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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Bristol Naturalists’ Society

FOURTH SERIES, VOLUME VIII, 1935-1939

Epirep py H. W. TURNER, M.A., F.G.S8.
ASSISTED BY A COMMITTEE

a TM

Hl Oe

‘Rerum cognoscere causas.’—Virgil.

Authors alone are responsible for the accuracy of their articles.

Dates oF ISsuE

PartI - - 1st October, 1936 Part II - - 23rd August, 1937
Part III - 2nd September, 1938 PartIV - - 14th August, 1939

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
AT THE BURLEIGH PRESS, BRISTOL

1940

|
4 g
Pwat

‘a musers

5 0b. +2

INDEX
TO
FOURTH SERIES, VOLUME

Be rinites, Upper oe mote on development of
Annual] dinner. we a he
Audcent, H. L. F.

Bird-life on Barrow Gurney reservoirs i
Blackdown (Mendip), Heath Association on
moloy. G M. .. ue i ae bd
Botany, Bristol ..

Bracher, Miss Rose a

Bristol Channel, Biology of ..

Bristol Coalfield, Fossil Insects of

Carboniferous Limestone Series (Avonian) of Avon Gorge
Carboniferous Mollusca from Cae Som.
Caves, Natural and Artificial :
Chirocephalus diaphanus, moulting of

Council, Members of a :

Davis, H. H. aan

Dilks, TY. Bruce ..

Diptera— Bristol Insect “Fauna (additions to)
Donations (see Reports: Librarian)

Dundry Down, Ecological Survey of

Editorial .

Edmonds, H. O,

Erosion Levels in Bristol district
Exchange list

Farrington Gurney, boring for coal at
Gulls in Bristol district

Hamilton, J. E...
Heath, G. H.

Kellaway, G. A.
Kendall, O. D.

Lepidoptera from Leigh Woods
Lloyd, A. J. ;

Lloyd Morgan, Prof. C—obituary
Luckwill, L. C. ne

Matthews, L. Harrison ..
MecMurtrie, G. E. J.

joa —President
Meetings :
Annual and General
Exhibition
Field .

Melville Island Flowers
Members, Lists of
Mogg, G. :
Moore, L. R.

Nailsea Coalfield, Fossil shells from ..
Nicholson, Miss K. W. , we

Vil

23.

149,

176,

PAGE

250,

259,

"310,

130,
106, 181,

230,
262,

186,

210
387
209

330
348
479
389
348
474
429

29
217
169
114
368

394
460
209

479

28
128
402
141

220
99

468
348

223
497

435,
474
152:
348

- 438

, 252:
, 250:

, 387
387
5 Ry:

365
369
124
267

228
114

INDEX

PAGE
Obituaries : me sh te ie eG, Loe
Ornithological Notes, Bristol district. ad beri re, Ole 62, .394
Parnell, G. W. .. ve . ae te an 5, in Ge 47]
Peach, A. H. ay ay A ms Se ie i we = 435
Petasites fragrans a te: 3 cis 128
Portishead, Ecological study 0 of beach and dock .. ec ss Re ait
Presidential addresses ie A oh tes «a Blo 252
Pullen, O. J. ii i at ae rd Di ie ay = 348
Purchon, eset Bs vy iy Me ue Bie he a ay 311
Radstock Basin, Sequence and Structure of Ve = a es 267
Reports :
Biology Teachers’ Section beg e os es im 242, 380
Botanical Section .. Se mi a ae a 17, 143, 243% 381
Council f ie Ne 12, 138,42 289e 304
Delegate to British Association Meetings a a Me £3, 15)
Entomological Section et a BE 18, 144, 244, 382
Hield Section a ue ae Me ae oe 19, 145, 245, 383
Geological Section ee: he by rhe ae 21, 147, 248, 385
Hon; Librarian’s .. is uy a5 te 15, 140, 24%, 379
Hon. Treasurer’s .. ee i mi ae ba 14, 139,-240, 373
Ornithological Section ete a es si as 22, 148, 249, 386
Reviews .. o ae) es ek A a , 128 Soe 365
Reynolds, Prof. SWONE Tabs 6 sid ae Ars fg 29, 169
Rhetic and Lias of Bristol area a a8 a oe os is 223
Roper, Miss Ida M.—obituary fs ae of i: Fe si 26
Sandwith, Mrs. C. I. .. Ne a ar as .. La e295. So
Seavill, E. W. .. a at a Eo ae as ae Be 228
Skene, Prof. M. .. Seige ie ay te ee =i a5 Ay: 452
—President .. Be We x a ae Me 387
Smith, ‘Stanley ie i 7 a: bs a f 451
Sollas, Prof. W. J. —obituary . ue be hs ss eS, ap 153
Somerset, Coast of Be Bis os ae oe 4 ae 186, 497
Speedwell Pit .. ay hs a = = 306
Stapleton (Notes and Memories, 1935) ae af 3 Pe an (124
Steep Holm, a Survey of ae 334 ae Me ve: ee Br 438
Metley,. EH. ay uF re ay ~ we 99, 104, 330, 464
Thompson, H. a se ae ie ati bas ie “a at 365
"Trueman, Prof. A. E. .. an ais iA x, ah .. £21; 220, 402
Tussilago fragrans Se ee ey aD os aa ae ae 128
‘Vaughan, A. mes ae a a BY ve Me a af 29
Waders in Bristol district as ne ae ay a sa aes 106
Wallis, F. S. a f at be i is ms ye 217, 429
Warne, L. G. G. aes Bi ws ie a. 306
Weather Movements in Bristol!” area, "1935 ay ie ais a a 104
Winford, Boring near .. st As; ee a + a 23 121
Wa Cc: ae oe tee a, am aH si bin 210
Yonge, Prof. C. M. ie ve hit Ae sie a aw 310, 474

_ FOURTH SERIES, VOLUME VIII PRICE FOUR SHILLINGS
| PART I :

1935

PROCEEDINGS

th | OF THE

Bristol Naturalists’ Society

EpItED By H. W. TURNER, M.A., F.G:S. | v4

gent S ERT PANO EEL EEE cma oe

_ ASSISTED BY A COMMITTEB 700002 jog 5.07

“Rerum cognoscere causas.”—Virgil.

Hi.

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
AT THE BURLEIGH PRESS, BRISTOL

MCMXXXVI

FOURTH SERIES, VOLUME VIII PRICE FOUR SHILLINGS
PART I

1935

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Bristol Naturalists’ Society

EDITED By H. W. TURNER, M.A., F.G.S.

ASSISTED BY A COMMITTEE

re 7
ui a | 3
Mia K al iw

amp
|

i VY] yf ones

‘‘Rerum cognoscere causas.’’—Virgil.

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
AT THE BURLEIGH PRESS, BRISTOL

MCMXXXVI

N.B.—AUTHORS ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR
THE ACCURACY OF THEIR ARTICLES.

hao

Bristol Naturalists’ Society’s Proceedings

Fourth Series, Vol. VIII, Part I.

ERRATA

Page 19 (seventh paragraph): for “ Rose Bay Willow ” read “ Rose-
Bay Willowherb.”

| Page 27 (last line): for “Sir Roland Austin” read “ Mr. Roland

Austin, M.A., F.S8.A.”
Pace 97 (lime 19): for “feet” read ~ inches.”
Page 97 (last line): for “ tracks” read “ packs.”

Page 128 (line 2): The names “ White ” and “ Bentham and Hooker ”
respectively refer to the fact that these plants appear under those
names in White’s Flora of Bristol and Bentham and Hooker’s
Handbook of the British Flora, 7th Edition.

Page 128 (Review): for “ Lower Lias ” read “ Lower Silurian.”

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOURTH SERIES, VOL. VIII, PART I, 1935

Council for 1935

List of Members

Report of Council oe

Report of Delegate to British pee etion Mestre 1935

Hon. Treasurer’s Statement

Hon. Librarian’s Report

Report of Botanical Section

Report of Entomological Section

Report of Field Section

Report of Geological Section

Report of Ornithological Section oe

Account of Annual and General Meetings

Ida M. Roper (1865-1935), by H. S. T.

Editorial : ane a 5a oe < ae ai

The Carboniferous eee Series (Avonian) of ie Avon Gorge,
by the late Arthur Vaughan, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Presidential Address, 1935, by G. E. J. McMurtrie

Gulls in the Bristol District, by H. Tetley, B.Sc., F.Z.S.

Weather Movements in the Bristol Area, 1935, by H. ques B. cc >
F.Z.S. A aioe slate

Waders in the Bristol District, $e HL H. ‘Davis :

The Moulting of in rouse diaphanus, ee K. W. Niehaleoa
M.Sc. if :

Bristol Botany in 1935, Be Cecil L Sandwith a on

Note on a Boring near Winford, Somerset, es A. E. ences
Sc. E.G.S. ae sae

Notes and Memories, 1935 (Sesicton), By G. aoe a

Scented Coltsfoot on Portway—a Query, by H. O. Edmonds

Review

104
106

114
117

121
124
128
128

All Books, Pamphlets, Reports of Proceedings sent by way of exchange,
gift or otherwise, and all correspondence relating thereto should be addressed

to :—-
Hon. LIBRARIAN, BRISTOL Nat. Soc.,
THE MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY,
BRISTOL, 8.

COUNCIL FOR 1935

OFFICERS :
PRESIDENT 3

G. E. J. MCMURTRIE,
Eastfield House, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

PAST PRESIDENTS ¢
Prof. C., LLOYD MORGAN, LL D., Fikes) 2G:

ETOr oy OUNG, DSc.) Hels: JAMES RAFTER, M.A.
Sir ERNEST COOK, D.Sc. A, L. FLEMMING, M82 ChB.
Miss IDA M. ROPER, F.L.S. J. W. TUICHERK, Sise;

HM. WOMERSLEY, F.R.ES., A.L.S. F. S. WALLIS, Diseye es:
VICE-PRESIDENT S =
Pies, WALLIS, D.Sc. F:G:S: jJ. H. SAVORY.
HON. TREASURER:
F. W. EVENS, A.C.A., Stretton, Manor Road, Fishponds, Bristol.
HON] AU DILORS:;
Sir ERNEST COOK, D.Sc. CHARLES BARTLETT, F.C.A.
HON. SECRETARY;
Miss M. D. HILEY, 16 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton, Bristol, 8.
HON. LIBRARIAN:
J. V. PEARMAN, F.R.E.S.
HON. EDITOR =
H. W. TURNER, M.A., F.G.S., The University, Bristol, 8.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS :
BOTANICAL:
President—Prof. MACGREGOR SKENE, D.Sc., F.L.S., The University,
Bristol, 8.
Hon. Secretary—F. F. GLASSPOOL, M.Sc., F.C.S., 6 Southfield Road,
Cotham, Bristol, 6.

ENTOMOLOGICAL :
President—CHARLES BARTLETT, F.R.E.S., 8 Woodhill, Portishead,
Somerset.
Hon. Secretary—CHARLES BARTLETT, F.R.E.S., 8 Woodhill, Portishead,
Somerset. —
JN BES DS

President—F. S. WALLIS, D.Sc., F.G.S., 1 Alma Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8.
Hon. Secretary—Miss M. D. HILEY, 16 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton, Bristol, 8.

GEOLOGICAL:

President—Prof. A. E. TRUEMAN, D.Sc., F.G.S., The University, Bristol, 8.
Hon. Secretary—H. C. SHILSTONE, 124 Victoria Avenue, Redfield, Bristol, 5.
ORNITHOLOGICAL:

Presideni—J. H. SAVORY, Windyridge, Abbots Leigh, nr. Bristol.
Hon. Secretary—H. TETLEY, B.Sc., F.Z.S., 4 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9.

OTHER MEMBERS OF COUNCIL :

HF. BARKE, iC, W. R. TAYUOR, SL)
DoW. dT, BAXTER, MUAY VBisc H. VICARS WEBB.
Fon. DISHOER, Prof. C. M. YONGE} Bise2

A.—Associate Member.

Boe Ts

LIST OF MEMBERS

AT DECEMBER 3lst

J.—Junior Member.

1935

* Has contributed papers to the Proceedings.
Sectional Membership is indicated by letters following each name, viz. :
B.—Botanical; E£.—Entomological; F.—Field ; G.—Geological ; O.—Orni-
thological.

Adams. S. B., Ph.D.........
Alexander, D. A., M.D.

AAILGS O12 2S rr
mudeent,/ bi. 1. F. .........

Badock, Stanley H., LL.D.
baker, 3B. A., F.G.S. ......
Peete Gos. cs ccieecevees
Balfour-Browne, Prof. F.,

NO OU ERT. sccccscceses
Barke, EH. F., F.1.C. ......
RSAC UIVIT GY, ve cacdesecceas
Barker, Ni. H. S. ......00.
ieatmest, SO. EL. G. .....200.
Barnett, AVS ats e ciieeteriey < Sts
Bartlett, Chas., F.C.A.,

PIRES: | co asiececoaecsct ess
Baxter, T. V.T.,M.A., B.Sc.
iseacmaim, G. He ......c.c0e.
Beer, Miss E. E. M., B.Sc.

elinsi A. Ge voce ecssceee

ON PG caescneeescees ss
OLN AM IVITSH: - oicsivieneie's secvd sens
Bowen, Miss E. M., B.Sc. ..
Bowland, if Mae sees eie ssc

Bracher, Miss Rose, Ph.D.
Mem WVIESS) IVE cece cecdccees

Butterworth, Miss D.G. ...

19 Charlotte Street, Park Street,
Bristol, 1

112 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Hensol, Brookvale Road, W.
Cross, Swansea

45 Belvoir Road, St. Andrews,
Bristol, 6

Holmwood, Westbury-on-Trym,
Bristol

23 Alexandra Park, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Glen Farm, Abbots Leigh, Som.

Winscombe Court, Som.

34 Park Row, Bristol, l

34 Park Row, Bristol, 1

Wills Hall, Stoke Bishop,
Bristol, 9

2 Lhe Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9

2 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9

8 Woodhill, Portishead

25 Clyde Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

18 Raglan Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

15 Selworthy Road, Knowle,
Bristol, 4

25 St. Michael’s Park, Bristol, 2

120 City Road, Bristol, 2

43 Elton Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Dyrham Rectory, Chippenham

508 Stapleton Road, Bristol

13. Whatley Road, _ Clifton,
Bristol, 8

12 Berkeley Road, Bishopston,
SEISCON, 17

The University, Bristol, 8

20 Cornwallis Crescent, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

31 Bedminster Down Road,
Bristol, 3

Oe sO Sty a Wo) fi 9) Oo)
S|
D

t—Life Member.

Gis)

2
on

LIST OF MEMBERS

ChamiberlaimeyW .ivvics ces seeek 157 Whiteladies Road, Bristol, 8

CICE VERS VEG 0d. halen ne 80 Beauley Road, Southville,
Bristol,i3

Clement; Miss-L. Hi sain 6 Beryl Grove, West Town
Lane, Knowle, Bristol, 4

Clotnier; (Gs ccc seisahio teehee The Research Station, Long
Ashton, Bristol

Cloweh, Miss) A Moy eee ce. 30 Henleaze Avenue, Bristol

Clone Ai Yea Wey Oaleowese mene Bourton House, Flax Bourton,
near Bristol

Clowes IMIS 3.5. aesneaneeninns Bourton House, Flax Bourton,
near Bristol

Cockram, Miss; G. is. 2c. acan 350 Causeway, Fishponds

Coombs):C.. J. 0. 7s as 14 Southfield Road, Westbury-
on-Trym

Coombs Bu vr ee eeeer Oakdene, Coniston Avenue,
Coombe Dingle, Bristol, 9

Cottle; *Ak kW ee ee 17 Blenheim Road, Durdham
Park, Bristol, 6

Cratchley, Rev. W. J., 176 Chessel Street, Ashton Gate,
MeA“ a.5c.. ECs. Bristol, 3
Crofton, Wass KC, Weve. esac Badminton School, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol

Daniels; 1) iG: Seen Stringer’s Court, Rodborough,
Stroud, Glos.
Darel VR Dy Sy aeG.o.:

EES SE NZS Nee ceee ere ee Hillfield House, near Dartmouth

Mavyies bey.) oo eee ae Down House, Stoke Bishop,
Bristol, 9

AAS, ced ET Ao eoc wean tra saee Little Stoke, Patchway, near
Bristol

ND ANAS ETSI eae cting aaeicet a Little Stoke, Patchway, near
Bristol

Wass Mervyn J. le. fu... 8 Osborne Road, Clifton, -
Bristol, 8

Dawas MISS IM ck se. ces ese oe 17 New Brunswick Avenue,
Kingsway, St. George
Bristol, 5

IDamSeuMGSS MEN sh ocos ene vecie e's 109 Forest Road, Fishponds,
Bristol

VB Yoo] oy ole Rat CSV. Ae Ria ii] aes ae 12 Eaton. Crescent, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Dunscombe, Miss A. ...... c /o Lloyds Bank, Redland, Bristol

Ea@dolls Miss) Be Sieiaese.. 32 Freemantle Road, Eastville,
Bristol, 5

Io GImMOnds) Ta VOe, cesiee sin etiet 33 Wellington Park, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

EN daviards Gren rode cei cus eicielere 50 Elton Road, SBishopston,
Bristol, 7

NaS NV Ce IR IND A iiss Knoyle, Stratton-on-the-Fosse,
near Bath

EVANS OME WW ieee ocad acces tee ce 46 Horfield Road, St. Michael’s,
Bristol, 2

Bens. iB Wi CACC TAU ei. Stretton, Manor Road, Fish-
ponds, Bristol

Parmer: ViSSoie iy. vue tess ec 32 West Mall, Clifton, Bristol, 8

zymes! VINA, ascieiasleeieine 17 St. Martin’s Road, Knowle,

Bristol, 4

"1S SO BiG So ao a a

29 os oo hy ty

Se a

LIST OF MEMBERS

Flemming, A. L., M.B., 48 Pembroke Road, Clifton,

DUM cic sic ccsccscvscceccuccs Bristol, 8
MG INDP EL ......5.05.0.00008 Hartfield, Cotham Park, Bristol
20) (US eee Brislington House, near Bristol
fey vliss.Lena E............. 20 Hill View, Henleaze, Bristol
eomaner, DP). A: ....cscceees 17 Northfield Market, Horfield,
Bristol, 7
Glasspool, F. F., M.Sc., 6 Southfield Road, Cotham,
B_C.S. Bristol, 6

Goodall, Rev. Canon R. W. 19 Elmdale Road, Tyndalls

Park, Bristol, 8

Gemtam, Major A. .....2.:. Avonside, Limpley Stoke, Som.

Gowan, Miss J. BE. .....s065 26 Woodstock Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Green, Mrs. M. B., L.L.A. Dyrham, nr. Chippenham, Wilts.

teensy 1. B.SC. fee.ccess The University, Bristol, 8

Sei soso) 0 NE The University, Bristol, 8

ateMOn, PVUISS ....0s.cceceeee 41 Filton Avenue, Horfield,
Bristol, 7

Haviam iA. D., D.Phil.,

BACs, EF .G.S. 6.4055 Stogursey, near Bridgwater

Pavimam: Mrs. Hh. S. .......6. 3 Chatford House, Clifton Down,
Bristol, 8

fallow iss M.D. ......0.. 16 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Eitey, iss W. F.. .......05 16 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

RUMSOC.) | etc wecesoees 6 Cotham Terrace, Bristol, 6

Hooper, Miss C. L.......... 3 Westbourne Place, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

IPie@rsell Diss MM. ........000 14 Rivers Street, Bath

Pipasom, BF. G. oc. .Tksciee The Elms, Stinchcombe, Durs-
ley, Glos.

EMC SOM YP. cacssceeseneees c/o Mrs. Jones, 10 North Street,
Lewes, Sussex

Bumphnes; Lady ......i.. Eastfield Lodge, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol

Peampidge; Fl. Ti ......... 6 Manilla Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Neimbs Wass Tl. (A. acdc scccees 7 Alpha Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3

PUBS ars! VV 6 SL ascii scs ence 34 Upper Belgrave Road,
Clifton, Bristol, 8

PAGS EU IVETS. os osc ececcseccees 34 Upper Belgrave Road,

Clifton, Bristol, 8
Hutchinson, G. W., M.A.... Williscot, Winscombe, Som.

Hutchinson, Miss M. I....... 57 Oakfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Hutton, Miss H. M., F.G.S. The Manor, Dursley, Glos.
ISS) (1 2 eee a 18 Alexandra Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
| DOOR EN Cree en 65 Fremantle Road, Cotham,
Bristol, 6
Jeffcoat, Rev. R., M.A. ... 5 Berkeley Square, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Jenkins, F. G., M.B., Ch.B. 51 Redcliff Hill, Bristol, 1

E-E.GO:

E.LF.G.

LIST OF MEMBERS

ORES) NV LIME Osea se seece od os 3 Imperial Walk, Knowle,
Bristol, 4

ones y MTS.) eves le seve 3 Imperial Walk, Knowle,
Bristol, 4

Kearns, H. G. H., Ph.D., The Research Station, ieeue

Bisc. BUR.ES. Ashton, Bristol

ella aay, MG A aces sinew 125 Howard Road, Westbury
Park, Bristol, 6

GOMER OA | Soci cleceec ess eee 45 Summerleaze, Fishponds,
Bristol

Landon, Miss O. M., B.A. 16 Cheddon Road, Taunton,
Som.

TOCA CN PAO so iciclaweedeediees 11 Percival Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

London, Miss G. M. ...... 26 Woodcroft Avenue, White-
hall, Bristol, 5

Orel Gin OE MSc cede ce dale ve 24 Islington Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3

Lucas, H. J., F.S.L., 4 Walcot Parade, Bath

Howie. (Cot eos aenceee 36 Lower KRedland Road,
Bristol, 6

Macdonald, Di .....cecce0e Binden, Station Road, Nailsea,
Som.

Macpherson, Miss B. B. ... 14 Victoria Square, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Madkins, W. E., B.A., Fairfield Secondary School,

F.R.G.S. Bristol

JY fe iyo) Ove ee o> AD Yh REA I 100 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Marsden, A., F.L.Ce -...08 161 Bishop Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Mans@en IMTS. vices sch <n 161 Bishop Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Mathews, P. M. ........000. Wharfedale, Pulteney Road,
Bath

Matthews, L.H., M.A. ... 2 Adelaide Terrace, Portishead

Miascwell Ta OW. voce swe sees 10a Downfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Wiasxwellt IMITS.« wslscber de ceunse 10a Downfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

McErvel, Miss N. ....;.... Westonbirt School, near Tet-
bury, Glos.

MceMurtrie, G. E. J. ...... Eastfield House, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol

McMurtrie, Mrs. ..........0- Eastfield House, Westbury-on-

Trym, Bristol
Merryweather, Miss M. D. 11 St. John’s Road, Clifton,

Bristol, 8

IVES a IVES ci ot cgoucieees severe Winfrith House, Stoke Hill,
Bristol, 9

Woetord))C. se. s.cstet es. once 13 Park Grove, Westbury Park,
Bristol, 6

Oa (GA nannsagsansnne sdsacde 483 Fishponds Road, Bristol

Morley, Miss VAP chi eeene ees 17 The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol, 8

IVORTAS MDs Ge on Seal emiecce ee Clifton Zoological Gardens,
Clifton, Bristol, 8

Morrison, Miss A.M.C. ... 8 Richmond Hill, Clifton,

Bristol 8

Set

OM we Se

Boa. i Se SS) Shy nO

omm

oo 1300 as

Nettle, Miss E. C.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Ser tore Sots 70 ‘Trymside, Sea Mills,
Bristol, 9 O.

REA ARE 3 Beaufort Road, Kingswood,
Bristol

Nicholson, Miss K. W., 71 Woodland Road, Tyndalls

M.Sc. Park, Bristol, 8
PeerOVe, J. VW. ..0.-ccccere 22 Alma Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8 E.
bol) 1 a ae 63 Springfield Road, Cotham,
Bristol, 6
ipPacerson, Miss J. E. ...... Badminton School, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol F.G,
Paterson, Miss K. M. Noel... Windyridge, Greendale Road,
Redland, Bristol, 6 O.
helt 8s eee 5 Hanbury Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 EB.
Peel Ae NL OH. cist ccces ees 5 Hanbury Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 O.
Pearman, J. V., F.R.E.S..... 56 Clifton Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 EE.
emperel, NTS. .... 55. ce.seee 16 Westfield Park, Redland,
Bristol, 6 G.
otter, Mass E. A. ....ce00- Westonbirt School, near Tet-
bury, Glos. O.
Bowe fe i.; MED. ......00 2 Gloucester Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7 G.
race viSs DD. Lu... cccsssces 1 Hughenden Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 Ber:
Preston, iss G. J. ......... Stapleton Road Gas Works,
Bristol, 5 F,
2g BO Or 228 Shirehampton Road, West-
bury-on-Trym, Bristol
12500 18 Stackpool Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3 B.F.G.
eee NMG ING .dacsacdSeecises 18 Stackpool Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3 EG:
eS sacs secsenesess 4 Upper Belmont Road, Bishops-
ton, Bristol, 7 F.
Reynolds, Prof. S. H., 13 All Saints’ Road, Clifton,
Se.D., &.G.S. Bristol, 8 G.
JEQISI DE igd Cas C2 ae eee Pensylva, Cecil Road, Weston-
super-Mare E.G:
Rachardson, Prank ........+ 21 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 G.
itose, Miss: Py M. | .....0.< Oaklands, Grange Court Road,
Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol BoP.
Ross, F. Stenhouse ......... 25 Tugela Road, Uplands Estate,
Bristol, 3 G.
feess, james, FLA. ........- Central Library, Bristol, 1
inidee, Miss D. M. ......05 6 Elgin Park, Bristol, 6
Puce, Miss (EK. L.. ........ 6 Elgin Park, Bristol, 6
ieueper, Wiss JE. M. .......0. Cambridge House School, St.
John’s Road, Clifton, Bristol,8 B.
Srmond, PP. W. . ..rccccedess 22 Tyndalls Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 BG:
BeaOnad, Mrs: .........cccees 22 Tyndalls Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 F.G.
Samepson, Miss D.. ......... 5 Hatherley Gardens, Crouch

End, London, N.8

LIST OF MEMBERS

Sanders, Miss L. M.

SanGdwitoyiMirs cee se. oe. ase

Selley, A.
Shiai. wIVIISS nlc, Seat oe eicos done ca
Shield, E. H.

eeeeeeeceeeeeseseoeece

eeecereeseccecce

Shilstone, H. C.

eeceesescececce

shEmpron, Dy Be. biel <i
Skene, Prof.
ID WSci, SEES.
smith, A. J:
Smith, Miss N. G.

Macgregor,

eececsececececeees

Smith, Stanley, M.A.,D.Sc.,
BAGS.

eeereeeeeseeseeseseee

MICO MNES. WV. ho Sskee sees
DE ATIET iii! iets cnccisiedaa'e sds acs
SLALLOM AGG. Gcescecccdssees

Strudwick, Miss F. E., M.A.
SOUT 115 be RR ea ear

Tarring, E.

Taunton, W. C.

eoeoeesoscee

Maylor; Miss EF. M. .........

Taylor,

Maylor; WR. MCA. ......
shebley 041, SC.. IZ.9.....
MC tle NAMES Es oeth te tseeacens
Thomas, Miss K. M., N.F.U.
ihnomas, Richard 3. ...3.4...
Thompson, H. S., A.L.S. ...
Tombleson, F. B.

Trueman, Prof. A. E., D.Sc.

GS Fe cet ental Meera OL,
Trueman, Mrs. A. E.
MRICS EC MRI Re oe meeatse’

Turner, H. W., M.A., F.G.S.
dainier: Vins? Tas WV ee eoeete

Redroofs, Downs Cote Park,
Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol
26 Canynge Square, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Windyridge,
near Bristol

Wills Hall, Stoke Bishop, Bristol

116 Coronation Road, Bristol, 3

12c Kingsdown Parade, Bristol,6

78 Sefton Park Road, Bishops-
ton, Bristol, 7

124 Victoria Avenue, Redfield,
Bristol, 5

172 Brynland Avenue, Bishops-
ton, Bristol, 17

Abbots _ Leigh,

The University, Bristol, 8

175 Cheltenham Road, Bristol, 6

36 Henley Grove, Henleaze,
Bristol

The University, Bristol, 8

Greenhills, Redclittfe
Portishead,

Endcliffe, Henbury, nr. Bristol

2 Auburn Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

26 Woodstock Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Elmside, Julian Road, Stoke
Bishop, Bristol, 9

Mimosa, 196 Bishop’ Road,
Bristol, 7

36 Egerton Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

29 St. Oswald’s Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

12 Claremont Avenue, Bishops-
ton, Bristol, 7

Bay,

5 Pembroke Vale, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

4 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9

17 Upper Belgrave Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

131 Cumberland Road, Red-
cliff, Bristol, 1

11 Buckingham Place, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Shirley, Briercliffe Road,
Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol

The University, Bristol, 8

44 Redland Court Road, Bristol, 6

5 Beaufort Buildings, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

The University, Bristol, 8

Mortimer House, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

ee
a

he 2 S mh & my yy WHOS wy
ep)

LIST OF MEMBERS

weetuemer, J. W., M.Sc. ......

Veal, Mrs. G. C.

A. Verhey, Miss D., B.Sc.
Vizard, Miss E. S.

A. Waight, Miss F.

eeceerseeeee

Waight, Miss R.

mmewvallis) B. S., D.Sc., F.G.S.
Webb, H. M., B.Sc.

eooeeeeece

Webb, H. Vicars

eooeeeceoe

Weetman, Miss M. J.

Wheeler, Miss

White, E. Barton, M.D.,
F.R.E.S.

White, Mrs. E. Barton

*# iy

eeecoeseseseeoe

Pe micorey ES! TR. cok cece
t Wills, W. Melville .........
PSOreOLe, CF. Wi. cc. de eee c es
MV G@olcotty Mis. ..:..3....c0.0-

A
A
A. Wools, Miss F. R.
A

Wynne-Edwards, V. C.,

B.A
Wonge, Prof,€. M:, D.Sc. .
me Zealand, Mrs. H: W..........

57 Berkeley Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Lower Hazel House, Rudgeway,
nr. Bristol

Stanmore House, Royal Crescent,
Weston-super-Mare

25 Logan Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Beeches, Kewstoke Road,
Bristol, 9

1 Alma Road, Bristol, 8

15 Rylestone Grove, Stoke

Bishop, Bristol, 9
58 Belmont Road, St. Andrew’s,
Bristol, 6
60° Ashley Road, Bristol, 6
Watchet, Som.

Mental Hospital, Fishponds,
Bristol
Mental Hospital, Fishponds,
Bristol
Stoke Hill Cottage, Stoke

Bishop, Bristol, 9

Bracken Hill, Leigh Woods,
Bristol

The Wabe, Hill View, Henleaze,
Bristol

5 Hamilton Road, Easton,
Bristol, 5
McGill University, Montreal,
Canada

The University, Bristol, 8

Brecon Lodge, Westbury-on-

Trym, Bristol

GD OB

Honorary Members
Put, ©. Lloyd Morgan, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 23 Elphinstone

Hastings.

See

R. M. Prideaux, F.R.E.S., Brasted Chart, near Sevenoaks, Kent.
Prot. H..5. Hele Shaw, M.1.C.E., LL.D.; F.R.S., 64 Victoria Street, West-

minster, S.W.1.

Se ea ie ae oes

Road

Prof. W. J. Sollas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., University Museum,

Oxford.

Prof. Sydney Young, D.Sc., F.R.S., The Ferns, Stoke Bishop, Bristol, 9.
Sir Ernest Cook, D.Sc., 40 Alma Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8.
H. Womersley, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., 36 Wattle Street, Fullerton Estate, Adelaide,

S. Australia.

REPORT OF COUNCIL
TO DECEMBER 31st
1935

T so often happens that nations, societies and individuals move in calm

waters for such long periods that they completely forget not only the

disadvantages of rough seas, but also the advantages of the quiet and
smoothness of still waters. The year 1935 has been one of many changes
and unrest for the Society.

In June, your Society suffered an irreparable loss by the death of Miss
Ida M. Roper, F.L.S., who had been an official for such a long period that
many members cannot remember the Society apart from her cheery presence.
For the past 19 years she had held the offices of Hon. Secretary and Librarian ;
_ she was its efficient Editor until 1934; she was the first and only woman
President ; and only those who have been intimately connected with her
know the untiring zeal and energy with which she pursued any matter that
was for the well-being of the Society. It is no exaggeration to say that
since the Great War she had devoted at least half her life to the Society,
and members, both individually and collectively, sincerely mourn her death.
The Society was fully represented at the funeral, and a scheme is to be
launched early in 1936 which will serve as a memorial to her memory.

During the early part of the year, Miss T. Shaw kindly undertook the
duties of Acting Hon. Secretary and Librarian, and the Society is deeply
indebted to her for all the work which she carried out during that period.
Miss Roper officially resigned in March when Miss M. D. Hiley was appointed
Hon. Secretary, and Mr. J. V. Pearman became Hon. Librarian.

In January, Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie was elected President, and with his
business instincts he quickly secured the appointment of a Reorganisation
Committee so that the pioneer work of the late Professor O. V. Darbishire
should be consolidated and new members obtained. This Committee, with
the approval of Council, has carried out a programme of wider publicity
for the activities of the Society, and has prepared a leaflet which briefly
states the organisation, advantages, and types of membership. It is
gratifying to note that a small but steady response to the work of this Com-
mittee has been obtained. The same Committee has completely revised
the rather out-of-date rules and these will be presented to the Annual General
Meeting in 1936.

The summer meeting of the Society was, according to custom, under the
auspices of the officers of the Field Section. A delightful run in northern
Somerset brought the members to the charming Orchardleigh Church. After
tea the never-failing interests of Vallis Vale occupied the attention of members
and their friends.

At the Open Meeting, an entirely new departure was undertaken by the
exhibition of natural history films. A crowded house denoted the popularity
of this venture, and your Society is indebted to Professors Macgregor Skene
and C. M. Yonge for their running comments, and to Mr. T. V. T. Baxter
for his excellent scheme of publicity.

REPORT OF COUNCIL 13

The chief guest at the Annual Dinner was Dr. A. B. Rendle, F.R.S.,
who delighted the members and their friends by an informal talk concerning |
his botanical work in Bermuda and St. Helena.

The Sections still continue to hold their Open Meetings, but the limited
attendance of other members necessitates a complete review of the position
by Council in the near future.

The work of the old Publications Committee has been absorbed
into the wider sphere of the Publications and Library Committee. The
annual publication of the Society is now known under the abbreviated title
of Proceedings, and Council would congratulate the Editor, Mr. H. W. Turner,
on the excellence of his first annual part.

M. D. HILEY, Hon. Secretary.

Report of Delegate to British Association
Meetings
1935

HAD the honour to represent the Bristol Naturalists’ Society at the
meetings of the British Association held at Norwich in September, 1935.
Although the attendance was not so high as is usual when meetings are

held in more densely populated districts, the Norwich meeting was a great
success in many ways, and members warmly appreciated the attractions.
of Norfolk.

At the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies, the most
important matter was contained in the address by the President, Professor
P. G. H. Boswell, D.Sc., F.R.S., who spoke on “‘ The Preservation of Sites.
of Scientific Interest in Town and Country Planning.’’ In particular, he
asked delegates to draw the attention of the Societies which they represented
to the fact that the Ministry of Health has given opportunity to scientific
societies (through the British Association) to advise as to when action ought
to be taken to preserve sites of scientific interest or natural beauty. The
areas in which planning schemes are proposed are notified to the British
Association, but effective action can only be taken when local societies supply
information regarding sites. We are, therefore, urged once more to begin
“the compilation of a list of sites and objects of exceptional botanical,
zoological or geological character,’ and to communicate the results at frequent
intervals to the central office of the Association. Such a reference list will
thus be available for consultation as each scheme of planning is notified ;
where necessary the Association will then consult with experts on the panel
already drawn up for the purpose. It is not advice as to nature reserves
that is invited by the Ministry. Professor Boswell instanced certain old
gravel and clay pits of great geological and archeological interest in Norfolk:
as suitable objects for preservation.

A. E. TRUEMAN.

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LIBRARIAN’S REPORT

FOR THE YEAR 1935

N the resignation of the late Miss Roper, the care of the library was

undertaken by Miss T. E. Shaw, and the Society is deeply indebted

to her for clearing up much of the disorder that had resulted irom
a number of causes. In March, Mr. J. V. Pearman agreed to accept office
as librarian, subject to certain limitations.

During the year there have been one hundred and six borrowings of
books for home reading. No figures are available of the number of visits

for reference purposes only.
Gifts of books have been received from Miss A. Morley and Mr. L. Harrison
Matthews, and the thanks of the Society have been conveyed to the donors.

An exchange was effected with Professor J. W. Carr of Nottingham,
who desired to receive a number of parts of our Proceedings to complete
the series he was presenting to University College, Nottingham. In return,
he has sent bound copies of his ‘‘ Invertebrate Fauna of Nottinghamshire ”’
and the ‘‘ Supplement ’’ thereto.

The annual volumes of the Ray Society and of the Zoological Record,
for which this Society subscribes, have been received, and the usual exchange
of publications with British and foreign societies and institutions has been
made.

As hitherto, the Entomological, Geological and Ornithological Sections
have presented the leading journals dealing with their respective interests.

Under the bequest of the late Miss I. M. Roper, several books from her
library have been received. These will shortly become available for con-
sultation and will be of especial interest to the Botanical Section.

The condition of the library is, in many respects, not so satisfactory as
could be desired.

There is need for up-to-date works on various subjects. In 1923 Council
was able to make a grant of £30 for the purchase of volumes for which a
demand had arisen in the Sections, but since then no funds have been available
for restocking, and additions of books, other than periodicals, have been due
to the generosity of individual members.

On the other hand, the influx of scientific periodicals and memoirs received
from societies and institutions to which we send our Proceedings shows no
abatement, and it is becoming difficult to find shelf-room for them. Apart
from their monetary worth, which exceeds the cost of our part of the exchange,
these publications, in their subject matter, form a very valuable part of our
library. But their value is diminished if they cannot be made readily available
to members by being properly bound and displayed. The provision of
additional shelving will have to be considered seriously in the near future.

r 1936

ie )
NOV 4

16 LIBRARIAN’S REPORT

Bookbinding is much in arrear ; over two hundred volumes await binding.
For many years past most of the expense of binding has been met by donations
from members, particularly the late Mr. Horace Gummer. These funds
are now exhausted, and a means of replenishing them should be found.

Stocktaking, re-arrangement and re-cataloguing are all desirable. The
general manuscript catalogue is complete and comprehensive, but the entries
are becoming crowded. A classification under subject headings, in addition
to the orthodox arrangement under authors’ names, would facilitate reference
to the books. The card index, on which much labour was expended, has been
compiled on mistaken lines and is practically useless.

Now that a standing Library Committee is in being, it will be possible for
better consideration to be given to the improvement of conditions. But the
primary needs are for increased financial aid and for the services of a self-
sacrificing librarian who can find time to devote, not only to the current
routine of his office, but also to the labours of re-organisation, which the
present locum-tenens is unable to do.

J. V. PEARMAN, Hon. Librarian.

REPORT OF BOTANICAL SECTION

1935

HE Section has continued to hold monthly meetings on the third
Monday in each month, except August, in the Botanical Department of
the University.

Professor M. Skene was elected President, and Mrs. Bell was invited
to occupy the chair at meetings in the place of Miss Roper, who resigned
on account of ill-health.

The number of members has been maintained and now stands at 29.
The practice of having short papers during the winter, when the number
of exhibits is lower than in the summer, has been continued.

At the February meeting, Mr. Glasspool dealt with Biblical Plants, and
this was followed by an account of the Flora of present-day Palestine by
Dr. Druce, published in the Report of the Botanical Society and Exchange
Club, 1925. This latter account was read by Mrs. Bell.

“Liverworts ’”’ formed the subject of the paper given by Miss Bowen
at the March meeting. Fresh and mounted specimens were exhibited and
prepared microscope slides were shown by means of the micro-projector.

During the summer, the exhibits were sufficiently numerous to occupy the
whole of the meetings, and short papers were not re-introduced until 21st
October, when the first of the Open Sectional Meetings was held. Of the
eighteen members present, only three were visitors from other sections.

Short papers were given and were illustrated by fresh and dried specimens,
diagrams and photographs. The papers given were as follow :-—

Mrs. Sandwith: Unprincipled Plants.

Mr. Evans: Reseda.

Miss Bowen: Lycopodium.

Mrs. Bell: Woiffia.

Mr. Luckwill: The Ecology of Blackdown.

A paper by Mr. Glasspool on Potamogetons was held over until the
November meeting owing to lack of time. At the end, the visitors expressed
their appreciation of the work carried out by the Section.

Professor Skene exhibited a number of living specimens on Dec. 16th,
and, in his unavoidable absence, a description of them was given by some
of the members present.

The Section has sustained a great loss again this year by the death of
Miss Roper, who, with very few exceptions, had occupied the Chair at the
Section meetings since 1925. An appreciation of the work done by Miss
Roper, not only for the Section, but for Natural History generally, was
expressed by Mrs. Bell at the July meeting. '

BP. .GERASSPOOL, Hon. Secretary:

REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGICAL SECTION

1935

EVEN meetings were held during 1935 as follow :—
29 Jan. Seventy-first Annual General Meeting. Mr. C. Bartlett
was re-elected President and Hon. Secretary.

Mr. A. H. Peach exhibited a varied series of specimens of the family
Lycenide.

20 Feb. The meeting was held at the University and was open to members
of the Society who were not members of the Section, the President, Mr.
G. E. J. McMurtrie, and four others attending.

The following members gave notes and exhibited specimens, many being
displayed on a screen by the epidiascope :—

Mr. H. Tetley, Tabanide; Mr. J. V. Pearman, Psocide; Mr. W. R
Taylor, illustrations of protective resemblance, mimicry and warning colours,
and the association of Ants with Macrolinea arcin, the Large Blue; Mr, H.
Audcent, Oncodes; Mr. C. Edwards, Bombus; Mr. J. W. Norgrove, Saturnia
carpini and Orgyia antiqua; Dr. E. B. White, Xylina conformis, with notes
upon its occurrence in South Wales; Mr. C. Bartlett, examples and coloured
drawings of seven orders of British Insects.

12 March. Mr. W. R. Taylor read a paper upon British Hunting Wasps.

9 April. Mr. C. Bartlett, Notes upon the genus Agvotis, with examples
of all the British species.

15 Oct. Mr. C. Edwards, Notes on British Ants.

5 Nov. Dr. E. B. White, Notes upon the History of Lygris reticulata and
Penthina postremana, formerly associated with the local yellow balsam,
Impatiens noli-me-tangere, in the Lake District.

10 Dec. Mr. C. Bartlett, Paper on the History of the Genus Luperina,
illustrated by varied specimens.

The members have in addition contributed a large number of notes and
exhibits of interesting specimens and aberrations.

In addition to the loss the Society and Section have suffered through
the death of Miss I. M. Roper, F.L.S., who was a constant attendant at our
meetings, the Section regrets to report the death of Preb. A. P. Wickham,
M.A., F.R.E.S., of East Brent, President of the Entomological Section of
the Somerset Archzological and Natural History Society, who was an honorary
member of the Entomological Section of B.N.S.

CHAS. BARTLETT, Hon. Secretary.

REPORT OF FIELD SECTION

1935

N American is credited with saying that ‘‘a report is the essence of

statistical dullness.’”’ Notwithstanding, annual reports are traditionally

an important part of; any Society, and even the cynic must admit
that they serve several useful purposes.

The year has witnessed the consolidation of the new classes of membership
initiated by the late Professor O. V. Darbishire.

At the Annual Meeting, Dr. F. S. Wallis and Mr. G. H. Beacham were
re-elected President and Vice-President respectively. Mrs. H. F. Barke
was elected Hon. Treasurer in succession to Miss T. Shaw, and Miss M. D.
Hiley continued to serve as Hon. Secretary. The President made reference
to a recently published novel entitled “‘ The Search,’’ by Dr. C. P. Snow.
He said that the principle that science is a quest for truth formed the ever
recurring background of the book, and this principle, he felt, should form
the basis of all work undertaken by the Field Section. He then proceeded
to elaborate details of the theme.

Although she was never an officer of this Section, members, in common
with the members of the parent Society, acutely feel the irreparable loss of
Miss Ida M. Roper. Her sympathetic help was always available, and many
remember her aid when the original Field Club became the Field Section
of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

Following the practice of recent years, a definite district was selected for
study, and members concentrated their attention on the well-defined ridge of
hills which stretches from Leigh Woods through Failand to Clevedon and
thence along the coast to Portishead. The usual inset of descriptive notes
accompanied the programme, and the Section is indebted to Professor S. H.
Reynolds and Messrs. Charles Bartlett, H. Stuart Thompson and H. Vicars
Webb, who kindly supplied the manuscript for this purpose.

The opening meeting in May, under the leadership of Mr. Ivor
Evans, was held in the Abbots Leigh and Failand area. Bird-life was fairly
quiet, but members were able to observe the following: Blackcap, Willow
Warblers, Whitethroat, Cuckoo and Hedge Sparrows. The relationship
of the scenery to the underlying rock structure and composition was stressed
at many places.

In July, the Clapton-in-Gordano and Cadbury Camp districts were visited
under the leadership of Mr. and Mrs. H. F. Barke. Mr. G. H. Beacham acted
as co-leader in botany, and amongst the plants seen may be mentioned
Viper’s Bugloss, Rose Bay Willow, St. John’s Wort, Black and White Bryony
and several Thistles and Orchids.

East Clevedon, with Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie as leader, was the centre of
investigations in September. A very instructive time was spent on the
flanks of Salt House Hill, and members were interested in the architectural
features of the old church. The botanists at this meeting were active under
the guidance of Mr. Ivor Evans.

Mr. G. H. Beacham concluded the scheme in October by leading members
along the main portion of the Clevedon-Portishead ridge. Mr. H. F. Barke
explained the principal geological features, and many instructive cliff sections
were noted.

The average attendance for these meetings was 26.

Again the Section was responsible for the arrangements in June when
the Society visited Orchardleigh Park and Vallis Vale. At Orchardleigh
Church, the Rev. H. Vaughan-Johnson, M.A., kindly met the party consisting

20 FIELD SECTION

of over 50 members. The Murtry Hill Stones were examined, and, as usual,
Vallis Vale provided a wealth of material for all naturalists.

This year, the Section was officially asked to contribute notes to the
Proceedings of the Society. Several members helped in this way, and it is
hoped that this feature of the Section’s activities will be continued.

Mr. H. Vicars Webb again made himself personally responsible for several
meetings for the purpose of ornithological observations, and has contributed
the following notes :—

Saturday, 4 May. Newton St. Loe District. A fairly good time for
birds. The movements of a female Cuckoo watched at close quarters.
Songsters included Willow Warblers, Chiff-chaff, Whitethroats, Blackbird,
Thrush and Robins. Swallows and Martins on the wing.

Wednesday, 15 May. Norton Malreward. Dry, but cold wind did not
favour songsters. A family of Waterhen chicks seen in a wayside pool.
Others heard or seen were Cuckoo, migrant Warblers, Swallows, Martins
and Swifts, and a Dipper on a stream,

Saturday, 25 May. Blagdon Lake. At the lake, where Mr. Donald Carr
was met, were scores of Swallows, Martins and Swifts eagerly taking flies.
Two beautiful pairs of Great Crested Grebes were seen, also a Little Grebe
or Dabchick, a Coot’s nest with seven eggs in the reeds, active Lapwings,
Warblers and resident species in song. On the forward journey, Rickford
Glen revealed all its Maytime beauty.

Wednesday, 12 June. From Filton to Stapleton. A gloomy evening,
and songsters were few. A Blackcap heard in song from a wood covert.
At the Duchess Pond, Swans and a Coot on the islet.

There was an average attendance of 11 members at these meetings.

Mr. Ivor Evans has similarly supplied the following in reference to the
botanical meetings :—

Saturday, 27 April. Brislington to Hanham. The route taken was
through fields to River Avon, crossing the ferry, returning via river side and
Trooper’s Hill. Following observed :—Bush Vetch, Hairy Rock Cress,
Vernal Whitlow Grass, three varieties of Forget-me-nots, Crosswort, Ivy-
leaved Crowfoot, etc. Tvees : Barberry, Pear, Sycamore, Oak, Hornbeam,
and various grasses.

Saturday, 25 May. Blaize Castle. The party was personally conducted
by the Head Forester, and grounds, woods and nurseries were inspected.
Various trees and shrubs were noted, amongst them being Rhododendrons,
Maidenhair Fern tree, and species of Pinus ; also woodland plants in season.
Special notice was drawn to magnificent colonies of Hartstongue Fern.

Saturday, 8 June. Visited the Forest and Orchard nurseries at Milbury
Heath and were personally conducted over the spacious grounds by the
manager, Mr. E. J. Ingleby. Various stages of fruit tree growth were ex-
plained and other botanical specimens examined. The party returned to
the Ship Inn, Alveston, and were the guests of their guide.

Saturday, 6 July. Pensford and Keynsham. Train was taken to Pensford,
and the Chew Valley inspected, returning from Keynsham. Following
botanical observations :—Water Parsnip, White Stonecrop, Cudweed, Vervain,
Goatweed, Ivyleaved Toad Flax (white), Water Ragwort, Spear Plume
Thistle, Stone Parsley, trees, grasses and ferns of various types noted.

Saturday, 10 August. Bitton to Upton Cheney. Mr. G. H. Beacham
deputised for the leader. Route to Upton Cheney was along the River
Avon, where riverside plants were noted, and then the upland lanes and
fields were inspected with various plants and trees in seasonal abundance.

The average attendance at these meetings was eleven.

M. DORIS HILEY, Hon, Secretary.

REPORT OF GEOLOGICAL SECTION

1935

T is gratifying to be able again to report that our numbers continued to
2 though slightly. During the year five members resigned, but

six new members were admitted ; so we are one up on balance, the present
roll containing 61 names.

We continued to subscribe to the Geological Magazine, but the Hon.
Secretary would like it to circulate among more members.

At the Annual General Meeting of the Section in January, the following
were elected as Officers for the year 1935 :—Professor A. E. Trueman, President,
in place of Professor S. H. Reynolds, who had held the office since 1901,
and now felt obliged to retire; Dr. F. S. Wallis, Vice-President ; Mr. H. C.
Shilstone, re-elected Hon. Secretary; Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie, re-elected
Hon. Auditor; Mrs. M. Marsden, Hon. Treasurer; and Committee—Mr.
mM, F. Barke, Mrs. H. F. Barke, Mr. G. A. Kellaway, Mr. J. W. Tutcher,
Professor S. H. Reynolds and Dr. S. Smith.

At the conclusion of business, Professor Reynolds lectured on ‘“ The
Musk Ox in Britain.”

In February, Professor A. E. Trueman lectured on ‘‘ The Geology of
Southern Norway,” fully illustrated by lantern slides and by specimens
collected by the lecturer in Norway.

In March, we held an ‘‘ Open Meeting ”’ to all B.N.S. Sections, and three
papers were read and discussed :—(a) Mr. F. B. Tombleson, “‘ Some Notes
on Fossil Bryozoa’”’; (b) Dr. F. S. Wallis, “‘ Some Carboniferous Cephalopods
ftom Shipham, Somerset”; (c) Dr. Stanley Smith, “The Portishead
Borehole.”’

A presentation to Professor S. H. Reynolds, to mark the great appreciation
of the members of this Section of his valuable services, and the close of his
unusually long tenure of office, extending over no less than 34 years, formed
an interesting feature of this meeting.

During the summer session, three Field Meetings of the Section took
piace -—

(a) In April we visited Uphill and Bleadon, and inspected the Carboniferous
Limestone quarries at Uphill Wharf, the quarries and fossiliferous Pleistocene
breccia deposit at Bleadon, and the extensive exposure in the new cutting
for the by-pass road at Uphill. Mr. G. A. Kellaway, who had read a paper
last year on the work he and Dr. K. P. Oakley had done on this cutting,
was present to describe the results of their labours. (Their joint Paper was
printed in 4th Ser., Vol. VII, Pt. VI, of the Proceedings.)

(b) In June we made an interesting early evening charabanc tour of the
northern part of the Bristol Coalfield, under the direction of Professor A. E.
Trueman.

(c) In September we visited the great quarry at Chipping Sodbury,
under the leadership of Professor Reynolds. The Carboniferous Limestone
here is overlain by Rhetic and later deposits; the unconformability of the
latter to the Limestone is most marked.

In October, Professor A. E. Trueman again lectured, his subject being
“The Geological History of Welsh Scenery.’ A most interesting and in-
structive lecture.

In November, Professor S. H. Reynolds lectured on ‘‘ The Geology of the
Belfast District.’’ The visit to Belfast was made by Dr. Reynolds in con-
nection with the Geologists’ Association, and the lecturer exhibited many
entirely new lantern slides, and a large collection of rock specimens gathered
there by himself.

ae, GEOLOGICAL SECTION

The Hon. Secretary wishes to call attention to the Tutorial and Discussion
Class which precedes each ordinary winter meeting. The class is fairly well
attended but many more members could find it of the greatest use and
interest, and their future attendance is especially invited. Moreover, we
have not enough members whose special interest is Mineralogy. I hope we
shall improve in this direction.

_ Early in the autumn, a letter from Professor Trueman appeared in The
Limes calling public attention to the lack of systematic Geological teaching
in the national scheme of Education. Since then, a popular two-term
Saturday morning class in Geology has been started at Bristol University.
The class is well attended and has been successful from the start, and several
of our members are attending the course.

HY. CUTHBERT SHILSTONE, Hon, Secretary.

REPORT OF ORNITHOLOGICAL SECTION,

1935

HE number of members has fallen slightly after the reorganisation

scheme of the Society, but still remains at a satisfactory total. There

have been the usual six meetings as well as a visit to Steep Holm in May,
and observations on this and other occasions have been contributed to British
Birds and the Annual Report of the Somerset Archeological and Natural History
Society.

The meetings have been varied: Mr. K. B. Rooke gave a full account
of observations on Birds of Newfoundland made while he was Ornithologist
to the Public Schools Exploring Society in 1934; Mr. Savory, details cf
a visit to a bird reserve in North Holland; Mr. W. B. Alexander, at the Open
Meeting in November, described the work being done by the British Trust
for Ornithology at Oxford under his direction, but only three members were
present, apart from members of the Section. This was a poor compliment
to him, as he had come specially from Oxford to give an account of work
that is of great importance to Ornithology. Several members paid visits
to East Anglia during the summer and described, at the December meeting,
the many interesting birds seen there.

As in the past two years, a visit was paid to Steep Holm; the number
of Cormorants nesting there had increased to about 16 to 19 pairs, and the
Great Black-backed Gulls also showed an increase. A full list was made
of all birds seen.

The autumn migration brought to Barrow Gurney a bird new to Somerset,
the American Pectoral Sandpiper, which was seen there from September
28th to October 3rd inclusive. The normal migration of this species is from
North to South America, but about forty have occurred .in the British Isles.
Its presence may have been due to the S.W. to W. gale earlier in the month,
which provided many birds of interest on the Somerset coast. Details of
this, as of the remarkable numbers of duck seen at the reservoirs in December,
will be found later in this issue of the Proceedings.

H. TETLEY, Hon. Secretary

Account of the Annual and General Meetings

THE 72ND ANNUAL MEETING was held at the University on 17 January,
1935, with Dr. F. S. Wallis, Vice-President, in the chair. Mr. G. E. J.
McMurtrie was elected President, and Mr. H. Savory Vice-President. Miss
T. Shaw was appointed Acting Secretary and Librarian during Miss Roper’s
illness. The other officers were re-elected, and there were minor changes
in Council. The usual annual reports were presented and adopted. Owing
to the death of the retiring President, Professor O. V. Darbishire, M.A., Ph.D.,
Dr. F. J. North gave a paper on “ Coal.”’

Dr. North explained that the object of the lecture was to show the bearing
which research intc the constitution of coal had upon its utilisation. Although
coals were so variable in their chemical and physical properties, they all
belonged to one great series of natural products and were more or less related.
Researches that appeared purely academic in their outlook, and in some cases
were undertaken with a view to determining the origin of coal and the con-
ditions that obtained in the forests where the coal substance occurred, had
often proved to be of great importance as leading to a better understanding
of the properties of the substance. They also formed the basis of further
work with a view to the better utilisation of coal as a fuel, and its treatment
as a raw material for the manufacture of other fuels and material of totally
different application.

THE 575TH GENERAL MEETING was held on 7 February, 1935, taking the
form of the Eighth Annual Dinner. This was held under the Presidency
of Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie at Bright’s Restaurant, Queen’s Road, and over
50 members and friends were present. Dr. A. B. Rendle, F.R.S., late
Keeper of Botany at the British Museum (N.H.), was the guest of the evening
and proposed the toast of ‘“‘ The Society.’”’ Dr. Rendle mentioned the
valuable aid which he had received from the material lent him by the Bristol
Museum and Art Gallery, and also gave an interesting account of his visit
to Jamaica and the Bermudas, drawing special attention to the local plants.
He said that many of the beautiful native shrubs had been threatened by
the preponderance of introduced species. The President replied on behalf
of the Society, after which a programme of songs and recitations was provided.

THE 576TH GENERAL MEETING was held at the University on 8 March,
1935, with the President, Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie, in the chair. The resigna-
tion of Miss I. M. Roper as Hon. Secretary and Librarian was received with
regret, and a special vote of thanks and sympathy was accorded to _ her.
Miss M. D. Hiley was elected Hon. Secretary. Mr. H. Tetley, B.Sc., then
gave an account of Zoology in a modern museum. He explained the general
system of the arrangement of the exhibits in the Bristol Museum and Art
Gallery and stressed the need for provision of habitat groups. He said that
museums now concentrated on small exhibits illustrating special points,
whilst they built up reserve stores of material available for the student and
specialist. The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides and provoked a
discussion.

24 ACCOUNT OF THE ANNUAL AND GENERAL MEETINGS

THE 577TH GENERAL MEETING on 15 June, 1935, was held at Orchardleigh
Park and Vallis Vale, Frome. The members were met at Orchardleigh
Church by the rector (Rev. H. Vaughan-Johnson, M.A.), who pointed out the
chief features of this 13th century island church. Several water-birds were
noted by the lakeside ; members passed on to the Murtry Hill Stones, which
consist of the fragmentary remains of a long, chambered barrow.

After tea, Vallis Vale was visited and here Mr. Vicars Webb, Mr. B. W.
Weddell and Dr. F. S. Wallis respectively described the birds, moths and
butterflies, and rocks.

During the meeting Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie referred to the great loss which
the Society had sustained in the death of Miss Roper.

THE 578TH GENERAL MEETING was held in the University on 3 October,
1935, Dr. F. S. Wallis, Vice-President, being in the chair. Many members
showed exhibits and gave short talks.

Mr. H. Savory showed a series of photographic enlargements which
included Spoonbills and Sandwich Terns in Holland and various sea birds
at Lundy Island. Mr. H. Tetley exhibited various skulls of Gorilla in the
collections of the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery and commented upon their
historical associations. Mr. F. C. Coombs exhibited photographs of Rooks
in a rookery near Bristol.

The Botanical section provided a luxuriant display of living plants,
the majority of which were wild and were collected by Mrs. A. G. Bell.
Mr. H. Stuart Thompson gave a brief survey of some of the varieties exhibited,
and showed a series of selections from his herbarium of Hornbeam and
Whitebeam trees. Mr. Ivor Evans showed examples of the Sea Spleenwort
from Flat Holm and the Wild Peony from Steep Holm, whilst Mrs. Sandwith
exhibited living water plants and a series of detailed diagrams illustrative
of their life history.

In the Geological Section, Professor S. H. Reynolds showed a series of
reptilian vertebre with photographs ;. Mr. J. W. Tutcher a series of fossil
plants with photographs of Somerset mines; Mr. B. A. Baker a specimen of
celestine ; Mr. H. W. Turner an example of Dalradian schist showing faulting ;
Dr. Stanley Smith rocks from the Portishead borehole, and Cornish Devonian
fossils, and Mr. L. R. Moore a fossil Eurypterid. Mr. G. A. Kellaway spoke
on the correlation of coal seams by means of microspores, illustrating his
remarks by experiments and microscopic slides.

THE 579TH GENERAL MEETING was held in the Lecture Theatre of the
Bristol Museum and Art Gallery on 7 November, 1935, the President, Mr.
G. E. J. McMurtrie, being in the chair. This was an Open Meeting, and
there was a large attendance which included many pupils from local schools.
During the evening, four natural history films were shown, which were
described by Professors Macgregor Skene and C. M. Yonge. Professor
Yonge dealt with the Amoeba and described the life history of this simple
form. Professor Skene followed by supplying comments on the films of the
Filter, the Roots of a Plant, and the Life Cycle of a Plant. The occasion
was the first on which films were used at a meeting of the Society, and the
members present felt that it was eminently satisfactory.

ACCOUNT OF THE ANNUAL AND GENERAL MEETINGS 25

THE 580TH GENERAL MEETING was held at the University on 5 December,
1935. The President, Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie, was in the chair, and the
evening was devoted to a discussion on the Wegener theory of drifting
continents.

Professor A. E. Trueman, in opening, said that the hypothesis of moving
continents was welcomed by some scientists as offering an easy explanation
of many awkward facts of distribution, and was condemned at once by others
because it was so contrary to so many earlier views. This period of ready
acceptance or wholehearted condemnation was now over, and geologists and
others were seeking to re-examine the position in a more scientific mood.
He emphasized the fact that geophysical considerations appeared to indicate
that continents and ocean floors were of different structure, and that no part
of a continent had ever been an ocean floor.

The similarity of eastern America to the west coasts of Africa and Europe,
and the comparison of underlying structures, supported the view that there
may have been no Atlantic Ocean when many European rocks were laid down.
Whilst drift on the lines suggested by Wegener may not be demonstrable,
many mountain chains had resulted from the movement of one continental
mass towards another, and it was certain that in the past the relative positions
of the continents had been at least somewhat different from those of the
‘present.

Many members took part in a spirited debate.

MM. DORIS ;HILBY,, Hons Secretary:

Ida M. Roper (1865-1935)

MONG the many activities of the late Miss I. M. Roper, F.L.S.,

who was born in Bristol in 1865 and died June 8th, 1935, perhaps

the most important was her interest in and official connection with this

Society. Although she had been in ill health for nearly a year, it was

chiefly for the B.N.S. that at times she bravely continued her work.

She had been Hon. Secretary and Editor for nineteen years, Hon.
Librarian a long time, and was President 1913-1916.

Her first and most important Presidential Address was on “‘ Some
Historical Associations of Flowers.” It showed considerable research.
The next was entitled “‘ Permanency in the Growth of Plants,” and
that in 1916 on “ Mistletoe ” indicated wide observation on the host-
trees of that parasite. Miss Roper also wrote a “ Report on the Con-
dition of Spartina Townsend: below Clevedon, Somerset ”’ (Proc. for
1919). This explained “‘ the experiment made on this exposed and
tide-swept shore’ by the planting of Cord-grass against coast erosion.

Apart from her ordinary work in the Society’s Library, she made a
Catalogue of most of the botanical papers and books there. In the
preface to the late J. W. White’s excellent “ Flora of Bristol,” 1912,
he pays a well-earned tribute to Miss Roper to whom he “ owes much,
not only for field-work but for assistance in literary research and in
revision and correction of the press.”

A most helpful and greatly appreciated piece of work was her thirteen
years’ collecting and exhibition of local wild plants at the Bristol
Museum. Her own herbarium of British flowering plants and ferns
was given to the University of Leeds shortly before her death, together
with many of her botanical books. ;

Miss Roper was considerably interested in British Violets ; and in 1917
she found near Wickwar a new variety of Nutella mucronata, which
Messrs. J. Groves and Buliock-Webster described as var. gracillima
in Journ. Bot., 1917, p. 324. Though over a dozen short notes by her
appeared in the Journal of Botany, these and a few longer articles were
of less real importance than the great help she gave in furthering a
love of field botany in Bristol and in connection with Societies in
several parts of England. Her frequent attendance at British
Association and other meetings, e.g., those of the British Bryological
Society, made her widely known and her energetic personality much
appreciated. At the Bristol Meeting of the British Association in 1930,
she acted as Local Hon. Sec. for Section K.

Proc. B.N.S., 47H Serres, Vou. VIII, Pr

Photo: Veale & Co., Brist

Miss Ipa M. Rover,

(To face p.26

IDA M. ROPER (1865-1935) 27

In the late Col. Jermyn’s “ Notes on the Diptera of Somerset ”’
Pt. V (Appendix) in Somersetshire Arch. and N. H. Soc. Proc., for 1922,
Miss Roper’s work on Plant Galls is acknowledged. She was from 1920
a member of that Society and of its Botanical Section Committee.
Her paper on “ The Earliest British Herbal” was published in that
Society’s Proceedings for 1921 (1922). She also served on the Council
of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archeological Society, for she had
done some useful work in Archeology. Monumental effigies had long
been a hobby, and she had visited most of the churches in Gloucester-
shire and Bristol and many in Somerset to collect information and
make rubbings. In 1930 was published her handsome volume on
“The Monumental Effigies of Gloucestershire and Bristol,’ with an
Introduction by Sir Roland Austin.

Hos.

EDITORIAL

AST year it was our pleasant duty to pay tribute to the long and
devoted work of the former Editor, Miss I. M. Roper, but scarcely
was the Proceedings in the hands of members before they received the
news of her lamented death. In several places in the present issue—
notably in Mr. H. Stuart Thompson’s obituary of her—reference is
made to Miss Roper’s work for the Society, and we hope to be able
to give an account in our next issue of the manner in which the Society
will perpetuate her memory.

The Society has also during the year lost the services of another who,
though not a member, nevertheless assisted the Society in many ways
over a long period. As Steward of the Geological Department of the
University for so many years, Mr. J. E. Livingstone was brought into
intimate contact with the Society, and a great many members will
long cherish a recollection of his cheery and unselfish readiness to
assist them whenever he was asked. His services as a lanternist have
been in constant demand, and his skill as a photographer has frequently
been seen in these pages. To his painstaking work also we owe the
lists of Geological publications compiled in the Geological Department
of the University and published in the Proceedings.

It is a matter for much satisfaction that the Society is able in this
issue to republish in revised form the late Dr. Vaughan’s paper on the
Avonian. That this has been possible without infringing upon the
space required for other matter is due to the generosity of those who have
enabled us to produce on this occasion a much enlarged part; a list
of the names of contributors to the special fund for this purpose appears
with the paper. The Society’s thanks are also due to Professor
S. H. Reynolds who is primarily responsible for the revision of the paper
and for the new matter which it contains.

We welcome in this issue also the reappearance as a feature of the
notes on Bristol Botany for which the late Mr. J. W. White was so long
responsible. We now owe their compilation to Mrs. Sandwith.

THE CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE
SERIES (AVONIAN) OF THE AVON
GORGE

BY
ARTHUR VAUGHAN, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.8.

Revised with certain additional sections by
S. H. Reynotps, M.A., 8Sc.D., F.G.S.

PREFACE

THE late Dr. Vaughan’s paper on the Avonian of the Avon Gorge has
been for some years out of print, and the frequent enquiry for copies
points to the desirability of a new issue.

Much consideration has been given to the question of what modifica-
tions should be made in the original paper. It consisted of four parts :
(1) Introduction ; (2) The Section on the Clifton side ; (3) The Section
on the Leigh Woods side; (4) Notes on the Genera of Carboniferous
Corals and Brachiopods. The Introduction is reprinted practically as
it stands. As regards parts 2 and 3, the construction of Portway and
the destruction of the Hotwells section of the Avonmouth railway have
altered the topography and made it necessary to introduce many small
changes in the text, but, in the main, parts 2 and 3 remain much as they
were originally. On the other hand, a considerable amount of fresh
matter, particularly as regards the lithology, has become available.
It would be difficult to work this in with Vaughan’s original description
and it has, on the whole, seemed best to print it separately although
this procedure causes a certain amount of repetition. It forms part 2B
of the present paper.

In the Paleontological portion of parts 2 and 3, Vaughan’s original
names are retained, but the table on p. 43 shows the present-day
equivalents. Dr. Helen M. Muir-Wood has kindly drawn up the part
of this table which has reference to the Brachiopods, and Dr. Stanley
Smith that which is concerned with the Corals.

Vaughan states that part 4 was intended for the use of students who
already have a general acquaintance with the structure of fossil Corals
and Brachiopods but are unacquainted with the generic distinctions
which have been made in recent years. Experience has, however,

30 PREFACE

shown that the demand for the paper is quite as great among more
advanced workers on the Carboniferous Limestone as among other
students. Dr. Helen Muir-Wood, as regards the Brachiopods, and Dr.
Stanley Smith, as regards the Corals, consider that these sections are
now out of date, and had best be omitted. Vaughan’s original part 4,
therefore, finds no place in the present issue.

The photographic illustrations have been remodelled and, though
the actual number of plates is reduced, the number of illustrations is
increased. Lettering on the photographs themselves has been adopted
in place of the transparent tissues. S.H.R.

January, 1936.

The Society desires to record its thanks for the generous assistance
given in defraying the cost of re-publication of this paper. But for
the donations received from those geologists and others mentioned in
the subjoined list, it is extremely doubtful if the paper could have
appeared in its present form with the many illustrations from Professor
Reynolds’ photographs.—Ep. Proc. B.N.S.

List of Subscribers

Dr. W. J. ARKELL Proressor O. T. JONES

Dr. §. H. Bapock Dr. W. D. Lane

Mr. B. A. BAKER Prorrssor H. P. Lewis
Proressor P. G. H. BoswEiu Prorgssor C. Liuoyp More@an
BristoLt MuszEuM anp ART GALLERY Mr. F. N. REED

CoMMITTEE (PER THE DIRECTOR,
Mr. H. W. MAxweE Lt)

Dr. E. S. CoBBoLp
CoLsTON RESEARCH SOCIETY

Mr. W. N. REED
Proressor 8S. H. REYNOLDS
Dr. T. FRANKLIN SIBLY

(UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL) Dr. J. B. Sumpson
Dr. Emity D1rx PRoFESSOR W. J. SOLLAS
Mr. E. E. L. Dixon Dr. STANLEY SMITH
Mr. T. Eastwoop Dr. H. D. THomas
Mr. C. EpMonpDSs Prorsssor A. EK. TRUEMAN
Dr. GERTRUDE L. ELLES Mr. H. W. TuRNER
Mr. V. A. EYLEs Mr. J. W. TutTcHEer
ProFressor T. NEVILLE GEORGE Dr. F. 8S. WALLIS
ProFEessor A. GILLIGAN PROFESSOR W. W. WATTS
Guascow University LIBRARY Dr. F. B. A. WELCH
Mr. J. F. N. GREEN Miss Hiupa WILLS
Dr. R. G. 8S. Hupsoxr Mr. W. MELVILLE WILLS

Miss H. M. Hutrron Dr. D. A. Wray

II.

III.
IV.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - at,

THE SECTION ON THE CLIFTON SIDE:
Part A. Topographical, lithological, and structural

characters - - - - - - 45

Part B. Further account of the topography and
lithology (S.H.R.) - - -- - - 55
Part C. Paleontological characters - - - - 62
THE SECTION ON THE LEIGH WOODS SIDE - - - 18

TABLE OF THE CHIEF EXPOSURES OF THE SUCCESSIVE
Horizons (8.H.R.) - - - - - - - 86

I. INTRODUCTION

THs paper is intended to serve as a geological guide to the grand section
of Carboniferous Rocks which is exposed in the Avon Gorge. It is
hoped that a visitor who is interested in the geology of the Gorge will,
without further aid than this manual, be able to recognize the various
phenomena to which attention is drawn, and to test the interpretations
which are here suggested.

The technical knowledge which is postulated is of the most elementary
kind, for I deem it more useful to attempt to arouse the interest of the
student than to set out a concise disquisition for the delectation of the
Carboniferous specialist.

Since the paper deals mainly with the establishment and analysis
of the faunal succession, it has been necessary to introduce a brief
statement of the biological principles upon which the zoning of the
Lower Carboniferous Rocks has been carried out, and also to point
out certain fundamental phenomena which characterize faunal
variation.

Lastly, since this manual is confessedly a compilation, I have seen
no reason for nicely allotting the credit for each fact, and for each law,
to its first discoverer.

It would be a laborious, if not an unprofitable, task to
collect all the references which have been made by earlier
writers to the rocks and scenery of the Avon Gorge. I shall con-
sequently content myself with references to the work of those few
geologists who have examined the section systematically and with the

History

purpose of some definite line of research.
Nearly a century ago, in a paper entitled “‘ On the Limestone Beds
on the River Avon, near Bristol,”! George Cumberland gave a minute

1 Geol. Trans. (1811 and 1818).

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 33

description of each bed in the Avon Section and, although the old-time
terminology sounds strange, it is not difficult to recognize certain of
the best known horizons from the writer’s descriptions.

Some sixty years later,) W. W. Stoddart undertook a detailed
examination of the Carboniferous Limestone Series of the Avon, with
the view of compiling an exhaustive record of the fossils found in each
bed. An analysis of Stoddart’s paper, in so far only as it deals with
Corals and Brachiopods, will be found, set forth at considerable length,
in my paper on the Bristol Sequence.?

In 1885,° Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., published
an extremely suggestive account of the Avon Gorge in which he pointed
out the broad principles which have governed the formation of the
Gorge itself and of its tributary depressions. The magnitude of the
“ Great Fault ”’ and its extension on the Leigh Woods side of the river are
also discussed in the same paper. The present communication will, itis
hoped, serve as a necessary complement to the work of Prof. Lloyd
Morgan by fillmg in detail, where he has already firmly sketched the
broad outline.

Mr. HE. B. Wethered, F.G.S8.,4 has dealt with the micro-structure of
the rocks which form the Avon Sequence and has classified the local
development of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks into broad lithological
divisions.

From 1902 to 1905, I was engaged upon the detailed examination
of the Carboniferous Limestone sequence in the Bristol Area, with the
. special object of determining the faunal sequence and of setting out a
series of life-zones. The results of this investigation are described in
my paper, “The Paleontological Sequence in the Carboniferous
Limestone of the Bristol Area,” to which reference has already been
made. In this paper the Avon Section is described in considerable
detail and is adopted as the type-section for the Avonian of the South-
Western Province.

* Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. n.s. vol. 1. (1875), p. 313.

2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1905), vol. lzt. p. 200.

*“ Subaerial Denudation and the Avon Gorge.’? Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. n.s.
vol. w. p. 171.

* “On Insoluble Residues obtained from the Carboniferous Limestone Series

at Ciifton.” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xliv. (1888), p. 186.
Cc

34 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

Fossil The following definitions explain the precise meaning which
Notation. ;
is to be attached to the conventional symbols employed
in the designation of fossils throughout this paper.

A SPECIES is a form so completely described that the characters of
two individuals, both of which are correctly referred to the same species,
can only differ in degree of expression; furthermore, all the individuals
which constitute a species must be continuously connected in time.
(An individual in which all the characters of a certain species are
reproduced, but which came into existence long after that species had
died out, cannot be correctly assigned to the same species.)

The whole assemblage, which is composed of the ancestors,
descendants and collateral relatives of a given species, constitutes the
GENS of that species and is denoted by prefixing “ aff.” to the specific
name. Thus, Productus aff. semzreticulatus denotes any member of
the gens, of which Prod. semireticulatus (Martin) is a well-known
member.

In the case of a long-lived gens, an early member usually differs
sufficiently from a late one to constitute a new species. All such
time-variants of a given gens are here referred to as MUTATIONS of
the gens, and the time at which a given mutation flourished is indicated
by the addition of a zonal or subzonal symbol to the abbreviation
“mut.” Thus, Spirifer aff. bisulcatus, mut. C. implies a species
which existed at the time indicated by the zonal symbol C.
and is a member of the gens containing Spirifer bisulcatus,

J. de C. Sow.

A HOM@oMORPH is a form which strongly resembles the species
with which it is compared, although it is presumably not a member of
the same gens. Homcomorpbhy is indicated by inserting “ cf.” before
the specific name of the form with which comparison is made. Thus,
Orthotetes cf. crenistria bears a strong resemblance to “ Spirifera”’
crenistria, Phillips (as typified by the specimen preserved in the
Gilbertson Collection), but the two species are presumably not members
of the same gens since Phillips’ species appears to be a Derbya, whereas
the form which is here denoted by Orthotetes cf. crenistria is a true
Orthotetes.

The Theory Stratigraphical Zones are subdivisions which succeed each
of Zoning other always in a definite order; they may be defined by

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 35

the occurrence of a particular rock-type (“‘Lithozones ”’), or by some
faunal particularity (“‘ Biozones ’’).4

Lithozones, by their very nature, can only determine horizons within
a very limited area and must always be employed with great caution.

For example, the ‘‘ laminosa-dolomites,” the “‘ Caninia-oolite”’ and the
“Caninia-shales”’ and “-dolomites” succeed one another in ascending
order throughout the Bristol Area, but their relative thicknesses vary
considerably from point to point, and the sequence cannot be recognized
in the Mendip Area which lies only a short distance to the south.

On the other hand, a sequence of biozones may be of world-wide
application and, however ill-chosen, must always express some portion
of the truth, seeing that the definition of a biozone must always be the
record of part of the fauna which existed during a definite interval of
relative time.

It is, however, easy to understand how a series of biozones, defined
by the successive faunas of a particular locality, may appear to fail
when applied to a more extended area.

For, let us suppose that three successive zones at a certain locality
indicate oscillatory succession of conditions, as expressed by the
ascending sequence :—

A, containing a normal shallow-water fauna ;
B, containing a normal fauna of moderate depth ;
C, containing a normal shallow-water fauna.

The faunas of A and C will be essentially similar, and that of B markedly
different, since the life-assemblage at different bathymetric levels is
distinct.

If, now, the fauna of C, while presenting the same broad generic
facies, differs from that of A in the introduction of new species in place
of old ones, it will be perfectly legitimate to select the faunas of A and
© as defining two successive biozones. In so doing, we implicitly adopt
shallow-water conditions as our standard conditions for purposes of
zoning and, consequently, the complete series of biozones must express
the successive shallow-water faunas throughout the whole interval
which is to be zoned.

+ Dr. W. J. Arkell kindly points out that Vaughan uses the term ‘“‘ Biozone ”’
in the sense of “ Faunizone”’ as defined by Buckman in 1902, and also that the

term “ Biochron ”’ (H. S. Williams, 1901) should be used as the time equivalent of a
“ Biozone.”” (See W. J. Arkell, The Jurassic System in Great Britain, pp. 21-23, 34).

36 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

The fauna of B would be very incorrectly set down as constituting
a zonal assemblage intermediate between those of A and C, for it is
impossible to discover, either how early in the zone of A the fauna of B
became established, or how late it persisted into that of C. Hence B
must be regarded as an interruption of the zonal sequence.

Any such interruption of a zonal sequence, by deposits formed under
conditions distinct from the standard conditions which have been
selected for the purpose of zoning, is termed a “ Phase.”

In the South-Western Province the standard conditions must be
chosen to be those which, under normal circumstances, existed at
moderate depth, for these are the conditions which prevailed during
the greater part of Avonian time throughout the Province. Two
“phases” are co-extensive with the Province :—the Modiola-Phase of
the Cleistopora-Zone characterized by shallow-water conditions, and
the S,-Phase of the Seminula-Zone, which was deposited in shallow
water containing an excess of carbonate of lime. |

Certain phases are purely local within the Province, and the most
important of these is the dolomite-phase of the Syringothyris-Zone
which is characterized by abnormal shallow-water conditions. Since,
however, this phase is undeveloped in part of the area (for example, in
the Mendips) the faunal succession under standard conditions can be
satisfactorily filled in.

In the Bristol Area, the Brachiopods and Corals are the only two
classes which are sufficiently abundant throughout the sequence torender
a system of zones, founded upon faunal variation, both reliable and useful.

It has been found advisable to study the variations of at least two
classes in order that the zones constructed from Coral-variation may be
checked by the simultaneous Brachiopod-variation. For if, at each of
two distant points within the Bristol Area, two time-scales be graduated
in terms of the variation-incidents which are exhibited by the Corals
and Brachiopods separately, it is found that the same variation-incident,
which is marked on both Brachiopod scales, does not occupy exactly
the same position with reference to the graduations of the two Coral
scales at the two localities. (In fact, in passing from south to north,
the entrances of the Coral gentes occur later and later, as measured,
over a considerable segment of the Brachiopod scale, whereas the
sequence of variation-incidents, which form the graduations, remains
constant for both the Brachiopod and Coral scales.)

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE BY |

This irrationality of two time-scales, constructed from the variations
of two different classes, represents a relative acceleration of the one
class upon the other, and its existence puts a definite limit to the small-
ness of useful zonal divisions ; for the size of a zone or subzone must
necessarily be large when compared with the error which may be
introduced by relative acceleration.

We have now to tabulate the successive species or mutations of each
gens of the two classes we have selected and to express the relative
times at which each mutation was dominant.

It has been pointed out by several observers that a species, during
its period of dominance, retains its distinctive characters without
appreciable change, and that transitional forms connecting it to other
species are relatively scarce.

This general principle is strikingly exemplified in the variation of
a gens. Each new mutation arrives almost unannounced and is usually
never more abundant than at the time of its first establishment.
(Careful search usually results in the detection of a few early forerunners
of each mutation and, in a small number of cases, the maximum
development of a species does not take place until some time after its
first establishment.)

Hach gens may be conveniently represented graphically by a line
upon which stations are marked which represent the maxima of
successive mutations, and the distance between two stations is measured
proportional to the actual thickness of strata in the Avon Section which
intervenes between the maxima of the two mutations. (Where a
station cannot be fixed from the occurrence of a mutation in the Avon
Section itself, its position must be approximately fixed by correlation.)
This method is of more practical use than the attempt to plot accurate
time-intervals by reducing the thicknesses of various deposits, by
estimation, to one uniform rock-type.

A Range-diagram is now constructed by plotting all the gens-lines
parallel to one another, and at arbitrary distances apart, in such a
manner than any transverse line which cuts all the parallels at right
angles is an isochrone, and the aggregate of the mutations which
lie upon it represents the faunal assemblage of a particular instant of
zonal-time.

The Range-diagram is the complete expression of the faunal succession,
and upon it every system of zoning must be founded.

38 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

It is not, however, an entirely simple matter to draw up a series
of zones from the mere inspection of a Range-diagram.

Theoretically, any one of the long gens-lines upon which several
stations are marked would serve as a time-scale, but the longer the
life of a gens, the greater is its stability and, consequently, the greater
are the distances between successive mutations, and the smaller
the actual difference between them (in other words, a long-lived
gens has a low variation-gradient). Orthotetes cf. crenistria affords
an excellent example of the practical difficulty in employing this
method.

Again, a long-lived gens is usually dominant only during a limited
part of its existence and is relatively unimportant during the remainder
of its life.

The practical stratigrapher naturally desires to fix his zonal position
by the aid of fossils which are at once easily found and easily recognised
(in fact by a system of “spot-zoning”’) and this method leads to
absolutely accurate results, so long as it is only relied upon within a
small area. There are, however, several weighty objections to this
method if its intrinsic limitations are not fully appreciated.

(1) It usually happens that the various species of a gens, or of closely
allied gentes, are not all dominant throughout a large area, but that an
earlier species is dominant in one part and rare in another, whereas
a later species may be rare in the first locality and dominant in the
second. Hence, the field worker, who is not specially trained to the
appreciation of variational differences, may confuse the later for the
earlier variant if he pass immediately from the first locality to the
second.

The case of Zaphrentis afi. Phillipst which characterizes Z, and
Zaphrentis afi. Enmskillent which marks the upper part of D, may be
cited as an excellent example.

(2) A particular area may, during a certain period, have been
subject to peculiar conditions and, consequently, exhibit a peculiar
faunal assemblage. If a dominant fossil of such an assemblage be
selected as a zonal fossil, it will probably be of value only in areas
which were subject to the same conditions during the same period,
and the absence of the fossil will not denote the absence of deposits
of that particular age in areas which do not exhibit the special con-
ditions.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 39

(3) If a species which exhibits very exaggerated characters be
selected as a zonal fossil, there is a danger of confusing the local ex-
tinction of a mutation of a gens with the total and general extinction
of the gens itself.

Extinction is frequently accompanied by the development of ex-
crescences, such as spines and exaggerated ornament in the Brachiopods,
roots and the excessive development of vesicles in the Corals, and
these striking moribund characters almost completely conceal the less
pronounced mutational differences upon which we rely for fixing
zonal positions. If, then, a gens becomes extinct in a particular area,
owing to the incoming of unfavourable conditions, the individuals
which stayed on in the area until it became uninhabitable may exhibit
the same moribund characters which are to be seen in the last stages
of the gens itself at a much later time.

For example, the temporary extinction of the gens of Productus
semireticulatus at the top of S,, in the Bristol Area, is signalized, in the
last representatives, by the extraordinary development of spines and
marginal accretions.

On the other hand, the structural complexity or specialization
which heralds the general extinction of a group affords an extremely
valuable measurement of time-intervals; for, in such cases, the
variation-gradient is abnormally large, and appreciable variation
takes place in small intervals of time. Among the Corals, the Clisio-
phyllid group exhibits this rapid variation in the most striking manner,
and the degree of specialization affords a valuable guide to zonal
position.

There is one other natural law which assists very materially in the
determination of time-level.

At any one period, there is a general tendency among the gentes
of the different genera of the same class to adopt some particular
character which is possessed by the particular group of that class
which is dominant at the time.

For example, in Dibunophyllum-time, (1) the Cyathophylla and the
Lithostrotions adopt, more or less completely, a Clisiophyllidan type
of structure.

(2) Productus aff. giganteus and Chonetes aff. comoides become
closely assimilated.

40 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

In the working of this law, genera lose their distinctness, and their
artificiality is often strikingly displayed.

Characters which are common to several genera at the same time
may be termed time-traits, and the general law itself may be entitled
convergence or coeval assimilation.

To sum up :—

A natural system of zonal indices must be based upon the variation
of the gens, those gentes being best adapted for our purpose whose
variation-gradients are large.

In practice, dominant species must be relied upon for purposes
of zoning and, consequently, we are frequently forced to change from
one gens-line to another.

The presence of a zonal fossil suggests a zone but does not fix
it; for it is, by nature, impossible to select a series of indices which
shall be exactly conterminous.

In fine, the zonal index merely connotes the whole faunal assemblage
which is the ultimate expression of a biozone.

The Zonal Lhe faunal assemblages which characterize the successive

System zones and subzones in the Carboniferous Limestone Series
of the South-Western Province will be sufficiently understood
from the fossil lists which are given under each division in the
descriptive portion of this paper, and the zonal and subzonal indices
are set forth in the same place. It is only necessary, here, to draw
attention to the implication of certain new terms which are employed
in the zonal scheme.

Avonian denotes the whole interval of time during which the

Carboniferous Limestone Series of the South-Western Province was —

being laid down. It is divided into two main periods, the Clevedonian
and the Kidwellian, which are characterized by essentially distinct
faunas. +

1 The terms Clevedonian and Kidwellian have not been generally adopted, most
geologists using the Belgian terms Tournaisian, as practically equivalent with
Clevedonian for the Lower Carboniferous Limestone, and Viséan, as practically
equivalent with Kidwellian for the Upper Carboniferous Limestone.

The dividing line between Upper and Lower Carboniferous Limestone is now
drawn, not at the base, but in the middle, of the Syringothyris-Zone as originally
defined by Vaughan.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 41

The Clevedonian is subdivided into three zones, namely the Clerstopora-
Zone, the Zaphrentis-Zone and the Syringothyris-Zone.

The Kidwellian is divided into two zones, namely the Seminula-
Zone and the Dibunophyllum-Zone.

Each zone is again divided into subzones, and, for local use only,
into Phases.

The highest portion of one zone and the lowest portion of the next
usually exhibit a mingling of the two faunas which are respectively
characteristic of the two zones; such levels of faunal overlap are
termed Horizons.

The use of a new term, Avonian, in place of the old and well-
established Carboniferous Limestone, is a necessary outcome of the
knowledge acquired by recent zonal work. A deposit is Lower Avonian,
for example, because it contains a definite faunal assemblage ; it is
Lower Carboniferous Limestone, merely because it happens to occur
at the base of a local series of limestones. For example, Dr. Wheelton
Hind has recently shown that the base of the “ Carboniferous
Limestone” in the North Wales area is of Upper Seminula
age and belongs, therefore, to a very much later date in the earth’s
history than the base of the Carboniferous Limestone in the Avon
sequence.

The statement that a particular species occurs at a certain level in
the “ Carboniferous Limestone ”’ of one locality affords no clue to its
position in the “Carboniferous Limestone ”’ of a second locality. On
the other hand, the statement that a certain fossil occurs in a
particular zone of the Avonian fixes its relative position for all
localities.

It will not, I hope, be wasted space to close this short

Example : ;
ofan Outline of zonal method with a tabular summary of some
Avonian of the more important incidents which marked the progress

Time-Scale : i
of Avonian time.

The particular incidents which I have elected to present
are the times of first establishment of certain important
genera and gentes of Corals and Brachiopods; but, to avoid
overcrowding, I have selected only one Brachiopod genus, namely,
Productus.

42 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

An AVONIAN TIME-SCALE, GRADUATED BY THE ENTRANCES
OF WELL-KNOWN CORALS AND PRODUCTI..

ZONES,

Producti. Subzones CORALS.
and

Horizons.

P. scabriculus and P. costatus [Cyathaxonia rushiana]}!

ZAPHRENTIS aff. ENNISKILLENI
P. longispinus
Cyathophyllum reguum

Lonspatia and Acrophyllum
Aulophyllum

Choneti-Productus
DIBUNOPHYLLUM and
Koninckophyllum

Lnthostrotion irregulare and L. junceum

P. aff. giganteus
Cyathophyllum Murchisoni

P. corrugato-hemisphericus

P. aff. punctatus and Alwveolites
P. aff. fimbriatus Carcinophyllum
P. aff. hemisphericus LITHOSTROTION

CYATHOPHYLLUM ¢
Campophyllum

P. cf. concinnus
P. aff. pustulosus

CANINIA

P. aff. corrugatus Zaphrentis aff. cornucopie

Michelinia
P. aff. semireticulatus

P. cf. burlingtonensis ZAPHRENTIS aff. PHILLIPSI

P. bassus
Cleistopora

1 Not yet recorded from the South-Western Province.

[After careful consideration it has seemed best to retain the old
nomenclature of the fossils in the text of the present issue. The follow-
ing table shows in the right hand column the present-day names, the

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 43

original names being given in the left hand column. Dr. Helen M.
Muir-Wood has kindly revised the nomenclature of the Brachiopods,
and Dr. Stanley Smith that of the Corals.]

Alweolites septosus Chaetetes septosus Fleming

Athyris aff. glabristria Clerothyridina aff. glabristria (Phillips)

Athyris cf. planosulcaia Actinoconchus cf. planosulcatus (Phillips)

Athyris Royssit Cleiothyridina royssii auctt., not necessarily
roissyt (Léveillé)

Campophyllum aft. Murchisona Caninia juddi Thomson emend. Lewis

Caninia cylindrica mut S, Caninia bristolensis Vaughan

Chonetes cf. buchiana C.. (Plicochonetes) stoddarti Vaughan

Chonetes cf. comoides Dawiesiella cf. comoides (Sowerby)

Chonetes cf. crassistria C.. (Plicochonetes) failandensis Smith

Cleistopora geometrica Vaughania vetus Smyth

Cyathophyllum Murchisont Palgosmilia murchisont Edwards and Haime

Cyathophyllum regium Palzosmilia regium (Phillips)

Cyathophyllum ¢ Cyathoclisia tabernaculum Dingwall

Cyclophyllum pachyendothecum Aulophyllum fungites Fleming

Cyrtina carbonaria Davidsonina carbonaria (M’Coy)

Dibunophyllum 6 Dibunophyllum bourtonense Garwood and
Goodyear

Dibunophyllum Dibunophyllum bristolense Garwood and
Goodyear

Discina Orbiculoidea sp.

EHumeiria carbonaria Hustedia carbonaria (Davidson)

Iithostrotion ensifer Orionastrea ensifer (Kdwards and Haime)

Lonsdalia floriformis Lonsdaleia floriformis crassiconus (M’Coy)
Smith

Martinia ovalis Brachythyris ovalis (Phillips)

Orthoteies crenistria Schellwienella crenistria (Phillips)

Productus bassus P. (Avonia) bassus (Vaughan)

Productus cf. burlingtonensis P. (Dictyoclostus) vaughani (Muir-Wood)

Productus corrugato-hemisphericus P. (Linoproductus) corrugato-hemisphericus

(Vaughan)

Productus hemisphericus P. (Linoproductus) hemisphaericus (Sow.)

Productus latissimo-giganteus P. (Gigantella) giganteus (Martin)

Productus punctatus P. (Echinoconchus) punctatus (Martin)

Productus scabriculus P. (Buxtonia) scabriculus (Martin)

Productus subpustulosus P. (Pustula) subpustulosus Thomas

Productus 0 P. (Linoproductus) 6 (Vaughan)

off (Dictyoclostus) multispiniferus (Muir- Wood)

ee Conmreticulaius {p (Productus) garwoodi Muir-Wood

Reticularia lineata Phricodothoris lineata (Martin)

Seminula ambigua Composita ambigua (Sow.)

Seminula ficoides Composita ficoides (Vaughan)

Spirifer clathratus Spirifer tornacensis de Kon.

Spirifer planicosta Brachythyris planicostata M’Coy

Spiriferina cf. octoplicata Spiriferellina perplicata mut. K (North)

Syringothyris cuspidata (of K) Syringothyris principalis North

Syringothyris cuspidata (of Z,) Syringothyris cuspidata North

Syringothyris cuspidata (of Z.) Syringothyris cuspidata mut. exoleta North

Syringothyris laminosa Tylothyris laminosa (M’Coy)

Zaphrentis aff. cornucopia Zaphrentis koninckt Edwards and Haime

Zaphrentis aff. phillipst (K.-Z,) Zaphrentis delanouw Edwards and Haime
Zaphrentis aff. phillipsi (Zz) Zaphrentis omaliust Edwards and Haime

44 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

TABLE OF CLASSIFICATION OF THE AVONIAN Rocks OF THE AVON
SECTION

The classification of the Avonian rocks is somewhat confusing owing
to certain terms not being always used consistently. This is par-
ticularly the case with the term Caninia-zone introduced in Vaughan’s
later work. It has sometimes been used to include only the rocks classed
in the following table as Lower Caninia-zone, sometimes to include both
the Upper and Lower Caninia-zones of the table. The term Syringo-
thyrvs-zone is retained in the table and throughout the paper although
it is not now much used.

D, represented by the base of the local
Millstone Grit and by horizon e

D, Upper Dibunophyllum zone

D, Lower Dibunophyllum zone

DIBUNOPHYLLUM ZONE (D)

SEMINULA ZONE (8) S, Upper (main) Semanula zone
Peet get ak S, Lower Seminula zone
rie C, (Upper Syringothyris zone)

(In Vaughan’s latest work the Upper Caninia zone, characterized
by the overlap of Lithostrotion and Caninia, is termed horizon 6.)

LOWER CANINIA ZONE (Cj) (Lower Syringothyris zone)
y horizon of overlap of Canima and Zaphrentis.
Z, Upper Zaphrentis zone
an ZONE AZ) ee Lower Zaphrentis zone
B horizon of overlap of Zaphrentis and Cleistopora.

K, Upper Cleistopora zone

K, Lower Cleistopora zone

K,,, (base of K,) forming passage to the
Old Red Sandstone.

CLEISTOPORA ZONE (K)

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 45

II. THE SECTION ON THE CLIFTON SIDE

A. TOPOGRAPHICAL, LITHOLOGICAL AND STRUCTURAL
CHARACTERS*

ALTHOUGH there is no exposure south of the entrance to the Rocks
Railway, now (1935) closed, we shall, for completeness, commence our
traverse about 300 yards south of that point.

If we start from the ‘“‘ General Draper ”’ public-house, near the
end of the Hotwell Road, we are at the junction of the Carboniferous
Limestone Series with the Millstone Grit above; from this point, we
shall have to cover a distance of a little more than 14 miles downstream
before we reach the junction of the Carboniferous Limestone Series
with the Old Red Sandstone below.

Behind the ‘“‘ General Draper ” there was, formerly, a good exposure
of the highest level in the Limestone Series, D, (Horizon «); this level
is, however, no longer exposed on either side of the Avon.

The upper subzone (D,) of the Dibunophyllum-Zone (D) is fronted.
by a row of houses and cannot be examined.

The lower subzone (D,) is, in its higher portion, also concealed and.
lies behind the Colonnade; its lower portion is, however, well
exposed in the lofty vertical face of rock which includes the entrance
to the Rocks Railway. The D, subzone extends northward to a
point a little beyond the steps at the bottom of the Old Zig-zag
(a steep path which winds up the side of the gorge).

Between the “General Draper” and this point, the whole of the
Dibunophyllum-Zone is comprised.

We now enter the Seminula-Zone, and the section rises to a height
of more than 200 feet above us; we proceed under the Suspension.
Bridge past the former site of the Hotwell Station till we reach the
bottom of Bridge Valley Road. Here the massive grey Seminula-
Limestone ceases abruptly where it abuts against a contorted mass of
red rocks, and where the height of the section drops suddenly.

The massive limestones which compose this portion of the sequence
all belong to the Upper Seminula-Zone (S,), whereas the red rocks.
against which they end belong to the upper part of D,, and the S,

* In this section of the paper the later classification set forth in the table on p. 44.
and involving the use of the term Caninia-zone has been adopted. For the

remainder of the paper it has been thought best to retain Vaughan’s original.
classification of the strata.

46 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

limestone-mass is sharply separated from the subjacent D, beds by
a reversed fault whose plane hades southward with the dip.

The under surface of the limestone is strongly slickensided, and the
contortion in the soft D, rocks (PI. 9 6), due to the overthrust of the
massive S, limestone, is finely shown, although it extends only a short
distance north of the fault. The vertical displacement produced by the
fault amounts to about 1,100 feet, calculated as follows :—The lowest
portion of the limestone-mass is composed of ‘‘ Seminula-Oolite,” a
rock which we shall see again in the middle of the “ Great Quarry,” and
there is a perfectly continuous sequence from the “‘ Seminula-Oolite ”’
of the “ Great Quarry ” up to the D, beds immediately below the fault.
Hence, knowing the average dip and the horizontal distance from the
** Seminula-Oolite ” of the “ Great Quarry ” to the “ Seminula-Oolite ”’
just above the fault, the upthrow can be estimated.

Having noticed the crumpling of the soft D, beds by the overthrust
of the great limestone-mass, and also the smoothing of the under surface
of the limestone, it is worth while to retrace our steps a few yards in
order to study the effect of the overthrust upon the limestone-mass itself.

The piece of ground, access to which is now shut off by a fence, was
formerly the yard of the Hotwells Station. Above its northern end the
surfaces of the beds are sharply bent and smoothed, thus indicating the
immense force behind the overthrust and marking how the limestone-
mass was held back by friction at the fault plane, while the upper beds
were sheared over the lower.

We must now return to the bottom of Bridge Valley Road and
continue our walk downstream.

From this point to the bottom of the Carboniferous Limestone
Series, a distance of a little more than 1 mile, we continuously descend
in the sequence, and whereas we have contented ourselves with a rather
hurried examination of the rocks south of the fault, knowing that we
should meet the same beds again north of the fault, we shall study the
rest of the section more leisurely and shall pause at frequent intervals
to consider what were the circumstances under which the beds were
laid down.

The beds dip southward under one another at a uniform dip of
nearly 30°, without a break in the succession, and the rocks can be
examined, practically bed by bed.

The Avon section is probably the most complete section of the Car-
boniferous Limestone Series to be met with anywhere in the British Isles.

od
~i

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE

UPPER AVONIAN or VISEAN
Dibunophyllum-Zone (D)

Upper subzone (D,).

No part of the Avon Section has been so much changed by the
construction of Portway as that between the bottom of Bridge Valley
Road and the New Zig-zag path. There is a fine section of Lower D,
by Portway, north of the end of Bridge Valley Road, but Upper D,
is completely hidden by a great wall. <A section of Upper D, may,
however, be reached by climbing up above and behind the great wall.
This section is seen from the other side of the river but is not fully visible
from Portway. The D, beds consist of limestone, sometimes coarsely
oolitic, sometimes rubbly, with abundant fossils, especially near the
top. These limestones overlie strata which include massive beds of
red grit associated with quartz-conglomerate or pebble beds. Such a
variation in lithic structure indicates considerable movement of the
sea floor, the total variation amounting to a change from clear water
conditions, at a moderate depth, to the circumstances of an actual
beach. We may also notice that the variation was oscillatory, for the
same succession of rock types is repeated, as shown in the descending
sequence :—

Grit.

Limestone.

Quartz Conglomerate or Pebble Beds.
Grit.

Limestone.

The line dividing D, and D, may be drawn here.

Lower subzone (D,).

For about 70 yards northward from the outcrop of the quartz con-
glomerate there are now no exposures, this part of the section being
the upper part of D,.

The lower and better-exposed portion of the D, subzone can be
examined by the road south of the New Zig-zag path; it consists of
thick-bedded, fossiliferous limestones which, like most of the Dibuno-
phyllum beds in the Bristol Area, are stained red. To the north of the
New Zig-zag, the surface of the ground rises rapidly, on an irregular
dip-slope, until it reaches a height of 200 feet above the road. The
limestones forming this slope constitute the base of the Dibunophyllum-
Zone ; they can be examined by ascending the New Zig-zag path and

48 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

clambering up the slope on the left-hand side. Many fossils were
formerly obtained here but the exposures are now much overgrown.

‘The rubbly limestones which recur so frequently throughout the
Dibunophyllum-Zone may best be studied in the roadside exposure of
the D, beds, but are also well seen in D, south of the New Zig-zag.
Hxamined in a clean cut face, the rubbly limestone (PI. 14, 6 and ec)
is seen to be made up of large numbers of rounded portions composed
of comparatively pure limestone, separated by softer material which
is usually very rich in iron; to this structure the face owes its
“mottled” appearance. The hard portions offer a relatively large
resistance to weathering, and consequently the surface of the rock has
become extremely irregular. Possibly the structure is, to a limited
extent, concretionary, for, occasionally, the harder portions exhibit
true “shell-structure ”’ near their surface; the greater number of
these masses, however, seem to be due to the patchy accumulation of
carbonate of lime, for the corallites of a large Lithostrotion-corallum
can often be seen to pass from one hard portion to another.

The oolitic limestones which occur at various levels throughout the
D series can usually be easily distinguished from the oolites which
occur in lower zones. The oolite grains are larger and more scattered,
and the rock has usually a red tint. (The deep red, coarse oolite
which was formerly polished and sold as a characteristic Clifton rock
was derived from beds in the D series.)

Seminula-Zone (8)
Upper subzone (S 4).

Returning to the road and resuming our walk northward along it,
the lofty wall of Seminula-limestone lies at some little distance to the
right. The upper beds of the Seminula-Zone cannot be easily examined
on this side of the river; we may, however, note in passing the thin
capping of D,, which we have already examined on the slope north of
the New Zig-zag and, immediately beneath it, a band of thinner-bedded
rock which constitutes the uppermost portion of §,.

The rocks of this band are remarkable for a very peculiar structure,
and they are here referred to as the “ Concretionary Beds ” (Pl. 13 ¢).
(This term is used merely to describe the appearance of the rock, without
definitely suggesting a particular mode of origin.) The “ Concretionary
Beds ”’ occur only at the very top of the Seminula-Zone, where, in
certain parts of the Bristol Area (notably at Sodbury and near West-

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 49

bury), they form a thick and extremely striking band. In the Avon
Section, these beds cannot be examined at the point which we have
now reached, but they can be made out at the same level on the other
side of the river and also in the repetition of the Seminula-Beds south
of the “ Great Fault,” at a point which we have already passed, a
short distance north of the bottom of the Old Zig-zag path. The
structure of these rocks is almost identical with that of ‘‘ Cotham or
Landscape Marble,” but on a very much larger scale.

The upper surface of a typical bed consists of very numerous tall
ridges, usually discontinuous, separated by equally deep narrow valleys.
A cross-fracture of the bed shows that these surface wrinkles are under-
lain by several thin layers in parallel undulations. Below this con-
eretionary upper portion comes the main thickness of the bed, which
consists of a very fine-grained, pale argillaceous limestone, mottled by
black patches. In many cases these black patches can be seen to extend
as continuous pipes, from beneath the concretionary top-layer down
to the under surface of the bed, and it is probable that most of the
apparently isolated patches are merely cross-sections of similar,
continuous, but flexuous pipes. These pipes appear to be themselves
concretionary and to be built up of thin layers which are convex
upward. The under surface of the bed is scored by sharp grooves in
such a way that the bottom line of a cross section of the bed is notched
at regular intervals. Beneath such a typical bed lies a thin black under-
layer, which is almost entirely made up of small black nodules.

Compared with “ Landscape Marble,” the black under-layer repre-
sents the “ hedges and bushes,” the pipes correspond to the “ trees,”
and the undulating upper-layer represents the “ sky.”

The origin of the peculiar structure described above has not yet been
satisfactorily explained, although several theories have been advanced
to account for it. It seems probable that such beds could only be laid
down under water undisturbed by waves and charged with abundant
carbonate of lime, and it seems a fair deduction from the remarkable
character of the rock that the occurrence of these beds marks a datum
level of absolute time, almost comparable in exactitude with that
marked by a continuous lava sheet.

We will now proceed to the “ Great Quarry ” (Tennis Court quarry),
where 8, and the greater part of S, are splendidly exposed (PI. 6).

The beds, which come down to the floor of the quarry near its southern
D

50 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

end, consist largely of a fine white oolite, the ‘‘ Semiula-Oolite.”
This Oolite is seen as a conspicuous thick band in the face of the Quarry
and, like the similar band lower down in the sequence, is characterized
by the vertical joints which traverse its whole thickness, and by the
weak development of bedding planes. (These characters are, however,
much more striking in the ‘‘ Caninia-Oolite”’ lower down, and we shall
consequently defer, for the present, an inquiry into their origin.)

The base of the Upper Seminula-Zone in the “ Great Quarry” is marked
by a good development of a very peculiar type of limestone which is
here referred to as “ pisolite.”’ This rock recurs at frequent intervals
throughout the 8, series. It can be studied in the Avon Section at
various levels, but nowhere is it so strikingly displayed as in the basal
beds of the 8, subzone, in the middle of the “Great Quarry.” The rock
has the aspect of a conglomerate or breccia in which the “ fragments ”’
are of white limestone, cemented in a limestone matrix. When the
“‘ fragments”? are examined they are seen to have, in all cases, a con-
cretionary structure, although this structure may only be evident in
the outermost layers. The greater number of the “fragments” are large
concretions which have been formed round shells and other organic
débris; the rock may consequently be broadly described as a pisolite.
In certain seams of Seminule the majority of the shells are surrounded
by concretionary crusts and, occasionally, comparatively large pieces
or coral (such as Syringopora) are seen to be similarly included in a
concretionary envelope. Other points to be noticed are that a great
many of the “fragments” are merely broken pieces of concretions
and that many complete concretions occur broken across, with the
component parts displaced.

Lastly, the S, series in which these pisolites occur contains numerous
beds which are almost entirely built up of continuous coral masses
(Ixthostrotion and Syringopora).

Hence, the most probable explanation of the origin of the pisolite
appears to be the following :—The large coral masses grew in clear
shallow water near the shore line and presented the general characters
of a fringing reef. In the water between the shore and this coral fringe,
the percentage of lime was necessarily maintained at a high level,
and the shells and coral débris which accumulated on the floor were
consequently thickly coated with carbonate of lime. Many of the
concretions were probably broken up almost as soon as formed, and the
whole accumulation of débris, coated and uncoated, broken and

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 5l

unbroken, was rapidly cemented by the interstitial deposit of carbonate

of lime.

UprerR Caninia-Zone
including Lower Seminula subzone (S,), and Upper Syringothyris
subzone (C3).

Lower Seminula subzone (S,).

Thick limestones, mostly dark in colour but of very varying texture,
build up the greater part of this subzone; they are separated by
shales whose thickness increases more and more as we approach the
end of the quarry.

One of the most striking of the limestone-types is termed “ China-
stone’; this rock has a perfect conchoidal fracture and is as compact
in texture as a hone; a fresh fracture is black, but, by weathering,
the surface becomes coated with a thin white “skin.” This peculiar
type is found at various levels throughout the Seminula-Zone of the
South-Western Province.

Another noteworthy feature of the beds near the north end of the
quarry is the fact that they are, in several places, stained black by
petroleum.

Upper Syringothris subzone (C,).

Leaving the “ Great Quarry ”’ at its extreme corner and returning
to the road, a fine section (Pl. 5) of the next horizon, the ‘“ Caninia-
dolomite,” C,b, may be examined by the roadside. Here shales
predominate but thick beds of pure dolomite are intercalated at frequent
intervals and there are one or two beds of oolitic limestone.

LOWER AVONIAN or TOURNAISIAN

Lower Caninia-Zone = Lower Syringothyris subzone (O,)

The road section ends in the striking white oolite of the ‘“ Gully
Quarry” (Pl. 4). Much of the upper part of this quarry consists
of a thick band of pure white oolitic limestone in which bedding planes
are very inconspicuous but in which vertical joints, traversing the whole
thickness of the band, present a striking feature. The highest beds
of the quarry are the basal beds of the “ Caninia-dolomite,” shaly, thin-
bedded limestones which form a striking cap to the massive band of
oolite beneath.

52 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

The oolitic band rests upon a series of limestones which are rich in
carbonate of magnesia; this series has been termed the “ laminosa-
dolomite.”’

If we examine the two slopes of the broad depression known as
the “ Gully,” we shall find that, at the bottom of the Gully, the Oolite
lies wholly on the south side, whereas the northern slope is a dip slope
in the “ lamnosa-dolomite.” Near the top of the Gully, however,
there is a fine exposure of the white Oolite on the northern side, and the
screes from this crag extend for a considerable distance along the
floor of the Gully.

The massive white Oolite forms so striking a feature in the scenery
of the Gully that its local title, “Gully Oolite,” is well deserved.
Since, however, it is essential to emphasize the zonal position of any
particular rock-type, in order to distinguish it from the same rock-type
occurring at a different level, I have named this Oolite the “‘ Caninia-
Oolite.”” (Compare the terms “ laminosa-dolomite,” ‘‘ Seminula-
Oolite.’’)

We now enter the Black Rock Quarry. The thick bed which underlies
the north slope of the Gully can be examined between the Gully and
the Black Rock Quarry. It is a dull, yellowish-brown dolomitic
limestone and forms the base of the “‘ laminosa-dolomite”’; as seen in
the face of the quarry, it forms a conspicuous cap, distinct in colour and
texture from the pure limestones beneath.

With this bed we reach the bottom of the Canimia-Zone.

Reviewing the whole zone, it is clear that the circumstances of deposit
were peculiar and comparatively local.

Judging by similar deposits of recent age, the “ Caninia-Oolite ”
indicates perfectly clear and shallow water conditions such as are
associated with the growth of coral reefs. Further, deposition must
have been sufficiently continuous to prevent the formation of well
marked bedding planes, and consequently, when the mass consolidated,
the cross joints traversed the whole mass.

The dolomites point to the same conditions, for it is found that the
dolomitization which affects recent coral masses is initiated at the
surface of the mass, and therefore practically at sea-level.

The conclusions thus arrived at, as to shallow water conditions during
the deposition of the rocks of the Canimia-Zone, are confirmed by an

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 53

examination of the strata of the same age in other parts of the South-
Western Province :—

At Weston-super-Mare, the rocks of this age contain inter-bedded
lava and ash, of such a nature as to indicate shallow water and proximity
to land. Farther west at Pendine, north of Tenby, there is a gap in
the succession and the Caninia-Zone is absent, indicating that, locally,
the sea floor emerged and became land during this period.

Zaphrentis-Zone (Z)

All the beds in the Black Rock Quarry (Pls. 2 and 3) below the
*““ laminosa-dolomite’”’ belong to the Zaphrentis-Zone and are of
essentially the same rock-type, namely a highly-fossiliferous, crinoidal
limestone. The divisions are consequently entirely paleontological.

The uppermost part constitutes Horizon y, and the steep slope,
just below the “ Cave,” may be taken as the dividing plane between
the upper and lower subzones of the Zaphrentis-Zone (Z, and Z,).

The basal beds of the “ Black Rock” massif constitute Horizon B
and are exposed in the small quarry north of the Black Rock Quarry.
(This small quarry, here named Press’ Quarry, is now closed and forms
part of a private estate.)

The whole of the Zaphrentis-Zone, including Horizon y at the top
and Horizon 6 at the base, may be considered to have been deposited
under standard conditions.

Cleistopora-Zone (K)
Upper subzone (K,).

Just to the north of Press’ Quarry, a roadside cutting, now largely
built up, exposes a highly fossiliferous series of thin-bedded limestones
and shales. These beds are the top of K,. But north of this exposure,
for a distance of about 270 yards, the rocks are entirely hidden. A
short distance, however, to the north of a gate giving access to a path
leading up to the railway line, a fine section commences.

Lower subzone (K,) [including the “ Modiola-Phase ” (K,,)].

If we now examine the section (Pl. 1) which commences beyond the
gate, we are at once struck by the massive red bed which is termed the
“ Bryozoa Bed.” Resting on it, a thickness of about 35 ft. of thin-
bedded limestones with shales is seen.

These beds, the lower part of K,, are the only part of that horizon
which was deposited under ‘“ standard conditions.”

54 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

The whole of the lower portion of K,, i.e. the ‘‘ Modiola-phase”’ K,,,
consists of sediment accumulated under special conditions in extremely
shallow water. The separation of K, into an upper and a lower
division, characterized respectively by standard and special conditions,
is much sharper in the Avon sequence than in any other part of the
South-Western Province. The ‘“ Bryozoa Bed” marks the junction
of the two divisions, and the “‘ Palate Bed,’’ which lies some three or
four feet above the top of the “ Bryozoa Bed,” may be taken as the
base of the upper and normal development of K,.

The “ Palate Bed” is a thin, very hard conglomeratic bed, full
of coprolites, and containing the teeth and spines of fish in con-
siderable abundance. As with all “‘ bone beds,” the horizontal distri-
bution of this bed is extremely patchy (at one spot the bed is well
developed, whereas at another, only a short distance away, it is prac-
tically absent); nevertheless, the bed occurs at widely separated
points of the Bristol area and always at approximately the same level,
(for example, a “‘ Palate Bed” of exactly the same type as the Avon
bed occurs at practically the same level near Sodbury, 10 miles to the
north). The very shallow water conditions under which this bed was
formed are demonstrated alike by its conglomeratic characters and by
the included mollusca.

The “ Bryozoa Bed,” a massive red crinoidal limestone, forms a
very striking feature in the road and railway at this point. The
rock is built up of vast numbers of small, rounded crinoid fragments,
which are cemented together by coarsely-crystalline calcite. It
seems probable that the crinoid fragments were rounded by rolling
in very shallow water and that the crystalline matrix has been produced,
by solutional agency, at a time subsequent to the original cementation
of the rock.

The Modiola-Phase (Lower K, = K,,).

The ‘‘ Bryozoa Bed ” and the rocks below it, down to the base of the
Carboniferous Series, can be studied both by the roadside and in the
cutting of the Avonmouth line which here emerges from the tunnel
through the Downs. The following is a general description which
applies to either section, but much of both sections is now im a poor
condition for examination, the railway section being partly bricked up,
and that by the road much overgrown.

Grouping under the term “ Bryozoa Bed”’ the whole series of massive

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 55

red beds which form such a conspicuous feature of this part of the
section, this rock-band has a thickness of 25 feet. Only the upper
8 feet, however, form the “‘ Bryozoa Bed”’ proper ; the lower 17 feet,
though in the main equally red and massive, are more gritty. Below
these red gritty beds are 20 feet of thin-bedded limestones, separated
by highly fossiliferous shale partings, the fauna of the shales indicating
shallow water conditions.

Descending in the sequence, we next come upon 30 feet of thick
shales in which a few thick beds of limestone and calcareous grit are
intercalated.

The section ends with 15 feet of thin slabby argillaceous limestones,
separated by shale partings. These beds exhibit very clearly their
shallow water origin, both in their lithic characters and in their faunal
contents. Several of the thin slabby limestones have undulating
surfaces and exhibit sun cracks. Other beds are built up of angular
fragments of thin shaly limestone cemented together in a fine-grained
matrix. These beds were probably formed by the breaking up of thin
limestone beds shortly after their deposition, and by the immediate
cementation of the fragments.

The actual base of the Carboniferous Limestone Series cannot
be definitely fixed, for there is a complete passage down, from the cal-
careous series above, into the marls and sandstones which are regarded
as constituting the uppermost portion of the Upper Old Red Sandstone.

In the roadside section the junction is concealed by a wall, north
of which the marls, sandstones, and quartz-breccias of the Upper Old
Red Sandstone are typically exhibited.

B.—_FURTHER ACCOUNT OF THE TOPOGRAPHY AND
LITHOLOGY (S.H.R.)

THE SECTION AS REPEATED BY THE OBSERVATORY HILL FAULT (PL. 8)

A fossiliferous exposure of D, is seen just north of the entrance
to the Rocks Railway, now (1935) closed ; the strata belonging to this
horizon extend to a point about 40 yards north of the Old Zig-zag
path. Here they are underlain by the highest S, beds, the ‘‘ Concre-
tionary beds” (S,d), which are better seen here than in the main
Avon Section. Several bands of the peculiar algal limestone, to which
the term “ Concretionary beds ”’ alludes, are well exposed.

56 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

The steep but easily climbable rock-face which opens out just south
of the Bridge includes many good exposures of algal and other types
of limestone.

Massive limestone (S,c) with numerous Lithostrotion bands ex-
tends on to the little parking place just beyond the Bridge. Here
we reach the spot formerly occupied by the Hotwells Railway
Station, and from this point nearly as far as the bottom of Bridge
Valley Road the fine section is inaccessible, being shut off by a fence.
Almost the whole of it is S,c. The most interesting feature of this
part of the section concerns the disposition of the rocks—while those
on which the Suspension Bridge pier has been erected obviously succeed
one another uniformly and regularly, the underlying strata are clearly
much disturbed and are repeated by a series of small overthrusts.
Owing to this repetition, a comparatively small thickness of limestone
has a wide outcrop. The rounded soles or surfaces of five of the over-
thrusts are conspicuous (see Pl. 9, a). Some of the overthrust masses
are bounded by powerful joints along which the iron in the limestone
has become oxidized, giving a red colour.

The massive white limestone forming the precipice of Observatory
Hill at the bottom of Bridge Valley Road is the ‘“‘ Seminula-Oolite ”
(S,b), and is perhaps the best exposure of this horizon in the Avon
Section. The presence of a cherty layer near the base may be noted.

THE SECTION FROM THE OBSERVATORY HILL FAULT TO THE SOUTHERN
END OF THE “GREAT QUARRY” (PL. 7)

The cutting back of the rocks at the bottom of Bridge Valley Road
exposed a remarkable section of grit and limestone crushed and
slickensided by the movement of the overthrust, but this has been
partly obscured by bricking up.

Vaughan!, p. 46, gives a full account of the fault. Prior to the
construction of Portway, a considerable section of D, could be seen in
the lower part of Bridge Valley Road, by the side of the towing
path which preceded Portway, and by the riverside. These exposures
are now much modified, and that of the lower part of Bridge Valley
Road is entirely walled up. With the railway, other landmarks
alluded to in earlier papers, such as Point Villa, have disappeared.

1 In all the references to Vaughan in this section of the paper the pagination
referred to is that of the present edition.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 57

The cutting back of the rocks to widen the road has, however, given
rise to a very fine section of lower D, which commences about 100
yards north of Bridge Valley Road. The beds here are largely reddish
and grey limestone, often coarsely oolitic and sometimes full of corals.
But the most marked lithological feature is probably the occurrence
of numerous bands of rubbly limestone and “ pseudobreccia.”’ The coral
limestone is best seen at the commencement of the section, where
Inthostrotion portlocki and L. wrregulare are very conspicuous. Just
below this layer is the highest “ pseudobreccia”’ bed. Thisrock
(Pl. 14, a) has the appearance of a breccia consisting of pale patches—
“ fragments ’”—in a red or dark “ matrix.”’ Recrystallization has led
to the concentration of the colouring matter in the “ matrix” and its
removal from the “ fragments.”” Probably this rock-type is nowhere
so well seen in the Bristol district as in this relatively recently made
section, as it readily weathers, and the contrast between “ fragments ”’
and “‘ matrix ” becomes obscured.

A related rock-type, often highly fossiliferous and frequently alluded
to as “ rubbly beds,”’ is also admirably seen (Pl. 14, 6). In this case,
the “ fragments ” are larger, more rounded and more irregular, and the
“ matrix ” includes more argillaceous material. It may be noted that
sometimes a band is “ rubbly ” in one part of its outcrop but becomes
compact a short distance further on (Pl. 14, c). There is a complete
passage from “ pseudobreccia”’ proper to “‘rubbly beds.” Vaughan
(p. 48) describes the character of the “rubbly beds.” At the northern
end of this section of D,, three massive bands of red grit become con-
spicuous. Associated with the grits are three thin bands of limestone
containing numerous quartz pebbles, the only example of this rock-type
in the Carboniferous beds of the Avon Section. Vaughan alludes
(p. 47) to these pebble beds as proof of variation in the depth of the
water in which the strata accumulated. The dividing line between
D, and D, is drawn at this level.

North of the grit bands there are no exposures for about 70 yards,
and then follows a section of D, about 115 yards long and extending
almost to the Zig-zag path. The southern part of this section is in a
very poor state for examination, the rocks being much weathered and
hidden by walling. It includes, however, some good “ rubbly beds ”
showing the passage along the strike of the rubbly into the non-rubbly
limestone. In the northern part of the section the limestone is much
better exposed and shows early stages in the production of “ pseudo-

58 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

breccia ”’ as well as fully developed examples of this rock-type. D, beds,
with exposures few or poor, extend on to the Zig-zag path, but the first
strata exposed north of the wall bounding its lower end are seen, by
the occurrence of Seminula bands and algal (‘‘ Concretionary ’’)
layers, to be S beds. |

A distance of about 200 yards separates the Zig-zag path from the
fence bounding the “‘ Great Quarry.”’ The rocks (Upper 8, and Lower
D,) are in a very unsatisfactory state for examination. Their outcrop
near the road is hidden by a great mass of talus and, higher up the side
of the valley, they are very badly weathered. There is, however, a
good development of the ‘“‘ Concretionary beds ” with algal limestone
and a Chonetes papilionacea band in a riverside exposure reached by
a flight of steps.

THE “GREAT” oR TENNIS CouRT QUARRY (PL. 6)

Access to the rocks is now (1935) shut off by a railing, but permission
to reach them is commonly easy to get. The whole of the “Great
Quarry ” is in S beds, which are everywhere admirably exposed. This
horizon is probably the most interesting one in the whole sequence
as regards the lithology. The rocks exposed at the southern end are
limestones full of Lithostrotion (S,c). The massive ‘‘ Seminula-oolite ”’
(Sb), which is about 60 ft. thick, is well seen in the quarry face, its
base lying just above a small cave. On the floor of the quarry it is
well exposed near the northern end of the outcrop. It is in the main
a rather fine-grained white oolite quite devoid of Lithostrotion, but
containing a considerable number of brachiopods. At about the middle
of the oolite there is a rather conspicuous band of breccia well exposed
near the floor of the quarry. This breccia is penecontemporaneous,
i.e., the fragments are of approximately the same age as the matrix
enclosing them. The fragments probably represent pieces of the
surface layer, brecciated perhaps by desiccation under shallow water
conditions, which sank a short distance into the still unconsolidated
layer beneath them.

The ‘‘ Seminula-oolite”’ rests on a band of grey dolomite 44 feet
thick, which is well exposed at the commencement of a projecting
talus-covered mass in the middle of the quarry. Immediately below
the dolomite is a band of chert nodules.

The succeeding section of limestone (8a), which forms the whole of

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 59

the projecting mass, extends on to within about 20 yards of the grassy
bank near the northern end of the main quarry. The rocks commonly
have a patchy appearance, part of the limestone being very white,
while part is replaced by brown dolomite. Seminula and Lithostrotion
bands occur, but fossils are not very conspicuous. The most marked
feature is the development of “* Seminula-pisolite ” (PI. 14, d), a rock-
type fully described by Vaughan (p. 50). This rock-type occurs at two
main levels, an upper one exposed high up the sloping bank already
alluded to and a lower and more conspicuous one at the level of the
quarry floor. The Seminule in the pisolite are sometimes silicified.
A band of cherty nodules occurs just below the lower band of pisolite.
The underlying limestone, extending as far as the grassy bank alluded
to, is noteworthy for the great masses of Lithostrotion. The base of
S, may be drawn here.

After ascending the grassy bank, the observer is faced by a shaly
bedding plane covered with Seminule. This is the “front slope”
of Vaughan’s account (see p. 73). The rocks just above and below
this level include several fossil bands of which Vaughan gives a full
description (p. 73).

The northern end of the main part of the quarry is formed by the
“ back slope’ of Vaughan, atarge irregular bedding plane extending
high up the quarry end. The upper part of the precipitous side of the
quarry overlooking the “ back slope ” is traversed by a small overthrust
fault. The northern segment of the quarry shut off from the rest
by the “ back slope ” is formed by the series formerly alluded to as the
Middle Limestone Shale. It consists of alternating bands of shale
and limestone ; the shale, which is very dark, being sometimes full of
Lithostrotion. Below the more conspicuous shaly series the limestone
is largely of the very compact type alluded to by Vaughan (p. 51)
as “China-stone.” Another rock-type seen near this horizon has a
mammillated surface and is possibly algal. A band of Lithostrotion
(Diphyphyllum) exposed high up the bank in the road-cutting just
beyond the limit of the quarry may be taken as marking the base of
S, and the top of C,.

