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PROCEEDINGS
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
Al BRIDGE f

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

Vol. XIV.

JANUARY 1874 TO DECEMBER 1875.

PEE AD Hine? HT AY:
PRN Ean OR LP ES O'OlE Dy
BY M’CALLA & STAVELY

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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Vou. XIV. 1874. No. 92.

Stated Meeting, January 2d, 1874.
Present, 14 members.
Vice-President, Mr. FRAuEyY, in the Chair.

A letter announcing the death of Dr. Carl F. Naumann
was received from Dr. Ernst Naumann, dated Dresden,
Dee. 4th, 1873.

A letter requesting information was received from Capt.
J. Herschel, dated 21 Sumner place, Brompton, London, W.

A letter respecting copies of Mr. Henry Dexter’s bust of
Agassiz was received, dated Cambridge, Dec. 18th, 18753.

A letter requesting the completion of series of the Trans-
actions and Proceedings was received from the Secretary of
the K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, dated Vienna, Sept.
20th, 1878.

On motion, the request of the Institute was granted, and
the missing parts of the series ordered to be sent.

Letters of envoy were received from the Prince Jablon-
owski Society at Leipsig, dated Aug. 12th, 1873, and from
the Department of the Interior at Washington, dated Dec.
22d, 1878.

Donations for the Library were received from the Academia
dei Lincei; the Geological Institute at Vienna; the Prince
Jablonowski Society ; the German Geological Society ; the

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. A |

Revue Politique; London Nature; the Royal Geographical
Society ; the Nova Scotian Institute; the Boston N. H. Society ;
Cambridge Museum; Prof. O. C. Marsh ; the Connecticut
Academy; Commissioners of Fisheries of New Jersey; Penn
Monthly ; Medical News; Mr. Geo. W. Childs; the U.S.
Chief of Engineers; Librarian of Congress; and Wisconsin
Historical Society.

The death of Prof. Carl Naumann, at Leipsig, on the 26th
November, 1873, was announced.

Prof. Cope stated that the species figured and described
by Prof. O. C. Marsh, in a paper received for the Library
to-night, under the name of Brontotherium ingens, is the
--one described by himself under the name of Symborodon
‘trigonoceras, in the Synopsis of Extinct Vertebrata of Colo-
_rado, issued in October, 1873, by the U.S. Geological Survey
of the Territories.

Professor Frazer said: “ A few meetings ago I referred to
‘the fact that the white color of the moon by day was due
to the fact that the dispersed blue light of the sun just
supplied the dispersed blue ight of the moon, and I suggested
that the solar origin of these otherwise missing rays might
be demonstrated by choosing the first or third quartering of
the moon (when lines joining the sun and earth, and the
earth and moon, meet nearly at right angles), and regarding
the moon through the Nicols prism. As under these cireum-
stances the solar light would be polarized, a change between
white and yellow ought to be perceived. The experiment
bore out this hypothesis, although, owing to the perfect
reflection from suspended particles of greater size than those
which reflect the blue light, the color was not a perfect
yellow.”

Professor Lesley exhibited a recently executed large manu-
script map of a hundred square miles of the surface of Centre,
Huntingdon, and Blair Counties, in Middle Pennsylvania,
with three vertical sections crossing the district—one along
the Little Juniata River; another two miles further east,
along Warrior Run; and a third five miles further east,

)

along Half Moon Run. These sections extend across the
Valley of Lower Silurian Limestone, with beds of brown
hematite iron-ore, and across the bounding mountains of the
Middle Silurian Sandstone, Bald Eagle Mountain on the
west, and Tussey Mountain on the east, the great anticlinal
upthrow of Bellefont being seen in all three sections at the
east foot of Bald Eagle Mountain, the Limestones dipping
east away from the fault at a uniform dip of about 54°.

He then explained the theoretical difficulties which have
hitherto beset the dynamic questions raised by a phenomenon
of this kind, an overthrown and faulted anticlinal ; especi-
ally the question why a dip of just above 54° should follow
one side of the fault for many miles, when the rocks on the
other side of the fault stood vertical.

This question he thought he had just succeeded in settling
by a discovery which resulted from the construction of a
fourth section, which he exhibited, extending from the Bald
Eagle Mountain westward to the summit of the Alleghany
Mountain, taking in the vertical Middle Silurian rocks, the
steeply inclined Upper Silurians, the Devonians dipping
regularly less and less (from 28° to 8° where observed at
different points along the section), and the almost horizontal
Lower Coal Measures at the summit of the Alleghany
Mountain.

By a system of co-ordinates, the exact curve of the up-
throw on the western side of the Great Fault was displayed,
using the observed dips along the line of section as elements
of construction. The country west of the dip of 15° was as.
sumed to be in its original condition. Last of this point, or
of the “hypothetical limit of stability,” the steeply upturned
strata were supposed to slide upon each other with a shear-
ing motion. The basset edges of the vertical strata must be
considered as rising in steps above each other westward at
the plane of fault, the slope thus obtained facing the east,
many thousand feet in the air, over the Bald Eagle Mountain.

On calculating the angle of this slope, which is not a per-
fect plane, but a slightly curved surface, it turned out to be

an angle of 51° high up, 52° lower down, 58° just over the
the mountain, and still steeper where it descended to the
present surface of the country, that is, along the line where
the vertical rocks are covered by the limestones dipping
uniformly about 54°.

It seems impossible to resist the conclusion that this dip
of 54° shows that the whole mass of Paleozoic formations
on the east, about 20,000 feet thick, rose and rode up the
plane formed by the basset edges of the mass upturned
vertically on the western side of the fault, and rested thereon
at an angle due to the bevel of the western mass, a bevel
geometrically determined by the shearing movement among
the members of the upcurved western mass.

Mr. Lesley considered the discovery of much importance
for structural geology, and that it may prove to be the first
real step towards a satisfactory conclusion respecting the
slope, or underground (and in the air) angle, of great faults ;
also proving the negative against a common belief that the
great anticlinals of disturbed regions must be reconstructed
in air sections as if gaping. It lends great support also to
the doctrine of vast erosions, a doctrine taught by Pennsyl-
vanian geologists for many years,and more recently contended
for by Jukes, Ramsay, Geikie, and other advanced geolo-
gists abroad, on unimpeachable and irresistible evidence.

The report of the Judges and Clerks of the Annual
Election was read, by which it appeared that the following
officers and members of Council had been elected :

President,
George B. Wood.

Vice- Presidents,
John C. Cresson, Isaac Lea, Frederick Fraley.

Secretaries,

Charles B, Trego, E. Otis Kendall, John L. LeConte,
J. P. Lesley.

Councillors to serve three years,
Isaac Hays, Robert E. Rogers, Henry C. Carey, Robert
Bridges.
Curators,
Joseph Carson, Hector Tyndale, Charles M. Cresson.
Treasurer,
Charles B. Trego.
Mr. Lesley was nominated Librarian for the ensuing year.
Pending nominations Nos. 740, 741, 742, 743, 744 were

read.
And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, January 16th, 1874.
Present, 15 members.
Secretary, Prof. Treo, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Dr.
Franz Joseph Lauth, Prof. Accad. Conservator, dated
Munich, Blumenstrasse, No. 2413 rechts, Dec. 16th, 18738
(see printed Proceedings).

Letters of envoy were received from the Greenwich Ob-
servatory, Dec. 31st, Royal Institution, Liverpool, Dec. ist,
and the Société Nationale des Sciences Naturelles de Cher-
bourg, Sept., 18738.

On motion, the last-named society was placed on the list
of corresponding societies to receive the Proceedings.

Donations for the Library were announced from the Royal
Prussian Academy; the Geographical and Anthropological
Societies of Paris; Ecole des Mines; Revue Politique; San
Fernando Observatory ; National Society of Science at Cher-
bourg; and Mr. Le Jolis; the Society of Physics at Bordeaux ;

k. Astronomical, Geographical, and Antiquarian Societies in
London; the editors of Nature; the Geological Society in
Glasgow ; Boston 8. N. H.; Mr. W. E. Dubois; American
Academy of A. and 8.; American Journal of A. and 8.;
Prof. F. L. O. Roehrig; American Journal of Pharmacy ;
Mr. J. W. Nystrom ; and the Chief of Engineers, U.S. A.

The Committee appointed to draft a minute of the death
of Professor Agassiz presented the following report, which
was adopted :

The Committee to whom was intrusted the duty of pre-
paring resolutions expressive of the sorrow felt by the mem-
bers of this Society for the death of their distinguished
fellow-member, Louis John Rudolph Agassiz, respectfully
report the following minute to be placed upon the records :

In removing the name of Professor Agassiz from its list
of living members, the American Philosophical Society loses
one of its most valued connections with the active world of
science. But this name, transferred to the list of thedeparted,
will always stand upon its records to its honor as an associ-
ation of men of many nationalities for the promotion of
useful knowledge.

Of such men Louis Agassiz was a conspicuous leader, a
powerful coadjutor, a genial and inspiring companion. The
loss lamented by this Society is keenly felt in every part
of Christendom. His investigations have been pursued in
so many regions of modern research, that scientific men in
all branches sympathize with one another at his death.
Great as a Comparative Zodlogist, he was specially unrivaled
as an Ichthyologist. He was profoundly versed in the science
of the beginnings of life He was the accepted expositor of
glacial phenomena in their geological connections. His
collections were made on an unprecedented scale of grandeur,
and studied with boundless ardor, wisdom and success. He
knew how to induce civilians and legislators to a noble dis-
charge of their obligations to physical science. He knew
how to train original investigators in their youth, brighten
their hopes, and enliven their aspirations in riper years; tiding
them safely over the shoals of literary vanity and scientific
ambition, and inspiring them with a loftier enthusiasm for
truth itself. Coming to a new world as an Apostle of
Original Investigation, every man of science in America
sooner or later felt the influence of his presence. He charmed

all by his manners; he endeared himself to all by his frank
and genial spirit ; he awed the rash and fortified the timid; he
bound the leaders together, and gave laws to their followers ;
he spread the love of nature through classes of society which
had been insensible to its influence before; and as he lived,
so he died, devising and executing new measures for laying
a solid foundation for American science in the heart of the
American people. His death is, therefore, a national bereave-
meut.

This Society would tender for the acceptance of the family
and intimate friends of Professor Agassiz this solace: the
conviction that his fame will stand with that of the great
discoverers, investigators, teachers and inspirers of past and
future generations, and the assurance which we here express,
that, in our belief, no man of science could have lived a
more noble and useful life.

Professor Houston communicated a Note on a Supposed
Allotropic Modification of Phosphorus. (See Proceedings).

Professor Cope illustrated with drawings and specimens
his views of the comparative osteology of the camel and
other artiodactyles, living and extinct, and concluded his
remarks with a discussion of the Cretaceous age of the
lignite and coal formations of the Rocky Mountains. (See
Proceedings.)

Dr. LeConte expressed his gratification that his own
views of the age of this formation, published some years ago,
were now receiving such powerful support.

Mr. Lesley was appointed Librarian for the ensuing year.

The Standing Committees for the year were voted as
follows:

Finance,

Messrs. F’. Fraley, E. K. Price, and B. V. Marsh.
Publication,

Messrs. Trego, Carson, W. M. Tilghman, H. C. Baird,
and (. M. Cresson.

Fall,
Messrs. Tyndale, Hopper, and S. W. Roberts.

8
Library,
Messrs. Coates, E. K. Price, Carson, Krauth, and Whitman.

On motion, the reading of the list of surviving members
was postponed.

Pending nominations Nos. 740, 741, 742, 743, 744 were
read, spoken to, and balloted for, and the following declared
duly elected members of the Society :

Mr. Joseph M. Wilson, C. E., of Philadelphia.

Dr. Wm. I. Wahl, See. Franklin Inst., Philadelphia.

Mr. I. A. Lapham, State Geologist of Wisconsin.

Dr. Hermann Kolbe, of Leipsig, Prof. Chem. University.

Mr. J. E. Wootten, M. E., of Reading, Pa.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, February 6th, 1874.
Present, 10 members.

Dr. LE Conte, Secretary, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Mr.
I. A. Lapham, dated Milwaukee, Wis., Jan. 27th, 1874;
Mr. Jos. M. Wilson, dated Philadelphia, Jan. 21st, 1874;
and Dr. Wm. H. Wahl, dated Philadelphia, Jan. 22d, 1874.
A letter enclosing a photograph was received from Dr.
Kd. Jarvis, dated Dorchester, Mass., Jan. 28th, 1874.
Letters of envoy were received from Mrs. Isabella James,
dated Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 6th, 1874, and Boston Nat.
Hist. Society, dated Boston, Jan. 22d, 1874. (88, 89, 80.)
Donations were received from the R. Academies at Turin
and Brussels; the Geographical Society in Paris; the R.
Astronomical] Society,and London Nature; the Essex Insti-
tute; the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge ;
Mrs. Isabella James, of Cambridge; the Boston Public
Library; Dr. Jarvis, of Dorchester; the American Journal
of Arts and Sciences; the American Chemist ; American
Journal of the Medical Sciences; Med. News and Library

Franklin Institute; American Journal of Pharmacy ; Penn
Monthly ; the Department of the Interior ; the California
Academy of Natural Sciences; and Prof. 8. 8. Haldeman.

Prof. Cope offered for publication in the Transactions a
paper entitled, “ A Supplement to the Extinct Batrachia
and Reptilia of North America.”

On motion, the paper was referred to a Committee, con-
sisting of Prof. Leidy, Dr. Newberry, and Mr. Lesley.

Dr. Genth communicated some valuable results of recent
analyses of limonites and limestones of the Lower Silurian
district of Centre, Blair, and Huntingdon Counties, Penn-
sylvania. (See page 84.)

Mr. Lesley communicated the results of his recent topo-
graphical and structural study of the same district.

Prof. Chase developed some views of the relationships
existing between the velocity of light waves in ether, and
the velocities of the sun and planets, entitled, ““ A note on
the Origin of Attractive force, Identifying the Velocity of
Primitive Gravitating Impulse with the Velocity of Light.”

New nominations Nos. 745, 746, and 747 were read.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, February 20th, 1874.
Present, 18 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the Chair.

Mr. Wootten, a newly elected member, was introduced to
the presiding officer, and took his seat.

A letter of envoy was received from the American Insti-
tute of Mining Engineers, dated Feb. 12th, 1874.

Donations for the Library were received from the R.
Prussian Academy ; Revue Politique; London Nature; Mr.
A. J. Packard, Jr.; Boston Soc. N. H.; New York Lyceum ;

A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. B

Franklin Institute; American Chemist; American Institute
of Mining Engineers; Department of the Interior, U.S.; and
Mr. G. R. Croteh, of Cambridge, Eng.

The Committee to which was referred the paper of Prof.
Cope, entitled, “Supplement to the Extinct Batracbia,” &c.,
reported in favor of its publication in the Transactions ;
which, on motion, was so ordered.

The death of Dr. Wm. Proctor, February 10th, at Phila-
delphia, aged 57, was announced by the Secretary.

Dr. Cresson exhibited the action of Thompson’s Calori-
meter, and stated the close coincidence of its results with
those obtained by trial trips on the Pennsylvania Railroad.

Dr. Cresson exhibited the triangular piece of galvanized
iron, once the pinnacle of a cowl on the roof of a building
struck with lightning. The point had been melted and
elongated upwards and inclined towards an approaching
cloud, into which the discharge from the earth through the
building took place.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Officers
and Members in Council were read.

Pending nominations Nos. 745, 746, 747 were then read.

Mr. Fraley reported that he had received the last quarterly
interest on the Michaux legacy, due January Ist, through
Drexel and Co.

Mr. Price reminded the Society that half of the interest
is appropriated by act of the Society to the planting of the
Michaux grove. During 1873 about $300 has been spent in
setting out about 100 foreign varieties of oak procured by
Prof. Cresson.

Dr. LeConte suggested the future planting of such trees
within the Zoological Grounds.

Dr. Horn stated that many of the foreign trees had already
succumbed to the attacks of native parasites, two varieties
of larvee having been submitted to his inspection by the
Chief of Park Police.

Dr. LeConte, referring to the well known fate of our
foreign syeamores and lindens, urged the necessity of plant-

ing trees with the side to the sun which had been so situated
in their native sites, and under similar conditions ot growth
otherwise, so as to reinforce their resisting powers.

Prof. Cope informed the meeting that Prof. Orton’s
expedition to the Upper Amazon, organized at Vassar Col-
lege, New York, had returned with copious collections,
zoological, botanical, mineralogical and archeological, hav-
ing reached 17° 8. latitude.

The meeting was then adjourned.

Stated Meeting, March 6th, 1874.
Present, 11 members.
Secretary, Prof. Kunpatt, in the Chair.

Donations for the Library were reported from the Societies
at Moscow, Upsal, Gorlitz, Emden, Erfurt, Frankfort on
Main, Chemnitz, Bonn, Geneva, Liverpool, Bath, and
Madison, Wis.; from the Academies at Berlin, Vienna,
Brussels; from the Observatories at St. Petersburg and
Upsal; from the Geological Institute at Vienna; School of
Mines, and Revue Politique at Paris; Society of Arts and
Institutions in Union, Astronomical Society, and Meteoro-
logical Office in London, London Nature; Prof. Cooke, of
Cambridge; Public Library of New Bedford; Silliman’s
Journal; Journal of Pharmacy; Penn Monthly, Deaf and
Dumb Institute, Hospital for the Insane, House of Refuge
in Philadelphia; U.S. War Department; and Mr. George
Davidson.

Dr. Allen offered for publication in the Transactions a
memoir entitled “ Life Forms in Art,’ with many illustra-
tions, and described the subject and its treatment.

On motion, the paper was referred to a Committee con-
sisting of Mr. Whitman, Prof. P. EH. Chase, and Dr. Brinton.

The Secretary exhibited a round bar of cast phosphorus-
bronze, left for that purpose in his care by Mr. Hector Orr,
who reported it broken under a tensile strain of 63,000 Ibs.
to the square inch. Its diameter at the place of fracture
was slightly diminished.*

Mr. Marsh read a communication, illustrated by diagrams,
entitled, “ The Luminosity of Meteors due to Latent Heat.”

Pending nominations Nos. 745 to 747, and new nomina-
tions 748, 749, were read.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, March 20th, 1874.
Present, 12 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Fratey, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Dr.
Hermann Kolbe, dated Leipsig, Feb. 15th, 1874.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of Proceedings were
received from Dr. Renard and the Public Museum at Moscow,
June 26, 1672, Jan. 1, 1871 (86); Dr. Stralkowski, St.
Petersburgh, July Ist, 1872 (86); Prof. A. Braun, Neuschon-
bron, Berlin, Oct. 12th, 1873 (88, 89); the R. 8. Upsal, Nov.,
1873 (86, 87, 88, 89); the N. H. S., Emden, Oct. 15, 1873
(88); Prof. Sandberger, Wiirtzburg, Nov. 12th, 1873 (88,
89); the Miinich Observatory, Dr. W. V. Lamont, Dee. 6,
1873 (88, 88); R. Library, Miinich, Jos. Aumer, Dec., 1878
(88, 89); R. Soc., Gottengen, Oct. 4th, 1873 (88, 89); N. H.
Ass., Bremen, Oct. 31, 1873 (88, 89); Prof. Loomis, N.
Haven, March 14th, 1874 (90, 91); N. Y. Hist. Soc., G. H.

* Original diameter of bolt (circular) .75 inch ; original area, .4417 in. ; reduced area
at breaking point, .3067 in.; strain on bolt at breaking, 19,550 lbs. = 63,100 Ibs. per

square inch. Alloy of tin 10, copper 90, less phosphorus, which is found to give useful
properties within the limits of 2.5 and 0.1 per cent.

Moore, March 14th, 1874 (91); and many postal card receipts
for 91, the number recently published.

Letters of envoy were received from the R. S., Upsal,
Nov., 1878; the I. Acad., Vienna, Oct. 21st, 1878; the R.
Library at Miinich, Dec., 1873; the 8S. P. et H. N., Geneva,
Sept. 15th, 1873; U.S. Naval Obs., B. F. Sands, Feb. 21st,
1874; C. P. Obs., St. Petersburg, Jan., 1874.

A letter requesting a set of Proceedings was received from
the Silesian Society for Fatherland Culture, Breslau, March
5th, 1873.

A letter with three photographic pictures of Indian
sculpture was received from Dr. C. H. Soulblos, Wakefield,
Pa., purchased by the Society.

“These pictures are taken from the northern face of a rock
in the Susquehanna River, near Bald Friar, Md., on which
are more than a hundred characters, diagrams, or figures,
supposed to have been carved during the stone age. The
rock is of quartz, mica, and anthophyllite. Dimensions of
figures 12 x 6 and 10 x 6 inches. Photographed in July,
1871. Sets in the Maryland Academy of Science, Lancaster
Linnean Society, and Philadelphia Academy of Natural
Sciences.”

Donations for the Library were received from the R..Obs.,
Turin; Mun. Govt. at Linz; R. Acad. and Obs., Munich ;
J. Acad., Berlin; R.S. Melbourne; Geog. S8., Paris; Revue
Pol.; London Nature; Mr. W. J. Henwood, Truro; the
American Acad., Boston; Franklin Institute; Acad., N.5S.:
Am. Chemist; Medical News; U.S. N. Ohie oy econean
Acad. Sciences ; and Minnesota EF ionitcal Secicu

The death of Charles Sumner, Senator U.8., at Washing-
ton, March 12th, aged 68, was announced by the Secretary.

The death of M. C. Quetelet, pere, at Brussels, Monday,
Feb. 16th, 1878, aged 77, was announced by the Secretary.

Prof. Cope communicated some facts revealed by Lieut.
Wheeler’s last year’s explorations on the 100th meridian, in
the valley of the great Colorado, and described some new
types of living fish belonging to the fresh-water family of
Cyprinide, and characterized by a great development of the

predorsal fin spine, a double spine, not co-ossified. Three new
types were described, two of them uaked of scales, and the
third covered only with rudimentary scales.

Prof. Cope communicated a short note entitled, “On the
Zodlogy of a Temporary Pool on the Plain of Colorado.”

Mr. Blasius, of Philadelphia, present by invitation, exhi-
bited maps and pictures of the tornado of August 22d, 1851,
in Cambridge and Medford, Mass., and described his survey
and study of the same, the impossibility of applying Red-
field’s theory except to its central, and Espy’s to its ultimate
track; for the initial division another explanation was
requisite. This led him to the study of the general pheno-
mena attendant upon the meeting of the equatorial and
boreal currents, the determination of the shape of land and
ocean gales, the use of clouds and their shapes and positions
for indicating the nature and position of approaching storms,
and the construction of practical sailing directions for vessels
in. danger.

Mr. Briggs said that he happened to see the tornado
referred to, and gave an account of its aspect, effects, and
the part of the track which he afterwards examined, by
which he was led to the conviction that it was locally deter-
mined, like other similar storms, by the low ground of
Charles River, heated to an unusually high temperature in
a calm day.

Mr. Lesley replied that the constant eastward movement
of these tornados, and their sometimes immense length,
together with their well known repeated occurrence along
the same lines of country, proved them items of an extensive
system of physical conditions in the atmosphere on the shift-
ing line of meeting of the equatorial and polar currents, as
Mr. Blasius had so well described, and that he hoped the
acknowledged defects of the present tornado sailing direc-
tions would be corrected by those indicated by the theory
of Mr. Blasius.

Pending nominations Nos. 745 to 749, and new nomina-
tions 750, 751, were read.

And the meeting was adjourned.

15
Stated Meeting April, 8d, 1874.
Present, 14 members.
Mr. Ext K. Price in the Chair.

Mr. Snowden, a recently elected member, was presented
to the presiding officer, and took his seat.

A letter was received from Samuel V. Summers, M.D.,
dated New Orleans, March 26th, 1874.

A letter was received from Erastus W. Everson, See. and
Lib. Un. 8. Carolina, acknowledging receipt of Proc. No. 91.

A lithographed letter was received from G. Beck, Miinchen,
March 22d, respecting Gemminger and Harold’s Cat. Coleop-
teorum.

A letter inviting discussion of J. R. Meyer’s doctrine of
heat applied to gravity, at the ensuing meeting of the D. N.
Versammlung, was received from five commissioners ap-
pointed at the last meeting, dated Breslau, March 5th, 1874.

Donations for the Library were received from the Societies
at Erlangen and St. Gall; the R. Acad. at Brussels; Paris
Geog. Soc. and Revue Politique; London Ast. Soc. and
Cobden Club; Essex Institute; Silliman’s Journal; Prof. W.
P. Trowbridge; New England Soc., N. Y.; Penn Monthly ;
Am. Jour. Pharmacy; Dr. R. J. Levis; Mr. Isaac Lea; Mc-
Calla & Stavely ; Maryland Hist. Society ; U.S. Dep. of the
Interior; University of 8. Carolina; Minnesota Academy ;
N.S.; and Mercantile Lib. Ass., San Francisco:

The Committee to which was referred the memoir of Dr.
Allen on Art Forms, reported in favor of its publication in
the Transactions.

On motion, the paper was referred to the Publication
Committee to report on the propriety of publishing it with
its numerous illustrations.

The death of Mr. Joseph Harrison in Philadelphia, March
27, aged 64, was announced by the Secretary, and on motion,
Mr. Coleman Sellers was appointed to prepare an obituary
notice of the deceased.

Prof. Chase communicated a plan of Life Insurance Com-
panies, which would relieve them of the burden of canvassers.

Dr. LeConte expressed the wishes of the officers of the
U.S. Mint to have the council and advice of men of science as
to the best device for a commemorative medal of Agassiz.

The subject was, on motion, referred to Dr. LeConte, Dr.
Wilcox, and Mr. Fairman Rogers.

Prof. Haldeman exhibited a coin of Sumatra, found in a
bag of coffee in Philadelphia. On one side was the legend,
“ Tsland of Sumatra, 1804,” on the other, in Malay, “sa teng
wang,” one-half piece, and used it to illustrate the difficulties
encountered by decipherers, and the methods of overcoming
them. The coin he gave to the Museum of the Mint.

Prof. Houston exhibited. specimens of an apparently
igneous rock from the banks of the Schuyllxill, above the
Serpentine quarries.

Pending nominations No. 745 to 752 were read.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, April 17th, 1874.
Present, 14 members.
Vice-President, Mr. FRauny, in the Chair.

Mr. Wilson, a lately elected member of the Society, was
presented to the presiding officer, and took his seat.

A letter was received from Mr. Coleman Sellers, accepting
his appointment to prepare an obituary notice of the late
Mr. Joseph Harrison.

Letters of acknowledgment for No, 92 of the Proceedings
were received from the New York Lyceum and Salem
Institute.

Letters of envoy were received from the Royal Saxon
Society, dated Leipsig, November 18th and 29th, 1873.

Donations for the Library were received from the R.
Asiatic Society of Japan, at Yokohama; the Royal Acad-
emies at Copenhagen, Berlin, Leipsig, Gottengen; tbe
Societies at Basil, Salem, Montreal; the Royal Bavarian
Library, the Revue Politique; and London Nature; the
London Royal 8. Meteorological Committee ; Geographical,
Chemical, and Zoological Societies ; Amherst College; State
Geologist of New Jersey; Franklin Institute; American
Journal of the Medical Sciences ; Medical Newsand Library ;
American Pharmaceutical Society; Prof. E. D. Cope; U.S.
Department of the Interior ; and Prof J. Lawrence Smith.

The R. Asiatie Society of Japan, at Yokohama, was
ordered to be placed on the list of correspondents to receive
the Proceedings.

The Committee to which was referred the subject of a
proper device for the Agassiz medal, reported through Dr.
LeConte that they had considered the subject, and suggested
a device to the officers of the U. 8S. Mint.

At Prof. Cope’s request, the Secretary exhibited parts of
a scull of Hobasileus galeatus, one of several specimens
obtained by Prof. Cope last year, on the Bitter Creek,
Wyoming. The posterior wall of the cranium is in this
specimen very perfect, and retains one of its horns. The
two middle pair of horns were in separate fragments, as also
the two nasal horn-cores.
~ A walrus fossil cranium from Accomae Harbor, in Vir-
ginia, was also exhibited. The fragment was about nine
inches long. Three well-worn teeth remained in their
sockets on the side, and two on the other; one socket
was vacant on one side, and two on the other. The front
margin of the roof of the mouth was perfect, and both sockets
for the tusks. The nasal cavities, separated behind and
united in front with the partition, were well shown. The
fragment terminated with the front wall of the brain cavity.
The whole was thoroughly fossilized.

This is the most southern specimen of walrus yet dis-
covered on the Atlantic coast, and must have been washed

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. C

ashore from glacial drift bedded beneath the actual sea
sands of the Virginia coast. A specimen in the Museum of
the Academy of Natural Sciences, at Philadelphia, was
found much further north, on the New Jersey shore. The
discovery of fossil walrus in Virginia is important, as indicat-
ing the extension of the drift deposits further southward
than was supposed.

~ Prof. Chase read a note relative to Meyer’s theory of heat
in its application to theories of gravitation, and explained
the present attitude of the discussion.

Prof. Fraser explained a possible improved method of
notation for classifying organic compounds in chemistry,
taking the compounds of carbon as a theme for illustration.

Pending nominations Nos. 745, to 752 were read, spoken
to, and balloted for, and on scrutiny of the ballot-boxes the
following were declared to be duly elected members of the
Society :

Dr, William Camac, of Philadelphia.

Mr. John Coates Brown, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Frank Thomson, of Altoona, Pa.

Rev. Robert Ellis Thompson, of the University of Penn-
sylvania.

Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, of England.

Mr. Richard A. Proctor, of England.

Mr. Raphael Pumpelly, State Geologist of Missouri.

Prof. Charles A. Young, of Dartmouth College, Hanover,
New Hampshire. |

And the meeting was adjourned.

Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, 1874.] 19 { Lesley.

Tue Brown Hematite Ore Banks oF SPRUCE CREEK, WARRIOR’S
Mark Run, AND Hair Moon Run, In HUNTINGDON AND CENTRE
CounTIES, PENNSYLVANIA, ALONG THE LINE OF THE LEWISBURG,
CENTRE CoUNTY AND TYRONE RAILROAD.

By J. P. Lesuey, Proressor GEoLocy, UNIVERSITY OF PENNA.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan. 2 and Keb.6, 1874.)

PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.

The district under examination, with an area of about one hundred
square miles, is bounded on the west by the Bald Eagle Mountain, on
‘the east by Tussey Mountain, and on the south by the Little Juniata
River, and the Pennsylvania Central Railroad.

The Huntingdon-Centre County-line crosses it transversely from moun-
tain to mountain. The Huntingdon-Blair County-line follows the river.

Spruce Creek flows southward along the foot of Tussey Mountain. Its
branches, Warrior’s Mark Run and Half Moon Run, cross the country
from Bald Eagle Mountain, along the foot of which their head waters
flow. Logan’s Run flows at the foot of Bald Eagle Mountain into the
Little Juniata River near Tyrone. See large Map.

The river and the two runs afford fine opportunities for three cross-
sections, represented in figs. 1,2 and 3. These sections have been photo-
lithographed (like the map) to a very reduced scale for convenience of
publication, but were carefully constructed on the same vertical and
horizontal] large scale, so that their geology may be relied on.

The map was plotted with great care from the survey notes of Mr.
Franklin Platt,* (as were also all the reduced local maps of the Ore
Banks, figs. 8 to 44) and adjusted with almost no variation to the rail-
road survey maps in the office of that experienced and most reliable Civil
Engineer, Mr. Leuffer, who located, constructed and has in charge the
completion of the L. C. C. and T. R. R., to whose courtesy I am in this
as in other cases, so largely and gladly indebted.

The map is drawn in ten foot contour lines, determined by aneroid ob-
servations, based on the spirit levels of the railway lines, preliminary
and adopted. One set of aneroid observations was carried to the top of
Tussey from Pennsylvania Furnace; the rest of the mountain being drawn
in by rough trigonometrical observations from the Spruce Creek road. The
gaps in its terrace are all properly placed and their characteristic features
given: but slight variations in the almost dead level crest of the moun-
tain could only be indicated. The survey of the Spruce Creek Valley
was made rapidly and only for the purpose of assigning a proper value to
its topographical features, a new township survey by a corps of odometer
‘surveyors being the basis. Here a considerable adjustment had to be
made, which renders this part of the map of no authority, as against

*Formerly an Assistant on the U. S. Coast Survey.

6)
Lesley. ] 20 (Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

careful future surveys. The adjustment affects the whole southeast
corner of the map, viz.: the interval between the mouth of Warrior’s Run
and the river. It is none of it accurate. The rest of the map is very
accurate and reliable.

Various former surveys of the Juniata were compared in plotting Mr.
Platt’s survey along the Pennsylvania Railroad, and all were found to be
discordant in details, but the topographical features of the deeply eroded
bed of the Little Juniata are portrayed with sufficient precision.

Time failed for a careful survey of the mouths of Canoe and Sinking
Valleys south of the river. I leave these and the interesting synclinal
mountain (Canoe Mountain) which separates them, for a future oppor-
tunity. Canoe Valley leads south into Morrison’s Cove, a reconnoissance
survey of which I made some years ago for the Pennsylvania R. R. Co.,
to determine the economical value and geological attitude of its brown
hematite iron ores, the analogues of those to be described in this report.

Three sets of aneroid levels were carried to the top of the Bald Eagle
Mountain, and two of these were continued to its western base, along
which flows the Big and Little Bald Eagle Creeks, and runs the Bald
Eagle (Tyrone, Bellefonte and Lockhaven) Railroad. A much more care-
ful study of Bald Eagle Mountain than of Tussey Mountain had to be
made ; first, on account of the Great (Bellefonte or Tyrone Forge) Fault
which runs along its east foot; secondly, on account of the vertical attitude
of its rocks and the very irregular erosion to which it has therefore
yielded ; thirdly, on account of a deflection of trend, due to the little
synclinal crimple shown in two of the Cross Sections; and fourthly, on
account of the outcrops of fossil ore on its western slope. Yet, I should be
glad to make a complete hypsometric projection of this very interesting
mountain, with its dentated double crest, for scientific purposes. Its
character is, however, well portrayed in my map and will tell the whole
story to any geologist.

A second map (also reduced by photolithography from its original scale
of 100 perches to the inch, ) is appended to this report. It is a copy, cor-
rected to date, of the land line map* of Lyon, Shorb & Co.’s ore and other
lands in Huntingdon, Blair and Centre Counties, covering about 200,000
acres in the valley and on its two bounding mountains, and stretching
westward beyond the Bald Eagle Creek to the coal measures on the crest
of the Alleghany Mountain. It was impossible to transfer the numerous
and complicated land lines of this map to my topographical map without
concealing its features beneath a net work of irrelevant indications. I have
gone even farther in my anxiety to show with unobstructed clearness
the geology by the topography ; I have abstained from introducing local
names upon my map, trusting to the intelligence of those who consult it,
guided by a small key map in its southeast corner, and by the descriptions
I give of localities with reference to the numerous ore banks which are
numbered. The key to the numbers will be found in the northeast corner

* The original is in the office of Mr. Lowrie, at Warrior’s Creek, Huntingdon Ca., Pa,

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Lesley.] 22 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,
of the map. The numbers follow rudely the ore belts, but not on any
strictly scientific principle; they are arranged for the convenience of the
reader.

A third map, heliotyped from a large original study of Brush Moun-
tain (Bald Eagle Mountain continued southward across the Little Juniata
River) is also appended, to show the outcrop of the Fossil Ore on that
part of the property which extends in that direction. But the descrip-
tion of these Upper Silurian Fossil Ores must be kept separate from my
discussion of the Lower Silurian Brown Hematites, or Limonites of the
Nittany Valley.

GENERAL GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The country specially examined in this report covers outcrops of the
following geological formations, designated by the numbers of the old
Pennsylvania State Survey, and the names given them by English and
by New York Geologists.

No. V. Upper Silurian. ' Clinton Red Shale.

Upper, white. \ c dstone.
No. IV. jedi fea eect anoeeone
Lower, grey. Oneida Conglomerate.

No. III. Lower Silurian. { Hudson River Slate.

Trenton Limestone.
Black River Limestone.
No. II. Lower Silurian. { Birdseye Limestone.
Chazy Limestone.
Calciferous Sandstone.

No. I. Lower Silurian. ' Potsdam Sandstone.

The Iron ore horisons described in this report are as follows:

In No. V. The upper or soft fossil ores.
The lower or hard fossil ore.

In No. II. The first horison at the bottom of the Trenton Limestone :
Pennsylvania Furnace and Spruce Creek ores, and ores of Cale Hollow.

In No. II. The second horison: the whole Dry Hollow Range of ore
banks, including Huntingdon Furnace and Dorsey Bank.

In No. II. The lowest horison, far above the top of the Calciferous :
the Warrior’s Mark and Lovetown Range and the Pennington Range.

The dip of the rock, of the whole country exhibited on the map, from
the foot of Bald Eagle Mountain to the crest of Tussey, is towards the
§. 8. E., with one or two undulations of no great moment. This is plainly
shown by the three cross sections, figs. 1, 2, 3.

Lesley.] 24 {Jan. 2and Feb. 6,

A great fault runs along the foot of Bald Eagle Mountain, and on the
west side of this fault the same formations are seen descending vertically.
They then curve sharply, and pass horizontally N. Northwestward under
the Alleghany Mountains, as shown in diagram section fig. 4.

This diagram section is constructed from the dips of the Upper
Silurian, Devonian and Coal Measure rocks, observed on a survey of the
road from Bald Eagle Furnace up Emigh’s run and Laurel Creek to the
crest ef the Alleghany Mountain. The measurement of the curves of
the different layers of this upturned mass, taken at every thousand feet,
as shown in the diagram, result in giving a slope of 50° to 54° to the
bassett edges of the broken mass.

It is evident that the upslide of the other section of the broken mass
las conformed to this slope, and that the uniform dip of 54° + observ-
able for miles along the 8. 8. East foot of Bald Eagle Mountain (as repre-
sented in Juniata Section, and Sections AB and UD) is perfectly ex-
plained by the diagram.

This is the first time, I believe, a solution of this difficult problem in
structural geology has been reached ; and its bearings upon similar phe-
nomena attending upthrow-faults and broken anticlinals in other regions
will be noticed by geologists.

The theoretical deductions from this solution are important.

It proves that the original fault was in a vertical plane, and not on a
slant.

It proves that the lower Silurian Limestone mass has ridden upon this
slope to a considerable height, probably several miles, in the air above
the present surface.

It illustrates the great erosion of the country, amounting to thousands
of cubic miles of earth crust, including the coal measures (which are
preserved on Broad Top, 20 miles to the southeast,) and gives us the
source of the Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits of New Jersey and
Delaware.

It leads me even to suspect the existence of a subterranean range of
Laurentian Mountains (with their usual magnetic iron ores) at the bottom
of the fault ; this range determining the line of fracture.

It accounts for the general 8. 8. E. dip across the whole valley, 'Tussey
Mountain, and as far as Huntingdon.

It assures us that the brown hematite ore beds of the district studied
in this report belong to rocks of different ages, and are ranged in parallel
belts according as the formations which carry them descend successively
(S. S. Eastward, ) beneath the present surface.

It confirms the opinion that the quantity of ore in these belts is not a
local accident at each of the ore banks, but bears a fixed relation and
proportion to the outcrop run of the ore-bearing limestones, lengthwise
of the valley ; and, therefore, that any estimate of the quantity of ore we
may make by examining the diggings, must fall short of the actual
quantity of ore to be mined in future years in this valley.

Fig. 3.

“fossilore of V. — SS

SS eee

Sects tine C.F.

CRESS Aoross Nittany Valley, Nest of Kalfracon run,
PSS hirough the Uiye and Jéostlee Iren-cre banks,

SSSA fs Lyx, Short and Company.

hh =

8 $ :
g BS Ra ~~ O&
EX; S Nz 3 =
= SS =
ai x oS 3
S Shh sis 8
ach SSS 5 ES =>
3h SS SSS y
By SS DS south
S =, => s
as = S < Ces
uy SSS

Scale of Mées.
% 4 7 Scale of Heel, 3

ply it i
YOY Witia
LA ff

For want of exposures Che exact redationships of the
Wrye and Pond cutcrops with the Hosller and Pennsylrane
banks remains doulljul; bal their proxtuely explains the grea
breadth of the Ptnnsylransva vutcrop. The dtstance of the latter
from the line of Section must also be Laken inlo consideration. JPL.

Lesley. ] 26 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

The original source of the brown hematite iron ores of our Lower
Silurian limestone valleys has been speculatively sought for without
sufficient investigation in the field ; and much practical mischief has re-
sulted from the errors promulgated. Most persons have looked upon
them as accidental and local inwashes from unknown sites. Some have
more systematically defined them as a residual precipitate from the dis-
seminated iron-sand grains of the surrounding Middle Silurian mountain
rocks during their erosion.

All such vague speculations might have been avoided had the results of
Dr. R. M.S. Jackson’s survey of the Nittany Valley ore beds in 1838 or
1839 been published by himself. As assistant on the geological survey of
Pennsylvania he obtained the data necessary for concluding, at that early
day, that they were deposits in loco originali, of the iron (as hydrated
peroxide) set free from the limestone or dolomite rocks during their
-gradual erosion and dissolution.

I have myself, during the last twenty years, had ample opportunities
for arriving independently at the same conclusion; and an intelligent
study and comparison of the aspects of the ores and rocks in our iron ore
banks will, I think, satisfy any good geologist in the same sense.

The precise modus operandi of the process is not yet well understood ;
for it involves chemical considerations not thoroughly worked out. But
a general statement of the operation can be made without risk of serious
error.

The rocks of the Lower Silurian Age were originally sea-muds, com-
posed of rounded grains of dolomite (derived from previously existing
Laurentian Land), cemented togeiher with a paste of carbonate of limee
Some of the beds consisted also of rounded grains of quartz. Some of
the layers were nearly pure carbonate of lime. All contained a larger or
smaller percentage of iron, lead, zinc and other metals, precipitated
either chemically, or by the agency of organic beings, from the solutions
of their carbonates, chlorides, &c., in the river-and sea-waters. The
orderly explanation of all the chemical and organic features of this
complicated operation is still to be given to the scientific world. But all
will agree that the general character of the calcareo-ferruginous muds,
the sediments of that early geological age must have been much as
above described.

During the long Upper Silurian, Devonian and Carbiniferous Ages,
these Lower Silurian sediments were buried toa depth of over 16,000 feet,
beneath the later sediments. They remained wet. Their great depth
raised their temperature 16,000 ~ 50 = 320° Farenheit’s thermometer ;
which added to the mean temperature of the surface, would keep them
under the influence of a moist heat of nearly 400° F. through what to
man is a small eternity of time.

Dr. Genth’s discovery of the amorphous or gelatinous condition of a
part of their silica is thus explainable. Varied reactions must have
ensued. The carbonates of lime and magnesia combined as dolomites,

Fie. 4.

ABT

oe) :
auf ane ane .

:
Lesley. ] 23 {Jan. 2and Feb 6,

which in part crystallized in rhombohedral crystals, the forms of which
we now see, in the outcrops, emptied by dissolution. The silica hardened
(without crystallizing) around these rhombs, so that we see the same
cavities in it. The iron became peroxydised as fibrous hematite and the
silica can be obtained by dilute nitric acid also in the same fibrous form.
All this points to the first formation of the iron ore while the rocks were
still at a great depth, wet and soft and warm.

But at the end of the coal era the Middle States rose from the waves
and have never been covered by the ocean since that time. The edges of
the Bellefonte Fault stood as a mountain range as high as the Alps (see
Fig. 4), and the backs of some of the great anticlinals of Pennsylvania
must have formed plateaus then as high as Thibet and Bootan are now.

Fie. 5.

SSS =
a = “
—— —-—_— _. SUMMIT GCUTZ—

—— oO

Erosion commenced and has continued through the Permian, Jurassic,
Cretaceous and Tertiary Ages to the present day, and still goes on. The
high plateau was gradually worn down to the present surface. Moun-
tains once 80,000 or 40,000 feet high are now but 2,000 or 3,000 above
sea level. The valleys were excavated as the mountains lowered, and
the outcrops of the Lower Silurian limestones of Nittany Valley are but
800 to 1300 feet above tide (see the contour lines of the map).

This slow erosion gives us the second part of our explanation of the
brown hematite iron ores. It explains the innumerable caverns and sink
holes and dry hollows of this Nittany and other limestone valleys. It
leads us to expect to find traces of such caverns and widened fissures
and sink holes of the last preceding age, filled up with a wash of clay,
sand, and iron ore from outcrops lately existing not far above the out-
crops which run along the present surface.

The erosion now still going on, and the special activity of the last

1874.] 29 [ Lesley.

or glacial age, may very well explain that outspread of surface wash-ore
which makes so large a feature of the case. It may also explain the
corrugations of the clay and ore strata in these superficial wash-ore de-
posits as represented in Figures 5, 6, 7; the localities pictured being on
the line of the railroad near the East Pennington Ore Banks.

Thus the different theories in vogue among our iron men are harmo-
nised. Each theory has its own basis of truth, its own set of facts, but
does not embrace all the phenomena.

Those who contend that the brown hematites lie in pockets are cor-
rect ; but they must confine the assertion to that part of the ore which
now occupies former caverns and fissures and sink-holes.

Those who contend that the brown hematites are surface washes caught
by the accidental variations of the earth’s surface, are correct ; but they

SS SE

Summit Cul, in stena-colered Wash-Ore, exhibiting
erostore (!)& déibres of pulverized Caleef: J. 5.

must limit the application of their theory to banks which show rolled
gravel and rolled ore, and a confused and mingled mass of ore and
sand and clay.

A third view is equally correct and much more important. It must be
accepted as probable, that in spite of later movements, and in addition
to cavern-deposit ores, and surface-wash ores, there are interstratified
beds of brown hematite, still in their original places, although not in
their original condition, descending with the general slope of the forma-
tions between undissolved limestone, dolomite and sandstone rocks to
undetermined depths, and ranging lengthwise of the district, so that
rows of ore-banks can be and have been opened in continuous beits of

Lesley.) 30 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6,

many miles length, and on continuous outcrops of ore ground of every
conceivable variety of character, quality and quantity.

It is provable by reference to sections Figures 1, 2, 3, and other illus-
trative drawings in this report, that there exists several of these belts ;
representing different geological horisons ; and due to an extra charge of
iron given, we know not how, to sediments of different ages. As, ona
grand scale iron-bearing rocks occur at various stages of the column of
paleozoic rocks from No. I, Potsdam 8. §., to No. XII, Coal Measures,
—so, within the narrower limits of one subdivision of this column, viz.,
in the Lower Silurian system, iron bearing rocks occur at various stages,
separated by from 500 to 2000 feet. These have already been stated.

Summit Guten Waushore with Ore-slreaks One : foot Chick,

The measurements will be given in my Detailed Description of the Ore
Banks, and no repetition of them is here nhecessary.* I will only give in
tabular form the thickness of the Lower Silurian Limestone formation
so far as visible and as measured along Warrior’s Mark Run :—

Hudson River Slates....... ESO Soo a EO ce acti Idea one s55000¢ feet.

Trentom Aimestomen Geese acto cede eye erste se clare ere 2500
Pennsylvania Furnace and Cale Hollow Ore Banks :

lhMaveN! Ore WrbeNROVIS Googc606600050000000000000006 ates 700
Huntingdon Furnace Ore Banks :

Intervalxof Mimestonest: o-oo cin teeta etre rer eerie 550
Pipe-ore Range near Toll-gate :

Interval of Limestones........ Sb lopeuars earemlt tereherenetcoke one hareee ab duereisis 1500
Pennington, Town, Lovetown Banks:

Interval jot bimestoness.jrar aya ckels eles ickereore eto Steeyoetstaporskatoe 3000
The edge of the Fault stops further measurement downwards: . ——

Total visible thickness of Limestones............ ROOD 7750

* See No. 31, Huntingdon Kurnace Banks.

1874.) 31 (Lesley.

PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE OREs.

The experience of sixty years has demonstrated the exact values of the
brown hematite iron ores of all the Lower Silurian Valleys of Pennsyl-
vania : on the Lehigh; in the Great or Cumberland Valley ; in Kishico-
quilis Valley ; in Morrison’s Cove, Canoe and Nittany Valleys.

The general resemblance of ores from all the Banks is striking. The
local variations are still more striking. The key to those variations was
only got when the true geological theory of structure was studied out.
But it is still a perplexing question why red-short, cold-short and neutral
ores should lie so near each other. There is scarcely an ore bank in
Pennsylvania in which the chemist will not find some infusion of sulphur
and phosphorus. But some ores have been so slightly charged with one
or other, or both of these elements, that they rank in the first class.

Others are so heavily charged, that they are useless for Bessemer work ;
take a low rank as anthracite or coke iron ores ; and only make good pig-
metal when smelted in small quantities, with charcoal and a feeble cold-
blast. .

This is especially true of those of the lowest geological horison or
oldest in age, belonging to rocks of Pitsdam age, rocks which rise upon
the flanks of the South Mountain. Fortunately, these ores nowhere reach
the surface in Nittany Valley, being buried in the jaws of the Bellefonte
Fault. Even the Pennington horison is too high for these ores.

The consequence is, that most of the ores of the district under notice
here yield a practically neutral ore and make the best possible iron in
cold blast charcoal furnaces, and good iron with the hot blast, and, min-
eral fuel. The appended analyses of Dr. Genth will make this fact evi-
dent.

Phosphorus, however, is found in all known Silurian Brown Hematite
ores (with some rare exceptions) in quantity enough to prevent the man-
ufacture of steel. But in some cases mixture with other ores will rectify
the ore. In other respects the per centage of phosphorus is too small
to do hurt. Dr. Genth’s analyses will give the figures in this case also.

The reputation of Pennsylvania iron was greatly made at Pennsylvania
Furnace. Its quality could not be surpassed. Neither the older Swedish,
nor the best English, when English iron was still good, nor the more
recent magnetite pig-metal of Lake Champlain and Missouri, have ex-
celled it ; and it shared this reputation with furnaces smelting similar
ores.

There are parts of the deposit in almost every Bank, which are sandy
and lean. These have been hitherto fastidiously rejected by the charcoal
coal blast furnaces of the district. Such ores are, however, in demand
' for our anthracite and coke furnaces, and the ever-increasing market for
them will require the mining of the whole. I believe that carefully se-
lected ore from these banks will even furnish iron fit for Bessemer use.

Lesley. | 32 |Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

PROBABLE QUANTITY OF ORE.

Estimates of the quantity of Brown Hematite Ores are among the
most uncertain of all earthly things. Hence I give special statements of
the size of excavation and prisms of ore ground in sight for each of the
ore banks, in the chapter of this Report devoted to their local description.

The surface ore wash is of various depths from 1 to 30 feet. The
' breadth of surface covered is sometimes but a few yards; sometimes
several hundred yards. Intervals occur where all traces of surface ore
vanish fron the belt.

The thickness of the underlying clays varies from a few feet to a hundred
and more. Sometimes these clays are loaded with scattered pieces of
ore, fine or coarse; at others they do not show a trace of ore. Some-
times the mass of clay is interstratified with layers of rock ore yielding
richly.

The rock-ores and pipe-ores, bedded or in packets, under the clays are
also excessively irregular, and nothing but actual mining can teach us
the quantities concealed.

But any one who reads carefully the following descriptions of the ore
banks taken up in succession, must arrive at the conclusion, that the
Railway line connecting the ore deposits of Nittany Valley with Western
Pennsylvania over Tyrone, and with Eastern Pennsylvania over Lewis
burg, will have within the limits of my map, at its command for freight
to distant iron works, many millions of tons of prepared ore of the
choicest character.

One of the most noticeable features in the iron history of this district
(and of others similar) has been denials of the existence of any ore just
where the deposits were proved by subsequent diggings to be most copi-
ous, and predictions of the speedy exhaustion of ore banks which
steadily grew in magnitude and richness as the excavations spread. The
history of Pennsylvania Furnace Bank affords a notable instance, and
not an isolated one.

There are not less than 100,000 linear yards of ore belt on my map. If
the ore were continuous, and only 50 yards wide by 10 deep, we should
have 50,000,000 cubic yards of ore ground. If only one-tenth of this
were ore, we have 5,000,000 cubic yards of ore. It only needs to look at
the number, breadth and depth of the diggings, and their distribution
on the map, and to remember that none are noted there but the princi-
pal cuts ; that large spaces of ore belt have for various reasons never
been explored ; that in some the ore is seen going down to unknown
depths ; and that in all the banks water has stopped work—to appreciate
the inadequacy of the above calculation.

SPECIAL DESCRIPTIONS.

I postpone further economical considerations to introduce here the data
upon which what I have written above is founded. The situation and .
character of the principal mines, are given succinctly, but sufficiently in
detail to permit others to form their own opinions.

1874. ] 33 [Lesley.

THE PENNINGTON RANGE.

Cross section A B, fig. 2, shows the ore-bearing limestones at the Pen-
nington Banks dipping northwest, and the hard limestones in the quarries
on Logan’s Creek dipping also northwest 23° to 27°, increasing (as we
descend the creek) to 90°, and in some places overturned; then, rising at
5380, 54° (S. E. dip), to shoot over the Bald Eagle Mountain.

Cross section A B shows the same ore-bearing limestones at a point on
the road to Huntingdon Furnace, a mile and a quarter southeast of the

Fia. 8.

Soca Mow j |
ei thu “by |

Casts West: Punrungton s
$row Ore Bames

Lyon Shor bo of Pittsburg /

Onthe Live cf the
Sanisbueg : Centre és:amd }

Byrone Rarleoad
48X13.

fs Sumayed Ary S rowiiin PLabic

Banks, and on the opposite side of the Ridge, dipping gently southeast,
and making a strong outcrop of ore ground.

These are our elements of structure. Taken in connection with those
of the Little Juniata River section, fig. 1, the geology is evident. There
is a low anticlinal arch in the Pennington Ridge, and a sharply plicated
little synclinal trough in the Valley of Logan’s Creek.

A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. EB

Lesley. 1 34 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6,

The Pennington ore rocks descend into and beneath Logan’s Creek
Valley, at first slowly, then steeply, at last vertically, and before reaching
the surface again on the other side of the little synclinal, are cut off by
the great fault, and are sent down by it to a depth of many thousand
feet beneath Bald Eagle Mountain.

On section line C D, fig. 8, no such structure appears ; consequently
the little Logan’s Creek synclinal does not range away northeastward
along the foot, but cuts across more northward into the flank of Bald
Eagle Mountain.*

As for the Pennington Ridge anticlinal, it loses itself in the hill north
of Warrior Mark Village, and in the great fault further on. Obscure
dips} of 75° to 80° (N. W.) are seen in calc. sandstone at 500 yards north-
west of the village, and 80° (N. W.) in blue limestone, at 450 yards
further up Warrior Run; but the universal slant in the country, from
here onwards, is southeast ; all the outcrops beyond or northeastward of
‘Warrior Mark Village belong to the southeast side of Pennington Ridge. t

The Pennington Bank ore range is therefore a short one, whereas the
mext ore-range to the south of it runs continuously through Warrior

-Mark Village and Love Town for ten miles within the limits of our
-Map.

The Pennington ore rocks are also of an older age than those of many
-other banks in the Valley, as the sections show. They belong rather to
«the lower than to the middle division of the Great Limestone Formation.

The Pennsylvania, Hostler, and other banks on the Spruce Creek side
-belong to the middle division. Any constant difference of quality-ob-
servable between the ores is of course to be ascribed principally to this
‘fact, viz.: that the ore bearing rocks being deposited in two successive
ages, and therefore under different conditions, their present dissolubility
-and receptivity (as regards soluble salts of phosphorus, sulphur, &c.),
-have bestowed on them peculiarities of individual character.

I consider it possib e that the Pennington Range corresponds in age
with the Bloomfield ore range, in Morrison’s Cove, thirty miles to the

- south.

The Pennington Range proper consists of a line of outcrops commenc-
ing about two miles from the Juniata River, and extending two miles to
the railroad, a mile west of Warrior’s Mark Village. The northwest face
of Pennington Ridge is covered with wash-ore to a variable depth, below
which lie sheets, belts, and masses of rock ore, between ribs of still un-
dissolved siliceous limerock. The more argillaceous lime beds have left
intercalated sheets of white clay.

* The Map shows how it swings the mountain a little out of its otherwise straight

course, and also how Logan’s Creek takes its head just where its synclinal terminates in
the mountain slope.

.+ The cross cleavage of the rocks near the fault makes the direction and strength of
these dips doubtful. They look like 30° to 609 (S. E.)

{ As will be abundantly evident to any one travelling along the road from Warrior
Mark to Love Town.

35 [Lesley.

1874.)

No.1. The Old or East Pennington Bank, supplied Bald Eagle
Furnace with stock for many years. The ore was hauled about four miles

over the mountain. It was chiefly got from the large open-cut shown in

Local Map, fig. 8; but also from underground gangways following the
ore down the dip (N. W.) beneath a clay covering ; and from shafts sunk
on that side, tunnels or rooms being driven from the bottoms of the shafts
irregularly in every direction at the caprice of uneducated miners, who
groped always in the dark, without correct geological ideas to guide them,
following what they imagined to be the thickest beds and belts of the

Fia. 9.

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PENNINGTON ORE BANK k
1857 1866 % ‘6y.

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best ore, and leaving all the rest to stand and be covered up again by the
annual tumbling in of their shallow works. Most of these miners were
Irish laborers paid by the ton. Water invariably stopped them, and
limited the range of workings to a comparatively narrow belt down hill.
The great deposits of ore unquestionably lying to the deep (N. W.) are
unexplored. Neither maps nor notes of the old works exist.

Lesley.] 36 {Jan. 2and Feb. 6,

Fig. 9 is areduced copy of maps made by Mr. H. V. Bécking, mining
manager of the Company, to show the position of shafts and direction of
tunnels executed under his direction, in a more systematic way.

At the east end of the Old Bank, Mr. Bécking did much sinking on
lower ground. One old shaft which had been abandoned at the depth
of 30 feet on account of water, he sunk 30 feet deeper to the sandstone
floor of the ore, which drained the mine. A cross-cut from this shaft 75
feet long struck the ore descending (N. W.) but where it was nearly
level. Galleries were then driven and much ore won in an irregular way.
But the heavy spring rains of 1857 filled the works to the top of the
shaft. At this time the large deposit at McAtear’s (West Pennington)
Bank was discovered. In 1865 a new shaft was sunk, in a dry season, a
little north of the caved-in works, reaching the bottom of the ore at 45
feet. The shaft was 60 feet deep, and a steam-pump kept it dry by two
or three hours work per day. A good vein of ore had been abandoned (on
account of water) in a smaller open cut, near the last mentioned shaft,
with only 3 or 4 feet of dirt covering to the ore.

That the rich deposits of ore in the old open cut pass down northwest -
ward, in irregular but continuous. floors and layers between the clays,
was proven by galleries driven by Mr. Bécking west from the pump-shaft,
see fig. 9. He describes these galleries as driven in wavy ore, meeting
several good bodies of ore. No pillar mining was done, as the sinkings
were merely tentative.

In all this no account is made of anything but the better streaks of
hard lump or rock ore, which alone a small charcoai furnace is willing to
smelt. Great quantities of saleable ore and wash-ore are ignored.

My assistant, Mr. Franklin Platt, obtained the following imformation
on the ground while making his map :— :

Beginning at the Railroad, the first and smaller pit (now filled with
water) 70 yards long, by 15 wide and 5 deep, yielded about 5000 cubic
yards of wash-ore, without any solid lump ore. Shaft No. 1, sunk near
it, (N. W.) is said to have passed through

all. VR OPIWwasl=OLE wa o1.1osderorayecss cious erode etetentoreran arsine 15 feet.
Ze layKelo nyany PCR, GoogooadcodcauedodooddD0ONed Sores Once
oon Olay awathelittle onmoloremermme eerie caer erie a 6
A Gooddump-OLe sree eee eric ily CS

the bottom not reported. Shaft No. 2, (W.) had lean wash-ore on top ;
clay to 40 feet ; good lump-ore thence to bottom at 50 feet.

The main open cut is 230 yards long, with an average width of 35
yards, as shown in fig. 8 ; depth from 5 to 8 yards. Wash-ore, sometimes
lean, forms the wall of the pit, from the surface to an apparent depth of
15 feet. A shaft midway of the eastern edge, ‘‘struck a layer of ferro-
manganese ore, 5 feet thick, at a depth of 15 feet.”’

Two-thirds of the distance from the southern to the northern end of
the pit, a massive crop of half decomposed calciferous sandrock charged
with more or less of ore, juts from the wall, dipping gently northwest.

37
1874.] ( [Lesley.

Some of this rock is genuine iron ore; the rest ferriferous or merely
ferruginous sandrock. The excavated ore lay over, under and around
this rock, having been freed from other similarly dipping, but more
ferriferous and more dissoluble strata.* It is a place where the genesis
of our brown hematites may be studied to advantage.

Ore was found in some of the shafts to the south-west of the main open
cut.

The whole N. E. and 8. W. extent of this uninterrupted expanse of
wash ore, from the railway track to the shafts last mentioned, is about
500 yards, and its width, say, 100 yards. A considerable percentage may
be too lean to wash.{ Estimating the depth of soft and hard ore at
10 yards, we have 500,000 cubic yards. Rejecting one half for leanness,
we are safe in supposing 250,000 cubic yards of ore in sight.

Fiag. 10.

Sod Mea of the Nest Semmrugenr

Ore Danks.
4B13

Seok of Uarads ;
4 220 3
aan
Zi Ui Sea by Srowile Platt

Wo. 2. The West Pennington Banks. An interval of half a mile
separates this open cut from the East Pennington Banks last described. t
The railroad, curving across a slight hollow in the side of the ridge,
see local map, fig. 3, approaches within two hundred yards of the north

* The strike of this rock is across the open cut, here very narrow. The ore of the
northern end of the cut is therefore above these rocks, and that of the southern portion
of the cut belongs below these rocks.

+ The “ black ore,’ which is very rich, is in some places abundant; in other places it
becomes very thin.

{ Mr. Bocking, speaking of this interval, says that after passing a low place at Mc-
Atear’s, the main body of good ore was discovered in 1857, at the surface, on ground into
which old pits had been sunk, the miners having previously condemned the whole local-
ity. The very rich deposit then discovered lay higher up the slope of the ridge, and
had thus been entirely missed.

Mr. Platt remarks: ‘‘ What the original shape of the ore on the face of this ridge was,
it is now hard to say; but the two Pennington ore deposits are at present separate and
distinct, not necessarily connected in any way. I presume that the original limits
embraced them both, and much of the ore lying between them which is now gone.”’

This agrees with what is seen at the Pennsylvania Ore Banks, to be described here-
after, and it is a strong argument in favor of the wholly outcrop character of these
brown hematite deposits. On the other hand, the ore has never been properly followed
to the deep, and the distance in that direction to which the dissolution of the ferriferous
limestones and the precipitation of peroxide of iron has extended is unknown,

Lesley. ] 38 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

wall of the excavation, see fig. 11, which is 180 yards long, by 40 wide on
an average, and shows nothing but wash ore in its banks. Its very ir-
regular depth may be called 10 yards ; water standing in the floor.

This cut was worked to a depth of 40 feet during seven years, and
yielded richly. The first maps are lost. Mr. Bocking’s underground
works on the north wall, commenced in 1865, are represented by his
Local Map, fig. 12, and thus described by him :—

An old whin shaft was pumped out, and pillars robbed. The galleries
then caved in, and work stopped. Ore can still be reached from other
shafts, two of which are timbered. One body of ore lies between the old
cut and the underground works. It is not very rich, but is ‘‘good
natured,’’ and mixes well with more refractory ores. Another body of
good rich ore remains standing to the deep of the works, and has a heavy
covering. Another body of very good ore, fifteen feet thick, occupies a
trough below the level of the pump-shaft, estimated at say 500 tons.
Shaft 5 has ore around it. Shaft 4 is in a fair vein of rock ore. The
deposit at shaft 3 is variable, and part of it stands. Old cuts and pits
show that the deposit runs on southwestward.

That the ore extends northwards is shown by the late railway cutting
200 yards north of the open cut (see fig. 10), where ten feet of wash ore
is seen overlying white and red clays.

Seventy yards southwest of the main open cut is another, 110 yards
long, 15 wide, and 8 deep (13,200 cubic yards), nothing now showing but
wash-ore in the side walls. It was originally much deeper, slides having
partially filled it.

Three hundred yards west of the main open cut is the Old Phillips
Bank, 100 « 30 6 yards (18,000 cabic yards), full of water. It was
once deep, and drained by a tunnel, the mouth of which is shown on the
Map (fig. 10), 140 yards from its west end.

Calling the length of ground occupied by these three open cuts, with
their imperfect underground workings, 400 yards, and its breadth 100
yards, and assigning an average depth of ten yards for wash and lump-
ore, we get an original mass of 400,000 cubic yards, one-half of which
may be considered rich and accessible enough to work to advantage.

But it must be considered that this Pennington Range of deposits
shows a much stronger tendency to develop lean layers and sandy masses
than the Dry hollow, Red, or Gatesburg Ranges, hereafter to be described.
Estimates of workable quantities are, therefore, hazardous. We are here
geologically at the bottom of the limestones, and close on the top of the
‘¢calciferous sand-rock ’’ formation, which accounts for the tendency to
sand-rock and sandy ore exhibited in these banks.

Of the old Phillips bank Mr. Bocking says that it holds purplish easy
smelting ore, mixed with clay, and without discernible regular veins.
Quantities of wash-ore can be got here ; but dry screening is impractica-
ble.

This gives the key to the problem of the future. The near presence of

1874. ] 39

[Lesley.

the railway makes systematic mining along this range a very different
affair from the ‘‘ground hogging’’ of the surface hitherto pursued, un-

Fie. 11.

systematic, wasteful and costly as it of course was. A regular stoping
of the deposit on a large scale and the washing of all the ore ground
must yield a profitable revenue.

Lesley. ] AQ [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

Mr. John W. Harden, an experienced Superintendent of mines, con-
siders the extensive dry tailings, which cover the slope to the north of
the cuts, erpable of being profitably washed, while being got out of the
way of future open cuts.

Traditional accounts of such old ore mines as these are to be credited
with due caution and large allowances. But they have their value. It is
of great importance, then, that shafts of over a hundred feet have been
repeatedly sunk along this range ; for they are proofs that experience has
justified them ; proofs that bodies of ore had been found lying very deep
beneath the surface. The open cuts exhibited by the maps (figs. 8 and 10)
were once very deep and were stopped by water, as has been the case
with all the ore banks of these valleys. The miners were always driven from
fine beds of rich rock-ore by the influx of water which they had no ade-
quate machinery to keep under. We can easily believe it therefore, when
we are told that in the Old Pennington Bank a floor of massive rock-ore
from 8 to 16 feet deep underlies 50 feet of a covering, consisting cf wash
ore and scattered lump ore intercalated between white variegated sandy
clays ; and that in the West or New Pennington banks the deposit con-
sists of a surface soil with a little ore 5 to 10 feet thick ; then wash ore in-
terstratified with layers and masses of white, brown and red tight clays
and loose sands from 50 to 80 feet, and a floor of red rock ore underlying
all.

My own belief is that when pumping machinery of adequate power
comes to be applied to these deposits, and an approved system of mining
adopted, many hundred thousand tons of ore will be raised and sent to
the eastern furnaces at a living profit.

The southwestward extent of the deposits is unknown. But on the
southwest of the ravine and hill spur beyond it a pipe-ore and a good
deal of “barren ore’? mark the continuation of the Pennington outcrop
through D. Bronstetter’s fields, and then across Gyer’s farm. It is cut
by a gap ; and then is again visible crossing Weight’s farm, and (on the
west land line) reaching to the hill-top. Hence to the Juniata it is hard
to trace ; but becomes visible again west of the river in Sinking Valley.

No. 3. Beck Bank (marked ‘‘nameless’’ by mistake in the Key
List on the large map).

The eastward extent of the Pennington deposit has not been carefully
explored ; but at the entrance of a R. R. cut, half a mile east of the Old
Pennington Bank, Huntingdon furnace mined ore 10 years ago. This
Bank shows 40<20<5=4000 cubic yards of excavation, with water in
the floor, and wash ore walls, rather lean in quality and quantity, as now
visible.

Wo. 4. New Town Bank, also called Beck’s (and so designated on
the large map), lies 13 mile east of Old Pennington Bank, and was
worked for Bald Eagle furnace, and abandoned for want of pumps to

[Lesley.

1874. ]

NEW

PENNINCTON
ORE BANK

VOL. XIV. F

A. P. 8.

Lesley. ] 42 {[Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

keep down water, ‘‘good ore being left standing in the floor.’’ In the
woods behind Beck’s and Aul’s fields, north of it, small shafts were
once sunk on fine sized ore. In Beck’s Bank wash ore is seen in the
walls, showing rather lean. At present there is not much evidence of
the presence of a considerable deposit, and no encouragement is felt for
looking for it.

The road to Warrior’s Mark Village descends to Warrior’s Run, past
New Town Bank, which seems to be the remains of a surface deposit
once covering the flat top of the Pennington Ridge Anticlinal. It is the
only mine on this southeast dipping outcrop that has ever been opened
west of Warrior’s Run. But, that the ore belt extends in that direction,
towards the Juniata, is proved by the heavy outcrop of ore ground, shown
on the large map and on Cross Section A B, fig. 2, 14 miles due south of
the Old (east) Pennington Bank.

The vein of ore pursued by those who worked the New Town Bank is
described as small and irregular in thickness, and not traced successfully
downhill and westward ; but much coarse ore covers the ground in Jer.
Berk’s fields, on which the Furnace had no right to enter ; slight shaft-
ings showed small veins of ore. Further west also, in Adelberger’s fields,
some ore was raised ; and outcroppings occur on P. Cooken’s farm.

WARRIOR’S MARK AND LOVETOWN RANGE.

From Warrior’s Run, north-eastward we have almost a continuous
series of shafts and open cuts for a good many miles; viz:

Old Town Bank (V) is } mile east of Warrior Run ; Romberger’s Bank
(VI) 13 miles; Hannah Bank (VII) 13 miles; Waite’s Bank, 23 miles;
Lloyd Braunstetter’s Bank (IX) 22 miles (with pipe ore outcrops
to the south of it); Disputed Bank, 4? miles, (X); Hannah Furnace
Bank, 5 miles; Hannah Furnace and Beck Banks half a mile north of
the last two, and less than a mile west of Lovetown ; the pipe ore out-
crops half a mile south of Lovetown ; croppings near the sawmill, 2
miles east of Lovetown ; Hannah Furnace Bank and Bryan Bank, 22
miles east of Lovetown, and the Curtin Bank 5 miles east of Lovetown,
and 11 miles from Warrior’s Run.

The ores of these Banks, when rich, are black or dark colored, much of
it of a pitch-like lustre, and often inclining to cold-short in quality. Dr.
Genth’s analyses in my appendix will give their chemical constitution.
When lean, they are of a lighter color, brown, or liver colored ; clay pre-
dominating over sand in the deposit, as compared with the Pennington
ores proper. Some of them may occupy a slightly higher geological posi-
tion, being still further removed from the upper layers of the Calciferous
Sandrock, and lying, therefore, still more in the body of the Trenton
Group* of Limestones.

* See sections A B and C D. The Trenton Limestone proper, of the New York
Geologists is considered to be the top member of the Trenton group. Our ores are far

below it, and in the lower members of the group, viz. the Chazy, Bird’s Eye and Black
River Limestones.

1874.] 43 [Lesley.

No. 5. Old Town * Banks, are shown on Local May, (fig. 13,) ;
two old open cuts, one on each side of the main road, and groups of
shafts, principally north of the road. There is a decided ore-show on
the surface for 470 yards. Opposite the new church, an old shaft reached
a maximum depth of 110 feet, touching ‘‘a vein of ore.’’ (Bécking.)
Contradictory accounts are now given of this work. Some say, that
the quantity of ore was enormous, timbers 30 feet} long being used to
support the chambers, the ore dipping steeply N. W.; and that massive

Fries. 13, 14. Fie. 17.

reo No OU dogmas
at ats Noawir sao

S33. 3 > ZZ,

ore stands in the sides and at the bottom of the deserted mine. Others
say, that the ore mass, 25 feet thick, descended vertically with undimin-
ished size when the shaft was abandoned. It is may be a deposit in
one of the ancient caverns or cross fissures of the Limestone Formation.

Shafts sunk to depths of 30 and 50 feet sometimes went through clays
without ore. Mr. Bocking sunk one 80 feet deep to find a mass of ore
said to exist between three old shafts, but found nothing. The surface
wash ore is sometimes only 2 or 3 feet deep ; in other places 20 feet. No

* Called Town Bank, on the Local Map.
+ The rocks of the neighborhood dip 25° to 35° S, E.

Lesley. ] 44 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

estimate of quantity is possible with such information. The visible area
measures about 67,500 square yards.*
A little pipe ore has been found higher up the hill north of the road.
Regular and progressive stoping from the south-west, along the belt,
may produce large results in the future. But the oreless clay of great
thickness intervening between the surface wash and the deep hard ore
will make mining expensive.

No. 6. Rumbarger’s Bank, (Local Map, fig. 14,) is an open cut in
the south bank of the east branch of Warrior’s Run, the surface of the
ground only rising 6 feet above the bed of the stream.

A cross-road separates the excavation into two ; that on the southwest,
40 < 40 < 10 yards deep; that on the northeast, 30' 30 < 10 yards
deep ; 25,000 cubic yards in all. These pits reached a depth of 40 feet,
wholly in wash-ores and clays, without striking solid limestone. The
rock ore left in the bottom when the work was drowned out, is reported
to be less abundant than that found above it. But as the ore streaks
“dipped fast to the southeast,’’? and the limestone out-crops of the
neighborhood dip from 22° to 34° in that same direction, (see Large Map, )
good mining will probably yield well. Plenty of good ore has been won
here, and nothing but the lack of pumping machinery stopped the win-
ning. Thos. Funk worked the Banks at one time for the Milesburg
Company.

The ore belt passes on eastward under Is. Buck’s (now Smith’s) lands,
where Messrs. Green of Barree raised ore, but took no sufficient means
for establishing a mine.

Thence it enters and underlies $8. Hanna’s farm, with its numerous
ponds and sink holes, full of promise for the future.

“A mine for Bellefonte Iron Works has just been opened (August, 1878, )
at a point 300 yards northeast of Rumbarger’s Banks, ‘see Local Map,
fig 14,) where a very heavy outcrop exists. Every cubic yard is washed
profitably. The cut is yet only 4 or 5 feet deep.

As a heavy surface show extends 150 yards beyond Hannah Bank, we
have here an area of 450 >< 50 = 2250 yards of wash ore of undetermined
depth ; besides the rock ore undoubtedly existing further down.

Mining and washing will here be cheap, and the railway runs along the
hillside at a distance of 200 yards, and at an elevation of 35 feet, (fig. 14).

Further on, the surface show is slight, or wholly wanting,+ util we
reach the next excavation.

No. 8. Waite Banks, shown in Local Map, fig. 15, consist of two
pits, 100 « 20 « 7, and 90 * 20 X 7 = 26,000 cubic yards, in size,

* Ore is found in the soil of Petershoff’s farm on the south of the Town Banks. There
is an old digging on the Hyskel (B. M. Thompson) farm; and further west outcroppings
on Thom. Gano’s, whose trial pit on a small vein near his orchard was stopped by water;
lively outcroppings show in several fields up the slope of Dry Hollow ridge.

+ A shallow pit 14 mile from Hannah Bank yielded some ore. The Waite Bank is
400 yards northeast of this shaft.

~
1874 ] 45 [Lesley.

more than 20 feet depth of good-looking wash ore being seen in the sides,
and much lump-ore having been won by still deeper shafts in the inter-
vening ground. The entire ore prism must therefore exceed 150,000
cubic yards. The Railroad is a mile distant.

No. 9. Braunstetter’s, or the McGlathery Bank, is situated
about 1200 yards beyond (N. E. of) the Waite Banks, and the interval
shows little on the surface; yielded only some lean ore to one or two trial

Fies. 15, 16.

Sova, Noor of the
Noike OrePamk

Vrvad
ede

AG
.

pits. This Bank, (see Local Map, fig. 18,) is only 30 < 20 « 10 = 6000
cubic yards large. It is said to have been worked to a depth of 40 or 50
feet, but is now fallen in and full of water, and no one seems to know
much about it. Overlying Limestones crop out 150 yards southeast of
it, dipping 27° 8. 43° E.

Further on is the old Disputed Bank, on the high divide, between
Warrior and Half Moon waters. Here are several small shallow open-
cuts and shafts in surface ore; but no deep mining has ever been attempted.
The ore seems to dip south, and is sandy. The crop traced westward,
becomes good and plenty on Jos. Bronstetter’s farm, who has never made

Lesley. ] 46 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6,

judicious trials of the deposit, and through the hollow leading to Patton’s
(now Waite’s) and the Lloyd Bank, above mentioned.

No. 10. The Lovetown Banks, consist of numerous open-cuts
and shafts from which large quantities of ore have been extracted
and extensive preparations are in progress for regular mining of this
important part of the ore field. The principal outcrop occupies a
vale watered by a small branch of Half-moon. The old shafts of
Abram Love were stopped by the influx of water. Pipe ore is visible near
Love’s barn. Halfa mile west is an old ‘‘exhausted’’ Hannah Furnace
Bank. On the north slope of the ridge west of Love’s, ponds and sink-
holes abound. Hannah Furnace had a Bank in David Berk’s fields, and
abandoned a good deposit of ore in its floor, merely on account of water.
Surrounding shafts were also sunk, but no pumps were ever planted. A
few hundred yards west of the open-cut, some of these shafts went
through a pretty good ‘“‘top vein”’ into a regular deposit 20 feet beneath
the surface. Southwest of this other shafts were sunk for the Milesburg
Company, in Abed. Stevens’ fields, in good rich, sandy, black ore, close
under the sod, the poorer clay ores lying down on the limestone foot of
the hill. South of this, John Stine gathered much loose heavy ore from
his fields, and hauled it to Bald Eagle Furnace, many years ago; but
no sinkings were done. The outcrop is noticeable in Jos. Bronstetter’s
lane (leading to Wrye Bank) and in his fields on Cronister’s line.

The Lovetown Banks are shown on Local Map, fig. 20, occupying two
vales, descending eastward to the Half Moon Run, at the mill-dam.

A rib of solid blue limestone strata, dipping 8S. 30° E. > 56° to 579,
forms a low hill, up the south slope of waich the wash-ore rides on to the
flat summit. Natural ponds occupy, at points, the beds of the two vales.

The north line of the Love property commences near the Beck Banks,
and runs down the northern vale to the corner of the mill-dam. The ore
has been open-cut at Station 37, 165 yards west of where this line crosses
the road. This once deeper old cut is now only ten feet deep, showing in its
walls liver-colored, somewhat lean, wash-ore. West of it is a series of
shafts for 450 yards, formerly sunk 60 or 80 feet (without timbering) until
water was reached, and after a little side-drifting, abandoned. Hannah
Funace ran for some time entirely on the ore got in this primitive fashion
from these holes. In one of them (St. 39) pipe-ore was found. Nothing
more is now known of them. They are evidently on a continuation of
the Beck Bank deposit, the result of decomposition of ore-bearing strata
underlying the rib of blue limestone at Station 56.

The rest of the ore on the property belongs to the series of rocks above
the blue limestone, and to the southern vale.

The first shafts are sunk near Love’s house. Shaft A struck ore at 35
feet ; B, pipe-ore at 35 feet. Ore has recently been found southeast of A,
on the foot of the opposite hill.

From Station 44 there extends east and southeast down across the

Lesley. ] 48 [Jan 2and Feb. 6,

bottom of the vale, and west and southwest along the hill-slopes and hill-
top, a universal surface deposit of wash-ore. In this area are numerous
old shafts, pits, and open-cuts, and some new shafts sunk this summer
and fall. The old works were always abandoned on striking water at
various depths down to 80 feet, and are now filled up, and no records
preserved. Much ore was certainly mined from them.

The new shafts show that from 8 to 15 feet of wash-ore in clay under-
lies the surface at the depth of a few feet, and that under the yellow and
white clays there lie separate deposits of ore-lumps, the geographical in-
tervals being barren. ‘There seems to be no regularity of the ore layers.

The old shaft at Station 48 is said to have passed through twelve feet.
of surface wash, then (ore-bearing ?) clays to a depth of 80 feet, into
lump-ore, which was mined for several feet, and left in the bottom when
water stopped the works. The new shaft, only ten yards southwest of
the old shaft, is down 80 feet, and found no ore in the clays. The ore
got seems rich and rounded, as if water-worn.

It may be safe to give twelve feet of wash-ore tothe whole area, under
which are hard ores, yielding sometimes richly and sometimes nothing.

The surface ore extends 850 yards along the top of the hill. Most of
the pits were shallow, but one at Station 59 is said to have been 115 feet
deep through wash- and lump-ore, with ore left in the bottom.

The general appearance of the deposit is the same as at the Dry Hollow
and Wrye Banks.* No regularly interstratified ore is noticeable. No
estimate of quantity can be relied on. Taking only the area of heavy
surface show, and calling it 850 > 300 yards, and the depth twelve feet,
we have 1,020,000 cubic yards of seemingly good wash stuff, which, at 3
cubic yards to the ton, gives 340,000 tons.

To this must be added the very uncertain quantities here and there
scattered through the under clays. As these have been sometimes locally
considerable, it is possible that one or two or even three hundred thou-
sand may thus be obtained. As the principal part of the lump-ore is
evidently at the bottom of the clays, no knowledge of the quantity can
be got until systematic mining reveals the truth.

Wash-ore ground here must be considered as the main reliance for the
present. Washing here is easy; abundance of water is struck at 50 or 60
feet, and there is plenty of room for settling dams. The railroad line,
adopted for a branch to the main railroad, rises one mile on a 92 feet
gradient, and descends one mile on a 46 feet gradient.

The ore has a much more extensive range than that above described,
for Mr. Fisher has opened three small pits on ore just beyond the north-
eastern preperty line; and the Beck Banks show that it passes south-
westward into the adjoining properties in that direction also.

An analysis of Lovetown ore, from the large pit at Station 49, fig. 20,
made at my instance by Mr. Persifor Frazer, Jr., Professor of Chemistry in
the University of Pennsylvania, shows a percentage of phosphorus low

* Hereafter to be described.

1874, ] 49 (Lesley.

enough to bring this ore within the limits of safe use in the manufacture
of iron for the Bessemer process. The specific gravity of the specimens
was 352. The calculated percentage of metallic iron was 45.36; alumina
16.53 ; silica 6.63 ; lime 0.58; sulphur 0.04; and phosphoric acid 0.05.
Between Lovetown and Stormstown (a distance of 3} miles) no ore is
visible near Bald Eagle mountain, although considerable quantities of
ore lie in the fields just northeast of Lovetown; but on a line parallel
with the mountain, and about a mile from its base, in a hollow leading
from one branch to the other of Half Moon Run, a very fine outcrop

Fies. 21, 22. Fies. 23, 24.

| McKinney ee it

Bain
ait a
B =

8
N
XN
9
8

[\ Sur: by F Plate.

range of tolerably big pieces of ore, closely covering the surface, runs
past the sawmill. It leads directly to the two Bryan Banks, and is there-~
fore important.

No. 11. Lytle’s Bank; No. 12. McKinney’s Bank. These are -
the old Bryan Banks, 23 miles N. E. of Lovetown, as shown at the eastern
limit of the Large Map, and in Local Map, fig. 22.

The Lytle Bank was worked a long time ago for Hannah Furnace, and
measures about 70 « 20 « 10 — 14,000 cubic yards. Very little lump- .
ore is now visible, the walls showing about 25 feet thickness of wash-ore. .

A. P. §.—VOL. XIV. G

Lesley. ] 50 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

McKinney's Bank, worked for Pennsylvania Furnace, is much smaller,
say 20 < 20 « 10 = 5,000 cubic yards, and exhibits the same aspect.

Shafts sunk between the two excavations on both sides of the road,
leading south from Stormstown to Gatesburg and Pennsylvania Furnace,
always struck good ore, dipping to the southeast ; as do the limestone
outcrops of the neighborhood. We have here a prism of ore deposit at
least 300 100 > 10 = 350,000 cubic yards in size; probably, after all
due allowances, quite that many tons of ore.

