  N.  A. ,  Halifax  Dec.  3,  1896 

Uniacke,  Robert  F.,  c.  E., March   9,  1885 

Weatherbe,  Hon.  Mr,  Justice,  Halifax March  28,  1895 

Whcaton,  L.  H.,  Chief  Engineer,  Coast  Railway  Co.,  Yarmouth,  N.  S..Nov.  29,  1894 

Willis,  C.  E.,  M.  E..  Halifax    Nov.  29,  1894 

Wilson,  Robert  J . ,  Secretary,  School  Board,  Halifax May  3,  1889 

Yorston,  W.  G..C.  E.,  Truro,  N.  S Nov.  12,  1892 

ASSOCIATE    MEMBERS. 

Caie,  Robert,  Yarmouth,  N.  S Jan.  31.  1890 

*Cameron,  A.,  Principal  of  Academy,  Yarmouth,  N.  S Nov.  27,  1889 

Coldwell,  Professor  A.  E.,  M.  A.,  Acadia  College,  Wolf ville,  N.  S Nov.  27,  1889 

DeWolfe,  MelvilleG.,  Kentville,  N.  S May  2,  1895 

Dickenson,    S.    S.,  Superintendent,  Commercial  Cable  Co.,  Hazelhill, 

Guysborough  Co.,   N.  S _, March    4,  1895 

Eaton,  F.  H.,  M.  A Jan.  (i,  1890 

Edwards.  Arthur  M..  M.  D.,  F.  L.  s.,  Newark,  N.  J Dec.  12,  1898 

*  Life  Member. 


LIST    OF    MEMBERS.  HI 

Date  of  Admission, 
F;iribnuli.  K.  R.,  C.  E.,  Ottawa,  Ontario .  ...March   6.  1888 

Fox.  John  J.,  Montreal jjay  8,1882 

Halliday,  And.,  M.  D.,  Shubcnacadie,  X.  S ' Dec.  12.  1898 

Hardiiian.  John  E.,  M.  E.,  Montreal March    4.  1890 

Harris.  Prof.  ('.,  Hoyal  Military  College,  Kingston,  Ontario  Nov.  13;  1881 

Hnnton.  Prof.  S.  W..  M  .  A..  Mount  Allison  College,  Sackville,  X.  B Jan.  6.  1890 

.Tunies.  ( '.('..  M.  A.,  Dcp.  Min.  of  Agriculture,  Toronto,  Ontario Dec.  3.  1898 

"Johns.  Thomas  \V..  Yarmouth,  X.  S  Nov.  27,  1889 

Kennedy.  Prof.  Geo.T.,  M.  A..  D.8C..K.O.S.,  King's  College.  Windsor,  N.S.Xov.  !).  1882 

McKenzie,  W.  B.,  C.E..  Moncton,  N.  B March.ll.  1882 

McLeod.  R.  R.,  Brookficld.  X.  S Dec.  3,  1897 

Magee,  W.  H.,  PH.D.,  High  School,  Pnrrsboro',  X.  S Nov.  29.  1894 

Mathcson,  W.  G.,  M.  K..  New  Glasgow,  X.  S Jan.  31.   1890 

Prest,  W.  H. ,  Chester  Basin.  X.  S Nov.  29.  1894 

*Reid,  A.  P.,  M-D.,  L.R.C.S..  Supt.  Victoria  Gen.  Hospital.  Halifax Jan.  31.  589(1 

Rosborough,  Rev.  James,  Musquo'oboit  Harbor,  X.  S Nov.  29.  1894 

Russell,  Lee,  B.  S. ,  Normal  School,  Truro.  X .  S Dec.  3.   1896 

Smith,  Prof.  H.  W.,  B.SC.,  Prov.  Agricultural  School.  Truro.  X.  S.  ...Jan.  6,  1890 

Wilson.  B.  C  .  Waverley,  X.  S March   4.  1890 

CORRESPONDING    MEMBERS. 

Ami,  Henry  M.,  D.SC.,  F.O. 8  ,  Ottawa,  Ontario   Jan.  2,  1892 

Bailey,  Prof.  L.  W.,  PH.D.,  LL.D.,  K.  R.  s.c..  University  of  Xew  Bruns- 
wick, Fredericton,  N.  B Jan.  6,  1890 

Ball,  Rev.  E.  H.,  Tangier.   X.  S Nov.  29,  1871 

Bethune,  Rev.  C.  J.  S.,  Port  Hope,  Ontario Dec.  29,  1868 

Davidson,  Prof.  J.,  PHIL.  D.,  Fredericton.  N.  B Dec.  12.  1898 

Da wson.  Sir  J.  W.,  c.  M.  G-,  LL.D-.  F.  R.  s.,  Montreal  Jan.  31,  1890 

Dobie,  W.  Henry,  M.  D.,  Chester,  England  — Dec.  3,  1897 

Duns,  Prof-  John,  New  College.  Edinburgh.  Scotland  Dec-  30,  1887 

Ells,  R.  W.,  LL.D.,  K.G.S.A.,K.R.S.C.,  Geological  Survey,  Ottawa,  Ont..Jan.  2,  1894 
Fletcher,  Jas.,  LL.D.,  K.  L.  s.,  v.  R.  s.  c..  Entomologist  and  Botanist, 

Central  Exp.  Farm,  Ottawa,  Ont March   2.  1897 

Fletcher,  Hugh,  B.  A.,  Geological  Survey,  Ottawa,  Ontario March   3,  1891 

Ganong,  Prof.  W.  F.,  B.A.,  PH.D.,  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass  , 

U.  S.  A Jan.  6,  1890 

Harrington,  W.  Hague,  F.R.S.C.,  Post  Office  Department,  Ottawa  May  5,  1886 

Harvey,  Rev.  Moses,  LLD.,  K   R.  s.  c..  St.  John's,  Newfoundland Jan.  31,  1890 

King,  Major,  R.  A Nov.  19.  1877 

Litton,  Robert  T.,  K.  G.  s..  Melbourne,  Australia   May  5,  1892 

McClintock,  Vice- Admiral  Sir  Leopold,  Kt..  F.  R.  8 June  10,  1880 

Matthew,  G.  F,  M.  A.,  D.sc..  K.  R.s.  c.,  St.  John,  X.  B Jan.  6.  1890 

Maury.  Rev.  M..D.D.,  Ithaca.  X.  Y..  U.  S.  A Nov.  30,  1891 

Peter,  Rev.  Brother  J. ,  St.  Joseph's  Coll.  lust.  Buffalo,  X.  Y Dec.  12,  1898 

Prince.  Prof.  E.  E.,  Commissioner  and  General  Inspector  of  Fisheries. 

Ottawa,  Ontario  Jan-  5-  1897 

Smith,  Hon.  Everett.  Portland,  Maine,  U.  S.  A...  March  31,  1890 

Spencer,  Prof.  J.  W.,  PH.  D.,  F.  G.  s.,  Washington,  D.  C..  U.  S.  A Jan.  31.  1890 

Trott,  Capt.,  S.  S.  "  Minia,"  Anglo- American  Telegraph  Co Jan.  31,  1890 

Waghorne,  Rev.  Arthur  C,  St.  John's,  Newfoundland   ..                       ...May  5.1892 

Wt-ston.  Thomas  ( '..  K . <;.s .  A . ,  Ottawa,  Ontario May  12,  1877 


Life  Member. 


APPENDIX.-II. 


LIST  OF  MEMBERS,  1899-1900. 


ORDINARY  MEMBERS. 

Date  Of  Ail  mission. 

Alli&on,  Augustus,  Halifax Feb.     15,  1860 

Austen,  James  H.,  Crown  Lands  Department,  Halifax Jan.      2,  1894 

Bayer,  Rufus,  Halifax March  4,  1890 

Bishop,  Watson  L.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S Jan.       6.  1890 

Bliss,  Donald  M.,  Boston,  U.  S.  A Jan.     31,  1890 

Bowman,  Maynard,  B.  A.,  Public  Analyst,  Halifax  March  13,  1884 

Brown,  R.  Balfour,  Yarmouth.  N.  S       Jan.     10,  1891 

Butler,  Professor  Wm.  R  ,  c.  E.,  Royal  Military  College,  Kingston,  Ont.Nov.    27,  1889 

Campbell,  Donald  A.,  M.  D.,  Halifax Jan.     31,  1890 

Campbell,  George  Murray,  M.  D.,  Halifax Nov.    10,  1884 

Clements,  E.  F.,  Yarmouth,  N.  S Jan.     10,  1891 

Cowie.  Andrew  J.,  M.  D.,  L.  R.  C.  p.  E  ,  Halifax Jan.     27,  1893 

De Wolfe.  James  R..  M.  D..  L.  R  c.  8.  E.,  Halifax.  . Oct.     26,  1865 

Dick,  Alexander,  M.  E.,  Halifax Nov.    29,  1894 

Doane,  F.  W  \V.,  City  Engineer,  Halifax Nov.      3,  1886 

Donkin,  Hiram,  c.  E.,  Point  Tupper,  Cape  Breton Nov.    30,  1892 

Egan,  Thomas  J,.  Halifax Jan.       6,  1890 

Elliott,  Miss  Bertha,  Dartmouth.  N.  S March  4,  1895 

Fearon,  James,  Principal  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institution,  Halifax May      8,  1894 

Finn.  Wm.  D.,  M.  D.,  Halifax Oct.     29,  1894 

Faville,  E.  E.,  President,  National  Farm  School,  Doyleatown,  Pa Nov.    29,  1894 

Forbes,  John,  Halifax MarchH,  1883 

Foster,  James  G.,  Judge  of  Probate.  Dartmouth,  N.  S MarchH.  1883 

Fraser,  C.  F.,  Principal,  School  for  the  Blind,  Halifax March  31.  1890 

Fraser,  Rev.  W,  M.,  B.  A.,  B.  sc..  Halifax •  •  Nov     29,  1894 

Gates,  Herbert  E.,  Architect,  Dartmouth,  N.  S April    5.  1899 

Gilpin,  Fdwin,  M.  A.,  I-L.  D.,  F.  R.  8.  c..  Inspector  of  Mines,  Halifax April  11.  1873 

Greer,  T.  A.,  M.  D.,  Colborne,  Ontario April     7.  1893 

Hall,  Charles  Frederick 1)ec-    31,  1894 

Hare.AlfredA Dec.     12.  1881 

Harris.  Herbert,  Vancouver,  British  Columbia Jan.     31,  1 

Hattie.  William  Harrop,  M.  D.Halifax Nov.    12,  1 

Hendry.  William  A.,  Jr.,  c.  E.,  Windsor,  N.  S Jan.       *.  1 

Irving,  G.  W.  T.,  Halifax  Jan-       4«  l 

Jacques,  Hartley  S.,  M.  D,  Halifax Mfty      8-  l 

Johnston,  Henry  W  ,  c  E.,  Halifax Dec-     31.  1 

'Keating,  E.  H.,  c.  E.,  City  Engineer,  Toronto,  Ontario April  12,  1 

Kennedy,  W.  T.,  Principal,  County  Academy,  Halifax Nov.    27.  1889 

*  Life  Member. 
PROC.  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,  VOL.  X.  App.-ll. 