THE SECTION FROM THE “Great QuaRRY” TO THE Biack Rock
Quarry (Ps. 4 anpD 5)

Immediately north of the “ Great Quarry ’ commences a fine roadside
section of the “‘ Caninia-dolomite,”’ the finest in the Bristol District and,

60 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

previous to the making of Portway, only to be approached by trespassing
on the railway. The “ Caninia-dolomite ”’ consists of bands of grey,
yellow, or more rarely, pink dolomite alternating with shale. Occasion-
ally there is a little oolite. In the upper part of the section, where the
exposures are best, the dolomite bands are usually about 12 to 18
inches thick, but lower down the section both dolomite and shale
occur in thicker bands. Crinoids may sometimes be seen in the
dolomite and, very rarely, a gasteropod, but macroscopic fossils are
very scarce. When examined microscopically, ostracods, foraminifera,
and calcareous alge are seen to be plentiful in some bands.

Near the end of the section, the “‘ Caninia-oolite’”’ comes on below the
“ Caninia-dolomite,” the contrast between the two rocks being very
marked and suggesting non-sequence. The “ Canima-oolite”’ is a
massive white or sometimes pinkish fine-grained oolite in which it is
difficult to find any fossils. The upper beds are well exposed by the
roadside and in the southern part of the Gully Quarry. The northern
end of the Quarry is in the “ laminosa-dolomite.”’

The base of the “ Caninia-dolomite,” the “ Caninia-oolite ” and part
of the “ laminosa-dolomite ” are seen in a riverside exposure reached by

a ladder.

THE Briack Rock Quarry (PLS. 2 AND 3)

In the Black Rock Quarry the lower part of the “Jamznosa-dolomite,”’
y and nearly the whole of Z are exposed. Horizon y is a very massive
bed of limestone, and the top of Z, is marked by three limestone bands
each about 44 ft. thick. These are the “fish beds” (see Vaughan,
p. 70) from which numerous teeth and spines of Elasmobranchs have
been obtained.

The base of the “laminosa-dolomite”’ is seen at the extreme southern
end of the quarry resting on y; it is unfossiliferous save for numerous
crinoids; y is still more crinoidal and shows plentiful Zaphrentid
corals.

In the middle of the Black Rock Quarry the rocks are in an unsatis-
factory state for examination, the surface being much weathered and
access being difficult. Towards the northern end the exposures
become better and the limestone differs from that higher up the
sequence in the fact that brachiopods are much more conspicuous than
any other fossils. All the main part of the quarry is in Z,. Vaughan
drew the base of Z, at about the top of the irregular grassy dip-slope

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 61

at the northern end of the main quarry, 30 ft. or more below the
eeave.”

Beyond the grassy dip-slope the quarry becomes much narrower,
though about 50 yards have still to be traversed before it actually
ends. This part of the quarry is not bounded by precipitous cliffs
but shows numerous bedding planes covered with brachiopods.
There is a chert band in the limestone at the extreme northern end of
the main quarry.

Beyond the quarry rises the great cliff of Sea Walls, access to the
base of which is prevented by a wall which shuts off a small enclosure
alluded to in Vaughan’s paper as Press’ Quarry. The southern part
of the base of the cliff, whichis shut off from the road merely by a fence,
exposes a highly fossiliferous development of Z,, fossils perhaps being
more plentiful than anywhere else in the Avon Section, though not
easily collected. Press’ Quarry, which can be reached by climbing
over the rocks, is in the lowest member of the Z beds, horizon f.
One—possibly more—small overthrust faults may be seen near the
northern end of the Black Rock Quarry. In Press’ Quarry there is a
rather more conspicuous overthrust. These overthrusts all come from
the south and start by cutting the strata, but as they are followed
up the cliff they are seen to pass into the bedding planes. There is a
fine riverside section of y and Upper Zy.

THE SECTION NORTH OF Biack Rock QuaRRy (PL. 1)

The top beds of K,—thin-bedded, highly crinoidal-and brachiopodal
limestone with shaly partings—are exposed by the roadside just north
of Press’ Quarry, but much of what was formerly a very fine section
is now hidden by walling. For the next 275 yards there are no ex-
posures, almost the whole of K, and the greater part of K, not being
seen. From the point where the section recommences—about 150
yards north of the tunnel through the Downs—to the base of the
Carboniferous Series there are two sections, an upper one in the Clifton
Down Railway and a lower one formerly seen by the side of the Hotwells
Railway, but now, owing to the removal of the railway, by the roadside.
In the upper section, the “ Bryozoa Bed,” about 5 ft. of the overlying
K, and about 30 ft. of the underlying K,, are seen, but all the lower
part of K,—well exposed when Vaughan’s paper was written—
is now hidden by walling. In the roadside section about 25 ft. of
K,—thin-bedded limestone and shale—is poorly exposed. The ‘‘ Palate

62 ; ARTHUR VAUGHAN

Bed ”’ (see Vaughan, p. 54) may be recognised. The “Bryozoa Bed,”
which he describes fully, and perhaps 15 ft. of shale below are well
exposed, but the rest of K,, is in a very poor state for examination.
Vaughan gives a full description of the succession. A wall hides the
actual passage from K,, to the Old Red Sandstone. The exposures of the
“ Bryozoa Bed,” which formerly existed by the old towing path and
riverside, have been destroyed by the construction of Portway.

C.—PALZONTOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

We shall now turn back and study the fossils which are to be found
at each successive level.
In this paleontological survey our attention will be directed along
two main lines of inquiry:
(1) The possibility of making divisions which shall be based
upon the occurrence of certain distinctive fossils (“‘ Diagnosis ’’).
(2) The registration and study of the important and abundant
fossils which are associated at each level (“ Fauna ’’).
The Corals and Brachiopods are the only two groups which will be
dealt with in detail, but attention will be drawn to the genera of other
groups wherever they form an important constituent of the fauna.

Upper Outp RED SANDSTONE

The green and red maris and grits, which immediately underlie
the lowest beds of the Carboniferous Limestone, are almost entirely
concealed on the Clifton side of the Avon, but, on the Leigh Woods
side, these beds are well exposed for examination. They have there
yielded, in considerable abundance, scales of a Rhizodont fish which
is most probably a species of Strepsodus, a genus which has only been
previously recorded from rocks of Carboniferous Age.

Ky
Cleistopora-Zone: K {i
K,,
Zonal Index: Cleistopora cf. geometrica.
DIAGNOSIS :

The occurrence of Cleistopora and the absence of Zaphrentis
are the essential facts.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 63

CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS :
Productus bassus, Eumetria aff. carbonaria, Chonetes cf. Buchiana,
and Spiriferina cf. octoplicata are all abundant within the zone,
and are rare or absent above.

Lower Limit:

The Modiola-Phase constitutes the basal portion of the zone
and presents a transitional stage between the conditions prevalent
during the deposition of the uppermost Old Red Sandstone and the
standard conditions which became established in the main portion
of the Clerstopora-Zone.

Upper Limit:
The fauna of the uppermost beds of the zone only differs from
that of the succeeding Zaphrentis-Zone in the presence of Cleistopora
and the absence of Zaphrentis.

Km = Phase of Modiola lata.

From the base of the Carboniferous series up to the “ Palate
Bed” the majority of the fossils are forms characteristic of shallow
water, and very incomplete information can be obtained concerning
the fauna which was then living in water of the depth which we have
selected as our standard. This portion of the sequence, therefore,
presents us with a special phase, and the change of fauna which
takes place at its termination does not indicate the extinction of an
earlier fauna and its replacement by a new, but merely introduces us
to the life of a lower bathymetric-zone.

DIAGNOSIS :

The abundance of shallow-water fossils (Modioliform Lamelli-
branchs, Ostracods, Spirorbis, etc.), associated with Brachiopods,
which are characteristic of the Lower Cleistopora- -Zone (Athyris
Royssu, Humetria, etc.).

FLorRa :
Plant fragments are common.

Fauna:

Spirorbis (?), Ostracods, Crinoid fragments, Lamellibranchs of
the genera Modiola, Sanguinolites, etc., and Gasteropods, especially
small forms belonging to the genera Murchisonia and Bellerophon.

Bryozoa belonging to the genera Rhabdomeson, Rhombopora and
Fenestella.

ARTHUR VAUGHAN

Fish scales occur somewhat rarely.

The Brachiopods include shallow-water forms, such as Lingula
and “ Discina,” together with a limited number of species which also
belong to the fauna of standard depth :—

Athyris Royssii (abundant).

Eumetria sp.

Kumetroid Rhynchonellid.

Spiriferids (fragments, probably, of both Spirifer and Syringo-

thyris).

Chonetes cf. hardrensis.

LOCAL DETAIL:

Road section.

Railway section.

N.B.—The beds are dealt with in ascending order and the particular section
which has yielded the best results is indicated at the side. The original
description is printed practically unaltered in spite of the fact that owing to
bricking up and growth of vegetation the exposures have greatly deteriorated.

(a) In the lowest 15 feet of the sequence, thin slabs can be

seen whose surface is covered with Spirorbis (?), small
Gasteropods and Ostracods, with an occasional specimen
of Modiola. |

The next 30 feet 1s very poor in fossils, but a thick bed,

near the top, contains the small Kumetroid Rhynchonellid
in some abundance. Resting upon this bed is a thick
band of shale.

The upper part of this shale-band, and the limestones and

shales above (some 20 feet in thickness), are highly
fossiliferous ; all the shales yield abundant Ostracods
and Modioliform Lamellibranchs (Modiola lata being
extremely common), while the weathered surfaces of the
limestones are covered with Bryozoa and with fragments
of Brachiopods and Crinoids.

The lowest hard bed in this series is a black, compact,

somewhat nodular limestone, rich in Leperditia (one
of the largest forms in the Ostracod group).

At the base of this series, Athyris Royssi is extremely

abundant in the railway section. (This is a striking
instance of the patchy distribution of individual forms.)
A little above the Athyris Royssw level, hunt should
be made for a remarkable branching Bryozoan
(Rhombopora ?), which, at first glance, resembles
Inthostrotion yunceum.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 65

The “ Bryozoa Bed ” is best examined in a thin slice under the micro-
scope. Bryozoa, belonging to the genus Rhabdomeson, are always
to be seen, but they are relatively scarce in comparison with the great
number of small rounded sections of crinoid fragments which constitute
the main portion of the slide. These crinoid sections exhibit a finely
reticulate structure, suggestive of the transverse sections of dendroid
Bryozoa, and it is to their great abundance that the rock owes its
misnomer. [There are several beds in the upper part of the Cleistopora-
Zone, to which the title of “ Bryozoa Bed” might be much more aptly
applied. ]

The index fossil Modiola lata is to be found throughout the Modzola-
Phase, but it is most abundant in certain of the shales included in
Division ¢. The horizon at which it is most prolific is a shale bed in
the railway section, 30 feet below the top of the “ Bryozoa Bed,” where
it is associated with enormous numbers of small Ostracods.

K, = Subzone of Productus bassus.
DIAGNOSIS;
Productus bassus, Chonetes cf. Buchiana and Eumetria aff.
carbonaria are abundant at certain levels.

Faun
Productus bassus. Orthotetes cf. crenistria.
Chonetes cf. Buchiana. Leptena cf. analoga.
Chon. cf. crassistria. Humetria aft. carbonaria.
Chon. cf. hardrensis. Camarotechia mitcheldeanensis.

LocAL DETAIL :

The K, section includes the “Palate Bed” and about 30 feet of
overlying strata, but the rocks are now ill-exposed.

The basal limestones, 2 or 3 feet in thickness, are crowded with
fossils and, from them, all the forms cited above have been obtained,
with the exception of the three species of Chonetes which are rate
at the bottom of the subzone. The index fossil Productus bassus
is also somewhat rare here, although it is remarkably abundant
at the same level on the opposite side of the river. The thin lime-
stones at the top of the exposure contain the three types of small
Chonetes cited above. With the Chonetes are associated Rhyn-
chonellids, Spiriferids and the tails of a small species of Phillipsia.

The Spiriferids include both Spirifer aff. clathratus and Syringothyris
aff. cuspidata, but they do not yet play a dominant part in the faunal

assemblage.
E

66 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

The zonal coral, Cleistopora, has not, as yet, been recorded from
K, in the Avon Section (right bank), but further search will doubtless
result in its discovery, for it has been found at this level on the left
bank of the Avon and in other parts of the South-Western Province,
as, for example, at Skrinkle, south of Tenby.

K, = Subzone of Spiriferina cf. octoplicata.
DrIaGNosis :

Spirtferina cf. octoplicata and Cleistopora cf. geometrica occur
somewhat abundantly at certain levels.

The Brachiopods cited as diagnostic of K, are rare or absent.

Zaphrentis is absent.

FAUNA:
CoRALS :
Cleistopora ef. geometrica.

BRACHIOPODS :

Chonetes cf. hardrensis. Spirifer aff. clathratus.

Orthotetes cf. crenistria. Syringothyris aft. cuspidata.

Leptena cf. analoga. Athyris Royssvi, mut. Bp.
Camarotechia mitcheldeanensis.

BRYOZOA :
Rhabdomeson.
Monticuliporids.
Fenestellids.

CRINOIDS :

Three or four species are represented by fragments which build up the
greater part of the limestones, but their identification awaits further work.

LOCAL DETAIL :

As already remarked, the exposures in this subzone are very poor.

A special search should be made for the zonal and subzonal
indices, Cleistopora cf. geometrica and Spiriferina ef. octoplicata,
at the side of the road just north of Press’ Quarry ; good specimens
of both fossils have been obtained from this level.

The Brachiopods above cited are abundant in the thin lime-
stones throughout the subzone and, near the top, the Spiriferids
form the dominant feature of the fauna.

The characteristic K, forms, such as Productus bassus and
Eumetria aff. carbonaria, have not, as yet, been recorded from this
subzone in the Avon. On the other hand, the characteristic Lower-

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 67

Zaphrentis Brachiopods (such as Productus cf. burlingtonensis, Athyris
aff. glabristria, Athyris Royssi mut. B, Reticularia cf. reticulata and
Rhipidomella aff. Michelini) become more and more abundant as we
approach the top of the Clezstopora-Zone.

lz horizon of overlap

Zaphrentis-Zone: Z

ie,
B horizon of overlap
Zonal index :—Zaphrentis aff. Phillips.

DiAaGNOsIs :
At the base, Zaphrentis enters and Cleistopora has become
extinct.
At the top, Caninia becomes abundant.

Horizon B

DiAGNosis :
Spiriferina cf. octoplicata, the index fossil of the Upper Clezstopora
Zone, occurs in association with Zaphrentis aft. Phillvpsi, the index
of the Zaphrentis-Zone.

Fauna :
This horizon, though characterized by a fauna essentially the
same as that of the Zaphrentis-Zone, contains one or two survivors
from the fauna peculiar to the Cleistopora-Zone.

Local DETAIL :

In the Avon Section, this extremely fossiliferous level forms
the base of the Black Rock Limestone-massif and, on the Clifton
side of the river, it can only be examined in Press’ Quarry.

The Brachiopods, with the two principal exceptions mentioned
below, are characteristic Lower-Zaphrentis forms and, in fact, at
Horizon f, the Z, fauna is already typically developed ; hence it is
unnecessary to enumerate the forms which are most abundant
‘since they are equally abundant throughout Z, and will be sufficiently
dealt with in the general account of that subzone which immediately
follows.

The two Brachiopods worthy of special notice are Spiriferina
et. octoplicata and Athyris Royssii, mut. B.

In the Bristol Area, Spiriferina cf. octoplicata is not found above

68 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

Horizon 6; it is the index fossil of K,, but reaches its maximum
abundance at, or just below, Horizon PB.

Athyris Royssti, mut. B, agrees very closely, in range and dis-
tribution, with Spiriferina cf. octoplicata; it is an abundant and
characteristic fossil at Horizon 8 and is common throughout K,,
but it ranges on into the Z, subzone.

The only coral which occurs at this horizon is Zaphrentis aff.
Phillipst which here makes its earliest appearance; it is not un-
common, and good specimens, showing the calyx, can be picked out
of the weathered partings.

Cups and stems of Crinoids, spines and plates of a Palechinid,
and Bryozoans of several types can be collected at this level, but
their accurate determination awaits much-needed research.

Z, = Subzone of Spirifer aff. clathratus.

DIAGNOSIS :
Zaphrentis aff. Phallipsi is the only Zaphrentis.
Spirifer afi. clathratus is enormously abundant.

FAUNA:
CoRALS :
Zaphrentis aff. Phillipst.

BRACHIOPODS :
Productus cf. burlingtonensis. Spirifer aff. clathratus.
Chonetes cf. hardrensis. Syringothyris aff. cuspidata.
Orthotetes cf. crenistria. Reticularia cf. reticulata.
Leptena cf. analoga. Athyris aff. glabristria.
Rhipidomella aff. Michelint. Camarotechia mitcheldeanensis.

Bryozoa and Crinoids are abundant.
Palatal teeth of Elasmobranchs (Psammodus, etc.) are not uncommon.
LocaL DETAIL :

The beds are exposed at the side of the road in the northern
extension of the Black Rock Quarry, and most of the fossils cited
above can be seen weathered out on the bedding planes.
Camarotechia mitcheldeanensis abounds in one of these beds, and
this is the highest level in the Avon sequence at which this Brachiopod
is an important fossil.

The best hunting-ground is, however, in the beds which form or
underlie the broad dip-slope at the northern end of the Black Rock

Quarry.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 69

Orthotetes cf. crenistria and the two varieties of Spirifer aff. clathratus
occur in thousands; Leptena cf. analoga and Syringothyris aff.
cuspidata are their commonest associates.

Just below the slope, at the top of the Z, subzone, the surfaces
of the beds are often completely covered with the valves of Chonetes
cf. hardrensis. Associated with this small species of Chonetes
are the earliest examples of the group of papilionaceous Chonetes.
Rhipidomella aff. Michelint reaches its maximum near the top of Z,,
and specimens should be looked for on the surfaces on which Chonetes
ef. hardrensis is abundant.

Z, = Subzone of Zaphrentis aff. cornucopia.

DIAGNOSIS :
The association of Zaphrentis aff. cornucopie with Zaphrentis
aff. Phillipsi, the rarity of Canina, and the gradual decline of the
Z, Brachiopod-fauna.

The lower part of the subzone is marked by the entrance of
Schizophoria afi. resupinata and by the abundance of Athyris aff.
glabristria ; the upper part is characterized by the great abundance
of the two species of Zaphrentis, and by the entrance of Caninia
and of the large form of Syringothyris afi. cuspidata which is so
important a fossil of the Syringothyris-Zone.

Fauna:

CoRALS :
Zaphrentis aff. cornucopia. Amplexus cf. coralloides.
Zaph. aft. Phillipst. Syringopora 0

Michelinia, spp.

BRACHIOPODS :
Productus cf. burlingtonensis. Schizophoria aff. resupinata.
Prod. aff. semireticulatus. Rhipidomella afi. Michelini.
Chonetes cf. hardrensis. Syringothyris aff. cuspidata.
Papilionaceous Chonetes. Syr. cf. laminosa.
Orthotetes cf. crenistria. Athyris aff. glabristria.

Bryozoa, Crinoids and Pal@chinus.

HLASMOBRANCHS :
Psammodus, Orodus, Helodus, etc.
LocaL DETAIL:
Within the main Black Rock Quarry, namely that portion
which lies south of the broad dip-slope below the “Cave,” the whole
of the Z, subzone is comprised.

70 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

The “ Fish Beds” occur about the middle of the subzone and
separate two rather distinct faunal assemblages :—

(1) Below the “ Fish Beds.”—

Zaphrentis aff. Phillipsi is the only common species of Zaphrentis.

Athyris afi. glabristria and Orthotetes cf. crenistria are the most
abundant fossils.

Schizophoria aff. resupinata makes its first appearance, and
is rather common, in the beds immediately above the slope.

(2) Above the “ Fish Beds.” —

Zaphrentis afi. Phillipst and Zaphrentis afi. cornucopre are both
very common and account for the greater number of coral sections
which can be seen in the rock-faces, but Amplexus, Michelinia and
Syringopora can always be recognized if carefully looked for.

The large papilionaceous Chonetes is already firmly established
as the dominant Chonetes, and the gens of Syringothyris aff. cuspidata
is represented for the first time by the large form, Syringothyris
cuspidata, which is characteristic of the succeeding zone.

Horizon y
DIAGNOSIS :
Caninia cylindrica is, for the first time, abundant and is associated
with Zaphrentis, which is still extremely common.

N.B.—In the Avon section, Horizon y appears to be inseparably linked
with the Z, beds below and to be sharply marked off from the Syringothyris-
Zone above, but this phenomenon is due to the incoming of peculiar physio-
graphic conditions (the ‘‘ dolomite phase ’’). Where the standard conditions
persisted into the Syringothyris-Zone, as was the case in the Mendip Area,
Horizon y presents its true character as a level of faunal overlap which links
the zones above and below, and is placed with equal justice in either.

Fauna :
Syringothyris cuspidata and papilionaceous Chonetes are the
most striking of the Brachiopods, and there are few survivors of the
Z, fauna.

Corals abound :
Zaphrentis (both species), Canina, Amplexus, Muichelima,
Syringopora.
Local DETAIL :
Horizon y is represented by the massive bed which immediately
underlies the “ laminosa-dolomite”’ at the extreme southern end of the
Black Rock Quarry. Sections and weathered calices of Canina

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 71

cylindrica can be seen in the rock-faces, and Zaphrentis is extremely
abundant.

GENERAL CHARACTERS of the zone in those areas in which the standard
conditions obtained :—

Syringothyris-Zone : C =|

Inthostrotion is typically absent and Canina abundant.

FAUNA:

CoRALS :
Michelinia cf. megastoma can be found throughout.
Cyathophyllum ¢ is especially characteristic of the upper half.

Zaphrentis aft. Phillips and Zaphrentis aff. cornucopie pass
up from the Zaphrentis-Zone below, but are only abundant in the
lower half of the Syringothyris-Zone.

BRACHIOPODS :

Syringothyris cf. laminosa and Syringothyris cuspidata are
characteristic fossils. Chonetes cf. comoides and papilionaceous
Chonetes crowd certain beds, especially in the lower part of the
zone where they are associated with equally abundant specimens
of the C mutation of Orthotetes cf. crenistria.

GASTEROPODS :
A large species of Bellerophon is very abundant in association
with Cyathophyllum ¢ in the upper part of the zone.

LocaL DETAIL :

Owing to the peculiar conditions of deposition, the Syringothyris-
Zone in the Avon section exhibits very few of the above characters
and, in fact, it is at the present time useless to attempt the study
of the fauna in the section on the Clifton side of the river; a
fossiliferous level in C, is exposed on the opposite side of the river
and will be described later.

From the “lJaminosa-dolomite,” at the foot of the Gully, good
specimens of Orthotetes cf. crenistria have been obtained and, from
the “ Caninia-Oolite”’ Quarry, specimens of Michelinia cf. megastoma
and Syringopora cf. reticulata were formerly collected in fair numbers.

The upper portion of the zone, the Caninia-shales and-dolomites,

fis ARTHUR VAUGHAN

has yielded hardly any fossils on either side of the Avon Section.
There is, however, a fossiliferous development of C, as near as

Failand.

-g_ Je
Seminula-Zone : S = ie
Zonal index :—Seminula ficordes.

DIAGNOSIS :

The first abundance of Lithostrotion occurs at the base of the
zone.

The first abundance of Dibunophyllum occurs above the top of
the zone, at the base of the succeeding zone.

Inthostrotion Martini is the dominant coral throughout the zone
and no Zaphrentis or Dibunophyllum has yet been recorded from
the zone.

Seminula ficordes is the dominant Brachiopod.

S, = subzone of Caninia cylindrica, mut. §,.

DIAGNnosis :

The 8, subzone is characterized by the establishment of a dominant
Viséan fauna (Lithostrotion, Seminula, etc.) with which are associated
several mutations which are the direct descendants of Tournaisian
forms (Caninia cylindrica, certain Producti, etc.).

Fauna:

CORALS :
Caninia cylindrica, mut. 8,. Syringopora cf. reticulata.
Inthostrotion Martini. Syr. cf. distans.
Inth. bristolense.

BRACHIOPODS :
Productus 6. Athyris cf. planosulcata.
Prod. semireticulatus, mut. 8. Syringothyris cf. laminosa.

Trepostomatous Bryozoa.

GASTEROPODS :
Bellerophon, Loxonema, etc.

Local DETAIL :

Atthe northern end of the “ Great Quarry ” wherethe fence bounding
the tennis courts swings round towards the road, rises a large irregular
bedding plane extending high up the quarry end. This bedding
plane is alluded to in the original issue of this paper as the “ back

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE : 73

slope.” About 15 yards further south a second conspicuous bedding
plane covered with small brachiopods (Seminula) is seen; this is
the “ front slope.”’ The quarry bank still further south is a recently
constructed feature. Several interesting horizons may easily be
recognized from their position relative to the “ back” or “ front”
slope.

The dendroid coral Lithostrotion Martini, which abounds through-
out the Seminula-Zone, often builds up entire beds.

The massive coral, Lvthostrotion bristolense is only abundant
in a thick bed just above the “‘ back slope.” Specimens were formerly
obtained from a petroleum-stained patch at this level and are
common in old collections, where they are usually labelled Lethostro-
tion aranea.

Syringopora cf. reticulata is, locally, a valuable diagnostic fossil
as it is not known, in the Bristol area, above 8, or below the
Syringothyris-Zone.

The subzonal coral, Caninia cylindrica, mut. 8,, is only abundant
in a thick bed a few feet above the “ front slope.”

Seminula ficoides is enormously abundant at frequent intervals
throughout the Seminula-Zone.

The shaly partings in the 8, subzone are frequently crowded
with crushed Seminule and, resting immediately upon the “ back
slope,’ is a massive bed which teems with uncrushed specimens.
All the characters of the fossil can be readily made out in the numerous
cross sections exposed in the rock-face, but solid specimens are very
difficult to extract.

Productus 8 is a common fossil but is difficult to determine from
the specimens seen 7m situ, which are usually mere cross sections
or partially exposed valves. Specimens can, however, often be
picked up from among the débris which is littered over the slopes.
(The same level on the opposite side of the river is, however, a better
hunting-ground.)

Productus semireticulatus, mut. 8,, is represented by crushed
valves and long spines in the shaly partings. The best collecting
level is just above the “ front slope,” where the weathered surfaces
are covered with the spines of this Productus,! associated with the

* This level has often been referred to as the “‘longispinus bed,’’ but the
designation is unfortunate since the Productus, whose spines have suggested the
name, is very different from Productus longispinus. The term ‘‘ Trilobite Bed ”’
is to be preferred.

ARTHUR VAUGHAN

tails of a small “ Phillopsia”’ and with abundant specimens of a
trepostomatous Bryozoon.

Athyris cf. planosulcata is common at the same level on the
opposite side of the river.

Trepostomatous Bryozoa are abundant at several levels in the
shaly partings, and good specimens can be obtained from the
“Trilobite Bed.’’ Fenestellids are common associates.

Gasteropods belonging to several genera can be seen cross-
sectioned in the rock-faces, especially at the top of the subzone.

S, = Subzone of Productus corrugato-hemisphericus
(= Prod. aff. Cora, mut.)

FAunA:

Throughout the South-Western Province very few gentes are
represented in this subzone, but those which occur are remarkably
rich in individuals. Lithostrotion, Syringopora, Semanula, papilion-
aceous Chonetes, and variants of Productus hemisphericus build up
thick bands and recur again and again.

CORALS:

In addition to Lithostrotion and Syringopora, which are extremely
abundant, Carcinophyllum and Alveolites occur somewhat sparingly,
and Cyathophyllum has been recorded from the uppermost bed in a
single locality (Sodbury). These are the only corals found in this
subzone throughout the South-Western Province; Zaphreniis,
Caninia, Dibunophyllum, etc., being all absent.

BRACHIOPODS :

Productus hemisphericus (abundant).

Prod. corrugato-henisphericus (abundant).

“ Prod. giganteus’”’ (from the uppermost beds only).

Prod. punctatus (rare).

Orthotetids (rare).

Cyrtina carbonaria and var. (especially abundant near the base).

Athyris (rare).

Seminula ficoides and vars. (abundant).

The above list comprises practically all the Brachiopods which
have as yet been recorded from the 8, subzone throughout the
South-Western Province. Spirifer, Syringothyris, Schizophoria and
Leptena are all absent and, although Seminula is so remarkably
abundant, Athyris is very rare.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 75

The limited nature of the fauna points clearly to the existence,
during Upper-Seminula time, of very special conditions throughout
the whole of the South-Western Province.

The groups which are unrepresented in the 8, fauna either migrated
from the Province during §, time, before the establishment of the
new conditions, or lived on in the area until they suffered local
extinction. (Productus aff. semireticulatus, mut. 8,, in its pro-
fusion of spines and in its marginal extensions, exhibits very con-
vineingly the moribund characters which indicate approaching
extinction.)

LocAL DETAIL :

Seminula ficoides, Inthostrotion Martini, Chonetes cf. papilionacea,
Syringopora cf. distans and Productus corruyato-hemisphericus build
up distinct and recurring seams.

Carcinophyllum and the Bryozoan, Cheietes cf. radians, can
always be detected by careful searching.

Cyrtina carbonaria, which is so extremely abundant at the base
of S, in certain parts of the South-Western Province (e.g., Wickwar),
has not been recorded from the Avon section.

In the repetition of the series, south of the “ Great Fault,’’ the entire
S, subzone, with the exception of the pisolites at the base, is well
exposed between the bottom of Bridge Valley Road and a point a
few yards north of the foot of the Old Zig-zag. The repeated seams
of Lnthostrotion, Seminula, Productus and Chonetes can be readily
examined, but very few other fossils have, as yet, been recorded.

€
Dibunophyllum-Zone : D | D,
LD,
Zonal Index :—The Dibunophyllum group of the
Clisiophyllidan Corals.
D1AGNosis :

CORALS :

In general, the abundance of Clisiophyllidan Corals is remarkably
striking, both as regards species and individuals; in particular,
the predominance of the Dibunophyllum section and the occurrence
of the Aulophyllum section are noteworthy features.

Narrow-tubed Lithostrotions such as Lithostrotion irregulare and
L. Portlocki, are the dominant forms of that genus.

76 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

BRACHIOPODS :

In general, the abundance of Producti, both as regards species
and individuals, is a salient feature, and in particular, the predomin-
ance of the giganteid section and the entrance of the scabriculate
and longispinous groups are the facts of chief importance.

Of the Spirifers, Sp. bisulcatus is the dominant species.

D, = Subzone of Dibunophyllum 8.
DIAGNOSIS :

The entrance of Dibunophyllum and the predominance of those
species of the genus which have a simple type of structure.

The absence of highly specialized Clisiophyllids, such as Lonsdalia.

The maximum abundance of Cyathophyllum Murchison and
of Productus hemisphericus.

FAUNA:
CoRALS :
Dibunophyllum 6 Diphyphyllum.
Dib. d \ abundant. Inthostrotion irregulare.
Carcinophyllum 6 J Lith. Martini.
Cyclophyllum pachyendothecum Lith. gunceum.
(rare). Syringopora cf. geniculata.
Koninckophyllum 6 (common Syr. cf. ramulosa.
locally, e.g. at Sodbury). Syr. cf. distans.
Campophyllum afi. Murchison. Alveolites septosa (abundant).
Cyathophyllum Murchisont
(very abundant).
BRACHIOPODS :
Productus giganteus. Orthotetids, especially Derbyia (rare,

Prod. hemisphericus
Prod. corrugato-
hemisphericus. J
Chonetes (Daviesiella) aff. comoides. Cyrtina septosa (rare, except locally,
e.g. at Lydstep).

‘ abundant, ©=°ePt locally, e.g. at Westbury).

LOCAL DETAIL:

This subzone can be examined in the roadside exposures immedi-
ately south of the bottom of the New Zig-zag.

In the repetition of the series, south of the “ Great Fault,” the fossils
characteristic of the D, subzone can be readily recognized in the
rock-face between the Colonnade and the foot of the Old Zig-zag,
as well as in the exposures by the side of that path.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE iy 6

D, = Subzone of Lonsdalia floriformis.

DIAGNOSIS :
The presence of highly specialized Clisiophyllids, such as Lonsdalha,
and Dibunophylla of the type of Dib. w.
The entrance of compound Cyathophylla and the importance
of the Martinia section of the Spiriferids.

FAUNA:
CoRALS :
Lonsdalia floriformis (abundant). —- Lithostrotion irregulare (very abundant).
Inth. junceum.
Dibunophyllum ¢ LInth. Martini with Clisiophylloid and
Dib. } Son nee Diphyphylloid variants (abundant).
Aulophyllids (rare). Inth. Portlocki and Lith. M’Coyanum
Campophyllum. (abundant).
Lith. ensifer.
Cyathophyllum i Petalaxis Portlockt.
Murchisoni common. Alveolites septosa (common).
Cyath. regium Syringopora cf. distans.
BRACHIOPODS :
Productus latissimo- Spirifer striatus.
giganteus. (abundant). Sp. bisulcatus.
Choneti-Productus. Sp. planicosta.
Prod. hemisphericus (common). Martinia ovalis.

Reticularia lineata.
Athyris planosulcata.
Seminula ambigua.
Dielasma.

The above lists include only those species which have been
recorded from D, in the Avon section.

_ LOCAL DETAIL:

The only exposures of D, beds on the Clifton side of the Avon
are those by the roadside north of the bottom of Bridge Valley Road ;
those which formerly existed in Bridge Valley Road itself are now
hidden by a wall. Luthostrotion portlocki is very common, while
Inthostrotion martini and irregulare build up the greater part of
several beds. Many of the species cited in the foregoing lists can
be detected by careful search in the roadside section. It was in
widening the river channel at this spot, formerly known as Round
Point, that most of the “ Clifton Corals,’’ so common in collections,
were originally obtained.

78 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

Horizon €.

Passage beds from the Carboniferous Limestone into the Millstone
Grit.

In the Avon section, this horizon consists chiefly of massive calcareous
grit and was formerly included in the “ Millstone Grit ” series.

FAUNA:

Productus scabriculus (extremely abundant).

Prod. corrugatus and Orthotetids (common).

In the repetition of the series, south of the “ Great Fault,” this horizon
is concealed behind the ‘“‘ General Draper ”’ Public House and is no
longer accessible ; in the main section, north of the Fault, the sequence
is cut short near the top of D,, before this horizon is reached.

In other parts of the South-Western Province, the calcareous develop-
ment extends above Horizon «, and includes a small portion of the
subzone D, which is so important a subdivision of the Lower Carbonifer-
ous in the Midland and Yoredale Provinces.

Hence it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that “‘ Millstone
Grit’ conditions did not commence at the same time over even so
small an area as the South-Western Province and that, consequently,
the ‘“‘ Millstone Grit” of one locality is the time-equivalent of part
of the ‘‘ Carboniferous Limestone” of another.

** Millstone Grit.”

The massive quartzite-like grits, included under this title, immedi-
ately succeed Horizon « in the Avon section without any break, and,
since the upper part of D, contains several bands of grit which herald
the incoming of prolonged grit conditions, we may fairly assume the
conformity of the “‘ Millstone Grit ” with the underlying “‘ Carboniferous
Limestone ”’ in the immediate neighbourhood of Bristol.

Ill. THE SECTION ON THE LEIGH WOODS SIDE

Seeing that the sequence on the right bank of the Avon has been
so fully dealt with, it will be unnecessary to give so detailed an account
of that on the left bank. The descriptive account which follows
consists, therefore, of a series of short notes explanatory only of the
most striking facts, and especially of those which cannot be so satis-
factorily observed on the Clifton side of the river.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 79

We may conveniently start from Clifton Bridge Station, and, before
entering on the riverside traverse, it will be advisable to visit the
quarry on Rownham Hill, though this has now (1935) been used for
many years as a depository for refuse. If the hill be ascended as far
as the fork in the road, the left-hand branch must be taken, and the
quarry then lies a short distance farther along, on the right hand side
of the road. (If Clifton Bridge Station is reached from the Suspension
Bridge, the quarry should be examined on the way down.)

“Rownham Quarry ”’ lies in the upper part of the Dibunophyllum-
Zone (D,), and in the repetition of the Carboniferous Series, south of
the “‘ Great Fault.’’ The lowest beds exposed in the quarry are massive
limestones poor in fossils; these beds were formerly worked for road
metal. Resting upon these massive beds is a thick bed of rubbly
limestone which contains numerous patches of clay, and it is from
these patches that the finest specimens of D, corals have been obtained.

Subjoined is a complete list of the Corals and Brachiopods which
have been collected from Rownham Quarry :—

CoRALS :
Lonsdalia floriformis. Dibunophyllum ys.
Inthostrotion irregulare. Cyathophyllum regium.
Lith. Portlocki. Cyath. Murchisoni-regium.
Lith. M’Coyanum. Campophyllum Murchisoni.
Inth. ensifer. Alveolites septosa.

Syringopora cf. distans.

Lonsdalia, Lithostrotion wrregulare and Cyathophyllum regium are the
most abundant Corals.

BRACHIOPODS :
Productus latissimo-giganteus. Spiriferina cf. biplicata.
Choneti-Productus. Martinia ovali-glabra.
Spirifer bisulcatus. Athyris planosulcata.

Sp. planicosta.

Giganteid Producti are the only Brachiopods which are abundant ;
Spiriferids and Athyrids are rare.

Bryozoa are not uncommon, and Calamites occurs in a thin grit
band.

Returning to Clifton Bridge Station, we will now commence our
walk downstream along the river side.

The Dibunophyllum-Zone is poorly exhibited in the rail-side cutting,
the beds which we have just examined in “ Rownham Quarry” cropping

80 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

out again at the southern end of this exposure, while at the northern
end the “ Concretionary beds ”’ (S,d) are seen.

As we pass under the Suspension Bridge, the strata (S,c) which
separate the “‘ Concretionary beds” from the “ Seminula-oolite ”’ are
well exposed in the cliff-face but present no new points of special
interest. Between the northern end of the little tunnel and Nightingale
Valley; the ‘‘ Seminula-oolite ’’ is exposed in the railway cutting and by
the riverside.

Nightingale Valley, which lies immediately north of the Suspension
Bridge, is just to the south of the continuation of the “ Great Fault ”
as traced by Professor Lloyd Morgan.

At this point, therefore, we enter upon the main Avon Section,
which includes, without a break in the sequence, all the zones, from the
upper part of the Dibunophyllum-Zone down to the base of the
Cleistopora-Zone and its conformable junction with the Upper Old
Red Sandstone.

D,.

North of Nightingale Valley, the D, beds form a high mural exposure
which can be examined in Quarry 6. (See Pl. 15). This quarry has been
long disused and will scarcely repay a short visit. Most of the fossils
obtained at “‘ Rownham Quarry ”’ can also be found here, and F%stult-
pora cf. incrustans, a Monticuliporoid characteristic of D,, is somewhat
abundant, as are also the narrow-tubed massive forms of Lithostrotion.
The fossils occur, as on Rownham Hill, in a thick rubbly limestone ;
this bed can be followed up the slopes, and is well exposed on the sides

of Stoke Leigh Camp.
No further exposures are seen till the second tunnel is approached.

D,.

A short cutting just south of the tunnel affords a good section
of D,, and, coincident with this, a fine riverside section of D, about
100 yards long commences. “ Rubbly beds ” (“ pseudobreccia ”’) are
well exposed at the southern end. Many bedding planes covered with
Cyathophyllum murchisont and Productus giganteus are conspicuous,
these two fossils reaching their maximum of abundance at this level.
D, beds are also well exposed by the roadside, and weathered out corals
can, or formerly could, readily be collected on the dip-slope of the
rubbly limestone overlooking the southern end of the tunnel.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 81

The following fossils have been found in these exposures of D, :—

CoRALS :
Dibunophylium 6. Inthostrotion irregulare.
Dib. ¢. Inth. gunceum.
Carcinophyllum, 0. Lith. Martini and a Clisiophylloid
Campophyllum aff. Murchisoni. variant.
Cyathophyllum Murchisont. Syringopora cf. geniculata.
Diphyphyllum. Syr. cf. ramulosa and S. cf. distans.
Alveolites septosa.
BRACHIOPODS :
Productus hemisphericus. Chonetes cf. papilionacea.
Prod. giganteus. Ch. aff. comordes.

So.

Although there is no stratigraphical break between the base of D,
and the top of 8,, yet the faunal break (as also the lithological break)
is remarkably striking and, at first sight, well-nigh complete. In
the Avon sequence, the D, beds, with their rich coral fauna, are under-
lain by the 8, “ Concretionary beds ” which contain few fossils beyond
recurrent seams of Seminula. (Although the sharpness of the faunal
break between the Dibunophyllum and Seminula-Zones is seen to be
less perfect the more closely we examine any one locality, and the more
widely we extend our observations, it yet remains a striking feature
of the sequence throughout the South-Western Province, and un-
doubtedly indicates a very considerable change of conditions.)

The strata forming the roof of the tunnel are the “ Concretionary
beds ” (S,d), and the scarp overlooking them is D,. The exposures
of the “‘ Concretionary beds ” are in the main poor, though the charac-
teristic algal layers are well seen in some of the roadside exposures.

The riverside exposure of 8,, which extends as far as Quarry 5,
is in the main in the “ Concretionary beds ” (8,d), but includes part
of the underlying S,c. It affords one of the best developments of
upper 8, in the whole of the Avon Section.

Quarry 5 is in upper 8,-beds which are, however, poorly exposed.
Seminula ficordes and Lithostrotion Martin are both abundant. A
thin band of Dolomitic Conglomerate rests on the limestone at the
top of the quarry and its character can be studied in blocks on the
quarry floor. The northern boundary of the quarry is formed by a
large and conspicuous bedding plane. Between quarries 5 and 4,
both of which have long been abandoned, “‘ Seminula-Oolite ”’ (S,b) is

exposed by the side of the railway and also by the riverside. In
F

82 ARTHUR VAUGHAN

Quarry 4, the upper part of the wall is formed of “ Seminula-Oolite”’ in
poor condition. The main part of the quarry is in “ Seminula-pisolite ”’
(S,a), also very poorly exposed and much calcite-veined. The large
blocks of JLithostrotion-limestone, and of “ China-stone”’ showing
brecciation, which lie about on the floor of the quarry, are from this
horizon. |

Sie

The main interest of Quarry 4 centres, however, in the exposure of
the 8, subzone.

The slope which forms the north end of the quarry lies immediately .
above the level of the “ Trilobite Bed” (see footnote, p. 73) of the
“ Great Quarry.” There is, in fact, a small exposure of this bed in the
north-eastern corner of Quarry 4 where a few trilobite tails can be
recognised on the bedding-surface ; a frilled Athyrid, with the form of
Athyris planosulcata, is not uncommon, but Productus semireticulatus,
mut. §,, has not been detected.

If we now climb the main slope and examine the exposures of bare
rock which lie in position upon it, Caninia cylindrica, mut. §,, is seen
to occur abundantly, with Lithostrotion Martini and Seminula ficordes.
In the débris scattered over the highest part of the slope, at the extreme
north end of the quarry, Productus 8 may be found; this Productus
can be seen, im situ, in a bed a few feet above the slope where Athyris
cf. planosulcata is also not uncommon.

C,. |
After leaving Quarry 4, the C,-dolomites and -shales can be recognized,
both in the river bank and also by the side of the line, but the exposures

are unsatisfactory, and there is nothing to delay us until we reach
Quarry 3 (the “ Oolite Quarry ’’).
C;.

The thick band of “ Caninia-Oolite ” forms a striking feature in the
wall of this quarry (Plate 11). The well-bedded shales and thin lime-
stones capping the thick massive oolite, in which the bedding is difficult
to recognize, give a momentary suggestion of unconformity which is
heightened by the vertical jointing of the oolite-mass, but the impression
is immediately corrected by the obvious bedding to be seen in the rocks
below the Oolite, and by the traces of bedding which can be made out
in the oolite-mass itself.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 83

The oolite grains are usually very much smaller than is the case
in the oolitic bands at higher levels, and the amount of interstitial
cement is relatively less; the concretionary structure of the grains
extends almost from surface to centre.

Fossils are rare in the Oolite but Syringopora cf. reticulata and
Michelima cf. megastoma occur sparingly.

The beds below the Oolite form the uppermost portion of the
> a division of C,, in which recurrent shell seams
form a characteristic feature. One of these seams can be examined on
the bare slopes at the northern end of the quarry.

Orthotetes cf. crenistria and papilionaceous Chonetes occur in great
numbers, and a few specimens of the subzonal index, Syringothyris
laminosa, may be seen.

There is a good section by the side of the railway just north of
Quarry 3; the highest beds are “ Caninia-Oolite,” the lowest 30 feet
are y, the remainder “ laminosa-dolomite”’ (Pl. 11); a duplicate
section is seen by the side of the road. After a gap of about 50 yards,
exposures by the railway recommence and there is a section of Z,, but
the rocks are rather badly weathered. There is a better section by the
roadside, the upper beds being very fossiliferous. There is also a
riverside section which extends from a point a little north of Quarry 3
almost as far as the wharf of Quarry 2, and exposes the whole of the
“laminosa-dolomite,” y, and Z,. Z, and y are very easily examined,
but much of the “ laminosa-dolomite ”’ is not easily accessible.

We may now pass on to Quarry 2, which till 1935 has been in con-
tinuous work. The southern face consists of y with Z, below and a
capping of “ laminosa-dolomite.”’

** Jaminosa-dolomite,’

y and Z,.

Horizon y is exposed at the southern end of the quarry, and fossils
can readily be made out on the rock-faces.

Caminia cylindrica, Zaphrentis aft. Phillipst and Zaphrentis aff.
cornucopia are the most abundant forms.

The “Fish Beds” have yielded large numbers of palatal teeth
(Psammodus, Orodus, etc.).

Tn the lowest beds, at the northern end of the quarry, Brachiopods
are abundant and constitute a characteristic Zaphrentis assemblage.
The commonest forms are :—

Spirifer aff. clathratus, Orthotetes cf. crenistria, Chonetes cf. hardrensis,

84. ARTHUR VAUGHAN

Athyris aff. glabristria, Syringothyris afi. cuspidata, Reticularia cf.
reticulata and Rhipidomella afi. michelin.

The earliest occurrence, in the Bristol Area, of a corrugate Productus
is recorded from these beds.

We now proceed to Quarry 1, no exposures being seen either by the
road or riverside between it and Quarry 2. The characteristic fossils
of Z, are easily obtainable from the blocks of rock on the floor of the
quarry.

Z,, Bp, and K,.

The most interesting portion of the quarry is, however, the northern
end, which is shut off by a rise from the main part of the quarry.
Here the lowest part of Z, and B are exposed. Horizon f owes its
differentiation to the fact that at this level several of the fossils which
are characteristic of the Cleistopora-Zone occur in association with
a typical Zaphrentis-fauna.

The following Corals and Brachiopods have all been collected from
Horizon f in Quarry 1 :—

(a) Brachiopods which may be considered to be characteristic of the
Cletstopora-Zone : |

Spiriferina cf. octoplicata.

Chonetes cf. Buchiana..

Athyris Royssit and its variant, mut. f.
Camarotechia matcheldeanensis.

(b) Productus cf. burlingtonensis, mut. B is common and may be
considered to be equally indicative of the uppermost part of K and the
lowest part of Z.

(d) The general Zaphrentis-assemblage of Brachiopods which has
already been specified in the description of the lowest beds of Quarry 2.

A small excavation visible from the main entrance of Quarry 1
is in K,, the beds being now much overgrown. They consist of shale
and thin limestone bands in which Brachiopods are abundant. The
zonal fossil Cleistopora has been obtained here.

For rather more than two hundred yards northwards from Quarry 1

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 85

there are no exposures. Then there commences a fairly good rail-
side section of the ‘‘ Bryozoa Bed ” and the whole of K,,. The rocks
are, however, still better seen by the riverside.

K,.

In the riverside section, the K, subzone is finely exposed and there
is a satisfactory sequence from the normal development of K,, down
through the “ Modiola-Phase K,,,” into the uppermost beds of the
Old Red Sandstone.

As we walk along this exposure, the red “‘ Bryozoa Bed ”’ is easily
recognized and is seen to separate the normal K, beds to the south
from the ‘ Modiola-Phase ”’ to the north.

In the K, beds, Orthotetes cf. crenistria, mut. K,, Leptena cf. analoga,
Productus bassus and Camarotechia matcheldeanensis occur in great
abundance.

Eumetria aff. carbonaria and Athyris Royssw are common.

Bryozoa are very abundant, especially the genera Rhabdomeson
and Rhombopora and certain members of the Monticuliporoid group.

Small Gasteropods (Bellerophon, Capulus, etc.) are common, and
appear to be characteristic of the level.

Small palatal teeth occur sparingly as we approach the “ Bryozoa
Bed.”

The “ Bryozoa Bed”’ is well developed but calls for no special notice.

The “ Modiola-Phase,”’ immediately north of the “ Bryozoa Bed,”
contains thick bands of shale which are practically unfossiliferous ;
a few imperfect specimens of Modvola lata have been discovered but
Ostracods appear to be absent. The lowest beds of the ‘‘ Modiola-
Phase” contain obscure Modioliform lamellibranchs, small Spzrorbis-
like tubes which are weathered out on the surfaces of certain beds,
and algal layers, one of them brecciated.

Oras:

The lowest beds of the “‘ Modiola-Phase’”’ pass down with perfect
conformity into the coloured marls and grits which characterize Old
Red Sandstone conditions.

From certain beds near the top of the Old Red Sandstone were
obtained the scales of Strepsodus (?) to which reference has already
been made.

IV.—TABLE

ARTHUR VAUGHAN

SHOWING THE CHIEF EXPOSURES

OF THE

SUCCESSIVE HORIZONS (s. z. R.)

RicHt Bank.
Highest beds visible but not
easily accessible just below the
fault.

Upper beds poorly seen above
great wall at bottom of Bridge
Valley Road.

Lower beds well seen in Portway
roadside section.

Upper beds well exposed in
Portway roadside section and
poorly in Bridge Valley Road.
Lower beds seen :

1. In the main Portway section.
2. By the roadside from just
north of the Rocks Railway to
the Old Zig-zag path (series
repeated by the fault).

S. (d) “‘ Concretionary Beds.”

Very poorly exposed in main

section. Best seen :

1. In the series as repeated by
the fault.

2. By the side of the pavement
leading to the Suspension
Bridge.

3. In a riverside exposure near

the New Zig-zag path.

Seen :

1. Near the northern end of the
“ Great Quarry.”

2. By the side of the pavement
leading to the Suspension
Bridge.

3. In the great rock-face just
south of the Bridge (series
repeated by fault).

Lert Bank.
Not seen.

Upper beds formerly well ex-
posed in “ Rownham Quarry ”’
which is now used as a rubbish
tip.

Lower beds poorly exposed by
the railway and in quarry 6.

Upper beds poorly exposed by
the railway.

Lower beds finely exposed in the
riverside section. Seen high up
above the tunnel slope south of
quarry 5.

Well seen in the riverside ex-
posure. Poorly exposed in
quarry 5 and in the tunnel slope
to the south.

Upper beds well seen in the
riverside exposure.
Poorly seen in quarry 5.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 87

(b) The ‘‘ Semonula-Oolite.”’
Well exposed near the northern
end of the “Great Quarry.”
Also at the bottom of Bridge
Valley Road (series repeated by
fault).

(a) “* Seminula-pisolite.”
Finely exposed in the “ Great
Quarry.”

Finely exposed at the northern
end of the “ Great Quarry.’

“ Caninia-dolomite.”

Finely exposed by the roadside
between the “ Great ” and Gully
Quarries. Seen in the adjacent
riverside section.

(b) “* Caninia-Oolite.”’

Upper beds seen in roadside
section south of Gully Quarry.
The whole horizon is seen in the
Gully Quarry and in the adja-
cent riverside exposure.

(a) “‘ laminosa-dolomite.”’

Upper beds seen in the Gully
Quarry, north end, and in the
riverside exposure ; lowest beds
in the Black Rock Quarry, south
end.

Finely seen in the Black Rock
Quarry, and in the adjacent
riverside exposure.

The whole horizon is seen in the
Black Rock Quarry, but the ex-
posures are not very good. There
is a good riverside exposure.

Well exposed in the northern
part of the Black Rock Quarry.

Poorly seen in quarry 4.

Fairly well seen in quarry 4.

Base well seen in quarry 3, but
inaccessible.

In quarry 3 the upper beds are
well seen but inaccessible. The
lower beds are seen in relation
to the dip-slope of quarry 3 and
in the adjacent rail and riverside
exposures.

The whole horizon is well
exposed in the railside section
north of quarry 3. The lower
beds are exposed but maccess-
ible high up in quarry 2.

Seen by the railway north of
quarry 3 and in the adjacent
riverside exposure. Exposed but
inaccessible high up in quarry 2.

The whole horizon is exposed in
quarry 2, and the greater part
in the adjacent riverside expo-
sure. The top beds are also seen
in the railside exposure south
of quarry 2.

Well exposed in quarry 1.

ARTHUR VAUGHAN

Exposed in Press’ Quarry.

Top beds exposed by the road-
side just north of Press’ Quarry.
Main part of the horizon not
seen.

Main part of the horizon not
seen. Lowest beds exposed by
the roadside just south of the
“ Bryozoa Bed” outcrop.

“ Bryozoa Bed.” Finely ex-
posed by the roadside. Good
exposures also in the Avon-
mouth railway north of the
tunnel.

K,, Exposed both by the roadside

and by the Avonmouth railway,
but the exposures are becoming
overgrown and are partly

bricked up.

Well exposed in the northern
part of quarry 1.

Top beds ill exposed in a little
excavation in the wood just
north of quarry 1; main part
of the horizon not seen.

Upper beds not seen. Lower
beds well exposed by the river-
side north of quarry 1.

Well exposed in the railway
cutting and still better in the
riverside exposure.

Seen in the railway cutting and
well exposed by the riverside.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The publications in which some description is given of the rocks

of the Avon Section are numerous.

The short bibliography which

follows only includes the more recent ones.

1905.

1906.
1912.

1921.

1921.
1927.

A. VAUGHAN.

boniferous Limestone of the Bristol Area.”

Geol. Soc., LXI, p. 181.

“The Paleontological sequence in the Car-

Quart. Journ.

A. VaucHan. ‘“ The Carboniferous Limestone Series (Avonian)

of the Avon Gorge.” Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc., 4th ser., I, p. 74.

M. B. CoapmMan.

‘The Chemical Examination of the Carboni-

ferous Limestone of the Avon Gorge.” Geol. Magq., n.s., Dec. V,

IX, p. 498.
S. H. REYNOLDS.

“The Lithological Succession of the Car-

boniferous Limestone (Avonian) of the Avon Section at Clifton.”

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., LXXVITI,
“On the Rocks of the Avon Section,
Geol. Mag., LVIII, p. 543.

“The Effect on the Avon Section of the
Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc., 4th ser.,

S. H. Reryno.ps.
Clifton.”’
S. H. Reyno.3ps.
Construction of Portway.”

VI, p. 318.

p. 213.

Fit.
Py 2.

Pl. 3.

Pl. 4.

Pl 7.

Pi. 8.

PL. 9.

THE AVONIAN OF THE AVON GORGE 89

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

The northern end of the section showing the succession from
the Old Red Sandstone nearly to Z,.

The Black Rock Quarry.

The whole of the Zaphrentis beds except lower Z, is seen,
together with the “ laminosa-dolomite,” C, (a). The photo-
graph was taken prior to the destruction of the Hotwells and
Avonmouth railway.

General view of the Avon Section, right bank, from near
Sea Walls.

The southern end of the Black Rock Quarry is seen in the
lower part of the photograph, the gap between it and the
Gully Quarry not being apparent. The freedom from
quarrying of C, and of the D-beds is conspicuous. The
photograph was taken before the destruction of the Hotwells
and Avonmouth railway.

The Gully Quarry and part of the Black Rock Quarry. The
woods in the upper part of the photograph are growing
on the “ Caninia-dolomite.”’

The section from the southern end of the Black Rock Quarry
to the northern end of the “Great Quarry.” The woods in
the right half of the photograph are growing partly on the
“ Canimia-dolomite,” C,, partly on §).

C.D. = “ Caninia-dolomite.”

The northern and major part of the “Great Quarry.” Almost
the whole Seminula-zone is seen, but the upper beds do not
reach the floor of this part of the quarry.

The “Great Quarry” and section almost as far as the bottom
of Bridge Valley Road. The photograph was taken from
above the gorge on the left bank.

The wooded character of the D-beds is conspicuous. Point
Villa was formerly situated approximately where D is written
in the photograph just above the “ Point.” The fine new
section of lower D, is seen in the right hand corner.

Observatory Hill, the Suspension Bridge and the section as
repeated by the fault.

All the S-beds save the lowest section, 8, (a), are seen. The
base of D, which comes on just south of the Old Zig-zag
path, is also seen.

(2) Looking north from the Suspension Bridge.

The photograph shows the soles of several of the minor over-
thrusts in relation to the ‘‘ Great Fault ” of Observatory Hill.
ee distance is seen the Black Rock Quarry below Sea

alls.

(b) Near view of the disturbed upper D,-beds below the over-
thrust 8,-beds of Observatory Hill.

Pl. 10.

ig le

PUiy2:

Pl. 13.

Pl. 14.

ARTHUR VAUGHAN

(a) Quarry 5 and the tunnel slope to the south (lower D,-

and upper §,-beds). Quarry 5 is terminated on the right

by a conspicuous bedding plane.

(6) Quarries 5 and 4 both in the Upper S-beds.

Quarry 3 and the railway section to the north. Quarry 3 is
in the “ Canima-oolite”’ capped by the “ Caninia-dolo-
mite,” which is well seen but inaccessible. In the railway
section to the north and in the riverside exposures, the
section extends from the base of the “ Caninia-oolite”’ to
the top of y.

(a) Quarry 3 and the southern part of Quarry 2. In Quarry
3 the “ Caninia-dolomite ”’ and “ -oolite ”’ are seen; in the
southern part of Quarry 2 the “ laminosa-dolomite’”’ and
Upper Z,.

_.(6) Quarries 2 and 1. The series from the “ laminosa-dolo-

mite” to Z, 18 seen.

Weathered surfaces of algal limestone.

(a) Brecciated algal limestone, K,,. Riverside exposure,
northern end of section, left bank.

(b) Algal limestone, Km. Riverside exposure, northern end
of section, left bank.

“‘ Pseudobreccia” and “‘ Semsnula-pisolite.”

(a) ‘‘ Pseudobreccia,”’ D,, Portway.
The rock is relatively little weathered. The “ fragments ”
are pale, the *‘ matrix”’ dark. Penny gives scale.

(b) ‘“‘ Pseudobreccia”’ (“ rubbly-beds ’’), D,, Portway.
The rocks are more weathered, and the proportion of clay
in the “ matrix ” is greater thanin (a). Penny gives scale.

(c) ‘‘ Pseudobreccia,”’ D,, Portway.
Shows a band of “ pseudobreccia ’’ interrupted by a mass which
is not pseudobrecciated. Length of hammer handle,
103 inches.

(d) “ Seminula-pisolite,” S,(a), ‘Great Quarry.” Two pisoliths
(one broken) show concentric structure clearly. Numerous
sections of Seminule visible. x about 4.

-
—__o ts

PLATE 1.

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SERIES, Vou. VIII, Pr. I.

UNVG LHYIY ‘NOLOGY

GHL dO GNQ NUTHLMON

aH,

PLATE 2.

Proc. B.N.S., 4rH Series, Vou. VIII, Pr. I.

Kuuvat) HOO’ MOWIG FHL

Proc. B.N.S., 4tH SERIES, Vou. VIII, Pr. I. PLATE 3.

GENERAL Vinw or THE Avon Section, RigHt BANK, FROM NEAR SEA WALLS

PLATE 4.

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SERIES, Vou. VIII, Pr. I.

AuUuvay MOOY MOWIG AHL GO LuVd GNV AUAVAY) ATINY AH,

PLATE 5.

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SERIES, VoL. VIII, Pr. I.

,, AMUVAY) LVAU ,, HHL AO GNA ‘N AHL

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH Serres, Vou. VIII, Pr. I.

PLATE 6.

THE NORTHERN AND MaAJor PART OF THE “ GREAT QUARRY ”’

PLATE 7,

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH Serres, Vou. VIII, Pr. I.

aqvoy AGTIVA aDaIugG OL ., ANYVOY LVAND,, AHL WOW NOLOAQ AH,

bo i
mim heres roe

PLATE &,

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SERIES, VoL. VIII, Pr. I.

LTAVYA FHL Ad GHLVEAdAY SV NOILOUS AHL GNV ANCIYG NOISNAdSOS WHO ‘TTI AYOLVAUHSAYD

PRoceubeNce 42H Smrizs, Vou. VIII, Pr. I. PrarE 9,

(b)
Looking NortTH FROM THE SUSPENSION BRIDGE.
Near VIEW or THE D1

TURBED UpPpER D, BEDS BELOW THIN OVERTHRUST
S, Beps or OpservatTory HILL

ieee

aa) ae 4

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SERies, Vou. VII, Pr. I. Puate 10.

(a2) QuaRRY 5 AND THE TUNNEL SLOPE TO THE SOUTH
(6) QuaRRIES 5 AND 4

Proc. B.N.S., 4raH Series, Vou. VIII, Pr. I. PLATE 1],

QUARRY 3 AND THE RAILWAY SECTION TO THE NORTH

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SERIES, Vou. VIII, Pr. I. PLATE 12.

(a) QUARRY 3 AND THE SOUTHERN PART OF QUARRY 2
(6) QUARRIES 2 AND 1

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SERIES, Vou. VIII, Pr. I.

PLATE

13.

WEATHERED SURFACES OF ALGAL LIMESTONES

m 14.

PLAT!

Proc. B.N.S., 4rH Series, Vou. VIII, Pr. I.

ITOSIg -Djnu

») . VIDNTALOCNAS_ ,, (0 “9 “p)

4
B
iy

a
5
4
"
us

PratEe 15

MILLSTONE GRIT

Feet

s 4 |
J
Lg
a
Es
a

4800

1700

be thicker and others thinner than in the above table.)

5000 feet

4500

4000

Suspensi

on Bridge

sueunaunsengeunas

A Adar cate
Round Point

‘a

Y Qy.6
Stoke Leigh

Camp

een er rt ne aS
—— hee 4 Sree aN i : ee ag

(-a1qe} AAOge ay} UT UeY] JoUUTY} SIEY}O pue IayoTy} 2q

Proo. B.N.S., 47H Serres, Vou. VIII, Pr. I

‘anuanbag NQAV 2} Ur
‘SHNOZENS PHe SHNOZ

PINoys spueq autos suol}eOYIssE]D J0ze] 0} Surpi099%)

ZONES [
SUBZONEG

ay} Jd
saayopreyy IYI] pue ssouxoIYyy ay} Burmoys

NOILDAS IVIILAAA

Railway-Cutung

Cleistopora |!

| cLar.

Zaphrentis
He
| RATUS | coRnucoPLe 1

Sytingothyris
1

r
p
3
=
3
&
B

Ty sajuojop

THE AVON GORGE
Horizontal Section.(Natural Scale)

Seminula

Prate 15

Pibinophy (tum

/LONSDALIA

WO)

‘S{Suspension
Bridge

|S2 repeated
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 feet
Great Quarry
cw 7
Press’ Black Roce Gully Qolite /'

} iad me Ss /

Ly) TeTMOUyo 7 E
Round Point a

3
e
a

Sketch Map of Quarries

Qy.6

Stoke Leigh
Camp

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1935
(Read 16th January, 1936)

Description of Former and Present Methods of
Cutting, Loading and Conveying Coal

By G. E. J. McMurrris

TRUST that the following description of the great alterations that

are being made in the getting and delivery of coal, from the coal
face to the pit top, may not be without interest, although necessarily
they must be described without too much detail.

As you are aware, coal is found in seams or veins of thicknesses varying
from 1 ft. or even less to as much as 30 ft. in the celebrated thick coal
of Staffordshire. It is interbedded with considerable thicknesses of
shale or sandstone, generally, in Great Britain, in what is spoken of
as the Coal Measures, which lie immediately above the Mountain
Limestone, the principal Geological deposit of the neighbourhood
of Bristol. Originally, no doubt, coal formed level layers, but owing to
various earth movements, seams are now generally more or less inclined.

To win the coal, a vertical shaft is sunk through the Coal Measures,
and any higher strata that may cover them, to what is in any district
regarded as the lowest, or possibly the most workable, seam, and the
main haulage roads are driven in the seam from the shaft bottom,
- on what is called “ water level,” i.e., roads rising $ in. or so per yard
from the shaft, so that any water met with may flow out to the shaft,
and to neutralise the friction of the coal tubs.

Many of you have visited local collieries and have some rough idea
of what goes on both below and above ground. You all know that the
coal is wound up a shaft or shafts, fitted with two cages and guides. The
early shafts were generally very small in Somerset ; in fact, they were
little better than wells, often 4 ft. or 4 ft. 6 ins. diam. only ; even to-day
1,500 tons a week are being wound up such a shaft at a Somerset
colliery. This small diameter enabled them to keep out the large
quantity of water generally met with in passing through the New
Red Sandstone, by simple ashlar walling set in hydraulic mortar.
To-day shafts are, in the larger districts, generally 18 ft. to 22 ft. diam.,
and, even in the thin-seam districts, 12 ft.

92 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

A daily output of 100 tons in a 10-hour day, or longer, was formerly
reasonable in thin-seam districts ; to-day, 500 to 600 tons is wound in
8 hours, and in the thick seam districts as much as 4,000 tons in 8 hours.

The headgears, formerly of pitch-pine timber, are now universally
either steel lattice work or girders. Their early height of 30 ft. is now
75 to even 90 ft., and when we remember that a very usual top speed
of coal winding is 50 miles an hour, and the average 33, this is none too
high, although practically all winding engines are fitted with over-—
winders, to prevent excess of speed at midway, when approaching the
top, when landing, and when the engines are reversed. The engine
drivers are a fine class of men too, and fatal winding accidents are
extremely rare, although on the basis of 500,000 men being raised and
lowered daily, four times a week for 50 weeks, some 100,000,000 men are
raised and lowered yearly.

Guides, which were originally wood, and first introduced into Great
Britain at Radstock in Somerset, are now wire ropes, which allow of a
greater speed of winding.

The haulage of the coal from the coal face to the shaft was formerly
entirely done by horses, ponies, or youths called runners. Ropes have
long ago replaced all three of these on what are called the primary
haulages, that is, the main roads from the shaft bottom to a main siding.

The secondary haulage, i.e., the means of conveying the coal from
the different districts to the main siding, is still in some cases done by
horses, ponies, or runners, but of late years small supplementary haulage
engines and ropes, driven by compressed air or electricity, have largely
replaced them. Such an engine can, by a suitable arrangement of ropes,
bring the coal from two or even three districts to the primary haulage
siding ; or, if the tonnage warrants it, two or three small engines may be
necessary to do this work. Although these secondary haulages are
extended as the workings advance, and are kept as close to the face as
possible, what may be termed tertiary haulage is still necessary from
the individual roads of each district to the sidings at the end of the
secondary haulages; this, till lately, was again universally done by
horses, ponies, or runners. A great change is taking place here under
what is called “intensive mining,” to which I will refer later. A
result of this is that the use of horses and ponies underground is much
reduced ; indeed, at many collieries there is not a horse or pony
underground.

To have economical haulages it is essential that they should be

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1935 93

properly laid out from the very start of working the coal seam, and
kept straight on definite angles, regularly extended by the surveyor.

As everyone knows, the coal itself was, where possible, cut in the
“‘underearth ” with picks by the collier, and the coal supported on
short pieces of wood called “ sprags,”’ till ready to be dropped ; when
the sprags were knocked out the coal dropped or was blown down.
Boys collected this coal along the face and conveyed it to the stall
road itself, where it was loaded into tubs.

The distance between stall roads varied in different districts and at
different collieries, from 25 to 30 yards; in 8. Wales the distance is
generally 16 yards. This distance is dependent upon the ease with
which the coal can be loaded and conveyed along the face, and is very
largely governed by the height of the seam. Where possible, rails are
laid, and the tub itself taken along the face ; where this cannot be done,
smaller boxes are used, possibly running on rails or on the hard floor.
Two or three of these load a tub.

Intensive mining is altering all this. For many years past at many
collieries, machine cutting has been gradually replacing the collier with
his pick, and of late years has increased rapidly.

There are various types of cutters ; formerly, a revolving wheel with
a series of picks attached to the circumference was used, having much
of the appearance of the ordinary circular saw used for cutting timber
to lengths, etc. ; this has largely been replaced by a rapidly revolving
bar, with again a series of picks let into its circumference at regular
intervals, or by a revolving chain with picks again attached.

The machine now runs on rails, and can draw itself along the face by
a rope passing round a pulley attached to a steel prop fixed some yards
ahead. Such a machine is capable of cutting at least 90 yds. per shift,
to a depth of 4 ft. 6 ins., and even 6 ft., and in the latter case, in a
4 ft. seam, would produce 240 tons a day.

Three men man the machine ; the driver, a man in front and another
behind, to move and erect timber and clean out the dust produced by the
cutter.

Where there is no gas, and even in some cases where there is gas,
electricity is the motive power, the motor being attached by a trailing
cable to the power main. In the early days, compressed air alone
was used, and most colliery managers to-day will not use electricity in
fiery collieries, preferring compressed air with its lower efficiency on

94 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

the ground of safety. For this trailing cable, though armoured, even
with care is exposed to much rough usage, and short circuits do occur.

The usual practice is for the coal to be cut at night, filled out on the
day shift, and the machine taken back by the afternoon shift to the
other end of the face for a fresh cut, timber set to allow the machine to
pass between the row of props next the face and the coal, and odd bits
of face straightened off, etc. As you will at once see, the success of this
system is entirely dependent upon each operation being completed
with clockwork regularity. It compels a high standard of efficiency
on the part of all concerned, and good supervision, which latter is
obtained by an official being placed in charge of two coal-cutter faces
every shift ; for failure to complete any of the three operations within its
shift throws everything behind, and will probably prevent the coal
cutting being completed at night. In practice, the trouble generally
arises in clearing the face of coal, either from slackness on the part of
the fillers, or through the coal not falling properly, or from want of tubs.
To meet this, an odd filler or two may have to be added to clear up
on the afternoon shift, but this is a poor arrangement. The best
practice to-day is for the surveyor to draw a straight chalk line from
end to end of the face, and for all the face props to be set at a certain
distance from this line, to ensure the machine cutting an absolutely
straight line, as the breaking off of the coal very largely depends on
this. This system in the past has been applied to districts laid out as
described earlier. |

To get over this difficulty of completing the picking up of the coal —
on the day shift, conveyors are now being carried along the coal face
or faces to a central haulage road. This has entailed an entirely differ-
ent lay-out of the coal face. In place of stall roads being driven every
25 to 35 yds. apart, it is usual to have one central haulage road with
at least a 90 yard face on either side, and conveyors to each 90 yd. face.
Faces in many cases exceed this length of 90 yds., and, in some very
long faces, they have tandem conveyors, really two conveyors in line,
the one delivering on to the second, and this to the haulage road.
A panel, or width, of coal 180 yards long, or whatever distance the
conveyors may Clear, is carried up by itself with, in the case of the 180
yd. face, three stall roads only, in place of at least seven under the old
system. These stall roads will be cut off on either side every 100 or
200 yards by cross roads, to reduce cost of repairs.

The delivery of the coal from a minimum length of face of 180 yards

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1935 95

into one road, at once raised the fresh difficulty of how to get this
accumulation of coal away, so as to prevent delay. A constant supply
of tubs is essential to prevent any stoppage; this entails a double track
of some length to hold a stream of empty tubs, which automatically
serve towards or away from the face, and when loaded are collected
later on the parallel or full road. A haulage engine is essential to
convey the tubs to the primary haulage, and for pulling the loaded tubs
to the siding. Even this arrangement is often superseded by the laying
of a long conveyor along this central haulage road (the face conveyor
delivering on to it), to take the coal to the primary haulage siding
where it is loaded into tubs. This arrangement obviously cuts out the
possibility of haulage delays on the secondary haulage, and as the
conveyor works in a large road, under ideal conditions, there is little
likelihood of delay being caused. A transport official, too, is frequently
kept in charge of the haulage.

To cut out still further the human element, mechanical loaders,
largely used in the U.S.A., are being tried, which mechanically gather
and deliver the fallen coal on to the face conveyor. Machines even are
on the market to-day which cut and deliver the coal on to the face
conveyor. ‘This part of mechanisation is still possibly in the experi-
mental stage, but it is assuredly coming in many collieries, and appears
to be the only way to prevent colliery owners from being constantly
held to ransom by strikes, and the driving away of their trade.

The results of machine cutting and face conveying are astonishing. In
Scotland, 340 tons have been loaded by 52 men from a 4 ft. 2in, seam and
a 200 yd. face, or nearly 7 tons per man per day; and again 260 tons
by 20 men from a 4 ft. seam and 160 yd. face, or 13 tons per man per
day. In the Midlands, 450 tons by 32 men from a 6 ft. seam and 180
yd. face, or 14 tons per man per day. In this case the 32 men replaced
86. In a 2 ft. clean seam the tons loaded per man range from 5.3 to
12.9. Ina 2 ft. 9 in. clean seam the tons loaded per man range from
7.2to13. Ina4 ft. clean seam, from 10to17. These figures compare
with, at most, 3 tons per man on the old lines.

A 26 in. gateway conveyor transported 1,000 tons in 2 shifts for
755 yds. In America, the Frick Company convey 6,000 tons per day
four miles underground along ten separate belts, and deliver the coal
into barges on the river.

Coal may be cut on the strike or level line of the seam, or on the full
dip, or at any intermediate angle to the strike.

96 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

The earliest form of conveyor was the shaker, which was compressed-
air driven by a short stroke engine, attached to it by a cam which gave
the necessary chuck forward to the continuous band of short steel
troughs, rollers being placed at intervals beneath it to reduce friction ©
and keep it off the floor. Troughs are 7 ft. 6 in. to 9 ft. long, bolted
together, and generally 2 ft. wide. This type of conveyor has the
advantage in thin seams of requiring little height, and is most advan-
tageous on a slightly dipping face, as it will not deliver uphill except
against a slight gradient, but it requires more power than the lighter —
belt conveyor.

The belt conveyor is a continuous canvas belt loaded with gutta-
percha and faced with india rubber, very generally 26 in. wide in the
face, but anything up to 4 ft. in the haulage road, driven by an engine
at the one end, and running on rollers attached to a light frame. The
neccessary friction or grip for the belt is given by running it round
three rollers or drums, one of which has springs attached to allow for the
varying load. They are flat in the face and troughed in the haulage
roads. The newer forms have also an arrangement, “the loop take-
up joint,” by which the belt can be lengthened in conveyor roads as
the haulage road advances, without putting a piece into the belt.

Belts are generally used to bring coal up a dipping face, even if the
gradient be small, as there is practically no slip back of the coal.
They require rather more height than the shaker but absorb less power,
are noiseless and should reduce breakage of the coal.

Arrangements are generally made on the haulage road for the face
conveyors to deliver on to a short chute, so as to load the tub endways
rather than sideways.

The double track, or long sidings for loading in the haulage roads,
and the use of long conveyor belts in many cases have necessitated
larger roads 10 to 12 ft. wide. Timber has been found unsatisfactory,
both as regards strength and life, necessitating frequent repairs and
renewal. Where taken to the face, a second ripping down of the roof
with its attendant heavy cost was very usual. The earliest step
forward was the use of light steel girders on Norway props, or possibly
side walls in bad ground. Light steel arches have largely replaced the
steel girder and props, the straight sides being splayed outwards to
offset the push of the sides, possibly set on foot-pieces of timber,
and with a circular top. They are sent into the pit in halves, and
connected together by patent fish plates of fully the same strength as

|
}
}

Proc. B.N.S., 4tH SERIES, Vou. VIII, Pr. |. PLatTeE 16.

Disc OR REVOLVING WHEEL COAL-CUTTER

13 IN. HIGH BAR COAL-CUTTER

LONGWALL SAMSON CHAIN COAL-CUTTER. UNDERCUTTING

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SeRrES, Vou. VIII, Pr. I. PLATE 17.

LONGWALL SAMSON CHAIN COAL-CUTTER. OVERCUTTING

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PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1935 97

the arch itself. These are set every yard in the road, and lined by
old tub sides and bottoms, old rails, thin black plate and, in bad ground,
by 44 in. brickwork. To prevent endway movement, and to attach
the arches together, wooden distance pieces are set, sometimes level,
but more usually at an angle or diamond wise, the ends of the props
being cut at the necessary angle to butt against one another. These
are now added every yard at the coal face as it advances. Serious falls
of roof on such roads in normal strata are now exceptional, little or
no repair is required, and no second ripping as before. After the 1926
Coal Strike of over five months, there were few if any cases of falls of
strata in lengths of two miles and over, and the coal faces were restarted
in a day or two at most.

Steel again is largely taking the place of timber in the coal face,
on account of the variation in the strength of apparently similar props.
The old custom was to fix wooden props with a flat piece of timber called
a “lid” on the top, and possibly another flat piece below the prop,
if the floor was soft, to prevent it sinking into the floor. The lid on
the top was primarily to allow for the settlement of the roof as the coal
was abstracted, and may be 2 to 3 ft. thick. There have been a large
number of patent props designed, with the object of allowing for the
settlement of the strata, but the one most generally used to-day is of
a simple light-girder section, with the web cut away at either end and
the flanges turned inwards, with a 3 in. lid over the top to take up
the roof settlement. They maintain height better in the face and
prevent falls.

Regularity of coal cutting largely depends on control of the roof.
The best practice is to allow a road for the machine cutter against the
coal face, a second road for the conveyor between the first and second
row of props, with corrugated iron stretchers reaching from prop to
prop, possibly a third row of props with stretchers, and the waste
behind filled with the rubbish got in making the roads, or from the seam
itself. Both machine and conveyor should be moved forward daily, a
fresh row of props added in front, the back row drawn, and this space
filled daily with rubbish. This causes a gradual settlement of the
roof on thisrubbish. Where sufficient rubbish is not obtainable to fill
the ground from which the coal has been abstracted, then what are
called packs, i.e., stone walls 5 to 6 yds. or so thick, are built against
both sides of the roads as they advance, and along the face between
the roads, with empty spaces or wastes 5 to 20 yds. between them,

all tracks being parallel with the road walls. In such a case, the third
G

98 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

row of props may be replaced by cogs of wood, i.e., an arrangement of
wooden sleepers built in twos, every layer crossing the last at right-
angles. To save labour at the face, these may be built up at land and
sent underground threaded on light iron rods, and then require only
the addition of a few light pieces on the top to tighten them to the roof.
Where wastes are necessitated, the object of the packs is to cause the
root to break off beyond the wooden cogs or last row of props, to relieve
the pressure on the coal face, and provide material for the packs. The
face conveyor is now often utilized to take the rubbish from the roads,
etc.,to where it is required for packing, either by running the conveyor
belt in reverse, or by delivering rubbish at the upper end of the
shaker belt, or even in some cases by a special shaker or conveyor belt.

This matter of roof control has been receiving special attention of
late years. Committees with well qualified investigators and assistants
have been appointed in several districts. Their visits to different
collieries, working possibly the same seam under different conditions
or on slightly different lines, enable them to make valuable practical
reports and offer suggestions, and their advice is often experimentally
tested under the joint supervision of the colliery manager and the
investigator. The result should show how better the forces of nature
can be utilized to get the coal down and prevent falls of roof in the
coal face and roads, with consequent increased safety and economy.
As these reports are later very fully discussed at district meetings of
mining engineers and managers, a very keen interest is created in this
important matter. 7

From the above it will be realised that great changes are taking place
in coal mining, the result of patient experiment for many years, for
British machine cutting dates back 40 to 50 years, and the adaptation
of American methods.

The newer system entails larger capital expenditure, and capital
expenditure in the past has at all times been large, but a much shorter
face produces more coal, on account of the quicker advance of the coal
face ; undoubtedly less labour will be required, and unless a much
larger export trade is obtained fewer collieries will be needed. Against
this must be set a more cheaply produced coal and higher paid labour.

For the plates accompanying this paper, the blocks have been very
kindly lent by Messrs. Mavor and Coulson of Glasgow, who specialise
in coal-cutting and conveying machinery.

Gulls in the Bristol District

By H. Terizy, B.Sco., F.ZS8.
(Read in tatle 5th March, 1936.)

HE attraction of the river and the proximity of the coast combine

to make Gulls a conspicuous feature of the bird-life at all seasons
of the year, and the movements of these birds in the region of the docks
and the Avon provide a number of points of interest. Here seven
species have been recorded, viz.: Common Gull (Larus c. canus),
Herring Gull (Larus a. argentatus), Great Black-backed Gull (Larus
marinus), Scandinavian Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus f. fuscus),
British Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus graellsii), Iceland Gull
(Larus leucopterus) and Black-headed Gull (Larus r. ridibundus).

Of these, the largest is the Great Black-backed Gull, a very handsome
bird in the adult plumage of black and white, and with a wing-span
of about five feet. Smaller than this bird are the Herring, Lesser
Black-backed and Iceland Gulls which are all about the same size.
The Iceland Gull can be distinguished by its white primaries or flight
feathers, which are black or dark brown in all the others ; the Herring
Gull has a grey back in the adult plumage. Next in size comes the
Common Gull which is distinctly smaller than the Herring and distinctly
larger than the Black-headed Gull ; in the adult plumage it has a blue-
grey back, bluer than that of the Herring Gull, and conspicuous white
tips to its wings. Lastly, the Black-headed Gull is the smallest and
the commonest Gull on the water; its dark head is a phase of the
breeding plumage and is mainly replaced by white in winter, though
birds with this summer feature may be seen occasionally as early as
January. Its bright red legs and bill serve to distinguish it, but in
flight the broad white border to the front edge of the wing, a feature
which applies to any plumage, serves to mark it out with ease.

Some difficulties of identification may arise as the larger gulls take
four or five years to reach their full plumage. The Herring Gull, for
instance, in its first plumage is speckled brown in colour, but at each
successive moult it becomes greyer above and whiter beneath ; it is
thus possible to see examples of these gulls in several different plumages,
representing different ages and not just varieties. The same applies

100) H. TETLEY

to the Lesser Black-backed Gull which, though when young indistin-
guishable in the field from a young Herring Gull, becomes well marked-
off the following year by the much darker back due to the san rey.
feathers of the mantle and wings beginning to appear.

As regards their habits and distribution, the Iceland Gull, unfor-
tunately, can only be looked upon as a chance visitor. It breeds in
the Arctic regions and comes further south in winter, and by some
chance, very fortunate for the Ornithologist, a young one wandered up
the Avon and was first discovered in February, 1933 ; here it remained
for more than two years, being seen at sufficiently frequent intervals to
make certain it was the same bird. It was usually about Rownham
Ferry or Cumberland Basin, but on two occasions it was seen at Barrow
Gurney reservoirs and once at Blagdon. Its strikingly white plumage
was the feature that first drew attention to it, and when flying it looked
like a broad-winged white owl passing over the water. This effect
was no doubt partly due to its white primaries. At rest it was longer-
winged, more slender, and not so upright in carriage as a Herring Gull
and it was evidently able to look after itself, as on several occasions it
was noticed that when on the mud, there was a clear space around
the bird, and any intruder, even as large as a Black-backed Gull, was
promptly sent off. It seems unlikely that another bird may turn
up, but there is now always the possibility and the hope that it will.

The Great Black-backed Gull is not common up the Avon above the
Suspension Bridge. During the winter months there may often be
one or two at Sea Mills, but higher up they are rarely seen, though
there seems to be a tendency for them to come up more frequently in
recent years. In all plumages they may be distinguished by their
size; size is often a very difficult, if not impossible, criterion, but as
there will almost certainly be a Herring Gull close at hand with which
the other may be compared, comparison should be easy as any gull
markedly larger is certain to be a Great Black-backed. A few pairs
nest on Steep Holm, the nearest breeding-station to Bristol.

The two Lesser Black-backed Gulls are smaller than the last and in
addition, have yellow, and not pink, legs and feet. The British form
has a paler mantle than the Great Black-backed Gull (slate-grey and
not slate-black) which is particularly noticeable in flight, when the much
darker primaries stand out very distinctly fromit. In the Scandinavian
form, the mantle is almost as dark as in the larger bird, and in flight
there is no distinction between the colour of the mantle and the

GULLS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 101

primaries. It has only been definitely identified once, at Sea Mills
on July 21st, 1934. The British Lesser Black-backed Gull is mainly
a summer visitor to this district. It has actually been recorded in
every month of the year, but the bulk of the birds are seen from March
to October, the rest being stragglers from the main body of this species
which migrate to western Hurope and N.W. Africa. From about March
to August or September there may be from ten to twenty adults on
the Avon between Ashton Swing Bridge and Sea Mills; in the other
months only one or two, but it is difficult to say if these are wintering
or stragglers.

Barrow Gurney reservoirs are a very noticeable gathering ground for
this bird in spring and autumn. Here, on several occasions, as many
as 30 to 40 adults have been seen on the large (no. 3) reservoir, and
it is quite evident that this is a distinct line of migration. This is all
the more interesting as on the coast the bird is rarely seen, even though,
on Steep Holm, there is a large breeding colony, and they are much
commoner on the Avon in the summer than on the Severn flats. There
is still plenty to find out as regards bird-life in the Bristol district,
and the lines of flight of these gulls, whence they come and whither
they go, would well repay investigation. It may be noted that there
is some evidence of east to west movement, e.g., six over Clifton, Queen’s
Road—May 21st, 1935, going towards Hotwells, and sixteen Herring
Gulls over Elmdale Road—November 28th, 1935, in the same direction.

The Herring Gull, in adult plumage, has pink legs and feet and a
grey mantle, and is, with the Black-headed Gull, the commonest Gull
on the Avon at all times of the year. The numbers increase in winter
considerably, and young birds come up the river in late summer,
no doubt from Steep Holm, the nearest breeding-colony where large
numbers breed about equal to those of the Lesser Black-backed Gull,
of which bird it is also the equal in size.

The Common Gull, a very neat bird, is a winter visitor. With the
exception of a few pairs in Kent, it nests nowhere in England or Wales,
but from Scotland northwards it is a “common” breeding Gull.
From August to April there are usually some on the Avon, and it is a
noticeable point that a good place to find them is on the stretch of
water immediately above Ashton Swing Bridge. Here they seem to
predominate whereas lower down they are far outnumbered, except
that, in 1934, at Sea Mills, there was a great preponderance of these
birds in March and April, as many as 200 being seen at once. These

102 H. TETLEY

were evidently on migration northward. This was a very marked
movement, not at all noticeable the following year, and probably they
do not occur normally in anything like these numbers. Stragglers
have been seen in June and July, evidently non-breeding birds. The
adult is somewhat similar to the Herring Gull in flight, but is more
buoyant, distinctly smaller and has a pale green bill and pale green
legs and feet. The distinctive white patch at the tip of the wing has
already been mentioned, but any Gull that is distinctly intermediate in
size between the Herring and Black-headed Gull may, in this district,
be safely called a Common Gull. It is very often seen inland in flocks
on ploughed ground in the winter, particularly near the Cotswolds.

Within the last thirty years, a great change has come over the Black-
headed Gull in Bristol. At one time it was not a common bird, but it
has increased greatly in numbers. There is no breeding colony any-
where near Bristol, probably the nearest one being in Dorset. But these
birds are always to be seen on the river at any time of the year, the
numbers fluctuating from very large in winter to much smaller in
summer. The details of their distinctive adult plumage have already
been given, but it may be added that the immatures of this Gull can
be told by the dark band at the end of the tail feathers, the tail of the
adult being pure white.

The sequence to adult plumage only takes two years and so is not so
protracted as in the larger Gulls, but it is quite easy to distinguish
between the two years. Non-breeding adults are about during the
summer and these are reinforced about July by young birds. From
that time the numbers increase rapidly and the winter maximum is
reached. A number of notes made between November and March
show a great preponderance of adults over immatures on the river,
while round the docks and Tramways Centre this is much less marked,
though immatures never seem to be in greater numbers than the
adults.

No attempt has been made to estimate the numbers of gulls using the
Avon in winter as a feeding ground, but probably there are several
thousand when the higher reaches of the river are also included. When
evening draws in they all move off down to the coast, and small parties
are continually passing down and above the river until none are left.

The Black-headed and Herring Gulls are easily the most numerous,
the others being, at any time of the year, very much fewer, and of these
two the former preponderates over the latter.

GULLS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 103

REFERENCES

1. Tettey, H. Iceland Gull in Gloucester and Somerset. (British
Birds, XXVI, p. 338.)

2. Do. Iceland Gull in Gloucester and Somerset. (British
Birds, X XVII, p. 170.)

3. Do. Plumage changes observed in an Iceland Gull in
Somersetshire. (British Birds, XXVIII, pp.
199-202.)

4. Rooks, K. B. and Smitu, K. D. Scandinavian Lesser Black-backed
Gull in Somerset and Gloucestershire. (British
Birds, XXVII, p. 117.)
5. Annual Reports of the Ornithological Section of the Somerset
Archeological and Natural History Society.

104

Weather Movements in the Bristol Area, 1935
By H. Tertey, B.Sc., F.Z.S.
(Read in title 5th March, 1936.)

HE stormy weather of September, 1935, had an obvious effect on

bird-life in the Bristol district. There was a great gale from the
west or south-west on the night of September 16th-17th over a wide
area. The weather continued stormy and unsettled, and culminated,
in the immediate neighbourhood of Bristol, in a heavy thunderstorm on
the night of September 21st-22nd.

Two Manx Shearwaters were picked up inland on the 18th, one at
Fishponds, Bristol, and the other at Clutton, Somerset, these places
being respectively about 8 and 9 miles from the coast. An adult
Gannet was found on Old Sodbury Common, 12 miles north-east of
Bristol and 14 miles from the Severn, about the 21st. All these birds
were brought alive to the Clifton Zoological Gardens where the Gannet
is still living.

Further down the coast, off Burnham-on-Sea and Berrow, Mr. F. H. L.
Whish informs me of a great movement of birds. On the 18th and
19th he saw more than 50 Terns, 2 Skuas (probably Richardson’s
Skua), several Grey Phalaropes, Manx Shearwaters, and Fork-tailed
Petrels, and one Gannet. There were, in addition, great numbers ot
Sheldduck.

At Barrow Gurney reservoirs there were, on the 21st, two Terns
which, but for their habits, would have been put down as Common
or Arctic Terns. They were, however, looping down to the water in
wide U-shaped loops, never plunging in and very rarely, if ever, touching
the water. In this they resembled Black Terns but were probably one
of the other two.

Two days later there were 3 Terns, two undoubtedly adult Black
Terns, and the third probably a juvenile of the same species though it
lacked the dark patches on the sides of the chest normally characteristic
of that species.

On the morning of the 22nd, Mr. H. H. Davis saw, on, or over,
ground heavily flooded by the thunderstorm of the previous night,
about 25 Common or Arctic Terns. This was at Stoke Gifford, about
6 miles from the Severn. Eighteen or nineteen of these were high
up in the air, moving from east to west, the remainder flying low over

WEATHER MOVEMENTS IN THE BRISTOL AREA, 1935 105

the water. A Common or Arctic Tern was flying over the Severn
above Sharpness bridge on the 25th, and a juvenile of the same species
over the canal at Slimbridge, Glos., on the 29th. The movement of
Terns has been particularly noticeable during September, much more
so than in recent years.

A young Puffin was found on the roof of some works at Filton, just
north of Bristol, on October 25th. This is about 6 miles from the
Severn. The weather had been unsettled but not as stormy as in the
previous month.

From gales we passed to severe cold, and in December a spell of hard
frost and snow swept over Britain, particularly from the Midlands and
Kastern Counties northwards. Hard frost occurred in the Bristol
district but little snow. The somewhat milder conditions combined
with the floods on the Somerset levels no doubt helped to provide the
most striking feature of bird-life. Great numbers of different species of
duck were to be seen. Teal have been present in thousands on the levels
and elsewhere, and on Barrow Gurney reservoirs no such numbers have
been recorded before.

The maximum was reached on December 28th, when more than 2,300
duck were present; this number was composed of 300 Mallard, 400
Teal, 250 Wigeon, 65 Shoveler, 50 Tufted Duck, 1,200 Pochard and
adult males of Scaup and Golden-eye. On December 15th, 1,000 Teal
were seen.

106

Waders in the Bristol District
By H. H. Davis
(Read in title 5th March, 1936.)

fl Bae Bristol Channel and the mouth of the Severn, the Blagdon and

Barrow Gurney reservoirs, and considerable areas of low-lying
marshy country all combine to make the neighbourhood of Bristol an
attractive district for the Limicole, or as they are generally known,
the Waders. This does not, however, apply to the breeding season—
for the only nesting species are the Lapwing and a few pairs of Oyster-
catchers, Redshank, Curlew and Common Snipe; indeed, it is during
the autumn and spring passages and the intervening winter months
that the Wader population is at its height. Even the banks of the
Avon, as far up as the Suspension Bridge, are, in the winter, sometimes
frequented by Ringed Plover, Dunlin and Redshank, and this in
spite of the near-by road and rail traffic. The Common Sandpiper is
a regular visitor along the Avon banks in late summer and autumn.

On the coast from Aust Cliff to Brean Down, the various expanses of
mud, left bare by the receding tides, are both attractive feeding grounds
to winter visitors and convenient halting places to passage migrants.
It is to be regretted that much of this coastline is not watched with
greater frequency. Regular observations on the mud-flats off Portbury
Wharf, Kewstoke and Weston-super-Mare would probably show results
very similar to those obtained in recent years on the north side of
Avonmouth.

The large numbers of Ringed Plover, Lapwing, Turnstone, Dunlin,
Redshank and Curlew that appear in late summer and autumn along
the Avonmouth-Severn Beach mud-flats are undoubtedly one of the
chief features of bird-life in the locality. Golden Plovers, Sanderlings,
Knots, Curlew-Sandpipers and Godwits may also be expected in the
autumn though usually in small numbers. That single instances of
the Ruff and Little Stint have recently been observed suggests that
these may not infrequently occur. The winter population on this
stretch of mud is often enormous and consists chiefly of Ringed Plover,
Turnstone, Dunlin, Redshank, Curlew and usually a few Purple Sand-
pipers. The Dunlin, however, is the predominating species, and the
well ordered flight of a large flock of these birds when seen under
favourable conditions is a spectacle not easily forgotten; turning
and twisting as one, and alternately showing their almost invisible grey

WADERS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 107

backs and their conspicuous white underparts, give to the observer
the impression of rapidly appearing and disappearing silvery flakes.

During the autumn migration, the Blagdon and Barrow Gurney
reservoirs are in some years visited by a few individuals of the Ruff,
Greenshank, Black-tailed Godwit and, occasionally, by the Spotted
Redshank and Grey Phalarope. Much, however, depends on seasonal
conditions ; prolonged spells of dry weather—as in 1933 and 1934—
cause a low water level with a consequent increased area of mud,
which prove a great attraction to wading birds. The Common Sand-
piper is a regular visitor on spring and autumn passage, while solitary
examples of the Green Sandpiper frequently occur and sometimes
rermain through the winter. Common coastal Waders such as Ringed
Plover and Dunlin are only occasional visitors in small parties. With
the exception of the Lapwing, no species visit the reservoirs in large
numbers.

An event of considerable ornithological interest was the visit in late
September, 1935, of a Pectoral Sandpiper to Barrow Gurney. It was
first observed on September 28th, at the No. 1 reservoir, where it re-
mained and was seen daily until October 3rd. This species is a little
larger than the Dunlin, has longer legs, and is more slender in build,
while the distinct line of demarcation between the dark streaky breast
and the pure white underparts is an outstanding characteristic. Breed-
ing in western N. America and wintering in 8. America, the Pectoral
Sandpiper is a rare straggler to the British Islands, and it has not
previously been recorded for Somerset. The occurrence of this bird
at Barrow—full details of which were published in British Birds, Vol.
XXIX, p. 183—was perhaps due to heavy storms and westerly gales
during the latter half of September.

The following list of thirty species is in no way intended as a complete
historical account of Bristol Waders, but rather as a guide in the light
of observations in recent years. For the purpose of comparison between
observations made to the South and to the North of the City, each
species has been separated under two headings, viz., 8. and G., repre-
senting respectively Somerset and Gloucestershire. Much information
has been gleaned from the annual reports on Somerset Birds from which
fuller details may be obtained. Gloucestershire particulars—some of
which have from time to time been published in British Birds—are
almost entirely the result of observations by members of the B.N.Soc.
Ornithological section.

108

ARS

H. H. DAVIS

STONE-CURLEW. Burhinus @ edicnemus L.

In the 1925 Report on Somerset Birds, a pair is stated to have
been clearly identified on December 3rd in Woodspring Bay.
(A summer visitor to England, this species has occasionally been
known to winter in the 8.W. Counties.)

Not recorded.

OysTER-CATCHER. Hematopus ostralegus occidentalis Neu.

Resident on the coast but more numerous in winter. Breeds
at Woodspring. Occasional inland. One seen at Barrow reservoirs
in February, 1929, and is reported to have occurred at Blagdon
in the autumn of 1933.

Recent observations suggest that this species is uncommon to
the north of Avonmouth although it may occur more often than
is supposed. (Has been seen on St. Tecla’s Isle.)

DotTeREL. Charadrius morinellus L.

A very occasional visitor on migration. A specimen was shot
on Steep Holm in May 1869 and at about the same time a small
trip was seen near Weston-super-Mare, since when there have
been no authentic records.

Not recorded.

RiInGED PLovEer. Charadrius h. hiaticula L.

Common on the coast particularly in autumn and winter.
Small parties sometimes visit the Blagdon and Barrow Gurney
reservoirs In autumn.

A very abundant species along the Severn mud-flats where it is
common at any time from August to May. A few—probably
non-breeding birds—occur in June and July.

GOLDEN PLovER. Charadrius apricarius L.

A regular autumn and winter visitor to the coast and inland,
sometimes appearing in large numbers.

A few are sometimes observed on the Avonmouth-Severn Beach
mud-flats in autumn and winter. Occurs more frequently inland.
During severe weather in February, 1932, a large flock appeared
at Stoke Gifford.

GREY PLover. Squatarola s. squatarola L.

Occurs on the coast in winter, but usually only in small numbers.
Fairly frequent in Woodspring Bay. Scarce inland. Has been
recorded near Blagdon.

Apparently a scarce winter visitor to the Severn mouth. Has

WADERS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 109

been observed twice recently—single birds—on the Avonmouth-
Severn Beach mud-flats.
Lapwine. Vanellus vanellus LL.

S. and G. A common resident. Breeds freely in suitable places.

PO.

i2,

As an autumn and winter visitor it occurs in large flocks inland
and to a lesser extent on the coast.
TURNSTONE. Arenaria v. interpres L.

That little is known of this species on the Somerset side of
Avonmouth is perhaps due to lack of observation, as it occurs
regularly in autumn and winter on the Severn flats. Has been
seen at Clevedon.

The presence at almost all times of the year of this rock-loving
species on the Avonmouth-Severn Beach mud-flats is of particular
interest. As many as 150 or more have sometimes been observed
there in the autumn.

Rurr. Philomachus pugnax L.

Occurs fairly frequently on autumn passage—either singly or
in two’s or three’s—at the Blagdon and Barrow Gurney reservoirs.

A single bird on the Avonmouth-Severn Beach mud-flats in
September, 1935, is the only recent record of this species.
SANDERLING. Crocethia alba Patt.

A visitor in late summer and autump to the coast, but apparently
not in large numbers. Has been seen off Portbury Wharf.
Although records are lacking it probably also occurs in spring.
Scarce inland. Three were observed at the Barrow Gurney
reservoirs in September, 1930.

An autumn and spring visitor in small numbers to the Avon-
mouth-Severn Beach mud-flats.

Knot. Calidris c. canutus L.

That there are no records of this species on the coast is curious
and may perhaps be due to lack of regular observation as it has
been noticed fairly frequently m autumn and early winter on the
Gloucestershire side of Avonmouth. Rarely seen inland. One
at Barrow reservoirs in September, 1935.

Chiefly an autumn visitor to the Avonmouth-Severn Beach
mud-flats. Although usually in small numbers, as many as 100-150
have been seen.

Dunu. Calidris alpina L.

S. and G. An abundant coastal species from late summer to spring.

110

13.

14.

15.

16.

V7.

H. H. DAVIS

A few—probably non-breeding birds—occasionally seen in
summer. The departure of the large flocks of wintering birds is
followed by. an influx of spring passage migrants in full breeding
dress. Small parties sometimes visit the Blagdon and Barrow
Gurney reservoirs, usually in autumn.

CuRLEW SANDPIPER. Calidris testacea PAtt.

A visitor to the coast on autumn passage. Probably occurs
more often than is supposed since, being frequently in company with
Dunlin, it may easily be overlooked. Has occurred at the Blagdon
and Barrow Gurney reservoirs; 8 or 10 were seen at Barrow
Gurney in September, 1923.

An autumn visitor to the Severn flats. Has been observed
on several occasions in September between Avonmouth and
Severn Beach.

Lirrte Stinr. Calidris minuta Letst.

Probably visits the coast more often than is supposed during
the autumn passage. Owing to its small size it may easily be
overlooked. Reported as having been observed at Blagdon in
1922 and 1933.

Very little information available, but perhaps an overlooked
passage visitor. A single bird was seen on the Avonmouth-
Severn Beach mud-flats in September, 1935.

AMERICAN PECTORAL SANDPIPER. Calidris melanotos VIEILL.
A single example of this species was observed daily at the No. 1

reservoir, Barrow Gurney, from September 28th to October 3rd,

1935 (cf. British Birds, Vol. XXIX, p. 183.)

PuRPLE SANDPIPER. Calidris m. maritima BRuUNN.

Scarcely any information from the coast, but probably often
occurs, as it is a regular winter visitor to the Severn mouth. One
observed on the Brean Down flats in March, 1925.

A regular winter visitor in small numbers to the Avonmouth-
Severn Beach mud-flats, usually in company with Turnstones and
Dunlin. ,

Common SanpprrerR. T'ringa hypoleucos L.

A common spring and autumn visitor, the autumn passage
sometimes beginning early in July. Occurs regularly at the
Blagdon and Barrow Gurney reservoirs. An unusually large
flock of about 100 was seen off Portbury Wharf in May 1922.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22,

WADERS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT lil

A regular visitor on passage to the Severn and Avon banks.
Occasionally seen inland.

GREEN SANDPIPER. Tringa ochropus L.

Frequently observed—usually singly—in autumn and spring
at Blagdon and Barrow Gurney reservoirs, and occasionally
winters. Has occurred at Abbots Leigh, Woodspring and on
Kenn Moor.

Scarcely any authentic records, but undoubtedly occurs in
suitable places. Has been seen at Dyrham in autumn.

Common RepsHANK. Tinga totanus L.

Occurs chiefly as an autumn and winter visitor to the coast.
Has frequently nested at Blagdon reservoir and breeding has been
reported from several suitable localities near the coast. A scarce
autumn visitor to the Barrow Gurney reservoirs.

A common autumn and winter visitor to the Severn mouth
mud-flats. A few—apparently non-breeding birds—sometimes
seen in summer. Occasional inland.

SPOTTED REDSHANK. Tringa erythropus PALL.

A scarce and irregular autumn visitor. One observed at the
Blagdon reservoir in September, 1923. In September, 1933, two
were seen at Blagdon and one at Barrow Gurney. One was
identified at the mouth of the River Yeo in January and February,
1935, and two were seen there in the following November. As
this species is rarely observed in the British Islands in winter
these latter records are of considerable interest.

Not recorded.

GREENSHANK Tringa nebularia GUNN.

Frequently occurs, either singly or two or three birds, at the
Blagdon and Barrow Gurney reservoirs, during the autumn passage.
A larger number were seen at Barrow Gurney in 1933, than in any
year previously recorded. Has been observed at Blagdon in
January (1922).

Not recorded.

Grey Puatarope. Phalaropus fulicarius L.

An irregular autumn visitor ; usually seen singly inland. Has
several times occurred at Blagdon. One visited a small pond at
Barrow Court in late October, 1935, where it remained for about
ten days.

112

25.

26.

27.

H. H. DAVIS

Probably occurs at irregular intervals in autumn. There are,
however, no authentic records since two were obtained and two
others seen at Avonmouth in September, 1896.

Rep NeckEep PHatarors. Phalaropus lobatus LL.

A scarce autumn visitor. Two were seen and one of them
shot at Blagdon in September, 1921. A Phalarope, said to be of
this species, visited Blagdon in the autumn of 1931.

Not recorded.

Bar-TaILeD Gopwit. Limosa |. lapponica L.

A visitor to the coast in autumn or winter. May occur more
frequently than is supposed.

Occurs—perhaps regularly—in autumn on the Avonmouth-
Severn Beach mud-flats. Has been seen there in December
(1934).

Buack-TaILep Gopwit. Limosa |. limosa UL.

Apparently a scarce autumn visitor to the coast. One observed
on the Portishead mud-flats in September, 1922. One or two
were present at the Barrow Gurney reservoirs in late September,
1933, and it has occurred at Blagdon on several occasions in
autumn and once in spring. ‘Twenty-three were seen at Blagdon
reservoir on the last day of September, 1934, some of which
remained until early November.

An uncommon visitor on autumn passage. A single bird was
seen on the Avonmouth-Severn Beach mud-flats in September,
1934. (One observed at the mouth of the River Wye, September,
1933.)

CuRLEW. Numemus a. arquata L.

Common on coastal mud-flats from autumn to spring, some
remaining through the summer. Occasionally seen im small
numbers at Barrow Gurney and has visited Blagdon. Has nested
on the Mendips on several occasions since 1912.

A common species at the Severn mouth especially in autumn
and winter. Frequently occurs inland.

WHIMBREL. Numenius ph. pheopus L.

A visitor to the coast on migration. Although regularly seen
in spring there are but few autumn records.

An autumn and spring passage migrant. Has been observed on
the Avonmouth-Severn Beach mud-flats and inland.

28.

29.

30.

WADERS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 113

Common SniPE. Capellag.gallinago L.

Resident but more numerous in winter. Breeds—perhaps
regularly—on the Clapton, Nailsea and Kenn Moors and on other
suitable ground. Occurs regularly in varying numbers at the
Blagdon reservoirs in autumn and winter. Less frequent at
Barrow Gurney.

A common autumn and winter visitor to marshy ground and
streams. Occasional in summer but no evidence of breeding.

Jack Snipe. Lymnocryptes minimus BRUNN.

A winter visitor. Probably frequent in some years but records
from the district are few. Has been observed at Blagdon and
Barrow Gurney.

Little information available but probably a regular winter visitor
in small numbers. One was shot at Stoke Gifford in December,
1935.

Woopcock. Scolopax r. rusticola L.

An autumn and winter visitor to suitable places in the district.
As many as twenty or more have been shot on some estates in
one winter. Records kept in recent years show, however, that in
most cases the average number obtained on any one estate in a
season 1s no more than six or seven birds.

Undoubtedly a regular autumn and winter visitor but to what
extent is uncertain. A few are seen in most winters in the Tocking-
ton district where it has also been observed in summer and is
reported to have bred on one or two occasions. Has been shot
at Stoke Gifford.

The Moulting of Chirocephalus diaphanus

By K. W. Nicuotson, M.Sc.
(Read in ttle 5th March, 1936.)

HILE carrying out research on the Fairy Shrimp (Chirocephalus

diaphanus) in the Department of Zoology, University of
Bristol, under the direction of Prof. C. M. Yonge, I had occasion to
study the moulting of these and similar animals. No previous observa-
tions on moulting in Chirocephalus appear to have been published,
although good accounts exist of ecdysis in various Crustacea, including
a detailed description by Cunnington (1930) of the process in Simo-
cephalus suma. My observations will be compared with his.

To ascertain the frequency of moulting, I followed Cunnington’s
method, isolating individuals in small vessels and examining the water
frequently for cast skins. The animals were kept in pond water, and
food material supplied by the introduction of a few slightly decayed
portions of leaves. The animals were roughly divided into three
groups, small, medium and large, according to size. I found that, as
in Swmocephalus, moults occurred at regular intervals. Generally
speaking, the smallest animals moulted every second day, those of
medium size every third day, while the largest would live for three or
four days without moulting. There was no difference between the
behaviour of the two sexes. Cunnington found that intervals of four
to five days elapsed between the moulting of a mature female
Sumocephalus.

The behaviour of the two animals prior to a moult appears to be
similar. Cunnington describes the integument as being loose fitting
and the animal sluggish in its movements. This is also the case in
Chirocephalus which I found to be usually pale in colour at this period.
The animal lies on its back at the bottom of the vessel and moves its
appendages very slowly. At intervals it shakes itself and lashes with
the tail. The first sign of actual moulting is a median ventral slit in
the integument. The entire animal assumes a ragged appearance.
The appendages are withdrawn one at a time, apparently without any
definite sequence. Sometimes animals were observed to take firm hold
of a piece of weed or similar object, the purchase so obtained apparently
assisting in the pulling off of the integument. A tendency was also

THE MOULTING OF CHIROCEPHALUS DIAPHANUS 115

observed for the animal to scrape itself against any foreign body as an
aid to the process.

The two animals differ widely in the time occupied by the moulting
process. Cunnington states that in Simocephalus the entire process is
completed in less than a minute. He states that the animal splits
the carapace above the head region with one jerk. The old integument
comes away laterally from the thoracic region but the animal remains
attached to it ventrally, anteriorly in the region of the first antennae,
and also posteriorly. Through the opening in the old integument are
pushed out first the head, then the thorax and finally the abdomen.
This is assisted by an apparent springing apart of the two sides of the
old carapace.

I have watched an individual Chirocephalus showing the preliminary
stages of moulting for as long as a day without observing much apparent
progress, and I have never been so fortunate as to observe the process
from start to finish. That the final emergence from the cast integument
is sudden is indicated by the fact that, after observing an animal strugg-
ling to free itself for hours, I have left it for the space of a few minutes
and, on my return, found the moult completed. This suggests agree-
ment with conditions in Simocephalus so far as the final stages of ecdysis
are concerned.

It still remains to consider the condition of the animals when the
moult is completed. Cunnington describes Simocephalus as being
transparent, soft and quiet in behaviour for half an hour after the moult
and says that the animal is still passive after nine hours. It does not
become active and feed until the day following the casting of the old
integument. A similar quiescent period during the hardening of the
shell occurs in the Decapod Crustacea. Chirocephalus, on the other
hand, exhibits unusual activity almost immediately after the integu-
ment is shed, swimming about with great vigour, while the colours are
as bright as, or brighter than usual. Another interesting point is
that, whereas Simocephalus shows a sudden, marked increase in size,
this is not so apparent in Chirocephalus.

It would appear, therefore, that though the time taken in the actual
casting of the integument is so widely different in the two animals,
the process of ecdysis, considered as a whole, takes essentially about
the same time. Whereas Simocephalus rids itself of the old integument
and then proceeds to complete, possibly the secretion, and certainly
the hardening, of the new one, in Chirocephalus, the old integument

116 K. W. NICHOLSON

is retained as a protective coat during these processes. The latter,
by the protection provided during the most delicate stage in the life
of these animals, would appear to be more efficient. In any case,
- this difference between the process of ecdysis in two such members of
the Branchiopoda, Chirocephalus being included in the Order Anostraca
and Simocephalus in the Cladocera, is of interest.

REFERENCE

Cunnineton, W. A. 1903. Studien an einer Daphnide, Simocephalus
sima. Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Centralnervensystems und der
feieren Anatomie der Daphniden. Jena Z. Naturw., XXXVII,
447-520, pls. xxiv-xxvi, text figs. 1-6.

117

Bristol Botany in 1935

By Crcit I. SANDWITH
(Read in title 5th March, 1936.)

T has been generally felt that “‘ Bristol Botany ” should no longer

remain unrepresented in the Proceedings. When reading over the
late J. W. White’s notes for so many past years, and realizing the
immensity of the botanical work done in the fifty-eight years, 1874-1932,
it seems an impossible task to approach such a standard. The notes
are so alive, and full of interesting information and detail, showing the
enthusiasm of the author for the country and the flowers he loved. I
would call attention to the fact that these notes and records have been
of supreme importance in the past, and should be equally valuable in
the future for another generation called to work on the Bristol flora.
This can only be done with the help and co-operation of all members of
our Society who are: actively engaged in any form of field botany.
One cannot always expect new county records, but the observation of
how rare plants are holding their own, which new ones are establishing
themselves and becoming naturalised in certain places, and which are
disappearing or have already disappeared, is a matter of interest and
importance, and would provide a good object for study and recording.

The systematic botanist must not be regarded as one who merely
collects and classifies plants. The object of collecting should be to
know and understand more about them, and when the collection
is made the work begins. Fortunately, all are not collectors, and dried
goods do not appeal to the majority of flower lovers; besides, the
space required, the contingent expense, and the constant care which is
necessary to preserve the herbarium of any useful size, make it pro-
hibitive for those who are otherwise busily engaged, and in most cities
at the present day there are herbaria which can be consulted, so that
personal observations in the field are often more useful and attractive.
The plant in its natural surroundings, the soil and situation which are
suitable to some and avoided by others, the changes which take place
in summer and winter, variations of form in species, times of flowering,
the struggle for existence in weak communities, and the inroads of an
aggressor, so much can still be done without any specialised knowledge.

Our manuals of botany are inadequate for these days, and still follow
one another in meagre descriptions and occasionally doubtful state-

118 CECIL I. SANDWITH

ments. One book states that Scilla verna is never white, but this is
not a fact, as herbarium specimens prove. Species which normally
produce blue flowers often have white forms, and the Scilla is no
exception. Four books describe the Hornbeam as “a small tree”
although one of them adds that it sometimes grows to 70 ft. high.
The Bristol Flora tells of one 50 ft. in height, “‘ the head as much, or
more in diameter,’’ and the one in a copse near Sea Mills held its own
in size amongst HKlms and Beeches. There still exists a large old
Hornbeam in a field below Blaise Castle Woods which could never be
described as small. Gerard says of the Hornbeam, “it growes great,
and very like the elme, having a great body, the timber whereof is
better for arrowes, shafts, and such like devices than elme.’’ There
must be some reason why so many authors have described the Horn-
beam as small. Except in gardens where it is often clipped, it appears
to be local, at any rate in this part of the country, and when left to
itself becomes a fine tree. It is with relief that we turn to Gilbert-
Carter’s little book and find that “It is somewhat rare to find
an unmutilated tree in England.” His photograph shows the fine bole
of an old Hornbeam in Essex. The moral is surely that descriptions
should not be made from the victims of circumstances over which they
have no control, and personal observations must be careful and accurate.
Careful observations and notes made by members of our Society should
be of value.

Ranunculus sardous Cr. var. inermis Babey. Waste ground, formerly
meadow-land, at Ashton Gate, S., July, 1932, C. Sandwith. Plenti-
ful and looking native. In this variety the carpels are either
quite destitute of tubercles or show only a faint irregular row near
the margin. Mr. J. W. White’s specimen from Ashton Avenue,
Nov., 1909, is also to be referred to this ; and so is another collected
by him in St. Philip’s Marsh, G., in June, 1906.

Barbarea intermedia Bor. Yard near Cheddar Station, S., 1935,
J.P. M. Brenan.

Geranium pusillum L. Edge of limestone rock in a quarry near
Wickwar, G., June, 1935, C. and N. Sandunth.

Trifolium filiforme L. Grassy bank in a quarry at Wickwar, G., June,
1935, C. and N. Sanduith.

Vicia bithynica L. In spite of, or because of, the widening of the lane
and the consequent disturbance of the soil, this species appeared

BRISTOL BOTANY IN 1935 119

in extraordinary abundance last summer in the old locality between
Stoke Gifford and Winterbourne, G.

Valerianella ervocarpa Desv. Slopes above Cheddar, 8., a quantity
in one spot, but probably of recent introduction, June, 1935,
C.and N. Sandwith and H. W. Pugsley. A new vice-county record
for North Somerset, and hitherto found in the area only as a
casual at St. Philip’s Marsh (1904, C. Bucknall). This is a rare
British species, mainly confined to the south-western counties of
Dorset, Devon and Cornwall.

Senecio Jacobaea L. A dwarf “ hen-and-chicken ” form on a hillside
near Wotton-under-EKdge, G., J. P. M. Brenan.

Cirsium acaule (L.) Weber X lanceolatum Scop. Pasture at Marshfield,
G., Aug., 1935, J. P. M. Brenan.

Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br. var. colorata Lange. This pink-flowered
form is occasionally found, as on a railway bank at Weston, Bath,
S., 1935, J. P. M. Brenan.

Verbascum ngrum L. A single plant on a wal] near Longwood, Failand,
8., 1935, C. Sandwith.

Veronica Beccabunga L. A patch with very pretty lilac flowers, with
purple spots near the centre, was seen on the border of a wood near
Wickwar, G., 1935, C. and N. Sandwuth.

V. aquatica Bernh. and V. Anagallis-aquatica L. These two species,
now generally recognised by British and continental botanists,
were not separated in the Bristol Flora. Their occurrence and
distribution in the area should therefore be investigated. At
present it appears that V. aquatica (with pinkish flowers on fewer,
thicker, more or less horizontal pedicels) is the common plant of
our dykes and lowland marshes. V. Anagallis-aquatica (with
bluish flowers in dense racemes, on slender ascending pedicels,
and usually a more robust plant with larger leaves) has been seen
in a rhine on Tickenham Moor, and by the Chew near Publow,
S., J. P. M. Brenan. The characters of these two species have
been discussed in recent years in various papers in the Journal
of Botany, and the Reports of the Botanical Society and Exchange
Club of the British Isles. Among other characters which should be
tested, in addition to those mentioned above, are the length of the
bracts in relation to the pedicels, the size of the corolla, the shape
of the leaves, sepals and fruit, and the seeds. The two species
frequently grew together, and a hybrid has been recorded.

120 CECIL I. SANDWITH

Mentha cardiaca Baker. By farm buildings on the Glastonbury peat
moor, 8., Sept., 1933, C. and N. Sandwith.

Ballota ruderalis Sw. Outside a gate on Ursleigh Hill, eT S.,
July, 1935, H. S. Thompson.

Mercurialis annua L. var. ambigua (L.) Black Rock Quarry and Marsh-
field, G., Twerton, 8. All records made in 1935 by J. P. M. Brenan.

Saliz undulata Ebrh. (S. alba L. x triandra L.). By ditches in the
flats between Berrow and Lympsham, S., 1932, C. Sandwith.
Det. J. Fraser. First record for the district.

Ophrys Trollia Reichb. Still under Leigh Woods, 8., June, 1935,
Ivor Evans. The present tendency of British botanists is to regard
this as a mere state of O. apifera.

Alisma lanceolatum With. Canal near Bath, and between Claverton
and the Aqueduct, 8., 1935, J. P. M. Brenan.

Sparganium neglectum Beeby. Peat moor near Shapwick, 8., 1935,
J. P. M. Brenan.

Eriophorum vaginatum L. Certainly rare at the present day on the
peat moors (see Bristol Flora, p. 622), but seen in one spot last
July by C. Sandwith and H. S. Thompson.

Aurens. Numerous casuals from the city tips and docks are recorded
annually in the Reports of the Botanical Society and Eachange Club
of the British Isles. Among the more interesting additions to
the “‘ Adventive Flora of the Port of Bristol” (1932) are Clematis
Flammula L., Vicia grandiflora L. and Orlaya grandiflora (L.)
Scop. (H. J. Gibbons) ; and Malva mceensis All., Falearia vulgaris
Bernh.. Inula graveolens L., Hemizona Fitch A. Gray, Stachys
Ocymastrum (L.) Brig. and x Rumex Bonter Danser (R. crispus X
obovatus). The two last are first records for Britain. In addition,
Mr. J. P. M. Brenan has found Matthiola bicornas DC. on the Burn-
ham sand-dunes; and the remarkable African grass, Brachiaria
Isachne (Roth) Stapf, on a roadside at Walton-in-Gordano, 8.
Finally, Mr. T. H. Green was the first to note the establishment by
the river Avon at Bath of a bush of the Pomegranate, Punica
Granatum L. ; this is now 4-5 ft. high, and is an interesting addition
to the British alien list.

121

Note on a Boring Near Winford, Somerset

By A. E. Trueman, D.Sc., F.GS.
(Read in trtle 5th March, 1936.)

N 1934, a boring for water was made in a field on the western side

of the lane leading to Winford from the Bridgwater road, at a
point about 370 yards north-north-west of Grove Farm (on the six-
inch map it is near the borders of two sheets, Somerset XI N.H. and
XII N.W.). A well was dug for about 20 feet in limestones and shales
of the Lower Lias, and boring was then continued for a further 170 feet.
The supply of water being inconsiderable, the scheme was then
abandoned. No detailed record of the boring was available and only
an approximate section can be compiled from a study of the cores
and the material from the well. Unfortunately, the cores from the
upper part of the section were badly weathered and afforded only
scanty information concerning the clays and shales. The evidence
available, however, made it possible to obtain details of the more
important parts of the sequence, and the results appear to be of sufficient
interest to justify a record.

The section commenced in Lower Lias (angulata zone) and passed
completely through the Rhaetic, before penetrating about a hundred
feet of Keuper The details are as follow:

ft. ins. ( Schlothevmia spp.
Nautilus sp.
Limestones in thick beds .. 18 0 Fis inaequivalins
Caleirhynchia calcaria

Lower Lias S. S. Buckman.

Clay, about sas 2 0
Massive grey limestones,
some crinoidal .. 19 O
Thin limestones and dark
shales... 8 0 Ostrea liassica Strick.
Compact brownish lime-
stone (? Sun Bed) br ve ie) Fish scales.
White Lias Thin limestone and marl,
seen eS A at 1 6
; Cotham Marble ie 6
Byest Bhactic { Light coloured marl, seen 2 0O
Lower Rhaetic Black shales with some Grae SRC OnNeT Sts
slightly harder bands, me BEce)): hee
en if 0 rotocardium rhaeticum
(Mer.).
0

Tea Green Marl Soft, badly wAkthiored, seen

p22 A. E. TRUEMAN

ft. in
a Red Marl 5 0

Gypsum. 3
Red marl with green bands 6 0
Brown sandstone .. A Leo
Gypsum 4
Red and green marls with a

little gypsum .. 1S"6
Red mar! with films of eyp-

sum, often in vertical

veins at 15 0O
/ Green sandstone Ani pale
Red Marl \ cite veins | t5)

Red marl with green band

and irregular gypsum.

Some conglomerate .. 20 0
Green bands with sandstone

and disturbed chocolate-

coloured marl .. se he uO
Red marl and _ sandstone,

with thin beds of con-

glomerate and some eyp-

sum ws sce a te)

The above record accounts for only just over 155 feet of the 190 feet
known to have been passed through. In view of the nature of the core
in the Red Marl it is not likely that much is missing from this part,
although some proportion of the core is no doubt lost. The greater
loss probably occurred in the softer shales of the White Lias, the
Rhaetic, and in the Tea Green Marls. The figures given in the table
can therefore only be regarded as minima.

While the section shows a fairly normal sequence, fieres are several
interesting features which are best considered in relation to the position
of the borehole. To the west, the ground rises to Broadfield Down
where Carboniferous Limestone outcrops and is overlain directly by
massive Lias limestones in many places, especially on Felton Hill.
Carboniferous Limestone actually outcrops in Rocks Wood, on the
hill immediately above the borehole, and only about 300
yards to the west. The considerable thickness of the Keuper found
in the boring is thus rather unexpected, and indicates a very rapid
westerly overlap by the Lower Lias. The surface of Carboniferous
Limestone on which the Mesozoic rocks rest on this face of Felton Hill
must, therefore, fall away rapidly eastwards, and they must be banked
against a comparatively steep slope. On the other hand, exposures of
Keuper occur both to the south of Winford and to the north of Barrow
Gurney, and a much more gradual overlap by the Lias may suggest a
more gentle slope in these directions.

ON A BORING NEAR WINFORD, SOMERSET 123

The occurrence of some conglomeratic layers in the upper part of the
Lower Lias is not surprising in view of the these facts, but the pebbles
of Carboniferous Limstone present in these beds do not exceed about
a half-inch in length. The massive Lias limestones in part of this
sequence and the thinness of the intercalated shale bands are presumably
due to the presence of finer débris from the Carboniferous Limestone,
and the lithology somewhat recalls the Sutton Stone of Glamorgan,
which was deposited under similar conditions.

So far as could be determined, there are no conglomeratic layers in
the Rhaetic, which preserves its usual characters and has no noticeable
calcareous beds.

The Keuper Marl has layers of conglomerate at several horizons,
but these are rather thin and inconspicuous, and the included fragments
of limestone are rarely half an inch in length. The marl is unusually
calcareous, however. There is no trace of a conglomerate in the lowest
beds reached, and it is uncertain what thickness of marl exists in the
area.

Possibly faulting may have led to a slight increase in the thickness
shown, for at about 75 feet below the Rhaetic there is some evidence
of disturbance. The dip is normally less than 5 degrees, but at this
depth it suddenly increases to over 30 degrees, and the marl is broken
and slickensided. One bed of peculiar chocolate marl occurs here.
In this, as in other layers at about that level, numerous tabular crystals
of celestine about half an inch long are abundant.

124

Notes and Memories, 1935 (Stapleton)
By G. Moae
(Read in title 5th March, 1936.)

WIFTS usually arrive here early in May, and my records shew that

in the last four years their stay has averaged approximately 91
days. In 1932, they appeared on the 13th of May and disappeared on
or about the 19th of August; in subsequent years the dates are as
follow: 30th April, 4th August; 9th May, 17th August; 4th May,
4th August.