The Curtin Bank, a long, narrow open-cut on a prolongation of this
outcrop, beyond the limits of the map, 23 miles N. E. of the McKinney,
and the Lamborne Bank, 1? miles further in the same direction, have
yielded cold short ores, similar in appearance to the Pennington. These
and other works of less importance show the persistent straightness ,of
the outcrop of the ore-carrying strata, parallel with the Bald Eagle
Mountain, at the foot of which flows the east or main branch of Half
Moon Run, with a limestone ridge* between the Valley of the Run and
the ore. The Valley of the Run marks, of course, the line of the Great
Bellefonte Fault.

At McKinney Bank we are three miles from the railway, where it strikes
and begins to descend Half Moon Run. The Lovetown Banks require a rail-
way two miles long, descending the west branch of Half Moon, witha
grade of 40 feet to the mile, or else a railway across the ridge 1? miles
long, with gradients 90 feet to the mile, as described. The line of the
road was originally located to Lovetown, and thence down Half Moon ;
but it was considered more desirable to carry it across the Dry Hollow,
among the ore-banks to be hereafter mentioned.

Before returning to these banks and the neighborhood of the railway,
I will describe a group of banks lying south of the Lytle and McKinney
Banks, at the east edge of the map, and on outcrops somewhat higher
in the Lower Silurian Series.

Dry HoLtiow RANGE.

Wo. 13. Hannah Furnace Bank No. 2. Two hundred yards east
-of the Gatesburg road is a hole 40 « 20 x 10 = 8,000 cubic yards in
size, excavated on the broad, flat top of a ridge, as shown in Local Map,
fig 25. It was long ago abandoned. The ore seems good and abundant,
15 to 20 feet of wash-ore showing in the side walls, and coming close to
the surface. All the down-slid stuff may be washed. Massive sandy
limestones, 180 yards N. W. of it, dip 8. 80° E. > 28; 150 yards further
N. W., massive white sandrocks dip the same.

Wo. 14, Bull Banks, half a mile east of the last, and in line with it,
consist of two excavations on the south brow of the ridge ; see A and
B, local map, fig. 27. Much sandy ore was formerly taken out before
these banks were abandoned, 20 years ago. A—60><50><10=30,000, and

* This ridge, by an oversight, is not represented on the Map, no surveying having
been done north of the McKinney Banks.

1874.] 51 [ Lesley.

B=80<40<10—82,000 cubic yards. A shows wash ore in the side, which
is 30 feet high above the water in the bottom. B shows about 30 feet
of reddish wash ore, with very little lump ore, from the water to the sur-
face of the hill. A neighbor who had worked in the pits, reports that
several feet of deep brown richer ore was found lying everywhere in

Fie. 25.

Jannah Furnace |!

ore Co :

1S
,1 9
ja
is
Vy 8
|| S
ik
is

100 paces.

Natuzal pond : H
S : ative by Tranklnkla 4

both banks beneath the mass of reddish leaner ore. All this awaits the
time of improved mining with pumps and washers.

Fig. 27 shows other old workings in the same deposit from 600 to 800
yards to the south-west of A and B. From two of these there have been
taken about 15,000 cubic yards of wash-ore, which still exhibits itself 20
feet deep in the walls; the one furthest to the north-west in fig. 27, has
been deep, say 40 feet, but now, like all the larger cuts, has standing
water and mud in its bottom. Numerous shafts, all yielding ore, give

®
Lesley. } 52 {Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

us data for calculating an ore prism in sight of, say 150 200><10 ?=800,-
000 cubic yards.

No. 15, Pond Bank, No. 1, worked for Pennsylvania Furnace, lies
in the hollow at the foot of the ridge, 3 mile south of the Bull Bank, see
local map, fig. 20. Its honeycombed, rather light, easy smelting ore,
(mixing well with the more sandy ores of the Bull Bank Hill,) dips also
south-east, and therefore belongs to a limestone out-crop still higher
in the series, which is sufficient to account for its different quality. A
great deal has been removed from this Bank ; but much still remains to
be won, and water to wash it is abundant. This is included in the prism
of ore calculated last above.

No. 16, Red Bank, (Floyd’s Old Bank) at the road side, half a mile
south-west of the Pond Bank, (see Local Map, fig. 25,) is a cut in the
same out-crop. The amount of ore is therefore very great; for the con-
tinnity of the deposits has been fully proven. The red rock-ore (35 or 40
per cent.) descendsin a solid stratum from 8 to 10 feet thick, at a dip of
about 25° to the 8. E. Over this lies a stratum of white clay, 3 feet
thick. Over this black ore in solid masses and great lumps scattered
thickly or thinly through several yards of wash ore, to the surface. Some
of these lumps are 2 feet long by 11 feet thick.

This Old Gatesburg Bank, as it is sometimes called, was worked 40
years ago, and has been re-opened now to show its character.

The red ore was too siliceous, and hard to work in the small cold blast
charcoal furnaces of the region ; but it will be eagerly sought by modern
hot blast coke or anthracite furnaces.

The black ore masses were selected for charcoal cold blast use, having
50 to 55 per cent. of iron and being fusible ore.

It is impossible to say how deep these strata descend on their 25° dip
ina peroxide condition. But allowing only 100 feet, we have in a mile
of outcrop 150,000 cubic yards of red rock ore; and as the wash ore
ground holding the black lump ore descends with it, and spreads over
a belt of surface more than 100 yards wide, there must abe half million
cubic yards of it at the lowest computation.*

The old cuts at the elbow of the road west of the two ponds in fig. 27,
have had about 8000 cubic yards excavated and are now filled with water
to within 10 feet of the urface, showing that much wash ore without
lumps. The two larger cuts 150 yards north-west of them, measure about

* I have described above only what I saw. Mr. Platt was informed that under 12. feet
of clay holding black lump ore, lay 4 feet of white clay without ore, under which lay 14
feet of red rock ore in red clay, and ore was still underfoot. I give this report for what
it is worth.

Mr. Bocking speaks of red rock ore only 6 feet thick, ‘‘and another fair layer in the
clays above, all workable; red ore not very rich; silicious, but with visible sand ; rich
black ore in the top vein, [the word he always uses for a stratum of ore] ; on the whole,
proper for coke furnace use; mining requiring pumps ; deep workings at hand; an im-
portant locality.”

1874.] 53

{ Lesley.

15,000 cubic yards, with 21 to 25 feet of wash and lump ore in the walls ;
abandoned 20 years ago.

No. 17. California Bank, 200 yards west of the Red Bank, and on the
same slope and outcrop (see Local Map, fig. 25, (received its name from
Fic. 26. Fic. 27.

GY
Shaft on ore

the richness of its ore, before it was abandoned 20 or 25 years ago, on ac-
count of its distance from Pennsylvania furnace, the abundance of
water and lack of pumping apparatus, the refractory quality of its
mineral in the cold blast charcoal stack, and especially the abundance of

Lesley.] 54 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6,

good ore at the Furnace itself. Pits of standing water show 20 feet of
wash ore in their walls.

This completes my sketch of this ‘“‘dry hollow’’ ontcrop east of Half
Moon Run. It is a dry hollow because the whole limestone underground is
cavernous, and water springs up abundantly in every excavation, but
does not flow over the surface. This is a prime factor in the problem of
he genesis of these ores, and must be taken into consideration in all
speculations respecting the depths to which the brown hematite ores
descend in a minable form.

The outcrop belt of surface wash ore and regular rock ores in which
the Hannah Furnace, Bull, Pond, Red and California Banks are excavated,
passes on north-eastward into the untried wilderness of the Barrens,
where we find upon it the Floyd Bank, an open cut on highland ; ore
very sandy for charcoal furnace use, but good and abundant for hot blast
coke or anthracite; and good charcoal ore could be selected from it
still.

No. 18. Reider’s Bank, half mile east of Gatesburg, is a small sur-
face opening of 30205 = 3000 cubic yards extent. On trial at Cen-
tre and Hannah Furnaces it was refused. The surface of the broad
low hill north of the village is a sheet of wash ore. The roads north to
Stormstown and west to Warrior Mark expose ore ground at the surface,
on the slopes of the dry hollow: in which the village stands, and to the
north and south of the village. The old opening on the roadside 250
yards south of the village, is entirely filled up. Considerable quantities
of very rich lump ore were taken out here many years ago, mostly from
underground galleries. Much ore ground occupies the surface for more
than 100 yards north-eastward. Limestone crops out 300 yards west
of it dipping S. 30° E. > 20°, and 300 yards north of it dipping S. 300H
Sse

No. 19, Whorrel Bank, (see Local Map, fig. 17,) is a continuation
south-west across Half Moon Run of the Gatesburg outcrop, which is here
nearly 500 yards broad. The open cut on the north side of the Gates-
burg road is about 40135 — 2600 cubic yards ; that on the south side
30203 = 1800 cubic yards. Both have standing water in the bottom,
and wash ore in the walls, while very heavy outcrops appear along the
road, as well as along the cross-road leading up the ridge north to Love-
town, beyond which an old shaft has struck the underlying sand
rocks.

The double excavation in fig. 10, 110407 = 30,800 cubic yards large,
is separated by a stratum of limestone dipping 8. 380°E., >26°, (one expo-
sure looking like >509,) the ore underlying, overlying and surrounding
one end of it. 'The wash ore in the sidewalls does not look rich. It is
reported that these holes were dry 40 feet deep and yielded good ore.

* The horizon of this and the Whorrel bank is still higher in the series than the last,
28 Section O D (fig. 3) will make evident.

AAR
1874.]: vod [Lesley.
The length of the surface show 7. ¢., 8. W.—N. E. is only 50 yards, to be
terminated by the erosion of Half Moon Creek Valley. The railroad is
only 400 yards distant.

Nisa",

walt Ngets

Q@ANGH Aro

ie)
17
>t
af

No. 20. Pond Bank, No. 2. is a small excavation 35 105 — 1750
cubic yards, at the head of the hollow, or rather on the divide where the
south branch of the long Dry Hollow proper begins to descend towards

- Lesley. | 56 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

Warrior's Run ; and along side of one of the summit cuts of the railroad.
Good wash and lump ore show in the walls. No sandy ore is seen. The
R. R.cut shows 10 feet of wash ore for a length of 100 yards. Altogether
we have here say, 40,000 cubic yards of ore in sight.

No.21. Wrye Bank. The local map, fig. 23, shows this extensive group
of shafts commencing 450 yards northwest of the railway track, at an eleva-
tion of 40 feet above it, and continuing along the road up the slope to an
elevation of 100 feet above the R. R., a distance of 400 yards. Over most
of this surface the show amounts to little, proving how little we can rely on
the surface indications as negative testimony. For, these works were ex-
tensively driven from 1852 to 1857, and yielded some very rich ore, while
the surface showed only poor sandy ore.

There is one open cut, 2520 10—5, 000 cubic yards large, showing wash
ore in the walls from top to bottom, none of it rich, decidedly sandy, holding
ironstained calc. sandstone masses, as at the east Pennington Banks. Very
good open ore, bluish, and heavily charged with manganese occupied the
west end of this open cut (Bocking). An old miner reports, that in the
shafts they went through 26 feet of pretty worthless loose stuff and then
worked 18 feet of good lump ore, without getting through ; that the shafts
up the hill were dry ; those lower down quickly filled with water, and were
therefore abandoned, one after the other, before they could get out more
than 10 or 12 feet of lump ore. What the charcoal furnace miners called
worthless is now valuable for hot blast, especially anthracite furnaces, and
the whole of this great deposit will be washed and sold. The breadth of the
belt of shafted ground is about 100 yards, but must be considered as in-
definitely greater along the strike.

I am informed that in these old diggings the body of ore sank to 50
feet beneath the surface and thinned away, but came in thick again lower
down, and approached the surface. Two good pillars are known to be
left standing in the old works, under a top covering of sand, one at the
lower end, the other at the upper end of the works. In the last, solid
rich rock ore lies 45 feet beneath the surface. All the shafts are now
caved in. The ore layers were traced for several hundred yards east-
ward by trial shafts.

The appearance of this ore differs from that of the Pond Bank No. 2 so
much that we should suspect them to belong to a different geological hori-
zon. This suspicion is almost confirmed by the general southeast dip of
the outcropping rocks here and there exposed at the surface. This import-
ant structural question is clearly expressed by my Section C D (fig. 3),
which passes through these banks. It is quite certain that the rocks which
on dissolution delivered these ores, are the mother rocks also of the Kerr
and Bredin, Hostler and Pennsylvania Furnace ores to be described here-
after. The great breadth of the Dry Hollow Outcrop belt corresponds
with that of the localities just named, and I think it pretty evident that
we have here two horizons of Lower Silurian ore-bearing limestones
close together.

The old Sandy Bank is a group of small shallow pits, in very sandy

1874. ] 57 [Lesley.

surface ore, but rich and good when washed, on the hill slope a few
hundred yards northeast of the Wrye Bank, showing the continuation of
the outcrop in the direction of Half Moon Run.

In the other direction, the outcrop has been exploited at the old Pond
Bank of Bald Eagle Furnace, 500 yards southwest of Wrye Bank, and
nearly in the bottom of the vale, which deepens rapidly.* It lies closeto
the foot of Hickory ridge; ore light but good, not sandy, and easy to
smelt. A pond, dry in dry seasons, covers some of the old diggings.
Much surface ore covers the neighborhood, and it will hereafter be an im-
portant mining ground, with heavy clay cover to the ore, requiring hard
pumping.

Top ore of large size abounds around a sink-hole in Isaac Gano’s fields,
on the north slope of Hickory Ridge, a mile S. W. of the pond. The
pieces seemed rolled from an outcrop of good ore seen half-way up the
hill, in the Huntingdon Furnace woods.

At Simpson’s Bank (3 mile further west) the wash-ore is good and
easy to smelt. Whereas at Andrew’s Bank, adjoining, (the Warrior’s
Mark and Pennsylvania Furnace Road separating them,) sandy ore only
has been taken from the open cuts, but no shafting done.

Jos. Krider’s fields are covered with very rich scattered pieces of ore,
some lumps weighing 400 pounds. Attempts to find a bed at a little gap
near by, have failed thus far. The shafts were tried in thick woods ;
others were too low on the hill slope, and encountered only wash ore.
There is undoubtedly a heavy rock-ore deposit somewhere. Similar
shows are again seen half a mile further on (west) opposite the old wash-
machine, and Huntingdon Furnace has picked off the surface much of
this loose block-ore. A small layer was found in two or three shafts, but
never followed up to see what would come of it.

No. 22. Dixon’s Banks are only a few small holes, fallen shut, with
a slight sandy ore surface show, 100 yards west of the road, where it
crosses the head of the middle branch of the Dry Hollow. Here ‘a
small irregular vein yielded good ore a little west of it, on a detached
knoll, a thicker vein of poorer, flinty ore was found, at the edge of a
pond, and was thought not to pay for pumping, to get for charcoal fur-
nace use.t

* This and the following named Banks are not exhibited on the Large Map, because
not accurately located. Their descriptions I got from Mr. Bocking’s notes.

+ Mr. Bocking thinks he remembers that this vein had a decided northern pitch,
and distinguishes it thus from all the other veins of this range. This must be either a
mistake or a mere local accident. Mr. Platt’s field notes also mark a doubtful
N.30° W. > 384° dip of the limestones in the through-cut 240 yards northwest of Railroad
section stake 81-80. But 100 yards N. E. of the same stake, soft rotten limestone strata dip
S. 30° E. > 20°. Other Railroad exposures show that the S. E. dip dominates the struc-
ture. Thus at Railroad station 4145, is a thorough-cut in blue limestone, dipping S. 30°
E. > 34° with regular cleavage planes N. 60° W. > 70°; at 4151, a good exposure of
limestone gives S. 30° E. > 26°. In Railroad cut at 4164, sandy and blue limestones the
layers seem to dipS. 60° E. > 31°; inthe cut 180 yards S.W. of Railroad 4180 hard, sandy
limestones dip S. 45° to 50° E. >> 26°.

A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. H

Lesley. ] 58 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

The old Kelsey Bank yielded much good ore, years ago, in funnel
shaped pockets, not continuous.

No. 23. Little Dry Hollow Banks (see Local Map, fig. 14) are near
the crest of the low hill dividing the middle from the north branch of the
Dry Hollow. No. 1, 1s a small hole on a small outcrop reported to have
yielded six to eight feet of sandy lump-ore, soon running out No. 2
consists of a group of small pits and trial shafts on a slight outcrop.
Some ore was got from shafts A, B, and C. The appearances here are
not favorable for future mining prospects.*

No. 24. The Dry Hollow Banks are the central figure in the
broad expanse of outcrop which seems to fill the hollow and its three
head branches, and to cover the dividing slopes, in many places if not
continuously, north of the Railway. They are shown in map, fig. 29.

Fi4. 29.

Local Map
of the
Dry Soollow Ore Banks,

F Halt;

In the south-east corner of this map, the railroad ¢urve ought to have
been designated, the distance of the track from the principal excava-
tion A, being less than 400 yards.

The cut on the south side of the township road is pictured by Mr.
Harden, in fig. 28; that on the north of the road in fig. 80; and the
road itself in fig. 31; the wash-ore in the R. R. cutting at the curve,
south of the banks, is shown in fig. 32.

The Dry Hollow Bank, } mile north of the R. R., 2} miles E. of

* Mr. Bocking reported some years ago that these works merely won small veins and
top ore, while the body of ore is undoubtedly left under the little ponds, &c., at the foot
of the hill. Good ore used to be raised from the Little Dry Hollow Bank, but efforts to
‘“‘ recover the vein ’”’ some few years ago failed, although the ore here rides to the top of
the hill, where it is pipe-ore (as it also is pipe-ore on the northern side of the hill).

1874. ] BO [Lesley.

Warrior’s Mark Village, is an extensive system of open cut excavations,
from which great quantities of excellent ore have been got in past times.
The term ‘‘system’’ is however inapplicable to the process of mining
here employed, for it resembles rather the burrowing of animals. No

Fie. 30.

Part f Dry Hotlew Rawk . South side of Rood.

one can estimate how much of the precious ore has been left untouched,
for there are neither maps, nor records, nor traditions of the work.

The old miners merely say that the ore runs out against a bank of clay.
But such reports are good for nothing ; and even if literally true teach

Fie. 31.

Read te Worries Mon through Dry Wetlew Powk .

nothing, for they are sure to relate to single points, and fail of applica-
tion at others. Fifteen years or so ago, some of the old pillars of ore
were taken out by sinking shafts and driving short galleries at a few
points. The ore is mostly wash-ore, that is fine ore disseminated through

Lesley. ] 60 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

clay. The dip is southward (towards the great central synclinal) and
deep workings and powerful pumps are needed, in future, south of the
old shallow surface workings.

From Dry Hollow Summit Cut for the Railroad to the first shafts, a dis-
tance of about 400 yards, there is a decided outcrop. The shafts extend
over 200 yards to the edge of the big open cut A, fig. 29. They seem to
have gone down* through wash and lump ore 60 feet to water, which in
all cases stopped the works. The lumps alone were carried to the fur-
nace. The wash-ore was not valued then ; now it ismerchantable. The
sinking was done at random and ore was always got.

Mr. Platt’s estimates on the ground are as follows :

110«40x10 = 44,000

50x15xk 8 = _ 6,000] 76,000
50x15« 6 = 4,550{| cubic
602510 = 15,000{ yards of
50K10* 5 = 2,500| excavation

10010 4 4,000 J done.

The main bank A, shows wash-ore of very variable richness from top
to bottom, 50 feet. The shafts at B are reported 60 to 70 feet deep, through
wash andlumpore. From shaft C, onthe roadside, 60 feet deep, 1600 tons
of excellent lump ore alone was selected for use.

About 300 yards north-east of the Banks, the railroad line has exposed
a mass of lump and wash ore of excellent quality.

The Old Red Bank of Bald Eagle Furnace is on a continuation of the
Dry Hollow deposit south-west, but higher up the hillside. It is shown
in local map, fig. 19. Mining was confined to the surface ore which was
sandy and without ‘regular veins ;’ but no one knows how the deposit
of ore is to the deep.

The surface show between the Dry Hollow Banks and the Red Bank is
not so heavy as where the old excavations were made ; but the deposit
underneath is really continuous and unbroken, as is shown by the cut-
tings through the ridge made by the railway between the two localities.
See fig. 19.

Here wash ore has been exposed for 100 to 125 yards along the track ;
sometimes 10 feet thick resting on clay ; sometimes 20 to 25 feet of wash
ore holding larger lumps. The varying thickness of the red clay and ore
layers in this cut is an instructive example of what the miners found in
their shafts. Some of the lumps weigh 300 to 400 lbs. Very few pieces
of silex appear ; and on the whole, this deposit looks freer from silica
than any in the valley. Little or no soil covering exists.

The Red Bank pits and shafts are very numerous, and all shallow. The
ore when smelted alone, at Bald Eagle Furnace, made first class iron.

From the south-west end of the Red Bank to the north-east end of the
Dry Hollow Bank is about 1000 yards. The breadth is 200 (say 150)

*25 years ago, more or less.

1874. ] 61 (Lesley.

yards. The worked depth {to water) varies from 20 feet at Red Bank to
100 feet at Dry Hollow Bank. Taking anaverage of 10 yards, we have 1000
<150<10—1,500,000 cubic yards of wash and lump ore. Discard one-
half of the leaner interval between, and allow one ton to the yard in con-
sideration of the size and quantity of lump ore, and we have 750,000 tons.

Fie. 32.

old fashioned rude mining, it is impossible to say how near this estimate
approximates accuracy. :

No. 25, Bean Bank lies a mile to the S. West of the Dry Hollow
Bank, where many tons of surface lump ore were scratched out and

Lesley. ] 62 [Jan. Zand Feb. 6,

sent to Huntingdon Furnace ; as was done in other places along this
part of the range on the South Slope of Dry Hollow Ridge. No atten-
tion was paid to the great body of wash ore forming the deposit, and no
effort to mine to the deep. A vast body of ore.ground awaits future ex-
ploration and excavation, within a mile of the railroad. Quartz occurs
in this ore bank.

No. 26, Bressler Bank, (see fig. 16) is a collection of small holes,
on the north-west side of the ridge, in a ravine descending to the east
branch of Warrior’s Run, and distant from the railway, half a mile.
About 2500 cubic yards of excavation seems to have been made in past
years. The pits are fallen in, showing sandy wash ore in their sides.
Hight feet of lump ore is reported as mined in this locality. No geo-
logical indications of the structure appear.

This completes all I have to say here of the Dry Hollow outcrop. For,
although ore has been found further south-west along the south side of
the ridge towards Warrior’s Run, no mining has been done ; and the Old
Seat Bank, (No. 37,) is so out of line with the Banks ASR described,
that it may be left for notice in connection with the ores west of Warrior’s
Run. But I shall describe, further on, the continuation of this range
where it crosses Warrior’s Mark Run and at the Huntingdon Furnace
and Dorsey Banks.

I pass over, therefore, to the Cale Hollow (Kerr & Bredin, Hostler and
Pipe-ore) Panis further south-east.

THE Cate Houttow RANGE.

Cale’Hollow is divided from Dry Hollow by Hickory Ridge, as shown
in the Large Map ; and its ores lie in a deeper and narrower synelinal
than the ores in the gentle and wide synclinal of the Dry Hollow as shown
by section CD. They are, however, ores once carried by the same lime-
stone strata, and ought therefore to be of the same general character. It
is therefore remarkable that so little pipe ore has been found in Dry
Hollow, while an abundance of pipe ore characterises the Cale Hollow
Banks. :

No. 27. Kerr & Bredin Bank, (see local map, fig. 24, and wood
cuts 33, 34, 35,) is a small excavation of about 5000 cubic yards, show-
ing in its walls lump and wash ore, 25 feet deep. Much of the wash ore
seems leaner than in other Banks. A shaft has been sunk for explora-
tion in the bottom of the eld cut, and the report of it is favorable to future
mining on a systematic scale. (See wood cut, fig. 35.)

The ore from this bank won for itself a high reputation at the furnace.
It was called ‘‘gun metal ore,’’ and was said to bear a striking resem-
blance to the Bloomfield ore of Morrison’s Cove, south of Holidaysburg in

[Lesley.

1874.)

Blair Co., from which was made by preference the ordnance of the U.

S. Army during the civil war

Fie. 3

t of the He

rr and Bredin Lank, sketched by J WHardere.

Dr.Genth’s analysis of the Kerr & Bredin ore, given below, when com-
pared with Dr. Otto Wuth’s analysis of Bloomfieid ore, made June 9,

1871, compare as follows :

Lesley.} 64 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6,

Kerr & Bredin. Bloomfield.

Merric Oxidesaseeeeaereeicee. 70.67 Perox. Iron 78.63
Manganese Oxide............ 0.36 Manganese 0.29
Cobaltic Oxide............... trace

FATA TAAL TN Ree Weal eyreigrale Sears 3.91 2.50
Mao mesiaaersciavehverveleyiroreresexs 0.26 0.38
Daim @eeeiee eee tare ees trace 0.34
Phosphoric Acid............. 0.19 0.134
DilicicwAtcid haw 5 ase 5.48 7.02
QAO Ze tier oversee sae evencreve clete 6.80 —
Witter ee mero) sie) caiaus Geese 12.38 10.71

The extra quartz determined by Dr. Genth, diminishes the percentage
of iron oxide in his specimens, and reduces the percentage of iron from
55.04 (Wuth) to 49.47 (Genth). Otherwise the ores are strikingly alike.

The Kerr & Bredin Bank lies at the foot of the south slope of Hick-
ory Ridge, one mile W. N. W., of the Hostler Bank. Ina dry autumn
Mr. Bocking was directed to sink south of the old cut, and to mount
a pump. He reported a 12 inch “vein of ore”’ at 40 feet, and water
at 44 feet. A tunnel-way was commenced in the direction of the old
cut, which caved in, and the works were stopped.

The continuation of these ores along the foot of Hickory Ridge, on the
north side of Cale Hollow, is proven by arange of ‘‘ lively outcroppings.”
In some places the surface is sufficiently rich wash-ore. One or two pits
(Bronstetter’s) were worked, for Huntingdon Furnace, 13 miles west of
the Kerr & Bredin Bank, in ‘‘ an irregular vein.”’

Northeastward the ores continue to show themselves to Half-moon
Run, where ‘‘ pipe-ore’’ is marked upon the large map. See Little Bank,
below.

From a small cut at Eyer’s, on the east side of Half-Moon Run,
pipe-ore was raised many years ago. The limestone rocks at Eyer’s
house, 100 yards south of the spot, dip to the 8. 30°, E. > 21°.

Another old pipe-ore locality shows now fair ore on the surface, near
two small trial pits.

No. 28. Hostler Bank (see local map, fig. 26, and wood-cut fig. 36).

This excavation occupies the northern slope of the Spruce Creek anti-
clinal ridge, as a large open cut, from which the ore was in old times
hauled to Pennsylvania Furnace, two miles due east of it.

The recorded history of this important mine reveals the following fea-
tures. Wherever the diggings were made they went down through
‘‘pipe’’ wash-ore which was occasionally mixed with lump-ore, to depths
of 60 and 65 feet, in all the shafts.

One of these shafts passed through this wash-ore 65 feet, and then
passed through a stratum of solid limerock, varying in thickness from 10
inches to 2 feet. Below this limestone lay lump ‘‘ pipe’’ ore, into which

*
1874. ] 69 [Lesley

the shaft was sunk 6 feet further and then the flow of water stopped its
further descent.

From the bottom of the shaft a five inch auger hvule was then drilled
through a continuous bed of pipe ore to an additional depth of 39 feet.

Fie. 34.

prez

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boxes

—_—__
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A PART OF KERR ABREDIN BK

The percentage of iron in the pipe ore is uniform ; or varied only by
the chemist’s including in his analysis adherent or enclosed clay.

It is a constant feature of the Pipe ore banks of the southern range
that they do not furnish the ‘‘lean ores,’’ so-called, which are met with

A. P. S.— VOL. XI¥Y. I

L2eley.] 66 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

in the Banks opened along the more northerly and geologically lower
outcrops of the ‘‘ Barrens”’ in this valley. It has been the uniform ex-
perience at the Pennsylvania, Hostler, and other Pipe ore banks that
shafts and borings have always passed through lump-ore, after having
been sunk or drilled below water level. But as pumping apparatus on a
sufficient scale has never been applied to such deep shafts and borings, they
have in no case passed through the deposit of lump ore, the thickness of
which i- therefore still a matter of conjecture.

I give the history of these operations as an evidence of the insufficient
extent to which the development of this iron-ore district has been car-
ried; to show that only its surface has been scratched, but its deposits
not mined. Regular, systematic, efficient operations are yet to be begun.
They await the completion of the railroad and that demand for large
quantities of ore from distant furnaces which is already become so urgent.
The underground drainage all through the Valley is immense, and the
largest bodies of ore, and especially of pipe-ore, can only be won with
heavy pumping and systematic stoping.

The Hostler open-cut Bank must be sunk in air to the lower ores, and
‘through them to the bottom floor of all; then with powerful pumps to
keep the water down, the clay stripping above can be washed, and the
heavy face of ore below can be stoped and the top stuff thrown back into
ithe abandoned ground as the ore-face advances. As Mr. Bocking justly
remarks, ‘‘35 feet of ore will well pay for stripping 65 to 75 feet”’’ of
-clays above it. He adds, and I agree with him heartily: ‘‘ The time for
shallow digging and ground-hogging is pretty well past in these barrens,
and the exploration of the richer banks may require in future prepara-
tions that will take some capital, and may need in some cases two or
more years before yielding a return.”’

The Hostler Bank excavations measure about 120 50 < 10 = 60,000
-cubic yards. The ore lies like that to be described in Pennsylvania Fur-
nace Banks, as a mass of clay and wash-ore separated by ribs of un-
‘decomposed limestone. The walls are about 30 feet high, but the high
northwest dip of the measures prevents this figure from being used as a
-datum of calculation. It only shows in a general way the depth below
‘the sod to which the weathering action had gone, as exposed by the miners.
“The late sunk shafts passed alternate soft beds of ore and hard ribs of
‘limestone, all on a steep dip; 38° to the N. 35° W. Imashaft at the
‘northwest end of the open cut one shaft went down through 75 feet of
‘wash-ore ground before striking the solid limestone rocks and water.

It is impossible from such data to estimate the future yield at this
locality, but the amount of ore to be won must be very great. Nor is it
confined to the neighborhood of the old works. The ore-belt runs on
southwestward for at least five miles.

1874. ] 67 [ Lesley.

At the distance of 1,900 feet there are somewhat less than twenty old
shafts in one group, quite forgotten until recently discovered by Mr.
George Lyon. They were mostly shallow pits in the surface of the pipe-
ore bearing clays ; but some of them look asif they had been sunk to
a considerable depth ; and their number proves that the search for ore
was remunerative even at that day.

This part of Cale Hollow is a wide, flat, slightly undulating,. dry vale,
every part of which shows a top-dressing of fine ore. It is a virgin
district. Mr. Lyon sunk one trial-shaft in it, and struck an ‘‘ore-

Fie. 35.

SETIPPLN
wil. Some
wash Ore.

Se dhe wae

z sa a ola as sunk

i) oe at Kew. & Gredin Ove Poe

vein.’’ There was a similar accidental discovery of another group of
five or six pits from which some top-ore had been scraped. I have no
doubt that a continuous belt of mining ground runs the entire length of
Cale Hollow.

The Red Bank, 13 miles from the Hostler, on the same slope of the
Spruce Creek Ridge, is old and disused, the ore in the top clays was
stripped, but no attempt at deep mining was made. Another old bank
in line with it, but across a little ravine issuing from the ridge, furnished
some pipe-ore to Huntingdon Furnace. Still further west,* in a similarly

* 414 miles from Hostler Bank.

Lesley. ] 68 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

situated bank, near Huntingdon Furnace, a vein of good, red-short ore
' was struck, and abandoned on account of water. On working one part
of this pit the ore became too sulphureous to use. It will be again re-
ferred to after describing Bank No. 29.

The belt of Cale Hollow Ores may be traced northeastward with the
same general character.

Little Bank, for instance, lies two-thirds of a mile northeast (near
the Warrior Mark Pennsylvania Furnace Road), 12 miles west of Penn-
sylvania Furnace. Here very rich top-washings cover a high flat
area connected with Hickory Ridge. Seams of the ore penetrated the
limestone rocks all the way down a 40 feet shaft, under which the main
body of ore dips northward.

The Eyer Bank (already mentioned) is an old excavation one mile
still further east, on the east side of Half-Moon Run.

Going on northeastward across a dividing ridge, the ore appears again
along Tadpole Run, in Sleepy Hollow, and at the head of the Beaver-
dams, for a distance of more thana mile. Years ago, some pipe-ore was
raised, for Centre Furnace, east of B. Crane’s, but the surface was merely
scratched. At the Pennsylvania Furnace old surface-pits, sunk at the
beaver-dams, the body of ore probably lies under the bed of the run and
would require heavy pumping.

The ‘‘dry hollow’ which carries the Valley of Tadpole Run on ina
straight line northeastward, and is a geological prolongation of Cale
Hollow shows plenty of out-croppings of ore, just as Cale Hollow
does, and the ore is of the same kind—pipe-ore. In fact the ore
belt continues to McAllister’s and the School House cross-roads, eight
miles northeast of the Hostler Bank, and far beyond the limits of my
large map.

Between McAllister’s and Pinegrove Mills, the country spreads out into
a plateau two or three miles wide, through which runs the Brush Valley
Anticlinal. Here, far beyond the east limit of my map, are the

Old Weaver Banks; two open-cuts and several shafts near
them, abandoned years ago. No systematic mining was attempted in
that early day, the work being done by the farmers. Tradition speaks
of ‘‘ore veins’’ being reached, but probably too well watered for the
natives to cope with them. ‘‘The ore lying around the holes is not a
regular pipe-ore, but is mixed with liver-colored ore, and reported red-
short.’’? We have here, then, ores not belonging to the Hostler and Penn-
sylvania Pipe-Ore Bauk system connected with the sandstones of the
anticlinal, that is, ores belonging to the underlying limestone.

SPRUCE CREEK RANGE.

No. 29, Pennsylvania Furnace Ore Bank. For about fifty-eight
(58) years Pennsylvania Furnace has been supplied with its stock from
the extensive excavations on the gently-sloping south side of the anti-

1874 ] : 69 [Lesley,

clinal ridge facing Tussey Mountain ; Spruce Creek, above the Furnace,
flowing between the ridge and the mountain.

See local map, fig. 37, in lieu of further description ; and the landscape
sketches of the excavations, to illustrate their extent and character : fig-
ures 39, 40, 41, 42, 43.

The geologist can here study the theory of the formation of the Lower
Silurian Brown-Hematite ores of Pennsylvania to great advantage. I
know no better place, and few so good.

The ores are evidently not washings from a distance ; neither from Tus-
sey Mountain, nor from the present surface of the anticlinal ridge ; nor
from any formerly existing surface in past geological ages, when the sur-
face stood at a much higher elevation above sea level. They are evi-
dently and visibly interstratified with the soft clay and solid limestone

Fic. 36.

THE HO

STEER ORE GAN
layers, and obey the strike and dip of the country ; the strike being along
the valley, and the dip about 49° towards the southeast.

Thousands of minor irregularities prevail; the streaks of ore and
masses of clay, are wrinkled and bunched, and thin out and thicken
again in various directions. But all this irregularity is owing to the
chemical changes of the strata, and to the changes in bulk of the differ-
ent layers during the protracted process of solution and dissolution, during
which the looser calciferous and ferriferous sandstone layers have lost their
lime constituent, packed their sand and clay more solidly, and perhydrated
their iron. In this long process cleavage-planes have been widened into
crevices ; caverns have been excavated ; pools or vats have been created ;
precipitates of massive (rock and pipe) ore have been thrown down; and
a general creeping and wrinkling of the country been effected. But the
original general arrangement or stratification has been preserved ; aud
those portions of the whole formation, which had but little lime, have

Lesley. ] 70 | Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

been left standing as sandstone strata; while others having but little
sand remain as solid and massive limestone strata ; those which had an
excess of alumina are now in the condition of streaks, masses, or layers
of white or mottled clays ; and only such as were properly constituted
clay-sand-lime-iron deposits originally have so completely dissolved as to
permit the lime to flow off, and the iron to consolidate into ore.

Every stage of this interesting operation, and every phase which it
presents in other parts of the Appalachian belt of the United States, from
Canada to Alabama, may be seen and studied in these old and extensive
ore banks of Pennsylvania Furnace.

At first sight of the bank the ore deposit looks as if it were a grand wash
or swash of mingled clay and fine and coarse ore grains and balls, occupying
hollows, caverns and crevices in the surface of the earth and between the
solid limestone rock ; and some of it undoubtedly has been thus carried
down into the enlarged cleavage partings of the limestones ; and into sink
holes and caverns formed by water courses ; where it now lies, or lay when
excavated, banked up against walls or faces of the undecomposed lime
rocks. But as a whole the ore streaks and ‘main vein”’ of ore must oc-
cupy nearly the same position originally occupied by the more ferrugin-
ous strata after they had got their dip and strike. See fig. 40.

The ore is taken out with the clay, and hauled up an incline, by means
of a stationary steam engine at its head, and dumped into a large wash-
ing machine, with revolving screens; whence after the flints and sand
stones have been picked out, it is carried on an ironed tramway, to the
bridge house of the Furnace. See fig. 48.

The ore forms from 10 to 50 per cent. of the mass excavated, and the
small amount of handling makes the ore cheap.

The floor of the excavation is about sixty (60) feet below the “oral of
the wash machine.

Shafts sunk from 30 to 35 feet deeper, in the floor, to a permanent
water level, have shown that other and even better ore deposits underlie
the workings, covered by the slanting undecomposed lime rocks. This
is an additional demonstration of the correctness of the theory above
stated.

The upper ores will furnish stock for yet many years. After that, orin
case more furnaces be erected, or distant markets call for the shipment
of ore by railway, deep shafts or bore holes must be sunk to drain the un-
derground, and the lower ores may then be lifted to an extent which can
hardly be estimated now.

The prism of ore in sight, technically speaking, if calculated roughly
from the areas exposed by the old and new open cuts, and by shafts sunk
at various times and in various parts of the floor, gives several millions
of wash-ore, lump-ore and pipe or rock ore. Thus taking the area exposed
at say 550 > 450 yards, and the depth at only 15 yards, we have 3,612,500
cubic yards, which on washing would yield 602,000 tons of prepared ore.

[ Lesley.

Ul
Fig. 37.

1874.]

a er

focal Vo aj
of- the
en nsylvania Suwinace

Gran Ore Banks,

ee Yeeaily NS Scale ofpaces.

100 200

370

Zoo"
=f, é

= ‘ r
Surveved by MF Flatt N |

6
Lesley.1 72 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

Of this, about 100,000 tons have been passed through the furnace, yield-
ing nearly 50,000 tons of neutral cold blast charcoal iron of the best
quality, leaving 500,000 tons of ore to be excavated.

But this is only a portion of the deposit; for the ore ranges away
beyond the high walls of the open cuts into the surrounding laud an un-
known distance. The large area stripped last year towards the north-
east shows how extensive the deposit is in that direction.

Add to this the great depths to which the ore is known to descend, and
it seems to me certain that a million of tons is as probable an estimate as
a half a million. Large quantities of ore are left standing between
the hard limestone ledges exhibited in figure 40 (taken from ain local map
fig. 88), and in figure 34, which is an enlarzed view of the sharp promontory
seen in fig. 33, sketched to show its geological structure. The dip of
these limestones is to the 8. 35°, E. > 35° to 40°; and they are exactly
on range with the limestone outcrop along the road, at the quarry, and

Fie. 38.

4
F Re
§
no a
a &
= Ss
L \

past the Furnace, as shown in fig. 37. Slight crumplings of the limestone
vary the dip from 18° to 65°; but these are due either to movements in
the yielding ore mass or to a deception caused by mistaking cleavage
planes for bed plates. No such variations are apparent at a distance
from the banks, the whole limestone formation descending uniformly
beneath the foot of Tussey Mountain with a dip of something under 40°.

The pictures figs. 41 and 42 are views of the deep cut looking east from
a in local map fig. 37. The view in fig. 43 is taken looking northward
into the main ore bank, from near a; aud it shows the new incline, the
washing house, and the ridge above it, along the crest of which the
aqueduct is carried on tressels, for 2000 feet. Fig. 38 shows the end of
the aqueduct where it is mounted by the pipe leading up the hill-side
from the double Worthington pump in the engine-house, fed by another
pipe from the dam. Behind the hill seen in fig. 43, in a hollow on a level
with the northeast end of the banks, is the settling-dam.

Lesley. ] 74 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6,

The height of the walls of the various excavations may be seen by
reference to the ten foot contour lines in fig. 37. These also show that
the ground now so deeply excavated once formed a high divide between
a vale descending southwest to Spruce Creek, and a corresponding but
shallower vale descending northeast to the settling-dam hollow. It looks
as if the ore once filled both these vales, but has been excavated by the
natural drainage into Spruce Creek, from the one which descends
in that direction, and, perhaps from the valley of Spruce Creek itself,
down to and beyond the Furnace.

The entire walls of the cuts are of wash ore, and it is all torn down
and taken to the washing machine. But the tops of pyramids of solid
pipe ore are exposed in the floor, and some reached to, or nearly to the
sod above. At one of the deepest places in the floor, 60 feet below the
sod a shaft was sunk 40 feet further through solid pipe ore, and then
limestone, and was stopped by water. Water does not stand in the
present floors on account of the free circulation, at a still lower depth,
through crevices and caverns communicating with Spruce Creek, which
itself issues from a cave.

The books at the Furnace show as an average for some years, 6 tons
of wash ore to 1 ton of ore; 2 tons 1 cwt. of ore to 1 ton of iron; and
$2.25 per ton of ore delivered at the Furnace, represents the cost of min-
ing, inclusive of all expenses.

Ishall give in an appendix, the opinion of Mr. Harden on some prac-
tical points which I requested him to study, for which purpose he visited
some of the Banks described above.

Outcroppings of ore occur east and west of the Pennsylvania Furnace
Banks on the southern slope of the anticlinal ridge facing Spruce Creek
and'the Tussey Mountain ; but no excavations have been made, because
sufficient stock was always procurable at the Banks near the Furnace. It
is not to be supposed, therefore, that equally large and important de-
posits may not be exposed by future systematic mining operations, when
the completed railway shall make demands on this ore belt for supplying
the furnaces of Eastern and Western Pennsylvania.

Some of these surface-shows of ore are near the top, others near the
bottom of the hill slope. The ore surface is commonly high up on the
slope, or on the flat rolling back of the anticlinal ridge.

John Ross has in his fields, north of Pinegrove Mills, ( miles east
of Pennsylvania Furnace,) an old funnel shaped hole, from which very
rich pipe ore was taken, and more can be seen in its sides, but no surface-
show ; and I have no data on which to base an estimate of quantity. The
ore was sent to Monroe Furnace ; was rich; but very red short : lumps
of pyrites being visible in the bombshell ore lying about the hole ; which
is also coated with white sulphates.

Surface ore can be traced all the way from Ross’ to Pennsylvania Fur-
nace, but no search underground seems ever to have been made or called
for.

1874.} 75 (Lesley.

In the other direction, down Spruce Creek, south-west of the Furnace,
a few outcroppings on the surface appear, but lie neglected for the same
reason. A few trial-pits seem to have been sunk near the school house,

<
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gi sho
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and near Mr. Geo. Lyon’s mansion, south of theturnpike. Large pieces
of pipe ore lie in the east corner of Mr. Thos. Lyon’s fields, at. the foot
of Tussey Mountain. Ore has also been noticed in Mr. Stewart Lyon’s
north fields.

Lesley. ] 76 {Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

All the above are on the south slope of the anticlinal of Brush Valley,
facing Tussey Mountain. The anticlinal may be studied where the lime-
stone rocks are seen dipping both ways (N. W. and §. E.) in the end of
the hill at the Furnace, and in the railway rock-cuts as the line makes its
semicircle down Half Moon Run and up Spruce Creek and Tadpole Run.

Three miles further down Spruce Run a pipe ore bank was commenced
on the south slope of the Anticlinal, to supply works erected at the
mouth of Spruce Creek, for a patent process to convert the ore directly
into wrought iron; but the patent process failed and the mine was never
worked. It sufficed to show that the ore belt or outcrop follows the
ridge along the north side of Spruce Creek towards the Juniata, but
coalesces with that of the Cale Hollow, or north dip, beyond Huntingdon
Furnace, and sinks beneath the surface, for no trace of it is found in the
Little Juniata River section, where the Canoe Valley anticlinal may be
seen replacing this of Brush Valley.

Returning thus to Warrior’s Mark Run, and the: neighborhood of
Huntingdon Furnace, I have little to add to finish this report, except
concerning an ore belt, west of the Run, on the south slope of the ridge
in line with the Dry Hollow Banks. But before speaking of it, I shall
give the following section up Warrior’s Mark Run :—

At the mouth of Cale Hollow, in the north dipping rocks of the Spruce
Creek Ridge anticlinal, and 150 yards east of the mill-dam, or a mile
east of Huntingdon Furnace, there is marked on the map an old pipe-ore
bank, now fallen in. Lime rocks here dip N. 30° W. > 50°; but, by the
road-side, 300 yards to the west-southwest only 38°; and in the hill-side,
650 yards to the west-northwest, 12° in the other direction S. 30° E. The
Old Seat Bank, No. 30, is 1,100 yards distant (up Warrior’s Run towards
the N. N. W.) from this old bank. The Cale Hollow is thus seen to be
synclinal, and, allowing for the different strength of dips observed there
can be no reasonable doubt that the same ferriferous limerocks out-crop-
ping here outcrop also at the Old Seat Bank ; and I have so drawn the
Section A.B.

The ore at this old bank is reported to have been extraordinarily
charged with sulphur ; but I could not learn exactly in what form.

No. 30. The Old Seat Bank, on the east bank of Warrior’s Run,
24 miles below where the railway crosses the run (at Warrior’s Mark), is
an old open cut with ore in its floor, abandoned many years ago for want
of pumping machinery of adequate power. What little liver-colored ore
is visible, looks lean, and much flint lies about. The area of the cut may
be 4000 square yards. Water stands in it to within 10 or 12 feet of the
top. It has been worked to a depth of 40 feet. About 30,000 cubic yards
of ore-ground has been taken out. Although much liver colored ore
like Pennington ore lies about, no pieces of sandstone are visible ; but a
good deal of flint is among the ore, as at Pennsylvania Furnace Bank.
Not much surface-ore shows in the neighborhood.

-,
1874.] (7 [Lesley.

92 “WDWIYY

2D Z (, "2 a fen ee

wy J if
a ; 1 / ,
Vay Ly
Bia iJ
a A Y
( 1 # ‘3 |
to biel | L
By. it /d ‘a
\ i} ff
yh PVA 2 ¢
y iy )
Hy 1 ri “
ye
WW re
s SE ofp EU:
; = i i
. a B
mma |
. i
a t ry 4
AY f fy
y

"B27 FP es EL ff

run, limerocks crop out, dipping also S. 30° E. > 9°; and 300 yards fur-

Lesley. ] 78 {Jan. 2and Feb. 6,

ther, sandy limestones, S. 30° E. > 10°. 500 yards further up the run,
pipe-ore is reported, ploughed up in the fields. This belongs to an ore-
bearing strata about 700 feet lower in the formation than the ore horisou
at the Old Seat Bank. The dip is continuous and equable ; there can be
no mistake. 500 hundred yards still further up the run, at the forks of
the road, still lower sandy limerocks are seen dipping the same way, 8.
380° KE. > 13°. Other exposures occur in this interval dipping also 8. 30°
E. > 18°. No dips are noticed in the next 1000 yards, to the toll-gate
and cross-roads and forks of the Creek ; but there is no reason no doubt
that a southeast dip fills the interval, becoming ever more gentle.

Five hundred yards southwest from the toll-gate, and 50 yards off the
road (towards the northwest) on land 70 feet above the water, is an old
deserted pipe ore bank 50 < 10 yards. This lies just 1000 yards due
northwest of the pipe ore last mentioned as ploughed up in the fields ;
and if a continuous southeast dip of 10° be supposed, we should find in
it an evidence of a third and still lower pipe ore horison, 550 feet below
the second and 1250 feet below the first, or Old Seat ore horison. But it
would be very unsafe to consider this the simple state of the case. The
place where ore was ‘‘ploughed up over aspace of 600 yards ”’ is worthy
of a thorough investigation, but the surface show is slight. The other
locality where lumps and pipes of solid ore were got 25 years ago from the
open cut and underground works, is reported to be rich still. None of
its wash ore was taken away.

This place is very important. It proves conclusively that pipe ores
occupy a geological range of at least 1250 feet of the Lower Silurian
Formation. And these exhibitions on Warrior’s Run connect the rich
Dry Hollow Group of Banks already described, with the Huntingdon
Furnace and Dorsey Group next to be described.

The toll-gate is only 800 yards down the run from where the railway
crosses it. And the southeast dipping Beck and Town Bank ores (Nos.
4 and 5) are only 400 yards further up. The Beck and Town ore horison
therefore underlies the toll-gate ore rocks (unless there be some concealed
disturbance in the interval), at a geological depth of at least 1200 feet, and
probably 1500 feet. For there are 20° dips (to the southeast) in the rail-
way cut, and 35° dips in Warrior’s Mark Village. If I am anywhere
near the truth, the Pennington Range ore horison (Becks, Town, &c.)
underlies the Cale Hollow Pipe Ore horison at a geological depth of 2500
to 8000 feet; which may well explain their different qualities. And this

result is in harmony with features of my cross-sections AB and CD.*

* The Pennington and Lovetown ores being on the same geological horison, and there
being a breadth of limestone outcrop (dipping S. 30° E, > 50°), between Lovetown and

the Bellefonte fault at the foot of Bald Eagle Mountain, at least 700 yards broad, we
have about 5000 feet of Lower Silurian measures visibly exposed underneath the Cale
Hollow (= Pennsylvania Furnace Bank) ore horison. Adding to this the 2500 feet of
limestones between Pennsylvania Furnace bank and the foot of Tussey, and we have a
total thickness of Lower Silurian Limestones from the bottom of No. 111 (the Hudson
River Slate) down to the jaw of the Bellefonte Fault, of 7750 feet; a very great thick-
ness; but quite in harmony with all that we know of the Trenton, Black River, Bird’s
Bye, Chazy and Calciferous in the Great Valley of Reading, Harrisburg, Chambers-
burg, Winchester and Knoxville. This, so far as I know, is the first approximately ac-
curate measurement of these formations in mass south of their New York outcrops,
which are very thin in comparison with these.

(Lesley.

1874.]

These lie along the south-

No. 31, Huntingdon Furnace Banks.
erly slope of a prolongation of Dry Hollow Ridge,

west of Warrior’s

Fie. 42.

Run, and within a circle swept around Huntingdon Furnace with a radius

of two miles, as shown on the land-map.

The Dorsey Banks are outside

Lesley. ] 80 {[Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

this circle, but are excavated in the same belt of outcrop. The outcrop
is very broad because, as we have just seen along Warrior’s Run, the
southeast dip is very gentle, about 10°. This has allowed a very large
dissolution of the ore-bearing rocks.

The Wilson Bank is two miles west of Warrior’s Run; no ore has
been found in this interval, the slopes being sandy. Here limestone begins
to come in, overlying the sandstone, and ore-bearing clays take posses-
sion of the surface. This sandstone has been mistaken for the Calciferous
Sandrock ; but must be one of the numerous interealations of sand in the
great limestone series.

The Keefer Banks follow, in the next half mile, and, although ex-
hausted as to the wash ore of the outcrop, can be mined to the deep if
proper pumping apparatus be mounted to keep the underground water
down.

Fig. 44 gives a local map of these excavations, which severally measure,
as they come in order along the line of Mr. Platt’s survey :—

Ge lO <3 0 <GisS —— 31,200 cubic yards.
he KG S< 6) Dt = 44,800 aS

e. +) 40>< 25 <-10 — 10,000 by

de ee l20)<4A0 78 = 38, 400 ag

6 Sp LOO 408 —— 32,000 oF

je So BD Ka xX & = 4,500 “
Total excavation, say, 161,000 cubic yards.

No. 32, Dorsey Banks, see fig. 44.

These works lie just outside the two mile circle around Huntingdon
Furnace Stack (see Land-line Map), and are used for Barre Forge, dis-
tant three miles due west on the Little Juniata River ; the nearest distance
to the river by the Township Jine in a southwest direction being two
miles.

There is first an open cut on the south side of the road, see fig. 44, measur-
ing 65 & 25 & 6 = 9,750 cubic yards of excavation, with wash ore in the
walls. Then, a shallow open cut, ten or twelve feet deep, 75 & 30 x 4
= 9,000 cubic yards, the floor being everywhere wash ore.

The Main Bank, in the southwest corner of fig. 44, is divided by a
slide of the southeast wall into two open cuts, 200 « 70 « 15 = 210,000
cubic yards, with wash ore walls and floor (now generally 30 feet deep),
but excavations have been made much deeper.

* These jie south of the road, on the large map. Eight yards is taken as the ayerage
depth of both, but they may have been worked deeper. Wash ore forms the walls.

+ Also south of the road and beyond the limits of fig. 44.

t North of the road, at the northeast corner of fig. 44. It has not. been worked for
years. Wash ore forms the walls. t

§ North of the road, and of the Dorsey Bank, fig. 44. Both have fallen shut. Wash
ore forms the walls.

| Lesley.

1874.]

Furnace Ore Wace His

A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. K

Lesley. J 82 [Jan 2and Feb. 6,

From the northeasternmost Huntingdon Furnace Diggings to the last
Dorsey Digging is a stretch of about 2000 yards, with ore shows filling
up the intervals between the banks. There isa maximum breadth of
500 yards. But if half that be adopted for an estimate, we have an area
of wash ore here equal to 100,000 square yards, in all respects like that
of the Dry Hollow Bank district (on the same range) described above,
and representing, at least, one or two millions of cubic yards of ore
ground, besides whatever deeper deposits of pipe ore exist.

As in Dry Hollow, so here much lean ore is mingled with the rich, and
‘much dead stripping will be required in places.

There is this distinction: the ore of the barrens, that is the liver-
colored and more sandy ore ranges along the northwestern side of the
belt of outcrop, up the hill-side ; pipe ore characterises the down hill, or
southeastern side of the outcrop. The main bank is wholly in the top or
vwash ore covering, and has merely revealed the principal deposit of rich
,rock ore and pipe underlying it. Those who worked the pit describe a
jlayer of ore 6 to 8 feet thick as apparently creeping downhill, overturned,
.and covering itself. What this description means I do not know. : he
«ore makes excellent iron.

It is unnecessary for me to say that the ferriferous limestones described
iin the above details, and crossing the river (S. W.) into Sinking Valley,
carry the ore ground outcrops with them, and that these have been mined
. to some extent at various places south of Barre Forge, yielding both rich
and lean wash ore, and rock and-pipe ore, of the same general character.

The same statement holds good as to Canoe Valley, although its nar-
/rowness does not permit its anticlinal to bring the lowest horison of ore
to the surface.

In Sinking Valley the two sides of its dying anticlinal bring the ore-
outcrops together about three miles south of the river. The following
are some of the ore banks: ou the south side, Pine Hill Bank (} mile
from the river); Moore’s Pipe Ore Diggings (1 mile) ; Galbraith’s Pipe
Ores (13 mile); Robinson’s Bank (23 miles). On the northwest side are
.Gentzhammer’s and other outcrops.

‘It is a serious question why mines of Brown Hematite Iron Ore have

1 not been opened on the Juniata River above the mouth of Spruce Creek.
This question seems to be answered by my section along the river, fig. 1.

i It is evident that the horison-of the Pennsylvania Furnace or Cale Hol-
i low ores scarcely rises on the back on the Canoe Valley axis to the level
-of the valley bed, and is.immediately carried down again by the syncli-

1874.] 283 [ Lesley.

nal of Canoe mountain. It is then visible in Sinking Creek Valley, as
just stated. Whether any large quantities of ore underlie the river bed

Fie. 44.

Socal Meo § the
Dorsey Group of Ore Sdanks
ast of the, Juniata

Sema
Scok 4% Yards.

Survayed Ly Swandua Plakt

below Union Furnace and above Spruce Creek Station remains to be de-
termined by future trial shafts along the line of the Pennsylvania Rail-
road.

Genth.] 84 [Feb. 6,

INVESTIGATION OF IRON ORES AND LIMESTONES FROM
MESSRS. LYON, SHORB & CO’S IRON CRE BANKS ON SPRUCE
CREEK, HALF MOON RUN AND WARRIOR’S MARK RUN, IN
CENTRE, BLAIR AND HUNTINGDON COUNTIES, PA.

By F. A. GEenra.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 6th, 1874.)

NO. 1. EAST PENNINGTON BANK.

The greater portion of thirteen specimens, received for examination,
was compact, dull, of various shades of brown and had like,No. 1 an ad-
mixture of dark brown pitchy ore; other portions were porous and had
the cavities lined with botryoidal fibrous brown limonite, others were
stalactitic. Some of the ore had lost a part of its water of hydration
and had changed into turgite and even into hematite. Many of the
pieces showed a considerable admixture of manganese minerals, such as
wad, minute quantities of pyrolusite and perhaps psilomelane, some con-
tained a large quantity of rounded grains of quartz.

An average of the whole showed the following composition :

Ferric oxide = 65.88 — 44.77 Metallic Iron.
Manganicoxide = 6.00 = 4.18 Metallic Manganese.
Cobaltic ‘ 0.34
Alumina trace
Magnesia 0.26
Lime trace
Phosphoric acid 0.22 = 0.097 Phosphorus.
Silicic acid 6.38
Quartz 7.87
Water 13.05
100.00

100 Iron and Manganese contain 0.197 Phosphorus.

NO. 2. WEST PENNINGTON BANK.

Five specimens were submitted for examination. The ore was mostly
of various shades of yellowish brown to dark’ hair-brown and without
lustre ; in some was an admixture of a dark blackish brown ore with sub-
conehoidal fracture and a resinous lustre ; some portions had a slight
waxy lustre, others were earthy and dull. It was amorphous, but in
places the cavities were lined with a coating of brown fibrous limonite.
On being breathed upon, it developed a strong argillaceous odor.

1874.]

[Genth.

An average of the five specimens contained :

Ferric oxide
Manganic oxide
Cobaltic ‘6
Alumina
Magnesia

Lime
Phosphoric acid
Silicic acid
Quartz

Water

100 Iron contain 0.32 Phosphorus.

No. 6.

a 70.93
= 0.38
trace

2.81

0.14

0.08

0.37

4.38

7.91

13.00

100.00

49.65 Metallic Iron.

0.16 Phosphorus.

RUMBARGER BANK.

A sample of ore was taken from a pile alongside of the Bank. It is
mostly amorphous and compact, also somewhat porous, and has the cavi-
ties lined with a thin coating of fibrous limonite ; the cavities are also
coated with red ochre and at times with yellow ochre.

The composition was found to be as follows :

Ferric oxide
Manganic oxide
Alumina
Magnesia

Lime

Phosphoric acid

Silicic acid
Quartz
Water

100 Iron contain 0.80 Phosphorus.

No. 11.

= 74.16

trace
3.06
0.24
trace
0.36
6.11
3.94
12.13

100.00

51.91 Metallic Iron.

0.158 Phosphorus.

LyTLE BANK.

The sample received for examination consisted mainly of amorphous
compact brown ore, intermixed with fine fibrous limonite. The fibres are
from } to 3 of an inch in length and form botryoidal coatings ; sometimes
divergent. The outside covered with yellowish ochreous ore.

The analysis gave :
Ferric oxide

Manganic oxide =

Alumina
Magnesia
Lime

82.00
trace
1.94
0.17
trace

57.40 Metallic Iron.

Genth.]

Phosphoric acid
Silicic acid
Quartz
Water

0.37 =
2.98

0.44
12.10

100.00
100 Iron contain 0.278 Phosphorus.

[Feb. 6,

0.16 Phosphorus.

No. 14. Butt Bank.

The samples for investigation, five in number, were taken from piles of

ore taken out about thirty years ago.

One consisted of a beautiful

fibrous limonite of a pale hair-brown color and silky lustre, much resem-
bling that from the Lytle Bank, but of fibres two inches in length. The

others represented the amorphous ores.

They are compact, of various

shades of brown, without lustre ; they contain more or less cavities,

partly filled with ochreous ore of a yellowish or reddish color.

The

amorphous ores have, on being breathed upon, a strong argillaceous

odor.

Ferric oxide
Manganic oxide
Alumina
Magnesia

Lime
Phosphoric acid
Silicic acid
Water

81.48
0.07
0.49

\ traces.

0.08
3.98
13.90

100.00

a. Pure Fibrous Limonite.

= 57.04 Metallic Iron

— 0.035 Phosphorus.

100 Iron contained 0.061 Phosphorus.

b. Average of the five Samples.

Ferric oxide
Manganic oxide
Cobaltic oxide
Alumina
Magnesia

Lime
Phosphoric acid
Silicic acid
Quartz

Water

74.85
0.29
0.21
2.42
0.12
trace.
0.24
4.15
5.92

11.80

100.00

52.40 Metallic Iron.

0.105 Phosphorus.

100 Iron contained 0.20 Phosphorus.

1874.] 87 [Genth.

No. 15. Ponp Bank No. 1.

Two of the four specimens received were of a dark brown porous amor-
phous ore with very little lustre, more or less mixed with yellowish and
reddish ochreous ore; the third piece was of a paler brown and con-
tained small quantities of fibrous ore, the fourth was an ochreous ore of

a pale brown and yellowish color. An average of the four samples con-
tained :

Ferric oxide = 78.68 2 55.08 Metallic Iron.
Manganic oxide = 0.42
Cobaltic 6¢ trace.
Alumina 2.89
Magnesia 0.20
Lime trace.
Phosphoric acid 0.16 == 0.07 Phosphorus.
Silicic acid 3.17
Quartz tye
Water 12.77
100.00

100 Iron contain 0.127 Phosphorus.

No. 16. Rep Banx No. 1.

Five samples of ore received. It is generally an amorphous compact .
ore, with a considerable admixture of sand. Some is more porous, and
has the cavities lined with fibrous limonite, and more or less filled with
clay. Emits, when breathed upon, a strong argillaceous odor. Part of
the specimens had lost a portion of their water of hydration.

The analysis of an average sample gave:

Ferric oxide = 65.44 = 45.81 Metallic Iron.
Manganic oxide == 0.13
Cobaltic oxide trace
Alumina 5.31
Magnesia 0.16
Lime trace
Phosphoric acid == 0.21 = 0.09 Phosphorus.
Silicic acid 6.76
Quartz 12.78
Water 9.21
100.00.

100 Iron contain 0.195 Phosphorus.

Genth. | 88 [ Feb. 6,

No. 19. WHoRELL BANK.

Two pieces of a fiue brown porous amorphous ore of various shades,
between yellowish and dark-brown; some portions showing a slight
pitchy lustre ; the greater part is dull. Has a strong argillaceous odor
when breathed upon.

The analysis of an average sample gave :

Ferric oxide = 69.71 ose 48.80 Metallic Iron.
Manganic oxide 0.46
Cobaltic oxide trace
Alumina 3.37
Magnesia 0.08
Lime trace
Phosphoric acid == 0.97 = 0.43 Phosphorus.
Silicic acid 3.51
Quartz 9.60
Water 12.30
100.00

100 Iron contain 0.87 Phosphorus.

No. 21. Wryr BANnkE.

Five specimens received. The ore is amorphous, porous, and scori-
aceous. Some of the cavities are lined with a thin coating of fibrous
‘ore. The more compact pieces contain a large admixture of rounded
quartz grains.

An analysis of an.average sample gave :

Ferric oxide = 77.00 — 53.90 Metallic Iron.

Manganic oxide 0.36
Cobaltic oxide trace
Alumina 2.15
Magnesia 0.14
Lime 0.15
Phosphoric acid 0.19 = 0.08 Phosphorus.
Silicic acid 2.60
Quartz 5.08
Water 11.88
100.00

100 Iron contain 0.15 Phosphorus.

No. 24. Dry Hottow Bang.

Amongst the eight specimens received for examination was one of a
beautiful variety of fibrous limonite ; the fibres are of about one inch in

1874. ] 89 [Genth.

length, also divergent and radiating ; color dark brown, lustre silky ; the
other ores were both compact and porous amorphous brown limonites,
some with the cavities lined with fibrous ore, others having them filled
with ochreous clayish ores. Some of the pieces give a strong argillace-
ous odor, when breathed upon.

a. Pure Fibrous Limonite.

Ferric oxide == 2 68h1183 = 58.19 Metallic Iron.
Manganic oxide = 0.15
Alumina — 0.74
Magnesia 0.09
Lime trace
Phosphoric acid 030k aa —— 0.22 Phosphorus
Silicic acid 2.47
Water 12.92
100.00

100 Iron contain 0.37 Phosphorus.

bo. Average of the eight Specimens.

Ferric oxide == 75.90 = 53.18 Metallic Iron.
Manganic oxide = 0.16
Cobaltic oxide = trace
Alumina — 2.44
Magnesia 0.20
Lime trace.
Phosphoric acid | 0.54 == 0.24 Phosphorus.
Silicic acid 2.74
Quartz = 7.84
Water 10.18
100.00

100 Iron contain 0.45 Phosphorus.

No. 24. 6. RED Bank or Dry Ho.utiow.

An examination of six specimens, showed the general character of the
ore to be amorphous, of a dark brown color, and compact ; some pieces
have cavities lined with yellowish brown and dark brown fibrous
limonite ; others have rounded quartz grains disseminated through the
mass. <A portion of the ores has lost part of the water of hydration.
The cavities and fractures are frequently coated or filled with a brownish
red ochreous ore.

An average sample of the whole contained :

Ferric oxide = 80.34 — 06.24 Metallic Iron.
Manganic oxide 0.52

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. L

Genth.] 90 [Feb. 6,

Cobaltic oxide trace
Alumina, 1.66
Magnesia 0.18
Lime trace
Phosphoric acid 0.49 == 0.215 Phosphorus.
Silicic acid 3.18
Quartz 2.63
Water ~~ 11.05
100.00

100 Iron contain 0.88 Phosphorus.

No. 27. Kerr AND BREDIN BANK.

The three specimens received show the ore to be mostly amorphous
and compact, and of various shades of brown, also earthy ; some parts
are porous and the cavities lined with fibrous limonite, sometimes in
botryoidal forms. On being breathed upon, developes a strong argilla-
ceous odor.

The average of the samples contained :

Ferric oxide = 70.67 = 49.47 Metallic Iron.
Manganic oxide 0.36
Cobaltic oxide trace
Alumina 3.91
Magnesia 0.26
Lime trace
Phosphoric acid = 0.19 =e 0.08 Phosphorus.
Silicic acid 5.48
Quartz 6.80
Water 12.33
100.00

100 Iron contain 0.16 Phosphorus.

No. 28. HostiuEeR BANK.

One specimen of so-called ‘‘ Pipe Ore.’’? Amorphous, compact and
earthy, brown to yellowish brown. Porous. Stalactitic. Coated with
yellowish and reddish ochreous ore.

The analysis gave :

Ferric oxide = 78.58 = 55.01 Metallic Iron.
Manganic oxide 0.08

Alumina 0.88

Magnesia 0.54

Lime 0.30

Phosphoric acid 0.36 = 0.158 Phosphorus.

1874. ]

Silicic acid
Quartz =
Water =

4.25
2.60
12.41

100.00

100 Iron contain 0.28 Phosphorus.

No. 29.

{Genth.

PENNSYLVANIA BANK.

a. 'Two samples received for examination.

Amorphous brown compact ore mixed with ochreous yellowish or red-
dish ore ; Porous, some of the cavities lined with a very fine coating of

fibrous ore.
5. So-called Pipe ore.

Amorphous porous ore, in columnar masses, the cavities filled with fer-

ruginous clay.

ce. Quartz grains, cemented by brown amorphous limonite, and dis-
seminated through it, patches of hydrous manganic oxide and perhaps of

psilomelane.

a. Average of two Samples.

Ferric oxide =
Manganic oxide
Cobaltic oxide
Alumina

Magnesia

Lime

Phosphoric acid
Silicic acid

Quartz

Water

100 Iron contain 0.12 Phosphorus.

b. Pipe Ore.
Ferric oxide
Manganic oxide
Cobaltic oxide
Alumina
Magnesia
Lime
Phosphoric acid
Silicic acid
Quartz
Water

100 Iron contain 0.10 Phosphorus.

81.55
0.10
trace
1.49
0.47
trace
0.16
2.98
1.55
11.70

100.00

= 83.74
SS 0. 31
trace

0.33

0.34
trace

0.14

2.07

0.44

12.13

100.00

57.10 Metallic Iron.

0.07 Phosphorus.

58.62 Metallic Iron.

0.06 Phosphorus.

Genth. ] [Feb. 6,
ce. Sandrock.
Ferric oxide = 43.65 = 30.56 Metallic Iron.
Manganic oxide
Cobaltic oxide i 1-55
Alumina 2.48
Magnesia 1.64
Lime 0.12
Phosphoric acid 0.27 — 0.12 Phosphorus.
Silicic acid 5.19
Quartz 36.52
Water 8.63
100.00

100 Iron contain 0.39 Phosphorus.

Oup Cur Nort oF GATESBURG. *

A peculiar looking amorphous ore, of a brown and yellowish-brown
color, uneven to subconchoidal fracture, dull or of slight waxy lustre,

inclining to resinous.

upon.

It has a strong argillaceous odor when breathed

The composition of the one specimen, which I received for examination,

was found to be:

Ferric oxide = 71.63
Manganic oxide ae,
Cobaltic oxide \ Ue)
Alumina 4.63
Magnesia 0.37
Lime trace
Phosphoric acid == 1.67
Silicic acid 3.69
Quartz 4.64
Water 12.84
100.00

100 Iron contain 1.43 Phosphorus.

50.14 Metallic Iron.

0.73 Phosphorus.

The amount of metallic iron in the calcined ores is as follows:

No. 1. Hast Pennington Bank............ 51.49 per cent.
sc 62. West Pennington Bank............ ay
[Gm amibarger Ioana yer ateyerireyeierer o BEAU)

CC AIG) Mayitley oanalkcsss a 2ysr cies ote sterore suena alstatsts 65.80 §
‘6 14. Bull Bank—a, fibrous ore......... 66.25 *
E6568 Mg ‘¢ —b, average............ 59.41 *

*Mr. Platt’s Station 568.

1874. ] 93 {Genth.

INO lb eb ondeBankssNon lesa neacee aac: 63.14 per cent.
pone Or LeGeD ales iNOwills acetate oetelnersieletee 50.46‘
BE Mifare) Seyi ae Gomrron seca GosmoG 55.64 <
coh 21 eye Bamkes.cscs stacchucn tauctasels ise. ae Glo
6 24. Dry Hollow Bank—a, fibrous ore.. 66.82 ‘
eek oo sé uf <¢ ~—bd, average..... 59.15
“¢ 24). Red Bank of Dry Hollow.......... 63.23 “6
‘¢ 27. Kerr and Bredin Bank............ 56.43 ¢
OE Om Ostler bank waeriico cis stele trac 62580 ac
*¢ 29. Pennsylvania Bank—a, average.... 64.67 ‘S
aH SE gs «¢ —b, pipeore.... 66.71 °°
retro es uf ‘¢ —c, sandrock... 33.44 ‘

Ore from Old Cut N. of Gatesburg.......... 57.52 <

All these ores were examined for Sulphur and Sulphuric acid, but not
a single one gave a decided reaction for either. They were also examined
for Titanium, Chromium, Vanadium, and other metals, but with negative
results.

Their only constituent, which has an injurious effect upon the quality
of the iron, produced from the same, is phosphoric acid ; most of them,
however, contain it in too small a quantity to be of much harm. Only
two of the samples contain it in a larger preportion.

For better comparison, I will arrange the amounts of Phosphorus
which would be contained in 100 parts of iron, provided no loss of either
would be sustained :

Hibrousiore: ofsbulleBanksaeauese eee cce 0.06 Phosphorus.
Pipe ore of Pennsylvania Bank........... 0.10 ss
Average ore of ‘ Ee aie I iin aes 0.12 es
Onde Banke Nom leicester cterce sec 0.127 “6
Wanyien ameter ac aceeeinaraercluspeah onde lalaver gis a 0.15 se
Kernmandsbredinubanks.csqe nina cece acc: 0.16 Bs
Jaserel Jee wailce INO 3 os satiate ar eel Brey mien amie 0.195 &¢
N. E. or Upper Pennington Bank........ 0.197 es
ASTOR OH iH wl ANS Gasdoaalbeaoowoads 0.20 és
Mv tlemB aiikers eeu tn enna pte ceuete er cia a 0.278 a6
JE OSHR IDEN BEC odooadtet Bye coluis bee ames 0.28 GG
ECU ATS CIs AU Keaaieettteletel are tencteaiereloretel ks 0.30 as
8S. W. or Lower Pennington Bank........ 0.32 a6
Fibrous ore of Dry Hollow Bank......... 0.37 es
Red Bank of Dry Hollow................ 0.38 te
Sandrock of Pennsylvania Bank.......... 0.39 es
Dipyeelollowarb ankseyecmrrcertctetrstcreiter tse 0.45 6
Wihorell Bam stn secvsrrroslenois me tere. 0.87 sie
OldicutiN: of Gatesburoseessseee aclia ele 1.43 ne

Of all the ores submitted for examination only two appeared to be in a

Genth. ] 94 [Feb. 6,

sufficient state of purity to throw light upon their constitution, as they
were crystalline, and free from visible impurities. For this reason they
were examined separately.

Taking into consideration only their principal constituents, viz : Ferric
oxide, Silicic acid and water, the question arises, in which form the
silicic acid is present, as it is undoubtedly in chemical combination with
the ferric oxide and not in the form of a mechanical admixture of sand.
If pieces of these fibrous limonites are placed into strong chlorhydric
acid, all the ferric oxide will be extracted, and the silicic acid will remain
in the shape of the original pieces, of a snow-white color and fibrous
structure. The only hydrous ferric silivates, which are known, are An-
thosiderite and Degeroeite. The former is a crystalized mineral, which
has a composition, represented by the formula 2Fe,O,, 9SiO,+2H,0.
It is very probable that, although observed in its pure state only at one
locality, it occurs frequently as an admixture with other iron ores.—If
we calculate for the 3.98 per cent. of silicic acid in the fibrous mineral
from Bull Mine, the requisite quantities of ferric oxide and water, we
find 2.36 per cent. of ferric oxide and 0.26 per cent. of water, making an
admixture of 6.60 per cent. of anthosiderite. The atomic ratio between
the remaining 79.12 per cent. of ferric oxide and 13.64 per cent. of water
is 1: 1.53 or very near 2: 3, showing the hydrous ferric oxide to be limo-
nite = 2 Fe, O,, 3 H, O.

If in the same manner we examine into the composition of the fibrous
mineral from the Dry Hollow, the 2.47 silicic acid require 1.46 per cent.
ferric oxide and 0.17 water, giving an admixture of 4.10 per cent. of
anthosiderite.—The atomic ratio between the remaining 81.67 per cent of
ferric oxide and 12.75 per cent. of water is 1: 1.4, which also shows the
ferric hydrate to be limonite, which, however, has already lost a small
part of its water.

The above analyses show besides the mechanically admixed rounded
grains of sand, which I distinguish as ‘“‘ quartz,’’ a considerable quantity
of silicic acid, which is in chemical combination, probably as a hydrous
ferric oxide. But as it is impossible to say what the true character of
this mineral may be, whether anthosiderite, or degeroeite a silicate of
the composition Fe, O,, 28i10,+3H,O or a species not yet known in its
pure state, suffice it to say that all these ores are mechanical mixtures
of limonite with hydrous ferric silicate and minute quantities of hydrous
ferric phosphate, perhaps dufrenite or cacoxenite ; some of the ores con-
tain besides these, small quantities of manganese ores, mostly the so-
called ‘‘bog-manganese’”’ or wad, but also pyrolusite and psilomelane.

It is a very remarkable fact that, although these iron ores are to a great
extent at least, the result of the decomposition of limestones and by them
precipitated, that almost the entire amount of lime has been washed
out of them and only traces are remaining ; of the second constituent of
the limestones, the magnesia, a somewhat larger quantity is left be-
hind, owing undoubtedly to the lesser solubility of its carbonate in car-
bonic acid water.

1874.] 95 [Genth.

Of the limestones only a few typical varieties have been more fully in-
vestigated, especially those from the Hostler and Pennsylvania Banks.

LIMESTONE AT HEAD OF HOSTLER BANK.

It has a fine crystalline granular structure and is mottled, whitish and
grey ; the surface is coated with ochreous argillaceous iron ore.

A pure specimen from which the iron had been carefully removed, con-
tained :

Carbonate of Iron = 0.80 = 0.39 Metallic iron.
ss SoManganesem—= im OslONi——
ee “Magnesia = 35.19 = 16.76 Magnesia.
es combi == 59.44 — 33.28 Lime.
Quartz and Silicic Acid 3.84
Alumina 0.54
100.00

The atomic ratio between Magnesia and Lime is 1: 1.4, which is the
eomposition of some of the ‘‘ pearlspar’’ varieties of dolomite.

LIMESTONE IN HosTLER BANK.

It lies four feet thick over 33 feet of pipeore. It has an ash-grey color

and avery fine grain, which is hardly perceptible to the naked eye ; very
friable. Its composition was found to be :

Carbonate of Iron = 0.50 = 0.24 Metallic Iron.
ec “Manganese = 0.24
ab “¢ Magnesia = 42.52 = 20.25 Magnesia.
GS ‘¢ Lime = 61.82 = 29.02 Lime.
Quartz and Silicie Acid 4.33
Alumina 0.42
Water 0.17
100.00

The atomic ratio between Magnesia and Lime is 1: 1, which shows it to
be a true dolomite.

Uprrer LIMESTONE FROM PENNSYLVANIA BANK.
Dark grey compact, slightly crystalline.
The analysis gave the following results :

Carbonate of Iron = 1.31 = 0.63 Metallic Iron.
a ‘“‘ Manganese = 0.18
sic ‘¢ Magnesia 3.98 = 1.90 Magnesia.
6 “¢ Lime 72.67 == 40.69 Lime.
Quartz and Silicic Acid 18.05
Alumina 3.81
100.00

The atomic ratio between magnesia and lime is 1: 15.

Genth.] 96 [Feb. 6,

LIMESTONE IN THE PENNSYLVANIA BANK.

Pale ash grey, very finely crystalline, rough to the touch like rotten
stone, very friable and easily falling to powder.

Its composition was found to be:

Carbonate of Iron = 0.45 = 0.22 Metallic Iron.
a “‘Manganese = 0.06
sf “* Magnesia 42.39 = 20.19 Magnesia.
és ‘* Lime 51.25 = 28.70 Lime.
Quartz and Silicic Acid 5.03
Alumina 0.82
100.00

The atomic ratio between Magnesia and Lime—1: 1, shows it to be a
true dolomite.

ANOTHER VARIETY OF LIMESTONE IN THE PENNSYLVANIA BANK.

Yellowish grey, soft, rotten, feels rough to the touch, sandy ; erystal-
line ; has a laminated structure. Its analysis gave :

Carbonate of Iron = 1.18 = 0.57 Metallic Iron-
ef ‘¢ Manganese trace
be ‘¢ Magnesia 30.0) —— GRO
GC ‘¢ Lime 45.73 = 20.61
Quartz and Silicic Acid 15.83
Alumina 1.75
100.00

The atomic ratio between Magnesia and Lime=1 : 1.08 proves it also
to be a true dolomite.

It is remarkable that the limestones and dolomites, of which I give the
analyses, contain almost the entire amount of silicic acid as quartz, only
a small quantity is present as soluble silicic acid and in combination with
alumina. If the limestones and dolomites are dissolved in acid, the
quartz remains often as a scoriaceous mass or in irregular sandy but
not rounded or water-worn grains; sometimes it forms large coherent
slaty masses in the limestone, frequently filled with minute cavities,
previously occupied by rhombohedral crystals of dolomite. Similar
pieces found in the Pennsylvania Bank are white, like porcelain and
show the same cavities of rhombohedral crystals. Other varieties of
limestone in the Pennsylvania Bank have a still greater admixture of
quartz and are a real calciferous sand rock.*

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, January 238d, 1874.
* These analyses summed up about 100, most of them a little above, one or two a little

below, but all within the limits of unavoidable error; for better comparison I thought
it advisable to calculate them for 100.00, from the actual result obtained. (F. A. Genth.)

1874. ] D7 [Genth.

ANALYSES* OF PENNSYLVANIA PIPE, AND PENNINGTON ORE.
3, DEVONSHIRE TERRACE, KENSINGTON, LONDON, W.,
January 5th, 1871.
Dear Srr:—Herewith I beg to forward you the results of my analysis
of the two samples of ore, marked, respectively, ‘‘Pipe Ore’’ and ‘‘Pen-
nington Bank.’’
The whole of the samples were intimately pulverized together in each

case ; they contain
PIPE ORE, PENNINGTON BANK.

SEU LK GE eleictaet WN cere SiC ela Is Laie eas aT 10.84 5.42
Reroxideomironatice eee oe eee 73.18 79.05
IAROWODAC Git IG gasoocodoadoseoooduadas 75
JNMTITAMERG ese AAR OB UU eG Means meas 2.51 1.29
Oxidevof Manganese. sij.5 iets arieie ie ae traces. 11
Carhbonaterotalhinresneeas cetera -20
Carbonate of Maonesia...:-.........-...- 1.20 Magnesia. .11
PINGS ONOWG AVCIOl, ocagdsocdcoodcccouGoosce aly, 04
CombinedmwWatereaccecen scm cere oe 9.09 10.57
MIGIMIO ns coon secleboooueneouEdoboudees 1.81 3.55
Op RT e ey iy eter hats ciate sen ercasne Meee 05
99.80 100.14
WIGHT IGRING sooo usccudeddasacusouaSde 51.81 55.34
66 ‘¢ exclusive of Water......... 58.25 64.35

Both these samples are rich iron ores, sample ‘‘Pennington Bank”’
being nearly pure brown hematite. The pipe ore is a harder ore than
‘Pennington Bank”’ ore.

I consider both samples of ore adapted for the manufacture of Besse-
mer Pig.
Believe me to remain, yours, very faithfully,

EDWARD RiLeEy, F.C. S.,
Metallurgist, Analytical and Consultiny Chemist.

ANALYsis OF ‘PipE ORB,” “KERR & Brepin’? and PENNINGTON
BANK OREs, BY CH. ALDENDORF, SusB-DIRECTOR OF THE GEORGE-
Marien Hutte Hiew Furnaces, Marca 9, 1872.

PIPE ORE. KERR & BREDIN. PENNINGTON.

Wate on ee 11.190 10.540 12.340
Insoluble Residue, ae ee 5.120 13.400 5.450
Osis cP ikem, AOR... 82.050 73.560 79.450

* These analyseS by an English chemist of well known reputation, especially en-
trusted by Mr. Bessemer with his numerous and important analyses, are here added for
com parison.

A. P. 8S. — VOL, XIV. M

Genth.] 98 [Feb. 6,

PIPE ORE. KERR& BREDIN. PENNINGTON.

Alumina, INROR 5 so 1.650 2.840 3.096
Oxide Manganese, Mn?O*.... 0.270 0.190 0.440
Chalk, OHO soos ooo 0.370 0.460 0.440
Magnesia, WUD odo00 trace. | ‘trace. trace.
Phos. Acid, JEO eeneianers 0.080 0.280 0.064
Sulphuric Acid, ISK Oars eo trace. trace. trace.
100.730 101.270 101.280
Per cent. Metallic Iron...... 57.485 51.492 55.61
Phosphorus in 100 Iron...... 0.061 0.2388 0.053
Per ct. Iron, excluding Water, 64.150 56.075 62.540

‘“The Pipe and Pennington Ores if melted together would make a very
superior Bessemer Iron. The Kerr & Bredin alone an inferior Bessemer
Iron. A separate analysis, however, of Kerr & Bredin shows that its
Phosphorus is concentrated in the Clay thereto attached, and it may be
that this Ore may be made available for Bessemer Pig, by proper treat-
ment before smelting.”’

ANALYSIS OF PENNSYLVANIA FuRNACE LIMESTONE BY OTTO WoTH,
CHEMIST, PITTSBURGH, Pa.