VI  LIST    OF    MEMBERS. 

Date  of  Admission. 

Laing,  Rev.  Robert*  Halifax Jan.  11,  1885 

Locke,  Thomas  J.,  Halifax Jan.  4,  1892 

McColl,  Roderick,  c.  E.,  Halifax  Jan.  4.  1892 

Macdonald,  Simon  D.,  v.  o.  8.,  Halifax  March  14,  1881 

Macdonald,  W.  A.,  c.  E.,  Sydney,  C.  B April  5,  1899 

MacGregor,  Prof.  James  Gordon,  M.  A.  D.  sc.,  F.  K.  s.,  Dalhousie  College, 

Halifax Jan.  11,  18T7 

Mclnnes,  Hector,  LL.  B.,  Halifax Nov.  27,  1889 

'McKay,  Alexander,  Supervisor  of  Schools,  Halifax Feb.  5,  1872 

*MacKay.  Alex.  Howard,  B.  A.,  B.  sc  ,  LL.  D  ,  F.  K.  8.  C.,  Superintendent 

of  F.ducation,  Halifax Oct.  11,  1885 

MacKay,  Prof.  Ebenezer,  ph.  D.,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax Nov.  27.  1889 

McKerron,  William,  Halifax Nov.  30,  1891 

MacNab,  William,  Halifax Jan.  31,  1890 

Marshall,  G.  R.,  Principal,  Richmond  School,  Halifax April  4,  1894 

Mason,  F.  H.,  F.  c.  s.,  Halifax Dec.  31,  1891 

Morrow,  Arthur,  M.  D.,  Sand  Coul6e,  Montana,  U  S.  A Nov.  27,  1889 

Morton.  S.  A.,  M.  A.,  County  Academy,  Halifax Jan.  27,  1893 

Murphy,  Martin,  c.  E.,  D.  sc.,  Provincial  Engineer,  Halifax Jan.  15,  1870 

Newman,  C.  L.,  Dartmouth.  N.  S Jan.  27,  1893 

O'Hearn,  Peter,  Principal,  St.  Patrick's  Boys' School,  Halifax Jan.  16,  1890 

*Parker,  Hon.  Daniel  McN..  M.  D.,  M.  L.  c.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S 1871 

Pearson,  B.  F.,  Barrister,  Halifax  March 31,  1890 

Piers,  Harry,  Halifax Nov.  2,  1888 

•Poole,  Henry  S.,  F.  G.  8  ,  F.  R.  s.  C  ,  Stellarton,  N.  S  Nov.  11,  1872 

Read.  Herbert  H.,  M.  D..  L  R.  c.  s..  Halifax Nov.  27,  1889 

•Robb,  D.  W..  M.  E.,  Amherst.  N.  S March  4,  1890 

Rutherford,  John,  M.  E.,  Stellarton,  N.  S Jan,  8,  1865 

Shine,  Michael,  Halifax Dec.  3,  1891 

Silver,  Arthur  P.,  Halifax Dec.  12,  1887 

Silver,  William  C.,  Halifax May  7,  1864 

Smith,  Capt.  Wm  Henry,  R.  N.  R  .  F.  R  G.  a.,  Halifax Nov.  27,  1889 

Stewart,  John,  M.  B.,  c.  M.,  Halifax Jan.  12,  1885 

Tremaine  Harris  S.,  Halifax Jan.  2.  1894 

Weatherbe,  Hon.  Mr.  Justice,  Halifax March  28,  1895 

Wheaton,  L  H.,  Chief  Engineer,  Coast  Railway  Co  ,  Yarmouth,  N.  S..  .Nov.  29.  1894 

Willis,  C.  E.,  M.  E.,  Halifax Nov.  29,  1894 

Wilson,  Robert  J.,  Secretary,  School  Board,  Halifax  May  3,  1889 

"Yorston,  W.  G..  c.  E.,  Truro,  N.  S Nov.  12,  1892 

ASSOCIATE    MEMBERS. 

*Caie,  Robert,  Yarmouth,  N.  S Jan.  31,  1890 

*Cameron.  A.,  Principal  of  Academy,  Yarmouth,  N.  S ..Nov.  27,  1889 

Cold  well,  Professor  A.  E.,  M.  A  ,  Wolf  ville,  N.  S Nov.  27,  1889 

DC  Wolfe,  Melville  G..  Kentville.  N.  S May  2,  1895 

*Dickenson,  S.  S.,  Superintendent,   Commercial   Cable  Co.,  Hazelhill, 

Gujsborough  Co.,  N.  S March  4,  1895 

Eaton,  F.  H..  M  A..  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Victoria,  B.  C  ...Jan.  6,  1890 

Edwards.  Arthur  M.,  M.  D.,  F.  L.  s  ,  Newark,  N.  J  — Dec  6,  1898 

Faribault,  E.  R.,  C.E.,  Ottawa,  Ontario March  6.  1888 

Halliday,  And  ,  M.  D.,  Shubenacadie,  N.  S Dec.  6,  1898 

Hardman,  John  E.,  M.  E.,  Montreal — March  4,  1890 

*  Life  Member. 


LIST    OF    MEMBERS.  VII 

Date  of  Admiaaion. 

Haycock,  Prof.  Ernest,  Acadia  College,  Wolfville,  N.  S May  17,  1899 

Jlunton,  Prof.  S.  W.,  M.  A  .  Mount  Allison  College,  Sackville.  N.  B Jan.  6,  1890 

James,  C.  C.,  M.  A.,  Dep.  Min.  of  Agriculture,  Toronto,  Ontario Dec.  3,  1696 

*  Johns,  Thomas  W.,  Yarmouth,  N.  S   Nov.  27,  1889 

Kennedy,  Prof.  Gco.  T.,  M. A.,  D.SC.,  KG  s.  King's  College,  Windsor.N.S.  Nov.  9.  l?g2 

Macintosh,  Kenneth,  St.  George's  Channel,  Richmond  Co.,  C.  B Jan.  i,  1892 

McKenzie,  W.  B..C.E.,  Moncton,  N.  B March 31,  1882' 

McLeod,  R.  R.,  Brookfleld.  N   S Dec.  3,  1897 

Mag ee,  W.  H.,  Ph.D.,  High  School,  Parrsboro',  N  S Nov.  29,  1894 

Mathoson,  W.  G  ,  M.E..  New  Glasgow,  N.  S Jan.  31,  1890 

Prest,  Walter  H.,  Bedford,  N.  S Nov.  29,  1891 

•Reid,  Alex    P  ,  M  D.,  L.R.C.S  ,  Middleton,  N.S Jan.  31,  1890 

Rosborough,  Rev.  James,  Musquodoboit  Harbor,  N.  S Nov.  29,  1894 

Russell.  Lee,  us..  Normal  School,  Truro.  N.  S Dec.  3,  18% 

Smith,  Prof.  H.  W..  B.  sc.,  Prov.  Agricultural  School,  Truro.  N.  S Jan.  6,  1890 

CORRESPONDING   MEMBERS. 

Ami,  Henry  M..  D.  sc.,  K.  o.  s.,  Ottawa,  Ontario Jan.  2,  1892 

Bailey,  Prof.  Loring  Wort,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  s.  c.,  University  of  New 

Brunswick,  Fredericton.  N.  B , Jan,  6,  1890 

Ball,  Rev.  Edward  H.,  Tangier,  N.S Nov.  29.  1871 

Bethune,  Rev.  C.  J.  S  ,  Port  Hope,  Ontario Dec.  29,  1868 

Davidson,  Prof.  John,  Phil.  D.,  Univ.  of  N.  Brunswick,  Frcd'ton,  N.  B.  .Dec.  12,  1898 

Dobie,  W.  Henry,  M  D.,  Chester,  England Nov.  3,  1897 

Duns.  Prof.  John.  LL.n  ,  F  R  s.E  ,  New  College,  Edinburgh,  Scotland..  .Dec.  30.  1£87 

Ells,  R  W.,  LL.D.,  F.G  S.A.,  F.R.S.C.,  Geological  Survey.  Ottawa.  Out Jan  2,  1894 

Fletcher,  Jas  ,  LL.D.,  F.L  s.,  F.R.S.C.,  Entomologist  and  Botanist,  Central 

Exp.  Farm,  Ottawa,  Ont March  2,  1897 

Fletcher,  Hugh,  B.  A.,  Geological  Survey,  Ottawa,  Ontario March  3.  1891 

Ganong,  Prof.  Wm.  F.,  B.  A.,  ph.  D.,  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass., 

U.S.A Jan.  6,  1890 

Harrington,  Wm.  Hague,  F.H  a.c  .  Post  Office  Department,  Ottawa.  .May  a,  1896 

Harvey,  Rev.  Moses,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.C.,  St.  John's,  Newfoundland Jan.  31.  1890 

King,  Major.  R.  A Nov.  19,  1877 

Litton,  Robert  T.,  F.  o  S. ,  Melbourne,  Australia May  5,  1892 

McUliutock,  Vice- Admiral  Sir  Leopold,  Kt.,  F.R  s.  June  10,  1880 

Matthew,  G.  F.,  M.  A.,  D  sc  ,  F.  R.  s.  C..  St  John.  N.  B Jan.  6,  1890 

Maury,  Rev.  Mytton,  D.  D  .  Ithaca,  N.  Y  ,  U.  S.  A.  ..                              .  ..Nov.  30,  1891 

Peter,  Rev.  Brother  Junian,  St.  Joseph's  Commercial  College,  Detroit, 

Mich Dec .  12.  1898 

Pickford,  Charles.  Halifax March  2.  1900 

Prince,  Prof.  E.  E  ,  Commissioner  and  General  Inspector  of  Fisheries. 