Exceptionally, a Swift was seen here on the 5th September, 1934,
accompanied by a number of House Martins, all flying in a northerly
direction in pleasant, sunny weather. The Swift seemed uncertain
as to its whereabouts and direction, and zigzagged a good deal in its
flight. On the 10th of the same month, I am pretty certain that a
Swift flew over in the company of a Swallow. On or about the 5th,
wintry weather, including snow, was reported from the Continent.

On the 19th of May, last year, my attention was attracted to a
pied Swift flying low in the company of other Swifts over the Duchess’
Pond. An unusual sight to me; a ring of white feathers encircled
its neck, the top of its head and a part of its back were also white.
This bird seemed particularly odd as it shot to and fro among its normal-
coloured companions. In the early mornings of the 10th to 12th
July, a dozen Swifts attracted attention by screeching very loudly as
they chased each other along the fronts of houses facing east, and
catching insects, probably flies, close against the wall. Some of them
would cling to the wall, and appeared to take the flies directly from the
stones. What untiring creatures Swifts are; their three months’
stay in the hottest period of the year seems to be spent in unremitting
energy, feeding, drinking, and even mating whilst on the wing ; from the
earliest to the latest moment of visibility during the long days they may
be seen; now at a great height, now flashing and screaming along the
eaves of houses, never tiring, never colliding, seldom resting—finally
suddenly departing—a very crowded, exciting life indeed. These
birds have whizzed closely around me whilst I have stood near the
stream at the old mill.

NOTES AND MEMORIES 125

The Duchess’ Pond, the river Frome and the adjacent fields and cop-
pices are most interesting places for observing wild life all the year round.
The Pond is much favoured by Seagulls for cleaning purposes after
foraging for food on the land and refuse heaps. Scores of them splash
and dip together there, and as they alight on the Pond, each one
takes a sip of water even before it has recovered from the slight momen-
tum due to landing. Recently about ninety per cent. were birds of
immature plumage, a mixed company including Black-headed and
Herring species. One day a Carrion Crow watched the Gulls taking
their bath, and after a while decided to follow suit. He flew to the
Gulls, alighted in the deep water and splashed and dipped himself in
true Gull fashion; soon he became waterlogged and alarmed, and
only with considerable difficulty was he able to regain the bank—a
wetter and wiser crow. Birds observed at the Pond include Teal,
Tufted Duck, Little Grebes which nest there, Common Sandpipers,
Mailards, Herons, Coots and Waterhens.

On the 7th of May, fully fledged young Carrion Crows were being fed
by their parents in the adjoining meadow. Grey Wagtails, Kingfishers
and Dippers are among waterside birds that have their nests along the
banks of the Frome. Even on the lower reaches of the river, a King-
fisher and a Lesser Spotted Woodpecker appear to have nested last
summer. I was shewn circumstantially the actual sites of the nests, too
late in the season, however, to see their contents. The Kingfisher’s nest
was in a hole in the bank, and the Woodpecker’s nest in a willow tree
close by. The Grey Wagtails usually nest in an old wall, ivy-covered
or draped with the pretty ivy-leaved toadflax ; and although Dippers
are rarely seen now in the Stapleton area, they have nested there in
recent years ; and once I heard the delightful song of the Dipper, and
also that of the Grey Wagtail near the ruined mill.

Otters still roam the banks and feed from the river. On one occasion
I witnessed a “ kill”? at Hambrook. The hunt seemed to be quite a
one-sided affair; some twenty dogs with the aid of fifty persons of
both sexes, having driven the creature by divers means from its holt
in the half submerged roots of a tree, scared it into shallow waters, and
virtually surrounded it ; there, yielding gamely, it was crushed by the
powerful jaws of the dogs. The carcase was eventually thrown to the
dogs on the bank where it was mauled and tugged at for some time ;
subsequently I examined the pelt—all that was left of a brave little
animal—and found it to be absolutely intact. Just previously a small

126 G. MOGG

terrier of the hunt had found a Vixen at home with her cubs in a drain
and retired hurt.

I had a surprise on the 18th March last whilst I was engaged in
gardening operations; a Hedge Sparrow was singing on some pea
sticks when a Sparrow Hawk dashed for it, making a great noise with
its wings ; the Hedge Sparrow flew towards me and hid in an old tin
lying upon the ground; the Hawk alighted beside the tin, and with out-
spread wings and tail, waited expectantly with fierce and terrifying
gaze, until I approached closely to it. It was a thing of great beauty,
even in its seemingly horrifying quest. I withdrew the Hedge Sparrow
and held its frail and panting frame in both hands for a while before
setting it free, when it immediately returned to the sticks, and sang
out as blithely as ever. A nest, with greenish blue eggs, was in the
sticks.

On another occasion, a dead Chaffinch fell at my feet ; its skull was
broken and bleeding, but its body was still warm ; on looking up quickly,
I saw a Sparrow Hawk making off, no doubt much disappointed at
the unexpected interruption of its meal.

Once a Hawk chased and took away a Song-thrush from under a
seat on which I and my family were resting—the tragedy was enacted
suddenly, and was over before we realised what had happened.

Recently, mixed companies of Linnets, Greenfinches, Chaffinches,
Bramblings and Goldfinches have fed together on the various weed
seeds in the gardens; and I noted that Bullfinches and Greenfinches
fed on the dried-up fruit of blackberries—they actually ate the hard
seeds, or achenes.

Wood Pigeons, Starlings and Thrushes feed in late winter on ivy
berries, and Thrushes on holly and yew berries. In autumn and
winter Starlings seem to cry pathetically, “ Dear me, Dear me,”’
and one of their common imitations is of the enchanting
cadences of Willow Warblers, interspersed with the call of the Green
Woodpecker.

During 1934, Hares were numerous in some allotment gardens
at Fishponds, and bred freely there; being too confiding, however,
they were almost exterminated. Still, it has been my pleasure since
to handle tiny Leverets, each too small to cover the palm of one’s hand ;
the distinctive white spot on the forehead, black eartips, together with
appealing dark eyes, make Leverets especially attractive. Mother
Hares appear to remain within sight or hearing of their young at all

NOTES AND MEMORIES 127

times, and remove them from danger to a place of safety at the first
opportunity.

“Our ” Blackbird of last spring and summer was a particularly rich
and tuneful bird. It began to sing in February and continued attrac-
tively into August, quite a long period for a Blackbird. At times it
seemed languid or lazy, and on such occasions would yawn, and whistle
only in a suppressed manner—just crooning to itself with closed
mandibles.

Housesparrows are interesting, and have the virtue of being always
with us and doing much good. A Tree Sparrow, with a perfect ring
of greyish white feathers around its neck, fed with them all last winter
on a table placed outside a window suitable for observation. In
August, a company of Housesparrows congregated in a lilac bush and
twittered so sweetly together as to pardon one for believing they actually
sang a continuous and pleasing melody. A hen Housesparrow once
sang a very quiet little song at close quarters to myself, leaving no
doubt about the matter—there was a caged Canary singing, inter-
mittently, in an adjoining garden, and the Sparrow’s song seemed to
be imitative of that of the other bird.

In July, several colonies of Mason Wasps, invaded the red sand
banks near the Duchess’ Pond, and were a source of much interest
for weeks afterwards.

At the end of June, I stood on an eminence and watched Peregrine
Falcons flying to and fro below and above me ; a most thrilling experi-
ence. They eventually flew inland directly towards the city. In
the evening, just after sunset, is a good time to watch the Peregrines,
as they almost invariably return just before dark.

On the llth of December, a Great Crested Grebe visited a disused
clay-pit directly adjoining the Fishponds Road, and within a few yards
of almost incessant noise. The morning was misty, but the sun broke
through and shone on the Grebe’s silky white neck in a most pleasing
way, whilst the bird moved quietly about with a dignity that was both
charming and fascinating to see.

128

A Query

ERY soon after Portway was constructed, scented coltsfoot
(Petasites fragrans White; Twussilago fragrans Bentham and
Hooker) established itself on the bank of the Avon and has now taken
possession of large stretches, almost exterminating all other plants.
At first it was of the ordinary pink colour, nearly as dark as Butterbur,
(Lussilago petasites) with which it is frequently confused, except in
one place near the foot of the Gully where it was much paler, having
only faint pink petals contrasting with the darker stamens ; the leaves
also were of a lighter shade of green. But now, along the whole distance
it is nearly all the light colour and only a few heads here and there
approach the darker tint.

Can any explanation be given for this change? It appears to be a
definite change of colour and not the supplanting of one variety by
another.

H. O. Epmonps.

Review

THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF CARDIGANSHIRE.
By J. H. Satter, D.Sc. Cardiff: University Press Board, 1935. 5s.

Want of space precludes more than a brief note on this useful book.
Many of the author’s personal observations are of great interest in illustrating
peculiar features of the Cardiganshire flora. There the Poppy of the corn-
fields is P. Lecoyuii; and the Daisy is said to grow only on enclosed
pasture-fields and not on open sheep-walks. In the Preface we are told
that the flora is by no means a rich one. “ This is largely accounted for by
the absence of variety as regards soil and geological formation, the latter
being everywhere grits, shales and imperfect slates of the Ordovician or Lower
_ Lias Series.’’ Nevertheless, about 890 native or naturalised species are dealt
with in addition to (in square brackets) aliens, casuals and natives either
wrongly recorded or extinct.

Hos. 7,

SSS ie a5 ae t~

FOURTH SERIES, VOLUME VIII. PRICE FOUR SHILLINGS
PART II

1936

PROCEEDINGS

4%
: OF THE

Bristol Naturalists’ Society

Hi Epirep sy H. W. TURNER, M.A., F.GS.

ASSISTED BY A COMMITTEE

“Rerum cognoscere causas.”’—Virgil.

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY?"
AT THE BURLEIGH PRESS, BRISTO

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MCMXXXVII SS
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FOURTH SERIES, VOL. VIII, PART II, 1936 129

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
Council for 1936... oF as me ahs i cee oes 130
List of Members .. es Le —- b9 4: a ae 131
Report of Council .. ae es a te we #e eels
Hon. Treasurer’s Statement bi ie age te iv. sa elie g,
Hon. Librarian’s Report .. ao He xb ia ie: veg AAO
Exchange and Gift List .. ue hrs hs ae ws ae be |
Report of Botanical Section oe on cut, i ot oo) Las
Report of Entomological Section ae ve ac oe .. 144
Report of Field Section .. a ae le oe Sy oa TAG
Report of Geological Section ES oN he es 28 bos Ho
Report of Ornithological Section : oe = a 148
Account of Annual and General Meetings 2 ri be 149
Report of Delegate to British Association Meeting, 1936 ne Me ie al
Obituaries—Professors Lloyd Morgan and W. J. Sollas oe ae 152
Presidential Address, 1936, by G. E. J. McMurtrie .. 155
Caves, Natural and Artificial, by S. H. Reynolds, M.A., Sc. me F. G. S, 169
Bristol Botany in 1936, by Cecil I. Sandwith .. be x ad lyis}
Review 180
Omithological Mores: Basco! District. 1936, by H. lab Dev: MB. O. U. 18]
The Coast of Somerset, by O. D. Kendall, M.A. te 186
Additions to Bristol Insect Fauna piDintet) since 1934, by H. L. F.
Audcent . é 209
Notes on the merelnpment of some Upper Lias manures by C. C.
Yu, b.Se., PHD. : 210
Further Notes on eanboniferots Neoiluses fos 2 Shipham, panieren
hy. o. Wallis, 1D.Sc., F.G:S. ye 217
On a Boring for Coal at Farrington Gurney, near Bristol be ie R.
Maore, isc... Fh.D., and A. E. Trueman, D.5Sc., F. GS: BAe 74)
Further Recent Exposures in the Rhetic and Teste Rocks of the .
Bristol Area, by G. A. Kellaway, B.Sc. .. Bis re 223
Fossil Shells from the Nailsea Coalfield, by E. W. Séavill a eee edad)

All Books, Pamphlets, Reports of Proceedings sent by way of exchange,
gift or otherwise, and all correspondence relating thereto and to purchases
of the Society’s publications should be addressed to :—

Hon. LIBRARIAN, BrRIsTOL Nat. Soc.,
THE MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY,
BRISTOL, 8.
For information concerning the Bristol Naturalists’ Suciety generally
or its meetings please apply to the present Hon. Secretary :—
F. STENHOUSE Ross,
15 Hampton PARK, REDLAND,
BRISTOL, 6.

The SOCIETY’S LIBRARY in the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery is
open to members as under :—

On Wednesdays and Saturdays - - 10.0 a.m. to 8.0 p.m.
On other Weekdays -» -' - --+ 10.0 a.m. to 6.0 p.m.

130
COUNCIL FOR 1936
OFFICERS :
PRESIDENT :
G. E. J. McMURTRIE,
Eastfield House, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.
PAST PRESIDENTS
‘Prot, S.. YOUNG, D:Sc., FERS. JAMES RAFTER, M.A.
sit? ERNEST -COOK,. DiSc. A. L. FLEMMING, M.B., Ch.B.

H. WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S. J. W.. TUTCHER,. M.Sc.
F. S. WALLIS; DSc Gs.

VICE-PRESIDENTS:
J. H. SAVORY. EF... W. EVENS:
HON. TREASURER:
F. W. EVENS, A.C.A., Stretton, 77 Manor Road, Fishponds, Bristol.
HON. AUDITORS:
Sir ERNEST COOK, D.Sc. CHARLES BARTLETT, F.C.A.
HON. SECRETARY :
Miss M. D. HILEY.
ASSISTANT HON. SECRETARY :
Mrs. A. G.- BEEBE:
HON. LIBRARIAN :
Miss F. E. STRUDWICK, M.A.
HON (EDITORS?
H. W. TURNER, M.A., F.G.S., The University, Bristol, 8.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS :
BOTANICAL:
President—Prof. MACGREGOR SKENE, D.Sc., F.L.S., The University,
Bristol, 8.
Hon. Secretary—F. F. GLASSPOOL, M.Sc., F.C.S., 6 Southfield Road,
Cotham, Bristol, 6.

ENTOMOLOGICAL :
Presidenti—CHARLES BARTLETT, F.R.E.S., 8 Woodhill, Portishead,
Somerset.
Hon. Secretary—CHARLES BARTLETT, F.R.E.S., 8 Woodhill, Portishead,
Somerset.
FIELD:

President—H. F. BARKE, F.I.C., 34 Park Row, Bristol, 1.
Hon. Secretary—Miss M. D. HILEY, 16 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton, Bristol, 8.
GEOLOGICAL:
President—Prof. A. E. TRUEMAN, D.Sc., F.G.S., The University, Bristol, 8.
Hon. Secretary—H. C. SHILSTONE, 124 Victoria Avenue, Redfield, Bristol, 5.
ORNITHOLOGICAL:
President—J. H. SAVORY, Windyridge, Abbots Leigh, nr. Bristol.
Hon. Secretary—H. TETLEY, B.Sc., F.Z.S., 4 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9.

OTHER MEMBERS OF COUNCIL:

TOV. LT. BAXTER, MiUA:. B:Se:z W. R. TAYLOR, M.A.
Prof.S. H. REYNOLDS, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S. H. VICARS WEBB.
Prof. C. M. YONGE, D.Sc.

si ce Hh

LIST OF MEMBERS

1936

131

A.—Associate Member. J.—Junior Member. t—Life Member.

* Has contributed papers to the Proceedings.

Sectional Membership is indicated by letters following each name, viz. :
B.—Botanical; E£.—Entomological; F.—Field ; G.—Geological ; O.—Orni-

thological.
Adams, S. B. Ph.D....... 19 Charlotte Street, Park Street,
Bristol, 1
Alexander, D. A., M.D. .. 112 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Pe Ee ls ose tus a Hensol, Brookvale Road,
W. Cross, Swansea
foeAuacent, FE. LF. ...... 45 Belvoir Road, St. Andrew’s,
Bristol, 6
Badock, Stanley H. LL.D. Holmwood, Westbury-on-Trym,
Bristol
Baker, B. A., F.G.S. .... 8 The Avenue, Bristol, 8
memisaker, FTC. oo kee Glen Farm, Abbots Leigh, Som.
ibanke, Fir F., F.I.C. .... 34 Park Row, Bristol, 1
ete; WITS. ce cne we es 54 Charlton Road, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol
Seeeeearker, M.H. SS. ......- Wills Hall, Stoke Bishop,
Bristol, 9
Barnett, s. El. G.” ...... 2 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9
meebarnett, Mrs............. 2 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9
iBarmow, Mirs.-F. L. ...... 6 Stratford House, 22 Tyndall’s
Park Road, Bristol, 8
fe veartiett, Chas.,..F.C.A.,
Jf JE SAN a 8 Woodhill, Portishead
* MSBaxter, T.V.T.,M.A.,B.Sc. 25 Clyde oad, Redland,
Bristol, 6
ibeacham, G. H. <:...... 18 Raglan Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7
Beeetell, Mes. A. G. ........ 25 St. Michael’s Park, Bristol, 2
Betsey, KC... eee 120 City Road, Bristol, 2
retOps ENC. en cce ss 43 Elton Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7
SER 2 °c 50 Aiken Street, Barton Hill,
Bristol, 5
A. Blathwayt, Rev. F. L. .. Dyrham Rectory, Chippenham
Ee a 508 Stapleton Road, Bristol
Peeve MS. 2... 0... ese 508 Stapleton Road, Bristol
Bowen, Miss M., B.Sc. .. 13 Redland Park, Bristol, 6
* Bracher, Miss Rose, Ph.D. The University, Bristol, 8
eo SS 20 Cornwallis Crescent, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
A. Butterworth, Miss D.G... 31 Bedminster Down Road,
Bristol, 3
Chamberlain, W. ........ 157 Whiteladies Road, Bristol, 8
lative iiss FL... 17 Elmdale Road, Bristol, 8
eeueieoven nn EH, «lk, 80 Beauley Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3

2 9 9

at
m

we Oy & Ot 2 mM S 9 OM yD
35]
D

)

132

LIST OF MEMBERS

Clothier; “G. E. i¢ (27a

eeeeesr

Clough, Miss A. M.
Clough, <i. OW... 28 ek aie

Clough, NiES:. ins... «releens
Cockcroft, JohnsA. . 02". aie
Cole, H. S.

Cook, Miss G.

eeeceeeeeee

Cook, Miss G. M.
Coombs, C. J. F.

Cratchley, Rev. W.

J
Ph.D., M.A., B.Sc., F.C.S.

Daniels FL EGS. oe.

Parell, R.D.:S:, FsG:S.,
PAS) FOZ S:
Davies, T. H.

DAVIS TEA HEAL, ouryetonahte we Mateus
Wawis; AMPS. 25 oo ies fais muse
Davis, Mervyn J. L.

Daws, Miss ‘Hh. sic). 5 .. pe
Dobbin; *GsAMis fs. oe
Dunnicliff, H.

Dunscombe, Miss A. ....

Eddolls, Miss E. S.
Bdmonds FO. yoinc tates
awards vGaiiiiie: «ssa
EVANS. WN oe eeiees so 4 sedis
Evens, F. W., A.C.A.

Fitzjohn, Miss A., M.Sc. ..
Flemming, A. L., M.B.,

Chi Bites iene ental ee
Ford, Roger
Fox, Mrs. A.
Fry, Miss Lena E.
Fry, 7. i.

eeeeeveeuveseecse

eeeeee

eecoeceeeeeveeenees

The Research Station,
Ashton, Bristol

30 Henleaze Avenue, Bristol

Bourton House, Flax Bourton,
near Bristol

103 Cranbrook Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

37 Wick Road, Brislington,
Bristol, 4

Hampton House,
Park, Bristol

9 Belvedere Road, Bristol, 6

14 Southfield Road, Westbury-
on-Trym

Ripon Hall, Boars Hill, Oxford

Long

7 Cotham

Stringer’s Court, Rodborough,
Stroud, Glos.

Hillfield House, near Dartmouth

Down House, Stoke Bishop,
Bristol, 9

Little Stoke, Patchway, near
Bristol

8 Osborne’ Koad, _ Clifton,
Bristol, 8 ©

109 Forest Road, Fishponds,
Bristol

12 Eaton Crescent,
Bristol, 8

10 Effingham Road, St. An-
drew’s, Bristol, 6

55 Clarendon Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Clifton,

: | 32 Freemantle Road, Eastville,

Bristol, 5

33 Wellington Park, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

50 Elton Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

46 Horfield Road, St. Michael’s,
Bristol, 2

Stretton, 77 Manor Road, Fish-
ponds, Bristol

Malton, Chelwood, nr. Bristol

48 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Hartfield, Cotham Park, Bristol

Brislington House, near Bristol

20 Hill View, Henleaze, Bristol

59 Air Balloon Hill, St. George,
Bristol, 5

30 Gloucester Road North,
Horfield, Bristol, 7

Se ae

ty
a

SS Pi, ahh So

eS eS WS bye ie:

B.F.G.

SREB Rh

/ LIST OF MEMBERS

Glasspool, F. F., M.Sc.,
F.C.S.

Goodall, Rev. Canon R. W.

Gorham, Major A. ......

Gowen, Miss J. E. ......

Green, Mrs. M. B., L.L.A.
Sreem, b. i., B.Sc. ......
Green, Mrs. T. L.

Grignon, Miss A. E.

oe ee @ @

Hallam A. D.,

ee Bo9C.,) F.GS. 2.6.
Hallam, Mrs. A. D., B.A...
Hartley, Miss M. C.

D.Phil.,

Hayman, Mrs. E. S.
Hayward, Miss E. ......
ley.) Miss’ MAD... 5. 0.
Hiley, Miss W. F.
Hodder, Mrs. N. F.

imdson, F. Gi... eee cee

Humphries, Lady

eurst; (GW: So... cee
Hurst, Mrs.

Hutchinson, G. W., M.A..
Hutchinson, Miss M. I. ..

Hutton, Miss H. M., F.G.S.
2S: 1
EES S (ie Sele

Jacobs, A. C.

ere eee eo oo

Jeffcoat, Rev. R., M.A...

Jenkins, F. G., M.B., Ch.B.
Jones, W. M.

Jones, Mrs.

Kearns, H. G. H., Ph.D.,
B.Sc., F.R.E.S.
Kellaway, G. A., B.Sc. ..

Knight, Miss L. S.
Kromler, A. A.

6 Southfield Road, Cotham,
Bristol, 6

19 Elmdale Road, Tyndall’s
Park, Bristol, 8

Avonside, Limpley Stoke, Som.

26 Woodstock Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Dyrham, nr. Chippenham, Wilts

The University, Bristol, 8

41 Filton Avenue, Horfield,
Bristol, 7

16 Cheddon Road, Taunton

22 College Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

3 Chatford House, Clifton Down,
Bristol, 8

31 Manor Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

9 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

11 Beaufort Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

The Elms, Stinchcombe, Durs-
ley, Glos.

Eastfield Lodge, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol

34 Upper Belgrave Road,
Clifton, Bristol, 8
34 Upper Belgrave Road,

Clifton, Bristol, 8

Williscot, Winscombe, Som.

57 Oakfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

The Manor, Dursley, Glos.

26 Leonard Road, Redfield,
Bristol, 5

18 Alexandra Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

65 Fremantle Road, Cotham,
Bristol, 6

5 Berkeley Square, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

51 Redcliff Hill, Bristol, 1

3 Imperial Walk, Knowle,
Bristol, 4

The Research Station, Long

Ashton, Bristol

125 Howard Road, Westbury
Park, Bristol, 6

7 Alma Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8

45 Summerleaze, Fishponds,
Bristol

133

Om 29 by

Bi. FsG.C;

Poel Ou.) 2

ELF G.

134

LIST OF MEMBERS

Wedch. VAs Cure nies ele
London, Miss G. M.
Dovel GA reeks So. ae

Macdonalds Di 22.4 eee.
Macpherson, Miss B. B.

Madkins;. W.> EF.) Bek

EUR GS.

Mappin, Si oW. 20. kee ais
Marples, B. J., M.A., M.Sc.
Marples, Mrs. B. J., B.A...
Marsden, A., F.I.C. ...

Warsden,. Mrsio.........:
Mathews; (P. Mo ...5.3.5

Matthews, L.H., M.A...
Maxwell, HH. OW. 24 6a ean

Maxwell, WMirss. ss..cet ait.
Mead, Miss C. E., B.A...
McErvel, Miss" Ne 9.0.0.
McMurtrie, G. E. J.

MicNuririe; UVirs: 55). <1.
Merryweather, Miss M. D.

Malton, Mrs. E.G.) 22.8
NMogtord, OC. - 27.22 sun os

IPO RO FGE G0 cua vtatee suellelonere
Morley, Miss: "A. sini. . ¢
Mors: UD ViG. > Swe wee sd

Morrison, Miss A. M. C...

Nea cs Witte kerr cpt getete td
Nettle, Miss BivGs ri.

Norgrove, fi) Wate ada
Neel: Fee ih ais eee oie

11 Percival Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

26 Woodcroft Avenue, White-
hall, Bristol, 5

24 Islington Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3

14 Walcot Parade, Bath

36 Lower’ KRedland Road,
Bristol, 6

Hill View, Barrow Road, Burn-
ham-on-Sea

14 Victoria Square, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Fairfield Secondary School,
Bristol

100 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

208 Henleaze Road, Bristol

161 Bishop Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Wharfedale, Pulteney Road,
Bath

2 Adelaide Terrace, Portishead

10a Downfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

16 Quadrant West, Hillfields
Park, Bristol

Westonbirt School, near Tet-
bury, Glos.

Eastfield House, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol

11 St. John’s Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

10 Randall Road, Bristol, 8

13 Park Grove, Westbury Park,
Bristol, 6

483 Fishponds Road, Bristol

17 The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol,8

Clifton Zoological Gardens,
Clifton, Bristol, 8

8 Richmond Hill, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

70 Trymside, Sea Mills,
Bristol, 9

3 Beaufort Road, Kingswood,
Bristol

38 Norton Road, Knowle,
Bristol, 4

22 Alma Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8

63 Springfield Road, Cotham,
Bristol, 6

On ee

A ee

Bie Se ean
om )

On sins TS
tS

Ea Ea

LIST OF MEMBERS

Paterson, Miss K. M. Noel Windyridge, 17 Greendale Road,

Redland, Bristol, 6

Dac GL WAI 5 5 Hanbury. Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
NS CR Dn 5 Hanbury Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Pearman, J. V., F.R.E.S... 56 Clifton Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
emperell, Mrs. .......... 16 Westfield Park, Redland,
Bristol, 6
otter Miss E. A. ...5.. Westonbirt School, near Tet-
bury, Glos.
rowel, je J M.D....... 18 Elgin Park, Redland,
Bristol, 6
rate, Niss D.-Li...... 2% 1 Hughenden Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Preston, Miss G. J. Stapleton Road Gas Works,
Bristol, 5
Price, Miss M. R., B.A. 1 Richmond Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Purchon, R. Denison Mortimer House, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Rwenicer,) fc; MEAn! eee 228 Shirehampton Road, West-
bury-on-Trym, Bristol
TE S70 1 ea | 18 Stackpool Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3
IeCCO NWWe M er k ees 18 Stackpool Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3
rem NNISS i se es 4 Upper Belmont Road, Bishops-
ton, Bristol, 7
fewnolds, Prof. .S. H., 13 <All Saints’ Road, Clifton,
Sc.D., F.G.S. Bristol, 8
Richards, G. Pensylva, Cecil Road, Weston-
super-Mare
hachardson, Prank ...... 21 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Ross, F. Stenhouse ...... 25 Tugela Road, Uplands Estate,
Bristol, 3
fess, James, FL.A. .... Central Library, Bristol, 1
Kadge, Miss -D. M....... 6 Elgin Park, Bristol, 6
ivadee, Miss KE. L. ...... 6 Elgin Park, Bristol, 6
mutter, Miss E. M........ 32 Henleaze Gardens, Bristol, 9
Saimond, PF: W. ....0.... 22 Tyndall’s Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Sanders, Miss L. M. Redroofs, Downs Cote Park,
Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol
samewith, Mrs........... 26 Canynge Square, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Memory EL. (6. oe ks oa Windyridge, Abbots Leigh,
near Bristol
0530) i Wills Hall, Stoke Bishop, Bristol
oe 116 Coronation Road, Bristol, 3
Sew Mss Te. 12c Kingsdown Parade, Bristol, 6
1 1S 78 Sefton Park Road, Bishops-
ton, Bristol, 7
Shilstone, ELC. ..... 124 Victoria Avenue, Redfield,
Bristol, 5
Skene, Prof. Macgregor,
ES ane The University, Bristol, 8

eweesee erect eee eee

The University, Bristol, 8

135

Oe Ot 2) Oo) OS Se

136
A. Smith, Mrs. W.

eee tale. uttmerc: Seem ee
Statton, A. G.

A. Strudwick, Miss F. E., M.A.
Sully, dio 2.

eeceeeeeeee

Swain, Miss R.

Tarring, E.

Taunton, W. C.

eeeeeeee

eeceeeee eee

As Taylor, ik.’
Taylor, W. R., M.A.
ta letley,<H., B.Se5)F.Z:9;. :

eeevee eee seer

Tetley, Mrs.

A. Thomas, Miss K. M., N.F.U.

A. Thomas, Richard

fe lhompson, Ha S.A 42.9. 3:

Tombleson, F. B.
* ~~ Trueman, Prof. A. E:, D:Se:

AGS: Pa ee tei tectene Giclee eae
Trueman, Mrs. A. E.......
Tucker, B. W., M.A.,

NEBOWU so eke aes

Turner, Hat W.. M.A., F.G.S.

Turner, Mrs. H. W.

* .Tutcher J. W., M.Sc.

Veal, Mrs. G. C.

A. Verhey, Miss D. E., B.Sc...

Vizard, Miss E. S.

A. Waight, Miss F.

Waight, Miss M.
A. Wallace, Miss N.

* Walls; F.'S.) D.Se; Ges:
Walton, C. L., Ph.D., M.Sc.

Walton, Mrs. C. L.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Greenhills,
Portishead

Endcliffe, Henbury, nr. Bristol

2 Auburn Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

26 Woodstock Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Elmside, Julian Road, Stoke
Bishop, Bristol, 9

Wyndham House,
Gordano, Som.

Redcliffe ~ Bay,

Easton-in-

Mimosa, 196 Bishop Road,
Bristol, 7

70 Halsbury Road, Westbury
Park, Bristol, 6

12 Claremont Avenue, Bishops-
ton, Bristol, 7

5 Pembroke Vale, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

4 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9

17. Upper. Belgrave Road,

Clifton, Bristol, 8

131 Cumberland Road, Red-
cliff, Bristol, 1

i Buckingham Place, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Shirley, Briercliffe Road, West-
bury-on-Trym, Bristol

The University, Bristol, 8
44 Redland Court Road, Bristol, 6

9 Marston Ferry Road, Oxford

The University, Bristol, 8

Mortimer House, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

57 Berkeley Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Lower Hazel House, Rudgeway,
nr. Bristol

Stanmore House, Royal Crescent,
Weston-super-Mare

25 Logan Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Beeches, 47 Kewstoke Road,
Bristol, 9

17. Upper Belgrave
Clifton, Bristol, 8

The Museum and Art Gallery,
Bristol, 8

34 Northumberland Road, Red-
land, Bristol, 6

Road,

Jee Se

E.O.
TO:

LIST OF MEMBERS 137

Webb, H. M., B.Sc. .... Redgarth, Church Road, Stoke
Bishop, Bristol, 9 G.O.
weep, irs. H. M. ...... Redgarth, Church Road, Stoke
Bishop, Bristol, 9 O.
Swembp. E—-Vicars .....,:.- 58 Belmont Road, St. Andrew’s,
Bristol, 6 F.O.
A. Weetman, Miss M. J..... 60 Ashley Road, Bristol, 6 F.
A. Wheeler, Miss K. E. .... Hillside, Watchet, Som. F.
* White, E. Barton, M.D., St. Merryn, Braunton, N. Devon
B-RE.S: 18%
White, Mrs. E. Barton.... St. Merryn, Braunton, N.Devon E£.
Beeman icox, Boo. wk ee Stoke Hill Cottage, Stoke
Bishop, Bristol, 9 O.
Wills, W. Melville ...... Bracken Hill, Leigh Woods,
Bristol
meee ools, Miss F. R. ...... 5 Hamilton Road, Easton,
Bristol, 5 B.
Beeeryveates, G. KK. .......06. Sherborne School, Sherborne,
Dorset O.
Yonge, Prof. C. M., D.Sc... The University, Bristol, 8
m- Lealand, Mrs. H. W....... Brecon Lodge, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol F.

Honorary Members

R. M. Prideaux, F.R.E.S., Brasted Chart, near Sevenoaks, Kent.

Prof. H. S. Hele Shaw, M.I.C.E,, LL.D., F.R.S., 64 Victoria Street, West-
minster, S.W.1.

Prof. Sydney Young, D.Sc., F.R.S., The Ferns, Stoke Bishop, Bristol, 9.

Sir Ernest Cook, D.Sc., 40 Alma Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8.

H. Womersley, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., 36 Wattle Street, Fullerton Estate, Adelaide,
S. Australia.

138 = s

REPORT OF COUNCIL

TO DECEMBER 3lstT

1936

OUR Council reports that the reorganisation of the Society and its

Sections begun in 1935 has now shown the completed results of its

first full year of working. Although minor adjustments will probably
be made in the future, it is gratifying to note that already an increased
membership has resulted. During the year one member has compounded
for life membership. Your Council would wish to stress this provision in
the rules.

At the Annual General Meeting in January the past Officers were
re-elected. Mrs. A. G. Bell was appointed Assistant Secretary and Miss
F. E. Strudwick succeeded Mr. J. V. Pearman as Librarian. Professor
S. H. Reynolds and Professor Macgregor Skene were elected to fill vacancies
on Council.

Council was represented by Professor A. E. Trueman at the Conference
of delegates of Corresponding Societies at the British Association Meeting
at Blackpool.

The rules of the Society, which had been thoroughly revised by a small
sub-committee, were finally sanctioned at the Annual Meeting. These
have been printed and circulated to all members.

Your Council regrets to record the death of two honorary members—
Professor C. Lloyd Morgan and Professor W. J. Sollas; an ordinary member,
Mr. A. W. Cottle, and a past member, Dr. Herbert Bolton.

Council also wishes to report that a total of nearly £44 has been collected
for the Ida Roper Memorial Fund. A small sub-committee is now investi-
gating the most effective means of dealing with this sum in accordance with
the issued appeal.

The ninth Annual Dinner was held in February when Professor E. Fawcett |
F.R.S., gave a lecture on ‘‘ The Bristol Giant.’’ The Exhibition night in
October provided an unusual quantity of local material, and at the open
meeting in November three films of botanical interest were shown and
explained by Professor Macgregor Skene.

The Summer Field Meeting at Cherhill and Avebury was again under
the satisfactory auspices of the Field Section.

M. DORIS HILEY, Hon. Secretary.

139

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140

LIBRARIAN’S REPORT
FOR THE YEAR 1936

N the resignation of Mr. J. V. Pearman, who occupied the post of
Librarian till the end of 1935, the work was taken on by Miss F. E.
Strudwick.

During the year a considerable amount of time has been spent on the
Library ; additional space having been found, it has been possible to sort
and re-arrange the books, during which process both volumes and shelves
have undergone a good “‘ spring-clean,’’ and stock-taking has begun.

The Library Sub-Committee met twice, and a very careful revision was
made of the Exchange list; certain unprofitable exchanges, chiefly foreign,
were cancelled and a few new ones accepted.

Twenty pounds having been voted by Council for binding and casing,
estimates were obtained for the binding of 60 selected volumes and for ten
dozen pamphlet cases in three different sizes, all of which are now in place
on the shelves. .

The following books were added to the library in 1936 :—

1. Wookey Hole, its Caves and Cave Dwellers—Balch—presented by
Mir. J. aE, SAMOry,.

2. Monograph of the Genus Evebta—Warren. All presented
: ae : by the British
Mosquitoes of the Ethiopian Region—Hopkins. Museunitot

Flora of Jamaica. Vol. 7—Fawcett and Rendle. Natural
Guide to the Galleries of Geology and Pal@ontology. History.

Also the Entomological, Geological and Ornithological Sections, as
formerly, have presented the current periodicals taken by them.

Certain early Proceedings of the B.N.S. have been asked for, and there
has been a considerable demand for copies of the Avonian of the Avon Gorge.

During the year one hundred and twenty entries have been made for
books borrowed from the Library.

The great need at the present time is more money for the binding of
additional volumes, and the compilation of an efficient catalogue and card
index, a piece of work which will entail considerable time and labour.

F. E. STRUDWICK, Hon. Librarian.

‘4
&~ Q a -
a

141
EXCHANGE AND GIFT LIST

BRITISH SOCIETIES

Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire.
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.

Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society.
British Association for the Advancement of Science.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society.

Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club.

Coventry Natural History and Scientific Society.
Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society.
Edinburgh Royal Botanical Society.

Society for British Entomology.

Essex Field Club.

Geologists’ Association.

Geological Society of London.

Geological Society of Glasgow.

Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.

Glasgow and Andersonian Natural History and Microscopical Society.
Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club.
Linnean Society of London.

Liverpool Geological Society.

Llandudno and Colwyn Bay Field Club.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
Manchester Microscopical Society.

Royal Microscopical Society.

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society.
Northamptonshire Natural History Society.

Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society.
Quekett Microscopical Club.

Southport Scientific Society.

North Staffordshire Field Club.

Swansea Scientific and Field Naturalists’ Society.
Torquay Natural History Society.

Isle of Wight Natural History Society.

Yorkshire Geological Society.

SCHOOL SOCIETIES

Cheltenham College Natural History Society.
Clifton College Scientific Society.

Eton College Natural History Society.
Marlborough College Natural History Society.
Rugby School Natural History Society.

PuBLIc INSTITUTIONS, ETC.

Bodleian Library.

Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.
Bristol Public Library.

Bristol University Library.

British Museum (Natural History).
British Museum—Copyright Office.
Cambridge University Library.
Geological Survey and Museum, London.
Royal Irish Academy.

Manchester Museum Library.
Marine Biological Association.
National Library of Scotland.
National Library of Wales.

142 EXCHANGE AND GIFT LIST

Patent Office Library.
Science Museum, London.
Trinity College Library, Dublin.

EUROPEAN SOCIETIES, ETC.

Belgium.—The Royal Natural History Society.
Belgian Geological Society.
France.—Linnean Society of Lyons.

The University of Rennes.
Holland.—The Dutch Geological Bureau.
Latvia.—The Zoological Institute, Riga.
Norway.—The University, Oslo.

Poland.—The Zoological Museum, Warsaw.
Sweden.—The Royal University Library, Upsala.
Switzerland.—The Central Library, Zurich.

The Vaudois Natural Science Society, Lausanne.

DOMINION SOCIETIES, ETC.

Australia.—Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement
of Science.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Canada.—Canadian Institute.
National Museum of Canada.
Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
India.—Imperial Department of Agriculture.
Geological Survey of India.

UNITED STATES SOCIETIES, ETC.

American Museum of Natural History.

Boston Natural History Society.

Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.
University of California, Berkeley.

California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.
University of Colorado.

Denison Scientific Association.

Michigan Academy of Science.

Missouri Botanic Gardens.

Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
San Diego Society of Natural History.
Smithsonian Institution.

St. Louis Academy of Science.

United States National Museum.

‘Vanderbilt Oceanographic Museum.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.
‘Yale University.

Museum of Natural History, Yale University.
New York Zoological Society.

; | 143

REPORT OF BOTANICAL SECTION

1936

HE work of the Section during the year has continued as in previous
years with exhibits of botanical interest and short papers or talks on
botanical subjects.

Eleven meetings have been held in the Botanical Department of the
University.

The Section is fortunate in having the continued presence of Prof. Skene
at its meetings and would like to take this opportunity of expressing its
appreciation and sense of gratitude to him for the use of the Department
and for the material support which he has given both generally and specifically.

At the February meeting, Dr. Campbell gave a lecture on Fungi and showed
specimens of species of Lycoperdon, Stereum, Corticum, Xylaria, Ustulina,
Armillaria and Auricularia,

The Open Meeting of the Section in October was attended by seventeen
members and five visitors. The agenda included two papers of a popular
nature on “ Plant Life in the Service of Man,” by Miss Pratt, and “* Plant
Superstitions,’ by Mr. Glasspool. In addition there were more technical
talks on ‘‘ Cochlearia’’ by Mr. H. S. Thompson, ‘‘ Gymnosperms”’ by Mrs.
Bell, and ‘“‘ The Germination of Iris Seeds’”’ by Mrs. Sandwith.

Prof. Skene showed a number of greenhouse plants at the December
meeting. Amongst these were Ardisia crenata and Psychotria with nitrogen
fixing bacteria in their leaves, Albizzia, Euphorbia fulgens and Euphorbia
pulcherrima, Bouvardia and two Liverworts, Conocephalus and Dumortiera.

Fresh and preserved specimens have been brought in by members for the
remaining meetings. These have been named, examined and discussed,
and in some cases have given rise to further investigations.

Mrs. Sandwith has continued to collect and collate records of new plants
and plants in new habitats in order that the Botanical Notes may be brought
up to date and continued.

F. F. GLASSPOOL, Hon. Secretary.

144

REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGICAL SECTION

1936

14th January. 72nd Annual Meeting. After the usual business Mr. A. H.
Peach read notes upon his excursions to various districts during 1935 and
exhibited many interesting species of Lepidoptera including extended series
of British Lyce@nide and Cenonympha tullia, and Mr. N. A. Watkins showed
some aberrations of British Butterflies.

19th Feb. Meeting held at the University and open to general members
of the Society. This was attended by the President and twelve others.
All the sectional members present read notes and brought exhibits, and for
some of these the epidiascope was used.

28th April. Mr. J. V. Pearman described and demonstrated apparatus
used in microphotography, including special microscope mountings and lamp
for projection on to a photographic plate, turntable and mediums for preserva-
tion of specimens and ringing slides.

13th Oct. Exhibits of several Orders were made by Messrs. C. Edwards,
A. Kromler and C. Bartlett, and a discussion took place on the occurrence
of Danaus plexippus in England.

17th Nov. Mr. C. Edwards read a paper on ‘“‘ Variation,’ especially
with reference to climate, altitude, temperature, and seasonal forms, and a
discussion took place thereon. Exhibits were made by Messrs. C. Edwards,
A. H. Peach and C. Bartlett. Mr. M. J. L. Davis reported his extraordinary
experience at Weston-super-Mare on 25th, 26th and 27th August when he
saw very large migratory swarms of Plusia gamma, Silver Y Moth.

8th Dec. Mr. J. W. Norgrove exhibited a portion of his collection of British
Lepidoptera, and Mr. C. Bartlett read notes upon the history of the black
race of the Peppered Moth, Amphidasis betularia v. doubledayaria, in England,
and its spreading to the Continent in the 19th century.

Interest in Entomology in Bristol is confined to a very small and reducing
number of individuals; the present membership is only sixteen, of whom
only half a dozen regularly attend the meetings.

The destruction of the countryside with its plant life, cutting of woodlands,
drainage of fens and marshes, malicious or careless damage by fire to heaths,
afforestation of large areas with conifers, beneath whose shade no plant or
wild life can survive, are all destructive to the fauna and flora, and having
their inevitable result on those who admire their beauty and study nature.

CHAS. BARTLETT, President and Hon. Sec.

REPORT OF FIELD SECTION

1936

R. WALLIS, in his retiring Presidential address, dwelt upon the English-

man’s instinctive love of the countryside, which he traced from early

times, through its eclipse during the Industrial Revolution, to the present-
day revival. It is for the fulfilment of this instinct that the Field Section
exists, and in field meetings one finds acommon bond of union, however diverse
our natures and stations in life.

; At the Annual Meeting held in January, Dr. F. S. Wallis resigned the

presidency, which he had occupied for five years, and was succeeded by
Mr. H. F. Barke, F.I.C., a past president of the Section. Mr. Ivor Evans
was elected Vice-President, and the remaining officers were re-elected. Mrs.
Hayman and Mr. F. N. Reed were elected to fill two vacancies on the
Committee. Mr. H. Stuart Thompson exhibited dried specimens of the
Common Ragwort, showing fasciated stem, found at Cadbury Camp, near
Tickenham, and the President showed examples of Neolithic greenstone
axes which had been discovered in the Bristol district.

The area selected for special observation during 1936 comprised an upland
district to the north-west of Bath, an area which is essentially the south-
western portion of the Cotswolds. The usual field notes which now form such
a feature of the Summer programme were again ably supplied by members
of the Section.

The first meeting was held in May when members met at Saltford and by
a circuitous route walked to Lansdown under the joint leadership of Mrs.
E. S. Hayman and Mr. H.C. Bishop. The church at North Stoke was visited
and the exposure of Cotteswold Sands at Upton Cheyney noted.

In July an experiment was made whereby members divided into all day
and half-day parties. The earlier party left Bristol by the Marshfield road
and then worked in a southerly direction, meeting the second party in St.
Catherine’s Valley. Mr. H. O. Edmonds was the general leader for the day,
and under his guidance members were able to collect aquatic plants from
Doncombe Brook.

The Pucklechurch, Hinton, Tolldown and Dyrham district was visited
in September, with Mr. Ivor Evans as leader. The botanists were able to
distinguish a great variation in vegetation as the slope of the hills was
ascended, and members were interested in the relationships of surface relief
and the underlying rock. By permission of the owner, the late Squire
Blathwayt, members walked through Dyrham Park and visited the church
where the Rev. F. L. Blathwayt met the party.

At the concluding meeting in October, Dr. F. S. Wallis led the members
to Swainswick and Woolley. In addition to dealing with the particular
features shown in this district, the opportunity was taken to sum up the whole
of the observations collected during the season. Canon H. C. England
conducted members over the church at Swainswick and fully explained
the architectural features.

In accordance with recent custom, the President and Secretary of your
Section (Mr. H. F. Barke and Miss M. D. Hiley) were responsible for the
arrangements in June of the Annual Field Meeting of the Society in the neigh-
bourhood of Cherhill and Avebury. The meeting was particularly interesting
in that members were able to compare and contrast the flora, fauna and rocks
of the Chalk Downs with those of the Bristol district. At Cherhill the ascent
was made to the White Horse and the following plants were noted on the
Downs: Bee Orchis, Butterfly Orchis, Burnt-stick Orchis, Lesser Burnet,
Common Milkwort and several species of Carex. A bore-hole for water in
course of construction was interesting to the geologists. After tea the Saxon

146 REPORT OF FIELD SECTION

Church at Avebury was visited, and the Vicar, Rev. V. Mason-Pooley, M.A.,
pointed out the details of special interest. Members afterwards walked round
the Great Circle and inspected the Avenue. A halt was made at Silbury
Hill during the return journey.

The thanks of your Section are due, not only to the efficient leaders
enumerated above, but to the numerous co-leaders who so ably assisted them.

Mr. H. Vicars Webb again kindly conducted the special ornithological
meetings, and reports as follows :—

April 22nd. Wickham and Stapleton Glens. The only migrants were
Swallows, House and Sand Martins over the Duchess Pond, Moorhen on
nest near the margin. Resident birds in good view. Garden and rockery
at the old mill bright with Spring flowers.

May 2nd. Frenchay District. Chiff-chaff and Willow Warblers in song ;
Cuckoo heard ; brief sight of a Kingfisher. At the Duchess Pond two broods
of Water Hens successfully reared. Two Yellow Wagtails (migrants) near
the water.

May 23rd. Blagdon Lake. Abandoned, wet. “

May 27th. WHanham Woods. A favourable evening for hearing three or
four Nightingales answering each other. One clearly seen on an oak branch.
Blackcaps and Willow Warblers in good voice. Cuckoo seen on the wing.

June 10th. Keynsham District. Birds heard and seen: Chiff-chaff,
Blackcap, Whitethroat, Pied Wagtail, Cuckoo, Wing Doves, Swallows,
House Martins and Swifts. Also a pair of Spotted Fly Catchers taking insects
over the river Chew.

Mr. Ivor Evans kindly conducted the special botanical meetings, and
reports as follows :—

May 25th. Flax Bourton and Wurple Pool. Visited Flax Bourton
Combe and Wurple Pool. Plants observed: Lady’s Mantle, Leopard’s
Bane, Pencilled Geranium, Columbine, Tway Blade, Adder’s Tongue, Fern
(G. Winged O.), Spring Potentilla, Field Scorpion Grass, Wood Sanicle, Dog
Bean, Squinancy Wort. Trees: Oak, Elm, Ash, Maple, Spindle, Guelder
Rose, Wayfaring Tree. Grasses and Carex in variety.

June 24th. Charfield and Nibley Monument. Footpath across the fields
from Charfield to the Monument was full of plants of interest, the following
being recorded: Prickly Poppy, Water Veronica, Ragwort, Evergreen
Alkanet, Marsh, Tway, Frog and Bee Orchis, Dog Wood, Spindle, Elder,
Yellow Chestnut, and grasses and rushes in variety.

August 22nd. North Woods and Winterbourne. Leaving Filton cars
the party proceeded to Winterbourne; the following plants were noted
on the return journey: Hemp Nettle, Field Pansy, Celery Leaved Crowfoot,
Honeysuckle, Vetches in several varieties, and the commoner cornfield plants,
including Field Mint, Scabious, Betony, Harebell, Hemp Agrimony, etc.
Trees and shrubs were noted.

M. DORIS HILEY, Hon. Secretary.

147

REPORT OF GEOLOGICAL SECTION

1936

in all our meetings has been well sustained, and the few lapses in member-
ship have been more than made good by an ingress of newcomers.

At the Annual General Meeting of the Section in January, all the old
officers were re-elected en bloc, a recognition of their efficiency. It was decided
to continue to subscribe to the Paleontological Society and to the Geological
Magazine. At the second meeting on the same evening, Mr. J. W. Tutcher
read a paper on ‘‘ The Mouth Borders of Ammonites,’’ and Mr. G. A. Kellaway
read a paper on “‘ The Rivers of the Cotswolds.”

In February, Mr. Arthur W. G. Kingsbury lectured on ‘‘ Some Mendip
Minerals,’’ and showed some remarkable and rare specimens which he has
collected in the Priddy district.

In March, the special lecturer was Dr. Emily Dix. She lectured on
“Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures.’’ Respectful reference. was made
at this meeting to the recent death of Professor C. Lloyd Morgan.

The next three meetings were Summer Excursions. In April, Dr. Stanley
Smith conducted a party to Beachley and Chepstow; the weather was
somewhat unsettled, but the excursion was enjoyed. The Gorge at Chepstow
is considered to be the finest British example of an incised river gorge.

At Midsummer we made an early-evening trip to the Kingswood Anticline
in the Coal Measures, under the joint leadership of Mr. L. R. Moore and
Prof. A. E. Trueman. “‘ Thrusting’’ on a large scale is much in evidence
there.

The last of the Summer Field Meetings was in September, at Higher
Pitts Farm, Priddy-on-Mendip, under the guidance of Mr. Kingsbury who
lectured to usin February. This very interesting visit to a charming district
concluded with a descent of the Ebbor Gorge to Wookey ; there was a good
attendance at this meeting.

Our Winter session opened with a meeting in October, when Professor
S. H. Reynolds gave us a lantern lecture on ‘‘A Geological Trip to Northern
Scotland.’’ The lecturer gave an interesting account of a visit to Caithness
and the Orkney and Shetland Islands which he made the previous Summer
on an excursion of the Geologists’ Association of London.

The last meeting of the season was held in November, when Dr. Stanley
Smith lectured on ‘‘ Geological Rambling in Rhineland and in Bohemia.”
The lecture dealt with a scientific holiday that Dr. Smith had taken in the
Summer to Czecho-Slovakia via the Rhineland.

In conclusion, it is pleasant to report also that Professor Trueman’s
Saturday morning special Geology Class at the University resumed in Septem-
ber, and is well attended ; and also that Dr. F. S. Wallis started a ‘‘Workers’
Educational Association ’’ Evening Course of lectures in elementary Geology
at the University Buildings this Autumn, and has a satisfactory attendance.
Geology, as an essential basic subject in any complete school curriculum,
is sadly neglected in our national scheme of Education ; and these courses
of systematic adult instruction are important steps in the right direction.
Several of our members have joined the classes and find them of much use
in their studies.

a: year just closed has been a satisfactory one. The general interest

HY. CUTHBERT SHILSTONE, Hon. Secretary.

148

REPORT OF ORNITHOLOGICAL ‘SECTION

1936

IGHT meetings have been held during the year at which the average
| Basie has been over 22, and a variety of useful papers have been

read. These have not been confined to the British Isles, for Mr. L. H.
Matthews gave at the Open Meeting in November an account of “ Birds of
the South Atlantic,” dealing principally with South Georgia from his own
observations made there during the ‘“ Discovery’”’ expedition. Mr. A. M.
Champion, C.M.G., at a special meeting held at Clifton College, described
““ Administration and Ornithology in the Lake Rudolf District,’’ and Mr.
B. W. Tucker, on another occasion, dealt with ‘‘ Birds of Southern Spain.”

Coming nearer home, members have heard three papers on Scottish birds.
In January, Dr. O. H. Wild described ‘‘ Some Hebridean Birds ”’ ; in October,
Mr. G. K. Yeates, ‘‘ Bird-life in Northern Britain’’; and in December,
Mr. D. Macdonald, ‘‘ Birds of Jura and Ailsa Craig.’”’ Mr. W. R. Taylor,
at the September meeting, gave a talk on ‘‘ Birds of Flamborough Head,”’
the noted sea-bird resort on the Yorkshire coast, and Mr. C. J. F. Coombs,
in March, described ‘‘ Breeding-habits of Rooks ”’ from observations made at
a rookery a few miles north of Bristol.

The Open Meeting held in November was very successful; 25 members
came and, in addition, 30 members of the Parent Society, not members of
the Section, were present. This was no doubt due to the special notices sent
out and to the fact that all members of the Parent Society were circularised.

Another visit to Steep Holm was paid by some of the members on May
2nd and useful observations were made. These will be incorporated in the
Annual Report of the Ornithological Section of the Somerset Archeological
and Natural History Society.

Fifteen new members have been elected during the year and, though one
or two have resigned, the total at the end of 1936 stood at 53, the highest
recorded for this Section. ‘This large number raises two problems, one being
accommodation, for if, as is the case, the numbers go on increasing, members’
houses of sufficient capacity for holding meetings will be very limited in number,
and some other arrangements may have to be made. The other problem
- is that, although in the past few years there has been such an influx of new
members, the list of members who contribute papers to the meetings or articles
to the Proceedings remains almost stationary. It is to be hoped that this may
be remedied, as much useful work, which does not require expert knowledge,
remains to be done.

Unfortunately, I find that, owing to pressure of other zoological work,
I am unable to continue the secretaryship of this Section. I would like,
therefore, to express my thanks to the members for their indulgence during
the past nine years, and to say that the office is being transferred to the very
capable hands of Mr. H. H. Davis, who is an excellent ornithologist in every
way.

H. TETLEY, Hon. Secretary.

149°

Account of the Annual and General Meetings

HE 73rp ANNUAL MEETING of the Society was held at the University
ime Bristol on 16 January, 1936, with the President, Mr.G. E. J. McMurtrie,

in the Chair. The President was re-elected for 1937, and Mr. F. W. Evens
became Junior Vice-President. Professor S. H. Reynolds and Professor
MacGregor Skene were appointed new members of Council, and the other
officers were re-elected with the addition of Mrs. A. G. Bell as Assistant and
Reporting Secretary. The annual reports were presented and adopted.
After certain minor amendments the Rules of the Society were accepted,
and it was recommended that they be printed and circulated to members.
Mr. McMurtrie in his presidential address compared past and present methods
of coal mining, and illustrated his remarks with lantern slides.

The 58lstT GENERAL MEETING took the form of the Ninth Annual Dinner
and was held at the Royal Hotel on 6 February, 1936, under the Presidency
of Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie. Professor E. Fawcett, F.R.S., the guest of the
evening, gave a lecture on “‘ The Bristol Giant.’’ The lecturer said that his
interest in Patrick Cotter O’Brien dated back to 1906 when changes were
being made at the Roman Catholic Chapel in Trenchard Street where the giant
was buried. From measurements of the skeleton, the giant’s height was
estimated at 7 ft. 104 ins.

The 582ND GENERAL MEETING was held at the University on 5 March, 1936,
when Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie was in the Chair, and several papers were read
in title. Miss F. E. Strudwick was unanimously elected to the post of
Honorary Librarian. Mr. H. St. George Gray, F.S.A., gave a lecture on
Archeological Excavations in Somerset, and at the outset paid tribute to the
early pioneers in this work. He reviewed the chief sites of interest in chrono-
logical order, including remarks on barrows at Stoney Littleton, Murtry
Hill, and Wick near Stogursey ; Glastonbury and Meare lake villages ; Kings-
down camp near Mells, and, finally, the excavations at Taunton Castle.
A wealth of lantern slides illustrated the lecture.

The 583RD GENERAL MEETING was held on 20 June, 1936, under the
auspices of the Field Section, at Cherhilland Avebury. The flora of the untilled
Chalk Downs of Cherhill was outlined by Professor Macgregor Skene. The
members were conducted over the Norman Church at Avebury by the Vicar
(Rev. V. Mason-Pooley, M.A.) and subsequently visited’ the Great Circle
and the Avenue. Silbury Hill, the largest man-made and yet most problema-
tical mound in Europe, was inspected.

The 584TH GENERAL MEETING was held in the University on 1 October,
1936, with the President, Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie, in the Chair. The following
members exhibited and gave short talks :—

BOTANICAL

The University—Bouvardia, propagation of colour forms.
Mrs. Sandwith—The Iris, from seed to flower.
Mr. L. Luckwill—Ecology of the Bilberry.

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150 ACCOUNT OF ANNUAL AND GENERAL MEETINGS

Mr. Ivor Evans—-Herbaria; Geraniums of the Bristol District.

Mrs. Bell—Grasses and American Hickory nuts.

Mr. H. Stuart Thompson—The difference between our Spring and
Autumn Crocus.

Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie—Eucalyptus leaves, showing why the forests
of Australia are shadeless.

ENTOMOLOGICAL
Mr. J. V. Pearman—Models illustrating the hatching and oviposition
of Psocids.
Mr. T. L. Green—Life history of the Locust with living specimens.

GEOLOGICAL
Mr. Stenhouse Ross—Ammonites from the Dundry district.
Mr. J. H. Savory—Collection of stalactites collected on Mendip now
in the Museum and Art Gallery.
Mr. H. C. Shilstone—Some common forms of calcite.
Prof. A. E. Trueman—Carboniferous arthropod, etc.
Mr. G. A. Kellaway—Pre-cambrian rocks of Charnwood Forest.

ORNITHOLOGICAL
Mr. L. H. Matthews—Photographs of Sea Elephants taken in South
Georgia and Lions in Tanganyika.
Mr. J. H. Savory—Photographs of Sea-birds.

The 585TH GENERAL MEETING was held in the Lecture Theatre of the
Museum and Art Gallery on 5 November, 1936. This was an Open Meeting,
with the President, Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie, in the Chair. There was a large
attendance, and Professor Macgregor Skene, by a running commentary,
enhanced the value of the films shown—The Thistle, Fungi, Mushrooms and
Cabbage.

The 586TH GENERAL MEETING was held at the University on 3 December,
1936. Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie was in the Chair, and nominations for Officers
and Council for 1937 were received. Professor S. H. Reynolds, M.A., Sc.D.,
then gave a lecture on Palestine. This consisted of an account of a visit to
that land during the early Spring of 1936, and included interesting remarks
concerning Easter functions and a visit to Transjordania, Petra and Akaba
at the northern end of the Red Sea.

M. DORIS HILEY, Hon. Secretary.

151

Report of Delegate to British Association
Meeting
1936

HE British Association meetings of 1936 were held in Blackpool from
September 9th to 16th.

The President of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding
Societies was Dr. A. B. Rendle, F.R.S., who spoke on September 11th on
“The Preservation of our Native Flora.” He asked how far it was desirable
to attempt to preserve a native flora, which itself results from changes of the
past and represents merely a stage in a continuous progress. He illustrated
these remarks by references to his experiences in St. Helena and the Bermudas,
and urged the desirability of preserving the floras in the interests of science.

Methods by which this could be brought about were then discussed, both
legislation and education being commented on. Bye-laws prohibiting the
uprooting of plants, adopted by many County Councils, have been criticised
by botanists and by herbalists.

Later, Sir Albert Kitson spoke on the Dumping of Rubbish in Places of
Natural Beauty. He referred particularly to the Dorset Coast, where Dr.
W. D. Lang reported that much refuse was being tipped over cliffs, which
besides being of great natural beauty were classic geological exposures.
The importance of collecting and disposing of rubbish in rural areas was
emphasized.

A. E. TRUEMAN.

152

OBITUARIES

URING the year 1936, the Society lost by death two of its
honorary members :—

DR. C. LLOYD MORGAN

Dr. Lloyd Morgan died at St. Leonard’s on March 6th, 1936, at
the age of 84. A biographical notice with a portrait was published in
the Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society in 1900,1 on the
occasion of his election to the Royal Society, and the matter contained
in this earlier notice will not be repeated here.

During the ten years following the publication of the notice, a very
large part of Dr. Lloyd Morgan’s time was spent over the arduous
negotiations which ended in the establishment of the University of |
Bristol in 1910. He became the first Vice-Chancellor, but on the under-
standing that it was merely an interim appointment, and after a few
months’ tenure he resigned, becoming Professor of Psychology
and Ethics, a post which he held till his retirement in 1919. At the
date of the publication of the earlier notice, he still held the Chair of
Zoology and Geology in addition to the Principalship of University
College, Bristol, and was still carrying on geological investigation.
This, however, gradually came to an end as he became more absorbed.
in his work on the mental processes of animals, a subject on which
he became the leading authority. His chief publications not alluded
to in the former notice were Animal Behaviour (1900), Instinct and
Experience (1912), Emergent Evolution (1923), Life, Mind and Spirit
(1926), and The Mind at the Crossway (1930). Emergent Evolution and
Infe, Mind and Spirit were based respectively on the first and second
course of Gifford lectures at the University of St. Andrews.

No account of Dr. Lloyd Morgan should fail to record the great part
he played locally in encouraging the study of Natural History and
Archeology by his lectures, intra- and extra-mural, and as a leader
of field excursions. Few men can have had a knowledge of so many
subjects, for, in addition to the subjects he taught at Bristol, he had also,
when in South Africa, taught Chemistry and English Literature. He
was, too, deeply interested in the drama and in music.

In his younger days a good athlete and mountaineer, he never,
while his health permitted it, neglected regular exercise. Though
he took up golf relatively late in life he learnt to play a good game.
But it was as a cyclist that he was best known, and to the end of his
stay at Clifton might be seen in all weathers taking his daily run of some

2 Vol. IX, Pt. 1 (1900 issued for 1898), p. 1.

DR. C. LLOYD MORGAN AND PROFESSOR W. J. SOLLAS 153

half a dozen miles. His annual mileage when well on in the sixties
amounted to several thousand. |

His former pupils and colleagues at the University of Bristol retain
a vivid recollection of his wise, kindly and humorous personality, and
the writer of the present notice, who came to Bristol as his assistant
in 1894, is deeply sensible of his good fortune in having been associated
with such a man.

SiR:

PROFESSOR W. J. SOLLAS

William Johnson Sollas was born in Birmingham on May 30th,
1849, so that, at the time of his death on October 20th last, he was
87 years of age.

For practically the last 40 years of this long life, Sollas lived and
worked in Oxford, but there was a period of five years when his work
was in Bristol, and he always continued to regard Bristol as a centre
of outstanding geological interest and importance ; the present writer
has heard him declare that Bristol was the place above all others in this
country for a Geological School.

It was from 1878 to 1883 that Sollas was occupied in Bristol. In
July, 1878, he was appointed Lecturer in Geology in University College,
Bristol, and Curator of the Bristol Museum; these were really his first
important posts. Less than two years later, in May, 1880, he became
Professor of Geology and Zoology at University College and continued
to hold the Curatorship of the Museum also until June, 1882, when he
resigned that appointment. Little more than a year later, in December,
1883, he also resigned the Professorship at University College on being
appointed to the Chair of Geology in the University of Dublin.

Numerous obituaries of Sollas have appeared in various journals,
e.g., The Times, Nature, Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association,
etc., dealing at some length with his eminence and fame as a scientist
as well as with his personality. A very brief record, however, of his
career after leaving Bristol must suffice for our pages. From Dublin
he went in 1897 to Oxford to succeed the late Professor Green in the
Chair of Geology ; he was elected a Fellow of University College, Oxford,
in 1901, a Fellowship now associated with the Chair, and he held both
the Chair and the Fellowship until his death. Sollas held degrees of
several Universities, and he was elected F.R.S. in 1889.

Although Sollas was primarily a geologist, it was perhaps the breadth
of his scientific interests to which his fame was largely due. Thus we
find treated among his many writings not only geological subjects

154 OBITUARIES

in the widest sense, but also zoological and anthropological subjects.
Moreover, his grasp of the physical sciences was always evident in
his approach to his studies.

It was to anthropology that he turned most in his later years, and he
was recognised as a leading authority on the subject, and in March,
1925, he lectured to the Bristol Naturalists’ Society at its 515th General
Meeting on “ Men and Apes.”’ He showed also much interest in the
Speleeological Society of the University of Bristol, and perhaps his most
famous publication was his Ancient Hunters.

During his early connection with Bristol, Sollas was President of
the Geological Section of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society from 1880-1883,
and he also contributed to these Proceedings. In New Series, Vol. II
(1877-79), appears an abstract of a paper “ On the Silurian district
of Rhymney and Pen-y-lan, Cardiff”; in N.S., Vol. III (1879-82),
we have his illustrated paper on “ The Structure and Life-history of
a Sponge,” and in N.S., Vol. IV (1882-85), we find his report (reprinted
—with additions—from the Journal of the Psychical Society), “ On
Wells sunk at Locking, Somerset, to Test the alleged Power of the
Divining Rod.” During this period also, Sollas contributed articles
concerning the Bristol district to other publications, e.g., on the
“ Geology of the Bristol District,” in the Proc. Geol. Assoc., Vol. VI,
and on “ The Severn and its Tributaries,’ in the Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., Vol. XX XIX.

It seems to the present writer that all who knew Sollas must have
been impressed not only by the power of his intellect and the extent
of his erudition, but also by his amazing vivacity and the perseverance
which he ever showed in the pursuit of knowledge, as witness his expedi-
tion to the Pacific to investigate the question of the origin of coral
atolls, or his journey to the Kalahari Desert to study the Bushmen,
or his adventures, late in life, in the caves of the Pyrenees, where a dive
into the cold waters did not come amiss to one who was, even in
advanced years, accustomed, until late in the year, to take his daily
plunge in the Cherwell at Oxford. In all these undertakings he was
assisted, of course, by his bodily vigour, for though short of stature,
with the leonine head that hinted at his strength of mind and character,
yet he was physically tough and wiry as became a geologist.

Sollas’ love for his subject was seen at the last in the provision
which he made in his Will for the eventual endowment of a Fellowship
at University College, Oxford, for the furtherance of the study of
geological science.

BH. Wo

155
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1936
By G. E. J. McMurrriz

(Read 21st January, 1937)

S you are aware, in my Presidential Address last year I made a
comparison of past and present methods of cutting, loading and

conveying coal. This year I propose to follow this coal further, and

describe its modern treatment after it has reached the surface.

Later I want to refer to the lighting of the underground roads
and faces, a matter of considerable importance, as better lighting
should mean fewer accidents, and in several experiments it has been
proved that nystagmus is largely reduced, possibly entirely prevented,
by better lighting, owing to the lessened strain on the eye.

PAST AND PRESENT SYSTEMS OF SCREENING AND
CLEANING COAL

As many of you have seen, coal is loaded underground into wooden
or steel tubs just as it is cut, large and small being shovelled up together,
hauled to the shaft and wound to land.

Formerly it was then taken to a tipping platform called a “ Tippler,”’
and tipped on to fixed screens of sloping steel bars, with 1 inch to 14 inch
spaces between them. The coal was shovelled down these, the large
or house coal passing forward over the bars into trucks on No. 2 road, and
the small coal] falling between the bars into trucks on No. 1 road. What
cleaning was done was done as they shovelled.

Possibly in those days the seams worked were cleaner, there was
less shovel filling underground, and certainly there was more time to
clean the coal both below and above ground. It was usual to pick
off the larger blocks of coal and load them separately as a special
quality of higher price. The obvious result of this system was that the
average householder promptly broke up these large lumps into more
handy pieces for the fire-grate, making as much small as he or she
could in the process. This produced a demand for ready broken coal
of cobble and nut sizes, and to-day in every district there is quite a
long list of varying descriptions and sizes.

Machine cutting and conveying, with its larger tonnage, and the
increased independence of labour, have undoubtedly produced dirtier
coal, and have to-day compelled most elaborate and expensive plants
for cleaning the coal.

156 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

The first step to produce coals of more varied size was the jigging
screen. This consisted of a heavy frame containing a number of what
may be described as riddles; the upper one might be a solid plate
with 6 inch diam. holes, or a very coarse riddle of strong woven wire,
with a second below it, dipping in the opposite direction, of a closer
mesh, to take out the cobbles, with a third again below this, dipping
in the same direction as the first and of a smaller mesh to take out the
nuts, allowing only the small below 14 inch or 1 inch to pass through.

These jiggers were suspended by four swinging hangers of iron or
wood, and were attached at one end by two rods to eccentrics on a
rapidly rotating shaft, which shook them to and fro, chucking the
coal forward down the dipping riddles, and at the same time dividing
the coal up into the required sizes. (See Fig. 1.)

“Banking level.
2 @ ’ TX IN
3 f -

WACGON FOR COAL

At a later date some jiggers were driven by similar means crossways
in place of end ways, the effect of which was to hold the coal longer
on the riddles to ensure a more complete separation of the sizes. In
my experience the endway jiggers are quite sufficient, and the obvious
result of holding coal longer on the riddles, i.e., shaking it more, is
disastrous to a tender coal.

No cleaning is done on these jiggers, but the coal from each riddle
is led on to a travelling belt, which takes it to its truck. These belts
travel slowly, and the coal should be deposited upon them in a thin
layer so as to enable the men and boys stationed on either side to
pick out any stone loaded with the coal. The snouts, or ends, of these
belts are mechanically lowered or raised to reduce the drop into the
truck with its consequent breakage.

The small coal that passes through the lowest riddle cannot be

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1936 167

cleaned under this system and is sold as actually filled underground,
for it is practically impossible to clean coal below 14 inch or 1 inch
by manual labour.

The modern demand is for clean small coal and for its division into
a number of thoroughly screened and cleaned sizes, such as small
nuts, beans, peas and dust, etc. To ensure this, the machinery has to
be automatic, reliable, and, as far as possible, free from the human
element.

Naturally, the earliest attempt was wet cleaning of the small coal
by the trough system. This consisted of a dipping double trough,
each having a series of stops in it, and with a door at the lower end
to discharge the dirt washed out. The one side is filled with the coal
to be washed, which is delivered and carried forward by the stream of
water. When the trough is full, the water carrying the coal is diverted
to the other trough, and a supply of clean water is turned into the upper
end of the first trough, and the mixture agitated with rakes by manual
labour. As a result, the coal floats off and the dirt settles at the stops.
Later, these are raised and the water sweeps forward the dirt which
drops through the opened door at the lower end. If proper care was
exercised this gave a very clean coal at a somewhat high labour cost.
(See Fig. 2.)

To reduce this labour cost the Robinson washer was introduced,
consisting of an inverted cone in which a central vertical shaft revolves
with four horizontal arms attached crossing at right angles. To these
arms in turn a series of vertical strips are attached. Water is intro-
duced at bottom under pressure, through a series of perforations
round the cone, and the coal itself at the top. The revolving arms
keep the coal in suspension, and the water is regulated so as to float
off the pure coal and allow stone and intermediate pieces of coal with
adhering dirt, or inferior coal below a certain specific gravity, to drop
to the bottom, whence it is discharged from time to time by opening
valves. The process is very simple, and the capital and labour costs

158 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

small, but it is dependent for its efficiency on the regulation of the
water, and it appears to me that a considerable loss of coal might follow
a slight drop in pressure. (See Fig. 3.)

The next step, in the Coppée or Lihrig,
was the adoption of a double compartment
washer, in one compartment of which a
piston is made to rise and fall, forcing
water through a perforated strainer in the
other. The coal is introduced above the
strainer, and when the piston falls in the
one compartment it forces water through
the strainer in the other, lifting the bed
and continuously floating off a little coal,
while, on the return stroke, the rubbish
falls quicker than the lighter coal and
forms a layer which also is gradually
discharged by an endless worm.

In these washers the small coal is separated before washing into
at least nuts, above say 3, and fines from this to dust. The fines
machines are really double or treble washers with two or three pistons
and two or three compartments, and have a 2 inch or 3 inch layer of
felspar above the strainer. The nut washers are single piston compart-
ments. To prevent coal passing through the strainer, the nuts are
kept of larger size than the holes, while the felspar is larger than the
fines. The fines enter one end of the three boxes and pass through
all three, discharging at the far end. The specific gravity of the
felspar is greater than that of the fines and less than that of the rubbish,
and so forms a clear cut line of division. Any number of qualities can
be thus made, but each quality must be separately washed. The
capital and wear and tear costs of this method are heavy, but the labour
cost is very small. (See Figs. 4 and 5.)

Fic. 3

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1936 159

A further system, and one largely used to-day, is that of the Baum
machine, in which air at a pressure of about 2 lbs. takes the place of
the ascending and descending piston. Again we have a two-compart-
ment box; the coal is generally brought to the larger by the water-
feed ; in the other is a small piston valve which alternately admits
or draws out air. This keeps the water in a state of agitation, lifting
and dropping the coal to be washed ; the coal floats off, and the lower
portion of the shale on the sieve is removed by lifting doors which drop
it into an outer shell, whence it is carried off by an endless worm. (See
Fig. 6.)

In this case the separation is largely dependent on the number of
strokes, which may be 50 to 70 for the coarser sizes and 75 to 110 for the
finer.

The main claim for this machine is that, while the return strokes
of the piston machines do not help separation and tend to fix the bed
of material and thus prevent separation, the air keeps the material
in a fluid state the whole time, and in the case of the fines jigging
machine, the coal does not even rest on the sieve at all but is floating
through all the time.

At Coalpit Heath Colliery, now the last in the Bristol Coalfield,
there is a most compact little Baum washery with special features.

The coal is first tipped on to a double-decked jigger screen with
45 and 24 holes, making large, cobbles and small. The large is taken

160 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

to a breaker on a conveyor that stops at fixed intervals. At every
stop a series of pickpoints attached to a crossbar are lowered and pierce
any coal on the band. The picks then rise and simultaneously the
conveyor restarts. This broken coal is taken back to the jigger and
rescreened.

All that passes through the 24 holes is conveyed to a shaking screen
which takes out the dust up to 4. This dust is not washed. The
remaining 2} to + coal goes to the Baum washer of a pair of double
compartment boxes. The air receiver is very compactly placed over
the wash box, and a valve automatically regulates the depth of bed.

The coal after washing is dewatered on another jigging screen and
divided into nuts and small.

The washery water goes to a settling tank where the slurry is de-
posited and later carried away by scrapers for use at the boilers.

The most recent type of washer is the Chance, a machine that is
largely used in the U.S.A., and is being introduced into both the north
of England and 8. Wales. In this process the whole of the coal that
will pass through a shaking screen, with holes up to, say, 6 inches diam.,
is treated as one unit, that above 6 inches passing over the riddle and
being cleaned on a travelling band as usual. (See Figs. 7 and 8.)

All the undersize is conveyed to a double-decked jigger screen
which shakes through all the coal below 2 inch and passes it to a pair
of Sherwin vibrating screens which take out all the dust below 4 inch
which is not washed. These vibrating screens are electrically driven,
are made of phosphor bronze wire, and make 3,000 short strokes per
minute and are in a constant shiver.

The coal above the 4, inch is returned to the over 3 inch coal from the
shaker and together passed to the washing cone.

The cone is not unlike the Robinson washer, but the fea in

this case is sand to increase the specific gravity of the water, the density

being regulated by four valves which admit water at different levels.
By varying the valves, i.e., by opening or closing them, the specific
gravity is lowered or increased. The water keeps the sand in a fluid
state, but in addition there is a mechanical agitator attached to a
central revolving shaft to keep the sand and water mixed and to prevent
its banking up on the side of the cone.

The coal floats over the top with some sand, and the rubbish drops
through the sand to the bottom, where there is a chamber with top and
bottom slides, alternately opened and closed by air, to discharge it.
(See Plate 22.) The upper part of the cone contains practically pure
water, but to clear off any sand that may still adhere to the clean coal

we pao

PLATE 22,

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SERIES, Vou. VIII, Pr. II.

O91 “¢ a9vf oF

]

LUI] ADUVHOSI

q OL SHAIVA 40

INGNAONVALVY

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH Series, Vou. VIII, Pr. II. PLATE. 23.

HUMMER VIBRATING SCREEN

TypicaL PNEUMATIC CoAL CLEANING PLANT

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH Series, Vou. VIII, Pr. Il. PLATE 24, |

VEE TYPE SEPARATOR, SHOWING SEPARATION OF SHALE FROM COAL

MIDDLINGS
CLEAN COAL
ein Ne NG

BANKING
BARS —

“a
TAILING RIFFLE

SEPARATOR DECK

_ B.N.S., 47TH Series, Vou. VIII, Pr. I.

SEPARATOR FLOOR wITH MACHINES IN POSITION

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1936 161

that is floated off and carried by the water to a double-decked jigging
screen, which divides it into the various sizes, cobbles, nuts, fines, etc.,
that the market requires, water sprays are added on the screens.

ORECAST ECCLES eS NY:

3 oes ve epee onan a cat eaassnaee i
etn et nn Net eco ton em es ns enacoanttces

Fie. 8.—SrEctTion or CHANCE WASHER

Actually the first part of this screen almost entirely dewaters andi
desands the washed coal. The sand lost in circulation is collected im

another cone and pumped back to the main cone, and a second pump
deals with the water.
a:

162 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

Constant tests of the washed coals are made throughout the day in
a 1.5 specific gravity mixture of tetrachloride in benzine contained in a
tank. A perforated steel basket, with upper and lower decks that
open and close, is dipped in this, the coal floats and the dirt drops.
By closing the deck the two portions are kept separate and can be
weighed in turn on a spring balance attached. If the percentage of
ash aimed at is exceeded more sand is at once added.

This plant again requires a considerable capital expenditure, but the
labour cost is small—at one large plant twenty-four men were reduced
to nine on replacing cleaning bands by this plant—and probably the
maintenance also.

The principal difficulty of all washeries is the “ slurry,” i.e., the fine
dust that floats off with the water, and at some collieries forms as
much as 10 per cent. of the landings. It is difficult to collect, settle
and dry. It has generally to be run to settling beds, mechanically
recovered from here and added to the washed small. Even then it is
very difficult absolutely to free the water of it, and it may cause a
material loss of tonnage.

The newest method is by flocculation. Lime is first added to the
water to make it alkaline, and then starch. The thickened water is
then filtered, and the cakes formed are used at the colliery boilers.

To-day it is largely unwashed, as in the Chance machine, and used
for firing the colliery boilers until there is a ready market found for
it. For, what is known as pulverised fuel, which it actually is, is gradu-
ally being applied to boilers, to copper smelting, heavy and light
forge furnaces, etc.

The difficulty o! dealing with “slurry”? has produced a process
of dry cleaning ‘ne fine coal by air, brought out by the Birtley Co.,
and largely adopted in the North of England. It deals with coals
from 4 inches down to zero. The coal is first passed over ordinary
jigging screens which divide it into over and under 1 inch. That
over 1 inch is taken to two-compartment wash boxes fitted with
Birtley type plungers. A valve regulates the feed of water to the box,
the coal floats off, and the rubbish drops down and is automatically
discharged by another valve driven from the main washer shaft. The
opening and closing of this valve is ingeniously controlled by a float
resting on the rubbish, which rises and opens further the valve if the
bed thickens and vice versa. The idea, of course, is to maintain a
constant depth of bed automatically and not by the judgment of the
man in charge. This should prevent loss of coal which happens with
a thin bed. The 4 inch to | inch coal is afterwards dewatered and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1936 163

taken to further jigging screens to be divided into cobbles, large and
small nuts, etc. That under 1 inch is conveyed to high-speed vibrating
Hummer screens and divided into 1 inch to } inch and } inch to 0.
(See Plate 23.) The larger size is taken to pneumatic separators,
where a thin stream of coal is fed into a series of louvres, and air
pumped through. (See Plate 24.) The smaller size (4 to 0) is conveyed
to the dedusting plant of a pair of Birtley Aspirators which suck out
all dust up to # inch. This dedusted coal is again divided into 4 inch
to $ inch and 4 inch to # inch by high-speed vibrating screens, and
each size cleaned by pneumatic separators. Each Separator and
Aspirator has its own fan, and dusthoods cover the separators, and
trunking takes the dust-laden air to the dust collector,

The dust collectors are of the combined cyclone and bag filter type ;
the heavier dust is deposited in the cyclone, the lighter is collected
in the bags. These bags are periodically cleaned by opening valves
to the atmosphere when the bags collapse and the dust falls to the
cyclone and the filtered air is discharged to the atmosphere. (See
Fig. 9.)

FaBRiC FLLTER BaGs

Fine OUST COLLECTED HERE \

HOISTING GEAR ‘
BAG HOISTING GEAR

CUEAN AR
To ATMOSPHERE

Coars
PRECIPITATED HERE

AUTOMATIC DISGHARGE VALVE

Fic. 9.—D1AGRAM OF Dust FIurer
The ¥% inch to 0 dust collected by the Aspirators is taken to an

Elmore vacuum flotation plant and divided into clean coal and tailings
or refuse. Both clean coal and tailings are water-conveyed to Birtley

164 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

Henry clarification and filtration plants, where the solids are deposited
by flocculation and the clean water overflows and is recirculated.
The solids are picked up, filtered and made into cakes, and the water
drawn off by air suction.

The $ inch to 0 smalls got from this flotation concentrate and “ slurry”
are next taken to a rotary drier with 84 ft. diam. drum 32 ft. long, fired
by dust from the filters. The now dry and cleaned coal, 1 inch to 0,
can finally be mixed and screened into whatever sizes the market
requires or can be sold as already prepared. Even the exhaust gases
from the drier are passed through a dust collector.

The description of this very complete process may sound very
complicated, .but it deals fully with cleaning and drying everything
from 1 inch to 0, recovering all “slurry” and discharging clean air
and pure water. In many cases, of course, the complete process may not
be adopted or required.

To summarise the process: after a preliminary screening, all coal
of 1 inch and below is divided by high-speed vibrating screens into
1 inch to 4 inch and 3 inch to 0 sizes. The 1 inch to 4 inch goes to a
pneumatic separator. The 4 inch to O goes to a dedusting plant
of Aspirators, where all dust up to % inch is drawn off, collected,
filtered and clean air discharged.

This dedusted coal is again divided into 4 inch to } inch and } inch
to * inch by high-speed vibrating screens and cleaned by pneumatic
| separators. The #% inch to 0 dust is dealt with wet by a flotation
plant and divided into clean coal and tailings. Both are then clarified
and filtered by a flocculation plant with the addition of lime and caustic
soda. |

The various smalls, 4 inch to 0, are then dried and can be finally sold
as 1 inch to 4 inch and 3 inch to 0, or rescreened into any sizes required.
(Plate 23 shows the elevation of a typical plant.)

The labour cost of such a plant is small but the capital and upkeep
costs must be high, and only a large tonnage can warrant the complete
plant.

Actually, for boiler firing, small coal containing 8 to 10 per cent. of
ash is most suitable, but gas and electric light works demand cleaner
coal, and some manufacturers find a coal containing only 3 to4 per cent.
of ash essential; which is the only justification for such elaboration.

The pity, from a colliery point of view, is that very seldom can the
necessary increased price be obtained.

However, from the above it will be seen that both colliery owner
and mechanical engineer have done and are doing their utmost to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1936 165

produce clean coals, suitable for the varying needs of their customers,
at large capital expenditures and with more than possible losses to
the colliery owner.

PAST AND PRESENT METHODS OF UNDERGROUND
LIGHTING

The earliest form of lighting was the ordinary tallow candle, carried
by both officials and colliers, either in a metal candlestick or lump of
clay. No doubt, at first, this was the rush dipped at home in tallow
or some fat. Candle cotton replaced the rush, and as late as 1905 I
kept a candle maker regularly at work.

The oil lamp was then introduced, and found to give a better light,
to be cheaper, and to stand a higher air velocity.

Oil, in turn, was replaced by wax, made from the Scotch coal shales,
which gave a clearer light, largely owing to the smoke given off by the
adulteration of oil with paraffin.

For some years now acetylene has been universally used and gives a
most excellent light of at least 10 c.p.

The above is a summarised history of lighting in collieries free from
gas.

In gassy collieries the candle, too, was the earliest form of lighting,
but the frequent gas explosions brought about attempts to isolate the
light.

The first of these to take practical form was Sir Humphrey Davy’s
lamp which confined the flame within a cylinder of iron gauze with
784 apertures to the square inch. It was made safer later by a short
second cylinder of gauze at the top, and a short metal shield around
two-thirds of the flame at bottom, to prevent the flame being driven
through. This lamp, of course, gave a very poor ee compared with
the naked candle.

This lamp was succeeded by Dr. Clanny’s, which consisted of a short
cylinder of glass surrounding the flame, with a gauze cylinder above,
and later a metal shield or bonnet. As the air entered at the top of
the glass cylinder, and got mixed with the products of combustion,
this lamp again gave a very poor light, in spite of the replacement
of part of the gauze cylinder by glass.

Sir Robert Stephenson’s lamp consisted of an entire glass cylinder
inside the gauze cylinder, but the air entered below the glass and
thus gave a better light.

166 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

A much safer lamp was the Mueseler, which continued the short
lower glass of the Clanny with a wire gauze above and a central metal
chimney and external shield. The air descends between the metal
chimney and glass directly to the flame, and gives a much better
light.

With the exception of the Mueseler, all these lamps would pass the
flame through the gauze at velocities of 6 ft. per second, and the
Mueseler at 12 ft.

As a result of a Royal Coal Commission we have the modern oil
safety lamp.

The Marsaut is typical of these and has the usual glass cylinder
at bottom, with two gauzes above, and a sheet-iron shield or bonnet
around them, and will stand the present high velocities of underground
air currents.

This lamp is in general use with colza oil or benzine spirit, with slight
modifications possibly.

For gas testing purposes and official use a very useful lamp is the
Hepplewhite Gray. This has three tubes of the height of the lamp,
with a short conical glass cylinder at bottom, and gauze cylinder above
with bonnet or metal shield around this, and cover at top to protect
the three tubes. Fire damp or carburetted hydrogen gas is lighter
than air, and floats against the roof, and this lamp draws its air from
the top of the lamp down the three tubes, in place of, as usual, above
the short glass cylinder. The air right against the roof can therefore
be tested, and a very small percentage of gas is shown by the lengthening
of the flame. At other times shutters can be lifted at the bottom of
the tubes and the normal air burnt.

All these lamps, while safe and essential for testing for gas before
and during the working shifts, give a relatively poor light, at the best.
- that of a candle. Moreover, an oil lamp, if accidentally turned over,
and often if only tilted, is put out by the products of combustion,
and can only be relighted at some distant station or at land.

Electric handlamps are undoubtedly the lamps of the future and are
very largely used to-day. Their great fault at present is their excessive
weight, the electricity being produced from a contained lead-acid
or alkaline battery. Two-volt lamps were originally used, but 4-volt
are now replacing them. The weight of such a lamp is 9 to 10 lbs.

As regards light, the oil lamp makes a very poor showing. A lamp
is generally hung 4 ft. 6 ins. from where the man is working, and com-
parative tests made with a photometer towards the end of a collier’s
shift gave :—

Bite eh

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1936 167

Ordinary Marsaut using oil or spirit .. sina) CoD
Lead acid 2 volt lamp... =t , teu Oo Cep-
‘ kee: ate Sean bes be st, ame OC ap:
Alkaline 4.c¢.p. _,, ue ds he oe al Cas
is Giexp: 2 5; ae a © Pape OCD:

In Scotland, more especially, a small and much lighter electric lamp
is worn in the cap, the electricity being produced by a small lead acid
battery strapped to the back or side. Unquestionably this is the best
portable system, as the light is thrown directly on to the place where
the man is working.

Similarly tested, these lamps showed :—

2 volt cap lamp, 2 ft. 6 in. from face .. siz, AGL De
Ee Pi igg x eee 6 .. 2-45 c.p.

The Edison electric safety cap lamp has a nickel iron alkaline battery
of two cells, rubber jacketed for protection and insulation, weighs
63 oz. and gives a Maximum of 26 c.p. 1 ft. from the photometer.
A 3-cell battery weighing 87 oz., yielding 55 c.p. 1 ft. from the photo-
meter, is also made. The headpiece is made of bakelite, a light weight
insulating material, and has a 2 filament gas-filled bulb, the larger of
which would be used for work, and when this failed, the smaller would
ensure a light.

The use of electricity for power underground has brought about
the general lighting of pit bottoms and main and secondary haulage
roads by small incandescent lamps with generally metallic filaments, -
yielding 25 c.p., the voltage being 110. They give, of course, an ex-
cellent light, especially if the walls are white-washed and the lamps
placed 50 yards apart.

In some collieries in this country, and more extensively in Germany,
coal faces are also lit by electricity, particularly where machine coal
cutting and conveying are adopted. Many English colliery managers,
however, will not risk carrying electric lighting beyond the main
intake air current, for fear of short circuiting in a possibly gassy
atmosphere.

In the case of a coal cutter face with conveyors, a flexible trailing
cable is taken along the road in which the coal is loaded and conveyed,
and up and down the faces to the right and left of thisroad. The current
is transformed in the haulage road to 110 volts, and 60 watt gas-filled
lamps attached every 10 yards.

168 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

In some cases, to ensure safety, each lamp contains a small cut-out
which, if the glass bulb is broken, interrupts the current.

On the Continent sometimes an ordinary sparklet, such as is used
in the making of soda water in syphons, is introduced into the fitting,
and the well glass surrounding the lamp is filled with CO, gas which,
on the lamp breaking, puts out the light.

Frequently all current-carrying parts are surrounded with compressed
air, the cable itself being carried in a compressed air pipe, which keeps
any gas from the lamps and fittings.

Opaque or preferably prismatic glasses should always be used to
prevent glare from the light, though this reduces the light considerably.

From the above it will be clear to you that much thought has been
given for many years to the improvement of the portable oil safety
lamp, as regards both safety and light, and of late years to the portable
electric safety lamp, and that the permanent lighting of pit bottoms
and the various roads leading to the coal face may be regarded as
satisfactory.

The lighting of the coal face, where most of the danger is, is, however,
in a very unsatisfactory state. What is required, viz., the introduction
of electric light, is recognized, but the difficulty is to instal it with
absolute safety in what at times may be an unsafe atmosphere, and in
coal faces that, in the case of machine mining, are daily moving forward.

The writer is indebted to Messrs. Chas. Griffin & Co., publishers of
Mr. H. W. Hughes’ Textbook on Coal Mining, for the loan of Figs.
1 to 6; to Messrs. Fraser & Chalmer of Erith, Kent, the producers
of the Chance Washer, for Figs. 7 and 8 and Plate 22; and to the
Birtley Co., Durham, producers of the pneumatic process of cleaning
fine coal, for Fig. 9 and Plates 23 to 25. He has also to thank Messrs.
Thomas & Williams, safety lamp manufacturers of Aberdare, for the
loan of lamps that illustrated the notes on underground lighting
when read.

OVERSIZE FROM VIBRATING SCREEN

RETURNED TO FEED TO CONE

CLEAN COAL DESANDING, DEWATERING & SIZING SCREEN

§
z
3
Z
3

CLEAR WATER RESERVOIR

CIRCULATING WATER PUMP

MAIN SAND PUMP

a “ | A
| J
Te ea 4
an
ae Cae
Ta BY Fa
F F

ee
co

BRtcrion,& re
preity 4S

So, ELECTRIC VIBRATING SCREEN
EXTRACTING FINES

~~
SS, ~ a

COAL CLEANING CONE

SAND RETURN TO CONE

pase 4

it G < Nj
rf CE) FZ pm: orernren neruse Gates \fo2 Tasoos
S Fil xe REFUSE CHAMBER eurat our Tp 5)
H 3 0
=

AGE .

y HINGED LOADING CHUTE
= Za FOR WASHED SUALLS

REFUSE DESANDING &
DEWATERING SCREEN

REFUSE SAND PUMP

REFUSE SAND & WATER SUMP

PICTORIAL LAYOUT
ie
THE CHANCE SAND FLOTATION PROCESS FOR COAL WASHING
Veer
FRASER*CHALMERS ENGINEERING WORKS.

See ceecte eae se)

ERITH — KENT
Fie. 7.

Di hat

A oan!
Stl

169

Caves, Natural and Artificial
By 8S. H. Reywo.ps, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S.
(Read in title, 4th March, 1937)

HERE are two chief groups of natural caves—sea-caves, formed
by the battering action of the waves, and inland caves, formed
by the dissolving action of rain water. A third class of caves, produced
in some cases when, at the edge of a lava flow, the still liquid lava runs
out from beneath a roof formed by the consolidation of the surface
layers, is comparatively rare and unimportant, though there are many
caves in the lavas of Iceland. Shelters, formed when a softer band
of rock overlain by a harder band is worn away by wind or water
action, leaving a verandah-like projection, are not uncommon.
Sea-caves may be worn in any hard rocks, inland caves as a rule only
in limestones and related rocks.

SErA-CAVES.

These are formed in fairly hard and compact rocks along lines of
weakness, most commonly along joints, frequently along fault-lines,
and sometimes, where sedimentary rocks are highly inclined, along
bedding planes. Dykes also, when intruded into rocks more resistant
than themselves, are frequently worn into inlets and caves.

The Old Red Sandstone rocks of the Orkneys and Caithness illustrate
the formation of sea-caves in a remarkable manner. The sea working
along a powerful divisional plane may erode a narrow inlet (goe or voe),
which, starting as a cave, becomes progressively unroofed, producing
a gully, the inner end of which may form a cave, or, after passing
underground for a certain distance, may finally open to the surface
by a blow-hole.

Columnar basalt presents a series of well-marked divisional planes
to the erosive action of the sea and, particularly where the columnar
rock is roofed over by non-columnar, sea-caves may arise. A classical
example is afforded by Fingal’s Cave, Staffa.

The formation of sea-caves may be well seen on almost any rocky
coast. (Pl. 26, a, 6.)

INLAND CAVES.

Inland caves are far more important than sea-caves owing to their
number, beauty and great scientific interest dependent on the fact

. 170 S. H. REYNOLDS

that they so frequently contain the remains of their former inhabitants,
human and non-human.

They are formed by the dissolving action of rain water containing
CO, in solution. The surface drainage in limestone -countries is
interrupted by openings—sink-holes or swallets—into which the water.
passes, and in course of time produces a system of passages and
chambers, often of great length and complexity. Eventually, new
channels are opened out at a lower level and the earlier ones may be
left dry, as is well seen at Cheddar.

The most numerous and important limestone caves in the British
Islands are those in the Carboniferous Limestone, and include those
of the Bristol District and the Mendips, of North and South Wales,
of Derbyshire and West Yorkshire and of Ireland. The caves of Torquay,
Brixton, Plymouth and elsewhere in South Devon are in Devonian
Limestone, while those of Creswell Crags in Derbyshire are in Magnesian
Limestone. The once famous Kirkdale Cave in East Yorkshire was
in Upper Jurassic Limestone (Corallian), but has long since been
destroyed by quarrying. It yielded the remains of over 300 hyaenas.

In Scotland there are caves in the Cambrian Limestone of the North
West Highlands.

Of the numerous caves in the Carboniferous Limestone of Ireland,
those of Shandon near Dungarvon, of Ballynamintra, co. Waterford
and of Kesh, co. Sligo are among those of which the contents have
been most fully studied, while the caves of Mitchelstown (12 miles)
and Sheve Elva, both in co. Clare, are probably the most extensive
in the British Isles. Explorers have traversed the latter cave for two
miles from the entrance, and it continues still further. Other extensive
Irish caves are those of Banteer, co. Cork, Dunmore, co. Kilkenny,
Knockmore and Florencecourt, co. Fermanagh, and Aille, Westport,
co. Mayo.

In the face of the precipitous or highly sloping limestone clifis of
Gower in South Wales occurs a series of caves which combine some of
the characters of sea-caves and of inland caves. They apparently
originated like other limestone caves by solution but were enlarged
by marine action. Subsequently they were raised to their present
height of 20-40 feet above sea level. They include some of the most
important bone-caves of the British Isles.

The Bristol District is particularly rich in bone-caves and fissures
which contain deposits ranging in date from Middle Paleolithic

1 The above information regarding Irish caves was kindly supplied by Professor
J. Mitchell of Galway.

Proc. B.N.S., 4rH SEerizes, Vou. VIII, Pr. II. PLATE 26.

(a) SEA-CAVES WORN IN HORIZONTALLY-LYING CARBONIFEROUS SANDSTONE.
Coast N. oF BERWICK-ON-TWEED. (1931)

EA-CAVES WORN ALONG THE BEDDING PLANES OF HIGHLY INCLINED
FLAGSTONES AT SyBIL Heap, Co. KERRY. (1900)

[To face p. 170

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CAVES, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL Vit

(Mousterian) to Iron Age.! The great majority are in Carboniferous
Limestone, but a few, including Rowberrow and the superficial Wookey

_ caves, are in Dolomitic Conglomerate. Several of these were explored

in early days by the late Sir William Boyd Dawkins, while an immense
amount of work has been carried out during recent years by the
members of several Somerset societies for the study of caves and of the
University of Bristol Spelzeological Society. The Hyaena den at
Wookey, studied by Boyd Dawkins, has long been famous as one of
the first places in England yielding proof of the co-existence of Man
and the extinct Mammalia. Attention may be drawn to Mr. H. HE.
Balch’s splendidly illustrated volume, Wookey Hole, its Caves and Cave
Dwellers, published in 1914.

The following classification of some of the caves of the Bristol
district was supplied by Mr. E. K. Tratman :—

Tron Age - - - - - - - Wookey Cave.
Read’s Cave, Burrington.
Early Bronze - - - - - °- Rowberrow.
Magdalenian - - - - - - Aveline’s Hole, Burrington.
Gough’s Cave, Cheddar.
Solutrean- - - - - - - Uphill Cave.

Solutrean (probably) and Aurignacian Hyaena den, Wookey.
Karly Aurignacian to late Mousterian Walton Cave, near Clevedon.

The British caves as a whole, great though the archeological interest
of some of them is, yield in importance to those of Southern France
and Northern Spain, where the late Paleolithic races of men (Aurig-
nacian to Magdalenian) have left an astonishing series of wall-paintings
of animals, sometimes in monochrome, sometimes in polychrome. |
The animals most commonly shown in the paintings are the bison
and the horse, but many other contemporary animals, such as the
mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, the lion and the cave bear, are

represented in the work left by the late Paleolithic cave-dwellers.

In one of the caves of the South of France, bison modelled in the round
in clay were found.

The only cave paintings comparable in merit to these are those of
the modern Bushmen of South Africa, though cave paintings are also
known in Australia.

1 For a short summary of the results obtained, see L. S. Palmer in the Handbook
to the Geology of the Bristol District, prepared for the ea meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, p. 52.

172 S. H. REYNOLDS

Among European regions where extensive caves occur may be
mentioned :—

The Belgian Ardennes (Carboniferous Limestone)

Central France (Jurassic)
Westphalia (Devonian)
Bavaria and Franconia (Jurassic)
Istria (Cretaceous)
Moravia (Devonian)
Sicily (Cretaceous)
Malta (Miocene)
Gibraltar (Jurassic)

Some of the most extensive and remarkable caves in Kurope are
those of Postumia near Trieste.

Among extra-Huropean caves most famous for their size and beauty
are those of Oudtshoorn (Cretaceous) in the Cape Province, South
Africa, of Jenolan in New South Wales, and, in particular, of Kentucky,
U.S.A. The Mammoth Cave of Kentucky is probably the most ex-
tensive in the world.

There are great numbers of caves in the limestone districts of the
Eastern Mediterranean, several of the Greek caves such as those of
Parnassus playing an important part in Greek mythology.

In Palestine the abundance of caves contributed materially to the
difficulties in dealing with the recent disturbances. It isa remarkable
fact, in view of the subsequent religious importance of caves, that
there is nothing to show that in early times any caves in Palestine
were regarded as sacred or were used for worship, but all through
Jewish history they served merely as places of refuge. Thus we have
the caves where the Israelites took shelter from the Midianites in the
times of Gideon,! and the Philistines in the time of Saul,? David’s
Cave of Adullam® and Saul’s of Engedi,* the cave where Obadiah®
hid the prophets of the Lord in the time of Jezebel, and the caves of
the Gadarene demoniacs.* But when the Christian religion came to
be established in Palestine, it is scarcely incorrect, as Dean Stanley
remarks in his Sinai and Palestine, to say that it became a religion
of caves. Whenever a sacred tradition had to be fixed, a cave or
grotto was immediately selected or found as its home, even if there is
nothing in the biblical account of the event commemorated to show

1 Judges vi. 2. * Ist Sam. xiii. 6. > Ist Sam. xxii. 1.
‘ Ist Sam. xxiv. 3. 5 Ist Kings xviii. 4. 6 Matt. vill. 28.

CAVES, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 173

that it took place in a cave. First in antiquity is the grotto of
Bethlehem, already, in the second century, considered to be the scene
of the Nativity. Next comes the grotto on the Mount of Olives selected
as the scene of Christ’s last words to His disciples before His Ascension.
Then followed the cave of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, that of the
Annunciation at Nazareth, and that of the agony at Gethsemane,
and many others.

Caves wholly or partly artificial.

Of the innumerable caves large and small which have been formed by
solution in limestone regions a considerable proportion have been arti-
ficially enlarged. This is particularly the case in Palestine, where the
Tombs of the Kings at Jerusalem, the cave of Macpelah at Hebron,
which Abraham bought, and many of the caves at Beit Jabrin, between
Hebron and Gaza, have been enlarged for burial purposes. The latter
group forms the most remarkable series in Palestine and, in addition
to numerous smaller sepulchral caves, includes a large one, 100
feet across and 30 to 40 feet high. Some of these caves, in early
Christian times, were adapted for use as churches. The great Egyptian
tombs of Luxor were hollowed out in soft Eocene limestone, and are
entirely artificial, as Dr. W. F. Hume informs the writer.

Quarrying operations are sometimes carried on underground and may
result in extensive artificial caverns such as those of Tilly Whin near
Swanage (Portland Stone), of various places near Bath (Great Oolite)
and of Solomon’s quarries, Jerusalem. Extensive “ caves” have also
been made by quarrying operations in the Wenlock Limestone of the
Wren’s Nest at Dudley. Owing to the high dip, these pass steeply
underground and have a distinctly forbidding aspect. (Pl. 27 a).
The dene holes in the Chalk of the South and East of England, excavated
for the purpose of extracting flints, may be alluded to here. Limestone,
however, with the exception of chalk, is too hard a rock for cave-
making by artificial means to be carried out easily. Far more
satisfactory is sandstone if it be fairly hard, thickly-bedded and well-
jointed.

Petra, which lies some 50 miles to the south of the southern end
of the Dead Sea, is probably the most remarkable locality in the world
for sandstone caves. The rock—the Nubian sandstone—is generally
a thickly-bedded ferruginous stratum of doubtful—possibly Carboni-
ferous—age. ‘The caves, large and small, natural and artificial, which
are scattered in hundreds over the steep sides of the Petra ravines,
are, in the main, sepulchral in character (Pl. 28 a). The earliest are

174 S. H. REYNOLDS _

—_

believed to have been made by the Edomites, a Semitic people, who were
in possession of the country prior to the invasion of Palestine by the
Jews under Joshua. In the fourth century before Christ, the Nabateans,
another Semitic people, overcame the Edomites, made Petra their
capital, and excavated certain of the large cave temples as well as
innumerable tombs. The most remarkable of the temples at Petra
were, however, made by the Romans after Trajan, in a.p. 106, had
extinguished the Nabatean kingdom. (Pl. 28 6b.)

At various places in the Triassic area of the English Midlands,
examples of caves hollowed out in the massive red sandstone occur.
Professor A. HE. Trueman has contributed the following note regarding
those of Nottingham :—

“The Bunter Sandstone around Nottingham has long been
famous forits caves. The readiness with which it can be excavated
was probably a factor in the location of the early Saxon settlements.
The so-called Robin Hood’s caves in Nottingham are of some
antiquity, while in the older parts of the city, which are built
on Bunter Sandstone, are extensive cellars hewn out of the sand-
stone. The famous old inn, the ‘Trip to Jerusalem,’ which is
built up against the steep Bunter cliff, immediately under the
Castle, has rooms as well as cellars cut right into the rock.”

Cave dwellings are found at various places in the western territories
of the United States, including the Grand Canyon of the Colorado
river, Arizona. (Pl. 29 a.)?

The peculiar loess, an unstratified loam of eolian origin which
occurs in central Europe and covers vast areas of China, is so firm and
compact as to give rise through stream erosion to deep precipitous
gorges, in the sides of which elaborate cave dwellings have been
hollowed out by the Chinese.

Probably, however, the most remarkable artificial caves are those
in igneous rocks, particularly lavas and tufis. Of the lava caves, the
Indian examples of the Deccan at Ellora, Ajanta, Elephanta, Karli
and Nassik are the most important. The most famous series, that of
Ellora, some 30 in number, are all carved in the steep slopes of a
basaltic hill. They belong to three religions, Buddhism, Brahmanism
(Hinduism), and Jainism. The earliest and most numerous are
Buddhist (Pl. 29 6), some of them probably dating from the fifth
century, the latest and fewest are Jain. Most of the caves are one-

1 Pl. 29, a, is from a photograph by the late W. H. Banks, the remainder are
from photographs by the writer.

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH Series, Vou. VIII, Pr. II. PLATE 28.

(6) TEMPLE CUT IN NuBIAN SANDSTONE, Petra. (1936)

[To face p. 174

Bi
ae a
aa

¥
r
*
?

‘ae!

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SurRtEs, Vou. VIII, Pr. II. PLATE 29.

(6) BupDHIST CAVES CUT IN BASALTIC LAVA AT ELLoRA, WESTERN INDIA. (1897

CAVES, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 175

storied, but some may have two and others three stories. (Pl. 27 5.)
Sometimes there is a carved facade, sometimes a courtyard with
subsidiary features is excavated at the entrance. In one case, that
of the famous Kailas, the rock has been cut away externally as well as
internally, so that a complete temple has resulted standing in a pit.
It is believed to date from the second half of the eighth century.

Plutonic and gneissic rocks are too hard for the excavation of ex-
tensive caves but, at the Seven Pagodas near Madras, a series of small
cave temples with carved facade and reliefs have been cut in a coarse
_ graniticrock. They are Brahminical in character and may date from the
second half of the eighth century. In Ceylon the gneissic rocks are
unfavourable for cave production, and the Buddhist cave temples,
which are not very numerous or extensive, seem in the main to be partly
closed-in rock-shelters.

Compact tuffs afford excellent material for excavation, the most
famous examples being the Roman catacombs, but these can hardly
be termed caves.

Even more remarkable are the cave dwellings of Cappadocia, cut
in an immensely thick deposit of soft pumiceous tuff which has been
worn by subaerial erosion into an extraordinary series of conical peaks
varying in height from 50 to 300 feet. In these cones and in the
adjacent cliffs, dwellings of several stories and even churches and
monasteries have been hollowed out. Access to the upper stories is by
means of ladder holes, either external or cut in the walls of
vertical chimney-like passages. Some of the caves are natural ones
artificially enlarged, many thousands are purely artificial and are said
to be of all dates from about 2000 B.c. to the present time. Some of
the larger caves show architectural features of Classical, others of
Byzantine, character. Cave dwellings are alluded to by several
classical writers, including Herodotus and Xenophon.

176

Bristol Botany in 1936

By Cercit I. SanpwitH
(Read in title, 4th March, 1937)

HE notes for this year show satisfactory work. The Botanical

Section owes a debt of gratitude to Mr. Ivor Evans for his ‘“‘ labour
of love’? in undertaking voluntarily the arduous task of making a
complete copy of the notes made by the late Miss Ida M. Roper in her
interleaved volume of White’s Bristol Flora, which, by misfortune,
was lost to Bristol. It is hoped that these valuable notes will be typed
and kept in the Society’s Library.

Mr. N. Y. Sandwith, having first-hand knowledge of the history
of the new EHpilobium in this country, has kindly contributed a note,
and has also dealt with some of the complicated nomenclature of the
Willows referred to. It is interesting to note that the Willow-herb,
like the Oxford Ragwort, is travelling and has already reached our
Docks. It may be looked for anywhere, and is already hybridising
with other well-known species.

Hutchinsia petrea (L.) R. Br. Near Charterhouse-on-Mendip, S.,
W. S. Parry, see Proc. Som. Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc., |xxxi
(1935). A very interesting discovery, perhaps confirming the old
records (J. C. Collins in New Bot. Guide, 1837) from Cheddar
given in the Bristol Flora.

Astragalus glycyphyllos L. In a large lime quarry at Cromhall, G.,
Ivor Evans.

Lathyrus tuberosus L. Disused railway bank, Hallen, G., flowering
in Oct., 1936, Miss M. Bowen.

Agrimonia Eupatoria L. forma albiflora Caspary. About a score
of plants on a grassy roadside bank of a deep rhine, Oldbury Lane,
G., 1927-9, E. Nelmes. Not previously recorded outside EH.
Prussia. Albinos of yellow-flowered species are always uncommon,
but are well known in such genera as Ranunculus and Verbascum.
The above plant has been grown at Kew and breeds true to the

white colour, see Journ. Bot., Ixvii, 341 (1929). A similar plant, ~

labelled “‘ Agrimonia leucantha. Origin unknown,” has been cul-
tivated at Kew for some years.

Pyrus Pyraster Bor. A tree with orbicular or ovate-orbicular leaves,
rounded-truncate or slightly cordate at the base, and bearing

BRISTOL BOTANY IN 1936 177

a few spines, has been known since 1920 in a wild part of Leigh
Woods, 8., C. and N. Sandwith. The tree flowers but no fruit
has yet been seen, so that no varietal name can be assigned to it.
Sorbus bristolsensis Wilmott in Proc. Linnean Soc., Session 146, part u,
p. 76 (1934). Mr. A. J. Wilmott has shown that British Sorbus
latifolia (Lam.) Pers. cannot be identified with the true latcfolia
of Fontainebleau. He distinguishes the plants of the Wye Valley,
Avon Gorge, Minehead and Lynton as four distinct, uniform
“lineages” intermediate between S. Aria (or one of its allies)
and S. torminalis, from which they probably arose at some period,
and gives new specific names to the first three. Thus our Bristol
S. latifolia, which has sometimes been known as S. latifolia var.
decipiens, receives the new name of S. bristoliensis, and is the
first species of flowering plant to commemorate our city and to be
described as an endemic of our area. |
Crategus monogyna Jacq. var. stricta Loddiges. Nupdown, G.,
July, 1932, “looking like a hedgerow pear tree,” H. Nelmes.
Epilobium adenocaulon Hausskn. Avonmouth Docks, G., 1935, C.
Sandwith. Portishead Dock, S., 1936, new to v.c. 6, N. Y.
Sandwith and J. P. M. Brenan. New to the district. For a full
account, with description and plate, of the appearance of this
North American species in Britain and on the Continent, see G. M.
Ash and N. Y. Sandwith in Journ. Bot., July, 1935, pp. 177-184,
pl. 609. It occurs in abundance over wide areas in 8.H. England,
being found in woods and other perfectly natural localities, and
hybridising with several of our native species ; and was found many
years ago by Rev. H. J. Riddelsdell in Woodchester Park, W. Glos.
It may, therefore, be expected to spread in the neighbourhood of
Bristol, although up to the time of writing it has been found only
as a casual on our docks. Hybrids with #. montanum and
E. parviflorum, named by Mr. G. M. Ash, have been collected at
Avonmouth. £. adenocaulon is near EF. tetragonum and its allies,
the salient characters being the rosulate innovation leaves, the
spreading gland-tipped hairs on all the upper parts, the oblong-
lanceolate, petiolate, almost glabrous leaves, the peculiarly small
pale pink corolla, and the pellucid apical beak of the seed.
E. roseum is immediately distinguished by the colour of the flowers
and the much longer petiole of the leaf, as well as by the seed,
which has no apical beak.
(Enothera stricta Ledeb. This is the correct name for he Berrow and

Burnham sandhill Gnothera, which has been passing for many
D

178 CECIL I. SANDWITH

years (both in the Bristol district and in other British localities)
as O. odorata Jacq. The latter, according to a recent revision
by P. A. Munz, has more glaucous and more crisped leaves.

Apium inundatum (L.) Rchb. In the Hill district, G., 1933, #. Nelmes.

Lysimachia nemorum L. With primrose-coloured flowers in an open
broad ride in Michaelwood, Damery, G., 1929, and flowering freely
in 1936, EH. Nelmes.

Verbascum nigrum L. Ona wallin Hinton Lane, Granby Hill, Clifton,
G., July, 1936, Ivor Evans.

Linaria repens (L.) Mill. x vulgaris Mill. = L. seprum Allm. Disused
railway bank, Hallen, G., Oct., 1936, Miss M. Bowen. The first
record for the district.

Veronica Anagallis-aquatica L., sensu stricto. Ditch between Range-
worthy and Yate Lower Common, G., 1936, C. and N. Sandwnth.

Nepeta hederacea (L.) Trev. Plentiful and persistent with pure white
flowers near South Stoke, Bath, 8., Ivor Evans.

Rumex conglomeratus Murr. x maritumus L. = R. Knafic Celak. Ina
shallow part of a pond at Hill, G., with the parents, Sept., 1936,
E. Nelmes. Mr. Nelmes writes, “ This has apparently been re-
corded for Britain as it is included in Druce’s List, but I cannot
find any published record.” Certainly new to the district.

Salix alba L. x fragilis L. = S. viridis Fr., sens. lat., 9. Streamside
below Ashley Hill, G., June, 1936, C. Sandwith. Confirmed by
Dr. B. Floderus, of Stockholm. A first record for the district,
although noted by Mr. White (Bristol Flora, p. 535) as very likely
to be present. It should be added that certain trees with male
catkins, many of which are curiously forked, occurring in several
spots (Keynsham, Pensford, Brent Knoll and Berrow, 8.) are
apparently to be referred to the forma monstrosa of the male
condition of this hybrid.

S. atrocinerea Brot. On a recent visit to this country, the world’s
leading salicologist, Dr. B. Floderus of Stockholm, pointed out
that British S. cinerea L. differs from the Continental plant
bearing this name and from the specimens in the Linnean her-
barium. He refers all British material to S. atrocinerea Brot.,
which is a strictly ‘‘ Lusitanian”’ species occurring in Portugal,
Spain and Britain, being rare and little known in France.
S. atrocinerea has a fine pubescence with a mixture of reddish or
rust-colouged hairs, whereas the indumentum of S. cinerea is —
wholly ashy-grey. See Rep. Bot. Soc. Hach. Club, 1932, p. 369
(1933). Bristol S. cinerea must, therefore, be known in future as

BRISTOL BOTANY IN 1936 179

S. atrocinerea ; and a specimen at Kew, collected by Mr. White,
of the Walton-in-Gordano S. rugosa Leefe (see Bristol Flora,
p. 537) has been determined as S. atrocinerea x viminalis by Dr.
Floderus.

S. repens L. Similarly, Dr. Floderus has shown that pure S. repens
should have glabrous ovaries and pedicels, and is perhaps unknown
in this country at the present day; he would refer the bulk
of our material to S.arenaria L. x repens L., the theory being that
these two species have been crossing and back-crossing for thou-
sands of years, and may not even have entered this country in a
pure condition.

Populus ttalica Moench X nigra L. ‘Trees bearing female catkins,
and with the branches slightly more spreading than those of the
Lombardy Poplar, were noticed in April, 1936, between Keynsham
and Saltford, 8., by C. Sandwith and J. P. M. Brenan. P. rtaloca
is said by specialists to be invariably staminate, and ‘‘ Female
Lombardy Poplars”’ are referred by them to hybrids between
P. italica and P. ngra, or, as some would put it, between P. nigra
var. italica and P. migra var. typica.

Spiranthes spiralis (L.) C. Koch. Still occurs sparingly on Durdham
Down, G. Three or four flowering spikes were seen in 1934, and
two in 1936, by Mr. H. O. Edmonds.

Potamogeton trichoides Cham. et Schl. Near Weston-super-Mare, 6.,
1934, Miss M. Taylor, det. W. H. Pearsall, see Rep. Bot. Soc.
Exch. Club, 1934, p. 845 (1935). New to the district and to North
Somerset. It is hoped that this record of a rare and critical
species will be confirmed.

Carex Hudsonit Ar. Benn. Very sparingly in a rhine on Weston-in-
Gordano moor, 8., June, 1936, C. and N. Sandwith. Identified
by Mr. E. Nelmes of Kew. This is the second station in N.
Somerset for this local species.

Bromus madritensis L. In Journ. Bot. for August, 1936, pp. 240-241,
Mr. H. 8. Thompson calls attention to the great increase of this
species on the Downs during the last two years.

B. lepidus Holmb. Old quarry near Twerton-on-Avon, 8., May, 1936,
C. and N. Sandwith.

Auiens. Singularly little of interest was collected during 1936 on
the city tips and docks. Carum copticum Benth. et Hook. f.
occurred at Avonmouth in 1935-6; and Azyris amarantoides L.
was found in allotment ground by Weston-super-Mare Station

180 CECIL I. SANDWITH

in Sept., 1936. Mr. Ivor Evans records Bromus inermis Leyss.
from the Filton railway at Stoke Gifford, G.; Hesperis matronalis
L. from a quarry at Cromhall, G.; Lactuca macrophylla (Willd.)
A. Gr., a garden outcast, in a lane leading from Sea Walls to the
Avon, G.; Clematis Flammula L. on rocky ground in Bourton
Combe, 8.; and two very interesting aliens on waste land above
Oldfield Park, Bath, 8., viz., Glaucium grandiflorum Boiss. et
Huet, a first record for Britain, and Reseda inodora Reichb. In
the last-named locality he also found Althea hirsuta L.

Review

ECOLOGY IN TOWN AND CLASSROOM

By Rost BracHer, M.Sc., Po.D. Bristol: J. W. Arrowsmith, Ltd., 1937.
2s. 6d. net,

In 1934 Dr. R. Bracher’s useful little book on Field Studies in Ecology was
published by J. W. Arrowsmith, Ltd. This has been suitably followed in May,
1937, by her Ecology in Town and Classroom—a companion volume at the same
moderate price, ‘‘ containing observations and experiments especially suitable
for the town worker.’ This handbook deals with those types which, “ being
in or near a town, come directly under human influence and, as such, may be
termed artificial.’’ Therefore, to those living in or near Bristol this book should
be particularly helpful and interesting ; for the number of flowering plants, ferns
and mosses growing on our walls, banks, and in some of the Bristol streets is
remarkable.

The three chapters on The Vegetation of the Street, Waste Ground, and the
Vegetation of Coal Tips are apt and to the point. Chapter V, on Tidal River
Banks, is particularly well done. Its sections on Physiographic, Edaphic and Biotic
factors respectively are helpful and clear. Indeed, Miss Bracher has had practical
experience of the ecology of no less than ten of the chief tidal rivers of England,
extending from the Thames, Severn and Bristol Avon tothe Mersey, Ribble, Lune,
Humber and Ouse in the North. As is well known, she has made a special study
of that little organism the flagellate Huglena limosa, which inhabits tidal mud and
often gives it a bright green colour.

The chapter on Colonization and Succession is also important and helpful,
and is clearly divided into sections, e.g., a “‘ Street succession ’’ starts with minute
alge ; stage 2 shows protonema and young plants of the moss Bryum and seedlings
of the tiny green flowering plant Sagina procumbens ; and stage 3 shows half a
dozen flowering plants.

Among the excellent illustrations are some very clear and unusual ones of
underground root-systems. Except for the full Index, the volume ends with a
useful and ample bibliography, in which, of course, is found Mrs. Sandwith’s
important work on The Adventive Flora of the Port of Bristol. eee

181

Ornithological Notes, Bristol District, 1936
by EB. Davis, MCBOCU;
(Read in tatle, 4th March, 1937)

HE increased interest taken in the bird-life of the Bristol district

during recent years has been well maintained in 1936, and as the
succeeding pages will show, a number of noteworthy observations
have been reported.

It is pleasing to know that so wary a species as the Raven can become
sufficiently indifferent to the presence of man as to nest immediately
overlooking the road, river and rail traffic of the Avon Gorge. That a
pair have now done so seems to indicate a spread from one of the two
long established breeding sites in the Bristol Channel.

The continued presence of Crossbills early in the year, as a result
of the 1935 invasion, was not unexpected, while the visit of Pied
Flycatchers on Spring passage, and a Sandwich Tern in Autumn are
events which, although probably occurring more frequently than is
supposed, do not often come under the notice of observers.

In spite of the Bristol area being on the border-line of its westerly
range in Britain, that graceful little falcon, the Hobby, can still be
numbered among our Summer visitors.

A Common Scoter, Goosanders, and Slavonian Grebes have been
seen at the North Somerset reservoirs, while the visit of a Sheld-Duck,
two Little Stints, and a Kittiwake to Barrow constitute three additional
species to the list of Birds at the Barrow Gurney reservoirs.1 Owing
to the abnormally wet Summer and the consequent high water level
at both Blagdon and Barrow, very few waders were observed at either
place in September, and at no time has there been a repetition of the
unprecedented number of Duck as recorded at Barrow in December,
1935 (cf. Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc., 1935, p. 105).

Among more familiar waders at the Severn mouth in Autumn,
Grey Plover, Curlew Sandpipers, a Little Stint and Bar-tailed Godwits
were identified, and a party of eighteen of the latter was seen there
in Spring.

The following classified notes represent the more important observa-

1 A complete list of Barrow Gurney Reservoir Birds is given in the Proceedings
of the Bristol Nat. Soc., 1933, pp. 467-9. To this list must also be added the
Knot (Calidris c. canutus) and the American Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melan-

otos), both of which were identified at Barrow in September, 1935 (cf. British
Birds, Vol. XXIX, p. 183),

182 H. H. DAVIS

tions made during the year by various members of the B. N. Soc.
Ornithological Section.

RaAvEN (Corvus c. coraz). The breeding of a pair in the Avon Gorge
for the only time on record was an event of considerable interest.
The birds were first noticed on February 19th, and within a few days
were seen carrying sticks to a site on the Gloucestershire side. It
is most satisfactory to relate that three young were successfully reared,
although unfortunately two of these came to grief a few weeks after
leaving the nest.

On several previous occasions Ravens have been observed in the
vicinity of the Gorge ; that they remained to breed in the present year
was certainly some recompense for the fact that for the first time
since 1928 the Peregrines’ eyrie was untenanted. It is now to be hoped
that the Avon cliffs, like those of Brean Down and Steep Holm, will
become an annual stronghold of both Raven and Peregrine, and that
the attractions of the Gorge may be still further enhanced by aerial
combats such as are often witnessed wherever the two species are
close neighbours.

CrossBILL (Loxia c. curvirostra). In common with other areas in
southern Britain, an immigration occurred on the Somerset side of
Bristol during the latter half of 1935, and, in consequence, Crossbills
were still tolerably abundant in the early part of 1936. They were
frequently seen at Long Ashton from January to mid-March, while
in the Leigh Woods and Failand districts, flocks, varying in size, were
noticed until the second week in May. Although nesting has previously
taken place in the above localities (cf. Reports on Somerset Burds,
1930, p. 7, and 1934, p. 7) there is no evidence to show that any remained
to breed during the present year.

Corn Buntine (Emberiza c. calandra). A single bird was frequenting
a vetch field near Stoke Gifford for a short while on the evening of
July 16th, but was not seen afterwards. Although occurring and
breeding locally on the Cotswolds, it is apparently not often noticed
in close proximity to the city.

Prep FrycatcHer (Muscicapa h. hypoleuca). Several visited Leigh
Woods during the Spring migration. Two males seen there on April
15th remained until the 20th. A single bird was reported at the Abbots
Pool on the 22nd, and another in Leigh Woods on May 2nd. One—
female or immature—was observed in a copse on the outskirts of
Tortworth Court on August 2nd.

Hossy (Falco s. subbuteo). On July 10th a pair was watched at

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, BRISTOL DISTRICT, 1936 183

close quarters on the Gloucestershire side of Bristol where the species
has been noticed each summer since 1932. No information, however,
is yet forthcoming regarding an eyrie in the district.

On a recent occasion, and almost within sight of the city boundary,
Mr. J. H. Savory and the writer were fortunate in being able to obtain
a telescopic view, at 150 yards range, of a Hobby plucking a kill.

SueLD-Duck (Tadorna tadorna). Two were seen at Blagdon on
February Ist, and one on No. 3 reservoir, Barrow Gurney, on the 2nd.
Although common on the coast, it is seldom seen at the reservoirs,
and there is no previous record of its occurrence at Barrow.

Pintait (Anas a. acuta). A pair was observed at Blagdon on April
5th. Recorded at the North Somerset reservoirs fairly mie ea
but only in small numbers.

Scaup (Nyroca m. marila). An adult male was again present on
Barrow Gurney reservoirs where it remained from January until the
third week in April or later. That a single male should be the sole
representative of this species each winter at Barrow during the last
four years suggests the probability of its always being the same bird
(cf. Reports on Somerset Birds, 1933-36).

GOLDENEYE (Bucephala c. clangula). Although not of imfrequent
occurrence it may be of interest to record that among seven or eight
Goldeneye at Blagdon on December 26th was one very fine adult male.