From Quarry near the Furnace—a grey crystaline Stone :

SHO AVG Ae AnnaA aod ae UROedG Ero OC eb OBO dO RecN b> 5.08
PAULTAMIAIM Ae Py oteveiokoren ols cicie sterateretan sional onchersnomnstoteha) chereberoleneronerete 1.34
Carbonateyot Troni.? Gta te ie nicsciee ce eee eee 69

us G6) TOLIM cies eters let oratecc eter ster etato tes hei a Rr Oren 91.53

ee OS MiG PANENE GoogbodoosuodooopooHoGNCKECDE 1.31
Sulphaterofslbhimess sere citer ier reer trace.
OrcanicmMattersae ere. a ertcciiecrrienecil ere ileeiers 05

From Ore Bank Rail Road Cut —a partly crystalline drab-colored
stone :

SiliGiGwNei digest ees we ec Ua Mien aampa iene ey eyes 4.93
ING SiN b0t SoG Ree eA Sere GEIOMe Oto crc Ob otion oO Ore 24
Carbonaterof Tron es:2 sees aon Eee 87
66 Can Dinca Reine a Sar er anos wie Haan alo osiacrc.o-c 84.66
s SUMMA onesiaae rarer rae TE OCHS Oo a Oe 8.98
Sulphate wofbimes.:...3 05 tate ee ee oe me Orr ailil

Organic Matter.......... ee AAA brolo ih oro Ce 21

1874.] 99 [ Lesley.

Gray Crystalline Stone, sou h side of road from Half Moon Run to
Hostler Bank, near the Half Moon Run.

SMI CECA CT etapa ett crenmpenete te nihicy shay sa er ns Ane Aa, lea IC ad Be 2071
Ja OUST HUE ashes seek oes crete hart ly Co a ued eta ta esa AE 11
Carbonateofulromayanyace esc ece se Sonor lector ce leieunele 1.80

UG GG (| pita ae ia ie nati tea RN Sle it cree ete ata oda 83.91

ee PRR NUAOMCSI A ere i ac ya Ne tae ae lesa teint 11.14
Sulphaterotseimresaem sc mec matte me aichoseva ce uevsnrycneres: 12
OroamicyMlatbereeminctr rare niet iis acon rela tee he 21

Smooth Grey Stone from north side of road near the foregoing :

SilciePArc i cl eeres pas yee ea re aoa NA I OG ala Be 1 ls 6.87
AUTUMN Arar eyecare Cy Me a asta eA 1.35
Carbonaterof brome ees ae nae Settee teeta eee 75

os SUT DROVE Heresies erat tn amine et ia. el erie ose 86.42

a SO NGAONES TA han Nuk taae aerate staierceey estore acai 4.24
Suljlatexopeuinn es mie ww eis cyl hh ee Nae e aahe 21
OrganicMMlattersaeteyeeetisc ces eaten Meee Senn trae .16

Mrnine Mernops.

It will be seen from the above descriptions, that mining operations
have been mostly carried on in this region in an irregular and primitive
style. I requested Mr. John W. Harden to give me the benefit of his
large and varied experience as a mining engineer and superintendent,
both in the English and in the American collieries and iron mines, in
stating what ought to be the most economical mode of entering on and
exhausting the Nittany Valley limestone deposits. lis recent success in
increasing the export of limonite from Pinegrove Furnace banks south of
Carlisle, by a judicious application of a system of regular approaches,
justifies me in placing a high value on any practical suggestions he has
to offer respecting similar deposits.

He therefore visited the Pennington, Dry Hollow, Kerr & Bredin,
Pennsylvania Furnace, and other Banks above described; and the follow-
ing extracts from his report will show that there is but one, conclusion to
arrive at, and that a very simple one ; viz., that the system to be almost
universally adopted is that by open-cuts, approached from the direc-
tion of the railway, at the lowest possible levels, and worked to the
right and left, in advancing slopes, one above the other ; that the deep
rich-ores should be worked at the same time with the upper wash-ores,
or not greatly inarrear of them, so that the wash-ore thus won may pay
the expenses of uncovering the richer lower ores; and that where surface
water is scarce, bore-holes should be sunk to serve the double purpose of
exploration and water supply.

Whether additional and larger furnaces be erected in the Valley, or
whether the ores be sent by rail to the Iron Works in Eastern and

Lresley.] 100 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

Western Pennsylvania, in both contingencies an exploitation of ore must
be provided for, amounting annually to many hundred thousand tons
per annum.

The largest mining operation in the Valley being that of the Pennsyl-
vania Furnace, Mr. Harden takes the account book of the works at that
point for a practical basis of calculation of the cost of exploitation. It
is evident that mining conditions through the Valley are very similar.
No system of between-rock mining will be required for many years. But
exploring drifts and shafts will be necessary, and under-cutting where the
clays are destitute of ore and too thick to remove. Most of the work
however must be done in opencuts of great extent, with simple
machinery for obtaining water and washing the entire mass of ore-
ground to the very bottom, or to the deep rock-ores, which can be quarried
and used without washing. In many cases the rock-ore, and in some
cases the clay-ore, can be followed downward between solid masses of
limestone rock ; but this must be done in connection with the open-cuts.

At the Pennington Banks there appear to be from 50 to 80 feet of
wash-ore and clays overlying from 8 to 16 feet of rock-ore.

At the Dry Hollow Banks there is a stripping at the surface from 5 to
15 feet deep containing but little ore; then wash-ore with sands and
sandy clays to a depth of 20 or 30 feet before reaching rock-ore.,

At the Hostler Banks a top stripping of 5 feet or more, covers 50 to
60 feet of wash-ore in clay, under which lie the pipe-ores, which are re-
ported as having been in one place over 40 feet deep ; limestone layers
covering and dividing the mass. The miner who sunk the last shaft in-
formed Mr. Harden that it went down 60 feet through wash-ore, 5 feet
through solid limestone, and 7 feet in pipe-ore on one side of it, and
wash-ore on the other side ; water stopping further sinking.

At the Pennsylvania Furnace Banks, the entire mass from the surface
to the floor of the quarry is wash-ore mixed with clay and sand. The
whole of this mass has been washed. ‘In one place a 13 feet face of
excavation gave 3 to 4 feet of surface soil and sienna-colored sandy-wash,
the remainder below it being a sandy, whitish ochre, and sienna colored
clay, streaked and marbled with red and brown, and some, not large
lumps of ore. Scattered through the whole, in considerable quantity
in some places, are small pieces of quartz which are picked out after the
ore has passed over the trays. In another part of the diggings this quartz,
from the size of shot to lumps 3 or 4 inches thick, is scattered through
the mass.* Some masses of this quartz, of one or two cubic feet in size,
lie about the quarry.

‘‘Ina deeper part of the diggings where the face of iron and work
measures 45 or 50 feet, in two heights of 15 and 30 to 35 feet, now being
moved to the inclined plane for washing, the face is made up of sand and
various colored clays holding ore, all of which is washed. Limestone
appears at the bottom and pipe-ore has been found underneath it.”’

* Mr. Harden gives an analysis of this quartz: Water, 0.50, Silica, 96.00, Iron and
alumina, 1.76, undetermined, 1.68.

1874. ] 101 [Lesley.

Mr. Harden advises that the stripping of wash-ore be not carried on
far in advance of the lifting of the rock and pipe-ore at the bottom; be-
cause, even where the farming interest does not interfere, such a plan
‘disturbs the equal distribution of dead work’’ and prevents the re-
jection of those parts of the stripping which do not pay well for washing.
Ample room ought to be got early for lifting the entire mass of rich
bottom ores. ;

‘‘With a good roomy open cutting the mass of wash ore should cost no
more to move than so much ordinary excavation.’’ ‘‘The ore-earth is
loaded into cars carrying 294 cubic feet, led by horses to the foot of the
incline, 300 to 500 feet, whence it is lifted 37 feet on a grade of 14°, toa
level with the washers, by a 12 inch cylinder steam engine, 2 foot stroke,
ard pair of 8 foot drums. The car load is again dragged 150 feet and
dumped into the washing troughs, in which revolve three Archimedian
screw-propeller shafts 20, 26, and 26 feet long respectively. The shafts
are of decagonial timber, 15 inches in diameter on the facets of which
are screwed cast iron blades. The ore travels 72 feet, and is dropped into
two classifying screens, the sand and mud being floated otf to the settling
dam. The screens have } inch and ;, inch meshes. The ore falls on sheet
iron trays where the quartz is picked out. ‘The washers are driven by a
16 inch cylinder engine, 54 inch stroke; the steam being generated in
two double flue boilers 30 feet long and 40 inches in diameter. The water
arrives by an aqueduct 2000 feet long mounted on tressels arranged along
the top of the hill. Itis fed by a pipe of 12 inch diameter laid up the
hill side to a vertical height of 110 feet above a double Worthington
pump with 20 inch steam and 15 inch water cylenders ; the fall of reser-
voir is 1 foot in 250. The steam boilers for the pump are also 30 feet long
by 40 inches diameter, driving also a Blake stone-crusher, used for the
flux.

The digging of the ore is said to be done by contract at half the price

- of ordinary earth.

Six cubic yards of earth has been found to produce an average of one
ton of washed ore, the diggers being paid 16 cents per car-load of 29.58
cubic feet = 23.67 of solid earth. <A cubic yard will therefore cost 18}
cents and a ton of ore $1.09. The ore delivered at the furnace costing
$2, there remains 91 cents for leading, raising, washing, picking and
delivery.

' But the great economy of this operation can be duly realized only by
remembering that the earth washed and ore utilized is that which under
any other circumstances would be dumped on one side as ‘‘spoil,’’ and as
such chargeable against the lower and better ore. ‘‘ Seeing also that in so
utilizing this (otherwise) refuse just so much dead charge is removed, we
are led to anticipate a less costly production of the ore which follows it ;
and we have ground for contemplating equally favorable results at other
banks, the same course being pursued.”’

The Furnace stands under the high bank of Spruce Creek, with its

»)
Lesley. ] 102 [Jan.2and Feb. 6,

village occupying the upper slopes on both sides of the Creek, and the
farms stretching south and east to the foot of the mountain. It is a stack
43 feet high, 9} feet across the boshes, 48 inch tunnel, slope of boshes 689,
hearth 53 feet high, 48 inches wide at top and 30 inches at the bottom, with
two cold air tuyeres, fed from blowing-tubs 6.4 long, driven by a 16 inch
cylinder engine, 4} feet stroke. A Cameron blast 22 inch steam cylinder
and 6 X 5 feet blowing-tub is held inreserve. Steam is generated in three
30 feet cylinders, 42 inches in diameter, fed with Creek water by a No. 4
Cameron steam pump, with a No. 8 Earl steam pumpin reserve. Another
steam-engine drives three lathes.

The uniform yield of the furnace has been 100 tons per week. It is
now changed to hotblast, by the recent erection of a Pleyer oven 17525
feet, with six tiers of pipes, in a building 17 >< 12.

THE FOSSIL ORE BELT.

On the north-west flank of the Bald Eagle Mountain the Medina Red
Sand-stone and the Clinton Red Shales and Marls, all standing vertical
at the out-crop, (see figs. 1, 2, 3, 4,) bring up to the surface the Upper
Soft and Lower Hard Fossil Ore Beds, long and extensively worked at
Frankstown in Blair County, 15 miles south of Tyrone City.

One or other of these out-crops may be noticed at three points marked
on the west flank of the Bald Eagle Mountain in the Large Topographi-
cal Map accompanying this report.

On a separate and smaller Map of the same Mountain, continued to the
south of Tyrone under the local name of Brush Mountain, both out-crops
may be seen in the same relative positions.

On the sheet containing this smaller Map are three geological cross
sections, two of which show the vertical attitude of the fossil ore-beds at
Tyrone City Gap, and the third their more inclined attitude at Dysarts
Mine, at the south limit of Lyon, Shorb & Co.’s lands, four miles south
of Tyrone City Gap. By the time the beds reach Frankstown they get
to be nearly horisontal. Beyond Hollidaysburg they become vertical
again, owing to the Morrison’s Cove fault (which exactly simulates the
Bellefonte fault), and again they die away to the horisontal on Dunnings
Creek. At Bedford they are again vertical; and so they alternately
stand and fall through Virginia and Tennessee.

In the other direction from Tyrone City, north-eastward, the vertical
attitude of the fossil ore-beds is pretty well maintained for forty miles ;
past Bellefonte, Lock Haven and Wilkesbarre, to Muncy, where they fold
almost horisontally around the east end of the Bald Eagle (Muncy)
Mountain.

Wherever the out-crops of the fossil ore-beds of No. V. have been ex-
amined, along their out-crops to the north-east of the Tyrone neighbor-
hood, they have been found too thin to work; at least, for cold blast

1874.] 103 [Lesley.

charcoal furnace use, in the presence of the magnificent deposits of brown
hematite in the Lower Silurian Limestones (No. II).

But from the neighborhood of Tyrone City Gap southward, past
Frankstown, Holidaysburg and Bedford, they have paid well for mining,
and continue to furnish an apparently inexhaustible fund of 30 per cent.
to 40 per cent. ore to the large coke-furnaces of Blair and Cambria
Counties.

By comparing my larger topographical Map with Mr. Lowrie’s Land
Map it will be seen that the out-crops of Fossil Ore on Lyon, Shorb &
Co.’s lands range in an unbroken line from the Abner Webb tract to the
Shippen tract, a distance of ten and a half (103) miles, and always in an
attitude nearly or quite vertical ; falling off at the south end to 60° W.
N.W.

The geological order of the beds at Frankstown, where they are exten-
sively mined, is by careful measurement as follows :

Red Shale of No. V. (Clinton Group.)
é. Soft fossil ore, small single bed, 3 to 8 inches.
Red Shale, 100 feet.

d. Soft fossil ore-bed.
Yellow ochre, 10 feet. In all 25 to 40 inches.
c. Soft fossil double ore-bed.

Red shales and some thin sand stones, 400 feet.

Chocolate slates, 20 feet.
b. Frankstown main soft ore-bed, 14 to 16 inches.

Grey and dove colored slates, 17 feet.

Red sand stones and shales, 155 feet.
a. Hard fossil ore-bed, about 10 feet.

Red and grey sand stones of IV, to the crest of the Mountain, say 700
feet.

a HARD FOSSIL ORE BED.

This is a layer of sand charged with peroxide of iron and full of minute
fossil shells and encrinal discs the calcareous parts of which are dissolved
away. It forms a bed of ore yielding by analysis about 30 per cent. of
iron ; and in the furnace 3; to 33 tons of it make a ton of metal, always
cold-short, and therefore chiefly valuable when mixed in proper propor-
tions with other ores.

Prof. Persifor Frazer’s analysis of specimens taken from the middle
bench in Dysart’s Mine recently opened (see smaller Map), made for me
in his laboratory in the University of Pennsylvania, is as follows :

Specific gravity : 3.26.

SeSqwWOxtdevoriTOnlsice 1. cyyse ae eel ety sane 38.48 Metallic iron
JORG WOOD WIE THONG SoodasopcooqoUC Nb auenooouEaoe 4.37 30.34
SHUN Soup osdc Shoo sco soon osobo oo rosAGodeuSde bo 37.99

Nini pocododuen se cbansoonopecéos COLO oUGdeS 9.56

Lesley. ] 104 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6,

Maen esas ei Rt skate Stas earths els et-n tals hace a trace.
VALUE AIUG'S iyi ya« sjsusiays syciele peste cerns ley indie OI c 2.54
EPhosploric&kcid\ aiacctitemccare es 5 oe ee eae 1.48
Sul phin aioe aecioac attend tebe aires wives 0.05 (trace.)
Wossibypignitioniiy) +c) i ee ee ere eee cesta e see ies 4.50

MO bali: pare eckrd pahele ere ee rete ere oe ane aiaioie 100.00

At Howard Furnace the ore was analysed, &c., some years ago and
found to contain 28 per cent. of iron.

The bed was here found standing at 80° towards the N. N. W. avd
only 22 inches thick.

tn the end of the Mountain south of Tyrone City this bed has been re-
cently opened at a height of 260 feet (by barometer) above the Juniata
River, the slope of the surface being 40°, and the pitch of the bed at the
out-crop 609 into the mountain (S. E). But this is due to the creep of
the out-crop down hill. The body of the bed stands vertical.

There is 63 feet of rock-ore between overlying sandy shales and under-
lying foot shales; only the upper 22 inches of the bed in six plies is here
workable.

At Dysart’s, 4 miles south of Tyrone city, a tunnel 20 feet long, 575
feet (bar.) above the level of the Juniata, strikes the bed pitching 50° to
60° (at the two headings, right and left)* towards the N. 50° W. About
six feet of ore is here mined and sent to Pittsburgh, v/a. Tipton Station
on the Pennsylvania Railroad at the foot of the mountain opposite the
mine.

At the heading in Oct. 1873 was seen the following order of layers :

Fossil ore, at mouth of tunnel in soft rotten shale.............. 6 inches.
Rockinitunneleseces-m eso ene: SP Puede usr eng 16 feet.

Hard Weanfossiliore csc cec eens UO On Mole oe 1 ‘* 5 inches.
Hardytossil, Ones teecene nce oeke aL ohn eens 2B id 6
Chay apar time ein ie reyeror tei iste sieisl eo enetent dete ie ceekey eons Bees
Ear fossil “ORS aoe oS a Me ass ae aoe otatenarae tis eine unk ae Papacy Wai (D) 6° GG

Soft shale floor rotted into compact mud, the water bearing stratum.

In October 1873 a Pittsburgh furnace was doing good work mixing 3 of
this Tipton (Dysart) ore with 3? of a very pure ore, deficient in silica and
alumina, which deficiency the hard fossil ore supplied; and that, without
any marked prejudice to the run of the furnace as to quantity, although
two-thirds of the Tipton ore went below 40 per cent. and one-third below
20 per cent. of iron; the Tipton ore making good cinder, and thus re-
lieving a part of the pure ore from that duty. The quality of the pig-
metal produced after the mixture was adopted remained unchanged.

This aspect of the future utility of this lowest deposit a of the fossil
ore series of N. V. is important.

At Frankstown the bed sometimes reaches a thickness of ten feet.

* Higher up, red sandstone at the surface dips 78°.

ay
1574. ] 105 [Lesley.

On the southeast flank of Tussey Mountain at R. H. Powell’s mines,
ten miles southeast of Frankstown, the same bed varies from 15 to 25
feet in thickness, and shows three well-marked benches, an upper and a
lower of sandy rock ore, and a middle bench, 5 or 6 feet thick, of soft
rich fossil ore, which is mined by the Cambria Iron Co. and transported
in large quantities ninety (90) miles by railroad via. Huntiogdon and
Tyrone city across the Alleghany Mountain to the Company’s furnaces
at Johnstown in Cambria County, for mixing with coal-measure ores
(mined back of the furnaces) and high grade ores from Lake Superior
and Missouri.

This is another practical evidence of the importance of this deposit to
the pig-metal make in America.

The bed is absolutely continuous and uninterrupted. Its outcrop can
always be found at a well-defined elevation on the flank of the Upper
Silurian Mountain, and about two-thirds of the distance from the base
towards the summit. But the bed is very variable in thickness even in
distances of a few hundred yards, and ought to be opened in many places
along its run of nearly eleven miles through Lyon, Shorb & Company’s
lands, before any extensive mining plant is made.

Its solid contents above water level is very large. Southwest of the
Tyrone gap it contains above water level from one to three million cubic
yards of ore, according as its thickness varies from three to nine feet.
Northeast of the gap, it contains one to two millions more, allowing for
the probable general thinning of the bed in that direction; but as ex-
perience has taught us that sections of its outcrop are very likely to show
an exceptionally great thickness, the estimate may be indefinitely in-
creased.

Along the whole 10} mies of outcrop it runs parallel to and within less
than a mile of first-class railways, (the Pennsylvania Railway, and the
Bald Eagle Valley Railway,) which offer facilities for distributing it to
furnaces in northern, eastern, and western Pennsylvania. It is also
exposed on both sides of the Tyrone Gap, on the line of the Pennsylvania
Railroad, so that a main gangway a mile long can be driven in just high
enough above grade to allow of shutes on a siding.

This bed in its descent beneath the surface and water level probably
suffers no such change as that which the soft fossil ores (to be next
described) suffer, and it can therefore be mined hereafter to an indefinite
distance downwards by shafts and slopes. This fact adds many millions
of tons of available ore to the estimate given above.

Sort Fossin OrE BeEps.

About 40 inches of this ore may be looked for along its outcrop where-
ever the deposit c, d, is in good order. Sometimes its three beds are near
enough to mine in one gallery. Oftentimes one or another of them is want-
ing. Often they lie ten, twelve or more feet asunder. The variations are
frequent and rapid. Several hundred feet beneath the triple bed c, d,

A. P. S.— VOL. XIV. N

Lesley.] 106 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6,

occurs at Frankstown bed 0, so thick as to be called there the main bed.
A hundred feet above the triple bed c, d, at Frankstown is still another
layer a few inches thick.

It is important to note the order in which these deposits occur to the
explorer descending the mountain side from the outcrop of the hard
fossil ore, because it is very evident, that the occasional openings made
along the range on one or other of the three principal soft fossil ore out-
crops, viz. b,—c, d;—e;—are very misleading. The Bald Eagle Moun-
tain was for many years condemned by geologists as destitute of workable
fossil ore, because the number of beds was not known ; no comparison
of localities was made ; no complete section down the mountain slope, at
any one place. Since the different beds vary in thickness constantly
acd rapidly, and apparently under a law which may be rudely stated
thus : when one bed thickens it is at the expense of the others, as if there
was but a certain quantity of iron at command and sometimes one bed
would get more than its share, and sometimes another, —it follows that
the value of any tract on the mountain side can be determined only after
a thorough trial of all three (five) outcrops of soft fossil ore has been
made; and in no instance has this been done, in the range of 10} miles
upon the Lyon, Shorb & Co.’slands, nor between them and Frankstown,
nor east of them.

Every road decending the west face of the mountain exposes one or
more of these outcrops; the highest (lowest geologically) being always
50 or 60 yards below the hard fossil outcrop, where the sandstones of the
crest commence.

The red sandstones of the crest and first steep pitch of mountain side
between the crest and the hard fossil outcrop, send a multitude of frag-
ments down over the soft yellow and red shales forming the middle slope
of the mountain, and under these the soft fossil outcrops lie concealed.
The gentle foot-slopes of the mountain are occupied by limestones,
marls and red shales.

One of the soft fossil beds has been opened 1,300 yards northeast of
Tyrone city, as shown on the Brush Mountain map accompanying this
report, at an elevation of 370 feet above Railroad grade. A limestone
bed crops out 70 yards down the slope (above it geographically) at 320
feet above railroad grade. The ore-bed is opened by a tunnel and ‘‘is 18
inches thick,’’ including some thin layers of ferriferous fossil limestone.
It stands ‘‘vertical,’’ or overturned slightly so as to dip into the moun-
tain in a direction S. 48° E.

Nothing is known of the other beds.

Experience at Danville and Bloomsburg in Eastern Pennsylvania has
proved that the soft fossil ore can be extensively mined when only 16 or
18 inches thick (on a general average of the workings) as may be seen
by reference to the very important chapter written on this subject by
Prof. H. D. Rogers at page 440 and onward in the first volume of the
Final Report of the Geology of Pennsylvania. Experience at Franks-

—
1874.1 107 [Lesley.

town has been similar. But at these localities the gentle dip has its
bearing upon the economy of mining, and perhaps upon the question of
depth to which the softening of the fossil limestone into soft fossil ore has
gone. I say perhaps, because it was Mr. Rogers’ fixed opinion that the
fossil ore would not be found fit for mining operations along those runs
of outcrop where the beds stood at a steep augle, or vertical. This
opinion must be set aside, since the long horisontal gangways, at water
level, at Bedford, have yielded the soft ore ina perfect condition at a
depth of several hundred feet vertically beneath the outcrop.

It is safe therefore to expect, in the ten or eleven miles of ore-range
to find one or more of the beds at other place, of workable thickness
and in good condition, with an average breast above water level of from
200 to 400 feet. If only 18 inches of proper ore can be got from all five
beds, along the whole 10} miles, there exists practically 925,000 cubic
yards of the ore above water level. If the average thicknesses mined
at Frankstown extend to Tyrone city, then there exists in the four
miles of mountain side along the Pennsylvania Railway alone, and above
water level alone, 42 to 64 inches 7,040 x 100 = 2,464,000 to 3,731,-
200, = say three willions of cubic yards of ore.*

It is not to be expected that all the bedscan be mined at any one place;
but a million of tons of good merchantable soft fossil ore to be won from
the southwest division of the Lyon, Shorb & Co.’s lands, above water level
cannot be an unreasonable estimate.

This ore is greatly esteemed and extensively used by all the furnaces
of Pennsylvania which can get it. as an enriching flux for leaner iron-
stones, and asafusable mixture for refractory highgrade magnetites.
At Frankstown and elsewhere it has furnished the greater part of the
burden ; and at other furnaces it is mixed in large proportions with
brown hematites. It always holds lime in the condition of undissoived
fossil shells, and works kindly with the sandy rock fossil (a) of the same
(Upper Silarian) formation.

Nors. March 4, 1874. My. Stewart has just made the important dis-
covery, by running-in horisontally a monkey-drift, west of Tyrone Sta-
tion, that four layers of soft fossil ore occur there in a space of seven
feet, measuring respectively 18, 10, 5 and 2 inches. This affords nearly
the normal quantity of 40 inches, and more than the quantity required
for profitable exploitation. It is an especially important trial work, in-
asmuch as it casts an encouraging light on the untested and hitherto
despised range of outcrop east of Tyrone. do Je Joy

* Mr. Rogers’ formula of 50,000 tons of ore from each running mile of outcrop was
based upon his then assumed maximum depth of no more than 80 yards for the soft ore
in a stratum 18 inches thick, two tons of ore going to a cubic yard.

Houston. ] 108 [Jan. 16,

ON A SUPPOSED ALLOTROPIC MODIFICATION OF
PHOSPHORUS.

By Pror. Epwin J. Houston.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, January 16, 1874.)

In connection with Prof. Elihu Thomson, of the Artizan’s Night
School, the author his undertaken a series of experiments, resulting, it
is believed, in the discovery of a new allotropic modification of phos-
phorus.

It is well known that when phosphorus is boiled in strong solution of
potassium hydrate, and then allowed to cool slowly, it retains its liquid
state for some time; but that if shaken, or touched with a sharp point
it instantly solidifies.

We believe that in the cases heretofore observed, the property of
retaining the liquid state is probably owing to the admixture with the
ordinary phosphorus of an allotropic modification, having the property
of retaining its liquid state indefinitely, and that, therefore, if this
modification were obtained sufficiently pure, it would exhibit properties
strikingly distinct from the common variety. We have undertaken the
experiments, with the following results :

Good stick phosphorus is taken, and boiled for some time in strong
solution of potassium hydrate, and water occasionally added to replace
that lost by evaporation. Care must be exercised, by cautious stirring,
to prevent the melted phosphorus from being carried to the surface by
bubbles of disengaged gas. After boiling for five or ten minutes, the
liquid phosphorus is carefully washed by replacing the alkaline solution
by a stream of cold water. In this way the hypo-phosphates are removed,
as well as the liquid and gaseous hydrides of phosphorus. The liquid
modification thus obtained possesses the following peculiarities, which
we believe entitle it to a place as one of the allotropic states of phos-
phorus:

1st. That of retaining for an apparently indefinite time its liquid con-
dition, at temperatures far below the melting-point of the ordinary
material. A carefully prepared specimen has been kept by us beneath a
water surface for the past four months. It is still in the liquid state, at
the time of making this communication and seems to promise to keep
this state for an indefinite time. To make the retention of its liquidity
still more striking, it may be remarked that the room in which the speci-
men is preserved has been for several weeks without a fire, the tempera-
ture probably reaching 40° F., a point far below the melting-point of
ordinary phosphorus. The specimen in question was poured into a.small
test tube, and covered with about an inch of water. The test tube was
then hung by a string in a place where it was secure from sudden jars or
shaking. We have every reason for believing that this specimen, in
common with numerous others experimented upon, will instantly solidify
upon being touched.

A specimen of the liquid modification was placed beneath a water
surface, and exposed to artificial cold produced by the evaporation of

1874. | 109 { Houston.

ether. It solidified at about 38° F. With larger specimens and under
more favorable conditions, the reduction may possibly be carried still
further.

2d. Another peculiarity of the liquid modification is that of its non-
oxidation when exposed to direct contact of air.

3d. As a result of this last mentioned property, the liquid does not
shine in the dark. Ordinary and liquid phosphorus were exposed under
the same circumstances to the air in a dark room. The common variety
emitted the well known light, the other was entirely non-luminous.

There result apparently two distinct varieties of solid phosphorus from
the solidification of the liquid modification. One is tough and waxy, like
the ordinary material, the other is quite brittle and crystalline. We have
noticed that in all cases well prepared specimens of the liquid produced
on solidification the second variety, while poor or indifferent ones the
first. We, therefore, regard that from which the second is produced as
the true liquid modification.

The brittle crystalline solid thus produced conports itself somewhat
differently from the ordinary variety. It oxidizes rapidly in the air, and
raises its temperature so rapidly as to melt down into a liquid state, in
which it is very easily inflammable.

In order to test whether the liquid modification underwent any! change
of volume at the moment of solidification, the following experiment was
made: A small specimen was placed in a test tube, and covered with
water. <A stout glass tube, having one end drawn out into a capillary,
was inserted into a cork, and tightly placed in the tube, The whole
apparatus was thea filled with water to within an inch of the top of the
capillary. No appreciable change of volume could be detected at the
moment of solidification, though it is possible that the diminution of
bulk consequent on the passage from the liquid to the solid state, was
exactly neutralized by the expansion produced through the heat developed
by solidification.

To test whether the temperature of the boiling point had any effect in
producing the liquid modification, stick phosphorus was boiled in a con-
centrated solution of zine chloride. The result was a variety which with
difficulty retained its liquidity, and on cooling, exhibited the waxy texture
of the ordinary material. A high boiling point cannot, therefore, be the
cause of the change.

Exyeriments were also made to ascertain whether the new modifica-
tion were some compound of phosphorus with hydrogen. The result
seemed to show this not to be the case. It may be mentioned incident-
ally, that during the conduct of some of these experiments a fact not
generally known was observed. Ina bulb blown in the middle of a glass
tube small pieces of stick phosphorus were placed, and the ends of the
tube were drawn out. One of these was placed in connection with a small
hydrogen gasometer, and the phosphorus in the bulb melted by cautiously
applied heat. Combination of course ensued, and there escaped from the
free end of the tube a spontaneously inflammable hydride, whose tempera-

Cope. ] 11 0 [Jan. 16, 1874.

ture was so low as to render it incapable of igniting the free hydrogen
issuing with it. After a few moments’ heating, the tube was hermetically
sealed. A liquid phosphorus was produced differing markedly from that
obtained by boiling with caustic potash. It was very mobile, of a clear
amber color, and on solidifying, assumed the tough, waxy state.

The physical peculiarities exhibited by the modification which we have
studied seem fairly to entitle it to a place as one of the allotropic condi-
tions of phosphorus. Indeed, they are much more strongly marked than
those upon which the elastic variety of sulphur are based.

ABSTRACT OF THE REMARKS OF PROF. COPE AT THE
MEETING OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY, JANUARY 16, 1874.

An analysis of the osteotology of the extinct ruminant Poébrotherium
(Leidy), from the Miocene of the Western territories, determines some
interesting relations to the living and extinct members of the order. The
cervical vertebre indicate affinity to the Camelide, and there is nothing
in the remainder of the structure to contradict such relation. The separa-
tion of the os trapezoides is found in the camels, and very few others only
among kuminantia, but in the presence of the trapezium, Pocbrotherium
shows relationships to more ancient types, as Anoplotheriide, &c. The
reduction of the digits to two, and the separation of the metacarpals,
point in the same direction ; indeed, the number of carpals and meta-
carpals is precisely as in Xiphodon. But the mutual relations of these
bones are quite different from what exists in that genus, and is rather
that of the Camelidw and other Ruminants, or what Kowalevsky has
calted the ‘‘ adaptive type.’’ This author has seen in the genus Gelocus,
Aym., from the lowest Miocene or upper Eocene the ancestor of a number
of the types of the order, but among these he does not include the Came-
lide. The present genus is a more generalized type than Gelocus, in its
separate trapezoid and distinct metacarpals, and represents an early stage
in the developmental history of that genus. It also presents affinity to
an earlier type than the Jragulide, which sometimes have the divided
metacarpals, but the trapezoides and magnum co-ossified. In fact, Poé-
brotherium as direct ancestor of the camels, indicates that the existing
Ruminantia were derived from three lines, represented by the genera
Gelocus for the typical forms, Pocbrotherium for the camels, and Hyae-
moschus for the Tragulide. ‘The first of these genera cannot have been
derived from the second, on account of the cameloid cervical vertebrze of
the latter, and all three must be traced to the source whence were derived
also the Anoplotheriide, perhaps the little known Dichodontida.,

The two distinct metacarpals, separate trapezium and trapezoides,
cameloid cervical vertebrae, and dentition characterize this type as a
peculiar family, which may be called Poébrotheriide, The genus from
which it takes its name was originally referred by Leidy to the Camelida.
The genera Hypertragulus, Cope; Leptomeryx, Leidy ; and Hypisodus
Cope, are probably Tragulida.

Chase. ] 1 11 [Feb. 6, 1874.

ORIGIN OF ATTRACTIVE FORCE.
By Pror. Puiny EARLE CHASE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 6th, 1874.)

The theoretical cycles and epicycles of Ptolemy and his predecessors,
the vortices of Descartes, the ether of Newton, were all suggested by an
instinctive search for some simple primitive form or cause of motion.

Gravitation is supposed to act under uniform laws in all parts of the
universe, and many attempts have been made to refer it to some form of
ethereal undulation. Its proportionality, directly to the mass and in-
versely to the square of the distance, may be readily accounted for on
the hypothesis that it is the resultant of infinitesimal impulses, moving
with a uniform velocity.

Prof. Stephen Alexander has supposed that the Star System, of which .
our Sun is a member, is a spiral with several branches. The logarithmic
parabola between a Centauri and the Sun, which I have pointed
out as controlling the positions of the planets,* confirms this hypothesis,
and also furnishes evidence of a material, elastic, slightly compressible
zether.

In the spherical undulations of such an ether, propagated like the
waves of light, the perimetral disturbance must be z times as great as
the synchronous diametral disturbance.

Under the action of central forces, in consequence of the synchronism
in all orbits of the same major axis :—

1. A body would describe a circular orbit in the same time that it would
oscillate through the centre, over a space equivalent to two diameters.

The velocity of the circular oscillation would therefore be > of the mean
velocity of the radial oscillation.

2. A body would oscillate from a circumference to the centre and re-
turn, in (a)? of the time of orbital revolution.

3. A body would oscillate through a diameter and return in (4)? of
the time of orbital revolution, or in the time which would be required
for revolution through the same orbit, with the velocity acquired by in-
finite impulsion to the circumference.

4. If the velocity of orbital approach to a focus of central force is so
retarded, by collisions or otherwise, as to change the orbit from a para-

bola to a circle, the velocity of the circular oscillation will be £ of the
mean velocity of the retarded radial oscillation.

Let us suppose that the planetary groupings, as well as the velocities
of planetary revolution, solar and planetary rotation, and solar motion in
space, are all resultants of successive infinitesimal impulses, moving with
a uniform velocity, and propagated through the medium of a universal
zether.

*Proc, A. P. S., Sept. 20, 1872.

Chase. ] 1] 2 [Feb. 6,

If, in consequence of points of inertia, centripetal undulations are es-
tablished, resulting in a motion of zthereal particles around the centres
of inertia, and an accompanying impulsion of denser particles towards

the centres, the mean velocity of the circular motion would be one-half

as great as that of the originating impulse, and ~ as great as the mean

7
velocity of centripetal impulsion.

If a homogeneous rotating globe were aggregated under such centri-
petal impulsion, the angular orbital velocities of all the particles of the
globe would be equally retarded. Rotation is, therefore, merely retarded
revolution, and in endeavoring to trace them both to their source, we
should compare them at the point of equality.

We know that the hypothetical universal medium is susceptible of
undulations, which are propagated with the velocity of light. Therefore
let—

vi = velocity of light, = 2 X hypothetical mean velocity of ethereal
primary rotation, the velocity communicable by the infinitesi-
mal impulses varying between 0 and VA.

Wie ek apes

as 2c —. mean velocity of a perpetual radial oscillation, syn-
T as 2
chronous with a circular orbital oscillation having a velocity
yh
ie
V'/ = — = velocity of planetary revolution at the Sun’s equator, under

77d A
the volume due to internal work.

A
ps Grae
a zn?

= velocity of solar equatorial rotation, under the volume due

to internal work, — mean velocity of an oscillation through
Jupiter’s radius vector synchronous with Jupiter’s revolation
around the Sun; Sun and Jupiter being regarded as constitu-
ting a binary Star.

Vi — 4V’’ = mean velocity of a perpetual radial, or infinitely eccen-
tric oscillation, synchronous with the revolution of the binary
Star around its centre of gravity (374335329 seconds) = mean
velocity of the binary Star in space.

T’,T’’ — time of revolution, rotation, for V’, V’’.

t,t! = ‘c 6c ce Earth.

tw, 7) = i Me oe Jupiter.

ae Me aN — equatorial g, at Sun, Earth, Jupiter.
t//

Vv
Tis = ratio of the integral of infinitesimal impulses during revolution in

a circular orbit, z’, to the integral of similar impulses during
fall from circumference to centre of same orbit.

1874. ] 113 [Chase.

~
=

— Neptune’s mean heliocentric distance, in units of Earth’s mean

ool
re

§ distance.
5
52 = Saturn’s mean distance.
3 = Asteroidal mean distance, or twice the mean distance of Mars.
— Earth’s secular mean perihelion distance.
32 = Mercury’s G6 oe 66
= z — Major axis of Sun’s orbit about centre of gravity of binary Star.
ii = Heliocentric distance of linear centre of oscillation of secular mean

perihelion centre of gravity of the binary Star.
The ritio of V’ to V’’ was determined by supposing Sun’s radius to

1 1
vary from 7 to n?r. In such case, Vx ,,3 VX 7, 2.

In the following table, A represents the theoretical values of T/’ and
Bl

V’’ as estimated from V/; B, from Jupiter’s distance (vv = an C,
the observed values. For T’’, C is the mean of the six several estimates
by Bianchi and Laugier, Lelambre, Petersen, Sporer, Carrington, and
Faye. The Sun’s annual motion is given in units of Earth’s radius
vector, C being Struve’s estimate. For V’, A, B, C, are respectively
deduced from g at Sun, Earth, Jupiter.

A B C

SRL NE SB ey eee 2203645 sec. 2163907 sec. 2162802. sec.
Nee ies eae ae 265.66 mi. . 261.79 mi. 261.56 mi.
AU \ LOSS ILA) Sone Nie 1.678 r.v. 1.754 r.v. 1.623 r.v.

The slight discrepancies in these values seem to be attributable to the
mean orbital eccentricity of the binary Star, but they are all within the
limits of uncertainty of observation. The heliocentric distance of the
mean perihelion centre of gravity of the binary Star, is 1.0188 x solar
radius; Jupiter’s mean orbital eccentricity is .04316.

The correspendence betweea the theoretical and observed values of the

~-
7

series is given below, in units of Sun’s radius. It is specially notice-
able that the series groups the principal planets into pairs. The values
of the secular mean apsides are taken from Stockwell’s ‘‘ Memoir on the
secular variations of the orbits of the eight principal planets.”’

cx|
to

Theoretical. Observed.
Neptune, mean................ 6450.776 6453. 731
Saturn Sper ds 2a al scebarah cravat 2053.346 2049.514
PAYS GENO CUM ancammeesteraeten sel sievereraiete 653.600 654.760
Bachhperihelionerre eee 208.048 207.583
INTO. CUTay ppb meetin ablevoierctotetsarceeret stat 66.224 68.483
SIHua, WaNeH OI Bd oo ocooGoboCodde 2.186 —~ 2.132
Primary centre oscillation....... 679 679

A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. O

Marsh.] 14 [March 6,

ON THE LATENT HEAT OF EXPANSION IN CONNECTION
WITH THE LUMINOSITY OF METEORS, ETC.

By B. V. Marsu.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 6, 1874.)

In 1863, in a paper published in Silliman’s Journal (vol. xxvi. p 92),
IT attempted to show that the luminosity of meteors is probably due to
the effects of latent heat.

An abstract of my results was made by the ‘‘ Luminous Meteor’? Com-
mittee of the British Association, and published in 1864 with their
report. The paper was also favorably referred to by Haidinger ;* but
it evidently has not been accepted as furnishing a satisfactory solution
of the problem.

My explanation was based upon the assumption that when air is heated
“under a constant pressure,’’ the heat required to produce a given
elevation of temperature, in excess of that required to produce the same
change of temperature ‘under a constant volume,’’ remains latent in the
expanded air. But according to the dynamical theory of heat, the most
of this excess is employed in lifting the weight of the atmosphere ; a
glance, however, at the tabular statement in my paper, shows that a very

-small fraction only of this excess is actually required to produce all the
-effects which I attributed to it. Hence, although ‘latent heat of
-expansion’’ seems to be generally ignored, I have always—in view of

the remarkable correspondence of the observed phenomena with what
might be expected to occur, supposing my explanation to be correct—

> felt an assurance that it must have some foundation in truth. The fire-

balls of December 24th and January 2d having prompted me to re-examine

‘the question, I find this impression strongly confirmed, and therefore

venture again to call attention to the subject, hoping to make it appear
probable, not only that “latent heat of expansion”’ is a reality, but that

it plays a leading part in all the luminous phenomena of the upper
.regions of the atmosphere.

‘Tyndall, in his treatise on ‘‘ Heat as a Mode of Motion’’ (New York,

* Memoire-sur les relations qui existent entre les étoiles filantes, les bolides, et les

-essaims des météorites; par M. Haidinger, Associé de l’Académie—Bulletins de

l’Academie Royale de Bruxelles, 2e series, T. XVII., 1864, p.1383 ‘‘M. Quetelet, dans
son important ouvrage sur la Physique du Globe, publié en 1861 (p. 5), désigne ces
couches par les noms d’atmosphere mobile ou dynamique, et d’atmosphere immobile
ou slable. Les considerations publieés par M. Benjamin VY. Marsh dans le journal
americain du Professeur Silliman ont grande importance relativement 4 l’existance de

deux couches atmosphériques de nature différente.”

1874.] 115 [ Marsh.

1863, p. 83), says: ‘Let C be a cylindrical vessel, with a base one square
foot in area. Let P P mark the upper surface of

Fes Daeg cco ke P® a cubic foot of air at a temperature of 32° F,

The height A P will then be a foot. Let the air
be heated till the volume is doubled. To effect
this it must, as before explained, be raised 490° F.
in temperature, and, when expanded, its upper
120/485 edie ere a pz surface will stand at P! P!, one foot above its
initial position. But in rising from P P to P! P',
it has forced back the atmosphere, which exerts
a pressure of 15 lbs. on every square inch of its
upper surface; in other words, it has lifted a
ree ee een pi Weight of 144 15 = 2,160 lbs. to a height of
one foot.

The capacity for heat of the air thus expanding
is 0.24; water being unity. The weight of our
cubic foot of air is 1:29 oz., hence the quantity
parent as P of heat required to raise 1.29 oz. of air 490° F,

would raise a little less than one fourth of that

weight of water 490°. The exact quantity of
C water equivalent to our 1°29 oz. of air is 1.29
0.24 = 0.31 oz. But 0.31 oz. of water heated to
490° is equal to 152 oz., or 94 lbs heated 1°.
Thus the heat imparted to our cubic foot of air,
in order to double its volume and enable it to lift a weight of 2,160 lbs.
one foot high, would be competent to raise 94 lbs. of water one degree in
temperature.

The air has been heated wnder a constant pressure, and we have learned
that the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a gas
under constant pressure a certain number of degrees, is to that required to
raise the gas to the same temperature when its volume is kept constant,
in proportion of 1.42 :1; hence we have the statement 1.42 :1—9.5 lbs. : 6.7
lbs., which shows that the quantity of heat necessary to augment the
temperature of one cubic foot of air, at a constant volume, 490°, would
heat 6.7 lbs. of water one degree.

Deducting 6.7 lbs. from 9.5 lbs., we find that the excess of beat im-
parted to the air, in the case when it is permitted to expand, is com-
petent to raise 2.8 Ibs. of water one degree in temperature.

ee oS

As explained already, this excess is employed to lift the weight of
2,160 lbs. one foot high. Dividing 2,160 lbs. by 2.8, we find that a
quantity of heat sufficient to raise one pound of water one degree F. in
temperature, is competent to raise a weight of 771.4 lbs. a foot high.

This method of calculating the mechanical equivalent of heat was
followed by Dr. Mayer, a physician of Heilbron, Germany, in the spring
of 1842.”’ :

Now, since equal additions of heatmake equal additions of volume, this

Marsh. ] 1 1 6 [March 6,

process of heating and expanding might be continued indefinitely, with
like results. That is to say, P!, P?, P’, &c., being at intervals of one
foot, the upper surface of the air will stand at P? when the temperature
has risen twice 490° ; at P* when it has risen three times 490° F., and so
on; one volume being added for each rise of 490° in temperature, and
the expenditure of heat being the same for each.

If we take for our unit, the heat required to raise the temperature of
one volume of air 1° under constant volume, the total expenditure of
heat whilst one volume is added to the bulk, will be 490° 1.4—686°; and
the heat expended, in excess of that required to produce the elevation of
temperature alone, will be 686°—490°—196°.

This expenditure has enabled the air to accomplish two results ; to lift
2160 lbs. one foot high, and to fill an additional volume. Prof. Tyndall
assumes that the space-filling was accomplished without the expenditure
of any force whatever, and that the whole 196° were employed in lifting
the weight. But, inasmuch as this may be considered an open question,
we will take x to represent the heat, if any, employed in producing and
maintaining the change of bulk ; that is to say, the ‘‘latent heat of ex-
pansion ;’’ and proceed to consider what must be the relation of latent
heat to volume, independently of any particular value of x.

Since both the expenditure of heat, and the weight lifted, are precisely
the same, during the addition of each volume, the remainder,—repre-
sented by x—must also be the same. Hence, when one volume has ex-
panded so as to fill

2 vols.—these contain x degrees of latent heat, the No. in each being 3x
3 66 66 9x 66 66 66 66 3 x
66 ce 66 66 66 66 3
4 3x BOR
100 66 66 99x 66 66 66 66 99

and so on.

Whence it appears that the less the density of the air, the greater will
be the amount of latent heat, in a given volume; although, for air of
considerable rarity, the change is so slight that the latent heat per
volume may be considered as sensibly constant. We have treated only
of the heat rendered latent during the expansion of air of standard
density, which must already contain latent heat. If, however, we start
from the liquid condition of air, a similar train of reasoning leads to the
conclusion, that the total amount of latent heat per volume is absolutely
the same for air of all densities. It must also be the same for all tempera-
tures. For if, when the surface of the air is at P! we suppose the top of
the vessel to be prevented from moving, and the whole to be cooled down
until the temperature of the air returns to 32°—the specific heat under
constant volume being the same for all temperatures—the heat given out
during each degree of cooling will be the same ; being exactly equal to
that which, under constant volume, would be required to raise the tem-
perature one degree. Consequently, the latent heat must remain un-

1874. ] 1 Uy [Marsh.

changed during the process. In other words, the latent heat is inde-
pendent of temperature, and is therefore the same per volume for air of
any given density, whatever may be its temperature or previous history.

Hence, as this heat represents the force which is employed in main-
taining the volume of the air, and as its amount depends upon the volume
alone, it may perhaps more properly be termed the ‘‘latent heat of
volume ’’—or briefly, the ‘‘ volume heat’’ of air.

It is evident that we may readily determine, in terms of x, the amount
of latent heat (in excess of that rendered latent between the liquid condi-
tion and the standard pressure) contained in a given volume, or in a given
weight, of the atmosphere at any height. The known law of variation of
density is such that at the height of 3.48 miles the density is half that
at the level of the sea—-at twice that height, }—at three times, 3, and so
on—the density diminishing in a geometric, as the height increases in an
arithmetic ratio. Whence we see that one volume at sea-level, at the
height of

3.43 miles becomes 2 vols.—containing x deg. of latent heat the No.

in each vol. being 3X

6.86 66 4 6 66 8x 66 66 66 8x

10.29 66 gs & &6 Wx $6 66 66 dx

34.30 sem 24 ec GG ilQpziie | 66 “ oREx

1, 048, 675

68.60 £6 1,048,576 “6 1,048, 575x 1,048, 676
and so on.

The volume, and consequently the latent heat, of a given weight of air
being doubled by each addition of 3.43 miles to the height, it is evident
that each molecule of air, near the upper limits of the atmosphere, has,
associated with it, an enormous amount of latent heat. But this need
not excite great surprise : for when we consider that 4 of a grain of air at
the surface of the earth occupies only one cubic inch, whilst at the height
of one hundred miles the same occupies one thousand millions of cubic
inches, every part filled completely and equably, each molecule being held
in its place’ at a certain definite distance from its fellows, we cannot
doubt that it has abundant use for all its stores of energy, in constructing |
and maintaining the framework of this vast edifice ; unless, indeed, we
conclude that space-filling is a kind of work which—unlike every other—
does itself.

We may form some idea of the value of x, by comparing the heat ex-
pended with the work done, in the experiment already quoted from Tyn-
dall. He shows that the expediture of heat, in excess of that required
to raise the temperature under constant volume, is competent to raise 1°
the temperature of 2.8 lbs. of water. If we take 772 foot-pounds as the
mechanical equivalent, the same would be competent to raise 2.8 < 772
= 2161.6 lbs. one foot high, showing an excess of 1.6 lbs. over the weight
actually lifted. The amount of heat applicable to the work of expan-
sion or space-filling, for this value of the equivalent, is therefore very

Marsh. ] 118 [March 6,

small. But there is some evidence in favor of a larger value of Joule’s
equivalent, and, consequently, in favor of a larger value of x.
In his final paper,* Joule announces the following results from his
experiments :
From 1st Series, consisting of 40 experiments from friction of
water, value of equivalent. 772.692

6B 8) 66 Gs 20 << mercury “ 772,814
66 BY 1G 66 30 66 66 66 775.302
Scena an Nader “ 10 = ** cast-iron 36 776.045
06 6 6 10 “ “6 66 773.930

Whence we see that the mean result from the whole 110 ex-
EPL WESoogoaobodoGoasc0sbnoOOGHBOOoeobacOGOdONCOS 773.857

Joule adds, ‘‘I consider that 772.692, the equivalent derived from the
friction of water, is the most correct, both on account of the number of
experiments tried, and the great capacity of the apparatus for heat ; and
since, even in the friction of fluids, it was impossible entirely to
avoid vibration, and the production of a slight sound, it is probable that
the above number is slightly in excess ;’’ and he concludes by adopting
772 as the most probable value.

Now, inasmuch as, in the case of cast-iron, he had made an experimental
determination of the heat expended in the production of sound, and had
allowed for it; and since no further explanation is given, we must look
upon his final conclusion as based upon the 40 experiments with water
alone ; the fractional part being rejected in consideration of probable
loss from the noise produced in that series of experiments.

Although Joule thus ignored nearly two-thirds of a series of experi-
ments, all of which had been conducted with equal care, and each of which
would therefore seem to be entitled to some weight, he placed their results
upon record ; and we may certainly be permitted to inquire what conse-
quences would have followed the adoption of the purely experimental
value which the whole series indicated—773.857.

Adopting this as the mechanical equivalent of heat, we find the force
competent to lift 2.8 x 773.857 — 2166.8 lbs. one foot. But the weight
actually lifted was 2160.0 lbs. one foot. Hence, a force competent to lift
6.8 lbs. one foot has become latent, having been employed in producing
and maintaining the expansion ; but, inasmuch as the quantity of heat
necessary to augment the temperature of one cubic foot of air (weighing
1.29 oz.) at a constant volume, 490°, would heat 6.7 lbs. of water 19, it
would be competent to lift 6.7 x 773.857 = 5184.8 lbs. one foot high ;
whence we have the statement :

Foot-pounds. Foot-pounds.
as 5184.8 : 6.8 >: . 4909 : 0.6429 = x, showing that
sufficient heat was rendered latent, to raise the temperature of the whole
mass of air (1.29 oz.) at a constant volume, 0.642 degrees.

* Philosophical Transactions 1850.

1874.] 119 [Marsn.

Owing to the uncertainty as to the exact ratio of the two specific heats
of air; and as to the exact value of the mechanical equivalent of heat,
an accurate determination of the value of x cannot yet be reached ; but
since the above value is based upon the complete series of experiments
made by Joule in 1849, it must be entitled to consideration as a first ap-
proximation, and may be used to illustrate the action of latent heat in
the production of luminous phenomena.

But we are here met by the assertion of several standard writers, that.
the existence of latent heat of expansion was positively disproved by a
c2rtain experiment performed by Joule, who announced in the Philos-
ophical Magazine for May, 1845, that ‘‘no change of temperature occurs
when air is allowed to expand in such a manner as not to develop me-
chanical power.”’ :

Although the interpretation thus put upon Joule’s words seems to be
perfectly natural and legitimate, an examination of the memoir in
which he describes his experiments, and announces this conclusion, seems
to show that he did not intend them to be so interpreted.

Prof. Balfour Stewart, in his ‘‘ Treatise on Heat ’’ (1871, p. 317) says:
‘Many familiar experiments show that when a gas is suddenly com-
pressed, there is a production of heat, and that when suddenly expanded
there is an absorption of heat.

Séguin and Mayer had already suggested the use of gases and vapors
for the purpose of determining the mechanical equivalent of heat; and
air, the substance chosen by Mayer, was no doubt very good for such a
purpose ; nevertheless, the suggestions of these philosophers do not seem
to have been accompanied with a clear appreciation of all the data
necessary to a complete proof.

Joule, however, in his experiments, supplied what was wanting in
order to derive a good determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat
from the known gaseous laws. By compressing air forcibly into a re-
ceiver surrounded by water he found that the water was considerably
heated. It is not, however, correct to infer without further experiment
that the amount of heat produced in this case is the exact equivalent of
the energy expended in compressing the air. A familiar instance will
make this clear. By a blow of a hammer upon a small quantity of fulmi-
nating mercury, it is exploded, and produces a considerable amount of
heated gas, but we are not at liberty to suppose that all the heat thus
developed is merely the mechanical equivalent of the energy of the blow,
as will be evident by supposing such an extreme case as a ton of fulmina-
ting powder.

Evidently the substance is in a different molecularcondition at the end
of the experiment and at the beginning, and it may be supposed with
much truth that the heat produced is nearly all due to the conversion
into a kinetic form of a certain potential energy present in the compound.
Now in the experiment above described, in which air is compressed, the
air is evidently in a different molecular condition after compression, fur

Marsh. ] 120 [March 6,

the particles are much nearer together. The first thing, therefore, is to
determine how much, if any, of the heat produced may be due to this
change of the molecular condition of the air, and how much to the work
expended in compressing the air.

The following very ingenious experiment performed by Joule is con-
clusive in showing that the mere change of distance of the molecules
of a permanent gas neither produces nor absorbs heat to an apprecia-
ble extent. In the figure, we have two strong vessels, of which A
contains compressed air, say under the pressure of 20 atmospheres ; B,
on the other hand, is a vacuum. The two vessels are connected with each
other by a tube having a stop-cock, which we may suppose to be shué.
The whole apparatus is plunged into a vessel of water. After the tem-
perature of the water has been very accurately ascertained, open the
stop-cock, aud thus allow both vessels to have the same pressure.

WAM ae
I |

When the experiment is finished it will be found that there is no change
in the temperature of the water. The prevalent idea is that when air
expands it becomes colder, and that when condensed it becomes hotter ;
but Joule, by this experiment, has shown that no appreciable change of
temperature occurs when air is allowed to expand in such a manner as
not to develop mechanical power.”’

Prof. Tyndall (‘‘ Heat considered as a Mode of Motion’’—1863, p. 88,) in
introducing this experiment, says: ‘‘Is it not possible to allow a gas to
expand, without performing work? This question is answered by the
following important experiment, which was first made by Gay-Lussac,”’
and, after describing it, he says ‘‘ Weare taught by this experiment that
mere rarefaction is not of itself sufficient to produce a lowering of the
mean temperature of a mass of air. It was, and is still, a current notion,
that the mere expansion of a gas produced refrigeration, no matter how

4
1874.] 121 [ Marsh.

that expansion was effected. The coldness of the higher atmospheric
regions was accounted for by reference to the expansion of the air. It
was thought that what we have called the ‘‘capacity for heat’’ was
greater in the case of rarefied than of unrarefied gas. But the refrigera-
tion which accompanies expansion is, in reality, due to the consumption
of heat in the performance of work by the expanding gas. Where no
work is performed there is no absolute refrigeration.’’

A sufficient answer to both these would seem to be found in the fact
that the ‘‘vacuum’”’ spoken of is stated by Joule to have been obtained
by means of an air pump ; whence it appears that both vessels were filled
with air; that in the exhausted receiver having already, during the pro-
cess of exhaustion, absorbed and rendered latent, all the heat necessary
for its expansion ; and since we have already seen that the amount of
latent heat in a given volume of air is almost entirely independent of
density, we have no reason to look for any loss or gain of latent heat by
the operation. The mixing of the two is quite as much a process of con-
densation as of rarefaction ; in one receiver the air in expanding absorbs
heat, whilst in the other the air being compressed gives out the heat which
it had absorbed during the process of exhaustion—the two effects counter-
balancing each other. The air, as a whole, just filled the two receivers
at the beginning of the experiment, and it filled the same at the end;
so that the effects of expansion and of condensation were completely
eliminated : even more so than those of mechanical power, which Joule
had especially in view when contriving this experiment.

Whilst the above seems to show that this experiment proved nothing
as to the existence or non-existence of latent heat of expansion, any one
who will read Joule’s paper will probably be convinced that he never in-
tended to claim that it did. He makes no allusion to any such question ;
and the limit which he gives of the sensitiveness of his thermometer
shows that an amount of heat seventy-five times as great as that which
could be expected to be rendered latent by doubling the volume of only
two quarts of air, of any density, would be required to produce any
appreciable change in the temperature of the 163 lbs. of water through
which, he tells us, it was distributed. He was dealing with mechanical
power, and took care to have it in quantities large enough to be traced ;
his aim seeming to be, to solve the general question of their convertibility
into heat, rather than to determine whether the results miglit, or might
not, have been modified in some degree, by latent heat or other disturbing
cause.

These considerations seem to justify us in concluding that the question
of the existence of ‘‘latent heat of expansion ’’ has not been expériment-
ally decided in the negative, and that we may therefore proceed to
inquire into its applicability to the explanation of meteoric phenomena, *

* When this paper was read, I was not aware of the language of Joule himself on this
subject. Part II. of the article ‘‘On the Thermal Effects of Fluids in Motion,” by J. P.
Joule and Prof. W. Thomson, (Transactions of the Royal Society, 1854, vol. 144 p. 337)

speaking of the ‘‘ Relations between the Heat evolved and the Work spent in Compressing
A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. P

Marsh.] 122 5 {March 6,

using the above value of x. But, the luminosity of meteors is usually
attributed to atmospheric resistance. Kirkwood, in his Meteoric Astro-
nomy (Philadelphia, 1867, p. 81), says: ‘‘Several hundred detonating
meteors have been observed, and their average height at the instant of
their first appearance has been found to exceed 90 miles. The great
meteor of February 3d, 1856, seen at Brussels, Geneva, Paris, and else-
where, was 150 miles high when first seen, and a few apparently well
authenticated instances are known of a still greater elevation. We con-
clude, therefore, from the evidence afforded by meteoric phenomena,
that the height of the atmosphere is certainly not less than 200 miles.

It might be supposed, however, that the resistance of the air at such
altitudes would not develop a sufficient amount of heat to give meteorites
their brilliant appearance. This question has been discussed by Joule,
Thomson, Haidinger, and Reichenbach, and may now be regarded as
definitively settled. When the velocity of a meteorite is known, the
quantity of heat produced by its motion through air of a given density
is readily determined. The temperature acquired is the equivalent of the
force with which the atmospheric molecules are met by the moving body.
This is about one degree F. for a velocity of 100 feet per second, and it
varies directly as the square of the velocity. A velocity, therefore, of
00 miles ina second would produce a temperature of 2,500,000°. The
weight of 5,280 cubic feet of air at the earth’s surface is about 2,830,000
grains. This, consequently, is the weight of a column one mile in length,
and whose base or cross section is one square foot. The weight of a
eolumn of the same dimensions at a height of 140 miles would be about
a Gas kept at a constant temperature,” says, ‘- This relation is not a relation of simple
mechanical equivalence, a8 was supposed by Mayer. * * * The first attempt to determine
the relation in question for the case of air established an approximate equivalence with-
out deciding how close it might be, or the direction of the discrepancy, if any. Thus ex-
periments ‘On the Changes of temperature produced by the Rarefaction and Condensa-
tion of Air,’’ (Philosophical Magazine, May, 1845) showed an approximate agreement
between the heat evolved by compressing air into a strong copper vessel under water,
and the heat generated by an equal expenditure of work in stirring a liquid ; and again
conversely an approximate compensation of the cold of expansion when air in expanding
spent all its work in stirring its own mass, by rushing through the narrow passage of a
slightly opened stop-cock.”’

Whilst this language fully confirms my interpretation of Joule’s experiment, the
inference drawn by the authors from their subsequent experiments upon air forced
through a ‘‘ porous plug,’’ composed of compressed cotton-wool or silk, is incompatible
with the theory which I have advanced. They showed that when air was forced through
such a plug, its temperature was lowered; and that the cooling effect was in proportion
to the difference in the pressure of the air, on the two sides of the plug. For reasons
previously stated by Prof. Thomson, (Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
vol. xx., 1851) they assumed that this cooling effect represented the amount of heat

rendered latent by expansion ; and hence concluded that this, also, varied directly as
the difference of pressure,

It is, however, by no means self-evident, that the mechanical energy of the condensed
air would be exactly balanced—neither more nor less—by the work done in overcoming
the friction of the plug, and thus completely isolate the effects of latent heat of expan-
sion This being only a theoretical deduction, cught not to have the weight of a direct
result from experiment. Hence, perhaps, the omission of Tyndall and of Stewart to
allude to it. If standard writers thus fail to recognize it as conclusive, we may fair'y
consider the subject as still open to discussion.

1874 ] 123 [Marsh.

szs000uth of a grain. Hence, the heat acquired by a meteoric mass whose
cross section is one square foot, in moving one mile, would be one grain
raised 7+ degrees, or one-fifth of a grain 2,500° in 70 miles. This
temperature would undoubtedly be sufficient to render meteoric bodies
brilliantly luminous.”’

The above is a very clear statement of the resistance theory, which is
the only one which seems to have met with general acceptance. But
when we consider that the heat resulting from the collision of the atmos-
pheric molecules with the surface of the meteorite, being developed at
that surface, must be to a great extent absorbed by the meteorite ; and
that, in the case supposed above, a body more than one foot in diameter
had to travel seventy miles, to develop heat competent to raise one-fifth
of a grain to a temperature less than that of melting iron, we must con-
clude that, at the height of 140 miles, the resistance theory utterly fails
to account for any luminosity whatever.

In order to give some definite form to the discussion of the compara-
tive effects of resistance and of latent heat in the production of meteoric
luminosity, let us, with Kirkwood, suppose a globular meteor of one
square foot section to enter the atmosphere with a velocity of thirty
miles per second.

In traveling one mile, it will sweep a cylindrical space one mile long
containing 5280 cubic feet, all the air in which will be compressed to a
density at least as great as that of air at the surface of the earth, and be
carried forward in front of the meteor. When in approaching the earth
denser strata are reached, some portion of the air will of course be
merely pushed aside and left behind, the air piled up in a conical mass in
front of the meteor, dividing the atmosphere, just as the sharp bow of a
vessel divides the water and thus diminishes the resistance ; but at great
heights, if the velocity be great, this effect may be neglected.

Heat will be developed at the forward surface of the meteor, firstly—
from the resistance of the air, which converts into heat a portion of the ki-
netic energy or motive power of the meteor ; its amount, at any given velo-
city, depending upon the wezght of the air met ; secondly—from the release
of latent heat, the amount of which depends only on the bulk of the air met.

The mere mention of the fact that the heating power of ‘‘resistance’’
depends upon the weight ; and that of ‘‘latent heat’’ upon the bulk of
the air encountered, shows the great advantage which the latter has at
extreme heights. ‘‘Latent heat’’ is at its maximum at the extreme
upper limit of the atmosphere, where there is no appreciable weight of
air to absorb the heat developed at the surface of the meteor. Its whole
energies are therefore expended on the meteor, the surface layer of which
may be so heated as to cause it to burst out in full splendor very soon
after entering the atmosphere, and at a height where the weight of air
encountered is so infinitesimally small that the effects of ‘‘ resistance ”’
are not perceptible : but no luminosity can be expected from either source
until the heat developed is sufficient to produce incandescence, both in
the surface layer of the meteor, and in its atmospheric envelope.

124

Marsh. } March 6,

The comparative, as well as the absolute effects of ‘‘resistance’’ and
of ‘‘latent heat’’ are illustrated in the accompanying tabular statement ;
from which we see that at the height of 103 miles, the latent heat is suffi-
cient to raise the temperature of all the air met, six hundred millions
of degrees ; at sixty-eight miles, six hundred thousand degrees ; at fifty-
one miles, twenty thousand degrees; at thirty-four miles, six hundred

HEIGHT WEIGHT HEATING POWER HEATING| HEATING POWER
IN IN OF POWER OF OF
MILES. GRAINS LATENT HEAT LATENT HEAT RESISTANCE
of air metin1 jin 1 grainof air at differ- of air met in 1 of air met in 1 mile
mile by meteor mile at any | at a velocity of 30
1 square foot ent heights. considerable | miles per second.
cross section. velocity.
w al v?
seeds n
a gn ips gn | eangurrax0.24
3.43 1491500 #| 957548 3138839377500
17.15 93219 20; 1855240 196175882730
34.30 2913 657) 1918216 6128260320
51.45 91 21250) 1915028 191508134
68.60 3 673200} 1915084 6318454
85.75 ea 21474800) 1915086 197296
102.90 rine 687195000} 1915086 6166
120005) 9 eae 21990233000; 1915086 192
130620 eee cee 703687442000) 1915086 6
BASS) Beers 22517998137000| 1915086 vs
WiLGO) saae leas 720575940380000) 1915086 eile
188.65) sa3sa3ssses | 23058558092137000| 1915086 Be
205.80 :gsasriexr77¢| 737873858948446000, 1915086 oes

Explanation :—M = mass of air.

m = 3.48.

v = velocity of meteor in feet.

nm = height in miles.

w = number of grains of air in 5,280 cubic feet at level
of the sea — 2,983,000.
x — heat rendered latent by each addition of 1 vol.

= 0.642° Fahr.

1874. ] 125 (Marsh.

degrees (about the temperature of melting lead) ; whilst at the height of
seventeen miles, the whole of the latent heat would be required to raise
the temperature of the air only twenty degrees. From this it is evident
that ‘‘latent heat’’ fails entirely as a source of Juminosity at all heights
below forty miles. On the other hand, whilst at great heights the effect
of ‘‘resistance’’ is insignificant and altogether inadequate to the pro-
duction of any splendor, its power at the height of forty, or even of fifty
miles, seems almost unlimited. ‘Latent heat’’ and ‘‘resistance’”’ to-
gether cover the whole field. Luminosity from ‘‘resistance’’ would
commence at a height of eighty-five miles, more or less, according to
velocity, and would increase rapidly with decrease of height, so that at
the height of thirty-four miles it would be more than thirty thousand
times as great as at eighty-five miles ; whilst ‘“‘latent heat’’ would cause
the meteor to burst out in full splendor as soon as it had penetrated the
atmosphere far enough to develop an amount of heat competent to vapor-
ize its outer layer: and to disappear entirely, at a height of more than
forty miles.

It is a significant fact, that very few meteors have been known to re-
tain their luminosity below that point. Indeed, whilst some of the
observed phenomena are such that ‘‘resistance’’ alone cannot afford any
explanation whatever, they are all in perfect accord with the require-
ments of the ‘‘latent heat’’ theory. Hence we seem to be justified in
concluding that ‘“‘latent heat’’ is the principal source of meteoric lu-
minosity.

The second column in the table gives the heating power of a unit of
weight of air at different heights: showing, that one grain at the height
of three and a-half miles, if compressed until its density equals that of
air at the sea-level, will give out only enough heat to raise the tempera-
ture of one grain of air under constant volume about two-thirds of one
degree ; but that at the height of eighty-five miles the heat given out will
suffice to raise the temperature of one grain twenty millions of degrees ;
at one hundred and thirty-seven miles, seven hundred thousand millions
of degrees; whilst at the height of two hundred and five miles the -
umber would exceed seven hundred thousand millions of millions.

This implies a condition of things somewhat similar to that suggested
by Mr. Birks in his chapter on the ‘‘Jyneous condition of matter,’?* when
he says, ‘‘ There will thus, according to the present theory of the laws of
matter, be more truth than has latterly been recognized, in the old
arrangement of the four elements, which placed a fourth region of fire,
above the solid, liquid, and gaseous constituents of our globe. In fact
above the region where the air, though greatly rarefied, is still elastic,
there must be a still higher stratum where elasticity has wholly ceased,
and where the particles of matter, being very widely separated, condense
around them the largest amount of ether. All sensible heat, in the

* On Matter and Ether or the Secret Laws of Physical Change, by Thomas Rawson
Birks, M. A., Cambridge, (England) 1862.

Marsh. ] 1 26 [March 6,

collision or oscillation of neighboring atoms of matter, will thus have
disappeared : but latent heat, in the quantity of condensed ether or re-
pulsive force, ready to be developed on the renewed approach of the
atoms, will have reached its maximum, and may be capable of producing
the most splendid igneous phenomena, like the northern lights or tropi-
cal thunder storms.”’

Quetelet, in view of the phenomena peculiar to the upper air, proposed
to consider it as a distinct atmosphere, and says* ‘‘This upper atmos-
phere, favorable to the combustion and brilliance of shooting stars, would
not necessarily be of the same nature and the same composition, as the
lower atmosphere in which we live.”’

Sir John Herschel also seems to recognize something not unlike what
I have suggested, when, in writing to Quetelet of shooting stars, in
August, 1863, he says,+ ‘‘ As to their great elevation above the earth, it
leads us to suspect the existence of 4 kind of atmosphere higher up than
the aérial atmosphere, lighter, and, so to speak, more igneous than our
own.”’

The train of reasoning which I have suggested leads to the conclusion
that this ‘‘more igneous’ condition commences at a height of forty or
fifty miles, and extends to the utmost limit of the atmosphere ; its in-
tensity increasing with the height in a geometric ratio—the outer shell
of air being so completely saturated with heat, that, like a sponge filled
with water, it responds to the slightest pressure. It is evident that this
fiery envelope may prove a most efficient shield to protect us from the
effects of collision with all sorts of fragmentary missiles which the earth
may encounter in its journeys around the sun; and the proof of its
efficiency is found in the fact that of the immense number of meteors
visible, only a very few have been known to reach the earth.

Fortunately, the enormous velocity—vastly exceeding that of the
swiftest cannon ball—-with which these missiles are hurled at us, usually
causes their almost instantaneous destruction.

Were they simply dropped from $ or } of the height, falling with the
velocity due to the earth’s attraction only, it is probable that every one of
any appreciable weight, would reach the earth. Without this protecting
envelope, we might well dread the effects of such a bombardment as was
witnessed in Italy on the 27th November, 1873, when we encountered
some of the debris of Biela’s Comet, and when the number of meteors
seen by the Italian Astronomers in the course of a few hours was estima-
ted by them at near forty thousand.

The fact seems to be, that the planetary velocity with which a meteor
enters our atmosphere, soon causes it to develop, by compressing the air
before it—heat sufficient to vaporize its surface layer, and, to communi-
cate to it the most dazzling brightness. Time not being allowed for the

*Meteors, Aerolites, Storms and Atmospheric Phenomena. From the French of
Zurcher and Margolle, by Wm. Lackland. New York, 1870, p. 229.

+Bulletins of the Royal Academy of Brussels, vol. XVI., p. 320.

1874. } 127 [Marsh.

heat to distribute itself through the body of tbe meteor, the whole of its
effect is confined to the surface; extremely thin layers of which are, in
succession, heated, rendered intensely incandescent, and yapo.ized, how-
ever refractory the material.

The black ‘‘crust,’’ of the thickness of letter paper, with which the
stony meteorites are coated, shows the limits for any one instant, of the
melting process ; and the fact, that beneath the crust there is no trace of
the action of fire, is proof, both of the extreme intensity of the heat, and
of its entirely superficial distribution.

Another disintegrating process may, perhaps, be mainly confined to the
smaller meteorites and to the ordinary shooting stars, which are so com-
pletely dissipated that no trace of them reaches the earth. Although, in
any individual layer, the three states—solid, liquid, and vapor—exist al-
most at the same instant, they must in reality succeed each other in the
order named ; sothat there must always be a layer in which the material,
although not melted, is so intensely heated as to exert an expansive
energy tending to split the mass into fragments. The amount of de-
crepitation thus produced must, of course, depend upon the brittleness
and other peculiarities of the meteor, as well as upon its velocity and
upon the density of the air encountered ; but the effect must be similar
in character to that which takes place when coal being thrown upon the
fire of a locomotive, minute fragments split off by the sudden expansion,
are carried up the chimney and fall upon the car-roof in such numbers
as to remind passengers of the rattle of a shower of hail.

It can scarcely be supposed that combustion has much to do with the
splendor of meteors, or with thair destruction, since these mainly occur
at heights at which there is not air enough to maintain combustion to
any considerable extent. Their disintegration must therefore be mainly
effected by heat alone, unaided by chemical action.

Frequently, after the disappearance of a meteor of extraordinary
splendor, a luminous train or cloud remains for a few seconds, sometimes
for several minutes, and in some very rare instances they have remained
visible for an hour or more. A remarkable example of this occurred on
the 14th of November, 1868, when, shortly after midnight, a meteor ap-
pearing over Northeastern Pennsylvania, left a cloud which remained
visible to observers at Washington and New Haven and at all interme-
diate poincs, for about three-quarters of an hour. According to Prof.
Newton,* the observations indicated for this cloud ‘‘a real diameter of
one mile, and a volume of a dozen or a score of cubic miles,’’ and that
whilst visible it moved about forty miles, showing an average velocity
relatively to the earth of nearly a mile per minute. What was its velocity
relatively to the air is not known. This cloud was, no doubt, the debris
of the meteor, a cloud of meteoric dust, moving rapidly through the air,
compressing the air before it ; and, of course, if the above views be cor-
rect, developing heat and light, just as, on a grander scale, heat and light

* 3illiman’s Journal, vol. 47, p. 406.

Marsh. ] i 128 [March 6,

had before been developed by the motion of the meteor itself. The
intensity of the light must of course, diminish with the loss of rela-
tive velocity, and altogether cease whenever the cloud and the air are
relatively at rest, or nearly’so.*

The motion of a meteoric cloud, relatively to the air, may result either
from its own momentum, from atmospheric currents, or from the diur-
nal rotation of the atmosphere, in which the meteor, of course, had not
participated ; or from any or all of these causes combined, so that it
must in almost all instances be very considerable.

The light of the aurora may perhaps in like manner be due to latent
heat; for although rarefied air is a very good conductor, it probably offers
resistance to the passage of electric currents sufficient to produce a
momentary condensation quite competent to illuminate their paths.

It is evident that if the upper air be in the condition suggested, the
track of every mechanical impulse, traversing it with considerable velocity,
must become luminous.

This igneous condition of rarefied air necessarily implies a definite limit
to the atmosphere of each member of the solar system : otherwise, meteors
—being constantly subjected to the action of latent heat—would be lumi-
nous, not merely when within one or two hundred miles of the earth,
but at all distances.

The depth of highly rarefied air which a meteor can traverse before
becoming luminous, must of course, depend upon its velocity, tempera-
ture, and conducting power ; but the height at which their luminosity is
seen to commence must afford some clue to the determination of the
height to which the atmosphere extends.

The great comet of 1843, when in perihelion, Feb. 27, passed within
sixty thousand miles of the surface of the sun, at a velocity of about 350
miles per second, and the next day was seen ‘‘as a brilliant body within
less than two degrees of the sun.’’+

It was not seen again until about seven o’clock on the evening of March
7, when although the tail was a very conspicuous object, the brilliancy of
the nucleus did not exceed that of a star of the third magnitude.

This change, so much greater than could reasonably be expected to re-
sult from increased distance from the sun, occasioned great surprise, and
has not been satisfactorily accounted for.

Is it not possible that its splendor was temporarily increased by the
latent heat developed during its passage through the solar atmosphere ?

The great day-light meteor of Nov. 15, 1859, was seen at 9 o’clock in
the morning, in full sunshine, by persons who were not within two
hundred and fifty miles of any portion of its path, appearing so very
bright that they thought it close at hand. Comparing the probable size

*Prof. Newton remarks (Silliman’s Journal, vol. 47, p. 407,) ‘‘ What kind of matter it
is which remains visible in the cold upper air for three-fourths of an hour until, by
gradual dissipation, the light fades out, I leave for others to say.”

+Kirkwood’s Comets and Meteors, Phila., 1873, p. 17.

1874. ] 129 [Cope.

of the comet with that of the meteor, and remembering the prodigious
velocity of the former, may we not well imagine that its collision with
the highly attenuated upper atmosphere of the sun might develop latent
heat sufficient to enable it to rival the sun itself in splendor ?

Although much of the evidence presented in favor of the existence of
‘latent heat of expansion,’’ and of its agency in the production of lumi-
nous phenomena, may be said to be circumstantial only,—I trust that it
will be found sufficiently cumulative, and accordant throughout, to enti-
tle it to examination.

PHILADELPHIA, Marcu 257Tu, 1874.

ON THE PLAGOPTERIN.A AND THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF
UTAH.

By Epwarp D. Corsz, A.M.
Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 20th, 1874.

The observations recorded below are based on the collections made by
the naturalists attached to the United States Geological and Topographical
Survey west of the 100th meridian, under direction of Lieutenant Geo.
M. Wheeler, and are published by permission of that officer. To Dr.
Henry C. Yarrow, in charge of the department of zoology, and to A. W.
Henshaw, assistant, the survey is indebted for material more fully
illustrating the character and distribution of the cold blooded vertebrata
of the vaJleys of the Colorado River and of Utah than any heretofore
brought together. As one of the results derived from a study of it, it
appears that the basin of the Colorado River is the habitat of a small
group of fishes of the family Cyprinide, which may be called the Plagop-
terine, which embraces three genera—Plagopterus, Cope; Lepidomeda,
Cope; and Meda, Girard. The group differs from others of the family in
the possession of two strong osseous rays of the dorsal fin, the posterior
of which is let into a groove in the hinder face of the anterior without
being codssified with it, thus constituting a compound defensive spine.
The rays of the ventral fin, excepting the first and second, are similarly
modified. The greater part of their length consists of an osseous dagger-
shaped spine, with grooved posterior edge, which overlaps the border of
the succeeding ray, when the fin, like a fan, is closed up. The articulated
portion of the ray either emerges from the groove below the free acute
apex of the spine, or appears as a continuation of the apex itself. It is
worth observing that the only other instanceof this ossification of the
ventral rays is to be seen in the extinct family of the Sawrodontide of the
cretaceous period, the nearest approach among recent fishes being the
internal spine in the ventral fin of Amphacanthus. 'The dentition and
intestine of these fishes show them to be of carnivorous habits. Interest

A, P. S.—VOL. XIV. Q

Cope.] 150 [March 20

attaches to the Plagopterine as the only type of fishes not known from
other waters than those of the Colorado basin.

PLAGOPTERUS, gen. nov.

Pharyngeal teeth, 2.5—4.2, raptorial uncinate, without masticatory
surface. A terminal maxillary barbel. Scales, none; lateral line well
developed. Dorsal fin with a strong spine composed of two, the posterior
received into a longitudinal groove of the anterior. Ventral fins origin-
ating (in the type species) a little anterior to the line of the dorsal,
attached to the abdomen by a wide basis and length of inner radius.
Superior labial fold continued round the end of the muzzle.

This genus resembles Meda, Girard, in the presence of the dorsal spine,
the adhesion of the inner border of the ventral fin, and the absence of
scales, and differs in the presence of barbels, and the inner dental series
being 5—4 instead of 4—4. Physiognomy of Rhinichthys.

PLAGOPTERUS ARGENTISSIMUS, Sp. NOv.

This is a small fish of slender proportions, with a rather broad head,
with slightly depressed muzzle overhanging by a little a horizontal
mouth of moderate size. The caudal peduncle is of medium depth, and
the caudal fin is deeply forked. The eye is somewhat oval, and enters
the length of the side of the head 4.2 times, and the interorbital width
1.5 times. The greatest depth (near the ventral fin) enters the total
length nearly six times, or five and three quarters, exclusive of the caudal
fin. The latter measurement is four times the length of the head. The
origin of the dorsal is entirely behind the proper basis of the ventral ; its
first spine is curved and longer than the second, and its basis is inter_
mediate between the base of the caudal and the end of the muzzle. The
dorsal rays behind the spine have the basal two-thirds to one-half
thickened and completely ossified, the articulated portions issuing from
the apices of the spines. Radial formula, D. II. 7; C. 19; A. I 10—9;
V.2.V; P. 16. The first or osseous ray of the anal is rudimental ; the
fifth spinous ray of the ventral is bound by nearly its entire length to the
abdomen bya membrane. The pectoral rays from the second to the
sixth exhibit a basal osseous spinous portion, which is not nearly so
marked as in the ventrals. The pectorals reach the basis of the latter.

The lateral line is complete and is slightly deflexed opposite the dorsal
fin. The lips are thin, and the end of the maxillary bone extends to the
line of the front of the orbit. Total length M. 0.071; ditto to middle of
basis of caudal fin .0565 ; ditto to anterior basis of anal fin .040; ditto
to basis ventral .021; ditto of head .0145; of muzzle .004; width at
posterior nares .006; at middle of pterotic .0078. Color, pure silver
for a considerable width above the lateral line. Dorsal region somewhat
dusky from minute chromatophore.

Numerous specimens from the San Luis Valley, Western Colorado.

1874.] 131 [Cope.

MEDA, Girard.

Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1856, 192; U. S. and Mexican Bound. Survey,
Ichthyology, p. 50.

This genus resembles Plagopterus in the absence of scales, while it
differs in the absence of barbels and the reduction of the number of teeth
of the larger pharyngeal series to 4—4. Girard also asserts twice that
the dorsal spine is ‘‘ articulated,’’ a character not observed by me in any
species of the group. His figure of M. fulgida represents the ventral
radii as articulated; but as there are other points in which it differs
from the description, it is probably inaccurate.

MEDA FULGIDA, Girard.

A small species from the Rio San Pedro, a tributary of the Gila, in
Southern Arizona.

LEPIDOMEDA, gen. nov.

Dorsal fin originating behind the line of the ventrals, which adhere to
the belly by the inner ray. Body scaled, lateral line present. Pharyngeal
teeth 4—4 in the inner row. No barbels, premaxillary series complete.

This genus has the physiognomy of Clinostomus. The presence of
scales distinguishes it from Meda. The spinous rays are not articulated.

LEPIDOMEDA VITTATA, sp. nov.

Form moderately stout, the greatest depth (at the first dorsal ray)
entering the length to the basis of the caudal fin four and a quarter to a
third times. The head is wide and flat above, with decurved pterotics,
—and slightly depressed behind the interorbital region. Muzzle obtusely
descending, not prominent ; mouth terminal and descending to a point
below the anterior line of the pupil. Length of head, 3.75 times in total
length to basis of caudal fin. Orbit round, 3.75 times in length of head,
and 1.5 times in interorbital width. The latter is not uniform, but the
middle plane is elevated a little above the superciliary ridges, and
separated from them by a shallow groove. Nares sublateral. Teeth,
2.4—4.2. Preorbital trapezoid.