Ottawa,  Ontario  '....Jan.  5,  1597 

Smith,  Hon.  Everett,  Portland,  Maine,  U.  S.  A March 31,  1890 

Spencer,  Prof.  J.  W.,  ph.  D.,  F.  G.  s.,  Washington.  D.  C  ,  U.  S.  A Jan.  31.  1890 

Waghorne.  Rev.  Arthur  C,  St.  John's,  Newfoundland May  5.  1892 

Weston,  Thomas  C.,  F.  a.  8.  A.,  Ottawa,  Ontario May  12.  1877 


Life  Member. 


APPKNDIX.— III. 


LIST     OF     MEMBERS.     19OO-O1. 


ORDINARY    MEMBERS. 

Date  of  Admission. 

Allison,  Augustus,  Halifax Feb.      15,  18C9 

Austen,  James  H.,  Crown  Lands  Department,  Halifax Jan.        2,  1894 

Bayer,  Ruftis,  Halifax March    4,  1890 

Bishop,  Watson  L.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S Jan.        6   1890 

Bowman,  Maynard,  Public  Analyst,  Halifax March  13,  1884 

Brown,  R.  Balfour,  Yarmouth,  N.  S Jan.      10,  1891 

"Campbell,  Donald  A.,  M  D,,  Halifax  Jan.      31,1890 

Campbell,  George  Murray,  M.  D.,  Halifax  — Nov.     10,  1884 

Cowie,  Andrew  J.,  M.  D.,  L.  R.  c.  p.  E  ,  Halifax Jan.      27,  1893 

*Davis,  Charles  Henry,  c.  E.,  New  York  City,  U.  S.  A Dec.        5.  1900 

Doane,  F.  W.  W.,  City  Engineer,  Halifax  Nov.       3,1886 

Donkin,  Hiram,  c.  E.,  Glace  Bay,  Cape  Breton Nov.     30,  1892 

Edwards,  George  M.,  n.sc  ,  Halifax March    C.  1901 

Egan,  Thomas  J.,  Halifax .       Jan.        6,  1890 

Elliott,  Mis*  Bertha,  Dartmouth,  N.  S March    4,  1895 

Fearon,  James,  Principal,  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institution,  Halifax May       8,  1894 

Finn,  Win  D.,  M.  D.,  Halifax  Oct.       29.  1894 

*Forbes,  John,  Halifax March  14,  1883 

Foster,  James  G.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S  March  14.  1883 

Fraser,  C.  Frederick,  Principal,  School  for  the  Blind,  Halifax March  31,  1890 

Gates,  Herbert  E.,  Architect,  Dartmouth,  N.  S April     17,  1899 

*Gilpin,  Edwin,  M.  A.,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  s.  c.,  Inspector  of  Mines,  Halifax. . .  .  April    11,  1873 

Hattie,  William  Harrop,  M.  D.,  Dartmouth  NTov.     12,  1892 

Hendry,  William  A.,  Jr.,  c.  E  ,  Windsor,  N.  S Jan.        4.  1892 

Irving,  G.  W.  T.,  Halifax Jan.        4,1892 

Jacques,  Hartley  S..  M.  D.,  Halifax May       8,1894 

Johnston,  Harry  W.,  c.  E.,  Halifax   ...Dec.      31.1894 

Laing,  Rev.  Robert,  Halifax Jan.      11,  1885 

Locke,  Thomas  J.,  Halifax Jan.        4,  1892 

McColl,  Roderick,  c.  E.,  Halifax    Jan.        4.18 

Macdonald,  Simon  D.,  F.  G.  s.,  Halifax :  : March  14,  1881 

McDonald,  W  A  ,  c.  E.,  Halifax April    17,  1899 

MacGregor.  Prof.  J.  G.,  M.  A.,  D.  sc.,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax Jan.      11.  1877 

Mclnnes,  Hector,  LL.B.,  Halifax •• 

*McKay,  Alexander,  Supervisor  of  Schools,  Halifax Feb.       5,  1872 

*MacKay,  A.  H.,  B.  A.,  B.sc.,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  s.  c.,  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion, Halifax Oct-       u>  ls 

MacKay,  Prof.  Ebenezer,  PH.  D.,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax Nov.    27.  W 

McKerron,  William,  Halifax  Nov-    *°'  18 

MacNab,  William,  Halifax Jan-      3I-  18 

*  Life  Member. 
PROC.  P  TBANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Scr.,    VOL.  X.  Apr.  III. 


X  LIST    OF    MEMBERS. 

Date  of  Admission. 

Marshall,  Gilford  R.,  Principal,  Richmond  School,  Halifax April  4,  1894 

Mason,  Francis  H.,  F.  c.  8  ,  Halifax l)cc.  31,  1894 

Morton,  S.  A.,  M.  A.,  County  Academy,  Halifax Jan.  27,  1893 

Murphy,  Martin,  c.  K.,  D.SC.,  Provincial  Engineer,  Halifax Jan.  15,  1870 

Newman,  C.  L.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S Jan.  27,  1893 

O'Hearn,  Peter,  Principal,  St.  Patrick's  Boys'  School,  Halifax Jan.  1C,  1890 

•Parker,  Hon.  Daniel  McN.,  M.  D.,  M.  L.  c.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S 1871 

Pearson,  B.  F.,  Barrister,  Halifax March  31,  1890 

Piers,  Harry,  Curator,  Provincial  Museum,  Halifax Nov.  2,1888 

*Poole,  Henry  S.,  A.  M.,  ASSOC.  R.  s.  M.,  F.  o.  a.,  F.  R.  s.  c.,  M.  CAN.  soc.  c.  -E., 

HON.  MEM.  INST.  M.  E.,  Halifax Nov.  11,  1872 

Read,  Herbert  H..  M.  D.,  L.  K  c.  S.,  Halifax Nov.  27,  1889 

*Robb,  D.  W.,M.  E.,  Amherst,  N.  S March  4,  1890 

Rutherford,  John,  M.  E.,  Windsor,  N.  S Jan.  8,  1865 

Silver,  Arthur  P.,  Halifax Dec.  12,1887 

Silver,  William  C.,  Halifax May  7,1864 

Smith,  Prof.  H.  W.,  B.  sc..  Prof.  Agricultural  School,  Truro,  N.  S.,  Assoc. 

Memb.,  Jan.  6, 1890 Dec.  1900 

'Stewart,  John,  M.  B.  c.  M  Halifax Jan.  12,  1885 

Weatherbe,  Hon.  Mr.  Justice,  Halifax March  28,  1895 

Wheaton,  L.  H.,  Chief  Engineer,  Coast  Railway  Co.,  Yarmouth,  N.  S...Nov.  29,  1894 

Willis,  C.  E.,  M.  E.,  Halifax Nov.  29,  1894 

Wilson,  Robert  J.,  Secretary,  School  Board,  Halifax  May  3,  1889 

*Yorston,  W.  G.,  c.  E  ,  Sydney,  C.  B Nov.  12,  1892 

ASSOCIATE    MEMBERS. 

*Caie,  Robert  Yarmouth,  N.  S Jan.  31,  1890 

"Cameron,  A.,  Principal  of  Academy,  Yarmouth,  N.  S Nov.  27,  1889 

Coldwell,  A-  E  ,  M.A.,  Wolfvillo,  N.  S Nov.  27,  1889 

*Dickenson,  S.  S.,  Superintendent,  Commercial  Cable  Co.,  Hazelhill, 

Guysborough  Co.,  N.  S March  4,  1895 

Edwards,  Arthur  M.,  M.  D.,  F.L  s.,  Newark,  N.  J Dec.  12,1898 

Faribault,  E.  R  ,  B  A.  so.  (Laval),  Ottawa,  Ontario March  6,  1888 

Halliday,  Andrew,  M.  D.,  Shubenacadie,  N.  S Dec.  12,  1898 

Haycock,  Prof.  Ernest,  Acadia  College.  Wolfville,  N.  S May  17,  1899 

Hunton,  Prof.  S.  W.  M.A.,  Mount  Allison  College,  Sackville,  N.  B....JUU.  6,  1890 

Jaggar,  Miss  A.  Louise,  Smith  Cove,  Digby  Co.,  N.  S Dec.  5,1900 

James,  C.  C.,  M.  A.,  Dep  Min.  of  Agriculture,  Toronto,  Ontario Dec-  3,  1896 

•Johns,  Thomas  W.,  Yarmouth,  N.  S  Nov.  27,  1889 

*Keating,  E  H.,  C.E.,  City  Engineer,  Toronto,  Ont.,  Ord  Memb.,  April 

12,1882 April  11,  1900 

*Kennedy,  Prof.  Gco.  T  ,  M  A.,  D  sc.,  F.Q.S.,  King's  College,  Windsor, 

N.  S Nov.  9,  1882 

Macintosh,  Kenneth,  St.  George's  Channel,  C.  B  ,  Ord.  Memb,  Jan.  4, 

1892 June,  1900 

McKenzie,  W.  B.,  c.  E.,  Moncton,  N  B March  31,  1882 

McLeod,  R.  R.,  Brookfleld,  N.  S Dec.  3,1897 

Mag<>.e,  W.H..PH  D.,  High  School,  Parrsboro',  N.  S Nov.  29,  1894 

Matheson,  W.  G  ,  M.  E.,  New  Glasgow,  N  S Jan.  31,1890 

*Reid,  A.  P.M.  D.,  L.R.C.S  ,  Middleton,  Annapolis  Co.,  N.  S  Jan.  31,  1890 

Rosborough,  Rev-  James,  Musquodoboit  Harbour,  N.  S Nov.  29,  1894 

Russell,  Prof.  Lee,  B.s  ,  Normal  School,  Truro,  N.  S Dec.  3,  1896 

Sawyer,  Prof.  Everett  W.,  Acadia  College,  Wolfville,  N.  S Feb  6,  1901 

Sears,  Prof.  F  C.,  Director  N.S.  School  of  Horticulture, Wolfville,  N.S.Feb.  6,  1901 

*  Life  Member. 