Common Scoter (Oidemia n. nigra). A single male was seen on
No. 3 reservoir, Barrow Gurney, on September 26th but it had departed
by the following day. This sea-goimg duck is an occasional visitor
to the North Somerset reservoirs, more often in Spring, but at no
time in anything but small numbers.

GoosaNDER (Mergus m. merganser). A pair at Blagdon on April
5th were, for a few moments, under observation from a car at no more
than twenty yards range. Has been fairly frequently recorded, usually
in Winter, at the North Somerset reservoirs.

GREAT CRESTED GREBE (Podiceps c. cristatus). For the third succes-
sive year a pair bred on the lake at Tortworth Court. Two broods were
reared, the first being hatched late in April, and the second on or
about August 16th. The colonization of this water in 1934 corresponds.
with the noticeable east to west extension of the breeding range of this
species, and it is interesting to relate that during the progress of the
Great-Crested Grebe enquiry, 1931 (cf. British Birds, Vol. X XVI),

no nesting pairs were reported from the Gloucestershire side of the
Bristol area,

184 H. H. DAVIS

There were no less than fifty-three at Barrow Gurney reservoirs
on August 9th, all of which were adults.

SLAVONIAN GREBE (Podiceps auritus). One, in almost full breeding
plumage, was observed on No. 3 reservoir, Barrow Gurney, on April
7th and 10th, but it had departed by the 19th. Another, in a similar
state of dress, was clearly identified at Blagdon on April 11th. This
species 1s of rare occurrence at the North Somerset reservoirs.

In Winter some difficulty may be experienced in distinguishing the
Slavonian from the Black-necked Grebe, at which time both present
a decidedly black and white appearance when on the water ; in Summer
plumage the chestnut lower-neck of the former should prevent any
confusion. Distinguishing characters at all times, however, are the
slender up-turned bill and the arched forehead of the Black-neck as
compared with the stout, straight bill, and the comparatively flat
forehead of the Slavonian.

GOLDEN PLOVER (Charadrius apricarius). A flock of about seventy
were in company with Lapwings in a field at Little Stoke on January
24th. Although not an uncommon Winter visitor to this locality,
it is usually only seen in small numbers.

GREY PLOVER (Squatarola s. squatarola). A party of twenty-one
were frequenting the river bank between Avonmouth and Severn
Beach on October 4th. When watched in flight, the black axillary
feathers were plainly visible. This is the largest number yet recorded
at the Severn mouth.

CURLEW SANDPIPER (Calidris testacea). Observed on the Avonmouth-
Severn Beach mud flats on several dates in September. Three were
there on both the 20th and 22nd. Although of regular occurrence
on this stretch of mud in Autumn, it has not yet been reported there
in Spring.

LittLe Srint (Calidris minuta). One was seen in company with
Dunlin along the Avonmouth-Severn Beach mud flats on September
20th, while at Barrow Gurney reservoirs on the 26th two extremely
tame birds were identified. The Barrow birds had left by the following
day. These occurrences are of interest in that there appears to have
been an unusual number of Little Stints passing through the British
Islands at this time (cf. British Birds, Vol. XXX, pp. 195, 230).

PURPLE SANDPIPER (Calidris m. maritima). Twelve, with Turn-
stones, on the Avonmouth-Severn Beach mud flats on March 29th
is the largest number yet noticed there on any one day. A single
bird on May 10th provides the latest date yet recorded for this species
at the Severn mouth.

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, BRISTOL DISTRICT, 1936 185

BaR-TAILED Gopwit (Limosa |. lapponica). A flock of eighteen
between Avonmouth and Severn Beach on May 10th is the first Spring
record of this bird at the Severn mouth. Of these, three were in partial
and one in full red dress. As early as July 26th two were seen on the
mud flats off Littleton-on-Severn.

Buack TERN (Chlidonias n. niger). A fairly frequent visitor to the
North Somerset reservoirs in Autumn, though less often in Spring, this
Tern was again observed in September. At Barrow Gurney there
were two or three on the 12th, while four were seen at Blagdon on the
same date, and two on the 13th.

At Blagdon, on September 12th, there were also about six Common
(or Arctic) Terns.

SANDWIcH TERN (Sterna s. sandvicensis). One, an adult assuming
Winter plumage, was identified by Mr. H. Tetley and the writer between
Avonmouth and Severn Beach on September 30th. A clear telescopic
view of the bird was obtained when the black bill and legs placed its
identity beyond reasonable doubt. This Tern has rarely been noticed
in the Bristol district and there is apparently no authentic record
of its previous occurrence at the Severn mouth.

KiTTIWAKE GULL (Rissa t. tridactyla). A single specimen, in the
“ tarrock ” state of dress, was seen at No. 3 reservoir, Barrow Gurney,
on August 9th. It was extremely tame and allowed an approach to
within eight or ten yards. Another was picked up on the river bank
near Severn Beach on November 15th. Typically a Gull of the open
sea, the Kittiwake only visits the district occasionally, usually storm
driven, or as a lost wanderer.

RED-LEGGED PartTrIpGE (Alectoris r. rufa). As in 1935, at least
one pair bred near Stoke Gifford. In neither year, however, were more
than two or three young reared. The heavy clay soil of this particular
locality is probably unsuited to a bird, the natural habitat of which is
reputed to be sandy or stony ground.

One, found dead at the water’s edge of No. 1 reservoir, Barrow Gurney,

on March 8th, may, from its head injuries, have been struck down by a
hawk.

186

The Coast of Somerset (1)
By O. D. Kenpatt, M.A.
(Read in title, 4th March, 1937)

HE coast of Somerset is bordered chiefly by recent rocks, such as

alluvium, and this is particularly true of the area surrounding
the mouth of the River Parrett. In the south older rocks make up
the coast line, and to the north Carboniferous rocks are seen at Clevedon,
at Swallow Cliff, Worle and Brean Down. Patches of shingle are
comparatively rare, and those found are usually of insignificant pro-
portions.

The area immediately under review is an interesting one from many
points of view, but although a good deal of attention has been given
to it on the historical side, little seems to have been written on its
morphological aspects. That there have been coastal changes is
evidenced by a study of maps of the area, and some of these appear to
have been of comparatively recent date.

It is proposed in this paper to make some mention of the evidence
of change which can be traced from an examination of various map
issues and other historical evidence, and from a series of plane table
sketches which have been drawn recently. In the first place, this will
be restricted chiefly to the area surrounding Stert and Fenning Islands
and Stert Point, all standing at the mouth of the River Parrett. It is
hoped to carry on observations and to collect further evidence con-
cerning these.

It must be remembered that evidence from early maps can only be
treated with reserve. A map may make no mention of a particular
island, not of necessity because the island did not then exist, but.
possibly because it was relatively unknown and probably not easy of
access and survey. It is not necessary in this place to detail the
geography of the area under review. At the same time there are several
geographical facts which are very striking and in certain cases excep-
tional. These may be briefly mentioned.

1. The range of the tide is greater in this area than in any other
place in Europe. Some of the figures for Spring Tides are :—
Bridgwater Bar .. oF 2 Boy Hite

Weston-super-Mare oe .. 40 ft.
Avonmouth oh A .» 42 it.

THE COAST OF SOMERSET 187

At low tide, the Parrett and the Brue rivers are fringed with mud
banks which are often over 10 ft., and occasionally up to 20 ft. in
vertical extent.

2. The Severn Estuary is renowned for its excessive muddiness.
Sollas! regarded this as the result of ‘‘ a storage of suspended
sediment, the accumulation of days, weeks or even months.
This accumulation is always being diminished by withdrawals
seaward and as constantly renewed by fresh accessions provided
by the denudation of the land.” The sediment is finally
carried some distance out to sea, but not until many journeys
have been made with the tide. The muddiness has been esti-
mated as being, in shallow parts of the channel, 35 grams per
gallon.

3. The following figures are taken from the West Coast of England
Pilot? and show the area as being very liable to gales.

Average number per year :—

England, S.W. .. ee 7 32-0
Bristol Channel .. n as 37:5
St. George’s Channel... ie 30-1
Irish Sea... fs = x 35:3

In Neolithic times this area was undoubtedly affected and suffered
considerable subsidence. Ussher,* discussing the submerged forest at
Stolford, three miles west of the Parrett, suggested that, when this
forest flourished, the land must certainly have stood forty feet higher.
Boyd Dawkins,* writing of the same forest along Bridgwater Bay,
considered that “the land then stood sixty feet above present level.”’
This was probably the last important movement along this coast.
Following that period, the coastline almost certainly had a very irregular
outline in marked contrast to its present even contour. It must also
have been cut back relatively quickly, since it is made up, at any rate
in the Bridgwater area, of soft rocks. The outlet of the Parrett may
have been considerably changed owing to the formation of spits and
bars which would accompany the cutting back of the coast.

The bay into which the River Parrett flows is in itself an impressive
feature, and is hemmed in to the north by the Brean Down limestone
massif and bordered to the south by the lower slopes of the Quantock
Hills. A line connecting these two points encloses an area along the
coast made up of Stert Flats in the south and the Gore Sand and
Berrow Flats in the north. These are very extensive and, at their

1 All references are to the list on p. 207 and 208.

188 O. D. KENDALL

greatest extent, up to four miles in width. The Gore Sand at its
highest points 1s not covered except at high tides. The five fathom
line is a considerable distance further out into the channel, and the
only deeper water is that of the Parrett itself, which, after hugging
the shore to a point north of Burnham, makes a big sweep and finds
its way out to sea between the Gore Sand and Stert Flats.

The course of the river as it nears the channel is a remarkable one,
and there seems to be no obvious reason why it should not have con-
tinued on its course at Combwich and entered the sea in the Stolford
district. Actually it runs for six miles beyond Combwich before
swinging away from the coastline. South of Fenning Island, the channel
winds a good deal and is almost dry at low tides. Admiralty instruc-
tions point out that considerable alterations in its depths are
constantly taking place. The present position of Stert Point suggests
that it has built up in a north-easterly direction and prevented the
river from reaching the sea at a more southerly point. The break
between Stert Island and Stert Point suggests further that the river
has from time to time succeeded in breaching the point and forming
subsidiary channels to the sea. Those occasions have probably
witnessed a critical combination of winds and storm waves.

Greswell> mentions a scheme dated 1723 which concerned “ the
making of a new cut through a narrow neck of land about three-
quarters of a mile across, near Combwich, from and out of Parrett
river into the Severn Sea, to empty itself into Stolford Bay.” No
evidence of the scheme being actually attempted has been found.
Another story relates that the cut between Stert Island and Stert
Point was originally made by fishermen, and subsequently enlarged
by the action of the tides. Other evidence suggests that Stert has
become an island in comparatively recent times, and measurements
of erosion which have been made in the last few years clearly
demonstrate that the possibility of a breach between the sea wall and
Stert Point must at many times have been a very real one.

Sandy beaches, which occasionally are broken by very small collec-
tions of shingle, are almost continuous between Brean Down and
Burnham. A noticeable feature of the sands from Burnham to Berrow
is their muddy surface. Over wide stretches there exists a kind of
earthy top layer, while the sand itself appears to be impregnated with
mud. The Stert Flats are very largely mud covered and there is little
sand bordering the coastline in that district.

In some areas, such as Burnham, blue Lias clay may be seen, and
this becomes more marked along and to the west of Stert Point. Along

THE COAST OF SOMERSET 189

the Point itself there is a very definite shingle formation, many of the
pebbles of which are derived from the Lias to the west. As in so
many other districts, the shingle was formerly used for road repair
work. The shore formations are invariably the result of the prevalent
drift from the west, and Stert Point itself has been the result of this.
The shape of the Parrett mouth must also be largely influenced by the
strong tides of the Bristol Channel and the very fine material which
is drifted by them. Owing to the accumulation of sediment in the
surrounding waters, there is a constant movement of mud. Sollas
showed that quantities of sediment are supplied to the tributary streams
during flood tide. Where any marked decrease in velocity takes place,
there will be considerable sedimentation. Therefore, some of the silt
will remain behind in the estuaries, although the greater portion is
carried seaward. The mouth of the River Parrett gives clear evidence
of this, both along the banks themselves and in the mud banks which
are so pronounced. The same is true of the River Brue and the channel
between Stert Island and the Point, as also along the coast of the
Stert mainland.

Many parts of the levels of Huntspill and Burnham are below the
level of high water. In places, also, the land nearer the sea is higher
than that further inland, owing to the deposit of mud by the tides.
This accretion has been aided by the construction of embankments
which probably date back to Roman times.

On this stretch of coast the inhabitants have carried on a ceaseless
warfare against the sea. In the last few years new defences have been
completed between Stert and Stogursey. These have been described
as a new kind of sea wall, consisting of piles with heavy planks across
the areas between them, almost in the form of a net. It is hoped
that the force of the waves will drive rock and sea through the gaps
in this, and thus build up a solid wall.

At this point the value of the dunes, which stretch from Brean to
Burnham, in protecting the land from the sea, may be mentioned.
In such a district, where so much land behind them is low lying, they
are very important and prevent floods during exceptionally high tides.
Several of the dune ridges are stable. North from Burnham, however,
there are very recent formations, and in other cases definite effects
of wind erosion. Sand is constantly blown inland and occasionally
the dune ridge is pierced during exceptional storms.

Near Berrow Church the dunes are definitely making, and a new dune
line has been added since the 1904 edition of the six-inch map of the
Ordnance Survey. The church itself is almost surrounded by the

190 O. D. KENDALL

dunes. A further stretch in front of this is building up rapidly and now
covers a considerable area.

North of Burnham, however, a severe storm during the winter of
1935-36 caused much anxiety, and severe erosion resulted. The
outer dune line was badly cut and, immediately north of the town, the
foreshore was almost stripped of sand.

Immediately north of the Burnham Light a marsh has also been
established since the edition mentioned.

In keeping with other rivers opening into the Bristol Channel,
the River Parrett is subject to a slight bore, which is about two feet
in height, at Spring Tides in March and September. If these are
accompanied by gales from the south or south-west, the bore may be an
impressive sight. At neap tides it is scarcely perceptible. Writing
with reference to an unusual flood and tidal wave of September, 1903,
Mr. Lunn® remarked: “I was informed that the tide of the night of
September 10th last rose to 20 ft. 4 ins. on the gauge at Bridgwater
Bridge (the gauge is 5-62 ft. above Ordnance Datum, Liverpool),
instead of the predicted height of 15 ft. 4 ins. The tide ebbed and
flowed four times at Bridgwater and two or three times at Highbridge.
At the latter place, at the first ebb, the water sank 6 ft. and then
flowed up higher than before. The flooding was not caused, below
Combwich at any rate, by the might of the tide, but by the waves,
which at times ran up for long distances in a solid body, one or two
feet deep over the banks and walls. The high tide was caused by the
wind, which at first blew from the south-west and heaped up the sea
at the entrance of St. George’s Channel and then, at the time of high
water, veered round to the north-west, and in so doing drove the water
up the Bristol Channel.

One of the earliest definite references to the area occurs on Speed’s
map of 16107 where the instructions for sailing up the mouth of the
river were as follows: “ To sail into the River Parrett from the westward
from the port of Bridgwater you will first make a high round hill
called Brent Knoll (500 ft.), nearly over Burnham Church which you
must keep due east, and then sail along until you open Bridgwater
Steeple. There you are to keep the north side of Burnham Church
till you open the river to the eastward of the Warren House of Steart
Point.”

The Victoria History of Somerset® quotes from a survey of the coast
dated 1625. ‘“‘ Along Somersetshire there is no coming near the coast
with vessels of any burthen except it be for seven or eight miles west
of Purshot (Portishead) Point, the rest is all almost flat ground whereon

THE COAST OF SOMERSET 191

is only two fathoms water even to Porlock a little creek the march
between Somerset and Devon.”

Before the days of lighted coasts, the task of approaching the mouth
of the Parrett must have been a really perilous one, and to-day it is
by no means simple. |

The Burnham Lights, immediately to the north of Burnham, which
are still used, have a rather interesting legendary history. It is sug-
gested that they began as a lamp carefully tended by the wife of a
fisherman and shown from her window to light her husband safely to his
anchorage. The light must have been found really useful, for after
the death of these people, their primitive lamp was succeeded by a
more efficient light. Another story relates that in the days before the
Burnham lighthouse, the spire of Kast Brent Church was kept white-
washed to serve as a guide.

HistorRicAL EviDENCE.

Several writers have mentioned, rather incidentally, inundation
and subsidence on this coast. Major® suggested that subsidence was in
progress at any rate up to the time of the Roman occupation, and
Poole! called attention to extensive sand-banks in the Bridgwater
Level in which marine shells occur. He was further of the opinion
that two successive subsidences had occurred, and that two former
land surfaces could be recognised.

Billingsley draws attention to the constant flooding of areas near
the sea and the establishment of a commission of sewers in 1304. He
says, “from Stert Point northward, the coast is flat and composed
of vast sandbanks repelling the inundation of the sea, which, in ancient
times, flowed up into the country covering with its waters that extensive
territory now called Brent Marsh.”

One of the early records of this area describes floods which occurred
in 1607.18 These are stated to have covered an area of twenty miles
in length and at least five miles in breadth, and occurred over wide
stretches of country to a depth of twelve feet. The sea reached
Bridgwater and there were heavy losses of life and animals. Several
villages were “‘ buried in salt water” or “ quite consumed.” There
are many other vague references to similar floods, but a manuscript
called Old Parish Records of Huntspill? gives a very interesting summary
of such happenings from 1703: ‘On Nov. 27, 1703, the sea broke
into Huntspill and broke down the seawall and houses with a great
wind.” The village of Huntspill was originally mostly round and to
the west of the parish church. The latter part was almost completely

192 O. D. KENDALL

destroyed by this flood and not rebuilt. Many traces of old buildings
are still to be seen.

Many other floods are mentioned in the nineteenth century, and in
all cases many hundreds of acres of land seem to have been covered.

Other evidences shows that before 1739! the Parrett had two
outlets, separated by an island of about 80 acres. Of these the smaller
and more northerly one was on the east side of the Gore Sand. In
1739, however, it was dammed by an accumulation of ice, and the
current was diverted into the main channel. This led to a rapid deposit
of mud, and this outlet became permanently blocked. There are many
other interesting references to changes in this area, though, unfortu-
nately, these are often vague and difficult to interpret accurately.

Speaking of the “strand” in 1851, Stradling!® says, “I recollect
when, for a few years it was nearly double its present width. When
a boy I was taken in a chaise by my mother from Bridgwater to Stert
Point, where there was a small inn for the accommodation of parties
who visited the spot. That point is become an island, and at high tide,
large vessels can now pass over what was once the carriage road.”
Other evidence, however, suggests that Stert Island was already in
existence when Stradling made this trip. The carriage road was in
some sort of use until very recent times, for Mr. Govett, who has
farmed on Stert Point for the last thirty-five years, informs me that he
used to take animals over to Stert Island, and his route may have heen
the old carriage way.

A record of the rapid accumulation of alluvial deposit was given
by Phelps!® writing in 1853. He states that an old channel of the
River Brue at Highbridge was filled up in about 25 years to a depth
of nearly 20 ft.

The best and most complete account of the erosion at Stert appeared
in 1877.17. That paper gave very detailed evidence, and the following
extracts are taken from it.

‘ Along the edge of the common near Steart, there used to be a raised
pebble beach, called the Chesil, of which very few traces remained
when I saw it last (1871). Just at the end of the common on the road
to Steart, there used to be, when I knew the place first (1851) a house
inhabited. There was a gate on the north of it, and a low stone wall
beyond the gate, through which passed the road to Steart, with the
house on its right hand. All long since vanished. In 1869 a series of
gales and high tides tore up the pavement and foundation of the
house. Strewed fragments of the wall heaped up a shingle beach in
what had once been the fireplace.”’ The writer goes on to give further

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH Serres, VoL. VIII, Pr. fI. PLATE 30.

THE MAIN SHINGLE RIDGE ALONG STERT LOOKING NORTH

EROSION ON STERT, ON THE BANK OF THE PARRETT AND NEAR
THE EXTREME END OF THE POINT

THE LAST GROYNE TO THE NORTH ON STERT. NOTE EROSION

[To face p. 192

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THE COAST OF SOMERSET 193

details which he had gleaned from old inhabitants. “ In 1869, an old
man told me he well remembered a farm house with its buildings and
barton, far out to the north-west of Stert. I have also heard from old
men that there was in those days (some sixty years ago) an island of
considerable size near the mouth of the river, on which stood a house
of entertainment which drove a roaring trade in the days of high
protective duties. Brandy and foreign wines could be run with ease
and safety upon this island. Now the place has been swept away.
IT am not sure whether this was the same island of which a small piece
still remains and is used (or was six or seven years ago) as pasture for
sheep. That island was once much larger and had cornfields on it.
This I have been told by an old man who had in his youth helped to
reap and carry the corn.”” Some of these remarks undoubtedly refer
to Stert Island, but others may apply to Fenning Island. Knight,}&
writing in 1909, although not naming Fenning Island, seems to place
both the “notorious inn” and the “cornfields”? upon it. At that
date, however, this island was definitely a part of Stert Point, and it.
apparently ceased to be an island on some date between 1891 and
1904, following the evidence of the six-inch map of the Ordnance
Survey, as mentioned later in this paper.

Writing in 1922, Stuart Thompson! described a new marsh off
Berrow of an area of 100 acres and nearly a mile in length. He sug-
gested that the marsh had been built up as a result of a new channel
running on its seaward side and so diminishing the force of scour
over the flat between it and the sand dunes. He also noted at that
time that there was an expanse of clean sand on the seaward side of
this channel which was about two feet higher than the mud on its
landward side.

The same writer quotes the harbour-master of Bridgwater as reporting
a good deal of recent coast erosion between Stert Island, a mile from
the end of Burnham Pier, and Stert Point on the west side of the
Parrett mouth. At the same time the River Parrett was becoming
gradually silted up. The erosion mentioned is still going on rapidly,
and Mr. Govett, who is farming the land in question, has observed.
it for a considerable time.

Minor changes here are of constant occurrence. One definite proof.
of this may be quoted from a further paper by Stuart Thompson, 1923.
A second examination of the area he described in the previous year
revealed that the channel of which he spoke had become much silted.
up and that its north end had disappeared, and that the marsh itself

had changed in form and area. A survey in 1936 showed the marsh
E

194 Oo. D. KENDALL

to have an approximate length of 1,300 yards and a maximum width
of rather less than 300 yards. In shape it resembles a flattened
crescent. At the Burnham Low Lighthouse end the marsh is very wet,
and a channel on its landward side appears to be kept full by the sea.
At the Berrow end, however, the marsh is drier and sand-logged, finally
passing into dunes. As a consequence, the vegetation at the Burnham
end is dense, while at the Berrow end it is in open patches only amid
the sand.

About a quarter of a mile beyond Berrow Church and towards Brean,
there is a small isolated marsh of about 300 square yards in area.
This surrounds a small pool of about 50 yards diameter and is a recent
formation which will probably be quickly incorporated in the dune
belt.

Map EvipENCE.

An examination of old maps bears out the suggestion that there
have been many changes in the navigable channels leading from the
River Parrett, and in the positions of small islands at its mouth. It
is probable that the river itself formerly flowed out to sea along a differ-
ent course. Greswell”® speaks of a rough sketch map dated about 1550
which suggests that the Parrett at that time flowed out to Stolford and
Botestall, and, therefore, in a much more direct line than at present.

Stanford Cole®1 mentions a violent storm of 1798. This “ was
accompanied by a high tide, and drove the sea through a new channel
that had opened in the River Parrett directly against the seawall,
which from time immemorial had protected the level of Huntspill.”
Did this finally separate Stert Island from the Point? Apparently
no map was produced in support of his statement. No map before
that date has been seen which shows the island, and if it had existed
in 1610, then Speed must have noted it in his celebrated sailing instruc-
tions. Bowen, 1720, Collingson, 1791, and Cary, 1793, do not show it,
though Bowen depicts two small islands on the east side of the river,
and Cary names both Stert Point and the Warren. Billingsley,
1794 (surveyor White), definitely marks the island, as also does Green-
wood, 1822, though Murray, 1930, in a map “ projected on the basis
of the Trignometrical Survey,”’ which shows two islands in this area,
gives no name to either of them. There appears to be a connection
between the Dunball Island of Cary, 1793, and the ‘“‘ Slime Batches ”
of White, 1794, which are shown south of the mouth of the River
Brue. In a map of the Moors in 1853, Clark? shows and names
both Stert and Fenning Islands.

THE COAST OF SOMERSET 195

There remains the more reliable evidence of the various map issues
as published by the Ordnance Survey.

FENNING ISLAND.

The first map of this area, published by the Ordnance Survey, is
dated 1802, and is on a scale of three inches to one mile. This, the
original survey, shows Jennings Island, which is about 600 yards in
length. A search has not revealed any evidence for this name. The
map shows a building on the island which was apparently well estab-
lished.

The six-inch map appeared in 1891, and shows Fenning Island, which
is presumably the Jennings Island of the 1802 map. The Ordnance
Survey, commenting on the change of name, state that the name
Fenning was authorized at the large scale survey of 1886 by three
local residents. On this map the island is of much greater area, but no
buildings of any kind are marked on it. It is shown as being roughly
triangular in shape with approximately equal sides of 440 yards.
It has a very regular outline on its sheltered sides, but its seaward
side was at that time obviously subject to severe erosion.

The 1904 edition of the six-inch map again shows considerable
change. Fenning Island, as an island, has disappeared, but the name
is still retained for this particular area. A small creek seems to mark
what was formerly the division line between the island and the mainland
of Stert.

On more modern maps the name Fenning Island is still shown. It
is also used on the Admiralty charts and in the West Coast of England
Pilot?® (page 103). This reads: ‘‘Stert Flats fill the whole of the
southern portion of Bridgwater Bay, between Inkley and Stert Point.
The channel edge of this flat is composed of rock covered with sand and
a detached bed of shingle shown as Chesil rocks, which dry 3 ft.; from
thence Lark Spit and eastward and southward to Fenning Island, the
Shoal edge is of sand drying 1 to 11 feet: all southward of Fenning
Island is mud.”

SteRtT IsLanp.

Karly evidence is vague, and Neville Grenville?* suggests that it
became an island about 1780. This date is roughly in accord with
map evidence and the storm of 1798, which has already been mentioned.
Tt will be remembered that Cary (1794) showed a name “‘ The Warren ”’
on his map. In the original survey by the Ordnance Survey, a building
“Warren House” is shown on Stert Island. Is this the Warren of

196 Oo. D. KENDALL

Cary? If he is correct, then the island was not cut off from the
mainland until after 1794. White, however, shows the island in that
year. A small discrepancy of a few years may well be accounted
for by an interval between actual field work and the printing of a map.

The 1802 Ordnance Survey map shows Stert Island immediately
north of Fenning Island, the two islands being separated by a channel
connecting the River Parrett with the sea, and directly opposite to the
mouth of the Brue (Fig. 10). The latter fact is rather significant,

% Bere: fle ae

PRES sr

ray

| i )
it FSi ees ae ae
eee eae
PT ee

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ao
A

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Semele
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PHOTOGRAPHED FROM A PORTION OF A THREE INCHES TO ONE MILE SCALE MANUSCRIPT
DRAWING DATED 1802, AT THE OFFICE OF THE ORDNANCE SURVEY, WITH THE
SANCTION OF THE CONTROLLER OF H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE.

and the even alignment of the West Coast of Stert Island with that
of the coast of the Stert mainland is also worthy of note.

The 1891 edition of the six-inch map shows the island in greater
detail. There are several well marked shingle patches, especially that

THE COAST OF SOMERSET 197

which borders the entire east coast. These are succeeded away from
the island by swamp and marsh. The main stream of the Parrett is
some distance to the east of the island. Warren House is no longer
shown but drainage channels are clearly marked, and a trigonometrical
station appears on the west coast near them. These persist on the
1904. edition, but erosion is marked on the west coast, and there is
considerable change in the general form of the island. The Parrett
has also developed an off channel which borders the east coast.

The old road, running out from the Stert mainland to the island,
has already been mentioned. This has now disappeared, but the
shallows around the point and the island are very marked, and the
channel between them dries out completely at low water. It was
apparently the custom for some time to drive over cattle to the island
from the mainland, although this is not now done.

The maps (Figs. 11 and 12) are tracings from the six-inch
maps of the Ordnance Survey published in 1891 and 1904
respectively. These reveal rather striking changes over a relatively
short period and demonstrate very clearly that observations in this
area will be untrustworthy if covering a few years only. On the
1904 map, Fenning Island is shown as a definite part of Stert Point.
Its south shore remains practically the same as on the earlier map,
suggesting that little, if any, change had taken place in the main
stream of the River Parrett. A new reach of the river, however,
stretches almost in a straight line from Fenning Island alongside the
eastern side of Stert Island. It is approximately a quarter of a mile
more to the west than Stert Reach as shown in 1891, and is remarkable
for its regular direction. To the north, the coastline westward from
Stert Point has suffered erosion, but at the same time the point has been
making in a north-easterly direction and has swung round so as to
embrace Fenning Island. This growth of the point seemingly gave the
necessary protection for the establishment of the area between the point
itself and the island. Measurements taken from the maps (H.W.O.T.)
show that the point has moved approximately 500 yards from its position
in 1891, or 587 yards to its junction with the island at its south-east
corner. Although the shingle on the sheet was probably not adequately
mapped at that time, there is evidence of the development of the
customary recurved end of the main shingle ridge forming the point
and a protection for the saltings to the south.

A comparison of these two sheets shows little change on Stert Island.
Large patches of marsh, however, which bordered the island on both
east and west sides in 1891 have been replaced by shingle in 1904,

198 Oo. D. KENDALL

Aa Oe
r P&T et
ra ee raess S:

- ;

ce ee ll
~
we

Fenning Island

STERT POINT - STERT ISLAND,
Based on 0.8. 6 inch Map, 1891.

Scale of Miles:

0 4

Fig. 11
PRODUCED WITH THE SANCTION OF THE CONTROLLER OF H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE

: ; THE COAST OF SOMERSET 199

Sand § Mud

Pillsmoath Farm

Saltings

Fenning Island

STERT POINT - STERT ISLAND,
Based on 0.8. 6 inch Map, 1904.

Scale of Miles:

0 3

Fig. 12
PRODUCED WITH THE SANCTION OF THE CONTROLLER OF H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE

200 O. D. KENDALL

and at several points the shingle has been piled above high-water mark
on to the island itself. The new reach of the River Parrett, bordering
the south-eastern side of the island, has already been mentioned.

SUMMARY.
Fenning Island.

1802 A small island; named Jennings Island on the Ordnance
Survey map. This gradually increased in size until

1891 and was then a well defined island, named Fenning Island.
Some time between this date and 1904 it became a definite
part of the Stert mainland. Mr. Govett, who is still farming
on Stert Point, informs me that Fenning was definitely
an island about forty years ago according to his own
observations.

1904 ‘The six-inch map shows it as a part of the Stert mainland,
and so it continues up to the present. As will appear
later, there is now considerable erosion on both its seaward
and river sides.

Stert Island.
1790 (about). Separated from Stert Point.

Stert Point.

1802 Shingle ridge No. 1 probable position of the Far Point at
that date (Fig. 13).

1936 Present position as determined by plane table survey.
Therefore, the point has advanced a distance of approxi-
mately 515 yards in 134 years. This assumes that the
southern end of Stert Island has remained steady.

Stert Point.

The point is made up of a remarkably level grass-covered marsh,
bordered to the north and east: by a well-defined shingle ridge. Obser-
vations have been carried out for several years, and surveys were made
by plane table in the years 1935 and 1936. The latter show that the
shingle is being pushed over on to the sand, and that the Far Point
is making towards Stert Island. There is also evidence of erosion
along the bank of the Parrett. |

The map (Fig. 13) brings out the manner in which the point
has moved to the north-east, and its former positions are shown.

Proc. B.N.S., 4tH Serres, Vou. VIII, Pr. IT. PLATE 31.

THE OUTER OF THE TWO DRAINAGE CHANNELS ON STERT ISLAND.
Now BELOW HIGH-WATER MARK

CLAY BALLS ON THE WEST COAST OF STERT ISLAND.
A HALF-CROWN GIVES AN IDEA OF RELATIVE SIZES

[To face p. 200

THE COAST OF SOMERSET 201

eS |
Se o
S ;
e a Se Fa
© x
4p) ;
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eral - ¥
ie)
aise
— &
= S
5
Pea é
~~
Lu) x
t—
VY)
x

Five individual ridges, each with the characteristic recurved end,
are distinguished; the last of these, with a sharp right-angled
bend, being the present Far Point. The most severe erosion appears
to have taken place immediately east of the last groyne, where there
is a well-defined cut into the land. On its landward side the main
ridge affords evidence of the gradual encroachment of the shingle in
a series of small curves over the vegetation. On the river side, almost

BASED UPON THE ORDNANCE SURVEY Map WITH THE SANCTION OF THE CONTROLLER OF

H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE

202 Oo. D. KENDALL

iminediately south of the distal end of the point, erosion is probably
considerable. Many cracks extend for several yards inland, and blocks
of the marsh are endangered by every high tide. There is no sand or
shingle in this area.

If No. 1 ridge is taken as the position of the end of the point in 1802
(see Fig. 13), then four further ridges (2, 3, 4 and 5) have been added
since that date, and show positions of the point at intermediate dates.
The ridge of the present Far Point is beautifully curved, after leaving
the main ridge by a right-angled bend, and two much smaller subsidiary
ridges may be noted (6 and 7.)

In the 1935 survey of the point, six fixed stations were set up, as shown
on the map. In August, 1936, only two of these were located, one on
the Far Point and the other at the junction of that ridge with the main
ridge. Little change was apparent at the extreme end of the ridge,
though the bank of shingle was rather higher than in 1935.

Along the main ridge, severe erosion had occurred during the year,
and in one area there was a pronounced curve inland of the shingle bank.
The main spread of shingle was flatter and wider, and along practically
its entire length the shingle had been pushed an appreciable distance
over the land, the maximum advance being of the order of 45 feet.
This fact accounts for the disappearance of the fixed marks which
were placed some yards from the landward edge of the shingle. Definite
cliffing into the old marsh soil was also very evident, particularly to
the north of the groynes. It is probable that the major part of these
changes occurred during the severe storm of September, 1935, which
has already been mentioned.

Distances calculated from the Ordnance Survey six-inch map show
that, in 1891, Stert Point was separated from Stert Island by 1,400
yards, and in 1904 by 1,050 yards. In 1936, however, these distances
have been reduced to 910 yards. |

Strert IsLanpD

A series of plane table sketches of Stert Island have been carried
out during the last five years, and continuous observation has thus
been maintained. In 1934, six permanent points were established,
but in 1935, only four of these were identified. The two missing ones
were those on the west side of the island, a fact which suggests definite
erosion in that area. In 1935, six fixed points were again established,
but a visit to the island in August, 1936, gave evidence of further severe
erosion, and only two of the points were located. In general, during
these years, there has been very severe erosion on the west side of the

AEE IGEN

THE COAST OF SOMERSET 203

island. This is clearly evidenced by the position of the old drainage
lines shown by straight lines on the original (1891) large scale survey
of the Ordnance Survey. In 1904 these were, at their northern end,
- 170 feet, and at their southern end, 80 feet away from the high-water
mark. The 1936 survey shows that the outer drain, although still
visible, is almost entirely below high-water mark (see Fig. 14). Its
northern end is now almost identical with the high-water mark, so
that, at this point, the sea has advanced by 170 feet since 1904. Further,
each survey has shown more definite piling up of the shingle over the
vegetation on the northern part of the west coast. Immediately
south of the north-west corner of the island, cliffing is more con-
spicuous, and steps of clay and the old marsh soil are now very
prominent. To the south and almost immediately west of the hut,
new patches of shingle have become conspicuous. The line of shingle
along the high-water mark is piled with a dip from the land-to the sea,
the pebbles being distinctly flat on this side of the island.

On other parts of the coastline there is little change to describe
with the exception of slight increases of shingle at some points and of
marsh at others. These are shown on the map (Fig. 14). The most
recent shingle formation is that at the south-west corner of the island.
This is well marked up to a height of six feet at the distal end of the
spit. The only dune formation is to the south-west of the hut. This
is prominent on the west side, becoming less so towards the east and
tapering out gradually to the south. Marram grass is well established
here, and the island, except at its southern end, is well covered with
coarse grasses.

On the higher ground, close by the hut, there are what seem to be
the foundations of old buildings. These are composed of pebbles and
mortar in the main, and may be the remains of the building, Warren
House, to which attention has been drawn on some of the earlier maps.

The channel between the island and Stert Point is layered with deep
mud, and no water remains in it at low tide. The long straight side
channel of the Parrett, which is shown on the six-inch Ordnance Survey
map of 1904 as bordering the east side of the island, has disappeared,
and the Parrett now keeps to one main channel between the island and
Burnham.

Possibly the last survey (August, 1936) gave the clearest evidence
of erosion, and it is probable that this was the result of the severe
storm of September, 1935, when considerable damage in the Burnham
area on the mainland was reported. There were signs that a great part
of the island, particularly the north end, has been awash quite recently,

204

oTERT

Oo. D. KENDALL

ISLAND - 1935.

Scale of Miles:
0 46

Fie. 14

oo:

‘@.0
Pac)

SOE Qe":

eae

= See Se

THE COAST OF SOMERSET 205

and erosion has been active on both the east and west coasts. The
spread of shingle to the south-west has continued to grow, and cliffing
on the west coast has become more pronounced, especially in the area
of the drainage lines.

In the period 1802-1936, both the area and shape of the island have
changed considerably. In 1802 the area was approximately 750
yards X 880 yards, whereas in 1936 it was approximately 300 yards x
750 yards. The island is being constantly reduced on its western
side, and this is to be expected from a study of the winds and storm
waves.

Baus oF Cuay (blue mud).

These were first observed in the summer of 1934, but have only
been noticed on rare occasions, on Stert Island. They occurred on
the west side of the island and were in considerable numbers, varying
in size from a diameter of one inch up to one of six inches. Their
composition is of fine blue clay, mixed with small pebbles, and they are
beautifully rounded. Probably the rounding effect is due to rolling
by water. It would seem that they can be formed in quickly moving
water only, and that normally they will not be preserved.

In April, 1936, between the end of the promenade and the Lower
Lighthouse at Burnham, more of these clay balls were seen. Although
in considerable number, they were only very crudely rounded, and many
had almost a sausage form. In this area the beach was very severely
denuded of sand during the winter of 1935-36, and the underlying clay
thus exposed. Apparently this has been subjected to wave erosion,
_ grooves have been worn in it, and from the edges thus exposed, pieces
of clay have been torn away. These pieces are constantly rolled to
and fro by the waves and are seemingly the origin of the clay balls
as seen.

No previous mention of them has been found in this country. An
American reference,”> however, describes apparently similar balls in the
gravels of the tributaries of the Upper Illinois:

“ An interesting feature to be seen in the gravel of most of the
tributaries consists of the so-called ‘clay balls.’ These are
pieces of till rounded by being rolled by water.

“ They seem to be found only in very rapid streams, and pre-
served only where speedily covered by other deposits.”

They have been mentioned by another American writer?® as occurring
along the beach of Lake Michigan, along which there is “ considerable
slumping ” during continued wet weather, within reach of waves.

206 oO. D. KENDALL

Views are put forward to account for their formation by both accretion
and corrasion. The writer suggests their origin as “ similar to that of
clay balls or rolls formed where lake waves are actively cutting. .. .
The chief requirement that would seem necessary would be a slumping
of stiff tenacious clay into moving water.”

Cushing?’ has pointed out that the Indians have noticed the connec-
tion of the clay balls with running water. Consequently, they are
collected and put in irrigation ditches to encourage the flow of water
in their primitive irrigation—a kind of sympathetic magic.

In August, 1936, they were seen again on the west side of the island,
in considerable quantities and of a variety of sizes up to six inches in
diameter. There is a good deal of miniature cliffing on this side of the
island, and the balls usually occur just below this, at the junction
of the clay step and the sand. It was confirmed that many of them
contain numbers of pebble fragments. Others have a pebble as a
nucleus. Further observations supported earlier impressions that they
are formed by rolling in water, and that they are probably derived
from a more or less recent mud.

CONCLUSIONS.

The formations discussed, Stert Point, Stert Island and Fenning
Island, seem to show a constant struggle between the waves and the
winds on the one hand and the point itself on the other. Under ordinary
circumstances the point gradually makes to the north-east. The
longshore drift is along the coast in that direction, and the constant
supply of shingle, though rather small in quantity, undoubtedly enables
it to build up, and has afforded protection for the inclusion of such
areas as Fenning Island in the mainland. Further, the prevailing
winds are westerly. The tidal currents in the area, however, are strong,
and there must be a constant danger of severe erosion by storm waves
if these coincide with high tides. Such circumstances would seriously
interfere with the normal progradation of the point, and on occasion
might result in a definite breach. There is clear evidence that shingle
is being piled up over the land on the seaward side of Stert, and there
is considerable erosion between the last groyne and the Far Point.
This is probably due to storm waves, and was thus demonstrated during
the gale of September, 1935. A material factor also is the extensive
fetch of open water. It is suggested that the separation of Stert Island
from the mainland was a result of a critical combination of these
elements. It is perhaps also significant that the break between the

THE COAST OF SOMERSET 207

island and the point occurred immediately opposite the mouth of the
River Brue.

The meeting of the currents of the Parrett and the Brue may be
expected to lead to the formation of mud barriers in the Parrett in
the neighbourhood of their junction, especially if the unusual amount
of sediment carried by them is considered. Many old maps give
evidence of these, and also show the way in which they are constantly
changing in both position and size. Their formation is also influenced
by the constant shifting of the main channel of the Parrett. One of
these was gradually enlarged and ultimately became Fenning Island.
Later, this was enveloped by Stert Point and became a part of the
mainland.

Both the Point and Stert Island are unstable structures, have un-
doubtedly changed in form many times, and will continue to do so.
At the moment, the Point is pushing out towards the island, and the
channel between the two dries out at low water. Silting in the latter
is reported to be appreciable, though no definite observations are so far
available in support of this suggestion. The island itself, however,
is suffering severe erosion, and it may disappear before a junction can
once again be made with the Point. A relatively new spread of shingle
to the south-west of the island must be noticed here, as it may materially
assist in the closing of the present channel.

New defences have recently been constructed to the west of Stert.
If these are effective in holding up an appreciable amount of shingle,
then the progradation of the point may be slowed down, and erosion
along its western side may become more severe.

My grateful thanks are due to the Colston Research Society, who
have made grants in aid of this work, and to a number of my old students
without whose help the succession of surveys could not have been
carried out.

REFERENCES

1. The Estuary of the Severn and its Tributaries, Sollas, W. J.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1883.

2 and 23. The West Coast of England Pilot. H.M.S8.O. 1922.

3. Geological Sketch of Brean Down. Ussher, W. A. E. Proc.
Somerset Arch. and N.H. Soc. 1914.

4, Ancient Geography of West of England. Boyd Dawkins.
Proc. Somerset Arch. and N.H. Soc. Vol. 18, p. 26.

5, 6 and 20. Dumnoma. Greswel!l, W. 1922.
6. See 5.

208

Oo. D. KENDALL

. The Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain. Speed, J. 161).
. The Victoria History of Somerset.
. Geography of Lower Parrett in Early Times. Major, A. F.

Proc. Somerset Arch. and N.H. Soc. Vol. 66. 1920.

. Recent Geological Changes in Somerset. Poole, G. 8. Quart.

Journ. Geol. Soc. 1864.

. Agricultural Survey of Somerset. Billingsley. 1798.

ld Parish Accounts of Huntspill. Saunders, G. 1703.

. Floods in England. White, E. London, 1607.
. Geology of the Quantock Hills, etc. Ussher. Memoir Geol.

Survey. 3908.

. Turbaries between Glaston and the Sea. Stradling, W. Proc.

Somerset Arch. and N.H. Soc. 1851.

. Formation of Peat Bogs and Turbaries. Phelps, W. Proc.

Somerset Arch. and N.H. Soc. 1853.

. Notes on the Geology of Otterhampton. Woodhouse, T.

Proc. Somerset Arch. and N.H. Soc. 1877.

. Somerset. Knight, F. A. Cambridge Univer. Press.
. Vegetation Changes, Berrow Flats. Stuart Thompson. Jour.

Ecology. 1922.

pee, 0: :
. The Sea Walls of the Severn. Stanford D. Cole (private publica-

tion). 1912.

. Bridgwater and other Levels of Somerset. Clark, J. A. Bath

and West of Eng. Agric. Jour. 1854.

wee. 2.
. Personal Communication. R. Neville Grenville. 1933.
. The formation of Clay Balls. Haas, W.H. Journal of Geology.

1927.

. Geography of the Upper Illinois. Carl, Sauer. State Geol.

Sur. Illinois. Bull No. 27. 1916.

. Zuni Breadstuffs. Cushing. Indian Notes’ and Monographs.

Vol. 8. Museum of American Indian, New York. 1920.

209

Additions to Bristol Insect Fauna (Diptera)
Since 1934

By H. L. F. AupcEnt
(Read in title, 4th March, 1937)

ITonIDIDZ (CECIDOMYIIDZ).
Anarete coracina Zett. S. Shapwick (A.), 7.1x.25 (see Ent. Mo.
Mag., for 1929, p. 15).
Funcivorip& (MycreropHiILips).
Docosia sciarina Mg. G. Frenchay (A.), 14.1v.35.

TIPULIDZ.
Tipula montium Kigg. 8. Vallis Vale (A.), 31.v.36.
Tipula peliostigma Schum. 8. Tickenham (A.), 21.v1.36.
SYRPHIDZ.
Sphegina clunipes Fall. 8. Vallis Vale (A.), 31.v.36.
Cnemodon latitarsis Keg. S. Banwell (J.), 25.vu.22.
Eumerus tuberculatus Rond. G. Filton (A.), 22.v.35.
LARVAVORID (TACHINID).
Compsilura concinnata Mg. 8. Long Ashton (J. V. Blachford),
ex: Acronycta psi L., 3.v.35.
Panzeria melsent Vill. 8. Shapwick (A. H. peel ex: Tanicampa
populetr Fab., 21.iv.36.
Mehria eee haga) roselle, Bottch. 8. Curry Rivel, vide Paton
and Wainwright, Ann. Trop. Med. and Paras., Vol. 29, No. 4,
p. 523, Dec., 1935.
Lhyrsocnema (Sarcophaga) teretirostris Pand. G. Filton (A.), 29.v.35.
Anachetopsis ocypterima Zett. S. Sharpham (St.), 31.v.36.
Muscip& (ANTHOMYIID2).
Hydrotza tuberculata Rond. G. Pilning (A.), 12.v.35.
Cenosia humilis Mg. 8. Sharpham (A.), 6.1x.25.
TETANOCERIDZ (SCIOMYZIDA). ,
Sciomyza austera Mg. (lata Schin.) 8. Shapwick (A.), 1.v.27.

210

Notes on the Development of Some Upper
Lias Ammonites

By’ C.. Ci YU, Bie. PRD:
(Read in title, 4th March, 1937)

HILE working in the Geological Department of the University

of Bristol I have had the opportunity to investigate the develop-
ment of a number of ammonites from the Upper Lias, and as there are
few records of the ontogenies of many of these forms it appears desirable
to place some of my observations on record. The value of evidence
gained from the study of ontogeny as a key to phylogeny has lately
been called in question. It may be said, however, that whether the
stages in ontogeny are regarded as affording indications of ancestry
or as showing possible lines of future changes, they are of distinct
importance in the study and classification of ammonites. A knowledge
of the development of all ammonites is therefore desirable.

Many of the specimens on which I have worked were in the collections
of the Geological Department of the University of Bristol; some of
these were included in the T. Fry Collection. Mr. J. W. Tutcher
also kindly gave me many specimens to study, while to Dr. F. 8. Wallis
of Bristol Museum, Dr. C. J. Stubblefield of the Geological Survey, and
Dr. L. F. Spath of the British Museum (Natural History) I am grateful
for facilities in the study of material in their charge. This work has
been carried out with the assistance of Professor A. H. Trueman and
with help from the Colston Research Society.

In working out the developments, some specimens have been cut
vertically through the centre, and others have been dissected. All
drawings, including those of the sutures, have been made by means of
the camera lucida. |

1. Harpoceras falcifer (J. Sow).

The specimens were from the falcifer zone, Pennard, Somerset.
Dimensions of adults, 115 mm., 42, 22, 29; 90 mm., 45, 20, 28.1

This species is characterised in the adult stage by a well-developed
septi-carina, the keel in the cast being inconspicuous. The sides of the
whorls are nearly flat, and marked by simple, broad, falciform ribs

1 The dimensions given are according to the scheme used by Buckman :—

Diameter in mm., followed in order by whorl height, whorl thickness, and breadth
of umbilicus, as percentages of the diameter.

NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME UPPER LIAS AMMONITES 2i1

visible on both inner and outer parts of the whorl. About two-fifths
of the way across the whorl (from the inner or umbilical border) is a
well-marked spiral furrow. The umbilical margin of the whorl is deeply

undercut.

The development of the shells remains smooth
until it has a diameter of about 10 mm., but a
faint keel is already seen, even on the cast, before
this stage is reached, though there is not a septi-
carina. At this stage the umbilical margin slopes
gently into the umbilicus, but by the diameter of
13 mm. the margin is almost upright (Fig. 15).
Ribs are present at this stage, but not very
distinctly, the inner portion of the whorl being
nearly smooth.

At a little over 20 mm. diameter there is a
strong keel, scarcely seen at all in the cast; a
well-marked septi-carina is present by this stage.
The ribs are less falciform than those of the
adult; only a few of the ribs extend to the inner
part of the whorl, two or three shorter ribs
being present on the outer portion of the whorl
between each pair of them. There is a tendency
to form a low knot-like projection at the position
of the sharp bend in the ribs. No furrow is
present at this stage and the umbilical margin is
not undercut.

In the development of the suture the external
saddle shows the beginnings of a_ bipartite
character at an early stage (before 4 mm.), when
the sutural elements are otherwise undivided
(Fig. 16). This feature (characteristic of Harpo-
ceras and related genera) becomes very pronounced
before the adult stage is reached. From an early
stage also the first lateral lobe is deeper than the

Fie. 15
VERTICAL SECTION OF

Harpoceras falcifer
(J. Sow) x 14

external lobe, and the first lateral saddle is very narrow.

2. Harpoceras exaratum (Young and Bird).

The specimens were from the Upper Lias of Whitby. The adult
shell had the following dimensions: 18 mm., 44, 29, 25 keel. Mr.
S. S. Buckman pointed out (in Yorkshire Type Ammonites, Vol. I,
p. ol, 1909) that it differs from the typical Harpoceras “ by not having

212 CO. °C. Yu

an undercut umbilical edge and by beginning to lose the strong falciform
character of the ribbing.” Buckman pointed out that a more falciform
stage occurs in the development.

23mm,

i3mm.

Fic. 16

SUTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF Harpoceras falcifer (J. Sow). THE NUMBERS INDICATE
THE DIAMETERS AT WHICH THE SUTURES WERE DRAWN

ie CAS
SIN
CAN

8.5mm.

6mm.

2.5mm
Fie. 17 Fie. 18
SUTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF Harpoceras exaratum VERTICAL SECTION OF
(Y. AND B.) Harpoceras (Phaularpites)

exiguum BucKMAN xX 14

NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME UPPER LIAS AMMONITES 213

A feeble keel appears very early in development, being first recog-
nisable at 3 mm. diameter: ribs also appear early. The umbilical
margin becomes upright at about 13 mm., but does not become undercut.

44mm.

26mm,

19mm.

i6mm.

12mm.

clive
Uy

5mm.

Fie. 19
SUTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF Harpoceras (Phaularpites) exiguum

The sutural development shows the early accentuation of the bipartite
external saddle (Fig. 17), but the other features are much less pro-
nounced than in Harpoceras falcifer.

214 ©..C. Vil

3. Harpoceras (Phaularpites) exiguum Buckman.

The specimens were topotypes from Moolham, Somerset. The
dimensions of the adults were similar to those given by Buckman
(Type Ammonites, VII, 1928, poctxxiv); for instance, 21-5 mm.,
38, 28, 32:5.

48mm.

35mm,

23mm.

i2mm.

Oy fe 8.5mm.

Fie. 20
SUTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF Hildoceras walcotti (J. Sow)

A very low carina is shown on the cast of the adult, but it is more
noticeable than in the adult of Harpoceras falcifer. Only the stronger
primary ribs reach the inner edge, the secondary ribs being in some cases
united to them about a third of the way across the whorl. The
umbilical margin is practically upright (Fig. 18).

NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME UPPER LIAS AMMONITES 215

An extremely faint carina is present at 4-5 mm. diameter, at which
stage ribs were not observed. The shell remains smooth for several
whorls but inconspicuous ribs are present at 7-5 mm., and are only gently
curved ; they are distinctly sigmoid at about 16 mm.

The sutural development shows the early importance of the bipartite
external saddle, but in many ways the suture resembles H. exaratum
rather than H. falcifer, especially in the wider external saddle. This
latter feature appears to tilt outwards in both these species owing to
the greater height of the inner portion (Fig. 19).

4. Hildoceras walcottr (J. Sow).

The specimens were from the Upper Lias of Whitby. The dimensions

of an adult form were 76:5 mm., 31, 21-5, 44:5. The adult features
are well known, but the absence of a septi-carina and the sloping inner
edge may be mentioned here.
_ These characters may be observed from a very early stage in the
development, for they are already present by the diameter of 8 mm.,
when the shell has a keel bordered by faint sulci, and when ribs are
present, though confined to the middle parts of the whorl. Before the
diameter of 20 mm. the ribs are wider and are extending towards the
outer margin of the whorl, bending sharply backwards from the borders
of the spiral furrow which appears early and remains prominent.

The sutural development is shown in figure 20.

5. Huildoceras sp. nov.

A number of specimens of Hildoceras from the Upper
Lias of Moolham appear to represent an undescribed
species. The following gives the normal dimensions :
45-5, 32, 30, 45.
The whorl is almost square in section, with prominent
keel and sulci (Fig. 21). The ribs are much less
distinctly sigmoid than in H. walcotti and related
species, being slightly arched backwards on the side of
the whorl: the smooth inner portion of the whorl is quite
narrow, and there is no distinct furrow.
The development of the ribs shows some interesting
features (Fig. 22). They are prominent by 6 mm. Fie. 21
diameter, and bend very sharply, getting stronger near varricat
the outer margin where they tend to form a knob, ‘SECTION OF

; ee ' : : ‘ Hildoceras
This condition persists for some time, the ribs becoming sp. Xx 2

216 c. c. va

fainter on the inner part of the whorl and less reclined on the outer
part. In some cases two of the ribs appear to unite at the sharp

bend.
— Z| F Al (F(
A A

Fig. 22

CHANGES IN ORNAMENTATION IN Hildoceras sp.: a, AT45MM; 6, aT 30 MM. ;
c, AT 17 mM.; d, AT 10 MM.; e, AT 6 MM.

The sutural development closely resembles that of H. walcotti.

THE CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE
SERIES (AVONIAN) OF THE AVON
GORGE

BY THE LATE
ARTHUR VAUGHAN, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.

Revised with certain additional sections by
S. H. Reynoups, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S.

The above publication (1936) may be obtained (paper covers),
price 2s. 6d., inland postage 3d., on application to :—

THe Hon. Liprarian, B.N. Society,
The Museum and Art Gallery,
Bristol, 8.

217

Further Notes on Carboniferous Mollusca from
Shipham, Somerset

By #8: WaLis, DSc: EG.s:
(Read before the Geological Section, 18th Feb., 1937)

N the Proceedings of this Society for 1934, pp. 538-541, an account
was given of some cephalopods collected from a quarry on the east
of Shipham-Cheddar road about J] mile §.8.E. of Shipham Church,
The quarry is owned by Messrs. L. W. Bryant (Quarries) Ltd., and strata
of both horizon y and subzone C, are included. Through the kindness
of the owners and others interested in the quarry, especially Mr. H. W.
Smith, a further series of mollusca has been deposited in the Museum
and Art Gallery collections, and the object of the present note is to
record and describe briefly these additions.

The more common fossils found in the quarry and constituting the
usual faunal assemblage have been already noted in the previous
paper. The only addition in this category worth recording is Palgo-
smilia (Cyathophyllum) @ (Vaughan).

Cardiomorpha corrugata (McCoy). An excellent example of this
species has recently been found by Mr. R. F. Parry of Cheddar, and
deposited in the Wells Museum. Through the courtesy of the Curator,
Mr. H. E. Balch, M.A., it has been possible to examine it. The
lamellibranch is complete and agrees with the description and measure-
ments given in Hind’s Palzontographical Society’s Monograph. This
agreement is especially pronounced in regard to the compression
which forms a well-marked excavation below the umbo. The specimen
measures antero-posteriorly 7-2 cms., dorso-ventrally 6-1 cms. and the
thickness of the two valves is 4-2 cms.

Pleurotomaria carinata (J. Sowerby). A gasteropod, almost wholly
in the form of a worn cast, is clearly referable to this species. It
consists of about four whorls, the apex being absent. The raised ridge
at the edge of the whorls is well shown in the cast but the apparently
tuberculate appearance is solely inorganic and due to differential
weathering. The umbilicus is deep with angular edges, and the lines.
of growth are indicated near the aperture. The maximum height and
width are 4-8 cms. and 5-2 cms. respectively. The specimen is in the
collections of the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery (Reg. No. Cb 2584).

Platyschisma helicoides (J. Sowerby). A fine internal cast collected

218 F. S. WALLIS

by Professor A. E. Trueman, D.Sc., and now in the collections of the
Museum and Art Gallery (Reg. No. Cb. 2630) is referable to this species.

The cast is evidently that of a smooth thin-shelled organism, although
here again weathering has produced a pseudo-tuberculate appearance
on one whorl. The shell is flattish and has a depressed, low spire of
four convex whorls. The aperture is lunate and the umbilicus is re-
latively narrow and deep with rounded edges. The base of the shell
is distinctly tumid. The maximum height and width of the shell are
respectively 5-4 cms. and 6-5 cms.

Actinoceras striatum (J. Sowerby). In the previous paper, op. cit.
p. 539, a specimen (Reg. No. Cb 2412 in the Bristol Museum and Art
Gallery collections) consisting of portions of four gas chambers is
identified as Aipoceras gibberosum (de Koninck). Further development
and examination of the specinien shows that it is Actinoceras striatum
(J. Sowerby). The shell is oval in section and the septa are moderately
spaced. There is a shallow sinus in the septa on the side of the longest
diameter and nearest to the siphuncle ; the latter is excentric and placed
at a point about 2/5 along each diameter of the oval. Owing to the
weathered character of the shell, there are no signs of the exterior
decoration which is such a feature of this species.

Actinoceras sowerbyi (McCoy). A specimen in the collections of
the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery (Reg. No. Cb 2585) shows the
base of the body-chamber and clearly indicates the position of the
siphuncle in this species. The section is ovate in shape and the
siphuncle is situated about half-way between the centre and the
margin. The septa are markedly arched on the shorter side and form a
shallow sinus on the longer diameter. The measurements of the
diameters of the body-chamber are 8-5 cms. and 7-9 cms.

Solenocheilus conspicuus (de Koninck). A nautilus-like, tumid
shell, consisting of about three gas chambers and part of the body-
chamber, is referred to this species. The section is almost semi-circular
and the zone of impression is shallow and indistinct. The aperture
is not present; the sides are broad and flat and finally merge imper-
ceptibly into the periphery. The siphuncle is situated close to the
ventral margin, just beneath the smooth test. The maximum height
of the whorl is 7-°9 cms. The specimen is in the collections of the
Bristol Museum and Art Gallery (Reg. No. Cb 2586).

Aipoceras compressum (Foord). The specimen (Reg. No. Cb 2537),
in the collections of the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery, consists
of part of a body-chamber and shows the characteristic change im
curvature of the periphery. The section is roughly triangular. The

ee SS ee eee ee ee ae

FURTHER NOTES ON CARBONIFEROUS MOLLUSCA FROM SHIPHAM, SOMERSET 219

sides are flattened and gradually merge into the narrowly-rounded
periphery. The siphuncle is near the ventral margin of the shell;
no trace of surface ornamentation can be detected. The maximum
diameter of the body-chamber is 10-0 cms.

Adding the organisms described in this and the previous paper,
it may be stated that the following mollusca occur in Bryant’s quarry
at Shipham :—

Cardiomorpha corrugata (McCoy).
Pleurotomaria carinata (Sow.).
Platyschisma helicordes (Sow.).
Actinoceras giganteum (Sow.).
Actinoceras striatum (Sow.).
Actinoceras sowerbyi (McCoy).
Meloceras apicale (Foord).

Meloceras arcuatoseptatum (Foord).
Poterioceras fusiforme (J. de C. Sow.).
Vestinautilus paucicarinatus (Foord).
Aipoceras gibberosum (de Kon.).
Aipoceras compressum (Foord).
Solenochetlus conspicuus (de Kon.).

Considering that such fossils are almost unknown in other parts of
the South-Western province, it is difficult to account for such a rich
faunal assemblage in one quarry. The question was briefly discussed
in the previous paper and although these notes add considerably to the
number of known forms, the reason for their presence is still no further
explained. A partial solution of the problem may lie in the fact that,
as in other parts of the Bristol area, fossil collectors have concentrated
on the more usual brachiopods and corals. In that case the absence
of these forms in beds of the same age in neighbouring localities is more
apparent than real.

220

On a Boring for Coal at Farrington Gurney,
Near Bristol

By L. R. Moors, B.Sc., Ph.D., and A. E. Trugman, D.Sc., F.G.S.
(Read in title, 4th March, 1937)

BORING was made for the Marsh Lane Colliery Company

of Farrington Gurney, Somerset, in order to ascertain the
position of the Rudge seam, formerly worked at the Rudge Colliery,
near Clutton.

The authors are indebted to Mr. Cottle, the manager of the Marsh
Lane Colliery, who kindly gave particulars of the boring and also
further data from sections in his possession concerning the Rudge and
Gireyfield Collieries (lyimg some two miles to the north of Farrington
(yurney).

The site of the boring lies immediately west of the main Bristol to
Wells road and on the slope of Rush Hill. It is approximately 90
yards west of the milestone shown on the six-inch Ordnance Survey
sheet (Somerset XIX, 8.H.). It is about 400 yards due west of the
Marsh Lane Colliery where the lowest member of the Jubilee group
of seams is worked to its sub-Mesozoic outcrop. ‘The Jubilee group
of seams on this western border of the Radstock basin represents the
lowest worked horizon in the Farrington Group of the Upper Coal
Series. As the strata are dipping almost due east, the borehole section
apparently provides important evidence of the sequence commencing
some 350 feet below the Jubilee seams.

Boring started at 428 feet above ordnance datum and reached a
depth of 291 feet. A section was kept at the Marsh Lane Colliery
offices, and the cores, though confused, were examined by the authors.

SECTION :— Thickness
Trias. ft. in.
Keuper Marls ae ie af af’ ae .+ 60. 0
Dolomitic Conglomerate .. Ei. es oF 2 1900

Coal Measures.

Coal Seam ae re BS i Y sa SE
Soft blue shales with plant remains .. ee SEs
Coal Seam—soft shaley coal. B a i
Red and mottled shales: “Dicey” .. on

Hard sandstone band 4 a } 117
Soft blue shale... a oe ee i

Red strata—disturbed and slickensided va Be |

PF Oo BDBOO

—

~ os ON A BORING FOR COAL AT FARRINGTON GURNEY, NEAR BRISTOL 221

The abnormal thickness of the Dolomitic Conglomerate is of con-
siderable interest. The limestone pebbles are large and suggest de-
rivation from a source at no very great distance. The nearest Carboni-
ferous Limestone would appear to be two miles away. Shaft sections
of the Farrington Gurney and Old Mills Collieries show thicknesses of
Dolomitic Conglomerate of only 12 and 16 feet respectively.

The coal seam cut at 150 feet proved to be of good quality ; the roof
of the seam was not, however, cut in the borehole. The soft shaley
coal cut at 170 feet carried a strong shale roof in which plant remains
were abundant. The following species were identified :—

Sphenopteris sp.

Neuropteris cf. nikolaust Goth.
N..scheuchzert Hoff.

N. cf. macrophylla Brongt.

N. cf. tenuifolia (Schloth.)
Innopteris sp.

Asterotheca cyathea (Schloth.)

A. miltone (Art.)

Pecopteris dentata (Brongt.)
Sphenophyllum emarginatum Brongt.
S. cf. majus Bronn

Lepidodendron lycopodioides Sternb.
L. cf. worthent Lesq.

Lepidostrobus sp.

Lepidophyllum majus Brongt.

L. triangularis Zeiller

Annularia radiata Brongt.
Cordaites sp.

The occurrence of Linopterts sp. and the forms of Neuropteris
ef. tenuifolia provide an interesting feature of the assemblage. Neurop-
teris cf. nikolaust and A sterotheca cyathea are species which are common
only in the lowest known strata of the Farrington Group. The speci-
mens of Pecopteris dentata listed above bear close resemblance to forms
of Dactylotheca plumosa (Art.).

Below the seam cut at 170 feet, red and mottled strata were en-
countered and passed into a harder sandstone band, further soft shales
continuing the sequence. The boring ended in red strata strongly
slickensided, suggesting the presence of faulting. Specimens of
Alethopteris serls were obtained from these strata.

This sequence is of particular interest in that strong sandstones are
practically absent. The Marsh Lane Colliery workings east of the
borehole are free from disturbance, and though sandstones may occur
in the strata between the colliery and the borehole, the presence of a

222 L. R. MOORE AND A. E. TRUEMAN

shale belt containing coal seams at this horizon in the Pennant Scries
is of considerable importance.

McMurtrie' mentioned a level branch driven across the deeper
measures of the now disused Greyfield Colliery some two miles north
of Farrington Gurney. It was intended to cut the Rudge Seam pre-
viously worked near by. A section of this branch shows the Bantam
seam and two coals below it (regarded as equivalent to the Jubilee
Group) to lie 155 feet below the New Seam of Greyfield Colliery.
Below the Bantam Seam, a shale belt 140 feet thick, containing an
unworkable coal seam, passed into a group of massive sandstones
termed “‘ Pennant” at a point 850 feet along the branch from the New
Seam. A further shale belt, with a soft coal seam 2 feet 6 inches
thick, was proved below the sandstone. The branch was closed before
the Rudge Seam was cut. The Rudge Seam was estimated to lie
1,370 feet along the branch from the New Seam.

The disused Rudge Colliery at Clutton lies east of the bridge carrying
Marsh Lane over the Bristol and North Somerset Railway (six-inch
Ordnance Survey, Somerset XIX, N.H.). A shaft section of this
colliery shows the Rudge Seam to occur at a depth of 102 yards, with
red mottled strata described as “ Red dicey’ below it. It is thought
that this horizon may be represented in the Farrington Gurney borehole.
The surface features exhibited near the Rudge and Greyfield Collieries
suggest the presence of softer shaley bands of considerable thickness
lying above the massive Pennant Sandstone which is quarried near by.

The evidence provided by the borehole section and by the data
from the Rudge and Greyfield Collieries suggests the presence of a
shale belt containing coal seams, and lying below the Farrington
Group proper. :

1 McMurtrie, J. ‘‘ The Geological features of the Somerset and Bristol Coalfield,

with special reference to the Geology of the Somerset Basin.”’—T rans. Inst. Min.
Eng. (1900), Vol. XX, p. 14.

Es.

223

Further Recent Exposures in the Rhetic and
Liassic Rocks of the Bristol Area

By G. A. Ketiaway, B.Sc.
(Read in title, 4th March, 1937)

EVERAL new sections have been made in the Liassic and Rhetic

rocks since the important temporary exposure near West Town
Lane, Brislington, was described in these Proceedings in 1935 (Vol.
VII, Pt. VII). It is desirable that these new sections should be
recorded.

1. Section at Red Lion Hill, Knowle. This section, of which the
details are given below, was exposed during road-widening operations
on the main Bristol-Wells road at a point just east of the Knowle Tram
Terminus. The rocks were seen to be dipping at 4° in a W.N.W.
direction.

Upper Rhetic. 6 feet 6 inches.

24. Rubble with Cotham Marble. hte ine
23. Clay. Laminated, greenish (seen) ee i ‘ak ey ew
22. Limestone. Fine- -grained, grey . | Ore

21. Clay. Laminated green and yellow, with an " imper-

sistent limestone bed .. Lis.
20. Limestone. Banded—with “ sun-cracked ” layers 1 4
19. Clay. Greenish- mone wie a band of limestone

nodules (0-1 in. thick) . rs es i ee 2 O)

Lower Rhetic. 7 feet 11 inches,

18. Shale. Black, rusty-stained—with Schizodus ewaldi .. 2
17. Shale. Ochreous—with Protocardium rheticum and

Pleurophorus elongatus .. 0 2

16. Shale. Soft black—with Pteria contorta and Schizodus
concentricus ae sts ie Sens Oi aed
15. Limestone and ochreous sandy shale 0 3

14. Shale. Soft black—with pac eae emmnerichi, Pteria
contorta and Schizodus ewaldr . : 1 8
13. Shale. Ochreous and pyritic .. Opes

12. Shale. Soft black—with Protocardium rheticum, Pteria
contorta, Schizodus ewaldr 4

11. Shale. Hard, black—base ochreous : : sah a toe fish
scales in the bottom inch. Schizodus ewaldi evils S

Red and Green Marls. Approx. 50 feet:

10. Marl. Soft, greenish, jointed .. ws m Mamie Lk 5)
9. Marl. Hard, “calcareous .. on fe ee
8. Marl. Green, jomted—with some » limestone .. ee Oe

224 G. A. KELLAWAY

if, an:
7. Marl.” Red . a ee 8 0
6. Marl. Gicon with bine aunt tates oe 2 6
5. Marl. Hard, yellowish-green, partly otystaliae Ol
4. Ochreous parting .. - a ne 0 4
3. Sandstone. Soft yellow able A 2 10
2. Marl. Hard red and green, variegated 4 0
1. Marl. Red—with irregular green patches (seen) 20 0

In the clays of Bed 19 was a nodule of limestone containing bands
of a small but abundant Protocardium. This was in a vertical position
and was associated with patches of black shale (containing S. ewaldt)
of undoubted Lower Rhetic age. Both the nodule and the black shale
were completely surrounded by the greenish-yellow clay. The following
forms were collected from the Lower Rhetic :—

‘ Pelecypoda :—

Myophoria emmerichi (Winkler).
Pleurophorus elongatus (Moore).
Protocardium rheticum (Merian).
Pterva contorta (Portlock).

“ Schizodus ’’ concentricus (Moore).
“ Schizodus’”’ ewaldi (Bornemann).

Gastropoda :—

“ Chemnitzia’”’ henricc (Martin).

2. <A further section was exposed on the site of the new Public
Baths adjoining the Water Tower at Knowle. Here, White Lias was
seen to be resting on the Upper Rhetic clays which were capped by a
bed of Cotham Marble. The dip was in a direction 5° S. of W. at 8°.
It is thus apparent that in the neighbourhood of Knowle Hill the
Lias and Rhetic rocks have a westerly or west-north-westerly dip.

The Lias and Rhetic rocks of Knowle form part of the Dundry
_mass, while the sections described below are situated on the west side
of the City in the district of Henleaze, and consequently fall within the
North Bristol outlier.

3. The following exposures have been seen on the Northumberland
House Estate, which is now in process of development. The estate
lies within the area bounded by Howard Road, Holmes Grove Road,
Henleaze Road and Downs Park East.

pen.

FURTHER RECENT EXPOSURES IN RHATIC AND LIASSIC ROCKS OF BRISTOL AREA 225

Exposure A. Half mile due E. of the L-bend in Henleaze Road.

20.

Limestone. Psiloceras seen in section

19. Clay. Ochreous. ..
18-13. Alternating Shales and thin limestones

12.
LE
10.
. Limestone. Granular pink and grey

. Shale. Brown calcareous

. Limestone. With Pleuromya tate: R. and T.

ae te

TD ~1.

Shale. Brown, laminated—with Ostrea sp.
Limestone. Hard grey—with Lima sp.
Shale. Brown—many broken Ostrea shells

Clay

_ Limestone. Hard “ grey—with Pleuromya tatei and

Ostrea liassica

. Shale and limestone parting
. Limestone sy

Shale. Dark eealonred

. Limestone. A hard grey limestone resting 0 on a few

inches of more rubbly beds ..

Exposure B. Half mile 8.W. of A.

The gap between the bottom beds seen in section A and the top beds
of section B is probably about two feet.

]

Hb WR OVD ~10 00

. Limestone

Clay

Pee cione with Modiola langportensis R. and T.

Clay. Greenish grey

. Cotham Marble

Clay. Laminated grey—with small concretions

. Limestone. Grey, blue-hearted, banded

Clay. Grey laminated

. Limestone. Grey, impersistent— -with Estheria minuta
. Clay. Laminated grey. (Seen.)

ft.

S So. ea) (ap SS ee) | Cas) (en)

Vlas (aa an een ea es) ay

in.

oper
Or e

A short distance from Exposure B a trench was cut in the Upper
Rheetic clay, below which an impersistent limestone appeared. The
sides of the trench were boarded up when it was examined by the
writer, so that the sequence could not be determined. However,
it seems almost certain that this limestone, which is rich in well-
preserved specimens of Navadites lanceolata, is at about the same
horizon as, or possibly a little lower than, that of the Estheria-nodules.

PLANT REMAINS FOUND IN THE Nanadites-BED

The following notes have been very kindly supplied by Professor
T. M. Harris, of Reading University.

226 G. A. KELLAWAY

LIVERWORTS AND MOSSES

Naradites lanceolata Brodie. In most of the plant-bearing layers
the specimens are very broken, but the preservation of fine details of
structure is unusually good. All the known organs of the plant were
found, gemme and archegonia are remarkably common.

Hepaticites solenotus M.S. sp. Fragments of this liverwort are fairly
frequent. They are recognisable by their clear brown colour.

Moss rhizoids. Fine branching filaments agreeing in all their char-
acters with moss rhizoids are common in this locality.

ALG

Botryococcus braunt Kiitz (known as Pila and Reinschia as fossils).
This alga is very common in this locality, often occurring as one or
two colonies to each square centimeter. It is a pinkish to rust-red
colour and is occasionally difficult to distinguish from ferric oxide
concretions without chemical tests. The colonies can be cleared
very satisfactorily with concentrated nitric acid and potassium chlorate.
This alga is much commoner here than elsewhere.

Stenixys cosmarioides M.S. gen. et. sp. A rather rare alga in this and
other localities. It is recognisable by its shape and its blackish brown
colour.

The new genera and species mentioned above are to be described by
Professor Harris in a forthcoming publication by the British Museum.

Exposure C. Half mile E. of the junction of Henleaze Road and
Henleaze Gardens and just 8. of Holmes Grove Road.

fF. 0.

12. Limestone.

11. Clay. Brown.

10. Limestone with Pholadomya ies

. Shale. Hard pyritic

. Limestone with Pleuromya tatei

. Shale. Dark coloured, pear

. Limestone .. Me S es ei
Clay. Greenish- -orey (4 ins. .) da is 13

4 —
en) OWwWwW GS >

. Limestone. Hard grey (4 ins.)
. Clay. Soft greenish (2 ins.)

. Cotham Marble f

. Clay. Yellowish-green.

=) on) SS S19 a(S

er)

4. Section at the Electricity Sub-Station, Downs Park Kast,
Henleaze. ‘The following series of beds were seen during excavations

FURTHER RECENT EXPOSURES IN RHMTIC AND LIASSIC ROCKS OF BRISTOL AREA 227

at a point adjoining the junction of Downs Park Hast and Henleaze
Road.

Riga oo
Upper Rhetic—Yellow clays and limestones (seen) ie LO
Lower Rhetic—Black shale... a Mt ea One

Carboniferous Limestone (Caninia-Oolite)

Black limestones with “ Beef”’ occurred at | ft. 6 ins.,3 {t.6 ins., and
8 ft. 0 ins. above the base of the Black Shale. The bottom eighteen
inches of shale was much harder than the overlying portion and was
strongly laminated. The surface of the Caninia-Oolite on which the

. Black Shale was resting was very smooth and even, while there was no

evidence of any littoral deposit at the base of the Rhetic. The absence
of a littoral facies is characteristic of the Rhetic and Lias along the
W. margin of the N. Bristol outlier, and in this respect these rocks
contrast strongly with those of the Mendins where silicified and con-
glomeratic Rheetic and Liassic rocks are of constant occurrence whenever
they are adjacent to the Paleozoic land-mass.

5. Exposure at the junction of Etloe Road and North View, West-
bury Park. At this point a pit some 10 to 15 feet deep was made,
and from here the road was trenched as far as the top of Parry’s Lane.
In the pit about 10 feet of greenish-yellow clay could be seen at the
HK. end, resting on the rather uneven surface of the Carboniferous
Limestone (laminosa-Dolomite). The surface of the limestone rose
rapidly and reached ground level about ten yards from the EH. end of
the pit. From this point onwards to the top of Parry’s Lane, small,
impersistent patches and infillings of Rheetic clay could be seen resting
on the surface of the Limestone. Another trench, which ran from
North View to Coldharbour Road by way of Etloe Road and Bayswater
Avenue, proved Upper Rhetic in Etloe Road and basal Lias (pre-
planorbis beds) in the neighbourhood of Westbury Park Council
School.

It has become apparent that here the line of junction of the Rheetic
and the Carboniferous Limestone is an extremely irregular one and that,
in the portion of the Downs which lies E. of Westbury Road, the
Limestone is hidden by an impersistent cover of U. Rheetic clay.

The writer is indebted to Mr. H. M. Webb, B.Sc., for drawing his
attention to the exposure at Red Lion Hill.

Fossil Shells from the Nailsea Coalfield
By EK. W. SEAvILL
(Read in title before the Geological Section 18th Feb., 1937)

HEN searching on the old tip of the colliery immediately

south of Nailsea Station, I discovered a number of small slabs
of black shale containing crushed examples of a non-marine lamelli-
branch which Prof. A. EK. Trueman has kindly identified as Anthraconauta
phillipse (Will.). This, I believe, is the first shell to be recorded from
the Coal Measures of the Nailsea basin.

A note by Prof. Morris (in the Geol. Mag., 1868, p. 357) tells of the
finding of Hstheria striata var. Beinertiana from a pit at Nailsea, whilst.
he also mentions that from the roof of the White Seam of Young Wood
pit, he obtained the ostracods Kirkbya costata and a well-preserved
specimen of a species of Cythere. Young Wood pit lies about 590
yards due west of the tip from which I obtained the non-marine
lamellibranchs.

It appears from the Geological Survey map that the colliery at Nailsea.
Station was situated near the outcrop of two seams which were probably
worked there and also probably corresponded to the Golden Valley
seams shown in the Survey vertical section of the area (Sheet 49).
The Young Wood pit, on the other hand, was situated on a higher
group of seams, not far beneath the Pennant Sandstone.

The finding of A. phillips: at the Station pit proves conclusively
that some part of the coal worked there must have occurred in the
phillipsi Zone. Dr. L. R. Moore and Prof. A. EH. Trueman have recently
shown (“The Coal Measures of Bristol and Somerset,” Abstracts
Proc. Geol. Soc., No. 1324, March 5th, 1937, p. 75) that the phallopse
Zone includes the highest strata of the New Rock Group (the top of the
Lower Coal Series) and the main part of the Pennant Sandstone. It
follows, therefore, that the coal worked at Nailsea Station must have:
been within these strata. It is surprising to find that, according to the
Geological Survey map, it represents what may bedescribed as the middle
group of seams in the Lower Coal Series of the Nailsea basin, and it is
possible that the structure is more complicated than the map suggests.
Otherwise, it appears that the sequence of the Lower Coal Series below
the Golden Valley seams is very incomplete; according to Anstie’s.
figures it would leave only just over 800 feet for the whole of the
lenisulcata, ovalis, modiolaris and similis-pulchra Zones in this area,
if they are represented there.

OURTH 3ERIES, VOLUME VIII. PRICE FOUR SHILLINGS
(PART TIT

1937

PROCEEDINGS

A OF THE

vii

Bristol Naturalists’ Society
mt) Epirep sy H. W. TURNER, M.A., F.G.S.

ASSISTED BY A COMMITTEE

73
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PRINTED FOR THE

i AT THE BURLEIGH PRESS, MUSE

Issued 2nd September, 1938

FOURTH SERIES, VOL. VII, PART III, 1937 229

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
Council for 1937... ee. a @ ae ae Hg am: BOO
List of Members... ng as ee rs Se ae oe eee
Report of Council .. a che a ae oe a .. 239
Hon, Treasurer’s Statement ate te a ie ote .. 240
Hon, Librarian’s Report .. : a we He ohh «Soe
Report of Biology Teachers’ Section as a - uy oi) tas
Report of Botanical Section as te Ps ae he uy ag
Report of Entomological Section a ae 53 ae .. 244
Report of Field Section .. bee ae ah oe ae .. 246
Report of Geological Section om oe a es ong .. 248
Report of Ornithological Section : a Bi vs ong ee
Account of Annual and General Mecciage oe a ie ate 250
Presidential Address, 1937, by G. E. J. McMurtrie .. ae 5S 252
Bristol Botany in 1937, by Cecil I. Sandwith 259

Ornithological Notes, Bristol District, 1937, by H. H. Danie: M. B.O. U. 262
The Sequence and Structure of the Radstock Basin, Ly L. R. Moore,

SC. jdt: .. 267
Speedwell Pit, by L. G. G. AWaine M. as, Ph. D. we a «2 .306
Studies on the Biology of the Bristol Channel :

(1) General Introduction, by C. M. Yonge, D.Sc. a 310

(2) An Ecological Study of the Beach and the Dock at Paetichead,

by R. Denison Purchon, B.Sc. : 311
Bird-Life on Barrow Gurney Reservoirs, by H. Tene B. Sc. F. ZS 330

The Heath Association on Blackdown, Mendip, Somerset, oe
G. H. Heath, B.Sc., L. C. Luckwill, Ph.D., and O. J. Pullen, B.Sc.,

with a preface by Rose Bracher, Ph.D. .. 348
Notes on Melville Island Flowers, by H. 5. hampeent A. re S. are 365
Reviews oe AP Be is as ne eee ae .. 366

Hon. LIBRARIAN, BrisToL Nat. Soc.,
THE MuSEUM AND ART GALLERY,
BRISTOL, 8.

Ali matter for inclusion in the current issue of the Proceedings should
reach the Hon. Editor :—

H. W. Turner, M.A., F.G.S.,
THE UNIVERSITY,
BRISTOL, 8.

NOT LATER THAN FEB. 28TH, or insertion may be impossible.

The SOCIETY’S LIBRARY in the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery is
open to members as under :—

On Wednesdays and Saturdays - - 10.0 a.m. to 8.0 p.m.
On other Weekdays - - - - 10.0 am. to 6.0 p.m.

230

COUNCIL FOR 1937

OFFICERS :
PRESIDENT :

G. E. J. MCMURTRIE,
Eastfield House, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

PAST PRESIDENTS:

oir ERNEST COOK, DSc. A. L. FLEMMING, M.B., Ch.B.
[H. “WOMERSLEY, F-.R.E.S., A.L.S. J. W. TUTCHER, Birse!
JAMES RAFTER, M.A. F. 5. WALLIS, D.Se., F.G.S.
; VICE-PRESIDENTS :
WN eV ENS. Prof. C. M. YONGE, D.Sc.

HON. TREASURER:

‘F. W. EVENS, A.C.A., Stretton, 77 Manor Road, Fishponds, Bristol.

ae HON. AUDITORS :

Lor ERNE oo COOK @DiSc. CHARLES BARTLETT, F.C.A.
HON. SECRELARY =: |
I. STENHOUSE ROSS, 15 Hampton Park, Bristol, 6.
HON. LIBRARIAN:
H. GORVETT, B.Sc.
HON. EDITOR:
H. W. TURNER, M.A., F.G.S., The University, Bristol, 8.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS :
BIOLOGY TEACHERS |

Presideni—Miss M. BOWEN, M.Sc., 13 Redland Park, Bristol, 6.
Hon. Secretary —Miss M. A. GIBBS, M.Sc., 27 Eastbourne, Claremont Road,

Bath.
BOTANICAL:
President—Prof. MACGREGOR SKENE, D.Sc., F.L.S., The University,
Bristol, 8.

Hon. Secretary—F. F. GLASSPOOL, M.Sc., F.C.S., 6 Southfield Road,
Cotham, Bristol, 6.

ENTOMOLOGICAL : :

President—CHARLES BARTLETT, F.R.E.S., 8 Woodhill, Portishead,

Somerset. |

Hon, Secretary—
EIELD

President—H. F. BARKE, F.I.C., 34 Park Row, Bristol, 1.
Hon. eRe M. D. HILEY, 16 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton, Bristol, 8.
GEOLOGICAL :
President—Prof. A. E. TRUEMAN, D.Sc., F.G.S., The University, Bristol, 8.
Hon. Secretary—F. STENHOUSE ROSS, 15 Hampton Park, Bristol, 6.
ORNITHOLOGICAL :

President—J. H. SAVORY, Windyridge, Abbots Leigh, nr. Bristol. :
Hon. Secretary—H. H. DAVIS, M.B.O.U., Little Stoke, Patchway, nr. Bristol. 4

OTHER MEMBERS OF COUNCIL:

T. V.T. BAXTER, M.A., B.Sc. A. CROOME LEACH, M.A.
H. O. EDMONDS. Prof. S. H. REYNOLDS, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S.
Rev. R..JEFFCOAT, M.A. WR. CAV LOR, M.A.

H. TETLEY, Bose: 4.2.5:

Ne a ae ge

LIST OF MEMBERS

A .—Associate Member.
* Has contributed papers to the Proceedings.
Sectional Membership is indicated by letters following each name, viz.:
Bi.—Biology Teachers’; B.—Botanical; E.—Entomological ;

G.—Geological ;

Sh ROB

Alexander, D. A., M.D.
Allen, Miss A. M.
JUICE)
Aeent, fA Nl. Bis ee eb a
Badcock, Col. G. E., C.B.E.,
D.S.O. (since resigned)
Badock, Stanley H., LL.D.
Sata Sue a covnc eco ass ace tw
Baker, B. A., F.G.S.......
(deceased March, 1938)
Baler, Fl Gis Sica eee oa
Bakewell, A. G.

Barke, H. F., F.I.C.
Barke, Mrs.

Bamieer nls Ls Oy an 3 ats es
Barnett, S.H. GG... sewses
aenett, MES. il ee
Barrow, Mrs: F..L.......
Bartlett, Chas., F.C.A.,

125] 80) Oe a a ea
Barton, Miss F. M: ......
Baxter, T. V. T., M.A., B.Sc.
Beacham, G. H.

Mei, Mrs. A. Gee nates ss cce
Bisuop, Co 1... es ees

Bike WR. eee ee kes
Blandford, Miss M. H.....
Blathwayt, Rev. F. L., M.A.

M.B.O.U.
Blinkworth, K. U., M.Sc. ..

J.—Junior Member.

1937

O.—Ornithological.

112 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

29 Birchall Road, MRedland,
Bristol, 6

Hensol, Brookvale Road,
W. Cross, Swansea

45 Belvoir Road, St. Andrew’s,
Bristol, 6

3 Downfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Holmwood, Westbury-on-Trym,
Bristol

30 Arley Hill, Cotham, Bristol

8 The Avenue, Bristol, 8

Glen Farm, Abbots Leigh, Som.

36 Old Quarry Road, Shire-
hampton, Bristol

34 Park Row, Bristol, l

54 Charlton Road, Westbury-

on-Trym, Bristol

71 Woodland Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

2 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9

6 Stratford House, 22 Tyndall’s
Park Road, Bristol, 8

8 Woodhill, Portishead

39 Aberdeen Road, Cotham,
Bristol

19 Park Street, Bath

25 Clyde Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

18 Raglan Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

25 St. Michael’s Park, Bristol, 2

43 Elton Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

50 Aiken Street, Barton Hill,
Bristol, 5

25 Park Road, Staple Hill,
Bristol

Dyrham Rectory, Chippenham

4 Mortimer Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

231

+—Life. Member.

F.—Field ;

G.
Bu.
G.

Dow
i) .

oy Oy
2 OD

BS ee

By Fy Ay
a

Sh aw FH BH BH
Fy
S

232

a= Boley Ay Te cs oe de
Boley, Rens ie Skoda solo
Bowen, Miss M., B.Sc. ....

* Bracher, Miss Rose, Ph.D.
. Bradfield, Miss S. L.......

Burman, W. R.

eoeeevreevee

Bush, Miss M.

A. Butterworth, Miss D.G...

WAnonaines. 1 BvAY ob eu De cae
Chamberlain, W.
Clarke, Miss FL... oii es

A. Cleeve, R. E.

Clements, FiSe oo i eae
Clothier, G. E.

A. Clough, Miss A. M.
Clough, J. W. S.

Clough,” Mis. ise. a 8 oe
mie Cockcrott, John Al... 2. 1. .
Cole, H. S.
Cook, Miss Gas i sos een iene
Coombs, C. J. F.

Coaper! Miss N.wURes. foe. is

Sob oR ok

Cornish, Miss G. A. ......
Cratchley, Rev. W. J.,

IPheD: MeAc; Bsc. H-C.S:
A. Crofton, Miss K.

eeceeeeeese

Crosland s ).vbbcon esj<isies ts eke

Daniels hl) PGS. ace

Daniels, Miss G.

Darell, Ri D. S.,. .F:G-S,,
F:L.S:, F.Z.S. (deceased
1937)

DAVIES PA opeicie ce goles

So) Davis) HH. M.B:O.U.».:.

aise IMERS seh 6 oe oso eee
ao) Davis, Mervyn J. i. .../.

Daws.) MASS Ae is e260 se dieisls

LIST OF MEMBERS

508 Stapleton Road, Bristol

13 Redland Park, Bristol, 6

The University, Bristol, 8

40 Brentry Road, Fishponds,
Bristol

“ Korunye,” West —§ Town,
nr. Bristol

20 Cornwallis Crescent, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

31 Bedminster Down Road,
Bristol, 3

14 Broadweir, Bristol, l

157 Whiteladies Road, Bristol, 8

17 Elmdale Road, Bristol, 8

80 Beauley Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3

“Longmead,’’ Queens. Road,
Bishopsworth, near Bristol

The Research Station, Long
Ashton, Bristol

30 Henleaze Avenue, Bristol

Bourton House, Flax Bourton,
near Bristol

103 Cranbrook Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

37 Wick Road, Brislington,
Bristol, 4

Hampton House,
Park, Bristol, 6

14 Southfield Road, Westbury-
on-Trym

15 Kensington Park Road,
Brislington, Bristol, 4

51 Chesterfield Road, Bristol, 6

Ripon Hall, Boars Hill, Oxford

7 Cotham

11 Holmes Grove, Henleaze,
Bristol

130 Stackpool Road, Bristol, 3

Stringer’s Court, Rodborough,
Stroud, Glos.

4 Weston Crescent, Horfield,
Bristol, 7

Hillfield House, near Dartmouth

Down House, Stoke
Bristol, 9

Little Stoke, Patchway, near
Bristol

Bishop,

Little Stoke, Patchway, near
Bristol

8 Osborne Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

109 Forest Road, Fishponds,
Bristol

29 9 9 HO 2 oO ty

LIST OF MEMBERS

Desbrow, Norman........ Glanville House, 49 Bridgwater
Road, Bristol, 3
Pheer, G. M. wna s we ccne 12 Eaton Crescent, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Duddridge, Miss E., B.Sc. 59 Kellaway Avenue, Bristol, 6
umm: TI. olka se. 10 Effingham Road, St.

Andrew’s, Bristol, 6

Dunscombe, Miss A. 55 Clarendon Road, Redland,

Bristol, 6

Bdimends;H.O. ........ 33 Wellington Park, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

awards, ©... oe oe maces 50 Elton Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Meweards..T. G. . 2... 40 Holmes Grove, Henleaze,
Bristol:

Elkins, Miss A. K. ...... Speedwell Senior School, Bristol

125 oc Ok, ar 46 Horfield Road, St. Michael’s,
Bristol, 2

Evens, F. W., A.C.A. .... Stretton, 77 Manor Road, Fish-

ponds, Bristol

Fear, A. C. K., B.Sc., Lodway Road, Pill, nr. Bristol
F.R.H:S.

itzjames, Ko 5... 2... 17 St. Martin’s Road, Knowle,
Bristol, 4
Fitzjohn, Miss A., M.Sc. .. Malton, Chelwood, nr. Bristol
Flemming, A. L., M.B., 48 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Ch.B. Bristol, 8
Mond, IROBEL ws owe ee ws Hartfield, Cotham Park,
Bristol, 6
Boxers) As eo. ne ks Brislington House, near Bristol
Fraser, Mrs. H. G......... Foye House, Leigh Woods,
Bristol
Bay ee cick. co) hole! e sie ss 59 Air Balloon Hill, St. George,
Bristol, 5
Gardner, D. A. 30 Gloucester Road North,
; Horfield, Bristol, 7
Gibbs, Miss M. A., M.Sc. .. 27 Eastbourne, Claremont Road,
Nes: Bath
(GUSH Sam el cb) elas er 19 Berkeley Square, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Glasspool, F. F., M.Sc., 6 Southfield Road, Cotham,
EZe:S. Bristol, 6

Goodall, Rev. Canon R. W. 19 Elmdale Road, Tyndall’s
Park, Bristol, 8

Gorham; Major A... .:..... Avonside, Limpley Stoke, Bath,
Som.

Gorvett, Harold, BiSc..... “‘ Onaway,’’ Station Road,
West Town, Som.

Gowan, Miss J. E. ...... 26 Woodstock Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6 |
Green, Mrs. M. B., L.L.A. Dyrham, nr. Chippenham, Wilts
Greens Wk. «B:SCo.5...s The University, Bristol, 8
Greem Mrs. T. Le 1... es The University, Bristol, 8
Gucemiamdy P40 J.o weet se a 712 Southmead Road, Filton,
Bristol a
G@cienon,; Miss: A. Bo ou. 4] Filton Avenue, Horfield,
Bristol i. =
Halk, Miss J. H. 373 Fishponds Road, Upper

FEastville, Bristol, 5

233

B.F.G.

BEG,

234

LIST OF MEMBERS

Hallam, A. D., D.Phil.,

B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. .... 16 Cheddon Road, Taunton
Hamlin, Arthur... hss. 1 North Road, Bristol, 6
Hayman, Mrs. E. S. .... 3 Chatford House, Clifton Down,
Bristol, 8

Hayward, Miss E. ...... 31 Manor Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

uiley.) Mass Dl Ds ci. .e 9 WVyvyan Terrace, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Filey; Muss Wo: ee 9 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Hill, Miss L. M., B.A. .... 15 Clare Avenue, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Hodder, Mrs. No. vi03%. 127 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Hadegsom NGiye akties te iete 5 Cotham Terrace, Cotham,
Bristol

How, -JonniG. 25 wk wwe 17 Wellington Park, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

udson eG i oe es The Elms, Stinchcombe, Durs-
ley, Glos.

Humphries, Lady ...... Eastfield Lodge, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol

Rare iiss AL eee ike 7 Alpha Road, Southville,
Bristol

Hutchinson, G. W., M.A... Williscot, Winscombe, Som.
Hutchinson, Miss M. I. ... 57 Oakfield oad, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

2 ACE (hel Zia Me | ante ine - 26 Leonard Road, Redfield,
Bristol, 5

DEO Ci) o Led Seed mtan yee par ee 18 Alexandra Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Wacows; Ay iG. nda weramtecne 65 Fremantle Road, Cotham,
Bristol, 6

Jahans, G. A., M.A. ...... 26 Hampton Park, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Jeffcoat, Rev. R., M.A. .. 5 Berkeley Square, Clifton,
B.

Bristol, 8
Jenkins, F. G., M.B., Ch.B. 51 Redcliff Hill, Bristol, 1
Jones, W. M. (resigned 3 Imperial Walk, Knowle,

1938) Bristol, 4
Jones, Mrs. (resigned 1938) 3 Imperial Walk, Knowle,
Bristol, 4

Kearns, H. G. H., Ph.D., The Research Station, Long
IB-oc. ER ES. Ashton, Bristol
Kellaway, G. A., B.Sc. .. Geological Survey and Museum,
South Kensington, London,
S.W.7.
Kromet AAs Oo. eeest . 45 Summerleaze, Fishponds,
Bristol

Leach, A. C., M.A. ...... 11 Percival Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

ewis, TA. Mo ocieces ... ‘‘ Arnwood,”’ Lansdowne Road,
Bath

London, Miss G. M. ...... 26 Woodcroft Avenue, White-
hall, Bristol, 5

Bovell (Gabe occa oe eee 24 Islington Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3

G.
Bi.

B.E.F.G.O,

E.F.G.O.

mw 9

LIST OF MEMBERS

_ 235

A. aoe H. jJj., F.S.L., 14 Walcot Parade, Bath G.
F.1.S.A.
A.* Luckwill, L.C., B.Se. .... 36 Lower Redland Road,
Bristol, 6 Be
Miaedonald, DD. .. 06.0.8 Hill View, Berrow Road, Burn-
ham-on-Sea O.
Macpherson, Miss B. B. .. 35 Richmond Terrace, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
PaO, SW. wt eka ee 100 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 G.
Marples, B. J., M.A., M.Sc. 208 Henleaze Road, Bristol
Marples, Mrs. B. J., B.A... 208 Henleaze Road, Bristol
Marsden, A., M.Sc., F.I.C. 161 Bishop Road, Bishopston,
Bristol. 7. G.
laesden, Mrs. 2.65.6. 5 5 161 Bishop Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7 F.G
we Mathews, P.M. wi.ecens Wharfedale, Pulteney Road,
Bath G.
* Matthews, L.H.,M.A..... 27 Hanbury Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 O.
Maunder, G. S., B.Sc. .... 83 Coronation Road, Bristol, 3 Bi.B.F.
Maxwell; H. W. .......% 10a Downfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 F.O.
Maxwell, Mrs. .......... 10a Downfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 F
McErvel, Miss N. ........ Westonbirt School, near Tetbury,
Glos. O
= WweMurtne, G. BE. J. ...... Eastfield House, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol F.G.
McMurtrie, Mrs. ........ Eastfield House, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol F,
Mead, Miss C. E., B.A. .... 16 Quadrant West, Hillfields
Park, Bristol F.G
A. Merryweather, Miss M. D. 11 St. John’s Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 Ei
Pee eS IR, Be Sek he dee ee Barrow Court Gardens, Flax
Bourton, near Bristol Bir.
Milton, Mrsv 1: C. oi... 10 Randall Road, Bristol, 8 FO.
Mhogtord, C. J... ec ce ee 13 Park Grove, Westbury Park,
Bristol, 6 Bi.F.G.
Bee MORE, Goi tic te obs 483 Fishponds Road, Bristol 1
A. Morrison, Miss A. M. C. .. 8 Richmond Hill, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 F.
Morrison, Miss E. J. D., 6 Greenway Road, Redland,
M.A. Bristol FF.
ia. Muschamp, D. vic.s.....> 22 Davis Street, Avonmouth,
Bristol Bu.
memo Neatly Fl. We... case ee 70 Trymside, Sea Mills,
Bristol, 9 O.
maevettic; Miss F.C. 21. .60% 3 Beaufort Road, Kingswood,
Bristol Bi.F
ie Newman, Miss: E. .......- 49 Westbury Road, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol Bi.
Norgrove, J. W. ........ 22 Alma Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8 LE.
A. Patch, Miss E.M., B.Sc. .. 71 Canford Lane, Bristol, 9 Bi.
A. Paterson, Miss K. M. Noel Windyridge, 17 Greendale Road,
Redland, Bristol, 6 (Of

ede. Acti. wedi sun ewes 5 Hanbury Road, _ Clifton,
Bristol, 8

236

SAO

LIST OF MEMBERS

Peach, A. N. H, M.B., 5 Hanbury’ Road, Clifton,
Ch.B. Bristol, 8

Pearman, J. V., F.R.E.S. 56 Clifton Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Peddler: Ta. Hs ake ee 27 Stackpool Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3

POY AIAD IE igs oie whe oe 21 St. Albans Road, Westbury

Potter, Miss E. A.
Powell, J: J:, M.D.
Pratt, Miss D. L.
Price, Miss M. R., B.A.

Purchon, R. Denison, B.Sc.

Rafter, J., M.A.

reed, 2s Ni es 60a

Rendell, Miss G. ..

Reynolds, Prof.
Sc.D: EG.s:
Richards, G.

Riddle, Miss H. E.
Ross, F. Stenhouse

Ross, James, F.L.A.
Rutter, Miss E. M.

Salmond, P. W.

Sampson, Miss A. M.
Sanders, Miss L. M. ......
Sandwith, Mrs. ....

BaVvory, j) bbs os..

Scase, R. P.
Selley, A.

Shaw, Miss T. ....

eco ee ee

a hee e 18

eoeee ee
oece eee
eoeoeeee

eee eee

eee eee
eoev eee
ee eevee

eee eee

oecece eee te eo ee oe 8

Park, Bristol, 6
Westonbirt School, near Tet-
bury, Glos.
Elgin
Bristol, 6
1 Hughenden
Bristol, 8
1 Richmond Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
11 Cotham Gardens, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Park, Redland,

Road, Clifton,

228 Shirehampton Road, West-
bury-on-Trym, Bristol

18 Stackpool Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3

182 Downend Road, Downend,
near Bristol .

H., 13 All Saints’ Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Pensylva, Cecil Road, Weston-
super-Mare

20 Banwell Road, Ashton Gate,
Bristol, 3

25 Tugela Road, Uplands Estate,
Bristol, 3

Central Library, Bristol, 1

32 Henleaze Gardens, Bristol, 9

22 Tyndall’s Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Bristol Road,
near Bristol
Redroofs, 6 Downs Cote Park,
Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol

Congresbury,

26 Canynge Square, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Windyridge, Abbots — Leigh,
near Bristol

Wills Hall, Stoke Bishop,
Bristol, 9

116 Coronation Road, Bristol, 3
12c Kingsdown Parade, Bristol, 6

Shield, Miss M., B.Sc. .... The Laundry House, Fulton
Bristol
Shilstene, H.C... ecu Ss 124 Victoria Avenue, Redfield,

Bristol, 5

Simmons, Miss L., L.R.A.M. 47 Grosvenor Road, St. Paul’s,

Skene, Prof.
DeSe., F.L:S.

Smith, Miss M. de Lattre ..

Bristol, 2 -

Macgregor,

The University, Bristol, 8
The School House, High Ham,
Taunton, Som.

BEG.

LIST CF MEMBERS

Smith, Stanley, M.A., D.Sc.,
F.G.S

ee ee se ee © Be we © ee

ee ee © © © we ©

Strudwick, Miss F. E., M.A.
Sully, 1. 2.

Tarring, E.
@anmbone WiC .+. 6. oo ek
Maylene. fo... es
Maylor, W.dWR. McA. ......
Meviey,id...b sc. F.Z/S. :.:
Tetley, Mrs.

ee ee ee © we ew Be

Thomas, Richard

oe © © we ew ©

®hompson, HoS., A.L.S:...
Womibleson,: 2. B. wi. ee.
Mipenenmy onGe .. 20...

Trueman, Prof. A. E., D.Sc.
ORGS asec Gin ass 8 bse
Trueman, irs. AE. .......
@ucker, -B:. W.,. M.A.,
M.B.O.U.
Turner, H. W., M.A., F.G.S.
Wurner Drs. H.W. ......

diutcher, |. W., M.Sc. ....

Veal, Mrs. G. C.

oo> ee ee we ©

Werthey, Miss D. E., B-Sc.......

Waight, Miss F.

Waight, Miss M.
iyatlis, E..S.,) D.Sc., F:G.S.

hveism Wiss ©. L. Bes...
Walton, ©..L.,; Ph.D., M.Sc.

Walton, Wirss (CC. .. 2...
Webb, H. M., B.Sc.
Webb, Mrs. H. M.

oe eee ©

The University, Bristol, 8

“ Jesmond,’’ 182 Bishop Road,
Bristol, 7

2 Auburn
Bristol, 6

26 Woodstock Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Elmside, Julian Road, Stoke
Bishop, Bristol, 9

Road, Redland,

Mimosa, 196 Bishop’ Road,
Bristol, 7

70 Halsbury Road, Westbury
Park, Bristol, 6

12 Ciaremont Avenue, Bishops-
ton, Bristol, 7

5 Pembroke Vale, Clifton,
Bristol:

4 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9

4 The Aventie, Sneyd Parl,
Bristol, 9

131 Cumberland Road, Red-
cliff, Bristol, 1

11 Buckingham Place, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Shirley, Briercliffe Road, West-
bury-on-Trym, Bristol

Windover, 54 Kellaway Avenue,
Bristol, 6

The University, Glasgow.
c/o The University, Glasgow

9 Marston Ferry Road, Oxford

The University, Bristol, 8

Mortimer House, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

57 Berkeley Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Lower Hazel House, Rudgeway,
nr. Bristol

Stanmore House, Royal Crescent,
Weston-super-Mare

Beeches, 47
Bristol, 9

4 Park Lane, Dartington Hall,
Totnes, Devon

The Museum and Art Gallery,
Bristol, 8

8 Alma Vale, Clifton, Bristol, 8

34 Northumberland Road, Red-
land, Bristol, 6

Kewstoke Road,

Redgarth, Church Road, Stoke
Bishop, Bristol, 9
Redgarth, Church Road, Stoke

Bishop, Bristol, 9

237

BoE.
EO}

EOF
EO:

Bie Ge

a OS 2

SO 0 5 mH

238 LIST OF MEMBERS

Webb, Hy Vicars ..4. 64%. 58 Belmont Road, St. Andrew’s,
Bristol, 6 F.O.
A. Weetman, Miss M. J..... 60 Ashley Road, Bristol, 6 Bi.F.
A. Wheeler, Miss K. E. .... Hillside, Watchet, Som. F.
+ Wills, W. Melville ...... Bracken Hill, Leigh Woods,
Bristol
A;)) Woolls,, Miss: FRR. ce we 14 Russell Grove, Westbury
Park, Bristol Bi.B.
Aen VCALES: (Gi iKy o Ris ohare Sherborne School, Sherborne,
Dorset O.
Yonge, Prof.C.M., D.Sc... The University, Bristol, 8
A. Zealand, Mrs. H. W. .... Brecon Lodge, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol F.
Gaon 2a aah

Honorary Members

R. M. Prideaux, F.R.E.S., Brasted Chart, near Sevenoaks, Kent.

Prof. H. S. Hele Shaw, M.I.C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., 64 Victoria Street, West-
minster, S.W.1.

Sir Ernest Cook, D.Sc., 40 Alma Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8.

H. Womersley, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., 36 Wattle Street, Fullerton Estate, Adelaide,
S. Australia.

239

REPORT OF COUNCIL
TO DECEMBER 31st
1937

HE main feature of this year has undoubtedly been the addition of a
new section entitled the Biology Teachers’ Section which, while adding
another branch of work, will also add to our membership.

The Annual Meeting was held on January 21st at 7.30. Mr. McMurtrie
was re-elected as President, Professor C. M. Yonge became Vice-President
in place of Mr. J. H. Savory, and the Rev. R. Jeffcoat and Messrs. A. C. Leach
and H. Savory were elected to the Council in the places of Professor C. M. Yonge
and Messrs. F. F. Glasspool and H. Vicars Webb. Miss Hiley being unable
to continue the Secretaryship, Mr. F. Stenhouse Ross was appointed in her
stead.

The Annual Dinner held in the Royal Hotel was most successful as there
was the innovation of an entertainer, which was appreciated by the members.

The Society has suffered loss by the deaths of Professor Young, an Hon.
Member and a past Vice-President, Mr. D. Darell of Dartmouth, and Miss
H. M. Hutton of Dursley.

The President of the Geological Section, Prof. A. E. Trueman, has accepted
the Chair of Geology in Glasgow University. We shall miss his kindly and
helpful services. We welcome Professor W. F. Whittard in his stead.

The open night was most successful; excellent films of Marine Life were
shown with explanations by Professor Yonge. These were fully appreciated
by the large audience whose presence was due in part to the able work of
Mr. T. V. T. Baxter among the schools.

The quality of the exhibits was maintained in the Exhibition meeting in
October, but we hope to increase the attendance because this is, I feel, a very
useful meeting.

It is pleasant to report that there is an increase in membership both as
regards the Society and the Sections.

The Summer Field Meeting, held on June 19th, at Whatley, Holwell and
Nunney was, as usual, arranged by the President and Secretary of the Field
Section.

As a Memorial to Miss Ida Roper an Epidiascope has been purchased, and
an addition is being made to the Library.

We regret that Miss Strudwick, the Librarian, acting under doctor’s
orders, tendered her resignation ; Mr. H. Gorvett has accepted the position.

F, STENHOUSE ROSS, Hon. Secretary.

240

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242

LIBRARIAN’S REPORT

FOR THE YEAR 1937

HE Society is deeply indebted to Miss F. E. Strudwick for her work

as Honorary Librarian, and in particular for her contribution to the

reorganization of the Library. On her resignation in April, 1937, the
work was taken over by Mr. H. Gorvett.

The Library has since been entirely reorganized. Bulky and rarely used
cabinets containing a herbarium, a collection of Lepidoptera, and a collection
of microscope slides have been removed to the cellar behind the Library, and
the cupboards rearranged to give additional space and light. The work of
cleaning and rearranging the herbarium was kindly undertaken by
Mr. H. S. Thompson.

All journals and books previously stacked in cupboards are now displayed
on the shelves. Journals of general interest are grouped according to the
countries in which they are published, while those published by British
Societies are arranged in alphabetical order. Journals and books relating
to special subjects are grouped under the following subject headings: Botany,
Entomology, Geology, Ornithology, Zoology, and General (including books
on general biology, biography, anthropology, British Museum catalogues and
British Association handbooks). A list giving particulars of the new arrange-
ment will be found on the notice board, and it is hoped that the rearrangement
will make for greater efficiency and ease of reference. Recent additions are
placed on a separate table, and it is suggested that reference to these would
be greatly facilitated by the acquirement of a suitable rack for their display.

The Society is indebted to the British Museum (Natural History) and to
Mr. H. S. Thompson for the presentation of books, and, as in previous years,
journals have been received from the Entomological, Geological, and Orni-
thological sections.

That there is a growing awareness amongst members of the existence of
a really valuable collection of books in the Society’s Library is shown by the
fact that one hundred and fifty entries have been made for books borrowed,
an increase of nearly fifty per cent. in two years.

There is still a certain demand for copies of the reprint of the paper on
the Avon Gorge by Dr. Vaughan and Professor Reynolds and also for back
numbers of the Society’s Proceedings.

It will now be possible to set to work on a new catalogue, so long overdue,
and it only remains to reiterate the plea of former Hon. Librarians for increased
financial aid, particularly for the purposes of binding.

H. GORVETT, Hon. Librarian.

242

REPORT OF BIOLOGY TEACHERS'’
SECTION

1937

HIS section was formed after a preliminary meeting held in July, 1937.

For some time the Biology teachers in Bristol had been feeling the need of

co-operation in their work. This especially applied to the teachers
in the new Senior Schools. It was to meet this need that the Bristol Teachers’
Biology Club was suggested and this has become the Biology Teachers’ Section
of the B.N.S. The aim is to pool the resources of the teachers of Bristol for
their mutual benefit. A committee was formed which met therepresentatives
of the B.N.S., and a programme was arranged.

In the latter part of 1937 four meetings were held. Two ofthese were Museum
visits to familiarise members with the Library and to see more fully the
possibility of the Museum asa teaching aid. In September, at a Symposium,
the ‘‘ Aims of School Biology Teaching ’”’ were discussed. In November,
Mr. H. A. Peacock of Cheltenham Grammar School addressed the section on.
‘‘ The Uses and Abuses of School Biology.”

The Section is anxious to form its own reference library of text books suit-
able for teachers of Biology. Any suggestions or gifts of text books will be
welcomed by the Secretary. We are also hoping to prepare, for circulation in
the Section, copies of tried syllabuses.

M. A. GIBBS, Hon. Secretary.

243

REPORT OF BOTANICAL SECTION

1937

HE Section has held eleven meetings in the Botanical Department of
the University during the year. The membership of the Section is now
thirty-nine, representing a net increase of eleven.

At the Annual Meeting held in January, Professor M. Skene was re-elected
President, and Mr. F. F. Glasspool Hon. Secretary and Treasurer. A paper on
Periclinal Chimeras, illustrated by lantern slides, was given by Professor
Skene.

The subject for the February meeting was Twigs. Among the exhibits
were many common trees as well as the Tulip Tree, Liviodendyon tulipifera,
Vanilla Tree, Vanilla planifolia, and Azava microphylla.

Wind pollinated flowers formed the special subject for March. A remark-
ably fine collection of representative types from trees, flowering plants and
grasses was shown and described by Mr. Luckwill. Mrs. Bell showed a
specimen of perennial wheat, together with cuttings and photographs of it
collected from various sources.

During the Summer months no special subjects were selected, as fresh
specimens were more easily obtainable and the number of exhibits was
sufficient to provide discussion for the whole of the meetings.

In July, members inspected the Botanical Gardens of the University with
Professor Skene acting as guide and lecturer. Here they saw many plants
frequently mentioned, but less frequently observed, such as the Venus Fly
Trap and the Pitcher Plant. A visit was afterwards paid to the Gardens in
Woodland Road.

The Open Meeting of the Section, held in October, was well attended and,
in addition to members, fourteen visitors from other Sections were present.
Mr. H. S. Thompson read a paper on Alpine Fruits and illustrated it by
means of pressed specimens. Short accounts of Teasels and Winter Buds of
Frogbit were given by Mrs. Bell and Mrs. Sandwith respectively, anda collec-
tion of thirty-five plants in flower was shown by Mr. Reed.

At the November meeting Dr. Bracher gave an account of the colonization
of Dungeness by Lichens, Mosses and flowering Plants. Lantern slides
showing plants on the coast, together with fresh and preserved specimens,
were exhibited.

In December, Professor Skene showed a number of greenhouse plants
possessing features of botanical interest. They included Rhoeo discolor,
Ruellia, Bilbergia, Psychotria and two peppers, Capsicum minimum and
Capsicum annuum.

Mrs. Sandwith has continued the Botanical Notes in the Proceedings and
will be pleased to receive any new records for inclusion.

F. F. GLASSPOOL, Hon. Secretary.

P a al - > } i} b uU

244

REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGICAL SECTION

1937

12th Jan, 73rd Annual Meeting. The Hon. Secretary reported that the
number of members was sixteen, including two honorary members. The,
election of President and Hon. Secretary was adjourned until March.

Mr. A. H. Peach exhibited a large series of aberrations of British Lycenide
and Cenonympha tullia. Thanks to the seven visitors present, viz., Col. L.
Wood, Messrs. G. B. Coney, G. H. W. Cruttwell, C. Greenwood, I. P. Russell,
N. A. Watkins and B. W. Weddell, an unusual number of very fine aberrations
and forms of British Butterflies and a few Moths were exhibited and dis-
cussed.

9th Feb. Meeting held at the University and open to General Members

of the Society, of whom the President, Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie, and eleven
others attended. Short papers were read and exhibits made by the following
sectional members :—

Mr. C. Bartlett : Migration in British Butterflies.

British Dragon flies.
Mr. C. Edwards: Respiration in Insects.
Mr. A. H. Peach: Methods of collecting Lepidoptera.

Mr. J. V. Pearman: Evolution of variation in the wings of Psocide
and the egg breaker of the embryo, with models.

13th Apnl. Mr. C. Bartlett was elected President; the office of Hon.
Secretary was not filled. Mr. J. W. Norgrove exhibited a store box of insects
from the Cape of Good Hope and British Lepidoptera from his collection.
Mr. A. Kromler bred specimens of Avenipses sabella and Aphomia gularis
from a chocolate factory at Fishponds.

3vd July. Excursion to Shapwick. Four members attended, the day was
warm but generally overcast and there was noted a great dearth of insect life,
which has been the general experience this season; the only noteworthy
captures were a specimen of Sesta culiciformis, by Mr. Bartlett, one Vanessa
c-album, and several Hydrelia uncula.

16th October. At Portishead. Mr. Audcent exhibited a specimen of the
beetle Pyrochroa coccinea from the New Forest and reported taking the larvee
of the saw fly Pterenidex salicis from willow at Ashley Hill. Mr. C. Edwards
exhibited specimens of British Cavabid@e, and Mr. Bartlett various orders of
interest to those present.

The year closed with fourteen members. The successful functioning of
the Section has been handicapped this year by the refusal of any member to
undertake the not too onerous duties of Hon. Secretary. The Section was
formed in 1864; the late Mr. George Harding held the office from 1865 to 1896
and was succeeded by the writer, who acted from 1897 to 1924, when he was
elected President, Mr. J. V. Pearman taking over the duties for the next
nine years, retiring in 1933. As no member could be induced to accept
office the writer again undertook the duties of both positions from 1934-1937.

CHAS. BARTLETT, President.

245

REPORT OF FIELD SECTION

1937

T the Annual Meeting held in January, Mr. H. F. Barke, F.I.C., Miss

M. D. Hiley and Mrs. H. F. Barke were re-elected President, Hon.

Secretary and Hon. Treasurer respectively Mr. G. H. Beacham was
elected to serve on the Committee in place of Mrs. A.G. Bell.

Mr. B. A. Baker, F.G.S., exhibited some interesting specimens of coniferous
wood which had been washed out from the clay at Southbourne.

In his Presidential Address Mr. Barke explained that by recent regulations
the Ministry of Health had greatly simplified the position in that to-day all
milk was either T.T., which was clean milk from a herd free of tuberculosis,
or pasteurised, which was milk previously heated to 145° F. for 30 minutes in
order to kill the germs. He subsequently demonstrated some of the bacterio-
logical tests on milk and showed how the liquid is tested in order to prove that
it is of sufficient purity as demanded by the Act.

Following the practice of recent years, the Committee decided again for
the Summer to concentrate on a particular area and selected the district to
the south and south-east of Bath circumscribed by a line joining Bath,
Farmborough, Midford, Warleigh Woods and Hampton Rocks. Various
members supplied the field notes which are contained in the programme, and
the Section would wish to record their thanks to them. It is believed that
these notes, although expensive to print, are nevertheless a valuable feature.

In May, Mrs. E.S. Hayman and Mr. H. C. Bishop led the first field meeting.
The party walked from Combe Down to Claverton, where the church was
visited, then proceeded to Warleigh Woods which proved an interesting centre
for observations of many kinds. ‘The inter-relationships of scenery and
underground rock structure were particularly well seen at many points.

In July, Mr. Ivor Evans was responsible for leadership in the immediate
area of Bath. On this occasion members visited the Sham Castle, Hampton
Rocks and the Botanical Gardens where the botanists were especially interested
in the wealth of flora observed.

Mr. H. O. Edmonds was again the leader for the whole-day field meeting in
September. From Odd Down the members walked down Monkton Combe to
Stout Hill. An augmented afternoon party walked along the towing path of
the canal from Claverton to Limpley Stoke.

The concluding meeting was held in October when members visited the
-Farmborough-Timsbury area under the leadership of Mr. F. W. Evens.
Members alighted from the bus at the Clutton-Timsbury cross roads and a
circular route was followed to the New Inn at Farmborough. During the
course of this meeting there was ample opportunity to collect late flowering
plants, fruits and fungi. The geologists visited several exposures and many
fossils were collected.

The Annual Field Meeting of the Parent Society was held in June and as
usual was under the leadership of the President and Hon. Secretary of the

Field Section. The villages of Egford, Nunney and Holwell in the Eastern
B

246 REPORT OF FIELD SECTION

Mendips formed the area for investigation, and the blending of Cotswold and
Mendip characteristics was noted. Nunney Castle and Church were inspected,
and the Holwell quarries, long known through the indefatigable labours of
Charles Moore of Bath, were visited.

The thanks of the Section are due to all the efficient leaders and to those
who assisted them.

Mr. H. Vicars Webb again kindly arranged the special ornithological
meetings and reports as follows :—

April 21st. St. Anne’s Woods. Birds in song: Willow Warbler, Black-
bird, Thrush, Robin and Common Wren. The water from St. Anne’s Well
tested by all the party.

May \st. Pensford District. Brilliant day and warm. Willow Warblers
the dominant songsters. Other birds: Cuckoo, pair of Grey Wagtails,
Green Woodpecker, Swallows, Martins, Chiff-chaff, Common Wren and Tits.
Pensford and Publow churches were visited.

May 22nd. Blagdon Lake. Showery conditions. The party was
welcomed by Mr. Donald Carr. Waterfowl observed were three Great
Crested Grebes, Tufted Duck, Wigeon and Coot; a nest of the latter with
three eggs in a reed bed. Swallows and Swifts over the water. Other bird-
life : Willow Warbler, Chiff-chaff, Blackbird, Thrush, Wren, Robin, Chaffinch
and Green Woodpecker. St. Andrew’s church visited.

May 26th. Abbots Leigh. A Turtle Dove seen and heard “ cooing ”’
from the bare top of a tree. On the Abbot’s Pool a family oftiny Mallard-
chicks with adults catching insects, also four handsome Canada Geese.
Songsters heard: Cuckoo, Willow Warblers and resident species.

June 9th. Stapleton District. Birds seen or heard: Willow and Wood
Warblers, long-tailed Tits, Swifts and Sand Martins, Jays and Magpies.
At the Old Mill the water-wheel was in action. The flower beds and the
rockeries were attractive. On the Duchess Pond were families of Swans and
Moorhens.

Messrs. Ivor Evans and L. C. Luckwill kindly conducted the special
botanical meetings and contribute the following reports :—

April 28th. Brislington and Keynsham. The field path was taken
to the river at Keynsham, returning by the main road. Spring flowers and
trees were remarked upon and special attention drawn to Thele Cress, Ivy-
leaved Crowfoot, Hornbeam, Elms in catkin; early foliage of trees and river-
side plants was observed.

May 29th. Goblin Combe. The party proceeded from Cleeve via Goblin
Combe and Prestow Wood to Wrington. After tea, some members inspected
the church, whilst others visited a near-by quarry on the hillside. The
party then proceeded by footpath to Redhill. Amongst the more interesting
plants noted in the Combe itself were the limestone Polypody, Rock Stonecrop,
Stinking Hellebore, Spindle, Stinking Iris, Field Maple and many fine
specimens of native Ash and Yew. In the lanes leading to Wrington five
species of Orchis were found, viz.: Spotted, Early Purple, Twayblade,
Butterfly and Bee, and many other plants including the Rough Chervil,
Carnation Grass and Black Bryony. By the river between Wrington and —
Redhill a number of interesting marsh plants were observed such as the
Yellow Iris, Brookweed and Marsh Horsetail.

REPORT OF FIELD SECTION 247

June 12th. Flax Bourton and Broadfield Down. Summer flowers in
profusion including Purple Orchis and Spring Potentilla. The gardens
of W. O. Gibbs, Esq., of Barrow Court, were open to members who were
personally conducted around them by the owner.

July 3rd. Rowberrow and Blackdown on Mendip. After inspecting the
quarries at Churchill Rocks, where some fine specimens of the Stinking
Hellebore were noticed, the party proceeded round the base of Dolebury
Warren, up Swiss Valley to Rowberrow Warren and Tyning’s Farm. Many
interesting plants were observed growing in the valley, including the Alpine
Penny-Cress, the Axillary Clustered Sedge, the Bladder Fern, Marsh Horsetail,
Drooping Thistle, Water Mint and Dames Violet. On the slopes of Rowberrow
towards Tyning’s Farm the round leaved Sundew and the Bog Pimpernel were
found.

After tea at Tyning’s Farm, the party inspected the heath flora on the
summit of Blackdown, and descended on the other side to Burrington. The
dominant plants on the summit of the hill were Ling, Cross-leaved Heath
and Bell Heather, whilst the slopes were covered by a dense growth of Bracken.
On the heath the following plants were found: Milkwort, Dwarf Furze,
Tormentil, Heath Bedstraw, Bilberry, Lousewort, Deer’s Hair Spike Rush,
Decumbent Heath Grass, Purple Moor Grass, Mat Grass, Hare’s Tail Cotton
Grass, Narrow Leaved Cotton Grass, Bog Violet, Marsh Bird’s Foot Trefoil,
Bog Asphodel, together with numerous other species. Amongst the Bracken
on the slopes many species of heath grasses were observed together with the
upright St. John’s Wort, Sheep’s Sorrel and Foxglove.

July 24th. Hursley Hill and Marksbury. The party walked from
Hursley Hill across wooded country to Marksbury Vale via Compton Dando.
Plants seen: Wild Liquorice, Adder’s Tongue, Periwinkle, Honeysuckle,
Teasle, Woolly Headed Thistle, trees, ferns, grasses, etc.

August 21st. Filton, Winterbourne and Hambrook. Members walked
to Winterbourne via Stoke Gifford and observed Field Pansy, Henbit, Nettle,
both species of White Bryony, Corn Camomile, fruit of Guelder Rose, Maple,
Dane Wort. Plants of cornfield and roadsides were examined.

M. DORIS HILEY, Hon. Secretary.

248

REPORT OF GEOLOGICAL SECTION

1937

HE Annual Meeting was held on the 28th January, 1937. The Secretary

and Treasurer read their reports which were approved by the meeting.

The President, Vice-President and ‘Treasurer were re-elected. The
Secretary, Mr. H. Cuthbert Shilstone, resigned on account of ill health ; his
place was taken by Mr. F. Stenhouse Ross. The Chairman spoke appreci-
atively of Mr. Shilstone’s services for the Section. Mr. Turner and Mr.
Shilstone were elected to the committee in place of Dr. Smith and Mrs. Barke.
This meeting was followed by a lecture by Professor A. E. Trueman on the
Coal Measures of Bristol and Somerset.