Scales small, covering the whole body, except a space behind the
pectoral fin, in twenty-six series above the lateral line, and fifty-six
transverse in front of the dorsal fin. MRadial formula, D. II. 7; C. 19;
A. 1.8; V. 1. VI.; P. 15. There are several peculiarities in the consti-
tution of the spines of the fins in which the species differs from Plagop-
lerus argentissimus. ‘Thus the second dorsal spine is wider than the first,
and so deeply grooved behind as to represent a V in section; it also
extends to the extremity of the first, while it isshorterin P. argentissimus.
The remaining dorsal spines are less distinctly enlarged and ossified ;
those of the ventrals are less developed, and their apices, instead of being
free, continue into the terminal articulated portion. The pectoral radii

Ye
Cope. } 132 [March 20,

are szarcely enlarged at all. The base of D. I. is nearer the basis of the
caudal fin than the end of the muzzle, by the length of the latter to
the posterior nares. Caudal fin deeply, forked. Total length M. 0.085 ;
ditto to basis caudal fin .0685 ; ditto to basis anal .047; ditto to basis
ventral .0325; ditto of head .018; to orbit .043; width at posterior
nares .006; at middle of pterotic .009. Color, silver to half way between
lateral and dorsal lines, the upper part of it underlaid by a lead-colored
band ; a median dorsal black band from front to caudal fin.

Numerous specimens from the Colorado Chiquito river, Arizona, col-
lected by Dr. Newberry, Jr., (5x). The largest species of the group.

LEPIDOMEDA JARROVII, Sp. nov.

A species resembling the last in many respects, but differs in a
greater elongation of form, weakness of squamation and peculiarity of
‘coloration. The fin radii are similar in number and character, but the -
-dorsal is furnished with more slender spines. The chin projects a little
beyond the upper lip when the mouth is closed. The depth of the body
at the ventral fins enters the length to the basis of the caudal 5d to 5.25
times, and the head enters the same four times. The eye is larger than
in ZL. vittata, entering the length of the head 3.25 times and equalling the
-interorbital width. The end of the maxillary bone reaches the line of
the anterior border of the orbit. The pectoral fin reaches the ventral,
but the latter does not attain the vent. The scales are difficult to detect ;
there are 51 transverse series between the head and the dorsal fin. Total
length, M. 0.081 ; do. to caudal fin .065; do. to anal .0465 ; do. to ven-
tral .082; do. of head .0165; do. to orbit .C0048 ; width between orbits
.005 ; do. between middle of pterotics .008. Color olivaceous above
with a median black vertebral band ; sides to above lateral line silvery,
leaden edged above. Bases of ventral fins red.

From the Colorado Chiquito river, Arizona. Dedicated to Dr. Henry
C. Yarrow, Zoologist of the survey under Lieut. Wheeler (No. 505).

The following species were also obtained by the expedition from Utah
Lake, the largest body of pure fresh water in the basin of the Utah,
_ others of equal size being alkaline or salt.

SALMO VIRGINALIS, Girard,

Maintains its distinctness from S. pleuriticus, Cope, from the streams
-which flow from the mountains on both sides, in its more slender form of
‘head and body. The depth enters the length 5.75 and 6 times, and
-equals the length of the head to the preoperculum. In S. plewriticus
of equal size, it enters the length 4.66 times, and nearly equals the
length of the head.

CoREGONUS VILLIAMSONI, Girard.
SIBOMA ATRARIA, Girard.
The largest of the lake Cyprinide, specimens procured weighing one

and two lbs.

1874. ] 133 [ Cope.

ALBURNELLUS ? sp.

Scales 77. Anal radii I. 8—7. Teeth 2.4—4.2 without grinding face.

From Beaver River, Lake Utah, and the Rio Grande, in Colorado.

ALBURNELLUS RHINICHTHYOIDES, Cope.

Tigoma rhinichthyoides, Cope. Hayden’s Ann. Report U. 8. Geolo.
Survey, 1871, p. 1478.

Teeth 1.44.1. Scales =35—
Abundant at Provo.

CLINOSTOMUS HYDROPALOX, Cope.

In Hayden’s Geol. Survey Terrs., 1871, p. 475. Abundant.

CLINOSTOMUS TENTA, Sp. Nov.

A smaller species than the last, distinguished by the smaller number
of anal radii, the elegant coloration and other characters. Body of -
average proportions, its depth entering the length without caudal fin four
and one-third times, and exactly equal to the length of the head. . The
head is compressed and the lips equal: the mouth is oblique, the
end of the maxillary attaining the anterior line of the orbit. The orbit
is large, entering the head three times and a fifth, and equalling the

width of the convex interorbital space. Scales Bs, thirty-three in front

of dorsal fin ; lateral line complete, deflexed between pectoral and ven-
tral fins. Radial formula D. I. 9. A. I. 10; V.9; P. 11; reaching
ventrals, which reach vent. Dorsal first ray equidistant between the
basis of the caudal and the anterior nostril.

Total length .073 ; do. to anal fin .042 ; do. to ventral .031 ; do. of head
.014; do. to orbit .0036 ; width to posterior nostrils .004 ; do. at middle
of pterotic .0062. The sides are pure silvery to the lateral line of pores,
above which a blackish vitta extends from the end of the muzzle to the
caudal fin. Above this is a narrow very white line which extends to the
base of the caudal fin, and above this the entire dorsal region is blackish.
Fins unspotted.

Numerous specimens from Provo, near the Lake, (No. 666, 8.)

RHINICHTHYS HENSHAVII, Sp. noy.

An elongate species with small scales and overhanging but obtuse
muzzle, resembling a Cerdtichthys of the group of C. nubilus (Rhinicl-
' thys,) Girard. The depth enters the total length 5.5 to 6 times, the
head entering the same five times. Eye 4.3 times in length of head,
1.5 times in interorbital width. The base of the D.I. is intermediate
between the base of the caudal fin and the anterior nostril. The ventral
fins reach the anal, but are not reached by the pectoral. Dorsal fin
originating behind the base of the ventrals. Radii, D. I. 9; A. I. 7; V. 8;

P. 12. Seales rae Color white with a few dark clouds on the caudal

Cope. ] 134 [March 20,

peduncle. Inferior fins reddish. The more anterior position of the
dorsal fin is one point of difference from R. mavillosus.

From Provo; No. 48, a.

Var. If, back dark ; a dark band from end of muzzle to caudal fin. Fins
and lips red. D. I. 8 Provo; 204 a; 281 a; Colorado Chiquito, 5x., 240
Twin Lake, Colorado. Var. III. Back dusky ; numerous large black
spots all over the sides and head; fins and lips crimson, D. I. 8,
No. 754, from Apache, Arizona.

HYBOPSIS TIMPANOGENSIS, Sp. nov.

A rather compressed species with mouth obliquely descending, and
teeth 2.4—4.2, with strongly developed masticatory surfaces. The lateral
line of tubules is imperfect in all the specimens, often only repre-
resented by a short series in front of the dorsal fin. In larger specimens
it is better developed, and in still larger it may be complete, a point
which remains as yet uncertain. In thesmaller specimens of Myloleucus
parovanus, the series is imperfect for a short distance in front of the
caudal fin, while it is complete in adults. I have observed the same in

the Hypsilepis anolostanus, Girard. Scales small Fe The dorsal fin

originates a little in front of a line drawn from the base of the first ven-
tral ray. The pectorals do not reach the ventrals, while the latter attain
the vent. Radii D.I.9; A. 1.8; V. 8.

The depth is one-fourth the length, less that of the caudal fin, and the
length of the head enters the same 3.66 times. Orbit 3 3 times in length
of head, 1.2 times in interorbital width ; longer than muzzle. Preorbital
bone trapezoid. Total length M .047; do. to basis of dorsal .0215; of
head .011 ; width at pterotics .005.

There is a narrow leaden line from the pterotic region to the base of
the caudal, below which the color is yellowish, and above brownish, all
dusted with black points. Cheeks silvery. Fins dusky.

Numerous specimens were taken at Provo by Messrs. Yarrow & Hen-
shaw, and at Gunnison (No. 668) by Mr. Klett.

MInomus PLATYRHYNCHUS, Sp. NOV.

This Catostomoid belongs to the genus Minomus, Girard, as defined by
the writer in Hayden’s Annual Report of the U. 8. Geological Survey for
1870, p. 484. It is of very elongate form, the depth of the body at the
dorsal fin entering the total length seven and two-fifths times. The head
is short and wide, with expanded and depressed muzzle; its length en-
ters the total five and three-quarter times. The scales are materially
larger on the caudal peduncle than on the post-scapular region, and the
dorsal fin originates considerably nearer the end of the muzzle than the
basis of the caudal fin. Radial formula, D. I. 11; C. 18, openly emar-
ginate; A. I. 7; V. 9 not reaching vent; pectoral reaching half-way to
ventral. Scales cae The orbits are excavated at their superciliary border,

1874, ] p 135 [Cope.

and their diameter enters their frontal interspace 1.66 times, and the
length of the head 4.6 times, twice in the length of the muzzle in front
of its border. The muzzle considerably overhangs the mouth. The lip
folds are tubercular and largely developed, forming a discoidal funnel.
The posterior is deeply incised behind ; and there is a notch where it
joins the anterior lip. The commisure is transverse and abruptly angu-
late to the canthus, and covered with a cartilaginous sheath as in Chon-
drostoma. Isthmus very wide.

Total length M. 0.168; do. to basis caudal .149; do. to basis ventral
-082; do. to basis of dorsal .070; do. of head .029; width of muzzle
at mouth .0115; with head at pterotics .0156. Color blackish, belly and
ventral fins yellowish (? pink). This species resembles the Catostomus
discobolus, Cope, but has larger scales, besides presenting generic diffei-
ences. Several specimens from near Provo. Messrs. Yarrow and Hen-
shaw.

MINOMUS JARROVII, sp. nov.

A less elongate species than the last, with a much less enlarged muzzle.
The anterior scales are smaller than the posterior, and the first dorsal ray
is nearly intermediate between the end of the muzzle and the basis of
the caudal fin. Radii D.9; C.18; A. I. 7; V. 9, well removed from
both vent and pectoral fin. Depth at dorsal fin 5.75 times in total length,
into which the length of the head enters 5.3 times ; orbit small, 4.6 times
in length of head ; twice in interorbital width, and 1.75 times in muzzle,
the latter projecting a little beyond mouth, not depressed, but nar-
rowed viewed from above. Labial folds well developed, tubercular, the
anterior rather narrow, the posterior deeply incised. Commissure with
acute cartilaginous edge, regularly convex forwards.

14
Seales 5.
14

Total length M. .107; do. to basis of caudal .0933; do. to basis ver-
tral .052; do. to basis dorsal .047; do. of head .0205; width muzzle at
mouth .075 ; of head at pterotics .011.

Color light brown with numerous dusky spots and clouds; a narrow
abdominal band light ; fins and chin ? red.

Two specimens (204a) obtained by Messrs. Yarrow and Henshaw at
Provo. Dedicated to Dr. Yarrow, whose zoological explorations in vari-
ous portions of the United States have been productive of many inter-
esting results.

CaTosToMuUs ?GENEROsUS, Girard.

U. 8. Pacific R. R. Surv. X, p. 221.

From Provo, Utah, specimens of two and a-half pounds weight.

Cope. ] 1 36 [March 20,

Recapitulation :

The fishes of the Utah Lake above enumerated, number twelve species,
as follows:

Salmonide. Clinostomus hydrophlox, Cope.
Salmo virginalis, Girard. Clinostomus tenia, Cope.

Coregonide. Hybopsis timpanogensis, Cope.

t Ea Pah ee Rhinichthys henshavii, Cope.

Coregonus villiamsonii, Girard.

Cyprimde. Catostomide.
Siboma atraria, Girard. Minomus platyrhynchus, Cope.
Alburnellus, sp. Minomus jarrovii, Cope.

Alburnellus rhinichthyoides, Cope.| Catostomus ? generosus, Girard.

The following species were obtained at other localities in Utah and
Arizona.
CERATICHTHYS BIGUTTATUS, Kirtland.

Baird, Girard, Cope Cyprinide of Pennsylvania, p. 366, Tab. xi., fig.

5, var. cyclotis, Cope, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences, 1864, p. 278.

Dr. Yarrow obtained a number of specimens of this abundant eastern
fish at Harmony, in Southern Utah. This is an unexpected discovery,
giving the species the greatest known range of any of our Cyprinide,
the Semotilus corporalis accompanying it to the eastern slope of the
Rocky Mountains. The Smoky Hill River was the most western locality
for the C. biguttatus up to the present time.

CERATICHTHYS VENTRICOSUS, Sp. NOV.

Allied to C. henshavii, Cope, but distinguished by its deeper body and
more numerous scales below the lateral line, which exceed in number
those above it, contrary to the rule usual in Cyprinide. Depth at ven-
tral fin one-fourth length exclusive of caudal fin, and a little less than
length of head, orbit a little less than one-fourth length of head and 1.383
times in length of muzzle and interorbital width. Muzzle compressed,
projecting beyond the horizontal mouth ; maxillary bone reaching the
line of the anterior nostril. Radii D. 1.7; A. I. 7; V. 7. Dorsal origi-
nating behind line of ventrals. Scales a. The specimens are bleached
by the action of spirits, but they appear to have been of uniform color,
excepting an irregular dark band from the end of the muzzle to the caud-
al fin. Length of a specimen to base of caudal M. .061; do. to base
of anal .048; do. to base ventral .033 ; do. to base dorsal .035 ; length
head .0162; width do. between orbits .0045; do. at middle of ptero-
tics .0078. Number cccl ; from Arizona.

MYLOLEUCUS PAROVANUS, Sp. Nov.

With a general similarity to Clinostomus montanus, this fish may be
readily determined by the generic characters of the teeth and fins, as:

Or
1874. ] 137 {Cope.

well as by the reduced number of radii of the anal fin. The genus
Mylolewcus was established by the writer in 1871* for species resembling
Siboma, in having the pharyngeal teeth of the longer row 4—5, and the
origin of the dorsal fin situated in advance of the ventral, but differing in
the possession of well-defined masticatory surfaces on the teeth. The
typical species is WZ. pulverulentus, Cope, from the warm springs of Utah,
a fish which differs from the present one in the greater stoutness of form
and smaller and more numerous scales.

Form moderately stout ; muzzle short, conical, lips even, mouth very
oblique, maxillary bone reaching anterior line of orbit. Profile of head
and back gently arched. Depth of body equal length of caudal fin and
measuring 4.25 in the total length less that fin; length of head, 3.5 or 6
in the same. Orbit large 3.1 times in length of head; greater than muzzle,
equal interorbital width. Scales 4s, the lateral line decurved in front,
and continued to base of caudal fin. Radii, D. 1.9; A. 1.8; V.9. The
pectorals reach little more than half way to the ventrals ; the latter just
attain the vent. Caudal well forked. The color is transparent, with a
plumbeous lateral band, the ventral and pectoral fins dusky, the dorsal
and caudal shaded with the same. Total length M. 0648 ; ditto to base
caudal, .053; ditto to anal, .038; to ventral, .0288; of head, .014; to
orbit, .003 ; width at middle pterotics, .0064.

Numerous specimens were obtained by Dr. Yarrow from Beaver River,
in Southwestern Utah. This stream flows into the Sevier Lake, a very
alkaline body of water, in which no fishes were found by the naturalists
of the survey.

CLINOSTOMUS PHLEGETHONTIS, Sp. nov.

Teeth, 1.5—4.2; body, deep, short ; scales larger than in any other
species of the genus, viz.: eleven longitudinal and thirty-seven transverse
series. There is no lateral line, which may be due to the immature state
of the only specimen at my disposal. The depth enters the length with-
out the caudal fin 3.5 times, while the length of the head is counted in
the same four times. The orbit is large, entering the head 2.75 times,
and .2 greater than interorbital width ; in older fishes the orbit will be
found as usual relatively smaller. The lips are even, and the mouth
quite oblique, the end of the maxillary reaching the line of the orbit.
Radii, D. I. 7; A.I. 8; the ventrals originate in front cf the line of the
dorsal, and extend to the vent, and are not nearly reached by the
pectorals. Length without caudal fin, .034; ditto to basis of dorsal,
0186; length of head, .008; width ditto at pterotics, .0088. A broad
plumbeous band on the side, below which the color is golden, above it
probably translucent in life, with a dusky median dorsal line.

Discovered in Beaver River, Utah, with the Myloleucus parovanus, by
Dr. Yarrow.

* In Hayden’s annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, p, 475.
A. P. §.—VOL. XIV. R

Q
Cope. ] 138 {March 20,

CATOSTOMUS ALTICOLUS, Sp. nov.

A stout, rather short species of sucker, with elongate head and narrowed
muzzle. The scales are larger behind than anteriorly, and number sixty
transverse, and nineteen longitudinal rows. The radial formula is,
D. 10; C.18; A. 7; V. 10, originating below the middle of the dorsal
fin, and neither extending to the vent nor reached by the pectoral fin.
Caudal with shallow emargination. The depth enters the length with
caudal five times, which is three and two-thirds the length of the head.
Orbit 4.33 times in head, 1.66 times in interorbital width. The muzzle
is long (1.66 times orbit), but is not produced much beyond the mouth,
but is truncate and narrowed viewed from above. Lip-folds well developed;
the superior pendant, the inferior full but incised to the symphysis, the
surfaces tubercular. Vertex flat.

Total length M., .0868 ; ditto to origin caudal fin, .070; ditto to origin
anal, .0546; ditto to origin of dorsal, 0365; width head at posterior
nares, .008 ; ditto at middle of pterotics, .010; color silvery, upper part
of sides and back dusky. In specimens of this size the lateral line is in-
visible, but in adults of eight inches obtained by my friend, J. 8. Lip-
pincott, it extends to the basis of the caudle fin.

Numerous specimens from Twin Lake, Colorado, obtained by Dr. J. T.
Rothrock, botanist of the survey. This lake is situated in the South
Park, at an elevation of 9,500 feet above the sea (no. 120).

CATOSTOMUS DISCOBOLUS, Cope.

(Hayden’s Annual Report, U. 8. Geological Survey, 1870, p. 435).

Numerous specimens from the Zuni River, Arizona, and from another
not specified locality in Arizona, (No. 504), obtained by Messrs. Henshaw
and Newberry.

HAPLOCHILUS FLORIPINNIS, Sp. Novy.

First dorsal ray standing above the second or third anal; formula, D.
10—11; A. 183—14; V. 7. Scales large in ten longitudinal and 29 trans-
verse series. First dorsal ray half as far from base of caudal as from
end of muzzle. Length of head 4.66 times in total, a little less than 4
times to basis of caudal fin. Orbit large, 3.2 times in length of head and
1.6 times in interorbital width. Mandible projecting a little beyond pre-
maxillary ; one external series of teeth in both jaws larger than the
others.

Total length M. .0595 ; do. to anal fin .0335 ; do. to basis of ventral fin
.027; do. of head .0138 ; width of head at pterotics .008. Color olive
gray, the scales with ochre borders. Fins yellow, broadly edged with
crimson.

Numerous specimens from the Platte River, near Denver, Colorado.
No. 65. A species with large scales.

URANIDEA WHEELERI, Sp. NOV.

The only Physoclystous or spinous rayed fish as yet found in the Great
Basin of Utah.

1874. ] 139 [Cope.

Radial formula, D: VIL. 17;:A. 12; P. 15 allsimple; Br. VI. The
head is depressed and enters the length minus the caudal fin, three
times. Orbit large one-fifth length of head, and twice the width of
the frontal interspace. Greatest depth (at first anal ray) 6.75 times in
length less caudal fin. Anal commencing opposite the third ray of the
second dorsal. Lateral line deflexed opposite last ray of second dorsal.
The recurved preopercular spine strong, the decurved small and obtuse.
Palatine teeth present ; end of maxillary reaching line of pupil. Isthmus
as wide as length of muzzle and orbit to front line of pupil. Skin every-
where smooth.

Total length .084; do. less caudal fin .069; do. to anal .042; do. to
first dorsal .031; of head .022; width at maxillaries distally .0125; at
preopercular spines .0185.

From Beaver river 8. W. Utah. The other species of the Rocky
Mountains, U. punetulata, Gill, has, according to that zoologist a much
wider head, especially in the frontal region. This character is well ex-
hibited by specimens in Dr. Hayden’s collections.

Dedicated to Lieut. Wheeler, Director of the U. S. Survey west of the
100th Meridian.

ON THE ZOOLOGY OF A TEMPORARY POOL ON THE PLAINS
OF COLORADO.

By Pror. E. D. Cope.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 20th, 1874.)

Some years ago, Thomas Kite, of Cincinnati, observed an Entomostra-
cous crustacean swimming in a temporary pool of rain-water. A species
no larger than a pin’s head is abundant in horse-troughs, springs, &c.,
and belongs to the genus Cypris. That observed by Mr. Kite is much
larger, and is not known to occur in flowing water. It was named
Limnadella Kitei by Girard. I have since observed it in Pennsylvania,
in rain puddles standing in the ruts of roads in woods; and in New
Jersey Dr. Knieskern found it in similar pools alongside of roads
in the open country. The wonder naturally is, how strictly aquatic
branchiferous animals can be propagated under the circumstances, and
how they can be distributed from place to place. A similar species has been
recently observed by M. Tissandier in pools in the valley of the Seine.
These were left by a flood of the river, and before drying up became
populous with a species of the Cypridide.

The most remarkable examples of this kind are, however, to be ob-
served on the plains of Kansas and Colorado.

Here rains create temporary pools in depressions of the surface, which
may remain for a few days or weeks, but are all dried up by the end of
September. Nevertheless, some of them at least swarm with a population
of branchiferous crustaceans, worms and larvee of insects, with the adults,
which, in their developed state, come to the surface for air, or live on

Cope. J 140 [March 20, 1874.

the adjacent banks. Observations on a pool of this kind determined
sixteen species which lived in or on the water, which had an area of
thirty feet by fifteen, and a depth not exceeding a foot. Three of the
species were worms, six insects, one arachnid, and eight crustaceans.

The insects were a bluish fly, with a pale bloom, which ran rapidly
over the surface, aiding its progress by its wings ; a slender beetle, that
clung to the submerged stems ; two species of actively swimming water-
beetles, one beautifully varied with white ; and a sluggish, pale-green
species, which swam readily. There was also that cosmopolitan boatman
who swims on his back, the hemipterous notonecta. One of the worms
was delicately striped with lines and rows of dots, another was soft and
jointless, and could contract itself into a mere lump or extend itself to
considerable length. It was no doubt a planarian, and was of a pea-green
color. Another planarian was white, and some of its internal organs
showed as a milk-white zigzag figure through the body walls. It swam
freely through the water. Of the crustaceans, four were the shelled Cy-
prides. One was very sinall, short oval, and green ; another, still small,
was a long oval, straw-colored, and covered with hair ; a third was large
as a small pea, almost globular, and brilliant green. It was very abund-
ant, swimming in twos and threes among the grass-stems or near the sur-
face. The fourth was a gigantic species, large as the thumb-nail, and of
« pale-reddish orange color. It was frequently observed in encounters with
others of its species. The water was alive with shoals of what appeared
to be at first sight the translucent fry of some fish. On closer examination
they proved to be elongate crustaceans allied to the Branchipus, their
delicately-fringed gills hanging suspended from the hinder segments of
the body. They were covered with a jointed coat of mail, and darted
about with great activity. They were elegant creatures, with a crimson
tail setting off the glass-like clearness of the body. The most singular
of these forms is the Cyclops. It resembles superficially the king crab
of our sea-shores, truly, indeed, in the great buckler or shield covering
the head and thorax. It has a single elevation on the middle of the top
of the head for two eye windows or cornee, and an inferior pair of widely-
separated eyes look downward to the bottom of the water. The tail or
body is soft, jointed, and worm-like, and bears a pair of feelers at the
end. These curious creatures swim on the bottom, chasing each other
here and there, resembling in their motions and form diminutive cat
fishes. Some other forms were minute crimson, and strangely formed
creatures. The common arachnid was a round-bodied Hydrachna, or
water- tick, of a bright red color.

This population evidently has a short life, and it is probable that their
existence is only secured bythe long preservation of the eggs in the
bottom of the dry ponds, which may be readily carried from place to
place by winds during the dry season.

April 17,1874.) 141 [Chase,

COSMICAL THERMODYNAMICS.
By Prov. Piiny EARLE CHASE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 17th, 1874.)

A committee* has been appointed to invite the participation of
Students in the discussion of a paper which will be presented at the
coming autumn meeting of the Association of German Naturalists and
Physicians. The paper is entitled ‘‘ Losung des Problems uber Sitz und
Wesen der Anziehung,”’ its object being the identification of gravitating
force with thermo-dynamics, by means of the thermal equivalent and
Carnot’s law of thermo-dynamic energy.

In compliance with the invitation, and as a contribution to the general
theory of unitary force, I submit the following Theses, together with
references to portions of my communications to the American Philo-
sophical Society during the past eleven years, in which some of them
are practically exemplified and verified.

1. If Force is unitary in its origin, it should be omnipresent in its
manifestations.

2. In a supposed universal, material, elastic and therefore slightly
compressible, luminiferous ether, we may reasonably look for such
omnipresent, primitive manifestations.

3. Ina universally undulating ether, any gross inertia of points or
particles, must establish special systems of both centripetal and centri-
fugal undulations.

4, The gross, inert particles, in an ethereal ocean, would be impelled
towards each other with velocities varying directly as the sum of their
inertias and inversely as the square of their distance.

5. As soon as a revolution is established around the common centre of
gravity of three nearly equal particles, under the influence of ethereal
undulations, there should be a tendency to discoid aggregation with a
central spheroidal nucleus.

6. On account of ethereal elasticity, there should also be a subordi-
nate tendency to aggregation along lines of logarithmic parabolas or
spirals.

7. In an infinitely diffused nebulous mass, all work would be internal.

8. In a finite, condensing, nebulous mass, there would be external
work, especially manifested in attraction, revolution, and rotation.

9. As condensation progresses, v/ (the velocity of revolution of a free

jz
equatorial particle) oc V p3 0’ (the velocity of rotation of a constrained

1
equatorial particle) oc 7, o (v’)?; g (the velocity of centripetal impul-
2

: i 2 4
sion) (;) a (0!) x (0/).

*Aurel Anderssohn, President; E. Fritsch; Dr. med. Magnus, privat-docent, Univ.
of Breslau; von Schmidt, 1st Lieut. in 6th Regt. Artillery; Dr. med. Luiwig Hey-
mann.

Chase. ] 142 [April 17,

10. The foregoing postulates are all equally true, whether the centri-
petal impulse originate in a thrust, orin a pull.

11. We have no direct evidence of any primitive pull, but we have
evidences of radiating thrusts of light and heat from stellar centres.

12. IJInall known cosmical motions, the centrifugal and centripetal
forces act under such laws of equilibrium, that the apparent pull of
gravity may be explained by the difference between external and inter-
mediate radiating thrusts.

13. We know of oscillations in the «ethereal sea, propagated with te
(the velocity of light). The communication of an exceedingly minute
portion of that velocity to inert particles, would be sufficient to produce
all the phenomena of gravitation.

14. The greatest manifestation of gravitating force in our system
(g at Sun’s surface) — 875.618 ft. — 875.618 & 584,400 = 511,711,159
mean light. waves per second. There being 592 (10) mean light-waves
511,711,159 1

592 (10) 1157 (10)

per second, that force could be produced by

of the mean velocity of each light-wave.
15. If gravity were propagated with infinite velocity, and any inert
mass were concentrated in a point, a body falling to that point would
obtain an infinite velocity.
16. If gravity is the resultant of oscillations of finite velocity, and if
solar rotation, planetary revolution, and solar motion in space, are all
resultants of gravitating action, their velocities should‘all be limited by

y” (the velocity of the primary efficient oscillation).

17. In a homogeneous circular disc, of infinitesimal thickness, g « dis-
tance from centre.

18. If such a disc were revolving in a circular orbit, under the
combined influence of tangential and centripetal thrusts, in a slightly
compressible ethereal ocean, it should rotate as well as revolve, the

limit of possible rotating velocity being 0”.

19. If the supposed dise should acquire such a velocity that at the
periphery v/ = o// = ;/gr, the same equations would be true for every
particle in the disc.

20. In a sphere or spheroid, the superficial centripetal thrusts should
produce an increase of density at and towards the centre.

21. The ratio of the rotating action of an ethereal stream on the
equatorial plane of a nebulous sphere, to the propelling force of the same
stream acting on the spherical surface, is art An , or 1:4.

22. Ina rotating and revolving star, planet, or satellite, each equa-
torial particle oscillates in waves which have a height equivalent to
twice the distance of the particle from the centre of gravity of the rota-
ting body.

1874.] 145 [Chase.

“3. If t// — time of rotation, the integral of the impulses communica-

. . = : th

ted during each rise or fall of the rotation-wave, is Ge R
>)
~

24, If the rotating body were to expand or contract uniformly,

1 9 e .
Ol ee p and t/” o¢ r° OC ee gt’ is .*. a constant quantity for each par-
2
ticle.

25. At the trough of the rotation-wave, the accumulated retrograde
velocity is exactly equal to the originating velocity of tangential orbital
impulsion. In other words, J“”’ — y*-

2
26. The velocity of rotation would become equal to the velocity of
t!/ t! .
7 suntlhs LO ans
wT Dire

iv wie

revolution, when the sphere had contracted so that

limiting velocity of inertial aggregation is, therefore, such as would

carry a body through the equatorial diameter of a spheroid, while ad
would describe its equatorial circumference.

27. The elasticity of the «ther should give rise to harmonic vibrations,
and especially to vibrations which involve multiples of 1/2,* 3,+ V 4, |
and <§.

28. In consequence of the harmonic vibrations, there should be a
tendency to the establishment of points of inertia, and the consequent
aggregation of planets and satellites, at harmonic nodes. Such a ten-
dency is illustrated by the Chladni plates, and the 14th Thesis shows
that the supposed cause of aggregation is more than adequate for the
production of the supposed effects.

29. The blending of different harmonic vibrations should produce
secondary vibrations of a lower order, giving rise to varying orbital ec-
centricities.

30. The influence of harmonic vibrations should be traceable, not only
in planetary positions, but also in their masses, momenta, and moments
of inertia. ;

21. The «ethereal action upon inert masses or particles, should be
followed by a reaction of the particles upon the ether. Subordinate
_ rotating impulsions should thus be established among the planets, and
satellites, and particles.

- 32. The same harmonic laws which introduce order among the various
bodies of the macrocosmic system, should also be operative in various
forms of orderly arrangement, within each of those bodies.

*The velocity of fall from infinite distance — V 29".
{Centre of linear oscillation = 2 J,

Centre of spherical oscillation = V2? ire
§See Thesis 26.

Chase. ] 144 [ April 17,

30. The superiority of the wave-theory over the equilibrium theory of
tides, demonstrates the importance of considering the cumulative effect
of successive impulses, both in molar and in molecular investigations.

34, The height of the atmosphere is sufficient to give the total wave
tide a position identical with the equilibrium-tide, with the crest verti-
cally under the disturbing body.

30. The stratification of the atmosphere, indicated by the various
currents, should often produce tides in the lower couches of the air
identical in position with the ocean tides, with the trough vertically
under the disturbing body.

36. The resultant of the tangential and radial orbital impulses upon the
elastic atmosphere, combined with the resistance of the earth’s surface,
should produce daily barometric fluctuations, of such general form and
magnitude as have been observed.

37. All tidal influences upon the atmosphere, whether thermal or
gravitating in their immediate dependence, should be modified in accord-
ance with Ferrel’s laws.

38. There should be cumulative annual as well as daily barometric
tides, and in consequence of the tendency to maintain ‘‘ equality of
areas,’’ the two should be so connected as to furnish data for approxi-
mate estimates of the Sun’s distance.

39. Local temperature should be a measure of the work accomplished
by the various local ethereal impulses. The average temperature of
different latitudes should, therefore, be determinable by a priori mathe-
matical calculation.

40. The barometric tides, if they are dependent upon elastic sthereal
waves, should furnish some indications of the elasticity and resistance of
the ether.

41. If the disturbances of the moon and planets upon the atmosphere,
are produced through the intervention of undulations, and therefore
cumulative, evidences of such disturbances should be found in the cycles
of meteorological phenomena. The disturbances should be of a greater
magnitude than any that are attributable to mere differential-tidal
attraction. ;

42. The velocity and length of sound waves should bear some definite
harmonic relation to the mean velocity of the atmosphere, as well as to
the velocity and length of the waves in the primary efficient undulation.

43. The daily and annual variations of magnetic needles, should be
similar to those which would be produced by mechanical vibrations simu-
lating the thermal currents in the atmosphere.

44, Harmonic analogies should afford probable bases for astronomical,
physical, and chemical anticipations.

45. Harmonic relations should be traceable, between gaseous oscilla-
tions relatively to the Sun and any given planet, which are dependent
upon the relative masses of the disturbing bodies.

46. If gaseous particles are uniformly distributed along a given line

le
1874.] 145 [Chase.

in consequence of an explosion, a secondary centre of linear oscillation
should be established between the primary centre and the centre of
gravity, [2 — 2 of (¢ — 3) =].

47. Planets and satellites, oscillating under the combined action of
centrifugal and centripetal forces, and subject to disturbances from
mutual interaction, should tend to arrangements analogous to those of
the particles in an exploded gas.

48. The force of superficial gravity, at the Sun and at the principal
planets, should be in simple harmonic relations to other elements of
planetary motion.

49. The laws of mechanical arrangement, in the particles of a homo-
geneous elastic ether, should give rise to polar forces.

50. The velocity of primary oscillation (Theses 16, 25, &c.,) which
satisfies the foregoing theses, by explaining all velocities which are the result-
ants of gravitating force, ts the velocity of light.

These Theses seem to me to be all rigorously and mathematically
connected with the hypothesis of a universal elastic ether. In my
accounts of the successive tentative steps, inductive, deductive, and
anticipative, by which [have been brought to their recognition, there has
necessarily been much that was crude, and some things that were
perhaps merely visionary, but the steps have all led towards the same
goal. While endeavoring to learn caution from my mistakes, I
have never ceased for a moment to believe that the many harmonies and
coincidences which I have pointed out, were indicative of important but
unknown laws.

The identification of 0” and o', (Thesis 50), is perhaps the most
important conclusion of the whole, and its importance may render some-
what fuller details desirable. The common explanation of planetary
motions, assumes a primitive tangential impulse and a constant gravi-
tating pull, the resultant of the two forces determining the path at every
instant. But it should be remembered that the efficient tangential im-
pulse is by no means the one which was originally communicated ; that
it, as well as the pull of gravity, is continually shifting its direction, and
continually renewed ; and that all the known cosmical motions can be as
readily accounted for by the impulse of waves upon particles differing
in their relative amounts of inertia, as in any other way.

In any case of free orbital revolution around a centre of gravity, every
infinitesimal pull of gravitation is assumed to be efficient, in some way

or other. If the orbit is circular, the orbital velocity (;/g7) is renewed,
as often as a portion of the orbit, equivalent to radius, has been described.
This fact is, of itself, suggestive of equal oscillations, either alternately
or simultaneously centripetal and tangential, and it may well justify us
in looking for some equally simple relationship to an invariable velocity
of primitive and continual impulsion.

The only presumably invariable velocity that we know, being that of

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. §

Chase. ] 146 {April 17,

light, and the only mode of viewing gravitating action, under an inva-
riable relation to a uniform velocity, being the one which I have pointed

out in Theses 23 and 24, there seems to be an a priort probability that vo
may be represented by some simple function of the constant velocity
gt’, and that gravitating motion, as well as light motion, may be undu-
latory. Since gravitating fall acts, in orbital motion, until the sum of
successive gravitating impulses has communicated a tangential velocity

equal to ;/gr, thus renewing the orbital velocity, it seems natural enough
to suppose that the same fall may also act, in rotary motion, until the
sum of successive impulses has communicated a centripetal velocity

== o = vo, thus renewing the velocity of primary impulsinn. If the
gravitating thrusts or pulls are supposed to be all efficient, it is not only
right, but itis even our duty, as earnest truth-seekers, to try to trace
their efficiency as far as possible.

In the oscillation described in Thesis 22, each equatorial particle is al-
ternately approaching to, and receding from, the orbital centre of gravity,
during intervals of a half rotation. The integral of gravitating im-
pulses, at the centre of our system, during each wave rise or fall, is,
perhaps, as closely identified with the velocity of light, as is the integral
of gravitating impulses, during the orbital description of radius, with

the orbital velocity. For, from the equation os ag” vy we deduce,
for the time of solar rotation, ¢/’ — jaime A a < (sa38 iy This
; 2 x 497.827 ~~ \214.86z/ ©

value differs, by less than 2 of one per cent., from the estimate of

Bianchi, Laugier, and Herschel, and by less than 34 per cent. from that
of Spérer, which is the lowest estimate hitherto published. From the

//
constant solar equation, aes at we readily obtain, by introducing the
9
variable 7, the general equation for planetary velocity, ‘gr == ee of
t//

The following references are to the published volumes of the Proceed-
ings of the American Philosophical Society, except when otherwise
specified. The Arabic numerals, prefixed to each set of references,
denote the Thesis which they verify or exemplify.

2. ix. 871, April 15, 1864 ; ix. 427, 482, Oct. 21, 1864; x. 98, April 21,
1865; xii. 392, Feb. 16, 1872 ; xii. 411, July 19,1872; Trans, Amer:
Philos. Soc., xiii. Art. VI.

- 8, xi. 108, April 2, 1869; xiii. 140, 142, Feb. 7, 1873.

4, xiii. 245, May 16, i873.

6. xii. 518-22, Sept. 20, 1872; xiii. 193, 244, April 4, May 16, 1878.

. xiii. 146, March 7, 1873; xiii. 243, 245, May 16, 1873.
12. xiii. 193, April 4, 1873.

1374. ] 147 [ Chase,

13-26. ix. 408, July 15, 1864; xi. 103, April 2, 1869; xiii. 148, March
7, 1873 ; xiii. 245, May 16, 1873; xiv. 111-3, Feb. 5, 1874.

27-32. x. 261-9, Sept. 21, 1866; x. 3858, Nov. 15, 1867; xii. 392-400,
Feb. 16, April 5, 1872; xii. 403-17, May 16, July 19, 1872; xiii. 140-54,
Keb. 7, 16, March 7, 21, 1873; xiii. 193-8, April 4, 1873; xiii. 2387-48,
May 2, 16, 1873; xiii. 470-7, Oct. 3, 1873; xiv. 111-3, Feb. 5, 1874.

38. ix. 283-8, Dec. 18, 1863 ; ix. 292, Jan. 1, 1864; ix. 346-9, March 4,
1864 ; ix. 367-71, April 15, 1864; xii. 178-90, Aug. 18, 18715 et passim.

34-5. x. 523-33, Oct. 2, 1868; xii. 180, Aug. 18, 1871; xii. 525, July
19, 1872.

36, ix. 284, Dec. 18, 1863.

37. Mathematical Monthly, i. 140, sqq.; January 1859, and continued
in subsequent Numbers, some of the results having been published
about two years before, in the Nashville Journal of Medicine and
' Surgery.

38. ix. 287, Dec. 18, 1863.

39. ix. 346-8, March 4, 1864; ix. 395.9, June 17, 1864; x. 261-9, Sept.
21, 1866.

40. ix. 292, Jan. 1, 1864; ix. 408, July 15, 1864.

41. x. 261-9, Sept. 21, 1866 ; x. 439, June 19, 1868; x. 530-3, Oct. 2,
1868 ; xi. 118, May 7, 1869; xi. 203, Oct. 1, 1869; xii. 38-40, March 38,
1871 ; xii. 65-70, March 17, April 7, 18715; xii, 121-3, May 5, June 16,
1871; xii. 178-90, Aug. 18, 1871; xii. 400, April 5, 1872; xii. 523-9, Ocs.
18, 1872 ; xii. 556-9, Nov. 1, 1872.

42, xi. 109, April 2, 1869; xiii. 150, March 21, 1873.

43. ix. 359, 367-71, April 1, 15, 1864; ix. 427-40, Oct. 21, 1864; x. 98,
111, sqq., April 21, May 19, 1865 ; x. 151-66, Oct. 6, 1865 ; x. 358, Nov...
15, 1867; xiii. 153, March 21, 1873; Trans. Amer. Philos. Soe., xiii.
Art. VI.

44, ix. 284, Dec. 18, 1863 ; xiii. 140, sqq., Feb. 7, March 21, 1873 ; xiii. .
237, 202, May 2, 16, 1873; xiii. 470, Oct. 3, 1878.

45. xii. 392, sqq., Feb. 16, 1872; xiii. 142, Feb. 7, 1873.

46-8. xi. 103-7, April 2, 1869; xii. 392, sqq., Feb. 16, March 1, May 16,..
July 19, 1872 ; xiii. 140, sqq., Feb. 7, March 7, 1873.

49. ix. 399, 367-9, April 1, 15, 1864; xii. 407-8, May 16, 1872.

50. ix. 408, July 15, 1864 ; ix. 427, 4382, Oct. 21, 1864; x. 261-9 ; Sept.
21, 1866 ; xi. 108, sqq., April 2, 1869 ; xiii. 149, March 7, 1873 ; xiii, 245, .
May 16, 1873; xiv. 111-3, Feb. 5, 1874; et passim.

Chase. | 148 [ April 3,

SAVING-FUND LIFE-INSURANCE.
By Priny EARLE CHASE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 3d, 1874.)

Hiizur Wright, the eminent Actuary and formerly State Commissioner
of Life Insurance for Massachusetts, has proposed a combination of
Saving Fund and Life Insurance, to dispense with the extravagant com-
missions of canvassers, and with other enormous expenses incident to
the present competitive system. If sufficient business could be secured,
there can be no doubt that such a combination would work admirably.
In order to float a company until a paying business is established, Mr.
Wright proposes to start with a capital of $500,000.

But capitalists are timid in regard to untried enterprises, especially
when it is proposed to enter a business field without resorting to any
of the customary methods for inviting business. It may, therefore, be
well to inquire if there be no other way, in which some analogous ex-
periment may be tried safely, cheaply, fairly, beneficially, and in every
way satisfactorily.

Life Insurance is the safest of all kinds of underwriting. The risks
are known with greater certainty, the contingencies of extraordinary
misfortune are fewer, the margin reserved for unforeseen calamities is
more liberal, and the interest of the beneficiary in guarding the risk is
greater, than in any other of the many forms of protective insurance.
The only case in which a guarantee capital would be of any advantage,
‘is when heavy losses occur before sufficient accumulations have been
provided to meet them.

Saving Funds, notwithstanding their occasional failure, have long
been, and will doubtless continue to be, more popular than Life Insu-
rance Companies. They require no expensive corps of agents or can-
vassers, and but little advertising, especially if the interest of the benevo-
lent can be enlisted in their behalf. This may be easily done if other
advantages are added to those of an ordinary Savings Bank, and es-
pecially if the depositors and friends of the Institution can be brought to
feel that the money can be withdrawn in case of pressing personal
necessity, while, in case of early and unexpected death, the bereft family
will be specially benefited. The proper way, therefore, to inaugurate
the proposed experiment, would seem to be, to add new inducements to
a system that is already cheap and popular, rather than to enter into the
field of direct competition with the cumbrous and expensive organizations
and appliances which have been thought necessary for the successful
working of a system that is costly, and, ia many respects, unpopular.

In order to secure such added advantagesas I have suggested, I submit
the following outline of a plan, which may, perhaps, be so modified by
hints derived from the study or experience of others, as to be deemed
worthy of practical trial.

1. Credit all depositors with four per cent. simple interest, and give
them the right to draw upon their accounts, either under the usual re-

1874.] 149 [CLage.

strictions, or subject’ to such regulations as may from time to time seem
desirable. b

2. Credit all profits to a general fund for the benefit of the family, or
other specified persons, at the death of each depositor, the interest of
each contributor, in the common fund, being proportional to the amount
of his average deposits.

5d. Encourage beneficial contributionships, of stated sums per week,
month, or year, for the payment of fixed sums at the time of death, the
payments being further guaranteed by a sufficient stipulated tax upon
all the survivors.

4, Open accounts in accordance with the ordinary principles of Life
Insurance, crediting each deposite with the amount of a fully-paid
policy to which it would be entitled. These accounts will facilitate the
determination, at the death of each depositor, of his interest in the com-
mon fund, and they will prepare the way fora final safe assumption of all
the risks of specific Life Insurance, Endowments, Annuities, Tontines, &c.

5. Allow the beneficiaries, if they desire it, to continue their partici-
pation in the accumulated profits, for ten years after the death which
gives them an interest in those profits.

6. Convince merchants, manufacturers, clergymen, and benevolent
individuals generally, that the depositors in the proposed institution
will receive a greater return, in case of early death or other unforeseen
calamity, than they could obtain from any other source. The voluntary,
unpaid recommendations, thus secured, would soon command a large and
profitable business.

7. Enlist the co-operation, in the Board of Directors, of men whose
reputation for tried integrity and disinterested philanthropy, will be a
sufficient guarantee of wise and equitabls administrations.

8. Invite an examination, by the wealthy and charitable, of the claims
of the Institution for their consideration, and for a participation in their
bounty. Contributions thus obtained should be added to a permanent
fund, the income being used for the benefit of all the depositors.

After a sufficient capital has been accumulated, all the specific under-
takings of Life Insurance and Annuity Companies could be assumed
with perfect safety, and with the assurance of larger returns than any
Company can now afford. A large amount of the best class of business
would come from intelligent, careful men, who are influenced more by
their own judgment of the merits of a system, than by the representa-
tions of canvassers. There would be no forfeiture, no anxiety from fear
of inability to meet the yearly increasing burden of a large yearly pre-
mium, no doubtful hesitation about investing the unusual profits of pros-
perous years, no fears of pettifogging attempts to evade payment in case
of death. The young, strong, industrious and prudent, whose risks are
least, while their need of insurance, in case of unexpected calamity, is
greatest, would contribute so large a part of the deposits, that the
accumulations of the benificiary fund would be unusually great, and all
the participants would be proportiouately helped thereby.

Blodget. ] 150 [May 1,

A DOWNWARD ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION, AS ONE
CAUSE OF EXTREMES OF COLD.

By Lorin BLopGer.
(Read before the American Philosophical Sciety, May 1st, 1874).

The system of atmospheric circulation which gives us a general easterly
movement in temperate latitudes, scarcely needs further explanation, yet
the recent establishment of observatories en Mount Washington and on
Pike’s Peak, are found to afford positive evidence in verification of such
movement that is full of interest. The easterly current on the top of
Mount Washingon, at least, is almost constant and with extreme velocity,
in a direction the resultant of which is almost due east, and there are no
conditions apparent to throw doubt on the general assumption that this
is the returning current of a vast system of atmospheric circulation to
and from the tropics, primarily, through which the heat and humidity
of the tropics are widely diffused at both the northern and southern tem-
perate belts.

But I propose only to refer to some deductions that have for some time
past impressed me with great force, as to the origin of certain almost in-
explicable facts of our climate, at points near the northern border of this
system of circulation ; and particularly ‘in the colder parts of the United
States, east of the Rocky Mountains, in winter, and indeed, in all the
cold months. I had the honor to lay before this Society on a former oc-
casion, some suggestions as to the origin of the extremes of cold observed
at various points, chiefly of the northwestern interior, and to express the
conviction that these extremes were not propagated, or transferred along
the surface, as a part of what is usually thought to be the surface circu-
lation from the west; and also that they do not move down—that is,
along the surface—from the north, or from any other point of the com-
pass. On the contrary, they appear to be instituted or established at the
point of their most extreme existence, as if brought down from the upper
atmosphere, or as if the result of the action of causes extraneous to the
earth’s atmosphere.

The recent extension of observations to the territories of the plains,
and to posts on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, has given us a new
basis of facts for the discussion of the symmetrical climates of the eastern
United States, as I may call them, since their principal changes are
usually quite symmetrical ;—and it has disclosed the fact that no sym-
metry or correspondence of phenomena can be traced across the Rocky
Mountains, connecting any great storm, or any area of excessive heat, or
excessive cold, with any like condition at the east. I have been particu-
larly observant of such facts as I could obtain in regard to this point
along the northern belt, for the purpose, first, of tracing, if possible, the
origin of the remarkable extremes of cold occurring in Dakota and Min-
nesota ; and have spent much time in examining these cases, with the
result of coming to the conclusion that there is absolutely no connection

1874 } 151 [ Blodget.

or movement from Oregon or Washington Territories eastward to the
country of the Upper Missouri, or to the line of Red River of the north.
There is no progressive march of a refrigerated area, or of a barometric
depression, along that line from west to east across the mountains. And
the line of separation is far east of the mountains themselves, apparently
as far as the Yellowstone, nearly, though of course, there is some partial
correspondence of phenomena west of this line, and some general relation
of the principal conditions. And here I anticipate the more precise re-
sults I hope to obtain, in explanation and corroboration of these positions,
in order to put forth a view of the causes of these phenomena which ap-
pear to me new, and which I hope others will examine also. It is that
in the system of atmospheric circulation before referred to, there must
be a general descent of atmospheric volumes to the surface at or near
the northern border of the belt ;—that this descent may be of masses
sometimes large, and depleted of both heat and moisture before they de-
scend ;--that descending volumes may come also from the adjacent at-
mosphere on the north, not containing heat or moisture brought from the
tropics ;—and that, as a general fact these cold, dry masses of air, sink-
ing quietly, or poured down with force and violence, to spread over the
‘surface as cold and violent winds, do cause many otherwise inexplicable
extremes of cold in the winter and spring particularly.

The descent of masses of heavy, cold air, must often be induced simply
to fill the void caused by contraction of the volume of air from which rain
and snow fall. All along the belt of westerly winds this contraction is
going on, and this very rapidly during all the colder months. Moving
with a constant motion toward the earth, as well as along the surface, it
is only a natural vicissitude of this condition, that the descending mass
should, at intervals, be poured, like a mass of cold water, over the border
of the humid belt, producing the extremes that so often appear to strike
down from above.

I do not remember seeing much reference, hitherto, to descending vol-
umes of air on the northern border of this belt of circulation, yet as the
trade winds steadily withdraw the air beneath, toward the tropics, it
must necessarily return above ; and it must descend as it returns. If all
these movements were perfectly regular, we should see no spasms of se-
verity, but as, in fact, there are many days of steadily expanding heat in
spring, the days on which the contraction occurs are only the more vio-
lent. Hence those heavy pouring winds, that bring such severity of cold
during the spring months ; winds which are neither winds of propulsion,
nor of aspiration, but merely the forcing down of cold masses of air from
the upper atmosphere, to spread along the surface to some extent, but to
be perpetually recruited and renewed from above. An easy experiment
will illustrate the condition, by dropping the upper sashes of high win-
dows in a heated room on a cold day,—the downward movement will
prove unexpectedly tangible and heavy, and as conspicuously marked,
almost, as if water were poured through the windows.

Blodget.j 1 D 2 [May 1,

On several occasions during the present month of April, the weather in
he seaboard States has exhibited this phenomenon. All of the severely
cold weather, for the season, has been initiated at the point where its
greatest severity was experienced ; not being transferred along the sur-
face from any point at the west, or at the north. For many days of the
present month (April) these cold and heavy winds have been felt in the
country east of the Alleghanies, when in no single instance that I can
trace, has there been any connection or conformity of movement from the
western or northern interior. Like severity has often existed there, but
the fact, and all its relations, was local in this sense, or was not connected
or continuous with other districts.

When the enormous friction of atmospheric contact with the surface is
taken into account, it must be apparent that there can be few winds of
propulsion. I think it may be fairly assumed that the greater number of
winds in cold weather particularly, are winds that descend, and that to
this descent most of their continued force is due. On Saturday, April 11,
and Sunday, April 12, the thermometer fell at Washington under the in-
fluence of these obviously descending winds until in the night of the 12th
it reached a minimum of 19°, while for three days previous no place west
of the Alleghanies in the same latitude was below 50°, and the average
temperature at Fort Sully, on the Missouri, 1200 feet above the sea, and
in latitude 45° north, was as warm as at Philadelphia, at sea level, in
latitude 429 N. This remarkable depression of temperature could not
have been due to radiation, since all the areas west and north were even
more exposed to radiation, being clear and calm ; nor was it due to north
or northwest winds propagated along the surface, for there had been no
cold winds from these points at the west or north for several days. Nor
was there any general storm to effect a displacement or shrinkage, at
least no storm on the continent. There may have been some general
storm, or shrinkage at sea, however, facilitating or inducing @ descent of
heavy masses of cold air from above to supply the partial vacuum.

I venture to assume, therefore, a large measure of influence in causing
extremes of cold in these latitudes to the descending volume of air inei-
dent to the shrinking and wasting of heat and moisture from the atmos-
pheric current eastward in the course of traversing the continent. Its
northern border is perpetually invaded by fitful alternations of displace-
ment; sometimes getting calm and intensely cold, to reduce the tempera-
ture in winter to 10°, 20° or 30° below zero; and in spring, when the
general accession of heat gives a more free play of the forces, a frequent
recurrence of heavy northwest dry winds poured from above, and from
the north, displacing and condensiny the local, or surface atmosphere ;
and this overflow is almost constantly repeated until the whole system of
circulation has been swept beyond our limits at the north, by the advance
of summer. During most of the summer months the rarifying and ex-
panding forces prevail so completely, as to remove all these phenomena
far to the north, or possibly to another hemisphere.

1874.] 153 [ Blodget.

We shall undoubtedly be compelled to revise our views as to the pri-
mary or leading condition of general storms. The barometer is by no
means a certain guide, and instances of severe storms with continuing
high pressure throughout are frequently recurring. The recent severe
storm of Saturday and Sunday, April 25th and 26th. This storm began
with the barometer .15 above the mean, and scarcely fell below the mean
(of 30. inches) after ten or twelve hours of continued severity, and when
at its height here, on Saturday evening. At Pittsburgh, Cincinnati,
Louisville, &c., there was also no perceptible depression below the mean,
the barometer being generally at almost exactly 50 inches. No storm
was anticipated by the signal office, nor were there any evidences such
as usually appear, justifying anticipations of a severe storm. Yet few
storms have been as severe, the N. EH. wind of Saturday night being ex-
tremely heavy here, while northeastward, to Nova Scotia, the slow but
certain progress continued throughout the day and night of Sunday. On
Monday morning, it is true, a considerable barometric depression appears
in Maine and Nova Scotia, of half an inch, or more, in places, but this
appears to have set in eastward of New York, almost exclusively. The
storm was violent and long continued at New York and southward, with
very little barometric depression, not enough to warrant expectations of
a storm, or any severity of winds. There have been several conspicuous
instances of a similar character since the Signal Service observations gave
us such excellent opportunities for observation.

I repeat, that the evidence is cumulative in support of the position that
the atmospheric movement in the colder seasons in these latitudes is one
of constant descent of volumes ; that the cold gales of the spring months,
strike in at areas east of the Alleghanies from the northwest, when they
are unknown west of that line ; and occur in repeated instances not only
when by no possibility they could be continuous, or connected with like
movements propagated from the northwest, but also when the winds,
even so near as Pittsburgh, blew all the time in an opposite direction.

The almost inexplicable phenomena presented by the severity, the per-
sistence and force of these winds, with the low temperature they bring,
become easy of solution, under the view that their volume is perpetually
renewed at all points where they prevail, by constant pouring from above,
as if a current of cold water was renewed and enforced in its movement
by so pouring a stream downward, as well as along the surface. On each
of the last three days the facts of such forcible descending winds were
experienced here, and during the full period of ten days preceding there
was, as the Signal Office charts will show, a marked absence of west or
northwest winds at all points of the western or northwestern interior,
from which it is usually supposed these high cold winds are derived, and
propagated eastward along the surface to the Atlantic Coast. In fact,
for a week from April 25th to May 1st, the weather was warmer at Pem-
bina, lat. 49° N., than at Philadelphia, in 42° N., being 44° for the 1 a.
M. observation at Pembina, to 42° for the same at Philadelphia.

A. RP. S.—VOL. XIV. T

Channing. ] 154 [May 1, 1874.

METEOROLOGICAL PECULIARITIES OF NEW ENGLAND.
By WILuiAM F. CHannine, M. D.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 1st, 1874.) —

For twenty years I have noticed au invariable coincidence between
the appearance of ice in quantity on the Newfoundland Banks or neigh-
borhood, and an unusual, often constant rainfall in New England. This
rainfall appears to be in proportion generally to the amount of ice, and
it is followed, I think always, by a dry period, perhaps a drought of
several weeks, the drought apparently having some proportion to the ex-
cess of previous rainfall. |

The appearance of ice on the Banks or neighborhood varies in differ-
ent years, from April to June, and the wet spring and summer drought
are early or late accordingly. Many years the quantity of ice is small
and the disturbance of the rainfall is hardly noticeable. I am aware how
many observations are‘required to establish a meteorological law for any
part of the earth’s surface. I therefore only venture to ask attention to
these coincidences.

There is another obvious peculiarity in the meteorology of the New
England coast, due to its geographical position. The projection of
Eastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island into the Ocean may be com-
pared to a nose on the Atlantic profile of the country. It happens hence
that storms following a course parallel with the coast, but either just
inside or outside the coast line, will in the one case pass entirely inside
the projecting shore of New England, and in the other, sweep over
Eastern New England, without warning, while the rest of the country
enjoys average clear weather. From these two proceedings, land storms
passing inside, and sea storms extending over the coast from Cape Ann
to New London, it results that the weather predictions are more fre-
quently falsified over this region than perhaps on any other part of the
coast or interior. And yet no part of the American Coast is more densely
thronged with vessels in both the coasting and foreign trade.

It would seem desirable, for the study of the ocean storms, which
sometimes thus touch New England, {as well probably as Hatteras), to
extend the Signal Service to the Bermudas (by a special cable) and also
to Nantucket, and generally to extreme outlaying points on the coast.

and
May 1, 1874.] 155 (Frazer.

NOTE ON THE COLOR OF THE MOON.
By Pror. PERSIFER FRAZER, Jr.

(Read before the American Philosophical Soc.ety, May, \st, 1874.)

On the 19th of September, 1873, I presented to the Society certain
views which as it seemed to me offered a satisfactory explanation of the
change of color undergone by the moon during the passage of the
twilight circle overher disc. i stated at that time that since what light
we get from the moon is reflected solar light, which so far as we can
discover has suffered no change on the surface of the moo ,, it would be
natural to suppose that the color of the light would be the same as that
of the Sun’s light.

The Sun’s light is weil known to be orange, and the Moon’s in the day
time white, while at night the latter exhibits the same color as the Sun,
though the light is vastly more feeble. «

That this change of color in the Moon depends upon the position of
the observer relative to the Sun there can be no doubt, and it is equally
certain that the phenomenon is of atmospheric origin, for the moon still
remains white for some time after the Sun has set.

If, as Tyndall supposes, the blue color of the sky be due to the scat-
tering of the smaller waves of light by the infinitessimal particles or
motes of the upper atmosphere ; and if the paths pursued by these re-
flected blue waves be, as experiment proves, in all directions from all
parts of this attenuated matter, the change of color may be easily ex-
plained.*

Thus the Sun appears to us orange or yellow, because, of the waves
constituting white light, which impinge upon our atmosphere, a greater
proportion of blue than of red and yellow waves are scattered. Of these
waves thus scattered, a large proportion is thrown out again into space,
while what remain are sent in all directions—even directly towards the
Sun.

This is one cause of the blueness of the sky, if not the only one.

When the Moon is shining at night the same conditions are fulfilled.
A small fraction of the Sun’s light is thrown unchanged into our atmos-
phere and suffers the same filtering which his beams in daylight undergo;
with this difference, that as the blue rays are very inferior to the yellow
in luminousness, the more the amownt of light is diminished, the brighter
relatively to the whole amount will appear these scattered rays; and

*The objection that if the waves of light were thus sifted by tenuous matter, those
of least length (or the ultra violet) would impart their color to the sky is invalid be-
cause Tyndall has shown, and every one can demonstrate for himself, that the earliest

appearance of color in a medium in which infinitessimally fine particles of matter are
suspended is blue. Vide ‘‘ Blue color of sky,”’ &c., Tyndall,

Fe
Frazer. ] 156 [May 1, 1874.

thus it happens that in a clear moon-light night the sky is much more
strikingly blue than the same sky would be at mid-day.

When the Moon shines in the day-time we must suppose that the rays
she sends to us are affected in precisely the same way as at night. If
she appear white (as is the case) it must be owing to an addition to this
light of the constituents which it has lost, viz., blue. We know that
these waves are coming to the eye from every part of the sky, and there-
fore from that part occupied by the disc of the Moon, and hence the in-
ference is natural that this contribution from the store of the Sun’s light
just makes up what was necessary to produce white light, and that as
this accession can go on after the setting of the Sun, and until the
twilight circle has passed over the Moon, the whiteness of the latter will
commence to fade as the thickness of shell of direct rays diminishes, and
the maximum of deviation from the color (under given conditions of the
atmosphere) will be reached just after the Sun has reached a point in the
heavens whence the last direct ray tangent to the earth’s surface falls in
the upper limits of the atmosphere on a line joining the Moon with the
eye of the observer.

But there is a practical mode of testing this hypothesis, which is de-
pendent upon the polarization of the sky light in direetions perpendicu-
lar to the Sun’s rays.

When the Moon is in her first quarter she lies in just this direction
from the observer; and since the blue light from the Sun, which, added
to her own, causes her to appear white, is polarized, the Moon when
viewed through a Nicols’ prism by day ought to appear orange.

This observation has been many times repeated by me, and the results
are precisely those anticipated.

Owing to the fact that there is always some unpolarized light received
in this direction the change of color is not quite so marked as is that
from day to night, still the change is very striking and unmistakable.

There is another cause for the blue color of the sky which is the effect
of contrast in the eye. If all the light which was reflected was white
light and very generally diffused over the firmament, the effect of the
bright yellow orb of the Sun or Moon would be to tinge this light with
blue so far as the subjective phenomenon was concerned. But that this
does not explain the whole of the phenomenon is evident from the fact
that the blue light obtained by Tyndall from his decomposition tubes
was also polarized in a direction perpendicular to the path of the beam.

LS7
May 1, 1874.] vl [Fulton.

NOTE ON THE SOMERSET COUNTY COAL BEDS IN PENN-
SYLVANTA.

By Jonn FULToN.
(Lead before the American Philosophical Society, Muy 1st, 1874.)

In a recent professional visit to Somerset county, I obtained a vertical
section of a portion of the Lower Coal Measures. As this part of the
State has been, until quite recently, shut out from investigation, I pre-
sumed that this scale would be interesting, and I respectfully submit it.

The section was obtained from recent coal exploratians, near the
village of Garrett, on the Pittsburg and Connellsville Railroad. At this
place, the Seral Conglomerate is very clearly developed, rising gently
westward on the eastern flank of Negro Mountain.

Negro Mountain, or rather the Anticlinal bearing this name, plows up
the middle of the first great basin, dividing it, at this place, into two
shallow troughs having their greatest depth of coal measures near
Meyer’s Mills and Bear Creek—the whole lying between the Alleghany
Mountain on the east, and Laurel Hill on the west.

Over the back of Negro Mountain, the coal measures and conglomerate
have been swept away, leaving uncovered the red back of this large anti-
clinal.

Castleman’s River cuts deeply across the Negro Mountain anticlinal,
unfolding a natural geological section, which has been further elabora-
ted by the railroad cuttings along its northern bank—the whole affording
unusual facilities for studying Formations XI and XII, with the posture
and stratigraphy of the coal measures shoreing on either flank.

Beginning in the railroad cutting, immediately west of Garrett Sta-
tion, the Seral Conglomerate can be studied up to its floor. In this cut-
ting, a thin seam of impure coal has been brought to light. It also ex-
hibits a rather unusual plunge of the strata eastward, carrying the
measures down 300 feet in three quarters of a mile—-with this exception,
the measures exist under very gentle dips. :

The Conglomerate, in its mechanical structure and general appearance,
resembles very closely Broad Top and Clearfield.

I did not obtain its total thickness but examined over 300 feet of it,
which indicates a greater depth than at Broad Top.

The floor line is distinctly marked in a bold cliff outcrop, 10 feet deep,
of rather massive Conglomerate, slashed with clearage planes.

On this rests a belt composed, at its base, of thin plates of sandstone
graduating into shales and blackslate as it approaches the (A) coal seam.
The division has been terraced with a flat slope, from the brow of the
Conglomerate to the coal seam, profiling the two horizons very dis-
tinctly.

The first coal seam rests on a thin floor of fireclay. The coal bed has

Fulton. ] 158 [May 1, 1874.

two benches, the lower, 18 inches thick, is an impure cannel coal inclin-
ing to block structure—the upper is a medium quality of semi-bitumi-
nous coal with the well marked columnar structure peculiar to the
Alleghany coals.

The interval between this and the next small coal seam is composed
of thin plates of sandstones with olive colored shales.

The second workable seam (B) is pre-eminently the bed of the Lower
system of coal measures. Not perhaps so much from its size and good
quality of coal, as from its ready and sure identification, wherever it
exists, by the massive bed of limestone on which it rests. The farmers
trace it from hillside to hillside, regarding it with peculiar affection as a
double gift—not only supplying fuel for domestic use, but also lime to en-
rich the ‘‘glades”’ in their mountain farms.

The coal in this bed is columnar in structure with plates of mineral
charcoal disseminated.

In structure and quality it is closely associated with the best Clearfield
coal. It will be found a superior fuel for iron working.

The third seam (C) is all pure coal of an excellent quality, but as the
bed is high in the measures and does not occupy a wide area in this
portion of the field, it has as yet received little attention.

From seam B to the top of the scale the measures are composed of
very soft flesh and olive colored shales, which have been rounded and
softened into easy rolling slopes and rounded hills.

Some pieces of the blue and drab colored carbonate iron ores of the
coal measures were shown me, but their places in the scale were not
clearly made out.

The coals from the Lower Measures have thus far only found a local
demand. Evidently the time has not come, or the right channel been
opened to this great ocean of mineral fuel. It is yet like the Dead Sea,
it has no outlet. True, the Pittsburgh and Connellsville railroad has
opened channels to the markets east and west, but the law of supply
from the large and excellent ‘‘ Pittsburgh seam,’’ west and east, is found
as inexorable as the law of gravity, in holding back the Somerset lower
coals, for the present at least.

There is one channel to market which is being discussed, that is, by
the opening of a railroad connection of 35 miles from Berlin to Mann’s
Choice on the Bedford Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad. This
would furnish a channel for these coals to flow into market side by side
with the Broad Top, Clearfield and Cumberland Coals.

Saxton, BEDFORD Co., Pa., April 17, 1874.

May 15, 1874.] 159 [Chase.

COSMICAL EVOLUTION.
By Piiny EARLE CHASE,
PROFESSOR OF Puysics IN HAVERFORD COLLEGE. |
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 15, 1874.)

We may reasonably assume, that natural laws which are the most
general and the most constant are also the oldest, and that increasing
specialization is an indication of increasing, and comparatively recent,
development.

The relation of luminous undulation to gravity may, perhaps, be
most satisfactorily formulated in the following terms :

At any point in space, perihelion velocity in a parabolic orbit (or its
equivalent, the velocity communicated by infinite gravitating appulsion
to the same point) 7s a mean proportional, between the variable mean
velocity of the vector-radial oscillation due to solar rotation,* and the con-
stant velocity ef light. In other words, if t/’ = time of solar rotation
under a volume of any assumed radius, 7,

4dr ea = a Qy/
Faas WHR 3 8! aV/ RGR 8 VO OS = IE

Since this formula, with the modifications indicated by Thesis 21,+ is
applicable to all possible orbital motions about the Sun, as wellas t> solar
rotation and solar motion in space, it seems to represent the most gene-
ral, and, therefore, the oldest physical law yet discovered. t

Next in point of generality, appears to be the relationship of orbital
belts to the point, towards or about which every particle of our system
is perpetually oscillating or tending to oscillate, viz., the mean-peri-
helion centre of gravity of our binary star§ (Sun-Jupiter). The
m-series of multiples of the primary radius which is determined by that
centre, § fixes the major axis of solar revolution about the stellar centre
of gravity, decides the relative masses of the Jovian and Telluric
systems, || and groups the planets into pairs, the points of division corres-
ponding with such apsides of Mercury, Earth, and Saturn, as recent in-
vestigations have shown to be actually correlated, through mutual plan-
etary interaction.

The next steps inthe development of planetary order, were, perhaps,
the fixing of an outer limit to the system, at such distance that the
passage of a light-wave, from its linear centre of oscillation to the sun,
is synchronous with the time of planetary revolution at the Sun’s sur-
face ;** the establishment of new centres of inertia at harmonic nodes ;

* The Sun’s volume being supposed to expard or contract, homogeneously, to the
given point.

+ Proce. Amer. Philo. Soc., April 17, 1874.

£ DWN MIDS TY DIN WN Genesis, i. 3.

§ xiii. 471, sqq.

|| xiii. 240, (3).

** Xili. 248, et ante.

Chase. ] 160 [May 15,

and the determination of orbital eccentricities by the blending influence ~
of linear, vircular, spherical, and harmonic undulations.§$

It is evident that every planet, satellite, or other rotating and revoly-
ing globe, may have its principal motions formulated by the continued
proportion,

ar Bypie Dp) x gu’ x 5

yi: i GP 8B WW AOR & ( = =| ; » being constant for each body,

2
under every possible variation of g, 7, and ¢/’. The various primary
cosmical velocities having been determined by the general ethereal undu-
lations, and the arrangement of the planets being dependent on subor-
dinate harmonic undulations, we may reasonably look for various second-

ary values of v% having a similar dependence, indicating a relation-
ship to solar centrifugal impulsion, analogous to that of the primary
velocities to ethereal centripetal impulsion, and marking a further pro-
gress in development.

The equilibrium of solar centrifugal and centripetal forces, indicated

by the equation » — j/gr, is a maximum at the Sun’s surface. This
maximum velocity is equivalent to the constant determining velocity

(0) for Jupiter and Earth, the controlling planets of the extra-aster-

oidal and intra-asteroidal belts.

There is still some uncertainty about the value of ¢’’ for any planet
but the Earth. But Proctor’s discussions seem to leave no room for
any important error in the case of Mars, and the lengths of days at
Jupiter, Saturn, Venus and Mercury, are known accurately enough to
furnish data for satisfactory comparisons. If we compute the values
of 0 = = " from the commonly accepted elements, and regard dimin-
ishing velocity as an evidence of increasing inertia and lapse of time, the
order of planetary development, after the two principal planetary
centres had been fixed, appears to have been Venus, Mercury, Saturn,
Mars, the inner system, as a whole, being older than the outer.

Evidences of increasing complexity are found, not only in the varied
simple relationships to the primary radius,+ but also in mutual planetary
associations. The points at which the reactionary centrifugal undula-

tions would have communicated velocities equivalent to v” for Jupiter,
Earth, Venus, and Mercury, are all within the asteroidal belt. The car-
dinal point, that for Jupiter and Earth, is near the outer asteroidal limit,
nearly midway between the orbits of those two controlling planets, and
at nearly a mean proportionate distance between the Sun’s surface and
Saturn, as well as between Mercury’s perihelion and Neptune’s aphelion.
Venus and the Moon are related to the Earth, nearly as Neptune and

* If m = mass of any planet or satellite, in units of Sun’s mass, we have the gene-
amv
t!’

+ xili. 246-8. § xiii. 471, sqq.

ral formula g = , t’’ being time of solar rotation for radius r.

April 15, 1874.] 161 [Chase.

Mercury to the Sun,* and their geocentric motions, as well as the
terrestrial value of gt’, (¢’/ being the time of orbital revolution), are in
simple relationships to the velocity of light.+ The determining point for
Saturn is in the orbit of Mars; that for Mars, near Earth’s perihelion.

My discussions of explosive oscillation§ have indicated a probable de-
pendence of the chemical laws of combination and dissociation, upon the
same forces which have determined planetary mass, motion, and arrange-
ment. They may, therefore, help toward the further extension of
the study of universal evolution.

The almost inconceivably minute portion of the mean light-wave velo-
city Geert Thesis 14) which suffices to explain all the gravitating
motions of our system, seems to confirm the theory of M. Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, who attributed weight to the longitudinal vibrations of the
ether. The views of Cauchy and Moigno, who find in those vibrations
the origin of heat, point to a still more complete identification of ther-
modynamic and cosmical laws, while the enormous excess of apparently
unused velocity, may account for Laplace’s conclusion that the propaga-
tion of attractive force is at least six or eight million times as rapid as
that of light.

I am indebted to Abbe Moigno for a copy of Father Leray’s ‘‘Con-
stitution de la Matiére et Ses Mouvements,’’ with a valuable historical
Preface by the Abbe himself. This very interesting essay, like the some-
what earlier dynamic discussions of Challis and Norton,{t demonstrates
the plausibility and the adequacy of Newton’s ethereal hypothesis. I
hope that the accordance of that hypothesis with the facts of Nature,
which I have pointed out, and the simple mathematical basis upon which
I have rested that accordance, may lead other competent analysts to labor
in the same field.

Even while ending this note, I find some new and interesting correla-
tions of mass, density, time, and harmonic undulation, which may prove
to be important. If we call the distance, at which a satellite would re-
volve about a planet in the time of the planet’s orbital revolution, the
isochronal radius, we have:

1. The mass of the Sun, is to the mass of any planet, as the cube of the
pianet’s radius vector, is te the cube of its isochronal radius.

2. The perihelion radius vector of Jupiter, is nearly equivalent to 7?
times its isochronal radius.

3. Jupiter’s radius, is to its isochronal radius, as its mass, is to Sun’s
mass.

4, Earth’s isochronal radius is a mean proportional between its own
radius and Jupiter’s perihelion radius vector.

* xii. 398, (1), 409; xiif. 246-7.
+ xii. 392-417, &e.
{ xiii. 246.

A, P. 8.—VOL. XIV. U

DuBois. ] 162 [May 15,

ELECTRICAL SPECTRA OF METALS.

RESULTS OF AN EXAMINATION AS TO THE PRACTICABILITY OF ASSAY-
ING METALS USED IN COINAGE, BY MEANS OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS,
MADE IN AND FOR THE ASSAY DEPARTMENT OF THE U.S. MINT at
PHILADELPHIA.

By ALEx. E. OUTERBRIDGE, JR.
Communicated to the American Philosophical Society, by Mr. W. E. Du.

Bors, Assayer of the Mint, May 15th, 1874.

It must have occurred to many, when this brilliant method of scientific
research succeeded in detecting the presence of metals, in any given sub-
stance, even to an infinitesimal nicety, that the next step must be to de-
termine the proportion of such presence ; in other words, the qualitative
must certainly lead to the quantitative, as in other chemical processes.

The Annual Report of the Royal Mint at London, for 1872, (dated 15th
of April, 1873,) contains an official memorandum of Mr. W. Chandler
Roberts, Chemist of the Mint, from which it appears that he was engaged
in examining this subject, at the suggestion of, and in connection with,
‘the distinguished spectroscopist and astronomer, Mr. J. Norman Lockyer.
‘No decided results had been reached ; but Mr. Roberts concluded by ex-
-pressing the belief ‘‘that every effort should be made to render the in-
strument serviceable in the operations of minting.”

The present modes of assaying gold and silver, both in alloys and in
eres, have been brought to such perfection, such_accuracy, delicacy and
dispatch, that it seemed almost a matter of regret to have them super-
seded or disturbed. And yet, there issomething captivating in the idea of
a determination, as it were by a flash of lightning, or in the twinkling of
an eye, what proportion of gold or silver is present, in any bar, or coin,
or native ore. It therefore seemed desirable that our own Mint should
maintain its character for examining and adopting real improvements,
and not to wait indolently to hear what might be done abroad.

One of the assistants in the Assay Department, Mr. Alexander HE. Out-
erbridge, Jr., had for several years given special attention to spectrosco-
pic studies, both in theory and in practice ; and to him therefore, the
subject was committed ; with what propriety, and what success, will
sufficiently appear from what he has written. This will be found in the
two following communications addressed to the Assayer.

The details he has given are well worth a careful study ; but we can-
not help noticing, in a few words, the astonishing paradox at which his
experiments arrive ; namely, that this method is, in one respect, by far
too sensitive and minute ; and in another respect, far from being minute
enough, to serve the uses of assay. It was worth all his patient labor
many times over, to come to this conclusion; as we must come in the
present state of this branch of science. And it is likely, that the natural
and necessary imperfections of metallurgy, the want of complete atomic
homogeneity in the mixing of metals, will forever prevent the spectro-
scope from taking the place of the present methods of assay.

As Mr. Outerbridge has been careful to give facts rather than suppo-

1874. ] 163 [Outerbridge,

sitions, he has omitted any explanation of the anomalous results in the
final part of his report. And yet it seems evident that where two metals
are present, the spark will to some extent elect for its vehicle the one
which is most rapidly vaporized. This is notably shown in alloys of
gold with copper. It is also very striking in the alloy of nickel and cop-
per, of which our five-cent piece is made. The nickel, which constitutes
one-fourth, controls the color of the alloy entirely; and yet, being far
more difficult of fusion than the copper, scarcely shows a trace in spec-
trum analysis. This result is particularly regretted, because a shorter
way of assaying this mixture for coinage is very desirable.

These experiments, it is believed, will be of use to show what may, and
what may not, be expected from the spectroscope in the way of analysis
where several metals are components. They may also be of use in other
departments of investigation. D.

Philadelphia, October 30, 1873.
Wm. E. Du Bors, Esq.,
Assayer U. §. Mint.
Srr :—In pursuance of instructions received from you, to examine the
subject of the ‘‘ Electrical Spectra of Metals’’ with a view to its possible
application to assaying, I beg respectfully to report, as follows :

With a small induction coil, and with a two-prism Browning Spectro-
scope, I tried some experiments to obtain the effects recently discovered
by Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, of England, viz., the discernment of difter-
ences in the lines of the Spectra of different Alloys of Gold and Silver.
In other words, to utilize the Spectroscope as a means of quantitative, as
well as of qualitative analysis.

I had several interviews with Professor Barker, of the University of
Pennsylvania, (a recognized authority on the Spectroscope), who had re-
cently met Mr. Lockyer in England, and to whom I am indebted for
valuable information pertaining to the subject.

I soon found that although I was able to distinguish clearly between
the spectra of pure gold, 1000 fine, and of an alloy of gold and copper
900 fine, inasmuch as the copper Jines appeared in the one case, and not
in the other, the induction coil was quite inadequate in its length of spark
to exhibit any appreciable differences between two alloys of gold and
copper. I then applied for, and was accorded by my friend President
Morton, of the Stevens Institute of Technology at Hoboken, the privi-
lege of conducting my experiments at that Institution.

Professor Morton most kindly placed at my service the elaborate
apparatus in his collection ; and I visited New York on Monday last, the
27th inst., returning this evening.

During these four days, I experimented very critically with known
alloys of gold, silver and copper, previously prepared for this purpose,
and I obtained some very interesting results. Many practical difficulties

Outerbridge.] 164 [May 15,

presented themselves in the outset, and it was some time before I succeed-
ed in obtaining a special adjustment of the apparatus appropriate to my
purpose.

Using one-half of the largest Ritchie induction coil, throwing a spark
of eleven inches, (fed by a powerful battery and reinforced by four large
condensers) in connection with a two-prism Browning Spectroscope, I
found that upon gradually separating the metallic electrodes, certain of
the lines broke in the middle ; and, upon further increasing the distance
between the electrodes, the hiatuses in the spectral lines increased pro-
portionately, but unequally with different alloys.

This, as I am informed, is the novelty in spectroscopic research, dis-
covered by Mr. Lockyer, upon which the theory of possible quantitative
analysis is founded, and I was much gratified at having verified the ex-
periment.

Repeated trials with various alloys, gave similar effects. Having proved
this general incident, a systematic series of experiments with alloys
enabled me to map the difference of fineness between specimens 500 and
750 fine and even to recognize the variation between ingot-slips 895 and
902 fine. These results were observed by Mr. Andrew Mason, of the New
York Assay Office, and by several members of the National Academy of
Sciences, then on a visit to the Stevens Institute, as also by other
gentlemen, to whom some of the experiments were shown. ‘The varia-
tion within seven thousandths above referred to, was by no means
marked—indeed, over-cautiousness prevents my relying upon its certainty
—although a more delicate adjustment of apparatus and further expe-
rience would probably render the distinction more decided. Of course,
in these experiments, it was necessary to eliminate the numerous air
lines which appeared in all the spectra. A difficulty which presented
itself in the exact comparison of certain characteristic lines of gold,
silver and copper, whose positions in the spectrum are in close proximity,
was Overcome by using a pure metal as one electrode and another pure
metal as the other electrode. The effect thereby produced was very
curious. With pure gold and pure copper as the electrodes, the gold lines
extend across only one-half the field of the spectrum, and the copper lines
extend across only the other half, the medial termini of both sets of lines
being perfectly sharp and bright. By this means a double spectrum of
copper and gold is obtained, or rather, a section of a complete gold spec-
trum and a section of a complete copper spectrum are visible in imme-
diate juxtaposition, thereby enabling a most accurate comparison of lines,
which in reality are not identical in position, but which by the pre-
vious method were apparently so.

By a slight modification of the experiment, substituting pure copper
as one electrode and an alloy of silver and gold as the other, the proxi-
mate lines of these three metals are presented mapped, as it were, on a

SiR
1874.] 165 [Outerbridge.

natural scale. Further modifications of this principle suggested them-
selves and were tried with indications of valuable results. (Fig. 1.)

By using as one electrode, an alloy of gold and copper of comparative
fineness, and a baser alloy of the same metals as the other electrode, a
result not before observed presented itself. The lines of both copper and
gold crossed the entire field of vision, but in the section representing the
fine alloy, the gold lines were strong and bright, while in the section rep-
resenting the base alloy the gold lines were very faint. (Fig. 2.)

uw tac Sw te Aus

Bo ocodpcoScoodiséecotoodibas Isailoocooco ODO bOIoo oem Docc opooeonooomoOGOoonGD 45'do0

By now gradually increasing the distance between the electrodes, the
faint gold lines of the base alloy cease to join their bright counterparts
of the fine metal at the central line. (Fig. 3.)

Ew Cw Ge A Aw dw

The intervening space is at first minute, but as the electrodes are
further separated, the ends of the faint lines gradually recede towards
the outer edge of the spectrum until they finally disappear altogether.
A scale was constructed of the distances at which the electrodes were
withdrawn during the several trials, and careful notes were made, but
time did not permit an elaboration of these experiments by accurately
testing the results when alloys of approximate fineness formed the elec-
trodes. I had wished to use a spectroscope of greater dispersive power,
(in order to observe as many distinct lines as possible), and also to
magnify the lines by projecting the spectrum through a lantern upon a
screen.

Outerbridge.] 166 [May 15,

The general principle was satisfactorily proved, however, that where
two alloys of different grades are subjected to this treatment, the gold
lines of the baser compound are noticeably the fainter of the two, and,
what is more important, they may be reduced in length by separating
the poles, until they disappear.

This points to the possibility of the future application of Spectrum
Analysis to Assaying, at least as a test method. For, if an alloy of abso-
lute known fineness were adopted as one electrode, and an ingot-slip
assayed by the old process to an equal grade of fineness were inserted as
the opposite electrode, in case the assay were correct, the gold lines in
both sections of the spectrum should appear of equal brightness, and
more especially, should begin to recede from the central line of the spec-
trum at the same moment, and should disappear at the same moment.

The spectra being inevitable natural effects of physical causes, a varia-
tion between two specimens of supposed equal fineness would, in theory,
be necessarily indicated by the respective lines failing to correspond in
their reciprocal action. 'To use the method as a means of original assay,
it would be necessary, among other things, to construct scales of delicate
measurement which, if possible at all, could only be done by a long
course of laborious investigation.

The experiments of which the foregoing is a resumé, involved many
matters of practical detail to which it is unnecessary to allude, and having
been conducted at short notice and within the brief period of four days,
they must be considered as simply preliminary.

Respectfully submitted,

ALEX. E. OUTERBRIDGE, Jr.

Philadelphia, May 5th, 1874.
Wm. EH. Du Bots, Esq.,
Assayer U. 8. Mint.

Sir :—Since submitting to you my report of the 30th of October last, I
have continued at intervals the investigation of the ‘‘ Electrical Spectra
of Metals,’’? with a view to the practical application of the spectroscope
to Mint assaying.