LIST    OF    MEMBERS.  XI 

CORRESPONDING    MEMBERS. 

Date  of  Admission. 

Ami,  Henry  M  ,  n.sc.,  F  G.S.,  F.R.S.C.,  Ottawa,  Ontario Jan.  2,  1892 

Bailoy,  Prof.  L.W  ,  PH  D.,  LL.D  ,  F  R.S.C.,  University  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, Fredericton.  N.  B Jan.  6,  1890 

Ball,  Rev.  E.  H.,  Westville/N.  S Nov.  29,1871 

Bothune,  Rev.  C.  J.  S.,  M.A  ,  D.C.L..  F.R.C-S.,  London,  Ontario Dec  29,  1868 

D.-;»'idson,  Prof .  John,  PHIL.  D.,  Fredericton,  N.  B Deo.  12,  1898 

DeVVolf,  James  R  ,  M.D.,  L.R.C  s  E  ,  Halifax,  Ord.  Memo., Oct.  26,1865. Nov.  2,  1900 

Dobie,  W.  Henry,  M.  D.,  Chester,  England Dec.  3,  1897 

Duns,  Prof.  John,    New  College,  Edinburgh,  Scotland  Dec.  30,  1887 

Ells,  R.  W.,  LL.D.,  F  o  S.A  .F.R.S.C.,  Geological  Survey,  Ottawa,  Out. Jan.  2,  1894 

Fletcher,  Hugh,  B.  A.,  Geological  Survey.  Ottawa,  Ontario March  3,  1891 

Fletcher.  James,  LL   D  ,  F.  L.  s.,  F.R  s  c  ,  Entomologist  and  Botanist, 

Central  Exp.  Farm,  Ottawa,  Ontario March  2,  1897 

Ganong,  Prof    VV.  F  ,  B.A  ,  PH.D.,  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass., 

U.S.  A Jan.       6,1890 

Harrington,  W.  Hague,  F.R  s.c. ,  Post  Office,  Department,  Ottawa May  5,  1896 

Harvey,  Rev.  Moses,  LL.D  ,  F  R  s.c.,  St.  John's,  Newfoundland Jan.  31,  1890 

Litton,  Robert  T.,  F.o  s.,  Melbourne,  Australia May  5,  1892 

McClintock,  Vice- Admiral  Sir  Leopold,  Kt.,  F  R.s June  10,1880 

Matthew,  G.  F.,  M.  A.,  D  so  ,  F.R.S.C.,  St.  John,  N.  B  Jan.  6.  1890 

Maury,  Rev.  Mytton,  D  D.,  Ithaca,   N.  Y.,   U.S.A Nov.  30,1891 

Peter,  Rev.  Brother  Junian,  St.  Joseph's  Commercial  College,  Detroit, 

Mich Dec.  12,  1898 

Pickford,  Charles,   Halifax ••••...   ....Mar.       2,1900 

Prest,  Walter  H.,  M.  K.,  Bedford,  Assoc.  Memb.,  Nov.  29, 1894 Nov.  2,  1900 

Prince,  Prof.  E.  E.,  Commissioner  and  General  Inspector  of  Fisheries, 

Ottawa,  Ontario :  Jan.  5,  1897 

Smith,  Hon.  Everett,  Portland,  Maine,  U.  S.  A March  31.  18 

Spencer,  Prof.  J.  W.,  PH.  D.,  F.  G  s.,  Washington,  D.  C-,  U.  S.  A Jan.  31,  18 

Weston,  Thomas  C.,  F.  o.  s.  A.,  Ottawa,  Ontario May  12,  1877 


A  P  REN  13 IX. —IV. 


LIST     OF     MEMBERS.     19O1-O2. 


ORDINARY    MEMBERS. 

Date  of  Admission. 

Allison,  Augustus,  Halifax Feb.      15,  18C9 

Austen.  James  H.,  Crown  Lands  Department,  Halifax Jan.        2,  1894 

Bayer,  Rufus,  Halifax March    4,1890 

Bishop,  Watson  L.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S Jan.        6   1890 

Bowman,  Maynard,  B.  A.,  Public  Analyst,  Halifax    March  13,  1884 

Brown,  R.  Balfour,  Yarmouth,  N.  S Jan.      10,  1891 

"Campbell,  Donald  A.,  M  D,,  Halifax Jan.      31,1890 

Campbell,  George  Murray,  M.  D.,  Halifax Nov.     10,  1884 

Cowie,  Andrew  J  ,  M.  D..  L.  R.  c.  p.  E  ,  Halifax Jan.      27,  1893 

*Davis,  Charles  Henry,  c.  E.,  New  York  City,  U.  S.  A Dec.        5   1900 

Dixon,  Prof.  Stephen  Mitchell,  B.  A.,  B.  A.  i.,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax.  April      8,  1902 

Doane.  F.  W.  W.,  City  Engineer,  Halifax  Nov.       3.1886 

Donkin.  Hiram,  c.  E.,  Antigonish,  ?N.  S Nov.     30.  1892 

Egan,  Thomas  J.,  Halifax Jan.        6,  1890 

Elliott,  Miss  Bertha,  Dartmouth,  N.  S March    4.  1895 

Fearon,  James,  Principal,  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institution.  Halifax May       8,  1894 

Fnn,  Wm   D  ,  M.  D.,  Halifax  Oct.       29  1894 

•Forbes.  John,  Halifax March  14.  1883 

Foster,  James  G.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S March  14.  1883 

Fraser,  C.  Frederick,  Principal,  School  for  the  Blind,  Halifax  March  31,  1890 

Gates,  Herbert  E.,  Architect,  Dartmouth,  N.  S April    17,  1899 

*Gilpin,  Edwin,  M.  A.,  LL.D.,  F.  R  a.  c..  Inspector  of  Mines,  Halifax April    11,  1873 

Hattie,  William  Harrop,  M.  D.,  Dartmouth  Nov.     12,  1892 

Hendry,  William  A..  Jr  ,  c.  E  ,  Windsor,  N.  S Jan.       4.  1892 

Irving,  G.  W.  T.,  Education  Dept.,  Halifax Jan.        4,18 

Jacques,  Hartley  S..  M.  D.,  Halifax ..May       8,18 

Johnston,  Harry  W.,  c.  E.,  Halifax   Dec.      31.1894 

*Laing,  Rev.  Robert.  Halifax Jan.      11.  1885 

Locke,  Thomas  J.,  Halifax ...Jan.        4.1892 

McCarthy.   J.  B.,   B.  A.,  B.  sc.,   teacher  of   Science,  County  Academy, 

Halifax  ..Dec.       4,19 

McColl,  Roderick,  c.  E.,  Assistant  Provl.  Engineer,  Halifax    Jan.       4.  18 

Macdonald,  Simon  D.,  F.  O.  s.,  Halifax ...March  14,  18 

McDonald,  W.  A  ,  c.  E.,  Sydney APril    17«  1899 

*MacGregor.  Prof.  J.  G.,  M.  A.,  D.  sc..  F.  R.  8.,  F.  R.  B.  c.,  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity, Edinburgh Jan- 

Mclnnes,  Hector,  LL.B..  Halifax •  • 

*McKay,  Alexander,  Supervisor  of  Schools,  Halifax Feb.       5,  1872 

'MacKay,  A.  H  ,  B.  A.,  B.SC.,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  s.  c.,  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion, Halifax 

MacKay,  Prof.  Ebenezer,  PH.  D.,  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax Nov.    27,  18 


*  Life  Member. 
PROC  &  TRANS.  N.  S.  INST.  Sci.,   VOL.  X.  APT.  IV. 


XIV  LIST    OF    MEMBERS. 

Date  of  Admission. 

McKerron,  William,  Halifax  Nov.  30,  1891 

MacNab,  William,  Halifax Jan.  31,  1890 

Marshall,  Gilford  R.,  Principal,  Richmond  School,  Halifax April  4,  1894 

Morton,  S.  A.,  M.  A.,  County  Academy,  Halifax Jan.  27,  1893 

Murphy.  Martin,  c.  K.,  DSC  ,  Provincial  Engineer,  Halifax Jan.  15,  1870 

Newman,  C  L.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S *. Jan.  27,1893 

O'Hearn,  Peter,  Principal,  St.  Patrick's  Boys'  School,  Halifax Jan.  16,  1890 

*Parker,  Hon.  Daniel  McN.,  M.  D.,  M.  L.  c.,  Dartmouth,  N.  S 1871 

Pearson,  B.  F.,  Barrister,  Halifax .March  31,  1890 

Piers,  Harry,  Curator  Provincial  Museum  and  Librarian  Science 

Library,  Halifax Nov.  2,  1888 

•Poole,  Henry  S.,  A.  M.,  ASSOC.  R.  s.  M.,  K.  a.  s.,  F.B.  8.  c.,  M.  CAN.  soc.  c.  E  . 