In February, Dr. Wallis and Mr. G. Kellaway read most interesting papers.
Professor A. E. Trueman, who was in the Chair, suggested that Mr. E. Seavill’s
paper should be read in title as he was absent on account of illness.

In March, Professor H. H. Swinerton of Nottingham University College
gave a very interesting lecture entitled ‘“‘ The Palmistry of the Rocks.”
He demonstrated, from the position of the footprints that he had discovered
in the Triassic rocks in the neighbourhood of Nottingham, the type of animal
that had made them.

We opened our Summer season on April 24th with a very successful
charabanc outing to Temple Cloud, Radstock and Nettlebridge, led by
Professor A. E. Trueman assisted by Dr. Moore. The Coal Measures of
this area were studied.

On June 30th we were led by Dr. F. S. Wallis and Mr. H.M. Webb. The
deep Triassic deposits in the Hollycrome Brick Pits, andthe Upper and Lower
Rhetic in Crox Bottom were seen. Mr. G. A. Kellaway described the lower
beds of the Lias in reference to the Oolite of Dundry Hill. The members
then went to the Venture Inn where coffee was served and a presentation
was made to Professor A. E. Trueman who was leaving to take the Chair of
Geology at Glasgow University.

The last Summer outing was led by Professor S. H. Reynolds to Spring Cove
and Woodspring, Weston-super-Mare. The exposures of lavas and volcanic
tuff in the Carboniferous Limestone, and the raised beach at the former place,
were noted with interest.

The Winter Session opened on October 21st with a lecture by Professor
S. H. Reynolds on a visit to Iceland, with some very fine slides of the geysers
and volcanic lavas and tuffs. On November 18th Dr. Wallis conducted the
members round the Geological Section of the Museum and Art Gallery, which
was much appreciated by the members.

The Tutorial classes preceding the lectures in the Winter Session were
appreciated and found instructive by the members, and we commend them to
those who have not attended.

We regret to report the death of Miss H. M. Hutton, of Dursley, in the
early part of the year.

Professor A. E. Trueman, D.Sc., having accepted the Chair of Geology at
Glasgow University, has left Bristol. We miss him with his clear and lucid
methods of teaching.

Mr. G. A. Kellaway, B.Sc., has been appointed to the Geological Survey.
F. STENHOUSE ROSS, Hon. Secretary.

ies

249
REPORT OF ORNITHOLOGICAL SECTION

1937

HIS Section now has a membership of 65—the largest since its revival
‘in 1922. The marked enthusiasm shown in the past few years has in

no way diminished; this, coupled with much friendly co-operation
among members, augurs well for the future.

Seven meetings have taken place during the year. At those held in
members’ houses, seating capacity was sorely tried, and late-comers ran the
risk of finding standing-room only. Atthe February meeting, held in conjunc-
tion with the Natural History Section of the Clifton College Scientific Society,
there was a large combined gathering of College boys and members, while
at the Open Meeting in November, particulars of which were circularised to
the whole Parent Society, there was an attendance of 60. It is to be regretted,
however, that of these no more than 10 or 12 were members of other Sections.

In January, an account of Bird-life in Pembrokeshire was given by Mr.
H. H. Davis, special reference being made to the Islands of Skokholm and
Grassholm. Mr. Peter Scott journeyed from East Anglia for the February
meeting and gave a most entertaining talk on ‘‘ Wild Geese and Ducks,”’
illustrated by a beautiful series of slides taken from his own drawings. In
March, the Rev. F. L. Blathwayt lectured on ‘“‘ British Breeding Terns ”’
and dealt especially with field characters, nesting habits and distribution.
The September meeting was devoted to Short Papers, among which a descrip-
tive account by Miss K. M. Paterson of the working of the ‘‘ Skokholm Bird
Observatory,” and notes on “ Bird-life in the Port Erin district of the Isle of
Man’? by Mr. G. E. Clothier, were of particular interest. In October, a
lecture on “ Bird-life in North Argyll”? by Mr. H. Tetley was augmented
by some valuable observations on mammals in the district. At the Open
Meeting in November, Mr. G. K. Yeates gave a vivid account of ‘‘ Bird-life
in the Camargue,’’ and showed a unique series of slides depicting, among others,
such interesting species as Penduline Tit, Spectacled and Fantail Warblers,
Hoopoe, Hobby, Marsh Harrier, Little Egret and Black-winged Stilt. Finally,
in December, Mr. H. G. Alexander came from Birmingham and gave a highly
instructive lecture on “‘ Bird Song,’’ illustrated by Bird Song gramophone
records.

A few members were fortunate in being able to attend two additional
meetings in Bristol—that of the Ornithological Section of the Somerset
Archeological and Natural History Society on October 14th, when Mr.
H. A. Gilbert spoke on ‘“ Duck Decoys and Migrations’”’; and a meeting of
the Bristol Photographic Society on November 10th, when Captain Oliver
Pike gave a lantern lecture on “ Familiar Wild Birds.”

For the fifth successive year a visit was paid to Steep Holm in May, the
weather, as on previous occasions, being perfect. All accessible parts of the
Island were worked, and no less than 24 species were identified, of which two
—Goldfinch and Chaffinch—had not previously been recorded. Good views
were obtained of Ravens, Peregrines, and the Cormorant colony.

Many interesting observations have been made by various members of the
Section, particularly at the North Somerset reservoirs and along the Severn
mud flats. A detailed account on the more important of these will be found
elsewhere in this number of the Proceedings.

H. H. DAVIS, Hon. Secretary.

250

Account of the Annual and General Meetings
1937

HE 74TH ANNUAL MEETING of the Society was held at the University

of Bristol on January 21st, 1937, with the President, Mr. G. E. J.

McMurtrie, in the Chair. The President was re-elected for his third
term of office. Rev. R. Jeffcoat and Messrs. A. C. Leach and H. Savory were
elected to serve on the Council in the places of Professor C. M. Yonge and
Messrs. F. F. Glasspool and H. Vicars Webb. The other Officers were re-elected
with the exception of the Hon. Secretary ; Mr. F. Stenhouse Ross was elected
to this office to replace Miss M. D. Hiley, who was retiring owing to pressure
of other work. The Annual Reports were presented and adopted.

Mr. McMurtrie in his Presidential Address on “‘ Screening and Cleaning
of Coal and Underground Lighting ”’ fully described the methods of screening
coal. Thanks to a considerable exhibit of safety lamps lent by Messrs.
Thomas and Williams, Cambrian Lamp Works, Aberdare, he was able to
trace very clearly the development of lighting in the different types of mines.
The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides. (See p. 155.)

The 587TH GENERAL MEFTING took the form of the 10th Annual Dinner
which was held at the Royal Hotel on February 4th, under the Presidency
of Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie; fifty-five members were present. There -was a
change made in the programme. Instead of a guest of the evening and a
lecture, a new departure was made in the form of an entertainer, which was
appreciated by the members.

The 588TH GENERAL MEETING was held at the University on March 4th.
Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie was in the Chair. Several papers were read in
title. Dr. C. L. Walton gave a lecture on ‘‘ The Warble fly and its Control.”’
He gave a very comprehensive review of the Life History of the Warble
Fly, also of the methods for its control ; a wealth of lantern slides illustrated
the lecture.

The 589TH GENERAL MEETING was held on June 19th, under the auspices
of the Field Section at Whatley, Nunney and Holwell. At Whatley,
in that most beautiful valley, the Botanists had a splendid opportunity cof
collecting specimens, and the quarries were thoroughly inspected by the
Geologists. The interesting Castle of Nunney was also seen, and at Holwell
the Geologists noted the planed-off surfaces of the Carboniferous Rocks, and
their unconformity with the Jurassic Rocks.

The 590TH GENERAL MEETING was held in the Botanical Department of the
University on October 7th, with the President, Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie,
in the Chair. The following exhibited :

BOTANICAL
Mrs. Bell and Mrs. Sandwith—Fine exhibit of fresh flowers.
Mr. Evens—Exhibit of Autumn growth collected on the last Summer
outing.

<_T
fe

ACCOUNT OF ANNUAL AND GENERAL MEETINGS 251

GEOLOGICAL :
Mrs. Marsden—Lavas and Ashes from Vesuvius with views of the
mountain.
Mr. Tutcher—some very fine examples of Jurassic fossils.
Mr. F. Stenhouse Ross—Jurassic fossils from Dundry and Dorset.
Geological Department of the University—Rock and mineral specimens
from Devon and Cornwall, and recently acquired books.

ORNITHOLOGICAL
Messrs. Savory, G. K. Yeates and C. J. F. Coombs—A very fine series of
photographs of Bird Life.
Mr. L. H. Matthews also showed fish from the Bristol Channel, and Mr-
Stuart Thompson some rare Natural History books.

The 59lstT GENERAL MEETING was held in the Lecture Theatre of the
Bristol Museum and Art Gallery on November 4th. The President,
Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie, was in the Chair. There was a large audience.
Professor C. M. Yonge described a series of cinematograph films of Marine
Life.

The 592ND GENERAL MEETING was held at the University on December
2nd. Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie was in the Chair. Nominations for
Officers and Council for 1938 were received. Miss P. M. Jenkin, M.A., gave
a lecture on ‘‘ The Biology of the Lakes of Kenya.’’ She described the
Geological history of the Lakes, their fauna and its relationship to the
alkalinity of the Lakes.

F. STENHOUSE ROSS, Hon. Secretary.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1937
(Abridged)

By G. E. J. McMurtrie
(Read 20th January, 1938)

AT the end of my three years’ term of office as President, it may

not be unwise to look back and epitomise what has been
attempted and done by the Council, particularly as a special effort
has been made to add to the usefulness of the Society and to its
membership.

The past history of the Society has been well told by Mr. J. W.
Tutcher in his 1932 Presidential Address, and that of the Sections in
1914 by the following: The late Mr. J. W. White, “ Fifty Years of
Bristol Botany”; Messrs. A. E. Hudd and G. C. Griffiths, “ Fifty
Years of Bristol Entomology”; the late Mr. H. J. Charbonnier,
“ Fifty Years of Bristol Zoology’ ; and Prof. 8. H. Reynolds, “ Fifty
Years of Geological Research in the Bristol District.” The last five
years, therefore, alone remain to be considered.

1933

Dr. F. 8. Wallis was our 1933 President, and very early in the year
he brought forward the matter of organization, and a Sub-Committee
was appointed to advise the Council. More than one report was made
by this Committee before the Council advised the adoption of their
proposals. The final financial basis was the work of the late Professor
Darbishire, but many valuable suggestions were made by Mr. T. V. T.
Baxter and others. The main proposal was that Sectional members,
in addition to paying their sectional fee or fees, should be either
Ordinary members paying 10s. and receiving the annual Proceedings,
or Associate members paying 5s. and not receiving the Proceedings.
Junior members under 21 were admitted for 2s. 6d. with 1s. sectional
fees.

My own feeling is that, given numbers, an annual subscription of
10s. should cover membership and admission to any and all sections.
This should come in time.

Systematic advertising by lectures, leaflets, posters, circulars, etc.,
a Zoological section, and the use of films, were other suggestions of the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1937 253

Committee accepted by the Council. A Biological section has lately
possibly taken the place of the suggested Zoological section, while our
November meeting for the last five years has been made an open night,
with a lecture on some special subject or subjects, and the Museum
Theatre well filled by members, their friends and secondary school
boys and girls. Our grateful thanks are due to Professors Macgregor
Skene and Yonge for giving these lectures, and to Mr. Baxter for
ensuring a good attendance of pupils. It is very doubtful, however,
whether sufficient systematic advertising by leaflets, posters, circulars,
etc., is being done; this is a matter that should be further considered.

Notices of our meetings, General, Open and Sectional, are, it is
believed, posted on the main and sectional University notice-boards,
and at the Central Library. They should also be posted at the various
branch libraries, the Museum, at all secondary schools, and at the
Merchant Venturers’ Technical College.

The open night instituted in the Autumn of 1934, and given by each
section, is undoubtedly a step forward, but though the officers of
each section have taken considerable trouble to provide matter of
common interest to all sections, the attendance of non-members of
the section has been at times disappointing, even though latterly the
whole of the Society has been circularized. There seems plenty of
naturalist and sectional esprit de corps, but it is curiously wanting on
these open nights.

The first open lecture was given by Mr. John Kearton on “ The
Fascination of Field photography.”

We had to deplore this year the loss of Mrs. Vaughan, a keen geologist,
and reporting secretary for eight years.

1934

The late Prof. Darbishire was our 1934 President, but to the great
loss of the Society died in October.

The scheme of reorganization was adopted at the annual meeting,
and the result of it was an increased financial balance of £25 for the
year. Several Sectional members became Ordinary members, and
more became Associate members, but, unfortunately, there was a
temporary loss of membership.

Miss Roper, on account of ill health, resigned the Editorship of the
Proceedings and also the Librarianship. The Council considered it
advisable to separate these two offices, and Mr. H. W. Turner was
appointed Editor and Miss Shaw Librarian.

254 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

A new and very useful feature, ‘ Field Notes and Observations,”
was added to the Proceedings by the new Editor, and it was printed
locally, while Miss Shaw began an overhaul of the Library. There
is much largely unseen work required of both Editor and Librarian.

The open lecture this year was given by Prof. Trueman.

The open sectional meetings were also introduced this year as an
experiment.

1935

While 1934 was overshadowed by the death of the President, 1935
brought very great trouble in the death of the Secretary, Miss Ida
Roper, who, for the long period of nineteen years, had been Secretary
and Editor, and for much of this time also Librarian, and represented
in the public eye the Society. She was also our President from 1913
to 1916, the only lady President as yet and a botanist of outstanding
merit, with a profound knowledge of fungi, which was acknowledged
by her election to the Linnean Society. For thirteen years, too,
she collected and exhibited local wild plants at the Bristol Museum.
As a well-known local archeologist she was on the Council of the
Bristol and Gloucestershire Archeological Society, and was the
author of a standard work on Monumental Effigies. A many-sided
woman.

Miss Shaw was good enough to act as Secretary during Miss Roper’s
long illness, and later Miss M. D. Hiley accepted the appointment.
Mr. McMurtrie was elected President, Miss Shaw resigned the Librarian-
ship and Mr. Pearman was appointed in her stead. Altogether a record
of much change.

As, in consequence of Professor Darbishire’s death, there could be
no Presidential Address, Dr. F. J. North, of Cardiff, gave a most
instructive address on ‘‘ The Origin of Coal.”

The open meeting was held in November in the Museum Theatre,
when films were exhibited on (1) The Amceba, explained to a very
full house by Prof. C. M. Yonge ; (2) Roots, the life cycle of a plant,
and how plants feed, by Prof. Macgregor Skene.

The Proceedings has been much improved by the adoption of a
bolder type, and an excellent work done by the Editor in the republica-
tion of the late Dr. Arthur Vaughan’s standard work on The
Carboniferous Limestone Series (Avonian) of the Avon Gorge. Prof.
Reynolds revised and brought this paper up to date and improved
the plates. Thanks to subscriptions collected by Mr. Turner, the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1937 255

publication cost the Society very little, though it somewhat curtailed
the space allotted to other papers.

It should be noted that nearly all the papers are read in title only
and that no sectional papers are produced. Obviously certain very
valuable records can only be dealt with in this way, but more space
should be given to the excellent sectional papers read.

During the year a Presentation was made by the Geological section
to Prof. Reynolds on resigning its presidency after thirty-four years
of excellent service.

The President endeavoured this year to obtain the addition of an
Archeological section, but though he obtained promises from over
thirty members to join it, the Council did not approve of it. This is
regrettable, as in many naturalist societies the Archeological or
Antiquarian section is the strongest, and adds largely to their mem-
bership.

1936

Mr. McMurtrie was re-elected President, and Mr. F. W. Evens
replaced Dr. Wallis as Vice-President. Mr. Pearman resigned the
Librarianship and was replaced by Miss F. E. Strudwick.

Much time had been spent in 1935 in revising the rules, which were
adopted at this annual meeting.

The President’s address was a description of ‘“ Former and Present.
Methods of Cutting, Loading and Conveying Coal.”

After the annual dinner Prof. E. Fawcett lectured on “ The Bristol
Giant.”

A new feature in the syllabus was a most interesting lecture by
Mr. H. St. George Gray on “ Archeological Excavations in Somerset,”
when members of the Bristol and Gloster. and the Somerset.
Archeological Societies joined us.

The November open meeting was again largely attended. Films
of the Thistle, Fungi, Mushroom and Cabbage were shown and ex-
plained by Prof. Macgregor Skene.

During the year, the Librarian, Miss Strudwick, thoroughly over-
hauled and rearranged the Library, which entailed much labour and
time. The Exchange List was also revised, and certain books removed
and additional shelving added.

The Council also voted £25 for bringing up to date bookbinding
and for the purchase of new books. It should be noted that Mr. Ivor

256 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

Evans has copied into the Library copy of Mr. J. W. White’s Flora
of Bristol Miss Roper’s notes thereon.

The sectional open nights were held and the Ornithological and
Entomological were very well attended.

During the year the Society decided to purchase a Memorial to the
late Secretary, Miss Roper, and the President collected over £43,
with which an Epidiascope has been purchased, which it is hoped will
be of use to all sections, and some botanical works to mark her sectional
interest.

The Society during the year lost two of its seven honorary members,
Professor C. Lloyd Morgan and Professor W. J. Sollas, as well as
Mr. A. W. Cottle and a formerly well-known Bristol man, Dr. Herbert
Bolton, a former director of the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.
Excellent obituaries have appeared in our Proceedings.

1937

Mr. McMurtrie was again elected President for his last year of office,
and Prof. Yonge replaced Mr. J. H. Savory as Vice-President.

Miss Hiley, finding the work of Secretary of both the Society and the
Field section excessive, resigned the former, and Mr. F. Stenhouse
Ross was appointed in her stead.

The President’s address dealt with “ Past and Present Systems of
Screening and Cleaning Coal” and ‘‘ Underground Lighting.” Interest
was added to the latter subject by a large exhibit of safety lamps
kindly lent by Messrs. Thomas & Williams of Aberdare.

The open November meeting in the Museum Theatre was noteworthy
and well attended. Professor Yonge described films shewing (1) The
life history of the Oyster, (2) The Jelly Fish, (3) The Sea Urchin,
and (4) How Organisms adapted themselves to their surroundings.

The open sectional meetings were continued and were better
attended, thirty non-members attending the Geological.

The principal feature of this year was undoubtedly the addition of
a Biology Teachers’ Section, with Miss Gibbs as Secretary. This
has added another interest to the Society, and has already brought a
useful addition to our membership.

Unfortunately, acting on medical advice, Miss Strudwick had to
resign the Librarianship, after greatly improving the condition of the
Library with some assistance from Mr. H. A. Edmonds. Mr. H.
Gorvett was good enough to undertake the work of Librarian. Mr. -

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1937 257

Gorvett also very kindly undertook the cataloguing of the Library,
entailing much work and supplying a long-felt want.

The attention of the Council having been drawn by a member to the
want of “direction posts” in parts of both Gloucestershire and
N. Somerset, the Council investigated the matter. The preservation
of footpaths should be an essential part of the Society’s work.

We lost by death during the year Professor Sydney Young,
another of our honorary members; Mr. R. D. 8S. Darell, a life member
keenly interested in Botany, Geology and Zoology, and a “Senior
Fellow ” of the Geological Society of London to which he was elected
in 1875; and Miss H. M. Hutton.

MEMBERSHIP
The following table is a summary of our membership for the last
five years :—
ANALYSIS OF MEMBERSHIP
Society
Year Life Ordinary Associate Junior Total
1933 3 oF 5 — 105
1934 .. - 3 119 65 6 193
1935... os 3 113 66 4. 186
1936 4 126 gpl 6 207
1937 4 124 79 4 211
Sections
Botani- | Ent - : Geo- Ornith- Total
aun foal. Bical es AES Binsical ONO Sects
1933 ..| 34 16 101 66 40 — 257
19384 ..| 26 14 67 46 30 — 183
19385 ..| 23 14 65 43 31 — 176
iss: ..|. 30 16 72 58 49 — 225
137 ..| 38 14 78 58 58 20 266

From this it will be seen that there has been a steady increase in
the Ordinary membership, and a larger increase in Associate members

258 G. E. J. MCMURTRIE

consequent on reorganization. The membership for 1937 is double
that of 1933. Also that the Sectional membership largely increased
in both 1936 and 1937, though the Field section has never recovered
its heavy loss of one-third of its membership, due to the introduction
of the Associate fee of 5s., though it will be seen that it is steadily
growing again. With this exception, all the sections have held their
ground or shew a slight increase.

A welcome feature is the steady increase of new members, consequent
upon the broader lines on which we are working :—

1933 1934 1935 1936 1937
14 20 28 29 30

Against this have, unfortunately, to be set yearly several resignations,
chiefly due to members leaving the neighbourhood.

This five years’ retrospect shews a record of much work on the part
of many of our members, apart from that of the Council and Officers.

In conclusion, while the reorganization of 1934 has financially
greatly benefited the Society, and has strengthened both the full and
sectional membership, our present total of 211 cannot be regarded
with satisfaction in a population of 410,000, and points to the necessity
for additional work and propaganda.

bit

259

Bristol Botany in 1937

By Cecit I. SANDWITH

T is regrettable that few records of interest have been noted for

the past year with regard to native plants in the district. A more
intensive search in the less well-known parts of the district on the
W. Gloucestershire side might be profitable.

At the Exhibition Meeting of the Society in October, Mrs. Bell
showed an unusual form of Verbascum nigrum with white flowers,
from Portway, also Dipsacus fullonum, which had appeared there in
abundance. She also noticed on Shapwick Heath in August small
bushes of Symphoricarpos (Snowberry), which is gradually becoming
naturalized on the edge of a drove. The less frequent Chenopodium
glaucum L. was also found by Mr. H. J. Gibbons and Mrs. Bell in a
field near Brent Knoll Station, and a remarkably luxuriant plant of
Cicer arvetinum L. on ground near the Avon.

Malva neglecta Wallr. is the correct name for the native Dwarf Mallow,
which British botanists have for so long called M. rotundifolia L.
Linnzus’ name must be applied to the alien M. borealis Wallm.
of Bristol Fl. (M. pusilla Sm.).

Marsu and SpotTrep Orcuips. In Journ. Linnean Soc. Bot., XLIX,
Jan., 1935, Mr. H. W. Pugsley has a valuable paper on the British
Marsh Orchids. He demonstrates that the name Orchis incarnata
L. must disappear from British lists, being applicable to a variety
of the Continental O. sambucina L., and having been misapplied
to a marsh orchid since the days of Fries. The plant which
British botanists have called O. incarnata must now be identified,
according to Mr. Pugsley, with O. latifolia L., a name whose
application has aroused controversy for many years, having
been usually given in Britain to hybrids of O. pretermissa Druce
and the Spotted Orchids, or to the new species, O. pardalina
Pugsley, which closely resembles such hybrids. Bristol botanists
should re-collect O. latifolia L. (“O. incarnata’”’ of Bristol Flora)
in the localities given by Mr. White in order that the identification
may be checked and the distribution in the area of this, and
of O. pretermissa, properly understood; while the distribution
of the two Spotted Orchids, O. maculata L. (O. Fuchsw Druce)
and O. elodes Griseb. (O. ericetorum Linton), also requires in-
vestigation. O. pardalina may also occur in the Bristol district ;

260

CECIL I. SANDWITH

dark-flowered forms of O. latifolia certainly occur on the Somerset
peat moors. Fresh specimens, with full information as to date and
locality, should be forwarded to Mr. V. S. Summerhayes at the
Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Surrey, who will notify
the writer as to identification. A specimen in Herb. Sandwith
from a marshy meadow, Tickenham, Som., 1932, has been marked.
by Mr. Pugsley “ cf. O. pardalina H.W.P.” This plant had a hollow
stem and ring-spots on the leaves. It is essential to have fresh
material for identification as these characters are lost in the drying.

Potamogeton pusillus and P. panormitanus Biv.-Bern. In Journ. Bot,

for April, 1938, Mr. J. EH. Dandy and Dr. G. Taylor have an im-
portant paper on the nomenclature and taxonomy of the two
plants which have borne the above names. They show, after a
study of the history and type specimen of Linneus’ P. pusillus,
that this name must be applied to the plant which we have known
as P. panormitanus, while the common P. pusillus auct. angl.
non L. must in future be named P. Berchtoldi Fieb., which has in
the past been treated as a variety of P. pusilus L. in our lists.
In P. pusillus L. (P. panormitanus) the stipules are closed and
tubular, while in P. Berchtoldi they are open, split and convolute.
It is suggested that Bristol botanists should pay attention to
the distribution of the two in our area.

Carex vesicaria L. Pond near Breadstone, G., EH. Muilne-Redhead.

Just inside the district and a welcome addition owing to the
destruction of this sedge at Frampton Cotterell, and its disappear-
ance at Iron Acton.

Agrostis L. The British species, varieties, and forms are revised by

Mr. W. R. Philipson in Journ. Linnean Soc. Bot., LI, Nov., 1937.
This paper should be consulted by Bristol botanists. The Agrostis
nigra With. of our manuals and county floras is maintained as a
distinct species under the earlier name A. gigantea Roth. The
alien A. olivetorum Gren. et Godr., a native of S. Europe, is cited
from Clifton, Glos., where it was collected by Mr. A. E. Wade in
1924. Mr. Philipson remarks that it is probably a hybrid of
A. tenuis (A. vulgaris) and A. canina; if this is so, it is possible
that Mr. Wade’s plant was not introduced.

Phalaris arundinacea L. var. picta L. A patch, 6 ft. by 2 ft., in a

roadside pool at Rangeworthy, G., April, 1938, Ivor Evans. This
form is well known in cultivation, where it is called “‘ Gardener’s
Garters ’’ as well.as ‘‘ Ribbon Grass.”

BRISTOL BOTANY IN 1937 261

AurEns. After several lean years, for some reason or other, a sudden

crop of remarkable Alien plants made their appearance in various
places, many of them disappearing equally suddenly in the usual
course of events. Amongst these were plants from the Eastern
Mediterranean Region hitherto not recorded in the British lists,
together with other European plants which had been recorded
previously from Bristol but had not been seen for many years.
Among the more interesting species were :—
Ceratocephalus falcatus (L.) Pers. Sisymbrium septulatum DC.
Diplotaxis erucoides DC. Vogeliaapiculata Vierh. Tribulus terrestris
L. Medicago sicula Jackson. M. Noeana Boiss. Onobrychis squarrosa
Viv. Vocra palestina Bss., f. leguminibus pubescentibus. V. Ervilia
(L.) Willd. Lens esculenta (L.) Moench. Cuminum Cyminum L.
Artemisia annua L. Arctium tomentosum L. Notobasis syriaca Cass.
Rhagadiolus edulis Gaertn. Plagiobothrys procumbens (Colla)
A. Gray. Convolvulus stachydifolius Choisy. Hyoscyamus albus L.
Verbena venosa Gill. et Hook. Blitum capitatum (L.) Asch.
Agrostis olivetorum Gren. et Godr., Wade, 1924. Poa persica Trin.
Bromus Danthone Trin. Bromus scoparius L. Brachypodium
distachyum Beauv. Agropyrum Buonapartis (Spreng.) Dur. et
Schinz. Aigilops triaristata (Willd.) Gren. et Godr. Nardurus
maritimus (L.) Janchen. Elymus Delileanus Schultes. All
collected by C. I. Sandwith and J. P. M. Brenan unless otherwise
stated. 7

I am indebted to Mr. N. Y. Sandwith for the notes on changes
in nomenclature which I think will help to disentangle the confusion
of names.

262

Ornithological Notes, Bristol District, 1937
By H. H. Davis, M.B.0.U.

F many interesting observations recorded within the Bristol

area in 1937 none will give greater satisfaction to local ornitholo-
gists than the breeding, for the second successive year, of Ravens
in the Avon Gorge. The usual tenacity with which this species will
cling to a favoured nesting haunt gives good reason for hoping that
the Avon Gorge eyrie will long continue to be used.

Winter visitors were noted unusually early on the north side of
Bristol ; scarcely had Chifichaffs departed than the first Bramblings
were seen. Fieldfares had arrived by mid-October, and in contrast
to 1936 were extremely abundant from early November onwards.

Of Ducks at the North Somerset reservoirs no less than fourteen
species have been identified, a greater number, apparently, than in
any previously recorded year. Wigeon were unusually plentiful at
Blagdon late in November, as also were Shoveler in March and early
April. Of particular interest are the occurrences of a Gadwall at
Barrow Gurney, and Red-breasted Mergansers and Smew at Blagdon.

The visits of a Red-necked Grebe to Barrow Gurney in February,
and a Red-throated Diver to Blagdon in March, were perhaps due
to severe weather in northern Europe during the last days of January,
following which a remarkable influx of Grebes and Divers into the
British Islands took place (cf. British Birds, Vol. XXX, p. 370). A
small flock of Dark-breasted Brent Geese on the Severn bank in
February may well have been birds driven out by wintry weather
in the Baltic.

Grey Plover in May, and a Curlew-Sandpiper in April, between
Avonmouth and Severn Beach, provide the first Spring records of
either species on the Severn mud flats, while Greenshanks, hitherto
unrecorded to the north of Bristol, were seen at New Passage in
August. Uncommon waders met with during the Autumn migration
were a Little Stint near Avonmouth, and Spotted Redshanks at
Blagdon.

Twice has the Scandinavian Lesser Black-backed Gull been identified,
on both occasions there being British Lesser Black-backs close at hand
for comparison. These observations are of real value in that little —
is known of this northern Gull in the West of England.

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, BRISTOL DISTRICT, 1937 263

The following notes represent the more important records during
the year, and are, except where otherwise stated, the result of observa-
tions by members of the B.N.S. Ornithological Section.

Raven (Corvus c. corax). A pair again bred on the Gloucestershire
side of the Avon Gorge. Four young were successfully reared. Ravens
were noticed over Long Ashton on several dates in October and
November, and one was seen high overhead near Stoke Gifford on
May 17th. These were probably birds from the Avon Gorge.

SIsKIN (Carduelis spinus). A party of eighteen or twenty were,
in company with Goldfinches, frequenting Alder trees along the River
Yeo, near Blagdon, on March 27th and 28th. Uncommon, but probably
occurs in most Winters.

BRAMBLING (fringilla montigringilla). One was seen near Stoke
Gifford on October 8th, the earliest date yet recorded for the district.

CairrcHarFF (Phylloscopus c. collybita). From December 4th to the
6th one was frequenting a hedgerow near Stoke Gifford, and in spite
of cold weather appeared to be thriving. This was undoubtedly a
wintering bird.

FIELDFARE (Turdus pilaris). Three were observed at Little Stoke
on October 13th, an unusually early date for the district.

Repwine (Turdus m. musicus). Many, probably not less than two
thousand, were watched going to roost in rhododendron bushes at the
south end of Tortworth Court lake on January 17th. As large numbers
were seen coming in to the same spot on December 5th, this is presum-
ably a regular Winter roost.

Rine Ovzex (Turdus t. torquatus). An adult male was seen near
Stoke Gifford on November 5th and again on the 9th; an exceptionally
late bird. Occasionally noticed in the Bristol district when on passage
to or from its more northerly breeding quarters.

Buack Repstart (Phencurus ochrurus gibraltariensis). A Redstart
observed at close quarters along the Avonmouth-Severn Beach railway
embankment on March 28th was undoubtedly this species. Infre-
quently recorded, but perhaps occurs more often than is generally
supposed. —

SHORT-EARED OwL1 (Asv0 f. flammeus). A single bird was frequenting

‘the Severn bank near Avonmouth on November 5th. An uncommon

Autumn and Winter visitor.
Hossy (Falco s. subbuteo). An excellent view was obtained of one
in flight at Little Stoke on August 21st.

264 H. H. DAVIS

Common Buzzarp (Buteo b. buteo). One was seen quartering along
the edge of Callow Hill between Winscombe and Axbridge on January
17th, and one over Blagdon on September 5th. Has occurred in the
district fairly frequently in recent years, and breeding on the Mendips
has on one occasion been proved (cf. Report on Somerset Birds, 1931,
podd). |

Common Heron (Ardea c. cinerea). A census taken in late April of
occupied nests at the Brockley Coombe and Banwell Heronries showed
that there were thirty nests definitely in use at Brockley, and eighteen
at Banwell. Taking the two Heronries together, this represents a
decrease of ten breeding pairs as compared with the average number
recorded for the previous three years (cf. Reports on Somerset Birds,
1934-36).

DaRK-BREASTED BRENT Goose (Branta b. bernicla). A small flock,
identified as all being of the dark-breasted race, visited the Severn bank
on the north side of Avonmouth early in February, where they remained
for at least a month. Three were seen on February 7th, and six on
the 15th. By the 21st the number had increased to thirteen, and of
these eleven were seen on various dates up to March 7th. One was
still present on March 28th (cf. British Birds, Vol. XXXI, p. 54).
There is no previous authentic record within recent years of Brent
Geese near Avonmouth.

GADWALL (Anas strepera). An adult male was frequenting Barrow
Gurney reservoirs from August 22nd to October 10th, and was again
seen on several dates in December. The bird was usually in company
with Mallard, from which it could easily be distinguished when in
flight by its conspicuous white speculum, and when on the water
by its smaller size and more dingy appearance.. A scarce duck at any
time in the West of England, this species has been recorded on one
occasion at Blagdon, but not hitherto at Barrow. |

PintatL (Anas a. acuta). Three, females or immatures, were observed
at Barrow Gurney reservoirs on September 19th and 26th, and one, a
female, at Blagdon on November 28th.

Scaup (Nyroca m. marila). An adult male again visited Barrow
Gurney. It was frequently seen from early February to mid-April,
and on various dates in December.

Common Scorer (Ordemia n. nigra). Two were seen at Barrow
Gurney reservoirs on April 11th, and one on the Avon off Sea Mills
on the 18th; all three were males. Another, also a male, was swimming
off New Passage on July 19th. One, a female, was observed at Barrow
Gurney on December 12th.

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, BRISTOL DISTRICT, 1937 265

RED-BREASTED MERGANSER (Mergus serrator). Twice seen, three on
February 21st and a single bird on April 4th, on Blagdon reservoir,
where it is an irregular Winter visitor in very small numbers.

Smew (Mergus albellus). Five “‘ redheads’ were observed close in-
shore at Blagdon on November 28th. Has occurred fairly frequently at
the North Somerset reservoirs. Adult males, however, are seldom recorded.

RED-NECKED GREBE (Podiceps g. griseigena). A single bird at
Barrow Gurney reservoirs on February 21st was identified by members
of the Oxford Ornithological Society. There are no previous records
of this Grebe at Barrow.

BLACK-NECKED GREBE (Podiceps n. nigricollis). One was seen at

- Blagdon on February 21st, and two on March 20th. Although visiting

Barrow Gurney in most Winters it is of infrequent occurrence at
Blagdon.

RED-THROATED DivER (Colymbus stellatus). A single bird frequented
the Butcombe corner of Blagdon reservoir from mid-March to April 4th
or later. An occasional visitor in Winter to the North Somerset
reservoirs.

Grey PLover (Squatarola squatarola). On May 2nd two were
identified on the Avonmouth-Severn Beach mud flats, where it has
not previously been recorded in Spring. A party of six were seen in
the same place on September 26th.

TURNSTONE (Arenaria i. interpres). With the exception of June,

has been observed between Avonmouth and Severn Beach in all months
of the year. One hundred or more were seen on various dates in
September and October. The feeding ground of these birds is un-
doubtedly the large area of pebble and stone off Severn Beach. When
driven from this by the incoming tide they are usually to be found
either on or close under the river bank. On August 22nd a single bird
was feeding at the edge of No. 3 reservoir, Barrow Gurney, where the
species has not hitherto been recorded.
- Rurr (Philomachus pugnax). One was identified at Blagdon on
August 27th and 29th and again on September 5th and 6th; perhaps
the same bird on each occasion. A single bird was seen at No. 3
reservoir, Barrow Gurney, on September 26th.

SANDERLING (Crocethia alba). Twice observed in Spring along the
Avonmouth-Severn Beach mud flats—one on May 12th, and a party
of five on the 30th. |

Knot (Calidris c. canutus). Frequently seen along the mud flats
between Avonmouth and Severn Beach from late August to early
October, but only in very small numbers.

266 H. H. DAVIS

CuRLEW-SANDPIPER (Calidris testacea). On April 25th a partially
red bird was seen on the Avonmouth-Severn Beach mud flats. This
is the first Spring record for the Severn mouth. Observed, up to
four or five in number, along the same stretch of mud on several dates
during the first half of September.

LirtLe Stint (Calidris minuta). One was identified on the Avon-
mouth-Severn Beach mud flats on September 30th and again on
October Ist.

PuRPLE SANDPIPER (Calidris m. maritima). Frequently observed,
up to half a dozen in number, between Avonmouth and Severn Beach
from mid-February to early May. A single bird on May 12th is the
latest yet recorded on the Severn mud flats. Two were seen off Severn
Beach on November 7th.

GREEN SANDPIPER (Tringa ochropus). Unusually common at the
North Somerset reservoirs from mid-August to the end of September.
At Blagdon two or three were seen on August 29th, and four or more
on September 6th.

SPoTTED RepsHANK (Tringa erythropus). This uncommon passage
migrant was twice identified at Blagdon reservoir in August—a single
bird on the 23rd, and two on the 27th.

GREENSHANK (Tringa nebularia). Single birds were present at the
Blagdon and Barrow Gurney reservoirs on several dates in August
and September. Two seen at New Passage on August 31st provide
the only record of this species at the Severn mouth.

BaR-TAILED Gopwit (Limosa l. lapponica). Observed, up to three
in number, on two occasions in September on the Avonmouth-Severn
Beach mud flats.

Brack TERN (Chlidonias n. niger). A single bird was seen at
Blagdon reservoir on September 18th. Apparently much scarcer
than usual during the Autumn migration.

ScaANDINAVIAN LeEssER Buack-BAcKED Guiu (Larus f. fuscus).
One was clearly identified at Sea Mills on April 20th, and another
at No. 3 reservoir, Barrow Gurney, on August 22nd (cf. British Birds,
_ Vol. XXXI, pp. 54, 199). Only once previously has this race been
definitely recorded for the district, also at Sea Mills (cf. Britsh Birds,
Vol. XXVIII, pp. 117-118).

Kittiwake Gut (Rissa t. tridactyla). One, an immature bird,
was seen between Avonmouth and Severn Beach on December 22nd.

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267

The Sequence and Structure of the Radstock
Basin

By L. R. Moors, B.Sc., Ph.D.

INTRODUCTION

URING the course of this investigation, attempts were made

to secure information from all possible sources. Specimens
have been collected chiefly in situ, and plans of the workings examined
at many collieries. For opportunity to work underground the writer
is indebted to the managements of the Somerset Collieries (Radstock),
Old Mills, and Writhlington Collieries. At many collieries facilities
for studying the working plans were kindly provided, and information
freely given. For such facilities the writer is deeply grateful to Mr. C,
Southern and Mr. H. V. Phelps of the Writhlington Collieries; Mr. C.
Heal and Mr. E. Heal of the Old Mills Collieries ; Mr. D. Bennett of the
Camerton and Braisdown Collieries; and Mr. C. Cottle of Marsh Lane
Colliery.

Valuable information regarding disused collieries was given by
Mr. J. Smith, Mr. J. Parfitt, Mr. Cobb and many others, which is
gratefully acknowledged here.

Many plans of disused mines were consulted at the Mines Department,
where Mr. KE. H. Clark provided every facility and gave much assistance
in studying the plans deposited in his care. The writer is very grateful
for this kindness.

To Professor A. E. Trueman the writer is deeply indebted for much
valuable advice and continued help throughout the work and during
the production of the paper. Dr. Dix has from time to time named
many fossil plants and given important information concerning their
ranges, for which the writer is indebted. Professor W. F. Whittard
also has very kindly assisted in the production of the paper.

Some of the expenses of this work have been defrayed by the Colston
Research Society of the University of Bristol.

A brief account of the sequence within this basin has previously
been given (Moore and Trueman, 1937), whilst a general account of
the structure of the basin has also been written (Moore and Trueman,
1938). However, it is thought advisable to publish a more detailed
account of the sequence, and to discuss at some length the structural
problems presented by the basin.

268 L. R. MOORE

The sequence lies within the Upper Coal Series, a productive series
lying above the Pennant Sandstone. The Lower or Farrington Group
of seams is divided by the Barren Red Shales from the overlying
Radstock Group of seams. Previous work by Kidston (1888, 1923-25)
and Crookall (1925, 1929) has demonstrated the rich flora of the Upper
Coal Series. This Series is probably the best known portion of the
Somerset sequence, the Radstock Group being particularly well known.

THE FARRINGTON GROUP

This term is applied to the productive measures lying immediately
above the Pennant Sandstone and passing upwards into the Barren
Red Shales. The group name is derived from the disused Farrington
Gurney Colliery where the coals of this horizon were first worked.
J. Prestwich (1871, p. 33) estimated the then known thickness of this
Group to have been 750 feet, and gave a correlation of the seams
then worked. McMurtrie (1901, p. 13) stated that “the Farrington
Group usually consists of six seams, but it is much more variable
than the Upper Series (i.e., Radstock Group), sections taken at different
parts of the basin differing so materially one from the other that it has
been found difficult to correlate the seams, which are consequently
known by different names in different parts of the district.”

Since the date of McMurtrie’s publication, further exploration
has revealed the presence of lower seams which are at present being
worked in the basin. It has been possible to examine these seams
from what is regarded as the Middle or No. 5 Seam downwards at all
the collieries, but only at Braisdown and Ludlow’s Collieries has it
been possible to see the upper part of the Group, since the seams, owing
to their thinness and poor quality, are not worked ; in many cases they
are only known from shaft sections.

The area covered by the Farrington Group may be seen from the
map (Plate 32), and in order to describe fully the sequence, flora, and
correlation of this Group, the Radstock basin may be considered as
divided into an eastern and a western portion by the Clandown fault.
‘That portion east of the fault is worked by Braisdown, Ludlow’s,
Writhlington and Kilmersdon Collieries; to the west, Norton Hill,
Old Mills, and Marsh Lane Collieries are still working these coals.

A convenient horizon which may be taken as the base of the
Farrington Group for present purposes is that provided in the eastern
portion of the basin by the Braisdown No. 9 Seam, Writhlington and

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 269

Ludlow’s No. 9 Seam and the Kilmersdon New Seam. A comparable
horizon in the western portion is provided by the Norton Hill Big Vein,
Old Mills Brights Vein, and the Marsh Lane Jubilee Group of seams,
formerly worked at the disused Farrington Gurney Colliery.

Below this horizon, though some exploration has taken place, the
ground is relatively unknown, and, since nowhere do these beds outcrop,
due to the Mesozoic cover, the presence of further seams can only be
proved by exploration. Evidence already published (Moore and
Trueman, 1936), concerning a boring for coal at Farrington Gurney,
together with further data given below, would tend to suggest the
presence of lower seams, though these may not be in a workable
condition.

At the Lower Writhlington Colliery, an exploration branch proving
all the coals in the Farrington Group passed down to cut a further
group of seams. The position of the No. 9 Seam is estimated here and
a section of the branch below this horizon given :—

No. 9 Seam.
Roof of Hard grey sandstone.
Coal 18 inches.
Hard floor.

(11) Iron banded? shale or “ clift’ continues to a thin seam (1 ft.).
The dip increases and the thin coal runs almost vertically up
into the roof and was found to turn over. Abundance of red
stained water corroborates the presence here of a fault. 30 feet.

The following sequence, though much disturbed, is given to illustrate
the character of the strata and the seams proved :—

(12) Irregularly iron banded shale passing down to strata resuming
a normal dip in soft blue shale with shaly coal 10 inches
thick. Approx. 35 feet.

(13) Shale and sandstone pass into massive coarse-grained sandstone
or “ greys,’ which are badly disturbed and in many places
vertical. The strike changes, causing the branch to swing
sharply at a point some 140 feet from the coal in (12). As
repetition probably occurs within the sandstones, this thickness
cannot be estimated.

(14) The normal dip of 12 degrees in the sandstone is restored and
this rock forms the roof of a sulphury coal 1 foot thick. Below

*The term “iron banded” here and elsewhere in the paper implies the
presence of thin ferruginous layers tending to weather into orange orred bands.

270 L. R. MOORE

this seam sandy shale, becoming iron banded, merges into a
dark blue very fine-grained shale forming the roof of a further
sulphury coal 1 foot thick. The roof of this coal is important
since it yields plant remains, amongst which

Lepidophyllum sp.

Neuropteris cf. nikolausi Gothan
have been recognised. A band of black mudstone here has
yielded good specimens of freshwater lamellibranchs, including

Anthraconauta phillips: (Will.).
Anthraconauta cf. tenuis (Davies and Trueman). 25 feet.

(15) Massive coarse sandstone passing down to a sandy shale forms
the roof of a third coal, 1 foot thick. 90 feet.

(16) Very massive sandstone resembling Pennant Sandstone and
containing two further sulphury black shale bands. 465 feet.

(17) Sandstone and shale were proved to a point where a seam 4 to 5
feet thick was cut; this, when followed, proved to be a swell,
the coal averaging 1 foot. Approx. 50 feet.

(18) The workings were flooded at this point and could not be
examined further, but the branch had been continued for a
further 70 yards through disturbed ground, a large fault pro-
ducing much “red ground” having been cut.

It is important to note that the shells recorded above are the only
ones to be found within the Radstock Basin below the No. 1 Seam of
the Farrington Group. The presence of this lower group of seams
with a fauna is of considerable importance and throws light on the
sequence at the Pensford and Bromley Collieries.

THE FARRINGTON GROUP WORKED TO THE EAST OF THE
CLANDOWN FAULT

At Braisdown, which is the most northerly colliery at present working
the Farrington seams within this part of the basin, unproductive
ground has been proved below the No.9 Seam. The latter seam shows
the presence of a blue shale roof, though massive sandstones occur
in the higher part of the roof. Ironstone nodules are abundant over
the seam and occur in such profusion in hard bands that the miners
term them “‘ Cockle bands.”

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 271

No. 9 Seam
Coal Section :—

Braisdown — Ludlow’s
Roof blue shale, ironstone bands. = Shale overlying sandstone.
Binching 3-4 inches. Coal 22 inches bright.
Coal 22 inches bright. Floor soft.
Tronstone band 2 inches.
Floor soft.

An excellent collection from the thin shale band over the coal at
Braisdown included :—

Flora—

Sphenopteris neuropteroides (Boul.)
S. cf. pecopteroides Kidston
Alethopteris serli (Brongt.)

A. serlt forma grandimi Crookall
Neuropteris flecuosa Sternb.

N. cf. flecuosa Sternb.

N. flexuosa var. rotundifolia Brongt.
N. macrophylla Brongt.

N. cf. tenuifolia (Schloth.)
Mixoneura (Neuropteris) ovata Hoff.
Cyclopteris obicularis Brongt.
Asterotheca cf. cyathea (Schloth.)
A. oreopteridia (Schloth.)

A. cf. milton (Art.)

A. cf. daubreer (Zeiller)

Pecopteris dentata (Brongt.)
Ptychocarpus unitus (Brongt.)
Dicksonites pluckenetc (Schloth.)
Lepidodendron lycopodioides Sternb.
L. sp.

Calamites sp.

Annularia stellata (Schloth.)

A. sphenophylloides (Zenker)

A. radiata Brongt.

Cordaites sp.

Further specimens of Sphenopteris alata Kidston were obtained on
the tip from the roof of this seam.

The No. 9 Seam at Ludlow’s Colliery to the south-west of Braisdown
provides an excellent coal. A soft shale rests on the coal in places,
but is probably lenticular in its distribution ; where the shale is present
ironstone nodules are strongly developed. Overlying sandstones
come down very near the coal, and no shale yielding fossils was obtained
from this seam.

2712 L. R. MOORE

At both collieries the No. 9 Seam is separated from the overlying
No. 8 Seam by hard sandstones which, at Ludlow’s and Braisdown,
are 40 feet and 45 feet thick respectively.

No. 8 SEAM

Exploration branches, both at Ludlow’s and Braisdown Collieries,
have provided data giving the positions of the seams from which the
thickness of strata has been estimated. This Seam is not worked
at either colliery, and it was only possible to make a collection in
old workings at Ludlow’s Colliery where an unsuccessful attempt
to work this Seam had been made. Sections of the Seam as observed
at Braisdown and Ludlow’s Collieries are given below together with a
list of the rich flora from the latter colliery :—

Section.
Braisdown Ludlow’s
Roof hard blue shale. Roof hard blue shale.
Coal 4 inches. Coal inferior 3-4 inches.
Black shale and thin coal. Coal—Main 18 inches.
Coal 8 inches. Floor soft.

Thinly bedded dark shale 6 feet.
Coal 12-18 inches.
Floor soft.

Flora No. 8 Seam.

Sphenopteris macilenta L. and H.
S. neuropteroides (Boul.)

S. cf. pecopteroides Kidston

S. alata Kidston

S. ef. lawrents Andre

Renaultia cherophylloides (Brongt.)
Sphenopteris sp.

Mariopteris nervosa (Brongt.)

M. cf. carnosa Corsin
Diplotmena sp.

Alethopteris serlt (Brongt.)

A. serlt forma grandini Crookall
A. serla var. lonchitifolia P.B.
Neuropteris flecuosa Sternb.

N. flexuosa var. rotundifolia Brongt.
N. scheuchzert Hoff.

N. macrophylla Brongt.

Mixoneura (Neuropteris) ovata Hoff.
Cyclopteris orbicularis Brongt.
Asterotheca miltoni (Art.) (Pec. abbreviata Brongt.)
Ptychocarpus unitus (Brongt.)

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 273.

Sphenophyllum emarginatum Brongt.
S. cf. magus Bronn
Odontopteris sp.

The occurrence of Sphenopteris macilenta with S. alata, and this
association with Ptychocarpus unitus and Mariopteris cf. carnosa is
interesting and stratigraphically important. Renaultia cherophylloides
and Sphenopteris cf. laurenti are interesting occurrences.

The New Seam of Kilmersdon Colliery to the south of Ludlow’s
exhibits characters which are more in common with seams worked
at Norton Hill and Old Mills Collieries in the western portion of the
basin. The roof of the Seam has yielded a rich flora which, with the
seam section, is given below :—

New SEAM SECTION

Roof strong massive blue shale.

Top coal 2 ft. 6 ins.

Parting thin black shale.

Bottom coal variable 1 ft. to 1 ft. 6 ins.

The section is found to vary considerably, particularly the parting
of shale and the Bottom coal. The average total thickness of ‘the
section is 4 feet 6 inches. |

Flora

Sphenopteris cf. pecopterordes Kidston
S. striata Gothan

Mariopteris nervosa (Brongt.)

M. cf. carnosa Corsin

Alethopteris serli Brongt.

A. serla var. lonchitifolia P.B.

A. serli forma grandini Crookall
Neuropteris flecuosa Sternb.

N. flecuosa var. rotundifolia Brongt.
N. scheuchzert Hoff.

N. cf. macrophylla Brongt.

N. cf. tenwifolia (Schloth.)
Mixoneura (Neuropteris) ovata Hoff.
Asterotheca cyathea (Schloth.)

A. cf. oreopteridia (Schloth.)

A. cf. miltona (Art.)

A. daubreet (Zeiller)

Eupecopteris sp.

Pecopteris dentata (Brongt.)
Ptychocarpus unitus (Brongt.)
Sphenophyllum emarginatum Brongt.
Annularia stellata (Schloth.)

274 L. R. MOORE

The occurrence of Plychocarpus unitus in abundance, with a similarity
in the Pecopterids, particularly the occurrence of Asterotheca cyathea,
renders this collection similar to that from Braisdown No. 9 Seam.

It is thought that the Nos. 8 and 9 Seams of Ludlow’s and Braisdown
and similar seams proved in a branch (see p. 269) at the Lower Writh-
lington Colliery are equivalent to the Kilmersdon New Seam, and
represent a splitting up of that Seam when followed northwards.

No. 7 SEAM

The sequence above the No. 8 Seam has been observed both at
Ludlow’s and Braisdown Collieries. At the former colliery, massive
grey micaceous shales often strongly iron banded in a very regular
manner alternate with beds of hard sandstone, the sequence containing
two inferior thin coal seams. The thickness of strata to the No. 7 Seam
is estimated at 250 feet.

The following section at a comparable horizon was observed at
Braisdown :—

No. 7 Seam

Massive shales strongly and regularly iron banded. About 60 feet.
Beds of hard grey sandstone passing down into sandy micaceous
shale, becoming strongly iron banded at its base and resting

on a thin sulphury coal. 45 feet.
Strongly iron banded shales and thin sandstones resting on 18
inches of coaly shale. 20 feet.

Massive blue shale with sandstone bands passing down to a hard
grey sandstone forming the roof of the No. 8 Seam. 80 feet.

The thickness of strata, therefore, between the No. 7 and No. 8 Seams
of this colliery would be approximately 205 feet.

The No. 7 Seam is not at present worked at either colliery ; it shows,
however, a similar section. A collection from this horizon was made
in old workings at Ludlow’s Colliery ; here the roof of the seam consists
of grey thinly bedded shale rich in fossil plants. :

Section No. 7 Seam, Ludlow’s

Roof grey shale.

Top coal 9 inches.

Band of soft black shale 12 inches.
Coal 12 inches.

Band of black shale 24 inches.

Bottom coal variable 8 inches to 2 feet.
Floor hard.

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 275

The averge thickness of the Beam 1 is nearly 5 feet, but the coal is of
poor quality.

Flora No. 7 Seam

Sphenopteris neuropteroides (Boul.)
S. pecopteroides Kidston

Marwopteris cf. carnosa Corsin
Alethopteris serli (Brongt.)

A. serla var. lonchitifolia P.B.
Neuropteris flecuosa Sternb.

N. scheuchzerr Hoff.

Mixoneura (Neuropteris) ovata Hoft.
Cyclopteris orbicularis Brongt.
Asterotheca miltoni (Art.) (Pec. abbreviata Brongt.)
Sphenophyllum emarginatum Brongt.
Annularia stellata (Schloth.)

A. sphenophylloides (Zenker)

No. 6 Seam

A thickness of 112 feet of strong blue shale very prominently iron
banded and containing occasional beds of sandstone lies between this
and the No. 7 Seam at Ludlow’s Colliery. Though the thickness of
strata at Braisdown is apparently greater, the character of the sequence
is very similar. This Seam is only worked at the above-mentioned
collieries, and what is considered to be its equivalent is found both at
Writhlington and Kilmersdon Collieries to be in an unworkable con-
dition. . The roof of the Seam is peculiar in that iron banding is so
pronounced as to tend towards the formation of ironstone nodules.

No. 6 Seam Ludlow’s No. 6 Seam Braisdown
Brown shale with ironstones. Blue “ clod ” with ironstones.
Thin black coaly band. Black coaly band.

Top coal 8 inches dirty. Top coal 6 inches dirty.

Band variable 6 to 12 inches. Band and black shale 3 inches.
Bottom coal 14 inches. Bottom coal 12 inches.

Hard floor. Hard floor.

The flora collected at these two localities includes :—

Sphenopteris neuropteroides (Boul.)
S. pecopteroides Kidston

S. cf. artemisefolioides Crép.

S. sp.

Marvwopteris nervosa (Brongt.)

M. cf. carnosa Corsin

Alethopteris serli (Brongt.)

A. serli forma grandini Crookall

276 L. R. MOORE

A. serli var. lonchitefolia P.B. -
Neuropteris flecuosa Sternb.

N. flexuosa var. rotundifolia Brongt.
N. scheuchzeri Hoft.

N. macrophylla Brongt.

N. fimbriata Lesq.

Mizxoneura (Neuropteris) ovata Hoff.
Asterotheca miltoni (Art.) (Pec. abbreviata Brongt.)
A. ef. oreopteridia (Schloth.)

A. cf. daubreei (Zeiller)
Sphenophyllum emarginatum Brongt.
S. cf. magus Bronn

Odontopteris sp.

The collection from Ludlow’s Colliery, whilst showing similar species
of Alethopteris, Neuropteris and Pecopteris, is poorly represented by
Sphenopterids, Sphenopteris sp. being the only record. Mariopteris
is absent from Ludlow’s whilst Ptychocarpus unitus (Brongt.), Astero-
theca cyathea (Schloth.), A. cf. miltoni (Art.), and Cyclopteris orbicularis
Brongt. are not recorded from Braisdown. These specimens are
represented by single occurrences at Ludlow’s.

It is opportune at this point to give the upper portion of the explora-
tion branch at Lower Writhlington Colliery which, commencing at
the No. 5 Seam, is considered to have proved the sequence down to the
No. 9 horizon of Ludlow’s and Braisdown. That portion of the branch
below the No. 9Seam has been previously given (p. 269). Since this
branch is heavily timbered, the data only give an approximation of
thickness ; collecting was only possible in those refuge holes containing
fossiliferous strata.

No. 5 of Ludlow’s

(1) From the Deep Middle Vein (or No. 6 Seam of Writhlington)
the branch passed through massive blue shale, to cut a seam of

inferior coal 2 feet thick. 25 feet. -

No. 6 of Ludlow’s

(2) Beds of massive grey sandstone giving place to massively bedded
shale underlain by thinly bedded brown shale forming the roof
of a thin sulphury coal. 30 feet.

This roof was fossiliferous and yielded :—

Sphenopteris cf. pecopteroides Kidston
Alethopteris serli (Brongt.)
A. serli var. lonchitifolia P.B.

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 277

Neuropteris scheuchzerr Hoft.
Odontopteris sp.

Asterotheca cf. maltona (Art.)
Annularia sphenophylloides (Zenker)

(3) Thinly bedded shales passing down to dark blue massively bedded
shales which become sandy and iron banded forming the roof

of a thin shaly coal seam. | 100 feet.
(4) Very hard and strongly iron banded shale forming the roof
of a thin coal seam 1 foot thick. 30 feet.

(5) Dark blue sandstone passing into finer grained light blue “ clift”’
with regular iron bands forming the roof of a coal of inferior
quality consisting of 18 inches coal with much black sulphury
shale. 12 feet.

No. 7 of Ludlow’s

(6) Grey-blue massive “ clift’”’ prominently red stained with ironstone
nodules, passing to thick sandstones irregularly bedded, which
become shaly to form the roof of a coal seam 1 foot thick. 80 feet.

(7) Blue shales fine grained, passing to darker iron banded shale—
ironstone bands being very regular and tending to produce
ironstone nodules. This forms the roof of a coal 18 inches
thick, very inferior and sulphury. 20 feet.

(8) Ironstone nodules prominent in strongly banded fine grained
shale lying above a dirty sulphury coal shale 1 foot thick. 45 feet.

Alethopteris serli (Brongt.), Neuropterts rarinervis Bun. and
Odontopteris cf. lindleyana Sternb. were obtained from the roof.

(9) Massive iron banded shales with ironstone nodules and occasional

coal streaks extend down to a thicker coal seam with the following

sections :— 30 feet.
No. 8 of Ludlow’s
Roof iron banded shale.
Top coal 4-6 inches.
Black shales. 2 feet 4 inches.

Bottom coal 1 foot 4 inches.

The following collection was made from this seam :—

Sphenopteris neuropterordes (Boul.)
S. cf. ovatifolia Lillie

Renaultva sp.

Marvopteris sp.

Alethopteris serli (Brongt.)

278 L. R. MOORE

A. serli var. lonchitifolia P.B.
Mizxoneura (Neuropteris) ovata Hoff.
Asterotheca sp.

Sphenophyllum cf. majus Bronn

S. cf. emarginatum Brongt.

(10) Beneath this coal the sequence consists entirely of hard massive
standstones forming the roof of a coal seam. 30 feet.

No. 9 of Ludlow’s

Roof hard grey sandstone.
‘Coal 18 inches bright.
Floor hard.

The correlation of this sequence with the sequence at Ludlow’s
Colliery is based on the available flora, on the distances apart of the
seams, and on the character of the intervening strata.

THE MIpDLE VEIN or No. 5 SEAM

This Seam, which at Ludlow’s and Braisdown Collieries occurs some
35 feet above the No. 6 Seam, is extensively worked throughout the
coalfield. Thinly bedded blue shale, very regular and distinctly iron
banded, lies between this and the lower seam. This coal appears
to provide one of the most constant seams within the Radstock basin.
It proves to be of good quality, though its average thickness is rarely
greater than 18 to 22 inches. The roof of the Seam is very variable ;
in many instances a coarse sandstone with coaly particles rests directly
on the coal, in other places a shale roof is present, whilst a “ clod ”
of softer dark blue shale is known to occur. It is important to note
that, whatever the type of roof near the coal, there is invariably a
thick coarse sandstone present at no great distance above it.

This Seam has been examined in all the collieries mentioned; the
extent of the collection at each locality has been considerably influenced
by the lithology of the roof. Sections of the Seam at the various
collieries will serve to illustrate this nature :—

Braisdown No. 5 Ludlow’s No. 5
Roof generally shale. Roof shale and sandstone.
Coal 18 inches. Coal 20 inches.
Floor hard. Floor hard.

Writhlington No. 6 or Deep M.V. Kilmersdon D.M.V.

Sandstone or clod. Thin shale and clod.
Coal 18 to 22 inches. Coal 18 to 22 inches.
Floor hard. Floor hard.

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 279

This Seam was best seen at the Writhlington and Kilmersdon .
Collieries, where it was followed over a wide area. The flora from
these localities is therefore the most complete and will be given :—

Flora
Writhlington Deep Middle Vein (or No. 6 Seam of the Collrery).

Sphenopteris cf. pecopteroides Kidston
S. ef. sewardt Kidston

S. cf. marrati Kidston

S. cf. artemisefolroides Crép.

S. striata Gothan

S. sp.

Allowopterts sp.

Mariopteris nervosa (Brongt.)

M. cf. carnosa Corsin

Alethopteris serli (Brongt.)

A. serli var. lonchitifolia P.B.
Neuropteris flecuosa Sternb.

N. flexuosa var. rotundifolia Brongt.
N. scheuchzert Hoff.

N. macrophylla Brongt.

Cyclopterrs orbicularis Brongt.
Asterotheca cyathea (Schloth.)

A. milton (Art.) (Pecopteris abbreviata Brongt.)
A. oreopteridia (Schloth.)

A. daubreei (Zeiller)

Eupecopteris fletta Kidston

Pecopteris dentata (Brongt.)
Dicksonites pluckenets (Schloth.)
Sphenophyllum cf. emarginatum Brongt.
S. cf. magus Bronn

Calamites sp.

Annularia stellata (Schloth.)

A. radiata Brongt.

Aphlebia crispa Gut.

The flora from the Deep Middle Vein of Kilmersdon Colliery is
essentially similar though somewhat poorer in Sphenopterids. The
interesting Sphenopteris cf. artemisefolioides Crép. is present together
with Sphenopteris spp. and a specimen of Sphenopteris cf. ovopteroides
Weiss (not recorded from Writhlington). An abundance of Alloiopteris
radstockensis Kidston with further specimens referred to Allovopteris
sp., and Corynepteris sp. are interesting occurrences at this horizon.
The presence of Hupecopteris fletti Kidston with Asterotheca daubreer
(Zeiller) and an abundance of Asterotheca oreopteridia (Schloth.) is
important. The flora from this seam at Braisdown is not so rich
in Sphenopterids, Sphenopteris neuropteroides (Boul.) and S. sp. only

280 ; L. Re MOORE

being present. Mariopteris nervosa (Brongt.) is fairly common, whilst
Pecopterids are represented by Asterotheca cf. cyathea (Schloth.) with
A. oreopteridia (Schloth.) and A. daubreei (Zeiller) abundant. Alethop-
teris serli Brongt. and Mixoneura (Neuropteris) ovata Hoff. are common ;
single specimens of Ptychocarpus unitus (Brongt.) and Calamites
carinatus Sternb. also occur. Further specimens referred to Dicksonites
pluckenet (Schloth.) and comparable with similar forms from Kilmers-
don Middle Vein are present.

At Ludlow’s Colliery the sandy shale roof rendered collecting difficult ;
the collection from the No. 5 Seam contained :—

Sphenopteris cf. neuropteroides (Boul.)
S. cf. artemisefolioides Crép.
Marvopteris nervosa (Brongt.)

M. cf. carnosa Corsin

Alethopteris serli (Brongt.)

A. serli var. lonchitifolia P.B.
Neuropteris flecuosa Sternb.

N. flexuosa var. rotundifolia Brongt.
N. scheuchzert Hoff.

N. cf. macrophylla Brongt.
Cyclopteris orbicularis Brongt.
Asterotheca cf. oreopteridia (Schloth.)
Sphenophyllum emarginatum Brongt.

The occurrence of Sphenopteris cf. artemisefolioides Crép. and
Asterotheca cf. oreopteridia (Schloth.) is noteworthy.

The inset levels of the shafts of Braisdown, Writhlington and
Kilmersdon are at the horizon of the No. 5 or Middle Vein, that of
Ludlow’s being at the No. 6 Seam. Only at Braisdown and Ludlow’s
Collieries is it possible to study the sequence between the No. 5 Seam
and the higher worked Rock Vein. The intervening Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4
Seams are thin and of inferior quality and nowhere worked. Though
the sequence was examined at both Collieries it is thought advisable
to give that from Braisdown where an incline runs for 400 yards to cut
the Rock Vein or Badger Seam. The sequence is as follows :—

No. 5 Seam or MIDDLE VEIN

(1) Thin shale over the coal passing upwards into very massive
grey sandstone. 30 feet.
(2) Coal. No. 4 Seam and shales 1 foot 6 inches with roof of iron
banded shales passing into sandstone. Iron banded shale and
sandstone with two thin sulphury coals. 80 feet.
(3) Thin sulphury coal with strongly iron banded roof, passing to

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 281

light blue shales and alternating sandstones and shales massively
bedded ; shale and coaly band. ; 40 feet.
(4) Coal and black shales 9 inches.
Dark shales approx. 6 feet.
Coal and band very sulphury. 7 feet.
(5) Broadly iron banded shales alternating with massive sandstones
and passing upwards into hard sandstones or “ greys.’ Massively
bedded dark blue shale. 55 feet.
(6) Coal seam 18 inches, No. 3 Seam, with blue shale roof and passing
upwards to a further very inferior coal 2 feet thick. 10 feet.
(7) Massive blue shale iron banded by crimson streaks about half
an inch wide and regularly distributed. 20 feet.
(8) Coal. No. 2 Seam, in two pieces with sulphury partings 1 foot
6 inches and overlain by blue shale roof. Shale becomes massive
and iron banded in broad bands. 45 feet.
(9) Coal Seam. Soft shaly coal with sulphur partings 2 feet 6 inches
and roof of massive “ clift ’’ or shale strongly iron banded. This
““clift’”’? passes upwards into dark shales with thin coals which are
overlain by further massively bedded shale, with widely spaced
iron bands. 40 feet.
(10) Black shales with thin coaly lenticles soft and friable. 12 feet.
(11) Dark grey sandstones passing upwards into thinly bedded blue
shales iron banded and forming the low floor of the Rock
Vein. 25 feet.

Thus the sequence from the No. 5 or Middle Vein up to the. Rock
Vein or Badger consists of approximately 350 feet of strata enumerated
above. The sequence at Ludlow’s was very similar, the No. 4 Seam
lying 28 feet above the No. 5, A flora was obtained from the No. 1
Seam of this colliery and contained :—

Alethopteris serli (Brongt.)
Alethopteris cf. grandini (Brongt.)
Neuropteris flecuosa Sternb.

N. rarinervis Bun.

Mixoneura (Neuropteris) cf. ovata Hoff.
Asterotheca cf. arborescens (Schloth.)
A. cf. miltona (Art.)

Ptychocarpus unitus (Brongt.)
Eupecopteris sp.

Calamites sp.

Annularia stellata (Schloth.)

This collection is important, being the highest known flora from
the Farrington Group.

282 L. R. MOORE

At the Lower Writhlington Colliery a further inset level occurs at |

the horizon of the Rock Vein; the intervening strata between that
Seam and the Deep Middle Vein are not exposed. Their thickness
is given, however, as about 320 feet. The shaft of the Kilmersdon
Colliery was sunk in a fault, and only part of the sequence above the
Middle Vein has been proved by exploration branches. The Rock
Vein is not, however, worked from this Colliery.

THe Rock VEIN oR BADGER SEAM

This, the highest Seam occurring in the Farrington Group, is well
known and extensively worked in the group of collieries under discussion
with the exception of the Kilmersdon Colliery. It forms an important
datum line since it provides a notable faunal horizon. Shells from this
Seam at the Writhlington Colliery have been described by Dix and
Trueman (1929, pp. 499-501). Bolton (1911, p. 322) found shells on
the tip of Ludlow’s Colliery; these were described by him as coming
from the deep, i.e., the Farrington seams, and hence probably from
the Rock Vein. Material from the Badger Seam of Braisdown has
yielded excellent specimens of A. pringler Dix and Trueman, identical
with those from the Writhlington Rock Vein.

This Seam provides a house coal of good quality, its section at
Braisdown being :—

Hard mudstone roof cleaving badly.
12 inches coaly blacks known as Badger.

9 inches coal and blacks. ~
14 inches Bottom coal.

At the Writhlington Collieries the Rock Vein has been followed and
worked over an extensive area from its outcrop to the east, westwards
to Radstock. The average section of the Seam is :—

Roof thin mudstone.
Badger, black shale and coal streaks.

Dull black shale.
Coal 18 inches.

A massive micaceous sandy shale overlies the thin mudstone and con-
tains only fragmentary plant remains. Following the Seam towards
Radstock, the sandstone roof was found to become more prominent,
and in many cases the thin fossiliferous shale was absent.

The Seam deteriorates from east to west; whilst, at the disused .

Foxcote Colliery the coal was relatively thick with a thinner Badger,
the opposite is the case near Radstock,

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 283

At Ludlow’s Colliery the section given is thus :—

Hard sandy shale roof.

Grey hard “clod ” 20 inches.

Coal 14 inches.
The roof presented a hard uniform textured micaceous sandy shale
devoid of fossils, and no fossiliferous band was present where the Seam.
was cut in the level branch.

THE FARRINGTON GROUP WORKED TO THE WEST OF
THE CLANDOWN FAULT

The seams of this group in the western portion of the basin are worked
by the Norton Hill, Old Mills and Marsh Lane Collieries. The two
former shafts were sunk directly into the Farrington Group after
passing through some part of the Barren Red measures lying above ;
this was also the case with the now disused Farrington Gurney Colliery.
The Marsh Lane Colliery comprises a slant by means of which the
lowest seam is worked. No seams are at present worked above the
horizon of the Middle Vein or No. 5 Seam. The sequence in the
upper portion of the Farrington Group of this area is, therefore, only
known from shaft sections and hence the faunal horizon equivalent
to the Rock Vein is unknown.

The nomenclature of the worked seams in this area differs from that
met with in the collieries previously discussed ; the seams here have a
characteristic name. It is proposed for clarity to head each seam with
its appropriate number and so to facilitate correlation between the
two areas.

Nos. 8 AND 9 SEAMS

This horizon is represented by the Jubilee Group of seams of
Farrington Gurney, the Brights Vein of Old Mills Collieries, and the
Big Vein of Norton Hill Collieries.

McMurtrie (1901, p. 13) gives a section of strata explored (1898)
at the disused Farrington Gurney Colliery ; a three-coal group of seams,
called the Jubilee Group, was proved giving the following section :—

Coal 1 foot 3 inches.
Soft shale and “ clift ” 6 feet.
Coal 1 foot 9 inches.

“ Clift’ or shale 5 feet.
Coal stony 2 feet 1 inch.

The lowest coal of this Group is at present worked by the Marsh Lane

284 “i! ai “iy Be MOORE

Colhery at Farrington Gurney. Sections of the Brights Vein of Old
Mills, and Big Vein of Norton Hill, are given below for comparison :—

Old Mills, Brights Vein Norton Hill, Big Vein
Roof hard sandstone with thin shale. Roof hard sandstone.
Thin coal 6 inches, soft and dirty. “Clod ” of irregular thickness.

Black band 12 to 18 inches. Top coal 24 inches.

Top coal 24 to 36 inches. Dark shale 18 inches.

Dark shale often sulphury 4 feet. Bottom coal 18 inches to 2 feet.
Bottom coal 18 inches, Pan floor.

Pan floor,

Thus, passing eastwards from Farrington Gurney through Old
Mills to Norton Hill this Seam would appear to improve; the section
of the Kilmersdon Colliery New Seam (p. 273), with which the Nos. 8
and 9 Seams of the eastern area are correlated, would suggest continued
improvement eastwards.

It would appear, however, that the Seam splits up going from south
to north to give the Ludlow’s, Braisdown and Writhlington Nos. 8
and 9 Seams.

A seam was cut below the Big Vein at Norton Hill Colliery but was
worthless ; similarly at Old Mills, 30 yards below the Brights Vein,
a shaly coal was cut. The workings were stopped by water from
massive sandstones termed ** Pennant.’”’ Lower seams have been
proved by a borehole at Farrington Gurney (Moore and Trueman,
1936).

The horizon under discussion presents probably the richest flora
from the coalfield, and correlation has been based on the following
occurrences :—Sphenopteris macilenta L. and H.is abundant on the
Ludlow’s No. 8 Seam, Old Mills Brights Vein and the 21-inch seam of
Marsh Lane Colliery. Specimens have been obtained from the Norton
Hill tip in material which strongly resembles the Big Vein roof. This
plant has not been recorded from the Kilmersdon New Seam or the
Braisdown No. 9. It is interesting to note that this species has not
been recorded from other seams in the Farrington Group.

Sphenopteris alata Kidston, which is abundant on Ludlow’s No. 8
Seam, occurs on the Norton Hill Big Vein. Further specimens were
obtained from No. 9 Seam roof material at Braisdown Colliery tip.
Specimens referred to S. cf. pecopterordes Kidston are present at the
Braisdown No. 9, Ludlow’s No. 8 and Kilmersdon New Seam, but are
are not recorded from Old Mills or Norton Hill at this horizon.

The genus Neuropieris is abundant and many species occur, the most
interesting being a small pinnuled form referred to Neuropteris cf.

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 285

rarinervis Bun., but which bears resemblance to N. nikolausi Gothan ;
this plant is recorded from the Brights Vein, Big Vein, and 21-inch
Seam of Marsh Lane, and it also occurs in the branch at Writhlington
Colliery. It has been found at Norton Hill at a higher horizon on the
New Vein, but has not been recorded above that seam. Marioptervs sp.,
a peculiar plant with doubtful affinities, is abundant on the Brights
Vein and has been recorded from the Big Vein.

Pecopterids are generally rare, though the occurrence of Asterotheca
cyathea (Schloth.) is typical of this horizon. It has been recorded
from Braisdown No. 9, Kilmersdon New Seam, Norton Hill Big Vein,
and Old Mills Brights Vein. The collection obtained from the latter
- seam is given for the illustration of other species :—

Sphenopteris macilenta L. and H.

S. cf. neuropteroides (Boul.)
Marwopteris nervosa (Brongt.)

M. cf. carnosa Corsin

M. sp.

Alethopteris serlt (Brongt.)

A. serla var. lonchitifolia P.B.
Neuropteris flecuosa Sternb.

N. flexuosa var. rotundifolia Brongt.
N. cf. rarinervis Bun.

N. scheuchzerr Hoff.

N. macrophylla Brongt.

N. cf. tenwifolia (Schloth.)
Mizoneura (Neuropteris) ovata Hoff.
Cyclopteris orbicularis Brongt.
Asterotheca cyathea (Schloth.)

A. miltons (Art.) Pec. abbreviata Brongt.
A. cf. daubreei (Zeiller)

Pecopteris dentata (Brongt.)
Ptychocarpus unitus (Brongt.)
Sphenophyllum cf. majus Bronn
Lepidodendron lycopodioides Sternb.
Calamites undulatus Sternb.
Annularia sphenophyllordes (Zenker)

Both at Old Mills and Norton Hill Collieries, very strong and massive
sandstones form the higher roof of the seams above discussed. A
level branch driven at the Old Mills No, 1 Colliery has cut 200 feet of
strata between the Bottom Seam and the Brights Seam. The sequence
consists chiefly of grey-blue massive shales strongly iron banded,
with a few thin sandstone bands. Four thin seams of a sulphury nature
were encountered, the thickest being only 1 foot where cut in the
branch. This latter seam, lying about 25 feet above the Brights Vein,

286 L. R.. MOORE

was explored and found to attain a maximum thickness of 2 feet 8 inches,
and was designated the New Seam. In character the coal is soft and
sulphury, whilst the roof is bad and consists of a coaly, sulphury shale,
which does not yield identifiable plants. The higher roof consists of
strongly iron banded shale with a tendency to the development of
ironstone nodules. This seam traced in the workings is seen to be
lenticular in shape, passing in the same “ heading ” from 2 feet 6 inches
to 1 foot; northwards it swells to 2 feet 8 inches and divides into two
coals with a shale parting. A thin coal (6 inches) occurs in a similar
position with regard to the Brights Vein at the Old Mills No. 2 Colliery.

At the Norton Hill No. 2 Colliery a similar branch has proved a
thickness of 180 feet from the New Vein to the Big Vein, passing through
a sequence almost entirely in strongly iron banded shale with occasional
thin sandstones. Four thin and unworked coals occur in the lower part
of this sequence. The lowest of these, some 15 feet above the Big
Vein, has a roof in which ironstone nodules are developed ; its sandy
floor passes down to form the hard roof of the Big Vein.

No. 7 SEAM

The New Vein of Norton Hill and the Bottom Vein of Old Mills
are to be correlated with the above Seam. The roofs of these Seams
are very hard and formed of massive blue shale, though at Norton
Hill a softer “‘ clod”’ rests on the coal. The sections of these Seams
at the two Collieries are thus :—

New Vein, Norton Hill Bottom Vein, Old Mills
Roof shale with “ Clod.”’ Roof of shale and sandstone.
Coal 15 inches. Top coal 6 to 7 inches.
Binching 4 inches. Binching 1 to 2 inches.

Coal 10 inches. Coal 24 inches.

Collections were made from both Seams, that from Norton Hill colliery
including :—

Sphenopteris neuropteroides (Boul.)
Marvwpteris cf. carnosa Corsin

M. cf. daviest Kidston

Alethopteris serli (Brongt.)
Neuropteris macrophylla Brongt.

N. cf. rarinervis Bun.

N. scheuchzert Hoff.

Mixoneura (Neuropteris) ovata Hoff.
Asterotheca cf. cyathea (Schloth.)

A. cf. oreopteridia (Schloth.)
Sphenophyllum emarginatum Brongt.
Sigillaria nortonensis Crookall

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 287

Calamites carinatus Sternb.

Annularia stellata (Schloth.)

A. sphenophylloides (Zenker)

Cordaites sp.

Lepidodendron aculeatum Sternb.
A collection from Old Mills Bottom Vein does not show the rich
Mariopterid flora, but Sphenopteris neuropteroides (Boul.) is abundant
and Asterotheca daubreei (Zeiller) is present. Calamites carinatus
Sternb. is present at Old Mills, and the general assemblage of the
flora is similar. y

The Seam itself, its roof and flora, bear strong resemblances to the

No. 7 Seam of the eastern area. This horizon may be that of the Church
Close Seam of the disused Farrington Gurney Colliery. McMurtrie
(1901, p. 13) gave a thickness of 204 feet of strata to lie between that
Seam and the Jubilee Group of coals, a thickness which compares
favourably with that of Old Mills Collieries.

No. 6 Seam

At both Collieries the succession is continued by massive blue shale
with occasional beds of sandstone to the Slyving Vein. This Seam is
not worked at Old Mills Colliery; it consists of two coals of inferior
quality 1 foot 6 inches thick. At Norton Hill the Seam has improved
but is still a “ two coal ”’ seam, the top coal of which is poor in quality.
At Norton Hill it lies 98 feet above the New Vein.

Section at Norton Hill Colliery :—

Roof, blue shale.

“Clod” soft, blue in colour averaging 1 foot.
Top coal 10 inches.

Binching 4 to 6 inches.

Bottom coal about 2 feet and of good quality.

The following specimens were obtained :—

Alethopteris serlt (Brongt.)

A. serli forma grandini Crookall

A. serli var. lonchitefolia P.B.
Neuropteris flecuosa Sternb.

N. flexuosa var. rotundifolia Brongt.

N. scheuchzerr Hoff.

Mixoneura (Neuropteris) ovata Hoff.
Cyclopteris orbicularis Brongt.
Ptychocarpus unitus (Brongt.)
Sphenophyllum cf. emarginatum Brongt.
Trigonocarpus neeggeratht (Sternb.)
Cordaites cf. angulo-striatus Grand-Eury
Sigdlaria tessellata Brongt.

288 L. RB. MOORE

The characteristics of this Seam render it extremely similar to the No. 6
Seam of the Ludlow’s and Braisdown Collieries.

The sequence above this Seam consists of blue shale with very pro-
nounced and regular iron bands, and passes upwards to more massively "
bedded light blue shale lying below the Middle Vein. A thickness
of 38 feet of such strata lies between the Slyving and Middle Vein at
Norton Hill.

No. 5 or MIDDLE VEIN

This Seam shows identical characteristics when compared with the
Middle Vein of the eastern area, and is no doubt the same seam. The
thick band of “ greys” or coarse sandstones noted above this Seam
in the eastern area is present in both Collieries. It is interesting to note
from the shaft section of the old Farrington Gurney Colliery the presence
of this sandstone above the Middle Vein of that colliery.

Sections of the Seam at Norton Hill and Old Mills Collieries are
given below :—

Norton Hill Old Mills
Roof hard sandy shale. Roof hard sandy shale and
Blue ‘ clod ” very variable thickness. sandstone.
Coal 22 inches good quality. Coal 22 inches good quality.
Hard floor. Hard floor.

The shale over this Seam has yielded a good flora; the facilities
for collecting being greater at Old Mills, the flora from that locality
is given :—

Sphenopteris cf. laurenta Andree

S. striata Gothan

Alethopteris seri (Brongt.)

A. serli forma grandim Crookall

A. serli var. lonchitifolia P.B.
Neuropteris cf. flexuosa Sternb.

N. scheuchzerv Hoff.

Asterotheca cf. arborescens (Schloth.)
A. oreopteridia (Schloth.)

A. cf. miltons (Art.)

A. daubreei Zeiller

Ptychocarpus unitus (Brongt.)
Annularia sphenophylloides (Zenker)

The collection from Norton Hill Middle Vein is rather poor, but
Neuropteris macrophylla Brongt. is a species not recorded from Old
Mills. Dicksonites pluckeneti (Schloth.) was obtained on the tip from
the Middle Vein roof at Norton Hill.

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 289

An abundance of Asterotheca oreopteridia and A. daubreer together
with the occurrence of the rather rare Sphenopterids make this collection
very similar to the Middle Vein or No. 5 flora previously discussed
from the eastern area.

A further seam known as the Top Vein and occurring above the Middle
Vein at Norton Hill and Old Mills was formerly worked but is not now
accessible. This may represent the No. 4 Seam of the eastern area.

The Farrington Group of seams has been proved at a number of
collieries. These include Old Grove Colliery, Timsbury, an account of
which was given by J. Prestwich (1871, pp. 59-60), the disused Dunker-
ton Collieries to the north-east of the basin, Camerton Colliery, where
a little coal from the Badger Seam was worked, and Old Welton
Colliery, where seams from the No. | to the No. 6 were proved, of which
the Nos. 3, 5 and 6 Seams were worked.

Though the Greyfield Colliery, 2 miles north of Farrington Gurney,
lies outside the confines of the Radstock basin, evidence of possible
correlation may prove interesting at this point. Mr. Cottle, manager
of the Marsh Lane Colliery, from his experience at Greyfield Colliery,
believes that the horizon of the Jubilee Group of seams was represented
there by the Bantam Seam and two further coals below it. The New
Seam of Greyfield would thus be correlated with the Church Close and
Bottom Seam of Farrington Gurney and the Old Mills Collieries re-
spectively. A suggested correlation of the seams in the Farrington
Group is given in Fig. 23.

THE BarrREN RED MEASURES

McMurtrie (1901, p. 11) stated: ‘‘ These (i.e., the Farrington and
Radstock Groups) are separated from each other by 550 to 750 feet of
unproductive strata near the middle of which occur certain well-
defined beds of red shale from 130 to 250 feet thick, which form a well-
marked line of separation between the two groups.”

This unproductive ground and the red beds are nowhere visible,
and all information is obtained from shaft sections. These measures
have been proved by all the collieries in the eastern area of the Radstock
basin which have continued their shafts from the Radstock Group
into the underlying Farrington Group.

The Norton Hill and Old Mills shafts were commenced probably
not far below the coals of the Radstock Group and so present a section
of the strata. In order to suggest the nature and thickness of this
part of the succession, the Norton Hill, Old Mills, Braisdown and

290 L. R. MOORE

Old Grove shaft sections will be given, thereby considering variations
from the south northwards.

At Norton Hill 700 feet of strata were proved down to the first coal
in the Farrington Group. The upper 140 feet consisted of “‘ argillaceous
shales ’’ with bands of “ coal blacks’ and strong grey sandstones. The
latter were underlain by 320 feet of red shales divided by two bands of
sandstone. More massive shale and sandstone continued the sequence
down to the first seam of the Farrington Group.

Less than 1 mile north-west of Norton Hill Colliery occurs that of
Old Mills, where 610 feet of strata were cut down to the first seam of
the Farrington Group. The upper 150 feet compare lithologically
with that at Norton Hill, but 190 feet of red shales occur in one band
and are underlain by shales and massive sandstones.

The shaft section of Braisdown Colliery as given by Greenwell and
McMurtrie (1864, p. 26) showed 720 feet of strata between the lowest,
or 9-inch, seam of the Radstock Group and the first coal proved in
the Farrington Group. The red shales here were 160 feet thick.

Old Grove Colliery at Timsbury, some 3 miles to the north of Old
Mills Colliery, proved both Radstock and Farrington coals, and is the
most northerly shaft proving the ground under discussion. Greenwell
and McMurtrie (1864, p. 21) gave a detailed account of the sinking which
showed, between the 9-inch seam of the Radstock Group and the first
coal of the Farrington Group, a thickness of 530 feet consisting chiefly
of sandstone. Red measures here were described as “ clift,” a term
implying a sandy shale; these were only 120 feet thick.

It is clear that a general thinning of this ground is taking place
northwards within the Radstock basin.

THE RADSTOCK GROUP OF SEAMS

This Group of seams, comprising the highest productive strata of
the Somerset Coalfield, is only known within the Radstock basin.
These coals have been for the most part worked to their outcrops
by a series of collieries long ago disused, and the Group lies practically
exhausted of profitable coal. Information concerning this Group of
seams can only be obtained from the records of old shaft sections of which
a large number exist. Two Collieries, those of Braisdown and Camerton,
are at present working a small quantity of these coals.

The thickness of the Group has been given by Prestwich (1871) as
1,000 feet, whilst McMurtrie (1901) suggested 500 feet. It would

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 291

appear that, from the highest or Great Seam to the lowest 9-inch Seam,

a thickness of slightly more than 300 feet would be representative of
the collieries within the southern part of the basin. Northwards
this decreases to 250 feet at Old Grove Colliery.

Though eight seams are recorded, only six of these have been recog-
nised throughout the area worked. The seams in descending order
are :—

Withy Mills Vein.
Great Vein.

Top Little Vein.
Middle Vein.
Slyving Vein.
Under Little Vein.
Bull Vein.

9-inch Seam.

CHARACTER OF THE SEAMS
9-1ncH SEAM
This thin coal has only been worked in the Radstock district, where
it has attained a thickness of 1 foot 4 inches; its presence is noted
in most of the available sections.

Buti VEIN

In the neighbourhood of Radstock this Seam has proved to be the
most important, being 2 feet 6 inches thick. It deteriorates rapidly
on being followed northwards until at Camerton and Timsbury it is
found to be unworkable, being represented by 8 or 9 inches of poor coal.

UnpbeER LITTLE VEIN

This Seam was found to be very constant with an average thickness
of 1 foot 6 inches.

SLYVING VEIN

The finest quality gas coal was provided by this Seam, which provides
further evidence of seam splitting. Correlation by means of shaft
sections provides considerable difficulty. The Seam would appear
to average 2 feet in thickness at the southern end of the basin, but this
decreases when followed northwards.

MIDDLE VEIN

At the Writhlington Collieries and others in the southern part
of the basin this Seam proved to be 2 feet 4 inches thick, but when traced
northwards was. found to deteriorate and become thinner until at

292 L. RB. MOORE

Camerton it was represented by only 1 foot 4 inches of coal. West of
Camerton this Seam is reported to have split. Evidence of this fact
is shown by the shaft sections of the Paulton Engine and Old Grove
Collieries.

Tor LitTLE VEIN

The coal from this Seam was of excellent quality and though only
1 foot 6 inches thick it was found to be constant over very wide areas.

GREAT VEIN

This coal has an average thickness of 2 feet 3 inches and has been
found on the northern side of the basin to split into two coals.

THE WitHy MILLs

' This Vein occurs a considerable distance above the Great Vein,
and is only known at the old Withy Mills Colliery, and at Clandown
Colliery where it was brought in by the Clandown fault. The coal
is reputed to have been of inferior quality and only 12 inches thick.

It would appear from this brief summary of the Radstock Group
of coals that there is a great tendency to seam splitting and the thinning
of coals northwards.

Seams of this group have been examined at the Braisdown and
Camerton Collieries where a part of the sequence is available in each
colliery. The workings of these collieries approach so closely as to
warrant the existing correlation of the seams between them ; hence,
by an examination of the sequence from the Bull Vein to the Slyving
Vein at Braisdown, and from the Slyving Vein to the Great Vein at
Camerton, some idea of the complete sequence may be ascertained.

THE SEQUENCE OF THE RADSTOCK GROUP OF THE
CAMERTON AND BRAISDOWN COLLIERIES

Near the shaft of the Camerton Colliery occurred very coarse grey
sandstones with dark fine-grained well-laminated shales, above which
lay a thin coal regarded as the 9-inch Seam. Similar shale continued
to the Bull Vein coal some 1 foot thick, with a massive barren roof
resting on the coal. At Braisdown the Bull Vein has the following
section :—

‘“Clod’”’ 6 inches blue and irregularly iron banded.
Binching—soft, 3 inches.

Top coal 11 inches, soft bright coal.

Binching—soft, varying from } inch to 2 inches.

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 293

Bottom coal 13 inches, bright coal.

Blacks very hard.
A strong and massive blue shale roof was strongly iron banded. Similar
iron banding in more thinly-bedded shale was observed at Camerton
up to the Under Little Vein. Above the latter Seam a light blue
mudstone, iron-banded in extremely regular bands 1 inch wide and a
similar distance apart, passed into light blue shales underlying the
‘Slyving Vein. This Seam shows a similar section at both collieries :—

Camerton Braisdown
Roof, hard massive sandstone. Roof shale.
Coal 18 inches. Coal 18 inches bright and good
Binching—soft and of variable quality.
thickness. Binching 9 inches hard and
black.

At Braisdown, in most places where the Slyving Vein was seen, some
6 inches to 1 foot of very dark blue shale was found over the coal ;
this yielded abundant plant remains. The more massive shales
above this Seam were strongly iron banded and contained small iron-
stone nodules. These beds ultimately passed into a hard, very coarse
sandstone, which, when traced laterally, was often found to rest directly
on the coal. The Slyving Vein at Camerton is characterised by the
presence of this coarse sandstone resting on the coal, its thickness
being 15 feet. Regular iron banded shale overlies the sandstone and
continues upwards to the Middle Vein. Similar iron banded shale
overlies the Middle Vein and continues the sequence to the Top Little
Vein which at Camerton shows the following section :—

Roof shale.
Coal 18 inches.
Black band and shale 12 inches.
Bottom coal 8 to 9 inches.
Further hard micaceous shales, irregularly iron banded, and strong
sandstones continue the succession up to the Great Vein, which at
Camerton consists of :—

Roof—blue shale resting on the coal.
Coal dull 18 inches.
Binching soft 2 inches.

The shales overlying this Seam, which subsequently pass into massive
sandstones, have yielded a rich flora. A section of strata occurring
above the Great Vein at Clandown Colliery was given by Buckland and
Conybeare (1824, p. 278) as follows :—

Clift and shales... 5 ee .. 420 feet 0 inches.

Withy Mills Seam .. a “e Me 10 inches.
E

294 L. KR. MOORE

Clift and greys... oe vy .. 240 feet 0 inches.
Ore Seam sulphury os oF om 6 inches.
Greys and clift .. re a se 90 feet 0 inches.
Shales and Great Seam .. oy Se 12 feet 0 inches.
Broken clives i ae xe ae 42 feet O inches.
Plastic clay ae ise 4 - 5 inches.
Great Vein greys .. ne see ra 24 feet 0 inches.
Great Vein coal .. ce 2 feet O inches.

This approximately 830 feet added to the 300 feet previously sug-
gested would imply a known thickness from the 9-inch Seam upwards
of about 1,130 feet for the Radstock Group within the southern pa
of the basin.

It is thought that, since seam splitting is a common occurrence,
and moreover, since supposed deterioration of coals within a short
distance is often quoted, the exact correlations within the limits
suggested by the shaft sections (Fig. 23) should be questioned. Par-
ticularly is this the case to the north of the Radstock basin where the
Bull Vein and Middle Vein are often omitted; it will be noted that
at the most northerly colliery where these seams were worked, namely
Fry’s Bottom, new names and extra seams were introduced into the
section. There is, however, strong reason for believing these coals
to have been worked there, since they were worked at Greyfield Colliery
above the Farrington coals and proved in a number of old workings
as far north as Fry’s Bottom. The highest seams in the Pensford shaft
are suggested to belong to this Group.

The flora of the Radstock Group is well known, being described
and figured by Kidston (1888). Unfortunately, in any previous
collections made from this Group little account has been taken of the
horizon at which the specimens occurred, and it may be that valuable
knowledge has thus been lost. Specimens obtained from the roofs
of the seams at the Camerton and Braisdown Collieries are given in
tabular form below :—

C.G.| C.T.|C.M.|C.U.| p g B.U.|B.N,
T.V.|L.V.| V. | L.V ‘|L.V.} S.

Sphenopteris pecopteroides Kidston .. es 3x

S. cf. pecopteroides Kidston .. aie - 2x

S. neuropteroides (Boul.) : , x

S. cf. neuropteroides (Boul.) . x x

S. sp. ae <s x

Alloiopteris radstockensis Kidston .. a x

Mariopteris plumosa Kidston cis x

rs) bed en ae ‘a os x
A picpterss grandini (Brongt.) x x | 4x

A. cf. grandint (Brongt.) .. a aie x | 3x

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 295

C.G.|C.T.|C.M.|C.U Bg, |B-U.|B.N.
T.V.|L.V.| V. |L.V TEL. S.
A. serli forma grandini Crookall .. os x
A. serli (Brongt.) —. Me oa Boe 8x
A. cf. magna Grand- Eury ni ie Be x
Ae ps. ‘ ae fe 2x x
N seis scheuchzeri Hoff. za a 5x x 5x
N. macrophylla Brongt. ise ae ate 3x
N. flecuosa Sternb. .. - er ne a2: x x
NV. cf. flexuosa Sternb. ne oe mh Xe ee
N. sp. (cf. N. blissi Lesq.) . wh és x
N. cf. cordata Brongt. - Bs ee 2x
N. cf. fimbriata Lesq. ae es a2 | 2m
Mixoneura (Odontopteris) sp. 3 is x x x
M. (Neuropteris) ovata Hoff. sie «sox x | 2x
Callipteridium sp. : aye fae a a x
Asterotheca (Pecopteris) lamurensis (Heer) a x | 3x 4x] x
A. cf. lamurensis (Heer) a oe ts 2x po] Nie:
A. candolleana (Brongt.) a Bs ee x
A. cf. candolleana (Brongt.) . 4, ae 2x
A. daubreei (Zeiller) .. > oe 3 6x Xa x
A. cf. daubreei (Zeiller) was an at 3x 3K | 2x | 2x
A. arborescens (Schloth.) eg be etal OX
A. hemitelioides (Brongt.) .. a ie x
A. cf. hemitelioides (Brongt. ) ase Sela x
A. crenulata (Brongt.) a a Sis Mi Keo
A. cyathea (Schloth.) . Ms mH sige | OOS tea 2x
A. cf. cyathea (Schloth.) cs wile eel t >< x
A. oreopteridia (Schloth.) .. es By 3x x
A. cf. oreopteridia (Schloth.) eG ae 4x
A. cf. miltoni (Art.) Ds as = x
me c0. .. ve Ge ae 45 a x x
Acitheca polymorpha (Brongt.) oe 5x | 2x
A. cf. polymorpha (Brongt.) ar ee 2x 3x | 2x
Pecopteris dentata (Brongt.) .. e it x 2X x
Pecopteris sp. .. a .. | 4x | 3x Ke |) ieaX 3X
Hupecopteris bucklandi (Brongt. bearer sae x
HE. cf. bucklandi (Brongt.) .. cis oe x x
E. cf. fletti Kidston .. 3 Ws Wee ae.
Cf. E.“camertonensis Kidston — os ie x x
Ptychocarpus unitus (Brongt.) wf Oke 2 Wee
Sphenophyllum oblongifolium G. and K. .. x
S. cf. oblongifolium G. and K. og drat! | x
S. emarginatum Brongt. 52) Pa Kok | x
Lepidodendron lycopodioides Sternb. “3 x x
Lepidodendron sp. : oa Se ie x
Lepidophyllum cf. acuminatwm 1 Lesa. sie x
Sp. ‘ os xy ox Xx
Calamites carinatus Sternb. x
F Sp: : 24 oss Xx ih ox
Annularia stellata (Schloth.) | a as 4x 281 OX [Oe fe oe
A. sphenophylloides (Zenker) ae a x {10x
Asterophyllites equisetiformis (Schloth. ) a x
Cordaites sp... ays x
Trigonocarpus noeggerathi (Sternb. e tae x |
KEY:
Camerton Great Vein—C.G.T.V. Braisdown Slyving Vein—B.S.
Camerton Top Little Vein—C.T.L.V. | Braisdown Under Little Vein—B.U.L.V.
Camerton Middle Vein—C.M.V. Braisdown Bull Vein—B.N.S8.

Camerton Under Little Vein—C.U.L.V.

296 L. R. MOORE

The abundance of Pecopterids at this horizon is well known, and
several species, of which Asterotheca lamurensis (Heer), Callipteridium
sp. and Asierotheca hemitelioides (Brongt.) would appear to be the most
important, suggest that this group lies within the floral zone of I.
Bertrand and Corsin (1931, p. 216) considered these beds to lie at the
very top of the Westphalian or perhaps the base of the Stephanian.

FAUNA OF THE Rapstock GRoup

Previous records of the fauna of this Group are confined to the
occurrence of Anthracosia and Limulus (Morris, 1868, p. 357).

It is interesting to note that no fauna band with shells in profusion,
such as occurs in the Farrington Group, has yet been discovered.
Lamellibranchs are, however, present in this Group, but are always
found as more or less isolated individuals associated with the flora.
This mode of occurrence has not been noticed in the Farrington Group.

At Camerton Colliery the following shells were obtained: Under
Little Vein, Anthracomya prolifera forme juvensis Waterlot; Middle
Vein, Anthracomya prolifera cf. forme valida Waterlot ; tip and probably
Great Vein, A. cf. palatena Schmidt.

At the Lower Conygre Colliery, where only the Radstock Group
of coals were worked, Anthracomya prolifera Waterlot was obtained
from the tip. These forms are characteristic of the Lower Stephanian
of France.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN

Attention was paid to the structural features of the basin by
Greenwell and McMurtrie (1864), whilst Anstie (1873) gave much
valuable data. Important work was produced by McMurtrie ina
series of papers on the methods of working adopted and the chief
faults affecting the basin. The “overlap” faults led McMurtrie
(1890, pp. 49-66) to compare this area of the coalfield with the Coal
Measures of Belgium and the north of France, whilst in 1901 (PI. XII,
Fig. 1) he produced a sub-Mesozoic map of the Somerset and Gloucester-
shire Coalfield, and illustrated this by horizontal sections (see also
Crookall, 1929, pp. 88-89, Figs. 1 and 2). Welch (1933) also gave a
very able account of the tectonics of the Radstock coal basin.

The extent of the basin shown by the map (Plate 32) has been
proved by a series of collieries. The eastern border is well known;
the Radstock Group of coals have there been worked to their sub-

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN

ia ae pon eG ae

297

Fig. 23

298 L. R. MOORE

Mesozoic outcrop, as has the Rock Vein of the Farrington Group.
The south-eastern border, worked by the Writhlington Collieries,
is particularly well known.

The Clandown fault divides the basin into two convenient portions,
the eastern portion containing the synclinal axis, which runs from a
point north-east of Clandown Colliery to between the Ludlow’s and
Tyning Collieries and thus takes a general south-south-east direction.
The Braisdown Colliery in this area shows westerly dips, whilst north
of this at Camerton the strata dip entirely to the south.

The western portion of the basin is fairly well known; its western
border turns sharply to a north-south strike, and dips east at a low
angle, whilst passing eastwards through the Old Mills and Norton
Hill Collieries the dips are predominantly north-east; no southerly
dips are known in this portion of the basin. It is at once evident
that this western portion of the basin has suffered the more acute
disturbance ; its southern edge is that at present being worked, and
its limits are less well known.

The Radstock basin may be considered to terminate in a northerly
direction at the line of the Temple Cloud fault, which runs north of
east from the latter place to the north side of the Camerton Colliery
workings. This fault has been proved to attain a throw of 420 feet
near Withy Mills. The Farmborough fault, which has for so long pro-
vided an effective barrier to workings to the north, runs more or less
east-west, and probably meets the Temple Cloud fault in the neighbour-
hood of Tunley. These two faults provide a wedge-shaped area of
Coal Measures wider to the west. Prominent north-east dips in the
Farrington and Radstock Groups of coals were proved by the Greyfield
Colliery, and a precise limit to these Groups can here be shown.

Kastwards, within this faulted block, Radstock coals have been
worked with very varying dips, due to a series of smaller north-south
and east-west faults.

The strike at Greyfield Colliery swings to a more northerly direction, —

as proved by Burchell’s Colliery near Clutton, and the measures are
cut by east-west faults. It would appear that north of the Temple
Cloud fault a further basin exists.

FAULTS OF THE BASIN

The faults of the Radstock basin fall naturally into two main groups,
those trending north-south and those trending east-west.
Of the north-south trending faults, the Clandown fault appears

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 299

to be the best known example. It runs north-north-west from
Kilmersdon Colliery through Radstock to Clandown Colliery and is
reputed to die out northwards. A downthrow west of 600 feet has
previously been given as the magnitude of the fault, though it is doubtful
if it exceeds 400 feet according to evidence from sections drawn.
At the Kilmersdon Colliery this fault has been well proved and has a
low hade westwards (Fig. 24). Its effect at this Colliery is that of a
downthrow west, since the outcrop of the Radstock Group of seams
dipping north-east is thrown southwards on its western side. Whether
this fault is a continuation of the Luckington fault (Moore and Trueman,
1938) it is difficult to say. However, since the Clandown fault must
certainly lie below the major thrust postulated (Moore and Trueman,
1938), and the Luckington fault is known to occur above this thrust,
it is uncertain whether they are one and the same fault.

A fault occurring east of Norton Hill Colliery, and previously
proved at Old Welton Colliery, is suggested as joining the Stoke Lane
and Coal Barton faults of the south crop.

A further north-south fault bounds the workings to the west of
Norton Hull Colliery and in its northward course cuts off the eastern
end of the Old Mills workings, and runs towards an 80 fathoms fault
proved in the workings of the disused Withy Mulls Colliery to the north.
Though the line of this fault is unknown, it is suggested to be a con-
tinuation of the Oakhill fault. A considerable displacement of strata
northwards on its western side may point to its being a tear fault
heaving west.

The thrust faults of the Central Mendips exhibit a tendency to swing
northwards, which may partly account for the sudden turn to north-
south strikes along the western border of the basin at Farrington
Gurney. The north-south strikes, however, are a feature of the western
border of the coalfield and are considered to mark the western border
of a main north-south syncline.

Those faults in the Radstock basin which trend in an east-west direc-
tion include both normal and overthrust faults. Normal east-west
faults are rare, but a series of such, downthrowing south, occurs south
of Camerton Colliery where values of 30, 42, and 48 fathoms are given
as their magnitudes. The Temple Cloud and Farmborough faults
are reputed to be normal faults, and evidence obtained from a stream
section north of the Farmborough fault seems to indicate a considerable
downthrow to the south which, near Fry’s Bottom at least, may be
something near 1,000 feet. It may be noted, however, that when the

300 - L. R. MOORE

positions of the Upper Coal Series north and south of these faults
are considered, a westward displacement of the northern area seems
likely, and the faults (or the Farmborough fault alone) may be tear
faults; they show evidence of normal movement certainly in post-
Triassic times, but the variety of throw along the Farmborough fault
may be due to horizontal movement across the fold.

Overthrust faults are extremely common in the central and eastern
portions of the Radstock basin; they vary in size from an overlap
of a few feet to one of hundreds of feet. The Radstock “ slide ”’ fault
of McMurtrie (1901, p. 27, Pl. XIV) has been proved by a number of
collieries. Many suggestions to explain the increased overlap on the
lower seams have been put forward, including the inference that such
a fault had commenced before the deposition of the upper seams.
The change in the amount of overlap, however, can only be ascribed
to the change in inclination of the fault plane, which is shown to increase
from the Bull Vein to the Great Vein, hence decreasing the amount of
overlap. The amount of downthrow from a seam above the lap to the
corresponding seam below the lap thus varies from 105 to 216 feet.

This fault has been proved in the Writhlington Collieries, where it
has been traced on the Rock Vein and Deep Middle Vein of the
Farrington Group. North of Huish Colliery it shows a downthrow
north of 210 feet on the Rock Vein, but when followed eastwards for
approximately two miles it is found to die out, and where last seen has
a downthrow north of only a few feet. Its course on the Deep Middle
Vein has not been so extensively proved, but south of Huish shaft a value
of 270 feet downthrow north is given. Two further “ overlap” faults
proved at the Lower Writhlington Colliery on the Rock Vein and Deep
Middle Vein show values of 137 and 102 feet downthrow north on their
western end; traced eastwards these likewise die out.

On the other hand, faults which near Huish Colliery show a small

amount of overlap, increase in size eastwards and become larger and
apparently normal faults. Some of these may downthrow to the
north and others to the south.

The largest overlap fault in the district which has not been previously
described is that proved at the Norton Hill No. 2 Colliery ; it affects
seams of the Farrington Group at this colliery and is considered to

be the same fault as that encountered by the Old Welton and Clandown |

Collieries in workings on the Radstock Group of seams. The downthrow
north on the Farrington seams is 375 feet, and the fault has a low hade.

The crop of the seams on the upper side of the lap runs east-west, the -

301

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN

}

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= ~ f= wm we - = =

° i
02 . : ® i e
ed fee e
=>
=
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==
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9 -oON

302 L. R. MOORE

dip of these measures being generally northwards. On the underside
of the lap, the crop of the seams against the fault plane runs north-west,
the measures having a north-easterly dip. The effect produced is
apparently one of movement in an anticlockwise direction.

This overlap fault may terminate against the north-south fault,
but no evidence is obtainable to the west although overlap faults are
singularly absent in the Old Mills and Farrington Gurney Collieries.
This overlap fault at Norton Hill may be a continuation of the Radstock
overlap fault ; it will be noticed that this fault in Radstock is known
to increase in magnitude westwards, which would agree with the data
concerning the fault proved at Norton Hill.

Welch (1933) gave a very useful account of the tectonic features of
this basin and noted the axis of the Coal Measures basin to lie north-
north-west and south-south-east, meeting the east-west direction of
the Mendip folds.

It is probable that the first stage in the tectonic history of this district
was due to pressure from the east with the resultant formation of a
syncline running roughly north and south. It is possible that the
Beacon Hill pericline had originally an arcuate limb conforming some-
what to the southern border of the Coal Measures syncline. The
northward drive of the Mendips does not appear to have seriously
affected the configuration of the nose of the Radstock basin, since low
dips are observed in the Farrington and Radstock Groups of seams
at the Writhlington Collieries. The syncline was held by powerful
pressure from the east, and though foreshortening on the application
of the south to north pressure was inevitable, this took the form of
overthrusting on a large scale. It will be remembered that the over-
thrust faults die out eastwards, which may be explained by the fact
that south to north pressure was considerably less dominant near the
eastern border. Further west, south to north pressure being dominant,
expressed itself in overthrust faults.

The north-south faulted block lying west of the Clandown-
Luckington line has apparently received the most severe effects of
northerly directed pressure. The nature of these north-south faults
is very doubtful ; they may have been caused by tension in the syncline
resulting from the application of the south to north pressures though
they appear to have a pronounced westerly hade. (Fig. 24.)

That portion of the basin lying west of the Oakhill-Norton Hill
fault, released from the restraining influence of the eastern border,
appears to have been driven northwards and moulded by the Central

303

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN

NOLOINUTHLIGM

304 L. R. MOORE

Mendips. This would explain the absence of thrust faults in this
corner of the basin.

The northern boundary of the basin appears to be a faulted anti-
clinal fold in the neighbourhood of Temple Cloud; this may have
resulted from the growth of Broadfield Down. The final disturbances
affecting the configuration of the western boundary of the basin may
have emanated from the Central Mendips, as a succession of powerful
north-south faults cutting through any previous east-west structures,
and so accounting for the position and southerly dips of the Bishop
Sutton workings.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE AND FIGURES

PuaTE 32.—Possible sub-Mesozoic outcrops of Radstock Basin ;
worked outcrops are shown by a continuous line, approximate
outcrops are dotted. Faults where proved are shown by a
continuous line. Pennant Sandstone shown dotted, and Barren
Red Shales by oblique shading. Arrows indicate direction of dip.

Fic. 23.—Suggested correlation chiefly of seams in Farrington Group.
Collieries numbered as follows :—1. Kilmersdon ; 2. Lower Writh-
lington; 3. Ludlow’s; 4. Braisdown; 5. Foxcote; 6. Norton
Hill No. 1; 7. Norton Hill No. 2; 8. Old Mills; 9. Farrington
Gurney ; 10. Greyfield; 11. Old Grove.

Scale 1 inch—600 feet.

Fic. 24.—Section across the Clandown fault from the workings of
Kilmersdon Colliery. Extending from Waterside Farm on the
west towards Terry Hill on the east.

Fic. 25.—Section across the workings of Writhlington and Huish
Collieries showing “ overlap” faults in seams of Radstock and
Farrington Groups.

Scale 3 inches—1 mile.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE

Anstie, J. 1873. The Coal Fields of Gloucestershire and Somersetshwvre,
and their Resources. 8vo. London.

Bertrand, P., and Corsin, P. 1931. Excursion dans les Houillers
Anglais. Ann. Soc. géol. Nord. p. 207.

Bolton, H. 1911. Faunal Horizons in the Bristol Coalfield. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. LXVII, p. 337.

Buckland, W., and Conybeare, W. D. 1824. Observations on the
South-Western Coal District of England. Trans. Geol. Soc.,
Ser. 2, Vol. I, pp. 210-316.

Crookall, R. 1925. On the Fossil Flora of the Bristol and Somerset
Coalfield. Geol. Mag., Vol. LXII, pp. 145-180, pp. 385-408.
Crookall, R. 1929. Flora and Stratigraphy of the Bristol and Somerset
Coalfield. Summ. Prog. Geol. Surv. (1928), Pt. 2, pp. 56-89, Figs.

1-2.

THE SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RADSTOCK BASIN 305

Dix, E., and Trueman, A. E. 1929. The Zone of Anthraconauta
tenuis in the Somerset Coalfield. Geol. Mag., Vol. LXVI, p. 499.

Greenwell, G. C., and McMurtrie, J. 1864. The Radstock Portion
of the Somersetshire Coalfield. 8vo. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Kidston, R. 1888. On the Fossil Flora of the Radstock Series
of the Somerset and Bristol Coalfield (Upper Coal Measures).
Trans. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, Vol. 33, Pt. II.

Kidston, R. 1923-25. Fossil Plants of the Carboniferous Rocks of
Great Britain. Mem. Geol. Surv. Gt. Brit., Palaeont., Vol. II.

McMurtrie, J. 1890. On a comparison of the Somerset Coalfield
with the Coal Measures of Belgium and the North of France.
Proc. Bath Nat. Hist. and Antiq. Freld Club, Vol. VII, No. 1,
pp. 49-66.

McMurtrie, J. 1901. The Geological Features of the Somerset and
Bristol Coalfield, with special reference to the Geology of the
Somerset Basin. Trans. Inst. Min. Eng. (1900), Vol. XX, p. 306,
Pl. XI, Fig. 1, Pl. XIII, Figs. 2, 3, Pl. XIV, Figs. 4-6.

Morris, J. 1868. On Organic Remains in the Somerset Coalfield.
Geol. Mag., Vol. V, pp. 356-357.

Moore, L. R., and Trueman, A. E. 1936. On a Boring for Coal at
Farrington Gurney near Bristol. Proc. Brist. Nat. Soc., Ser. IV,
Vol, Vill, Pt. 0.

Moore, L. R., and Trueman, A. EK. 1937. The Coal Measures of Bristol
and Somerset. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. XCIII, pp. 195-240.

Moore, L. R., and Trueman, A. KE. 1938. The Structure of the Bristol
and Somerset Coalfields. Proc. Geol. Assoc.

Prestwich, J. 1871. Report of Royal Coal Commission, Vol. I, p. 33.

Waterlot, G. 1934. Etudes des Gites Minérauax dela France. Pt. IT,
Bassin Howiller de La Sarre et de La Lorraine. pp. 14-26, Pl. I,
Figs. 5-7; Pl. II, Figs. 1-94; pp. 15-16, Pl. WI, Fig. 1; Pl. IV,
Figs. 1-7.

Welch, F. B. A. 1933. The Geological Structure of the Eastern
Mendips. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. LXXXIX, pp. 14-52,
Pls. I-IV.

306

Speedwell Pit
By L. G. G. Warne, M.Sc., Ph.D.

HE Kingswood area of the Bristol and Somerset Coalfield is

generally taken to comprise an area of about 20 square miles,
extending from Bristol in the west to Siston, Warmley and Bitton
in the East, and from Mangotsfield and Stapleton in the north to
Hanham and Conham in the south. This area lies wholly within the
area of the old Kingswood Forest or Chase and its boundaries agree
closely with those of Kingswood as shown in a map of 1610, by which
time the original Kingswood Forest had become much reduced in
area and, in fact, the Kingswood Coalfield agrees fairly well with the
area of the Kingswood Forest at that time.

Coal appears to have been mined in the district for over 700 years,
and in the year 1223 we find references to charges for digging sea-coal
in Kingswood, whilst in 1371 the King granted permission to the
then Lord of Bitton to remove sea-coal from the Kingswood Chase.
Probably in these early days coal was not mined extensively, but in
later years the industry developed rapidly, and in a survey of the
Forest in 1615 it is reported that ‘‘ The coale mines also devoure the
principal hollies in all parts of the forest for the supportation of these
pittes.” About 1665 various abortive attempts were made to use coal
for the smelting of iron in the district, and the total number of coal
pits in the area had increased to seventy-two by 1670. From this time
onwards numerous pits were sunk, the pits being drained by the in-
genious method of driving “levels ” into the side of the hill, upwards
of ten miles of these levels being in existence by 1790, and by this time
over one hundred coal pits were in existence. The extent to which
the coal mining industry developed here can be judged from the report
that in the eighteenth century Whitefield preached in the open air at
Kingswood to congregations of over ten thousand colliers.

Coal pits continued to be sunk, and between 1850 and 1860 the
Kingswood Coal Company sank shafts at Speedwell known as Speedwell
Pit and Deep Pit for the purpose of working at a lower level the
seams which had been proved at the Easton and Pennywell Collieries.
These were the last pits of any size to be sunk although, during this.
century, outcrops of coal have been worked during coal strikes at.
Soundwell and at Prospect Avenue, Kingswood.

No pits are now worked in the district, Deep Pit being closed about
1926 and Speedwell Pit in 1936.

SPEEDWELL PIT 307

The Coal Measures of the Bristol and Somerset Coalfield are divided
into the upper division which includes the Radstock Series and the
Farrington Series, and the lower division which is separated from the
upper division by an extensive development of Pennant Grit. The
lower division comprises the New Rock Series and the Vobster Series.
At Speedwell, seams belonging to the New Rock Series were worked,
and during the sinking of the shaft the following Seams are said to have
been cut :—

Doxall Seam.

Upper Toad Seam.
Hole Seam.

Lower Five Coals Seam.
Thurfer Seam.

Great Seam.

Gillers Inn Seam.
Lower Toad Seam.

Within the last ten years a further Seam—the Two Foot Seam—has
been proved. Of these Seams, the only ones worked were Five Coals,
Great Vein, Gillers Inn, and Two Foot.

Although coal has been mined extensively in the district for such
a long period, fossil records for the area are few, doubtless due to the
fact that only a small number of pits have been worked in recent times.
The only extensive published records are those of Crookall, and Moore
and Trueman, and in each case a list of fossils is given for Speedwell
Pit. There are a few earlier scanty records which, however, include
no species not listed by Crookall or Moore and Trueman. Crookall’s
list includes twenty-one species from Speedwell, and as these were
collected previous to the proving of the Two Foot Seam, they probably
represent material from the Five Coals, Gillers Inn and Great Vein
Seams. Moore and Trueman give a list of 19 species from Speedwell
Pit, and Dr. Moore informs me that they collected from fresh material
on the tip, and so the material comes from either the Five Coals or
Two Foot Seams, as they were the only ones being worked at the
time.

IT have collected material from the tip at Speedwell Pit for a number
of years. The collecting was all done previous to the proving of the
Two Foot Seam and so represents material from the Five Coals, Great.
Vein and Gillers Inn Seams. The list of fossils collected is given below :

List oF Fosstr PLANTS FROM SPEEDWELL Pit, BRISTOL

pe optics larvcinus Sternb.
. acerosus L. and H.

308 L. G. G. WARNE

*Lepidodendron lycopodiordes Kidston.
se rumosum Sternb.
i obovatum Sternb.
A sumile Kidston.
55 ophiwurus Brongt.
_ aculeatum Sternb.

* lanceolatum Lesqx.
*Sigillaria tessellata Brongt.

“ae a mammillaris Brongt.

2) ee scutellata Brongt.

lis boblayt Brongt.

* Bothrodendron minutifolium Boulay
*Lepidostrobus morissianus Lesqx.
Stigmarva ficordes Sternb.
Calamites undulatus Sternb.
a carinatus Sternb.
oF cistt Brongt.
Annularia radiata Brongt.
. a galioides L. and H.
*Sphenophyllum saxifragefolium Sternb.
a cunerfolvum Sternb.
myriophyllum Crepin
*Paleostachys sp. Weiss
Mariopteris nervosa Brongt.
*Sphenopteris dilatata L. and H.
sp. Brongt.
a europteris obliqua Brongt.
. tenurfolia Schloth.
5 heterophylla Brongt.
i pseudogigantea Potonié
Diplotmena cf. furcatum Brongt.
*Samaropsis sp. Goeppert

Of this list, the eighteen species marked * represent new records
for Speedwell Pit, although a number of these have been recorded
from Deep Pit.

Three of the recorded species, namely :—

Lepidophloios acerosus L. and H.
Sigillaria boblayz Brongt. and
Annularia galioides L. and H.

are new for the Bristol and Somerset Coalfield.

I have made no attempts to indicate the relative abundance of the
various species. The tip at Speedwell Pit is allowed to burn and the
material turns a nice red colour and is removed for making paths, etc.
The removal of the burnt material results in fresh exposures being
frequently made. In the burnt material, however, whilst it is relatively
easy to distinguish pith casts of Calamites and impressions of the bark

SPEEDWELL PIT 309

of Lycopods, small fragments of foliage are difficult to distinguish.
Because of this the preponderance of Lycopods in the list of fossils
given may not represent a real preponderance in the coal seams
concerned.

I have to thank Dr. Crookall, whose help has ensured the accuracy
of the identification of the fossils, Dr. Moore, for helpful advice, and
the East Bristol Collieries Ltd., for information as to the seams worked
at Speedwell Pit.

LITERATURE
Much general information about the district is contained in :—

Anstie, J. The Coal Fields of Gloucestershire and Somersetshire.
London, 1873.
Braine, A. The History of Kingswood Forest. London, 1891.

Lists of Fossils from Speedwell are given by :—
Crookall, R.
1. Summary of Progress of Geological Survey for 1928, Pt. 11, p.56.
2. Geological Magazine, Vol. LXII, p. 145.
3. ” ” ” ” p- 385.
Moore, L. R., and Trueman, A. E. Quarterly Journal Geological
Society, Vol. XCIII, p. 195.

310 . 4

Studies on the Biology of the Bristol Channel

I
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
By ©. M. Yoncs, D.Sc.

HERE is no region around the shores of Great Britain of greater

intrinsic interest than the Bristol Channel and the estuary of the
River Severn. The exceptional range of the tides and the long distances
over which estuarine conditions prevail, both the result of the gradual
narrowing of the Channel and estuary, combine to produce unusual
hydrographic conditions which have a profound effect on the animal
life. Animals living in the upper regions of the Channel and the lower
region of the estuary (taking the mouth of the River Avon as the
boundary between these) suffer daily the effects of wide ranges in
salinity, of the backward and forward movements of the greatest
tides found in Europe, and of the exposure to the abnormally heavy
concentrations of silt brought down by the rivers and kept long in |
suspension by the violent water movements caused by the tides.

Despite the obvious interest of this region, practically no work has
been done upon it. One explanation of this is certainly the difficulty —
—and unpleasantness—of working on shores covered by thick deposits
of soft mud. There exist a number of papers dealing with the local
fish fauna, largely incorporated in accounts of the unique “ fixed
engines ’’—shrimp “ Kypes”’ and salmon “ Putchers ”’—and various
types of stake nets in which the great range of the tides is exploited
for catching fish and shrimps.. The most recent paper on this subject
is by Mr. L. H. Matthews, now a member of the staff of the Department
of Zoology, University of Bristol, and it contains an adequate biblio-
graphy (Matthews, . 1934). The same author has also published a
short note on the shore fauna at Portishead (Matthews, 1923), but this
appears to represent the extent of existing knowledge on the inverte-
brates.

It is clearly one of the functions of the Department of Zoology in
the University to remedy this state of affairs. This provides the
reason for the publication of the series of papers of which this statement
forms the first. Mr. R. D. Purchon, at that time an Honours student
in this Department, carried out during the session 1936-37 comparative —
surveys of the fauna and flora on the shore and in the dock at Portishead,

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL CHANNEL 311

relating differences in these, as far as was possible, to environmental
factors. His completed account forms the second paper in this series.
At the present time Mr. A. J. Lloyd is studying the nature and abun-
dance throughout the year of the animals caught in the kypes and
putchers at Berkeley and at Hallen, and is paying especial attention
to the biology of the common shrimp, Crangon vulgaris, about which
surprisingly little is known. This work will be published in due
course.

It is hoped, later, to extend this faunistic work to shores further down
the Channel, and, if possible, to dredging in mid-stream, and to supple-
ment it with investigations into the significant environmental factors,
notably salinity, tidal movements, silt content (involving the penetra-
tion of light) and temperature. The object aimed at is a full
description of the fauna of the estuarine regions of the Channel and of
the environment, linking the two with studies on the biology of the
animals, including the morphological and physical adaptions which
permit existence in regions exposed to this wide range of environmental
variation.

REFERENCES

Matthews, L. H. 1923. Notes on the Fauna of the Bristol Channel.
Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc., (4), VI, pp. 46-48.

Matthews, L. H. 1934. The Sea Fish and Fisheries of the Bristol
District. Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc., (4), VII, pp. 442-462.

AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE BEACH
AND THE DOCK AT PORTISHEAD

By R. Denison Purcuon, B.Sc.

CONTENTS cin

1. IyrRopucTIoNn A : : : : : : A Bly
2. ToPoGRAPHY . ‘ : : : ye 33) 4
(a) The Beach ; : : ~ ol2

(b) The Dock . 314

3. THe Fauna oF THE ROYAL Brace : : Sole
4. Tue Fauna oF THE Dock . : . A , iOS
5. CHEMICAL AND PuysicaL Factors d 319
6. LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON SPECIES OF LAMELLIBRANCHIA ook
7. Discussion ; : : : ; : § ga
8. SUMMARY . : ' t ; : ; A 45)
9. REFERENCES 4 ‘ ; ; : : ; e326
10. Fauna List p : : oem : : rl
i. Mar : : ; : : : : ; é soi oie

312 R. DENISON PURCHON

1.— INTRODUCTION

URING 1936-37 an ecological comparison was made between
the Royal Beach and the dock at Portishead.

Matthews (1923) has published an introductory account of the
beach and the dock, in which mention was made of a number of species
which were found in the dock but not elsewhere in the vicinity.

The object of the investigation was to obtain, as far as possible,
a full fauna list, and also an indication of the range of the chemical
and physical factors of the two environments.

- It was considered that alkaline reserve, silicate and phosphate
contents were unlikely to show any significant variations, so no analyses
of these were undertaken.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Professor C. M. Yonge,
Dr. R. Bracher, Dr. E. Ashby, Mr. H. A. Hyde, Mr. L. F. Cowley,
Mr. F. Hannell, and also various fellow students, for their assistance
in this work. Acknowledgments are also due to the Colston Research
Society of the University of Bristol for financial aid towards the publica-
tion of this paper.

2.—TOPOGRAPHY

Portishead is situated on the south-west coast of the estuary of the
Severn, a short distance west of the Bristol Avon.

(a) Tue Beacu. (See Map, Fig. 26.)