Having repeated and proved the correctness of the experiments pre-
viously recorded, using a three-prism spectroscope and an induction coil
capable of throwing an eight inch spark, (kindly furnished me by Dr. R.
E. Rogers of the Medical Department of the University of Penna.) I found
it necessary to devise a special apparatus for manipulating the electrodes
when under examination. This was made for me by Mr. Saml. James,
the machinist in the Mint, and admirably fulfilled its object. A photo-
graph and description of it are appended hereto. Its peculiarity consisted

»
1874. ] 167 [Outerbridge.

in an automatic combination of accurately proportioned screws, acting
in opposite directions, by which a single motion of the hand sufficed to
cause the upper and lower electrodes to approach or recede from the cen-
tral line of contact in an equal degree. The electrodes, which consisted
of small strips of metal cut to a point, were held by a suitable arrange-
ment on the outer circumference of two metallic rings insulated from
each other, the upper one slotted to receive a series of twelve electrodes
of varying known fineness, and revolving horizontally, so that each elec-
trode might in turn be adjusted to face a single electrode of unknown
fineness fixed on the lower ring. Its object was to admit of the electrodes
being separated to any desired extent, while preserving the line of vision,
through the spectroscope, directed to the centre of the spark. This is a
point of much importance.

A systematic series of experiments was now commenced, in which the
behavior of the more volatile metals was at first studied, viz: Lead,
Zine, Bismuth, Tin, Antimony, Cadmium, Mercury, Aluminium, &c.
All these give more decided spectra than the less volatile precious metals,
and some interesting results were noticed. Approximate illustrations cf
some of these spectra are appended.

Proceeding to the examination of gold alloys, and starting with base
poles—making the lower pole 250 fine and the upper pole 500 fine—the
gold lines from the upper half were both longer and brighter. Now sub-
stituting in place of the 250 pole one 700 fine, the lower half showed the
brighter gold lines. Then, changing the 500 pole for one 800, the bright-
ness of the gold line was again reversed. This alternating effect may be
continued, decreasing in degree as the fineness of the poles approach more
nearly together, until both poles are of the same fineness, when the lines
will be equal in length and intensity.

These experiments proved satisfactorily that comparatively wide varia-
tions in the composition of gold alloys were discernible. I now had pre-
pared at the Mint a series of graduated alloys of more approximate fine-
ness, viz:

GOLD AND COPPER. GOLD, SILVER AND COPPER.
938. 940.1
91%. 918.7
906. 866.8
888.3 888.
883.5 884.1
876.5 883.

These alloys were carefully prepared and assayed closely.

With one electrode pure gold and the other 938 fine, the difference be-
tween the respective spectra was of course very marked, the copper lines
appearing in the one and not in the other. Substituting for the pure
gold the ailoy 876.5, the difference was still very marked, for, although
both gold and copper appeared in each, the copper lines were much
brighter and somewhat longer in the baser alloy, while the gold lines were

Outerbridge.] 168 [May 15,

brighter and longer in the finer. But on comparing the alloys 876.5 and
883.5, (reducing the variation to seven thousandths) I was both surprised
and disappointed to find the visible difference of result but slightly appre-
ciable. And the same with regard to the alloys 883.5 and 888.3, and the
same with other alloys with equal or less comparative variation of fine-
ness. <A variation of one-thousandth, required an effort of the imagina-
tion as well as of the eye to detect any difference whatever. And, al-
though I endeavored to map an apparent difference between alloys vary-
ing two-thousandths, it would certainly not have been a safe test on which
to base an assay. Frequent repetitions with changes of adjustment were
tried, the battery power varying from one to six Bunsen cells, in connec-
tion with Leyden-jars varying from one very small jar (improvised out of
a test-tube) to fifty large jars, (representing a metallic superficies
of many square feet) with variations of the distance of the electrodes
apart, and with and without the use of a condensing lens, but all these
failed to give closer results.

It is true, that these changes of conditions produced certain variations
in the effects observed—as, for instance, it was noticed that an increase
in the Leyden jar surface always lengthened the lines—the distance be-
tween the electrodes and all other conditions remaining the same—while
a decrease in the condensing surface had an opposite effect. Thus,
to take the extreme cases, with the single small Leyden jar above referred
to, and one cell of battery, the lines broke when the electrodes were not
more than ;, of an inch apart, and disappeared entirely on separating
the points 2 of an inch.

With fifty Leyden jars and six cells of battery, it was found impossible
to break the lines at all, even by removing the electrodes to the extreme
limit of the spark, and in this case new lines also appeared.

Other variations occurred ; such as a momentary irregularity in the
length and brightness of the lines, under a strong battery power, owing
to the unequal action of the spark ;—a difference in the action of the gold
lines dependent upon the nature of the alloy, silver tending to lengthen
them more than an equal admixture of copper ;—the length of the lines
is also dependent upon the distance between the spark and the slit (when
the latter is used without the intervening condensing lens) ;—moreover,
the eye itself is liable to become confused by continued comparisons of
very slight differences. The above and other modifications, so far from
solving the problem of close work, rather indicated possible sources of
e1ror.

Another element of the process suggested itself to me as likely to ren-
der the results uncertain for the practical purpose of assaying, viz :
whether the quantity of metal vaporized and giving the spectrum is not
too infinitesimal to give safe results for a large melt. This would be af-
fected by the least want of homogeneity in the metal. This is a serious
consideration, and with the view partly to search for unknown sources of
error and partly to ascertain generally the quantity of metal operated on

1874. ] 169 [Outerbridge.

in a spectroscopic assay, (should that ever be possible) the following ex-
periment was tried. Having weighed small electrodes, averaging 18
milligrammes each, with the greatest possible accuracy on the gold assay
balance of the Mint, (which is sensitive to a twentieth of a milligramme,
or even less,) and having arranged a spark register, I found that 1000
sparks might be passed between these poles, each spark showing the
spectrum of the metal distinctly, and yet the loss in weight was too small
to be made the base of calculation. Thus, a gold pole lost in weight after
passing 1000 sparks, 5,4, of a grain; this gives for each spark z5o3555
of a grain of gold, producing a bright spectrum. I increased the number
to 5000 sparks as the test. The loss of weight depends of course upon
the electric volume, and in the experiments tabulated I endeavored to
keep the latter constant. A slight deposit of the vaporized metal from
the opposite pole takes place in fine division, but this is easily re-
moved—in the case of copper and gold poles by dipping the gold fora
moment in weak acid, or by gentle rubbing. The annexed tables (marked
A and B) show that the loss in weight is marvellously small, averaging
less than seven-tenths of a milligramme of gold for 3000 sparks. To give
the amount for each spark, this must be divided by the number of sparks;
thus, in round numbers an electrode loses 7,55 of a grain after passing
3000 sparks ; or for 1000 sparks 7,455 of a grain, or for each spark z554 555
of a grain. The exceedingly small quantity of metal thus assayed ren-
ders this process, to my mind, inapplicable to the operations in the Mint;
for it is necessary to determine gold assays to the 75355 part of the nor-
mal assay weight, and it is hardly conceivable that a discrimination to
the ;5)o5 part of the spark assay weight, or the zpp00bs0000 Of a grain is
practically possible. Even if it were, it would not be proper to assume
that a test on such an atomic scale would correctly represent the value
of a large deposit, or even of gold ingots. It would certainly not be in
the case of silver, which segregates.

The table of loss shows another curious and unexpected result, viz. :
that the loss in weight of the volatile metals very slightly exceeds and in
some cases does not equal the loss of the less volatile metals. Thus, in
three different experiments of 3000 sparks each, copper loses but .1 M. while
gold loses .5 M. It must be remembered that in these experiments a much
stronger spark was used than was necessary to show a visible spectrum.
When reduced to a minimum, as was done in the case of the miniature
Leyden jar, which still gave a distinct spectrum, the loss in weight after
3000 sparks, for silver, copper and tin, was absolutely inappreciable on
the balance.

An unexplained anomaly was also noticed in relation to the sensitive-
ness of the spectroscope to the metals present in small quantity. Although
Mr. Cappel has shown, by passing the spark through weak solutions of
pure metals, that z,\5 of a milligramme of gold will show a spectrum,
(it is even less than ;,\55 of a M. according to an experiment performed
by the method described above) yet a comparatively large proportion of

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. V

Outerbridge. ] 170 [May 15,

gold may be present in an alloy, the presence of which will not be indi-
cated at all by the spectroscope. :
‘ Silver, 708 parts.

In a slip composed thus:............- He ays ont ete Copper, 254 *
the spectra of silver and copper are alone visible. Gold, Bis) OF
1000

In fact, in an alloy of gold and copper containing from 200 to 250 parts
of gold, the gold spectrum is barely visible. In the case of gold con-
taining copper, it was found that one per cent. of the latter sufficed to
show the copper spectrum ; likewise in an alloy of nickel and copper
containing 20 per cent. of nickel, its spectrum is not visible.

If the spectroscope fails to reveal the presence of anything less than
200 parts of gold in a base alloy, even a theorist must admit that one could
scarcely expect to be able to discriminate with certainty a variation of
Iodo0 in a fine alloy.

It is not impossible that future discovery may succeed in explaining
this anomaly, in harmonizing the apparent inconsistencies, in eliminating
the sources of error, and in reducing the operation to practicable cer-
tainty, but in the state of spectroscopic science as it now exists, so far as
I have been able to perceive, I have arrived at the opinion, not without
regret, that assaying by means of spectrum analysis is impracticable for
the purpose’ of Mint operations.

In conclusion, it should be stated that the principal part of my work
was performed at the University of Pennsylvania, with the benefit of the
excellent apparatus and appliances aftorded in the new and magnificent
college building. For this privilege, and also for many valuable sugges-
tions and for personal favors, I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to
Professor Geo. F. Barker of that Institution.

Very respectfully, yours,

ALEX. E. OUTERBRIDGE. Jr.

TABLES.

First column shows the weight of the metallic-electrodes in milligrams
before passing the sparks.
Second column shows the weight after passing 3000 sparks.
Third column shows total weight of metal volatilized (in fractions of a
- milligramme).
Fourth column shows the amount of metal volatilized by each spark
(in fractions of a milligramme). .

1874. ] rat [Outerbridge.

Fifth column shows the amount of metal volatilized by each spark in
fractions of a grain troy.

*Note—The upper pole usually formed the positive electrode.

tNore—The minimum of metallic Nickel producing a spectrum according to Cappel’s

tables is =+5 of a milligramme.

Outerbridge. ] 172 [May 15, 1874.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES 1 AND 2.*

A is a cast-iron base supporting the brass stem C which has a thread
cut upon its lower end in order that it may be raised or lowered in the
base A and firmly held in position by the jam nut B.

Into the stem C, a secondary stem D is screwed ; this may be raised
or lowered in stem C by turning the hand-wheel GH.

Upon the upper end of the secondary stem D is fitted a cylinder com-
posed of the metallic band FF and the insulating centre G. This cylin-
der is held in position by the collars on either side, and is kept from ro-
tating by a pin passing through the upper collar and sliding in a slot in
the third stem E.

Through the stem C and secondary stem D passes a third stem E of
steel, having upon its upper end a cylinder similar to the one before de-
scribed, except that it is slotted to receive twelve strips of metal, while
the lower cylinder is slotted to receive onestrip. This cylinder is free to
turn upon the stem E, and is fixed at any point by the nut upon the end
of the stem.

The stem E is prevented from turning by a pin sliding in a slot in the
lower stem C.

The pitch of the screw upon the stem E, is twice that of the screw on
the lower end of the secondary stem D. In turning the hand-wheel
GH in either direction, the stem E with the upper cylinder, though
moving over twice the distance of the lower cylinder, yet moves an equal
distance from a central point between the two cylinders, because the lower
cylinder in moving from the central point carries with it the upper cylin-
der. It is to overcome the distance lost that the pitch of the screw upon
the stem E is doubled.

The lower portion of the secondary stem D is divided into 24 degrees.
A movement of a degree separates the electrodes 51; of an inch.

*NorE—Fig. 2 is reproduced by Mr. Carbutt. of Philadelphia, from
the original drawings according to a modification of the Woodbury
Photo-relief process.

With Fig. 2 are given in this No. of the Proceedings, and by the same
process, fac-similes of two sets of drawings of spectra of various alloys
described in the above memoir.

FIG. 1.—Srction oF INSTRUMENT USED BY Mr. ALEXANDER E. OUTERBRIDGE, JR., IN HIS SPECTROSCOPIC ASSAYS OF METALS USED
IN THE COINAGE OF THE MINT AT PHILADELPHIA.

174
Stated Meeting, May 1st, 1874.

Present, 17 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Fratny, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Dr. W.
Camac, dated Philadelphia, April 30th; from Mr. Frank
Thomson, dated Altoona, April 28th; from Prof. C. A.
Young, dated Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H., April
22d; from Mr. Raphael Pumpelly, dated Newburg, N.Y.,
April 22d.

A letter announcing the death of his father was received
from M. C. Quetelet, dated Brussels, April 2d, 1874.

A letter, dated 12 Queen Victoria street, London, E. C.,
April 14th, was received from Mr. Fairman, Editor of the
Eastern Echo.

A letter from Mr. R. Patterson requested the members of
the Society to inspect his copy of Mrs. Peale’s “ Memorial
Volume,” of which only twenty-five copies had been printed
for private distribution. The folio which lay upon the
table contained 81 plates, representing 1,153 specimens of
relics of the Stone Age, found in Europe and America, and
collected and mounted in the cabinet of the late Mr. Frank-
lin Peale, of Philadelphia, a member of the Society. ‘These
plates are all photographs, described in a catalogue pre-
faced to the volume. As Mrs. Peale has declared her inten-
tion to present. the cabinet itself to the American Philo-
sophical Society, no copy of the volume is reserved for the
the Library.

A letter requesting the use of books was received from
Mr. Blasius, and, on motion of Mr. Whitman, the Librarian
was authorized to loan such books on Meteorology as Mr.
Blasius needed for his investigations, taking proper receipts
for their safe return.

Donations for the Library were reported from the Acad-
emies at Berlin and Brussels; the Annales des Mines and
Revue Politique; the Royal and R. Astronomical Societies;

175

London Nature; and Mr. Prestwich; the Essex Institute,
Boston Soe. Nat. Hist.; Boston Public Library ; American
Antiquarian Society ; Mass. Scho ol for Idiots ; Harvard Col-
lege; Mus. Com. Zoology; American Chemist; Dr. Raynold
Coates; Prof. Cope; McCalla & Stavely ; Pennsylvania Board
of Public Charities; BuffaloS. N. Soc.; University of South
Carolina; and Mr. Michley, of Pennsylvania.

The death of Prof. John Phillips, of Oxford, was an-
nounced by the Secretary. ;

On motion, the Publication Committee was discharged
from the consideration of Dr. Allen’s paper, and Messrs.
Whitman, Lesley and Brinton were appointed a Com-
mittee to report to the Society upon the cost of its publica-
tion.

Dr. C. M. Cresson communicated the results of analysis of
coal from the different benches or layers of the Mammoth
bed, with a comparison of their heating powers, &c., illus-
trated by diagrams.

Mr. Chase communicated, through the Secretary, a letter
from Dr. Wm. F. Channing, of Boston, on the need of
additional signal service at the Bermudas and along the
New England archipelago.

On motion, a copy of the communication was ordered to
be sent for the consideration of the U. 8. Bureau S§. 8.

Mr. Lorin Blodget exhibited on a chart of the United
States a centre of maximum sudden variation in tempera-
ture during the winter months, and explained his views
of the cause of the phenomenon.

Prof. Houston, Mr. Briggs, Dr. Emerson, Mr. Lesley, Mr.
Whitman, and Gen. Stokes joined in the discussion which
ensued.

Dr. Emerson ascribed the gradual translation southward
of the peach-belt of the Atlantic coast to the progressive re-
moval of the forests, exposing the fruit to severe variations
of climate.

Gen. Stokes showed, by his experience in peach planting
on limestone soils, and by the later development and long

176

fruitful life of his large old trees, that the chemical consti-
tution of the soil must be considered an element in the
problem.

Mr. John Fulton, of Saxton, communicated, through the
Secretary, a new and more complete section of the coal beds
of Somerset Co., Pa.

Prof. Fraser communicated a statement supplementary to
his observations in September last on the color of the moon.

Mr. Fraley reported the receipt of the last quarter’s rentes
from the Michaux Legacy investment

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, May 15th, 1874.
Present, 13 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Fratny, in the Chair.

Dr. W. Camac, a new member, was introduced to the
presiding officer, and took his seat.

A letter declining membership from inability to attend
the meetings was received from Mr. J.C. Browne, dated
907 Clinton street, Philadelphia, May Ist, 1874

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the U.S.
Observatory, Washington, May 4th. 1874 (IL, V,, XIL., -
XII, XIV.) XVI, 69, 70, 71, 73, to 91); the INew perk
Historical Society, May 11th, 1874 (XV., i.); Holland
Society, Harlem, March ist, 18738 (XIV., i., 87); R.
Academy, Lisbon, March 26th, 1874 (88, 89); and R. Ob-
servatory, Prague, February 4th, 1874 (88, 89).

Letters of envoy were received from the R. Academy at
Amsterdam, Nov. 15, 1873, and the H. Soviety at Harlem,
March, 1878.

Donations for the library were received from the Holland
Society at Harlem; R. Academy at Amsterdam; Geological
Institute at Vienna; R. Academy at Turin; Revue Politique;

|).24 Ltuuly, in 20 fort contour lines, of the Structure und Erosion of: apel of tw Lor Silurian on-ore Region
rs / , yw , ¢ > :
KO north-east oS the Liltle Suniata River tn Sountingdon and C5eutre Cos. Seunsylvania.
5 ie Mustrate a Report on the Mines of Yon, Short, andl Co. of Litisburg; ly I PSesley, Py of. Sel. Univ! Penns
é : = ; — ay © Hield-work by Arankln Platt of Philadelph J :
: -

> ee

Key Sist
of the Sron Ore Mines

on this Map.

4. West Pennington.
2. East Pennington.
3. nameless

Skeleton Map, giving the names of the
principal ridges, valleys a uns
of the Ure Region.
Hanna

p10 Red
47. Galifornia :
I8. Reiders.

>] | 19. Whorelis
20. Pond. N=2.

29. Fennsylvania
30 Old Seat of FE Fra:
34 Kunlngden Furn:
30 Sorsey Cre Bank

ae oats Fash aka ey, rn

Sei nest

Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. XIV.

Woodburytype, A. P. R, P. Co., Phila.

Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. XIV.

Woodburytype, A. P. R. P. Co., Phila.

Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. XIV.

te Om Coe | apes o

250

Woodburytype, A. P. R. P. Co., Phila.

“!
Ph SE:
is

PRN ey

177

London Nature; and Society of Antiquaries; State Board
of Health, Mass.; American Journal 8. and A., New Haven ;
American Journal of Pharmacy; Medical News and Library ;
Penn Monthly; Board of Com. of Pub. Charities, Harrisburg ;
and Mr. J. H. Nourse, Washington.

Mr. Whitman reported progress for the Committee charged
with estimating the cost of publishing Dr. Allen’s paper.

On motion, the committee was continued.

Prof. Chase read a note on Cosmical Evolution.

Mr. W. E. Dubois communicated through the Secretary
the results of an extended examination recently made in and
for the Assay Department of the Mint at Philadelphia, of
the practicability of assaying metals used in coinage by the
spectrum apparatus. The paper was read and the drawings
of the apparatus and spectra exhibited, and on motion, it
was referred to the Secretaries, with power to publish the
same with proper illustrations.

Mr. J W. Harden exhibited a model of a part of Big
Sewell Mountain, Fayette Co., West Virginia, showing the
‘number and position of the coal beds and limestones beds on
the lands of the Langdale Coal and Iron Co., on the Kanawha
River and Chesapeake and Ohio R. R. In the absence of
Mr. Harden on account of illness, the Secretary explained
the model and associated maps and sections, giving a descrip-
tion of the general geology of the lower coal measures in
Virginia.

Pending nominations Nos. 753, 754, 755, 756 were read.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, June 19th, 1874.
Present, 9 members.
Dr. RuscHENBERGER, in the chair.

Photographs for the Album were received, of Mr. F,
Rogers, and of Senator Sumner.
A. P. 8.-—-VOL. XIV. W

178

A letter was received announcing the removal of the
Societe des Sciences Naturelles from Strasbourg to Nancy.

A letter was received from M. T. Leorgre, informing the
Society of his election to succeed M. Quetelet, as Secretary
of the Royal Belgian Academy.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the N.
H. 8. at Zurich, (87), Aug. 20, 1873; the Royal Society at
Edinburgh, (89), Dec., 1873 ; the Victoria Institute, London,
June 5, (Proce. 13 Vols. and 1 part); and Smithsonian Insti-
tution. (XV, i.)

Letters of envoy were received from the Centra! Physical
Observatory at St. Petersburg, April, 1874; Natural His-
tory Society, Zurich, Aug. 20, 1873; Victoria Institute,
London, June 5, 1874; Department of State, U. S., Wash-
ington, May 23, 1874; and Coast Survey Office, Washington,
May, 1874.

Donations for the Library were received from Mr. B.S.
Lyman, Chief Geologist of Japan; Royal Prussian Academy,
and Horticultural Society at Berlin; Natural History Society,
Zurich; Societé des Sciences, Nancy (Strasbourg); Flora
Batava at Leyden; Royal Academy, Brussels; M. L. G.
DeKoninek; Holland Society of Sciences, Harlem ; Geo-
graphical Society, Anthropological Society, and Revue
Politique, at Paris; Royal Observatory, and Royal Academy
of Science, at Turin; Royal Institution, Royal Geographi-
cal Society, Royal Astronomical Society, and London Na-
ture; Mr. Alex. J. Ellis, F.R.S.; Royal Society, Edinburgh ;
Essex Institute, Salem; American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, and Natural History Society, Boston; Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Cambridge; Anderson School of Natural
History, Penekese; Rhode Island Society for the Encourage-
ment of Domestic Industry, Providence ; American Jour-
nal of Science and Arts, Prof. Jas. Hall, Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences, Historical Society, Franklin Institute, Jour.
nal of Pharmacy, Penn Monthly, American Chemist, Medi-
eal News and Library, Woman’s Medical College, Water
Department, Mr. E. D. Cope, Mr. H. C. Carey, and Mr. Isaac
Lea, Philadelphia; Mr. T. J. Bingham, Harrisburg ; Com-

179

mission for attending to Observations on the Transit of
Venus; Engineer and War Departments, Washington.

The Committee to which was referred the cost of publish-
ing the illustrations to Dr. Allen’s Memoir, reported that it
would cost $400. On motion an appropriation of $400 was
ordered for that purpose.

Prof. Chase communicated two brief notes entitled—

1. On Rainfall in cyclonic years of Jupiter, at Greenwich,
Philadelphia, Lisbon, San Francisco and Barbadoes.

2. On the Lunar Cyclical Rainfall at Barbadoes, for 27
years.

Pending nominations Nos. 758, 754,°755, 756 were read,
and the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, July 17th, 1874.

Present, 8 members.
Vice-President, FRepERICK FRALEY, in the Chair:.

A letter from Dr. DaCosta, requesting the completion of
his set of the Proceedings was read, and referred to the:
Committee on Pubheation, with power to take order.

Donations for the Library were received from the Royal
Society of Tasmania; the Imperial Russian Academy, the.
Central Physical Observatory, the Natural History Society,
at Riga; the Imperial Academy, Geological Institute, and.
Zoologico - Botanical Society, at Vienna; the Imperial
Academy, German Geological Society, and Physical Society,,
at Berlin; the Societies at Bremen, Frankfort and Offen-.
bach, the Hague, Lausanne and Bordeaux; the Musée Tey ler;
the Royal Academy, at Bruxell; the Academy of Medicine,
Ecole des Mines, National Society of Antiquaries, and Revue
Politique, at Paris; Mr. H. 8. Munroe, of Yeddo; the Geo-
graphical Society of Mexico; the Royal Astronomical Sc-.
ciety, Meteorological Committee, and Nature, in London ;
the Victoria Institute ; the Philosophical and Literary So-

ciety, at Leeds; Boston Soviety of Natural History; Yale
College, Peabody Museum, Silliman’s Journal; the New
Jersey Historical Society; the Penn Monthly, American
Chemist, Journal of Pharmacy, and Franklin Institute, in
Philadelphia; Veabody Institute, in Baltimore; War De-
partment, Washington, and the Buftalo Society of Natural
Sciences.

The death ot Dr. Gouverneur Emerson, July 2, aged 78
was announced by Dr. Ruschenberger.

Dr. Genth read a communication in answer to criticisms
by Dr. Hunt upon his paper upon Corundum, published in
the Proceedings of the Society.

Dr. Charles M. Cresson communicated the results of an
examination of an exploded locomotive boiler, with detailed
accounts of experiments in reference to the causes of explo-
sion.

Prof. Fraser communicated a note on certain formule of
minerals, with reference to the question whether separate
chemical compounds can co-exist in the same crystallized
mineral.

Pending nominations, Nos. 753, 754, 755, 756, 7a7, 768
were read, and Nos. 753, 754 and 756 balloted for, and the
following named persons were declared by the presiding
officer duly elected members of the Society, viz. :

Sir Wm. George Armstrong, of Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Mr. Franklin Platt, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Henry Woodward, F.G.S., of London.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, August 21st, 1874.
Present, 3 members.

Vice-President, Mr. Frarey, in the chair.

Dr. Genth presented a paper for publication in the Pro-
ceedings, entitled :—‘ Contributions from the Laboratory of

1381

the University of Pennsylvania, No. 2. On an improvement
of the Burette Valve.” By Geo, A. Konig, Ph.D.

Dr. Genth communicated a paper entitled :—* Contribu-
tions from the Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania,
No. 8. On American Tellurium and Bismuth Minerals.
By F. A. Genth.”

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, September 18th, 1874.
Present, 8 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Mr, J.
Norman Lockyer, dated 5 Alexandra Road Fenchly Road,
London, June 25, 1874.

A letter accepting membership was received from Mr.
Franklin Platt, dated 139 South Fifth street, Philadelphia,
Sept. 8, 1874.

Letters acknowledging donations and exchanges were re-
XII, ii, 67, 73, 74, 75, Catalogue II); the Society at Riga,
Oct. 31, 1873, (XIV, iii, Proc. XII, 1, 2); the Imp. Academy
at Vienna, Dec. 1, 1873, (88, 89); the Zoologico-Botanical
Society, at Vienna, Jan., 1874, (Proc. XII, up to 89); the
Royal Pontifical Academy d. N. L., at Rome, Dec. 9, 1873,
(88, 89); the British Association, London, June 12, 1874,
(XVI, 90, 91); the Royal Observatory, at Greenwich, July
21, 1874, (90, 91); the Royal Society, London, June 25,
1874, (IL; XOLV5 11, XV, 1, 62,88, 895, 90,91) ;) the Meteo-
rological Office of the R. 8., London, June, 10, 187+, (90, 91);
the Zoological Society, London, July 8, 1874, (XV, i,
89, 90, 91); the Society of Antiquaries, Somerset House.
London, June 25, 1874, (XV, i, 90, 91); the Statistical
Society, 12 St. James Square, London. June 17, 1784, (XV,
i, 90,91); the Ratcliffe Observatory, Oxtord, June 19, 1874,
(XV, i, 90,91); the Literary and Philosophical Society, R.

182

Inst., Liverpool, Dec. 31, 1873, (0.8. I to VI, N. 8., I to
XIIL); the Literary and Philosophical, Leeds, June 8, 1874,
(ACW, Ty Sieg Sa),

Letters of envoy were received from the Physical Society,
Berlin, April 15, 1874 ; the Imperial Academy, Vienna, Feb.
23, 1874; the Zoologico-Botanical Society, Vienna, Jan. 7,
1874; Royal Hungarian Academy, Pesth, Nov. 10, 1873;
Holland Society, Harlem, Dec., 1873 ; Society of Emulation,
Aboeville, June 1, 1874; Teyler Museum, Meteorological
Office, London, June 23, 1874; Literary and Philosophical
Soe. Manchester, June, 1874; Literary and Philosophical Soe.
Liverpool, Dec. 29, 1873; National Academy, B. Aires,
May, 10, 1874; Museum, B Aires, April 20, 1874; Metro-
politan Museum of Arts, New York, Sept. 16, 1874.

A letter was received from Mr. Alex. Agassiz, respecting
his father’s European Publications, to be distributed, dated
July 22, 1874.

A letter was received from Mr. Geo Travers, dated New-
stadt, A. H., July 4, 1874, offering for sale the Shai-n-Sinsin
papyrus, price £120 sterling.

Donations for the Library were reported from the R. and
Imp. Academies at Berlin and Brussels; the Societies at
Riga, Gorlitz, Leeds, Glasgow, and Salem, Mass; the Ob-
servatories at Prague, San Fernando, and Oxford ; the Ge -
logical Bureau, at Stockholm ; the City of Pesth; theS. d
N. L, at Rome; the Geographical Society, American
Society for the encouragement of National Industry, Museum
of Natural. History, School of Mines, Weekly Gazette of
Medicine, Revue Politique, and Chev. Leopold Hugo, of
Paris; the Royal, Chemical, Asiatic, Astronomical, Zoolo-
gical, and Antiquarian Societies, Victoria Institute, Cobden
Club, Meteorological Committee, and Nature, of London ;
the Geological Museum, at Montreal; the Amerivan Anti-
quarian Society ; Silliman’s Journal; Dr. Jarvis of Dorches-
ter; Prof. Roehrig, of Ithaca; the Naturaliste Canadien, of
Quebec ; the American Chemist, New York; che Metropoli-
tan Museum, of New York; the Franklin Institute, Penn

183

Monthly, and Dr. R. J. Levis, of Philadelphia; Prof. 5. 8.
Haldeman, and the University of Missouri.

The death of Dr. Jeffries Wyman, of Cambridge, Sept.
4, aged 60, was announced by Dr. LeConte.

Mr. Eli K. Price, as Chairman of Committee on Nursery,
&e., communicated “ A list of Oaks imported by the Fair-
mount Park Commission, in 1874, for the Michaux Grove,
being the selection of John C. Cresson, Esq., when last in
Europe, showing which of them are living.”

Mr. Lesley described an upthrow fault recently discovered
by Mr. Chance, volunteer assistant of the Second Geological
Survey of Pennsylvania, crossing the Schuylkill river in the
gap of the Kittatinny Mountain, below Port Clinton.

Pending nominations, Nos. 755, 757, 758, and new nomi-
nations, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, were read.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, October 2d, 1874.
Present, 11 members.
Secretary, Dr. LeContr, in the Chair.

Photographs for the Album were received from Mr. Thos.
Meehan, and Prof. Stephen Alexander.

A letter from the Rantoul Literary Society, dated Ran-
toul, Champaign County, Ill, Sept. 28th, 1874, requesting
the publications of the Society, was read, and on motion, the
Society was ordered to be placed on the list to receive the
Proceedings.

A letter from the Ohio State Librarian, dated Columbus,
O. Sept. 22, 1874, requesting a copy of the Catalogue of the
Library was read, and on motion, the request was granted.

A letter from Dr. Fredk. Krauss, on behalf of the Verein
fiir Vaterland. Naturkunde in Wiirtemberg, dated Stutt-
gart, Aug. 10, 1874, asking for the completion of their set
of Proce. A. P.S., and a complete set of Transactions A.P.S.,
and promising to complete the set of V. f. V. N. in W.

184

Jahrgiinge (30 years in 3 parts) for the A. P.S., Library,
was read, and on motion, the request was granted.

Letters of acknowledgement were received from the
R. Academy, Copenhagen, (XV, i, 90, 91); K. K. OC. Anstalt
fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, Vienna, (90); Prof.
Hochstetter, (89); Dr. Jos. Hyrtl, (88, 89) ; Linnean Society,
London, (XIV, ii, XV, i, 88+); New York Historical
Society, (92).

Letters of envoy were received from the Linnean Society,
and N. Y. State Library.

Donations for the Library were received from the Editor’s
of Revue Politique, Paris; Nature, Royal Society, and Lin-
nean Society, London; Prof. Silliman and Dana, N. Haven, N.
Y. State Library, Regents of the University, Buffalo Society
of Nat. Sciences, Penn. R. R., U. S. Naval Observatory, and
National Educational Association.

_ The death of M. Elie de Beaumont, at Paris, Sept. 24,
1874, aged 75, was announced by Dr. Genth.

Mr. Delmar, late director of the U.S. Bureau of Statistics,
read a communication on the resources, productions, and
social condition of Egypt.

Pending nominations, 755, 757 to 763, were read.
And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, October 16th, 1874.
Present, 12 members.

Vice-President, Mr. Frauny, in the chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Mr.
Henry Woodward, F.R.S., dated British Museum, London,
Oct. 3. 1874.

A letter was read from Mr. Jared P. Kirtland, dated Hast
Rockport P. O., Cayahoga County, Ohio, Oct. 1, 1874.

Letters from B. Westermann & Co. and E. Steiger, Book-
sellers, and on motion made, it was resolved to instruct the
Secretaries not to sell single numbers of the Proceedings,

185

lest the stock of Proceedings be so diminished as to make it
impossible to supply corresponding Societies.

The request: of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary
Society for Nos, 75 and 79, to complete their set, was on
motion, granted.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the
Society at Riga, Feb. 28, 1874, (90, 91); Boston Public
Library, Oct. 12, 1874, (XIV, 92); and War Department,
Washington, Oct. 5, 1874, (92).

Letters of envoy were received from the Swedish Geolo-
logical Bureau, Stockholm, Nov. 15, 1873; and the Prussian
Academy, Dec., 1878.

Donations for the Library were received from the Acade-
mies at Berlin and Brussels, and Salem, Mass.; the Society
at Zwickau; the Paris Geographical Society, and Revue
Politique ; London Nature; Boston Natural History Society;
Journal of Medical Sciences, Journal of Pharmacy, Medical
News and Library, Mr. H.C. Carey, and the Hon. B. H.
Brewster, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Lesley described the marked change in the aspect of
the northern and northwestern counties in the State during
the last thirty years, and the progress of the Geological Sur-
vey of that region; the facilities afforded for it, and the
private collections of fossils in it, at Mansfield, Warren and
Titusville; the discovery of the Devonian (No. LX) fish-
beds at various places from the Hudson to the Alleghany
rivers; the differentiation of the Conglomerate from the oil
region sand rocks, and of the Marshall group from the Che-
mung, &e.

Pending nominations, 755, 757 to 763, and new nomina-
tion No. 764, were read.

Nominations 755 to 763 were balloted for, and after
scrutiny of the ballot boxes by the presiding officers, the
following were declared duly elected members of the Society:

Rey. James Freeman Clarke, of Boston.

Franz Ritter von Hauer, of Vienna.

Rawson W. Rawson, Governor of Barbadoes.

A, P: S.— VOL. XIV. X

186

Prof. 8. P. Sadtler, of Philadelphia.
Prof. G. A. Konig, of Philadelphia.
Prof. C. F. Himes, of Carlisle.

Dr. R. 8. Kenderdine, of Philadelphia.
Mr. A. R. C. Selwyn, of Montreal.
And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, November 6th, 1874.
Present, 16 members.
Secretary, Dr. LeConrs, in the chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Prof.
Samuel P. Sadtler, dated Philadelphia, Oct. 19; from Prof.
George A. Konig, dated Philadelphia, Oct. 19; from the
Rev. James Freeman Clarke, dated Jamaica Plains, near
Boston, Mass., Oct. 20; and from Prof. Charles F. Himes,
dated Carsisle, Pa., Nov. 4, 1874.

A letter was received from the relatives of M. F. P. G.
Guizot, dated Val Richer, Sept. 18, announcing his death on
the preceding day, Sept. 12, at the age of 86.

Letters of acknowledgment in receipt of Proceedings A.
P.S., were read from the Observatory at Munich, Aug. 7,
(Nos. 90, 91); Astronomical Society, at Leipsig, July 20,
(90, 91); Royal Society, at Gottingen, July 6, (XV, 1, 90,
91); Lyceum of Natural History, N. Y., Oct. 12, (92); and
University of Toronto, Oct. 19, (84, 92. Wants 86 to 91.

Donations for the Library were announced from the Asia-
tic Society of Japan; the Swedish Statistical Bureau and
Geological Survey ; the Danish Archeological Society ; the
Academies at Berlin and Copenhagen ; the German Geolo-
gical Society ; the Imperial Institute at Vienna; the Acade-
my at Dijon; the Geographical and Anthropological Socie-
ties, and Revue Politique, at Paris; the Victoria Institute,
Royal Geographical Society, and Nature, at London ; the
Geological Society of Glasgow; the Geological Survey of
Canada; Essex Institute; Yale College; Silliman’s Journal ;

187

Franklin Institute; Penn Monthly; Gen. W. A. Stokes;
Smithsonian Institution; Bureau of U. §. Engineers; Dr.
Ilayden ; Mr. Outenbridge; the Medical News; and the
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences.

The death of Prof. Samuel J. Gummere, President of
Haverford College, at Haverford, Oct. 22, aged 63, was an-
nounced, and Prof. Thos. Chase, was on motion, appointed
to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased.

Mr. Britton exhibited to the members present large speci-
men pieces of coals sent for metallurgical analysis from the
Luray Mine, Carbon Mine, and mines near Rocky Spring
Station on the Union Pacific Railroad, 830 miles west of
Omaha. The character, age, and relationships of these coals
with the so-ealled Lignitic beds of Hayden, the Denver and
Raton and Santa Fe coals, were discussed at length by Dr.
Genth and Dr. LeConte.

Pending nomination, No. 764 was read, and the meeting
was adjourned,

Stated Meeting, November 20th, 1874.
Present, 17 members.
Vice-President, Mr. FRraey, in the chair.

A Photograph for the Album was received from Prof.
Traill Green, of Latayette College, Easton, Pa.

A letter respecting the cataloguing of Libraries was re-
ceived from Mr. W. C. Flagg, Secretary Ill. S. Farmer’s
Association, dated Moro, Ill., Nov. 10, 1874.

| A blank to be filled was received from the Secretary of
the Bureau of Education, at Washington, dated Nov. 11,
1874.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of the Society’s Publi-
cations, were received from the Hungarian Academy of Sci-
ences, Oct. 17, (XV, 1, 88, 89, 90, 91); the R. Bavarian
Academy, Sept. 15, (XV, i, 90, 91); the Philosophical and
Literary Society, at Leeds, Oct. 28, (75 and 79); Prof. C. E.
Anthon, New York, Nov. 18, (81 to 92); Prof. Traill Green,

188

Easton, Pa., Nov. 12, (81 to 92); Dr. Robert Peter, Lexing-
ton, Ky., Nov. 9, (81 to 92); and the Ohio State Library,
Columbus, Nov. 13 (Cat. Pt. I).

Letters of envoy were received from the R. Bavarian
Academy, Munich, Sept. 18, Mr. Stan. Meunier, Professor of
Comparative Geology in Natural History Museum, at Paris,
Oct. 28; the Meteorological Office of the Royal Society,
London ; and the Smithsonian Institution.

Donations for the Library were received from the German
Geological Society, the R. Prussian Academy, the Geolog’-
eal Association, at Dresden; the Vaudoise Society, at Lau
sanne, the Batavian Society Ex. Phil., at Rotterdam, the
Revue Politique, M. Stan. Meunier, the R. Astronomical
Society, London Nature, Boston Public Library, Academy
of Natural Sciences, Franklin Institute, American Journal
of Pharmacy, U. 8. Coast Survey, Department of the Intc-
rior, and Mr. Adolph Schmidt, Jefferson City.

The volume on Comparative Geology presented by M.
Meunier, was on motion, referred to a committee to be ap-
pointed at the next meeting.

The death of Mr. Charles B. Trego, Treasurer of the So
ciety, at Philadelphia, Nov. 10, aged 80 years, was announced
by the Vice-President, and on motion, Mr. 8. W. Roberts
was appointed to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased.

Mr. Britton exhibited and explained a model illustrating his method
of keeping a laboratory free from the gases evolved when metals and
minerals are dissolved in acids.

He dissolves in test tubes supported in position on wire gauze frames.
The tops of the tubes are covered with glasses shaped like tubular funnels
inverted, the tubular end of which being bent at nearly a right angle are
made to pass horizontally into a long wooden chamber four inches wide
by six inches deep. The chamber may be of any length ; it connects at
either end or in the centre with a wooden chimney, six by twelve inches
in the clear, passing from the laboratory up and above the roof of the
building. Heat is applied to the lower end of the tubes by moveable
Bunsen burners. The gasses are carried away as fast as evolved by the
constant current of air which passes through the chamber and up the
chimney.

So completely have the gasses been conducted away, that several very
delicate Becker balances have been in use for some years within a few
feet of the tubes, without being perceptibly affected. He uses tubes va-

189

rying from cne to two inches in diameter and about ten inches long—and
also flasks. Any number may be used at the same time, set about six
inches apart. He has frames for thirty-six. It is best to make the fun-
nels pear-shaped, to allow their edges to slip into the tubes that any
drops of condensed moisture may not fall outside.

Mr. Britton also exhibited several mounted burettes for volumetric
analysis of the kind described in the Journal of the Franklin Institute,
for May 1870, and which he has had in use for more than nine years. He
exhibited them to show that the one exhibited by Dr. Geo. A. Koenig,
at the meeting of the Society, held August 21st, 1874, diftered in no es-
sential feature from them.

Mr. Britton had tried wood, leather, lead, tin, glass,-india-rubber and
cork, for the stopper or valve. He preferred close-grained cork when
using solutions of per mangenate and bichromate of potash, and this after
five thousand iron determinations with it. Glass he preferred to all other
substances when using acids or strong alkaline solutions.

The graduation was on white paper behind the tube. The thumb
knob of the screw was behind the frame, but the spring and valve was
in front. This arrangement he preferred. The contents of the tube
could be discharged much faster than necessary fer analytical purposes,
or so slow that only a fraction of a drop could be caught on the stirring
rod and conveyed to the solution to be tested in the vessel beneath.

He also exhibited an adjustment of the spring and screw to the rod-
stoppered burette. The burette was mounted on a stand. A spring
lever was on the top and connected at one end with the rod-stopper, and
at the other end with a metal rod. The latter extended down the back
of the instrument to near the bottom, and had attached to it a thumb-
screw arrangement. By simply turning the screw the stopper could be
completely controlled while the eye watched the flow.

Mr. Britton referred again to the Recky Mountain coals exhibited at
the last meeting, simply saying in advance of analysis that they were all
coking coals.

Mr. Poole obliged the members present with descriptions
of the coals of Nova Scotia, and of the character of the gold
quartz, veins, and present condition of the gold-mining in-
dustry of the province.

Dr. LeConte offered for publication in the Proceedings, a
list of North American Jepidopteree (platypterices, &c.,) with
notes by Augustus R. Grote, of Albany.

Minutes of the last meeting of Officers and Members in
Council, were read.

Pending nominations, No. 764, was read.

Mr. Fraley nominated in behalf of the Committee of
Finance, Mr. J. Sergeant Price, to fill the vacancy left by the

190

death of the Treasurer. On motion, Mr. Price was elected
to fill the vacancy.

Mr. Fraley reported that he had received and was prepare’
to turn over to the Treasurer elected, the quarterly interest
on the Michaux Legacy, due Oct. 1. 1874.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, December 4th, 1874.
Present, 17 members.
Vice-President, Mr. FrAtry, in the chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Baron
Franz von Hauer, dated Nov. 7, 1874.

A letter requesting additional copies of Proceedings and
Transactions, was received from the Holland Society -of Sei-
ence, at Harlem, Nov. 3, 1874.

Letters of envoy were received from the Entomological
Society, of Belgium, and the State Department, at Washing-
ton.

A letter was received from the Baron de la Ronciere le
Noury, V. A. President of the Geological Society at Parir,
with documents, asking for the concurrence of the A. P.8.,
in the International Congress of Geographical Sciences to be
held next spring, in Paris.

Donations forthe Library were received from the Editor
of Flora Batava, Leyden; the Entomological Society, Bel
gium; Annales des Mines; Revue Politique; London Na-
ture; Geological Society, and Society of Antiquaries, Lon-
don; American Chemist ; Prof. James Hall, and the Regents
of the University of New York; Siliiman’s Journal, Frank-
lin Institute, Penn Monthly, Mrs. Emma Seiler, of Phila-
delphia ; and Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, of Boston.

The death of John Meredith Read, Ex-Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, Nov.
29, aged 77, was announced by Mr. HE. K. Price, who, on
motion, was appointed to prepare an obituary notice of the

deceased.

191

Prof. G. Guyot, of Princeton, N. J., Prof. Cook, of New
Brunswick, N. J., and Prof. Lesley, were appointed the com-
mittee to report on M. Meunier’s book, received at the last
meeting.

Mr. Britton reported analyses of Rocky Mountain coals,
and exhibited the cokes obtained from them.

Dr. Cresson reported on their gas producing and heat pro-
ducing qualities.

Mr. Goodfellow said that before the next meeting news
would be received of a rare event, for which astromomers
had been waiting and preparing for a century. Next Tues-
day the Transit of Venus would again occur, the times of
which as calculated for Washington he gave. So extensive
and costly are the preparations for observing this event in
distant parts of the world made by various Governments,
that it becomes evident the time has arrived when public
sentiment is alive to the value, and government action is
ready to supply the needs of accurate science, for the benefit
of society at large.

Mr. Goodfellow then gave a sketch of the history of the
Observation of the Transit of 1769, and showed, from Dr.
Smith’s memoir in the Transactions of the American Philo-
sophical Society, that Dr. Smith’s calculations of the sun’s
parallax, while they widely differ from the results of Encke,
approximated much nearer to the truth.

Dr. Konig explained again by diagrams, the essential
points of difference between Mr. Britton’s burette, the high
value of which he acknowledged, and his own published
improvement upon it. Mr. Brinton insisted that they were
essentially the same. Mr. Fraley said that the decision of
such a question must be left to the practice of Chemists.

Dr. W. I. Hoffman’s letter to Dr J. L. LeConte on the
practice of Cremation by the Pah-Ute Indians, of Eastern
California, was then read by the Secretary, and Dr. Horn
confirmed Dr. Hoffman’s statements, adding that the practice
was common to all branches of the Pah-Ute Tribe.

Mrs. Seiler’s recently published investigations on the voice
in speech were then described by the Secretary, and the

192

two capital points which the learned authoress considers
to be new discoveries were pointed out, namely, the fixed
pitch of the consonant, and the duplex instrumentation of
the voice; the mouth and the “ vocal organs” commonly so-
called, being two entirely different and independent in-
struments acting in harmony, but the mouth being entirely
capable of speech after the destruction of the larynx and
cords.

Prof. Frazer described by diagrams the phenomenon of
exfoliation in the syenite-like rocks of Gettysburg. A dis-
cussion ensued in which Dr. Konig expressed his dissent
from Naumann’s views respecting the cause of granitic ex-
foliation being the sun’s heat. Dr. Genth also called atten-
tion to the fact that southern boulders were evidently not
produced in the same way as northern boulders.

The report of the late Treasurer of the Society as made
out by his administrator, was read by the Treasurer, Mr.
Price, and regularly referred for examination to the Finance
Committee.

Pending nomination, No. 764 was read.

On motion of Mr. E. K. Price. it was

Resolved, That the Treasurer be directed to pay one half
the income received and to be received from the Michaux
Legacy, to the Treasurer of the Fairmount Park Commis-
sioners, for the Michaux Grove, &c, agreeably to arrange-
ment of March 18, 1870.

The appointment of a Standing Committee of Botanists
on the purchase of trees for the Michaux Grove, in Fair-
mount Park, was moved by Mr. Price, and laid over by the
rules, to the next meeting.

The Curators, on motion, were authorized to permit Mr.
Herbert Welsh to copy the portrait of Washington, in pos-
session of the Society, under such regulations for its safety
as the Curators may provide.

And the meeting was adjourned.

June 19, 1874.] 193 [Chase,

JUPITER-CYCLICAL RAINFALL.

By Puiny EARLE CHASE, PROFESSOR OF PHysics IN HAVERFORD
COLLEGE.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 19th, 1874.)

The records of daily rainfall for twenty-seven years, at ‘‘ Husband’s”’
Station, Barbadoes, for which I am indebted to the courtesy of His
Excellency Governor Rawson W. Rawson, C. B., have enabled me to
extend my cyclical researches, and to discover some new and interesting
features in the cosmical disturbances of local meteorology.

Although my previous investigations have convinced me that each of
the planets exerts, on our atmospheric currents, an appreciable influence,
which might be usefully formulated for any given station, provided the
observations were enough extended, I have thought it best to confine
myself mostly to the study of such weather modifications as are depen-
dent upon Jupiter and the moon.

Those who are accustomed to think of simple tidal disturbances as the
only ones to which we can reasonably look for planetary influence, and
even those who are also willing to attach some importance to the modifi-
cation of atmospheric elasticity by direct attraction, are doubtless pre-
pared to believe, on sufficient evidence, that the moon may affect our
winds and storms to a slight degree, while they are extremely skeptical},

TABLE I.

Normal Percentages of Rainfall at Barbadoes in Jovian Synodic Years.

1847-55. 1855-63. 1863-72. 1847-58. 1859-72. 1847-72.

124 132 82 111 110 112
110 151 88 107 125 116
102 156 93 101 131 116
98 151 89 94 131 112
102 137 78 91 119 105
107 124 70 99 102 100
106 121 73 108 91 100
95 122 87 110 91 101
75 121 102 101 95 98
62 120 109 94 92 96
67 123 119 101 102 101
77 117 132 107 109 108
86 95 139 105 107 106
99 75 139 102 104 103
100 70 137 101 104 103
99 69 129 99 100 99
92 65 124 94 94 94
83 64 123 88 92 90
74 69 114 81 90 86
68 i) 100 74 87 81
68 17 90 72 84 78
82 76 84 80 81 80
109 82 84 97 87 92
135 90 89 113 98 106
141 84 97 116 100 108
126 76 99 105 98 102
114 82 94 96 99 98
122 85 82 102 96 99
142 88 78 120 87 103
142 104 76 126 91 108

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. Y

Chase. ] 194 [June 19,

or altogether incredulous as to any traceable influence exerted by either
of the primary planets.

But if we admit the possibility of ethereal rotation, or tendency to
rotation, and especially if we consider how much we have yet to learn
concerning the properties of elastic fluids. we may reasonably look for
important disturbances from the cumulative effects of the undulations
which are exerted by planetary action. Those disturbances, however,
may be so modified by the daily fluctuations of the lunar tides, by differ-
ences in the stratification of the atmospheric currents, and by abnormal
local influences of various kinds, as to obscure, either wholly or in part,
all traces of cyclical regularity in their alternations of maxima and minima.

In the accompanying comparative tables there are both accordances and
discordances, for which I can account in no other way than by the
hypothesis of cumulative aerial waves, excited by the combined action of
the two constituent orbs of our binary star, Sun and Jupiter. The
magnitude of the flexures in the several rain-curves seems too great, the
resemblances and gradations in order of magnitude too marked, the
approximations to consistent regularity too uniform to be merely acci-
dental. The deviations, however, from seemingly normal curvature are

TABLE II.

Normal Percentages of Rainfall at various Stations in Jovian Synodic years.

ff c S m
Gs e -. n é oO
Se ee ES eal BS &
Qe crete LE
OR aS | 2D os mH ()
ao S| Ha a | is
5 Ay , a <q
NM ES
100 105 81 118 112 103
102 102 88 136 116 109
100 99 99 182 116 109
98 100 108 111 112 108
99 101 110 99 105 1038
162 101 99 96 100 1¢0
104 98 86 85 100 95
102 96 84 71 101 91
97 95 96 76 98 92
91 95 107 108 96 99
90 99 112 141 101 109
94 106 113 141 108 112
97 113 115 118 106 110
95 115 120 107 103 108
92 110 122 104 1038 106
90 103 117 87 99 99
92 98 103 67 94. 91
97 100 86 63 90 87
100 103 76 69 86 87
104 104 76 73 81 88
109 101 81 79 78 90
14 96 88 84 80 92
115 91 96 87 92 93
111 88 1038 90 106 100
105 88 108 98 108 101
108 40 113 114 102 104
102 94 116 129 98 108
100 99 112 119 99 106
97 103 98 98 1038 100

1874.] 195 [Chase.

so great and so frequent, that my convictions of causal nexus are often
wavering. I cannot expect that others, who have been less interested in
the study of cyclical meteorology, will accept my qualified belief in
systematic disturbances by Jupiter or other planets, until a sufficient
number of observations have been compared at a sufficient number of
stations, to furnish data for successful prediction.

Notwithstanding my persuasion that such data will be at some time
attainable, I see, as yet, few encouraging indications of any conclusive
and satisfactory termination for my researches in this particular direction.
This very vagueness and lack of certainty furnishes a new and somewhat
unexpected argument in favor of appreciable lunar weather-action ; for,
if the tabulation of rainfall in planetary cycles had not shown so great
deviations from uniformity, the regularity might, perhaps, have been
regarded as an accidental resultant from some unknown law of harmonic
functions, entirely independent of the influence assumed as a supposed
cause. The impossibility of explaining the regularity by simple tidal
action would have fully justified such skepticism.

But when we find that the lunar tabulations bring out such accordances
as I have already shown (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., x, 486—9, 523—37;
xi, 203; xii, 38—9, 178—90, 523—9, 556—9), while the Jovian influence,
although possibly greater in point of magnitude, is more questionable
and more easily overcome or hidden, I think we have good reason to con-
sider the fact of lunar influence as practically demonstrated, and to
hope, at no distant day, for a valuable extension of our weather-fore-
casts by means of that influence.

Comparing the several sets of normals in these tables, by noting the
agreements or disagreements in the excess or deficiency of average rainfall
at corresponding periods, we find no marked evidence of resemblance in
the nine-years’ groupings ; but in the twelve-year groups, corresponding
nearly to a Jovian year, there are eighteen agreements to twelve dis-
agreements, and there is a degree of resemblance in the aspect of the
plotted curves which it is difficult to believe accidental. A similar com-
parison shows a similarity of character between the curves at Philadel-
phia, Lisbon, San Francisco and Barbadoes, and an opposition between
each of them and the higher-latitude curve of Greenwich.

CYCLICAL RAINFALL AT BARBADOES.
By Puiny EARLE CHASE,
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 19th, 1874.)

I confess to a feeling of some disappointment at the first results of my
examination of the lunar monthly rainfall at ‘‘ Husband’s”’ Station in
the island of Barbadoes. If I had no more satisfactory evidence of cyclical
regularity, and if further study had not enabled me to eliminate some of

Chase. ] 196 [June 19,

the disturbing elements, I should have been compelled to consider the
evidences of lunar influence on the weather quite as questionable as those
of discoverable planetary influence.

My predictions of increasing range and regularity of disturbance, in
approaching the equator, had been confirmed by comparisons of observa-
tions in Great Britain, Canada, New England, Philadelphia, Lisbon and
San Francisco. Their apparent failure in an island which seemed, on
many accounts, so favorably situated for their verification, cast a shadow
of doubt on my previous conclusions, and I was even inclined to ask if it
could be possible that the many coincidences which I had taken as in-
dicative of law, were merely accidental.

This skepticism, however, was soon removed. The cumulative action
of the aerial tidal-waves in blending different currents, of which I have
so often spoken, may be easily obscured, if it is not wholly overborne, by
insular influences, by the violent hurricanes to which the Windward
Islands are subject, and even by the occasional intrusion of the south-
easterly trade-winds. Where there is a liability to sudden heavy rains,
any one of which wonld suffice to make important changes in a curve

TABLE 1.

Normal Percentages of Rainfall at “ Husband’s,” in Thirtieths of a Solar Year, and
on Lunar Days at Different Epochs.

Solar. Lunar.
aT a a
: o ao §60OH ;
oe OR) ee oe ee
} ib nb n ee + as 2 S
aS 2 4 P : o 5 ot - 2 ©
x a =) DQ 5 > <q PH mn val
62 82 69 92 82 122 95 101 73 93

1874. ] AO (Chase.

representing the mean of several years’ observations, it is not strange
that great care should be needful in order to determine the approximate
character of the normal flexures.

My previous discussions having shown that the lunar rain-curves at a
given station vary somewhat at different seasons of the year, I first com-
puted the normal curves at ‘‘ Husband’s’”’ for each month of the year in-
dependently, and then ‘‘smoothed”’ the curves by taking the fourth suc-
cessive means between the daily normals of successive months. This
second series of normals, although insufficient for any conclusive infer-
ences based on comparisons between consecutive months, should furnish
approximate evidence of the normal changes, as well as means for making
eighteen entirely independent comparisons between curves with intervals
of five or six months. The normals for these two series of curves are
given in Tables III. and IV. If there were no other than an accidental
connection between the several curves, the chances of agreement or dis-
agreement between the normal excesses or deficiencies of rainfall, in each
independent comparison, would be equal, there being a probability of 15
days agreement and 15 days disagreement. The actual accordances and
discordances and the ratios indicative of a vera causa in lunar action, are
given below, 1 being the ratio of probable accidental agreement.

TABLE II.

Normal Proportions of Rainfall at ‘‘ Husband’s” on Lunar Days of each Calendar
Month, for Independent Comparisons.

Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee.

31 10 49 66 51 49 121 121 112 76 41
32 11 30 60 58 54 132 136 120 67 50
31 17 15 58 64 60 129 143 157 73 58
29 25 9 58 76 64 110 144 164 95 48
34 30 11 57 85 73 91 137 148 112 33
41 27 16 56 78 94 83 120 148 119 31
39 18 19 58 68 107 99 108 154 134 42
31 12 18 60 70 102 126 114 161 156 48
26 9 15 62 17 95 138 130 170 166 45
29 10 16 59 88 93 125 161 181 162 43
38 13 21 49 (14 89 107 154 158 153 44

Chase. ] 198 [June 19,

AG D. Ratio. A. D. Ratio.
Jan. June...... 24 6 4.00 July Dee....... 23 S329
Sev dulya sees 25 5 5.00 GATE ERI aenaee 25 5 5.00
eA estas: 20 10 2.00 £60 Meh. eaccos 24 6 4,00
SUIMEs eer cescese 69 21 3.29 Sumeeeeeeeeeee seer de 18 4.00
INES AWN So6bn0 24 6 4.00 Aug. Jan. ...... 20 10 2.00
COMBAT CO elect 23 7 3.29 (ON eb eee: 23 7 3.29
UF a SOD sweeckies 24 6 4.00 Sear eens. 18 12 1.50
SDD (i aecocoenacoade 71 19 3.74 SLED 5000000000000 61 29 2.10
Mar. Aug....... 18 12 1.50 Nep. Feb. .-.... 24 6 4,00
SCE SG De esse 21 9 2.33 (CO Mari ctcsc: 21 9 2.33
SU IOt Ae 20 10 2.00 2) 0 arian 20 10 2.00
Sumber . 59 31 1.90 Sum. agen 65 25 2.60
ISGDG (SENS. na0080 20 10 2.00 Ociseue Maree 20 10 2.00
COO Ctaaeeaess 17 13 1.31 MME No) Benge 17 13 1.31
68 IN@Wo'cosose 19 11 1.738 Om Maye ceeees 24 6 4.00
ISO aocacceno0s0800 56 34 1.65 Sum. 23 eee 5) ol 29 2.10
May Oct. ...... 24 6 4.00 IN owapAspSieaeees 9 11 1.73
CO INO 6 cance. 25 5 5.00 GONE cadde 25 5 5.00
GOT TD eGses ae. 23 q 3.29 SG AINE sc000 23 7 3.29
Sumereeesens pbacheg 72 18 4.00 Sumeceecccrr: 67 23 2.83
June Nov....... 23 ul 3.29 Dec. May ...... 23 a 3.29
£6 DD eCs aes! 23 7 3.29 ‘¢ June)...... 23 7 3.29
GOA E NIE adedec 24 6 4.00 SES PART A Sremon 24 6 4.00
Sum oieeee cece 6 HO) 20 3.50 SUM soraccaesosees 6 7 20 3.50
A. D Ratio.
SummMenye win tereareeenceseeeeceece eect eeccteoceetes 22 8 2.75
SyOLabnVeg, -GAUERADIEATD caceasoo0 co00beG00Gda0000000 000 aaoneaanlai asa eeee 21 9 2.33
Vernal Equinox, Autumnal Equinox.....................006 18 12 1.50
Summer Solstice, Winter Solstice......... ..........eeeeeeeeees 23 ii 3.29
MeanwAmmntallscc sosceks nes actecteets dade sloaaedecaccacaset abaecmaeuitctisete 22 8 2.75
TABLE III.

Normal Percentages of Rainfall at ‘‘Husband’s,” on Lunar Days of each Calendar
Month, for Independent Comparisons.

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

ilspoG00000 76 98 57 184 128 70 62 112 116 8l 74 95
24550000000 83 99 64 112 115 81 68 122 130 87 64 116
Bcaoa0c00s 89 97 95 56 112 89 75 119 1387 114 70 1383
C Beaoooode 88 91 138 35 112 105 80 102 137 119 93 111
Booomoo0e 90 106 169 41 111 118 92 84 131 107 108 1)
We56000000 99 129 153 60 109 109 117 17 115 107 114 72
{foond00000 109 122 103 70 112 94 134 92 104 112 129 96
Bie clelcieieleloe 124 97 67 67 115 97 128 117 109 117 150 111
Voo6op0000 147 81 54 58 119 107 119 128 124 123 160 104
10........ 161 91 54 59 114 122 117 116 144 131 156 99
1lesoooodGs 153 120 75 80 94 158 112 100 147 114 148 101
Wosoaseoc 129 1383 116 108 79 186 106 96 118 97 137 100
13550006000 101 113 162 113 75 165 111 105 92 98 110 109
14......200 84 83 194 87 78 118 133 118 89 107 74 136
WH>oG0000000 79 69 183 61 86 89 155 124 88 104 51 148
16..5...... 80 75 123 56 86 719 150 107 80 85 54 123
a WfapoeoodKd 88 85 82 61 86 17 118 75 68 71 67 97
18...-sc00- 105 87 87 67 94 88 90 58 59 72 74 109
W)so6006600 116 89 83 87 89 104 79 68 61 76 88 127
740500000000 108 98 70 114 70 105 78 78 (©) 82 107 105
tlopeco0G0G 93 99 64 131 51 94 87 75 89 91 110 66
Z2inc ccc sce 86 88 65 141 42 85 92 79 86 93 96 47
QS. ccccrcee 96 90 58 134 61 17 88 93 69 88 85 46
Zh... enone 109 99 65 92 1lu 74 83 101 62 85 94 53
Poo50 000000 101 98 96 44 149 79 83 95 81 86 113 71
26.00 o se ne 89 100 117 46 130 93 92 95 101 96 116 92
Diao cine 88 111 115 122 89 107 107 112 101 113 98 112
28 84 122 109 218 96 96 102 126 94 123 88 126
98) g0G00000 75 122 105 257 138 73 79 118 92 120 88 121

1874. ] 1 99 [Chase.

If these accordances can be properly interpreted as indicative of lunar
influence, they represent results analogous to those we might look for
from the simple means of observation extended over a period of about
one hundred years. When theaverage daily temperature is most settled,
near the Summer and Winter Solstices, the lunar curves seem most ac-
cordant, while they are most opposed when the changes of season and
temperature are most rapid and in the most opposite directions, near the
Vernal and Autumnal Equinoxes.

Having thus shown that the general agreement is too great to be re-
garded as merely accidental, and that there are valid reasons for im-
portant differences in the curves for different months, we are prepared for
the sixty-six comparisons of entirely independent curves, for which
Table III. furnishes the data. The sums of the agreements and dis-
agreements between the curves for each month and for all the remaining
months, are as follows:

A D A D. A D.

January, 173 157 May, 170 160 September, 198 132
February, 200 130 June, 198 1382 October, 202 128
March, 190 140 July, 196 1384 November, 188 142
April, 148 182 August, 180 150 December, 179 151

Here again we find convincing evidence, and in some respects more
satisfactory than before, of a uniformity of lunar action that is obscured
by the preponderating variations of solar action, only in the single month

TABLE IV.

Normal Percentages of Rainfall at ‘‘ Husband’s,” on Lunar Days of each Calendar
Month, for Independent Comparisons at Intervals of Five or Siz Months.

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

90 111 126 102 86 86 98 99 90 81 81
91 94 102 97 89 95 109 108 94 83 85
95 87 89 93 92 98 113 117 110 98 96
96 91 91 97, 97 98 109 118 115 166 100
104 105 99 104 104 99 101 109 111 104 96
114 113 101 104 107 102 99 103 108 106 100
110 102 97 102 108 109 105 106 112 116 115
101 86 91 102 111 116 116 116 122 129 130
98 79 89 105 113 119 124 126 132 136 136
107 83 90 109 117 120 125 132 138 188 136
120 99 98 U7 125 120 118 124 128 129 131
125 116 110 125 132 120 108 108 111 116 120
116 119 112 118 125 118 105 104 100 103 107
105 111 102 102 114 120 113 102 Cy Ot 97
95 98 91 93 110 123 li 102 90 85 83
86 84 88 87 103 115 106 91 80 (6) 81
85 79 17 83 90 90 81 73 70 72 79
94 85 84 88 86 17 67 65 69 77 88
100 89 90 93 90 80 70 69 76 87 10L
99 93 89 89 88 83 79 80 87 95 103
91 92 85 81 83 83 83 87 93 109 93
83 90 83 76 80 84 85 87 90 88 8L
86 90 86 79 80 85 85 82 82 80 77
92 91 94 91 87 86 85 81 82 83 84
93 91 99 102 94 88 RT 88 91 95 96
95 94 97 102 99 96 98 98 102 104 102
105 110 106 102 104 107 108 107 107 195 103
114 136 135 113 104 108 111 110 119 105 103
112 151. 159 124 96 93 12 106 106 103 101
99 154 151 119 87 3 9+ 100 98 93 90

Chase. ] 200 [June 19,

of April. If we examine still more closely for clues which may be of
possible future service in the study of the reasons for accordance and
discordance, we find that in nineteen instances the discordance‘is greater
than we should expect if it were merely casual; in five, it is the same ;
and in forty-two it is less ; as will be seen by the following statement of
the numbers of discordances, and the curves by which they are severally

shown:
Excess OF DISCORDANCE.

20, Aug.—Nov.; 19, Jan.—Mar.; Apl.—May, Apl.—Oct., May—Jul.,
May—Dec., Nov.—Dec.; 18, Jan.—Apl., Apl.—Jul., Apl—sSep.; 17,
Jan.—Aug., Jan.—Oct., Apl.—Aug., Apl.—Nov., May—Jun.; 16, Feb.
—Aug., Mar.—May, Apl.—Jun., Sep.—Dec.

AVERAGE DISCORDANCE.
15, Jan.—Feb., Jan.—May, Feb.—Dec., Mar.—Apl., Jun.—Aug.
Excess OF AGREEMENT.

14, Jan.—Sep., Feb.—May, Mar.—Aug., Mar.—Nov., Apl.—Dec., Oct.
—Nov.; 13, Jan.—Dec., Mar.—Sep., Mar.—Dec., Aug.—Sep.; 12, Jan.—
Jul., May—Aug., May—Nov., Jun.—Dec., Jul.—Sep., Jul.—Dec.; 11,
Feb.—Apl., Feb.—Jun., Feb.—Jul., Feb.—Sep., Mar.—Jun., Jun.—Oct.,
Jul.—Aug., Jul.—Nov., Oct.—Dec.; 10, Jan.—Jun., Feb.—Oct., Feb.—
Nov., Mar.—Oct., May—Oct., Jun.—Jul., Jun.—Sep.; 9, Mar.—Jul.,

TABLE YV.

Normal Percentages of Rainfall at ‘‘ Husband’s,” on Lunar Days of each Calendar
Month, for Forecasts.

Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dee.

110 117 106 91 89 95 97 90 81 82
95 99 96 92 97 105 105 95 86 86

1874.] 201 [Chase.

Jun.—Noy., Jul.—Oct., Sep.—Oct., Sep.—Nov.; 8, Aug.—Oct.; 7, Jan.
—Nov., May—Sep., Aug.—Dec.; 6, Feb.—Mar.

The greatest amount of change produced by the lateral smoothing is
shown in the following summary of comparisons between Table III. and
Table V.: ;

Jd5 Db A. D. dis) 10% ALD:
Jan. 22. 8 AyD Al Y Jul. 26 4 Oct. 24 «66
Feb. 26 «4 May 19 11 Aug. 23 7 Nov. 23 7
Mar. Bp Ml) diay BB fe Sep. 23 7 Dec. 18 12

Table V. is formed from Table IV. by taking two additional successive
means. I am inclined to think that its normals would best represent the
means of observations extending over indefinite long periods, but Table
III. would perhaps more nearly indicate the disturbances of mean lunar
influence that might be expected at different seasons of the year. It is
possible that by systematically comparing monthly observations with each
of the tables, probable causes for any marked deviations from the nor-
mals might be found.

Table I. presents three sets of solar and six sets of lunar normals, each
of which is derived from observations extending over equal, but non-
correspondent, periods of one hundred and eight months. They there-
fore furnish data for three entirely independent solar, as well as for
seven entirely, and three nearly independent lunar comparisons. The
lunar columns cover twenty-seven years’ observations in the following
months: Summer Solstice, May to August, inclusive ; Winter Solstice,
November to February, inclusive ; Vernal Equinox, February to May,
inclusive ; Autumnal Equinox, August to November, inclusive ; Vernal
and Autumnal Equinox, March, April, September, October ; Summer
and Winter Solstice, June, July, December, January. The solar columns
exhibit, as we might expect, the closest accordance. The lunar, in spite
of the great irregularities in Spring and Fall, also exhibit a predominance
of accordances in each of the ten comparisons, whereas, if there were no
well-marked lunar action, we ought to have found a predominance of
disagreements in five of the comparisons.

The accompanying curves illustrate some of the more important results
of the foregoing discussion :

Curves 1-12 (Lunar), illustrating Table IY.

1. January. 4. April. 7. July. 10. October.
2. February. 5. May. 8. August. 11. November.
3. March. 6. June. 9. September. 12. December.

Curves 13-15 (Lunar), illustrating Table I.
13. Summer Solstitial, continuous line,

Winter . oC broken line.
14. Vernal Equinoctial, continuous line.
Autumnal ‘6 broken line.

15. Mean Equinoctial, continuous line.
‘¢ Solstitial, broken line,

A. P, 8.—VOL. XIV. Z

Chase. ] 202 (June 19,

Curve 16 (Solar), illustrating Table I.
16. 1847-55, continuous line.
1856-’64, broken line.
1865-—’78, dotted line.
Curve 17 (Solar and Lunar), illustrating Table I.
17. Solar mean, continuous line.
Lunar ‘broken line.
The horizontal line in each figure represents the mean daily rainfall
for the entire period represented by the curve; the abscissas, the times ;
and the ee the normal es of excess or deficiency of rain-

HEUeRceRcged

fall. The origin of the abscissas is at New Year in the solar curves,
and at full moon in each of the lunar curves, except figure 17, where it is
taken at new moon in order to show the analogous effects of increasing
radiation, both in the solar and in the lunar curves. At Lisbon, where
the prevailing winds are from an opposite quarter, the lunar influence is
also opposite, increasing lunar radiations and decreasing solar radiations,
each bringing increase of rain.

‘“‘Husband’s’’ Station is in St. Lucy’s parish, northwestern part of
Barbadoes, not far from the coast, 184 feet above the sea. In the follow-
ing tables, new moon, first quarter, full moon, last quarter, are respec-
tively marked by, n, a, f, b.

205

1874. ] [ Rawson.
RAINFALL AT “ HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES.
] | | | | | | | |
Days.’ Jan. Feb. Mar |Apl.)May June. 'July.|Aug. Sept.) Oct. | Nov, | Dec. | Total
i}
| | |
1 jf 23 .06 05! .02b .48b .03| .25) 06)
2 .80 | 10 © 01) .01| .£0 .04| 2.90)
3 10 .07 01 b .23' 1.28 AO} al}
4 On|) ko 01 AIG) GB
: 5 .05 07) 11 b .06)b 1.67
LO .0T Oil MO) ol) OR) = Par
mn 7 01 .07) Db 102 TSS e381) evden In .02
ofeey BB .03 D ib 36) 04) 01
& 9 |b 01 b .07| .07| —.03! in .64.n 03]. .01
2 610 .06 .05) 84) 63 .03n .09) 1.55) .73) OL
& 11 .23| 01 .26} Ls onl a all) | kos ol
a 12 16) .05) .01 n lin .51 .09 14
B 613 14 02} 12! | 12
Sg 14 19} .15) .05) .16n.48) 01) 25) 1.34) .40/ .994 .01
Q 15 05 n .06} n .03 08 | 04 .0y) 09a .79 63
So 16 m 01 n .10 .05| 1.89} .09| .03] 24
ay 28] .01| .10 .€8 10a 04a .04
2 18 .06) .10! .11) .03 a .05) 66) 04) 45
mx 19 02) .09 .01 05) -.36} OL
Pp 20 25) 02) 01) .27 a a 102228
a 21 23a .02 06 a 05 .03 \f
EOD .06/ .02} .0la .10 .04| .04 27 .03|f 2 253\ 1) 08
S 2 a 20) .10! .50)f 01) .26
24 |a 13 MODs fae 22) eel ee
25 .02 01; 16} = 25] —.07|
26 .04 AT .36 t We BB
27 04 f a! 08) Ol BP) 8
28 01; .01 t 1.80) .57| .66
29 13 f .04' 42! 02} .45| .43b .61b .03
30 .02 .01f .06 .06, .08| .05) .OL b .94) .50! 01
31 |f .05 f 01) .30| 199)
Sum | 2.62) 0.75! 1.00! 1.85! 0.68! 1.58 3.45 5.00) 12.37! 6.78] 8.25' 2.72
Desa liem Feb.|Mar | Apl.|May |June.| July.| Aug. Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total
1 «30 n -40
2 | 1.34 zit aS | eee 48
3 01 n fo .13| .20| 3.75 a
4 .03'n 04; 689 1.54 a
: 5 .05 n 37 a a
+ 6 n.28 27 \a 1.50
es 7 .03 .10 18! 10/2 82] 2.95
rs .02 13 a a 1.62) 3.30
a 9 08) .01 a NP (F
= 10 .05 a .09 19, f if
fe} ll a .02|a .05 ( 2 j 49
2 12 .05| .09) .06 | f
a 13 Ia 43 ; { £.28
9 14 .03 L .15!f I Tee .31
A 1 01 .09 (e25 als 1.78
a 16 15) .07 if f .86 \2 .038 ;
= ily 36] .48) .31 104 .13 b b
= «18 .08/f .01/f f .36 .19
= 19 45) .01/f .04 1.25) ( .36 b |b
bP 20 |f .05) .10 37 | 1.50, 1.50 .35
a 21 15 b 1.75 .59
OP 09] .07 45
a 23 .03 .16 b 03) 1.80)0 .13
= OM .08 b .21 10 ( 50
25 .05| 08 .30/D .35 +35} In |n .23
26 01 b .31 n 115 2
27 b .03,b 1.16 in .65
28 |b .09 1.07 n .20 { 60] .37,
29 .08 1.10 .78
30 381 n .05n .05
31 14 94 allyl) cal 2.25 21
ES ar | OM Pal | Fe | RE | | ee | |
Sum! 3.68. 1.12! 0.96] 0.90] 4.03! 255! 5.70! 9.201 7.50 16.23! 3.27| 3.78

204

Rawson. ] [June 19,
RAINFALL AT **HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES.
Days.|Jan.|Feb.| Mar. | Apl.} May.|Jun.| July} Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Total
1 20: (a .05 .07 .78
Be ; 1.20] ye llyg| | (Cs ae
3 .19 f.40 07
4 13] 670, ( .85 .03
ca tb RAR gale 01
S 6 1.20 .30 b .26
cy \f f f 14) 2.10) 1.50) =.07,-1.75/b 54
ne eee f. 12) .49 } b .42 81
Gg | | 30) 23 (b.50) —.90 01
* 10 .04. | .30 .38| .89] 75 230 05
@ tbl 20. | L.74'( .11 b 14; 05
2 12 54) 45 02
a 13 | b |b .26 01
9 14 .82 ) b 11 .87 n .04\n .04
i) WB |} b a 387! 36 1.98 .87
> 16 |b ‘| L.97) Lb.84) 42) .67| 11) = .84.n n
S/T (i 1.00 233) <05|) 405
18 14n fas?
— 19 42 n 1.20
b> 20 333 n 15 25
3 21 -60
BD tn | L104 n n 1.40 a .02\a
@ 23 2.12 | 87] .03}
Do n n .18 a a
25 52! L .05) .05) a .08} .12) | .55 .36
26 .87| 14 44) 22) 1.35 a
27 a .95| .14 .02
28 .04 a .58 04.
29 57 a 85) .05f 14/f .01
30 36) 14.58 .60 .05
31 |a .67 1B 56 f
Sum! 4.00! 2.25 4,12 1.60 296) 6.94 5.80) 4.97| 5.25! 7.54 1.40, 3.03
Days.|Jan.|Feb.|/Mar | Apl. |May June.|July|Aug. |Sep.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |Total
— f |
1 2-08] .06; .08 ey 5 ib .02! 09) 2.70
2 ll 02 b .05.b .20) 27 2.10
3 49D 51] .25) 11in n .03
4 .04 b .03.b PE Py eA | SxS Gg) 28}
‘ 5 |b b 08) 15 n .26) .16
3 6 02) .16 07) +.95n 125
e) 7 .02} .40 02) .42 m .15) .09) .02 .05
es 8 01 2.75 .02) 4.35} .05
a 9 15)n 28) -05| 18! .07
2 10 In .45) 1.13) .28] .14! 11
ny 11 10 n .14 .28 a .55a 11
2 12 n n 10 dies Oa cilly
By 13))|ne25 n .06 .02 a .07 02
g 14 -30 2.90| .48a .10) .17| .18
qQ 1 .16 N65) eee 22 |23 a .09
a i 44) 06 a.45a .04 .84| .08| .16 .07
abe .04 49} 62 10] = 82
= 18 .05)a .22 .02 f
x 19 16a a 3.00] .10 18 ALlf 08
mb 20 a .08 .06! { .08] = .12
a 21 |a .30 -30) .12\f 15] 08] + ~—-.02
See .08 f .01 -50
a 23 1.67 .06 1.74
MA £25 03} .02/ .06 .13) .04'
25 § .08 f WA, TG 25 .02|b .10
26 ea fess .38 AS b .06 i
27 \f f .24| 15) .09] .73' .19 b 54] 15!
28 .80) .35| .82b .33| 05) 3.82
29 02} .11| .04) 3.00) 1.50
30 05! 80 b 2.40} .10| 3.20) .67) .07
31 15} 16) BA) LOY .15 .04
Sum)! 1.12) 3.50} .80) 4.36] 2.72 7.80 8.28] 928 2.36) 15.92 10.97) 6.39

205

1874. ] [Rawsor.
RAINFALL AT “HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES.
Days. Jan.|Feb ‘Mar Apl. May June.! July.| Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |Total
i} |
| |
1 n .06 in in 18 a
2 in 03 n a | 1.05) 2.02) .41
3 .08 73 a 15} 610) 1] 24
4 .04| 31] .03 | .02
ano .04| a 250) SOS 22) Sail
a G 07 ay 65 54 f .82
coi 03) .24 31 .04 0.18} = .08]—.08
en: 03) 04) la 15 f
a 9 04/a, a 09 -03) _ .80
10 ja 12 a Se) Ga) | Loy f fe 020) 218) sen
Ei) aigl 19] = .04 2 £2.69
2 1 50] 18] .90, .36 08 .03
Bereta eet 2ie elle. 5y Kee all 94) 2.78) .48, 80
9 14 25] 07 265" 18 .77| 1.46/ — .83!
a 126 Ont al2|) -2af Nf .08 | 8.74 b .11
5 1G 03] .25| 04 82) .73| 44 bd .10) .39
= 17 |f .03| .26f 1.25 .67 b 27
s 18 .09 st TG) my b .09
= 19 04. | 82) .09b .04 1.21 19
P20 05) 04) 64 -24 ll
eS Al ‘Db .23'b .24') 58 14
El 22 b .42 DD Pe aI OE Gare Qa ein n .28
a 23 04 20! eo OL OL Ba 11
| EL May Oy b 22.04 1.86 n.57| 05
25 10) 03 .03| 81; 08n .26 .20
26 | 15.18 n_ .05! .86 15
27 .08 02] 1.02; .70 1.10 40 25
28 Ol 17) = 212) a5) 2-15} .16
29 .05| | .08) n 42) | 202
30 In .09 64 08) 04 a .05a .09
a | aa | | 50 a
Sum| 1.05 2.36 1.12 1.72 3.45! 6.01| 4.72) 8.80) 8.38 9.98 5.56 402 4
Days.|Jan.|Feb.|Mar | Apl.|May'June.'July.) Aug. Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. Total
3 .03 45/f .04 04.09
2 01 f 01) —.07|
Wi oe .05)| f S12 es .15' 1.10
4 35| 16 f 11; 03) ~=—.86) Ss. 04 b .85 b
a. «OG f 122 04) 22 82 2105 eZ
oS 6 f .13) fO7| 204) db) 22) :87| .01|
Mi 14) .05) .10/b .27| 1.65) 1.15} — .05}
= 8 30) .12/ .02 .03} 10 51] 1.21] 3.78] —_.08]
a -12| 038 b .18\/b 68} .02| 2.74| .60, .06
0 32) 08 b 13) n
Bib 30) 04 b .09} .01) 1.40 .03 n .05
el b jb 48) . calls .04| 3.30) 1.20} .20
@ 18 |b .27| .18 .36) .01) .03 16} .02in .94n 1.76) 104
o 14 10 16) 96] .14) 23 01; 84 1.30
A 15 .01 n .09} .01
Ss 16 24 14'n .26, .07 4.05
a) Ly .05 .02 n .03, .07 21
@ 18 06] .02| 25] n .05 04) = 01 a 52a
= le .02 n .20 n .27| —-.08 a .06
QD A .07 in .02'a 2.86
So Gail tin ae 14/02
BR 22 .08 66) 06 = .1d4/a 41
Saez8 35) 01 ii) Bile, OA) Gl SP
24 12) .09 a 15| 09
25 .19 25/04) 01] .03 .05
26 03} .19) .27!— .08) 10) 21 f f
27 .07 a 1.70) .02) 01 f .26
28 a 0la 3.22) .76) 14 if
29 |a .07| .15 f .09} .26] 1.31 35
30 10 .10 01} 03} 1.09] .07| 4.37 .03
31 t .05
Sum | 2.55) 1.88] 2.02! 1.37] 664! 2.78 2.38 7.81! 6.03) 10.13! 18,29! 5.24!