HON.  MEM.  INST.  M.  E.,  Halifax Nov.  11,  1872 

Read,  Herbert  H.,  M.  D.,  L.  R.  c.  s.,  Halifax.  Nov.  27,  1889 

•Robb,  D.  W.,  M.  E,,  Amherst,  N.  S March  4,  1890 

Rutherford,  John,  M.  E.,  Windsor,  N.  S Jan  8,  1865 

Silver,  Arthur  P.,  Halifax Dec.  12,1887 

Silver,  William  C.  Halifax May  7,1864 

•Smith,|Prof.  H.W.,  B  sc.,  Prof.  Agricultural  School,  Truro,  N.S. ;  Assoc. 

Memb.,  Jan.  6,  1890 Dec.  1900 

•Stewart.  John,  M.  B.  c.  M.,  Halifax  Jan.  12,1885 

Weatherbe,  Hon.  Mr.  Justice,  Halifax March  28.  1895 

Wheaton,  L.  H.,  Chief  Engineer,  Coast  Railway  Co.,  Yarmouth  N  S.-.Nov.  29,  1894 

Wilson,  Robert  J.,  Secretary,  School  Board,  Halifax  May  3,  1889 

*  orston,  W.  G.,  c.  E  ,  Sydney,  C.  B Nov.  12,  1892 

ASSOCIATE    MEMBERS. 

*Caie,  Robert,  Yarmouth,  N  S Jan.  31,  1890 

'Cameron,  A.,  Principal  of  Academy,  Yarmouth,  N.  S Nov.  27.  1889 

Coldwell,  A.  E  ,  M.A.,  Wolfville,  N.  S  Nov.  27,  1889 

*Dickenson,  S.  S.,  Superintendent,  Commerc'al  Cable  Co.,  Hazelhill, 

Guysborough  Co.,  N.  S March  4,  1895 

Edwards,  Arthur  M.,  M.  D..  FL  s.,  Newark.  N  J Dec.  12,1898 

Faribault,  E.  R  ,  B.A.  sc.  (Laval),  Geological  Survey,  Ottawa,  Ontario.. March  6,  1888 

Haley,  Prof.  Frank  R.,  Acadia  College,  Wolfville,  N.  S Nov.  5,  1901 

Halliday,  Andrew.  M.  D.,  Halifax,  N.S Dec.  12,  1898 

Haycock,  Prof.  Ernest,  Acadii  College.  Wolfville,  N.  S May  17,  1899 

Hunton,  Prof.  S.  W.,  M.A.,  Mount  Allison  College,  Sackville,  N.  B....Jun.  6,  1890 

Jaggar,  Miss  A.  Louise,  Cambridge,  Mass.  Dec.  5,  1900 

James,  C.  C.,  M.  A.,  Depy  Min.  of  Agriculture,  Toronto,  Ontario Dec.  3,  1896 

•Johns.  Thomas  W.,  Yarmouth,  N.  S  Nov.  27,1889 

•Keating,  E  H  ,  C.E.,  Toronto  Ry.  Co.,  Toronto,  Ont.  ;  Ord  Memb., 

April  12,1882  April  11,  1900 

•Kennedy,  Prof.  Geo.  T  ,  MA.,  n  sc.,  F.G.S  ,  King's  College,  Windsor, 

N.  S Nov.  9,  1882 

Macintosh,  Kenneth,  St.  George's  Channel,  C.  B  ;  Ord.  Memb,  Jan.  4, 

1892 June,  1900 

"MacKay,  Hector  H.,  M.D.,  New  Glasgow.  N  S Feb.  4,1902 

McKenzie,  W.  B.,  c.  E.,  Moncton,  N  B March  31,  1882 

McLeod,  R.  R.,  Brookfleld,  N.  S Dec.  3,1897 

Magc,e,  W.  H..PH.D.,  High  School,  Parrsboro',  N.  S Nov.  29,  1894 

Matheson,  W.  G  ,  M.  E.,  New  Glasgow,  N  S Jan.  31,1890 

Payzant,  E.  N.,  M.  D.,  Wolfville,  N.  S  April  8.  1902 

*  Life  Member. 


LIST    OF    MEMBERS.  XV 

Date  of  Admission. 

Pineo,  Avard  V.,  LL.  B.,  Kentville.  N.  S Nov.  5.  1901 

*Reid,  A.  P.,  M.  D.,  L.R.C.S  ,  Middleton,  Annapolis  Co.,  N.  8 Jan.  3l|  1890 

•Rosborough,  Rev.  James,  Musquodoboit  Harbour,  N.  8 NOT.  29,  1894 

Russell,  Prof.  Lee,  B  s  ,  Worcester,  Mass Dec.  3,  1896 

Sawyer,  Prof.  Everett  W.,  Acadia  College.  Wolf ville,  N .  S Feb  6,  1901 

Sears,  Prof.  F   C.,  Director  N  S.  School  of  Horticulture,  Wolf  ville,  N.S.Feb.  6,  1901 

CORRESPONDING    MEMBERS. 

Ami,  Henry  M.,  D.sc.,   F.G.S.,  F.R.S.C.,    Geological  Survey,  Ottawa, 

Ontario Jan.  2,  1892 

Bailey,  Prof.  L.W.,  PH  D.,  LL.D.,  v  R  s.c  ,  University  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, Fredericton,  N.  B Jan.  6,  1890 

Ball,  Rev.  R.  H.,  West  ville,  N.  S Nov.  29,1871 

Bethune,  Rev.  C.  J.  S  ,  M.A.,  D.C.L..  F.R.C.S.,  London.  Ontario Dec  29,  1868 

Davidson,  Prof.  John,  PHIL.  D.,  Univ.  of  N.  B.,   Fredericton,  N.  B Dec.  12,  1898 

Dobie,  W.  Henry,  M.  D.,  Chester,  England Dec.  3,  1897 

Duns,  Prof.  John,    New  College,  Edinburgh,  Scotland  Dec.  30,  1887 

Ells,  R.  W.,  LL.D.,  F  G.S.A  , F.R.S. c.,  Geological  Survey,  Ottawa,  Ont.Jan.  2,  1894 

Fletcher,  Hugh,  B.  A.,  Geological  Survey.  Ottawa,  Ontario March  3,  1891 

Fletcher.  James,  LL  D.,  F.  L.  s.,  F.R  s  c  ,  Entomologist  and  Botanist, 

Central  Exp.  Farm.  Ottawa,  Ontario March  2,  1897 

Ganong,  Prof    W.  F.,  B  A.,  PH.D.,  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass., 

U.  S.  A Jan.  6,  1890 

Harrington,  W.  Hague,  F.R. B.C.,  Post  Office  Department,  Ottawa May  5,  1896 

Litton,  Robert  T.,  F.G  s.,  Melbourne.  Australia May  5,  1892 

McClintock,  Vice- Admiral  Sir  Leopold,  Kt.,  F.R.S June  10,  1880 

Matthew,  G.  F.,  M.  A.,  D  sc  ,  F.R.S. C.,  St.  John,  N.  B Jan.  6.  1890 

Maury,  Rev.  Mytton,  D  D.,  Ithaca,    N.  Y.,    U.S.A Nov.  30,1891 

Peter,  Rev.  Brother  Junian,  St.  Joseph's  Collegiate  Institute,  Buffalo, 

N.  Y Deo.  12,  1898 

Pickford,  Charles,   Halifax •••• Mar.  2,1900 

Prest,  Walter  H.,  M.  K.,  Bedford  ;  Assoc.  Memb.,  Nov.  29, 1894 Nov.  2,  1900 

Prichard,  Arthur  H.  Cooper,    Museum  of  Brooklyn  last,  of  Arts  and 

Sciences,    Brooklyn,  N.  Y Dec.  4,  1901 

Prince,  Prof.  E.  E.,  Commissioner  and  General  Inspector  of  Fisheries, 

Ottawa,  Ontario Jan.  5,  1897 

Smith,  Hon.  Everett,  Portland,  Maine.  U.  S.  A .  March  31.  1890 

Spencer,  Prof.  J.  W.,  PH.D.,  F.  o  s..  Washington,  D.  C.,  U.  S.  A Jan.  31,  1890 

Weston,  Thomas  C.,  F.  G.  s.  A.,  Ottawa,  Ontario May  12.  1877 


VOL. 


(Roman  numerals  refer  to  the  Proceedings  ;  Arabic  numerals  to  the 
Transactions. ) 


PACK 

Agricultural  credit.      By  Prof.  J.  Davidson,  Phil.  D   4T>8 

Air,  school-room.     By  L   Russell,  B.  Sc xxi 

Ambrose,  Rev.  John,  D.  (7.  L.,  obituary  notice  of.     By  A.  McKay iv 

Ami,  Henry  M.,  D.  Sc. — Description  of  tracks  (Ichtkyoidichnites  aceulienaie, 

n.  sp. )  from  the  fine-grained  siliceous  mudstones  of  the  Knoydart 

formation  (Eo-Devonian)  of  Antigonish  County,  N.  S . .       330 

Subdivisions  of  Carboniferous  system  in  eastern  Canada,  with  special 

reference  to  position  of  Union  and  Riversdale  formations  of  Nova 

Scotia,  referred  to  Devonian  system  by  some  Canadian  geologists.        162 
Upper  Cambrian  age  of  Dictyonema  slates   of  Angus  Brook,    New 

Canaan  and  Kentville,  N.  S 447 

Angus  Brook,  N.  S  ,  Notes  on  Dr  Ami's  paper  on  Dictyonema  slates  of. 

ByH.  S.  Poole 451 

Angus  Brook ,  N.  S  ,   Upper  Cambrian  age  of  Dictyonema  slates  of.    By 

H.  M.  Ami,  D.  Sc. 447 

Antigonish  County,  N.  S. ,   Tracks  from  Knoydart  foimation  of.     By  H. 

M.  Ami,  D.  Sc 330 

Ants,  Periodical  appearance  of,  in  a  chimney.     ByH.  S.  Poole xlix 

Aqueous  solutions.     See  Lindsay,  C   F 205 

Archibald,  E.  H.,  M.  Sc.—  On  a  test,  by  the  freex.ing-point  method,  of  the 

ionization  coefficients  determined  by  the  conductivity  method, 

for  solutions  containing  potassium  and  sodium  sulphates 

Atlantic,  Material  taken  from  the  bottom  of.     By  A  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D. .  1 

Barnes,  James,  B.  A.  —  On  the  calculation  of  the  conductivity  of  aqueous 

solutions  containing  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric  acids    129 

On  the  conductivity,  specific  gravity  and  surface  tension  of  aqueous 

solutions  containing  potassium  chloride  and  sulphate 

On  the  depression  of  freezing-point  by  mixtures  of  electrolytes    . 