The area of beach examined extends from Battery Point on the west
to Portishead pier on the east. The beach faces roughly north and
is composed of a great variety of substrate, including seaweed-covered
rocks of steep or gentle inclination, shingle, sand and mud.

By means of a series of five sections obtained by the use of a simple
water level, and transects which crossed all types of substrate, adequate
information was obtained regarding the fauna and flora of the beach.
‘The transects are represented by a series of broken lines numbered
1-5 on the map.

Traverse 1

140 feet in length. Direction 13° E. of N. On Battery Point.
It passes through lichen-covered steep rocky surfaces, next through
an area of very steep rocks covered largely with Ascophyllum nodosum,
and finally over a flat expanse of sandy mud and boulders to L.T.M.
of spring tides. :

‘oul] UeyxoOIq @ Aq sopt, AreUIpio jo yew
198M AMOj pure ‘oui] SnonuryU0D @ Aq poyuesordor st sopty ArvUIpIo Jo yIeU JajyeM YS ‘Surpeys Aavoy Aq pozuosoidex ore youaq 644
uo seoeyins Ayoor deoys ey, “G—][ peryequinu seul] uexorq oy} Aq poyuosorder ore Youoq oy} UO UoYe} sostoaes} oY} Jo suotsod oyT,
aVaHSILYOg LY MO

313

oeade eta!
13444 0001 00S Qo 1334

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL CHANNEL .

al4 R. DENISON PURCHON

Traverse 2

Some distance east of traverse 1, 417 ft. in length. Direction 6°
I. of N. This passes first through a zone of shingle, then a flat expanse
of seaweed-covered boulders lying in mud, then a broad belt of deep
mud, and finally through a wide belt of steep, clean sand to L.T.M. —
of spring tides.

Traverse 3

Still further to the east, just on the west side of the culvert. 458 ft.
in length. Direction 2° W. of N.

_ This traverse passes first through a very wide area of boulders lying
on mud, then through a wide belt of flat rocks covered with Ascophyllum
nodosum, through occasional fairly large pockets of mud, and finally
through a small area of muddy sand terminating in a dead colony
of Sabellarva alveolata at L.T.M. of spring tides.

Traverse 4

A little distance to the east. 452 ft. in length. Direction 22°
HK. of N.

Passes in the main through similar areas to those covered by
traverse 3. At its seaward extremity it passes through a zone of small
pebbles and occasional boulders lying on a thin muddy substrate.

Traverse 5

Near the Pier. 353 ft. in length. Direction 49° E. of N. This
passes first through a region of steep, jagged, lichen-covered rocks,
next through a broad flat zone of rocks covered with Ascophyllum
nodosum, through a pocket of mud, and finally over an expanse of
flat rocks devoid of alge.

(6) THe Dock. (See Map.)

‘The dock entrance is at the N.E. end and lies on the east side of
Portishead Pier. Along the N.W. side of the dock there are stone
walls and deep water. It is here that coal vessels unload their cargo.
Dredging in this region proved unprofitable.

On all other sides of the dock the bottom is slowly shelving, and when
the water level is low it is possible to examine the fauna by digging and
‘sieving. There are wooden piers, jetties and wharves on the 8.H. side,
and these have yielded interesting results by scraping surface forms
into a metal basket specially made for the purpose.

The dock differs from the beach in possessing water which is much

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL CHANNEL 315

less heavily laden with silt. There is also less variation in water level
in the dock ; at the N.E. end of the dock there is an inlet through which
sea water is occasionally pumped into the dock.

A certain amount of water will seep into the dock from the sur-
rounding soil, thus lowering its salinity, but as there is no stream, or
other source of drainage into the dock, there is no reason why there
should be any more dilution by fresh water than occurs on the beach.

The highest level reached in the dock is about 39 ft., and the lowest
about 28 ft., but the daily variation probably does not ever exceed
2 or 3 ft.

3.—THE FAUNA OF THE ROYAL BEACH

An extensive study of the beach was carried out in the last half
of August and the first half of September, 1936, by means of the series
of five traverses which crossed all the various associations found on

the beach.
ZONATION OF THE SHORE

The shore between tide marks can be divided into three main zones
disposed horizontally, one above the other, the most important feature
of this zonation being the facilities afforded to the population for
gaining protection against the violence of the sea.

ZONE 1

Stretches from a point slightly above H.T.M. of neap tides to above
H.T.M. of spring tides. At points where the substrate is steep, and
exposure great, the splash zone is proportionately greater, and this
results in the lower limit of this zone being raised; e.g., at Battery
Point, where on traverse | the lower limit is nearly 3 ft. higher than the
average.

Consideration of the nature of the substrate leads to a division of this
zone into three associations.

(a) The steep bare rock association.—Rock pools are common, crevices
in the rocks forming the only protection against exposure and the sea’s
action.

The dominant plant is the lichen Physcia parietina. No alge are
present. The crevice fauna consists of the dominant Littorina rudis,
frequent small specimens of Ligia oceanica which scamper everywhere
over the rocks, occasional Petrobius maritimus, Porcellio scaber and
rare Gamasellus wmermis.

316 R, DENISON PURCHON

(6) The Shingle assocration.—As the substrate is of far greater mobility, —
life is more precarious, and the population is scanty. There are no
dominant species but occasional colonies of Ligia oceanica and Gammarus
marmus can be found below stones, whilst more rarely, specimens of
Geophilus longicornis and small Oligochets may be observed.

On shingle banks there is typically a well-defined association in the
débris at the H.T. mark. This association is dominated by Talitrus
saltaior and dipterous larve, pupee and adults, e.g., Celopa frigida.
Dead and dying samples of other communities are frequently found
in the litter, e.g., Sertularia operculata.

(c) Loose Boulders on a muddy substrate.—Protection is greater here
owing to the greater size of the stones and the possibility of burrowing
into the substrate.

The dominant species is Lipura maritima. Oligochets and Nemertea
can be found below boulders, while the mud is densely colonised
whenever possible by Nephthys hombergv.

ZONE 2. The algal zone, on steep or flat rock surfaces

This extends from Zone 1, where the substrate permits, to a level
which, on an average, approximates closely to that of L.W. neap tides.
Hither owing to the low illumination in these muddy waters or to some
chemical factor, there is no Laminaria zone on the shore, and thus
the algee never extend below L.T.M. of neap tides.

The presence of the alge affords great protection against dessication
and mechanical violence of the sea; it also provides a source of food
to some species. The zone is of great vertical range, about 24 ft.
It may be divided into a smaller upper zone (a) in which the alge are
not so large, and a larger zone (6).

(a) Pelvetia—Fucus spiralis sub-zone.—Pelvetia canaliculata has a
slightly higher range than Fucus spiralis, the two ranges overlapping
somewhat. Lzttorina rudis extends into this zone, its lower limit being
slightly higher than that of this zone.

(b) Ascophyllum nodosum sub-zone.—Other algze of importance are
Fucus serratus and Fucus vesiculosus. Small green alge such as
Ulva lactuca, Enteromorpha sp. and Cladophora rupestris are found in
most cases on clean rocks below the canopy of Pheophycee.

The dominant animals are Littorina littoralis and Gammarus marinus.
Carcinus menas, especially small specimens, is very abundant.

This sub-zone is replaced in some areas by wide stretches of mud
which appears to support almost no life. This is typical of the mud belt
through which traverse 2 passes, in which the only living animals

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL CHANNEL 317

found were one or two Corophium volutator and a few spat of Macoma
balthica.

Smaller pockets of mud are frequently found in dips in the rocks
in the midst of the sub-zone, and here Nereis diversicolor is dominant.
The tubes of Pygospio elegans are abundant, and Hydrobia ulv@é is
occasionally found.

ZONE 3

An area generally extending from about L.T.M. of neap tides to
below L.T.M. of spring tides. It may be divided into four well-defined
associations, all of which are typified by the absence of any alge.

(a) Sand.—This is of great mobility, movement occurring by water
currents when submerged and by the prevalent 8.W. winds when
exposed. The only living animal found in the whole of the wide belt.
of sand extending from Battery Point to the culverts was one specimen
of Nephthys hombergt.

(b) Flat rocks——The dominant species is frequently Sertularia
argentea, which here never exceeds three inches in length. Where
S. argentea is absent, small shells of Balanus umprovisus may often be
found in great abundance. In rock pools there may be a very dense
population of Tubularia indivisa. Tealia felina and Patella vulgata
occur on overhanging surfaces.

(c) Pebbles and boulders on a thin mud substrate-Specimens of
Balanus improvisus are again abundant on all freely exposed surfaces.
Tubularia indivisa, Tealia felina, Bowerbankia imbricata, Lepidonotus
squamatus and Lepidochiton cinereus are commonly found on over-
hanging surfaces. J@ra marina and Onchidoris muricata are less
frequently found. On overturning the stones, a distinct sub-association
is to be found, which is dominated by Amphitrite johnstom. Nereis
vwens and Terebella lapidaria are frequently found. Pandalus annuli-
cornis and Crangon vulgaris are often stranded on the pebbles. Two
specimens of Hupagurus bernhardus were collected here. Near L.T.M.
of spring tides Nymphon gracile is abundant in the tiny pools between
the stones.

4.—THE FAUNA OF THE DOCK

A series of weekly expeditions to the dock was begun in October,
1936, and continued as regularly as possible until Haster of the following
year. During these months observations were made on the fauna by
the use of tow-nets, the dredge, by scraping the bottoms of ships, and

318 R, DENISON PURCHON

the sides of wharves, and by raising buoys, floating timber, mooring
ropes, and chains.

(A) PLANKTONIC COMMUNITY

Adult Aurelia aurita were very abundant in August and early
September. Tow-net hauls yielded a number of small Copepoda,
a few Foraminifera, and one or two specimens of Hurydice pulchra.

(B) ENcRusTING COMMUNITY
Upon all surfaces standing clear of the muddy bottom.

(i) Serpulid association

Mercierella enigmatica was dominant, growing in great profusion
on the sides of an old metal ship which has since been demolished.
Lepralia pallasiana was abundant, growing on the surface of the serpulid
tubes. In all probability the two species were present on the ship
before it entered the dock, for they are not found attached to any
other similar substrate in the dock in such great profusion, and apart
from two species of Membranipora, no species related to either are
found in the vicinity. Occasional specimens of Lepidonotus squamatus
were found.

(ii) Mytilus edulis association.

Large colonies of M. edulis are uncovered on the stone walls and on
the wooden wharves when the water level in the dock falls below about
thirty feet. Balanus wmprovisus, Botryllus schlosseri and Molgula
citrina are frequently found attached to M. edulis.

(1) Corophium association.

This is typical of almost all floating objects. There is a luxuriant
_ growth of Chlorophycee and Rhodophycee amongst which Corophium
insidiosum is dominant. C. acherusicum is frequent, and so also are
Idotea baltica and I. viridis. Gammarellus homari and Gammarus
locusta are occasional inhabitants of this association.

(iv) Gonothyrea loveni association.
Chiefly on old ropes, deeper than the alge. Pygospio elegans is to be
found attached to G. lovens.

(v) Limnoria lignorum association.

Though this is a burrowing and not an encrusting association, it
has been included in the Encrusting Community in that it is dependent
upon wooden structures projecting above the bottom.

Limnoria lignorum is the dominant form. No specimens of Chelura

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL CHANNEL 319

or Teredo have been discovered inside the dock. Palemonetes varians
and Praunus flexuosus have been obtained relatively frequently when
scraping this association.

This is divided into two associations of different horizontal distri-
bution, which overlap each other slightly.
(i) Mya arenaria association.

This is found all round the south and south-east sides of the dock
where the bottom shelves gradually. It is uncovered when the water
level in the dock falls below about 29 ft.

Mya arenaria is dominant, the substrate is clay, and as many as
10 specimens of Mya may be exposed with one turn of the fork.
Lutraria lutrarva is frequent, but large specimens were never encoun-
tered. Macoma balthica was only occasionally collected in this zone.
Empty shells of Cardiwm edule are common. Nereis diversicolor was
frequently dug up in the association and Littorina rudis is very abundant
in some areas, especially beneath the footbridge where it is found in
great quantities among empty Mya shells.

(u) Cardium edule association.

This is found typically in deeper water, the substrate is very soft
and is not heavily laden with oil, as are many parts of the Mya associa-
tion. The dominant species is Cardium edule var. rusticum. Macoma
balthica is frequent although never exceeding one twentieth of the
numbers of C. edule in the dredge hauls. It is particularly frequent
in the small bay on the east side of the dock, near the footbridge, and
between this and the pier.

Occasional small specimens of Tealia felina were found attached to
empty shells of C. edule. Nereis diversicolor was frequently collected
in the dredge. One specimen of Carcinus menas, two of Hydrobia ulve
and a number of spat of Lutraria lutraria were also found in the associa-
tion.

5.—CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL FACTORS
(A) CHEMICAL

There is no drainage of fresh water into the dock, all dock water
coming from the sea, especially large influxes occurring at times of
spring tides. A close approximation between the chemical character-
istics of the dock and the outside water would therefore be expected.

320 R. DENISON PURCHON

It was considered necessary to determine only oxygen tension,

salinity and pH.

A large number of samples were taken at irregular intervals from the
water’s edge, whatever the state of the tide; all analyses were carried
out at Bristol. Only the extreme readings are here recorded (see
Tables 1-5). It was found that with the exception of the turbidity
(see Table 5), the differences between the dock and sea water were
negligible compared with the full range of variation for each environ-
ment.

(1) Oxygen tension

Analyses were made with Winkler’s method, using Alsterberg’s
correction method for the presence of reducing bodies. No difficulty
was found in the use of this correction method in the case of dock water,
but in the case of sea water, owing to some chemical effect of the silt
in suspension, the bromine always entered into the final titration

of thiosulphate against iodine, rendering the end point difficult to |

observe, and generally raising the reading slightly.

As shown in Table 1, representing extreme conditions, there is no
indication of any significant difference between the oxygen tensions
of the two waters.

TABLE 1.—VARIATION IN OXYGEN CONTENT.

Dock water. Sea water.
7.11.36 .. 68-6°% saturation. 70-1% saturation.
i oeat) 2. Joo, iF 97 -2%, me

(2) Salinity

This was estimated by titration against standardised silver nitrate.
Great variation in salinity was found during the year, but here again
there was no significant difference between the salinities of the two
waters. All the animals found in this region of the Bristol Channel
must be tolerant of wide ranges in salinity.

TABLE 2.—VARIATION IN SALINITY.

Dock water. Sea water.

AFR Moa 14-59°/,,, 17-00°/,,

eA Si a! oo Obs e 33°52°/,.
(3) pH.

Estimations of pH were made by the use of Palitzsch’s buffers at
intervals of -05. No significant difference was detected between dock
water and sea water.

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL CHANNEL 321

TABLE 3.—VARIATION IN pH.

Dock water. Sea water.
221 37 ce, oh 7-94 7-97
30 .3 .37 a ok 8-05 7-94.

(B) PuysicaL
(1) Temperature

The temperatures of dock and sea water were in close agreement
throughout the year.

TABLE 4.—VARIATION IN TEMPERATURE.

Dock water. Sea water.
2 .9 .36 e ae 20-3° ©: 19-4° C,
8 .3 .37 ee 2. 4-6° C. 4-8° C,

(2) Wave and Current Action

Mechanical shock may be partially responsible for the failure of
certain species to colonise the beach. Mobility of the substrate is
probably of no importance, for Mya arenaria and other species of
Lamellibranchia are frequently found in soft intertidal muds.

(3) Turbidity of the water.

There is considerable difference between dock and sea water in this
respect ; the former is very clean while the latter may hold as much
as 3 grams per litre of suspended matter. It is probably the clean
nature of the dock water which enables the various Lamellibranchia,
Tunicata, and Awrelia aurita to live in such profusion in the dock.

TABLE 5.—VARIATION IN TURBIDITY.

Dock water. Sea water.
1710.36... ve O13 2p. 1-48 g.p.l.
Beis. 6, 0:78. 09H 5-70 g.p.l.

6.—LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON SPECIES OF
LAMELLIBRANCHIA

It was shown in the preceding section that there is no evidence
that oxygen tension, salinity, pH, and temperature play any part
in the limitation of a number of species to the dock.

_ A series of experiments was carried out in the laboratory to investi-
gate the effect of turbidity upon the various species of Lamellibranchia
found in Portishead dock.

‘Three aquarium tanks were filled with dock water, and roughly
equal numbers of five species of Lamellibranchia, recorded in Table 6,

322 R. DENISON PURCHON

were placed in each. The water in tank A was untreated, the water
in tanks B and C was rendered turbid by adding what were deemed
suitable quantities of dried and powdered mud to the former, and
precipitated chalk to the latter. The water in the three tanks was
agitated efficiently by stirrers driven by an electric motor, and also by
a plunger system driven by water dripping from a constant level
reservoir. These stirring mechanisms maintained the mud and chalk
in suspension, and also maintained a high oxygen concentration.
It was found that animals kept in tank A lived throughout the experi-
ment, whereas those in tanks B and C all died after a short time.

TABLE 6.
Date of Tank A. Tank B. oe C.
; addition Average Average verage
Species. tothe || “iitein | No | “tein | No-| “Tife in
aquarium. days. days. days.
Cardium edule | Feb. 26| 3 oc | 2 10 3 8
Macoma balthica ee 2 oC 2 7 2 25
Mytilus edulis Ms 4 oa 4 13 4. 25
Mya arenaria Mar. 8 | 3 o 2 at 2 15
Lutraria lutraria ae 2 oc 3 9 3 14

At the end of the experiment the waters of the aquaria were analysed
(see Table 7). A rise in oxygen content was found in tanks B and C
which was considered to be due to the steadily decreasing demands
on it. There was also a slight rise in pH, but this was not considered
to have played any part in the death of the Lamellibranchia. It was
found impossible to maintain the quantity of silt in suspension at
any definite amount expressed in grams per litre, owing to the high
rate at which the Lamellibranchia immobilised the suspended matter
with mucus. Excess over normal amounts was therefore used in
each case, and the amount remaining in suspension at the end of
the experiment was estimated.

TABLE 7.—ANALYSIS OF AQUARIUM WATER ON COMPLETION OF

EXPERIMENT.

Tank A. Tank B. Tank C.

Oxygen tension expressed in
% saturation .. .. 18-4 98-7 99-4.

Salinity as i see OL ON ae SLOT 3 31-26°/,,
Temperature ne wt 16:8" ©: 16-1° C. 16-1° C.
fi: eer ee a Peis. 8-1 8-1
Turbidity .. ae .. 0-44 gpl. 1-20 g.p.l. 1-52 g.p.l.

—

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL CHANNEL 323

The experiment was repeated four times, and it was found on each
occasion that the Lamellibranchia in tank A lived whilst those in
tanks B and C died.

7.—DISCUSSION

The object of the ecological survey was to ascertain the difference
between the faunas of Royal Beach and Portishead dock, and, if
possible, to determine which chemical or physical factors are responsible

for these differences.

The differences between the two faunas may be classified as follows :—

1. Animals present on Royal Beach, and absent in the dock.

Dynamina pumila. Ingia oceanica.
Obelia dichotoma. Porcellio scaber.
Sertularia argentea. Spheroma serratum.
Tubularia indwisa. Crangon vulgaris.
Amphitrite johnston. Eupagurus bernhardus.
Eteone flava. Pandalus annulicorms.
Eunoe nodosa. Collembola sp.
Nephthys hombergt. Iipura maritima.
Nereis virens. Petrobius maritimus.
Sabellaria alveolata. Staphylinid.
Terebella lapidaria. Gerris sp.
Corophium volutator. Bibionid.
Gammarus marinus. Dipterous fly.
Hyale nillsons. Gamasellus inermis.
Orchestia gamarella. Rhyncholopus tardus.
Talitrus saltator. = norvegicus.
Jara marina Inttorina littoralis.
Geophilus longicornis. Patella vulgata.
Nym~phon gracile. Onchidoris muricata.
Bowerbankia imbricata. Lepidochiton cinereus.
Membranipora hexagonia. Clupea sprattus.

# monostachys. Gadus merlangus.

2. Animals collected in the dock, but not on the beach.
(a) In which there is insufficient evidence for stating that they
do not occur on the beach.

Palemonetes varians.
Praunus flexuosus.
Gasterosteus aculeatus.

(b) Those which have not successfully colonised the beach.

(1) Of which casual specimens were collected on the beach.

Macoma balthica - - 3 spat on the beach.

Mytilus edulis - - 1 spat on the beach.
Limnoria lignorum - On driftwood on the beach.

324 R. DENISON PURCHON

Balanus improvisus - Small specimens cover the stones
near L.T.M. on the beach. ©

(2) Of which no specimens were collected on the beach.

Gonothyr ea lovent.

Aurelia aurita.

Corophium acherusicum.
ne unsidiosum.

Lepralia pallasiana.

Mercierella enigmatica.

Cardium edule.

Lutraria lutraria.

Mya arenaria.

Botryllus schlossert.

Molgula citrina.

The only factors of any apparent significance in which difference

between the two localities were detected, are :—

(1) Wave action

May play a subsidiary part in the exclusion of delicate species from
the beach. No work has been done on this subject.
(2) Turbidity

The experiments carried out in the laboratory upon five species
of Lamellibranchia suggest that these ciliary feeding species are unable
to live in water of high turbidity. It is probable that the same holds
good for other ciliary feeders, such as Aurelia aurita (which feeds
partially by means of cilia, especially in the ephyre (Gemmill, 1921 ;
Orton, 1922)) and the two species of Ascidia. Thus the high turbidity
of the sea water limits these species to the dock.

Macoma balthica is probably a species especially adapted for life
in muddy water. Kellogg (1915) has shown that in M. secta the gut
frequently contains large amounts of bottom material. The shells of
M. balthica together with those of Tellina tenuis were found in abun-
dance on many beaches in the vicinity of Portishead, indicating that
it tolerates the muddy water of the Severn in some places, although
it does not colonise the mud on Portishead beach. In the laboratory
experiments it was shown that Macoma balthica could not tolerate
turbidity of a similar degree to that occurring on Portishead beach ;
probably the turbidity of the water is less on the beaches higher up
the estuary, e.g., at Berkeley and Severn Beach, which are less subject
to wave action owing to greater protection from the wind than at
Portishead, and therefore the turbidity would be lower in these
localities. eee

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL CHANNEL 325

The limitation of certain species to the dock cannot be ascribed
to the turbidity, and upon these no experiments have been undertaken.
The serpulid, Mercierella enigmatica, was probably introduced into the
dock upon the ship. In all probability Lepralia pallasiana, which was
chiefly found on the tubes of the serpulid, was introduced in a similar
way. The presence of the two species of Corophiwm in the dock is
possibly associated with the presence of certain alge on floating objects
in the dock which are absent on the beach. Corophium volutator
is tolerant of the turbidity of the sea water, and it is unlikely that the
other two species of Corophium would be intolerant of it.

Itis more difficult to account for the limitation of Limnoria lignorum
to the dock. Infection of new wood is, however, by way of the adult,
and this would be less likely to occur in the rough waters of the Bristol
Channel than in the calm water of the dock, which may explain why
the woodwork on the beach has not been infected with L. lagnorum.

Balanus improvisus was found to have colonised the beach on some
recent occasion, small specimens being found there in 1936. In the
dock, however, a small number of large specimens in a healthy condition
were found on Mytilus edulis. Itis not possible to draw any conclusions
at present on the conditions which must have existed to enable this
species to have colonised the beach only recently, unless, of course,
young individuals are tolerant of conditions which are unfavourable
to the larger ones. It is possible, however, that some of these species
are unable to live under conditions of high turbidity.

Certain groups of animals and species are notable by their absence
from both beach and dock. These are probably excluded by the low —
salinity or by the great variations in this. Thus Echinodermata and
Porifera are entirely absent and so are Nucella (Purpura) lapillus,
Buccinum undatum and Cancer pagurus, which are present on beaches
further down the estuary, for instance at Brean Down. Actima
equina was abundant at Portishead in 1923 (Matthews), but is now -
apparently absent. Petrobius maritimus, which is abundant on
Steepholm, is very rare on Portishead beach, which is the limit of its
range up the Bristol Channel.

8.—SUMMARY

1. Anecological survey of the Royal Beach and the Dock at Portishead
was carried out during the latter part of 1936 and early 1937, and
a full list of species made.
2. Sea water at Portishead is much more heavily laden with silt
G

326 R. DENISON PURCHON

than is the dock water; the only other detected difference between
the conditions in the two areas was the wave action on Royal
Beach.

3. A number of Lamellibranchia present only in the dock were placed
in sea water of high turbidity under laboratory conditions, and
it was found that they were unable to withstand these conditions.

4. It was concluded that these Lamellibranchia and other ciliary
feeders are prevented from colonising the beach by the high
turbidity of the sea water; in addition, wave action may be re-
sponsible for the absence of other species from the beach.

5. Other species present only in the dock are:—Aurelia aurita,
Corophium acherusicum, C. «insidiosum, Lepralia pallasiana,
Mercierella enigmatica, Limnoria lignorum and Balanus improvisus.
(Only small specimens of the latter were found on the beach.)

6. Echinodermata, Porifera and such usually common species as
Nucella lapillus, Bucconum undatum and Cancer pagurus are
absent from both the beach and the dock, due, it is considered,
to the low salinity or to the great variations in this.

9,— REFERENCES

Gemmill, J. F. 1921. Notes on the Food-capture and Ciliation in
the Ephyre of Aurelia. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., Vol. XX,
pp. 222-225.
Kellogg, J. L. 1915. Ciliary Mechanisms of Lamellibranchs with
Descriptions of Anatomy. J. Morph., Vol. 26, pp. 625-701.
Matthews, L. H. 1923. Notes on the Fauna of the Bristol Channel.
Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. (4), Vol. VI, pp. 46-48.

Orton, J. H. 1922. The Mode of Feeding of the Jellyfish Aurelia
aurita on the smaller organisms in the Plankton. Nature, Lond.,
Vol. 110, pp. 178-179.

Reference was made to the following works for the purpose of
identification :—

Bell, T. 1853. British Stalk Eyed Crustacea. London.

Chevreux, E., et Fages, L. 1925. Amphipodes. Faune de France, 9.

Crawford, G.I. 1937. A Review of the Amphipod Genus Corophium.
With notes on the British species. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. N.S.,
Vol. XXI, pp. 589-630.

Day, F. 1880. British Fishes, London.

Forbes, E., and Hanley, 8. 1853. A History of British Molluscs,

London.
Fauvel, P. 1923. Polychétes Errantes. Faune de France, 5.
Do. 1927. Polychétes sédentaires. Faune de France, 16.

Halbert, J.N. 1911. Acarinida. Clare Island Survey. No. 39.

ule

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL CHANNEL 327

Hincks, T. 1868. British Hydroid Zoophytes, London.
Do. 1880. British Marine Polyzoa, London.

Mc’Intosh, W.C. 1922. A Monograph of the British Marine Annelids.
Ray Society, London.

Sars, G. O. 1899. Isopoda. An Account of the Crustacea of Norway,
Vol. II.

White, K. M. 1938. The Nomenclature of British Nudibranch
Mollusca by Alder and Hancock and by Eliot correlated with that
of British Marine Mollusca by Winckworth. Journ. Conchology,
Vol. 21, pp. 14-19.

10.—FAUNA LIST

The nomenclature adopted is, wherever possible, that of the Plymouth Marine
Fauna (2nd edition). Species not included in this were named in accordance
with the nomenclature given in the various works cited in the list of references.

PHYLUM C@LENTERATA.

(a) Hydrozoa.

Abietinaria abietina. Dead unattached specimens on. Royal Beach.

Dynamena pumila. A few specimens on Battery Point, attached to
stones.

Hydrallmania falcata. One dead unattached specimen stranded on
Royal Beach.

Obelia dichotoma. Small specimens on rock fragments just above L.T.M.
of neap tides.

Gonothyrza loveni. Quite common on mooring ropes in the dock, some
distance below the surface.

Sertularia operculata. A large dead mass of this in the detritus at
H.T.M. on Royal Beach.

Tubularia indivisa, Large colonies in rock pools, and on the sides of
boulders in zone 3 on the Royal Beach. More frequent between the
culverts and the Pier than on Battery Point.

(b) Scyphozoa.
Aurelia aurita. Adult specimens abundant in the dock during August
and early September.

(c) Anthozoa.
Actinia equina. Common on Royal Beach in 1923; only one specimen,
about 3 mm. in diameter, in 1936-7.
Tealia felina. Common on Royal Beach in zone 3. Also found on
empty cockle shells in the dock.

Puytum NEMERTINI.
Lineus spp. Occasionally found on Royal Beach, below stones.

PHYLUM ANNELIDA.
(a) Polyche@ta.

Amphitrite johnstoni. Common under stones below L.T.M. of neap
tides at the seaward end of traverse 4.

Eunoé nodosa. A few specimens among colonies of T'ubularia indivisa
on Royal Beach.

Hteone flava. One specimen in a tube of T'erebella lapidaria on Royal
Beach.

Lepidonotus squamatus. On the under surfaces of stones in zone 3 on
Royal Beach.

Mercierella enigmatica. Growing profusely on the sides of an old metal
ship in the dock. Probably introduced on the ship as it was not found
in such profusion elsewhere in the dock.

Nephthys hombergi. Common on Royal Beach in mud.

328 R. DENISON PURCHON

Nereis diversicolor. Common on Royal Beach, and in the dock, in mud.

Nereis virens. Common below stones in zone 3 on Royal Beach.

Pygospio elegans. On the surface of mud on Royal Beach in Sabellaria
tubes, and in the dock on Obelia flabellata.

Sabellaria alveolata. Tubes common near L.T.M. of spring tides on
Royal Beach. No animals found.

Terebella lapidaria. In tubes made of small stones, near L.T.M. of spring
tides on traverse 4.

(b) Oligocheta.

Two unidentified specimens found on Royal Beach, one under stones

at H.T. mark, and one in mud near H.T.M. of neap tides.

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA.
CLASS CRUSTACEA.
(a) Cirripedia.

Balanus improvisus. Small specimens abundant in zone 3 on Royal

Beach. Large specimens obtained in the dock.
(b) Isopoda.

Eurydice pulchra. Collected on Royal Beach swimming at the water’s
edge, also in the dock.

Idotea baltica. Both on Royal Beach and in the dock.

Idotea viridis. Common on Royal Beach and in the dock.

J@ra marina. Occasional specimens below stones on Battery Point,
near L.T.M. One large colony on the under surface of a boulder near
H.T.M. of traverse 2.

LIigia oceanica. Common among shingle, and on bare rock surfaces,
on Royal Beach. Only small specimens on the bare rocks, these often
possessing a temporary roseate colour.

Porcellio scaber. Common above H.T.M. of spring tides in crevices in
the rocks on the Royal Beach.

Spheroma serratum. Common under stones below about Mean Sea
Level on Royal Beach.

Corophium acherusicum. Common on weeds in the dock.

Corophium insidiosum. Common on weeds in the dock.

Corophium volutator. Occasionally in burrows in mud on Royal Beach
and in the inlet to the dock.

Gammarellus homari. Both in the dock and on Royal Beach.

Gammarus marinus. Common on Royal Beach.

Hyale nilssoni. On Royal Beach in empty tubes of Sabellaria.

Orchestia gammarella. Common on Royal Beach.

Talitrus saltator. Common on Royal Beach above H.T.M. of neap tides
and especially in H.T.M. detritus.

(d) Mysidacea.

Praunus flecuosus. Obtained when scraping wooden structure in the
dock.

(e) Decapoda.

Carcinus m@énas. Common on all regions of Royal Beach, one specimen
dredged in the dock.

Crangon vulgaris. Occasionally stranded on Royal Beach.

Eupagurus bernhardus. Two specimens in zone 3 on Royal Beach.

Palemonetes varians. A number obtained in the dock when scraping
wooden structures.

Pandalus annulicornis. Occasionally stranded on Royal Beach.

CLASS INSECTA.
(a) Apterygota.

Collembola sp. Green in colour, in a crack in the mud on Royal Beach;
only one colony found.

Lipura maritima. Abundant on Royal Beach, above H.T.M. of neap
tides on stones or mud.

Petrobius maritimus. A few small specimens in crevices in the rocks above
H.T.M. of spring tides on Royal Beach.

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL CHANNEL 329

(b) Pterygota.
Bibionid pupa. One specimen from mud on Royal Beach.
Cheironomid pups. Many specimens from mud on Royal Beach.
Cheironomid larve. Many specimens among weeds in the dock.
Dipterous larve and adults (Celopa frigida ?) in H.T.M. detritus on
Royal Beach.
Gerris sp. One specimen was found in a pool near H.T.M. of spring
tides.
Staphylinid larve and adults in H.T.M. detritus, and on mud on Royal
Beach.

OLASS ARACHNIDA.
(a) Acarina.
Gamasellus inermis. Occasional near and above H.T.M. on Royal Beach.
Rhyncholopus norvegicus. Occasional on mud and stones on Royal Beach.
Rhyncholopus tardus. Occasional under stones on Royal Beach.
(b) Pycnogonida.
Nymphon gracile. Exposed in abundance in zone 3 on Royal Beach
during low spring tides.
CLASS CHILOPODA.
Geophilus longicornis. Occasionally found in gravel under large stones,
near H.T.M. on Royal Beach.
PHYLUM BrRyozoa.
Bowerbankia imbricata. Abundant on overhanging ledges near L.T.M.
on Royal Beach.
Lepralia pallasiana. Encrusting the serpulid tubes on old iron ship in
the dock.
Membranipora hexagonia. Small colonies on alge and occasionally on
stones on Royal Beach.
Membranipora monostachys. Abundant on Battery Pt., also between
the culverts and the Pier, on stones in zone 3.

PHytum Mo.Luuvsca.
(a) Placophora.

Lepidochiton cinereus. Abundant below about Mean Sea level on Royal
Beach.

(b) Gastropoda.

Hydrobia ulv@. Occasional specimens in mud on Royal Beach and in
the dock.

Littorina littoralis. Abundant on Ascophyllum nodosum on Royal Beach.

Inttorina rudis. Abundant among stones and on rocks on Royal Beach,
also in the dock in the Mya arenaria association.

Patella vulgata. Frequent on Royal Beach below about Mean Sea Level.

Cardium edule var. rusticum. Dominant species in the soft mud in the
dock, always submerged.

Lutraria lutraria. Occasional small specimens both in the Cardium
and the Mya associations in the dock.

Macoma balthica. Abundant in the Cardium association in the dock,
also in the inlet to the dock. Three spat were found at the surface of the
mud on Royal Beach.

Mya arenaria. Abundant on the south and south-east sides of the dock.

Mytilus edulis. Abundant on the dock walls and wharves, one small
specimen at L.T.M. on Royal Beach.

PHYLUM CHORDATA,

(a) Tunicata.
Botryllus schlosseri. Abundant on any submerged objects in the dock.
Molgula citrina, Frequent on submerged objects in the dock.

(b) Pisces.
Anguilla vulgaris. Abundant beneath stones on Royal Beach and also
in the dock.
Clupea sprattus. One specimen stranded alive on Royal Beach.
Gadus merlangus. One specimen stranded, dead, on Royal Beach.
Gasterosteus aculeatus. One specimen in the dock.

330

Bird-Life on Barrow Gurney Reservoirs
By H. Tretiey, B.Sc., F.Z.S.

CONTENTS PAGE
1. InrTRopucTORY : : 3 5 : ; : . 3380
2. THe Reservoirs Montu sy MontH : : , oh Sao
3. Systematic List anp NoTEs : : 3 °° 330

I.—_INTRODUCTORY

BSERVATIONS on the bird-life at these reservoirs have been

carried out over a number of years beginning with 1923, and
latterly much more fully owing to the greater number of observers.
There are only a few notes available prior to the date mentioned, and
these are taken from the Rev. F. L. Blathwayt’s account of Birds in
the Victoria County History of Somerset, published in 1902. Many
notes are included in the Annual Reports of the Ornithological Section
of the Somerset Archeological and Natural History Society, and a
useful summary was given by Mr. A. C. Leach in the Proceedings of
the Bristol Naturalists’ Society, 4th series, Vol. VII, pp. 463-9, 1933
(1934). Since then, however, there have been no less than eleven
additions to the list of species, as well as one or two quite unusual
seasons, and it seems worth while not only to comment on all these,
but to review all the knowledge up to the present, so as to try to give
a complete picture as far as present information goes.

Sixty-three species have now been recorded from the reservoirs,
as given in the following account, and of these only seven (Mallard,
Tufted Duck, Great Crested Grebe, Little Grebe, Herring Gull, Coot
and, on the old reservoir, Moorhen) can be called “ Residents ” and then
only if the term is used to imply that some of these birds are present
in every month of the year, for there is no adequate cover for nesting
birds, and only Mallard, Great Crested Grebe, Coot and Moorhen
have been recorded as breeding, and then irregularly and not always
successfully.

The population is unstable and always changing, and this may be
recorded by the variation in the number of species seen in each month
of the year as follows :—January, 20; February, 25; March, 26;
April, 23; May, 14; June,7; July, 14; August, 24; September, 41 ;
October, 28; November, 24; and December, 22. If one excludes the

BIRD-LIFE ON BARROW GURNEY RESERVOIRS 331

seven residents mentioned, these figures would show the following
results: 13, 18, 19, 16, 7, 0, 7, 17, 34, 21, 17, 15, which indicates what
a great preponderance there is in September, a subject that will be
noticed later.

The reservoirs are numbered, in the order of construction, 1, 2 and 3,
and this incidentally expresses their size if No. 3 is regarded as the
largest. They are all different, and it may be due to these differences
that so many species have been attracted to these waters. No. 3
is by itself on the north side of the main road and has a large expanse
of water, unsheltered in any way; even in the driest season there is
very little mud, as the whole reservoir has been artificially constructed
with blocks of stone right out to the middle. It is not, therefore, an
attractive place for waders, though one or two interesting ones have
been seen, at a time, however, when the other reservoirs were in an
ideal condition for such visitors. On the other hand, it is suitable
for birds which demand plenty of space, and it is on this reservoir
only that the following species have been recorded, viz. :—Pintail,
Goosander, Red-breasted Merganser, Smew, Great Northern Diver
and Red-throated Diver.

No. 2 usually holds a good population of birds. The eastern border
is often shallow and then provides excellent feeding-ground for Mallard
and especially for Wigeon and Teal, many of which may be seen on the
water or resting on the banks. It was here that 1,000 Teal were counted
on December 15th, 1935. It is also suitable for waders if the water is
sufficiently low, as there is a fair amount of mud about.

No. | is essentially a wader’s reservoir for, under suitable conditions,
there is a large expanse of mud which is very attractive to these birds.
If the water is low and mud exposed in September, which unfortunately
(from the ornithological standpoint) is not always the case, one may
reasonably expect to see some interesting waders. The large number
of 41 species seen at the reservoirs in September is mainly due to waders ;
16 have been recorded in this month and of these 7 (Ruff, Sanderling,
Knot, Curlew-Sandpiper, Little Stint, Spotted Redshank, Black-tailed
Godwit) in September only, while 3 more (Ringed Plover, American
Pectoral Sandpiper, Greenshank) only in September and early October.
Some of the most interesting of these, e.g., American Pectoral Sandpiper,
Knot, Black-tailed Godwit, have been recorded from No. 1 only, while
another two (Spotted Redshank and Little Stint) have occurred on
the adjoining No. 2. Lapwing occur in huge flocks at No. 1 or No. 2
in the late Summer and Autumn. When flooded, No. 1 does not usually

332 H. TETLEY

hold many birds; there are some Tufted Ducks, Grebes and Coots,
often some Pochard, and Goldeneye and the drake Scaup have been
seen there, but on many occasions very few birds are present. It is
the lowest and most sheltered of the three reservoirs, the bottom of it
being considerably below the level of No. 2 and also of the main road.

The condition of the reservoirs is important, and had No. 1 always
been full during the Autumn migration some valuable records might
have been lost. But even allowing for this, September is undoubtedly
the best month in which to see a variety of birds. During that
time the great Autumn migration is in progress, and old and young
of birds that have bred farther north are passing through. It is
undoubtedly a more leisurely and wide-spread movement than the
Spring migration, and the figures at Barrow tell their own tale; only
23 species are recorded for April and 14 for May against 41 for
September. Of the waders recorded for the latter month only three
(Lapwing, Dunlin and Curlew) have occurred in the Spring, and there
is only one record of Terns in Spring, when 4 Black Terns were seen
in May, 1936.

Seasons naturally vary, and certain years may be noteworthy for

special events. On the Autumn migration of 1923, 8 Ringed Plover,
4 Ruff and 8 Curlew-Sandpipers were seen ; in 1933, when the reservoirs
were abnormally dry, a Spotted Redshank, 6 Greenshanks, and 2 or
more Black-tailed Godwits; in 1935 a Ruff, Knot and American
Pectoral Sandpiper with, curiously enough, a complete absence of
Greenshank ; several of these are the only records for the reservoirs.
The Winter of 1935-36 will always be remembered for the sudden and
enormous increase in the number of duck; from very much smaller
numbers Mallard went up to 300, Teal to 1,000, Wigeon to 250,
Shoveler to 65-70, Pochard to 1,200. On one day (28th December,
1935) there were well over 2,000 duck on the reservoirs, apart from other
birds not counted, and this represents so far the maximum population
on any one occasion.
_ The list of birds recorded month by month together with the sys-
tematic list will serve to give an idea of the fluctuations of bird-life
on the reservoirs. Numbers are given only in the case of birds which
may occur in large flocks and for which there are plenty of figures
available. Further details of these and particulars of the others are
given in the systematic portion.

A few details may be given on the old reservoir which lies on the
south side of the road opposite No. 1 and is separated from No. 3 by

BIRD-LIFE ON BARROW GURNEY RESERVOIRS 333

another road. This has, at the south end, a small pool of water with
plenty of mud, a grove of willow trees, a swampy, reedy part going up
to the road, and above it on either side much drier ground. Moorhens
are always present here and Teal very often, while a few Mallard, Wigeon
and Shoveler have also been recorded. The swampy parts favour some
waders, and, at suitable times of year, Snipe, Jack Snipe and Green
Sandpipers have been seen there. In the descriptions that follow, the
remarks only apply to the main reservoirs and not to the old one unless
this is specially stated. Observations are included up to the end of
1937.

IL.—THE RESERVOIRS MONTH BY MONTH

| J ANUARY Goldeneye to 4
Mallard to 200 Goosander
Teal to 70 Smew
Wigeon to 200 Great Crested Grebe to 6
‘Shoveler to 25 Slavonian Grebe
Pochard to 509 Red-necked Grebe
Tufted Duck to 82 Black-necked Grebe
Scaup Little Grebe as January
Goldeneye tO Oystercatcher
Smew to 7 Lapwing
Great Crested Grebe to 13 Green Sandpiper
Slavonian Grebe Curlew '
Black-necked Grebe Common Snipe
Little Grebe 1 or 2 Jack Snipe
Great Northern Diver Gulls as January
Lapwing Lesser Black-backed Gull to 1
Dunlin Coot to 34.
Common Snipe
Black-headed Gull Marcu
Hosine Gall Mallard to 70
Great Black-backed Gull is ye . ge
Coot to 200 Rickert "
Pintail
Shoveler to 12
FEBRUARY Pochard to 243
Sheld-duck Tufted Duck to 43
Mallard to 100 Scaup
Teal to 50 Goldeneye to 6
Wigeon | to 140 Goosander
Pintail Great Crested Grebe to 12
Shoveler to. 24 Slavonian Grebe
Pochard to 295 Black-necked Grebe
Tufted Duck to 60 Little Grebe as January

Scaup Lapwing

334 H. TETLEY

Green Sandpiper

Curlew

Common Snipe

Jack Snipe

Black-headed Gull

Common Gull

Herring Gull

Lesser Black-backed Gull to 45
Iceland Gull

Coot to 20
APRIL

Mallard to 18
Teal to 20
Wigeon to 4
Shoveler

Pochard to 1
Tufted Duck to 3l
Scaup

Goldeneye to 9

Common Scoter

Red-breasted Merganser

Great Crested Grebe to 20
Slavonian Grebe

Black-necked Grebe

Little Grebe as January

Lapwing

Dunlin

Common Sandpiper

Curlew

Gulls as March

Lesser Black-backed Gull to 34

Coot to 12
May

Mallard to 14: breeding

Teal

Pochard to 3

Tufted Duck to 30-40

Scaup

Goldeneye to 2

Great Crested Grebe to 40

Black-necked Grebe

Little Grebe as January

Dunlin

Common Sandpiper

Black Tern

Herring Gull

Lesser Black-backed Gull to 70
Coot to 2

JUNE
Sheld-duck
Mallard
Teal
Tufted Duck
Goldeneye
Great Crested Grebe
Little Grebe
Herring Gull
Coot

to 11: breeding

to 41

JULY
Heron
Mallard to 48
Pochard to 15
Tufted Duck to 67
Great Crested Grebe to 44
Black-necked Grebe

Little Grebe to 15
Lapwing to 600-700
Common Sandpiper
Gulls as March
Lesser Black-backed Gull to 60
Coot to 70
AvuGuUST

Heron
Mallard to 45
Gadwall
Pochard to 52
Tufted Duck to 160
Scaup
Great Crested Grebe to 54
Black-necked Grebe
Little Grebe to 15
Lapwing
Turnstone
Common Sandpiper
Green Sandpiper
Redshank
Greenshank
Curlew
Common Snipe
Gulls as March
British Lesser Black-backed

Gull to 80
Scandinavian Lesser Black-

backed Gull
Kittiwake
Coot to 117

BIRD-LIFE ON BARROW GURNEY RESERVOIRS 335

SEPTEMBER
Heron
Mallard
Gadwall
Teal to 105
Wigeon to 36
Pintail
Shoveler
Pochard
Tufted Duck
Goldeneye
Common Scoter
Cormorant
Great Crested Grebe
Slavonian Grebe
Black-necked Grebe
Little Grebe
Ringed Plover
Golden Plover
Lapwing
Rufi
Sanderling
Knot
Dunlin
Curlew-Sandpiper
Little Stint
American Pectoral Sandpiper
Common Sandpiper
Green Sandpiper
Spotted Redshank
Greenshank
Grey Phalarope (?)
Black-tailed Godwit
Curlew
Common Snipe
Black Tern
Common (? Arctic) Tern
Gulls as January
Lesser Black-backed Gull to 40
Coot to 330

to 47

to 260
to 55

to 54

to 30

to 1,000

OcTOBER
Heron
Mallard
Gadwall
Teal to 300
Wigeon to 29
Shoveler
Pochard
Tufted Duck

to 150

to 340
to 68

Scaup

Goldeneye
Cormorant

Great Crested Grebe
Black-necked Grebe
Little Grebe

Ringed Plover
Lapwing

Dunlin

American Pectoral Sandpiper
Common Sandpiper

Green Sandpiper

Greenshank

Grey Phalarope

Curlew

Common Snipe

Gulls as March

Lesser Black-backed Gull to 6

Coot to 170
NOVEMBER

Heron

Mallard to 150

Teal to 140

Wigeon to 30-50

Pochard to 300

Ferruginous Duck

Tufted Duck to 220

Scaup

Goldeneye

Eider

Great Crested Grebe -. to 20

Black-necked Grebe to 8
Little Grebe

Golden Plover

Lapwing

Green Sandpiper

Redshank

Curlew

Common Snipe

Gulls as January

Lesser Black-backed Gull to 2

Coot to 87
DECEMBER

Mallard to 300

Gadwall

Teal to 1,000

Wigeon to 250

Shoveler to 65-70

336 H. TETLEY

Pochard to 1,200 Black-necked Grebe

Tufted Duck to 130 Little Grebe 1 or 2
Scaup Great Northern Diver
Goldeneye Red-throated Diver

Common Scoter Curlew

Goosander Gulls as January
Smew Iceland Gull

Great Crested Grebe to 12 Coot to 30

bo bb bb DS bo DIDS Fe ee SS eS
SHISAS OSM OS DADAE OW SODIUM

III—SYSTEMATIC LIST

. British Dipper - -
. Kingfisher - -— -
. Heron
. Sheld-duck ae
Mallard, < <-) =-
.Gadwall - - -
cad Wen} a ae de
-/Wigeon .+° - .-
. Pintail Se ee a=
. Shoveler
+ Pochard: ==) 3. 4
. Ferruginous
. Tufted Duck -- -
. Scaup ee er
. Goldeneye- -. -
ider = | <0 se
. Common Scoter -
. Goosander- - -
. Red-breasted Ss: -
.Smew-- -

. Cormorant

. Great Crested Gite
. Slavonian Grebe -
. Red-necked Grebe -
. Black-necked Grebe
. LittleGrebe - -
. Great Northern Diver
. Red-throated Diver

. Oystercatcher -— -

Duck -

. Ringed Plover -
. Golden Plover -— -
. Lapwing - - -
. Turnstone - -~ -
Rath oS = Se
. Sanderling- - = -
. Knot - - - -
. Dunlin mF ios OW hae

Cinclus cinclus gularis (Lath.)
Alcedo atthis ispida Linn.
Ardea c. cinerea Linn.
Ladorna tadorna (Linn.)
Anas p. platyrhyncha Linn.
Anas strepera Linn.
Anas c. crecca Linn.
Anas penelope Linn.
Anas acuta acuta Linn.
Spatula clypeata (Linn.)
Nyroca f. ferina (Linn.)
Nyroca n. nyroca (Giild.)
Nyroca fuligula (Linn.)
Nyroca m. marila (Linn.)
Bucephala c. clangula (Linn.)
Somateria m. mollissima (Linn.)
Oidemia n. nigra (Linn.)
Mergus merganser merganser Linn.
Mergus serrator Linn.
Mergus albellus Linn.
Phalacrocorax c. carbo (Linn.)
Podiceps c. cristatus (Linn.)
Podiceps auritus (Linn.)
Podiceps g. grisergena (Bodd.)
Podiceps n. ngricollis Brehm.
Podiceps r. ruficollis (Pall.)
Colymbus 1. ammer Briinn.
Colymbus stellatus Pont.
Hematopus ostralegus occidentalis
Neum.
Charadrius h. hiaticula Linn.
Pluvialis apricarvus (Linn.)
Vanellus vanellus (Linn.)
Arenaria 1. vnterpres (Linn.)
Philomachus pugnaz (Linn.)
Crocethia alba (Pall.)
Calidris canutus canutus (Linn.)
Erolia alpina (Linn.)

BIRD-LIFE ON BARROW GURNEY RESERVOIRS

. Curlew-Sandpiper - - -
. Little Stint - - - -
. American Pectoral Sandpiper
. Common Sandpiper - -
. Green Sandpiper - - -
. Redshank - - - - -
. Spotted Redshank - -~ -
. Greenshank - - -
. Grey Phalarope - -
. Black-tailed Godwit — -

Sturlew- - - - + >
. Common Snipe - =

. Jack Snipe = a
Selack Tem -- - - -
. Common (? Arctic) Tern -

. Black-headed Gull - -~ -
~- Common Gull - - - -
. Herring Gull - - - -
. Scandinavian Lesser Black-
backed Gull - - -
. British Lesser Black-backed
iil 2 ee
. Great Black-backed Gull -
Paiceland-Gull -- - - -
. Kittiwake - - -
. Water Rail Sat
. Moorhen - - -
OG

Note.—In the case of

Erolia testacea (Pall.)

Erolia minuta (Leisl.)

Erolia melanotos (Vieill.)

Tringa hypoleucos Linn.

Tringa ochropus Linn.

Tringa totanus (Linn.)

Tringa erythropus (Pall.)

Tringa nebularia (Giinn.)

Phalaropus fulicarius (Linn.)

Inmosa 1. lumosa (Linn.)

Numenius a. arquata (Linn.)

Capella g. gallinago (Linn.)

Lymnocryptes minimus (Briinn.)

Chlidomas n. niger (Linn.)

Sterna h. hirundo Linn. (? macrura
Naum.)

Larus r. ridabundus Linn.

Larus c. canus Linn.

Larus a. argentatus Pont.

Larus f. fuscus Linn.

Larus fuscus grellsi Brehm.
Larus marinus Linn.

Larus leucopterus Vieill.
Rissa t. tridactyla (Linn.)
Rallus a. aquaticus Linn.
Gallinula ch. chloropus (Linn.)
Fulica a. atra Linn.

the Golden Plover (81), Dunlin (37) and

Redshank (43) binomials only are used as it is impossible to say to
which sub-species the birds belonged. It is presumed that the
Oystercatcher (29) and Common Snipe (49) belonged to the sub-species

given.

NOTES

1. DIPPER.
2. KINGFISHER.

One was seen in 1921.
A Kingfisher is seen occasionally, particularly

where the water comes in at the head of No. | reservoir.

3. HERON.

Herons are recorded from July to November, the

extreme dates being 17th July (1935) and 20th November

(1932).

The largest number is 5 on 17th July, 1935, and 8th

August, 1937, the former representing 4 immatures and | adult,

and the latter 5 adults.
4. SHELD-DUCK.

The only records are of one seen on 2nd February,

1936, and of one flying round on Ist June, 1937.

338

H. TETLEY

5. Maztzarp. During the last three years (1934-1936) there has been

a considerable increase of Mallard visiting the reservoirs ;
up to that time 48 was the largest number recorded, but since
then these have increased up to 100, 150, and 300, the last
being in the “record” month of December, 1935, when such a
great number of duck visited the reservoirs, over 200 in all
occurring on the 28th of that month. No definite breeding
was recorded until 1934, when 3 broods were seen on 29th May.
The largest numbers for each month are as follows: January,
200; February, 100; March, 70; April, 18; May, 14; June,
11; July, 48; August, 80; September, 47; October, 150 ;
November, 150; December, 300. For each season they are:
1933-34, 70; 1934-35, 200 ; 1935-36, 300; 1936-37, 85.

6. GapwaLL. A drake was seen from 22nd August to 10th October,

and again in December, all 1937.

7. TraLt. The Teal now seems well-established as a regular visitor

to the reservoirs, often up to as many as 60 and occasionally
very many more, the largest recorded being the remarkable
number of 1,000 on 15th December, 1935, and the next the
400 on the 28th of that month. From September to the be-
ginning of April are the months when they are present, though
odd birds have been seen on single occasions in May and June,
but none so far in July and August. The largest numbers re-
corded for each month are as follows: January, 70; February,
50; March, 30-40; April, 20; September, 105; October, 300 ;
November, 140; December, 1,000, these last four all occurring
in 1935; and for each season: 1931-32, 30-40; 1932-33, 70;
1933-34, 61; 1934-35, 50; 1935-36, 1,000; 1936-37, 62:

8. WicEon. Up to the years 1923-26, Wigeon had only been

recorded in small numbers, but in the Winter of 1927-28 a
flock up to 50 visited the reservoirs, and this number has been
kept up in all subsequent Winters and culminated in the record
number of 250 on 28th December, 1935. They appear in
September, the earliest being one on 8th September, 1926,
and remain mainly until the third week in March, though there
is one record of 4 on 7th April, 1936. There are no records
from May to August inclusive. The largest numbers recorded
for each month are as follows: January, 200; February, 140;
March, 93; April, 4; September, 36; October, 29; November,
30-50; December, 250. For the various seasons it has been:

2 alti aad
BIRD-LIFE ON BARROW GURNEY RESERVOIRS 339

1925-6, few; 1927-28, 50; 1928-29, 50; 1929-30, 93; 1930-31,
37; 1931-32, 50; 1932-33, 100; 1933-34, 50; 1934-35, 140;
1935-36, 250.

9. Pintatt. The only records are of a pair on 25th March, 1928,
and also 25th February, 1934, and of 3 (immature or female)
on 19th and 26th September, 1937.

10. SHoveLER. The Shoveler seems to be an occasional visitor,
though further observations may show it to be more regular
than present records suggest. With the notable exception
of 1935-36 there have never been any large numbers, the greatest
being 8 recorded on three occasions, once in January and twice
in March. Details of 1935-36 are as follows: 29th September, 1 ;
15th December, 65-70 ; 28th December, 65 ; 13th January, 25 ;
2nd February, 27; 16th February, 12; 1st March, 12; 8th
March, 8. They are present from September to April, the
range being 8th September to 23rd April; so far there is no
record for November.

11. Pocuarp. Pochard, though recorded in every month of the
year except June are, considering the large numbers in which
they occur, quite the most erratic duck visiting the reservoirs.
It seems evident, from a number of observations, that they
move about in a large flock, and that though they may be
very numerous one day, they may be completely absent the
next. Some observations made in 1931 may be given to support
this: 20th September, 52; 27th September, 260 ; 3rd October,
340; llth October, 289; 24th October, none; 30th October,
2; 10th November, over 300; 22nd November, 17. It is to
be presumed that they move between Barrow and Blagdon,
but so far there is no direct observation to support this. Another
point of particular interest is that in any large flock there is
almost always a large preponderance of males, in some cases
as much as 9 to 1 female. The largest number recorded is
1,200 on 28th December, 1935, and for each month it is as
follows: January, 509; February, 295; March, 243; April, 1;
May,3; July, 15; August, 52; September, 260; October, 340 ;
November, 300; December, 1,200. It will thus be seen that
the large flocks are present from September to March; they are
largely gone by the third week in March and begin to come in
again at the end of July.

340 H. TETLEY

12. FErrucinous Duck. A probable male of this i acces was seen
on 26th November, 1923.

13. Turrep Duck. Tufted Ducks are almost always present on the
reservoirs and often in some numbers. They have actually
been recorded in every month of the year, though so far there
is only one record, and that of a single bird, for June. The
largest numbers per month are as follows: January, 82;
February, 60; March, 47; April, 31; May, 30-40; June, 1;
July, 67; August, 160; September, 55; October, 68;
November, 220 ; December, 130. More observations are needed,
particularly for the Summer months; there are only four for
May, one given above and the other three each of 2 birds, and
one for June. From present details it seems that the Tufted
Duck begins to arrive in numbers in early July, 46 being seen
on 12th July, 1934, and as many as 67 occurring on 31st July,
1937. This would suggest a marked movement of birds im-
mediately the breeding season is over, a movement which is
continued to the middle of August, when as many as 160 were
counted on 15th August, 1936. From September to the end
of March the numbers vary from about 12 to 80, though on two
occasions the latter figure was exceeded, 220 being recorded on
4th November, 1935, and 130 in December, 1927. In April
the numbers drop, and still more so in May and June. The duck
does not nest on the reservoirs and, in view of the lack of suitable
cover, is not likely to do so.

14. Scaup. Up to the autumn of 1931 there were only two records
of Scaup, that of one on 5th January, 1926, and of 4 (the highest
number up to the present) on 19th January of the same year.
The first of these was a female, and a female was again recorded
from October to December, 1931. Omitting the 4 mentioned
above, for which the sexes have not been given, all others have
been adult males, and only on two occasions (20th November
and 24th November, 1932), when two were present, has there
been more than one. Assuming it to be the same bird, it has
been reported as follows: 1932-33, 13th October, 1932, to 13th
April, 1933 ; 1933-34, 9th December, 1933, to 10th May, 1934 ;
1934-35, 16th January to 23rd April, 1935; 1935-36, 15th
December, 1935, to 28th April, 1936; 1936-37, 15th oe
1936, and 14th February, 1937.

15. GoLDENEYE. With the exception of 1928-29 and 1929-30,

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

BIRD-LIFE ON BARROW GURNEY RESERVOIRS 341

Goldeneye have been recorded in every season from 1923-24

onwards. They are never in large numbers, 9 on 8rd April,

1926, being the largest so far. They have occurred in every

month except July and August, the highest for each being as

follows : January, 7; February,4; March, 6; April, 9; May, 2;
June, 1; September to December, 4 each. The dates range
from 8th September (1926) to 21st June (1933). Adult drakes
are present most years, but never more than one at a time,
the others being the brown-headed female or young birds.

Kiper. A female was shot about the beginning of November,
1888. This is the only record.

Common Scorer. Scoters have occurred on both the Spring and
Autumn migrations, on the former in April and on the latter
in September. With the exception of 3 (2 males, 1 female)
seen on 5th April, 1930, and of two males on different reservoirs
on lith April, 1937, all have been solitary, adult males occurring
three times to female once. An isolated occurrence is of a female
on 12th December, 1937. |

GOOSANDER. The red-headed (female or young) birds have been
seen as follows: 1 on 5th December, 1927; 2 on 9th February,
1928; and 3 on 13th March, 1928. The adult male has not
been recorded so far.

RED-BREASTED MERGANSER. The only record is of a female seen
on 10th April, 1936.

SMEW. Smew occur irregularly in the Winter months of December,
January and February. There are only four records, of solitary
birds, except in the case of a party of 7 seen on 8th January,
1928.

CoRMORANT. The Cormorant has been recorded on four occasions,
once in April, twice in September and once in October, in each
case a single bird only.

Great CrEsTED GREBE. The Great Crested Grebe is usually
present at all times of the year, though the numbers may vary
considerably. Out of 96 observations, there are only three
(1 in January and 2 in February) in which their complete absence
has been noted. The highest number recorded has been 54
on two occasions both in 1936, one on 9th August, and the other
on 12th September, but in May, June, and July numbers of
40 or over have occurred, the highest for these three months
being 40 on 10th May, 1934, 41 on 13th June, 1936, and 44 on

342 H. TETLEY

17th July, 1935. It seems rather remarkable that such large
numbers should be present during these Summer months.
The bird only breeds very exceptionally at Barrow, and even
then often unsuccessfully and only one or two pairs at the most,
and only 17 pairs bred in the whole of Somerset in 1931, according
to the British Birds’ Census, of which 12 were at Blagdon and
none at Barrow. Those for May and June would appear to- be
non-breeders, but the July birds may be on passage, a movement
which is very marked in August and September when the
highest numbers have been present. These drop considerably
in October and November, and still more so in December. In
January and February there are very few, the Grebes having
no doubt moved to the sea. During March and April they are
returning. The approximate average of birds present per month
is as follows: January, 3:9; February, 3-6; March, 86;
April, 11:9; May, 263; June, 19; July, 32; August, 42-7;
September, 24-8; October, 15-7; November, 11-6; December,
6:5.

23. Stavontan GreBE. Odd birds have been seen at irregular
intervals, the records being as follows: 1 on 30th March and
2nd April, 1924; 2 from 17th to 25th February, 1934; 1 on
28th September, 1935; and 1 on 7th and 10th April, 1936.
There are also old records of one in January, 1885, and one in
1890.

24. RED-NECKED GREBE. One on 21st February, 1937, is the only
record.

25. BLACK-NECKED GREBE. Black-necked Grebes were first definitely
seen in September and October, 1924. They were not recorded
again until 1930, but since then they have been seen every year,
and in every month except June. Usually there are not more
than 1 or 2 present, but the largest number recorded is 8, which
were seen on 4th November, 1935. Between April and August
they are, however, scarce and have only been seen, out of about
60 occasions, twice in April and August and once each in May
and July.

26. LitrLe Grese. More observations are required to fill in details
of the distribution of the Little Grebe, but present information
would show that from January to May, probably also June and
most of July, only one or two are present. At the end of the
last month numbers may swell considerably, and evidently

27.

28.
29.
30.

31.

32.

35.
36.

BIRD-LIFE ON BARROW GURNEY RESERVOIRS 343

some passage movement goes on between then and October.
The highest recorded for July is 15 on 31st July, 1937; for
August, 15 on 30th August, 1936; for September, 20 on 27th
September, 1936; and for October, 27 on 3rd October, 1936,
the last-named being also the highest figure for any month.
There is a decrease in November and still more so in December,
when only one or two are present. So far there is no record
or suggestion of any Spring passage at all comparable with
that of the Autumn.

Great NorTHERN DivEeR. One was seen on 20th December,
1928, and there is an old record of a young one on 20th January,
1881.

RED-THROATED DivER. One was reported in December, 1927.

OYSTER-CATCHER. One was seen on 14th February, 1929.

RincEeD Piover. A party of 8 were present in September, 1923,
and 1 on 8th October, 1926.

GoLpEN Piover. The Golden Plover is a very scarce visitor in
the Autumn or early Winter. From 1 to 6 were seen in
September, 1923, 1 on 20th November, 1932, and 3 were flying
over on 26th September, 1937.

Laprwine. Large flocks of Lapwing visit the reservoirs in late
Summer and Autumn. These may vary in number from 100
to more than 1,000, the latter figure being counted on 27th
September, 1931, and being so far the record. They come in
about the end of July, between 600 and 700 being there on 31st
July (1937) and continue into the third week in November,
though in one year (1936) great numbers were present on 16th
January. There are no records for December, only two for
January, and one each for March and April, though, with the
exception of that quoted above for 1936, no more than 50 have
been seen, so the numbers are far fewer than those of the
Autumn. Twelve were seen on 7th April (1935), the latest date
recorded for the Spring; there are no records for May or June,
and two for July of 2 on 17th July, 1935, and 600-700 on 31st
July, 1937.

. Turnstone. The only record is of one on 22nd August, 1937.

Rurr. There are four records, all for September, 4 birds being
seen in 1923, and 1 in 1934, 1935 and 1937.

SANDERLING. Three were seen on 17th and 18th September, 1930.

Knot. An immature bird, seen on the mud of No. 1 reservoir

344

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

45.

H. TETLEY

on 28th September, 1935, is the only record. It was extremely
tame and was amongst a large flock of Lapwing, and in company
with a Ruff and an American Pectoral Sandpiper, an unusual
trio.

Dunn. Dunlins have been seen on eight occasions, of which
four have been in September, one in October, January, April
and May. Usually they have been single birds, but on the
Autumn migration 6 were present on 8th September, 1926,
and 8 on 19th October, 1933.

CuRLEW-SANDPIPER. A party of from 8 to 10 were present in’
September, 1923.

LittLe Stint. The only record is of two, a juvenile and an adult
in winter plumage, seen on the flooded edge of No. 2 reservoir
on 26th September, 1936. Both were very tame and were
watched at close range.

AMERICAN PECTORAL SANDPIPER. One was present on the mud
of No. 1 reservoir from 28th September to 3rd October, 1935.
It is the only record for Barrow, and also for Somerset.

Common SANDPIPER. With the exception of Lapwing, the
Common Sandpiper is the most regular wader seen at Barrow.
It occurs both on the Spring and Autumn migrations, more
usually on the latter, but this movement may start as early
as July when (in 1934) the quite unusual number of 20 to 25
were present on the 12th. The latest date is of 4 seen on 9th
October, 1936, and there are usually 6 or so present during the
Autumn.

GREEN SANDPIPER. Single Green Sandpipers have occurred
on a number of occasions from August to November and from
February to April, but 2 were seen on 5th October, 1927. The
extremes of these two periods are as follows: 8th August
(1935) to 20th November (1932) and 17th February (1934) to
26th April (1934).

REDsHANK. There are only two records, a single bird being
seen on 7th November, 1927, and 22nd August, 1937. As it is
very common on the coast it is rather remarkable that it has
not occurred more often.

SpoTtED RepsHANK. An immature bird was present on 17th
September, 1933.

GREENSHANK. Greenshanks have only been seen on the Autumn
migration, between 17th August (1932) and 8th October (1926).

BIRD-LIFE ON BARROW GURNEY RESERVOIRS 345

In the main, there are only 1 or 2, but in 1933 there were an
unusual number, as many as 6 being recorded on 26th September.
As a contrast, none were seen in 1935, although conditions were
much the same as in 1933.

46. Grey PHALAROPE. One, an uncertain record though of a species
of Phalarope, on 25th September, 1932, is the only occurrence
on the main reservoirs. Another, certainly this species, was
seen on the old reservoir about the middle or end of October,
1934.

47. BLACK-TAILED GopwitT. One or two were present in September,
1933, between the 17th and the 30th.

48. CurLew. The fields surrounding the reservoirs seem to be an
attraction as great as, or even greater than, the reservoirs
themselves to the Curlews, and from them have come the
records of the largest numbers, 30-40 being seen in November,
1931. The largest party on the actual reservoirs was 13 on
9th November, 1930. Curlews have occurred between 2nd
August (1932) and 10th December (1927) and also between 25th
February (1929) and 30th April (1928). They have varied in
number from single birds to parties of 6, 7, 8 or 13, or from 24
to 40 in the surrounding fields or flying over the reservoirs.

49. Common Snipe. The actual records so far show that the Common
Snipe has been recorded from January to March and again
from August to November. Usually they are single birds, but
18 were seen on 3rd March, 1930, this being by far the largest
number so far recorded.

50, Jack Sntpz. Including the old reservoir, there are three records
for Jack Snipe, one in February and two in March. The
details are 5 on 3rd March, 1930, 1 on 2nd February, and 2 on
Ist March, both 1936.

51. Briack Tern. Black Terns have been observed on the Autumn
migration in 1926, 1933, 1935, and 1936, in numbers varying
from 1 to 3. The extremes are 8th September (1936) and Ist
October (1933). There is only one Spring record, that of 4
seen on 5th May, 1936.

52. Common or Arctic Tern. There are 3 records, all for September,
2 on 8th September, 1926, 1 on 16th September, 1930, and 2
on 21st September, 1935. Of these, those in 1926 were probably
Common Terns, and one of those in 1935 was probably an Arctic,
but it is very difficult to distinguish between the two species

346

54.

55.

On.

H,. TETLEY

in the Autumn. Both in 1930 and 1935 there had been stormy
weather shortly before the birds were seen.

. BLACK-HEADED GULL. With the exception of May and June,

for which at present there are no records, these Gulls have been
seen in every month of the year, and they are usually present
in some numbers. As might be expected, they are more numer-
ous outside the breeding season, the largest number recorded
being about 700 on Ist September, 1937.

Common GuiL. The Common Gull is an irregular visitor to the
reservoirs. It has occurred on various dates between 12th
July (1934) and 14th April (1924), and, with one exception,
only in small numbers not reaching double figures. The
exception 1s, however, noteworthy, as the quite unusual number
of 54 was seen on April 14th, 1924.

HerRrRinG Guiy. Herring Gulls are almost universally present,
though actually there are no records for May and June. But
this is doubtless due to lack of observers or lack of notes, or a
combination of both. The highest number recorded is about
100 in July and January.

. SCANDINAVIAN LESSER BLACK-BACKED GuLL. The only definite

record is of an adult on 22nd August, 1937, though on several
occasions dark birds have been noted but could not be completely
identified as of this race.

British LesskR BLACK-BACKED GULL. This Gull is a migrant
which occurs on the reservoirs between February and November.
The records for the first month consist of single birds in 1932,
1934 and 1935. There are two phases of migration, a Spring
one between 18th March and 27th May, when numbers varying
from 20 to 70 may be seen, and an Autumn one from 17th July
to 24th September in numbers from 11 to 80, the great majority
of these birds being adults. The highest number recorded is
the last-mentioned 80 on 11th August, 1937. So far there do
not seem to be any records for June, probably from lack of
observation, as birds occur on the Avon in that month. This
marked migration is of some interest as, although large numbers ~
nest on Steep Holm, five miles off Weston-super-Mare, the
bird is very scarce on the coast, though it is common on the
Avon. It has only rarely been observed in the Stoke Gifford
neighbourhood, north of Bristol, and never in any numbers,

58.

BIRD-LIFE ON BARROW GURNEY RESERVOIRS 347

so it seems as if it may migrate overland between western and
eastern England, or carry out its migration by night.

GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL. Up to 2nd August, 1932, when one
immature was seen, there do not seem to be any records for the
reservoirs. Since then, however, they have been observed
every year except 1935, and in all months except March to June
inclusive and October. The largest number recorded is 4 seen
on 20th December, 1936.

IcELAND GULL. One, probably a second-year bird, was seen on
2nd March, 1931, and the bird, which stayed for two years in
the Bristol district, visited the reservoirs on 24th December, 1933,
23rd March, 1934, and doubtless at other times.

Kirtiwakr. ‘The only record is of a very tame juvenile seen on
9th August, 1936.

Water Ratt. One was seen on Ist November, 1928, and several
on 3rd March, 1930.

MoorHEN. The only records are from the old reservoir where the
bird is commonly seen.

Coot. Coots are one of the most universal birds present on the
reservoirs, though many more notes are necessary before one
can get an accurate picture of their movements. Present
information suggests that, although there is actually no record
so far for June, they occur in every month of the year, though
much less plentifully from April to June. From the middle of
July until the beginning of November they are present in numbers
varying from 30 to 330; the last figure, and also the highest
so far, being on 13th September, 1935. There is evidently a
considerable movement going on during these months, and from
December and January to early July the numbers are con-
siderably less, an exception being on 29th January, 1933, when
about 200 occurred. It will thus be seen that, as with some
other birds, the autumnal migration is far more marked than
that of the Spring.

348

The Heath Association on Blackdown, Mendip,
Somerset

By G. H. Heatu, B.Sc., L. C. Luckwii1, Ph.D., and O. J. Putzen, B.Sc.
With a Preface by RosE Bracusgr, Ph.D.

CONTENTS

PAGE
I. PREFACE : * : : ' ‘ " . 348
Il. SrruaTIon AND GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY ; : . 848
Ill. GroLocy j : : F ; a é . 3849
IV. GENERAL CLIMATE. ; : : : ; . 349
V. Peat ForRMATION ‘ ea : : : ; . OD
VI. VEGETATION. ; : : : : ‘ ; ood
VII. Factors INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION 357
VIII. Summary : . : : ; : : ~. BO
LITERATURE CITED . : c : > : . 3862

I.—PREFACE

ORK on the Heath Association on Blackdown was started
in the Botanical Department of the University of Bristol in
1925, and since that date the area has been under constant observation.
The bulk of the work has been carried out by advanced students
of the Department, while I have been responsible for making the initial
observations and for maintaining the continuity of the work as it
changed hands during the twelve years’ survey.
R. BRACHER.
1937.

IJ.— SITUATION AND GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY

Blackdown forms a part of the Mendip range of hills which run
from east to west across northern Somerset, about 15 miles south of
Bristol. Itis the highest hill of the range, its summit lying at 1,068 ft.
above sea level.

The northern slopes of the hill, from 500 to 1,000 ft., are rather steep,
having an average gradient of 1 in 6. On the south side the land
slopes away more gradually, the average gradient being about 1 in 20.
Above 1,000 ft. the hill flattens out into an almost level expanse,
about 14 miles long and from 4 to 4 of a mile in width, and the present
account deals chiefly with the conditions prevailing on this flat-topped
summit.

THE HEATH ASSOCIATION ON BLACKDOWN, MENDIP, SOMERSET 349

Iil.—GEOLOGY

The anticlinal fold which forms the Mendip range is composed of
massive beds of Carboniferous Limestone overlying a core of Old Red
‘Sandstone. In several places, as the result of pre-Triassic erosion,
the Carboniferous Limestone has been removed from the arch of the —
fold, thus exposing the underlying Sandstone. This is the case on
Blackdown, where the upper parts of the hill are formed of Old Red
Sandstone and the lower slopes are of Carboniferous Limestone. Small
areas of Dolomitic Conglomerate deposited in Triassic times also occur
on the lower slopes of the hill.

IV.— GENERAL CLIMATE

1. Temperature.—The air temperatures on Blackdown differ from
those of neighbouring but lower lying areas chiefly in their greater
range. The Winter temperatures are very low, and during January,
February and March, severe frosts of several days’ or even weeks’
duration are frequent. The Summer temperatures on the other hand,
because of the great insolation of the area, are comparatively high,
and temperatures of 80° F. are frequently exceeded during the months
from May to August. The diurnal temperature range also is high
in Summer, but falls to very low values (1° to 2° F.) on dull Winter
days.

2. Rainfall_—The rainfall on Blackdown is much above the average
for the district, especially in the Autumn months. The mean annual
rainfall over the years from 1923 to 1934 inclusive was 46-6 inches,
the figures ranging from 31-12 inches in 1933 to 58-42 inches in the
exceptionally wet year 1927 (Table 1s). The figures for the distri-
bution of rainfall throughout the year indicate that the Autumn
months are the wettest and the Spring months the driest. Summer and
Winter rainfall occupy intermediate positions (Table 1a). The
records were taken at Charterhouse, 619 ft. above sea level and about
2 miles from the summit of Blackdown, and were supplied by the
Bristol Waterworks Company, to whom we here tender our thanks.

TABLE 14.—MEAN MontTHLY RAINFALL

Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec.

ee | |

4-20 | 3-17 | 2-10 | 2-93 | 3-32 | 2-59 | 4-16 | 5-39 | 4:19 | 5-43 | 4-63 | 4-25

1934.

350 G. H. HEATH, L. C. LUCKWILL AND O. J. PULLEN

TABLE 18.—ToTAL ANNUAL RAINFALL

1923, | 1924. | 1925. | 1926. | 1927. | 1923. 1929. | 1930. | 1931. | 1932. | 1933.

38-68

eee ff | S|

45-14 | 55-96 | 47-18 16.68) 58.42 47-74 47-02 | 48-91 | 43-49 | 47-14 | 31-12

3. Hvaporation—It is usually assumed that evaporation over
heaths and similar exposed places is very high, but certain observations
taken during the Winter, 1928-1929 seemed to indicate that this may
not always be so. The problem was more fully investigated during
the months from September, 1934, to May, 1935, the instruments
employed for measuring the evaporation being a rain-proof atmometer
of the Livingstone and Thone (3) type, and a wet and dry bulb recording
hygrometer. A Livingstone atmometer on a potometer mounting
was also employed for measuring the evaporation over short periods
under varying conditions. Owing to the difficulty of keeping the
instruments working during the very cold weather the records are
necessarily incomplete, but so far as they go they indicate that the
evaporating power of the atmosphere is very low from about the end
of October until the beginning of March (See Table 2). This
phenomenon seems to be caused chiefly by the low temperatures and
the large amount of rainfall.

TABLE 2.—EVAPORATION DaTA. SumMMIT OF BLACKDOWN

Total
Moan aint Total evaporation | Mean sat™-*
Period. ° rainfall from deficit
mee ins. atmometer | mm. Hg.
ccs.
Sept. 12—Sept.25 ..| 59-9 1:85 148 ~—-
Sept. 25—Oct. 9 .. 67-5 2-80 93 —
Oct. 9—Oct. 23... 54-3 0-78 95 —
Oct. 23—Nov. 6 .. 48:5 1:32 60 —
Nov. 6—Nov. 20 ..| 464 1-58 ~10 ~-
Nov. 20—Dec. 4 .. 51-4 2-94 18 =
Jan. 29—Feb. 12 .. 39-7 1-01 — 1-06
Feb. 12—Feb. 26 .. 42-5 2-44 — 0-55
Feb. 26—Mar. 12 .. 37°8 1-04 — 0-55
Mar. 12—Mar. 26 .. 42-9 1-53 181 1-11
Mar. 26—Apr. 9 .. 39-3 2-64 —_— 1-18
Apr. 9—Apr. 23... 43-1 2-57 — 0:96
Apr. 23—May 7 .. -~ — —- 1-47

1 Observations taken at two hourly intervals from 2 a.m, to 12 midnight.

THE HEATH ASSOCIATION ON BLACKDOWN, MENDIP, SOMHRSET 351

4. Wonds.—The prevailing winds are from the W. and S.W., and
often reach a considerable force on the exposed summit of Blackdown.
Observations show that evaporation depends more on the direction
of the wind than on its velocity, always being greater when the wind
is from the N. or E. than when it is from the 8S. or W.

V.—PEAT FORMATION

The principal factors concerned in the formation of peat on the
summit of Blackdown appear to have been :—

1. The level nature of the summit plateau.

2. The nature of the underlying rock which is non-calcareous and
comparatively impervious.

3. The high rainfall of the district.

The first two of these factors are responsible for the very poor
drainage conditions which exist on the summit, and combined with the
third factor they have resulted in a soil which is continually water-
logged and very poorly aerated. Furthermore, owing to the absence
of mineral bases the soil reaction is strongly acid. As a result of the
combined action of all these factors the rate of decomposition of organic
matter by bacterial action has been greatly retarded and the plant
remains have gradually become compacted into a close fibrous peat.
It is of interest to note that on the flanks of the hill, even where the
sub-soil is still non-calcareous, but where the drainage conditions are
much better, no true peat is formed.

VI— VEGETATION

The vegetation of Blackdown belongs to the Upland Heath Associa-
tion developed on thin peat. It appears to be the climax vegetation
in this situation, further development being limited by edaphic con-
ditions, i.e., an edaphic climax association.

Three principal consociations are represented, viz., Callunetum
vulgaris, Molinietum ccerulee and Pteridetum aquiline, the local
distribution of which is controlled by edaphic factors. The dominant
plant over the greater part of the summit is the Ling (Calluna vulgaris).
The Purple Moor Grass (Molinia caerulea) is locally dominant on the
damper parts of the heath and covers quite a large area on the south
side of the hill (see Fig. 27). The flanks of the hill are occupied by a
consociation of Bracken (Pteridetum), which extends to an altitude
of about 950 ft., above which it ceases to grow and is replaced by the

352 G. H. HEATH, L. C. LUCKWILL AND O. J. PULLEN

Callunetum of the summit plateau. This change in the vegetation
corresponds closely to the change in slope which occurs at about this
altitude, and the consequent change in edaphic conditions to which
reference has already been made. |

On the slopes of Blackdown there rise several springs, around the
sources of which considerable areas of Sphagnum bog are developed,
and a similar bog occurs on the summit plateau. There also occur
on the summit of Blackdown several small ponds, fed by surface drain-
age water, which are partially or completely full throughout the
Winter months but often dry up for considerable periods during the
Summer. In such regions as these there occur specialised communities
of bog and water plants which differ considerably in floristic composition
from the surrounding vegetation.

The principal vegetational features of these various communities
will now be considered in more detail.

1. CALLUNETUM

Pure Callunetum, containing only a small percentage of other
species, occurs on those areas of the summit which have remained
undisturbed for ten years or more. Owing to the prevalence of heath
fires, however, most of the area is at present occupied by consocies
in which Erica Tetraliz, and often Molinia cerulea as well, are co-
dominant with Calluna. These consocies are transitional communities
in the succession from the bare peat surface, which is left after firing,
to the climax vegetation (see page 360), and their limits, which are often
extremely irregular, are easily observable because of the difference
in height of the vegetation on either side of the fire line.

All these communities exhibit a two-layered structure, for beneath
the larger ericaceous shrubs and heath grasses there is a lower stratum ~
of vegetation composed of various smaller phanerogams and cryptogams.
The so-called “ bare”’ areas of peat between the heather bushes are
particularly favourable for colonisation by such plants, and during
the early stages of re-colonisation after a fire, when there is little shading,
a large variety of species is to be found. Potentilla erecta is particularly
characteristic of such situations as are also species of the lichens
Lecidea and Cladonia. The peat surface in such bare areas is usually
covered with a thin layer of gelatinous alge, but in hollows, where
water lies in pools during wet weather, they may be colonised to the
exclusion of all other species by the reddish alga Zygnema ericetorum.
Campylopus flexuosus is a common moss which is typically confined

THE HEATH ASSOCIATION ON BLACKDOWN, MENDIP, SOMERSET 353

to cracks in the peat, although in regions where there is heavy rabbit
attack it may spread over the surface of the peat as well.

In older communities where the shade cast by the upper stratum
is much greater, the vegetation in the lower stratum contains fewer
species and individuals. Dwarf specimens of Vaccinium Myrtillus,
the liverwort Calypogeia fissa, and etiolated specimens of Brywm and
_ Ditrichum are practically the only plants to be found beneath the shade
of Calluna which exceeds the age of ten years.

2. MOoOLINIETUM

_ The Molinietum, unlike the Callunetum, is a closed consocciation,
and even in the early stages of recolonisation, the “bare” areas
which are such a characteristic feature of the latter are entirely absent.
As a consequence of this, the consociation is less rich in species, especially
in cryptogams. Its boundary also is somewhat indefinite, and where
it adjoins the Callunetum of the summit plateau there is a wide transi-
tional zone in which Molina and Calluna are co-dominant. Like the
Callunetum it exhibits a two-layered structure although the strati-
fication is here less well marked. Nardus stricta is abundant and,
in drier situations, may locally attain the rank of co-dominant. Juncus
spp. and Eriophorum angustifolium are plentiful, and the latter is a
conspicuous feature of the landscape when it is in fruit. In the lower
stratum, Polygala serpyllacea and dwarf specimens of Vaccinium are
of frequent occurrence, as are also several of the larger mosses such as
Polyirichum commune and Aulacomnium palustre, and in damper situa-
tions species of Sphagnum. Lichens are entirely absent.

3. PTERIDETUM

The flora of this consociation is made up partly of typical heath
species and partly of species which, although they are not intolerant
of an acid soil, are not usually considered as true heath plants, e.g.,
Viola canina and Digitalis purpurea. The vegetation here exhibits
a three-layered structure. Beneath the fronds of Pteridium there
is a fairly close turf composed of various species of heath grasses,
such as Agrostis canina, Deschampsia flecuosa and Festuca ovina ;
Vacceomum Myrtillus also is very abundant and in places co-dominant
with Pteridwuwm. As in the case of the Callunetum, the lowermost
stratum of vegetation is composed of various small phanerogams and
cryptogams, but owing to the close growth of the plants in the middle
stratum the conditions for growth are less favourable than in the

364 G. H. HEATH, L. C. LUCKWILL AND O. J. PULLEN .

corresponding horizon of the Callunetum, and fewer species are to be
found. Polytrichum jguniperinum and Ditrichum flexicaule are both
common mosses in this stratum, and in situations where Vaccinium
is abundant the liverworts Cephalozia bicuspidata and Sphenolobus
exsectiformis are characteristic.

4. Ponps AND Boas

The dominant species of Sphagnum in the bogs are S. cymbifoliwm
and S. acutifolium, and cushions of other large mosses (e.g., Polytrichum
commune and Aulacomnium palustre) are of frequent occurrence. The
bog flora is moderately rich in species but many of these are local in
their distribution and are known only from one particular station,
e.g., Narthecium ossifragum, Drosera rotundifolra.

The vegetation of the ponds consists chiefly of various species of
grasses, rushes and sedges, and often there is a distinct zonation of
vegetation around the edge of the pond. In addition to the permanent
vegetation, various casual species make their appearance from time
to time on the dried-up beds of the ponds in Summer. During the
Summer of 1934, for example, the following were observed :—Polygonum
Hydropiper, Plantago lanceolata, Cerastiwm vulgatum, Polygala serpyl-
lacea, Trifolium pratense.

The Heath Association on Blackdown is represented by the following
species, the relative frequencies of which in the different consociations
are shown in the list. The frequency symbols employed are the usual
ones, viz.: d = dominant; a = abundant; f = frequent;
o = occasional; r = rare; vr = very rare; | = local.

ey: : Ponds and
Callunetum.} Molinietum.| Pteridetum. Bogs.

———ooo

Ranunculus hederaceus L. os —
Ranunculus Flammula L. wef —
Viola palustris L. 6 foo —
Viola canina L. .. Ss
Polygala serpyllacea Weihe.
Hypericum pulchrum L.
Oxalis Acetosella L.

Ulex europaeus L.

Ulex Galli Planch.

Lotus uliginosus Schkuhr.
Lathyrus pratensis L.
Potentilla erecta Hampe.

| o |
Polo ng S es] -| |

eo 1S |
a

THE HEATH ASSOCIATION ON BLACKDOWN, MENDIP, SOMERSET

355

Crategus Oxyacantha L.

Chrysosplenium pe pesnenotsutn Is ih

Drosera rotundifolva L.
Epilobium angustifolium Me
Sambucus nigra L.
Galium sazxatile L.
Scabiosa Succisa L.
Vaccinium Myrtillus L.
Calluna vulgaris Hull.
Erica Tetralia L.

Erica cinerea L. .. i
Anagallis tenella Murr. .
Veronica officinalis L.
Pedicularis sylvatica L.
Digitalis purpurea L.
Rumex Acetosella L.
Urtica dioica L.

Orchis elodes Gris.

Scilla non-scripta Hfi. and Link.

Narthecvum ossifragum Huds.
Juncus effusus L.

Juncus articulatus L.

Juncus squarrosus L.

Juncus bufonius L.

Luzula campestris L.

Luzula multiflora DC.
Scirpus cespitosus L.
Eriophorum vaginatum L.

Eriophorum angustifolium Roth.

Carex echinata Murr.

Carex Goodenowi Gay.
Carex panicea L.

Carex binervis Sm.

Carex flava L.
Anthoxanthum odoratum L.
Agrostis canina L.

Agrostis tenuis Sibth.

Atra caryophyllea L.
Deschampsia cespitosa Beauv.
Deschampsia flecuosa Trin.
Sreglingia decumbens Bernh.
Molinia caerulea Moench.
Glyceria fluitans Br.

Festuca ovina L.

Nardus stricta L.

Pteridium aquilinum L.
Blechnum Spicant With.

Callunetum.| Molinietum. | Pteridetum.

al lel een eee ane ial ore torah | =

| =| | ° |

» |

ol geolololog| ann! |¢

eS el leo teres| eo a a ee

Ponds and
Bogs.

356 G. H. HEATH, L. C. LUCKWILL AND O. J. PULLEN |

Callunetum.| Molinietum.| Pteridetum. ae and

ne OS

Polytrichum commune L.
Polytrichum juniperinum Willd.
Hypnum flutans L.
Hypnum cupressiforme L.

Do. var. ericetorum Sch.
Hypnum Schrebert Willd.
Campylopus flecuosus Brid.
Hylocomium squarrosum B. & 8.
Aulacomnium palustre Schweg.
Ditrichum flexicaule Hamp.
Bryum alpinum Huds. ..
Bryum capillare L.

Bryum pallens Swartz. ..
Dicranum scoparvum L.
Rhacomitrium lanuginosum Brid.
Funaria hygrometrica Hedw.
Webera nutans Hedw.
Dicranoweisia cirrata Lindb. ..
Sphagnum cymbifolium Ebrh. ..
Sphagnum acutifoluum Khrh.
Gymnocolea inflata Huds.
Lophocolea cuspidata Limpr.
Lophozia inflata Howe
Sphenolobus exsectiformis Steph,
Cephalozia bicuspidata L.
Cladonia sylvatica Hffm.
Cladonia coceifera Willd.
Cladonia pyxidata Fr.

Cladoma uncialis Hftm.
Cladonia furcata Hfim.

Lecidea granulosa Schrad.
Lecidea uliginosa Schrad.
Parmelia physodes L

Zygnema ericetorum, Hansg.
Zygogonium ericetorum Kutz. ..
Hormadium flaccidum Kutz.
Mesotenium vrolascens De Bary
Gleocystis vesiculosa Neg.
Chlorococcum humicolum Neg.
Gleocapsa Ralfsii Harv.
Trochischia aspera Reinsch.

sec) | bo 67 |. ears

THE HEATH ASSOCIATION ON BLACKDOWN, MENDIP, SOMERSET 357

~ VIL—FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF
VEGETATION

The general physiographic and climatic features of Blackdown have
already been described. Although these factors exert little or no direct
effect on the vegetation, they are indirectly of fundamental importance.
Not only are they the primary cause of peat formation and hence
of the presence of the Heath Association on Blackdown, but the
physiographic features, through their effect on the local edaphic con-
ditions, largely control the distribution of the plant communities
within the Association.

1. Curmatic Factors

Of the various climatic factors, the only one which shows any
appreciable variation, and hence exerts any influence on the distribution
of vegetation over the area, is the light intensity. The floristic com-
position and density of the vegetation in the lower strata of the various
communities depend chiefly on the amount of shade cast by the upper
strata. The paucity of the ground flora beneath tall Calluna, for
example, is attributable to the low light intensity (Table 3). In
consocies dominated by Calluna and Erica Tetraliz, where the edaphic
conditions are similar but the light intensity at ground level is much
higher, the ground vegetation is far more prolific.

TABLE 3.—LIGHT INTENSITIES AT GROUND LEVEL EXPRESSED AS A

FRACTION OF THE LIGHT INTENSITY IN THE OPEN AS MEASURED WITH

A PHOTOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE METER AT VARIOUS TIMES THROUGHOUT
THE YEAR.

Callunetum (18 ins. high) = 1/20—1/60
Calluna-Erica (12 ins. high) = 1/5 —1/8

Pteridetum (summer) = about 1/3
Pteridetum (winter) = 1/3 —1/80
Molinietum (winter) = 1/10—1 /60

2. Epapnic Facrors

(a) Sow profiles—Three soil layers can be distinguished. The
surface peat, which is black and fibrous, varies from 1 in. in depth
in the Pteridetum to 6 ins. in the Callunetum. The less fibrous sub-peat
varies from 2 ins. in the Pteridetum to about 9 ins. in the Callunetum ;
it is composed of moderately small particles which become smaller
with increasing depth (70 per cent. exceed 1 mm. at 4 ins. ; 50 per cent.
exceed 0-5 mm. at 6 ins.). The sandy loam beneath the sub-peat is
composed of much smaller particles (70 per cent. are below 0-04 mm.),
and also contains numerous stones of varying size. This stony layer

is usually about 5 ins. in depth.
I

358 G. H. HEATH, L. C. LUCKWILL AND O. J. PULLEN

(b) Soal temperatures—Owing to its dark colour, the surface peat
of the Callunetum, where it is exposed, often attains temperatures
considerably in excess of the air temperatures during the Summer
months. Under these conditions, the cryptogams colonising the surface
of the peat shrivel and appear dead, but on the return of cooler con-
ditions most of them revive again. They appear to be equally resistant
to the low soil temperatures of Winter and can remain frozen in ice
for many weeks without losing their vitality.

(c) Water content, humus content and acidity—The water content
of the soil is largely determined by the humus content, and this
in turn is controlled by the type of vegetation which is growing
in the area. The coefficient of humidity (Crump (1)), which is the

water content

ratio , gives an estimate of the amount of soil water

humus content
available for the plant, i.e., soil water which is not held by the humus
colloids.

TABLE 4.—_MEAN VALUES OF WATER AND HUMUS CONTENT, COEFFICIENT

OF HUMIDITY, AND ACIDITY OF BLACKDOWN SOILS. READINGS TAKEN .

ONCE A MONTH FROM NOVEMBER TO FEBRUARY, 1928. EXPRESSED
AS PER CENT. OF OVEN DRY WEIGHT.

Depth of sample 1} ins. 6 ins. 9 ins.

Water Content :—

Callunetum 298 -5 | 79-6 30-2
Call.-Ericetum. 229-9 72-9 29-6
Molinietum 446-4 185-3 137°3
Pteridetum 147-2 48-6 25-5
Humus Content :—
Callunetum 68-7 19-9 5:3
Call.-Ericetum. 66:3 20-6 6-2
Mohnietum | 74-4 42-6 29-5
Pteridetum L820 10-2 5:0
Coefficient of Humidity :—
Callunetum « ee 4-6 4-4 5-6
Call.-Ericetum 3°5 3:8 4-8
Molinietum 6-1 5-1 Da
Pteridetum 4-6 5-0 5-5
ys
Callunetum 4-2 4-6 53
Call.-Ericetum 3°9 4-7 53
Molinietum 3°9 4-] 4-6
Pteridetum 4.-6 5-4 6:3

THE HEATH ASSOCIATION ON BLACKDOWN, MENDIP, SOMERSET 359

It can be seen from Table 4 that the Callunetum and Calluna-Erica
soils are very similar although, as the coefficients of humidity show,
the latter tend to be somewhat drier than the former. The more open
nature of the vegetation, allowing of more rapid evaporation from the
soil surface, is probably responsible for this difference. The soils of
the Pteridetum contain approximately the same percentage of available
water as those of the Callunetum, but in the surface peat of the Molinie-
tum the percentage is higher. This is probably due to the fact that the
Molinietum is developed in depressed areas where it receives surface
drainage water from the surrounding heath.

The soil acidity as expressed by the p™ value also shows a close corre-
lation with the humus content. In all soils the humus content and
the acidity are at a maximum in the surface peat, and both fall with
increasing depth. The highest humus contents and acidities are
found in the Molinietum, and the lowest in the Pteridetum, whilst the
soils of the Callunetum occupy an intermediate position.

(d) Sod aeratoon—tIn Table 5 are summarised the results of investi-
gations of soil aeration carried out between January and April, 1929.

TABLE 5.—AIR CONTENTS AS PERCENTAGE BY VOLUME OF BLACKDOWN
SOILS. JAN.—APRIL, 1929.

Type of Vegetation 2 ins. 6 ins. 9 ins.
Callunetum .. a ae 10—20 2—8 —_
Pteridetum .. ie is — 17—30 —
Molinietum .. fc ie 4. il | ~4
Vaccinium society .. ..| 12—50 10—20 —
Path across Callunetum .. 5—9 4 a=

The values for any given type of soil show considerable variation, but
in general the peats are found to have a higher air-content than the
more compact sub-peats. In the Molinietum the high water content
of the surface peat is no doubt responsible for the low aeration values,
and in the paths, where the surface peat has about one-half the air
content of that of the surrounding heath, the same factor, combined
with the constant trampling to which the paths are subjected, is
probably responsible. The highest aeration values were found in
soils where Pieridiwm or Vacconvum were dominant.

3. Biotic Factors

Under the heading of biotic factors we class those features of the
habitat which are due, either directly or indirectly, to other living

organisms, whether plants or animals,
I*

360 G. H. HEATH, L. C. LUCKWILL AND 0. J. PULLEN

The effects of plants on other plants are usually indirect, the im-
mediate effects being due to changes in the edaphic or climatic factors
of the habitat. Some of these have already been described (see page 357).
Animals may exert a more direct effect on the vegetation. In places,
for example, the Callunetum of the summit plateau, especially where
it adjoins the Pteridetum, shows signs of rabbit attack. The Calluna
bushes in such regions are nibbled into the cushion-like form described
by Farrow (2), whereas Erica Tetralix, Erica cinerea, Vacconvum and
Pteridium seem immune from attack. Where the attack is heavy,
the Calluna is eventually killed and is succeeded by Vaccinium, the
increased soil aeration which results from the burrowing activities of
rabbits, favouring colonisation by this plant. Vaccinium is eventually
followed by Pterrdium. This process can be seen in progress in many
places on the northern slopes of the hill where there is often a zone of
almost pure Vaccinietum separating the Pteridetum from the
Callunetum.

The heath is probably less subject to human interference nowadays
than it was in Roman times when the area was worked for lead. The
various paths which cross the area, however, bear a specialised vegeta-
tion which is the direct result of human interference. The less fre-
quented paths are usually colonised by Molina, but this plant seems
unable to withstand much trampling, and on the main paths it is
replaced by Nardus stricta which is able to survive under these con-
ditions.

4. HeratuH FIRES AND RECOLONISATION

Heath fires are of very frequent occurrence on the summit of.

Blackdown and have an important effect on the vegetation. Owing
to the high water content of the soil, the peat itself is not usually burnt,
and the edaphic conditions are therefore not interfered with to any
great extent. The principal effects of such fires are :—

(i) Total destruction of the sub-aerial parts of the vegetation.
Plants with underground storage organs, e.g., Calluna, Erica, Molinia,
Vaccinium, survive these fires and regenerate from their underground
parts within a few weeks. Others, having no storage organs, e.g.,
Polygala_ serpyllacea, Galium saxatile, and nearly all cryptogams,

are killed.

(ii) The creation of bare areas of peat which may be colonised by
seedlings of various heath plants and also by various smaller cryptogams,

THE HEATH ASSOCIATION ON BLACKDOWN, MENDIP, SOMERSET 361

The vegetation which first establishes itself on a burnt area is therefore
not the same as that which was present before burning, and there follows
a process of recolonisation which is considered. below.

The destruction by fire of the overground portions of the vegetation
results in the exposure of large areas of bare peat suitable for colonisa-
tion, and to this fact can be attributed the rapid increase of certain
species, notably Molinia cerulea and Erica Tetraliz, as a result of firing.
Many other species also make their appearance. On the bare areas
of peat between the regenerating stools of Calluna and Erica plants of
Potentilla erecta become established, and the moss Funaria hygrometrica
together with various alge (chiefly Hormidium flaccidum and Chloro-
coccum humicolum) is also abundant in the first year after the fire.
This change, however, is only a temporary one, for as the Calluna
bushes increase in size, the shade which they cast becomes deeper and
more extensive, and their rivals are gradually exterminated. Potentilla
erecta seems to be particularly susceptible to shading and is one of the
first plants to disappear, whilst Molina cerulea and Erica Tetralix
become greatly reduced in frequency by the fifth year. After about
six or seven years the process of recolonisation is complete and Calluna
has regained its dominance. This process is illustrated graphically
in Fig. 28, in which are shown typical quadrats from similar areas in the
Callunetum, 1,3,4, and 6 years after burning. Hach quadrat represents
the vegetation on an area 5 ft. square.

VITI.— SUMMARY

1. Geologically Blackdown is an uplift of Carboniferous Limestone
which has become so far denuded as to expose the underlying
Old Red Sandstone ‘ core.’

2. The chief features of the climate are the extremes of temperature
which are experienced and the high rainfall. The evaporating
power of the atmosphere was found to be very low during the
Winter months.

3. The vegetation of the summit plateau belongs to the Upland
Heath Association and is developed on thin peat. Three consocia-
tions are developed, viz., Callunetum, Molinietum and Pteridetum,
the vegetation of each of which is described.

4. The distribution of the various plant communities within the area
is determined largely by edaphic conditions although, for the
smaller phanerogams and cryptogams, light intensity is a factor
of importance.

362 G. H. HEATH, L. C. LUCKWILL AND O. J. PULLEN

5. The effect of heath fires on the vegetation, and the course of re-
colonisation after burning are briefly described.

We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to Dr. R. Bracher, at
whose suggestion the work was carried out, for her constant help
and advice; also to Prof. M. Skene for his criticism of the manuscript
and advice, to the late Sir Vernon Wills, the former owner of Blackdown,
for permission to carry out the survey, and to the Sir Edward and
Lady Fry Memorial Fund for a grant in aid of publication.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Crump, W. B. The Coefficient of Humidity. New Phytol., xii,
125, 1913.

2. Farrow, E. P. Plant Life on the East Anglian Heaths. 1925.

3. Livingstone, B. E. Atmometry and the Porous Cup Atmometer.
Plant World, xviii.

363

THE HEATH ASSOCIATION ON BLACKDOWN, MENDIP, SOMERSET

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SA ONLY S

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KASS POLLY

364 G. H. HEATH, L. C. LUCKWILL AND O. J. PULLEN

VZ4 caLLuna vuccaris [<< erica TE TRALIX |

Fig. 28.—TYPIcaL QUADRATS TAKEN IN CONSOCIES OF VARIOUS AGES SHOWING STAGES IN |
RE-COLONISATION AFTER BURNING. EACH QUADRAT IS 5 FT. SQUARE.
Age of the vegetation: 1 = 1 year; 2 = 3 years; 3 = 4 years; 4= 6 years.
Symbols used: V = Vaccinium Myrtillus; O = Molinia; H.T. = seedlings of Hrica Tetr
P = Potenttlla erecta.

fe wd

365

Notes on Melville Island Flowers

By H. 8. Tuompson, A.L.S.

N Proc. B.N.S., Vol. VII, Part 2, 1872, two and a half pages were

devoted to a lecture with the above title by the late A. E. Hudd,
¥.8.A., when a young man. It was read before the Botanical Section,
Dec. 19th, 1872. :

When clearing and trying to rearrange the miscellaneous and, alas,
dirty contents of the cupboard principally containing the H. O. Stephens
herbarium, I came across the little collection of about 45 Arctic plants
from Melville Island, the largest of the islands of the Arctic Archipelago,
formerly known as N. Georgia and later called the Parry Islands.
These were collected by Lieut. John Bushnan, R.N., one of Parry’s
officers, in 1820, 1822, and 1823.

There are 45 small sheets, 84 in. x 6 in., with the plants mounted
thereon. Most of them were named, but not located. A. BE. Hudd
had attempted to name several. But as some of the names were
obviously wrong, I eventually sent several of these to Kew, where they
were examined and neatly named by Mr. A. A. Bullock.

It is desirable that the correct names should now be published, as
far as possible. The little collection comprises no Monocotyledons
(no Sedges or Grasses even). Parrya arctica R. Br. has been confirmed
at Kew. Cardamine sp. is C. pratensis L. ? var. angustifolia ; Arenarva
rubella Wahl. = A. verna L. Saxifraga Hirculus (*) is certainly correct ;
Dryas integrifolia Br. is D. octopetala L. as named originally but erased ;
Oxytropis arctica R. Br. is confirmed at Kew, and though it appears
in Hudd’s list, the actual plant on a duplicate sheet was unnamed!
and had a (?). Cvneraria congesta Br. = C. palustris; Erigeron
uniflorum L. (sic.) is confirmed as #. uniflora L. Pyrethrum alpinum
is Matricaria Hookert ; Onosma micrantha (*) Kew says is the totally
different Trientalis arctica Fisch. A “(%) Senecio” is the Crucifer
Lesyuerella arctica (R. Br.) 8. Wats. fide Kew. Mr. Bullock says the
“Chrysanthemum (Pyrethrum) grandiflorum Hook.” is better placed
under Matricaria inodora var. nana (Hook.) Torr. et Gray.

A. H. Hudd remarked in his paper that “nearly one-third of the
species (the fourteen marked *) are included in our (British) lists.”

With the collection is the rather longer MS. of A. E. Hudd as originally

* There are about 200 species of this genus.

366 H. S. THOMPSON

read. This is endorsed by the late Miss Roper: ‘‘ Notes on some
flowers from Melville Island, read to the Botanical Section, B.N. Soc.”
There are also 12 pp. of MS. notes by Mr. Hudd on the plants, some of
which in regard to geographical distribution are very useful. Also
a large scale MS. map showing the position of the Parry Islands.
Many copies of Part 2 of Vol. VII, Proc., 1872, are still in stock
and can be purchased for Is. each. It contains, inter alia, an interesting
paper on “ Twenty Years’ Rainfall at Clifton,” by G. F. Burder, M.D.

Reviews

THE SCENERY OF ENGLAND AND WALES

By A. E. Trueman, D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of
Glasgow. London: Victor Gollancz, Ltd., 1938. 7s. 6d. net.

This very delightful and informative book should be of considerable interest
to many members of the Society. In the first place, it is written by a fellow member
well known to many in the Society, and it includes, of course, a chapter on the
more immediate local scenery. But the book is of great general interest quite
apart from its local associations. England and Wales are divided for the author’s
purpose into regions, the scenic features of each are described, and the geological
background of these features is simply and interestingly explained. The additional
interest thus given to the observer must add enormously to his appreciation of the
scenery, and probably in many cases his attention is drawn for the first time to
many features which he may have overlooked or just taken for granted without
enquiry as to geological background; even the experienced observer may well
have failed to notice some of the scenic features to which Professor Trueman draws
attention. Geological expressions, such as the building stones of the regions,
are not overlooked by the author, and, in fact, his very human approach to his
subject is one which not only the geologist but the geographer and, indeed, all
who love scenery and wish to understand it, will appreciate. The pages are
profusely illustrated with the author’s own charming sketches, and useful diagrams

also appear.
How a

THE MICROSCOPE
Vol. 1, No. 1. August, 1937. 28 pp. 1s. monthly.

The appearance of a British magazine devoted to microscopy and photomicro-
graphy will be welcomed by the adherents to this science and recreation.
Contributions cover a wide range of interests, both technical and biological ; articles
on the recording of colour in photomicrographs and a simple method of stereo-
scopic photomicrography, techniques for mounting filamentous algz and diatoms
for microscopic use, and descriptive articles on marine diatoms, Vorticella and the
common house fly appear in this issue. The reviews and microscopical club notices
have additional interest for the keen microscopist. The format is attractive
and four pages of excellent plates illustrate the articles. , 2

Printed at the BURLEIGH PRESS, Lewin’s Mead, BRISTOL.

Scat a1 8 ang rr

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FOURTH SERIES, VOLUME VIII. PRICE FOUR SHILLINGS
PART IV

1938

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Bristol Naturalists’ Society

EDITED By H. W. TURNER, M.A., F.G.S.

ASSISTED BY A COMMITTEE

“Rerur coznescere causas.”—Virgil.

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY r
AT THE BURLEIGH PRESS, BR

Issued 14th August, 19h

N.B—AUTHORS ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR
THE ACCURACY OF THEIR ARTICLES.

FOUR is SERIES, VOL. VIII, PART IV, 1938 367

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
Council for 1938... i a i ‘i ae ue a 368
hist of Members. .. bie i, en np me ane seni OO
Report of Council .. a a he Mt Bie a he 377
Hon. Treasurer’s Statement ie a AW. ths a SAS Wie)
Hon. Librarian’s Report .. | a i m: ae seh OO
Report of Biology Teachers’ Becton si we a ns bt 380
Report of Botanical Section a a . bn ee Pe Wier =|
Report of Entomological Section i ra aS ais RNa ROL
Report of Pield Section .. as oe we ae ae 4h ooe
Report of Geological Section sof A a ane id sicily eS
Report of Ornithological Section : Pe ae a i a8O
Account of Annual and General Meetings Ne * ae ot 387
Bristol Botany in 1938, by Cecil I. Sandwith a 389

Ornithological Notes, Bristol District, 1938, by H. H. Davis, M. B.O. U. 394
Erosion Levels in the Bristol District, and their relation to the Develop-

iment of Scenery, by A- E. Trueman, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. ie 402
The Fossil Insects of the Bristol Coalfield, by B.S: Wallis; Se.;

BiG Sh... : 429
A List of ieepidoptera, foun! eich osc iy A. H. Beach ws 435
A Survey of Steep Holm, by L. H. Matthews, M.A., and other bose 438
The Ecology of Dundry Down, by Gertrude M. Boley . sl ONO WA
The Coast of Somerset (II), by O. D. Kendall, M.A. tas as ie 497

Hon. LIBRARIAN, BRISTOL Nat. Soc.,
THE MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY,
BRISTOL, 8.

All matter for inclusion in the current issue of the Proceedings should
reach the Hon. Editor :—
H. W. Turner, M.A., F.G.S.,
THE UNIVERSITY,
BRISTOL, 8.

NOT LATER THAN FEB, 28TH, or insertion may be impossible.

The SOCIETY’S LIBRARY in the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery is
open to members as under :—

On Wednesdays and Saturdays- - 10.0 a.m. to 8.0 p.m.
Onvother Weekdays - - - = MQOa:m. to 6.0 p.m.

JAN 11 1940

358

COUNCIL FOR 1938

OFFICERS :
PRESIDENT :

Prof. MACGREGOR SKENE, D.Sc., F.L.S.
The University, Bristol, 8.

PAST PRESIDENTS

Sit ERNEST COOK DSc: A. L. FLEMMING, Di8., Ch-B.
H. WOMERSLEY, FR-E.S, A-L.S: J. W. TUTCHER, Mise:
JAMES RAFTER, M.A. F. S, WALLIS) Disen aeG.3:

G. E. J. McMURTRIE.
VICE-PRESIDENT Ss

Prof.(Cx Me YONGE, D:Se: H. TETLEY,, BiSe: ieee
HON. TREASURER:

F. W. EVENS, A.C.A., Stretton, 77 Manor Road, Fishponds, Bristol.
HON. AUDITORS:
Sin DRNEST (COOK. DSc: CHARLES BARTLETT, F.C.A.
HON, SECRETARYS
F. STENHOUSE ROSS, 15 Hampton Park, Bristol, 6.
HON. LIBRARIAN:
HVGORVEL Phep:
HONE DIiEOR
H: W. TURNER, M:A.,.F'G.s,, The University Srstol ue:

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS :
BIOLOGY TEACHER Se:

President—Miss M. BOWEN, M.Sc., 13 Redland Park, Bristol, 6.

Hon. Secretary—Miss E. DUDDRIDGE, B.Sc., 59 Kellaway Avenue, Bristol, 6.

BOTANICA Le:

President—-Prof. MACGREGOR SKENE, D.Sc., F.L.S., The University,
Bristol, 8.

Hon. Secretary—F. F. GLASSPOOL, M.Sc., F.C.S., 6 Southfield Road,
Cotham, Bristol, 6.

ENTOMOLOGICAL :
President—CHARLES BARTLETT, F.R.E.S., 8 Woodhill, Portishead,
Somerset.
Hon. Secretary—CHARLES BARTLETT, F.R.E.S., 8 Woodhill, Portishead,
Somerset.
FPLELD

President—H. F. BARKE, F.I.C., 34 Park Row, Bristol, 1.
Hon. Secretary—Miss M. D. HILEY, 16 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton, Bristol, 8.

‘GEOLOGICAL =
President—Prof. W. F. WHITTARD, D.Sc., F.G.S., The University, Bristol, 8.
Hon. Secretary—F. STENHOUSE ROSS, 15 Hampton Park, Bristol, 6.
ORNITHOLOGICAL :

President—J..H. SAVORY, Windyridge, Abbots Leigh, nr. Bristol.
Hon. Secretary--H. H. DAVIS, M.B.O.U., Little Stoke, Patchway, nr. Bristol.

OTHER MEMBERS OF COUNCIL :

T. V,T. BAXTER, M.A., B.Sc.) A. CROOME LEACH, Max

H. O. EDMONDS. L. H. MATTHEWS, M.A.

I. W. EVANS. Prof. S. H. REYNOLDS, MeA Se.) EG:
Rev. kh. JEPECOAD, hie W. Ry TAYLOR) Mex

369

LIST OF MEMBERS
1938

A .—Associate Member. J .—Junior Member. -++ —-Life Member.
* Has contributed papers to the Proceedings.

Sectional Membership is indicated by letters following each name, viz. :
Bi.—Biology Teachers’; #.—Botanical; E.—Entomological; F.—Field ;
G.—Geological ; O.—Ornithological.

Alexander, D. A.,M.D.... 112 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 G.

Hiaeewiten, Niss-A. M. ........ 29 Birchall Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6 Bu.

EAN JEG De Bice pees eee Hensol, Brookvale Road,
W. Cross, Swansea G.

Achy te. ob... B.Sc.

/SIRGAC Ss) RA Cte ane The University, Bristol, 8 G.

ice ENETONIES gE 55 Gee ira tara aa 91 Rookery Road, Knowle,
Bristol, 4 O.

Seoti@cemt ls I. PF. 3... Selwood House, Hill Road,

Clevedon, Som.

Badock, Stanley, H., LL.D. Holmwood, Westbury-on-Trym,

Bristol
ALB VE GiS08 Roe ie 30 Arley Hill, Cotham, Bristol, 6 Bz.
(AL Bie ea cel an Ce Glen Farm, Abbots Leigh, Som. G.
Baler irs. Eliatt 2.2... Oaklands, Almondsbury, Bristol O.
Baker, Miss J. A. Hiatt.... Oaklands, Almondsbury, Bristol O.
BakewellA. G.- 25... 2... 36 Old Quarry Road, Shire-
hampton, Bristol B.G.
iparke, HF. F.C. ..... 34 Park Row, Bristol,.1 F.G.
Barke, Mrs. 54 Charlton Road, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol BiG.
Mew iarker, M. iH. S. (resigned 71 Woodland Road, . Clifton,
LDS S))) 4 asa ea en Bristol, 8 G.
Weeeipatnest, o. H.-G. ....:..% 2 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9 O.
aes AGMECL, IMTS... 5 os ss o's 2 The Avenue,’ Sneyd ‘Park,
Bristol, 9 O.
Beeebartiest, “Chas., F.C.A.,
JERS) i ar 8 Woodhill, Portishead 12>
A. Barton, Miss A.E. (resigned 39 Aberdeen Road, Cotham,

ISDE) ole area Bristol, 6 Bi.
iBartom, Miss FE. M........ 19 Park Street, Bath iO)
Barwell, Miss V.M........ 7A Oakfield”, Road, ~"Glatton:

Bristol, 8 dite
pemeaxter, 1. V.1.,M.A.,B.Sc. 25 Clyde Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6 Be
Beacham, G. H. .....5.%. 18 Raglan Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7 BoP.G.
Welly Wits. AnG. 2... ee eee 25 St. Michaelis:Park Bristol, 2 BUF:
PSM tt. Co. 6a sees wee oe 43 Elton Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7 B.F.G.
Blake, W. R. (resigned 1939) 50 Aiken Street, Barton Hill,
Bristol, 5 ee
Blandford, Miss M.H..... 25 Park Road, Staple Hill,
Bristol BEO
Blathwayt, Rev. F.L.,M.A. Dyrham Rectory, Chippenham 0.
EO Sb ne wide es
O.

Blathwayt, Mrs. ......... Dyrham Rectory, Chippenham

ANG

Al
A .

LIST OF MEMBERS

Blinkworth; K. Ui. MiSe..¢

oeceec ee ee ee ee

Boley, Mrs. iat pes iee
Bowen, MissM., B.Sc. ....
Bracher, Miss Rose, Ph.D.
Bradfield, Miss) S. di... 3 2
Brown, H. S. (1939)

oeeeee

Brown, M. (1939) ......

Bush evisse Nites nis nee es

Butterworth, Miss D.G. ..

Caines: sia. Ai 2s neon oe
Campbell). “A. EE, is3Sc.
PUD Ste) ta aea betes, onan

Chamberlain, W.
Clarkes:Massoiy Mlicn cs en
Cleaves Eo teens ome

Clement, Miss'G. Go -. <5.
Clement ony soe 8 ten eae
Clementso Bs S...ee esunieek
Clothier, G. E.

Clough, iiss A Mi. siete
Clough) ]- WS: bisa n wake

Clough Mirsiic oc aa) y eee
Cockcrott, Vohw7A ee
Collings, F. A. .B..(1939) ...
Coombs (C.F. Wee ee
Cooper, J-(1989) oso. ce
Cooper, Miss Niji. yencas 5
Cornish, WassiG Ace ss...
Cratchley,) kev. Wi) Js

Pha; M.A. .Sc., ECS.
Crofions) Nassahes eye ee
Croslan@) JeuH ses ete eek
Daniels; baie EGS een.
Daniels, Miss G. (resigned

1938)
Dandies; gee ie ree ns

Davis, B.S VEBOLUL 2).

Dawa VIPS eA Neat ener alias

4 Mortimer
Bristol, 8
508 Stapleton Road, Bristol, 5
508 Stapleton Road, Bristol, 5

13 Redland Park, Bristol, 6

The University, Bristol, 8

40 Brentry Road, Fishponds,
Bristol

46 St. Andrews Road, Mont-
pelier, Bristol, 6

21 Charlotte Street, Park Street,
Bristol, 1

20 Cornwallis Crescent, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Eventyde, Woodleigh Gardens,
Bristol, 4

Road, Clifton,

14 Broadweir, Bristol, 1

12 Beaufort Read
Bristol, 8

16 Chantry Road, Bristol, 8

13 Eaton Crescent, Bristol, 8

80 Beauley Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3

2 Effingham Road, St. Andrews,
Bristol, 6

5 Ashley Park, St. Andrews,
Bristol, 6

““Longmead,’ Queens
Bishopsworth, near

The Research Station,
Ashton, Bristol

30 Henleaze Avenue, Bristol

Bourton House, Flax Bourton,
near Bristol

103 Cranbrook Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Clifton,

Road,
Bristol
Long

Brook House, Water Lane,
Bristol, 4

14 Southfield Road, Westbury-
on-Trym

43 Station Road, Ashley Down,
Bristol, .7
Kensington Park Road,
Brislington, Bristol, 4
51 Chesterfield Road, Bristol, 6
St. John’s Vicarage, Apsley
Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8
11 Holmes Grove, Henleaze,
Bristol, 6
130 Stackpool Road, Bristol, 3

Stringer’s Court, Rodborough,
Stroud, Glos.
4 Weston Crescent, Horfield,

1) Bristol. ig,

Down House, Stoke Bishop,
Bristol, 9

Little Stoke, Patchway, near
Bristol

Little Stoke,

Bristol

Patchway, near

ee ee ea
by

LIST OF MEMBERS oul

Haws. Mass. M. Co... ea 71 Arley Hill, Bristol, 6 iB
ieees, Mervyn J. L. ...%.. 8 Osborne Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 EE:
Bere vlisS FA. ee ee 109 Forest Road, Fishponds,
Bristol 1
Derham, R. J., M.B., Ch.B. Bristol General Hospital, 1 (O}s
Desbrow, Norman (resigned Glanville House, 49 Bridgwater
1938) Road, Bristol, 3 Bt.
Decom Missi\M. D..05..... 11 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Dem GoM: 2... e.. be. 12 -Eaton Grescent, \!Chiton,
Bristol, 8
Doumit Mes ok. i ca ew we “ Springfield; The Avenue,

Clevedon, Som. :
Duddridge, Miss E., B.Sc. 59 Kellaway Avenue, Bristol, 6 B1.F.0.

Duta tol 1s & Ee a ae a 10 Effingham Road, St,
Andrew’s, Bristol, 6 O.
Dunn Mass A. J.-........ ‘Camis,’ Einy Park,” Filton!
Bristol Japa
Punscombe, Miss A.....-.. 5 Westmoreland Road, Durd-
ham Park, Bristol, 6
GGG UG Ye oc kk The Glebe, Long Ashton, “nr,
Bristol O.
Parmonds. EO... ee 33 Wellington Park, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Edwards, C. (resigned 1938) 50 Elton Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7
WemwWatGsicl. Goo ok ees 40 Holmes Grove, Henleaze,
Bristol Bt.
Elkins, Miss A. K. (resigned
TOSCO aioe ae Speedwell Senior School, Bristol, 5 Bz.
sy 2 OS TE 46 Horfield Road, St. Michael’s,
Bristol, 2 BE ¢
Byens, PF. W., A.C.A~ .... Stretton, 77 Manor Road, Fish-
ponds, Bristol Bur.
Iyees, Miss G., B.Sc. ... 35 Deanery Road, Warmley,
nr. Bristol BZ. B

Heam, oa, C. .K.,..BSc:, Lodway Road, Pill; nr. Bristol B.G.
F.R.H.S.

Bitzjames, IK. He... 2... 17 St. Martin’s Road, Knowle,
Bristol, 4 :
Fitzjohn, Miss A., M.Sc.... 1 Audley Park Road, Bath BUBB IP,
BPlemming, A. L., M.B., 48 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Ch.B. Bristol, 8
INOIG |" 1540 )24c) el ae Hartfield, Cotham Park:
Bristol, 6 BQ:
Bice ES, A os ole so Brislington House, near Bristol
tanaser. Wirs. H. G...:....- Foye House, Leigh Woods,
Bristol
Pee UMOERG whe ob 6 w Sods a'a''e! ele 59 Air Balloon Hill, St. George,
Bristol, 5
Kupsdeom, G.H.J......... Wills Hall, Stoke Bishop,
Bristol, 9
@ananer, 1, AS occ... os 8 oe 30 Gloucester Road North,
Horfield, Bristol, 7 B.F.G.
Gibbs, Miss M. A., M.Sc. .. 27 Eastbourne, Claremont Road,
Bath 18k.
Peer Se eMC INAT: ies cle so oso 19. Berkeley ‘ Square,’ Clifton;
Bristol, 8 Bie

Glasspool, F. F., M.Sc., 6 Southfield Road, Cotham,
EGS: Bristol, 6

372

BABAR Ob

bs Ds

LIST OF MEMBERS

Goodall, Rev. Canon R. W. 19 Elmdale Road, Tyndall’s

(deceased 1938) Park, Bristol, 8 G
Gorham, Major Aci. a v.26 Avonside, Limpley Stoke, Bath,
Som. G
Gorvett, Harold, Ph.D..... “"Onaway, ‘‘Stationaioac:
West Town, Som. B.
Gowan, Misso]. 02: 26 Woodstock Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6 Bu.
Green, Mrs. M. B., L.L.A. Dyrham, nr. Chippenham, Wilts O.
Green, “1. Wy BSC. acc ook The University, Bristol, 8
Green, Mirsi9 Le 6. The University, Bristol, 8
Greenlandiah sys .e ee 20 King’s Avenue, Bristol, 7 Bu.
Grignon; Miss A. EE." .,.2% 41 Filton Avenue, Horfield,
Bristol, 7 BE.G.
Habgood, Miss M. E. (1939) 9 Burlington Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6 FF;
Halls Miss: Jie 1. 373 Fishponds Road, Upper
Eastville, Bristol, 5 Bi.

HatlamiaeAS) Ds.) DPhil
B.A., B.Sc.; F.G.S. .... 16 Cheddon Road, fauntoen G.

Hamilton, R:G:, B.A. >... V Elein-Park, ‘Brstolye O.

Hardy, Miss B., B.Sc. .... 5 Clare Road, Cotham Bristolvowa7

Harker, Miss J. M., B.Sc... 27 Beaconsfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 Bi.

Hayman, Mrs. E. S. .... 3 Chatford House, Clifton Down,
Bristol, 8 B.E.F.G.O.

Hayward; Miss Hi ..... 31 Manor Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Heslop, I. R. P., M.A., 34 Henleaze Gardens, Westbury-

BORE Ss: on-Trym, Bristol

aitey, Mass) M0 Do an. ere 9 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 F,

iley, Miss Wey bial ie «eae 9 Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 F.

Hill, Miss L. M., B.A. .... 15 Clare Avenue, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7 Bi.

alien, iiss) Seip ee 13 Caledonia Place, ‘Chifton:
Bristol, 8 O”

Hodder) Mrs. NE. 4 2 11 Beaufort Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Hodgson;'C: fr tae seh 5 Cotham Terrace, Cotham,
Bristol, 6

How, john. 7C.ooen es tes 17 Wellington Park, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 B,

Howells, G. T. (1939) ... 43 Wellington Walk, Henleaze,
Bristol, 6

Hudson, Gs. 6 nese cae The Elms, Stinchcombe, Durs-
ley, Glos.

Hudson, Mrs. (1939) ..... The Elms, Stinchcombe, Durs-
ley, Glos.

Humphries, Lady ...... Eastfield Lodge, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol O.

Hunt, WMisssoieAs eer oo 7 Alpha Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3 F.O.

Hutchinson, Miss M. I. .. 57 Oakfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 F,

Tess ot Esai cs aceteee owaane . 26 Leonard Road, Redfield,
Bristol, 5 Be

Tvens;) (He SPA eG te shat 18 Alexandra Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 F.