Rawson. } 206 [June 19,

RAINFALL AT ‘ HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES.

| | |
Days.| Jan. ee Mar |Apl. May. |June.| July.) Aug. | Sep. | Oct.) Nov. | Dec. | Total
1 (b .27| 81 20) .06| .03! .82n 20) .05
2 |b .08: .16!b 1.14, .02! 11] .04n .01 DO 5
3 Os) fa) 3a} 69 1.64n 82 20| .55
4 .03 n .10 05
an) 0 23 12st 6 AO)” 8 02) + .08 82) .01
8 6 12 n n .57 10 02)
& T 14 04 nm 23\) (02 26, la 1.09 a
Rens n 26 n .04 A ey) ae 06.01 20!
BO ka Tn OAT 09) PPR OR) a) ae) SG OA) Lee
oo 10 85| 89} .06| 2.28) 12) 03a 73 31
fh .82| 10 Mia SO) Ae
a 12 KS! 0) 2A BB .08| .02| .05) 01)
518 20 01 21 a 09} .37 85 |
2 14 08 ( la .04 05) .07 04
eB a 201) 218! 205 08} =.05 O1if if Z
SG) a a .05 fy 48)
Soa STAY OH 02'a .03| .01 iy) aig} f .65| .68| .20| 4.50
= 18 08] 02: a .60 re OR) SAH OA 0) SEL
= Ae) a7 204 | Se cial 10
p> 20 08} 14 .03/f 1.20 08 01
a 21 29 f .03 1.16 80
zp 05 03 rave Ou 14 05| 46 18
Gr OB 02 f 06 f .34 1.20 11 10 07 b .36|b
ey 2d 05] .13| 03 4g] 15) 01,
25 if f 01; 01 .02 b .05|b .35 09
26 08) 02 04 11/ .09/b .20 02) .85 45) 64
Oy 06 .03 .09\b .85 40| 3.23 33)
28 12 O2 arse 25 11/b 22 3.61 01
29 28) 09 GEM {O Q1| 1.42 15
30 b 1.10} .02) .02 06| n .01n .01
31 .69 b 4.28 03] 89
-—— Sa ee — ———_ =e oe
Sum| 2.48) 2.97! 2.62) 2.46] 13.59] 5.55} 4.26] 6.75] 12.26) 7.75 7.27! 6.17
1 |
Days. Jan. Feb. Mar Apl.| May. |June.| July.| Aug.| Sep. | Oct.| Nov. | Dec.| Total
1 LO) 223 57 2 204) 60 45 22274
2 15 205 03' 40 14 20
3 1G}, als a .40a .63 .02 24 1.21 rs
4 a 01) 03 .0'8 .29 23.f rae)
; 5 ja 03 04 a 13a 03) Lis (Of), OBI By ob
res 6 a 01) .01 05 f .o3if 28 07
a u 04 62| .02| 14] .30 16
Te 58 1.35 f .02| .09)
aero) oilat| .05 .58 1.64
6 0 16 08 fa ONE 06 65 250
3 i 32 40} 08 01 8.25!
12 28 f t 15| .19 7b 2.99 b
el ie .O1lf (01, 115 02 b1.07| .65.
8 14 If .40 f 05) 1 01) b 30/07
yeas 29} 11) .01) .25 ally .28b .22) 19 87
a 1G .02 1514 ee O2ibe cOD Ml Olli eOll 09
ee it 01 .02,b .20/ —.01! 23) ell plZ
= 18 05! .08 06} .02 44
a 8619 0T|b Db 1.84) n
mb 20 b OL 08 .02 n .20 .24
§ 21 |b b 1263) gee 1} ood ll (3a) O17) esl
Gi) .27| —.05| n .09
& 23 19, .14 15! 39m .09 07
24 n195 18 04
25 15 n 04 ae} oly 06
26 l1\n mM Me 0 19 1.21.4 a
Q7 16} .04! n .07 .68 68] 44
28 |n .21) .03.n .86 44) 15) .0l'a
29 .05 07| .40\a 04) 21
30 .30 90' .23/ 01
31 .02 04 la .16
Sum] 1.85! .84| 1.12] 1.02) 1.55 5.49 829! 412) 3.67| 8.64) 1476 3.21,

1874 ]

[ Rawson.

RAINFALL AT “HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES.

January 1st, to December sist, 1855.
-
uo

Apl. May June.

July. Aug. | Sep.
|

Sum! 148 2.05

January Ist, to December 31st, 1856.
rr

.| Feb. Mar
| |
.16 f .70
‘foe | eeleG
24 f 55
09
a5
19
| ox b
| 06 b
.05 b .20
| 14
08 Bl
| 28
| .l4n
in
n |
20) 02
|
.18
08} .05 20!
18} 06 la. 09
28 a .14 .38
a
50
| .05
.10
1 0; 220.
DOO ot
if .14
212 393 518
.| Mar Apl.; May,
12
05 18
.02 27
ay n
40; .440
.80/n .18
10) 02
18] .04
03 |
OT a
10! .35a .20
40a
.02
12!
625) if
f 09
f AM BX
| .39
Ol 41!
|
.02| 50 |
b 1b .22
Al
b
85
T5129 242

|
Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total
|
22 .60b .09b .60
b .48 .33
05.
15
82 24 64
1.21 30, 64)
1.22} .06
1.05
in n
on
73
| 86
28)
.50 03! 09
.38l 26 10
.69 a 16a
2.10 10
05 &
.05 .86
5 04 10
60f .81f .05
55) | 05,
fame) 10.
73 81
CO, PB ds
-O1} 1.06 04
10 .3l
50 26 08
10 ib .18
834! 540 6587, 425
Sept.) Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Total
11) a
18)
1.08 53!
-15| «12
a .25a .16
2.34
a 03 -73
08 | Td
73 04
18 27
13) 2.23)/f
| 08 f .02}
12 f .29 234
25) 25 .02
.05
22
.22; = =.09 01
32 85
b b
\b .07 13 05
.02 45
.80 36
25) 08 .03
.27)
96
.02 -02|
n n .05
.06 n .07
02 04)
74] 1.12) 1.01
14 .36|
4.8), 3.04) 8.14, 4.41

Rawson. } 208 [June 19,

RAINFALL AT ‘“*HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES.

j |
Days. Jan.|Feb.| Mar| Apl, May, June. July, | ian | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total
| |
1 09 a a 09 14) 1,80 f .65f .10
2 07a 2.75) 28 93
8 |a 02) .03/ .05| 05, 80 lf .06f .07; OL
4 26) 16 .08] -.17/ .68 .24/ 1.00; .28 |
ee .05 £38] | 410) f .58 41
& 6 87/ .29| 3.80 3.86 4.60| .28
= 7 12 .02 f 12f .07 | 04
msi f .03) .09 .46f se D> = OR b b
a2 9 19, f 20) ca! .20 67 1.00 31
oo 10 if 88 f AQ) | .30 b b 08! 03
vemesliieng| 10! | C6 1.42) .06 .70 .08| 16
5 12 50| .68 17; .v0b .25 1,35
A 13 .01| 07 28 p18 01! 28 10
gS 14 | 38) .52 Db | dil 19) Oy
je) 1 15! 26 | | .21ib .06 | 02) 121' 18 25
S 16 |, b .20) 11 b 1) 85) 682) 8. n
= iy lon ib 10) 1.08 | 142n .08 95 C1 |
+ 18 10 b 05) .06n .16 .48 |
- 19 04! 72 41n | 07 06
pb 20 .06 151 1.42 | | 09
cS Oil ll} .08 10) n n .47 40 19 |
OP 14) .22 10 i ook PO | 106
eg 2 400, cll mn OU OD OP oN LO |
24 Nn .34 n 45 | ol .07 a it
25 In n 66 i 0m | | .05
26 11 10| 86 02a .80 | 60
27 102 23 la .75| | | .07|
28 la a .16 .66 tal? .20)
29 105 WearoiNuio2| aencewsin aire! | 150
BD -10 a 27a | 20) 17) 20 .08) 186 <¢8
1 12 | 114 .08 f 22)
Sum | 1.84] 5.51) 2.52| 4.87. 7.48° 6.09 7.66) 11.67 9.01 4.99] 10.17 2.15) i
Days. Jan.|Feb.; Mar Apl.| May|June.| July.) Aug. |Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Tota
| |
| |
1 54 1.21
2 15) 14 .20 10) .04 1.00} 01
3 03) .40) 19 18 .18
4 .60 ‘b b b 40) 13
Ue 3B .10|/b .10 02 65 040 n
(3 @ .15| 04 ib .08 b .81| 20] ~—-.05 1.57; 58)
Cyt Me es b .08| .05 14'n Tl 240s
sxe aS 10 10.07} 34] 35 30 07
Be 30/n .81 40 54
= 10 01| 09/n 01 35] 12
fl algh 02) OL 02in .23) 422) 13] 686) 142) 703) 302
2 2 10} .10 .05) 1.01) .23/ .16 Jo] 11) 08
z 13 08\n rey pa 10} .30) 47) «1.€0) —_.16/a a .16
g id 30} 80, .08 33} .07| .25] 1.30) 01) .08
qQ 15 |n n 15) 25a a .61 28
ene 21 205 10\a 10
= aly .09 a STO |e
s 18 09) 1.60) .02| .02! a .08 | 02 10} —-.36
19 a .14 .04 07) 05
Pp 20 a a 06} 15 28 19 f .52
g 21 02 18 03) 90 f
Ee OB In @ .25| .26 f
a 23 .29 f .10
rm 24 108 f .04| .46 10
25 .05 f NO gig oil
26 05) PP .79 .80
27 02 £ f .02 16} .77/b 1.30\b .12
28 f 123 ati) li
29 ‘| f f 11} .03] ~—-.55 b 1,00 .65
30 40) 40D .12) 04 113
31 17 b | “72 .01
Sum | 1.28 2.89' .75| .85| 194/ 2.62) 4.92) 330' 4.70) 9.07/ 5.80! 405

209

1874. ] [ Rawson.
RAINFALL AT “HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES.
Days.| Jan. Feb, Mar Apl.|May June. July. Aug. Sep. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Total
|
| | |
1 04 02) lume 08 06 80 © 04a
2 EOSm 25) in .08 65, a .60
3 n .03. n 08 rc O2|ioeOi7| a 48
4 |n .04 10n .06 Pasay OT el Olen leo4 ie Wei)
6 5 .U3| 01 | a i) = oat 1 40 44)
BO il Oy .03 15) 64) 21
ye 102; .05 Deel Sanees .20 | OR
oa SH) 01 .15} 2.19 708). 14
eG 27) a sP)| 08) 50 12 enO2
° 10 a a .07| lf f
old 14 16 2.00 f .08 .08
2 12: Ja 05 a 31 f 14
S58 02 08 f {BRI
g 14 .23} 01) .06 .28 AIS uplesd aoe
ey 18 04! elie Of f 40 hig 08) 08
B 1G .05 feel Seam 30, 0G) BO WR ADD
Sy f C3) f .45 .18 b .09
2 18 |f 03) 07 f 09.24 PD ACH 0S
rm 19 03) BP 0 b b |
b> 20 08, 05 23 22! .05
al Oil .05 £2022 05: byae 26 || el Simi OS LD
oD 17 i (03 EB! BS |
3 98 b .36 b 1.35] 10
= of .20 b 'b 5201 R07 1.00. n n
25 |b Da ole 68 oe oa ON Oe
26 b | 01) 83, 415.02 n In .64 .10
27 18) 53] 54 24 i ea Oar als
28 09) .68 10328 cOk 207i eee OSimim22 |g 08
29 06) Oln I, E00) 204) + Slow 16
30 .65'n .68 | 01 18,
31 TD .20 | 08 08. “41
ee SS ee : i | —_
Sum) 1.31] 1.04 0.50 3.70 283' 6.31| 4.57 3.90 486 7.02/ 6.22! 2.73
Days. Jan. Feb.|Mar|Apl.|May|June.| July.; Aug | Sep. Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |Total
| |
il ley 0B)” la ol 09 05) 06
2 fos ale | OS — BOS ~ Wy LES |
3 A265 |e | f if 10; ) > Ol Oy ae oe
4 O83 PA JG OA) Ol 2B op 1.34
& 5 I BG) f if | 39. 1.96] .75b |
Siee i 205 14 | 4305 (02) 10; |
Ta i 04f .04|f .06 p19) eee se | Ola) 206] -35|
NS Bhelife eel e220 .09 | leusi42/be Ot)» 04 24.
eh wee) .03 505 eee sou bin 02 Bde 05 02)
pau 0 26 | | | -T7| |
@ Tul .25 ald 227) ib 86 24
3 12 26.04 .09 b 23) Ly a4 n
a ie b b 01; .09 .69 20n
Se-14 || 02 b | 09, 04 22
2) i168 iy Or Aor ol | 07) 2138 m32 14
a iB 01 .04' m Ge A OOS
Son foul 15.04 07, $33\1 ole 00m LO 4.35] 02
= ig .03 .04 63 0 | .06] .02 30 .03
i a) | gl 02) m On) ste. blll 2H snl «= O)]
m 20 | 02 in 7, 23 6) aO GOm Wa a3
eg 21 n .30 nee .08 a .02a .11|/ .05| .40
Zz OD \in .28\n eee 20, | Gr Or, GSU
S23 Oi or | Bla 170 05. 208) | 204
ro | | 45) AB iil (0S
25 -20| la a 80! 34! 04 |
26 “15 51005) eee 02/07)
27 .08 05 a .08 E2002 |
28 .10 a .13| | 42) .08if f |
29 a .70 } call 1.05) | 2A LB oo
80 a | A) PRY HE) | |
Shey | | .87 jf .68 .20|
Sum! 1.48 2,.97| 0.31) 0.98; 0.741 2.99 3.99, 10.98| 11.70) 8.021 810 4.94!

A. P. §.— VOL. XIV. 2A

Rawson. ] 210 [June 19,

RAINFALL AT “HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES.

Days.) Jan. Feb. Mar | Apl. May June.) July.) Aug.) Sep. | Oct | Nov. | Dec. |Total
1 15 | 01) .46b 21) .08 10 11|
2 | .01b .42 b .07 04) 2.54 n n .03)
3 .06 ib 01] .20, 1.14) .68
4 |b .16 .02 .09 Oe | | zim n |
eye DEST lly <6 peel 4 ties O4' 220)
eG 70) 11] 118 n .17/ .18 50
on 22/8 1635s! |e 05) el 2 291i ds 37 |
aes 04) .20 .29n .60n 05 08.60 |
Be O| Oy a 285 n .03/) 210) .42 43} 1520 a
c 10 n 08} 14) 46 aol |
ai jm 64 n Ol] 285 .77)a .05| .15
2 12 | 03 .36 .04| .08 03) 04
Bish ines | 16} .10 46a .02/ 120) .08 04
g 14 .05 1 OS). 105) 435 2.94, 120 2.21) .28
a 165 137) 215! 9 102|) 1450 a1.85a .03 30, 2.00 1.46
5 16 14 .01] 02] —.06 Bs) al Gy) “oily
ay 08 a .10 .20)a 53 258 | 55f .03)f .50
= 18 | a .08 Os ee ee ou®) 59
ra 19 Ja a .04 abl) ls 10st 151430 anen Od
Pp 20 80| .20) .06/ .09) .16| .10f 13° 4.00 |
3 21 21) .01 C2 01 21| —.08} |
Dp 06) .65| .19/f .o4|f 41| .06 |
S 23 79 Ol] .55| .22 .40 2.24 105
mM 03 O5|f |f .38] 01] 1.20 10} 80) = .11jb_ .08
25 31f .08 A) 08) aG) 0B b .82
26 |f .25 f .04| -.05| 03 52 b 32 |
yf i | 20] .01 20 |e 00] eal A b |
28 .20| 80 1.50; .26 b .02 05) 64
29 .05 03} .10} .87| .02Ib | 1.73.40 E86)
30 | 14) .27| 2.28 'b 6083 (ees 23)
31 13, b1.00; “30/0 288 | 4.00 n .46
Sum! 2.96 3.18! 1.80) 7.50! 8.17) 8.89) 907 3.25! 10.29 16.62 901] 5.21
Days.| Jan.) Feb.|Mar | Apl.) May'June.| July | Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov.| Dee. | Total
|
i}
1 04) .02! .08| ja .380) .07 -09
2 .06 .04 1,00} .04 .03 |
8 | 1.56 02 02 a 2335
4 .02 10 a 47) 01} 600) .05) —-35]
ili 236| -09ran cS) 23210960) Oz enka 05
So Gg 15a 36 | 1.61/f .3sif
2) 7 |a 14 a a .06 O7| = =.17 15 f 12
ue 8 10} 02a 200 .07| .09/f 02
ae) .04 a OD? OBS |
& 10 02) .04| .06 | 123 2.10} .38] .49
abl .02 .06, .06 he oil} 15 .69
2 12 10} .40) f .06 10) 1.05 i
& 13: | 16 f 07 04 06) 2.05
g 14 14f .38 .07/f 57 31) b 303'b
e 6 11 | .44 10} = .13|b) 070 9-60| aye 02
B iG We? ts) WoL | .46 .05)D 1.85] .04
seenly/ 05 04 -75b .15/ 1.00 04) .70) .07
= 18 03 | |b’ .22) 06 25
m= 19 06 | 06 ib .29) 38| 25) .09,
P 20 £05) b .03, .06/ .06) .26] .04
3 21 \b .03 b .16, [04 3430) eeOs 2m 20m
GB 205) b | st 1.50/)) “iro
28 |b 46) | 0 2B) 08 13 0 n 82
Ps Uh 74 12; .18 .51/ .02) 2 65|
25 | 1.00) 42, .91| _ .45| n 2.06.64 02
26 | 04) .08.n .30 Ol
27 | .05 | | In 94: 20) 03.
28 .25 n my jhn 75) 18 07 a |
29 | .05 .03) .80 160a 01
30 in n 04 | ja \a 04.
ot | | | .07| |

Sum) 5.40) 1.72 0.34 1.34| 2.43 572 368! 840 3.01' 18.84! 10.98 2.65

211

1874.] [Rawson.
RAINFALL AT “HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES.
| | | \ | | !
Days. Jan. Feb.) Mar |Apl.|May|June.' July. Aug.| Sep. | Oct. |.Nov.) Dec. (eigice
| |
1 ‘atl L035 f f 1.67; 64
2 .02} .01| .68 35
3 f 06, |. Loe 04 14 «414 b 1.20
4 | .09 f 57) 24 b | 1.54) .01!
3 BR .06 f .02) .03| EO) al) OA) Br
S 6 01} 80, .04| HOSE BI) oO! ] .29
mt Mi .02| 04b .04, .07; .02 .65) «30
aon 18 02) 01 b 10) | .05] —-.80
2 2 Syl} 46.16} 05, + .02 29) 14
10 06] .10) .12,b .71 20; 05 .06 n .06
A iil | b 09 b .03) 11 al 2 tier OS ened, n .08
12 |b b .05 .05) 10] —.03| n -08
a 18 .06 | 11 .05'n
Sie ae lil Al 15! .20'n -07
A 15 .02) .65 .08 n 1.35) .04) .24 1.80] .18
o. «16 .20| 08 2 n 04 8 Ball a Oe
aah 205 n .10 .15| 1.50 10a .05
+ 18 n .02 n .08) .02 “15 | 45a 12
val aK) tha n | 14 04a 04, .58
Pm 20 .08} .02) .02) .08 a 17, 45
gs 21 04] .08| .38) .23 7, .02| 105| 204
zB oD .05' .06| 06) 45|a .02| .05' .03] 42) 50}
S 23 09} 09 03} .04/a 11) 1.11 20)
he | Ore 04 a 1.07 04
25 .09/a .33 03 a .82 sf .0¢f
26 |a 65) a .10 a) GH 8B f 17; —-.05)
27 |) 209) .50.a 04° 20, 48 f 12)
28 cil abt .03f .40| .08 .10
29 £09. .29) 11/40 12!
30 .05 - 02) fem O2 02) 47
Sila ee 02 25] 05 | |
Sum! 0.86 413/119 2.20) 113) 1.66 4.20) 5.99! 4.66] 2.68) 7.84: 3.21
} | |
Days.|Jan.|Feb.|Mar | Apl.| May June, July. Aug.|Sep.| Oct. | Nov.| Dee. |Total
Pues ee | |
|
1 05 b .03 n 05, 14.02
2 40) .18 .01'n oH oR | BO
3 44! 07 09 83, 84 12, 02
4 30 n .4¢n 12 230)
act ehipits .20 18) 08 .66| 1.45) .88| .02/
Ss 6 14 myn! cllll @ ..01.a .07|
a: 7 n .05 .03 54 .02! 02.10)
= 8 .05| .04.n .09 a 4.16, .05)
Si iin (08) .02 Ay SO)! oy GB ON
2 10 04 .06 | .06 a .79 03} 80, .80
itl -03 Lil 18 01 30!
g 12 03 a .06a 22) 1.54) 08] 28 645
o 13 -28| .07 a 03, .46 £33 f ie Py
aA 10a la E20 ee O2 21 1.75) . 4.55 04
Clee loa| 208 |i-05|a 1.25 10/f .40 01
e iG ail ib 8} 15) .80
Sy igl'T -12| .50|f 1.30] .46) .61/ 1.24) .20
om ig 16] .20) .20 06} 22 532) 146) s05|) 02) 201
ia) ai) .05 12\f .04/f .48] .06) .38) .02) 08
a. AD aay eal Wy wa ae OS PA) ODL lll BO
Se ol 3) Se f 20M) 202) 207! 90|/b .43b .38
A 22 \f .32 i 12A| LBD PAip WAH] Pall ae
Seema 03] 06) .64| 1.45] 15] 26) .08
24. 05 1.31/b .18) 1.23) 56) 2.41
25 09 b .75| 56) .06
26 .03} .08 b .06] 2.20 -10
27 12 54 1,14) .34) .82 n
28 06 or-03 lee O3 e023 32) = .20/n
29 05} 02 1 | -10 66] .02
30 b .05} .01 -04 n n 16)
31 |b -21 25
Sum! 3.07| 1.62| 0.26) 0.29) 2.93] 1.19! 7.11' 8.92] 10.47| 12.55) 12.121 3.57

212

Rawson. ] [June 19,
RAINFALL AT ‘‘HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES.
Days. Jan.| Feb.|Mar|Apl.| May' June.| July.| Aug | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec | Total
1 LOSE 25 .08 a 19a 253 | TAO) iO
2 a a eH) Gly OB OP RE IG
3 05! .07\a 290). 288)) > 18] esti 3585: 14
4 ja 10} 04a ON BP GS) ae IBS 0
- Sie entero .01 aly) IR A ae, 8}
3 6 02) .05 04 09} 3.25
a 7 .05, .01 Mi BO Shes Op OS!
PES BAS 14, 50) .15] .10/f .08 .30 .01
a 9 .29| 1.42.f A083 |e 02 55
soe 110 f 15/f .15 8) (08 b b
Omelet 07 f 26] 02 23] 45 .18
E 12 f .26 29} .27\b 56
a | 18 .038 2345) 1.20) {0b 241) agi 35 .05
dl 5083} — {alll 108) eSSiiee vale 56 .39
je 16 56] .02 10 15,b .70) .04 aly
ee .50 -70 b 1.58] .17) 1.91 al
sah cis hi 204k 0S! 05 | pelezh ne 2| ue O04 eam Ol 3
= 18 .16)b .01/b .07/b .02) 48) .04! .03 n n
fl 5G) .03 .80 15} 80) « -04n .88'n .20)) .16) .48
> 20 |b .03 b 54) .01| 03 eal Ol BB
g 21 .06 .05 mo .82| 38] 1.65
a 22 05} 70 02} .0ljn .06) .35 ‘All| '.04
& 23 AO LS elon) 208 eee e209 21
“24 389, *.04n all), “20
25 n .22.n .17 .38| .08 .20/ .05}a .28
26 04.04) 09] .50) .45! 37] .osla
27 In 07n oll .68 104) ) 482 a .03
28 .02} .29 Oly Cra] eal
29 105) eel 7 a 28) 50 52
30 17 .05 FLO} 2582: 1.03] .05) 3.25 1.41
31 .02 .29 .10 37 2.69 0.28
——— -— —----— —— _———d
Sum | 2.94] 1.44! 1.37] 2.08] 7.77) 9.08} 6.05] 9.80| 3.33! 16.421 5,52] 6.20
|
Days.! Jan.'Feb.| Mar, Apl.|May|June.) July.) Aug. Sept.| Oct. | Nov. Dec. | Total
|
ees aaa | Sache
I (pe Pal f £03) 203m O|nee0G | 54
2 16} .03 lil a7 ‘b 199 ees tae
3 .20 sil) Orally ks 145 ee gee so
¢ 4 04 AO} Of SI) oe SB
é 5 .04 aalal £03) Joye Ol aepeatsTl eae ON eT 7 .10
S 6 03} 14 .03'D .29| 04 .01 .09
ee 7 b b .67 01] 2:30] .26:n a a
U8) e)|b)209| #1800 b all 08) OR BI 0 Oe
az 9 .26|b 41! .03'n_ .03} |
oo 10 ROS ame .05| .05/n .76] .07 20.49
al Onl) cil SO! OT TA {60}) | OLIN ve76
2 12 .30| .43 n in 2.40, .43 10) 04.
a 18 34 SOME OL 1eSaeeero
eee: OD! OI ay n .30 04 elo
q 16 .39/n .02/ .80n .11] .30 .01 a .02a .12
= 16 |n .03/! .10/n | Ws Gl, BB a! Bw 06 .08
Se aly( 64 03! .07/a 02 0}, ill
= 18 .13 a .05) 15 18 .03
a 19 .04 .07| .02} ae e08)a 24D 0682] Oll
pe 20 03) .01) .06) .13 i) AG .66
a 21 04! 02) .07/a .01'a foul) 125) 30 10 f
= BD .88 a .02 .05 S16) eae eee OL | bree | ame.
a 3 la .07|a .03] .18 .89 06) 71
PA iy. 105) pen25 nO aenecO pts fip35|ameOr
25 04 25; 14) 2:10) 64
26 .09 .06 23) .06|f oli
27 O1/f f .01); .49 .05
28 .21 .07|b
29 CO fe nena fi .08 oll} by 268) .50
30 |f 19} .05 156|( Se ebb | 08 Bill ill
31 f .07 b .40
Sum | 2.44] 2.57) 1.51) 0.98] 2.49] 2.77] 7.15] 9.86! 4.88] 5.80] 5.11] 6.44

213

1874.] [ Rawson.
RAINFALL AT ‘“‘ HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES.
Days.| Jan.| Feb.|Mar | Apl.| May|June.| July.) Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dee. | Total
1 01] .02 -13)n .12 -21 -01 02)
2 40 12; .17) .13) .43/n .18 .03 oil 09 10
3 16 ietOSi ar tOo euro -05 16 18 1.67
4 .03 2 n .10/n .22 21 06 04;a .65a .08
s 5 02.10} = .21 -08 04 03 67)a .23 OL 07
= 6 jn n .08: .22) .OL 44 14 .83)a .OL; 2.62)
z 7 02 .20! -77| 1.65)a .51 50 ‘79
aS 8 20 .03) .06 -67\a O01 45 01 -93
= 9 a 12 .21|~ .12/ 68] + ~—_.09
Go 10 -08| .02) .04'a AL 02 04 48) 03 .05
=) il :03) .02/ a .03 45 1.00: f .01
= 12 a -09 1.21 oll 09 f .36)
Sf 13 |a .08| .07/a .53) 2.01 46f 03
2 14 -16] 1.20) .OL) .01 .03 -13/f 1.04) on -97
fox) 15 01) .79 08: 06f .O01 01! 2.90: 25
} 16 -18) 01) .35 | .05)f 12 -06 27
= 17 -O1! .o4/ .10)f .10 07 06 .06 -02
Ss ig feeo2ie 207 f .08) 01) 41.01 1.25 b b .03
a 19 -O1 f .21 06 -07) 3.10 -80 10
20 f 07 -10 oul 01)b .16
Ss 21 -20 13 b .64! -08 .05
| 22 236 14 1.94 -14\b .08 13 01 34
& 23 .29 16) OL oll 1.40 06
24 -01| -.30) 15 b .07 1.68
25 38 b 1.69 -08) 59) -56 n .03
26 05 | 'b .05 67 -67| 1.21 15 n -O1
27 «|b .01 01 b .02) .01 82, 36n .25 30 06
28 01j)b .07)b 1.20 im .04 14 02
29 OL 01 48 n .06 -05
30 35 15) 1.17 -O1} 1.22 03
3 43) 09 -09) n .28) 1.24 ll
Sum! 3.13] 3.82 0.62 2.10) 1.80 10.63] 7.88! 11.20! 9.72! 10.43] 3.55] 3.88
Days.| Jan | Feb.|Mar | Apl.| May) June.|July.| Aug. | Sep. Oct. | Nov. | Dee. Total
Ee ee US| el Pel eee eee Leas
ib a .17ja 21 -01 .04'f 3.00 f
2 ja 13, .01 OL -56| 18
3 :02| 01 f .04 1.10 04 11
4 03! 200) .04/f 03 04
5 -61 -O1! f 03 oT
ro 6 13 01 f 22 22 .10\b
es i -O1 f -03 .03) 06 10/b .20 -02
aS 8 f .11/f 07) .08 -10 05 16) 1.17) 1.85 02
ia 9 16) .01) .08) .038 04 .01.b A3
ac} 10 10 .00) 4.77 13 1.75
fal 11 14) 01 06D .08 01
2 12 .02 b .01 .01
a 13 OL 03) 3) Ole. 29) i 04 93) Oln .22
S 14 18] .16 b b -05) 1.24 15 .04'n . .03 02
@ 1 | 25d 1b 01] 17) (06 n.15
BS 16 12) 03) .02 n 09 12
eZ 17 |b -06 07 -08 04
wale aks) 07 .02) 01 OT n .09 07 .06
baal 19 01 13 n .10 ol
240) -O1L n .04 -30 03 15 -05 20
S 21 AT 42) 64 -01 ‘a .30
gq 22 -08) .19) .01/n .19n -02 08) a
= 23 n 04 04 14 20 03\a .27.a .10
24 jn .05' .0ljn .20) .15) .03 17 a 18 .02
25 AT 08 21 27 04
26 Ol'a .01 02 .22| 16
27 .03 -02) .05 ja .09| -06 37 12 12
28 12 a ll .20 02 Al 01)
29 13 12a -63 .04| 1.60 ol f f
30 12 07 04, AT 01 87 01
3l “TL ‘a 01 f 2.50
ee ee ey ———
Sum| 3.09] 0.96: 0.89] 0.77) 1.541 2.82| 7.60 3.941 8.40] 5.61| 2.73! 3.60

214

Rawson. ] [June 19,
RAINFALL AT ‘“‘HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES.
Days.| Jan. Feb iar Apl.|May|June.|July.|Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov.} Dec. |rotal
| |
1 10, .01! .28] .02) — .09 81] 3.07) 1.80 .01] 2.45
2 52 63 03 b 1.20,b 1.05 277 aste20)
8 .04b 11! .01/b b .04| .03/ .08] .06 n n
4 A)" abl! 16} 06 | .29|
‘ 5 |b .03) b .75 24. me22 dO}
g 6 26 .02 n
x a 07 05 ag Al n
st 18 04 Or 75
a 9 .05 .09} .14In .49] .03) .17 84
& @©610 01 n .09} .03) 1.66] 02)
Biol 06 n 22) n .03] .63) 1.90 18a .01| 1.23
2 127° | n 01 07 ilatl 08 a a 47
el 6 n .02 02 Peal) alk
5 14 17; — .06 837) Olay L03\e 207), 2960). 205) uee29
ras 15 04 16 09 | .03
16 02a .20 04 OL
2B iy 27 a .01 01} .30 1.73!
a 1G} 07 04/a .04 .07 Ky ai
©) 14'a a 106|sone12ieeee Ol 203 £ .01|) 03!
> 20 06) .01 .02 f 1.45 f OO
Baia ol a .24/ 01 84
Se, 01) .09 .02 19f .01} .04! .48 .08
el 9B .03 .05| 01 f .82/ 35) 22) 118 1.20
= GA .03 f 1.20) 01] —.08
25 .06} .02 04f .46) 11 05] .40, 11! 1.20
26 £ 501) {01 f1255;) 219} 204) 10) 289 85 Db b .02
a7 | 15 fa ROQNINGT, 06 4.56 .20, 37
28 if .18 4 -06) 04} b 4.10 .02)
29 16] .01| .26 On|. orl 19
30 .02 .20. 01b 103) 205|nan ow
31 19 b .01
Sum 1.45! 1.17] 109] 2.62 2.21' 38.70] 3.60’ 6.52) 10.28 12.58) 4.95! 6.00
Days.|Jan |Feb. Mar ‘Apl. May|June.| July.| Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Total
1 .25| 03 n 01 2a 45
2 |n n 87 a 1.50 .69 -O1 .05
3 14 .05| 01 04
4 17| .01 202 |ese 68a .34 .02| .49
: 5 .05| 123 ; 035) eS ee 02 13
S 6 a .09a .01] . .02) 2.30 10
ce T 01 .07 .02 1.81 01
ee 8 .05)a .10) 15 la oly Olt Ailey f
m= 9 |a 01 a .04 16] .07) =.05/f Re ol 8
& 10 | 1.80) .02\a 01 05] 1.61) .83
isl .380 .02 02 f 02
= 1) .39 f 245 ese
q 1B .40 f 14) .06) = .25
S 14 .01| .37 19, 1.20) 1.38] .25) 32 .31! .09) 06
Ss 15 .60 .09 f ON PB) aI) Sa b .04
6 f .09 aly) afl BB .70.b .21
= 17 |f .25| .O1/f .04! 5) 15 55D .66
= 18 05} .03) 01! .18 01 1.80) b .60
= ie) .13| .0a b .19) .15| — .45) 01
bP 20 .16 .01| .10b 1) gil 09} 26 10
& 21 .03| 05 106) 31) 12 OH) SO) el Bs
a 22 b D> fs Onl oil) -10 13] .12n .18
@ 23 aa)” 083 16, .90| .19 3.00n .27| .23
em 24 |b b .09) 9.00} .28) .14, n 1.30) .59
25 .26 AON Oy) OR EY) BEB RAT .95
26 11) 01 .06} .0ljn .06 1.05
27 .13 01 .13 54
28 01 n .06/n 03} 03] 10 j
29 01 1.49) 10] .05) .28] .04 a 03a .72
30 n (|n.23 .30 HO 08 ee25 eat)
31 |n .02 205 a 1.64 74.
ee eee aes
Sum! 4.78! 1.18) 0.33! 0.52' 4.50’ 13.59] 5.03! 9.04 6.19] 12.92' 5.76) 3.56

215

1874. ] {[ Rawson.
RAINFALL AT ‘“* HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES.
| | | ae
Days.| Jan. Feb.|Mar | Apl.|May|June. July.) Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total
ae Beate tr |
1 ZI OT ROL 17) .02} .36
2 .03 .01 f .99| 20 leo
3 .05 01) .03f .06| .05) .01/ .09 30, .06
4 01] .02| .07\f 18) 84 40
tM 01 f f .09 07, .18 'b b
oe One | 01} .09, b b .02
ee 7 f £01 SG) AB) Gl 17) 1.26] 1.11
ee .20 b 12 | 19
Pap ce 9 £89 b 3.15) .05 | So) alg
% 10 sill) ail b BLO OZ OS
fal os" 08 b £02 eee Onin eee G4 smell 2|/sn85)
2 12 49 dD .06 b Z03 |) 202 {67| 22m N03 424
g 13 03, .04,b 16) 1.54| 1.20! 16; .24
S 14 |b .50, 20; .81jn n .48 01
a 2 519) 205 £20 |e O5 OB |
Bog 60.10] .09 12 n 3335. 68I. 03)
= ily 20, .09 n 50 .05
= 18 | OB] cal ra) abil) | 08 15) .06 a .04
i) .05 n ln |n -29) .17/ 03) 40, 03 a -08
Pp 20 03, | WA oll) ale) Oey OD aos
3 21 jn 40: .0ljn | .08} 10 a Oil] |
= .08 205) 16 | aL
E 2B .02, .09 01 a .09| ness
1 Bi 12) £05} .35] 78.20 .05 } ls SG)
25 04) .01| .05) 02 a a We aul 21.02
26 .69} 02 (0 ABU = 08, 0B) > gilt | ar
27 .05 a lala 65 1.47) nf
28 |a .32) .06 #35) tee Olt ee 02 if .o7f |
29 | a 1 A aly | 01
30 11) 15 i ABP ily a BIS
31 05! .038 Ou al | 08
Sum | 4.34 1.51] 1.77: 0.14 1.83 2.86) 3.09) 9.60 4.81) 453 4.58 38.48
Days. Jan. Feb. Mar | Apl.|May June.) July.) Aug.;Sept. Ot. | Nov.| Dec. | Total
\ | |
| | |
1 b 02.09 | n .05
2 b 6 |b | 02 n 15 08
3 |b | .l4n 32, 32
4 16; .62 270 06) 10} 02
‘ 1 OM 3B) 05 .0ln | 178] = 208
a ellail| (BY ' pn Balls alg} 038 11) .40
ES 7 .04 ral | exe | 04 6) SOE
eat 38 07 n 1) Or 8&8 O° folly, a
cee 9 n n 16) 2.08 a 05
5 10 |n .86| .70; eon | ola lB es
Fab 02! | 01’ 68) 25
2 12 05) 01 .02 | .01 la .30 -.01' » .03| 1.50
A. 13 1.05] .05| 01 | a 09 HletlO)| (051
o 14 15 Oye, i .09 dif
je 6 05ja ja .02} 04 15/f
Syetels a 03) .24 .01f |
= il Ie a .03 82 IQs ne OlimmncOD
s 18 18 | B30 a Oe 40
= 19 02 .02 8 atl) 0S 1.74] —.03 |
> 20 02 OT | 06 f 05 | 02 4
Sie .02 07 f 1.60, (Nima 03 femenee 07 OH Bil
ze AT f 05 Hae 02 105) .04
GE 2 .05 22)f | b .15\b .14
2 OM f 15 'b b #36 |mneOo,
2 |f f 01 ! b 20)'-35| 0] 26
26 01 BT 120 ..05] 01] 1.05] 15) 16
27 | .05 b b .01| .05, .16| A7|
28 03) 10 | 07 01) 16)
29 b .05 AL
30 b AT .20n n 2.63
B1 | 23 19 01 BIg 13
Sum | 1.04] 3.16] 0.78 0.10] 1.83 4.238 1.45 2.031 3.25 3.91 8.46 4.98!

Genth.] 216 [July 17,

RAINFALL AT ‘‘HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES.

Days.| Jan.| Feb. Mar.) Apl. May|June./ July. Aug. Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total
| |
1 ee lla 61
2 01} 01 03.06) a | 105) walk20 |) 265i
3 05) .01 | aye 03) 03 |e 26) |
4 12/a .31 a 07a fl Wl GA me Or
>< Ble fom 0B] .26 06 59| 08) .06
@ 8 .T1) .09 & .07 2.73 f f 54
oa sual gO) nes .02 91 | 25
ens. 05.05 10\f Of 14
2 9 .80 .03 15 1.28 12
% 10 .09 P ) (OBI .68) 3.09 20 04
aol .13] .06 sa ED Ae b
2 12 fe £1.00 f 05} 07 |. 1.20;b .O4
ah Ry 33 5a 22 Dees |D
g 14 06] .16f | .05
eae 14 .05 b 18, 6.30
Be 16 .02 el 08 oil {OI SL 01
2 ily .01 b b 50. .08) ©.02 37
> 18 slit .03 11 .038
x 19 15 .02 [oe 07|| eee 5) 03 .07 10n .06
pb 20 b b || 17 09 n
a 21 |b b din .03n |
gq 22 227) 08), 246) 82:20) 18) 027 05
3B 23 .73 01 104! 250in' 132 -76|
=) AL 8 n 14 02| .33] |
25 04 01) -20 n alah 21 1
26 -20! In |n .07 .30 23 10a .06
27 -03 2 06) 25 15 la .03
28 in n .25 .01 -28| |
29 .08 10|a .05)a .02) 038) .17
30 .06| .01 1 20 24 01
31 -10 ja .20) «18 1.08) 05)
———||__—.— es ee | | ——
Sum] 3.55| 1.32! 0.37: 1.24! 1.88] 0.08] 5.41) 7.08! 18.35| 14.29] 1.67| 2.15]

REPLY TO DR. T. STERRY HUNT.
By F. A. GENTH.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, July 17, 1874.)

Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has published in the Proceedings of the Boston
Society of Natural History, Vol. XVI., March 4th, 1874, an article, enti-
tled: ‘‘ On Dr. Genth’s Researches on Corundum and its associated min-
erals,’’ in which he charges me—in.common with many others—of having
falien into errors and of having been led to conclusions wholly untenable,
for a lack of a clear understanding as to replacement, alteration and asso-
ciation in the mineral kingdom.

He then gives an outline of the manner in which the various alterations
in a mineral species may take place, by replacement, envelopment and
epigenesis with examples for each, and dwells at more length upon the
fallacy of considering the alterations of many minerals and rock masses
as the result of an epigenic process ; a doctrine which has been embodied in
the dictum of Prof. Dana: “regional metamorphism is pseudomorphism
on a broad scale.”’

He then refers briefly to the results of my investigation on corundum,
in which I have shown that by ‘‘epigenic’’ pseudomorphism this min-
eral has been altered into numerous more complex species and rock
masses—and winds up by stating that he not only has carefully studied

1874. ] 217 [Genth.

my paper, but had also examined the extensive collection of specimens upon
which my conclusions were based, and that—all the phenomena in question
are nothing more than examples of association and envelopment, and that
the corundum-bearing veins had their parallels in the granitic veins with
beryl and tourmaline in the White Mountain rocks, and the calcareous
veinstones with apatite, pyroxene, phlogopite and graphite of the Laurentian
rocks.

I may be permitted to say a few words in reply to Dr. Hunt’s asser-
tion, that I had fallen into errors and had been led to wholly untenable
conclusions.

When [ had the good fortune to obtain a few years ago the first real
pseudomorph after corundum—the spinel from India, and afterwards
brought together numerous specimens of analogous alterations, showing
from the same locality crystals of corundum without any, and others re-
presenting all stages of alteration from a thin coating to the complete
disappearance of every vestige of corundum, and when I proved that
such changes have resulted in the conversion of corundum into about
two dozen mineral species; I could not understand how any unpreju-
diced mind could arrive at any other conclusions, but that these extraor-
dinary occurrences which I have described, were the result of epigenic
pseudomorphism.

This opinion has been adopted almost without exception by all who
have had an opportunity to examine my specimens, or who have studied
my paper. If Dr. Hunt differs from me, I certainly will not deny to him
the right to believe what suits his own notions, but when he boldly
charges me with having committed errors, I want better proofs than a
repetition of his views, with which we were familiar long ago. He cer-
tainly has not a single fact which could show the fallacy of my conclu-
sions, or he would have produced it.

The corundum alterations have nothing in common with the Fontaine-
bleau crystals, or with stanniferous orthoclase ; the green and red tour-
malines from Paris, Me., or the beryls filled with orthoclase, or the zircon
and galenite filled with calcite, and cannot be explained rationally as ex-
amples of association and envelopment.

To give strength to his statements, however, Dr. Hunt says that he
had “examined”? with me ‘‘the extensive collection of specimens upon
which my conelusions were based.’’ When Dr. Hunt favored me with
a visit, I was in hope that he would examine my specimens, but his time
was so short that he saw only about one-third of them, and the ‘‘erami-
nation’ (! ?) of these was finished in about five minutes.

As to his last sentence, I must confess that I am unable to discover the
least parallelism between the corundum-bearing veins and the granitic
veins, with beryl and tourmaline, so common in the White Mountains,
and the calcareous veinstones with apatite, pyroxene, phlogopite and
graphite of the Laurentian rocks ;—but can see in the former nothing but

A. P. 8S. —VOL. XIV. 2B

Koenig. ] 218 {Aug. 21,

the product of a partial, and in many instances of a pretty thorough al-
teration of the original corundum into micaceous and chloritic schists or
beds, or, as Prof. Dana would express it: ‘‘a pseudomorphism on a broad
scale.”’ ;

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, July 4th, 1874.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE LABORATORY OF THE UNIVER-
SITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.

NO. II.

ON AN IMPROVEMENT OF THE BURETTE VALVE.
By Gro. A. Kornie, Pu.D.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, August 21, 1874).

Strictest simplicity of construction must be considered as the first re-
quirement of any tool or apparatus, besides fitness for all work within
its sphere of action. Frequently we meet with constructions in which
fitness has been sacrificed to a considerable extent for the sake of sim-
plicity, and quite as often the reverse. There are cases, indeed, in which
circumstances demand even a certain degree of one-sidedness, but in my
judgment a more complicated apparatus, overcoming defects of working
attached to a simpler device, is practically the more desirable of the two.

When Frederick Mohr gave his rubber tube valve to volumetric analy-
sis, he had indeed hit, like a true genius, upon the simplest contrivance
imaginable. To this piece of apparatus must be ascribed the rapid adop-
tion of volumetrical determinations by analytical chemistry. No matter
how simple the volumetrica] reactions might be, if they had to be exe-
cuted by an unhandy manipulation, the practical chemist would rather
keep on with his accustomed precipitations and weighings.

Let us consider now the conditions under which the burette will satisfy
all demands which can be made upon it,

1. The instrument must not engage the hands of the operator during the
operation.

This condition requires the burette to be fixed and its position to be
quite independent from the person of the manipulator.

2. The instrument must allow a rapid discharge of tts liquid contents to
any desired volume, without the application of another force than that of
gravitation.

This condition requires the tube to be fixed vertically and to be fur-
nished with a valve.

3. The valve must allow to interrupt the current instantaneously and
completely, and also the regulation of the liquid current from the.smallest
drop to a full stream.

4. The working of the valve must be easy, not require any effort on the

1874.] 219 [Koenig.

part of the operator, by which the latter’s attention is necessarily detracted
from the observation of the reaction.

5. The apparatus must not come out of order easily under ordinary ctr-
cumstances and attentive manipulation.

6. The instrument must be applicable to all solutions used in volumetric
determinations.

The present forms of the burette are of two types: a, the dropping bu-
rette, which in its simplest form is a graduated, lipped glass vessel, from
which the solution is poured out by the lip.

Gay-Lussac improved this primitive instrument by the appendage of a
capilar tube, which although preventing a sudden stream, when but a
drop is wanted, still does not come up with the above given conditions
except the last, and is altogether an unhandy piece of apparatus.

b, The valve burette. The very imperfect instrument just mentioned
stimulated invention, and we find as the next step the graduated tube
fixed to a stand vertically, and furnished with a glass ground perforated
stop-cock. This instrument is very nearly perfect. if well executed, but
from the nature of things it cannot fill the conditions 4 and 5. The rough
surface produced by grinding is exceedingly disposed to capilar action
and soon the effects from this show themselves by a layer of crystals ce-
menting the cock completely. These working defects are, however, so
well known, that I need hardly dwell any longer upon them. The same

‘applies to Geissler’s glass-rod stopper.

Then, Mohr showed how simply these difficulties could be overcome by
connecting the neck of the tube and the mouth with a piece of India rub-
ber tube pressed together by a spring clamp, or pinch cork. Comparing
this device with the 6 conditions, we find, after a long practice, that it is
far from being satisfactory. If the spring is strong it requires a remark-
able muscular exertion to open it, besides destroying the elasticity of the
rubber ; if weak, it will not close the valve completely. I find, moreover,
that the rubber tube becomes soon deteriorated chemically, especially by
alkaline solutions, and that many volumetric solutions cannot be brought
into contact with such a large surface of rubber without undergoing a
change in their docimastical value. The substitution of Hoffmann’s
screw clamp for the spring clamp is not so very happy ; it requires both
hands for the adjustment just in the moment when one hand is most
needed for stirring the liquid, besides it acts too slowly, several turns of
the screw being needed to overcome the elasticity of the comparatively
thick rubber tubing.

J. Blodget Britton described an apparatus (Journal of the Franklin In-
stitute, 1870,) which is undoubtedly a considerable step forward. He re-
cognized that the valve had to be placed externally, and that it had to
possess a screw movement. He draws his burette at the lower end into
a capilar tube, bends it slightly, so.as to bring the orifice in contact with
a cork plate, which itself is fastened to a steel spring, opened by a screw
bolt. To prevent splashing, the opening must be very narrow, and con-

220 [Aug. 21

Koenig. ]

sequently the emptying of the burette requires a considerable extent of
time. But otherwise the apparatus is quite perfect and neat in its exe-
cution.

I shall proceed now with the description of a device, which has realized
my expectations as to the possibility of combining the advantages of
Mohr’s principle with universal applicability and convenience of hand-
ling.

1, The burette. I take a Mohr burette tube, as it is furnished by the

a Gt

KKK yD

1874. ] 221 [ Koenig.

trade, hold the inflated part of the neck (serving for a hold to the rub-
ber) over a Bunsen flame and let it contract slowly at a dull-red heat, un-
til the channel has become capilar as shown in figures la, 1c and 2a of
the accompanying plate. It needs hardly to be remarked, that during
the process, the tube has to be kept revolving, and allowed to cool slowly.
The glass wall has become very thick and strong, facilitating the next
process of grinding. This is done upon an ordinary rotary grindstone
in from 8 to 10 minutes. I grind off one-half of the inflation at a steep an
gle, as shown in the figures. The orifice is not required to have a definite
size and is naturally given by the points a, 6. The grinding is contin-
ued until the elliptic section of the channel has come with its lowest
point from about 1-16 to 1-8 of an inch above the lowest point of the in-
clined ground plane.

A very short practice affords sufficient skill to grind a very nearly plane
surface. Absolute planeity is not required. The sides and back are
ground next to produce a point, which is necessary for the letting out of
small drops of liquid. The ground face stands at right angles to the
graduation and may be put either on the right or on the left side, accord-
ing to the convenience of the operator. Fig. 1c represents a front view
of the ground face, with the capilar orifice at 0. The size of the latter
depends on the kind of work which is to be done with the burette, as it
influences the size of a drop. On my 20cc burette, divided into twen-
tieths, I have a very narrow orifice, a drop corresponding to one-half a
division. I use this burette exclusively for argentum nitrate solution.
For ordinary alkalimetric work I use a burette (50cc) graduated into one-
fifths and allow the drops to equal one-tenth cubic in. This opening
empties the burette in one minute and a quarter, when running at full
stream.

2, The valve. Platinum in form of a smooth plate is not acted upon
materially by any of the solutions now in use for volumetrical analysis.
The valve consists of a platinum plate p of elliptical shape, 3 and 3-16
of an inch being the respective parameters. Thickness about 1-32 of an
inch. To the centre of this plate is soldered the platinum stem i, the
end of which is pierced by an eye. The spring t, made of brass or Ger-
man silver and platinated, is screwed to the clamp c, and has a fork at
its other end for the insertion of the platinum stem i, forming thus the
hinge h. It carries a nut n, through which the screws passes. In order to
open the valve, the screw head is turned, when the screw bolt comes into
contact with the glass tube and forces the spring backwards. The valve
plate assumes then a position as represented in figure 1d, allowing the
full stream to run straight downwards without the least splashing. The
capilar orifice being elliptical, with its long axis parallel to the stream, it
is evident that by reversing the screw, the orifice will close gradually, the
lowest point the last, allowing a most complete regulation, and when once
reduced to dropping a quarter of a turn of the screw will close totally.
The only objection to this arrangement of the valve, which has presented

Koenig. ] 222 [Aug. 21,

itself thus far, is the delicacy of the hinge. Yet I have had one in use con-
stantly for six months past, and it works as satisfactorily as on the first
day. In the hands of beginners it may come out of order sooner. The
clamp c is made of brass tubing, with the flanges ff and the block g sol-

Taaddddidadaadaadaddsaddiddddddds

LLL h ddd id ddidasilddisddidddiddddddaddk

dered on. It is made sufficiently large to admit of variation in the diam-
eter of the burette tubes, a strip of paper being used as a filling. The
delicacy of the hinge, and to some extent the cost of the apparatus
($2.50) have prompted me to substitute a simpler construction.

Figures 22 and 20 represent this device.

The platinum plate is replaced by a piece of pure rubber sheeting, the
thickness of strong paper 3 by 3-16 of an inch, which is attached to the
end of the spring by means of a solution of rubber. The lower part of
the spring may be rendered proof against chemical action by galvanic
platinum plating, or by a coating of rubber. The former is certainly the
best, but I found by several months’ experience, that a spring coated

1874. } 223 {Genth,

with rubber, will resist the action of standard acids, and shows no sign
of oxydation and dissolution. The rubber coating is done very quickly
with a concentrated chloroformie solution. The dipping in and drying is
repeated several times. I have furnished now all the burettes used by
my students with this simpler contrivance ($1.00) and have found my ex-
pectations more than realized. The surface of contact between the rub-
ber and the standard solutions is so small, that a deteriorating influence
on the latter could not be noticed.

I must acknowledge my obligation to Mr. J. Zentmayer, the well-
known optician and mechanician, of this city, for the practical execution
of m; ideas and for many valuable suggestions in the course of my ex-
periments. Any further information that may be deemed necessary shall
most gladly be given.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE LABORATORY OF THE UNIVER-
SITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.

No. III.

ON AMERICAN TELLURIUM AND BISMUTH MINERALS.
By F. A. GENTH.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, August 21st, 1874.)

On several occasions I have given descriptions and analyses of tellurium
minerals, which have been found associated with the gold ores of this
country. Since my last paper on this subject (Amer. Journ. of Science
[2] XLV., 306-319) several highly interesting discoveries have been
made, which not only augment the list of species, but also corroborate
some of my former observations.

Most important is the occurrence of the tellurium ores at the Red
Cloud Mine, near Goldhill, in Boulder County, Colorado. Prof. B. Sil-
liman (Journ. of Science [3] VIII. 25-33), has given a very accurate and
careful description of some of the minerals found at this locality, and
au exceedingly interesting account of the geological position of the vein.

Through the liberality of my friend J. F. L. Schirmer, Esq., Super-
intendent of the United States Mint at Denver, Colorado, I have been
put in possession of a considerable quantity of very pure and excellent
material for investigation, including several varieties not mentioned by
Prof. Silliman.

Another interesting locality of tellurium minerals is the Briggs or
King’s Mountain Gold Mine, sometimes called the Gaston Mine, in Gaston
Co., N. C., where I noted this occurrence about two years ago.

A third one is in the neighborhood of Highland, Montana. Several
others of minor importance will be mentioned under the different species.

The following are the results of my investigations :

Genth. ] 224 [Aug. 21,

1. Native TELLURIUM.

The occurrence at the Red Cloud Mine is fully described by Prof. Sil-
liman. I have observed it on several specimens in small, very indistinct
crystals, with rounded edges; also in one splendid cleavage piece, show-
a plate of 2 of an inch in length, and nearly 3 of an inch in width, from
which I have obtained a hexagonal cleavage crystal of 3%; of an inch in
length, and } of an inch in thickness. Generally it is disseminated in
fine grains through quartz, cleavage perfect, color tin-white, inclining to
gray.

Associated with sylvanite, altaite and pyrite.

Without destroying my best specimens, I could not get enough of pure
material for analysis.

9, TETRADYMITE.

The sulphurous variety of tetradymite has been observed at several
new localities : associated with gold ores in small Jead-colored scales at
Spaulding Co., Georgia ; also in York District, S. C.; in quartz from the
gravel deposits of Burke and McDowell Counties, N. C. ; in gray quartz
with gold at the Montgomery Mine, Hassayampa District, Arizona ; and
at the ‘‘Uncle Sam’s Lode,’’ in Highland District, Montana. At the
latter place it is found associated both with quartz and gold, and in
dolomite. Part of it is oxydized into montanite. The latter, however,
is not ina state of sufficient purity for analysis. That the tellurium is
present as telluric acid, and not as tellurous acid, is proved by the large
evolution of chlorine, when it is heated with chlorhydric acid.*

The tetradymite occurs here in considerable quantity, in foliated
masses with folize sometimes ? of an inch in width and scaly-granular.
Its color is between lead-gray and iron-black. It is often tarnished with
pavonine colors.

The gold, which is often interlaminated with it, shows the striation of
the tetradymite, and is evidently the result of its precipitating action
upon the gold in solution, in the same manner as already stated in my
notice of the pseudomorphous gold after tetradymite from the White
Hall Mine (Amer. Journ. of Science [2] XXVIII., 254).

It is an interesting fact that the tetradymite from Uncle Sam’s Lode
contains sulphur as an essential constituent, while that from the gold
placers of Highland, which I had received from Mr. Kleinschmidt, and
described in the Journal of Science [2] XLY., 316, is free from it.

My friend Mr. P. Knabe has made some very important observations
on this subject, which are contained in his letter, dated Highland, Mon-

* I notice the following misprints in Dr. Burkart’s paper, ‘‘ Uber das Vorkommen
verschiedener Tellur-Minerale in den Vereinigten Staaten yon Nord-Amerika,’’ Leon-
hard & Geinitz Neues Jahrbuch der Mineralogie, etc., 1873, page 491, line 5 from bottom :
Tellurseure instead of Tellurige Seure, and on page 492, line 15, Tellurige Saure in-
stead of Tellurseure.

1874. | 275 [Genth.
tana, Dec. 26th, 1870, of which I translate that part which refers to this
subject. He says:

““T have discovered the tetradymite which I sent you in Uncle Sam’s
Lode, in Highland District. Two years ago Iexamined a fragment of
tetradymite from Highland Culch, which I found to be the sulphurous
variety, and was therefore very much. surprised to find from your pamphlet
that the tetradymite from Highland Gulch examined by you was the variety
without sulphur. After I had repeatedly examined pieces of the said
mineral, I made the discovery that both varieties of tetradymite are found
together in Highland Gulch. This was the more interesting, since there
occur tin tt also two different varieties of gold, which, fact gives pretty con-
clusive evidence that the gold of the Gulch comes from two different forma-
tions. The finest gold of the Gulch originates undoubtedly from the garnet
which occurs between the dolomite and granite. I then examined the differ-
ent trial pits in the dolomite, and found in this formation at the head of the
Guleh in the Uncle Sam Lode the specimens which I sent you. In the
garnet rock which adjoins the Gulch on its left side, Ihave not yet found
any tetradymite ; butin a piece of garnet from the Gulch I found gold and
tetradymite without sulphur. In all the samples of the sulphurous variety,
of tetradymite from the Gulch, as well as in that from Uncle Sam’s Lode.
I found a trace of selenium.”

The following are the results of my analyses of the tetradymite from
Uncle Sam’s Lode :

Broadly foliated. Smaller scales from
dolomite.

Sp. Gr. ss Uoaee — 7,542
Quartz = 0.05 — 0.58
Gold = 0.21 ——
Bismuth = 60.49 _— 59.24
Copper = trace — 0.47
Tron = 0.09 —
Tellurium (by diff.) = 34.90 — (by diff.) 34.41
Selenium = trace — 0.14
Sulphur = 4.26 — 15.16

100.00 100.00

At the Red Cloud Mine, Colorado, tetradymite seems to be one of the
rarest minerals. The first indication which I had of it was the observa-
tion of a small quantity of bismuth in the analysis of one of the varieties
of petzite. After a great deal of search I discovered, associated with
pyrite and auriferous hessite, a very few minute iron-gray scales, some
of them with a bluish tarnish, which on examination proved to be the
sulphurous variety of tetradymite.

3. ALTAITE.

I have discovered this rare mineral at two new localities—the Red
Cloud Mine, Colorado, and the King’s Mountain Mine, Gaston Co., N. C.

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2¢

Genth. ] 226 [Aug. 21,

At the latter locality it is found in sugary quartz associated with gold,
galenite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, antimonial tetrahedrite, and more rarely
with nagyagite and a greenish micaceous mineral resembling fuchsite.
It occurs in small quantities only, and is so much mixed with the other
minerals, that I was unable to select enough for a quantitative analysis.
It is easily recognized by its tin-white color, with the greenish-yellow
hue, and its great lustre. It is found in particles showing the distinct
cubical cleavage, but also finely granular. A very interesting but quite
small piece shows a cleavage mass, part of which is altaite, part galenite,
without any interruption in the cleavage plane, both minerals being
easily distinguishable by their color.

The altaite at the Red Cloud Mine, Colorado, is found in larger masses,
generally, however, very much intermixed with other minerals, espe-
cially native tellurium and sylvanite. It is associated with pyrite, siderite
and quartz. Sometimes it is found in indistinct cubical crystals, appar-
ently coated with a thin film of galenite ; rarely in larger cleavage masses.
I have a cleavage cube of 3 of an inch in size of distinct cleavage : some
of the planesare slightly coated with galenite. The most frequent occur-
rence is that in granular masses with indistinct cubical cleavage, a frac-
ture inclining to subconchoidal and a yellowish tarnish. *

The analysis of a portion of the cleavage cube gave the following
results :

Spec. Gr. = 8.060
Quartz = 0.19 — 0.32
Gold = 0.19 — 0.16
Silver == 0.62 — 0.79
Copper = 0.06 —_— 0.06
Lead = 60.22 — 60.53
Zine = 0.15 _ 0.04
Tron = 0.48 — 0.383
Tellurium = 37.99 —_— 37.51
99.90 99.74

4, Hussite, AURIFEROUS HESSITE, PETZITE.

Varieties of telluride of silver with variable quantities of gold are the
principal minerals which give the ores of the Red Cloud Mine their value.
I believe that I was the first to whom specimens of the rich auriferous
variety were sent by Mr. Schirmer. These I have determined as petzite.
Prof. Silliman mentions a variety (1. c.) containing 7.131 per cent. of gold
and 51.061 per cent. of silver, of which he gives a very accurate descrip-
tion ; he evidently had only this one, and therefore comes to the conclu-
sion that the Red Cloud Mine contained no other varieties. It will be

* In Dr. Burkart’s paper (1. ¢.) p. 487, line 12 from the bottom, read: hexaédrische
instead of hexagonale.

+)
1874.) 227 [Genth.

seen from the analyses which I give below, that there are several, from
almost pure hessite without gold, up to the highly auriferous of the same
composition as that from the Stanislaus and Golden Rule Mines in Cali-
fornia.

a. HESSITE.

The pure hessite appears to be very rare. I have received only one
small piece, which Mr. Schirmer distinguished as ‘‘black tellurium.”’
It is of a dark iron-gray color, inclining to black, granular structure and
uneven fracture ; powder dark lead-gray ; sectile. Its spec. gr. = 8.178.

It contains some cavities lined with minute crystals of pyrite and
barite.

The analyses gave :

Gold = 0.22 — 0.20
Silver = 59.91 — 60.19
Copper = 0.17 —_ 0.16
Lead Ss 0.45 _ 0.18
Zine = trace — trace
Tron = 1.35 — 1.20
Tellurium — 37.86 by diff. — 38.07

99.96 100.00

In all the other varieties, the difference in the appearance of the
mineral is so slight that it is almost impossible to distinguish them.
They all have an iron-gray color, and frequently assume by tarnishing a
darker or purplish color, a subconchoidal fracture ; the more argentiferous
are somewhat darker, the more auriferous lighter and more brittle.

4. AURIFEROUS HESSITES.

a, Sp. gr. = 8.789. B, Sp. gr. = 8.897.

Quartz = 0.18 — 0.18 — 0.70
Gold = 3.01 — 3.34 — 13.09
Silver = 59.68 — 59.83 — 50.56
Copper = 0.05 _— 0.06 — 0.07
Lead = — _- — 0.17
Zine a —_— — — — 0.15
Iron = 0.15 — 0.21 — 0.36
Tellurium a 37.60 — 36.74 — 34.91

100.97 — 100.31 100.02

¢ PETZITE.
a B

Sp. Gr. = 9.010 — 9.020
Quartz = 0.62 — 0.05
Gold = 24,10 — 24.69
Silver = 40.93 — 40.80

Genth.] 228 . [Aug. 21,

Copper = trace — trace

Bismuth = 0.41 — ——

Lead = 0.26 _

Zinc — = 0.05 — 0.21

Tron = 0.78 — 1.28

Tellurium = 39.49 by diff. 32.97
‘ 100.44 100.00

The above analyses, to which add for comparison those of Prof. Silli-
man and the petzite from Nagy-Ag, give the following atomic ratios
between gold, silver and tellurium :

b a = 1 9 32.7 : 34.3
Siliman = 1 : 14

b B — 1 8 ti : 8.2
Nagy-Ag = 1 : 4,7 : 5.9
Petzite) .— 1 : Sali : 4,2

From which it will be seen that gold and silver appear to replace each
other in indefinite proportions, while the mixture of the two combines
atom for atom with tellurium.

5. SYLVANITE.

The Red Cloud Mine isthe first American locality at which this mineral
bas been found. It was observed by Prof. Silliman, but his stock was
not sufficient for a more minute description. The specimens which I
have are massive, showing eminent cleavage in one direction, giving it a
plated appearance. In one piece it occurs in quartz, which is penetrated
by crystalline aggregations arranged in a line of ;over one inch in length
and =, of an inch in thickness, resembling the real ‘graphic tellurium”’
from Transylvania. Its color is silver-white, with a strong gray tint;
brilliant metallic lustre.

It is associated with pyrite, which, in very small crystals, is often so
thickly disseminated through the mass, that it is very difficult, if not
impossible, to obtain pure material for analysis.

Sp. gr. — 7.948.

a P) if
Quartz == 0.32 — 0.86 — 0.59
Gold = 24.83 — 23.06 — 25.67
Silver = 13.05 — 11.52 — 11.92
Copper = 0.28 _ 0.57 —_— 0.21
Lead == — — — — 0.46
Zine = 0.45 — 0.11 — 0.06
Tron =— 3.28 — 4.84 — ie
Tellurium — 56.31 — 54.60 — by diff. 58.87
Selenium == trace — trace — trace
Sulphur = 1.82—by diffi 4.44 — 1.05

100.29 100.00 100.00

1874. ] 229 (Genth.

The atomic ratios between gold, silver and tellurium, and the com-
bined gold and silver and tellurium are as follows :

Gy AUS JN 3 Ney = Lg (O08 8 sls) —S (en VGe)) SYN) ae RG
Bi) CO eC BGO al ie (Onl 3 Wet es 8G ee ol ose
Tae ewe — wl et ESA mr Oso) —— Ge Siicate——allecete ee)

6. CALAVERITE.

I have observed one very minute specimen of this rare mineral amongst
those from the Red Cloud Mine, which Mr. Schirmer sent me. It fully
answers the description which I have previously given (I. ¢.).

It is associated with sylvanite and quartz. It contains a somewhat
smaller percentage of silver than that from the Stanislaus Mine in Cali-
fornia.

The scarcity of the material did not allow me to obtain for analysis
more than 9.1654 grs., from which 0.0050 grs. of quartz were deducted.
Dr. G. A. Koenig reduced 0.0332 grs. before the blowpipe, and obtained
42.32 per cent. of gold and silver, which I then separated with the results
given below.

It contains :

Gold a= 40.59 — 39.76 foe
Silver = 2.24 — 2.56 ;
Tellurium = 57.67 — by diff. = 57.68
Copper andiron = traces —

100.50 100.00

I was in the hope that I would find in the oxydized specimens of the
tellurium ores from the Red Cloud Mine interesting products of decom-
position, but observed hardly anything else than native gold, sometimes
in very minute scales in the partly decomposed petzite, and small quan-
ties of cerargyrite. There is also a minute quantity of what is probably
tellurate of silver present, because if the oxydized minerals be treated
with ammonic hydrate, and the ammonic solution be filtered and boiled,
and subsequently acidulated with nitric acid, the argentic chloride be
precipitated, the filtrate from this contains both s¢lver and telluriwm.

I also observed among the oxydized pieces, one which had a yellowish
coating, probably montanite ; the quantity, however, was too small for
any investigation other than a determination of the presence of bismuth
and tellurium.

%. TELLURATE OF COPPER AND LEAD—A NEW MINERAL.

This new tellurate has been discovered by Mr. P. Knabe, in the ‘‘ Iron
Rod”? Mine, Silver Star District, Montana. He had sent me a small
quantity of the same, which consisted of an apparently uniform siskin-
green powder.

Genth.] 230 [Aug. 21,

I had intended to make a full investigation of the same, but unfortu-
nately it has been mislaid or lost.

However, I will give the most important part of the information about
its occurrence, which I have received in Mr. Knabe’s letter, dated High-
land, March 26th, 1871.

“‘T send you enclosed a mineral from the Iron Rod Mine, Silver Star
District, Montana, which I hope will be interesting to you. The same sub-
stance apparently is found in the Silver Star District in all the veins which
occur in the crystalline states. I have not examined that from the Iron
Rod Mine, because I did not want to use up a portion of the already small
quantity—but in a mineral of exactly the same appearance from the ‘‘Green

‘ampbell”’ Mine, in the same District, Ihave found oxides of copper and
lead and tellurie acid. I shall try to obtain it from different mines in
order to ascertain whether it is constant in its composition or is a mixture.
In the Green Campbell Mine it is found as a thin coating upon the seluage
of the footwall, whilst in the Iron Rod Mine tt occurs in the fissures of the
rock.”

Tn the same letter Mr. Knabe mentions the interesting fact of having
examined a graphite from the Harvey Lode, occurring in the dolomite,
which contains 2.1 per cent. of silver.

This is the last information which I have received from Mr. K.; in it
he states that in the latter part of May, 1871, he would make explora-
tions in the wilderness, 40 miles W. of Highland.

8. BISMUTHINITE.

Dr. Burkart states in an appendix to his observations (1. c.) on the
American Tellurium Minerals, (Leonhard & Geinitz Neues Jahrbuch,
etc., 1874, 9,) that in the Las Animas Mine on the Sugar Loaf Mountain,
Colorado, bismuth ores are found—either native, or in combination with
sulphur and tellurium.

The few small pieces of bismuth ores which I have seen from this lo-
cality were bismuthinite, in stout columnar aggregations, in great part
converted into bismuthite, but with still a large percentage of undecom-
posed tersulphide.

It contained a small percentage of silver, but not a trace of tellurium.

9. SCHIRMERITE—A NEW MINERAL.

Massive, finely granular, disseminated through quartz; no cleavage
could be observed ; fracture uneven ; soft, brittle. Sp. G. = 6.787; lead-
gray inclining to iron-black, lustre metallic. B. B. fuses very easily
and gives the reactions of bismuth, lead, silver and sulphur.

After deducting 1.00 per cent. quartz in analysis I., and 1.07 per cent.
in II., the results are as follows :

1874.] 231 [Genth.
a, ite

Lead = 12.69 12.76

Silver = 22.82 24.75

Bismuth == 46.91 by diff. AT.27

Zine — 0.08 0.15

Tron = 0.08 0.07

Sulphur =e 14,41 15.02
96.94 100.00

The atomic ratios of Pb : Ag: Bi: S are very nearly = 1: 4:4: 9,
corresponding with the composition : PbS, 2 Ag, 5, 2 Bi, 5,, which gives

Pb = eal
Ag == 24,45
Bi =— A754
5 — 16.30

100.00

It is allied to and closely resembles cosalite.
Dedicated to J. F. L. Schirmer, Esq.

P.S. Since the reading of my paper an article has appeared in the En-
gineering and Mining Journal, of August 29th, 1874, on “ Tellurium
Ores of Colorado, by Fred. M. Endlich,’’ which I must not pass unno-
ticed, as it contains several statements which I cannot endorse.

The paper shows that Dr. Endlich had not a sufficient quantity of pure
material for his examinations, and therefore based his new species upon
a partial examination of mixtures.

His ‘‘ Schirmerite’’ is evidently nothing else but a mixture of petzite,
either with pyrite or perhaps with a telluride of iron—a mineral which
has not yet been found in its pu7'e state, the existence of which, however,
is probable from the fact that both the true and the auriferous hessites,
which are quite free from sulphur, invariably contain a minute quantity
of iron—which according to my analyses varies from 0.15 to 1.39 per
cent.

If Dr. Endlich had given his name to a good species, I would very
cheerfully have adopted it and given another to my new sulphbismuthide
of silver and lead—but as the mixture which he describes is not entitled
to a name, that of ‘‘Schirmerite’’ must remain for my species.

His * Henryite”’ is undoubtedly nothing but an altaite, with an admix-
ture of pyrite.

Knowing from Mr. Schirmer, that he has given me for this investiga-
tion the purest and best of a// the minerals which have occurred at the
Red Cloud Mine, I can state without hesitation that Dr. Endlich’s spe-
cies have no existence.

Delmar. ] a0-4 [Oct. 2,

ON THE RE3U0URCE3, PRODUCTIONS AND SOCIAL CONDI-
TION OF EGYPT.

By ALEXANDER DELMAR,
Late Drrector oF THE Unirep States BUREAU OF STATISTICS.

(Read before te American Philosophical Society, October 2, 1874.)
INTRODUCTION.

The United States of America produce annually about 275 million
bushels of wheat, or about 64 bushels per capita of population. Of this
amount, they consume over 230 million bushels, or about 55 bushels per
capita; and have about 42 million bushels surplus left for sale.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland produces annually
about 95 million bushels of wheat and consumes 190 million bushels, or
about 52 bushels per capita. It has therefore a deficit to purchase,
amounting to as much, of wheat, as all it produces, or 95 million bushels.
Thus, England has two bushels of wheat to buy where we have one to
sell.

As wheat forms the daily bread of the two countries, and, unless in ex-
ceptional or extreme cases, no substitute for it will be accepted by the
people, the purchases of these vast quantities of wheat on the one side,
and their sale on the other, form, naturally enough, occasions for the ex-
ercise of a good deal of what may be euphemized as commercial diplo-
macy. In plain English the grain trade abounds with misrepresentation,
and, as it happens, at the present time, this misrepresentation has, to a
certain extent, centred itself upon the agricultural resources and wheat
crop of Egypt.

Treating, as it will pretty fully, upon this topic, the present paper
therefore claims to possess something more of scientific value than one
which might have related less directly to the affairs of our everyday
life; and although this claim might pass for nothing among peoples
whose lives and thoughts are more in the remote past or remote future,
than the present, I trust that it does not imply too great assurance
if I venture to hope that, if made good, it will lose nothing at the hands
of my own countrymen, on account of this utilitarian basis.

The gist of the present dispute about Egypt is as follows: A school of
British agricultural writers at the head of whom is Mr. Kains-Jackson,
estimates that during the ensuing harvest year 1874-5, the United King-
dom, instead of needing to purchase, as usual, about 95 million bushels
of wheat, will require but 64 to 72 million bushels ; and, on the other hand,
instead of having to rely, as usual, mainly upon the United States, has
by reason of the present year’s abundant wheat harvest throughout the
civilized world, the option of purchasing as much wheat—perhaps more
—elsewhere, as she will need to purchase from us.

Among the countries specified by this authority, as having this year a
surplus of wheat to dispose of, are France, Germany, Russia and Turkey.

9 99
1874.] vo [Delmar.

Mr. Kains-Jackson’s statements with regard to the wheat crops of all of
these countries, as well with regard to that of his own country, have al-
ready been shown to be excessive ; while as to Turkey, he was reminded
that, so far from possessing a surplus crop of wheat, the people in Ana-
tolia were dying from starvation, literally in myriads. To this, the re-
sponse.has been made that by Turkey was meant Egypt, and as none of
the writers upon the subject appeared to know anything more about
Egypt than that it was a land of pyramids, ruined temples and ‘‘back-
sheesh,’’? Mr. Kains-Jackson has remained more or less uvimpeached ;
and our manufacturers, our shipping and our railways, all of which, as
things stand, depend largely upon the prospects of the grain trade, are
thought to have indicated some symptoms of distrust with regard to the
prospect before them for the coming year.

Should such distrust exist, I hope that it may tend at least in some
degree to dispel it, if I here express the strong conviction that it is en-
tirely groundless, and that during the ensuing harvest year, as hitherto,
in the past, our surplus wheat will find as ample and profitable a foreign
market—aye, in England, too,—as can be reasonably desired, and that,
therefore, neither our domestic industries nor carrying trade, by land or
water, should suffer anything from the misrepresentations that have been
made.

And now to Egypt.

HIsTory.

Of the ancient history of this most interesting country, I need only say
that it began in the remotest past and ended with the Persian conquest
about 500 years before our era. About 200 years later, Egypt became a
Greek province, under Alexander, and about 300 years later still, or at
about the commencement of our era, it fell beneath the arms of Rome.
This was the period, when, with reference to its function of supplying the
markets of the city of Rome with corn, it was called the granary of the
world. It was estimated by Greek and Roman writers to have contained
at its most flourishing period a population of 7,000,000. With alternately
Pagan and Christian rulers, as one or the other Roman faction succeeded
in obtaining control of its government, Egypt remained in an anarchical
state until the year A. D. 616, when the Persians again took it. They
held it for ten years and surrendered it to the Arabs, who held it for 900
years.

At length, in 1517, it was conquered by the Turks, who—not without
having for a time lost it to the Marmelukes, who in turn lost it to the
French—have retained it to the present time.

Thus, from the most ancient period, Egypt has been an enslaved
country—a favt whose reflection can be seen at all times in the extreme
misery and abjection of her people. For the continuance of this wretch-
edness, England—but for whose interference forty years ago, the Pasha
would have liberated his country from the Turkish yoke—is chiefly re-
sponsible. When that yoke is cast off and the Pasha, deprived of his

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2D

Delmar. ] 234 [Oct. 2,

present excuse for the tremendous exactions he imposes upon the people,
is rendered clearly responsible for their condition and welfare, Egypt
may for once in almost countless years breathe the air of freedom. But
until then it is impossible.

Napoleon reminded his soldiers that forty centuries of historic time
looked down upon them from the pyramids. Let us, of England and
America, whose heritage for over 600 years has been the largest freedom,
and whose boasted mission it has been to place this priceless boon within
the reach of all the men of earth, remember that from the appealing eyes
of this unhappy people forty centuries of suffering look up to us.

After the departure of the French from Egypt, the Turks and Marme-
lukes were embroiled in civil war. This ended with the accession of Me-
hemet Ali, as Pasha, in 1805. In 1811 this usurper treacherously slew 500
of the Marmelukes and since that time Egypt has been in peace. In 1848,
at the age of 80, Mehemet Ali became imbecile, and his eldest son [brahim
reigned in his stead. Ibrahim died in two months and was succeeded by
his brother Abbas, a profligate. Mehemet Ali died in 1849 and Abbas in
1854. To these succeeded the fourth son of Mehemet Ali, Said Pasha,
who reigned until his death in 1863, when his nephew Ismail, the present
ruler, ascended the throne. Ismail Pasha, granted the title of Khédive
by an imperial firman dated 1867, is the son of Ibrahim Pasha. He was
born in 1816; educated at the Paris Polytechnic School: speaks French
and a little English; owns or manages everything in Egypt, among the
rest, it is said, 27 palaces for his personal use; lives precisely the same
despotic and luxurious life that his predecessors, the Pharaohs, did, thou-
sands of years ago; like them he surrounds himself wita foreign adven-
turers ; like the Pharaohs, too, he builds the most astonishing and useless
works of art ; and like them crushes his unhappy people—the great bulk
of whom are of the once warlike and progressive, but now despised Arab
race—crushes them to earth with a disdainful and merciless scorn that
finds its only fit expression in the bastinado and death.

NATURAL RESOURCES.

Egypt has but a single natural resource—the Nile. There is no other
river in the country ; nor has this one a branch or affluent between its
mouth and the Nubian desert. Beside the almost shelterless date-palms,
there are no trees; the few wooded parks planted by order of Mehemet
Ali, the ornamental trees of the cities, of which it is said Cairo and its
suburbs contain 40,000, and the mulberry trees raised for silk worms—
scarcely deserving to be mentioned in this connection. There is littie or
no rain ; the agriculture of the country depending almost entirely upon
the irrigating canals connected with the Nile.

Number of rainy days at Cairo from A. D. 1798 to 1800, about 15 a
year ; from 1835 to 1839 about 12; in 1871, 9. Quantity of rain in 1835,

1874. ] 235 {Delmar.

17 millimetres ; 1838, 11; 1839, 8; in 1871, not recorded, but the rain fell
altogether only 9 hours during the year. Same climate throughout all
Lower Egypt ; while in Upper Egypt it is nearly the same.

There is no wood for fuel or building purposes, neither is there any
coal. In day-time it is often bleak; at night-time chilly; though, for
the most time the temperature is warm and sometimes uncomfortably
hot.

Moneys, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

1 para equal to of 1cent U.S. gold.

1 piastre rs s* 5 cents si “ (a)
: 1 feddan os ‘¢* 1.0328 acres. (0)

1 ardeb, measure, “s CEES Say bushels. (c)

ec Welg ht, Wo SEDs Ibs. avoir.

1 oke, oque, or occue sé SO ee) re uf (d)

1 cantar, cantaro or quintal ‘‘ SO eO2e oe SS (2)

1 kilometre carré £ POR SO sq. miles.

1 square mile GG ‘¢ 640. acres.

(a). The U.S. Treas. Reg. 1874, p. 486, fix tl.e value of the Egyptian silver piece «*
20 piastres at $1.0039. U.S. Consul Thayer (C. R. 1862, p. 582) says, 2114 piastres equal
one dollar. The Treas. Monthly Stat. Mar. 1872, say that the Egyptian copper coinage
has been recently much debased, but this does not necessarily affect the value of the sil-
ver or legal tender or ‘‘ custom-house”’ piastre of Egypt. There was debasement of the
inferior coins in 1837, also.—MacGreggor.

(6). The Alm. de Paris, 1869, says a feddan equals about 4200 métres carrés. As a
métre carré equals 10.7064 square feet (Craig), 1 feddan equals 44,967 square feet ; and as
43,560 square feet equal 1 acre, therefore 1 feddan equals 1.0323 acres. The U. 8. Com.
Rel. 1878, p. 1083, says a feddan is less than an acre. The M.S. 1872, say “about 144
acres.’’ Buckle, Hist. Civ. (ed. Harper) v. 1, p. 61, says 134 acres, and Sirmond’s Com.
Dic. says ‘‘ about 11% acres.”’

(c). The U.S. Com. Rel. 1859, p. 358, and 1873, p. 1083, and the general weight of au-
thority. On the other hand, Buckle 1, 62, says it is less than 1-15th of a bushel; Kelly’s
Cambist says 14 to14; Simmonds says 14 to 734 to 914, while the U.S. Com. Rel. 1571,
p. 1107, say an ardeb is 16 bushels! The truth is it varies in all parts of Egypt. There
are the Alexandria (used in the text on account of its greater universality), the Cairo,
the Damietta, the Rosetta and many other ardebs. The Cairo ardeb is 1.821 hectoli-
tres.—MacGreggor.

(d’. U.S. Com. Rel. 1859, p. 358. But the C. R. of 1871, p. 1107, say 2.75 1bs.,and Mar-
tin’s Year Book and Kelly’s Cambist say 2.832 lbs. It has not been used to obtain any
of the numbers in the text.

(e). 1 cantar or cantal equals 44 okes or 100 ‘‘ rottolis”’ or ‘‘rolls.’’ Kelly’s Cambist
and the generakweight of authority. But the Com. Rel. 1859, says 100 Ibs. ; Kelly says
95 Ibs., which contradicts his previous statement, while other authorities say, variously,
97, 9834, 112 Ibs., and other equivalents.

Delmar, ] 236 [Oct. 2,

ToraL AREA OF EGYPT.
[Excluding the Soudan. (f) ]

CITIES AND PROVINCES. AREA—ACRES. Ge ae om.
Cities of Alexandria, Rosetta, Dami-
etta, Port Said and Suez, including
83,000) fOrel@nerse cy jee ee ese eee oe 654, 569
Lower Hgypt, including 4,483 for-) (oe
eigners....- 2.22222. 2 eee eee 160.866.560 v
Middle hoypi | a a yee, | 599,596
Op per HiGy Dt vanities ER eerie: J 1,333,442
UGGS OAS EES Ea eA EA rhe FOES 230,440, 960
SAUMUR CHG) WAROD oe 5 5abo8600n0 80000 130,692,480 =
Massawa, Souakin and Taka, Pro- or 2 nego
vinces on the Red Sea, say........ 70,896,000
otal Toco cinthoor noonon 592,896,000 8,442, 000

Eaypet PROPER.

Egypt proper consists of Lower, Middle and Upper Egypt. It contains
160,866,560 acres of area, and a population (in 1871) of 5,208,405. It is
to this country only that the following statistics appertain, the outlying
provinces and protectorates being omitted, as desert or savage countries.

ARABLE AREA.

The arable area of Egypt is confined substantially to the inundable
portion of the valley of the Nile. As the river closely hugs the hills and
palisades on its right bank, this area is nearly altogether on its left. In
some places the arable lands are eleven miles wide; in others they
dwindle to a mere strip of bank. For the most part, however, this area
extends westward from the river about five to eight miles, where it is
terminated by the Libyan hills and desert. Every year it is extended
by the rise of the river upon its own bed. This rise was found to be, at
the close of the last century, 4.960 inches per century. Some thirty years
ago it was computed at 5.736 inches per century. From this source it is
said that about 65,000 to 70,000 feddans of area are annually reclaimed
from the desert (C. R. 1873, p. 1070) ; but, as will presently be shown,
there may be as much or more lost from other causes ; the area of culti-
vable land depending more upon social and industrial, than natural events.

(f). The Soudan Provinces include the Valley of the White Nile to the great N’Yanza
Lakes and extend across the Continent of Africa westward from Nubia and south of
Sahara. Their entire area is estimated at 1,600,000 square miles (about one-half the
area of the United States), and it is said to contain 14 million feddans of land sus-
ceptible of cultivation (C. R. 1878, p. 1081), and a population of 60 millions, negroes. The
south-eastern extremity of the Soudan was recently taken possession of by Sir Samuel
Baker in the name of the Egyptian Government. It is accessible by small steamers
from the lower Nile, and a railway is projected via Khartoum and Gondokoro.

1874.] 237 (Delmar.

In 1833, Egypt was estimated to possess 3,500,000 feddans of cultivable
land, ‘‘if cultivation were pushed to its utmost extent.’’—-MacGreggor.