On  the  Relation  of  the  viscosity  of  mixtures  of  solutions  of  certain  salts 

IP* 
to  their  state  of  ionization  .... 

Bee's  nest,  Unusual  site  for.     By  H.  S.  Poole,  F.  < !.  S   xlix 

(xvii) 


XV111  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Bishop,  Watson  L. — Exhibition  of  a  collection  of  Nova  Scotian  birds'  eggs, 

and  remarks  thereon.     (Title  only) Ixviii 

Star-nosed  Mole  (C.  cristata),  its  breeding  habits,  etc 348 

Boehner,  R.  S.,  B.  Sc.—  Standardization  of  Hydrochloric  Acid  with  Borax. 

(Title  onfy)    ci 

Botrychium  tenmtum,  Condensed  form  of.     By  A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D.  . . .  xcix 

Branch  Societies,  formation  of  authorised Ixviii 

Branch  of  Institute  at  Wolfville,  Report  on.     By  Prof.  E.  Haycock xcviii 

Purposes  and  Aims  of      By  Prof.  E.  Haycock cix 

Calyx  drill.     See  Weatherbe,  D'A. ,  on  Nictaux  iron  field 352 

Cambrian  slates  of  Halifax,  Worm  trails  in.     By  H.  S.  Poole     453 

Cape  Breton  coals,  Notes  on  effect  of  washing.     By  H.  S.  Poole,  F.R  S.C.  245 
Carboniferous  system  of  eastern  Canada,  On  the  sub-divisions  of.      By  A. 

H.  MacKay,  LL.  D xlvii 

Carboniferous  system,  Sub-divisions  of,  in  eastein  Canada,  with  special 

reference  to  position  of  Union  ai;d  Riversdale  formations  of  Nova 

Scotia,  referred  to  Devonian  system  by  some  Canadian  geologists. 

By  H.  M.  Ami.  D.  Sc 162 

Chylomycterus  sch&pf.     See  Piers,  H 110 

Coals,  Notes  on  effect  of  washing  certain  Cape  Breton.      By  H.  S.  Poole, 

F.  R.  S.  C 245 

Condensed  form  of  Botrychium  ternatvm.      By  A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D. . . .  xcix 
Conductivity,   specific   gravity  and  surface  tension   of  aqueous  solutions 

containing  potassium  chloride  and  sulphate.     By  J.  Barnes 49 

Conductivity.     See  Barnes,  J 129 

Condylura  cristata,  Star-nosed  mole,  its  breeding  habits,  etc.     By  W.  L. 

Bishop 348 

Conglomerate,  New  Glasgow.     By  H.  Fletcher  323 

Consumption  and   expenditure   in   Canada,  Statistics  of.      By  Prof.   J. 

Davidson    

Copper  sulphate,  Solutions  of.     See  Lindsay,  C.  F 205 

Credit,  Agricultural.     By  Prof.  J.  Davidson,  Phil.  D. '    458 

Davidson,  Prof.  John,  Phil.  Z>. — Agricultural  credit 458 

Natural  history  of  Money   ....      179 

Statistics  of  expenditure  and  consumption  in  Canada 1 

Dawson,  Sir  J  William,  obituary  notice  of.     By  A.  McKay xxxvi 

Resolution  on  death  of xlvi 

Depression  of  freezing-point  by  mixtures  of  electrolytes.     By  J.  Barnes  . .  139 

Depression  of  freezing-point  for  electrolytes.     By  Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregor..  211 
Determination  ot  freezing-point  depression  constant  for  electrolytes.     By 

T.  C.  Hebb    409 

Determination  of  freezing-point  depressions  of  dilute  solutions  of  electro- 
lytes.    By  T.  C.  Hebb   422 

Devonian,  The  :  geological  nomenclature  in  Nova  Scotia.     By  H.  Fletcher, 

B.  A.  .  235 


INDEX.  Xix 

PACK 

Devonian  system  in  Nova  Scotia.     See  under  Ami,  H.  M.,  Sub-divisions  of 

Carboniferous  system K52 

De Wolfe,  Dr.  James  R.,  Death  of Ixi,  Ixxxiv 

Diagram  of  freezing-point  depressions  for  electrolytes.     By  Prof.  J.  G. 

MacGregor     21 1 

Diatomacese  of  Nova  Scotia.     By  A.  H.  Mackay,  LL.  D xix 

Dictyonema  slates  of  Angus  Brook,  New  Canaan,  and  Kentville,  N.  S., 

Notes  on  Dr.  Ami's  paper  on.     By  H.  S.  Poole    451 

Dictyonema  slates  of  Angus  Brook,  New  Canaan,  and  Kentville,   N.  S., 

Upper  Cambrian  age  of.     By  H.  M.  Ami,  I).  Sc   447 

Doane,  F.  W.  W.—  Rainfall  notes,  Nova  Scotia 399 

Downs,  Andrew,  founder  of  the  first  zoological  garden  in  America,  Sketch 

of.     By  H.  Piers cii 

Drift  ice  as  an  eroding  and  transporting  agent.     By  \V.  H.  Prest 333 

Drift  ice  as  an  eroding  and  transporting  agent,  Supplementary  notes  on. 

By  W.  H.  Prest   455 

Early  intervale  flora  of  eastern  Nova  Scotia.     By  C.  B.  Robinson 502 

Earths,  The  rare.     By  W.  H.  Magee,  Ph.  D    Ixii 

Edwards,  Dr.  A.  M  — Infusorial  earths    of  the  world  and  the   iceberg 

period.     (Title  only. )   xix 

Elastic  properties  of  india-rubber.     See  India-rubber. 

Election  of  officers  for  1898-9,   xvii.       1899-1900,   xlvi.       1900-01,    Iviii. 

1901-02,  xcviii. 

Electrolytes,  Depression  of  freezing-point  by  mixtures  of.     By  J.  Barnes. .       139 
Electrolytes,  Determination  of  freezing-point  depression  constant  for.     By 

T.  C.  Hebb    409 

Electrolytes,  Determination  of  freezing-point  depression  of  dilute  solutions 

of.     By  T  C.  Hebb : 422 

Electrolytes,  Diagram  of  freezing-point  depressions  for.     By  Prof.  J.  G. 

MacGregor    211 

Ells,  R.  W.,  LL.  D.—  Progress  of  geological  investigation  in  Nova  Scotia.       433 

Erosion  and  transportation.     See  Drift  ice. 

Expenditure   and   consumption   in   Canada,   Statistics   of.     By   Prof    J. 

Davidson    

Fish  ( Chylomycterus  schcepji)  new  to  the  fauna  of  Nova  Scotia.     By  H. 

Piers   110 

Fletcher,  Hugh,  B    A .  —Geological  nomenclature  in   Nova  Scotia:   the 

pot 

Devonian    

Geological  nomenclature  in  Nova  Scotia  :  New  Glasgow  conglomerate 

Flora,  Early  intervale,  of  eastern  Nova  Scotia      By  C.  B.  Robinson  502 

Flowering  of  plants      See  Phenological  observations. 

Fossils,  possibly  Triassic,   in  glaciated  fragments  in  the  boulder-clay  of 

King's  County,  N  S.     By  Prof.  E.  Haycock 

Fox,  J.  J.,  obituary  notice  of.     By  A.  McKay. . 

Freezing-point  depression  constant  for  electrolytes,  Detenu ination  of.     By 

T.  C.  Hebb    .  409 


XX  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Freezing-point  depressions  of  dilute  solutions  of  electrolytes,  Determina- 
tion of.     By  T  C.  Hebb 422 

Freezing-point,  Depression  of,  by  mixtures  of  electrolytes.  By  J.  Barnes.  139 
Freezing-point  depressions  for  electrolytes.  By  Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregor  . .  211 
Fresh  water  sponge  [ffeteromeyenia  macoinii,  n.  sp.  ]  from  Sable  Island. 

By  A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D 319 

Gaspereau  Valley,  Geological  history  of.     By  Prof.  E.  Haycock 361 

Geological  investigation  in  Nova  Scotia,  Progress  of.  By  R.  \V.  Ells,  LL.  D.  433 
Geological  nomenclature  in  Nova  Scotia  :  the  Devonian.  By  H.  Fletcher, 

BA 235 

Geological  nomenclature  in  Nova  Scotia  :  New  Glasgow  conglomerate.     By 

H.  Fletcher  323 

Gilpin,  Edwin,  jr.,  LL.  D. — Further  explorations  in  the  Torbrook  iron 

district.     (Title  only. ) Ixxix 

Minerals  for  the  Paris  exhibition   248 

New  mineral  discoveries  in  Nova  Scotia 79 

Halifax,  Worm  trails  in  slates  of.     By  H.  S.  Pool«    453 

Harvey,  Rer.  Moses,  LL  D  ,  death  of Ixxxv 

Haycock,  Prof.  Ernest.  —Fossils,  possibly  Triassic,  in  glaciated  fragments 

in  the  boulder-clay  of  King's  County,  N.  S 376 

Geological  History  of  Gasperuau  Valley.  Nova  Scotia    .    361 

Kings  Co  Branch  of  the  N.  S   Institute  of  Science :    outline  of  pur- 
poses and  aims cix 

Records  of  Post-Triassic  changes  in  King's  County,  N.  S 287 

Hebb,  Thomas  C.,  B.  A— Determination  of  freezing-point  depression  con-     . 

stant  for  electrolytes 409 

Determination   of  freezing-point  depressions   of  dilute  solutions   of 

electrolytes    422 

Variation  of  rigidity  of  vulcanized   indiarubber  with  tension 273 

Ifeteromeyenia  macouni,  n   sp.     See  Fresh  water  sponge  from  Sable  Island. 