Jeffcoat, Rev. R., M.A. .. 5 Berkeley Square, Clifton,
Bristol, 8 B.E.F.G.O

ee nO re

LIST OF MEMBERS

Jenkin, Miss P.M., M.A... The University, Bristol, 8
Jenkins, F. G., M.B., Ch.B. 51 Redcliff Hill, Bristol, 1

Kearns, H. G. H., Ph.D., The Research Station, Long

ioe, Y.R.E.S. Ashton, Bristol
Kellaway, Gre. BSC. 0) Geological Survey and Museum,
South Kensington, London,

Suid

iendall; O. D., M.A. ..... 3 Old Sneed Road, Stoke Bishop,
Bristol, 9

TRG ei ee Mayfield, Uplands Road,
Saltford, Bristol

PRHINOR VETS SIS. ccc ese ete Mayfield, Uplands Road,
Saltford, Bristol

romier Aw A. os. cles 45 Summerleaze, Fishponds,
Bristol

ami; Wiss W. EI. ..... 5. Harcombe Hill, Winterbourne
Down, nr. Bristol

each. Ay Cy, MAA. .. 25. 11 Percival Road, Clifton,
Bristol, &

ieedel Mrs, A.C... es oi ot Percival Road, )/Claiton,
Bristol, 8

MBeWWAS NETS, 36. ee oe 12 Broadway Avenue, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol

(USS (a (a ““ Arnwood,’’ Lansdowne Road,
Bath

Kondon; Miss G. M. ;:..... 26 Woodcroft Avenue, White-

hall, Bristol, 5

Aeveleucas, di. jc, F.S.L.,. 14 Walcot Parade, Bath

“*

F.1.S.A.

inekwill, 1. C., B.Sc. .... 36 . Lower Redland — Road;
Bristol, 6

Wacdonald, D. .....Ds.0 Hill View, Berrow Road, Burn-
ham-on-Sea

Macpherson, Miss B. B. .. 35 Richmond Terrace, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Miami. W. oc... eee 100 Pembroke Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Marsden, A., M.Sc., F.I.C. 161 Bishop Road, Bishopston,

Bristol, 7

Marsden: Wirs. ...-.....04 161 Bishop Road, Bishopston,
Bristol, 7

Matthews, L.H., M:A..... 27 Hanbury “Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

Maunder, G. S., B.Sc. .... 83 Coronation Road, Bristol, 3

Maxwell: ti. Wo i... eas 104A Downfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

aswell Mrs, ‘occ cee es 104 Downfield Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

McErvel, Miss N. ........ Westonbirt School, near Tetbury,
Glos.

MeMurtrie, G. E. J.'...... Eastfield House, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol

MeMurtrie, Mrs. ........ Eastfield House, Westbury-on-
Trym, Bristol

Mead, Miss C. E., B.A. .... 16 Quadrant West, Hillfields

Park, Bristol
Merryweather, Miss M. D. 11 St. John’s Road, Clifton,

Bristol, 8
Milton. Mrs. F.C. ....5...- 10 Randall Road, Bristol, 8
Mostord, Cu J. oe eee 13 Park Grove, Westbury Park,

Bristol, 6

qo
-I
Co

ee ae Oa Oa 2

Bi.F.G.

374

A.* Mogg, Gio, guess a eee 483 Fishponds Road, Bristol, 5
A. Morrison, Miss A. M.C. .. 8 Richmond Hill, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Morrison, Miss E. J. D., 6 Greenway Road, Redland,
M.A. Bristol, 6
A. Muschamp, D.-). 2.00. .%2¢ 32 Davis Street, Avonmouth,
Bristol
Ay NGA ERS WW c cetere ctnicoumns 70 Trymside, Sea Mills,
Bristol, 9
A Nettle, Miss Bi@r ose 2: 3 Beaufort Road, Kingswood,
Bristol
A. WNewniati: (NESSES. voc, acslas 49 Henleaze Road, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol
Norerove, (Js) We siete a ane 22 Alma Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8
A. Patch, Miss E.M., B.Sc. .. 71 Canford Lane, Bristol, 9
A. Paterson, Miss K. M. Noel Windyridge, 17 Greendale Road,
(resigned 1938) Redland, Bristol, 6
Dan 51 e'] ois ed et Ge a a age 5 Hanbury’ Koad, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
* Pearman, J. V., F.R.E.S. 56 Clifton Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Ai.) MAOCGIGE ELS OED, c2 522 dns hs ialers 21 Clift Road, Ashton Gate,
Bristol, 3
A ot ME CEGVINI ATI ENG oicoss aiecelaia ie e 21 St. Albans Road, Westbury
Park, Bristol, 6
A. Potter, Miss FE. A. do. es Westonbirt School, near Tet-
bury, Glos.
Powell) Jose; MED ess ee 18 Elgin Park, MRedland,
Bristol, 6
Ae) Pratt: Miss Dik Sah. 1 Hughenden Koad, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
Priscott, Miss L. (1939)... 16 Victoria Sacan Clifton,
Bristol, 8
* Purchon, R. Denison, B.Sc. 11 Cotham Gardens, Redland,
Bristol, 6
A Race, Miss: Mu. aan. 16 Upper Belgrave Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8
*))) waters) ap NEA aierctets 228 Shirehampton Road, West-
bury-on-Trym, Bristol
AREER IN ae eee 18 Stackpool Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3
Ree VN ei any 18 Stackpool Road, Southville,
Bristol, 3
Rendell, Wiss: Goi vee es 19 Westfield Park, Bristol, 6
* Reynolds, Prof. S. H., 13 All Saints’ Read, Clifton,
M.A.) SC2D:). GS: Bristol, 8
Richards, G. Pensylva, Cecil Road, Weston-
super-Mare
A. JRiddile, Miss i. Es 2 i524). 20 Banwell Road, Ashton Gate,
Bristol, 3
Ross, F. Stenhouse ...... 25 Tugela Road, Uplands Estate,
Bristol, 3
Ross, James, F.L.A. .... Central Library, Bristol, 1
Rutter, Miss E.M. ...... 32 Henleaze Gardens, Bristol, 9
St. John, Miss E.,M.A...., 19 Down Cote View, Bristol, 9
A: Salmond) Pe) WWe ol oom. 22 Tyndall’s Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

LIST OF MEMBERS

Salter, Miss JoanE.R., B.A. 47 Well Lane, Horsell, Woking

Shilstone, H. C.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Sampson, Miss A. M.

Sanders, Miss | Ba ane i
(resigned 1938)
Seumcvwith, IMrs. <.......%

Saunders, Miss C. E....

savory, Jj. H.

SERGE a eae Pra

mcougall A: B.Sc.........
(resigned 1939)

Selley, A.

Shaw, Miss T.

Shearer, Miss O. M. (1939)

eeee see eee

Shield, Miss M., B-Sc. ....
Simmons, Miss L., L.R.A.M.
Skene, Prof.

Ses) eS:
Skene, Mrs. (1939)

Macgregor,

Smith, Miss M. de Lattre .
Smith, D. Munro, M.R.C.S.,

A al Fe Ser
Smith, P. G. Munro

eececeee

Smith, Stanley, M.A., D.Sc.,
F.G.S

ee ee eee reese ee eee

Strudwick, Miss F. E., M.A.
Sully, H. T. (deceased 1939)

Tarring, E. (resigned 1938)
PamMbOM NVC. ks eh ce es

Seyler Miss M., D.Sc.....
LGR? SR oi ee

ihawlor, W.R., M.A. ......
Metey,)tl.b.oc., F.Z.S. ..
Tetley, Mrs.

Thomas, Richard

miompson, H.S., A.L.S...
Tombleson, F. B. (deceased
1938)

Bristol Road,
nr. Bristol
Redroofs, 6 Downs Cote Park,
Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol
26 Canynge Square, Clifton,

Bristol, 8
25 Robertson Road, Eastville,
Bristol, 5

Congresbury,

Windyridge, Abbots Leigh,
near Bristol
Walls | Hall, Stoke. “Bishop;
Bristol, 9

109 Howard Road, Westbury
Park, Bristol, 6

116 Coronation Road, Bristol, 3

12c Kingsdown Parade, Bristol, 6

15 Abbotsford Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Brackenhurst, 6 Southmead
Road, Filton, Bristol

124 Victoria Avenue, Redfield,
Bristol, 5

47 Grosvenor Road, St. Paul’s,
Bristol, 2

The University, Bristol, 8

36 Lawrence Grove, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol

The School House, High Ham,
Taunton, Som. .

Norfolk House, Overnhill Road,
Downend, near Bristol

Norfolk House, Overnhill Road,
Downend near Bristol

The University, Bristol, 8

‘““ Jesmond,’’ 182 Bishop Road,
Bristol, 7

2 Auburn
Bristol, 6

26 Woodstock Road, Redland,
Bristol, 6

Elmside, Julian Road, Stoke
Bishop, Bristol, 9

Road, Redland,

Mimosa, 196 Bishop’ Road,
Bristol, 7

70 Halsbury Road, Westbury
Park, Bristol, 6

The University, Bristol, 8

12 Claremont Avenue, Bishops-
ton, (Bristolig:

5 Pembroke Vale, Clifton,
Bristol, 8

4 The Avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol, 9

131 Cumberland Road, Red-
cliff, Bristol, 1

22 West Mall, Clifton, Bristol, 8

Shirley, Briercliffe Road, West-
bury-on-Trym, Bristol

375

F.G.

TSE,

Bo ee OSES A) = al

9
a
>

376 LIST OF MEMBERS

af. | Mewemerny NGG Aye one ie Windover, 54 Kellaway Avenue,
Bristol, 6 O.
+ “irueman seror A. nD .Sc,

Ga Sine rte erate ore te ote oe The University, Glasgow. G.
Lrucman ting FAS eaters c/o The University, Glasgow Ge
Tucker, B. W., M.A.,

MB OL ae. ae eee 9 Marston Ferry Road, Oxford O.
Turner, H. W., M.A., F.G.5. The University; Bristol G.
Anirner: Wins. Et WW =i eee Mortimer House, Clifton,

Bristol, 8
* -Tutcher, J. W.,.M.Sc. .... 57 Berkeley Road}* Bishopsten:
Bristol, 7 FG.
Veal, Mrs. G. C. (resigned Lower Hazel House, Rudgeway,
1939) near Bristol
A, Verhey, Miss D.E., B.Sc... Stanmore House, Royal Crescent,
Weston-super-Mare
* Wallis, F. S., D.Sc., Ph.D. The Museum, and Ast Gallem,
F.G.S. Bristol, 8 F.G:
Ay Walsh sViss*Cle.: sane 5 8 Alma Vale, Clifton, Bristol, 8 F.
Walton, C..L.,,Ph.D., M.Sc.--fhe ReSearch Station gong
Ashton, nr. Bristol @:
Walton, ivinsnC@i bute: 34 Northumberland Road, Red-
land, Bristol, 6 oO:
Warehan, Wass ....5 5. 1. 252 Charlton Road, Kingswood,
Bristol O.
Webb, H.-M., B.Sc. ....: Redgarth, Church Road stoke
Bishop, Bristol, 9 GOs
Webb; irs? SHe Min.) ci. Redgarth, Church Road, Stoke
Bishop, Bristol, 9
Webb) ay WaCaALSi eee ona 58 Belmont Road, St. Andrew’s,
Bristol, 6 Ee.
A. Weetman, Miss M. J. 60 Ashley Road, Bristol, 6
(resigned 1938) Bik:
-~ Wielche (ho (Ba AL 1B Ses, wbiavie Geological Survey,
Bhp gk: Ge: >, Kensington} is: Wea
A. Wheeler, Miss K. E. .... Hillside, Watchet, Som.
Whittard, Prof. .W. F., The University, Bruscolas
bDiSc., PhDs EF G:s. Oe
+ Wills, W. Melville ...... Bracken Hill, Leigh Woods,
Bristol
Vales | NOLO WS IRUDISS, B95 EG GG 8 6 14 Russell Grove, Westbury
Park, bristol; 6 Bus,
At Wieabes AG IOs o's asi dente Sherborne School, Sherborne,
(resigned 1938) Dorset

+i Yonge; “Prof. C. M ., D.Sc... The University, Brustoliys

A. Zealand, Mrs: .H. W. Brecon Lodge... Westbumy-on-
(resigned 1939) Trym, Bristol

Honorary Members

R. M. Prideaux, F.R.E.S., Brasted Chart, near Sevenoaks, Kent.

Prof. H. S. Hele Shaw, M.I.C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., 64 Victoria ‘Streets Wiese.
minster, S.W.1.

Sir Ernest Cook, D.Sc., 40 Alma Road, Clifton, Bristol, 8.

H. Womersley, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., 36 Wattle Street, Fullerton Estate, Adelaide,
S. Australia.

317

REPORT OF COUNCIL

TO DECEMBER 3lst
1938

OUR Council reports that during the year the Society has lost 3 members
by death, and 36 members by resignation, whilst 36 new members were
elected. The number of members now stands at 239.

Council regrets to record the deaths of Mr. B. A. Baker, Mr.
F. B. Tombleson and Canon the Rev. R. W. Goodall, M.A.

At the Annual General Meeting in January the following new appointments
were made: President, Professor M. Skene; Vice-President, Mr. H. Tetley ;
Members of Council, Prof. W. F. Whittard, Messrs. I. Evans. and
L. H. Matthews. At this meeting Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie, the retiring
President, presented to the Society the Epidiascope purchased as a Memorial
to the late Miss Ida Roper.

The Society was represented at the Centenary Celebrations of the Linnean
Society of London by the President.

During the year a communication was received from the Association for
the Study of Systematics in Relation to General Biology, asking for co-opera-
tion in its work. A report on this work was presented to Council by Professor
C. M. Yonge. Particulars have been sent to the sections concerned and it is
hoped that these sections and their members may be able to undertake some
of the investigations suggested in the coming year. Council believes that
work of this nature would offer new opportunities to members of the Society.

Your Council has been in communication with various local bodies
interested in the sign-posting of field paths in the neighbourhood. It has
not been found possible to take any definite action, but a Committee has
been appointed to watch the situation.

The 11th Annual Dinner was held in the Royal Hotel on February 3rd,
and was attended by 54 members and guests. After dinner those present
were entertained by Mr. Prideaux.

The Summer Field Meeting was as usual arranged by the Field Section
and was successfully held on June 18th, when Mr. H. F. Barke led the party
through Ebbor Gorge and over Duilcote Hill.

F, STENHOUSE ROSS, Hon. Secretary.

378

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379

LIBRARIAN’S REPORT

BOR) PREV WEAR 193s

N the Librarian’s Report for 1937 it was suggested that a rack for the
display of new books would be a useful addition to the Library. A rack
of the type suggested has now been acquired, and all recent additions can
now be seen at a glance. Arrangements for borrowing have been some-
what simplified by the introduction of a Borrowers’ Book, and a beginning
has been made on the work of cataloguing the Library although it will be
some time before this work is completed. A list of books for binding is
being prepared for consideration by the Library and Publications Committee.

Arrangements have been made during the year for exchange of the
Society’s Proceedings with the following :

1. Annual Report of the Devon Bird-watching and Preservation
Society.

2. Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum zu Berlin.

3. Publications of the Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica.

4. The American Midland Naturalist.

The Society is indebted to the British Museum (Natural History), Mr.
fo. Lhompson, Mr 1. R. P. Heslop and Mr. H. J. J. F. Gibbons for the
presentation of books. A number of geological books were also received
from the estate of Mr. B. A. Baker, F.G.S. Witherby’s British Birds is
being purchased for the Library as published ; Volumes I and II are already
in the Library. Six volumes of the Journal of Botany were purchased out
of the balance of the Roper Memorial Fund, and current numbers of this
periodical are now subscribed for by the Botanical Section, and presented
to the Library. Journals have been received, as in previous years, from the
Geological, Entomological and Ornithological Sections.

The number of books borrowed from the Library during the year was 189.

H. GORVETT, Hon, Librarian.

380

REPORT OF BIOLOGY TEACHERS’
SECTION

1938

HIS has been the first complete year for this Section, and it would

seem that its formation has been fully justified. It has a membership

of thirty-two, most of whom are very keen. During the year nine
meetings have been held and attendance at these, especially the later ones,
has been very encouraging.

In February, Mr. L. W. Gilbert, of the Local Inspectorate, opened a
discussion on “‘ The Content of the Biology Syllabus in Elementary Schools,”’
a subject which is naturally of great importance to all teachers. Experiences
were recounted and discussed and many useful suggestions were brought
forward.

At the March meeting, Dr. R. Bracher gave a most helpful talk on
“Ecology in the Schools.’’ Her numerous exhibits gave practical demon-
stration of the possibilities of dealing with this subject within the confines
of the classroom.

The Open Meeting of the Section was held in April when Professor R.
Hewer, lecturer of the Imperial College, London, and co-director of biological
film production for Gaumont British Instructional Films, gave a very en-
lightening programme of biological films, and also spoke on the actual making
of the films.

During the summer, meetings took the form of excursions such as
might suitably be taken with a class of children. To follow up her talk on
Ecology, Dr. Bracher conducted the first of these to Blaise Castle Woods
where members were instructed in field methods of estimating numbers of
plants and ecological factors with a view to using these methods in schools.

In June, Miss Bowen conducted a party to Nailsea where she demonstrated
various methods of collecting pond material, both plant and animal.

Professor Skene took the lead in the third of the out-door meetings which
involved a study of the flora of the Downs and Gully.

As the Section had completed its first year of existence, a General Meeting
was held in October though it is hoped in future to hold this in January,
and thus fall into line with other Sections of the Society. The President
and Secretary were re-elected, and Dr. Bracher, Miss M. Shield, Miss G.
Cornish and Miss J. Harker were elected to the committee to serve with
Miss A. Fitzjohn and Mr. T. L. Green who were re-elected. Miss Bowen
then addressed the meeting as President, taking as her subject “ Films in
the School.’’ She spoke of the advantages and disadvantages of the use of
the film, and said that the chief difficulty seemed to be in finding the right
films to fit in with the syllabus of work. She showed how this could be
overcome by giving a demonstration of films which she had made herself to
fit in with the work she was doing with her classes. At the end of the meeting
she suggested that, if any members were keen enough, a sub-group might be |
formed for the purpose of making biological films.

At the next meeting, which was an Open one, Dr. G. K. Sutherland
spoke on ‘“‘ Natural History Methods in the Elementary School.”’ He
urged the necessity of first-hand observation in the keeping of aquaria
and vivaria and also spoke at some length on school gardens.

At the final meeting of the year, Mr. C. C. Perkins of Clifton Zoological
Gardens, gave practical hints on the keeping of aquaria. He gave very
clear and definite instructions on the best means of keeping healthy aquaria,
and the questions asked at the end showed how widely interested members
are in this subject.

E. DUDDRIDGE, Hon. Secretary.

4980
AAN ; ee

381

REPORT OF BOTANICAL SECTION

1938

T the Annual Meeting in January it was decided that, as the J ournal

of Botany had been brought up to date with the balance of the Roper

Memorial Fund, the Section would subscribe to this publication and
present the volumes to the Library of the Society. In order to do this the
sectional subscription has been increased by sixpence.

The epidiascope, which is the memorial to Miss Roper, was used for the
first time in February to illustrate a lecture by Mrs. Sandwith on the South
African Flora.. Photographs of the vegetation and district around the
Cape and in Southern and Northern Rhodesia were shown, together with a
number of flowers and fruits which Mrs. Sandwith brought back in 1931.

Members of the Section expressed a willingness to co-operate with the
‘** Association for the Study of Systematics in relation to General Biology ”’
in the district designated as the Bristol Coalfield. When fuller details had
been obtained from the Association, the Section agreed to give special atten-
tion to the ecological distribution of Silene Cucubalus and Silene maritima
and the geographical distribution of the rayed varieties of Centaurea nigra.
The following names were submitted as recorders: Mrs. Sandwith for
Higher Plants, Dr. Campbell for Fungi, and Miss Fitzjohn for Algae.

In July, the Section again paid a visit to the University Gardens under
the leadership of Prof. Skene. Many interesting specimens were observed
in the Natural Order Beds, the Cactus House and the new pond.

The Open Meeting in October was well attended by members of the
Section and fifteen visitors from other Sections. Prof. Skene gave a paper on
the Vegetation of Steep Holm. He dealt first with the records of visits
of early botanists and then referred to his own visit during which he found
six plants not formerly included in the list of plants growing on the island.
In the discussion which followed, Mrs. Sandwith showed sheets with speci-
mens of the Steep Holm Leek, Allium ampeloprasum, and one grown from
a bulbil.

At the December meeting, Dr. Yemm gave a lecture on the Yorkshire
Peat Moors, dealing particularly with the peat deposits on limestone at
Wensleydale. These peat moors are comparatively recent, having Anglo-—
Saxon place names and covering a Roman Road.

Specimens and exhibits of botanical interest have been shown at each
monthly meeting.

F. F. GLASSPOOL, Hon. Secretary.

382

REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGICAL SECTION

1938

12th Jan. 74th Annual Meeting. Mr. C. Bartlett, having acted as
President and Hon. Secretary for the last four years, asked to be excused
further office, as he had held the position of Hon. Secretary for 33 years
and that of President for 13 years. Mr. J. W. Norgrove was elected President,
and Mr. C. Edwards, Hon. Secretary.

Mr. Bartlett exhibited, for Dr. E. Barton White of Braunton, a live
full-grown larva and an imago of the Cockchafer Melolontha vulgaris.

2nd Feb. Special Meeting to report the resignation of Mr. C. Edwards
as Hon. Secretary through removal from Bristol; the office was not filled
as no member would undertake the duties.

8th Feb. Open General Meeting held at the University.

Mr. H. Tetley read notes upon the Termites and exhibited pieces of
wood destroyed by their ravages. The various forms were described as
king, queen, soldiers and workers; their underground galleries, huge
colonies and ant hills, fungus gardens, and parasitic polyzoa which assisted
the digestion of food, were also described.

Mr. W. R. Taylor read extracts from the works of Fabre including
sections relating to assembling in moths, Pine Processionary Moth, Hairy
Hunting Wasps and Scarab Beetle.

Mr. Norgrove exhibited specimens of Bombyx quercus and Psilura monacha, :

and described his experiences in assembling with these species of moths.

Mr. Bartlett read a paper upon the British Humble Bees and their
hymenopterous parasitic genus Psithyrvus and dipterous parasite Volucella
bombylans, illustrated by a cabinet drawer of the species.

12th April. Mr. Bartlett again agreed to accept and was elected to
the office of Hon. Secretary.

It was unanimously resolved to request the Society to provide their
own room to house the library and to be available for sectional meetings at
all reasonable times as in past years.

Notes and exhibits were provided by Messrs. Audcent, Bartlett, Davis,
Kromler and Peach.

11th Oct. Exhibition by members of the season’s captures.

13th Dec. Mr. M. Davis read a paper upon the British Hairstreak
butterflies, illustrated by examples of the five species. Mr. P. Davis ex-
hibited some Lepidoptera taken by Mr. L.H.T. Ashburner from the Rupunani
district of British Guiana, which included two new and undescribed species
of moths, Phaloc n.s. and Stfenele n.s., both of which are mimetic.

The year closed with sixteen members.

CHAS. BARTLETT, Hon. Secretary.

yu EO

383

REPORT OF FIELD SECTION

1938

T the Annual Meeting held in January all the officers were re-elected,

as was the Committee with Mr. H. O. Edmonds in lieu of Mr. H. C.

Bishop who had resigned. Instead of the more orthodox Presidential
Address a discussion took place regarding the value of the scenic heritage
with especial reference to the West of England. Dr. F. S. Wallis introduced
the subject and emphasised the importance of safeguarding this inheritance,
enumerating the four chief factors which determined scenery. He also
mentioned some of the powers given to local authorities by recent Acts of
Parliament for the purpose of controlling amenities. Many members took
part in an interesting discussion.

Following the policy of recent years, an area was selected for the summer
session, all meetings being confined within this chosen district. The
prominent Carboniferous Limestone inliers which rise up steeply from the
moors to the south of Mendip formed an excellent district, and your Section
is grateful to those who so generously led meetings or contributed to the
descriptive notes.

Mr. G. H. Beacham was the general leader in May when Nyland Hill
and Draycott were visited. Owing to the drought, vegetation was poor,
but members were interested in the Draycott stone.

In June the President and Secretary of your Section (Mr. H. F. Barke
and Miss M. D. Hiley) were responsible for the arrangements at the Annual
Field Meeting of the Society at Ebbor Gorge and Dulcote Hill. Members
descended the well-known gorge, and after tea the church at Wookey was
visited under the guidance of the Rev. H. Lawrence Walker, M.A.

Dulcote Hill with its prominent crags of limestone provided much of
interest for all members, botanists being especially fortunate in observing
many characteristic plants.

Mr. H. O. Edmonds was the general leader in July when the neighbour-
hood of Croscombe and Ham Woods was visited. On this occasion there
were morning and afternoon parties which met at Maesbury Camp. Professor
Macgregor Skene was able at several places to demonstrate the relationship
of the trees with the solid rocks shown by the sharp contrast between the
ash woods on the limestone and the oak copses on the Old Red Sandstone.

At Lodge Hill in September, Mrs. E. Hayman and Mr. Ivor Evans were
leaders. Once again the predominant calcareous nature of the vegetation
was demonstrated. The Rev. R. Jeffcoat fully described the small Rodney
Stoke church, drawing particular attention to the Rodney effigies.

Finally, in October, Mr. G. E. J. McMurtrie led the party from Dinder
Church through the village to Dinder Wood. A walk over the top of Lyatt
Hill enabled members to epitomise in a short distance all the various features

: B

yan 33 Iy4Au

384 REPORT OF FIELD SECTION

that had been examined during the summer. A visit to Tor Hill quarry
near Wells was instructive on account of the iron-staining and Triassic
dykes.

The special Ornithological meetings were again arranged by Mr. Vicars
Webb who conducted five parties in April, May and early June, to Filton
and Stapleton, Blagdon Lake, Hanham Woods, Leigh Woods and Abbot’s
Pool, and Saltford.

At Saltford on 15th June, a pair of red-backed Shrikes were seen at
their nesting site, and on the river banks four Waterhens’ nests, all occupied.
At the weir the leader gave a short talk on a young Cuckoo found there dead
in a Pied Wagtail’s nest.

Mr. Ivor Evans kindly arranged and conducted six parties for Botanical
study, and visited Crew’s Hole and Brislington, Bitton, Grantham Rocks
and Wick, Pensford, Hunstrete Woods and Woollard, Brockley Combe and
Broadfield Down, Shirehampton and Hallen Marsh and the Wickwar district.
The last named, in August, was a whole day meeting when Mr. F. W. Evens
acted as co-leader.

The membership of the Section at the end of the year stands at 79.
M. DORIS HILEY, Hon. Secretary.

385

REPORT OF GEOLOGICAL SECTION

1938

HE Annual Meeting was held on January 27th, 1938, at 7.15 p.m.

Professor W. F. Whittard was elected President, and Dr. F. S. Wallis

was re-elected Vice-President. The Secretary, Treasurer and Com-
mittee were re-elected, with Mr. H. S. Barker to fill the vacancy on committee
caused by the departure of Mr. G. Kellaway for London. Mr. H. S. Cole
then delivered his lecture, ‘‘Some Historic Aspects of Geology.”’

February 24th. Professor W. F. Whittard gave a lecture on “‘ Glaciers,
Icebergs, and Pack Ice’’ which was illustrated with many fine lantern slides.

March \7th. Professor W. T. Gordon gave a most interesting lecture
entitled ‘“‘ The Scientific Basis of the Lapidary’s Art.”

Our Summer season was opened with an excursion to Limpley Stoke
and Bradford-on-Avon, led by Dr. S. Smith; a party of 25 attended. We
were met at Limpley Stoke by Major Gorham who directed the party to
an exposure in the Upper Lias where members collected some fine specimens,
especially ammonites.

The next field meeting was held on July 13th and was led by Dr. F. S.
Wallis and Mr. H. M. Webb. The party visited the bore hole at Alma Road,
Clifton, where Dr. Wallis explained the local geological structure in relation
to the present exposures. Mr. Webb compared this boring with the main
bores that were to be made in the Carboniferous Limestone for the new
sewage system for the City of Bristol. The party then visited a well-known
quarry at King’s Weston Down, where the Carboniferous Limestone is
intensely folded and faulted.

The last Summer meeting was by charabanc to the eastern Mendips.
The object of this excursion was to examine the exposures of the Silurian
rocks, which include lavas and tuffs. The party stopped at Beacon Hill
where Prof. S. H. Reynolds first explained the relationship between the Old
Red Sandstone and the Silurian rocks and then pointed out the topo-
graphical features which can be seen from this viewpoint. A visit was
then made to the quarries in the Silurian volcanic rocks,

The Winter session opened on October 20th with an interesting and
instructive lecture by Mr. F. C. Hudson, illustrated with some very fine
lantern slices, on the ‘‘ Scenery and Geology of the Southern Malverns.”’

On November 17th, Dr. T. Wallace gave an instructive lecture on “‘ Soils
and Soil Survey ’”’ illustrated by soil maps and sections.

We regret to record the deaths of the Rev. Canon Goodall and Mr.
B. A. Baker, also the resignations of Mr. H. S. Cole, Mr. H. S. Barker, Mr.
W. E. Madkins and Miss L. M. Saunders.

We welcome four new members, viz., Mr. F. S. Clements, Miss L. Priscott,
Mr. F. B. Welch, Mr. A. Scougall.

F. STENHOUSE ROSS, Hon. Secretary.

386

REPORT OF ORNITHOLOGICAL SECTION

1938

WING largely to an increased membership,
ee totalling 72, and the continued enthusiasm
among members themselves, this Section has
enjoyed another most successful year. To this
must be added the kindness and generosity of several
leading ornithologists who have so willingly come
long distances to lecture.
Six ordinary meetings have been held, with an
average attendance of 30. At the Open Meeting in
Mnewaen YP atc eins. | November there was an attendance of 95, the largest
— yet recorded at an Open Sectional Meeting. On this
occasion the President of the Section gave his very popular lecture,
“Lundy and its Bird-life.”’

The January meeting was devoted to two short accounts—“ Bird-life
in Iceland’’ by Prof. S. H. Reynolds, and “‘ Some Birds observed in Spitz-
bergen’ by Mr. H. M. Webb, both containing much of interest. More was .
learnt of bird-life in northern latitudes when in February Mr. B. W. Tucker
came from Oxford and lectured on “A Bird Trip to Lapland.’ A fine series
of slides was shown illustrating, among others, such interesting species as
Mealy Redpoll, Lapland Bunting, Red-spotted Bluethroat, Three-toed
Woodpecker, Rough-legged Buzzard and Temminck’s Stint. In March
much valuable information was given by the Rev. F. L. Blathwayt when
he spoke on “ Field Characters and Call Notes of British Waders.”

At the September meeting Mr. H. Tetley gave an excellent illustrated
account of ‘‘ Bird-life in the Outer Hebrides,”’ the outcome of a recent stay
in that area. In October members were fortunate to hear the Rev. F. C. R.
Jourdain who journeyed from Bournemouth and lectured, with slides, on
“‘A Bird Trip to Palestine.’”’ Lastly, in December, Mr. W. B. Alexander
gave a most instructive lantern talk on “ Bird Observatories.”’

By kind invitation of the Society of East Anglians in Bristol, members
were privileged to attend a meeting at the Royal Hotel on March 16th
when Mr. Jim Vincent gave a lantern lecture on “ Broadland Birds.” A
few members were fortunate in being able to accept an invitation from
the Bristol University Zoological Society to a meeting on November 22nd,
when Mr. G. H. J. Fursdon gave an illustrated account of “ Bird-life on
Skokholm.”’

The recent renewed effort to save the Kite in mid-Wales has received
support from the Section, a sum of one guinea having been contributed to
the Kite Preservation Fund. It has further been decided that support
shall be given to the British Trust for Ornithology, and an immediate applica-
tion for corporate membership is being made. It is much to be hoped that
members will endeavour, whenever possible, to assist the Trust in its various
activities.

The emblem shown at the beginning of this report has been adopted by
the Section. This life-like picture of the Wren (first published in Lord
Kennet’s A Bird in the Bush) is from an original drawing by Mr. Peter Scott,
who has kindly given his permission for it to be used for this purpose. The
origin of the underlying inscription is fully quoted in Swainson’s Provincial
Names and Folk Lore of British Birds, pp. 36-37.

As in the past, members are greatly indebted to the Bristol Waterworks
Company for permits, so readily granted, to visit their reservoirs at Barrow
Gurney and Blagdon. This privilege has now been extended to include
the newly constructed reservoir at Cheddar.

H. H. DAVIS, Hon. Secretary.

387

Account of the Annual and General Meetings

1938

HE 75TH ANNUAL MEETING of the Society was held at the University

of Bristol on January 20th. The President-elect, Professor Macgregor

Skene, was in the chair. Forty-two members were present. The
Annual Reports were presented and accepted. The old Officers were re-
elected with the exception of the retiring President and Vice-President
whose offices were filled by Professor Macgregor Skene, President, and Mr.
H. Tetley, Vice-President. New members of Council elected were: Mr.
Ivor Evans, Mr. L. H. Matthews and Professor W. F. Whittard.

The motion of Dr. F. S. Wallis in reference to rule 4 was seconded by
Mr. McMurtrie and carried without dissent.

The Epidiascope in memory of Miss Roper was formally presented to
the Society. The President-elect received it in their name.

Mr. McMurtrie gave as his final address a review of his term of office,
which has been reported in the 1937 Proceedings.

Mr. Turner moved a vote of thanks to the retiring President for his un-
stinted services; this was seconded by Mr. Evens, and carried with
acclamation.

The 593RD GENERAL MEETING was the I1]th Annual Dinner held in
the Royal Hotel, College Green, on February 3rd. Professor Macgregor Skene
was in the chair. In his address of welcome to the guests, he stressed the
value of the Proceedings, containing facts collected by local naturalists,
which were helpful to the specialists.

The 594TH GENERAL MEETING was held on March 3rd, in the University.
Professor Skene was in the chair. Dr. Kitching gave his lecture, ‘‘ Diving
in the Sub-Littoral Regions,’’ which was extremely interesting and original
and an extensive survey of this subject.

The 595TH GENERAL MEETING was held on Saturday, June 18th, at
Ebbor Gorge and Dulcote Hill. The Botanists had a good field day and
the Geologists were able thoroughly to inspect the large quarry at Dulcote
Hill.

The 596TH GENERAL MEETING was held in the University on October 6th.
Professor Skene was in the chair. Coffee was served before the meeting.
This was the Annual Exhibition Night, and the following were the exhibits :—

BOTANICAL.
Exhibits by Mrs. Sandwith, Mr. F. W. Evens, Miss Fitzjohn, Mrs. Bell
and the Botanical Department of the University.
The University exhibit, the most popular of the exhibits, included squirting
cucumber, and water hyacinth with inflated leaf stalks which caused
it to float.

388 ACCOUNT OF ANNUAL AND GENERAL MEETINGS

Mrs. Sandwith showed Umbelliferae in fruit.

Mrs. Bell showed Tamarind, Cardamon and Betel nut, from India.

GEOLOGICAL

Fine exhibit of metamorphic rocks from Cornwall by the Department
of Geology of the University.

Mr. F. Stenhouse Ross—Ammonites from the Jurassic in Horn Park and
Yeovil district, Dorset. Fine specimen of the Ammonite Strenoceras
niortense,

Mr. H. G. Bell—Flexible sandstone from Rajputana, India.

ORNITHOLOGICAL
Mr. J. H. Savory—A fine series of Bird photographs.

Mr. H. H. Davis—A series of colour reproductions illustrating British
Birds of Prey from drawings of the late Archibald Thorburn.

We trust the Biology Teachers’ Section will be represented next year.

The 597TH GENERAL MEETING was held in the Museum Lecture Theatre
on November 3rd, Professor Macgregor Skene in the chair. The film entitled
‘““ Moorland,” featuring the Geology, Botany and Ornithology of Dartmoor,
was shown. Comments were made by Professor W. F. Whittard, Professor
Skene and Mr. H. Tetley. This was the Open Meeting.

The 598TH GENERAL MEETING was held in the Botanical Department
of the University on December Ist. Professor Macgregor Skene was in
the chair. Nominations for Officers and Council for 1939 were received.
Professor W. F. Whittard gave a lecture, ‘‘ A Visit to East Greenland,”’
giving a general survey of the work that was carried out on the expedition,
illustrated with some wonderful slides of glaciers and ice packs.

F. STENHOUSE ROSS, Hon. Secretary.

—_

389

Bristol Botany in 1938
By Cecit I. SANDWITH

(Read in title, 2nd March, 1939)

MILD winter without the usual quota of frost and snow heralded

an unusually early spring. To those hoping for a good season
in the field, any gain was offset by the ensuing long season of drought.
It was noticeable in this district that the sedges did not grow and flower
with their normal vigour, and botanically the year was disappointing.
One noticed that, in late autumn, plants that had no chance to grow in
the earlier months were struggling on with little hope of fulfilling their
vocation, and many Rumuices were still in an early stage of flowering
and immature fruit. Life had begun too late for them. An observer
in Perth writes: ‘“ No fruit to speak of and except roses all flowers were
unsatisfactory, being tall and untidy, a prey to every wind, so that
they were over as soon as they flowered. I never saw a mountain-ash
berry.” Gales and drought had a disastrous effect on things generally.
The high winds of early autumn did exceptional damage. In a West
Country orchard four miles from the Channel, leaves on the fruit-trees
were turned black in a night, a rather general idea being that this was
caused by salt in the air driven from a distance at very high pressure.
That these climatic conditions were not confined to this district or the
West Country only is confirmed by observations made by the Statistical
Department, Rothamsted Experimental Station, on the persistent
spring and summer drought and the high temperature of early spring
and late autumn, this combination of meteorological factors having
an adverse effect on growing crops. The total rainfall recorded for the
first eight months was 9-05 in., compared with the average of 17-89 in.,
the figures for temperature being January (+ 3-2 deg. F.), February
(4+- 1:0 deg. F.), March (4- 6-5 deg. F.), all warmer than the average,
while April (— 1-3 deg. F.), and May (— 1-8 deg. F.) were below the
average. Those who may not have considered this from a botanical
point of view must have been concerned with the shortage, quality
and high price of green vegetables during the autumn, the Broccoli
particularly being a complete failure. It has been necessary to note
this unusual season for the cause and effect on the flora generaliy which
those studying in the field must have observed.

390 CECIL I. SANDWITH

Through the kindness of Mr. H. Locke, Long Ashton Research Station,
I am able to add the variations of temperature and rainfall in our own
district, which are interesting for comparison. He remarks that the
lack of sunshine was notable, a deficiency of 108-9 hours from the
normal; March with 23-0 and April with 57-9 hours were the only
months above the normal, April values being the highest since 1921.

1938
Mean Temperature. Rainfall.

Deviation. Total. Deviation.
February 44-1° F. + 3-4° F, 1-11 inches — 1-78 inches
March 47-7 +- 4-2 0-46, —2-02 ,,
April 46-3 — 0-6 0:25 9 —2:25 ,,
May 52:3 — 0:5 Prien 5: —()-22—,,
June 58-1 — 0-4 1-29: Se ,:
July 59-5 — 2:8 3 04a ANOMD | 3,
August 61-1 + 0-2 Sie Okey , +007 ,,
September 56-9 — 0-1 D280 oe —lll_,,

Hypericum hircinum L. In an old lane on Stoke Hill descending from
Durdham Down, G., Ivor Evans.

Oxalis stricta L. Garden weed at Weston, Bath, 8., 7. H. Green.
This species occurred plentifully in October, 1919, in a field of
stubble by Failand House, 8., C. and N. Sandwith.

Trifolium incarnatum L. Near Stoke Gifford, G., 1938, Miss A. Dunn.

Astragalus glycyphyllos L. Roadside between Chelwood and Hunstrete,
S., Miss Fitzjohn.

Vicia sylvatica L. For a hundred yards near the Hawkesbury
Monument towards Wotton-under-edge, G., Ivor Evans and
F. W. Evens.

Epilobvum montanum L. X parviflorum Schreb. Waste ground near the
University, Bristol, G., 1938, Mrs. Bell. This interesting hybrid
has not been recorded before for the W. Glos. side of the district.

Caucalis nodosa Scop. var. pedunculata (Rouy et Hono Druce.
Uphill, 8., J. P. M. Brenan.

C. daucoides L. var muricata (Bisch.) G. et G. Several plants occurred
among the typical form at Avonmouth Docks, G., last June,

BRISTOL BOTANY IN 1938 391

C. and N. Sandwith. For a paper on this variety, which was
first recorded for Britain from a railway siding between
Shirehampton and Avonmouth in July, 1922, see the Report of the
Botanical Society and Exchange Club of the British Isles for 1924.

Sambucus mgra L. var. viridis Ait. With pale yellowish-green,
transparent berries. In an old lane on Stoke Hill, G., Ivor Evans.
For the record of a similar bush from near Portishead, S8., see
“ Bristol Botany in 1918,” in Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. 1920, p. 89.

Achillea Ptarmica L. A large patch of a verv handsome “ flore pleno ”
form in a rough pasture on Nailsea Moor, 8., NV. Sandwith.

Senecio squalidus L. A form with the heads rayless or with very
reduced rays, unmatched in the National Herbaria, was found
last June at Avonmouth Docks, G., C. and N. Sandwith.

Symphytum tuberosum L. Completely naturalised in one spot in the
enclosed portion of Leigh Woods, 8., May, 1932, C. and N. Sandwith.

Mentha gentiis L. Peat moor near Burtle, §., A. Z. Still and
C. Sandwith.

Ceratophyllum submersum LL. Near Kingston Seymour, 8., 1928,
H, J. Gibbons.

Populus canescens Sm. X tremula Li. (P. hybrida M. Bieb.). A tree
bearing female catkins with crimson stigmas on the Manor Farm,

Corston, 8., C. Sandwith.

< P. regenerata Henry. Trees of this hybrid, which bears female
catkins and is believed to have originated on several occasions as a
backcross between X P. serotina Hartig and P. nigra L., have been
noticed for some years near the G.W.R. west of Keynsham, §.,
C. Sandwith. An important paper on the Black Poplars and their
hybrids cultivated in Britain was published as a separate memoir
last year by G. 8. Cansdale and members of the staff of the Imperial
Forestry Institute, Oxford (price 3s. 6d., printed at the University
Press, Oxford, 1938).

Carea Hudsoni Ar. Benn. Attention should be drawn to the remarkably
early flowering of this species, which may be compared with that
of the unrelated C. humilis and C. digitata, and contrasted with
the later development of the allied C. Goodenoww and C. gracilis.
In the abnormally precocious spring of 1938, stamens of C. Hudsonii
were fully expanded in the Tickenham locality in the last days
of February.

392 CECIL I. SANDWITH

C. extensa Good. Shore of the Channel at Kingston Seymour, §.,
Sept., 1933, C. and N. Sandwith.

Pholiurus incurvus (L.) Schinz et Thellung. New to the district
and to N. Somerset. At the base of dunes on the seaward side
of the golf-course at Berrow, 8., June, 1938, R. Melville: and on
dry mud between Brean Down and Uphill Ferry, 8., June, 1938,
J. P. M. Brenan. For a full account of this species see
C. EK. Hubbard in Proc. Linn. Soc., 1936, pp. 111-113. It differs
from our common P. filiformis (Roth) Schinz et Thell. (Lepturus —
filiformis Trin.) in the spreading or ascending habit, the short
culms with curved rigid spikes, and above all by the very short
anthers (0-5-1 mm., not 2-3 mm.) ; and it prefers drier situations.

Bromus commutatus Schrad. Uphill, 8., J. P. M. Brenan.

Lycopodium Selago L. Still existing very sparingly on Rowberrow
Warren, S8., in March, 1938, C. and N. Sandwith.

AuiENS. The followmg were first records for Britain: Carthamus
oxyacantha M. Bieb., found at Avonmouth Docks, G., by
C. Sandwith; Rumex stenophyllus Ledeb., found at Avonmouth
Docks, G., by J. #. Lousley (det. K. H. Rechinger) ; Aegilops
ligustica (Sav.) Cass., found on the N. Somerset side of Bristol
by Ivor Evans.

The following are additions to the adventive flora of Bristol (coll.
C. I. and N. Y. Sandwith unless otherwise mentioned) :—Isatis tenctoria
L., Huclidvum syriacum (.) R. Br. and Tordylium aegyptiacum (IL.)
Lam., all at Avonmouth Docks, G.; Atropa Belladonna L., at Ashley
Hill, G., R. L. Smith and C. Sandwith; Chenopodium Botrys L., at
Wapping Wharf, Bristol Harbour, G.; Phalaris paradoza I. var.
praemorsa Coss. et Dur., at Avonmouth Docks, G.; and Lagurus
ovatus I.., on the N. Somerset side of Bristol, Ivor Evans.

The following species, which occur rarely in the district as colonists,
were found last year as casuals in Avonmouth Docks, G. :—Caucalis
arvensis Huds., Valerianella rimosa Bast. and Galeopsis versicolor
Curt. The two last are additions to the Bristol adventive list. Galeopsis
versicolor persists in its locality on the Somerset peat moor between
Ashcott Station and Glastonbury. Planiago aristata Michx., a rare
Bristol alien, was found at Avonmouth last year by 7. H. Green.

Bristol material of the genus Beckmannia has recently been examined
by Mr. C. KE. Hubbard of Kew and has been assigned to two distinct

BRISTOL BOTANY IN 1938 393

species, viz. B. eruciformis Host (spikelets 2-flowered) and B. syzigachne
(Steud.) Fernald (spikelets 1-flowered). Of the Bristol gatherings
mentioned in the “ Adventive Flora,” all should be assigned to
B. syzigachne with the exception of the Avonmouth (1930) collection,
which is B. eruciformis.

A form of Carthamus lanatus l., with pure white instead of yellow
flowers, was found by C. Sandwith on the N. Somerset side of Bristol
in 1937. This matches Sentenis 1957, from the Transcaspian region,
in the Kew Herbarium, but appears to have no varictal name.

Found by Miss White near Bath, 8. :—Adonis annua L. and Salvia
glutinosa L. The latter species, discovered near Claverton, is new to
the district.

‘Flowers along a Deserted Roman Road” by Mr. H. O. Edmonds,
March, 1938, in the North Western Naturalist, is a delightful account
of the author’s exploration of the Fosse and the old Roman road from
Sarum which crosses Mendip at Charterhouse and leads to an ancient
port at the foot of Brean Down. His observations on the wild flowers
are those of a true lover of Nature.

394

Ornithological Notes, Bristol District, 1938

By H. H. Davis, M.B.0.U.
(Read in ttle, 2nd March, 1939)

N recording the more important observations for 1938, special

reference must be made to the recently constructed reservoir at
Cheddar, which, by kind permission of the Bristol Waterworks Co.,
ornithologists have been able to visit frequently during the year.
Lying at the foot of the Mendips, and within sight of the famous Cheddar
Gorge, this huge reservoir contains an area of some 220 acres, is 24
miles in circumference, and has a holding capacity of 1,250 million
gallons. As was to be expected, it is proving a great attraction to
water birds, while it has already been visited by such interesting
passerines aS Snow Bunting and Black Redstart. Fully detailed
accounts have been published in British Birds (Mag.) of the remarkable
spring passage of Black Terns and Little Gulls, and the visit of a
Black-winged Stilt in September.

Ducks have been well represented at Barrow Gurney and Blagdon,
although no unusually large numbers have been reported. Special
mention may be made of Smew at Barrow in January and December,
and the visits, for the sixth successive year, of an adult male Scaup.
At Blagdon, Wigeon were present in full force, both early and late in
the year. On December 11th there were not less than 500 Teal at
Cheddar among an even larger gathering of Mallard, Wigeon, Shoveler
and Pochard. Other duck identified on this new reservoir are a
pair of Garganey in May, Tufted Duck and Goldeneye on various
occasions, a Common Scoter in October, and Pintail and Smew in
December.

During the first week of May, Sanderlings and a Bar-tailed Godwit,
waders rarely met with inland, were seen at Cheddar; while the visit
of a Ruff to Blagdon, and Greenshanks to the R. Axe provide the first
spring record of either species for the district. The autumn passage
brought Little Stints and Black-tailed Godwits to Blagdon and a Rufi
to Cheddar, while Greenshanks occurred at both places. The prolonged
stay at Cheddar of Green Sandpipers and Black-tailed Godwits as well
as such coastal species as Ringed Plover and Dunlin can only be attri-
buted to the low water level while repair work was in progress. Whether

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, BRISTOL DISTRICT, 1938 395

this reservoir, with its wholly concrete sides, will normally be an
attraction to waders remains to be seen.

From early September onwards, a number of quite unusual visitors
were identified. An Osprey, the first record for the district for over
twenty years, was seen at Blagdon, while, as a result of strong westerly
gales, a Gannet and a Fork-tailed Petrel visited the Severn. A Fulmar
was picked up at Cheddar after further rough weather, and a Great
Northern Diver came to Barrow Gurney where it remained for a
fortnight. Finally, a Glaucous Gull was twice seen in the Severn
estuary.

A unique record for the district, and indeed for the British Isles, was
the recovery in February of a ringed Continental Great Tit at Cotham
Park, Bristol.

The following specific notes are, in most instances, the result of
observations by members of the B.N.S. Ornithological Section. A
more complete list of records for the Somerset side of the district
will be included in the 1938 Report on Somerset Birds.

Raven (Corvus c. corax). A pair bred in the Avon Gorge for the
third successive year. At least three young were reared.

STARLING (Sturnus v. vulgaris). The roosting of large numbers in
thorn bushes on Chipping Sodbury Common has not, apparently,
been previously known to Bristol ornithologists. This roost
undoubtedly draws birds from a wide area and, according to local
information, is one of long standing. It was visited by the writer
on four occasions during the year. Enormous numbers, perhaps
as many as 100,000, were coming in on April 14th, when the overhead
evolutions were most spectacular. Although very much reduced in
size by May 18th, the roost was evidently in use during the breeding
season. Numbers had greatly increased by August 20th, while by
December 29th the total had again reached huge proportions.

Hawrincw (Coccothraustes c. coccothraustes). Nested as usual in
Leigh Woods. Young were successfully reared from five out of seven
nests found in May. |

SIskIn (Carduelis spinus). A small party was frequently seen at
Saltford from January 25th to February 6th.

LessER REppPou. (Carduelis f. cabaret). Up to thirteen in number
were often met with at Long Ashton from February 13th to April 14th.

396 H. H. DAVIS

A party of ten were seen at Little Stoke on March 11th. Twenty-eight
were counted in Leigh Woods on November 25th.

Corn Buntine (Emberiza calandra). One, a male in song, seen
between Old Sodbury and Lyegrove on June 26th provides the first
breeding season record for this part of the Cotswolds. A few pairs,
however, nest annually at Marshfield.

Crrt Buntine (Hmberiza c. cirlus). Observed occasionally between
Weston-super-Mare and Hutton Hill in the spring. A pair was seen
near Filton Aerodrome on April 2nd, and two males at Cheddar on
September 25th.

Snow Buntine (Plectrophenax n. nivalis). Close views were obtained
of a single bird, probably an adult female, at Cheddar reservoir on
November 17th.

Woop-Larx (Lullula a. arborea). A few pairs were met with on the
Mendips between Cheddar and Wells on April 3rd.

CONTINENTAL GREAT Tir (Parus m. major). A ringed Great Tit
recovered on February 4th at Cotham Park and sent to the Bristol
Museum proved to be of the continental race. The bird was ringed as
a nestling near Bautzen, Saxony, about 700 miles east of Bristol, on
May 20th, 1937. ‘This is the first recovery in the British Islands of a
ringed Great Tit from the Continent (cf. British Birds, Vol. XXXIJ,
p. 352).

Piep FiycatTcHEeR (Muscicapa h. hypoleuca). Two visited Little
Stoke during the spring passage—a male seen on April 30th remained
until May 1st, while a female stayed for a short while on May 4th.

FIELDFARE (Turdus pilaris). As late as May 2nd a flock of fifteen
was seen on Kenn Moor, Nailsea.

Buack Repstart (Phenicurus o. gibraltarvensis). No less than three
were met with in December—one at Sea Wall Farm, Severn Beach,
on the 9th, another at Cheddar reservoir on the 11th, and a third
near Sand Point on the 27th. All apparently immature birds.

Wryneck (Jynz t. torquilla). One was seen, and heard, at Blagdon
on April 20th. As the species is not now known to breed in the district,
this was probably a passage bird.

SHORT-EARED Ow. (Asio f. flammeus). The occurrence of a single
bird near Severn Beach on December 27th was perhaps due to severe
weather a few days previously.

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, BRISTOL DISTRICT, 1938 397

PEREGRINE F'atcon (Falco p. peregrinus). The Avon Gorge eyrie,
last used in 1934, was still unoccupied. Single birds (falcon and tiercel),
however, were seen on various dates in the Gorge and near Avonmouth.
Seen also at Aust in January and April. One was observed at Blagdon
reservoir on September 8th and again on the 16th.

Hossy (falco s. subbuteo). Seen over Blagdon reservoir on May
18th (one or perhaps two), and on September 10th (two). This suggests
that a pair may have bred ‘near by. On the north side of Bristol
good views were obtained of a single bird at Little Stoke on July 26th,
and again on the 27th.

Common Buzzarp (Buteo b. buteo). A Buzzard winged by a game-
keeper at Walton-in-Gordano on August 27th was kept in an outhouse
until September 17th. It was then sufficiently recovered to be taken
to the Quantocks and liberated. One was seen at Blagdon on December
4th.

OspREY (Pandion h. halietus). Fine views were obtained of an
Osprey, in flight, over Blagdon reservoir on September 8th. It was
being persistently mobbed by Rooks and eventually flew in the direction
of the Channel. The only previous record for Blagdon is that of a
bird seen in September, 1914, also being mobbed by Rooks.

Common Heron (Ardea c. cinerea). Thirty-three occupied nests
were counted at the Brockley Combe Heronry on April 24th, and twenty-
eight at the Banwell Heronry on May 4th. There was thus a total
of sixty-one breeding pairs as compared with forty-eight in 1937.

WHITE-FRONTED Goose (Anser albifrons). About fifty Grey Geese,
most probably this species, were seen on the Severn bank between
Avonmouth and Severn Beach on December 24th, while on the 28th
a similar number were observed over Leigh Woods flying toward the

Channel.

GaRGANEY (Anas querquedula). Two, male and female, were dis-
turbed from marshy ground adjoining Cheddar reservoir on May 6th.
They alighted on the reservoir but were not seen subsequently.

Printait (Anas a. acuta). A pair was seen off Severn Beach on May
Ist. Observed at the North Somerset reservoirs as follows—three at
Blagdon on January 4th, one at Barrow Gurney on November 17th
and 27th, four at Cheddar on December 15th and six on the 20th.

398 H. H. DAVIS

Common Pocuarn (Nyroca f. ferina). Ten, nine males and a female,
were swimming off the Severn bank on the north side of Avonmouth on
December 30th. More partial to inland waters, Pochard are rarely
seen in the Severn estuary.

Scaup (Nyroca m. marila). Once again an adult male visited Barrow
reservoirs where it was frequently seen from early February to early
May. It reappeared in mid-September and was still present at the
end of the year. A female was identified off Severn Beach on April
25th, and again on May Ist.

Common ScotTer (Oidemia n. nigra). A single bird was seen at
Portishead Dock in September. One was present at Cheddar reservoir
from October 7th to the 14th when it was picked up dead, and another
was picked up at Barrow Gurney on November 3rd. All were adult
males.

SmMEW (Mergus albellus). On January 3rd two were identified at
Barrow reservoirs, where also two were seen on December 29th.. Two
were observed at Cheddar reservoir on December 11th and one on the
20th. All were ‘‘ redheads.”’

GANNET (Sula bassana). An adult over the Severn bank near
Severn Beach on October 5th had probably been brought in by the
strong westerly gales of the 3rd and 4th.

Storm Petre. (Hydrobates pelagicus). Part of a dead bird was found
along the Severn bank on the north side of Avonmouth on October 16th.

Leacu’s Fork-TaiLtED PETREL (Oceanodroma 1. leucorrhoa). A
Petrel seen over the Severn at Aust Cliff on October 7th was confidently
identified as this species. It was watched at close quarters and was
quite certainly too large for a Storm Petrel. There had been violent
westerly gales a few days previously.

Futmar (Fulmarus g. glacialis). A female, undoubtedly blown in
by rough weather, was picked up dead at Cheddar reservoir on
November 24th (or 25th), and is now in the Bristol Museum Collection.

BLACKED-NECKED GREBE (Podiceps n. nigricollis). One, in breeding
plumage, was seen at Blagdon reservoir on March 18th, and was still
present on April 8rd. Two, also in breeding pines were frequenting
Cheddar reservoir on May 4th.

Great NorTHERN Diver (Colymbus immer). A single bird visited
No. 1 reservoir, Barrow Gurney, late in November. It was first seen
on the 24th and remained until December 8th, or later.

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, BRISTOL DISTRICT, 1938 399

RED-THROATED Diver (Colymbus stellatus). An oiled bird was fre-
quenting the harbour at Mardyke, Bristol from January 30th to
February 9th. It was then caught and sent to the Clifton Zoological
Gardens where it died.

GOLDEN PLoveR (Charadrius apricarius). As in previous years,
considerable numbers were frequenting Marksbury Plain during the
winter months. They were seen on various dates from early February
to the end of April, and a few were still there in the first ten days
of May. The birds were again present from October onwards, as
many as 300 being counted on December Ist. About forty seen overhead
at Stoke Gifford on December 20th were flying very fast from N.H.
to S.W. in bitterly cold weather.

Grey P Lover (Squatarola squatarola). A few were seen in
Woodspring Bay on March 13th, and again on April 8th. Single
birds were identified on the Avonmouth—Severn Beach mud-flats on
October 28th and December 11th.

‘Rurr (Philomachus pugnac). One, a Reeve, was observed at
Blagdon reservoir on May 5th. One was seen at Cheddar reservoir on
September 7th.

SANDERLING (Crocethia alba). A single bird was seen at Cheddar
reservoir on May 4th. Another was identified at the same place
on the 6th.

Knot (Calidris c. canutus). A few were frequenting the Avonmouth
—Severn Beach mud-flats during the last week of December.

Littte Strnt (Calidris minuta). Single birds were seen at Blagdon
reservoir on September 5th and on October 6th and 9th.

PureLe Sanppirer (Calidris m. maritima). Frequently observed,
up to ten in number, along the Avonmouth—Severn Beach mud-flats
from late January to late April. Two were seen at the same place on
November 16th, and two on December 28th.

GREEN SanppiPeR (Tinga ochropus). One was frequently seen at
Dyrham from March 19th to the 26th, and two were disturbed at a
small pond near Stoke Gifford on April 16th—the first spring-passage
records for the Gloucestershire side of the district. Three were seen
overhead at Little Stoke on August 16th, and one near Severn Beach
on the 17th. Two, or more, were frequenting Cheddar reservoir on:
August 18th and as many as five on the 24th. Observed also at Barrow

Gurney and Blagdon in September.
c

409 H. H. DAVIS

GREENSHANK (T'ringa nebularia). One was seen along the R. Axe
on May 4th and two on the 7th. Up to three in number were frequent-
ing Blagdon reservoir during the first three weeks of September,
while at Cheddar a single bird was identified on the 3rd.

BLacK-wInceD Stitt (Himantopus h. himantopus). A single
specimen of this rare visitor was watched at close range on the west
side of Cheddar reservoir on September 4th. This is the first recorded
occurrence for the Bristol district, and only the third for the county of
Somerset (cf. British Birds, Vol. XXXII, p. 156).

BaR-TAILED Gopwit (Limosal. lapponica). Four (two in red plumage)
were seen on the Avonmouth—Severn Beach mud-flats on May Ist
and three on the 2nd. A single bird was watched at close quarters
at Cheddar reservoir on May 4th.

BLAcK-TAILED Gopwit (Limosa |. limosa). Frequently seen at
Cheddar reservoir from August 17th to the 24th—the largest number
being ten on the 18th. Two were observed at Blagdon on September
5th, and six on the 10th.

WHIMBREL (Numenius ph. pheopus). A party of five were seen, and
heard, at Cheddar reservoir on May 5th. 3

Jack SNIPE (Lymnocryptes minimus). Three were put up at Blagdon
reservoir on October 30th, and one near Avonmouth on December 29th.

Buack TERN (Chlidomas n. niger). An extraordinary passage of
Black Terns was witnessed at the Cheddar and Blagdon reservoirs in
the spring. At Cheddar three were seen on May 4th, and as many as
twenty-one on the 6th. All had departed by the 8th. There were
eight at Blagdon on May 5th, and two on the coast at Woodspring
Bay on the 6th. No such numbers have hitherto been recorded in
spring (cf. British Birds, Vol. XXXII, p. 52). Up to six in number
were observed at Blagdon in the first ten days of October, while three
were seen at Cheddar as late as October 15th.

Common TERN (Sterna h. hirundo). No less than twenty were seen
at Blagdon reservoir on June 2nd. So unusual a date suggests that
these birds had deserted their breeding quarters. A few, up to six in
number, were observed at Cheddar from late June to mid-August.

Tartte Gui (Larus minutus). Excellent views were obtained of
five, in fully adult plumage, at Cheddar reservoir on May 4th. At least
twelve (adults and immatures) were seen two days later, while four
(an adult and three immatures) were observed on the 7th. These

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, BRISTOL DISTRICT, 1938 401

birds, the first to be recorded for Somerset in spring, were apparently
forming part of a joint movement with the Black Terns mentioned
above (cf. British Birds, Vol. XXXII, p. 52). One, an immature bird,
was identified at Blagdon reservoir on October 8th.

Giaucous GuLu (Larus hyperboreus). Followmg a week of severe
weather, an immature bird visited the Severn estuary late in December.
It was watched at close quarters between Avonmouth and Severn
Beach on the 27th and again on the 0th. When seen alongside
a Great Black-backed Gull, it was correspondingly large with an equally
massive bill. This, and the greyish-white plumage with an entire
absence of black on the primaries, placed its identity beyond doubt.
The only previous record of this species on the Severn is that of an
adult shot in 1840 and figured in Yarrell’s British Birds.

KittiwAke (Rissa t. tridactyla). One was found dead between
Avonmouth and Severn Beach on February 20th, and another on

November 25th. Two were picked up in the same place on December
28th. ,

LAND-RAIL (Crex crex). One was killed at Lulsgate Bottom on
September 3rd by striking the windscreen of a passing car. One,
evidently a passage bird, was disturbed from a late grass crop near
Patchway Common on October 30th.

Water-Rait (Rallus a. aquaticus). A female, now in the Bristol
Museum Collection, was picked up dead at Westbury Park on October
26th.

402

Erosion Levels in the Bristol District, and their
relation to the Development of the Scenery

By A. I. Trueman, D.S8c., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
(Read before the Geological Section, Feb. 16, 1939)

HE hills of the Bristol! district are mostly flat-topped, and a

view across any considerable piece of country usually shows
that many hills rise to a common level. Even sky-lines are therefore
frequent, and this is as true on the high tracts of the Mendips and
Cotswolds as it is in the areas of lower elevation to the north of Bristol,
for example around Yate. The origin and extent of these various
plateaux have not received much attention, and for several years
the writer made observations upon them in the course of field work
devoted mainly to other studies: these observations are admittedly
incomplete but it may be useful to summarise the evidence obtained
and to indicate lines along which further work may usefully be done.
In view of the great development of interest in the study of land-
forms in recent years, it may be hoped that some members of the
Bristol Naturalists’ Society will make more detailed investigations
along these lines.

It is well known that the rocks of the Bristol area include older
rocks, of Palaeozoic age, often folded and steeply dipping, and also
newer rocks, of Mesozoic age, which are usually nearly horizontal.
The latter rocks rest unconformably on the former, the plane of un-
conformity in some cases being remarkably smooth and even, as
in the limestone quarries at Chipping Sodbury and at Vobster; the
plane of unconformity in each of these cases is a plane of marine
denudation, and it is apparent that the removal of the softer Mesozoic
rocks from such a surface would yield a smooth platform cut cleanly
across the older strata. Such a tract would then look very much
like the level surfaces on the Mendips summit or on Durdham Down,
and the opinion has been expressed that these plateaux in areas of
older rocks represent Mesozoic erosion planes.

It may briefly be mentioned that similar conditions also occur in
South Wales, notably in the Vale of Glamorgan, and that Sir Aubrey
Strahan (1907) believed the plateau features to be the result of Mesozoic
erosion and to represent old wave-worn surfaces from which a Jurassic
cover had recently been stripped by denudation. Further work in

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 403

South Wales, however, showed this view to be untenable, for the
plateau surfaces are developed on the newer rocks as well as on the
older (North, 1929; Goskar & Trueman, 1934). Much more recent
periods of erosion must therefore be held responsible for the planing
down of these surfaces (although, of course, the inclusion of areas
planed down at an earlier date is not impossible or, indeed, unlikely
In some instances). Plateaux of similar character in Cornwall have
been shown to date from the Pliocene, and it is generally assumed
that the South Wales and other coastal plateaux of more or less
corresponding altitude date from the same period.

The following discussion will probably be read more easily if it is
made clear at once that in the writer’s opinion the Bristol plateaux
pass across the outcrops of both older and newer rocks, and that
they have similarly resulted from erosion (either marine or sub-aerial)
in late Tertiary times. Hach platform represents a time when the
sea stood at about that particular level in relation to the land, and
either sea-level has fallen or the land has risen subsequently. It
may be noticed that Mr. A. A. Miller has reached similar conclusions
concerning the plateaux across the Severn, which are obviously similar
to some (at least) of those in the Bristo] area (Miller, 1935).

The study of the plateaux in the Bristol area is facilitated by the
absence of glacial deposits or of other superficial deposits which conceal
the pre-glacial surfaces, and the only subsequent modification is the
lowering of parts of the surfaces by later denudation. The cutting of
valleys into the plateaux has usually left flat-topped hills, but in
some cases the dissection of the low plateaux has proceeded so far that
the original form is more obscure, and especially in outlying portions
it may be doubtful whether any part of the original surface remains.
In general, least modification is to be found in those areas where
plateaux have been cut in Carboniferous Limestone, for the pre-
dominance of underground drainage leaves the surface comparatively
free from change.

On the other hand, most rapid denudation and modification of the
plateau form has occurred in areas of clay (such as the Lias and Keuper
Marl). Since these areas are built up of alternating groups of more
resistant and less resistant strata which are nearly horizontal, there is
a possibility that the harder bands will form cappings to flat-topped
hills merely as a result of post-Pliocene denudation (see O. T. Jones,
in discussion of Hollingworth, 1938, p. 82); it appears, however,
that in the Bristol area there are wide areas of plateau surface formed

404 A. E, TRUEMAN

by the softer rocks, and that the harder bands often form their most
conspicuous features when they coincide in height with one of the
main erosion surfaces, as Dr. A. J. Bull has also shown to be the
case in the South Downs (1936, p. 112).

The chief purpose of this paper is to draw attention to the evidence
in favour of a post-Mesozoic origin of many platforms in the Bristol
area, and to suggest a late Tertiary age for these features. It must
be noted, however, that some geologists consider that even Pliocene
erosion surfaces are likely to have been so greatly modified by post-
Pliocene denudation that it is doubtful whether they can be widely
recognised at the present time. With this possible criticism the
writer does not propose to deal in detail here; attention may be
drawn to the fact that extensive dissection of the upraised surfaces
has certainly occurred, but that it does not prevent the recognition
of the original platforms. In the writer’s opinion, no other hypothesis
satisfactorily explains the distribution of the observed features.

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

The great interest which has been taken in erosion surfaces in the
past few years has led to the development of several methods of
study. Some of these are based partly or wholly on map work, but
while they afford most important data for various purposes and form
an essential check on other observations, it must be emphasised that
the investigation of plateau surfaces requires special field work.
Level areas may thus be mapped, and their boundaries, where marked
by steeper slopes, may be recorded accurately: the exact heights
of particular points, not indicated on available maps, must be deter-
mined. The application of such field methods to the south-east of
England by a group of workers has led to far-reaching results.

Some of the methods of map study have been employed to supple-
ment the field work carried out in this area. One method involves
the measurement of the areas between adjoining contour lines and
the drawing of a hypsographic curve (showing the proportions of the
area above given heights) or a clinographic curve (devised by
J. Hanson-Lowe to show the actual average slopes). This method
is laborious, and although it has certain merits, it may not give very

1 These are summarised in an excellent recent text-book by Wooldridge and
Morgan (1937); reference may also be made to Baulig (1935).

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 405

sure indication of distinct plateau remnants which occupy only
small areas.

Another method of map study is the construction of “ projected
profiles,’ developed in America by Barrell and applied to several
British areas (Goskar and Trueman, 1936, Fig. 1; Hollingworth,
1937, Pl. VIII). Such a projected profile represents the form of the
ground as seen in a block of country viewed perpendicularly from the
various points in a vertical plane passing through a selected base-line.
It is better than a view of the sky-line, for it shows the actual heights
of the hills represented, regardless of their distance from the base-line,
and not their apparent heights (Figs. 31 and 32). The drawing of
a projected profile is not easy and leaves something to the personal
choice of the worker. For a correct impression of an area it is desirable
to draw more than one projected profile showing the country from
different base-lines. .

Superposed profiles illustrate the platforms in a somewhat different
way. ‘These consist of a number of profile sections drawn accurately
along parallel lines at small intervals, and traced on a single sheet
(Figs. 29 and 33). They have the disadvantage, as compared with
projected profiles, that they may not intersect the crests of all ridges,
and so may give a false impression of levels by cutting along the
sides of valleys, whereas a projected profile necessarily represents a
projection of the hill crest; much of the information in a series of
superposed profiles is thus irrelevant, but provided a sufficient number
of sections are drawn, and that conclusions are checked by drawing
a second set at an angle to the first, there is much to be learned from
them. Moreover, they have the advantage that, if the lines are
drawn rigidly at chosen intervals, the result is independent of any
views held by the investigator.

Superposed profiles may be made still more illuminating in some
cases by varying the nature of the line on each section according to
the rock outcropping there (Figs. 35 and 37; also Goskar and Trueman,
1934, Figs. 3 and 4); such superposed geological profiles show at a
glance how far the erosion platforms are related to geological structure
and how far they cut across different outcrops. Naturally, such
information can be ascertained by a direct study of the maps, but it
is useful to construct such sections along lines chosen at random
as a check on conclusions reached in other ways and as a means of
quickly demonstrating the facts.

Dr. 8. E. Hollingworth (1938) has lately developed another method of

406 A. E, TRUEMAN

analysis of relief, which had formerly been used with some success’ in
France ; this method, the construction of altimetric frequency curves,
depends on “ spot-heights”’ on hill summits. For a given area, all such
spot-heights are tabulated and a curve showing the relative frequency
of heights in various intervals of altitude is constructed. The presence
of maxima in the curves indicates levels at which there are numerous
hill tops of similar altitude, and it is found that there are platforms
or remnants of platforms at those particular levels. Dr. Hollingworth
has applied this method to various areas in western Britain, from
Scotland to Cornwall, but it has not been used in the Bristol area
and the writer has not found opportunity to do so.

Apart from actual hill summits, remnants of high level platforms
are most likely to have survived on the ridges between valleys (which
are known as the “interfluves’’), for in the valleys themselves they
have been destroyed, unless they survive as shoulders or terraces
high on the valley sides (Fig. 80). Profile sections drawn along inter-
fluves may thus show steps or ledges representing the remnants of
erosion surfaces; the information is most reliable where the interfluves
are broad, for where they are narrow or ridge-like the crest is likely
to have suffered more denudation. Sections along interfluves must
be drawn with great care, for they can rarely be drawn along straight
lines, and the choice of direction in some cases leaves a good deal to
the selection of the student. When facets or levels have been located
on a series of interfluves it is sometimes useful to insert a series of
generalised contours marking their slope and boundaries and ignoring
the valleys which separate them (see for example, Miller, 1937, plate
facing p. 150; Wooldridge and Morgan, 1938, Fig. 159).

In dealing with these phenomena, the gradients of the rivers and
streams may themselves be studied with advantage; one of the
earliest investigations bearing on these problems was the study by
Professor O. T. Jones of the drainage of the Upper Towy (1924).
While it is familiar that the thalweg or gradient curve of a river is
concave, the gradient being steepest near the source and flattening
towards the mouth, detailed levelling along the course of a number of
rivers has shown that several curves are represented. The upper part of
each course may be marked by a curve which, if continued towards the
mouth, would leave the river some hundreds of feet above sea level ;
below this part of its course, however, its gradient steepens again,
and the succeeding curve is again concave, though it also may be
interrupted by a steeper gradient after a certain distance (Fig. 36).

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 407

It is probable that the rivers formerly flowed into a sea standing
some hundreds of feet higher than the present sea-level (in the case
of the Towy, about 600 feet higher), and that their courses were then
graded to that sea-level; uplift of the land (or lowering of sea-level)
in several stages led to the rivers cutting down their valleys and
grading them successively to the new base-levels. This has been
familiar in the rejuvenation of river valleys, but what has not been
so generally recognised is that, when relative uplift occurs, only the
lower part of the river is affected, and the down-cutting process must
travel slowly inland to the source. It may be put crudely by suggesting
that the upper parts of many of our rivers are as yet unaware that
uplift has been taking place at intervals since the late Tertiary.

The marks of these changes in gradient are very pronounced in
some rivers, and the name knick-point has been suggested for the
place where two gradient curves meet (Wooldridge and Kirkaldy,
1936). Such “steps ” in a river profile have generally been attributed
to the presence of more resistant bands of rock, as in the case of
many waterfalls, but such irregularities in a stream bed tend to dis-
appear with maturity, while knick-points may be recognised (as in
the case of the Towy studied by Professor O. T. Jones) in river courses
where no noticeable change in the character of the rocks occurs.
Very striking knick-points are recognisable in some Bristol rivers,
notably in the Frome. Unfortunately, the sources of most of the
streams in the Bristol district are too low for the gradients to show
any traces of the earlier stages of these uplifts.

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF EROSION SURFACES

While the existence of distinct platforms at several levels in the
Bristol area can be established beyond doubt, the actual limits of some
of them are not certain, and the correlation of those recognised in
different areas requires further study. Briefly, it may be emphasised
that a platform (perhaps more than one level is involved) at from
200 feet to just over 300 feet is the most widespread in the area. It
may extend downwards to levels below 200 feet, but other levels near
100 feet are probably distinct: upwards it seems in some areas
almost to merge into a higher surface at 400-450 feet, but as there
seems to be a steeper slope between this and the 300 foot platform
in some parts, it is proposed at this stage to treat them as distinct.
A further platform at about 550-600 feet is also recognisable, and

408 A. &, TRUENAN

this appears to be distinct from the lower surfaces and from a very
well-marked higher level (in the Mendips) at 750-850 feet.

In thus summarising these platforms it must be noticed that some
variation in level occurs in each one.t This is not surprising, for
they were not horizontal at the time of their formation; a wave-cut
platform has a gentle seaward slope, while a peneplain of sub-aerial
oriyin not only has a seaward inclination but has also other minor
irregularities. A wave-cut platform may be expected to end inland
against cliffs, and some would regard the presence of a cliffed inner
edge as the best evidence (apart from marine deposits) of the marine
origin of a plateau. It may be pointed out, however, that a wide plain
of marine erosion is characteristic of a mature coast line, and it is by
no means certain that many cliffs would persist if this were fully estab-
lished. A surer evidence of marine origin would perhaps be found in
the uniform height of the inner margin of the platform, but here again
caution is necessary, for during the long period of still-stand needed
to carve a wave-cut platform, a high degree of peneplanation of the
area above sea level might be expected, and a merging of the two
surfaces at many poimts would not be unlikely.

Some uncertainty in the identification of the platforms at this early
stage of investigation is not surprising, for not all are present at each
locality. The absence of one or more platforms from a particular hill
slope need occasion no confusion, however, for if, as the writer suggests,
the higher platforms are the older, it is to be expected that a more
extensive growth of a lower platform might destroy a higher one in
any area. The presence of a platform at the lower level under a
steeply cut hill, showing no trace of the next higher platform, may
indeed be used to prove the distinctness of those two erosion surfaces.
The absence of the erosion levels at some places along the southern
border of the Mendips, owing to more recent denudation, illustrates
this fact very suitably.

(a) Tue AREA AROUND DunDRyY HILL

Seen from Bristol (for example from the Suspension Bridge), Dundry
rises steeply out of the nearly level platform which extends continu-
ously from Knowle to Bishopsworth. The even top of this surface is
very striking; it extends from about 200 feet to more than 250 feet,

1 In writing of these platforms in the following pages they are spoken of as the

‘* 300 foot platform,”’ etc., for brevity, but the fact that they cover a range some
times of 100 feet must be understood in all cases,

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 409

at which level the scarp of Dundry rises more steeply. This level can
be traced without difficulty westwards towards Barrow Gurney,
where it makes extensive flat tracts near the Barrow reservoirs ; south
of Long Ashton it is represented again in several hills of 250 feet.
Its widest extent is found, however, to the east, at Bristol airport
and Whitchurch.

This 200-300 foot platform is very deeply dissected by several
streams, notably by the Malago, the narrow valley of which is no more
than a deep trench in the comparatively flat surface. The Malago
valley, like many valleys cut into the Knowle platform and its pre-
sumed equivalents, is immature and indicates fairly recent rejuvena-
tion. The lower levels at about 200 feet are very distinctive in some
parts and may indicate a platform below the 250-300 foot areas ;
no attempt is made to separate them at this stage, however.

In the Knowle area the 200-200 foot platform is mostly underlain by
lias, and it may perhaps be suggested that its presence is due to the
occurrence of the Lias limestones. Even in this area, the platform is
not confined to this formation, however, and elsewhere, what must
undoubtedly be the same platform cuts across other rocks; south
of Stanton Drew it is cut in Keuper Marl. It may therefore be sug-
gested that the preservation of so wide an area of the 200-300 foot
platform in this area has been helped by the presence at about this
level of the Lias limestones, but the platform itself is in the main due
to other factors.

The 400-450 foot platform is not so clearly developed on the north
of the Dundry ridge, but it is recognisable at some points, especially
on the interfluves; although these latter are narrow and _ possibly
incomplete they usually show one or more ledges (Fig. 30) and the
levels are conspicuously developed at about 250 feet and above
400 feet. The 400-450 foot surface (rising in places to 500 feet) is
more extensive on the south of the hill, forming a somewhat deeply
dissected shoulder, seen in Chew Hill and other summits above
Chew Magna and near Norton Malreward. Although this platform
is here formed by Lias limestones it may also be traced southwards
on to the outcrop of the Heupee where it is, as would be expected,
less continuous.

There is no definite evidence on Dundry of any higher platforms,
although the summit of the hill (just over 750 feet) may link it with a
higher platform elsewhere; in other words, Dundry Hill may have

Whitchurch

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 4ll

survived because there the Inferior Oolite is at such a height that it
was involved in a plateau surface, the greater part of which in the
Dundry area was formed by less resistant strata and has been destroyed.

(b) THe Avon VALLEY AND ITs NEIGHBOURHOOD

The 200-300 foot platform extends over wide areas in the Bristol
district. It includes Durdham Down, in which it rises to just over
300 feet, and extends northwards through Horfield and Filton, and
to the level tract between Over and Patchway. Lias limestones
and the Carboniferous Limestone have been largely concerned with
the preservation of this surface.

On the other side of the Avon valley the Downs level is traceable in
Leigh Woods, but then the ridge stretching into Clevedon rises to
higher levels and the relations are not very clear: the 200-300 feet
platform extends north-westwards, however, in the hills south of Pill.

Kastward from Bristol the same platform is well marked on
both banks of the Avon. From Whitchurch it extends over a wide
tract (chiefly of Lower Lias) to Queen Charlton. Here and there
hills of somewhat greater height rise fairly conspicuously from this
level, but the general uniformity of the tracts between the valleys is
particularly striking. North of the Avon the platform is still more
interesting, for here it cuts a variety of rocks. From Staple Hill to
Hanham it is chiefly Coal Measures which are affected, and the surface
extends across both Pennant Sandstone and the predominantly clay
series beneath (the Lower Coal Series) ; it is remarkable that some of
the highest ground in the area, near Kingswood, is actually on the
outcrop of this latter series, although sandstone bands within it contri-
bute towards the persistence of the surface. Here, too, the streams
tributary to the Avon are deeply incised in narrow immature valleys,
such as that cutting the Pennant Sandstone at Fishponds and that in
the Lower Coal Series just north of Speedwell.

EKastwards from Oldland and Warmley a wide expanse of a flat-topped
feature extends on both sides of the River Boyd. This includes the
hill between Bitton and Bridge Yate, and a tract around Wick which
tapers southwards to Upton Cheyney, where, though deeply dissected,
a very definite platform is evident. Lower Lias is again the rock chiefly
involved in this surface, but the feature also continues across. the
Carboniferous at Wick (Fig. 32). This feature is well seen from several
viewpoints east of Warmley on the main road to Wick. The levels

A, E. TRUEMAN

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EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 413

extend somewhat indefinitely northwards and it is not yet certain
whether they merge with the higher tract (about 400 feet) around
Pucklechurch.

The 300-foot platform is not traceable very distinctly nearer Bath,
though it is represented at Corston and probably also in the flats at
Kelston Park and Newton St. Loe.

Under the steep Cotswold scarp nearer Bath little trace of a 400-foot
platform has been preserved (if it were ever present) but there may be
evidences of it near North Stoke and elsewhere north of the river, and
near English Combe on the south. It is tempting also to suggest that
the oolite-capped Lansdown Hill is an area of the 750-foot plateau
(Fig. 32).

Lansdown helsion

feet Wick
800 4

Fic. 32

Above the Bath gorge, however, both the 200-300 foot and the 400
foot platforms again appear to be distinguishable, the former especially
well developed to the south of Bradford-on-Avon in the valley of the
Frome, the latter forming a shoulder on the Cotswold dip slope (Fig. 33).

Fic. 33

Southwards from Keynsham a 200-300 foot platform is well repre-
sented in the Chew Valley, as has been noted above. Through Compton
Dando, Publow and Chew Stoke it can be traced to the Mendip borders
at Compton Martin. It forms a distinct feature and is succeeded by
higher platforms.

414 A. E. TRUEMAN

No part of the Bristol district illustrates these erosion platforms more
remarkably than the area flanking the River Frome, and although there
are many problems awaiting solution there is little doubt that smooth
surfaces have been cut in this area through a variety of rocks. Indeed,
the most impressive feature in the area is the absence of any noticeable
change in level as the almost flat surface cuts across near Yate from
the Pennant Sandstone to the shales of the Lower Coal Series and the
Millstone Grit. At first sight it appears that this plain may have
formed the base of the Keuper (and may thus be of pre-Tertiary origin)
but diggings for celestine in this area often show a little Trias, and one
near Stanshawe’s Court, Yate, in 1935, showed a thickness of at least
12 feet of littoral Keuper banked against a cliff of quartzite, a thin
layer of Tea-Green Marl beneath the erosion surface passing unbroken
across the junction. There appears to be no doubt therefore that this
Yate platform is of Tertiary age.

Fig. 34

At Yate this 200-200 foot platform stretches both north and south
of the main road, extending southwards through Westerleigh Common
to the hills on either side of Westerleigh itself, and northwards to
Rangeworthy (and less continuously to Tytherington and Wickwar).
For a mile at a time the platform is scarcely broken by any elevation,
but at some points where the River Frome is entrenched in a gorge
its tributaries have caused some dissection of the surface. Thus near
Nibley, on the Bristol road from Yate, tributaries following the strike
of shale groups have begun to etch out the sandstone bands as flat-
topped ridges. A similar feature is seen again near Frampton Cotterell,
where a sandstone ridge traversed by “ Park Lane ” rises to the level
of the Yate platform.

The continuation of this platform westwards across the valley of the
Frome is illustrated in the superposed geological profiles in Fig. 35; it

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 415

will be noticed that all divisions of the Coal Measures and also Keuper
and Lias form parts of this surface in different places. The surface
is generally lower near the river, and possibly other platforms may be
distinguishable there, but in general the Yate platform is traceable
across to that already mentioned near Patchway and thence northwards
along the Gloucester road. It is well seen from Milbury Heath in the
hill south-east of Rockhampton. The higher parts of Tortworth
also reach the same level but the platform has here been more deeply
dissected by the Little Avon and its tributaries. Beyond this to the
north, the 300-foot platform is less widely recognised, for both Palecozoic
and Mesozoic rocks have been worn down to much lower levels: this
difference has perhaps resulted from the slower lowering of the basin
of the Bristol Avon, which must have been controlled everywhere by the
rate of cutting down of the limestone in the gorge at Clifton.

To the east of the Yate platform another level tract stretches almost
to the foot of the Cotswold edge ; this rises commonly to about 400 feet
and extends from Chipping Sodbury southwards to join the platform
already noticed at Pucklechurch. Now this platform is cut almost
wholly in Lower Lias, and the more or less definite step by which it
rises from the Yate platform (near the Parkfield Colliery, in Westerleigh
Hill, and at Chipping Sodbury) partly coincides with the boundary
of the Lias outcrop. Above Chipping Sodbury this 400-foot platform
is drained by the Frome, which meanders as an apparently mature
stream. It does not appear that the platform results from the maturity
of the drainage, however, although its lack of dissection may well be
due to the retarded recession of the knick-point owing to the Carboni-
ferous Limestone outcrop at Chipping Sodbury (a suggestion comparable
with that made above in regard to the Avon basin); the occurrence
of wide platforms at this level in other areas seems to suggest a similar
origin.

In this area a beginning has been made in the levelling of the river
gradients, and Figure 36 shows the results of the levelling of the Frome.
It will be noticed that after falling fairly rapidly from its source in
Dodington Park, the river follows a very low gradient until it reaches
Frome Bridge where there is a slight steepening; a much more
important knick-point is found just below the Wickwar road in Chipping
Sodbury, although through Yate the river appears to have cut down
very little into the Yate platform. Another knick-point (one of the
most impressive in the district) is easily seen on the Iron Acton road
about a mile south-west of Iron Acton, near Cogmill, where the river,

E. TRUEMAN

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EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT A417

after flowing in a very shallow valley little below the level of the Yate
platform, begins rapidly to cut down into the Pennant Sandstone
(Fig. 36), and by Frampton Cotterell and Winterbourne, succeeds in
entrenching itself in a gorge. The interpretation of all these facts,
and their relation to the platforms under discussion, requires further
observations ; it appears, however, that the upper part of the Frome
is graded to a sea-level 200-300 feet above the present. Observations
are required on other rivers, however, including the Upper Avon and
others which rise in the higher hills.

feet
400 Chipping Sodbury

f % 3 A 5 6 7 Smiles

(d) Toe Corswotp EncE

Only a few preliminary observations have been made along the
Cotswold edge near Wotton-under-Edge and Dursley. As already
noticed, the 200-300 foot level is not conspicuous in much of this area,
although it survives in the area west of Nibley. The most interesting
feature is the strength in this area of the 400-450 foot level, which exists
in the platform above Nibley Church and a mile or so farther north.
It is noteworthy, however, that these levels coincide with the outcrop
of the marlstone of the Middle Lias, and it 1s uncertain how far the wide
expanse of its outcrop at those places is due to the coincidence of its

418 A. E. TRUEMAN

level with an erosion platform, and how far the ledge is due simply
to the presence of the harder strata. The occurrence of flat tracts on
marlstone at somewhat different altitudes down to 300 feet appears to
support the latter view, but the absence of pronounced platforms on the
marlstone at other places appears to support the first-mentioned
explanation. The relations of these platforms require further study,
however ; it must be remembered that immediately under the Cotswold
edge conditions must have been affected by the erosion and recession
of the scarp, and it is quite uncertain what amount of recession may
have occurred since late Tertiary times. It may be hoped that further
examination of the rivers and terraces of this area will throw light on
this problem.

(e) BRoADFIELD DowN AND THE CLEVEDON AREA

The generally flat top of Broadfield Down, cut across Carboniferous
Limestone and (littoral) Lias limestones of similar character, reaches
over wide areas to 550-600 feet (Fig. 29b). Around its margins traces
of lower platforms may be detected, but along the north-west the deep
dissection of the Nailsea Basin has apparently led to the disappearance
of most of these levels. The 200-300 foot platform survives in the
outlier at Cadbury House, between Yatton and Congresbury, and in
small ledges to the east of that and in Cleeve Hill. The 400-450 foot
platform occurs more extensively around Butcombe but it is also
traceable at the top of Goblin Combe. This platform is not at once
separated from the higher level, however, and more examination
is needed before they can be properly distinguished. What does seem
clear from a rapid study of Broadfield Down is the distinctness of the
200-300 foot platform from those at higher levels, for a definite inner
margin appears to be recognisable.

The Clevedon-Clifton ridge, as already noted, presents more difficulty.
This is partly to be expected, no doubt, owing to the ridge-like nature,
for little of a plateau surface remains except in the east, and denudation
has been active both to the north and south of it. Its height varies
from 200-300 feet at the western end to over 500 feet just above Wraxall.
The best view of the ridge is that from Broadfield Down, for instance
above Backwell. The rise in slope seems on the whole to be very
gradual, with little evidence of a “stepped” profile. Along the
south side there appear to be slight remnants of the lower platform,
but the wearing down of the Nailsea basin to levels of 100 feet and less
has destroyed practically all this platform (if it were ever present).

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 419
(f) Toe MEwnpirs

The writer has already emphasised the extent of the high plateau on
Mendip at about 800 feet (1938, p. 282); its limits may be placed at
approximately 750-850 feet. At various places along the north border
lower platforms are plainly represented, and although along a consider-
able part of the southern edge the Mendips fall sharply to the marsh
level, there are traces, especially in the “‘ islands ”’ in that tract, of other
platforms. It will be unnecessary to treat these in detail, and a brief
summary only will be given here. -

There is a wide level at about 550-600 feet on the north of the Mendips.
It is splendidly seen on the Wells road near Ston Easton ; it stretches
to Chewton Mendip and southwards towards the Mendips, where its
inner edge is somewhat uncertain but not much over 600 feet (Fig. 37).
This platform is cut mainly in the Lower Lias but it passes on to other
formations, Keuper, Coal Measures and Carboniferous Limestone.
Probably this platform is represented above Burrington Combe and
further east, where the Nettlebridge valley has been cut down into high
ground near this level, while hills near Bishop Sutton may belong to
the same platform (as does much of Broadfield Down). South of the
Mendips it is less conspicuous, but it seems to be traceable in flats
above Wells, as at West Horrington, which, while mainly on Lias,
also cut Carboniferous Limestone.

A 400-450 foot platform is present near Farrington Gurney and
Radstock, and may be seen in smaller areas further west. It is also
probably represented south-east of Wells and around Nunney where a
platform cuts indifferently across Mesozoic and Carboniferous rocks.

The 200-300 foot platform is more prominent: around Compton
Martin and West Harptree it has already been pointed out. From

420 A. BE. TRUEMAN

those points it 1s not traceable further to the east along the north border
of the Mendips but westwards it is seen in small areas above Banwell
and at other places to Weston-super-Mare. It forms part of the summit
of Brean Down and extends to the flat top of Steep Holm. Worlebury
Hill is too ridge-like to preserve any definite platform, but viewed from
the south it appears to show traces of a step from a level crest.

This platform is also seen as a ledge at intervals along the south
of the Mendips, becoming more distinct near Wells, and in some of the
“islands” such as Nyland Hill. Whether the flat terrace on the north
of Brent Knoll, and the level tops around Weare and Wedmore belong
to this or lower terraces needs further examination. Certainly, lower
levels are present near Uphill, where a definite platform occurs at
100 feet (e.g., under Uphill Church and at Bleadon) ; this is obviously a
marine platform backed by old cliffs.

In the Mendip area the 200-300 foot and possible 400-450 foot plat-
forms appear to be distinct ; certainly traces of successive levels can
be made out. But there is much variety of level, and the number of
possible ledges at intermediate altitudes makes caution necessary in
interpreting this area.

(g) Tae Quantock HI.ts

Little more than a casual examination of the areas south of the
Mendips has been made, but there appear to be similar platforms at
many places. On the west of the Quantocks a level at 500-600 feet
seems fairly distinct, while a lower platform at about 400 feet is also
present. Thence to the coast are wide areas not far from 200-300 feet.

GENERAL DISCUSSION OF THE PLATFORMS

It appears to the writer to be beyond dispute that the surface features
of the Bristol district include platforms at several levels which are
due to the elevation of plains of marine or sub-aerial denudation.
By analogy with other areas, it may be suggested that some at least
of these erosion platforms were cut in late Tertiary (probably Pliocene)
times. While some of them may never have been perfectly smooth,
and all have undergone subsequent modification by later denudation,
the general agreement of hill-top levels suggests that the elevation of
these platforms has controlled the broader topographic features over
much of the Bristol area. In detail the relief is closely related to the
geological structure and to the distribution of hard and soft rocks,

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 49]

but in so far as the relief is not in close harmony with these factors, the
existence of earlier denudation levels probably affords the best explana-
tion. It may, however, be pointed out that the distribution of these
levels, on the areas most easily planed down, was originally controlled
to some extent by the distribution of the outcrops of the harder and
softer rocks. For example, comparatively few areas of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone were planed down to the level of the lower platforms,
and those areas stand out from amongst the country formed by Mesozoic
rocks much as they stood out during the deposition of the Keuper
Marl; that the Bristol area is in part a disinterred “ fossil landscape ”’
must not be lost sight of in considering the alterations brought about
by late Tertiary erosion.

Some consideration has been given to the question of whether
any of the level tracts observed owe their existence to pre-Tertiary
erosion. This is a difficult problem and at present it can only be
stated that there appears to be no adequate evidence of any extensive
area which owes its flatness to erosion before the deposition of the
Mesozoic rocks. The plane of unconformity on which the Mesozoic
rocks rest was of marked irregularity, as already noted: that part which
was buried in Keuper times was in many places particularly uneven,
but the portions which were cut by the Rhaetic and Lias seas were
much smoother. Especially in the Mendip area the movement of the
Paleozoic floor in Jurassic times allowed repeated planing of the same
tract, and no doubt smooth planes were cut in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone (as at Vobster and Vallis Vale). It is possible that some parts of
the higher platforms represented in the limestone area of the Mendips
were cut in Jurassic time, but it is unlikely that as a whole the platforms
are of such great antiquity: it is difficult to estimate the extent of
post-Jurassic movements in the Bristol district (see O. T. Jones, 1930)
but it is certain that there has been considerable post-Jurassic folding
and faulting (in this connection, see Reynolds, 1937) and it is unlikely
that large areas of any pre-Jurassic marine platforms have escaped
modification.

The platforms discussed appear to fall into several groups, of which
the most widespread is that at about 200-300 feet. It is believed that
this platform represents a separate (and very considerable) time of
still-stand and that higher levels, ranging up to about 450 feet, represent
a different period of erosion. In places these two surfaces appear to
be distinct (as near Yate) but elsewhere there are possibly intermediate
levels,

422 A, E. TRUEMAN

Above these main platforms others are less widely shown, but a
level at 550-600 feet is fairly widespread, especially on the north of
the Mendips and in Broadfield Down, and one at 750-800 feet is
commonly found on the Mendips and possibly in the Cotswolds (though
here the influence of nearly horizontal bedding makes the identification
of platforms more difficult).

Below the 200-300 foot platforms are other levels, near 50 and 100 feet
above sea-level, traceable in some river: valleys, at Clevedon, in the
Nailsea area and elsewhere. They are presumably connected with the
river terraces at corresponding levels, and the lower one with the 50 foot
raised beach. They are later than the platforms described above.

No conclusions have been reached as to the origin of the platforms.
The coastal plateaux in South Wales at similar heights are believed to
be of marine origin, on account of their remarkable smoothness, while
Mr. Miller (1935, p. 176) has also suggested that the coastal platforms
near Chepstow are of marine origin. The smoothness of parts of the
platforms in the Bristol area, especially where they cut across the
Carboniferous Limestone (as in Durdham Down) and have suffered
less from subsequent modification than in the Mesozoic areas, suggests
marine rather than sub-aerial erosion. A similar conclusion is indicated
by those areas where a well-developed platform at this height occurs
on the borders of higher tracts (as in Broadfield Down and the Mendips) ;
this is almost certainly the case also as regards the 100-foot platform
at Uphill and Clevedon, but this probably relates to a later stage.

A sub-aerial origin is not excluded, however, especially for some
of the more inland portions of this 500 foot surface and for the 400-450
foot platform in those parts which seem closely linked with existing
valleys, such as that of the Chew. The possible relation of these plat-
forms (as peneplanes or hemiplains) to a wave-cut platform at a slightly
lower level must not be overlooked in considering alternative explana-
tions, but the writer proposes to put forward no more definite hypothesis
at this stage.

The 550-600 foot platform is regarded as marking an earlier and
separate stage of erosion: at some points, as in South Wales (for
instance in Garth Wood near Cardiff) the inner edge of this platform
is quite distinct, and a marine origin is not excluded. This is perhaps
contrary to the views of Mr. A. A. Miller, who regards the 600 foot
platform in Pembrokeshire as due “‘ mainly to sub-aerial erosion, having
been peneplaned by a system of rivers graded to a 400 foot sea-level ”

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 423

(1937, p. 159) ; the writer finds it difficult to accept Miller’s explanation,
however, for he considers that a peneplane graded to a 400-foot sea-level
would in any event tend practically to merge into a wave-cut platform
related to the same sea-level.

RELATION OF PLATFORMS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
RIVER SYSTEM

If the suggested platforms do represent erosion surfaces cut at various
stages when sea-level was higher in relation to the land than at present,
their history throws some light on various problems of river development
in the area.

In the first place, if the platforms (especially the 300 foot platform)
were wave-cut, the uplift which raised the wave-cut platform led to
rivers developing as an initial drainage on the old sea floor; while
these rivers represented seaward continuations of pre-existing rivers
they must have wandered across a nearly level surface towards the
new coast line. For example, if the 300 foot platform were cut by the
sea, it follows that at that stage the mouth of the Avon was not far
below Bath, and it is highly doubtful if the Avon gorge had been
initiated before that time. Flowing westwards across this newly
upraised tract, joined by the Chew which followed a narrow tract
about the same level and by the Frome which meandered on a very
wide flat, the Avon flowed just east of the high ground of the Clevedon-
Clifton ridge; presumably it was unable to take a course through
Long Ashton (although that area may have been part of the general
plain) because of a continuation of higher ground near Flax Bourton,
between Broadfield Down and the Clevedon ridge, which must have
been cut down subsequently. The river must rapidly have cut down
its valley north of the present position of the Clifton Gorge, but this
may have formed a knick-point for some time following the uplift,
and sub-aerial erosion may have continued the levelling of the basin
above that position; at any rate the down-cutting of the valleys was
probably checked owing to the slowness of vertical erosion on the
limestone tract.

1A more detailed discussion of the relation of the 600 foot platform in South
Wales to a lower marine level has been published since the above was written
(George, 1938, pp. 26-28). Prof. George’s views are substantially in agreement
with those expressed here.

* It must be remembered that possibly no part of the Bristol area at that time

= lower than the 300 foot platform (though it was not then 300 feet above sea
evel),

4294. A. E. TRUEMAN

If this extension of the Avon across a newly raised wave-cut platform
correctly interprets the course of events, it will be noticed that some
modification of the usual account of the superimposed drainage of the
area is necessary ; the lower Avon and its tributaries were developed
on an erosion platform and not on a cover of newer rocks.

In any event, it follows that the cutting of the Avon Gorge itself
was not begun until after the uplifting of this 300 foot platform ;
for some time the Avon must have flowed in a shallow valley represented
in the shoulders seen in parts of the gorge, and the deepening of the
gorge only took place as the platform was further raised in the stages
marked by the river terraces. If the 300 foot platform was cut, asis
suggested, in Pliocene time, then the cutting of the gorge (and of the
Pennant Sandstone gorge higher up the Avon) has been achieved
since that time. This suggestion may usefully be examined in relation
to the view, held by some geologists, that the Avon may represent a
reversed river, the remains of drainage which formerly passed from
Wales across the Bristol area to south or east, before the development,
of the Bristol Channel. It is certain, however, that the Bristol Channel
had come into being before the cutting of the platforms; therefore,
any rivers flowing from Wales had disappeared by that time, and no
Welsh water ever flowed through the Avon gorge. This must have
been cut entirely by the Avon itself (that is, by a river flowing north-
westwards).

There are other interesting features in the river system of the area
which need investigation in the light of the suggestions put forward
here. For example, the course of the drainage from Frome (Somerset)
north-eastwards to the Avon at Freshford rather than westwards,
may imply the existence of higher land in the area of the present
Somerset fens at the time of the 300 foot platform. The course of the
Wellow Brook from Radstock is also interesting.

The progressive uplifting of the area (and possibly the accompanying
lowering of the fenland area) must also be considered in relation to
the cutting of the Mendip gorges, which must have been deepened
in stages as their base-level fell, partly owing to the elevation and
perhaps partly also to the subsequent removal of impervious Mesozoic
sediments on the hill flanks which may have held up the level of the
water-table in the Carboniferous Limestone. High-level valleys on the
Mendips (e.g., above Cheddar) may be related to these early stages.
It may be suggested that a study of cavern levels in the Mendips will
possibly throw some light on the progressive deepening of the gorges
and on the lowering of the water-table.

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 425

CORRELATION WITH OTHER AREAS

It will be sufficient briefly to record the fact that there appears to
be close agreement between the heights of the platforms provisionally
delimited here and those recognised by workers in various other parts
of Britain. Whether it is possible on the grounds of mere height above
sea-level to correlate erosion platforms in different areas is perhaps
debatable, but the remarkably close agreement in levels is so striking
that we are almost forced to the conclusion that the changes in sea-level
affected much of Britain to almost the same extent.

In the Wye Valley region, Mr. Miller (1935) recorded platforms at 250
feet (the Liveoaks stage) and about 400 feet, with higher levels possibly
of sub-aerial origin. In South Wales, platforms at about 200 feet,
400 feet and 600 feet have been noticed (Goskar and Trueman, 1934,
p. 474); Dr. F. J. North also mentioned a 300-330 foot level (1929).
Miller recognised substantially the same levels, although he suggested
a gradual withdrawal of the sea from the 400 foot to the 200 foot stage
(1937, p. 159). Professor O. T. Jones’ work on the Upper Towy led
him to believe that sea level had formerly stood at about 400 feet and
580 feet above its present level. In the London area and much of the
south-east of England erosion platforms at about 200 and 400 feet
have been discussed in pioneer work by Dr. 8. W. Wooldridge (1928)
while Mr. J. F. N. Green has lately summarised the evidence of a
number of workers (including especially that of Barrow and Dewey)
in Devon and Cornwall; here, besides a 1,000 foot level, there is the
Bodmin Moor Terrace (750-800 feet) which Green believes to be of marine
origin, a terrace near 600 feet, also probably marine, and a wide platform
at about 400 feet which he separates into a higher wave-cut surface up
to 385 feet and a lower reaching up to 310 feet. Dr. 8. HE. Hollingworth,
by other means, has established for many places in western Britain the
existence of levels at 1,000-1,070 feet, 730-800 feet, 550-570 feet (less
well marked), 430 feet, and 320 feet (less well marked) ; some of them
had been recognised earlier by Greenly and others in North Wales.

The occurrence in so many of these records of features at 750-800
feet, 550-600 feet, and 400 feet, with a lower terrace not so certainly
marked off from the last-named, is, to say the least, very remarkable,
and is in close agreement with what the writer believes can be seen in
the Bristo] area.

_ It may be mentioned here that in his recent account of the terraces
of the Severn, Professor L. J. Wills (1938) mentioned a high terrace

426 A. E. TRUEMAN

(the Woolridge terrace) at about 200 feet ; he quoted evidence of the
occurrence of this terrace in the Bristol area, and regarded it as of
Pleistocene age. The general coincidence of this terrace with the wide
platform recognised at about the same level raises the question of the
age of the latter; it is, of course, conceivable that sea-level remained
for a very long time at approximately that height (as the wide extent of
the platform would suggest). The Woolridge terrace may represent
only the lowest part of what is here referred to as the 250-300 foot
platform, which may well be composite.

CONCLUSION

The writer has called attention to the extensive development of
level tracts in the Bristol area which he suggests are erosion platforms
comparable with those already noticed in other areas. It is probable
that these represent stages of erosion during late Tertiary (probably
Pliocene) times when sea-level was much higher in relation to the land! ;
in that case the story of these platforms throws light on a stage m
geological history which has been quite unknown in the area, the
“lost interval” between Cretaceous and Pleistocene. Some rather
speculative considerations of other scenic features which must have
been affected by these events are also introduced, in the hope that these
will stimulate further interest in these problems among members of the
Society.

In conclusion, the writer wishes to thank Professor W. W. Jervis
and Mr. O. D. Kendall for loan of levelling instruments used in the
course of the work, and his son (E. R. Trueman) for assistance in the

field.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE
Baulig, H. 1935. The Changing Sea Level. Institute of Brit.
Geographers, Public, No. 3.
Bull, A.J. 1936. Studies in the Geomorphology of the South Downs.
Proc. Geol. Assoc., xlvu, p. 99.
George, T. N. Shoreline Evolution in the Swansea District. Prec.
Swansea Scientific and F. N. Soc., U, p. 28.

Goskar, K. L. and A. E. Trueman. 1934. The Coastal Plateaux of
South Wales. Geol. Mag., LXXI, p. 468.

Green, J. F. N. 1936. The Terraces of Southernmost England.
Q.J.G.S., xciv, p. lvin.

1 A series of falls in sea-level may have occurred, rather than risings of the land.

EROSION LEVELS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT 2 PAT

Greenly, E. 1919. The Geology of Anglesey. Mem. Geol. Surv.

Hollingworth, 8. EH. 1937. High Level Erosional Platforms in
Cumberland and Furness. Proc. Yorks. Geol. Soc., XXIII, p. 159.

Hollingworth, 8. E. 1938. The Recognition and Correlation of
High-Level Erosion Surfaces in Britain; A Statistical Study.
@HG.S., Xciv, p. 55.

Jones, O. T. 1924. The Upper Towy Drainage-System. Jbid.,
Ixxx, p. (568.

Jones, O. T. 1930. Some Episodes in the Geological History of the
Bristol Channel Region. Pres. Add. Section C., Report Brit.
Assoc.

Miller, A. A. 1935. The Entrenched Meanders of the Herefordshire
Wye. Geog. Journ., LXXXVI, p. 160.

Miller, A. A. 1937. The 600-Foot Plateau in Pembrokeshire and
Carmarthenshire. IJbid., XC, p. 148.

North, F. J. 1929. The Evolution of the Bristol Channel. Cardiff.

Reynolds, 8. H. 1937. A Section of Rhaetic and Associated Strata
at Chipping Sodbury, Glos. Geol. Mag., LX XV, p. 97.

Trueman, A. H. 1938. The Scenery of England and Wales. London.

Varney, W. D. 1921. The Geological History of Pewsey Vale.
Proc. Geol. Assoc., xxx, p. 189.

Wills, L. J. 1938. The Pleistocene Development of the Severn, etc.
OreG.o. xeiv, p. 161.

Wooldridge, 8S. W. 1928. The 200-foot Platform in the London
Basin, Proc. Geol. Assoc., xxxix, p. 1.

Wooldridge, S. W. and J. F. Kirkaldy. 1936. River Profiles and
Denudation—-Chronology in Southern England. Geol. Mag.,
POOXITT, p. 1.

Wooldridge, 8. W. and R. S. Morgan. 1937. The Physical Basis of
Geography. An Outline of Geomorphology. London.

LEGEND oF FIGURES

Fie. 29.—Superposed profiles along north-south lines south of Bristol, at $ mile
intervals.
(a) South-east of Bristol; (6) South-west of Bristol.

Fie. 30.—Profiles drawn along spurs of Dundry Hill.
(a) From Dundry summit :—1. towards Winford ; 2. to Barrow Gurney ; 3. to
Bishopsworth.
(6) From middle Dundry :—1. to the south-south-west ; 2. to Chew Magna.
(c) From Maesknoll :—1. to the south; 2. towards Publow; 3. from north-
west of Maeskno}l to north.

Fig. 31.—Projected profile of an area, from a base line between Bitton on the
east and Long Ashton on the west, looking to the south. The marks on the
base line are ] mile apart.

Fie. 32.—Projected profile of an area, from a base line extending eastwards from
near Oldland, along the Avon valley, to a point near Bath, looking north-
east, The marks on the base line are 1 mile apart,

428

Fic.

Fig.

Fic.
Fic.

A. E. TRUEMAN

33.—Superposed profiles along east-west lines near Bradford-on-Avon, at
4 mile intervals, showing the ledge on the Cotswold dip slope. Horizontal
scale, 1 inch to a mile.
34.—Superposed profiles along east-west lines between Chipping Sodbury
and Pucklechurch, at 4 mile intervals, showing 200-300, and 400-foot plat-
forms. Horizontal scale, 1 inch to a mile.

35.—Superposed geological profiles along east-west lines across the Frome
valley near Yate, at 1 mile intervals.

36.—Gradient curve of River Frome above Winterbourne.

37.—Superposed geological profiles along north-south lines on the northern
border of the Mendips, through Ston Easton, at 4 mile intervals.

Lines used as in Fig. 35, except that a continuous line shows the outcrops of
the Carboniferous Limestone. Horizontal scale, one inch to 1} miles.

Proc. B.N.S., 4TH Series, Vou. VIII, Pr. IV. PLatE 33.

Fie.

Hic. 2
SOOMYLACRIS CELTICA BOLTON
To face p. 429} [Photo: Mfiss P. M. James

429

The Fossil Insects of the Bristol Coalfield
By F. 8. Wants, D:Se., EOG:S:
(Read in title 2nd March, 1939)

CONTENTS

1. InrTRODUCTION

2. NoTES ON SPECIMENS AND DESCRIPTION OF SOomMYLACRIS
CELTICA BOLTON

3. TABULATED LIST OF SPECIMENS

I.—INTRODUCTION

N view of the fact that Bristol has been an important centre for

geological collecting and interpretation for over a century it is surpris-
ing that only five examples of insects have been found in the local Coal
Measures. As some explanation of this fact, we may remember, on
the one hand, the difficulty of finding the remains of dead insects in
recent forest litter and on the other hand that all the above five speci-
mens are the result of incidental rather than purposeful collecting.
They have been discovered chiefly by research workers on the paleo-
botany of the seams, who were sufficiently discerning to realise that
certain markings were of animal rather than plant origin. The pencil-
like markings of both fossil wings and leaves are often superficially
similar in outline; the best distinguishing feature between them is
that the symmetrical markings on a leaf are quite distinct from the
asymmetrical veins on the wing of a fossil insect.

As nearly 30 of these fossil insects have been collected from the
Coal Measures of South Wales, it is fair to make the assumpticn that
a more intensive search in the local coal shales would result in an
important addition to the known fauna. Until far more specimens are
available our knowledge of the insect life of these early and conse-
quently interesting times must be incomplete.

II.—NOTES ON SPECIMENS

The late Dr. H. Bolton indicated the insects known up to 1931
(Proc, B,N.S., 4th Series, Vol. VII, 1931 (1932) 259-60), but in view

430 F. S. WALLIS

of the desirability of describing a recently discovered wing, it also
seemed advisable to summarise our knowledge to date.

In this part of the paper it will be convenient to deal with the speci-
mens in the chronological order of their discovery.

1. The first wing fragment was brought to the notice of the late
Dr. H. Bolton by Dr. E. A. Newell Arber. It was found at Tyning
Batch, Radstock, a waste tip which at that time was receiving material
from at least five collieries. The exact horizon of the fossil is thus in-
determinable. The specimen is now in the Sedgwick Museum, Cam-
bridge.

The fragment consists of the proximal portion of the wing of a giant
dragon-fly and probably formed about one-third of the whole. It was
originally described as Meganeura radstockensis Bolton, but has more
recently been transferred by Handlirsch to his new genus Boltonites.
The specimen is important, for it still stands as the only representative
of dragon-flies in the English Coal Measures, although they are well
known at Commentry in France.

2. For a few years previous to 1911 Dr. Bolton was working on
the faunal horizons in the Bristol Coalfield. In this research he was
fortunate enough to discover two small wing-fragments with their
counterparts, partly superimposed on each other, in the shales at
South Liberty Colliery. The horizon is in the Lower Coal Series and
was cited as 637 feet below the Bedminster Great Vein and 137 feet
above the Ashton Great Vein.

The fragments were identified as Genentomum (?) subacutum Bolton
and belong to the order Protorthoptera in which the resemblance in
venation and structure to locustid wings is remarkably close. The
Protorthoptera are probably the early ancestors of the Orthoptera,
an order of living insects which includes earwigs, cockroaches, and
crickets. The fragments are now in the collections of the Bristol
Museum and Art Gallery.

3. In 1930, when Dr. R. Crookall was investigating the plant remains
of the Coal Measure series at Coalpit Heath, he had the good fortune
to discover the hind-wing of a blattoid insect. The wing was found
complete with its negative in the shales over the High Vein seam and
belongs to the Farrington Group. It was fully described by Dr. H.
Bolton and presented by him to the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery in
1931. The wing was obviously blattoid in character and was stated
to belong to the tribe Hemimylacridia, a series of forms intermediate
between the families Archimylacride and Mylacride, It was thus the

THE FOSSIL INSECTS OF THE BRISTOL COALFIELD 431

first blattoid remain to be found in the Bristol Coalfield and was im-
portant in that it was a hind-wing and not an example of the more
usually-preserved fore-wing.

4. All the above remains are, however, fragmentary and it was
not until 1934 that Dr. R. Crookall discovered a complete wing with
counter impression in the shales over the High Middle Vein at Camerton
Colliery near Radstock. The specimen was presented to the Museum
of the Geological Survey. The wing is blattoid in character and thus
is an early ancestor of the present-day cockroaches. It was described
as Archéotiphe regularis by Dr. H. Bolton in the last paper which
he wrote.

5. Still another blattoid wing in an even more perfect state of
preservation was found by Dr. L. R. Moore in 1935. At this time
Dr. Moore was working on the faunal and floral content of the Coal
Measures and the discovery of such a wing is evidence of his discern-
ment in collecting. The specimen was submitted to Dr. Bolton and
identified by him as Soomylacris celtica. It was given to the Bristol
Museum and Art Gallery in 1938 and is here described and figured.
This species was first described and figured by Dr. H. Bolton (Q.J7.G.S.,
Vol, XC (1934) 293-5), from the Upper Coal Series (Pretoria Seam)
at Cily bebyll, near Swansea, South Wales—a distinctly higher horizon
than the one in which it was found at Bromley Colliery.

MATERIAL

A detached, incomplete, right fore-wing lying ventral surface upper-
most on greyish coal measure shale crowded with leaves of Annularia
and Neuropteris, Calamites and other vegetative débris. Bristol
Museum and Art Gallery collections, Reg. No. Cb 2692. Collected
and given by Dr. L. R. Moore, 1938. The discovery of the specimen
was reported by Professor A. E. Trueman and Dr. L. R. Moore in
Q.J.G.8., Vol. XCIII (1937) 236.

Horizon and Locatity

Upper Coal Series, Tenuis (or top of Phillipsi) zone, roof shales of

No. 6 seam. Bromley Colliery, near Pensford, Somerset.

DESCRIPTION

The wing is ovate, about twice as long as wide and narrows towards

a blunt apex. The length of the wing is 2.35 ems. and the width across

the anal area is 1.3 cms. The base is rounded inwards towards the

point of wing attachment and the humeral angle is large. The outer
E

432 F. S. WALLIS

margin is strongly convex whilst the inner margin is apparently almost
straight. Being an under surface the veins appear as slight ridges.
The surface of the wing is wrinkled and irregular. Faint indications
of cross nervures between the veins may be discerned especially on
the inner part of the anal area. The interpretation of the wing is
complicated by the superposition of a Neuropteris pinnule.

The anterior or costal margin is strongly marked. Two nodulose
elevations occur at base of costal area near the point of attachment of
the wing. The subcostal area is triangular. The subcosta has six
branches and ends in a long fork. The first and sixth branches are
simple, the second, fourth and fifth fork once and the third forks twice
and ends in three twigs.

The radius branches twice and ends in three twigs. The radial
sector arises low down near the base of the wing, covers a much larger
area than the radius and is much branched, ending on the present
margin of the wing in fourteen twigs.

As in all members of the genus Soomylacris the median divides into
two main branches and covers a small area. The outer of these
branches reaches the apical area as six twigs whilst the inner branch
ends as four twigs on the posterior border and has one branch which
does not reach the margin.

The cubital area is small and gives off four inner branches ; the first
of these forks twice whilst the other three are simple.

The anal furrow is deeply marked and the anal area is convex. The
first anal vein probably forks twice into four branches, one of which
has a marginal twig; the second is simple; the third divides into four
branches ; the fourth only forks once whilst the fifth is simple.

RELATIONSHIPS

The total number of insect remains found in the Coal Measures is so
relatively small, even in this age of intensive collecting, that seldom can
two specimens be referred to the same trivial name.

In this case, however, the wing is remarkably near the holotype.
The relative proportions of the areas in the two specimens are almost
identical. The chief differences lie in the fewer number of veins in
the anal and cubital areas of the specimen here described as com-

pared with the holotype,

THE FOSSIL INSECTS OF THE BRISTOL COALFIELD

433

III—TABULATED LIST OF SPECIMENS

The above notes have been re-drafted in tabulated form and the

species arranged in systematic order.

of the forms are more clearly seen.

——————— | ESO

2 Order Protor-
thoptera.

Family Gédi-

schiide.
Genentomum (?)
subacutum
Bolton.

SS ee

4 Order Blattoidea.

Family Archi-
mylacride.

Archeotiphe
regularis
Bolton.

3 | Tribe Hemimy-
lacridia gen.
and sp. indet.

Locality

Liberty
Colliery,
Bristol.

Camerton
Colliery,
near
Radstock,
Somerset.

near
Bristol.

Horizon

Lower Coal
Series, ? Ovalis
zone. 637 feet
below the Bed-
minster Great
Vein and 137
feet above the
Ashton Great
Vein.

Upper Coal

Series. Rad-
stock Group.
Stephanian,

High Middle
Vein.

Upper Coal
Series. Farring-
ton Group,
Tenuis zone,
shales over High
Vein Seam.

In this way the relationships

Original and
principal subse-
quent references

lL. O.J.G.S., Vol.
LXVII (1911)
334, Pl. XXVIL,
figs. 18, 19.

2. Fossil Insects
of the British
Coal Measures.
Pal. Soc. Mono.
(1921-22) 84, Pl.
V, figs. 4a and

O.J.G.S., Vol.
XC (1934) 287-8,
IE IDs, BS FE
and text fig. 7.

Procy, BANS:
4th. Series, Vol.
IV,

5 | Family Myla-
cridez.
Soomylacris
celtica Bolton.

Bromley
Colliery,
near
Pensford,
Somerset.

Upper Coal
Series, Tenuis
(or top of Phil-
lipsi) zone, roof
shales of No. 6
seam.

Figured and de-
scribed in this

paper.

Location and
Description of
Specimen

Bristol Museum and Art

Gallery collections, Reg.
No. C 972.

Holotvpe. Two. wing
fragments with counter-
part.

Geological Survey collec-
tions, Reg. Nos. 51232
and 51233. Plaster cast
in Bristol Museum and
Art Gallery collections,
Reg. No. Cb 2693.

Holotype. Left fore-
wing and counterpart.

Bristol Museum and Art

Gallery collections.
Reg. No. Cb 2098.
Described and figured
specimen. _Hind-wing

with counterpart.

Bristol Museum and Art

Gallery collections.
Reg. No. Cb 2692.
Described and _ figured
specimen. Right fore-
wing.

1 Order Proto-
donata.
Boltomites
vadstockensis
(Bolton).

and Art Gallery collections.

Tyning
Batch,
Radstock,
Somerset.

Upper Coal
Series, Farring-
ton Group

(? Tenuis zone).
Exact horizon
not known.

1. O--G:S\ Vol:
LXX (1914)
119-127. | Pls:

XVIII and XIX,
as Meganeura
radstocklensis.

2. Hand irsch, A.

Revision der Pal-
a@zoischen In-
sekten (1919)
57\

3. Fossil insects

of the British
Coal Measures.
Pal. Soc. Mone.,

(1921-22) 140-144.

Pex, tics al
text fig. 44.

PLATE 33

Fie. 1.—Soomylacris celtica Bolton.
Series, Tenuis (or top of Phillipsi) zone, roof shales of No. 6 seam.
Bromley Colliery, near Pensford, Somerset.

Reg. No. Cb 2692,

Sedgwick Museum, Cam-

bridge.

Plaster cast in Bristol
Museum and Art Gallery
collections. Reg. No.
Cbi27 a2:

Holotype. Fragment of
wing.

A right fore-wing. Upper Coal

Bristol Museum
4:

434 F. S. WALLIS

Fic. 2.—Soomylacris cellica Bolton. Showing venation. x 4.

In conclusion, I am indebted to Professor A. EK. Trueman and Dr.
LL. R. Moore for details concerning geological horizons of the specimens
and to Miss P. M. James for the excellent photograph.

Acknowledgements are also due to the Colston Research Society,
University of Bristol, for financial assistance in the publication of
this paper.

435
A List of Lepidoptera from Leigh Woods
By A. H. Preacu

(Read in title, 2nd March, 1939)

HE following is a list of Butterflies and Moths that I have

personally taken or observed in Leigh Woods during the years
from 1925-1938. Every month from February to December inclusive
has yielded some species. I have not visited the Woods in January,
and very rarely in August. The times of my visits have been variously
from 11 a.m. to 2.30 a.m. (Summer Time).

The earliest date for a capture—viz., The Spring Usher (Hyberma
leucophaearia)\—is 2nd February. There are certainly other species
in the Woods which I have not been fortunate enough to observe,
apart from the micro-Lepidoptera which I have not included.

RHOPALOCERA Habrosyne derasa.
Pieris Brassicae. Thyatira batis.
» rapae. Asphalia diluta.
>» nap. Polyploca flavicornis.
Euchloe cardamines. » ridens.

Dasychira pudibunda.

Porthesia similis.

Lymantria monacha.
Poeciliocampa populi.
Cosmotriche potatoria.

Drepana falcataria.

harpagula.

(The only _ locality
known in the British
Isles for this species.)

Gonepteryx rhamni.
Polygonia C-album.
Vanessa urticae.

5 10.
Pyrameis atalanta.
Argynnis paphia.
Parage egeria. »

» megaera.

Aphantopus hyperanthus.

Coenonympha pamphilus. ,

Zephyrus quercus. » binaria.
Thecla w-album. », cultraria.
Oyaniris argiolus. » lacertinaria.

Cilix glaucata.
Spilosoma menthastri.

Ochlodes venata.

HETEROCERA i lubricipeda.
Chaerocamha elpenor. Hipocrita jacobea.
Stauropus fagi. Demas corylt.
Drymonia chaonia. Acronycta megacephala.
Pheosia dictaeoides. a psi.
Notodonta trepida. - rumicis.
Lophopteryx camelina. Craniophora ligustri.
Pterostoma palpina. Agrotis segetem.

Phalera bucephala. sa ample

436

Agrotis exclamationis.

>» wpsrlon.

NE SOUGCIO:
Noctua c-nigrum.

» triangulum.

» brunnea.

» primulae.

» rubr.

», «xanthographa.

», plecta.
Triphaeua comes.

a pronuba.
Aplecta nebulosa.
Barathra brassicae.
Mamestra oleracea.

be thalassina.
Charaeas graminis.
Apamea gemina.

He secalis.
Xylophasia rurea.
6 lithoxylea.
a monoglypha.
i hepatica.

Miselia oxyacanthae.
Euplexia lucipara.
Phlogophora meticulosa.
Leucania pallens.
impura.
a conigera.

Grammesia trigrammica.

Caradrina morpheus.
Pe taraxaci.
Amphipyra pyramidea.
Taeniocampa gothica.

9 pulverulenta.
29 stabilis.
9 ancerta.
39 munda.

Calymnia trapezina.
Amathes macilenta.
3 circellanis.
os helvola.
Cirrhia citrago.
Xanthia lutea.
Orrhodia vaccinit.

» lugula.
Ewpsilia satellitra.
Graptolitha ornithopus.
Rivula sericealis.
Scoliopteryx libatrix.

A. H. PEACH

Plusia moneta.

>» chrysitis.

+» gamma.
Zanclognatha grisealis.
Hypena proboscidalis.
Brephos parthenias.
Geometra papilionaria.

a vernaria.

Euchloris pustulata.
Iodis lactearia.
Hemithea strigata.
Acidalia aversata.

= bisetata.
e; dimidiata.
a remutaria.

Ephyra annulata.
Anaitis plagiata.
Lobophora polycommata.

5p carpinata.
Be viretata.
Cheimatobia brumata.
we boreata.

Triphosa dubitata.
Scotosia rhamnata.
Eustroma silaceata.
Cidaria pyraliata.

» fulvata.

if corylata.

ae truncata.
Lampropteryx suffumata.
Coremia unidentaria.

Aa ferrugata.

Ss designata.
Amoebe viridaria.
Oporabia dilutata.
Xanthorhoe montanata.

oe fluctuata.
5 rivata.
aA sociata.

Eulype hastata.
Mesolenca ocellata.
Melanthia procellata.
Perizonia flavofasciata.
Camptogramma bilineata.
Hydriomena furcata.
Anticlea badiata.

rubidata.

PA nigrofasciaria.
Asthena candidata.

ie luteala.

A LIST OF LEPIDOPTERA FROM LEIGH WOODS 437

Asthena blomeri.
Eupithecia vulgata.

33 lariciata.
cs castigata.
i, subfulvata.
haworthiata.
af abbreviata.
Chloroclystis coronata.
3 rectangulata.
Phibalapteryx vitalbata.
35 tersata.
Abraxas sylvata.
53 grossulariata.

Loniaspilis marginata.
Ligdia adustata.
Bapta temerata.
Cabera pusaria.