The official survey of 1843 comprised 6,984,135 feddans susceptible of
cultivation ; but this included the superficial surface of the Nile and
canals. The cultivated, and, doubtless, the cultivable, portion (at that
time) consisted of 3,826,340 feddans as follows :

Se Oni No. a Feddans) un
A ddans| cultivated, i -
Provinces. eultivatedallt We SuniacoouNile
and Canals.
ILOnyGie WEAF incom oas CUD ED GOO DD POR OU ODO cos 2, 749, 106 1,551,011
NGG Weaihede hes SboBU se oooN Bu Sseoce 750,409 843, 608
UID OEH IBAA Degas Aono dmouDanodoDoaboauoK: 826,825 763,176
HOGA eerirctete daar AS Se ANE a ete ORE 3,826, 340 3,157, 795

The report of 1843, and also a late report of the British Consul, are so
worded as to convey the impression that there is almost as much cultiv-
able land uncultivated as there is cultivated ; but this is not the fact.
The so-called cultivable land, not cultivated, consists, and has always
consisted, for the most part either of the surfaces of the Nile and the
. canals, or of lands in the Delta and elsewhere, which from various causes
have become barren or unavailable.

‘‘A perpetual struggle is carried on between the desert and cultiva-
tion. In many parts of the Delta the desert has invaded and mastered
the soil.’”’—MacGreggor, 1833.

“‘Tn the Faioum, which was formerly the most richly cultivated part
of Egypt, the desert has made many inroads.’’—Jdid.

‘In * * * places on the western border of the Nile Valley, the shifting
sands of the desert have encroached on the domain of cultivation.’’—
Com. Rel., 1863, p. 5382.

““When the land, as has happened in Lower Egypt and the Delta,
from the despotic appropriation and thriftless husbandry of * * * rulers,
has become what is called aladish, and gone to waste, light plows (such
as are used here) are powerless to improve it. Villages, for example,
often deprived of laborers to furnish recruits for foreign wars, were at
one time depopulated by the government, and their lands exploited (used
up) by a short-sighted and ruinous system of agriculture, from the effects
of which the country still suffers. In order to have an uninterrupted
succession of crops, the inundation (of the Nile) was excluded by dykes,
irrigation being supplied from the brackish water of wells.’ The deposit
of salt after evaporation, added to that which would be pushed to the
surface by the upward filtration of the Nile, would soon convert a once
fruitful tract into a desert, where nothing would grow but a rank crop of
‘halfa,’ a deep-rooted, tough grass, which, with the ordinary farming
implements of Egypt, it is almost impossible to extirpate. It has thus

Delmar. ] 238 (Oct. 2,

been considered an unprofitable undertaking to attempt to improve these
barren lands, raised, as they frequently are, by the deposits left by
former growths of this pestilent grass above the level of inundation, and
from this cause one-half of the Delta is said to be uncultivated.’ —Ibid.

This alone would dispose of some two millions of acres.

“Part of the (barren) territory (now being reclaimed by the Suez
Canal Company) was known in ancient times as the fruitful land of
Goshen.’’—Ibid.

‘‘A large part of the land formerly cultivated in Egypt is to-day
sterile.’’—Jbid.

‘*Tn the present cotton region the land has become so poor that now
only two cantars a feddan are produced where five used to be gathered.
* * * There is plenty of land ; it only wants moisture to make it fertile ;
and we would like to see a number of irrigating canals,” etc.—C. R.,
1866, p. 435.

The accounts are the same to the present day.

The following table shows the cultivated area at several dates, from
1812 to 1874 inclusive :

COMPARATIVE STATISTICS OF CULTIVATED AREA IN EGYPT.

YEAR. FEDDANS. ACRES.
{SSA camellia NR eceeee 3,218,736 | 3,322,701
TTP Ca SPARES IE ETI oe teenie Bee tO 1,856,000 | 1,915,950
TASB RRR AES URES pena ebibeGnnee Rey ict iat 2,000,000 | 2,064,600
TOTO ee any ten eer nee ne inte corr ey eer 3,826,340 | 3,949,931
LSEGE Ly JOSIE EON rah FR aia oT 4,296,736 | 4,435,521
1873), Sede. aeihen aah a an ale ee wae 4,624,221 | 4,773,583
1Sidieee yin age i cde els ce se ic Plait 4,625,000 | 4,774,388

This table shows, that from the time of the accession of Mehemet Ali,
to the close of the war in Syria, the cultivated area in Egypt rapidly de-
clined. It then suddenly increased until, in 1843, it attained its former
extent again. From that time to this it has slowly increased. The
causes of this extraorinary movement will appear when the progress of
the population has been examined.

POPULATION OF ALL EGYPT.
(Excluding the Soudan.)

| ESTIMATED
YEAR. E eet ee AUTHORITY.
SG 2peehme hase siske vc eiseeepe els versuehar a uote 7,465,000 Dr. Schnepp.
Coane Rn 8.442.000 | Dr. Wagner.

1874. ] 239 [Delmer.

The Almanac de Gotha for 1873 gives the population, at a recent date,

at 8,000,000, and appears to quote Mr. E. de Regny, the official statistician
of Egypt, for authority.

POPULATION OF EGYPT PROPER.

YEAR. ‘POPULATION. AUTHORITY.
MUS NPN eee Hh oa ete daar a) Syacenciausisiaisteveiene 3,000,000 Estimate.
GO (Been stecee tee corer te aise era allel as 2, 500, 000 Morse’s Gazetteer.
GBD Ciamacebotpe Cuoose coeur ea 2,000, 000 MacGreggor.
WS er eieerayert aici cic hevoatacs) casievevete al ove ae 3,300, 000 Alm. de Gotha.
CAM Pasir steno cj tee nad a aaeauamone 4,542,620 Census.
ICH) cniptae Gena Some S a PRA ate 5, 125,000 Census.
IGGS oaaeeeercoe teeter pao 4,709,116 Com. Rel., 1873.
QRS ogo d ocaee soar eon ape acEneacas 4,848,528 Br. Con. Ret., 6-1867.
AIS Gligererermctcrerasre: cov sys cust sire(vowstajetes ana aus 4,888, 925 Com. Rel., 1873,
NSM te acces tees MONE Tegan nate 5, 208, 405 56 56 aC
ALS iesieay ee cpoa Sue ces) sash ak aickorevas te voteroraveseremste 5, 250, 000 GG ue GG

This table exhibits a decrease of population from the time of Mehemet
Ali’s accession, to the close of the Syrian war, similar to that shown with
regard to acres of cultivated area. It likewise shows the same sudden
growth immediately afterward, and even a slower growth since. These
coincidences are undoubtedly due to the same causes—the wars of Me-
hemet Ali, particularly those in Syria ; the abandonment of the country
for the desert, in preference to participation in those wars ; and the sub-
sequent return of the people from the battle-fields and the wilderness.
Says MacGreggor, ‘‘ Almost without exception the laborers mutilated
themselves by cutting off the first finger of the right hand, destroying the
right eye, or pulling out the front teeth, in order to avoid the cuonscrip-
tion,’’ p. 231.

COMPARISON OF POPULATION AND CULTIVATED ARBA,

If the large estates worked by the Khédive and his relatives, or the
nobles of his court, be deducted, there will not remain in Egypt over
one-half an acre of arable land to each person; and even if the land cul-
tivated at presept were divided equally among all, there would still be
not over nine-tenths of an acre per capita. To show how comparatively
small an area this is, I give the statistics on this point relative to the
countries with which we are most familiar.

Delmar. ] 240 : [ Oct. 2,

RELATION OF CULTIVATED LANDS TO PoPULATION IN Four DIFFERENT
COUNTRIES.

| Cultivated Lands, in-
| Cultivated Lands. | cluding pasture and
| Acres per Capita. forest lands in use.
Acres per capita.

Country. Year.

1850 | 4.9 ee)
United States (g)........ 1860 | 5.2 Average, 13 0 L Average,
1870 (2), 4.9(h) 3.38 |10.6(h) 6.5
United Kingdom........ 1873 | 1.4 iss
Erance as eee Ba ange ents PST 29 A\2222 Bpil
J yen OL Sle sd 6 Olu ECE 1875 0.9 0.9

The United States is an agricultural country, which furnishes other
countries with breadstufts out of its own surplus. The United Kingdom
is a manufacturing country, which has abandoned the policy of attempt-
ing to raise its own breadstuffs, and relies largely upon foreign supplies.
The quantities of the latter—that is to say, all breadstuffs (not wheat
alone)—usually exported by the United States, do not materially exceed
those usually imported by the United Kingdom; hence an average of the
amount of cultivated land per capita in the two countries shows very
correctly the true amount needed to support each head of population.
According to the table above, this average is over 64 acres. In France,
whichimports breadstufts as often as it exports them, and whose population
and means of subsistence are running a close race, the average number of
acres to each head of population is over three. Imagine how small, then,
must be the portion of an Egyptian laborer, who, if even he had a fair
share of all the cultivated land in his country, which is far from being
the fact—who, if that land were as productively tilled as are the lands of
the other countries named, which, as will be presently shown, is not the
case, and who, if all the food-products of that land were kept at home
instead of being shipped abroad, as a large portion of them are, would
still possess but one-seventh the heritage of an American or English-
man, and but one-fourth that of a Frenchman.

RURAL AND Civic POPULATION.

There are few towns in Egypt beside those already specified. Among
them is Syout, with a population estimated in 1874 at 25,000 (Contemp.
Revy., Feb. 1874.) The total civic population of Egypt is estimated at

‘(g) The lands classified in the United States census as ‘‘improved farm lands,” are
treated above as ‘cultivated Jands,’’? and the ‘‘ unimproved farm lands”’ as ‘“* pasture
and forest lands in use,”’ as adjuncts to agriculture. ‘‘ No farm of less than three acres,
not unless $500 worth of produce has been sold off it during the year,’ is included in
the United States census returns—a very absurd and misleading exception.

(h) The United States census of 1870 was the worst ever taken, and is palpably defi-
cient in almost every respect. The census of 1860 is much more complete and reliable.

1874.] 241 [ Delmar.

700,000, or 18 per cent. of the whole, leaving the raral p»pulation to
consist of 4,503,405, or 87 per cent. of the whole.

OCCUPATIONS.

There are no manufactures in Egypt except those owned and managed
by ‘‘the government,’’ or, in other words, Ismail, son of Ibrahim. The
principal ones are the two cotton cloth factories which supply the coarse
white cotton clothing used by the soldiers, and the blue stuff of cotton
and wool worn by the peasant women. One of these is at Boulac, the
other at Choubra, near Cairo. Together they employ 1,438 workmen,
and produce annually $122,970 worth of cloth and $138,740 worth of linen
—an average of $95 per workman. There is a manufactory of tarboocbes
(these are the national cap) and carpets at Fueh; a printing establishment
at Boulac for Turkish and Arabian works, which employs about 150 work-
men; a paper-mill at Boulac, which employs 50 workmen, and produces
annually 850 cantars of wrapping, and 66,500 reams of printing, writing
and colored papers ; two gunpowder-mills worked by mule-power, near
Cairo ; several large bakeries at Cairo, which together consume about
800;000 barrels of flour per annum ; and some other small works.

These, with the salt-works monopoly, which turns out some 360,000)
bushels of salt per annum; the fisheries, which employ 3,760 persons on
salt, and about 6,000 on fresh, water ; seventeen short railways and.
branches; the telegraphs, the Nile steamboats, and a few navigable
canals, are all the industrial works in Egypt, unless the manufacture of
native sugar and ginning of native cotton are included in the same cate--
gory. They are all owned and managed by the Khédive, who, by thus
engrossing all the branches of trade, effectually crushes native, and shuts
out foreiga, capital and enterprise. Mehemet Ali made strenuous efforts
to become a cotton manufacturer, and at one time had 44 factories and
20,000 operatives, consuming annually 30,000 cantars of cotton, at work ;
but the enterprise was abandoned.

A considerable portion of the persons employed in the present industrial
works in Egypt are foreigners; even the fisheries, employing many
Maltese, Greeks and Italians. The number of those employed in agri-
culture, including their families, is estimated at 4,400,000, or about 85.
per cent. of the whole population—a number and proportion nearly ident-
ical with those of the entire rural population. e

SIZE OF FARMS.

The Viceroy, or Khédive, and his family cultivate one-fourth of all the
arable land. A farm of the late El Hami Pasha consisted of 39,368 acres,,.
of which 13,344 were let. There are other large estates. The holdings
among the fellahdeen, or peasantry, range from one-eighth of an acre to
one acre in size.

LAND TENURES.

Theoretically, all lands were held of God by the Sultan of Turkey. In

Egypt the Viceroy stood in place of the Sultan, and had. power to grant

A. P. &.—VOL. XIV. 2E

Delmar. ] 242 [Oct. 2.

tenancies in fee, cstates for life or a term of years, metayerships and
other tenures, except to the mosques, which held directly from the Sultan.

But Mehemet Ali simplified all this by seizing the lands of the mosques,
confiscating all the private titles, and appropriating the entire land and
its people to his own use. Certain nobles and foreign adventurers have
since been allowed to obtain doubtful tenures of the land, the basis of
which is, however, in all cases, the Khédive’s will. The portions not
managed directly by the latter and his beneficiaries are cultivated by the
wretched fellahdeen, and held, properly speaking, by no tenure except
that which naturally attaches itself to compulsory service.

The Turkish laws of succession, designed by Mahmoud II. and Abd-el-
Mejeed to put an end to the great feudatories which existed in their days,
imperatively command equal subdivision of land among the heirs of the
first degree in descending or ascending line, male and female alike ; fail-
ing these, in collateral line, etc. Entails were abolished ; transfers of
real estate were to be made by entry at a public registry, and the trans-
action heavily taxed ; private deeds between the parties were not to be
recognized. How far these regulations have been applied in Egypt it
would be difficult to say.

SYSTEM OF CULTURE.

The system of culture hardly deserves the name, and simply consists of
waiting upon the annual overflow of the Nile to fill the irrigating canals,
and when ‘he river has subsided, of maintaining the level of the canals
and reservoirs by pumping, baling and ladling. This last-named work
and ‘‘ the digging of fresh canals engross the labor of the people for
mouths,’’ writes the British consul, Mr. Stanley, in 1873. Without this
incessant struggle with nature, the lands would become uncultivable, and
-even with it the result is doubtful ; for if the next overflow of the river
exceeds thirty feet in height, everything on the land is demolished and
swept away; while if it falls short of eighteen feet, the harvests fail and
famine ensues. Of the 66 inundations between 1735 and 1801, 11, or 17
per cent., were high and devastating ; 16, or 24 per cent., were feeble ; 9,
or 14 per cent., were insufficient ; and only 30, or 45 per cent., were good.
The chances, then, appear to be about even, as to whether, after all his
labor, the Egyptian gets a harvest or not. Such a system does not admit
of fallows, rotation or manuring. ‘The irrigating canals or reservoirs of
the large estates are supplied with water from the river by steam power,
the coal being imported from England ; but for the most part this work,
and the digging and dredging of the canals, ditches and reservoirs, are
done by hand, and with the rudest implements.

Sometimes two, three and even.four shadoufs or baling machines are
placed close to each other and employed to raise the water by the pitcher-
ful at a time, to as many reservoirs at different elevations, until it reaches
the highest. Each shadouf requires two men to work it. ‘‘ During many
months of the year the whole Arab population appears to be engaged in
bringing water from the Nile to the adjacent fields.’’—MacGreggor.

1874 ] 243 [ Delmar.

The tot il number and kinds of machines now in use for the purpose of
irrigation will be shown further on.

The Nile usually rises late in May. In August it reaches such a height
that the canals are opened, the entire valley is soaked and the reservoirs
are filled with water. It continues to rise until October, and then falls so
rapidly that, in some parts, pumping and baling commence in November
or December; though, in others, not until February, when they continue
until May or June.

FERTILIZERS.

As a general thing no fertilizers are employed; the deposits of mud left
by the river during its overflow being the main dependence of the hus-
bandman in this respect. An analysis of this mud gives the following
results : silica 53.04; sesquioxide of iron 18.43; sesquioxide of alumina
8.76 ; carbonate of lime 4.19; sulphate of lime 0.75 5 lime 2.25 ; magnesia
0.66 ; potassa 0.69; soda 2.16; chloride of sodium 0.04; organic matter
9.03 ; total 100 per cent. Owing to the extreme scarcity of trees and en-
tire absence of coal, fuel, for all purposes, is exceedingly dear. For this
reason animal manure, and during the cotton excitement 1862-1867, even
cotton-seed, the price of which had at former periods exceeded that of
wheat, were used for fuel; and the former contiaues to be thus employed
yet. Cotton-seed, however, degenerates so rapidly in Egypt that, except
for this purpose, or the superior ones of extracting oil from it or using it
for cattle fodder, it possesses little value there, unless it is freshly im-
ported from other countries. The Khédive has promised a large pecu-
niary reward and the title of Bey to whomsoever shall discover paying
deposits of coal in Egypt.

On the sugar estates the culture exhausts the earth so rapidly that
pigeon-guano is largely used te enrich it; about half a ton being em-
ployed to the acre of land. In order to obtain this fertilizer the keeping
of a flock of pigeons is part of the felluh’s duties to the state.. The birds
are simply provided with the shelter of a mud-cote and left at liberty to
provide their own sustenance. This, of course, is derived, one way or
another, from the fellah’s corn-field, and in this way the birds constitute
an additional agency of taxation upon the wretched peasant. About 267,-
000 tons of this guano are now annually produced in Egypt.

In justice to the Egyptian system of agriculture, it should be stated
that there 7s a certain rotation of crops observed, but unlike any other
system known, except that of the despotic President Lopez, who runs a
government in South America which is somewhat ironically styled the
‘republic’? of Paraguay, the order of that rotation is governed altogether
by the will or caprice of the Khédive. Rice and maize used to be largely
cultivated in Egypt; but the government ordered wheat to be planted in
their stead and the latter became the principal exporting crop. It was
grown one year after another, until nature gave out and the grain grew
so poor that it could scarcely find a market. That exported to England

‘Delmar. ] 244 [Oct. 2,

was used only in the distilleries. The American war occurring at this
juncture, the government prohibited the cultivation of wheat and
nominated cotton in its place. The culture of this staple was pursued
until the fall of prices occurred after the war, when it was superseded
in turn by sugar, which is the present favorite. The exports from Alex-
andria, the shipping port of the country, which will be given further on,
will furnish a close guide to the fluctuations in the product of these arti-
cles, occasioned by this capricious, ruinous, and sometimes mortal policy.

SEEDING.

The seed is thrown broadcast, the use of the drill being wholly un-
known. About 35 bushels of wheat are sown to the acre, the produce be-
ing 111 bushels, or scarcely more than 3 for 1. Even ploughing was for_
merly dispensed with in many parts, the seed being thrown upon the mud
left by the receding river, and domestic animals turned loose to trample
in the grain. This and other wretched features of Egyptian agriculture
are giving way before better methods. The cotton and sugar-cane which
now constitute the chief products of the country, are cultivated mainly
by the large proprietors and sown, or planted, as in the United States.

Domestic ANIMALS.

Previous to the cattle disease in 1863 and 1864 which destroyed in a
single year 800,000 head of horned cattle, and, in Lower Egypt, nearly
every other animal also, and which, together with the cotton mania of
that period, contributed to occasion the famine of 1865, the number of
domestic animals must have exceeded one million. At the present time
it barely amounts to two-thirds of that number, as follows :

Horned cattle (including buffaloes, the main dependence of the

peasant for the work of the farm)... -..-2.....2---- +--+ 292,100
FIOrseS|—)). 2 - «/doeree ee Fe Ace Oe ATCO OS. RCTS caeeKO EEO 2 ROS
ML ssi ch. iee ae eB re eA AC ALAS Ae 2,105
INSSOS i sree claus RR eR EO sn EON Susi tears 94,641
(OPW taVel IN mniniio co pat acon ore ROD oe ain Con Soo Onan co mores 6 35,978
Sheeppanr aa eens nerrtiriacctsren. he os emnnort iateeer eee ane 172,657
Gooaites ccna atv Bied eid eee RRR ce 23,907

Toba gic. stecesctesc hn, Fc) SA) PRUE ER lee eI Meroe ce 1chtereret peter 639,191

These numbers do not include the animals in Alexandria and Cairo.
During the year 1872 there were imported at Alexandria 14,185 head of
cattle and 200,087 sheep, chiefly for slaughter.

In 1871 the average prices of 71,400 animals sold at the fairs of Tantah
in the Delta, were reported by the American consul as follows: Cattle
$200 each; buffaloes $175; camels $200; horses $100; asses $25; and
sheep $6.25. (Doubtful. )

1874. ] 245 [Delmar.

W AGES.

In common with many European and all Oriental countries, women in
Egypt are employed in field labor. The following were the prices of labor
current at four different epochs. Men’s wages per diem are always meant
unless otherwise specified.

Year 1837.

: Lower Egypt $0.02? @ .05
MCLAG LAD OLeNStet cata sis clas tetclaree ai roechatter ear { Upper Ny, 024 (@ .022
Boysiandycirls, sugar plantationssriqeerree ae oo: eae 013 @ .08

: Year 1841.

Laborers, at Cairo, average...............-0 BERANE Gs 05
Kecnersoniganoleaders. (5 sau it sehtee teen Mera c ne oe 10
Year 1868.

Night operative in cotton-gin at Mansurah................ 242
Day operative, same work, boy or girl.................--- 12
WGalboreronu Suezy Camaliciry carne > 2s comeelsae site sic as Ferstersvere 20

This was the period of the cotton mania. The American consul, writ-
ing at the time, said, ‘‘ within a year wages have been doubled.”’

In 1865 the American consul reported that there had been an important
rise in wages in late years, mainly due to the redundance of specie caused
by the high prices at which cotton sold.

In 1867 the British consul reported that “‘wages and land had quad-
rupled.”’

Between this period and 1873 there seems to have been a fall in wages.

Year 1873.

Lower Egypt, 15
Bieldplaborersss 2 ccclaaciain cident ache .\ Middle “‘ .10
jt us 07
Unskilled operatives in factories and at salt works, accord-
ing to age and ability, 15c. @ 40c. per diem, average..... 224
Mechanics, such as masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, etc.,
VANS CEN! OR TENNOMGs oeooe Goodedbanuoeraerooucese .60 @ 1.00

The American consul reported in 1873 that wages appear to have de-
clined since the cotton mania, but that they are said to be now rising
again.

EFFICIENCY OF LABOR.

An Egyptian laborer is considered to have done a good day’s work
when he picks 15 to 18 pounds of cotton. The American negro slaves
usually picked 50 pounds in the same time. An Egyptian with the aid of
a shadouf (pole and jar, or bucket) can raise for irrigating purposes an
average of about seven gallons of water per minute ; an American with
an improved hand pump can raise 100 gallons per minute, or 14 times as
much. The constant use of the stick and bastinado is necessary to keep
at work the fellahdeen on the Khédive’s estates (C. R. 1871). This fact

Delmar, } 246 [Oct. 2,

may, however, be due to other reasons than mere physical infirmity. The
immediate labor of about 15 persons out of every 100 in the United States
produces more than enough food for all ; whereas in Egypt the same result
calls for the immediate labor of at least three times as many persons ;
while the result itself is greatly inferior in quantity, quality and variety.

That this great comparative inefficiency of Egyptian labor is due less
to natural inaptitude than to. poor food, rude implements and other cir-
cumstances over which he has no control, is manifest from the recorded
observations of very intelligent persons.

Says MacGreggor, writing of Egypt, “‘The Arabs, if brought young to
the cotton factories are of quick intellect and easily learn any branch of
themtrades77 ks eo * «They show considerable dexterity.”

Says Dr. Riippel: ‘‘The young Egyptians show great skill and often
surpass their masters in cleverness.”’

TAXATION.

The tax system of Egypt is contrived to keep its unhappy people pre-
cisely at the point where it is a matter of the utmost unconcern to them
whether they live or die. It is impossible to ascertain what this burden
amounts to in money, but substantially, it deprives the population of all
the fruits of their industry, leaving them but a bare and most wretched
subsistence, without lands, homes, clothing, security, justice, or education
—and, but for dates and dourra, even without food. The peasant’s home
is far less comfortable than that of some wild animals—for instance, the
beaver. It is of the same character as the latter—a mud hut—and teems
with vermin. Great numbers of the people live in the ancient tombs,
with darkness and the bats. —Stephens’ Travels 1837. The dress of the
people hereabouts (at the First Cataract, the confines of Egy.pt proper and
Nubia) consists of a piece of leather about six inches wide, cut in strings
and'tied about their loins. I bought one from a young girl of 16, whose
sweet mild face and exquisitely charming figure the finest lady might
have envied.—Tbid.

Men are seized in the streets, the bazaars, anywhere, ‘‘the iron bands
put around their wrists, the iron collars around their necks,’”’ and forced
to work for the Pasha.—Jbid.

‘‘People are taken away in gangs from their own ground to do work
for powerful land-owners, which in no wise benefits their districts.’’
—British Consul Stanley, 1873. ‘‘A man was convicted of stealing an
amber mouth-piece from Abbas Agga. His punishment was to be bound
to a cannon and blown to atoms. The same official pressed 600 fellahs
into his service to dig him a canal; made them work 12 hours a day ;
lashed them unmercifully, and did not pay them a single para.’’— Dr.
Holroyd’s Travels, 1837. The Koran is the only book in the land and
that it is considered sacrilegious to print. Those few who can read and
write are called fickees or saints.—/ bid. The people are strictly temper-
ate, exceedingly docile and naturally intelligent.

1874.] 247 [Delmar

In 1887 the mérz or land tax was from $1.75 per feddan per annum on
ordinary lands, to $5 on sugar lands. It is at present, 1574, about $5 per
feddan on all lands. Beside this, there is a poll tax ; a tax on date trees,
which, as elsewhere explained, is equivalent to an additional poll tax ;
octroi taxes on the principal articles of consumption ; tolls to support the
irrigation canals; taxes on the fisheries (one-third) ; on salt ; on the con-
sumption of wheat ($1) and barley, beans, Indian corn, and pulse (75
eents per bushel in 1837); import and export duties; monopolization of
all the branches of industry by the government ; forced service ; debase-
ment of the copper coinage and every other device of a vicious and mer-
ciless finance. Beside these, there are dues to the mosques and various
local exactions.

The total revenues of the Viceroyalty in 1821 were about $6,000,000 ;
in 1833 about $12,500,000; in 1850 about $20,000,000 ; in 1872 about $36, -
500,000. This last sum is equivalent to 10 cents per day for every fam-
ily in the country, or the whole value of the labor of every father, or head
of family. The same rate of taxation—that is, the whole value of one
man’s labor exacted from each family in the land—were it possible in the
United States, would amount to 8,000 million dollars per annum, or four
times the whole sum of the national debt. But thank God, it és7’t pos-
sible.

The taxes are raised in Egypt through a Sheik-el-belled or head of village
commune, chosen by the people and against his will, for although armed
with arbitrary power, should he fail to colleet the heavy tribute, his life
is generally forfeited. The government sends him in chains to the South-
ern frontier and he is seldom heard of again.

INTEREST.

The Mahometan law, like the canon law of Christianity and the ancient
Jewish law, forbids the taking of interest; but like those laws, it has
fallen into disuse in this respect. In 1837 the Viceroy allowed 6 per cent.
for advances to him from European houses.—MacGreggor. At the same
time the market rate for money among mercantile houses in Egypt was
10 to 18 per cent. per annum. At the present time the rate of interest
ranges between 10 per cent. on the most desirable class of government
securities, to 60 and even 100 per cent. per annum on fair commercial
risks. These excessive rates appear to result less from high profits than
great insecurity and the lack of a basis of individual right for an admin-
istration of justice. The prevailing insecurity is susceptible of being il-
lustrated by four striking examples. ist. The tenure of lands is merely
the will of the Viceroy. 2d. In 1866 the Viceroy informed the European
resident creditors of the rural population that, in future, it would be use-
less for them to claim against the natives.—Br. Cons. Rep. 6-1867, p.
296. dd. In 1864, though gold was at that time pouring into the country
to pay for cotton, so overwhelming was the general instinct to hoard and
bury money, that little or none of it remained in cirenlation. ‘‘On one

248 (Oct. 2,

Delmar. ]

occasion, when the French packet from Marseilles arrived in the after-
noon with seven millions of francs in specie, I was informed by the agent
of the company, the same evening, that he had reason to believe that not
a single coin of the whole amount had remained in Alexandria. It had
been taken to the villages where it is generally buried in the earth.’’—
Com. Rel. 1865, p. 424. 4th. The monopolies. In 1864, during the high
price of cotton, the Viceroy refused permission for the cotton of other
cultivators to be brought to market until his own was first shipped.— Ibid.
In 1865 and 1866, though there was a famine in Egypt, corn fetched a
higher price at Jidda, in the Hedjaz, a province of Arabia on the Eastern
coast of the Red Sea. The merchants, who hastened to ship corn to Jid-
da, were stopped by the Viceroy ; who, disregarding the famished con-
dition of his own people, hastened to sell his corn to the Arabians and
obtain the higher prices which necessity compelled them to offer.—Br. C.
R. 6-1867, p. 134.

The following quotations exhibit the rates of interest current in Egypt
of late years.

1863. Three to five, and even seven, per cent. a month was paid by
fellahs to the Levantine traders who lent them money wherewith to pay
their taxes. Same year, five to ten per cent. a month was paid on good
security.—C. R., 1863.

1864. ‘‘Minimum rate, ten per cent. per annum. Two and three per
cent. a month often paid by parties of the first position for temporary
loans.’’—C. R., 1864 and 1865.

1872. Seven to ten per cent. per annum on government s2curities.—M.
5., 1872.

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

On the estates ot the Khédive and other large planters, modern imple-
ments are in use; but the natives appear to be so ill-fed as to lack the
physical strength and skill to wield them. Hence their reluctance to work
on these estates, and the cruel practice of forcing them by blows ; for, as
things go, the Khédive pays them well. (C. R., 1871.) In 1862-3 the
Khédive employed steam irrigating machinery in Upper Egypt. At the
same time there were in operation eighty steam cotton-gins; steam
pumps were used by other large proprietors, and steam plows were tried
on the barren ‘“‘ halfa ’’ lands of the Delta. (C. R., 1863.) Since that time,
other improved implements have come into use on the same class of
estates ; but ihe peasants continue to employ the antique and inefficient
implements c »mmon to the Orient from the most ancient times, the causes
for this preference being poverty, physical infirmity and, above all, polit-
ical insecurity. These implements consist of the plow, which is merely a
crooked stick, sometimes barbed with iron ; the mattock, the hoe, the
spade, the dulab or hand-gin for cotton, and the sakye or sakia, the
chadouf or shadouf, and the tabout, for irrigating purposes. The sakye
is a horizontal wooden cog-wheel, turned by oxen and working into the
perimeter of a vertical wooden cog-wheel, which, in revolving, elevates

1874. ] 249 [Delmar

an endless rope chain, to which are attached earthen jars. Filling with
water at the bottom of the well or shaft, these jars empty themselves at
the top as they begin to descend.

The shadouf is an upright forked pole in which turns a beam with a
bucket or jar at one end and a lump of mud to balance it at the other.

The tadout is a basket, to be handled by two men, and only used when
the water is to be raised but a few feet. The number of the various im-
plements used for irrigating purposes in 1873 was as follows :

Steam=pumipssail. 1 Soles See yaa ys eee Dae 476
SERRE) (Oa aio Rein Sa Garros GOT ns Dindh oa am semis aame 30, 084
FS MENA IGR ULES Sec cstcs ceria Gee rm rR a Os CHa ele) DH or er ACR 70,508
LA OOWES o's dao eedds Slay arabe aussie nes sui crnistanavsierere eters sisi 6,926

107,994

CHIEF ARTICLES OF NATIONAL DIET.

Dates and dourra constitute the chief dietary of Egypt. It is a re-
markable fact that the number of date-trees under cultivation has gener-
ally coincided with the number of inhabitavts and the number of acres of
cultivated lands. The causes of this correspondence with reference to the
number of date-trees are doubtless the coincidence of their period of bear-
ing with the ordinary duration of a man’s lite, and their yield of fruit
with the capacity of man to consume it, which for each tree and each
man is alike one pounda day. These circumstances combine to render
the tax, (now yielding about $700,000 per annum) which is placed upon
date-trees, really a tax on polls, of both sexes and all ages, amounting to
about 14 cents per capita.

There are now about 5 million date-palm trees in Egypt. The trees
are raised by shoots, arrive at their vigor in about 30 years, and con-
tinue so for seventy years afterward, bearing yearly fifteen or twenty
clusters of dates, each of them weighing fifteen or twenty pounds. After
this period they begin to decline. Upwards of 200 trees are sometimes
planted on a single acre (Buckle, 1, 61). Wilkinson, from whom Buckle
quoted, said 400 toa feddan. Accepting the lower number as nearer the
truth, it would follow that 25,000 acres of land are devoted to the growth
of date-palms in Egypt. The average annual yield in 1878 was four
cantars of dates to each tree (C. R,, 1873, p. 1086). This would make
the aggregate yield about 20 million cantars. All but 30 thousand cantars,
or one-sixth of one per cent., which is the amount annually exported, are
consumed in the country. Dates are not used for human food alone, but

(4) The number of sakyes in use in 1838 was estimated at 50,000, costing 3'4 million
dollars a year to work them, the power employed on each machine being that of two cattle
and one man (C. R., 1853, p. 533). In 1837, for want of pruning-hooks or knives, the fellah-
deen engaged in cultivating cotton in Upper Egypt, broke off the branches instead of
cutting them; while for want of a press, the bale of cotton was packed with the foot
(MacGreggor). The absence of so common an instrument as a knife is due to the fact
that the government prohibits the bearing of arms by the populace. The prudence of
this precaution is evidenced by the following extract from Stephens: ‘‘ Speaking of the

general poverty of the Arabs, the Sheik said that if one-fourth of them owned a musket,
one charge of powder and one ball, before morning there would not be a Turk in Egypt.”

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2F

Delmar. ] . 250 [Oct. 2,

are also fed to horses, asses, camels, sheep, fowls and dogs, the animals
consuming all the abortive fruit, and even the date-stones, when softened
in water and ground up, the latter being often collected for the purpose
by indigent persons. The young shoots of the date-palms are used as a
delicate vegetable, resembling asparagus; the leaves afford couches,
baskets, bags, mats, brushes, etc. ; the trunk affords wood for fences,
fuel, etc. ; the fibrous part, cordage and thread ; the pith, starch ; and
the sap, a fermented liquor.

Dourra (7), indian-corn, blé ture, millet, sorghum (8%. vulgare), or Guinea
corn—for it is known by all these names—is a species of holcus (allied to
broom-corn, etc.), and the principal grain of Egypt next after wheat.
Varieties of this grain are grown in Africa and Asia, and it has been
tried in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, California and elsewhere in the
United States, for use as cattle-fodder, but abandoned (except in Cali-
fornia, where its cultivation was only begun a few years ago) in favor of
oats or barley. Next to dates, it forms the staple food of the Egyptian
peasant, and in Upper Egypt and Nubia particularly. Indeed, in Nubia
it is used for the purposes of currency. Wishing to prove the prolificacy
of dourra, and quoting Hamilton’s Hyyptiace, Buckle says (vol. 1, p. 62)
that ‘‘it yields to the laborer a return of 240 for 1.’’ It is possible that
a single grain will yield a plant bearing 240 grains; but this degree of
prolificacy is exceeded by maize and many other cereals. Therefore, °
taken by itself, this fact means nothing. But if Hamilton meant that the
average yield of large areas sown in dourra is 240 for 1, which is what
Buckle took it to mean, this statement is as wild as his other, that an
ardeb is 16 bushels. Nor does it signify, in this connection, that, to quote
another author (Appleton’s Encye. Art. Millet) a bushel of millet has
been grown on six square rods of land, which is equal to 262 bushels to
the acre. The practical fact is, thatin Egypt, at the present time, dourra
yields on the average about 12 bushels to the acre (the C. R., 1873, p.
1085, say 24+ ardebs per feddan), or somewhat more than wheat in the
same country. Its preference to the latter is doubtless due either to the
lesser amount of seed and care required in its cultivation, or to the lesser
trouble required in its preparation for use. It is ground between two
stones and made into a brown bread, said by an enthusiastic traveler
to be of ‘‘admirable quality’? (Contemp. Revy., Feb. 1874), but is
greatly deficient in flesh-forming materials. Hamilton says, that “in
Upper Egypt the dourra constitutes almost the whole subsistence of the
peasantry ;’’ but this is so far from being correct, that they eat several
pounds of dates to one of dourra. Although its use in Egypt is less
common as one proceeds from Nubia to the Delta, it is nevertheless
still largely consumed in Middle Egypt. The lotus, which was used for
food in the time of Herodotus, is now almost a rare plant.

Beside dates and dourra-bread, the food of the Egyptian peasants con-
sists largely of beans and lentils, which are made into soups and other

(j) Spelled variously, as dourra, dourrah, dhourra, dhurra, dourah, dowrah and
durr

1874.] 251 { Delmar.

dishes. A very little fish is obtained, but no meat, except on rare
occasions, when asheep is slaughtered and consumed, even to the entrails.
The total cost of an adult peasant’s subsistence in 1837 ranged from 1 to
24 cents per day. It is now, 1874, 3}. to 74 cents. So effectually does the
government deprive the people of the means of subsistence, that says
MacGreggor: ‘If the poor fellah does not secrete some of his produce,
it sometimes happens that nothing is left him at the conclusion of autumn
to maintain himself and family through the winter.”’
NAVIGABLE RIVERS,

The Nile is navigable by light draught boats from its mouths to the
rapids or cataracts, about 600 miles above. The draught of water in the
Rosetta mouth is five feet, and in the Damietta, eight feet, at low tide.
During the inundation, the draught is often forty feet, and large vessels
can ascend to Cairo.

NAVIGABLE CANALS. Miles long.
Mahmoudy, Lower Egypt .................-...+.------- 50
Ismailia, as OSE Rae ENsEty Wana Rarcnmerty total Sreneie oN ceers alter oe 61
Beherah, ce SE ai egarsla alte eye rar eters eReye Ios ore relic Van's sets 30
orale, Wjajee! SS. geeasbebcododoonsshadigooves dice 93

Beside these, there is the Suez International Ship Canal, 69 miles long;
the Bahr Yusuf, or ancient irrigating river of Joseph, some 300 miles
long ; and hundreds of irrigating canals, many of them of great size, not
to count innumerable runnels and ditches, for the purposes of irrigation.

RAILWays.
The following table shows the progress that has been made in railways
in Egypt
Year. Miles.
ISGBesdooas boos odnooe oceedocbeudcagGuapenos JoupmoOUp oS 245
UGiles.ds 6oc8 Sosdoo bor soBbo ne dobro ocwscue Rs oemuD Osos 654
Si Sepe tate PEN ey etait toes cuca tien sey Ketens, Sen pe ketal eke ve eyes yaiore stache 7363

In 1873 there were completed twenty-one railways, aggregating 7365
miles, of which about 200 miles were double track ; also, in progress, 208
miles and a single railway of 600 miles to the Soudan.

But with all this progress, says British Consul West, in 1867, ‘‘the
trade of Suez is ona most limited scale, and is almost exclusively confined
to the supply of the daily wants of its few inhabitants. The imports
from the Red sea or from Indiaare all on account of the Cairo merchants,
and the goods are received here by native wakeeis, or agents, simply as
forwarding agents. The duty is paid on them, and notwithstanding the
line of railway between Cairo and Suez, they are transmitted not unfre-
quently on camels !”’

The Consul explains that there are several reasons for this singular
preference, neither one of which is creditable to the existing government,
which not only lords itself despotically over the people, but owns, mono-
polizes and administers the railways.

First. ‘“‘ The natives avoid coming into contact with the government
ofticials,’? who manage the railways.

Delmar. ] 252 [Oct. 2,

Secondly. ‘‘ Time is of but little object, aud the saving of it, if any, by
rail, is questionable, owing to the delays in forwarding and obtaining
delivery of the goods.”’

Thirdly, ‘‘The rates of railway freights are so high as to make but
little, if any, difference in the cost.”’

Though it should be remembered, in mitigation of this charge, that all
of the materials, some of the personnel, and, most important, all of the
coal for the railway service has to be imported from Europe; yet the
Consul’s reasons for the avoidance of the railways involve reproaches to
the Khédive’s system of rule, which appear te show that even with cheap
fuel, railways and despotism will not work well together.

The converse of this induction, that railways need a free government
for their development, is strikingly shown in the great progress which
the former have made in this country, and the relative progress they have
made in all countries.

When it is remembered that thousands of years ago Egypt possessed
stone railways, and perhaps also wooden ones, it is rather a dark stigma
on the Khédive’s rule that, with all his efforts to imitate European pro-
gress, the government he has established is so distasteful to his people,
that rather than employ his boasted engines of progress, they find it
preferable to return to the camels and the old paces and slow ways of
their forefathers.

Of telegraphs there were in 1863 about 360 miles, and in 1873 about
3,460 miles. These works all belong to the government.

RATES OF FREIGHT.

In 1868 the freight on baled cotton by railway from Mansurah to Alex-
andria, a distance of about 100 miles, was 48 cents per cantar, or, say, 55
cents per cwt. Rates of freight from Alexandria to Liverpool in 1878,
for wheat and beans 61 cents @ $1.34 per quarter of 8 bushels ; to Mar-
seilles, 60 cents per 100 kilos., or, say, 17 cents per bushel.

Having now very fully examined Egypt’s resources, natural, artificial
and human, we turn to the practical results of these means and forces,
which are summed up in her

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
In 1834 the produce of Egypt was stated to Dr. Bowring as follows :

Wheat, bushels........... Sy BE OOO MSs COwilise soacoousscuobco 32,000
Beans, OSes Ne eM UE GAS OOO | Commo, °F 6 sesacdooooodce 206,000
Lentils, CO dea css Semmens 231,700 | Flax, BOE ES, CF a Ceara 55,000
Barley, OO isto auayielis eiene Infos OO | tsepatworm, 8% 5555 G090 co0noKc. 3,500
Maize, SO bbe odo bode U0) INOUE, CF Gesodeccocanues 100,000
Dourra, VEC RERINNI DIO, Rie Ato o00) | lalernngin, OF pop ogaanccascooe 30,000
Chickpeas oo thos <i aee oe 165500; slinchico-elo serene ear 212,575
Lupins CONS Set Me Boss 115,850 | Silk, She ee cnelehiecele COAG 178,750
Ftelpelai(e) iy Sater crits: i1 +). 23040100) Opium aie eteeetaetaretsterane 41,250
Rice BOE TO Oc Geer 450,160 | Linseed, bushels............ 198, 600

(k) A seed with a somewhat bitter taste, whose flour is mixed with dourra.

1874. ] 253 [ Delmar.

The quantities in the above table are obtained by reckoning 3.31 Cairo
ardebs to the bushel and 2? pounds to the oke. The cwts. are as stated
in the original.

In 1873 the products, feddans cultivated, average yield per feddan and
total yield were as follows

No. oF Fep- Ay.YIELD

DAN JL-| PER FED- AGGREGATE
Propvucts. | Bere, Hae YIELD.
CORON, cantars (sit). as sua ctenes arte ral aCe eeeuelios 997 22 | 1,977,242
Sugar (7) “ RISB OT Lr SRN COM | 200, 000 (2) 30 | 6,000,000
Wheat, bushels. GAM MRT EE TS | 711,000 1i+ 7,998, 750
DOUG eS ecataGso un da decmeeG ee eke | 400,000, 11+ 4,500,000
Barley, Rice, (7) Maize and other grains, | |
HO WSIVET S\aeant tora yal itevere cia ates suas we ate ws | 89,000} 112 | 1,001,250
OaistpouUShielstaiau ct aac rea ie sete eei aes ,200.000) 124 | 1,500,000
Beans and lentils, bushels ....... BO : 070, 000: 2 2,140, 000
WALES CANLATS a q-eccteneveiete meses Geoereteeoaserll 2, 000 800 | 20,000,000
All other, including Mulberry trees, (7) |
Rose-trees, (0) poppies, etc...... Reta 210,224.
Mota ine 6 Sani Gotan | 4, 624,221)

From the above table and the comparative statistics of the exports of
cotton and sugar from Egypt, it appears that at the present time the goy-
ernment is encouraging the production of these articles in the place of
wheat, and since the area of cultivation is limited, it follows that the pro-
duct of the latter will be less and less every year. But taking the wheat
product at its utmost, what does it amount to? A product of 8,000,000
bushels a year, (p) of which 5,000,000 bushels are exported, chiefly to
England. In point of fact, however, there have been but six years dur-
ing the past twenty, when the exports have amounted to as much as
5,000,000 bushels per annum, and there will probably never be another—
at least in our days. These years were 1854, 1855, 1856, 1858, 1862 -and
1868. In 1864, 1865, 1866 and 1870, there were no exports, on account
of famine. In fact, Egypt imported wheat in those years. Last year,
1873, the exports. were only 23 million bushels.

(1). This statement of the yield of sugar must be accepted with caution. It is given
on the authority of the American consul, but the same authority says that the total
product of 1872 was but 1,500,000 cantars. The production of this article is being pushed
by the Khédive and more land devoted to it each succeeding year. There are 17 fac-
‘tories in Upper Egypt, capable of turning out 2,350,000 cantars of sugar per annum, and
5 others were building in 1873, with an aggregate capacity of 900,000 cantars.

(m). Rice was formerly the principal grain exported from Egypt, but its cultivation
began to decline some 50 years ago.

(n). There were 10,000 feddans in Mulberry trees in 1837, with 300 trees to the feddan.
(0). Mainly in the Faioum.

(p). It was about 7,500,000 bushels some ten or fifteen years previously.—Appleton’s
Encye.

Delmar. ] 254 [Oct 2,

CONCLUSION.

When it is remembered that the wheat trade between the United States
and Great Britain is an export of 42 million bushels a year from the for-
mer, to help supply a demand of 95 million bushels a year on the part of
the latter, the utter insignificance of Egypt in this respect and her inabil-
ity to supply such a material portion of this trade as is likely to have the
slightest appreciable effect upon its course or prices, is believed to be
evident without any further argument.

Appending, first, the commercial movement of wheat, I will close with
a few words relative to the government and the future material welfare

of Egypt.
COMMERCIAL MOVEMENT.

Exports of Wheat Received in the ExportstoFrance.
Year. from Alexandria.) United Kingdom Bushels. (5 to 1
Bu. (5to Lardeb.)) Bushels of 56 1bs.! ardeb.)
1833 (q)...... ene elds 300,000 |
NS4 (P)scountooceolo0 00 ; 2,493,985 116,480 | 93,220
HUSSAIN Sarctiaawly, Sey aes 4,828, 965 8,101,850
SOAR Aerie ade seatenpeys ic 5,078,430 2,625,176
SHAG ence cen Cerne ar 8,374,260 | 8,789,422 | 652,205
UWS soneoooaec heroines ANSE 7,807, 240 4,633,226 | -
TSH Cee me eee 3,762,865 1,770,046
185i. Reh oxads. wanle els 5,852,240 4,026,982
USM oe acoodto as Cabin rod oc 2,636,975 8, 269, 072
HUSK bareaeairn ccs a oreema maroc 2,823,590 2 Ws, LHD
iS Gil eeeve tenet suariarnc eee cane RNC 4,526,200 2,948, 960
SG QM eer. Recta Suda av aaen is 6,644, 255 6, 609, 158
ASG SH HOR? DLE ea hay 8,896, 600 4, 645,272
Wee coca tpeteact pease icleGenegede 440,445 734, 924
SGD pedis cuerrosuch syauewayatenesytaye coke none (¢) 20,126
SG Gince ontsne ic retorts ysuavaretavous - 62,690 67,662
PS GHRR AGEN ie cons abate sities 3,991,010 2,943,512
USGS kena we cee ae ee 5,735,735 6,474,760
ISG. ocae nhs opt Se ES Bae 1,844,485 2,040,578
AST OMA A saceene oicarters 74,955 213,402
aH lal ds agi tat pina a 2,323, 345 1,817,694 205,100
NSHP se: 5m cho Bec Pts linear 6:610.0 4,338, 640 4,722, 084 121,650 (2)
ASTRO BEANE Ee: 2,500,000 2,548,588

(q). In 1833 the Nile failed to overflow its Vanks, the harvest was greatly deficient,
famine ensued and grain rose to a high price; nevertheless prices were still higher on
the Black Sea, and Mehemet Ali, turning a deaf ear to thesufferings of his own people,
sent 60,000 ardebs thither for sale-—MacGreggor.

(r). In 1841 the exports of wheat from Egypt were mainly to Italy and Turkey. The
British trade did not spring up until after this date.

(s). In 1855 the exports of wheat were 5,573,070 bushels to Great Britain ; 652,205 to
France ; 137,900 to Austria and 2,011,085 to other countries.

(t). In 1865, failure of grain crops. Exports of grain prohibited until July 31, 1866.

(wu). In 1870, failure of grain crops. Exports of grain other than wheat: Rice 100,625,
Maize 6,395 and Barley 170,265 bushels.

(v). Wheat shipped from Alexandria to United Kingdom 1862 to 1872 inclusive, 29,-
352,260 bushels at five to the ardeb. ‘Total received in United Kingdom during same
period 30,289,172 bushels of 56 lbs. each—a substantial agreement.

(w). 18:2. Also 58,855 bushels to Italy.

sy
1874.] 255 [Delmar

No wheat is permitted to be shipped from Ugypt without paying to
the government an export-duty of about 873 cents per bushel, and no
laborer is permitted to leave the country at all; so that the conditions of
her industry are in a certain sense fixed.—MacGreggor.

THE FuTURE OF EGYPT.

Apart from the subject of her agricultural and commercial rivalry with
the United States, Egypt possesses an interest to us which I trust will
furnish ample apology for the uncomplimentary terms in which I have
found it necessary to advert to her government, or what is the same thing,
the Khédive. Rulers have difficulties to contend with which are not al-
ways readily appreciated by others, and doubtless the Khédive has his
share of them. He sees beneath him a country which demands incessant
labor for its cultivation; a people, ignorant, superstitious and, as he be-
lieves, slow and lazy. His administration, bad as it seems to us, has
nevertheless been one of peace, and wholly unstained by the barbarous
cruelties that distinguished those of Mehemet Ali and Ibrahim and Abbas
Pasha. But although, to use the expression of the illustrious Turgot
with reference to the finance system of France under the reign of Louis
XY., the Khédive has not ‘‘ killed the goose that lays the golden eges,”’
he has plucked it to the bone.

Were this potentate once to reflect how little glory there is in such a
course, and how many millions of suffering human creatures would bless
him now and his name forever, did he changeit; were he but to consider
how infinitely more creditable in the eyes of the world, and more gracious
in the sight of the God an1 the Prophet he worships would appear his
devotion to the amelioration of the condition of his people, than the
amassment of wealth and the building of palaces in which he is engaged,
it is perhaps not too much to say that he would adopt a wholly different
national policy.

That this may be the case, and Egypt afforded an opportunity to rise
once more among the nations of earth—not as a land merely of archxo-
logical remains, but as the abode of a numerous and prosperous people
—cannot but be the fervent wish, not only of all Americans, but of the
modern world at large.

Grote. ] 256 _[Novy. 20,

LIST OF THE NORTH AMERICAN PLATYPTERICES, ATTACI,
HEMILEUCINI, CERATOCAMPADA, LACHNEIDES, TEREDI-
NE3 AND HEPIALI, WITH NOTES

By Auc. R. GRoTE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Nov. 20th, 1874.)

In this list, I present the results of my studies on a portion of the
North American Bombyces. The admirable synopsis of the Family by
Dr. Packard, I have found our best authority on the subject, while I
have been able to propose many necessary and important changes in
nomenclature from more extended bibliographical researches. The
only changes from Dr. Pavkard’s classification here made, are the
division of the “ Hepiali’’ into two groups, in which I follow Htibner,
and the disintegration of the “ Ceratocampadez’’ into Hemileucini and
Ceratocampade indicated by Mr. Robinson and myself in 1866. To Mr.
S. H. Scudder we owe the reprinting of the Tentamen of Hiibner and,
more recently, the discovery of the exact date* (1806) of that valuable
document.

In the present List, a star (*) is prefixed where the genus is represent-
ed in Europe; a dagger ({) where I have been unable to examine the
species myself.

Bombyces Linn. (1788). Bombyces Borkh., 1798 ; Bombyces Hibn.,
1806 ; Bombycites and Noctuo-Bombycites Latr., 1810; Phalaenw Hubn.,
1816.

PLATYPTERICES Hiibner (1806).

Platyptericidw Stephens, 1829 ; Platypteryginw Grote, 1868.
* PLATYPTHERYX Laspeyres (1802).

Type: Bombyx hamula S. V.

Norr.—Hiibner, in his Tentamen, first restricts Laspeyre’s generic term to this type.
Since Schrank’s genus Drepana (1801), contains species not congeneric¢ with this type,
his name, while earlier, must be used for one of these, and Htibner’s restriction of Las-
peyre’s later term must be respected according to the rules of Zoological nomenclature.
This restores my original determination (1862) for our American species. Stephens’
“« Drepana fasciata,”’ is probably a species of Drepanodes, from the description.

siculifer (Pack.), 4th Ann Rep. Peab. Acid. Sci., 87 (Drepana);
id. Stretch, Zyg. Bomb. N. Am., 110, Pl. 4, fig. 11. California.

arcuata (Walk.), C. B. M., 5, 1164 (Drepana) ; Platypteryx arcuata
Grote, Proc. Acad. N. Sci. Phila., 1862, p. 360; Plat. fabula Grote, 1.
c., p.59. Canada to Middle States.
genicula (Grote), Proc. Acad. N. Sci. Phila., 1862, p. 59. Canada
to Middle States.
* See Hiibner, Zutr., 1.8. 4.

=
1874.] 257 [Grote.

* PriontA Hitbner (1816).
Type: Phaleena lacertinaria Zinn.

bilineata (Pack.), Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila., 3, 376 (Hdapteryz) Pl. 6,
fig. 9. Eastern and Middle States.
Note.—Stephens’ later restriction of Platypteryx for this genus cannot be followed.

Moschler, from figures, regards our species as identical with the European. Stett. Ent.
Zeit., 251, 1871.

DryoprTeEris Grote (1862).
Type: Platypteryx formula Grote.

rosea (Walk.), C. B. M., 5, 1164 (Drepana}; Drepana marginata
Walk., 1. c., 1165; Cilix Americana H. S, Lep. Exot., 470; Platypteryx
formula Grote, Proc. Acad. N. Sci., Phila., 1862, 60; Dryopteris rosea
Grote, |. c., 360. Canada to Virginia.

irrorata Pack., Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, 377. Eastern States.
ATTACI Linn. (1788).

Nore.—This sub-family is indicated by Linné under the name ‘Attacos,’’ Ed. xiii,
Syst. Nat., p, 2401. Echidne Hiibn., and Heree Hiibn., must both be considered
synonymous. The type of Echidna (1806), is E. Tau; the type of Her@a (1806), is H,
Carpini.

Actias Leach (1815).
Type: Phalena Luna Linn.

Luna (Linn.), Syst. Nat. Ed. 10, 1, 496, No. 5 (1758); id. Ed. 12, 810,
No. 5 (1767); id. Mus. Ulr., 368, No. 5 (1764); Abb. & Sm. Ins. Ga., 1,
95, T. 48; Leach, Edin. Encyc., 9 (1815), (Actias); Httbn., Verz., 152,
No. 1587 (Tropea). Canada to Alabama; double brooded in Alabama,
where it readily flies in the day time.

Norr.—The Plate of this species Band 2, Exot. Schm., is wrongly dated ‘‘1806’’ by
Packard. Itislater than the Verzeichniss. In a letter dated 29th Sept., 1866, Dr.
Herrich-Schefier gave the following dates to the 3d vol. of the Sammlung ; ‘‘ Casiphone
to huntera, 1828; Asclepias to rustica, 1829; Io to taygete, 1830; pasithe, grimmia, 1831 ;
crista to beltrao, 1832; nesea to thirza, 1833; debora-hylas, 1884; lusca-huebneri, 1835.”

TELEA Hiibn. (1816).

Type: Bombyx polyphemus Oramer.

Polyphemus (Cram.), 1, Pl. 5, A. B.; Fabr., Sp. Ins., 2, 168, No. 5;
Mant., 2, 108, No. 6; Linn., Syst. Nat. Ed., 13, p. 2402, No. 461; Fabr.,
Syst. Ent., 410, No.8; Abb. & Sm., 93, T. 47; Telea polyphemus Hibn.,
Verz., 154, No. 1610; Bombyx Paphiat Linn., Mus. Ul. (1764), p. 369,
No. 4, Mot 8. N. 10, 1758, see Am. Naturalist); Telea Paphia Kirby,
Trans. R. Dub. Soc., 203 (1872). Canada to Mexico ; California.

ATtracus Linné.
Type: Attacus Atlas Linné.

+ splendidus (De Beauy.), His. Afr. Am., 133, Pl. 22, fig. 1, 2 (Bom-
bix); Clem., Proc. Acad. N. 8., Phila. (1860), p. 160, (Attacus). Texas.
A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 26

Grote. ] 258 [Nov. 20,

PHILOSAMIA Grote (1874).
Type: Phalena Cynthia Drury.

Norn.—Mr. W. F. Kirby, has drawn attention to the fact that after Walker’s re-
striction of the genus Samia, in 1855, to cecropia and promethea, the term could not be
used again for Hiibner’s Samia cynthia. The term Platysamia must then be dropped
anda new name be used for the present genus, hitherto confounded with Atiacus, and
described by me in 1865 under the name Samia. To Philosamia belong the Asiatic
species, lunula, ricini, Cumingii and Guerini.

Cynthia (Drury), Ill., 2, 10, Pl. 6, fig. 2; Hitbn., Verz., p. 156, No.
1629 (Samia); Grote, Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 5, 228 (Samia).

Norre.—With the usual latitude for coarseness and infidelity of coloring, I think Cra-
mer’s figures under this name represent the same species,

Brooklyn, L. I. ; Philadelphia ; Baltimore. Introduced and apparently
acclimated with us.

CALLOSAMIA Packard (1864).
Type: Bombyx Promethea Drury.
Promethea (Drury), Ill. 2, Pl. 12, fig. 1. 2, 9; Abb. & Smith, His.
Ga., 91, T. 46; Samia Promethea Hiibn., Verz., p. 156, No. 1681; Callo-
samia Promethea Pack., Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, 379. Canada to Ala-

bama.
Nore.—In the original perfect copies of Drury, an Index, with names according to
the Linnean system, is given at the end of each volume,

angulifera (Walk.), C. B. M., 5, 1224 (Samia); Pack., Proc. Ent.

Soe., Phila., 3, 380 (Callosamia). New York ; Pennsylvania.
Samra Hibner (1816).

Type: Phalena Ceeropia Linn.

Cecropia (Linn.), Syst. Nat. Ed. 10, 1, 496, No. 3; dd. Ed. 12, 809,
No. 3; Mus. Ulz., 368, No. 3; Abb. & Sm., His. Ga., 89, T. 45 5 Samia
Cecropia Hitbn., Verzeich., 156, No. 1630; Platysamia Cecropia Grote,
Proe. Ent. Soc., Phila., 5, 229. Canada to Alabama.

+ Columbia (S. I. ay), Proc. Bost. Soc. N. Hist., 9, 348. Canada;
Eastern States.

+ Gloveri (Strecker), Lep. Rhop. Het., No. 1, Plate (Platysamia).
Arizona,

Californica (Grote), Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 5, 229 (Platysamia) ; W.
F. Kirby, Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc., 1872, 202 (Samia); *‘ Saturnia ceanothi,
Beer,’’? Boisd. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., 12, 83.

Norr.—No description of this species under the names *‘ Euryalus”’ or “ ceanothi”’
is known to us previous to Dec., 1865, the date of its description as Californica.

California.
* SaTuRNIA Schrank (1801).

Type: Phalzna pavonia major Linn.
+ Galbina Clem., Proc. Acad. N.§8., Phila., 1860, p. 156. Texas.

1874. | 259 [Grote.

HEMILEUCINI Grote and Robinson (1866).

Notre.—This group, which we would consider as of sub-family value, is discussed in
Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., N. Y. 8, pp. 877,878. None of the collective names proposed by
Hiibner can be used. The group is not recognized in the Tentamen (1806) ; in the Ver-
zeichniss some of the genera are referred to the Echidna, and one to the Here@, names
explained above under Attaci.

AUTOMERIS Hiibn. (1816).

Type : Bombyx Janus Cramer.

Io (Fabr.), Ent. Syst. p. 419, No. 87; Abb. & Sm., Ins. Ga.. p. 97, T.
49; Harr. Cat. Ins., Mass. (Saturnia); Hibn., Samm. Exot. Sch., 3,
figs. 1, 2, 6, 8, 4, 9 (Hyperchiria);, Hyp. varia Walk., C. B.-M., 6, p.
1278. Canada to Southern States.

Nortr.—This generic term has priority in the Verzeichniss. Cramer’s figures under
this specific name cannot, by themselves, constitute a valid priority.

Zelleri (G. & R.), Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., Phila., 2, Pl. 2, fig. 65 (Hy-
perchiria). Texas.

CoLoRrApDIA Blake (1863).

Type: Coloradia Pandora Blake.

Nore.—This genus is distinct from Dirphia Hiibn. (1816), the type of which is D..
Tarquinius (Cram).

Pandora Blake, Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 2, 279, Pl. 7%. Colorado.
Territory.

PsEUDOHAZIsS G. & R (1866).

Type: Saturnia eglanterina Botsd.

Nore.—Dr. Packard’s genus Ewcronia is founded on H. maja, which we have shown
to be Walker’s type of Hemileuca. In an opposite view, the validity of the present
generic name cannot be disputed until it is satisfactorily shown that the South Ameri--
can H. venosa Walk., is congeneric.

Hera (Harr.), Rep. ins. Inj., Mass., 286, 1841 (Saturnia); Saturnia
eglanterina Boisd., Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 2 Ser., 10,323; Telea eglanterina
H.-S., Exot., 60, 445; Psewdohazis Hera G. & R., Ann. Lyc. N. Hist.,
N. Y., 8, 377. California; Rocky Mountains.

HemILEvcA Walk (185d).
Type: Phalena Maja Drury.

Maja (Drury), Ill. 2, 42, Pl. 24, fig, 3; Bombyx Proserpina Fabr.,.
Ent. Syst., 561, No. 17; cd. Abb. & Sm., Ins. Ga., Pl. 50; Walk., C. B.
M, 6, 1317 (Hemileuca). Mass. to Georgia, Westward to Illinois.

+ Nevadensis Stretch, Zyg. Bomb. N. Am., 108, Pl. 4, fig. 10.
Nevada.

Grotei Hopffer, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., 2, 192, Pl. 2, fig. 60. Texas..
+ Juno Pack., 4th Ann. Rep. Peab. Acad. Sci., 87. Arizona.

+ pica Walk., C.B M., 6, 1318 (Hemileuca); G. & R., Trans. Am.
Ent. Soc., 2, 74 (Pseudohazis). ‘* United States.’’

Grote. ] 260 [ Novy. 20,

EULEUCOPH Hus Pack. (1872).
Type: Euleuc. tricolor Pack.

tricolor Pack., 4th Ann. Rep. Peab. Acad. Sci., 89; Stretch, Zyg.
Bomb. N. Am., 148, Pl. 6, figs. 3. 4. New Mexico.

CERATOCAMPAD Harris (1841).

Novre.—This appears to be the earliest collective term that can be used for this group.
The genera are partly referred by Hiibn. in 1816, to his Echidne (see ante), and partly
to his Trichode. The type of Trichoda (1806) is, however, a Lachneid, a designation
which has the priority by a line in 1806.

Eacues Hiibn. (1816).

Type: Bombyx imperialis Drury.

imperialis (Drury), 1, 17, Pl. 9, figs. 1, 2 ; Phalenaimperatoria Abb.
& Sm., Ins. Ga., 109, T. 55; Hiibn., Verz., 153, No. 1602 (Hacles);
Bombyx didyma De Beauy., Ins. Afr. Am., pp. 51, 52, Pl. 20, figs. 1, 2
(1806). Eastern States, Southward. Appears to be replaced in Brazil
by E. magnifica Walk.

CITHERONIA Hiibn. (1816).

Type: Bombyx regalis Fabdr.

regalis (Fabr.), Syst. Ent., 486, No. 93; Phalena regia Abb. & Sm.,
2, 121, Pl. 61; Hiibn., Verz., 153, No. 1599 (Citheronia); Phalena Lao-
coon ¢ Stoll (nec Cramer) Supp. pp. 179, 180, Pl. 42, fig. 2, 6; Hacies
Laocoon, Walk., C. B. M., 6, 1732. Massachusetts toGeorgia. Appears
to be replaced in Mexico by C. mexicana G. & RR.

supuleralis G. & R., Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 4, p. 222; Ann. Lyc. N.
H., N. Y., 8, p. 382, Pl. 12, figs. 2, 3. Massachusetts to Georgia. This
‘species is represented on one of Abbot’s unpublished Plates in the British
Museum Collection.

SPHINGICAMPA Walsh (1864).

Type: Sphingicampa distigma Walsh.

bicolor (Harr.), Rep. Ins. Inj. Veg., Mass., 208 (1841) Dryocampa ;
Walsh, Proc. Bost. Soc. N. Hist., 1864, p.293 9 ; Sphingicampa distigma,
Walsh, l. c. p. 290 2 & ; Sphing. bicolor Grote, Soc. Ent. Belg. Comptes
Rendus (1874). North Carolina; Dlinois; New York.

Antsota Hiibn. (1816).

Type: Bombyx stigma Madr.

stigma (Fabr.), Ent. Syst., 424, No 54; Abb. & Sm., Ins. Ga., 111, T.
56; Hitbn., Verzeichniss, 193, No. 1978 (CAnisota); Grote, Proc. Ent.
Soc., Phila., 3, 93 (Anisota). Massachusetts to Georgia.

senatoria (Abb. & Sm.), Ins. Ga., 113, T. 57; Hiibn., Verz.. 193, No.
1979 (Anisota); Harr., Rep. Ins. Mass., 3d Ed., 406, figs. 199, 200 (Dryo-
campa); Grote, Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila, 3, 93 (Andsota). Canada to
Georgia.

1874] 26) {Grote.

Virginiensis (Drury), IJ]., 2, 23, Pl. 13, fig. 2, (Bombyx); Phalena
pellucida Abb. & Sm., Ins. Ga., 115, T. 58; Anisota virginiensis Pack.,
Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, 885. Massachusetts to Georgia.

Dryocampa Harris (1825).
Type: Bombyx rubicunda Fadr.
rubicuada (Fabr.), Ent. Syst., 429, No. 69; Harr. Cat. Ins., Mass.
72, (Dryocampa),; Rep. Ins. Inj. Veg. Mass., 3d Ed., 408, fig. 201.
Canada to Virginia.

var. alba Grote, Bull. Buff. S. N. §., 2, 153. Kansas.

LACHNEIDES Hiibn. (1806).
[ Bombycide Stephens (p.), 1829. ]
| Lasiocampide Duponchel (p.), 1846.]

Nore.—The adoption of this name by Dr. Packard in 1868, must now be followed. It
is the earliest title for any part of the sub-family that we are able to find. The type of
the genus Lachneis is the European Lachneis Cataz.

GLovERtIA Pack. (1872).

Type: Gloveria Arizonensis Pack.

+ Arizonensis Pack., 4th Rep. Peab. Acad. Sci., p. 90 (1872)

Arizona.
* Kurricha Hiibner (1806).

Type: Bombyx quercifolia Linn.
Americana. (Harr.), Rt. Ins. Inj. Veg., p. 278; id. 3d Fd., p. 377, fig.
176 (Gastropacha). Maine to Pennsylvania.

+ ferruginea (Pack.), Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, p. 386 (Gastropacha).
Michigan.

+ carpinifolia (Boisd.), Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., 12, p. 83 (Lasiocampa).
California.

+ Californiea (Pack.), 4th Rep. Peab. Acad. Sci., p. 91 (Gastropacha).
South California.

- + Mildei (Stretch), Zyg. and Bomb. N. A., p. 113, Plate 4, fig, 12
(Gastropacha). California.
Note.—The American species seem to need revision. Dr. Packard informs me that

the memoir in which ‘‘ alascensis”’ was described is no longer extant, the edition haying
been destroyed in the great fire at Chicago.

* TRiIcHODA Hiibner (1806).
Type: Bombyx neustria Linn.
Americana (Fabr.), Ent. Syst., 3, p. 438, No. 81; Harris Rep. Ins. Inj.
Veg., p. 269 (Clusiocampa),; id. 3d Ed., Pl. 7, fiys. 18, 17; Cl. decipiens,
Walk., U. B. M., 6, 1488; castrensis | Abb. & Sm., p. 119, T. 6); Bom-
byx frutetorum Boisd., Ann. 8. E. Belg., 12, 82. Canada to Georgia.

Grote. ] 262 [Noy. 20,

disstria (Hiibn.), Verz., p. 192, No. 1975 (Mulacosoma); neustria {
Abb. & Sm., p. 117, T. 59; Olistocampa siloatica Harr., Cat. Ins. Mass.,
i253 hep. ims: Inj Ves., 20; 0d. dd Hd., p. 376, Ply 7 fio 1S Ol peor.
byx drupacearum Boisd., Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., 12, p. 82. Canada to
Georgia.

Californica (Pack.), Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, p. 387 ( Clistocampa) ;
Bombyx pseudoneustriaBoisd., Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., 12, 82. California.

ARTACE Walk. (1855).

Type: Artace punctistriga Walk.
punctistriga Walk., C. B. M., 7, p. 1491. New York to Georgia.

TotyPEe Hibner (1816).

Type: Bombyx Velleda Stoll.

Velleda (Stoll), Supp. Cram., p. 178, Pl. 41, fig. 4; Hitibn., Verz., S.
189, No. 1943 (Tolype). Canada to Georgia.

Laricis (Fitch), 2d N. Y. Rep. p. 262, Pl. 2, fig. 5 6,6 2 (Planosa).
Gastr. minuta Grote, Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 2, p. 433 6.
Nore.—Fitch’s description and figure of the 6 were probably taken from rubbed
specimens.
HETEROPACHA Harvey (1874).

Type: Heteropacha Rileyana Harvey.

Rileyana Harvey. Bull. Buff, Soc., N.S, 1, p. 262, Pl. 11, fig. 1.
Missouri; Texas (Boll. in M. C. Z. Cam.).

Note.—Dr. Harvey’s type is somewhat rubbed. Fresh specimens show the fringes
distinctly chequered, fuscous and whitish. On the forewings the median space is darker,

confined by darx lines indistinctly edged with whitish. Terminally the wing is more
whitish, showing the subterminal spots plainly.

TEREDINES Hiibner (1806).
[Cossides Herr. - Sch., 1845.]°

Nore.—This and the following group are equivalent to the ‘‘ fodicantes”’ of Hiibner
(1806). We would consider them of equal value. The European T, Cossus (Linn.) is
made the type of the genus Teredo, by Hiibner, in the Tentamen. In y. Heineman’s
extremely unsatisfactory arrangement of the Bombyces, the genus Limacodes is asso-
ciated with this group.

XystTus Grote (1874).

Type: Cossus robinize Peck.

Note.—The name Xyleutes of Hiibaer, cannot be used for this genus, for the reason
that it is originally applied to none of the species; in the Verzeichniss it appears to be
used instead of Terelo (Tentamen) for the European Teredo cossus (Linn.). Gr.:

Evoto7z.

Robinize (Peck), Mass. Ag. Rep. Journ., 5, 67 (1818), Plate (Cossws);
Harris, Rt. Ins. Inj. Veg., Mass., 297 (Xyleutes); H.-S., Lep. Ex., figs.
170, 171. Canada; Eastern and Middle States ; California ?

1874. ] 263 { Grote.

+ erepera (Harr.), Cat. Ins., Mass., p. 72 (Cossus); Xylewtes crepera
Pack., Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3. p. 388. Massachusetts.

+ querciperda (Fitch), 5th Rep. Nox. Ins., N. Y., p. 10 (Cossus) ;
Pack., Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 8, p. 389 (Xyleutes). New York.

+ Mae Murtrei (Boisd.), Icon. Régne. An., Pl. 85, fig. 2 (Cossus); Cos-
sus plagiatus Walk., Cat. B. M., 7, p. 1515. United States.

+ Populi (Walk.), C. B. M., 7, p. 1515 (Cossus),; Pack., Proc. Ent. Soc.
Phila., 3, 389 (Xylewtes). Hudson’s Bay Territory.

Norr.—A single species is known from Cuba, Xystus piger (Grote), Proc. Ent. Soc.
Phila., 5, 254 (Xyleutes).

* ZRUZERA Latreille (1805).
Type : Bombyx esculi Linn.

+ pyrina (Fabr.), Ent. Syst., 3, p. 5, No. 6 (Cossws); Walk., C. B. M.,
7, p. 1530 (Zeuzera). North America.

+ Canadensis H.-S., Lep. Exot. Sp. N. aut In., 8. 58, fig. 168; Walk.,
C. B. M., 7, 1580. Canada (Quebec).

HEPIALI Linn. (1788).
[Hepioli Hubn., 1806. ]

Note.—This sub-family is indicated by Linné, under the name ‘“ Hapial?,’’ Ed. xiii,
Syst. Nat., p. 2402.

* Hepiatus Fabr. (1793).
Type: Noctua humuli Linn.

Norer.—The type of this genus is the European humuli, indicated by Hiibner in the
Tentamen, 1806. Following Dr. Packard’s remarks, our species, though occasionally of
increased size, do not differ generically.

argenteomaculatus Harr., Cat. Ins., Mass., p. 72; Rep. Ins. Inj.
Veg., p. 295; zd. 3d Ed., p. 410, partim. Non alior. Eastern States ;
Catskill Mts. (Mead.); Pennsylvania (Coll. Am. Ent. Soc., Phila.)

Note.—This and the following species have been confounded by Harris and Packard.

quadrigattatus (Grote), Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, p. 73, Pl: 1, fig. 6
(Gorgopis); Hep. arg. ¢ Harris, Agassiz, Lake Superior, 389, Pl. 7, fig. 6 ;
id. Rep. Ins. Inj. Veg., 3d Ed., p. 410 (foot note), fig. 202; id. Walk.,
oar. C. B. M., 7, 1556; Sthenopis arg. t Pack., Proc. BE. S., Phila., 8,
392. Great Slave Lake; Lake Superior; Quebec (Bélanger); Sas-
katchewan.

Nortst.—This is a larger, more pinkish, salmon-colored species, with smaller dots.

+ purpurascens (Pack.), Journ. Bost. Sec. Nat. Hist., p. 598 (Gor-
gopis); Pack., Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, p. 392 (Sthenopis). White
Mountains, N. Hamp.

9
Cresson. ] 264 [July 17,

+ argentatus (Pack.), Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, 392 (Sthenopis).
Massachusetts.

Nore.—This is perhaps the true H. argenteomaculatus, as separated by myself.
Harris first noticesapply to an Eastern species.

+ Behrensii (Stretch), Zyg. Bomb. N. A., 1, 105, Pl. 4, nee 6 (Sthe-
nopis). California.

+ montanus (Stretch), Zyg. Bomb. N. A., 1,105, Pl. 4, fig. 7 (Sthe-
nopis). California, (Sierra Nevada).

hyperboreus Mésch., W. E. M., 6, 129 (Hpiatus), Taf. 1, fig. 1; Hep.
puleher Grote, Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila. , 3, p. 022, Pl. 5, fig. 3. Labrador;
Colorado Territory.

+ Labradoriensis Pack., Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, p. 394. Labra-
dor.

+ mustelinus Pack., Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, 393. Eastern States.
gracilis Grote, Proc. Ent. Soc., Phila., 3, p. 522, Pl. 5, fig. 4. Quebec.
+ Californicus Boisd., Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., 12, p. 85. California.

+ heetoides Boisd., Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., 12, p. 85. California.

RESULTS OF AN EXAMINATION OF AN EXPLODED LOCO-
MOTIVE BOILER, AND OF EXPERIMENTS TO
ASCERTAIN THE CAUSES OF EXPLOSION.

By Dr. CHarLtes M. CRESSoNn.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, July 17, 1874.)

The boiler was constructed of No. 1 (,°;) boiler iron, single riveted (with
the exception of the junction of the waist with the fire-box, which was
double riveted) ; it was of the ordinary locomotive form with enlarged
grate surface adapting it for use with Anthracite fuel.

The fire-box had the ordinary flat crown sheet suspended from wrought
iron girders by means of bolts 3 in. in diameter, placed 43 in. apart, the
ends of the girders being supported upon the vertical sides of the fire-box.
The vertical sheets of the fire-box were stayed by wrought iron bolts
7 in. in diameter, placed 4 in. apart, screwed into the sheets and riveted
at the end.

The crown sheet and that part of the boiler directly over the fire-box
were connected by stay-rods.

The engine had been run upon a siding to pull out a train of cars,
which train being heavier than was ordinarily pulled, the steam-blower
was applied for the purpose of increasing the intensity of the fire and
generating steam of a higher pressure than was usually employed. But
when preparations for starting were completed, it was found, upon refer-

Kind
1874.] 205 [ Cresson.

ence to the time-table, that/ the engine would have to remain upon the
Siding until an expected passenger train had passed. The engineer then
left the engine, having first stopped off the steam-blower and observed a
steam pressure of about 90 lbs. per square inch.

The boiler exploded between ten and twenty minutes after the engineer
had left it. The fireman, who had been cleaning the valves of the sand-
box, was at work upon the engine when the explosion took place, and
when last seen was standing upon the left side of the engine near the
donkey-pump, which was used to supply the boiler with water when the
engine was upon the siding. The portion of the boiler immediately over
and back of the crown-sheets of the fire-box, and including the back
dome, was blown off bodily, the line of fracture passing indiscriminately
through the seams and across the sheets.

The seams not torn apart were strained in some places as much as j of
an inch and opened. The fire-box was blown backwards, carrying with
it the back tube-sheet. The remaining portion of the waist of the boiler
and the engine were driven forward along the track, the tubes remaining
fast in the forward tube-sheet. An examination of the fire-box showed
the crown-sheet to have been forced violently downwards, one edge crush-
ing the side-sheets of the fire-box, the other edge and the ends of the
crown-sheet remaining nearly in place.

Every stay that was displaced was either fairly broken or drawn
through the sheets. There were no signs of undue pressure upon any
joint or part of the remaining waist of the boiler, excepting at the line
of rupture.

The iron in every part of the boiler appeared in good condition, without
signs of burning or heating, except in one lower corner of the fire-box,
which part, however, was not ruptured or affected by the explosion. Trial
pieces of the iron cut from several parts of the fire-box and waist-sheets
exhibited good fracture, the lowest tensile strength found was 51,000 lbs.
to the square inch.

After a careful examination of the wreck, and of the results of my own
experience, I have arrived at the conclusion that the explosion of this
boiler was caused by the projection of water upon the heated crown-sheet.
The crown-sheet of the furnace was most probably heated to a tempera-
ture of between 500° and 600° Ft., in consequence of a neglect to keep
the water in the boiler at the proper height.

This temperature, not sufficient to produce a spheroidal state of the
water thrown upon the crown-sheet, allowed of enough heat to be stored
up and given out suddenly to cause steam of very high pressure to be
instantly generated, so that the rear portion of the boiler was blown to
pieces before a sufficient time had elapsed to allow of the distribution of
the expansive force throughout the waist. By reference to the results of
experiments detailed in the following paragraphs, it will be seen that an
average of 2; of an inch of depth of water over the crown-sheet could
readily be converted into steam in one second of time, and would produce

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2H

Cresson. ] 266 [July 17,

a pressure of over 570 lbs. per square inch in addition to that already
existing in the boiler.

The sudden opening of any outlet of pressure, such as the safety-valve,
throttle, whistle, blower or steam-cock to the donkey-pump, would pro-
duce a foaming or disturbance of the water-level in the water-space
surrounding the fire-box, causing the water to flow over the crown-sheet
in an amount quite sufficient to account for the disaster under the con-
ditions indicated.

To illustrate the rapidity of the explosive force, let us suppose the
upper surface of the crown-sheet of the fire-box to have been covered
with gunpowder to a depth equal to that of the water, which we have
shown could have been evaporated by it. If this powder were ignited in
the ordinary way, it would require from half a second to two seconds for
its complete combustion, according to the quality of the powder, whereas
an equal quantity of water thrown upon the crown-sheet could be con-
verted into steam in less than one second, the resulting volume of vapor
being nearly equal in both cases.

Careful examination of the quality of the iron, and of the plan of con-
struction of the boiler, have convinced me that the boiler was amply
strong for the purposes desigaed. I am of the opinion that the disaster
occurred directly and solely from a neglect to keep the water within the
boiler at its proper level.

The tests and experiments made, upon which the foregoing opinion
was founded, are as follows :

A.—TESTS OF STRENGTH OF IRON.

Test pieces cut from the worst looking part of the side-sheet of the fire-
box gave the following results :

a@.—With the length of the sheet. Dimensions of breaking section :

ANGE soon cou Soda oabB OOO bee do0Gao00s 200 0.302 inch.
NICS ocooes ooo oOOODod COs GD OOOO ODOR OOONC OC 0.402 ‘
Oxicinallens:thyotpleceaterr cea eer xh
NUE URGIMEDS 5 50S 000008 Uo oHoGoOssOdddo OAKS 2.943 <6
Weng throrisectionvextend ede. mierirrteionaiot UO 2°
IDG OM Bassa wowoosssoucdoabO MUMS oUlOhb Da alaiss 6 OE
Breaking wits per SQ line vector eeclecte nt cre ort er 54,300 lbs
5.—Cut across the sheet. Dimensions of breaking section:

PEHICKNE SS). wise j7ste tslenieke aster entender rer ceie 0.308 inch.
AVG a: sysrotenothiodatote iovel svalerVsxchoe ete) ciel ayeteradenel ste aiets « 0.409 <
Orioinalslengehiofpiccenne enya lee eee 2p) 20
ACH OT MAC CUTER corel tetera oe tere eiolet stele are tote thomas ee) |
GEN SIO: |. gaye! feeretare tate stonelevope tele eden ate clcberers OnOO Ras
Breaks ow tapers Geil reeieiiec rele neietereer 51,200 lbs.
engthyofisection extended: e.m- ade iectecr 1.000 inch.

1874, ] 267 (Cresson.

B.—EXxPERIMENTS Upon Hot PLATEs.

The sampl s employed were cut from the crown-sheet bars of the
exploded boiler. To ascertain their specific heat, and the amount of heat
they were capable of imparting to water ina given time, the samples were
heated in a mercury bath at various temperatures, and then plunged into
a weighed amount of water and the rise of temperature carefully ascer-
tained by a thermometer graduated to 5° Ft.

To ascertain the amount of heat imparted by the iron in a given time,
the samples were immersed by securing them to a cross-arm fixed to a
heavy pendulum of such length as to vibrate in the desired time and
averaging the results of many observations.

As these experiments were to ascertain the lowest probable capacity of
the iron in the crown-sheet for storing and giving out heat, no great care
was taken to prevent radiation of heat from the iron in its passage from
the mercury bath to the water, nor of radiation from the water bath dur-
ing the experiment ; the results do not, therefore, by any means, express
the full amount of heat to be derived from the samples.

Calculations of the amount of steam generated in a given time by iron
under the conditions stated, must therefore fall short of the practical
effect produced, and if the conditions assumed for experiment show that
steam could have been generated in sufficient quantity and with sufficient
rapidity to have destroyed the boiler, we can safely conclude that the
actual destructive effect was greater than that expressed by our results.

The specific heat of iron is given in the tables at an average of 0.1200
that is, that eight times as much heat is required to raise one pound of
water through a given number of degrees as will suffice to raise one
pound of iron through a similar number of degrees. For example, 8 Ibs.
of iron losing 100° Ft. of temperature will elevate the temperature of 1 1b.
of water 100° Ft. By the formula :

Wt. of Water (sme: of Water—Temp. of Wieieo)
‘ “ \pbefore immersion after immersion

pst sa SARI UNE Ae eg VS ET
Wt. of Iron (Rem: of Iron —Temp. of pron)
before immersion after immersion

I have determined the specific heat of the sample of iron cut from the
boiler to be 0.113 at a temperature of 212° Ft., and as it is considerably
greater at higher temperatures, I have therefore assumed it to average 3
that of water.