By  A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D 319 

Hiibnerito.     See  Notes  on  a  Cape  Breton  mineral  containing  Tungsten. 

By  H.  S.  i'oole,  F.  R.  S.  C 245 

Humble-bee's  nest,  Unusual  site  for      By  H   S.  Poole,  F.  G.  S xlix 

Hydrochloric  acid,  solutions  of.      See  Barnes,  J 129 

Ice,  drift,  as  an  eroding  and  transporting  agent.     By  VV.  H.  Prest    333 

Ice,  drift,  as  an  eroding  and  transporting  agent,  supplementary  note  on. 

By  W.  H.  Prest  455 

Ichthyoidichnitea  acadieims,  n.  sp.     By  H.  M.  Ami,  D.  Sc 330 

Indiarubber,  Variation  of  rigidity  of  vulcanized,  with  tension.     By  T.  C. 

Hebb  " 273 

Indiarubber,  vulcanized,  Notes  on  the  variation  with  tension,  of  the  elas- 
tic propsrties  of.     By  Prof    J.  G.  MacGregor  and  W.  A.  Mac- 

donald  xxviii 

Infusorial  earths  of  the  world,  and   the  iceberg  period.     By  Dr.  A   M. 

Edwards.     (Title  only. ) xix 


INDEX.  XXJ 

Intervale  flora,  Early,  of  eastern  Nova  Scotia.     By  C.  B.  Robinson 502 

lonization  coefficients.     See  Archibald,  E.  H 

lonization,  On  finding  the,  of  complex  solutions  of  given  concentration, 

and  the  converse  problem.      By  Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregor,  D.  Sc.    .         tiT 
lonization.     See  also  Barnes,  J. 
Iron  field,    Nictanx,   Recent  developments  with  calyx  drill  in.      By  D. 

VVeatherbe     JJ^Q 

Jaggar,   Miss  A.    Louise.— Notes  on  the  Flora  of  Digby  County,  N.  S. 

(Title  only.)     ., c 

Jones,  John  Matthew,  Sketch  of  life      By  H.  Piers. Ixxx 

Kentville,  N.  S  ,  Notes  on  Dr.  Ami's  paper  on  Dictyonema  slates  of.     By 

H.  M.  Poole 451 

Kentville,  N   S. ,  Upper  Cambrian  age  of  Dictyonema  slates  of.     By  H.  M. 

Ami,  D.  Sc • 447 

Kings  County,  N.  S.,  Records  of  Post  Triassic  changes  in.      By  Prof.  E. 

Haycock 287 

Kings  County,  N-  S.     See  also  Gaspereau  valley 361 

Kings  County  Branch  of  the  N.  S.  Institute  of  Science  :  outline  of  pur- 
poses and  aims  of.     By  Prof.  E  Haycock cix 

See  also  p.  xcviii. 
Knoydart  formation  (Eo-Devonian)  of  Antigonish  Co.,  N.  S.,  description 

of  tracks  from.     By  H   M.  Ami,  D.  Sc 330 

Labrador  plants,  collected  by  W.  H.  Prest  north  of  Hamilton  Inlet,  from 

June  to  August,  1901.     By  A   H.  MacKay,  LL.  D 507 

Librarian's  Report  (1897-8),  xv.   (1898-9),  xlii.    (1899-1900),  Iviii.    (1900-1), 

xcviii. 
Lindsay,  Charles  F.  —  Presence  of  acid  sulphate  of  copper  in  mixtures  of 

aqueous  solutions  of  sulphuric  acid  and  copper  sulphate 20o 

Macdonald,  W.  A.,  and  MacGregor,  Prof.  J.  G. — Notes  on  the  variation 

with  tension,  of  the  elastic  properties  of  vulcanized  india-rubber,  xxviii 
MacGregor,  Prof.  James  Gordon,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S. — Diagram  of  freezing- 
point  depressions  for  electrolytes     211 

Finding  the  lonization  of  complex  solutions  of  given  concentration, 

and  the  converse  problem 67 

Laws  of  dilution  for  aqueous  solutions  of  electrolytes.  (Title  only)  .  xlviii 
Use  of  the  Wheatstone  bridge  with  alternating  currents.  (Title  only. )  Ixii 
and  Macdonald,  W.  A. — Note  on  the  variation  with  tension,  of  the 

elastic  properties  of  vulcanized  india-rubber    xxviii 

McKay,   Alexander.— Presidential  address  [(a)  Obituary  notices  of  John 

Somers,  M.  D.,  Jules  Marcou,  and  Rev.  John  Ambrose,  D.  C.  L.; 

(b)  Notes  on  the  early  history  of  the  Institute  ;    (c)  The  position 

of  science  in  our  educational  system.] 

Presidential   Address  —[(a)    Review  of  year's  work ;    (b)  Obituary 

notice  of  J.  J.  Fox  and  Sir  J.  W.  Dawson  ;   (c)  The  utility  of  a 

scientific  library  and  ;v  properly  equipped  museum.  ] 


XX11  INDEX. 

PAGE 

MacKay,  A.  H.,   LL.  D.,    F.  R.  S.  C.—  Condensed  form  of  Botrychium 

ternatum    xcix 

Description  of  section  of  Stigmaria   346 

Diatomaceae  of  Nova  Scotia xix 

Freshwater  sponge  [ffeteromeyenia  macouni,  n.  sp  ]  from  Sable  Island      319 
Labrador  plants,  collected  by   W.  H.  Prest  on  the  Labrador  coast 

north  of  Hamilton  Inlet,  from  June  to  August,  1901 507 

Material  taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic  by  the  Cable  S.  S. 

"Minia"   1 

Note  on  gravel  taken  by  the  mushroom -anchor  of  the  "  Mackay-Ben- 
nett,"  cable  steamer,  from  the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic,  40  miles 

west  of  Sable  Island.     (Title  only. ) Ixi 

Phenological  observations,  Canada,  1898    91 

Phenological  observations,  Canada,  1899  303 

(1)  Phenological  observations  of  Botanical  Club  of  Canada,  1900;  (2) 
Abstract  of  phonological  observations  on  flowering  of  ten  plants 
in  Nova  Scotia,  1900  ;  with  (3)  Remarks  on  their  phenochrons.  . .  379 

Phenological  observations  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Canada,  [1901] 486 

Presidential  address  [(a)  On  the  scope  of  work  of  the  Institute  ;  (b) 
Provincial  Museum  and  Science  Library ;  (c)  Death  of  Capt. 

Trott  and  Rev.  A.  C.  Waghorne] liii 

Presidential  address,  1901.  [(a)  Obituaries  of  Dr.  J  R.  DeWolfe, 
Capt.  VV.  H.  Smith,  and  Rev.  Moses  Harvey  ;  (b)  Work  of  the 
Institute  ;  (c)  Provincial  Museum  and  Science  Library  ;  (d)  Pro- 
vincial Progress ;  (e)  Malaria,  yellow  fever  and  Sheep-fluke 

Object  Lessons  ;  (f)  Marine  Biological  Station.] Ixxxiv 

Sub-divisions  of  the  ("aiboniferous  System  of  Eastern  Canada xlvii 

McLachlan,  R.  W.—  Talk  on  Roman  Coins.     (Title  only.)   Ixxxiii 

Magee,  W.  H. ,  Ph.  D. — The  rare   earths;  their  scientific  importance  as 

regards  the  periodic  law     Ixii 

Marcou,  Jules,  obituary  notice  of.     By  A.  McKay   iv 

Material  taken  from  bottom  of  the  Atlantic  by  Cable  S.  S.  Minia.     By  A. 

H.  MacKay,  LL.  D 1 

Members,  Lists  of  ;  1898-99,  Appendix  I ;  1899-1900,  Appendix  II  ;  1900- 
01,  Appendix  III  ;  1901-02,  Appendix  IV. 

Mineral  discoveries,  new,  in  Nova  Scotia.     E.  Gilpin,  jr  ,  LL.  D 79 

Minerals  for  Paris  exhibition.     By  E   Gilpin,  jr.,  LL.  D 248 

Mole,  star-nosed,  (C.  cri*tata),  its  breeding  habits,  etc      By  W.  L.  Bishop      348 

Money,  Natural  history  of.     By  Prof.  J.  Davidson   179 

New  Canaan,  N.  S.,  Notes  on  Dr.  Ami's  paper  on  Dictyonema  slates  of. 

By  H    M.  Poole    451 

New  Canaan,  N.  S.,  Upper  Cambrian  age  of  Dictyonema  slates  of.     By  H. 

M.  Ami,  D.  Sc 447 

New  Glasgow  conglomerate.     By  H.  Fletcher 323 

New  mineral  discoveries  in  Nova  Scotia      E.  Gilpin,  jr.,  L.L.  D 79 

Nictaux  iron  field,  Recent  developments  with  calyx  drill  in.      By  D'A. 

Weatherbe    .  350 


INDEX.  xxiii 

PAGE 

Notes  on  Dr.  Ami's  paper  on  Dictyonema  slates  of  Angus  Brook,  New 

Canaan  and  Kentville,  N.  S.     By  H.  S.  Poole 451 

Notes,  Supplementary,  on  drift  ice  as  an  eroding  and  transporting  agent. 

By  W.  H.  Prest   455 

Nova  Scotia,  Progress  of  geological   investigation  in.     By   K.  W.   Ells, 

LL.  D 433 

Obituary  notices.     See  Ambrose,  Rev.  J.  ;  Dawson,  Sir  .T.  W  ;   De Wolfe, 

Dr.  J.  R.  ;  Fox,  J.  J.  ;  Harvey,  Rev.  M.  ;  Marcou,  J.  ;  Somere, 

Dr.  J.  ;  Smith,    Capt.    W.  H.  ;  Trott,  Capt.  ;    Waghorne,  Rev. 