» exanthematea.

Metrocampa margaritaria.

Ennomos alniaria.
Selenia bilwnaria.

», tetralwnaria.
Hygrochroa syringaria.
Gonodontis bidentata.

Himera pennaria.
Crocalis elinguaria.
Ourapteryx sambucaria.
Eurymene dolabraria.
Opisthograptis luteolata.
Epione advena.
Venilia maculata.
Hybernia leucophaearia.
aurantiaria.
marginaria.

‘: defoliaria.
Anisopteryx aescularia.
Phigalia pedaria.
Pachys betularia.
Boarmia gemmaria.

aft repandata.
Tephrosia bistortata.
crepuscularia.
luridata.

ae punctularia.
Thamnonoma wauaria.
Lozogramma petraria.
Hepialus lupulina.

P hecta.

92.

438
A Survey of Steep Holm

(Read in ttle, 2nd March, 1939)

CONTENTS
PAGE
I. Iyrropuction anp Historicat Notes, by L. Harrison
Matthews, M.A... ba 438
II. PHystoGRapHy AND GEOLOoGy, by ‘Stanity Smith, M. mC
DSe.,.EG.S. ce i i. 4pd
II. Baneeny by Macgregor Ses DY ae. P, zs 8, aI .. 452
IV. Tromas Ciark’s ACCOUNT OF A View To SterP Hotm
in 1831, by T. Bruce Dilks, B.A., F.R. Hist... 28 .. 460
V. VERTEBRATA, by H. Tetley, B.Sc., F.Z.S. a .. 464
VI. Lanp INVERTEBRATES, EXCLUDING INSECTS,
by J. H. Hamilton, M.Sc. fe ‘ .. 468
VII. Enromotoey, by G. W. Parnell, B.Sc., MS.B.E. in
VIII. Tue Snore Fauna or STEEP Horn (being SruDrEs
ON THE BioLogy or THE BristoL CHANNEL, III)
by C. M. Yonge, D.Sc. and A. J. Lloyd, B.Sc. .. .. 474

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL NOTES

By L. Harrison Marturews, M.A.

TEKEP HOLM is a limestone island lying in the Severn estuary

between Somerset and Glamorgan, two and a quarter miles from
its twin island of Flat Holm. The topographical features are not
described here as they are treated in some detail in a later section.

Like all islands, Steep Holm exercises a peculiar fascination for
many people, and several visits have been paid to it by persons with
interests more serious than those of the casual tripper. In 1938
Mr. H. E. Matthews and the writer organised a small expedition, which
spent three days and two nights on the island in July, to carry out the
survey of which the present report is the result. Permission for the
visit and much help in the arrangements were given by the courtesy
of the lessee, Mr. Harry Cox of Brean Down, and assistance in the cost
of publication of this survey has been given by the Colston Research

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 439

Society of the University of Bristol. The survey was made in an
endeavour to amplify the results obtained on the previous visits of
naturalists and to investigate the ecological relationships of the fauna
and flora.

History

The history of the human occupation of the island is obscure until
quite recent times, and in compiling this summary the writer has made
full use of the authorities cited in a later section.

A Priory dedicated to St. Michael once stood on the island. A
charter from the muniment room of Berkeley Castle shows that it was
in existence and adding to its original endowments at the close of the
twelfth century in the time of Richard I, but nothing is known of its
founder or the date of its founding. Bates Harbin shows that it was
probably founded between 1100 and 1166 by one of the de Ewyas
family, who owned lands in Somerset and Herefordshire. In the late
thirteenth century the community consisted of a minimum of two
Austin canons, of whom the elder was the Prior. One William, who is
mentioned in a document of 1236, is the only Prior whose name has
been preserved. A representative of the de Ewyas family, Robert de
Tregoz, who was killed at the battle of Evesham in 1265, was the patron
in 1260, when he transferred the Priory with all its belongings to
Studleigh Priory in Warwickshire. By the terms of his gift it is evident
that he intended to retain a religious community on the island but
his intention appears never to have been fulfilled. No reference
later than 1260 is known regarding the community. John Smyth,
writing at the end of the sixteenth century, stated that Maurice, the
third Lord Berkeley, rebuilt the Priory at the beginning of the fourteenth
century, but Bates Harbin shows that this, too, was probably an
intention that was never fulfilled.

The legend that the monk Gildas (A.D. 516-572) tock refuge in the
island and there composed his Liber querulus de Excidio Britanniae
appears to rest solely upon the statement of Leland who, writing a
thousand years after the time of Gildas, quotes a fragment of an
unknown author to the effect that Gildas and Cadocus retired to two
islands, Cadocus to one near the Welsh coast and Gildas to one near
the English. The names of the islands are not given, but are supplied
by Leland as Ronnet and Kchin (Steep and Flat Holm). Gildas, of
course, may have been upon the island, but the evidence is of the
flimsiest.

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A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 441

In 918 the Danes took refuge on either Steep or Flat Holm after
their defeat at Watchet, and used the island as their headquarters
for raids on the mainland, until they were forced to go to South Wales
for want of food, many of them having died of hunger. The ambiguity
is due to some of the copies of the Saxon Chronicle reading Steep and
others Flat Holm, but the latter is usually accepted as being correct.

The story that Githa, the mother of King Harold, sojourned on Steep
Holm in 1067 before leaving by sea for St. Omer, appears to be incorrect
and due to a mistranslation of the Saxon Chronicle, which states that
‘ Bradanreolice ” (Broad, i.e., Flat Holm) was the island where she
stayed. The Saxon name for Steep Holm was “ Steopanreolice.”

There appears to be no more written history of the island until
the eighteenth century. It is said to have been the rendezvous of
smugglers and pirates, but the many stories concerning them that
were in circulation up to about fifty years ago are now lost. The
ownership passed through various hands, but the statement that in the
early part of the nineteenth century it lay with the Corporation of
Bristol is incorrect. Since 1373, when Edward III granted a charter
making Bristol a county, the island has formed the western point of
the boundary of the county of Bristol, and the boundary stone, a
modern successor of older stones, stands at the foot of the cliff near
the landing beach.

J. W. White shows that the botanist Turner, when Dean of Wells,
must have visited the island in the sixteenth century, and Lobelius
soon after him. A century later James Newton was there botanising
on behalf of Ray, and in July, 1773, the Rev. J. Lightfoot and Sir
Joseph Banks visited the island in search of plants. Collinson
records that in 1776 a ‘“‘ tenement” was built for the convenience of
storm-bound fishermen, from which it would appear that the island
was not then permanently inhabited. Thomas Clark’s account of his
visit seems to imply that there were only some fishermen living there in
1831. Further, the census returns of the county show no population
on the island for each decade from 1801 to 1861 inclusive, but in each
decade from 1871 to 1901 inclusive a return varying from five to nine
inhabitants is given. Knight says that in 1902 the only persons on
the island were a few gunners in charge of the forts. Certain it is
that for a very long period a successful fishery was carried on there.
A spit of shingle runs out into the tide-way from the east end of the
island, and on it was a long row of stakes from which bag-shaped nets
were hung. The ebbing tide swept the fish into the nets which were
emptied by the fishermen at low water. William Withering, the editor

449 . L. HARRISON MATTHEWS

of the seventh edition of his father’s British Plants, paid a visit in
June, 1826, and refers to the “little enclosure with ruinous walls and
few remaining vestiges,” evidently the old Priory garden, now
obliterated by the Garden battery. He says that no inhabitant had
dwelt upon the island within the memory of man “ save the solitary
fisherman who makes the crazy hut his cheerless abode, and that only
through the dreary season of winter.”

In 1832 Col. Tynte of Haswell, Bridgwater, purchased the island
and built a house near the landing place. Later he leased the island,
and the house was turned into an inn. The innkeeper claimed that
the island was in no parish and so no license was necessary. About
1884 this claim was challenged, and the Court of Queen’s Bench decided
that there was no ground for the claim for exemption. According
to Knight, Steep Holm was locally regarded as a sanctuary, and about
1840 a Weston innkeeper, to avoid being arrested for debt, lived there

for seven years, only going home occasionally on Sundays. The |

island is still extra-parochial, and was never included in the parish
of Brean, as stated by Knight. About three years ago it was attached
to the west ward of Weston-super-Mare, but for Parliamentary purposes
only.

During the war scare of the 1860’s the island was fortified by the
War Office. In 1867 six batteries and a barracks for about fifty men
were built, the armament being ten 7-inch muzzle loading rifled guns.
The batteries are protected by earth banks and have underground
ammunition stores attached to them. The barracks are most sub-
stantially built and are supplied with water from a 49,000 gallon
reservoir which is filled by the rain. After its earliest years the garrison
appears never to have consisted of more than a few men. In 1899 the
War Office decided to replace the guns with modern breech loaders.
As they were in doubt whether the guns should be in barbets or behind
shields, a dummy 9.2 in. gun, protected by a Harveyed shield of nickel
steel thirty feet long and three inches thick, was mounted at the
Rudder Rock battery. The second class cruiser Arrogant fired some
hundreds of rounds from her 6-inch, 4.7-inch and smaller guns at ranges
of 1,800 to 2,000 yards, and the shield was greatly damaged and the
cement wall demolished. The remains of the shield and wall still
lhe there. The modern armament appears never to have been mounted,
and in 1903 the island was abandoned by the War Office. The guns,
weighing just on seven tons apiece, were dismantled and sold as scrap
to a Cardiff firm which, however, found the task of removing them too
great, so that they lie there to this day. One of them has been cut

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 443

in half with an oxy-acetylene burner, and attempts have been made
to cut others, but the intensely hard inner lining of the bore evidently
defeated the efforts at cutting them into manageable pieces for removal
down the cliff.

The batteries were named the Garden, Split Rock, Rudder Rock,
Summit, Laboratory, and Tombstone batteries; the origin of the
first and last names will appear below, that of three others is
topographical, but why the Laboratory battery was so named
remains a puzzle.

Prior to the early 1880’s the island was farmed and the inn kept by
a family (Harris) which then migrated to Flat Holm where some of its
representatives still live. A son of the tenants (Davies) who succeeded
them has given Mr. Harry Cox the following reminiscences of the
two or three years which he spent there asa boy. Garden produce and
vegetables of all kinds were raised, oats and barley were grown, and
the whole of the island, not otherwise cropped, was mown for hay.
Live stock was kept, including young cattle, pigs, goats, a donkey and
poultry. The inn, which contained some thirteen or fourteen rooms,
did not have many visitors beyond day trippers who came in boats
from Weston or occasionally by tug-boat from Cardiff. The permanent
employees of the informant’s family were a maid fer the house, and
two farm labourers. Stores were brought to the island once or twice
a week both for the garrison, which consisted of six to eight men,
and for the inn, by the yacht Spray, owned by a Mr. Perry of Weston.
Good water was obtained from the near-by well, filled from a spring,
which gave an ample supply for all purposes.

The tenants owned a pilot cutter, which was kept moored off the
island, and several flat-bottomed Weston-built boats. During the
fishing season in the winter six or eight fishermen were employed.
The nets on the bar caught fish of all sorts, but principally sprats
and whiting. Lines with hooks were also set for conger, skate and
cod which were caught in large quantities. Catches varied, being
sometimes as much as three tons a tide, and were usually taken to
market at Cardiff in the pilot cutter.

The guns of the batteries were fired periodically “to keep them in
order,” and officers used to come regularly from Bristol to spect
the fortifications, staying for about a week at a time.

Other tenants came to the island when this family left, and at some
time between their arrival and 1900 the inn was abandoned, for it had
become ruinous by 1902. These tenants must have occupied the
house on the summit, for the barracks were still used by the garrison

444 L. HARRISON MATTHEWS

until 1903 ; in fact, the summit house may have been built by them.
Very few visits appear to have been paid to the island during the
first decade of the present century because the tenant farmer discouraged
the landing of strangers.

About 1910 a change of tenancy again took place and the island was
inhabited until the middle 1920’s, farming and fishing being carried on.
The building inhabited during this period was the barracks, all the
others being by then ruinous. The last remnant of this tenant’s
live stock, an old brown goat, was still alive in 1933, but it has since
disappeared. For a few years prior to 1931, when the present lessee
took the island, 1t was uninhabited, and the old spirit of the Danes was
once more abroad, for at least one piratical raid was made, during
which the buildings were broken into and looted of their contents.
There is a story of the raiders dumping the Encyclopedia Britannica
into the sea, volume by volume, in order to lighten their craft as they
were being overhauled by a pursuing boat from Weston. Another raid,
resulting in prosecutions and fines, was afterwards frustrated by Mr.
Cox himself.

The island is now kept under strict supervision as a bird sanctuary.

The only ships known ever to have been wrecked on, or near, Steep
Holm are the West Indiaman Rebecca, wrecked in 1810, and the Spanish
barque Anita, which was lost with all hands in 1901.

LITERATURE

Steep Holm is mentioned in many books, and the most important
references are here noted. The origin of the story about Gildas in
Leland’s Collectanea has already been mentioned, as has the mis-
translation of the Saxon Chronicle which led to the erroneous story of
Githa. Dugdale’s Baronage, published in 1675, contains the first
reference to the Priory, and the information was probably taken from
John Smyth’s sixteenth century manuscript Lives of the Berkeley
Family. Collinson’s History and Antiquities of the County of Somerset,
1791, devotes a section to the island, and this is repeated almost
verbatim in Rutter’s Delineations of the north western Division of the
County of Somerset, 1829.

The botanists seem to have been the most energetic explorers of the
island, and to the earlier visits already mentioned must be added a
considerable number to which reference is made in the section of this
symposium dealing with the flora.

In 1883 John Storrie took a large party from Cardiff for a day’s
outing to Steep Holm. The results of the trip were published in the

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 445

Transactions of the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society for that year, with
a list of the plants, shells, insects and fossils found, and an illustration
showing the peony growing in its natural habitat, and of the tombstone,
described below. The party went by the paddle-steamer Nelson and
picnicked on the summit of the island. Theinn was then still inhabited,
as reference is made to it and to the landlady.

In 1902 F. A. Knight published his well-known Sea Board of Mendip,
which contains a useful and interesting account of both Steep and
Flat Holm.

In May, 1914, seven members of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society”
paid a day’s visit to the island, and the result of their researches was
published in the Proceedings of the Society for that year, with lists
of plants, mollusca, land crustacea, arachnids, myriapods and insects.

In 1916 the Rev. Prebendary H. A. Bates Harbin published in the
Proceedings of the Somerset Natural History and Archaeological Society
an account of the Priory of St. Michael, and printed for the first time
five charters from the muniment room at Berkeley Castle, together
with two other thirteenth century references, one of which concerns
two lay brothers who, in 1243, were found guilty of larceny by the jury
of Winterstoke hundred.

The first two volumes of the Victoria County History of Somerset,
all that have yet been published, do little more than barely mention
the island.

A note on the geology of Steep Holm by Dr. Stanley Smith and
G. D. Willan appears in the Geological Magazine for 1937, and the latest
account of the island is an illustrated article, by Mr. Harry Cox, in
Country Infe for January, 1939.

THE RvuINsS

In 1938, and on a previous visit in 1935, some attention was paid
to the ruins of the Priory, and part of the foundations was excavated.
Knight tells us that, “ before the construction of the batteries in 1867,
the walling of the priory was still standing to a height of about seven
feet, faced with dressed stone of the island. At the base was a plinth of
sandstone three feet broad. Most of this is now buried, but part,
from which the facing has been removed, is visible near the roofless
ruins near the top of the path. During the construction of the Garden
battery, built on the alleged site of the prior’s garden, the foundations
of the priory were in great part laid bare. One chamber was in such
good repair that it was used as living quarters by the foreman. In
clearing out the earth to lay a wooden floor the whole space was found

446 L. HARRISON MATTHEWS

to be packed with skeletons laid close together side by side only a
few inches below the surface. Near by, many bones of deer, brass
rings of primitive workmanship, a coin with the figure of an archer,
as well as many old pieces of money said to show no legible inscription
or device, were found. There was a tradition that a tormer tenant of
the island dug up a pot of coins, but of them there is no trace now
known.” Mr. Harry Cox has found that the bones were taken to
a show-cave on the mainland and exhibited there, but all further trace
of them appears to be lost.

* The wall of which Knight speaks as still visible is the southern wall

of a building, and is 16 yards in length. At its east end the foundations

of another wall, running at right angles towards the north for 14 yards
can be traced. Parallel with the latter and four yards to the west is
the foundation of another wall running north for about 12 yards from
the south wall. At the west end of the south wall further foundations
run north for about 5 yards. The foundations thus form three sides
of each of two adjoining rectangular enclosures, but the walls on the
north side which should close them are not visible. The south wall
rises to a height of about three feet above the outside ground level,
but the others are visible only on the surface. The interior of the
building is filled with earth and stones nearly to the top of the south
wall. Our party cleared a portion of the interior by digging trenches
parallel to the south, east, and first west walls.

The south and east walls are 2 {t. 6 ins. to 3 ft. wide (the outside facing
being removed), and show traces of plastering on the inner surface
down to about 6 ins. above the bedrock, which we reached at a depth
of about 4 ft. 6 ins. below the level of the top of the wall. The first
west wall appears to be of later date and is of lighter construction.
It is 2 ft. to 2 ft. 6 ins. wide, and 18 ins. below the top we came to the
footings which projected for about 6 ins. on each side, and extended
down a further 18 ins. This wall is not founded upon the rock as are
the others. On the inside of the foot of the east wall, 8 yards from the
south wall, was a recent hearth of loosely laid bricks surrounded by
much ash. It is tempting to surmise that this building is the one
referred to by Knight in which the burials were found, and this hearth
was used when the building was occupied by the foreman during
the construction of the Garden battery. Certainly the east wall must
have been standing to some considerable height in recent times, for
such a hearth would be made only within a building of some sort.

The infilling of the building consisted of a superficial layer of earth
1 foot thick, above a mass of earth and stones 2 ft. 6 ins. to 3 ft. 6 ins,

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 44.7

thick, lying on the rock. In the underlying layers of earth and stones,
especially in their upper parts, a number of objects were found. Their
nature and distribution show that the infilling is not of ancient origin,
and it appears to be rubbish moved from elsewhere. Nearly all the
stones are of small size, and do not appear to be derived from any
building ; the surrounding walls have been removed and have not just
collapsed inwards. The objects found included bones and pottery
fragments: the latter have been examined and identified as far as
possible by Mr. H. W. Maxwell, who assisted in the work of excavation.
The bones are those of domestic animals including sheep, young oxen,
pig and horse, the latter represented by a single tooth. The pottery
is very mixed, the oldest fragment being part of the foot of a neolithic
bowl. Many pieces of coarse unglazed earthenware, which might
be assigned to any date during the last thousand years, were
found. With them were associated fragments of buff-coloured
medizval ware with greenish glaze, sixteenth and seventeenth century
reeded ware, and shards of modern china. Several pieces of dressed
freestone were also found, some with dowel holes; these had evidently
formed part of the window of an ecclesiastical building, presumably
the Priory.

To the north of the Priory ruin, between it and the Tombstone
battery, is an area of ground covered with loose stones forming a low
mound. They evidently do not lie there naturally and may represent
the disintegrated ruins of a building, but we had no time to investigate
them.

Built into the wall of the sidearm store of the Tombstone battery is
a piece of a thirteenth century stone coffin lid or memorial slab of hard
blue lias. The edge is moulded and the centre bears part of an incised
fleury cross. An inscription on it records that it was excavated near by
in 1867, during the construction of the batteries.

Just west of the Priory and slightly to the north stands the roofless
ruin of a cottage. It is 11 yards in length from east to west, and 5
yards in width. There is a doorway in the south wall and a chimney
at each end. Traces of a transverse wall dividing it into two rooms
remain. At the west end a corbelled alcove surrounds the chimney,
and within it is a corbelled recess in the wall. The upper part of the
west wall shows traces of a loft or upper room. There are windows in
the north, south and east walls. A small stone annexe has been built
as a lean-to outside the west wall. We removed the bushes and elder
trees growing within the ruin, and cleared out much of the fallen masonry
covering the floor, but found no objects giving any clue as to its former

448 L. HARRISON MATTHEWS

inhabitants. It would appear, however, that this is the cottage built
in 1776, and occupied by fishermen when Thomas Clark visited it and
described it so graphically in 1831.

Further to the west again is a large enclosure bounded by a stone wall,
with the ruins of another building at its northern edge. This building
is of more modern origin than the hut, and has evidently been inhabited
in fairly recent times, for, although it is roofless, some of the grates and
a small kitchen stove are still in place, as are the wooden door and
window jambs. Roofing felt, too, still covers the collapsed roof of a
small shed. At one side of the house there is a cemented tank, which
is still watertight and is filled with rain water. The enclosure was
evidently cultivated as a garden, and lines of stones still show the

boundaries of the garden beds. This is not, however, the old garden —

of the Priory, which is said now to be covered by the Garden battery.
Both the enclosure and the building appear to have been made since
the fortifications were constructed in 1867.

In the area bounded by the east wall of the garden, the first cottage,

and the Priory, the ground has been much disturbed and is covered
by several mounds of earth and loose stones. The writer has heard
stories from some of the Weston fishermen to the effect that a former
resident on the island had said that a large number of skeletons lay
buried near the surface under the east wall of the garden. ‘The fisher-
men understood this statement to refer to the existing wall of the
enclosure. In 1935 and 1938 the writer searched carefully on both
sides of the wall, and made trial diggings, but with no success. The
ground is very stony and most unpromising, and soil which appears
to be undisturbed lies very close to the surface. It may be that this
story is a garbled version of that told by Knight about the skeletons.
It may really reter to the east wall of the Priory, where the modern
hearth was found in 1938, pointing to the possibility of its being the
_ building mentioned by Knight as the one where the skeletons were
~ found when the wooden floor was laid in 1867.

The only further building on the summit, other than the batteries
and the barracks, is a lime kiln just south of the garden. This was
used during the building of the fortifications, and near-by is a small
quarry from which the stone was dug. On the steep slope of the island
above the Calf Rock—the ancient landing place from which a path
leads to the summit—stands another lime kiln. On this slope, too,
a platform was constructed which was used as a base for a derrick for
landing stores and equipment when the fortifications were built.
A recess beside the path above accommodated the winch.

A SURVEY OF STEEP WOLM 449

The ruin of the inn at the foot of the cliff is now merely an empty
shell, only the four walls still standing. A short way up the cliff path
behind it is the ruin of a small cottage. This is built against the cliff,
which forms the back wall of it. Judging from its style and state of
preservation, it must be contemporary with the inn, though its position
seems to be much more suitable for a fisherman’s shelter than that of
the much older ruined cottage on the summit. Itis the least dilapidated
of the ruins, for it still has a roof, and was used until recent years as a
store house for fishing gear. Fishing was last carried on in the winter
of 1931-32, and a number of the old fishing stakes still stand on the bar.

A little to the west of the inn and cottage is the well, a shallow basin
filled by a spring in the rock above. Knight says that it goes almost
or quite dry during long droughts, though the inhabitants in the early
1880’s found that it gave an ample supply for all purposes. Before
the construction of the barracks all the water, apart from rain water,
used at the fisherman’s cottage on the summit must have been carried
up from this well. In recent years, though it has never dried, it has
gone very low in hot summers.

On the beach below the inn can be traced the remains of an artificial
harbour, which dried out at low tide. It lies in a natural angle of the
rocks which formed two sides of it, and quay walls had been built out
on the east and north sides, the entrance being at the north-east corner.
The walls are now entirely demolished, but the line of the foundations
can still be traced, and the stump of a wooden pile which stood at one
side of the entrance, evidently as a fender, is still in position. The
foundations are made of large blocks of stone from the beach. This
boat harbour, which would have accommodated small ships up to about
30 or 40 tons, judging by the width of the entrance, is apparently
contemporary with the inn, and must have been demolished by the sea
not long after its construction, for no reference to its existence has been
found in any document beyond the projected “ pier for fishing boats ”’
mentioned by Thomas Clark in 1831.

CAVES

Knight states that “on the north side there is a cave running deep
into the island. It is difficult of access, and although above high water
mark, it is only to be reached at low tide. It was visited about 1880
by two men from Weston, who brought away a number of stalactites
of great size and beauty. They also saw bats in great numbers clinging
to the roof. The explorers crawled through a narrow passage into a

450 L. HARRISON MATTHEWS

much more spacious chamber beyond. From the roof of this hung many
fine stalactites and the floor was covered with a sheet of water.”

In 1935, with some members of the Wessex Cave Club, we found,
after some search, a cave that appeared to answer this description.
The mouth is about forty feet above the cliff foot, and with considerable
difficulty we got into it, after trying unsuccessfully to approach it by
rope from above, a manceuvre that was defeated by the overhanging
nature of the cliff. The interior of the cave, however, does not agree
with Knight’s description. It is not of any large size, and consists of
an inner and an outer chamber. The outer chamber is about twelve
feet in height, and from one corner of it a steep ramp leads to the inner
chamber, which curves round in a semi-circular shape so that its furthest
end communicates again with the outer chamber. The levels are such
that this connection forms a chute or chimney opening into the roof of
the outer chamber. There are no large stalactites, or signs of there
having been any. The floor of the inner chamber is covered with a
sheet of stalagmite under which hes a mass of red cave-earth. With
the erosion of the cliff the cave has been diminished in size so that the
stalagmite floor and underlying earth appear in section. Embedded
in the exposed earth were fragments of sub-fossil bones, one of which
has been identified as that of Red or Rein Deer. On many parts of
the walls of the inner chamber there was a curious soft efflorescence of
stalactitic material. In the chute connecting the roof of the outer
with the floor of the inner chamber was a mass of small stones cemented
together with stalagmite, presenting the appearance of a petrified
cascade. The cave is evidently an old swallet, filled in with cave-earth
before the separation of the island from the mainland.

Although the approach to this cave agrees with Knight’s description,
it appears that his account of the interior refers to another. There
is on the island another large cave, which was called “the church”
by a former tenant. This cave could be approached from the land
by some precarious scrambling, but its site has not yet been
re-discovered.

There is a third small cave at the foot of the cliff not far from the
landing beach. Its mouth is entirely submerged at high water, and a
large pool fills the entrance at low tide, necessitating a wade up to the
waist in order to enter it. Within the narrow mouth it opens out to a
chamber of some size, and a beach of fine shingle lies at the far end.
It contains nothing of particular interest.

Proc. B.N.S., 4tTH Series, Vor. VIII, Pr. IV.

RuppER Rock, THE WESTERN EXTREMITY OF STEEP HOLM
To face p. 451]

PLATE 34.

[Photo - H.C.

451
II

PiPySIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY
By Sranztey Smitn, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.

TEEP HOLM, one of several islands which rise out of the Bristol

Channel, lies five miles due west of Weston-super-Mare, Somerset,
and about the same distance 8.S.E. of the nearest point on the
Glamorganshire coast. It is, however, only three and a half miles
W. 15°. N. of Brean Down, the promontory on the south side of the
bay in which Weston is situated. The island is elliptical in outline,
with its longest axis orientated east and west, in which direction it is
950 yards long. The shorter axis (north and south) is only 350 yards.

Both at its eastern and western ends the island is drawn out into
points, Rudder Rock and Tower Rock. At low tide it is surrounded
by a platform of rock and beach approximately 120 feet wide, and at
the eastern end a spit of sand and shingle stretches outwards for a
distance of 330 yards. Platform and spit are entirely covered by
the sea at high tide.

From the surrounding platform the island rises as vertical cliffs
to a height of fifty feet or more, and then slopes steeply up, at angles
approximating 3O°, to the fairly level surface of the summit. The
sloping sides are broken in places by ledges of vertical rock.

The surface rises from its south-western edge, where it is only a
little more than 160 feet above the sea, towards its north-eastern edge,
reaching its highest point (256 feet O.D.) in about two thirds of the
distance. North and east of the summit the ground falls away to a
height of about 220 feet.

The island is formed entirely of limestone, of Lower Carboniferous
age, and consists of beds which represent only the middle part of the
massive limestone of the Avon Gorge, and belong chiefly, if not entirely,
to the Syringothyris Zone. The strata are folded into an anticline,
the axis of which runs E.N.E.-W.S.W., and the southern limb of this
is thrust over the northern. The rocks are mainly of light colour and
are in part oolitic. Steep Holm and its neighbouring island Flat
Holm are formed from continuations of the Mendip folds.

452

Ill
BOTANY

By Macerecor SKENE, D.Sc., F.L.S.

ORE attention has been paid to the botany of Steep Holm —
than to other branches of its natural history. The following
visits of botanists have been recorded :—-

(1) W. Turner, a probable visit before 1562 (Turner, 1568).

(2) M. de l’Obel, in 1581 (de I’Obel, 1605).

(3) A note of botanical interest in The Account Book of the Manor of
Norton Beauchamp of about 1625 (White, 1912).

J. Newton, about 1688 (Ray, 1724).

J. Banks and J. Lightfoot, in 1773 (Riddelsdell, 1905).

F. P. Wright, about 1803 (Turner and Dillwyn, 1805).

W. Withering fil., in 1826 (Withering, 1830).

T. Butler, about 1845 (Cardew and Baker, 1912).

T. Clark, in 1830 (Dilks, 1939).

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, in 1877 (Storrie, 1878).

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society in 1883 (Storrie, 1883).

T. B. Flower, in 1887 (Murray, 1891).

Rue. Murray and others, in 1891 (Murray, 1891).

C. G. Druce, in 1909 (Druce, 1910).

Bristol Naturalists’ Society, in 1915 (Roper, 1915).

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, in 1923 (McLean and Hyde, 1924).
Party of Bristol Naturalists, in 1938 (this paper):

Of these visits it may be noted that the first record of Smyrnium
Olusatrum comes from (1); the doubtful record of Suaeda fruticosa
from (2); the first records of Alliwm Ampeloprasum from (3); of
Paeonia mascula from (6) and of Plantago coronopus, var. Sabrinae
from (8). Most of the plants growing on the island were recorded
on the visits numbered 10 to 13, and a few additions were made on the
later visits.

The following is a complete list of the plants so far discovered ; the
number after each refers to the list given above and indicates the
original discovery. The plant list is in the order of the London
Catalogue Ed. 11.

Clematis Vitalba, 11 Ranunculus bulbosus, 13
Anemone nemorosa, 11 a. Ficaria, 11
Ranunculus acris, 11 : Paeonia mascula, 6

Ranunculus repens, 11 Laurus nobilis, 17

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 453

Papaver dubium, 13 Erodium cicutarium, 11
Fumaria capreolata, 13 » maritumum, 5
Le officonalis, 11 Oxalis Acetosella, 11
Cheiranthus Cheirr, 11 Acer Pseudoplatanus, 11
Barbarea vulgaris, 11 Genista anglica, 11
Cardamine hirsuta, 11 Ononis repens, 11
Erophila verna, 13 Medicago lupulina, 13
Cochlearia officinalis, 11 Trifolium pratense, 13
Bs danica, 4 ae repens, 11
Sisymbrium Thalianum, 11 Ha procumbens, 13
bi officinale, 11 Pe dubium, 13
Brassica oleracea, 11 Anthyllis Vulneraria, 13
» Rutabaga, 13 Lotus corniculatus, 11
a mapa, a. sativa, 11 », wUliginosus, 10
» arvensis, 11 Vicia hirsuta, 11
Diplotaxis tenuifolia, 14 » letrasperma, 11
. muralis, 13 » sepium, 14
Capsella Bursa-pastoris, 13 » sativa, 11
Coronopus procumbens, 13 » angustifolia, 14
Lepidium campestre, 11 », lathyroides, 11
Cakile marituma, 11 Lathyrus pratensis, 11
Raphanus maritimus, 11 Prunus spinosa, 17
Reseda Luteola, 16 Rubus rusticanus, 13
Viola sylvestris, 11 » pyramidalis, 15
» Riviniana, 14 Rosa canina, r. dumalis, 13
Polygala vulgaris, 13 » rubiginosa, 16
Silene Cucubalus, 13 Crataegus Oxyacantha, 13
| mmariema, 11 Saxifraga tridactylites, 14
Lychnis alba, 13 Ribes Grossularia, 16
an eoewca, 11 Cotyledon Umbilicus-Veneris, 11
Cerastium tetrandrum, 11 Sedum Telephium, 11
ie pumilum, 13 acre, 10
. semidecandrum, 13 Sanicula europaea, 11
5 viscosum, 11 Conium maculatum, 5
PP vulgatum, 13 Smyrnium Olusatrum, 1
Stellaria nemorum, 11 Carum Petroselinum, 13
a media, 11 Pimpinella Saxifraga, 13
Arenaria serpyllifolia, 11 Anthriscus sylvestris, 16
Sagina apetala, 13 Foeniculum vulgare, 11
» procumbens, 11 Crithnum maritimum, 5
Spergula vulgaris, 11 Aethusa Cynapium, 10
Hypericum pulchrum, 11 Peucedanum sativum, 13
53 montanum, 13 Heracleum Sphondyllium, 13
Lavatera arborea, 5 Coriandrum sativum, 12
Malva sylvestris, 11 Caucalis Anthriscus, 11
Linum catharticum, 13 Hedera Helix, 11
Geranium molle, 13 Sambucus nigra, 11
at dissectum, 11 Symphoricarpus racemosus, 14
Geranium Robertianum, 11 Rubia peregrina, 13

is », 6. maritimum, 16 Galium Cruciata, 11

454

MACGREGOR SKENE

Galium verum, 11

» . Mollugo, 13

so) Sawaltle. AT

»» -Aparine, 1)
Sherardia arvensis, 13
Kentranthus ruber, 11
Dipsacus sylvestris, 13

‘3 fullonum, 14
Bellis perennis, 11
Filago germanica, 11

» minima, 10
Inula squarosa, 11

» crithmoides, 5
Chrysanthemum segetum, 11
a Leucanthemum, 11

Tussilago Farfara, 11
Senecio vulgaris, 11

» viscosus, 11

», dacobaea, 13
Carlina vulgaris, 11
Arctium majus, 10

eS minus, 14
Carduus nutans, 10
of crispus, var. acanthoides, 11

Cnicus lanceolatus, 13

» acauls, 1

» arvensis, 1]
Centaurea nigra, 11

fs Scabiosa, 11

Picris echioides, 13
Crepis capillaris, 17
Hieracium Pilosella, 13

i murorum, 11
Hypochaeris radicata, 13
Leontodon hispidum, 13

ep autumnale, 13
Taraxacum officinale, 13
a laevigatum, 13

Sonchus oleraceum, 13
Campanula latifolia, 11

6 rotundifolia, 11
Limonium vulgare, 5
me binervosum, 11

Armeria maritima, 11
Primula vulgaris, 11
» verts, 11
Anagallis arvensis, 14

ne foemina, 11
Ligustrum vulgare, 3
Syringa vulgaris, 14

Blackstonia perfoliata, 10
Erythraea Centaurium, 14
Cynoglossum officinale, 10
Lycopsis arvensis, 14
Myosotis palustris, 14

a arvensis, 13

as collina, 13

at versicolor, 14
Echium vulgare, 14
Hyoscyamus niger, 13
Verbascum Thapsus, 10
Anthirrhinum majus, 13
Scrophularia nodosa, 13
Digitalis purpurea, 13
Veronica agrestis, 16

» persica, 13

= arvensis, 13

» serpyllifolia, 11

Chamaedrys, 13

Hupreatet officinalis, 11
Bartsia Odontites, 11
Verbena officinalis, 11
Thymus Serpyllum, 11
Calamintha ascendens, 13
Prunella vulgaris, 17
Nepeta hederacea, 11
Marrubium vulgare, li
Lamium amplexicaule, 13

» maculatum, 11
Ballota nigra, 11
Teucrium Chamaedrys, 10

3 Scorodonia, 13

Plantago Coronopus f. Sabrinae, 8
» maritima, 11

uy lanceolata, 11

media, 11
Chenaponinn album, 11
3 rubrum, 11

Beta maritima, 11
Atriplex patula var. angustifolia, 11

ss glabriuscula, 13
Suaeda fruticosa, 2

» maritima, 11
Salsola Kali, 11
Polygonum aviculare, 11
Rumex crispus, 13

,», Acetosa, 11

,, Acetosella, 11
Euphorbia Lathyris, 5
Mercurialis perennis, 11

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 455

Urtica dioica, 13 Polypodium vulgare, 13
wrens, Ll
Parietaria ramiflora, 11 MOossEs

Orchis mascula, 11
Ophrys apifera, 10

Tris foetidissima, 10
Allium Ampeloprasum, 3
Scilla non-scripta, 11

Barbula convoluta
Tortula intermedia
Bryum Donianum
Camptothecium sericeum

a lutescens
Arum maculatum, 11 Eurhynchium circinatum
Carex diversicolor, 14 mn tenellum

Anthoxanthum odoratum, 11
Agrostis canina, 11
pan iaiod, V1
Aira caryophyllea, 11
Trisetum flavescens, 11
Avena pubescens, 13
» pratensis, 11
a » ¢. longifolia, 16
Arrenatherum elatius, 11
Dactylis glomerata, 11

Hypnum cupressiforme v. tectorum
ed cuspidatum
nS Schrebera

LIVERWORTS
Madotheca platyphylla
Metzgeria furcata
Frullania tamarisci

» » 0. congesta, 16 LICHENS

Briza media, 13 Physcia tenella

Poa annua, 11 3 pulverulenta

‘,, pratensis, 11 Aanthoria parietina

» 36 b. subcoerulea, 13 Placodium callopismum

Festuca rigida, 10 > 99 var. plicatum
» rottboellioides, 16 . Callopisma citrinum
» ovina, 13 a pyraceum
» »» var, duriuscula, 11 5 ochraceum

‘ weeeruura, 11 9 caluum
te pallax, 16 a ferrugineum var, festivum
» pratensis, 11 Lecanora galactina
» pratensis X Lolium perenne, Lecania prosechiza

16 3 erysibe

Bromus erectus, 11 Bacidia muscorum
», sterilis, 13 Bilimbia mesoidea
5, hordeaceus, 11 Placynthium nigrum

Lolium perenne, 11 Verrucaria integra

Hordeum nodosum, 11 rupestris
» | omurinum, 11 Cladonia pyxidata

Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum, 11 » » var. pocillum
ia marinum, 5 3 rangiformis, f. foliosa
» Trichomanes, 11 » furcata var. pinnata
ie Ruta-muraria, 13

Ceterach officinarum, 16 Funet

Phyllitis Scolopendrium, 11 Puccinia Smyrnit

| All the records of mosses, liverworts and lichens are due to McLean
_. and Hyde, the plants having been determined by W. Watson. The
rust was first recorded by Storrie (1877).

456 MACGREGOR SKENE

On the present visit 85 species of plunts were collected and of these
5 had not been previously noted. Even although each of the later
visits has added a few plants to the list, it may be taken that the flora
is now very fully known. The total number of species and varieties
of flowering plants and ferns is 254, or just about one quarter of the
number known from Somerset. For a small area this is a considerable
flora. It includes a number of rare and interesting plants; but even
more interesting is the general nature of the vegetation.

The steep slopes and ravines on the southern side of the island are
clothed with a dense thicket of privet and bramble. In the ravines the
bushes may be as much as 8 ft. high; towards the edge of the plateau
they are stunted and, on the rounded upper slopes, are only about
1 ft. high. There is no sign of rabbit nibbling, and the stunting seems
to be due to wind action. Occasional bushes of elder are quite bare and
brown on the windward side in July, except for a few sprouting buds ;
on the leeward side they are in full leaf. On the slopes about the
landing stage and path, the privet and elder are mingled with a good
deal of sycamore, maple, sloe, and lilac which must have been originally
planted. The privet-bramble society is a characteristic, though not
very rich, limestone scrub.

The most interesting feature of the vegetation is, however, the
“meadow” of Smyrnium Olusatrum on the plateau. On the southern
side, on the shoulder of the slope, the thicket of privet thins out to
isolated patches among which grow abundant alexanders, wood sage
and ground ivy. This mixed vegetation is succeeded on the plateau
by a pure growth of alexanders, covering many acres at a density of
1 to 10 plants per square yard. Between the alexanders plants there
are sometimes patches of ground ivy and wood sage, but, over great
areas, the ground is quite bare. In July the foliage has completely
died away, except for a few ground leaves of non-flowering shoots, and,
from above the barracks, a stretch of plateau some 400 to 500 yards
long by 100 yards across may be seen, bearing nothing but the tall,
dead stems crowned by fruiting heads of the alexanders.

Passing over to the northern slope of the island, ragwort first mixes
with the alexanders and then replaces it completely; after the
alexanders has disappeared, thistles come in and the ground becomes
covered with a close turf of fescues, yellow stonecrop, ground ivy and
wood sage. This occupies the gentle slopes on the northern side;
towards the cliffs the grass becomes coarser with meadow grass, false-
oat, yellow oat and cocksfoot. This rough pasture runs to the top of the
steep cliffs and down into the gullies. Towards the north-west the

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 457

alexanders comes right across the island to the edge of the cliffs and
down the gullies. On the southern side, where alexanders grows
amongst privet and bramble, another interesting plant is present in
abundance ; this is the stinking iris which sometimes occupies bare
patches and sometimes thrusts its leaves, much bitten by rabbits,
through the low thickets.

The most interesting feature of the vegetation is the dominance of
alexanders which, seen from above the barracks, is most impressive.
The status of this plant is a matter of opinion. Its chief area of dis-
tribution is the coasts of the Mediterranean and it also occurs on the
Atlantic coasts of the continent. Itis quite possible that it is a native
in the West of England. But it was formerly grown as a pot herb and
there is little doubt that in many of its present British stations it is an
escape. In view of the early occupation of Steep Holm it may seem
likely that alexanders was introduced to the island by man. Yet as a
rule, in this country, the plant favours rather damp places, especially
where refuse has accumulated ; a typical example is to be seen at the
foot of Bridge Valley Road, Clifton. On Steep Holm the habitat is
strikingly like that of the plant in its Mediterranean stations.

If we attempt to trace its history we find that it was the first plant
recorded for the island, by Turner. In the Account Book of the Manor
of Norton Beauchamp it is stated that nothing grows on the Holm save
privet, elder and a “ kind of wilde garlicke.” It is remarkable that
alexanders was not noted, especially as the author goes on to say of the
rabbits of the island that they “‘ be so fedd with garlicke, privet and
elder (grasse lackeinge) that they doe savor of the garlicke and privet
in eating.” At present the top of the island is covered with either grass
or alexanders. The definite statement as to lack of grass and the failure
to note so obvious a plant as alexanders may indicate that at this time
the whole top of the island was under scrub.

This hypothesis is supported by the report of Banks and Lightfoot
in 1773 that alexanders and privet are the “ praedominant plants upon
the Top of the Island, which totally cover it.” Evidently at that time
privet occupied the plateau, while now it reaches only the edges. This
may represent a time when alexanders was extending and invading the
scrub. Whether the island was inhabited at this time is not known.

The accounts of the next two visits, those of the younger Withering
in 1826 and of Clark in 1830, agree. There was now an inn on the
island but apparently no cultivation. Natural conditions on the top
may have been little interfered with. Withering says: “the herbage
more general consists of the gigantic Smyrnium Olusatrum, Lavatera

458 MACGREGOR SKENE

arborea, Hyoscyamus wiger and a brush-wood of Ligustrum vulgare” ;
and Clark: “ This (alexanders) was most plentiful, I think all over the
island; I distinctly recollect it at both ends—-the most abundant, at
least the one which occupies the largest space, is the common privet
which closely covers whole acres.” Although both statements lack
precision as regards the distribution of these plants the impression one
gains is that privet occupied the top of the island along with alexanders.

The garrisoning of the island in 1867 must have meant considerable
disturbance ; apparently between that date and 1880 it was first
occupied by a farmer, and cultivation of the plateau continued till
about twenty years ago. During this period oats, barley, hay and
garden produce were grown. I was told by the warden that a heavy
crop of hay was taken in good years. Murray in 1891 speaks of
alexanders as being a prominent feature of the vegetation, and of privet
as being in plenty on rocks and cliffs. This agrees with the exact récent
description given by McLean and Hyde whose account of the flora and
vegetation is very full. They say that, since the visit of Banks when
alexanders covered the top of the island, culture has done away with
it on the plateau; and they describe the plant as occurring in a
Smyrnium-Iris association along with bramble and privet. This
agrees with what we found on the upper slopes of the southern side of the
island and restricts the alexanders in 1925 to a small part of its present
area. The visit must have taken place within a year or two after the
abandonment of cultivation, when the island was still in a state showing
the maximum effects of human interference. Now, thirteen years
later, alexanders has occupied nearly half the plateau.

Although our data are not always precise we may surmise that in the
17th century Steep Holm was largely covered by limestone scrub of
bramble and privet with some alexanders. In the 18th century
alexanders had become a striking feature, and in the early years of the
19th century it was dominant along with the privet. Military and
agricultural occupation cleared the top of the island of both, and
alexanders became confined to the upper slopes of the cliffs. With the
removal of human influence, alexanders has occupied the arable land
and replaced the grass over a very large part of the plateau in less
than 20 years. At present it forms, with a few other plants, a society
which is certainly unique in this country.

LITERATURE

Cardew, R. M., and Baker, E. G. 1912. Note on Plantago serraria.
Rep. Bot. Hac. Club, Vol. 3, p. 28.

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 459

Dilks, T. B. 1939. An early visit to Steep Holme. Proc. Brist.
Nat. Soc., 4th Ser. Vol. 8, p. 460. .

Druce, C.G. 1910. Plants of Steep Holme. The Naturalist, p. 227.

McLean, R. C., and Hyde, H. A. 1924. The vegetation of Steep
Holm. Journ. Bot., Vol. 62, p. 167.

Murray, R. P. 1891. The Flora of Steep Holmes. Journ. Bot.,
Wol. 29) p. 269.

PObel, M. de. 1605. Storpiwm adversaria nova.
Ray, J. 1724. Synopsis methodica stirprum. 3rd Hdn.

Riddelsdell, H. J. 1905. Lightfoot’s visit to Wales in 1773. Journ.
Bot., Vol. 43, p. 290.

Roper, I. 1915. Natural history of Steep Holm: Botany. Proc.
Brist. Nat. Soc., 4th Ser., Vol. 4, p. 144.

Storrie, J. 1877. Notes on the Flora of the Steep Holme. Trans.
Card. Nat. Soc., Vol. 9, p. 53.

Storrie, J. 1883. List of plants found on the Steep Holm. Trans.
Card, Nat. Soc., Vol. 15, p. 92.

Turner, W. 1568. The New Herball.

Turner, D., and Dillwyn, L.W. 1805. A botanist’s guide through
England and Wales.

White, J. W. 1912. The Bristol Flora.
Withering, W. 1830. An arrangement of British Plants, Tth Edn.

460
IV

THOMAS CLARK’S ACCOUNT OF A VISIT TO
STEEP: HOLM IN Aan

By T. Bruce Diuxs, B.A., F.R.H1st.8.

HOMAS CLARK was of Quaker parentage and was born in 1793

at Street, Somerset. When he and his brother John were of an
age to enter on a business career their parents migrated to Bridgwater
in order to give the youths a better opportunity than they could look
for in their birthplace.

John was a genius and could turn his mind to anything except
making his livelihood. His chief invention—-that which has conferred
most benefit to mankind—was the air-cushion. Thomas was of a
different type. He was able to keep himself and others, and at the
same time to pursue researches in natural science during his leisure.
Chiefly he was a botanist and he formed a herbarium which has, I
believe, found a resting place in the museum at Cardiff. His corre-
spondence with the leading botanists of his time witnesses to the esteem
in which he was held. One of his most interesting discoveries in geology
was that of the head of Plesiosaurus in the Lias at Street. He died
in 1864.

This account of his visit to Steep Holm is an extract from his diary,
and is here published for the first time.
1831.
8th mo. 16th. . . . To Weston-super-Mare arriving there about 11.
By 12 or soon after, we had engaged a boat, 27 feet long with two masts
and sails, and two men to take us to the Steep Holm. We had also
a small boat in tow, in which we landed. The air was exceedingly still,
and the sea exceedingly smooth ; much smoother than I had supposed
the sea ever to be. Except an almost imperceptible swell, it was as
smooth as our river (the Parret) in a still evening just at the hour of a
high tide. The men were therefore obliged to row the greater part of
the way, though we were assisted by the tide, and a quarter of an hour
before we reached the island a smart shower of rain came on, and with
it a brisk air, but these soon passed off. It was three o’clock or past —
before we landed. We left at six, and, the calm continuing, we did
not get back to Weston till past eight. Altogether we were five hours
and a half on the water, though the boatmen told us that the distance

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 461

from Weston to the island, or back, is sometimes sailed over in a half
an hour, and even twenty minutes. If we had had a wind we should
have visited the Flat Holm also. One of the boatmen told us that the
Steep Holm has been lately purchased for £7,000 or £700, he could not
tell which. The latter sum is the more probable one. The proprietor
is about to construct a pier for fishing boats, which will probably be a
profitable speculation, for £500 worth of sprats are said to have been
caught round the island last season. Several men were employed in
cutting a winding road from the little pebbly beach, our landing place,
at the eastern end of the island, to the top; in part through the solid
rock; and in one place they had dug through a bed of shells of the
common limpet, mixed only with a little loose earth. It was a query
how they came there, and at what remote time. Perhaps, numerous
as they are, they are only the accumulated heap thrown from time to
time from some cottage or hut, of whose inhabitants this shell fish
formed it may be the principal food; and though we did not observe
any vestige of a building very near, the well of good spring water, the
only well on the island, is almost close by. Gildas, the historian,
appears from Rutter’s Delineations of the N. Western Division of the
County of Somerset, to have led a hermit kind of life here, and it may
be that his dinners contributed to this accumulation of shells. Githa,
the mother of Harold, the last of the Saxon Kings, who also took refuge
here, was, I hope, supplied with more queenly food. The old house on
the top of the island, and near the eastern end, has been in part repaired
for the accommodation ot the workmen. Here we dined off the
sandwiches and tarts with which we were provided, in a room which
reminded us of the romance descriptions of a cave of banditti. It
contained three or four small beds, and the pots, frying-pans, and
other cooking apparatus of the whole inhabitants of the island. We
however were as little disposed to be dissatisfied with our dining-room
as with our dinner, and I know not whether we the more enjoyed this
repast or our far more elegant tea-supper when we got back to our hotel
at Weston. I have had for many years the wish to visit this island,
principally on account of the rare plants which I know grow there—the
piony, the great round-headed garlic, and the caper spurge. We found
all three and I have them now planted in my garden. The garlic I
saw and knew from the boat before we landed, growing abundantly
on a high ridge at the eastern end of the island, though I know not
that I ever saw it before. The piony and the spurge grow on the
flat top. The shrubby saltwork and the tree mallow, as I have since
learnt, are also inhabitants of the island. The latter Dr. Gapper

462 T. BRUCE DILKS

tells me he once found there. He also informs me that a plant of which
I have brought home the seeds and roots only, the foliage being nearly
decayed, is the common Alexanders. This was very plentiful, I think
all over the island; I distinctly recollect it at both ends. I was much
interested with a plant growing on a rocky declivity at the Western
end, but could not get to it without greater labour and risk than I was
disposed to encounter. It appeared to be composed of upright stems a
foot or more high, clothed with bright green leaves and covered on the
top with golden flowers. Dr. Gapper supposed it to be the samphire-
leaved flea-bane. Besides these there are many other plants of less
interest. The most abundant, at least the one which occupies the
largest space, is the common privet which closely covers whole acres.
It probably forms, as Dr. Gapper remarks, the principal food of the
numerous rabbits on the island, for though they do not, I believe,
usually eat this plant, I do not know what else they can have to live
on, at least in the winter. The other plants that I recollect to be in
great abundance are ragwort and wood sage. Young plants of henbane
I observed on the top of the island, near the caper spurge, and a single
bush of elder under a rock not far from the well. Ivy grows about the
rocks in some places ; also the common polypody, wall-rue spleenwort,
wall pellitory ; samphire plentifully. The bright coral berries of the
cuckoo-pint were ol some spots very conspicuous and ornamental,
the plant growing not singly or by twos or threes, as on hedgebanks,
but in groups of a dozen or more. The only butterfly which I recollect
to have seen is a large white one, I suppose the large cabbage butterfly.
The two very common snails, Helix aspersa and nemoralis, were very
plentiful and fine. A smaller snail, Helix virgata, I believe, was also
very plentiful, and I found a few empty shells of Turbo elegans.

H. aspersa I have before observed to be commonly of a large size near

the sea. Is this from the influence of the sea air, or because that on the
sea border it is left to attain its full growth and not destroyed at all
ages, as in gardens? At the south eastern corner of the island near
the house there is a space of perhaps 50 yards square which we supposed
was once a garden and brother William was strongly of the opinion that
piony and other rare plants were once cultivated in it and since its
desertion have run wild where they would, an opinion which on the whole
I think likely to be correct. This place is surrounded by a ridge of stones
which I took for the dilapidated wall, but Robert Anstice, though he is
of the opinion that the plants are not indigenous, says it may have
been a rude fortification. At the Western end I observed an oval
space, also surrounded with a ridge of stone, but still ruder and less

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 463

conspicuous. The island is far more picturesque than I had supposed
it to be. Instead of being the clumpy rock which it appears from the
main land, its shores are indented with little bays and varied with
projecting and detached rocks, and the sides are traversed by fissures
and little ravines. These were richly and profusely ornamented with
the golden flowers of the ragwort and in some places the rocks were

ornamented almost as richly and profusely with samphire, its lively

green leaves being scarcely less bright than the flowers.

V
VERTEBRATA

By H. Teriny, B.Sc., F.Z35:

(a) MAMMALS

ITH the exception of Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and an

occasional Bat, there appears to be a complete absence of
mammals from Steep Holm. It is certainly difficult to prove a negative
but Mr. L. H. Matthews and the writer paid a visit in June, 1935, and
spent two nights there, and though about thirty “ nipper ” traps were
set each night in suitable places, and the weather was very fine, nothing
was caught nor was the bait touched. Food has also inadvertently
been left in the barracks during the winter but, though readily accessible
to mice, it has not been touched. It looks therefore as if the smaller
mammals (Shrews, Voles, Mice) are completely absent, which is all
the more remarkable as there has been fairly constant traffic to the
island for many years, and one might have expected such animals to
be introduced accidentally, for the island is only five miles from Weston-
super-Mare and considerably less from Brean Down. If one compares
Steep Holm with St. Kilda which hes out in the North Atlantic about
forty miles west of the Outer Hebrides, one finds that, although the
latter is so isolated, 1t possesses a Field-Mouse (Apodemus hirtensis)
and a House-Mouse (Mus muralis) which have been so long established
as to form new species. It is therefore very surprising to find such a
complete absence on Steep Holm, and no adequate reason can be
assigned for it.

The Rabbits occur in good numbers in spite of living in the midst
of a colony of gulls which must take toll of their numbers. Once or
twice a small Bat, probably a Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pvpistrellus),
has been seen round the barracks, and a dead Mole (Talpa europaea)
was picked up in July, 1938. But the latter had no doubt been carried
across, or picked out of the tide, by a gull.

(6) Brrps

The ornithology of Steep Holm has changed considerably in the last
70 years, largely through the influence of man. There is, unfortunately,
no record of bird-life on the island at the time when the Priory was
built, but in 1829, Rutter (Lewis, p. 222) said that vast numbers of

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 465

sea-birds resorted to the ledges and crevices of the rocks and that their
eggs were sometimes collected for profit, being sent to sugar refineries
in Bristol. Eggs have not been collected for human consumption
since 1922. He does not seem to give the species, but in 1858,
J. Hayward (Lewis, loc. cit.) referred to great numbers of Guillemots,
Razorbills and Puffins, so it may be assumed that Rutter’s birds were
the same. Soon after the last date, however, i.e., in 1867, batteries and
barracks were constructed, and this occupation had the effect of driving
away the Puffins very soon, though Lewis thinks that the other two
may have survived until later; no doubt their breeding-ledges would
be more inaccessible. These birds have never returned, though odd
examples of both Razorbill and Puffin have been seen in recent years
close to or on the island, and this might be a sign of a possible recolonisa-
tion. At the same period there were doubtless gulls breeding there but,
as their eggs were taken for food both during the occupation of the
barracks and afterwards when there were permanent residents, their
numbers were kept down. In June, 1901, the Rev. F. L. Blathwayt
visited the island and found 12 pairs of Herring Gulls and 11 pairs of
Lesser Black-backed Gulls breeding, but no Great Black-backed Gulls,
an observation which throws some doubt on Knight’s statement—
probably founded on hearsay—that in 1902 there were about fifty
pairs of Herring Gulls, a few Lesser Black-backed Gulls and a small
number of Kittiwakes. Later, the island was left uninhabited as it
remains at the present day except for sporadic visits in the summer,
and it has recently been protected. This has resulted in a vast increase
of Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls to altogether unreasonable
numbers in view of the damage these birds do to other bird-life. The
Great Black-backed Gull has also returned and has increased to eight
pairs or so. Another feature of the breeding-birds is the colony of
Cormorants that has recently become established at the north end of
the island. This fact was not definitely proved until 1934 (when 10
nests were seen) though it had been previously suspected. At present
there are about 16 to 18 pairs. Sheld-duck also nest in some numbers
but, apart from these sea-birds, the chief interest lies in the presence
of a pair of Ravens and of Peregrine Falcons, both of which breed on
the clifis and may have done so for many years. There are very few
passerines nesting there and those only in small numbers. The only
real shelter is afforded by the bushes and trees above the landing-place
at the east end as, although there are many bushes down the slopes of
the southern side, they are fully exposed to the prevalent south or
south-west winds. Occasional visitors (i.e., those which have never

466 H. TETLEY

been known to breed) number about 25, but it cannot be supposed that
this total is in any way complete, for there are no records at all from
autumn to spring inclusive, and even in the summer the records are
only occasional. So no doubt a number of other small passerines
may come to the island, and other birds as well. There is, however, one
considerable lack on the island, and that is the absence of any surface-
water which would attract any birds passing over. Water for the build-
ing is drawn from a well, so there is no occasion for any other supply.

Steep Holm, then, is an island with a very limited bird-population,
the chief feature of which is the large number of sea-birds breeding
there. At the present time the dominant species are the Herring and
Lesser Black-backed Gulls which occur in about equal numbers
of several hundred pairs, and a few pairs of Great Black-backed
Gulls. The first two occupy a large part of the top and sides and
must make it nearly or quite impossible for any other ground-building
species to survive ; the nests of the third are scattered round the lower
slopes. The Cormorants all breed on the steep face of the north side,
and it is to be presumed that this will also have been the nesting site of
the Guillemots and Razorbills in times past. Pufiins would have more
scope as there is a good deal of land which either has been excavated
by rabbits or which could be excavated to form suitable nesting-holes.
It would certainly seem as if all these four fish-eating birds would have
to travel some distance for food in view of the great opacity of the water
in the immediate neighbourhood of the island. And now that
Cormorants have such a firm hold here it may be difficult for the
Guillemots and Razorbills to reinstate themselves.

The paper by Lewis quoted below gives a useful account of the birds
of Steep Holm, and the reader is referred to it for further information.
One or two additions have been made since then, and in the following
list the birds are classified in four categories. These are as follows :—

(a) Breeding (14).
Raven, Starling, Meadow-Pipit, Rock-Pipit, Song-Thrush, Black-
bird, Wren, Peregrine Falcon, Cormorant, Sheld-duck, Mallard,
British Lesser Black-backed Gull, Herring Gull, Great Black-
backed Gull.

(b) Have bred, but doubtfully now. Occasional visitors (6).
Linnet, Robin, Wheatear, Hedge-Sparrow, Kestrel, Oystercatcher.
(Knight’s record of Hobby in 1849 is obviously incorrect.)

(c) Have bred, but do not now. Occasional visitors (7).
Carrion-Crow, Skylark, Spotted Flycatcher, Whitethroat, Razorbill,
Common Guillemot, Puffin.

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 467
(d) Occasional visitors (25).
Jackdaw, Rook, House-Sparrow, Greenfinch, Goldfinch, Chaffinch,
Tree-Pipit, Pied Wagtail, Great Tit, Coal Tit, Pied Flycatcher,
Blackcap, Willow Warbler, Chiff-Chaff, Redstart, Whinchat,
Cuckoo, Little Owl, Shag, Wood Pigeon, Turtle Dove, Redshank,
Dotterel, Whimbrel, Lapwing, Manx Shearwater.

This makes a total of some 52 species recorded from the island but,
as stated above, the list of occasional visitors would no doubt be largely
increased if more frequent visits could be paid.

The earliest record dealing with the Reptiles is that of Mr. John
Storrie of Cardiff who found a sloughed skin of an Adder (see Proc.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, 1877). But it is possible that Storrie’s
record really refers to the Slow Worm, for Leighton (1901) quotes a
letter, written by Storrie shortly before his death, as follows. ‘‘ The
Slow Worm—Anguwis fragilis—is always called an adder here [in the
Vale of Glamorgan], and is fairly common. Before the Government
took possession of the island of Steep Holm in the Bristol Channel,
there was a very handsome cream-coloured variety to be found there,
while on the Flat Holm there was only the ordinary chocolate-coloured
_one, like that found in the country elsewhere.’ On no other occasion
has any Snake been found either alive or dead. Slow Worms occur
and were found by the party of Bristol Naturalists in 1914, as also
in 1935 and 1938. No Lizards have been discovered.

There are no Amphibia, as might be expected from the entire absence
of any surface-water in which they might breed.

REFERENCES
Lewis, S. Birds of the island of Steep Holm. British Birds, XXX,
pp. 219-223, Dec., 1936.

Leighton, G. R. 1901. The Life History of British Serpents.
Edinburgh.

468
VI

LAND INVERTEBRATES, EXCLUDING
INSECTS

By J. E. Hamitron, M.Sc.

Y collection includes land invertebrates, excluding insects,
and is made up of Mollusca, 7 species; Araneida, 14 species, and
5 Juveniles which can only be allotted to genera; Acarina, 3 species ;
Opiliones, 1 species; Myriapoda, 3 species; and Isopoda, 6 species.

F. G. Pearsey (1915) published lists of terrestrial invertebrates,
and in them occur five of the seven molluscs, one spider, two myriapods
and two isopods identical, or presumably so, with my species. The
present additions to the Steep Holm list are therefore 29 in number
(the juvenile Meta and Lycosid might be the same as the identified
species).

An endeavour was made to connect the specimens with their habitats.
The whole island was very dry indeed, but could be divided into two
major parts; (1) The plateau which had very short vegetation and
was exposed to the sun and wind; it was accounted “dry” and the
specimens labelled as such. (2) The winding path is on the most
overgrown part of the cliffs and runs through thickets of mixed bushes,
etc., which provide a good deal of cover, and presumably, but not
obviously, the ground here must be damper than the plateau : specimens
labelled “ path.’ The stones in both these areas provided additional
cover for some species. The old magazines of the batteries were
themselves all dry but moisture could be found at the entrances of
some or about the cement works outside them. The excavations
were those being made by members of the party in the ruins on the
plateau.

In the following list, therefore, the animals have been marked as
from the “dry” ground, the “ path,” and, in a few cases, a special
note indicates a different environment.

“Dry ” and “ path ” have one snail, one spider, two mites, probably
the opilionid, and one isopod in common.

“Dry ” has a snail and nine spiders which were not found elsewhere,
and the “‘ path” had five snails and four spiders not found elsewhere.

The conspicuous Meta menardi and its large cocoons “occurred only
in the magazines.

Thrombicula autumnale was not seen but is very abundant. I have
ventured to include it on the evidence of 250 to 300 personal bites.

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 469

Nature of habitat :
Pearcey’s name,

Name if in his list

Dry | Path] Other, if any

Mo.uusca
Pomatias elegans Miller ..| —
Lauria cylindracea da Costa| —
Vallonia costata Miller ..| x
Helicella caperata Montagu} x | x | Excavations a
Helix hispida L.

x --- Cyclostoma elegans Miller
Xe — Pupa cylindracea da Costa
x

Trichia hispida L. .. ; x

Cepaea nemoralis L. Be | eet ec — Helix nemoralis L.

Oxychilus alliarius Miller ..| — | x —_ ain,
ARACHNIDA

. Araneida
Dysdera erythrina Walck. ..
Segestria renoculata L.

x ~— Dysdera erythrina Walck.
Drassodes(?lapidorus Walck). x
x

x
Xi a aan
— | Excavations Si

Episinus truncatus Latr. x — —

Stemonyphantes lineatus L. —

Leptiphantes flavipes Bl. x

Meta sp. juv. : —|x

Meta menardi Latr. — | —

Araneus sp. juv. net

Xysticus cristatus Clerck. .. 06 || a

Phrurolithus festivus C.L.K.| x | — — =

? Micaria sp. juv. ~-{| x | — oe as

Tegenaria derhami Scop. ..| — | — | Magazines ——

Lycosa tarsalis Thor. x

Lycosid sp.juv. xo} == ==

Heliophanus cupreus Walck.| x | — — —

Euophrys frontalis Walck. x

Neon reticulatus Bl. ee | x — —

Salticus scenicus Clerck. ..| x | — — =

Magazines —

Acarina
Anistys baccarum L. x | — a =
Thrombicula autumnale Shaw Xe lee — =
Hugamasus sp. ys ef — | — = aa

Opiliones
?sp.immatures.. shen pea eX =e =

MYRIAPODA
Diplopoda
Julid os us soil) fp — ?= Julus niger
Chilopoda
Inthobiid .. Ss .-| — | — | Excavations | ?= Lithobius forficatus
Geophilid .. on --| — | — do. —

CRUSTACEA

Isopoda
Trichoniscus pusillus Brandt.| — | x
Oniscus asellus L. .. --| x | — | Dampish | Oniscus asellus L.
Philoscia muscorum Scop. ..| x | x
Platyarthrus hojfman Seg gi a

Brandt. .. —|x — —-
Metaponorthus sp., or

Porcellio sp. ; —|x — ?= Porcellio scabra Latr.
Armadillidium vulgare Latr, x |— | Dampish —

Oligochaeta
Allobophora terrestris Lav. ..| — | — | Excavations —

470 J. E. HAMILTON

My sincere thanks are due to Dr. A. R. Jackson of Chester, Dr.
H. Gorvett of the University of Bristol, Mr. G. L. Crawford and Mr.
R. J. Whittick of the British Museum (Natural History), and to Dr.
L. V. Cernosvitov, for the identifications which have made it possible
to publish this list.

REFERENCE
Pearcey, F. G. 1915. Proc. Bristol Naturalists’ Soc., 4th series,
TV, 2:

—— .

471

Vii
ENTOMOLOGY

By G. W. Parne i, B.Sc., M.S.B.E.

HE number of species of insects found on the island was sur-

prisingly small. The present fauna differs considerably from that
listed by Griffiths and Bartlett in 1914. There has been a considerable
increase in the number of carnivorous and carrion-feeding species and
a decrease in herbivorous species. In my opinion this change has
been brought about by the increase in the number of gulls present on
the island. These birds affect the insect fauna in two ways. On
the one hand they destroy a large amount of vegetation which would
otherwise support a considerable insect population, and on the other,
their dead bodies supply the carrion-feeding species with a constant,
if small, amount of food throughout the summer. This source of food
is supplemented by the bodies of rabbits of which quite a number were
found.

This change in the type of fauna is particularly noticeable in the
Coleoptera—burving beetles, staphylinids and carabids, the majority
of which are new to the island inasmuch as they were not found in
1914, were in abundance. Two species of the genus Hister were found,
of which the larger H. wnicolor was very common. A single specimen
of a smaller species was taken in the body of a rabbit, the striae of the
elytra of which were so damaged that it was impossible to say definitely
to which species it belonged. Iam of the opinion that it was
H. bissexstriatus.

Two cockchafer larvae of the common species Melolontha melolontha
were found in the soil on the top of the island.

The number of Diptera taken was very small. In this respect the
fauna has not changed.

Large numbers of the common earwig Forficula auricularia were
taken and J was surprised tu find a female specimen of the rather rare
F, lesnev.

Colonies of ants were found all over the island. In all, six species
were found of which Formica fusca and Acanthomyops brunneus were
the most common. ‘Two colonies of F'. sanguinea were uncovered living
at the expense of F’. fusca in so far as large numbers of workers of the
latter species were found in their nests.

472 G. W. PARNELL

The presence of so many ants is undoubtedly due to the absence of
the bird and insect predators which normally feed on the males and
females during the nuptial flight. An exceptionally large number of
colonies are thus started each year.

Despite the presence of a number of adult Lepidoptera I searched
in vain for larvae and pupae. It is therefore reasonable to assume
that the majority of the adults captured had flown over from the
mainland.

COLEOPTERA.

*Nebria brevicollis

*Nebria gyllenhali v. balbir

Harpalus aeneus (Harpalinus aeneus)

Amara communis

Melanotus rufipes

Staphylinus olens Mull. (Ocypus olens Brit. Cat.)
Staphylinus globulifer Geof. (Ocypus morio Gr.)
Brachylacon murinus L. (Lacon murinus Lap.)
Meligethes obscurus

Syncalypta striatopunctata Stefi. (Syncalypta hirsuta Shp.)
Orthochaetes segiter

Otiorrhynchus sulcatus (Otiorhyncus sulcaius)
Aleochara curtula Goez. (Aleochara fuscipes Gr.)
*Necrophorus vestigator

*Necrophorus humator

*Adonia variegata

* Melolontha melolontha L. (vulgaris F.}

*Hister wnicolor

*Hister bissexstriatus ?

*Carabus violaceus

ORTHOPTERA.
*Hetobius panzert

DERMAPTERA.

Forficula auricularia
*Forficula lesnet

HEMIPTERA.
*Aphis sambuci

HYMENOPTERA.

Formica fusca

*Formica sanguinea
*Acanthomyops (Lasius) brunneus
Acanthomyops (Lasius) niger
Acanthomyops (Lasius) alienus
Myrmica scabrinodis

*Pimpla rufata

*Cladius pectinicornis

LEPIDOPTERA.

*Pyrameis atalanta
*Hpinephele ianira (jurtina)
Pieris brassicae

Pieris rapae

Pyrameis cardui

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 473

Plusia gamma

Euclidia m1.

Lygena filipendule
Camptogramma bilineata
*Coremia (Ochyria) ferrugata
*Triphaena (Agrotis) pronuba
* Agrotis ravida (obscura)
*Hama oblonga (abjecta)
*Nonagria geminipuncta
*Hurois occulta

DIPTERA.

Nematobia culindrica
* Musca domestica
*Calliphora vomitoria
*TLucilia caesar
*Lonchoptera sp.

THYSANURA.
Machilis maritima

* Species not previously recorded from the island.

REFERENCE

Griffiths, G. C. and C. Bartlett. 1915. Proc. Bristol Naturalists’
Soc., 4th Series, IV, Pt. 2.

VIII

THE SHORE FAUNA OF STEEP HOLM
(being STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BRISTOL
CHANNEL, III)

By C. M. Yonaz, D.Sc., and A. J. Luoyvp, B.Sc.

1.—-INTRODUCTION

HE party, organized by Mr. H. E. Matthews, to whose initiative
the authors are greatly indebted, visited Steep Holm from Saturday,
July 23rd, to Monday, July 25th, 1938. The island lies in the main
channel some five miles off Weston-super-Mare, and its shores are thus
_ fully exposed to the exceptionally turbid waters of the upper reaches
of the Bristol Channel. The opportunity was taken, during the two
low tides in the day time, of examining the fauna on the shore. The
nature of the shore fauna of the mainland at Portishead has already
been described by Purchon (1938) together with that of the dock at
Portishead where suspended silt is largely absent. It was felt that
comparative data from Steep Holm would be of value. Unfortunately,
neap tides prevailed during the period spent on the island and the
mud bank which extends north of the shingle beach on the eastern
point of the island was not exposed.

The exposed shores consisted of (1) the shingle beach at the landing
place on the eastern extremity of the island, (2) the north shore which
consists of a rocky platform with many boulders and occasional areas
of shingle and (3) the south shore which 1s similar to the north shore
but has a broader platform and less shingle. No shore was exposed at
the western end of the island. Except on the shingle beach and in
local areas where there is a constant scouring by the tides, a film of mud
covered these shores.

The shingle beach was found to be devoid of life. There is a con-
siderable growth of algae on the other shores, especially on the south
of the island. Near high water mark, Pelvetia caniculata occurs on
suitable areas. On the platform and boulders lower down, Fucus
vesiculosus and F. serratus are abundant, in the order named, especially
on the south shore where they form a thick carpet in certain areas.
Of the Chlorophyceae, Hnteromorpha «intestinalis occurs wherever

\ / fresh water comes down from the cliffs, small colonies of Ulva lactuca —

nf.
a

‘A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM 475

_ are not uncommon in pools except where there are great quantities of
mud, while Cladophora rupestris was found in similar areas but not so
frequently and not descending so low on the shore. No Rhodophyceae
were found on the shores exposed at these tides.

2—FAUNA LIST
CoELENTERATA

No Hydrozoa were found, the brown algae on which they usually
occur being devoid of any attached or encrusting animals.

Actima equina. This is the only common actinian, the great majority
of specimens being exposed. It is local in distribution, being commonest
_on the south shore and especially in the base of gulleys in the cliffs
where the constant movement of water prevents deposition of mud.
The majority of individuals are of the common red variety, the remainder
being dark green. Specimens were also abundant on the tops of smooth
boulders in the Fucus zone. These were protected from mud by the
over-arching fronds of the algae. In this locality all specimens are
dark green.

Tealia.felina. ‘Two specimens were found on the south shore in a
narrow rocky gulley near low tide mark. They were covered with
mud. It probably occurs in abundance in the region between low tide
mark of neap and spring tides, Purchon (1938) having found it in
abundance in zone 3 on the beach at Portishead.

Sagartia troglodytes var. ornata. Three specimens of this small and
characteristically marked variety (see Stephenson, 1935) were found
high on the south shore in cracks in the rock in the base of shallow pools.
The pools were perfectly clean and so high on the shore that, except

at spring tides, they are probably filled only with spray.

NEMERTINI

One unidentified specimen was found in mud under a stone on the
north shore adjacent to the shingle beech.
ANNELIDA

The only species found was Polydora ciliata which occurs in abundance
burrowing in the rock in pools high on the shore. It is not affected

by mud.

CRUSTACEA

Representatives of this Class were few and sparsely distributed.
Balanus balanoides. This was found on the face of the rocks about
high tide mark but in numbers only in two localities. One of these

476 C. M. YONGE AND A. J. LLOYD

was on the inner face of a high rock on the north shore, the other on
the sides of a deep crevice in the cliff on the south shore (where Actinia
equina was found in abundance). Both regions were therefore pro-
tected from full exposure to the muddy water. Apart from these two
areas only occasional scattered specimens were found.

Gammarus sp. A few specimens were found under rocks, amongst
stones and mud, on the north side of the shingle spit. We are informed
by Mrs. E. W. Sexton and Mr. G. M. Spooner, of Plymouth, that these
individuals belong to a hitherto undescribed species, apparently
characteristic of somewhat brackish waters. |

Ingia oceanica. As usual this is abundant in cracks in the rocks
at and above high tide mark.

Idothea viridis. A few specimens were found on Cladophora in rock
pools near high tide mark on the south shore.

Carcinus maenus. A few small individuals were found under stones ;
one Was carrying eggs.

INSECTA

The only species found was Lipura (Anurida\ maritima but this was
restricted to a few very sheltered pools near high tide mark on the
south shore.

MoLuvusca

Representatives of this phylum formed the bulk of the population
but there were no Lamellibranchia.

Lepidochitona cinereus. This was the only species of the Loricata
(Placophora) found; it was not uncommon iu rock pools in muddy
water especially on the north shore.

Patella vulgata. This is the most conspicuous member of the fauna.
It occurs in great numbers everywhere on the surface of rocks and in
pools near high tide mark. In view of the controversy as to the hahits
of this species (see Graham, 1932) it is interesting to note that the
majority of animals exposed on the rock were moving about and
feeding. The position of their “ homes” was conspicuously indicated
by clean light coloured patches in the otherwise mud-covered surface.
Only where the rock was dry were the animals motionless and occupying
their “ homes.”

Patella athletica. A few individuals of this species were found.

Inttorina rudis. Common on stones near high tide mark.

Littorina littorulis (= obtusata). This was the only animal found on
the fronds of Fucus, where it is common. Egg masses belonging to this
Species were found on Fucus.

A SURVEY OF STEEP HOLM ATT

Littorina littorea. This occurs more sparsely near to low tide mark.
It is probably common between this level and that of low water spring
tides.

Buccinum undatum. Although only empty shells of this species were
found, it is included because Mr. L. H. Matthews informs us that it
occurs in the mud exposed at low water spring tides.

3.—DISCUSSION

The shore fauna of Steep Holm is remarkable for paucity of species
although the fauna list would certainly have been somewhat greater
had it been possible to examine the mud near low water spring tide
level. Here, judging from the findings of Purchon (1938) at Portishead,
Annelids such as Nereis virens, N. diversicolor and Amphitrite johnston,
Crustaceae such as Corophium volutator and Gastropoda such as
Hydrobia ulvae, probably occur.

Purchon (1938) drew attention to the two factors which limit the
fauna at Royal Beach, Portishead, namely low salinity (minimum
figures 17%.) and high turbidity (maximum figures 5-7 grams per
litre). In the Dock at Portishead where only the former factor is
operative (maximum turbidity recorded being 0-78 grams per litre),
the fauna included many ciliary feeders, such as Lamellibranchs and
Ascidians, which are unable to exist in the turbid water outside.

Clearly the same factors operate at Steep Holm. The salinity was
not determined but may be assumed to fall almost as low as that at
Portishead. This will explain the absence of Echinoderms and possibly
Porifera, although the latter might equally be affected by the high
turbidity. Of the Crustaceae found, Idothea viridis has frequently
been recorded in brackish waters (see Howes, 1939), Carcinus maenas
is a typical estuarine species while the Gammarus sp. is also apparently
associated with low salinity. Polydora ciliata frequently extends into
brackish waters (Howes, 1939).

The high turbidity is certainly responsible for the complete absence
of ciliary feeding animals. The absence of encrusting animals from
the fronds of Fucus may be ascribed primarily to this factor, ciliary
feeders such as compound Ascidians and Polyzoa will be unable to
function, while Hydroids, of which Gonothyraea lovent occurs in
abundance in the Dock at Portishead (Purchon, 1938), and in similar
salinities elsewhere (Howes, 1939), would be smothered. This distri-
bution of Balanus balanoides provides an interesting demonstration
of the effect of turbidity. It is abundant in two regions, indicating

478 C. M. YONGE AND A. J. LLOYD

that it is not affected by the low salinity, but these are regions of
sheltered water where the mud will tend to settle. Of the Coelenterates
only Tealia felina is clearly fully tolerant of mud, as already recorded
by Matthews (1923) and Purchon (1937), Actinia equina, although
common, being confined to protected regions below Fucus or in the
base of gulleys. |

The dominant Phylum is certainly the Mollusca. Lepidochitona
cinereus, Patella vulgata and the three species of Littorina are all
abundant. They are apparently unaffected by either low salinity or
high turbidity. The fact that Patella feeds when the tide is out will
account for its indifference to the second factor. These Mollusca
are all herbivorous and feed either on the encrusting vegetation on
the rocks or, in the case of Littorina littoralis and L. littorea, on the
Fucus. The absence of Nucella (Purpura) lapillus which, as shown
by Matthews (1923), is plentiful between tide-marks at the end of
Brean Down, the nearest point on the mainland to Steep Helm, is
probably associated with the absence of suitable food, 1e., Mytilus
edulis or Balanus spp. (Moore, 1936).

4 —-REFERENCES

Graham, A. 1932. On the Structure and Function of the Alimentary
Canal of the Limpet. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., Vol. LVII, pp.
287-308.

Howes, N. H. 1939. The Ecology of a Saline Lagoon in South-Hast
Hssex. J. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., Vol. XL, pp. 383-445.

Matthews, L. H. 1923. Notes on the Fauna of the Bristol Channel.
Proc. Bris. Nat. Soc., (4), Vol. VI, pp. 46-48. |

Moore, H. B. 1936. The. Biology of Purpura lapillus. I, Shell
variation in Relation to Environment. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc.,
N’S.,! Vol. X XT pp. 61-29:

Purchon, R. D. 1938. Studies on the Biology of the Bristol Channel.
II. An Ecological Study of the Beach and the Dock at Portishead.
Proc. Bris. Nat. Soc., (4), Vol. VIII, pp. 311-329.

Stephenson, T. A. 1935. “The British Sea Anemones,” Vol. II.
Ray Society, London.

479

An Ecological Survey of Dundry Down with
Special Reference to the Open Down Association

By GERTRUDE M. BoLey
(Read in title, 2nd March, 1939)

I.—INTRODUCTION

HE object of this paper is to provide an ecological survey of

Dundry Down. Systematic botanists have recorded the flora
of the surrounding district but, so far as the author can discover, little
botanical research has been done on the Down itself. The present
observations were made from May to September, 1936, and during the
flowering period of 1937. Life-forms of most of the plants were
collected and added to the Ecological Herbarium of the Botanical
Department, Bristol University, where they may be viewed.

(A) GEOGRAPHY

The area is situated on the western summit of Dundry Hill, North
Somerset, a bleak upland rising to 760 feet and extending east and west
for nearly four miles. It is five miles south of the City of Bristol, and
from its lofty position commands extensive views of the surrounding
country. To the north are the Cotswolds, in Gloucestershire, to the
west, the Severn, bounded by the Welsh coast, and to the sowth the
lovely Chew Valley extends along the foot of North Mendips.

(B) GEOLOGY

Dundry Hill is mainly a formation of massive limestone of the
Jurassic period. It is capped by Inferior Oolite resting upon Upper
Lias, and Dundry Down is situated on the extreme north-west corner
of the limestone cap. The characteristic feature of this area of 57
acres is the “ old workings” of limestone quarries dating back to the
middle ages, or perhaps much earlier, when the Dundry quarries in
Somerset had a reputation comparable to Doulting or Ham Hill of the
present day. Valuable freestone beds were found on the western side
of the Hill, and on the Down the “ workings” in several places are
left sharp and clear. Apparently the stone was excavated only to a
depth of 30 ft. for the sides are still in situ and bear on their surface

every indication of weathering.
H

480 GERTRUDE M. BOLEY
(C) History

The limestone quarries are mentioned early in history. In the
fourteenth century we discover stone-traders engaged upon “the
fine grained oolite of Dundry Hill” with Bristol as an important centre
for their trade. Outstanding examples of the value and local impor-
tance of this trade may be seen in Bristol Cathedral, St. Mary, Redcliffe
and St. Michael’s, Dundry, which are all built of Dundry freestone.

It is doubtful whether quarrying dates from Roman times but, from
the local name “ Cold Harbour ” and from the few fragments of pottery
found above the cave in a disused quarry in 1925, a Roman occupation
may be assumed.

II—THE PLANT ASSOCIATIONS OF DUNDRY DOWN

The vegetation of Dundry Down may be divided into three types of
plant association: (see map, Fig. 39)

(A) Open Down.—The grassland association considered in this paper.

(B) Wooded Quarry.—An old working 187 ft. by 50 ft. by 20 ft.,
thickly wooded and supporting several strata of vegetation.

With the exception of the Hazel Copse the whole area is enclosed by
limestone walls.

III.—_OPEN DOWN ASSOCIATION
(A) FLoristics

Trees and Shrubs. From the name Dundry (Dundrey), Collinson
suggests that possibly the site once formed part of an ancient hill of
oaks, but if this is so, none but the barest evidence remains, one old
oak, and this in the wooded quarry. :

The ash (Fraxinus eaxcelsior), characteristic of the older limestones,
is the one tree species distributed on the open Down. The ash, and the
frequent patches of scrub dominated by hawthorn, suggest an earlier
Ash-Hawthorn Association. The recurrence of ash, which follows the
belt of elevations (Plate 35), and its persistence amongst scrub and
débris seem to strengthen this view. The shrubs occurring frequently
on the open Down are: Crataegus Oxyacantha (hawthorn), Rubus
fruticosus (blackberry), Rosa canina (dog-rose), Rosa arvensis (field
rose), Hedera Helia (ivy), Sambucus nigra (elder), Clematis Vitalba —
(traveller’s joy), Corylus Avellana (hazel), Prunus spinosa (blackthorn),

PLATE 35,

Proc. B.N.S., 41H Serres, Vou. VIII, Pr. IV.

a a“

Auuvad) WOdd SIUM] HLIM adOTS ATUAT, “AT RKUUVAY “TIT

NMOQ NaddQ AO MAIA IVAANAYD ‘T

To face p. 481)

THE ECOLOGY OF DUNDRY DOWN 481

DUNDRY DOWN

ae ty
N

f
=e 4
Aen com Leary, 4 ; +.

a
i oe

ad
R eon

ibe | 1 Pasture Land iN
UAE 2 Quarries
3 Elevations
1 Rsition of Transects
Oo * * Quadrats
= " —* Rooting System

Fie. 39

482 GERTRUDE M. BOLEY

Acer campestre (field maple), Lonicera Periclymenum (honeysuckle),
Ilex Aquifolium (holly), Cornus sanguinea (dogwood), Ligustrum
vulgare (privet).

Herbaceous Flora. The plant association of the open Down falls
naturally into three societies (f2g. 39) :

(a) Grassland
(b) Disused Quarries
(c) Local Elevations

and the herbaceous flora is considered in relation to these. Chart
quadrats taken from (a), (6) and (c) are given in Figs. 40 and 41.
Numerical tables of plant frequencies occurring in transects taken from
(a) and (c) are given in Tables 1 and 3. The position of each transect
and square is marked on the Map (Fig. 39) and their distinguishing
features are given in Table 5.

(a) Grassland

Holcus lanatus dominates the grassland which encircles the regions
of the local elevation and the quarries. It also colonizes many of the
hollows. Though but a narrow margin south of the quarries, the
surrounding grassland extends north-west and south-east. (Fig. 39
and Plate 35, photographs 1 and 2.) The almost flat surface is broken
occasionally by small mounds 2 ft. to 4 ft. high. These slight elevations
are covered with a close turfy vegetation dominated by Potervwm
Sanguisorba.

In the south-east, Carduus arvensis is abundant, and Potervwm
Sanguisorba less frequent, but the latter occurs again abundantly on ©
the margin of grassland to the south-west, where it is found in close
association with Festuca ovina (Fig. 40a). A list of the plants with
their frequencies is given in Table 1.

TABLE |
NuMERICAL FREQUENCIES

List oF PLANTS IN GRASSLAND. COMPILED FROM THREE TRANSECTS.
Holcus lanatus—Yorkshire Fog ae Ae ne = ia tenes
Poterrum Sanguisorba—Salad Burnet .. aie yA si) eS
Plantago lanceolata—Ribwort Plantain ble a ae
Achillea Millefolium—Yarrow .. aye eis ie 6 ee
Lotus corniculatus—Bird’s-foot Trefoil ns Ln se) ied
Trifolium pratense—Red Clover ais os a mp iets)

A repens—White Clover a on 4s Pains!

THE ECOLOGY OF DUNDRY DOWN 483

NUMERICAL FREQUENCIES
List OF PLANTS IN GRASSLAND. CoMPILED FROM THREE TRANSECTS.

Carduus arvensis—Field Thistle
Medicago lwpulina—Black Medick
Dactylis glomerata—Cock’s-foot
Koeleria gracilis—K oeleria
Lolium perenne—Rye-grass ;
Hieraciwm Pilosella—Mouse-ear Hawkweed
Poa trivialis—Rough Meadow-grass
Thymus Serpyllum—Thyme
Agrostis tenuis—Bent-grass :
Poa pratensis—Smooth Meadow- _grass”
Galium verum—Ladies’ Bedstraw
Ranunculus arvensis—F¥ield Buttercup
Galium Aparine—Goosegrass
Euphrasia officinalis—Kyebright
Festuca ovina—Sheep’s Fescue ..
Hypochaeris radicata—Cat’s-ear
Agrostis alba—Bent-grass
Prunella vulgaris—Seltheal
Carduus lanceolatus—Spear Thistle

» acaulis—Ground Thistle
Arrhenatherum elatius—False Oat 2
Cerastium viscosum—Mouse-ear Chickweed
Leontodon autumnale—Hawkbit
Bellis perennis—Daisy .. ne
Anthoxanthum odoratum—Sweet Vernal- -OTAass
Trifolium procumbens—Hop Trefoil
Rumex Acetosa—Sorrel ‘
Taraxacum officinale—Dandelion
Potentilla Anserina—Silver-weed
Briza media—Quaking-grass
Conopodium denudatum—Pignut

Se ee
KKK DNDN NW WWWWHRRETITIAAAADWODONNNHATAs

(b) Disused Quarries

Evidence of human influence may be seen in the region of the disused
quarries. Excavations 20 feet deep, exposed rock and débris, turfy
elevations 50 feet long separated by grassy hollows, rocky walls and
open caves all bear witness to man’s activities. (Plate 35.)

Ecologically the region may be divided into two areas, east and west.
In the eastern area there are few trees or shrubs but in the west the
ground flora is shaded by densely wooded vegetation. (Fig. 39.) In
both areas Potervwm Sanguisorba dominates the slopes and summits

of the elevations, while Holcus lanatus invades the hollows. (Fig.
41.)

The abundance of Poterium on the limestone is shown in Fig. 400,
where the plant frequently abuts on the bare rock. On the quadrat
may also be seen Hypericum perforatum which, at the time of the survey,
was confined to this one station ouly. A list of plants occurring in the
two quarry areas, east and west, is given in Table 2

484 GERTRUDE M. BOLEY

Fia. 40
QUADRATS FROM: (a) GRASSLAND ; (b) DISUSED QUARRIES; (c) AND (d) Locan ELEVATIO|

SORE]
See OM

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RESO RR e pece coe

np oeece
or coee

Se, Scabiosa Columbaria ; Gv. Galium verum ; Lh, Leontodon hispidum ; D, Dactylis glomera\y
Hy, Hypericum perforatum ; Cv, Cerastium viscosum ; R, Rubus fruticosus ; Gm, Geranium mc
M, Myosotis collina; Pm, Plantago media ; Cr, Campanula rotundifolia ; Li, Linum catharticu
E, Euphrasia officinalis ; B, Briza media; P, Plantago lanceolata; H, Hieraciwm Pilosella ;

Koeleria gracilis ; Ho, Holcus lanatus ; T, Trifolium pratense ; 8, Scabiosa arvensis ; Td, Trifoli)
dubium ; A, Achillea Millefolium ; LL, Lotus corniculatus ; Ps, Potervum Sanguisorba ; Bp, Bal

perennis.

1 2 3 doa i 6 7 8 9 1 1 oon
len AGES NEI = =o

BSL IME IESESNUIRB 1

LLL

(1) Poa trivialis and Briza media (8) Poa pratensis and Poterium Sanguisorba —
(2) Poterium Sanguisorba (9) Briza-Koeleria

(3) Festuca ovina (10) Carduus acaulis

(4) Holcus lanatus (11) Poa pratensis

(5) Shallow soil (12) Thymus serpyllum

(6) Hteracium Pilosella (13) Bare Limestone

THE ECOLOGY OF DUNDRY DOWN

TABLE 2

List oF PLANTS IN QuaRRy AREA.

Potertum Sanguisorba—Salad Burnet
Festuca ovina—Sheep’s Fescue
Thymus Serpyllum—Thyme
Lotus corniculatus—Bird’s-foot Trefoil .
Briza media—Quaking-grass
Holcus lanatus—Yorkshire Fog ..
Linum catharticum—Purging Flax
Scabiosa Columbaria—Lesser Scabious .
Bellis perennis—Daisy
Ranunculus repens—Creeping Buttercup |
bulbous—Bulbous pueeUe,
Achillea M ulefolium—Y arrow
Leontodon hispidum—Hawkbit
oe autumnale—Autumnal Hawkbit
Arrhenatherum elatius—False Oat
Euphrasia officinalis—Kyebright
Carex diversicolor—Common Sedge
Koeleria gracilis—K oeleria te a
Poa pratensis—Smooth Meadow-grass .
Cerastium vulgatum—Mouse-ear Chickweed
a viscosum—Mouse-ear Chickweed
Anthoxanthum odoratum—Sweet Vernal-grass
Lolium perenne—Rye-grass a
Medicago lupulina—Black Medick
Trifolium pratense—Red Clover ..
BP repens—White Clover
se procumbens—Hop Trefoil
Galiwm verum—tLadies’ Bedstraw
» Mollugo—Hedge Bedstraw
» Aparine—Goosegrass
Urtica dioica—Stinging Nettle

Geranium Robertianium—Herb Robert ar a3
Fr, lucidum—Shining Crane’s-bill
es molle—Dove’s-foot Crane’s-bill
‘5 pusillum—Small-flowered Crane’ s-bill

Senecio Jacobaea—Ragwort

Hypochaeris radicata—Cat’s-ear ..
Dactyllis glomerata—Cock’s-foot

Prunella vulgaris—Seltheal

Conopodium denudatum—Pignut

Fragaria vesca—Wild Strawberry

Rumex Acetosa—Sheep’s sorrel

Lactuca muralis—Wall Lettuce ..
Veronica Chamaedrys—Germander Speedwell .
Hypericum perforatum—St. John’s-wort
Bromus erectus—Upright Brome-grass ..
Avena flavescens—Yellow Oat-grass

485

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— Absent.

To the region of the disused quarries must be added the local eleva-
tions, mounds of débris, which are so characteristic a feature of the
open Down. From the general appearance of these, it can be assumed
that the quarry men worked in a somewhat primitive fashion, since

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THE ECOLOGY OF DUNDRY DOWN 487

there does not seem to be any ordered sequence in their work. An exca-
vation was made and a quantity of material removed—the softer
beds and layers being thrown away only so far as was necessary to
obtain the desired strata.

These débris accumulations occur all over the Down, sometimes bare
but generally covered with a shallow soil with a close turfy vegetation
(Plate 35). Poterrwm Sangwisorba is very abundant but there are
many subordinate species which have acquired a local dominance and
occur in masses of social vegetative growth. This is shown in Fig. 40c
where Poa and Poterium are co-dominant, and in Fg. 40d where Poa
pratensis and Thymus Serpyllum dominate, and lesser plant societies
occur within the association.

The numerical frequencies of plants taken from transects in this
region (Fig. 39) are given in Table 3.

TABLE 3

NUMERICAL FREQUENCIES
List oF PLants oF LocAan ELEVATIONS. COMPILED FROM THREE TRANSECTS.

Thymus Serpyllum—Thyme .. Be aa oo.) 64
Lotus corniculatus—Bird’s-foot Trefoil _ Se oa) ool
Poterium Sanguisorba—Salad Burnet .. fe a Mac eh gece
Hieracium Pilosella—Mouse-ear Hawkweed ts Sri: 3
Plantago lanceolata—Ribwort Plantain ae sh RPh es
Trifolium repens—White Clover i as a S/n gee)

es pratense—Red Clover oy as oe Bhet uae
Achillea Millefoliwm—Yarrow .. a is 22
Medicago lwpulina—Black Medick : Hs 7, rae i)
Carduus acaulis—Ground Thistle oes sie Gt we ds
Bellis perennis—Daisy oi a 10
Euphrasia officinalis—Eyebright 10
_ Briza media—Quaking-grass .. 8
Leontodon hispidum—Hairy Hawkbit

Carduus arvensis—Creeping Field Thistle
Agrostis alba—Bent-grass

Arenaria serpyllifolia—Thyme- leaved Sandwort
Lolium perenne—Rye-grass : ay.
Holcus lanatus—Yorkshire Fog

Galium Mollugo—Hedge Bedstraw

Prunella vulgaris—Seltheal

Galium verum—Ladies’ Bedstraw

Poa pratensis—Smooth Meadow-grass

Polygala vulgaris—Milkwort

Plantago media—Hoary Plantain

Linum Catharticum—Purging Flax

Carex flacca—Glaucus Sedge

Koeleria gracilis—Koeleria

Ranunculus bulbosus—Bulbous Buttercup
Cerastium vulgatum—Mouse-ear Chickweed
Poa trivialis—Rough Meadow-grass
Campanula rotundifolia—Hairbell

Scabiosa arvensis—Field Scabious

Avena flavescens—Yellow Oat-grass
Ranunculus repens—Creeping Buttercup
Veronica officinalis—Common Speedwell

a eS ERK NN WWW PROD AIOW OOO

488 GERTRUDE M. BOLEY

A grassland association, with Holcus lanatus dominant, invades
many of the hollows between the elevations, and a comparison has
been made of plant species occurring on the elevations and in the

hollows. This is given in Table 4.

TABLE 4

CoMPARATIVE List oF PLANTS FROM ELEVATIONS AND HoLLows

Poterium Sanguisorba—Salad Burnet
Festuca ovina—Sheep’s Fescue .. ets
Lotus corniculatus—Bird’s-foot Trefoil ..
Thymus Serpyllum—Thyme
Carduus acaulis—Ground Thistle
Arrhenatherum elatius—False Oat-grass
Lolium perenne—Ryeegrass
Plantago media—Hoary Plantain
Koeleria gracilis—Koeleria
Briza media—Quaking-grass
Hieracium Pilosella—Mouse-ear Hawkweed
Euphrasia officinalis—Kyebright
Poa pratensis—Smooth Meadow-grass ..
Linum catharticum—Purging Flax
Scabiosa arvensis—Field Scabious

» Columbaria—Small Scabious
Leontodon hisprdum—Hawkbit
Galium verum—Ladies’ Bedstraw
Poa trivialis—Rough Meadow-grass
Trifolium pratense—-Red Clover

A repens—White Clover ..
Bellis perennis—Daisy
Campanula rotundifolia—Hairbell
Holcus lanatus—Yorkshire Fog ..
Medicago lupulina—Black Medick
Achillea Millefoliwm—Y arrow ane
Leontodon hispidum—Lesser Hawkbit ..
Hypochaeris radicata—Cat’s-ear ..
Carlina vulgaris—Carline Thistle

Geranium pusillum—Small-flowered Geranium —

Ranunculus repens—Creeping Buttercup
a2 bulbosus—Bulbous Buttercup

Prunella vulgaris—Selfheal
Geranium molle—Dove’s-foot Crane’ s-bill
Cerastium vulgatum—Mouse-ear Chickweed

- viscosum—Mouse-ear Chickweed
Geranium Roberttanum—Herb Robert ..
Carex diversicolor—Common Sedge
Dactylis glomerata—Cock’s-foot
Bromus erectus—Upright Brome-grass ..
Agrostis tenuis—Bent-grass
Carduus arvensis—Field Thistle

3 lanceolata—Spear Thistle
Polygala vulgaris—Milkwort
Agrostis alba—Bent-grass

Anthoxanthum odoratum—Sweet Vernal- “grass

"A,—Abundant ;

Phleum pratensis—Cat’s-tail :
Dom.—Dominant; V.A.—Very “Abundant ;
O.—Occasional ; R.—Rare ; ; — Absent.

FREQUENCIES IN:

ELEVATIONS.
Dom.

LL LS] SS | SO SSCS SOS Ha a a ad al dl ll lt > bb be b> dd td i
>

eres

HoLitows.
O.

OOO] OF | pi] Weasel] BH] SOR OOOM| P| | PM] OOO
5

F.—Frequent ;

THE ECOLOGY OF DUNDRY DOWN 489

In Table 5 are shown the distinguishing features of the transects
and quadrats in the three regions (a), (b) and (c).

TABLE 5

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES IN TRANSECTS AND QUADRATS
In Reaions (a), (0) anD (c)

Total Number
of Species Dominant Plant.
in 'Transects.

—__— | SF Oo | OSS COO"

Geographical

Frequency %
Position.

Regions. F
6 in Transects.

(a) Grassland S.W. 164 Achillea Millefoliwm 10%
S.W. =. Poa pratensis, and
Briza media co-dom. Tas
S.E. 103 Holcus lanatus 33u6
N.W. 159 Holcus lanatus 20%
(6) Disused S.W. = Holcus lanatus aa
Quarries S.W. i Potervum Sanguisorba =
S.W. * Poterium Sanguisorba —
(c) Local N. 136 Poterium Sanguisorba 16%
Elevations N.E. 179 Thymus Serpyllum 21%
N.E. is Poterium Sanguisorba 1 He
and Poa pratensis
8. 138 Thymus Serpyllum | 11%
Ss. 7 Poa pratensis and 2

Thymus Serpyllum —

* Denotes quadrats.

_ From this general description of the vegetation and the statistical
evidence derived from quadrats and transects, it can be seen that the
Open Down Association may be divided into the three natural regions,
grassland, quarries and elevations. It now remains to give an account
of the ecological factors obtaining in the district, with a view to finding
an explanation for the above divisions.

(B) Ecouocicat Factors oF OPEN Down AssociaTION
(a) Clumatic Factors

The climate of Dundry Down is mild in summer but very bleak and
cold in winter when N.E. winds prevail. The average temperature
for the summer months, May to September, 1936, was 60°, with a high
rainfall and prevailing S.E. or 8.W. winds. Temperature records and
measurements of light intensities taken from the open Down and also
from the region of the quarries will be found in Table 6.

Records of the evaporating power of the air, an indication of the
relative exposure in the open and in the shelter of the hollows, taken

490 GERTRUDE M. BOLEY

by the Livingston Atmometer on Oct. 12th, 1936, showed that evapor-
ating power in the hollows was about 8° of that in the open.

TABLE 6
GENERAL CiimaTic CoNDITIONS FROM May To SEpreMBER, 1936

Temperature.
Month. —_______——| Rainfall. Prevailing Winds.
Max. Min.

May ae sre aod 44° F. al N.E.
June bie seit (Soehe 46° F. 5:38” S.E. and S.W.
July = el mie en 54° ¥, 5-91” S.W.
August ae Belin haere se 55° F, 48” W. and 8.W.
September Se ahaa 48° F, 3°45” S.W. and 8.E.

Data obtained from Messrs. Dunscombe, Bristol.

RELATION oF Licut INTENSITIES ON OPEN DOWN AND IN QUARRY
AREAS, OCTOBER 26TH, 1938 (CLOUDY DAY; SUNNY INTERVALS)
1.30—2.15 P.M.

Quarry Areas.
Open Down.
Open. Kast. West.

Beneath Trees Beneath Trees
In Hollow. | “and Shrubs, | Open. | Im Hollow. Opens) agen.

13 6:4 3°9 11:3 4-9 12 4-2

Based on methods of determining light intensities in Field Studies in Ecology,
Bracher (1).

(b) Physvographic Factors

The position of Dundry Down on the western summit of Dundry Hill,
and its elevations have been mentioned. The local elevations
undulating from the margin of grassland vary considerably in their
dimensions from the very small mounds in the grassland to the larger %
elevations rising over 20 ft., with a surface area of 1,500 sq. ft. The
highest of these are to be found in the region of the disused quarries
where, in the western area, they rise steeply to nearly 30 feet (fig. 39).

Sa ent en he eee ee

A mechanical analysis was made of the soils of the three regions.
The colour varied from light brown to black, with an intermixture of
white particles, especially in the lower layers. The transition from
coarse to fine particles is almost imperceptible, and there is no definite
sand layer.

THE ECOLOGY OF DUNDRY DOWN 491

In the pasture, the soil consists of 40°, sand and coarse clay; 60°%
fine clay and organic matter.

In the region of the quarries and the local elevations beneath a turfy
layer, the soil, 2 in. to 5 in. deep, is composed, for the most part, of
50%, clay and 50% chalky grit and fine dark organic matter. This
rests upon a bed of calcareous grit, clay and limestone rubble.

TABLE 7

Soir ANALYSIS AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION

* Denotes quadrats.

The water content of the soil was higher and the content of organic
matter lower in the east than in the west. The soil samples taken
from the pasture gave, with one exception, acid reactions but those
taken from the other region were definitely basic. These results,
together with the relation of the soil analysis to the distribution of
plants, are given in Table 7.

Rooting Systems, measured in situ in a trench 3 ft. by 12 ins. dug
across the summit of an elevation N.K. of the Down, are shown in F7g.42.
The depth of soil occupied by different species of plants is shown.
Hieracium Pilosella, Carex diversicolor, Festuca ovina and Ranunculus
bulbosus have their roots close to, or immediately below, the surface
of the soil. Lotus corniculatus, Plantago media and Poterium
Sanguisorba have penetrated much deeper. The rooting system of
Thymus Serpyllum penetrates beneath the rubble of the sub-soil.

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Depth of Soil

Limestone and Débris

494 GERTRUDE M. BOLEY
(d) Brotic Factors

Amongst the biotic factors operating on the open Down, soil bacteria
and worms play their part, but moles, rapidly increasing in number,
prey upon the earthworms.

In the damp pits and hollows of the limestone débris, the English
grass-snake, Natrix natriz, has found a home, and may frequently
be seen on the slopes during the later months of summer. The fox
and the badger have gone to earth amongst the limestone cavities
but the rabbit, formerly a pest, is now being largely exterminated by
the tenant farmer.

Sheep and cattle feed continually on the pastures which are regarded
as amongst the richest “ grazing ”’ in North Somerset, but the most
influential biotic factor to be considered is man himself who, by his
activities in quarrying, changed the character and appearance of the
Down.

(e) Conclusion concerning Ecological Factors

From the brief consideration of the ecological factors which determine
the character of Dundry Down, and its individuality in the surrounding
district, 1t may be concluded that the master or controlling factors are
biotic.

The differentiation of the open Down into its three natural divisions
is due entirely to the activity of man. From primitive pasture land
he quarried and removed blocks of limestone, laid bare the rock, and
with the superficial soil and rubble raised mounds of débris, thus
bringing about three distinctive regions so familiar to-day.

The vegetation of this altered surface has been grazed, probably for
hundreds of years, and has been influenced both by the cropping of
herbage and by the incidental manurial enrichment.

The underlying rock, brought to the surface in the mounds of grit
and rubble, has given rise to a looser soil and one richer in lime, and
has favoured the development in such places of a more calcicolous
vegetation. The sharp difference between the appearance of the
grassland and that of the vegetation of quarries and local elevations
is due principally to the character and depth of the soil. Local climatic
differences are also effective. In the hollows and in the shade of trees
and shrubs the evaporation is much lower than in the open, and a more
luxuriant herbaceous flora is seen in consequence.

Species which grow in more than one situation show the effect of
these factors in their individual development. Individuals are dwarfed

THE ECOLOGY OF DUNDRY DOWN 495

on the dry shallow soil of the summits and reach their maximum size
in deeper soil and in the shade of trees and shrubs. Examples of these
effects are preserved in the Ecological Herbarium of the University.

In the succession of plant life which has led to the establishment of

the communities of the open Down there appear to have been two types

of progressive change.

(1) The occurrence of ash, and its persistence in areas of débris avoided
by cattle, suggests that the primitive vegetation was ashwood and
scrub and that its clearing gave rise to conditions which allowed of the
development of calcareous pasture. The actual stages of this progres-
sion cannot be traced. It may be assumed that, with the change
brought about in such factors as exposure and light intensity, woodland
species gave place to those of the grassland. Alteration of the soil
by increasing grazing and manuring would favour such a progression.

(2) Of the second type of change—-from bare rock and débris surface
to grassy turf—-there is more direct evidence. In the region of the
quarries, colonisation from the initial stages may be seen. Wherever
the limestone is exposed, its surface is invariably corroded with lichen
or tufted with mosses. Many rocks occur which have their surface
layer disintegrated into deep pockets filled with earth deposits and
decaying plant remains in which spores of ferns and seeds of species
of Gramineae and Compositae have germinated. On some rocks,
Thymus and Lotus have rooted, and in their season cover the limestone
with purple and gold.

Along the upper levels of the rock face of the quarry walls, the
polypody fern occurs abundantly in competition with species of grasses
and Compositae.

Over the loose mineral surface of the rubbly mounds, re-colonization
has reached a climax vegetation in close turfy pasture. It has been
mentioned that in this region—-by the activity of man—the original

character of the soil had been changed to one of higher calcareous

content. This would encourage calcicolous species to come in and
remain with those early comers tolerant of limestone. As, in process
of time, a habitat was formed for species characteristic of a calcareous
pasture land, the vegetation closed in to a matted turf in which com-
petition now is very keen but which is still dominated by Potervum
Sanguisorba.

Plant succession has, however, reached its ultimate climax on the

496 GERTRUDE M. BOLEY

open Down in the recurrence of shrub. and forest trees which, from
their position, seem to have followed the older limestone (Fig. 39).

IV.—_ GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

From this ecological survey of the open Down it may be concluded
that in all probability the open vegetation of Dundry Down originated
in the clearing of primitive woodland and was used for the grazing
of sheep and cattle. Perhaps much later the site was modified by
quarrying limestone, and two new types of habitat were formed—the
Quarries and the Hlevations. The vegetation which now occupies
these is the result of a secondary succession, and their differing floras
express the different conditions of the habitats. The calcareous
soil supports a turf which is not so close as that of the natural grassland.
The most striking differences in the vegetation of different parts of the
Down are due to the influence of man.

I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness and express my thanks to
Dr. R. Bracher for much help and advice in the preparation of this
paper. I should also like to thank Miss M. Thomas for preparing the
diagram of the rooting systems, Miss James for carrying out the soil
analyses, and Mr. E. W. Hopkins for preparing the specimens for the
Herbarium. Finally, I am indebted to the Fry Memorial Fund for a
grant in aid of publication.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bracher, Rose. Freld Studies in Ecology, Arrowsmith, 1934.

Buckman, 8. 8. and E. Wilson. The Geological Structure of the
Upper Portion of Dundry Hill. Proc. B.N.S., 1896, Vol.
VEL Pi. 2

3. Collinson, J. History and Antiquities of the County of Somerset,
Bath, 1791.

4. Stoddart, W. W. Geology of the Bristol Coalfield. Proc. B.N.S.,
1877-89, Vol. II.

5. Tansley, A. G. Practical Plant Ecology, Allen and Unwin, 1923.

6. White, J. W. The Botany of Bristol. Proc. B.N.S., 1930, 4th
ser. Vol VIE Pt ti.

7. Victoria County History, Somerset. 1911.

497

The Coast of Somerset (II)

By O. D. Kenpatt, M.A.

(Read March 2nd, 1939)

HIS paper is a continuation of one published in the Proceedings

for 1936, and is chiefly concerned with field work carried out during
the years 1937-38. Certain additional evidence is also included and
mention is made of some of the work which it is hoped to carry out
in the present year (1939).

THe Low LicutHousr Marsu (BuRNHAM)

This marsh is now a very noticeable feature of the landscape and
has become relatively well established in a very short time. It is
not marked on the Ordnance Survey six-inch map of 1904 and its first
mention in print appears to be as late as 1922.

I am informed by Mr. Haile (1) (late Engineer to the Somerset Rivers
Catchment Board) that about twenty years ago some roots of Spartina
Townsend1 were brought from Poole by a local farmer living in the
vicinity of Yatton. These were planted on the foreshore by the sea wall
to accumulate the foreshore and thus avoid expensive works on the
actual earth and sea defences. Soon afterwards the grass began to
appear at Burnham, and it is reasonably assumed that pieces of the
plant were carried there from the Yatton district since there is no
evidence that anybody deliberately planted the grass at Burnham.

Writing in 1922, Stuart Thompson (2) described the marsh as
adjoining the hard Strand, and stretching seawards from about 400
yds. N.W. of Burnham low hghthouse to 600 yds. 8.W. of Berrow
Church. He made a compass sketch which showed the marsh as being
about 500 vds. wide, 1,500 yards long, tapering at both ends and having
an approximate area of 100 acres. He further fixed the date of its
inception as about 1910. This agrees very well with all other available
information.

Writing again in 1930, Thompson (3) noted that the marsh had extended
about 100 yards at its north end, but had retreated about 300 yards at
the south end. It thus extended for about 1,100 yards along the shore,
having a greatest width of rather less than 300 yards, and a very
irregular seaward border.

In 1937 a traverse of the marsh was carried out by plane table
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THE COAST OF SOMERSET 4¢9

and chain and three fixed points were established. At that time the
dimensions of the area were a greatest length of 1,280 yards and width
of 200 yards. In the following year, August, 1938, the traverse was
repeated, and little change was found in these measurements, which
were then of the order of 1,250 yards by 240 yards. The marsh had
certainly lost ground at its northern extremity and there was evidence
there of overwhelmed vegetation. On the other hand the seaward.
border, though irregular, seemed to be very flourishing and definitely
pushing out over the sands. The area of the marsh calculated by
planimeter at that time was about forty-four acres.

Over the greater part of its area the vegetation of the marsh is
exceedingly dense, a very striking feature of which is the predominance
of the grass Spartina Townsendi. The marsh is not crossed easily,
but is mostly very wet and muddy ; on the landward side, even at low
tide, standing water on mud separates a great length of the marsh
from the dune line, and on the seaward side, several small creeks up to
two feet in depth drain outwards into the sand. Innumerable winding
streamlets appear to give way more and more to a smaller number of
well marked creeks, and perhaps emphasize the fact that the marsh
is firmer and higher. Some of these creeks disappear in the course of a
year, but the bigger ones retain their general position over a much
longer period.

Observations over the last few vears tend to support the following
conclusions which it is hoped to amplify by an accurate fixing of levels
in the present year. Along a considerable portion of its length the
marsh is now definitely tied on to the dune line, but to north and south
of it there are considerable mud patches, that to the north being a
“no man’s” land over which the spread of vegetation shows big
differences from year to year. To the south, the end of the marsh is
more sharply defined and sand is more quickly met with. Further south
a depression around the low lighthouse gives rise to more mud and a
spread of vegetation south of the light.

The seaward side is usually bordered by sand, and in many patches,
particularly to the north, small sand ridges are a distinctive feature.
Some of these have a length of twenty or more yards and usually run in
a W.N.W.-E.S.E. direction. They are flat-topped and only about a
foot higher than the surface of the surrounding marsh or sand. Such
accumulations are probably wind-blown, and it is perhaps at this point
that the windiness of the area and the prevalence of sand drifting should
be emphasized. There is no doubt whatever that here wind action
is very important, apart from any wave action.

500 0. D. KENDALL

In his 1922 paper, Stuart Thompson showed a stream tributary to
the Parret and bordering the marsh along the greater part of its seaward
border. He suggested this as a possible cause of the development of
the vegetation, “‘ by diminishing the force of scour over the flat. between
it and the sand dunes.” In his second paper, the same writer rnentioned
that the channel was then silting up at its northern end and that this
had “enabled the old forces of the waves to carry off some of the
vegetation.”

In 1937 this channel had entirely disappeared and the marsh was
bordered there by a broad expanse of sand which seemed little changed
in 1988. Out to sea, however, at a distance of about half a mile, a big
gully was seen which was apparently tributary to the Parret. It was
impossible to reach this on account of the soft mud, but a subsidiary
channel running from an approximately north easterly direction was
examined. Itis impossible to say whether this was a new formation or
not, and there is no survey detail regarding it available. First
impressions suggest that the expanse of sand to seaward of the marsh
is higher than the marsh itself, and that there is another relatively
high patch of sand to the north-west. Some of the channels out of the
marsh have been cut off by this higher sand and the drainage thus
considerably affected.

To the north-west of the marsh it seems therefore that, between
the high sand and the main channel, a depression of some extent has
been enclosed. The main drainage of this basin appears to be by the
gully just mentioned and leading to the main channel. Possibly the
gully was cut by the water of this depression seeking an outlet back to
sea. This water is a constant danger to the marsh, the north end of
which seems to suffer erosion from high tides, as witness the loss in
recent years at this extremity. If the increase in sand on the seaward
side of the marsh goes on, then the activities of the drainage to the
north may be stopped and the cover of vegetation again extended.
On the other hand, the depression may be pushed in a southerly
direction, in which case the marsh will probably lose further ground
in the north. It is hoped that levelling may be carried out this year,
without which it is not easy to say anything useful on the relative
heights in this rather difficult area.

The gully is a very definite feature, cut in the soft mud, and gradually
attains a depth of at least ten feet and a width up to twenty feet.
It is obviously subject to severe erosion owing to its rapid fall towards
the main channel, and the quick changes after a tide are very marked.

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THE COAST OF SOMERSET 501
Berrow CHurcH MarsH

This is a smaller marsh lying 700 feet north of Berrow Church and
immediately bordering the trackway at the bottom of the dune line.
It is approximately 1,500 feet long and tapers to north and south
from a maximum width of 250 feet. No significant change in its size
has occurred at any rate since 1936. It was resurveyed in 1938 by
chain and compass. It is cut up into four sections by narrow gaps
almost perpendicular to the dunes. The marsh itself is comparatively
dry and is flanked on its seaward side by a new dune line in which
individual dunes rise to a height of four or five feet. Here again
there are extensive patches of Spartina Townsend.

As a matter of fact, a new dune line seems to have become established
in this area and to the north since 1904, as it is not shown on the Ordnance
Survey six-inch map published in that year.

A PLAN oF StrerRT FISHERIES

Further evidence of Stert Island is afforded by a Plan of Stert Fisheries
dated 1776, a copy of which has recently been given to me by Mr.
Kelting (4), Engineer to the Somerset Rivers Catchment Board. This
shows very clearly that at that date Stert Island did not exist and,
further, that the neck of land, which must have been breached when
the island was formed, was less than a hundred yards wide. This
evidence corroborates previous suggestions.

The plan shows many other interesting points. The Warren is
marked near Stert Point, and three islands are shown in the River
Parret. Two of these are named Slab Isle and Dunball Isle. The
third is without a name but its position suggests that it was Fenning
Island (Jennings) which now forms a part of the mainland and is flanked
by the shingle ridge of Stert Point.

A further interesting detail is the position of the Gore sand which
is shown as long and narrow, almost perpendicular to the coast and
separating two channels of the Parret. This fits in very well with a
statement by Locke (5) in 1789. Ima letter of that date he gave some
interesting details concerning this area. Apparently Dunball Island
was already connected to the mainland, and the Gore sand had extended
so that the easterly channel was “almost filled with sand and slub.”’
He further remarks ‘* Our fishermen inform me that, with the assistance
of their slime carts, they can go near ten miles straight west into
St. George’s Channel at dead low water, when the tide is run out the
lowest possible.”

502 0. D. KENDALL

Mup BALLS

Some mention was made in the 1936 paper of mud balls which were
seen particularly on Stert Island but also on the foreshore north of
Burnham. These have been further observed, and in 1938 they were
seen in considerable numbers to the west and north of the lighthouse
marsh. Many of these, however, were made up of a black interior,
possibly of old marsh soil, with a mud and sand coating up to a quarter
of an inch in thickness. The exposure from which the black soil had
been eroded was not seen. They tend to occur particularly along the
junctions between sand and clay, and a tentative suggestion previously
put forward for their development seems to be corroborated by further
observations. It does not appear that a nucleus pebble is necessary
for their initiation. Pieces of clay are eroded from exposures on the
shore. These are possibly sun-dried in many cases, following the
cracking of dried clay and mud. Later they are rolled along by the
tides and collect mud, sand, tiny pebbles and other débris. On one
occasion they were actually seen being rolled along by a rising tide on
the western shore of Stert Island. Many are oval in shape, but the
spherical formis often seen, and some are very irregular. It is probable
that the balls disappear quickly and are often covered by deposition
from the tide following their development. Should they be initiated
on a falling tide succession they will possibly have a better chance of
survival. It is not usual, however, to see them, other than those which
are the result of recent tides.

Dr. Wallis (6) has kindly drawn my attention to a mention of the
‘mud pellets’ in a paper published by him in 1928. He writes of
their occurrence on the sandy foreshore at Uphill, Somerset, and other
places. ‘‘ The mud pellets are generally oval shaped (from 1-6 cms.
in length) or may be spherical. The coast at Uphill is sandy with mud
flats exposed at low tide. The incoming tide picks up small quantities
of this mud, rolls it into lenticles or spheres and finally deposits it on the
sand area.”

STERT IsLanp

Erosion on the island has continued on both the east and west sides,
but particularly the latter. On that side the more westerly of the two
drainage lines is now wiped out for the greater part of its length.
The greatest change, however, is at the south end of the island where
the shingle spread has been largely changed, and a small patch of
vegetation has disappeared. In this area shingle has been pushed
south and east and now encloses a pool which is about a hundred

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PLATE 37.—

LAV FHL OL ONIGVAY ATTAY) AHL DNOTY Vag OL LAQ) DNINNAY MATA GNAoUDAUO NT
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To face p

|Proc. B.N.S., 4TH SzErres, Vou. VIII, Pr. IV.

SS ES Ee Se See

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THE COAST OF SOMERSET 503

yards long at low water. The southern extremity itself is more blunted,
and here also the spread of shingle is rather more extensive than in 1936.

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Scale of Miles:

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Fic. 44

Stert Pornt

Recent changes in the point are not spectacular, but nevertheless
serious erosion continues on the bank of the River Parret, and on the
seaward side the shingle continues to be pushed forward over the land.
The actual point continues to swing round, and a new spread of sand
seems to point the way for further encroachment. In 1937 a detailed
survey of a piece of the bank of the river was made. This was one

504 0. D. KENDALL

hundred feet in length, in which every small variation was plotted.
It was evident that erosion was rapid in this part, but we were surprised
and disappointed to find in 1938 that our fixed points had been carried
away, even though they were twelve feet back from the edge of the
marsh in 1937.

A further survey of a like nature was carried out in August, 1938,
over a length of the river bank, 466 feet in length, and this time we

took the precaution to fix our measuring points well back from the
bank.

WIND Statistics. BurRNHAM AND BRIDGWATER

In general the prevailing winds in the Bristol Channel are westerly,
and in many cases greatly outnumber those from all easterly directions.
A preliminary study of a short series of weather observations for
Burnham, however, does not appear to agree with this general state-
ment. Statistics for the five years 1932-36 were examined. This, of
course, is a very short period, but in each of these years both the strongest
and the most frequent winds were from the north-west, and blew up to
force seven. Thee »'nds, however, appear to be most frequent
during the months of May, June, July and August, when gales are
comparatively rare. This area is a relatively bad one for gales but
general evidence shows that they are most frequent from the westward
during the months from October to March, and often last three or
four days.

In the same way a series for Bridgwater for one year only, 1934,
vives similar results, i.e., the north-west wind is a stronger and more
frequent wind than that from the south-west. On one occasion the
wind attained force eight, and on several occasions it stayed in the
northerly sector swinging between north-west and north-east for
periods up to fourteen days.

Such differences as these must not be overstressed from short series
of observations. They do, however, emphasize the need for care in
general assumptions, and efforts will be made to examine more complete
records. Burnham, of course, is renowned for the force and frequency
of its breezes off the sea.

The tidal stream follows the general direction of the prevailing winds,
which are westerly. In the wider area of the Bristol Channel, the
dominant waves follow the same direction, travelling almost due east.
But although the run of the longshore current is parallel to the shore,
it should be remembered that there are currents running into all bays.
Further, the turn of the tidal stream offshore is seldom at the same time

Proc. B.N.S., 4rH Series, Vou. VIII, Pr. IV. PLATE 38.

I
Mup Batts Betnc RoLtLED ALONG BY THE TIDE OFF THE WEST COAST
oF StertT [ISLAND

Il
reERT ISLAND, SoutH-West Corner. NEw Poon LErr At
Low WatTER, A CHANGE SINCE 1936

II
THE OntY DuNE FORMATION ON StrerRt [SLAND. SovutH Env
oF ISLAND

[To face p. 504

THE COAST OF SOMERSET 505

as that of high and low water on the shore. For instance, in the
gap-way (7) between Stert Point and Stert Island the flood-tide makes
from about half-tide up to one hour before high water, when it returns
seawards and runs rapidly until the gap-way dries, i.e., at about half-
ebb tide. Other things being equal, this fact may have a definite
bearing on the amount and movement of material carried in suspension.
The Somerset Rivers Catchment Board propose to close this gap and
so cause the whole of the water of the ebb tide to return by the main
channel of the Parret. This, it is suggested, would not only deepen
the channel but would also tend to improve the entrance to the river.
The Huntspill bank would also be protected from the severe erosion
which it suffers at present when westerly gales generate heavy seas
through the gap.

In the evolution of the shape of the shoreline, two main forces are at
work; there is the longshore drift of material by the prevalent waves
and also the dominant waves which pile up the material on the coast.
In recent years the latter have been neglected, but their great power,
especially if their direction should coincide with that of the greatest
fetch of open water, has been recently demonstrated by Lewis (8). In
the case of Bridgwater Bay such a coincidence does exist and it is
probable that the curve of part of the shoreline is changing so as to face
these dominant breakers.

In this connection the change in the direction of the coastline near
Berrow is significant ; the low lighthouse marsh described is forming
to the south between this point and the lighthouse. Similarly, to
the north of the change of direction, a new dune line and the smaller
marsh are forming as already stated. Further, the higher patch of
sand already mentioned is roughly in line with the swing of the coast.
It is hoped that this matter will be investigated further this year (1939).

I cannot close this report without thanking the Colston Research
Society who have continued to make grants in aid of the work, and
also my students who have given invaluable help in the making of the
surveys.

REFERENCES
1. Personal Communication. W. H. Haile, Engineer. River Trent
Catchment Board.
2. Changes in the coast vegetation near Berrow, Somerset. H. Stuart
Thompson. Jour. Ecology, 1922.
3. Further changes in the coast vegetation near Berrow, Somerset.
H. Stuart Thompson. Jour. Ecology, 1980.

506

0. D. KENDALL

HK. L. Kelting. Engineer to Somerset Rivers Catchment Board.

From letter by Mr. Locke, Burnham, 1789, from Correspondence
of Bath and West of England Society. Vol. 5, p. 180.

Old Red Sandstone at St. Monica’s, Durdham Down. F.S. Wallis.
Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. 4 Series, Vol. 6, 1924.

Personal Communication. Capt. T. C. Smith, Harbourmaster,
Bridgwater.

Evolution of Shoreline Curves. W. V. Lewis. Proc. Geol. Assoc.,
1938, Vol. 49, p. 107.

Printed at the BURLEIGH Press, Lewin’s Mead, BRISTOL

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—— Pr

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