A.   C. 

Observations  on  a  fish  ( Chylomycterus  schrepji)  new  to  the  fauna  of  Nova 

Scotia.     By  H.  Piers 1 10 

Officers  for  1898-9,  xxii.     1899-1900,  xlvi.     1900-01,  Iviii.     1901-02,  xcviii 

Paris  exhibition,  Minerals  for.     By  E.  Gilpin,  jr.,  LL,  D 248 

Pasea,  C.  M. — On  a  relation  between  the  ionization  coefficients  of  electro- 
lytes, and  its  application  as  an  interpolation  formula.  (Title 

only)    xlix 

Periodic  law.     See  Rare  earths    Ixii 

Peter,  Rev.  Brother  Junian. — Exhibition  of  a  collection  of  dried  plants  from 

the  vicinity  of  Buffalo,  U.  S.  A Hi 

Pheriological  observations,  Canada,  1898.      By  A  H.  MacKay,  LL   D 91 

Phenological  observations,  Canada,  1899.      By  A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D 303 

(1)  Phenological  observations  of  Botanical  Club  of  Canada,  1900  ;  (2)  Ab- 
stract of  phonological  observations  of  flowering  of  ten  plants  in 
Nova  Scotia,  1900  ;  with  (3)  Remarks  on  their  phenochrons.  By 

A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D 379 

Phenological  observations  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Canada,  [1901]. — By  A.  H. 

MacKay,  LL.  D m 

Piers,  Harry. — Notes  on  Nova  Scotian  zoology  ;  no.  5.     (Title  only.)    xxxiv 

Observations  on  a  fish  (Chylomycterus  schcepfi)  new  to  the  fauna  of 

Nova  Scotia •  •       ll° 

Sketch  of  life  of  Andrew  Downs,  founder  of  first  zoological  garden  in 

America 

Sketch  of  life  of  J.  M.  Jones 

Plants,  Flowering  of.     See  Phenological  observations. 

Plants,  Labrador,  collected  by  W.  H.  Prest  north  of  Hamilton  Inlet,  June 

to  Aug.,  1901.     By  A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D  . . 
Poole,  Henry  S.,  F.  G.  S.,  F.  R.  S.  C.— Description  of  the  Davis  Calyx 

Drill.     (Titleonly.) 

Notes  on  a  Cape  Breton  mineral  [Hubnerite]  containing  Tungsten,  ar 

on  effect  of  washing  certain  Cape  Breton  coals. . . 
Notes  on  Dr.  Ami's  paper  on  Dictyonema  slates  of  Angus  Brook,  N 

Canaan  and  Kentville,  N.  S 

Notes  on  the  periodical  appearance  of  ants  in  a  chimney,  and 

unusual  site  for  a  humble-bee's  nest    

34o 

otigmana  structure < _ 

Worm  trails  in  slates  of  Halifax 


XXIV  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Portraits  :     Somers,    Dr.   J.,   op.  p.  i.      Gilpin,  Dr.  J.  B  ,  op.  p.  xxxv. 

Jones,  J.  M.,  op.  p.  liii.     Downs,  Andrew,  op.  p.  Ixxxiii. 
Post-Triassic  changes,  Records  of,  in  Kings  County,  N.  S.     By  Prof.  E. 

Haycock • 287 

Potassium  chloride  and  sulphate.     See  Barnes,  J 49 

Potassium  sulphate.     See  Archibald,  E.  H 33 

Presence  of  acid  sulphate  of  copper  in  mixtures  of  aqueous  solutions  of 

sulphuric  acid  and  copper  sulphate.      C.  F.  Lindsay 205 

President's  address  :  (1898,  A.  McKay),  i.     (1899,  A.  Mackay),  xxxv. 

(1900,  Dr.   A.  H.  MacKay),*liii.    (1901,  Dr.  A.  H.  MacKay),  Ixxxiv. 

Prest,  Walter  H  — Drift  ice  as  an  eroding  and  transporting  agent 333 

Labrador  plants  collected  by.     By  A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D 507 

Supplementary  notes  on  drift  ice  as  an  eroding  and  transporting  agent      455 
Prichard   (A.    H.    Cooper) —  Exhibition  of    Roman   coins    of    Provincial 

Museum Ixxxiii 

Progress  of  geological  investigation  in  Nova  Scotia.     ByR.  W.  Ells,  LL.  D.       433 

Rainfall  notes,  Nova  Scotia.     By  F.  W.  W.  Doane    399 

Rare  earths  :  their  scientific  importance  as  regards  the  periodic  law.    'By 

W.  H.  Magee,  Ph.  D Ixii 

Recent  developments   with  calyx  drill   in  Nictaux  iron  field.     By  D'A. 

Weatherbe    350 

Records  of  Post-Triassic  changes  in  Kings  County,  N.  S.      By  Prof.  E. 

Haycock 287 

Reid,  A.  P.,  M.  D. — Exhibition  and  explanation  of  a  model  of  a  sanatorium 

for  consumptives xxvii 

Report  of  librarian  (1897-8),  xv.  (1898-9),  xlii.   (1899-1900),  Iviii.  (1900-1), 

xcviii. 
Report  of  treasurer,  (1897-8),  xv.  (1898-9),  xli.   (1899-1900),  Iviii.  (1900-1), 

xcvii 

Report  on  Wolfville  Branch  of  the  Institute      By  Prof.  E.  Haycock    ....   xcviii 
Rigidity  of  vulcanized  indiarubber,  Variation  of,  with  tension      By  T.  C. 

Hebb 273 

Riversdale  formation.      See  Sub-divisions  of  Carboniferous  system  in  east- 
ern Canada.     By  H.  M.  Ami,  D.  Sc 162 

Robinson,  C.  B. — Early  intervale  flora  of  eastern  Nova  Scotia    502 

Rubber.     See  India-rubber. 

Russell,  Lee,  B  Sc      School-rooom  air xxi 

Sable  Island,   Freshwater  sponge  [ffeteromeyenia  macouni,  n.  sp.]  from. 

By  A.  H.  MacKay,  LL.  D 319 

School-room  air.     By  L.  Russell,  B  Sc xxi 

Science,  Position  of,  in  our  educational  system.     By  A.  McKay viii 

Smith,  Prof.  H.  W.,  B.  Sc.  —Rotation  of  crops.     (Title  only.) Ix 

The  Preservation  and  use  of  the  tops  of  turnips  and  other  root  crops. 

(Title  only.) Ix 

Smith,  Capt.  W.  H.,  death  of Ixxxiv 

Sodium  sulphate.    See  Archibald,  E.  H 33 


INDEX.  xxv 

PAGE 

Solutions.     See   Archibald,  R.    H.  ;    Barnes,  .T.  ;    Lindsay,  C.  F.  ;    Mac- 

Gregor,  J.  G. 

Somers,  John,  M.  D. — Obituary  notice  of.     By  A.  McKay in 

Sponge,  Fresh  water,  [ffeteromeyenia  macouni,  n   sp.]  from  Sable  Island. 

By  A.  H   MacKay,  LL.  D '      319 

Star-nosed  Mole  (Condylura  cristata),  its  breeding  habits,  etc.     By  \V.  L. 

Bishop 348 

Statistics  of    expenditure   and    consumption   in   Canada.     By   Prof.    J. 

Davidson    1 

Stigmaria  structure.     By  H.  S.  Poole   345 

Sub-divisions   of  Carboniferous  system   in  eastern   Canada,  with  special 

reference  to  position  of  Union  and  Riversdale  formations  of  Nova 

Scotia,  referred  to  Devonian  system  by  some  Canadian  geologists. 

By  H.  M.  Ami,  D.  Sc  162 

Sub-divisions  of  the  Carboniferous  system  of  eastern  Canada.     By  A.  H. 

MacKay,  LL.  D xlvii 

Sulphate  of  copper,  acid,  in  mixtures  of  aqueous  solutions  of  sulphuric  acid 

and  copper  sulphate.     C.  F.  Lindsay 205 

Sulphuric  acid,  solutions  of.     See  Barnes,  J 129 

Supplementary  notes  on  drift  ice  as  an  eroding  and  transporting  agent. 

ByW.  H.  Prest 455 

Tracks  [Ichtliyoidichnites acadien#i#,  n.  sp.]  from  fine-grained  silicious  mud- 
stones  of  Knoydart  formation  (Eo-Devonian)  of  Antigonish  Co  , 

N.  S.     By  H.  M.  Ami,  D.  Sc 330 

Treasurer's  report  (1897-8),  xv.    (1898-9),  xli.  (1899-1900),  Iviii.  (1900-01), 

xcvii. 

Trott,  Capt. ,  death  of Ivii 

Tungsten,   Notes  on  a  Cape  Breton  mineral  [Hiibnerite]  containing.     By 

H.  S.  Poole 245 

Union  and  Riversdale  formations  of  Nova  Scotia.     See  Sub-divisions  of 

Carboniferous  system  in  Eastern  Canada.     By  H.  M.  Ami,  D.  Sc        1(52 
Upper  Cambrian  age  of  Dictyonema  slates  of  Angus  Brook,  New  Canaan 

and  Keiitville,  N.  S.     H.  M.  Ami,  D.  Sc 447 

Variation  of  rigidity  of  vulcanized  indiarubber,   with  tension.     By  T.  C. 

Hebb  273 

Ventilation.     See  School-room  air. 

Viscosity  of  aqueous  solutions.     See  Barnes,  J 113 

Vulcanized  indiambber,  Variation  of  rigiditj'  of,  with  tension.      By  T.  C. 

Hebb 273 

See  also  India-rubber. 

Waghorne  Rev.  A.  C.,  death  of 1™ 

Washing  Cape  Breton  coals,  Notes  on  effect  of.     By  H.  S.  Hoole,  F.R.S.C.      '-'4.-, 
Weatherbe,    D'Arcy,    C.   E.—  Recent  developments  with   calyx  drill  in 

Nictaux  iron  field      •*•** 

Wolfville  branch  of  the  Institute,  Report  on.     By  Prof.  E.  Haycock  xcviii 

See  also  p.  cix . 
Worm  trails  in  slates  of  Halifax.     By  H.  S.  Poole  ^">:{ 


2797   4 


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