Experiments made with gunpowder to ascertain the rapidity of explo-
sion, showed that with various kinds of gunpowder the time required for
complete ignition of a thin stratum of powder, spread over a surface equal
to the area of the crown-sheet, when ignited at one edge only, varied from
one-quarter of a second to one and a half seconds ; and as the destructive
effects are most impressive to the popular mind, they serve to illustrate
the effects that can be produced by converting water into steam as the
increase in volume is about the same, that is, 1700 volumes of vapor are

igs)

Cresson. ] 26 [July 17,

produced by the combustion of gunpowder, and 1700 volumes of vapor of
atmospheric tension are generated by the conversion of water into steam.

The experiments alluded to of immersing a sample of the iron whilst
heated into water, were made chiefly with a sample weighing 2,914 grains
heated to a temperature of 500°@520° Ft., and immersed in a body of
water weighing 29,140 grains (ten times the weight of the iron). Some
of the results were as follows :

MU iasis) CHE TOUTING, 5 Soaocnoddgboddo 000000000000 1 second.
Expt. No. 1, rise of temp. of water............-. 2.9° Ft.
«¢ OO Deuce oe COT Aiea Mic OlogiG Ger Eee oe
BC G6 Bh 4 0 SOME te. OS eee 2282 45
at ts TAs Ge SG: vk: spa labasco athe pee Pts) SY
ef Sago ub Ose Up hPa eons) Ae ae ESY Bylo oe
ie 6S HG vias gs SE. Btazpoeele hele aia et Pe) 0S
sf Seis abees e SSRI Bea eran ROSS o 2599 tas
ae SO S50 eS gé COM TRE pachenspale poets 292 wee
vs Ce Diathes : COV AAS) hie Rasweqefadetns ef tte Pe oe
JN TETEYUSS 6 G.0n O06 KO OG.00H 000000 00000000000 2.82 Ft.

Or 2,914 grains of iron were capable of imparting 28° Ft. to an equal
weight of water in one second of time.

The weight of the crown-sheet was.........-+.-. 300 lbs.
Barsvandastudsvattachedimweasecmice coun ciel ciee 810 *
TO Gallia setae care tea nega Nea sees tone rage scaca eian cteet= “1110 lbs.

This mass of iron could therefore impart 28° Ft. to 1110 lbs. of water
in one second of time, or could have converted 32 1bs. of water into steam.

For an example, let us suppose the crown-sheet and bars to have been
heated to a temperature of 514° Ft., and that we have flowed over it an
amount of water sufficient to reduce the temperature of the iron to 423°
Ft., corresponding to a pressure of steam of 300 lbs. to the square inch,
and which suddenly added to the pressure already existing in the boiler
must severely try the boiler, if not tear it apart.

AMY lenny ORIGIN, SGodeaugauadéooedDoodoo6o08 5149 Ft.
Reduce diitors sect cutie abiesncts mp cta ate asetancteretoromerameetet 423° Ft.
Kallotacemip era tunes eerie 91° Ft.

Then 1,110 91 —101,010 units of heat given out by the iron; this
divided by 8 =—12,626 lbs. of water heated 1° Ft., and this divided by the
latent heat of steam at 423° Ft., plus the difference between the sensible
heat at 90 lbs. and at 3001bs.— 913, gives 13.8 lbs. of water as the amount
converted into steam at 300 lbs. pressure.

The area of the crown-sheet—22 sq. ft. this amount of water (13.8 Ibs.)
would cover it to a depth of 0.12 inches, and when expanded into steam
of one atmosphere of tension would occupy a space equal to a prism
having the crown-sheet for its base and 204 inches in height. The aver-

1874.] 269 [Cresson,
age steam space above the crown-sheet is 10 inches, and the compression
of the 204 inches of steam into 10 inches would give a pressure of 20.2
atmospheres or 300 Ibs. per square inch momentarily added to that of 90
lbs. already existing in the boiler. The cross-section of the strain above
the crown-sheet is 42 inches. Thickness of the iron ,°; of an inch, or total
section of iron to be broken 3 of aninch. Breaking weight from experi-
ment—d4.400 Ibs. per sq. in.

=810 pounds

54000 % ete strain of perfectly stayed—
DUNS ON
per sq. in.

Deducting 20 per cent. for rivets—648 lbs. per sq. in., or, according to ~
Fairbairn, deducting 44 per cent. for single riveted joints=454 lbs. for
bursting strains.

Let us now suppose the crown-sheet and bars to have been heated to
a temperature of 660° Ft., and to be reduced to 485° Ft., the loss of tem-
perature—175° Ft. Then 175 < 1,110 = 194,250 heat units, or + 8 =
24,281 lbs. of water heated 1° Ft.

Sensiblesheatwotesteammat, om ulti ere etre eierere iateers 485°
66 “c “ O10) NOS SSeS Sobol saseab ee 3300
1D nsbi/ereenaVeYekac a mata Bice Gu OCO EA DOERIGoI6 ecb :aic 6 DIG cero 150°

This added to the latent heat of steam at 570 lbs. = (7779 + 150° — )
927° as the units of heat necessary to convert water at 335° It. into steam
at 485° Ft.

Then 24,281 ~ 927 = 26.19 lbs. of water converted. This amount of
water would cover the crown-sheet to a depth of 0.228 inches, and would
yield an amount of steam of atmospheric tension sufficient to occupy a
space equal to a prism having the crown-sheet for its base and 387 inches
in height.

When compressed into a height of 10 inches this steam would sud-
denly add a pressure of 88 atmospheres or 570 lbs. per square inch to the
previous pressure of 90 lbs. per square inch, and would give.a total
pressure exceeding the 648 lbs. per square inch in the maximum of force
necessary to tear the boiler whats as derived from experimental trials of
the strength of iron.

I have endeavored by experiment to fix the temperature at which iron,
with such a surface as that from this boiler, will produce a spheroidal
state in water flowed upon it. When the samples of iron were floating
upon boiling mercury (662° Ft.) they failed to repel the water but con-
verted it rapidly into steam.

The specific heat of iron, at high temperatures, averagiag about 0.122,
and its specific gravity 7.8, we can assume that an iron plate will raise the
temperature of a stratum of water in contact with one surface, and of its
own thickness in depth, 1° Ft. for eveny degree that it loses in tempera-
ture, or that it will convert about ;,55 of that amount of water at the
boiling point into steam of high tension.

Cresson. ] 270 [July 17,

The crown-sheet of the furnace of this locomotive, with its stays and
girders, weighed 1,110 lbs., and had a surface of 22 square feet, this gives
a mass of iron equal to an average of 50.45 lbs. per square foot, or an
average thickness of 1.23 inches of iron plate.

Such a plate could therefore raise a stratum of water 1.23 inches in
depth 1° Ft. fur every 1° Ft. of temperature lost by the iron, or would
convert a stratum of water 0.00123 inch in depth into steam.

In our second example, we supposed the temperature of the iron to
have fallen from 660° Ft. to 485° Ft., a loss of 175° ; this would give us
0.00123 >< 175 = 0.21525 inch as the depth of water converted into steam,
and which, under the conditions stated, would give a pressure of nearly
37 atmospheres in addition to that already existing within the boiler by
the transfer of heat from the iron.

This leads to the conclusion that the substitution of a crown-sheet ;';
inch thick, stayed without girders, would require the contraction of the
space between the crown-sheet and the roof of the boiler to an average of
23 inches, to allow of the sudden production of a pressure of steam equal
to that capable of development in a boiler constructed as was the one
exploded, or the effect of an equally overheated crown-sheet would be
reduced to + of that which would otherwise have been produced.

That such is the fact was clearly shown by the result of a recent
accident to another locomotive in which the crown-sheet was simply
forced down, as by a gradual increment of pressure tearing out the
stay-bolt and permitting the steam and water to escape into the fire-
box and extinguish the fire without further injury to the boiler or engine.

C.—LEVEL OF WATER IN Borters. (How AFFECTED.)

There are several conditions under which an engineer may be deceived
as to the level of the water in the boiler of a locomotive-engine. The
most important are :

1. Priming or rise of water-level.

2. Changes of grade.

3. Variations ia the speed of the engine.

In all boilers the level of the water is somewhat raised whenever steam
is taken off. The amount of the rise is varied by the rapidity with which
steam is conveyed away : the form of the boiler and the manner in which
heat is applied for the production of steam.

In boilers in which there are narrow water spaces surrounding the fire-
box, and those in which heat is conveyed to the water locality, that is,
the heating surfaces are small in extent as compared with tre whole vol-
ume of water, and are very hot, the lift of the water is very considerable
whenever an outlet for steam is opened, amounting in some instances to
as much as 12 and 14 inches.

In ordinary locomotive boilers the rise upon opening the throttle or
safety-valve averages about 4 inches.

The presence of oil in the boiler greatly increases the foaming. The

1874.] PG [Price.

influence of changes of grade is rarely considered by locomotive engineers.
The change from a level road to an ascending grade of 100 feet per mile
would cause the water in the boiler to flow back to the fire-box end so as
to raise the water-level about 13 inches, depressing the water-level for-
ward by the same amount or a total variation of 35 inches.

If the level of the water be found at the top gauge whilst the engine
is running with unvarying velocity up a grade of 100 feet per mile, and
the engine be stopped upon a descending grade of 100 feet per mile, the
actual level of the water over the crown-sheet of the fire-box would be
113 inches below the top gauge-cock.

If the first observations had indicated one gauge of water only, the
actual level of the water, after the engine had been stopped on the
descending grade, would be far below the level of the crown-sheet. |

From observations made upon an engine by means of a glass gauge
on the water column, I have found that the water-level is greatly dis-
turbed during the running of the engine by every change of speed.
Whilst at rest the water surface is level ; upon starting the engine
the water does not take up the motion immediately, but is crowded to the
back part of the boiler, and remains so ina greater or less degree until the
motion is checked, when the water at first becomes level and then crowds
towards the front end of the boiler until the engine is stopped, when its
surface becomes level. Running at a speed of about 25 miles an hour,
first forward and then backward, the variation at the water-level was

about four inches.
D.

A record has been made of the effect of injecting fresh water into
boilers containing hot concentrated solutions of various salts; but as
analysis of the water supplied to this engine show that they contain but
a moderate percentage of salts in solution, it is unnecessary to give the
resuits of the experiments, as the effect produced in practice would add
but little to the destructive forces already fully explained, and which are
of themselves more than sufficient to account for explosions under the
conditions stated.

AN OBITUARY NOTICE OF CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN MEREDITH
READ.

By Ext K. Price.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, December 18, 1874.)

It is within the scope of our comprehensive charter to commemorate
the life and character of our deceased members. To do so is to promote
knowledge, and to render service to science and society. It is thus the
dead shall yet speak, and through our press speak to the most intelligent
of the civilized world, and to such in future times.

He whose memory we would perpetuate to-night was a most diligent
student and able administrator of the science of jurisprudence; that

OF
Price. ] 2 6 2 [Dec. 18,

seience without whose protection no other science could be cultivated ;
nor civilization, or happiness, be maintained amoug mankind.

John Meredith Read, Lu. D., a member of this Society, died on the
29th of November, 1874. He was son of John Read, a former Senator of
this State, a member of the Bar, and a long time President of the Bank
of Philadelphia; and a grandson of George Read, a signer of the Dec-
laration of Independence and the Coustitution of the United States; and
Chief Justice of the State of Delaware. Our fellow member was born
in this city July 21, 1797, graduated at the University of Pennsylvania,
A. B., in 1812; was called to the Bar in 1818. He was elected to the
House of Representatives of this State in 1822 and in 1823. He was
afterwards City Solicitor and member of Select Council, and in the latter
capacity drew up a full and connected account of the finances of the city.
Yet later he was successively District Attorney of the United States, and
Attorney-General of the State of Pennsylvania. An enumeration of
numerous pamphlets containing his reports and arguments may be found
in the second volume of Allibone’s Dictionary of Authors, under his
name.

Long before his elevation to the Bench Mr. Read stood among the
leaders of the Bar of Philadelphia, at a period when it was greatly dis-
tinguished; when his cotemporaries were the Sergeants, Binney, Chauncey,
the Rawles, the Ingersolls, Williams, Meredith, and other eminent coun-
sellors and advocates. His arguments can be here described but by their
general characteristics. These evinced the most careful and thorough
preparations, both as to facts and law, with an ample brief written by
his own hand. From this he spoke with great earnestness and power,
with a strong voice. His own strong conviction preceded and was potent
for the convincement of court and jury. You never perceived that he
spoke because he was employed to speak, but because he felt it his duty
to speak ; and he no doubt did generally speak according to his actual
conviction.

In the celebrated trial of Hanway, in 1851, for treason, Mr. Read was
engaged with Thadeus Stevens and J. J. Lewis for the defendant. His
preparations for that trial were thorough, and the defence was masterly
and successful. In preparation he studied the slave laws of the South,
and the law of treason as held in England and the United States. Mr.
Stevens afterwards said of that argument. ‘‘This speech was never fully
reported ; if it had been it would have settled the law of treason in the
United States for a century.’’ The alleged treason consisted in defending
fugitive slaves from capture. Hanway violated the law, but did not levy
war against the United States ; therefore, did not commit treason.

Though Mr. Read belonged to the Democratic party, he always had a
repugnance to slavery ; and when the Missouri Compromise was annulled,
and that party sought to extend slavery over the territories, it was of
necessity that he should soon leave it for the ‘‘Free Soil’? movement. In
a Democratic Convention held in Pittsburgh, in 1849, he offered a resolu-

1874. ] 273 [ Price,

tion against the extension of slavery, which concluded in these words :
‘‘Esteeming it a violation of State Rights to carry it beyond State limits,
we deny the power of any citizen to extend the area of bondage beyond
its present dominion ; nor do we consider it a part of the Constitution
that slavery should forever travel with the advancing column of our ter-
ritorial progress.’’ From that time he became the zealous opponent of
the slave power ; and when the time came to form the Republican party
he was prepared for the work, and from the first, and always, was a sup-
porter of its principles and policy.

Even on the Bench political and Constitutional questions will arise
which judges must decide, and will decide according to their political con-
victions ; and this happened several times during the war of the rebellion,
when it was in the power of the Courts seriously, if not disastrously, to
hamper the action of the National Executive and Congress, for the sup-
pression of the rebellion. In those cases Judge Read was one of the
majority of three who uniformly sustained the acts of Congress and the
measures of the Government to suppress the rebellion.

When the subject of consolidating the many corporate districts round
the old Philadelphia of two square miles into one enlarged city, during:
the middle years of this century, was agitated, Mr. Read was an earnest.
advocate for that measure. Though he took no part in framing the new
charter, he had prepared statistics of population and finances, which,.
with the influence of his name, were important tu help carry the measure:
with the people, and the bill in the Legislature.

Mr. Read was elected a Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania.
in October, 1858, and commissioned for fifteen years from the first Mon-
day of December of that year. He entered upon the discharge of his.
judicial duties with an earnest zeal, and performed his full share of the
onerous duties of the Court, with exceptions when prostrated by ill
health. His opinions are peculiarly characterized by a full history of
matters having a bearing upon the cause, and the full citation of judicial
authorities applicable to the case. The act of 1810, prohibiting the read-
ing of British precedents, had been repealed in 1836; so that all the in-
vestigations and learning of the British Courts were at the service of
counsel and the Court. Judge Read, who always desired the fullest
light upon the subject of decision, made, while at the Bar, and expected.
as a Judge, a full citation of the relevant authorities by the counsel, and
he carefully availed himself of all that could assist the judgment of the
Court. His opiaions, therefore, were full of learning, and he brought
into our courts, from England and the other States, views and principles
that without him would not have enriched our law. His library was ex-
tensive, and he kept it furnished with the latest publications ; that is,
with the most recent editions of elementary law, and the English Reports,
and those of other States, as fast as they came from the press.

The opinions of Judge Read ran through forty-one volumes of the:
Reports ; that is, from the 32d to the 73d volume, both inclusive, of our:

A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 21

Price. ] 274 [ Dec. 18,

State Reports. In the first of them we find the evidence of his ardent.
love of justice, in the severe reprobation of any one being removed from

office without notice of the charges made against him, and an oppor-
tunity of being heard in his defence. (82 St. R. 478.) In the see nd of
them he delivers the opinion of the Court on the will of Stephen Girard,

which decides the city of two square miles to be that preferred in the

admission of boys to the College, and that a fatherless child is an orphan

within the intent of the will, though the mother be living. It gives the

early history of Philadelphia ; refers to the customs of London; with a

brief biography of Girard, and then he interprets his will, with the aid

of lexicons, and Biblical and legal authorities.

Judge Read was always strict in,his requirements that trustees should
faithfully execute their trusts, both as respects the selection of the proper
objects of investment, and as to proper care in making them. (345t. R.
100.) While he favored the creation of trusts for proper purposes, he
was stern in the protection of trust property from insecurity and loss.
(46 St R. 494; 41 St. R. 505; 51 St. R. 292.)

As to the power of the United States to levy troops, he held that
‘‘Every citizen is bound to serve and defend the State as far as he is
capable. No person is naturally exempted from taking up arms in
defence of the State; the obligation of every member of society being
the same. Those alone are exempted who are incapable of handling
arms, or supporting the fatigues of war. This is the reason why old
men, children, and women are exempted.’ (45 St. R. 285.)

His opinion was potential with members of Congress to induce the pas-
sage of the act of Congress of March 3d, 1863, authorizing the President,
during the rebellion, to suspend the writ of habeas corpus. A letter
from Senator Sumner declared his argument conclusive, and it was effec-
tive in passing the act.

The labors of the Judge were mostly in the well trodden highways of
the law, and his merit consists mainly in knowing well, and keeping to
that beaten track. The charm of novelty and new discovery are seldom to
reward the industry of the Judge. The merit of adherence to precedents
will be easily understood by the layman who has invested the earnings of
his life on the opinion of counsel, which opinion must be based on judicial
decisions, if succeeding judges can declare the law to be otherwise than it
had been held ; for such decision pronounces the law for the past as well as
for the future, and the citizen may thus lose the law that protected his title
by the decision of a cause in which he was not heard. Judge Read was a
faithful adherent to established precedent, and hence was an eminently
safe and conservative judge.

This is not the place to enumerate the many contributions made by
him from the great treasury of British and American law, to the body of
the law of Pennsylvania. A notice of a few of these must suffice for an
estimate of the value of the judicial services of Judge Read. The pro-
fession and the public are indebted to him for the first step made for the

1874.] 275 [Price.

security of title, under our modern acts of limitation, in holding when
sitting alone, that a purchaser will be compelled in equity to take a title
dependent upon the statutes of limitation for its validity. (6 Pha. R. 185.)
One of these statutes removed all exceptions on account of the disability
of the claimant, after thirty years’ adverse possession. That decision
was followed by corresponding decisions by the Supreme Court. (17 St.
R. 396; 65 St. R. 55.)

When Pittsburgh City and Allegheny County made default in the pay-
ment of their bonds, Judge Read united heartily with his brethren of the
Supreme Court to compel those municipalities to meet their obligations,
requiring them to lay taxes for that purpose. In his opinion on one of
those cases, he says, ‘‘ Whatever may be said as to the individuality of
acts of officers and agents owtside of their authority is wide of the mark,
when attempted to be applied to defective execution within the sphere
of authority. The one may be void, but every principle of justice, as
every presumption, forbids such conclusion in the other case.’’ Those
dealing with officials are not to suffer by their irregularity. ‘‘ Public
business could never be done under such a system. There must be faith
in public servants within the scope of their authority, or public business
must stop. For defective execution, the public, whose servants they are,
must suffer, not innocent parties.’ (387 St. R. 287-8.)

Judge Read is entitled to especial praise for the part he took in saving
special trusts to the jurisprudence of Pennsylvania. Since 1829 a series
of decisions made by the Supreme Court had established the law giving
validity to special trusts to protect the improvident, helpless, er inca-
pable, by the interposition of trustees. In 1856 there was commenced a
counter course of decisions that threatened to deprive parents and bene-
factors of the power of safely making provision for the unfortunate and
helpless. This is a power that all considerate persons would be likely to
consider an indispensable one for the welfare of civilized society ; yet its
existence in our law was threatened. In 1864 the Supreme Court had the
opportunity of arresting the downward course of decision, in the case of
Barnett’s Appeal (46 St. R. 392.), and to Judge Read was assigned the
duty of writing the opinion of the Court. He says: ‘‘The principal error
is in laying down as the law of Pennsylvania, that a trust to receive rents
and pay them to another is executed, although not an use executed by
the Statute of Uses, but arising from some general principle inherent in
the common law of the State. This is not supported by authority.”
The Judge then proceeds to review the course of decisions prior to the
innovations, and restores them into authority ; and, with slight modifi-
cation or exception, these remain in authority down to the latest decision
of the Supreme Court. The opinion concludes: ‘‘The question then is,
shall the settled law of Pennsylvania, as to trusts, remain as it was un-
derstood by all our tribunals and the Bar, and had been received since
the foundation of the Province to within the last eight years, or are we,
without the sanction of the Legislature, entirely to uproot it, and substi-

Price.] 276 [ Dee. 18,

tute a new system which has been the subject of serious criticism and
constant complaint? We donot approve of such judicial legislation, and
are therefore of opinion that the Auditor and the Court below erred in
declaring that there was no estate vested in the trustees of the testator’s
will, and, so far, the decree must be reversed.’? That is, the Court de-
cided that the trustee should hold the title and manage the estate, for
the benefit of the beneficiaries ; and must hold and protect it upon the
trusts specified by the testator.

Another occasion of Judge Read’s delivering the opinion of the Su-
preme Court had a direct interest for this Society ; and is also interesting
to the science of jurisprudence, though the occasion for its citation as
authority may not be frequent. When the square upon which this hall
stands belonged to the Commonwealth, the Legislature granted to this
Society the perpetual use of this lot for the purposes of this Society,
esteeming our objects to be of such public benefit as to comport with
those for which the square was held by the State. Though this is a per-
petual right in the Society, it was not such a title as could be aliened by
the Society to others to be held on other uses, without the authority of
the State. This title is, therefore, unique; is unlike any other title in
the State. It is a great principle of the common law that titles shall be
freely alienable, so that they shall best subserve the interests of civilized
society. This is the reason of the rule of law against perpetuities,
established by judges who were wisest of British statesmen. The
exception allowed by this rule is limited by the duration of designated
lives in being and a minority or twenty-one years thereafter. During
that period titles may be limited into a succession of limited interests, or
clothed with trusts for the maintenance of those deemed incompetent to
manage their property for themselves. A special exception was created
by the British Parliament, when the nation granted Blenheim and its
princely domains to the Duke of Marlborough, to guard the country’s
gift from alienation by his heirs ; and to that immunity it is owing that
that splendid castle and domain have not been sold to pay the debts of
the heirs of the great Duke. A partial exception exists in Pennsylvania,
by an act of the Legislature of 1871 (P. Laws, 879), under which the
descendants of the Indian Chief, Cornplanter, now hold their lands in
severalty, but inalienably to any but Indians, so that white men may not
defraud them, or intermix in the colony. Such a feature should be in-
corporated into the titles of our Western Indians, when they also shall
have lands allotted to them in severalty; a step of progress that must
soon be reached if they are to be preserved in existence.

The purpose of the restricted grant to this Society was to preserve the
property forever for public uses; for in public and charitable uses lands
may be held unalienable in perpeturity. The opinion gives a history of
this society, and the following extract will show the grounds of the
decision of the Supreme Court, with the friendly estimate of Judge
Read, when our library was levied upon for taxes assessed upon the lot
and hall :

1874. ] 217 [ Price.

‘It is clear, then, that the Society could not charge this lot by any
recognizance, mortgage, judgment, debt, obligation, or responsibility,
nor could they create any lien upon it; because it could not be sold by
any form of execution, and this being the case, no taxes could be a lien
upon it, and no form of proceeding to recover the same could create a
lien upon this lot, because it could not be sold under any such judgment.
It seems stronger in the case of taxes levied under the authority of the
very Government that has expressly prohibited any sale of it, except in
the cases specially pointed out, and by the character of its public uses as
expressly declared. The uses for which it was given are public, and can
neither be affected nor destroyed by the adverse action and process of
acourt of law. The court below were therefore right, and their judg-
ment must be affirmed.

““This Society numbers amongst its members many distinguished
foreigners of great scientific eminence, and it corresponds with public
bodies and private individuals devoted to the pursuit of science in every
country in Europe; one of its latest correspondents being a Hungarian
Society, whose Transactions are published in their native language. It
has a most valuable library of about 27,000 volumes, of which a complete
catalogue is now preparing at a very heavy expense, including a great
many manuscript letters and papers of a most valuable and rare charac-
ter, relating to the early history of this Province and country. A Jarge
number of the works in the library are of a searce and rare kind, and
are not to be found on this side of the Atlantic, including a complete set
of the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, commencing two
centuries ago. The first President of this Society was the originator of
the first fire company, the first public library, the first hospital, and the
first academy, now the University of Pennsylvania, a signer of the Dec-
laration ‘of Independence, Minister to France, one of our Ministers Pleni-
potentiary who signed the provisional articles and the definitive treaty of
peace between the United States and Great Britain, and finally one of the
framers of the Constitution of the United States.

“This was Dr. Benjamin Franklin, the patriot and the Philosopher ;
and I cannot but express a confident hope that the City and the State of
which he was so distinguished an ornament, will never permit the hands
of the tax-gatherer to diminish the fund devoted to the interests of science
in every part of the world, both in peace and in war, and belonging to a
Society of which he was the founder.”’

Judge Read, in an opinion concurring with his brethren on the bench,
held the Southern Confederacy to be ‘‘an entire and complete nullity :
The country and the people embraced by this unholy rebellion are simply
in a state of rebellion, and are rebellious citizens, but at the same time
they are enemies, and may be treated as such. They may be tried as
traitors and pirates, and may, under the laws of the United States, be
convicted and punished as such, and no man or nation could complain of
it as an unjust or illegal act.’”’ Yet it was held that we could and should

Price. ] 278 [Dec. 18,

recognize so gigantic a rebellion as belligerents, from motives of human-
ity, that the war might be conducted upon the principles of civilized war-
fare, to prevent indiscriminate slaughter, and that there might be an
exchange of prisoners of war. This, he held, might be done without
“‘recognizing the rebel leaders, or their organization, but constantly
denying them to be a government de facto or de jure, or as possessing the
powers to issue letters of marque and reprisal, or to fit out privateers, or
armed vessels, or to make captures, or to establish prize courts which
could condemn as legal prizes the vessels captured by their cruisers.”’
(47 St. R. 180.)

An opinion of the Supreme Court, delivered by Justice Read in 1865,
is interesting to science and to every one who travels by railroad. It was
a suit by a widow and children against a railroad company for the loss of
the life of a husband and father, by alleged negligence, under one of the
modern statutes in such case. It is held that at the common law no
action was maintainable against a person who caused the death of another;
also that an opinion of the value of the life lost, by competent judges,
is lawful evidence. The loss to be computed is simply that which would
be compensatory to the surviving family, in the ability of the deceased
to provide for his family. It is therefore held to be a proper inquiry of
a witness, from his knowledge of decedent’s age, habits, health, and
physical condition, how long he would have been useful to his family.
From liability for the company’s negligence they cannot stipulate for
exemption. (51 St. R. 315.) This seems a very mercantile estimate of
the value of human life; yet, considering the ready sympathy of juries
with the bereaved family, it is the only one that carrying companies can
endure and live.

In 1866 several cases involving the validity of the legal tender act,
came before our Supreme Court, and its constitutionality was sustained.
Judge Read’s opinion gives a history of paper money in America. (52 St.
R. 71.) In 1819 the Supreme Court of the United States had decided
that Congress had the power to create a bank whose bills or notes should
be receivable in all payments to the United States. If Congress could
do this, the logical inference was that Congress could directly create a
currency. In making such issues a legal tender Congress did but what
the dependent Colonies had done. The Constitution, while denying the
like power to the States, gives expressly to Congress the power to coin
money, to regulate the value of domestic and foreign coins in circulation,
and, as a necessary implication from positive provisions, to emit bills of
credit. Congress was expressly clothed with power to enact all laws
_ hecessary and proper for carrying into effect the enumerated powers;
and this act was necessary to that end. ‘‘This was done at atime and
under circumstances which admitted of no other means to carry those
great powers into full and effective operation.’’ It was a measure re-
quisite to save the Government and protect the people, in the war of the
rebellion ; and will be a measure necessary to save and protect them in

1874. ] 279 [Price,

all future great wars. Every government must be sufficient unto its own
existence ; otherwise it must perish.

The Supreme Court of the United States, in 1870, Justice Strong, who
had concurred as one of our Supreme Court in the opinion of 1866, de-
livering the judgment, also decided the validity of the legal tender act.
(12 Wal. 457.) That Court held that Congress, besides those specified,
had express power to make laws necessary to carry into effect ‘‘all other
powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United
States ;’’ and say, ‘‘It was certainly intended to confer upon the Govern-
ment the power of self-preservation.”’ (p. 533.) The import of all the
Constitution is to be regarded in the ascertainment of the powers of the
Government ; and it certainly acquired the universal right of self-preser-
vation. It may not then by self-restrictions and abnegation destroy itself,
and thereby tail to fulfill the purpose intended by the American people,
and extinguish the fairest hopes of mankiad for republican liberty.

In 1867 Justice Read delivered the opinion of the Supreme Court of
Pennsylvania, protective of our City’s Water Supply, in restraining the
pollution of a tributary of the Wissahickon, in which several salutary
general principles were applied: No one has a right to foul a stream and
make it unfit for domestic use to those below: If the upper riparian
owner claims right by prescription hs can only succeed for the extent of
pollution which existed twenty-one years before: The prescription
requires the strictest proof, because it is against common right. The
opinion is learned and able. (54 St. R. 40.)

In the same year Justice Thompson and Justice Read wrote concurring
Opinions, and the majority of the Supreme Court refused the strong
remedy of injunction to prevent the running of passenger cars on Sunday.
In this case Judge Read uses the language, ‘‘ We have public squares and
a great public Park owned by our fellow citizens, and intended for their
benefit, and that of their wives and children. Clergymen, lawyers,
physicians, merchants, and even judges have six days in the week in
which they may enjoy all these and other advantages, and which they
may do cheaply by means of the passenger railways. The laboring man,
the mechanic, the artizan, has but one day in which he can rest, can
dress himself and his family in their comfortable Sunday clothes, attend
church, and then take healthful exercise; but, by this injunction, his
carriage—the poor man’s carriage, the passenger car, is taken away, and
is not permitted to run for his accommodation. The laboring man and
his children are never allowed to see Fairmount Park, a part of his own
property.” (54 St. R. 451.)

In Jannary, 1871, the opinion of the Supreme Court was delivered by
Justice Read upon the act which authorized the Public Buildings to be -
erected on Penn Square. Holme’s first plan of our City laid out a
Centre Square, and one in each of the four angles of the city: the
first for buildings of public character, the others to be for the like
uses as the Moorfields in London, A history of the location and uses of

Price. ] 280 [ Dec. 18,

Moorfields is given in the opinion, and also that of Penn Square; and
the Court had no difficulty in sustaining the validity of the act, as ‘‘the
Legislature is simply appropriating the square and the streets to the
purposes to which the square was originally dedicated.” (63 St. R. 489.)

But a few more cases illustrative of the judicial character of Judge
Read must suffice. One isa new application of an equitable principle,
made necessary by modern legislation, enacted with purpose to favor
women’s rights. By statute a widow may reject her husband’s will, and
may elect to take her intestate share in both real and personal estate.
Her doing this disturbs the plan of the will, and usually disappoints other
legatees. It is just, and so decided by our Supreme Court, that the ben-
efit intended by the will for the wife shall be sequestered to compensate
those legatees whom her election has disappointed. (65 St. R. 314.)
Again: one under equal obligation to make contribution, as where one
co-surety has paid the whole debt, the other is held bound to refund a
rateable proportion ; but this rule does not hold between joint wrong-
doers where one has paid the whole damage, from a policy to discourage
such combination to do wrong. But this is confined to cases where the
plaintiff is presumed to know that he was doing a wrongful act. There-
fore, where a traveller has recovered against one or two counties, bound
to maintain a county-line bridge, owing tothe bridge breaking down, the
county paying the whole damage may recover contribution of the other.
(66 St. R., 218.)

A testator must be of sound mind to make a valid will; but if the
unsoundness does not affect the general faculties, and does not reach his
capacity of testamentary disposition, he may make a valid will. Physicians
and unprofessional witnesses may state their opinion of the sanity or in-
sanity of the testator, with the difference that the former are heard as
experts. (68 St. R., 342.)

You may perceive from these decisions that a philosophy of practical
wisdom pervades the law ; and those who knowit best are the most ready
to assent to the boast of Lord Coke, its greatest ancient authority, when
he speaks of ‘‘The law, which is the perfection of reason.’’ In it are
found the wisdom of all practical life and morals, the rules of conduct, of
individuals, society, and governments, and, consequently, it contains the
larger and most useful share of the philosophy of the human mind. You
have not, therefore, been led into foreign fields, but into those where we
should find our more familiar range. The law itis that must preserve the
peace and well-being of ourrace. Its philosophy and progress are worthy
the study of the highest intellects. As perfect as Lord Coke thought it,
the law has ever since his day been improving towards a higher perfec-
tion ; and generally the progress has been made in manner to preserve
intact the obligation of contracts and the vested 1ights of property.

When Chief Justice Thompson’s term of office expired in December,
1872, Judge Read as senior judge became Chief Justice. This highest
udicial office of our State Chief Justice Read held for one year, when his

1874.] 281 [Price.

term expired. For some years his health had been failing, and at times
he was unable to take his seat on the Bench, which fact increased the
labors of his brethren. At the Bar meeting held for Judge Thompson,
after his sudden death while speaking in Court, Judge Read made
acknowledgement of the kindness of his brethren. He said: ‘‘I have
known my deceased friend intimately for fifteen years, for fourteen years
of which we were members of the same Court. He was a most kind and
considerate associate, and I am personally deeply indebted to him for his
thoughtfulness and attention to myself when ill-health called for the
indulgence of my brethren. He was a good man, an honest and upright
man, an admirable Judge, and a learned lawyer, with great good sense.
I was warmly attached to him, and I deplore his loss. I believe every
word of the resolutions offered by Judge Porter to be true and eminently
just, and a proper tribute to the virtues, talents and great ability of our
deceased friend.’’

Within a day or two after his retirement from office, the late Chief
Justice Read called upon the writer of this notice, who had been writing
against the new Constitution, and said, ‘‘I am again a free citizen, and
can speak my mind freely. I also am opposed to this new Constitution,
and have an objection to it you have not taken: it is destructive to the
secrecy of the ballot.’? His article appeared December 8th, 1875. The
numbering of the voted ticket with the same number set against the name
of the voter in the list of voters as required discloses how he voted. The
late Chief Justice says, “The freedom of elections depends entirely upon
the ballot and its inviolable secrecy, so that no man shall know how any
elector has voted. This secrecy enables all men, in all the walks of
society, to deposit their ballots in perfect security that the knowledge of
their vote is strictly confined to their own breasts.’’ The officers of elec-
tion in the State he stated to be 12,795, who know on the night of the
has election how every man in the Commonwealth voted. He also takes
objection to the great invasion made upon the elector’s franchise when
there are two candidates, which prevents him from voting against any
candidate, and makes the voting for the other a useless form. This able
article, the last written by him we commemorate, shows his undying love
of liberty and justice ; his sacred regard for the equal rights of the citizen ;
his anxiety to protect the humble and poor from dictation and oppres-
sion ; and his desire to preserve the value of the elective franchise to the
citizens.

I would here give the testimony of his associate on the Supreme Bench,
Judge Williams, at the Pittsburg Bar meeting, on receiving the news of
the death of the late Chief Justice: ‘‘ He possessed talents and learning
of a very high order, and his personal and official influence was very
great. He was a gentleman in every sense of the word ; a gentleman of
the old school, of the very highest sense of honor, of great dignity of
character, and in social intercourse kind, affable and courteous.’”’ ‘‘He
had an accurate knowledge of American History, especially of the times

A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 25

Price. ] 252 [ Dec. 18,

in which he lived, and was familiar with the personal characteristics and
history of the men who have been prominent in our State for the last
sixty or seventy years, and it was this accurate knowledge which made
his conversation so charming and instructive. He was a true friend ;
strong and unswerving in his attachmeats ; ready to make any sacrifice
for his friends, and when in trouble was untiring in his efforts to serve
them. He was a man of the strictest integrity, and despised everything
that was low and vile. With him the equity and justice of the case was
the law of the case.’’? ‘‘ He wasa man of chivalrous courage, persistent
purpose and inflexible will. He did not know what fearis.” ‘It isthe
will power which gives executive ability and persistency of purpose, and
enables one to achieve great results. Judge Read had this power to a
remarkable degree.’’ Such testimony from such a source is very strong,
for judges sitting together for many years, discussing and decid-
ing the many diversified and important cases which come before
them, at the same time settling the law of the State, must make them
thorough judges of the attainments and qualifications, and of the temper,
disposition and self-control of their associates. There is to be added to
the above delineation of personal traits, the fact that the characteristic
courage and determinate will, were not exercised without the careful re-
search and thought which produced certain belief of rightful action.

The characteristics of Judge Read’s judgments were a plain and terse
simplicity, without attempt at ornament. Itis no exception to this to
admit that many of his opinions are long. As a general rule they are
short ; and when not so, their length is owing to a full history, or state-
ment of facts, and an ample citation of authorities ; but all are given in
brief language. His practice was to state the facts fully and clearly, and
then without process of argument, to apply all the law, British and
American, applicable to the facts ; and it is at once seen that these war-
rant the conclusion announced. So conservative was he, that in his
hands the law, as well-read lawyers are trained to understand it, was felt
to be safe from innovation, while he fearlessly attacked recent innova-
tions, and sought, with large success to restore our jurisprudence to its
ancient foundations, except as these had been changed by statute, or the
constitutions ; methods of progress which could have no retrospective
operation to divest vested rights.

Judge Read seemed to have selected no especial branch of the law in
which he became more authoritative than in others. His general prepa-
ration in all was full; yet he never argued or decided a cause without a
special and full study of the case, applying all the proper authorities ;
hence he was always accurate, and his opinions are mines of erudition for
the student, lawyer and judge. In whatever branch of the law the ques-
tion arose he met and disposed of it with the like able grasp and learn-
ing. He was equally familiar with Civil and Criminal law and their
practice ; with International and Municipal law ; with Law and Equity ;
with the Titles, Limitations and Descents of Real and Personal Estates ;

1874. ] 283 [Stevenson.

with Wills, Legacies and Intestacies ; with the Constitutions, Charters
and Statutes of the United States, the State, and of our Cities. With
the Laws, Ordinances and Usages of Philadelphia he was especially
familiar. His love for his native city was intense,and he was ever ready
to devote his time and talents to her service. His zeal continued to the
last ;.and he was earnest in his efforts that this should be the place of
the Centennial Celebration, and that it should be a great success. His
patriotism never grew cold or suffered loss from the chill of age ; but he
was always young, progressive and ardent for the progress and improve-
ment of the City. The Park, Public Buildings, and wide well-paved
streets, and the water supply were objects of his lively sympathy.

The State and United States, their welfare and prosperity, were also
very near to his sympathies, and he was ever alive to all that concerned
their well-being and safety. This is shown in all the acts of his life, both
as citizen and judge. That he lived and labored in the law as he did,
and was the able and patriotic citizen that he was, make the name of
Chief Justice Read an honor to his family, his City, his State, and
Country, and by them all his memory will be held in respect and honor
through future time.

The late Chief Justice Read left to survive him, a widow, and his only
heir, John Meredith Read, who ably represented our Country, as Consul
General to France, and resided in Paris during her fearful investment
by the German armies, in 1870; and who now again represents our
Nation as Minister to Greece.

Chief Justice Read lived and died in the Christian faith ; and was ever
an opponent of those false philosophies of France, Germany and Great
Britain, and more sparcely of our own Country, which seek to undermine
the Christian religion ; that religion which gives to life its greatest con-
solations, and enables man to triumph over the fears of death ; that re-
ligion whose immortal faith, alone, gives adequate meaning to the
Universe.

ON THE ALLEGED PARALLELISM OF COAL BEDS.
By Jno. J. STEVENSON.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Dec. 18, 1874.)

That coal seams are approximately parallel, is a common belief
among persons residing in the coal fields of our country. The more ob-
serving of our coal operatives, however, long ago discovered that the
assertion of parallelism is a fallacy, and that the interval between any
two given beds of coal is liable to vary many feet in thickness within
comparatively short distances. So general is this variation that it
amounts toa positive law. Until this was accepted as a fact, to the
utter exclusion of any notion of parallelism, the coals of southwestern
Pennsylvania remained a worse than Chinese puzzle to Geologists, and

Stevenson. ] 284 [ Dee. 18,

every attempt to tabulate them was a failure. For many years the re-
ports of all observers led us to accept the divergence or convergence of
coal seams as part of the necessary arrangement of things, a phenomenon
quite as ordinary as the occurrence of sandstone or shale in the inter-
vals.

Quite recently, Prof. E. B. Andrews, an assistant on the Ohio Survey,
has re-asserted the parallelism of coal-beds, and admits of such excep-
tions only, as result from the greater or less compressibility of the ma-
terials occupying the intervals. He concedes, it is true, that when large
areas of any coal field are examined, it may be found that some portions
have had a more rapid subsidence than the rest; but he maintains that
as a rule the subsidence was so regular that two seams are found to pre-
sent an almost perfect parallelism. He doubts whether it is possible for
a seam to separate into two or more parts, or if separated, for the parts
to diverge indefinitely, that is to say, I suppose, for several miles hori-
zontally or to any great extent vertically.

This is no matter of merely theoretical interest. Involving, as it does,
not merely the whole question respecting the deposition of coal seams
and the intervening rocks, but also, as a consequence, the identification
or tracing of the beds over extensive areas, its exact determination is
equally important to the economic investigator and to the purely scien-
tific student. It is true, that the question has been a settled one for many
years, but long acceptance of a doctrine does uot prove its truth. It has
been disputed by a Geologist of standing, whose statements deserve and
receive consideration. There is need then, that the matter be presented
in such a manner as to leave no doubt in the mind of any that the idea of
parallelism over even limited areas is utterly fallacious except for rare
localities. In geology an erroneous theory is of necessity a pernicious
theory.

Coal seams do divide. That is to say, the numerous partings in a coal
bed are liable so to thicken as to become distinct strata of shale or sand-
stone, and in many cases they do so thicken. In his memoir upon the
South Staffordshire Coal Field, Prof. Jukes gives an illustration, especial-
ly interesting because of the ease with which the bifurcation of the vari-
ous seams is proved. The coals begin their separation in the southern
portion of the field and the divergence continues northward, the coals
never coming together again within the area embraced in the memoir.
In Plate 1, Prof. Jukes compares two vertical sections, one taken in the
south-central portion of the field, and the other in the north-central por-
tion, the distance between them being about five miles. In the first sec-
tion, which represents a vertical thickness of 350 feet, there are seven beds
of coal, each made up of several distinct layers separated by their part-
ings. In the second section, whose thickness is 850 feet, there are
eighteen beds of coal, some simple, but most of them compound. The
character of the coal from the several seams in the second section shows
at once the relation to the beds of the first section.

\~
1874 ] 285 [Stevenson.

To give all the details leading to the conclusion offered by Prof. Jukes,
would be impossible here. I therefore present only a few sections,
showing the variations of a single bed within a limited area, sections ob-
tained in such proximity to each other, that no possible doubt remains
respecting the identity of the coals :

bee pam cath eR

ee =

Plying-reed Coal,.........2.-+-++- 4!

4! 4/Q17 4/4/"| Q/6/\ 8/
IbnweInyell, os oteodaddooocpooccd9SCos Q |10/6/7\45/9/7/55/4/7/118" 128"
Tiel OCAlbe ose dodleedpopodeoUbeos 125/4/\25/417 22/617 24/3!" 24! 22/8!

Further sections* show that the Thick Coal finally breaks up into nine
beds, the whole occupying, with the intervening rocks, a vertical space
of 390 feet. The sections given above show that, within a distance of
less than one mile, the interval between the two benches of the seam in-
creases from zero or a very thin parting to 128 feet. The extent of area
forbids the supposition that this occurred ina petty lagoon. It is, as I
hope to show hereafter, in full accordance with the law of coal deposition
in our own country.

Other instances might be cited from Great Britain. Thus Mr. Green-
ough} states that near Ashby de la Zouche, the bend, separating the
second and third seam of coal, is in the easternmost coal-pits, thirty-three
yards thick ; in the next toward the west, twenty-five ; in the most west-
ern, only fourteen; and that in the Budworth Collieries, half a mile
further toward the west, it vanishes entirely, the two seams running
together. Another instance is mentioned by Capt. Portlock in his report
on Londonderry, etc., pp. 600-601.

In our own country, such marked illustrations though rare, are by no
means wanting. The bifurcation of the Mammoth Coal Seam isa well
ascertained fact and susceptible of absolute proof. At Mahanoy City,
Pennsylvania, one of the most important beds divides, and its branches
can be traced for a considerable distance, rapidly diverging. On the
Great Kanawha River, in West Virginia, as I have shownt the celebra-
ted seam worked at Coalburg, shows this tendency to divide. At the
east end of the property of the company these partings are thin, rarely
exceeding three inches. Followed westward, they increase, until at the
western boundary of the property the lower one is two feet thick. About
ten miles further down the river, three thin coals are found occupying the
horizon of this bed. In all probability, they are simply the subordinate
coals, separated by the greatly thickened partings. Cases of distinct
division of coals, attended by marked divergence of the benches, must

* For the sections given above, see The South Staffordshire Coal Field, by J. Beete
Jukes. 2d Edition, 1859, pp. 87 and 38.

+ A Critical Examination of the First Principles on Geology, by G. B. Greenough,
President G. S., &c., 1819, p. 22.

} Annals of Lyceum Nat. Hist., Vol. X, p. 276.

Stevenson. ] 286 [ Dee. 18,

remain rare in our coal fields until the workings become more extensive
and in closer vicinity than now. At present, it is possible only to show
the marked changes in the intervals between our coal beds. In doing
this, I shall draw all illustrations from the northern portion of the Great
Bituminous Trough, which includes Western Pennsylvania.

Lower Coal Croup.—The total thickness of this group is subject to
great variations. In Pennsylvania it is from 270 to 650 feet ; in West
Virginia from 200 at the Pennsylvania line to nearly 700 in Randolph
County, and nearly 900 on the Great Kanawha, in Ohio from to
In each case the Mahoning Sandstone has been omitted. For heated
examination, I choose the two coals known as the Upper Freeport and
Kittanning, in Pennsylvania, and as Nos. VI and IV in Ohio.

Along Yellow Creek, in Ohio, the varying interval between these two
coals is finely shown in a continuous exposure from the Ohio River to
Irondale, a distance of seven miles. The coals are known locally as the
‘‘Big”’ and “Strip”? veins, and between them occurs No. V, locally
known as the ‘‘Roger.’’ I give only four sections for comparison :

| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4
(Geavaa ric Wel Basis Bee EO aoe is oad cea M eb scl dal 7 3/7)! 5/6// 2
Iimeyeyeall ROC oooobessccsonoooosscoal . NG? 60/ 60/ 100
COals NWS NAG AEE ie ibis 3/ ? 2/6// ?
ImtenvalbRockSHee eee eee nee 60/ 52/ 65/ 60
COGS TRV elie iran otra can tratie 2/6// ? 2/6// ®

These show a variation from 80’ to 160’ within five miles; the most
marked change being in the interval between V and VI.

In Guernsey and Muskingum Counties, Ohio, a much more interesting
series of changes occur along Wills Creek and the Muskingum River.
This line of section is animportant one, as the coals can be traced almost
without break. Coal IV is accompanied by its Gray (fossiliferous)
Limestone, and YI is everywhere seen in the hills. Beginning on Wills
Creek, in Guernsey County, about seven miles north from the Central
Ohio Railroad, we find near the Salt Works, the two beds 8 feet apart.
Somewhat more than a mile further down the Creek, IV is mined
by shaft and is 28 feet below VI. Near Liberty, the interval is 40/ ; at
Bridgeville, 105 feet. Still following the Creek and crossing into Mus-
kingum County, we find the interval at Johnson’s Mills, 40 feet; at
Frew’s Mills, 90 feet; at the Salt Works near the Muskingum River,
about the same ; near Dresden, about 100 feet, and further down the
river 110 feet. The line of least interval seems to run northwestwardly
through Guernsey County, from the starting point to a little east from
Johnson’s Mills, the beds diverging on each side of this line. The struc-
ture in a cross section is somewhat as appears in this figure, the upper
line representing VI, and the lower LY.

At some distance further, northeastward, a similar relation exists
between the coals. Across the intervening space VI can be traced quite

9Q7
1874. ] 25 ( [Stevenson,

readily, but the exposures of IV are far from being continuous, and for
miles it does not reach the surface. It is impossible, therefore, to demon-
strate the structure, which seems to be as follows:

What the complete structure of the western portion in the first figure ~
may have been cannot be determined, as erosion has removed all the
material beyond the Muskingum River. The direct union of the two
beds has not been seen, nor is it likely to be seen, since at all localities
where the beds approximate they have a heavy cover.

Crossing into Pennsylvania, we take the same beds and carry the sec-
tion down to the Ferriferous Limestone. Tle following sections are
taken from Rogers’ Report *

Uppersiirecnorie Oana By Gy — | 5/8 —-— |\—
lmternvalMiRockss sae vsue eee ses ae | 35/ | 84!’ | 20! 50! 73/
Lower Freeport C................ | Af 3! | + 147") 5! 416!) 1/61
Himi crave OCKSissyastpy py stotereaecrarens is 104’ | 55’ 84’ 180 |28/6””
LCHORMRG Os ascesscssoocsoonoaccc 3! 3! 3/91) Br | 2/61") 2!
Iimtenvyalgivocksierctsracilssicvereisierraie 25! | 80! | 33/6/7120! | 55’ |30/
Merriferous Limestone. .......--..- pay MI ME I OVATE SY 6! 8/

In these six sections we find the interval between the two beds varying
thus : 184, 148, 142, 117, 109, and 103 feet, while the interval between
the Kittaning and the Limestone varies from 55 to 20 feet.

The accessible records of observations in West Virginia are few, but
some of them are of interest. Ina report upon Property belonging to
the Pridevale Iron Company, and situated a few miles above the junc-
tion of Cheat and Monongahela Rivers, Prof. W. B. Rogers gives the in-
terval between Upper Freeport and Kittanning, as 160 feet, and between
the Kittanning and the Ferriferous Limestone as 50 feet. On Decker’s
Creek, barely five miles away, I find only 26 feet between the Freeport
Coal and the Limestone. The whole group is about 400 feet thick on
Cheat river, and only 200 on Decker’s Creek. This notable variation oc-
curs chiefly between the upper Freeport Coal and the Limestone, as
the section below the latter is substantially the same as both localities.

Going southward, we find the thickness of the whole group rapidly in-
creasing beyond the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the Upper Freeport
Coal still retaining its proper place under the Mahoning Sandstone, and
readily traceable to Randolph County, beyond which I have not followed
it. Near the State line at the north, the thickness of the group is 200
feet, in Randolph County it is not far from 700 feet. Whether or not
the coal resting on the conglomerate in Randolph County is the same
with that resting on the same conglomerate on Decker’s Creek, is quite
immaterial. It is quite certain that the interval between the conglome-
rate and the Upper Freeport Coal has increased from 200/ on Decker’s
Creek, to nearly 700 feet on the Beverly road in Randolph County.

The Upper Freeport Coal itself shows a marked tendency to break up

* Geology of Pennsylvania, Vol. II, Chaps. 18, 19, 20 and 22,

¢
Stevenson. ] 288 [ Dec. 18,

and in Upshur and Randolph Counties it does divide. Its partings
thicken up and from mere flimsy plates become layers of shale several feet
thick, so that the coal usually only three or four feet thick further north,
is gradually converted into a mass of shale and coal upwards of twenty
feet thick, which at one locality includes a thin layer of sandstone.

Lower Barren Group.—-So interesting is this group in itself, and so
irregular are its rocks, that it deserves consideration only because it
occupies the interval between the Upper Freeport and Pittsburgh seams,
two beds, which seem to be the most persistent of all found in the Coal
Measures. It is separated into two divisions by a well marked stratum
which in Ohio is known as the Crinoidal Limestone, and in Pennsylvania as
the Possiliferous Limestone. ThisI have traced from the Muskingum River
round through Pennsylvania into West Virginia, where, like nearly all
the Coal Measures Limestones, it disappears in the vicinity of the Balti-
more and Ohio Railroad, south from Grafton. At the western exposure
of the Pittsburgh in Ohio, this limestone is 140 feet below it. Northeast-
ward the interval becomes successively 140, 160, 175, 190, 200, and near
Steubenville and along the Ohio River 225 feet. In Pennsylvania on the
Monongahela River, it is 320, and near Morgantown, West Virginia, 270.
In like manner we find a varying interval between it and the Upper Free-
port. At the most western exposure of the limestone this interval is
225, further east 280, at its northerly exposure 260, and at Steubenville,
on the Ohio, 280 feet. At Morgantown it is 172 feet.

The total interval betweeu the Pittsburgh and Upper Freeport, varies
in thickness in Ohio, from 420 feet at the west, to 505 at Steubenville,
the increase being regular toward the east. [n Pennsylvania it is 200
feet, at Ligonier, 220 at Elk Lick, and on the Monongahela River from
450 to nearly 600 feet. In West Virginia, along the Monongahela and
Tygarts Valley River, it varies not much from 420 feet.

Upper Coal Group.—The following table shows the synonyms of the
coals of this group.

Chio. Pennsylwania. West Virginia.
XIII. Top at Waynesburg. Not identified.
XII. Second Waynesburg. Brownsville.
AI. Waynesburg. Waynesburg.
X. Uniontown ?? Absent.
IX. Absent. Absent.
Ville. Absent. Absent.
VIII. Sewickley. Sewickly.
Villa. Redstone. Redstone.
VIII. Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh.

In this group the wedge shape of the strata is more distinctly shown
than in either of the lower groups, partly because of the persistence of
the coal seams and partly because of the long continuous sections which
can be obtained over a great extent of country. In it too, there is a

4874.4 289 [Stevenson,

nearer approximation locally to parallelism, while at the same time, the
parallelism is apparent rather than real, as the beds converge on each
side of the trough. So gradual is this convergence, however, that for
all practical purposes most of the beds might be regarded as parallel for
short distances.

If we ascend the Central Ohio Railroad from the river to the summit,
twenty-two miles west, or better yet, ascend Wheeling Hill, on the Na-
tional Road, four miles from the river, we count nine well-marked beds
of coal, beginning with VIII. If we descend westwardly from the rail-
1ruad summit or from the National Road on the west side of the Wheel-
ing Creek divide, we find only six beds to and including VIII, the top-
most bed in each case being XIII. Let us compare the two sections.

1 2
il, SRINCHONE, Cut, cocadabocescaGoccaauar | 50/ 50/
Os DRIES Ie Renee cree Pans Oke MiaPH A enero | 1/ 1/
3. Shale and Sandstone ............ Sul 70! 70/
AR ANG UTRR Set Si aL EM SW ERR tie Fees She SEES U2 1/677 1/3//
Dp SCGISKOINS 5 cuss aeuoudus oon apopsaudoT | 4()/ 30/
Be ae) Ie ee ae ee PAS Ce UG Me OE Be | 2/6/7 Q/
To TSENNOISUOINES EWE a dooocceassogeoacasone 98/ 100/
SOMO NGS rds cris eccecnestovcralcseturste xerstseus cwnleners Crake 3/ AVES
Ow Sandstone ss snes AOR oA ee 30/40! 40!
BLL) RAIONG OFC se 7 RR SO al ara hones eee te 2/6/7 2/6”
11. Limestone and Calc. Shale............ 70/ 70!
TAOS NY TEN iS a eRe ere eee cae as 4! 0
GY SEHNGINOINGS s boob coS0dn Ripa 8 Pia Oe nea aes Q-35/ 0
14k, WAG DD acted ie been tao ois cromemrciaieenole oe 0 -6” 0
Lo webimestoOnGsc vier Ss) Sosa Sees ek 20/-380/ 0
Go) WADU saa con ees Ras cera oe ono 1/-6”" 0
PmlIMNeSTOMe) ais Sui jcra era orcs Lene 12/—25/ )
1G. Giese SSR ESAS 6 Aine laeuiaursictss 5/—10/ | 4/
Che WDD Ls eats ieee eee Bee Peake ae 6/ | 5/
Osa Claygande limestone jar sisee cele selects 10/ | 8/
21. Sandstone and Limestone............ 90/ | 96/
om S All CSAC LCMAE MIN cer steaes feces etorucyePevepetonetcte | 46/
Om Orinoida laine stoneneeneec een ce | 4)

The first section is that obtained on the railroad east from the summit.
The second, to No. 21 inclusive, was obtained by descending from the
summit across the National Road to Stillwater Creek. Nos. 22 and 238
were obtained on the railroad. This section differs from that obtained
on the railroad west from the summit, only in Nos. 9 and 11, which are
there 60 and 45 feet respectively, the latter being principally sandstone.*

Respectiug the identity of No. 19, in bothsections there is no dispute.
It is beyond all doubt coal VIII, (Pittsburg). Aside from internal
evidence furnished by the seam itself, there is abundant stratigraphical
proof of identity. I have traced the bed, with the Crinoidal Limestone

* See Annals Lyceum Nat. Hist., Vol. X, p. 282, where I have described the action of
the current causing this alteration,

A. BR S.—VOL. XIV. 2K

Stevenson. | 290 [Dee. 15,

below, all the way round its western and northern out-crop, from the
Central Ohio Railroad to Steubenville, on the Ohio River, and thence
down the river to Belleair, the iaitial point of the first section, where it
proved to be the No. 19 of that section My ideutification of No. 8, of
the second section with No. 8 of the first has been called in question by
Prof. Andrews, * who regards the former as equivalent to No. 12 of the
Section I. No. 8, of Section II, is known as the Upper Barnesville Coal,
and No. 12, of Seetion I, is the Glenev Coal. As 1 take it, Coal X at
Glenco, is one hundred and ten feet above VIIIc (Glenco), while at
Barnesville it is one hundred and five feet above VIII (Pittsburg). There
should be no dispute respecting this matter. It is not so complex as to
require much skill for its determination. At Glenco, on the Central

Coal ewes — Ohio Railroad, nine miles west from Bel-
leair, the coals are shown in the hill as in
Intervals: .oevieiet 109’ | the section on the margin, and hold the
same relations as in Section I. VIIIe dis-
(SGalleXe ey Rate ee aes | appears under the railroad about two miles
| west, and IX at about seven. X and XI re-
Lntervalec cy. eee 40’ |main above the railroad to Belmont, . 20
‘miles from Belleair, where the road rises
Coal Exes eee |. |above X. Inthe meantime XIT is caught
by the hills near the railroad. Weare now
Tritervale cc ee 70: |seven miles from Barnesville and the rail-
road summit intervenes. Ascending to the
Coal) W100 obiconocke __ |summit and descending thence to Barnes-
ville, we obtain the following sections.

1. Shales and Sandstones } LIMES Me eerie oe BO!
Summit

2, Coal XIII, renee: 1!
SuGhaleandi sandstonereseee eee 70/ 70’
AEC GAL NILA: URE SURE plc tanen 1/ | 13"
5. Sandstone and some Shale............. 40’ 30/

(Rina Ofay HED) (hein ay eee Nts ai ota craven ane 2/617 Bee
Ye Seinclsnome, GWGscoccascaedo0csan0se00eD 98/ 100/
(SISA OXO CH his Gee raraae ees Gta Ee Ue eee oi ee aes eee 3/ 4 +

-No. 8in the second pecnon is, the. upper aeoal at Barnesville, and it cer-
tainly is the same with No.& i in the. first, which is the one marked X at
Glenco, where it clearly lies 110 feet above VIlIle, the Glenco coal. It is
evident then, since X is 110 feet above VIIIc at Glenco, and 105 feet
above VIII at Barnesville, that somewhere between these two points, the
strata below No. 11 of Section I, to No. 17 inclusive, of the same section,
have disappeared, bringing X about 90 feet nearer to VIII than it is at
the river.

But thisis not the full extent of this interesting alteration of relations.
If, starting from the railroad, we go through Belmont aud Jefferson

% See Prof. Andrews’ rejoinder to Prof. Newberry, Amer. Journ. Sci., July, 1874.

OQ)
E874.) 29 l [Stevenson.

Counties to the extreme northern exposure of the Pittsburg coal, we ob-
tain a beautiful series of sections fully illustrating the wedge-shape. of
nearly every stratum between coals VIII and X. Inthis series Goal LX
does not appear, as it thins out eastwardly and does not reach the line of
section. Itis present, however, in the sections, taken four miles west
from this line. The localities-of the sections are as follows :

1. GC. O. R. R. 2. Crossing of Little Short Creek by Wheeling Plank
Road. 3. Near Mt. Pleasant. 4. Between Short Creek and Smithfield.
5. Between Smithfield and Little McIntvre Creek. 6. Near Smithfield
Station on P. C. & St. L. R. R. 7% Near Knoxville. Of these, the first
two are in Belmont County, the rest in Jefferson County.

I | ey UO a LO V Woe Wal

KOO Kivi. 15) Wee es }. 37 | —*| = Pet Bey ee
Bp SEINOISONSG go sa 5500505 40’ | 50/7); — — | 60/ 60’ | 30’
Bs CORN IDIG eS a eer ace 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. Limestone and Shale... 70/ | 64’ | 43’ | 45/ | 6/ 0 0
he IOI SS eences cre atti [yeaa se al Sal piel 0 )
OPGSANASTOME AS, sts ier ctae = 25 ROMS 207 8/ 0 0
Tos MUU OES See Eero ste Fila Opal ve O 0 0 0 0
SeuIMes tone reese ecto BOP | alae) ilay Yi Oo 0 0
Ds WUD Grp eta ee Ree ie 1/ Ne alli the | 60 0
10. Limestone and Shale..| 25’ | 30/ 13 | 10’ 6/ 0 0
= UALS AG es 98 eet Bea i BL | 5/6/09) 4/97 | = At) 5 4"

The Knoxville section, by Mr. H. Newton, is of further interest in that
it shows Coal XI to be only 78 feet above X, whereas, in Belmont County
this interval is from 95 to 105 feet. This series shows that the interval
between VIII and X, which at the railroad is almost 200 feet, is reduced
to only 30 feet at Knoxville, and that the reduction is comparatively
gradual, the distance being say thirty miles.

Passing inte Pennsylvania I select four sections} from a mass which
are equally illustrative, and arrange them, beginning with the most
western and going.eastward. I take only those showing the relations of
the Pittsburg to the Redstone and Sewickly, as the sections containing
the higher coals are for the most part imperfect in the lower portion.

UPintervalbnocksseeeeeee enter ~{ 1277+ |. 150/+ 307+ 50/
2. SewnGshy Com cessecpoocasoaboc 6/? Al 3/ =
Bo Ihara ROG. 6coccococucno0s 47! 30/ 23/ d
Ame Redstomey Coal rece ericin ace — 14 3/ 0 7 40’
5. Interval Rocks.........02 ss. 50/ 35/ | 20/ f
GrabittsburoyCoaleen jesse ceem rsa 103 10/ 9! 9/

These seem to show a diminution in the thickness of the intervening
rocks toward the east. In connection with the fourth section it may be

' * In the Sections, a dash signifies that the exposure is such as not to admit of accu-
rate measurement.

+ Geology of Penn., Vol. II, pp. 630, 625, 661, and 651.

6
Stevenson. | 292 [Dece. 18,

well to refer to one given on p. 640, lying much further toward the west.
In the latter the interval between the Pittsburg and Uniontown cvals is
said to be 245 feet, while in the former coal is only about 50 feet above the
Sewickly and consequently but 90 feet above the Pittsburg.

In West Virginia the conditions are somewhat peculiar. In the narrow
Panhandle at the north, [IX and X of the Ohio section are absent. They
thin out before crossing the Ohio river, VIIIc. is seen on Wheeling Creek,
W. Va., but does not reappear on the east side of the trough. Otherwise
the Panhandle section offers little of interest and shows no material vari-
ation near Wheeling from that obtained just west from Belleair.

In Monongahela Co., near the State line, we find on the east side of the
Monongahela R. the following section: Sewickly Coal, 1 ft. ; interval,
40 ft. ; Redstone Coal, 4 ft. ; interval, 60 ft. ; Pittsburg Coal, 6 to 8 feet.
On the opposite side of the river, and barely thcee miles away, the section
is Sewickly Coal, 5 ft. ; interval, 45 ft.; Redstone Coal, 4 ft. ; interval,
14 ft. ; Pittsburg Coal, lower member, 10 ft. This change results from
the disappearance of the heavy sandstone overlying the Pittsburg on the
east side of the river. ;

The limestones of this group disappear some what abruptly southward,
and give place to shales and sandstones, so that satisfactory sections are
by no means frequent. I give for comparison the average sections for
Monongahela, Marion Harrison and Upshur Counties :

1. Waynesburg Coal......... sanot OF oy 3/ ENG
DoulntenvaluRocks, een eee nee 1193/2077 ’ 937 NOLeau es
Be Poeunalhy OMMlessoacscosaods oss | 1’ -6/ 240 Bie) ,
Avmlngervall ROCKS abr p idence teers AQ! —49/ | Al! 207
He. lmaclsrome OGalecosaceodsccogeo00 Pe | i ae el 1/ — 2?
6. Interval Rocks.,9..-.--. % Palaces | 147 —60/ 70/-80’ 20’-25') 40’ —60/
Yi. Jenvislooues Oeil, aodaacocooneboue | 6! —14/| 8! -9' 67 -9'| 37 O”/—47

I feel much hesitation in identifying the Redstone Coal in the last sec-
tion, and think it much more likely to prove the Sewickly. The differ-
ence between the Marion and Harrison sections is very marked, the
interval between the Pittsburg and Wayoesburg being in one case 320/
and in the other, at most, 190’.

Conclusions. —After a careful study of the barren and upper coal groups
throughout the northern portion of the great bituminous trough, I am
convinced that as a whole the subsidence was regular, approaching uni-
formity, but that locally there were bulgings or other irreguliarities, such
as could not fail to accompany any operations so extensive. The lack of
parallelism results from the conditions of deposition, which rendered par-
allelism impossible. The two groups referred to were deposited in a great
trough whose eastern boundary was the Alleghany Mountains ; the west-
ern, the Cincinnati axis.* They diminish quite regularly in thickness, east
and west, from a central area between the Ohio and the Monongabela

* The substance of this portion of the paper was published March 4, 1873, in Annals
Lyc. Nat. Hist., Vol. X. pp. 247, et seq.

9
1874. ] 293 [Stevenson.

rivers. We may compare each group to an enormous bowl, somewhat
elongate and with flattened base.

At the beginning of the upper coal era this trough was a great arm
of the sea, closely land Jocked and communicating with the ocean at the
southwest by a comparatively narrow outlet. On the east and southeast
sides, rivers brought in their loads of detritus from the highlands to be
spread over the bottom, which gradually declined toward the west and
northwest. On the opposite shores few streams flowed out, and such as
came were sluggish, bearing no coarse material. The place of quiet, pure
water is marked by deposit of limestone in the north, while a similar
mass, traceable through Ohio southwestwardly, marks the direction of the
outlet. The low shore of the southeast is marked by the shallow water
detrital deposits and the utter absence of limestones in West Virginia,
south from the N. W. Branch of the Baltimore and Ohio Ruilroad.

The wedge-shape of the rocks intervening between the coals of this
group has been shown both in Pennsylvania and Ohio, east and west, as
well asin West Virginia, where the tapering is southeastward toward
that edge of the trough. The structure of the trough may be illustrated
as follows :

Let a basin with gently sloping sides be lined with some black sub-
stance ; then filled with some material which will become hard, in which
a similar black substance is arranged in layers, some of them covering the
whole surface, and others extending only part of the way from the border
toward the middle. Now break away the bowl, remove the black exterior
to near the base, at the same time cutting off portions of the hardened
mass around the border above, so as to give the whole an irregular sur-
face. Here we have a rude representation of the upper coal group, per-
haps as good as any that can be made on a small scale. If this mass be
divided vertically in two, the face of each piece will rudely resemble a
vertical section across the group from Harrison Co., Ohio, to the eastern
portion near the Pennsylvania and West Virginia line.

In Ohio, VIIIa, VIII, VIIIc and IX are traced directly to where they
have disappeared, while X and XI have been found successively approach-
ing VIII. In Pennsylvania similar conditions exist, but the extensive
erosion along the Alleghany slopes prevents us giving so full a presenta-
tion as that from Ohio. In each case we find the underlying Pittsburg
reaching farther east and west than the immediately overlying beds, and
continually approaching the higher ones, until, on both sides of the trough,
farther study is cut off by the completeness of erosion.

Iam, therefore, compelled to believe that all the coals of the upper coal
group are off-shoots from one continuous marsh, which existed jrom the
beginning of the era to its close, and which inits full extent is now known as
the Pittsburg Coal Seam. During the whole time of formation of the
upper coal group the general condition was that of regular subsidence
interrupted by longer or shorter intervals of repose. During the time
of subsidence the marsh advanced up the sides of the trough, as new

Stevenson. ] 294 [ Dec. 18,

land was continually becoming fitted for its support. During repose,
deltas were formed in the bay, and the marsh pushed outward on the
newly-formed land. If the period of repose were long enough to permit
the bay to be filled up, the marsh would cross to the other side if begun
on only one, or, if pushing out from all sides, it would reach the centre.
The Pittsburg, Redstone, Sewickly and Waynesburg originated at the
east, for there they attain their greatest thickness, while westward they
diminish. VIIIc, IX and X of the Ohio section are thickest westward
and then eastward, the first barely crossing the Ohio river ; the others
disappearing before they reach it.

It may be objected that a marsh requires an almost level plain for i's
existence. Nothing could be more erroneous than such a supposition,
for all necessary conditions may exist on a hill-side with not too steep a
slope. In Colorado, I found on Arkansas Pass, near the head of the
Arkansas river, an immense morass covering the whole surface between the
cafion walls, a distance of more than one-fourth of a mile. It reaches for
several miles down the canon, whose floor has a fall of nearly two degrees.
This is no petty swamp. To all intents and purposes it is a bottomless
morass, almost impassable to mounted stock.

There is every reason to suppose that previous to the upper coal epoch,
the conditions were by no means so regular throughout the basin. It is
highly probable that just before the beginning of that epoch, the trough
was narrowed and the eastern border, at least, much raised. Otherwise
it would be difficult to explain why it is that the Pittsburg Coal does not
distinctly overlap the lower Barren group. At times during the lower
coal epoch the folding process must have been carried on quite energeti-
cally, much more so than during the epoch of the upper coals. In the
latter there are found no subordinate folds such as are exhibited in the
former; such, for example, as occurred previous to the formation of the
Kittanning so as to produce the secondary troughs in which that coal lies
causing so great variations in the thickness of the interval between it and
the Upper Freeport. It seems quite possibie, judging from some obser-
vations in Ohio, that similar subordinate foldings may have taken place
previous to the formation of Coal III, the next below the Kittanning.

In view of the facts given in this paper, I feel justified in extending my
statement that the Indiana and Appalachian coal-fields were not con-
nected during the lower barren and upper coal epochs, by asserting that
there is no reason to suppose that they were ever united north from Ken-
tucky. Whether or not they were united farther toward the south must
be determined by others.

Thus far no reference has been made to the tr gach or basin lying east
from the Alleghany Mountains and holding the Barren and the Upper
Coal Group. The terrific erosion which this region has suffered, only
fragmentary areas of coal remaining, renders the collection of details a

work of great difficulty, and few observations exist, which bear upon the
question under discussion. This basin and the Great Bituminous Trough

1874. ] 295 [ Frazer.

seem to have been branches of one great basin during the Upper Coal
epoch. They were separated by a tongue of land tapering southwardly
and terminating in West Virginia, not far from the Maryland line. The
eastern basin rapidly lost its width, and near the union was quite narrow.
The relation between the two basins, as I understand it, is rudely repre-
sented in the accompanying figure, ia which A, is the western, and B,
the eastern, which latter now contains the fragmentary areas of semi-
bituminous and anthracite coal.

Whether or not this division of the coal-field existed from the begin-
ning of the period, [ am unable to conjecture, as my material respecting
the Lower Coal Group is not sufficient. But that it had occurred before
the formation of the Barren Group admits of no doubt, as that group has
a well-defined saucer-shape in the Great Trough, and thickens eastwardly
from the dividing area. In like manner the Upper Coal Group thickens
east and west from the same region, the Pittsburg, Redstone and
Sewickly Coals being as well marked in the eastern basin as in the west-
ern.

The eastern basin, as might have been expected, shows littie limestone
amid its strata. Surrounded on all sides by highlands, it was fed by
numerous streams, which brought down sufficient detritus to render its
waters turbid throughout. Its mouth was obliterated topographically by
the final convulsions of the Appalachium Revolution, so that its precise
position is to be ascertained only by close exploration.

The common basin, below the junction of these branches, was broad
and never completely filled with detritus so as to permit the marshes to
cross it ; certainly at no time after the formation of the Pittsburg in
that region. This bed cannot be traced across the basin, owing to the
fact that it is deeply concealed in the centre, but the Waynesburg and
Brownsville thin out rapidly toward the west, and in West Virginia,
have almost disappeared before reaching the disturbed region known
as the ‘‘Oil-break.’’ Limestones are almost unknown, and for four
hundred feet on top, the rocks are entirely sandstone and shale, all the
limestones and coals belonging to that horizon being absent.

ON EXFOLIATION OF ROCKS NEAR GETTYSBURG.
By P. FraAzmr, JR.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Dec. 4th, 1874.)

During an examination which I made of the Syenite boulders whi:h
compose that part of the battle-field of Gettysburg, called the ‘‘ Devil’s
Den,’’ (a collection of great blocks of this rock piled one on another in
the wildest confusion and lying about i mile west of ‘‘ Granite Spur ”’
or Little Round Top, the ravine where Vincent’s Brigade held their
ground so manfully on the afternoon of Thursday, July 2, 1863, and

z = ¢ } Pi -
Frazer. | 296 [ Dec. 4, 1874:

Round Top proper, where the Sixth Corps of the Army of the Potomac
intrenched during the night of the 2d and the morning of the 3d,) my
attention was directed to a singular example of weathering which was so
entirely novel to me, that I determined to secure specimens of it for ex-
hibition to this Society as well as the Academy of Natural Sciences.

It seems to open to me a new view of concretionary structure as well
as surface weathering, and is an important item for consideration when
the rock is intended jor building purposes.

The fracture of these rocks (and indeed of all rocks) should be sub-
divided into—

1. Fracture on large planes.

2. Fracture on small planes.

It is essential to know whether reference is made to large or small
planes when the kind of fracture is described in all rocks, for though the
general habit of the large plane may be a curved surface where this is
shown in the original boulder, the smaller fragments may exhibit splin-
tery, earthy, or any other fracture.

Several of these large boulders are visible in the ‘‘ Devil’s Den,’”’ which
present 100 square yards or more of surface, and in one or two cases
where the fracture seems to have been recent, the surface is very homo-
geneous, the curve very smooth, and the rock very sound and hard, and
with a bluish gray color entirely different from the brown which it
assumes in places where it has been more exposed to the weather.

In some of these latter specimens it would be difficult to persuade the eye
that the object was not a Cyclopian wall of rounded and square blocks
built up by the hand of man, nor is the delusion dispelled by a close ex-
amination of the rock. The spaces between the apparently separated
blocks are seemingly in need of ‘pointing up,’”’? but otherwise there
seems to be a material at the junction different from the mass of the
rock.

At one blow of the hammer a shell varying in thickness from ; to #
inch and discolored by weathering, though not friable, falls off and the
surface beneath is seen to be of noimal structure, texture and tenacity.

One curious part of this phenomenon is the tendency of the weathered
surface to become conchoidal, even where the face of the rock is plane.
It results from the gradual sinking of the outside surface towards the
depressions that form the divisions between the separate blocks. The
mode of formation of these curious false walls appear to be first, the
gradual solutions of parts of the Labradorite matrix between the horn-
blende crystals.

Certain lines are more readily soluble than others, and these gradually
deepen as the troughs that are-formed conduct more water over the most
yielding parts. The small crystals of hornblende in such troughs after
losing their support falls out and are washed away, and at the same time ~
the sides of these miniature troughs being constantly subjected to the sol-
vent action of running water and the trituration of the suspended matter

297

wear away, formive curved sides deepening towards the axes of the
troughs.

As to why the whole texture of the rock should become concretionary
and the whole outside surface peel off in one large scale, thick enough to
preserve this wall like appearance, ] am not know prepared to express
an opinion, but hope to be able to submit some hypothesis after further
study.

I have observed a similar though not entirely identical phenomenon
near the Real Doleres in New Mexico, where an apparently plutonic rock
was divided on the exterior in a similar manner, but in this case the
whole mass was concretionary.

It appears to open an entirely new question as to whether thick plates
of igneous rocks (and @ fortéord sandstones, &c.,) may not be weathered
into concretions.

PAH-UTE CREMATION,
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Dec. 4th, 1874.)

ReEavDineG, Penna., Nov. 25th, 1874.
Dr. J. L. LEContrx,

Dear Sir: —In the last issue of the ‘“‘Popular Science Monthly,’”’ I
noticed an editorial alluding to your paper upon the subject of ‘‘ Crema-
tion,’’ as a custom of one of the tribes of Indians inhabiting California.

The same custom prevails amongst that sub-tribe of Pah-Utes, known
as the Cottonwood, Corn Creek, Spring Mountain and Pah-rimp Spring
Indians. ‘The varying local names are due only to the locality they in-
habit, and they are one and the same tribe in reality. While attached to
Lt. Wheeler’s Expedition of 1871-2, I had ample opportunity to investi-
gate anything pertaining to scientific subjects, and I took special care to
. collect all facts relating to the habits, customs, and superstitions of the
Indian tribes through whose territory we passed.

The tract of country alluded to, as occupied by this sub-tribe of Pah-
Utes, lies between 115° and 115°35’ west longitude, and latitude north’
35° and 36°. Spring Mountain being their stronghold, and is located
just north of the ‘‘old Spanish Trail.’’ By means of an interpreter, I
obtained the following information. Upon the death of one of these
Indians, a pile of wood is prepared in the immediate vicinity ; this is se
arranged as to form a rectangle, to the heighth of from two to three feet.
The corpse is laid upon this, wheu the fire is started, after which wood
is continually thrown across the pile until the body is reduced as much
as possible. Mesquite, pine and cedar is usually employed, and forms
excellent coals and an intense heat. All the remaining property,—as
wearing apparel, arms, blankets, dogs and horse, (if the deceased pos-
sessed any)—is also burnt. These last named valuables, I have no doubt,

es 2 RAO, MAY, Vik

29'

may be represented to have been burnt, as the number of horses among
the tribe is very small. Although, according to their belief, when an
Indian dies, his spirit goes to the East, which they consider the ‘* White
Man’s Hunting Ground,” and where he would be unable to hunt, were
his spirit deprived of these valuable aids. The remains are then covered
with earth, whether really buried | could not ascertain.

Amongst the Sioux, when an Indian hands to another a stick, it im-
plies a horse, and as soon as the recipient hands the stick to the. donor
(when at the latter’s camp) the horse is given in return. This custom is
only observed while a party have collected to dance, and the object is,
that when an Indian is rich enough to be able to give away a horse, his
vanity is so immense, that he must relate his brave deeds, (Count his
Coos) and for the purpore of having at least one admirer upon whom he
can depend for applause, and flattering notices, as “‘How brave!’ a
noble Dacotah ! etc., etc., he looks over the assemblage in a dignified
manner and presents some one present with a stick of wood (aloons a
foot in length, and thick as a finger,) for which a horse will be given on
the following morning.

A similar custom might, partially be used, to, soto use the term, burn
a horse in effigy, thereby saving a poor tribe a valuable member ; for I
must say the horses are the better of the two. I have seen aad been
amongst probably thirty sub-tribes, but the Pah-Utes, of the above
named region are the only ones with whom we came in contact, who
“¢Cremate.’’

Very sincerely,
W. J. HOFFMAN,

103 S. Sixth street.

Stated Meeting, December 18th, 1874.
Present, 17 members.
Vice-President, Mr. FRAuEy, in the chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. =
Selwyn, dated Montreal, Dec. 8, 1874.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Royal
Observatory, at Prag, Oct. 8, (XV, i, 90, 91); the Batavian
Society, at Rotterdam, Sept. 26, (89); and the Victoria In-
stitute, London, Nov. 28.

A letter inviting subscription to three sheets of photo-

graphic portraits of members of the Hungarian Academy,
was received from M. L. Aigner, Buda-Pest.

299

A letter of envoy was received from the Linnean Society,
at Bordeaux.

A letter declining to sit upon the Meunier Committee,
on account of necessary and imperative engagements, was
received from Prof. Guyot. A similar communication
being received from Prof. Cook, the committee was dis-
charged from consideration of the subject.

Donations for the Library were reported from the Royal
Batavian Academy and Observatory; the Society at St.
Gall; the Revue Politique; Nature; the Meteorological
Committee of the R. Society ; Essex Institue; Boston Nat-
ural History Society, and Mr. Edmund Quincy ; Prof. Alfred
Mayer; American Chemist ; Penn Monthly ; Medical News;
College of Physicians; College of Pharmacy ; Mr. Isaac Lea;
Historical Society of Maryland ; U.S. Commission of Fishe-
ries ; Engineer Department, U. 8. A. ; and Surgeon General,
Wl, Saat

An obituary notice of Chief-Justice Read was read by
Mr. EH. K. Price. .

A communication on the alleged Parallelism of Coal-beds,
by John J. Stevenson, was read by the Secretary.

The appropriations recommended by the Finance Com-
mittee were adopted. ~

Pending nomination 764, and new nomination 765 were
read, ear?

On motion of Mr. EK. K. Price, a Standing Committee of
Botanists to supervise the purchase and planting of trees
for the Michaux Grove, in Fairmount Park, purchased out
of the Michaux fund proceeds, was appointed, consisting of
five members—Mr. A. H. Smith, Mr. C. E. Smith, Mr.
Thomas Meehan, Dr. J. A. Leidy, and Dr. J. L. LeConte.

On motion, a committee of three was appointed to consider
the subject of the communication made to this Society by
the Baron de la Ronciére de Noury, at the last meeting, con-
sisting of Prof. Lesley, Mr. Briggs, and Prof. P. E. Chase.

And the meeting was adjourned.

300

Tho following letter furnished for the minutes by Mr. Price, will ex-
plain the history of the purchase of the oaks in Europe.

OFFICE OF CHIEF ENGINEER,
or FAIRMOUNT PARK,
Philadelphia, Dec. 10th, 1874.
Hon. Er K. Price,

Chairman Com. on Nurseries, &c.

Dear Sir:—One of the objects aimed at in establishing the Michaux
Grove and Nursery, was to have in the Park not only a school for study,
in which might be seen trees, of valuable quality, but also the means of
detecting the spurious and unreliable varieties which are sold for pure
species. In order to do this, we should be able to show every variety of
Oak that will live inthis climate, including the sports with the names
attached by respectable nurserymen at home and abroad. This is just
what I have endeavored to do. Immediately after the resolution by Park
Commission, of May 14th, 1870, authorizing the expenditure of $500 for
Oaks, several respectable arborists were consulted as to where a collec-
tion of Native Oaks could be had, and the result was to get some 12 or
15 species of American Oaks, being all that I found in American Nurse-
ries differing from well-known species already growing in the Park.
Several young trees of each of these species were bought and planted on
the site selected for a Michaux Grove. Catalogues were then procured
from several foreign Nurseries, naming over 100 species and varieties of
the genus Quercus. On my visit to England, in 1872, Dr. Hooker, the
learned Director of Kew Gardens, was consulted, and several of the largest
British Nurseries were visited, and over 80 so-called species and varieties
of Oaks were examined. On my next voyage in 1873, other nurseries
were visited, and then the first order was given for foreign trees, embracing
from 3 to 6 plants of each of some 100 species and varieties and sports,
with the names they bore in the catalogues of the most respectable Nur-
series. When the invoices were received, it was evident that some of the
names were misspelled. As the requisite corrections could not be made
at the time, the bills were laid before the Park Commission for payment,
the names forwarded ia the English invoices were unchanged with the
expectation of having the proper corrections made at an early day. The
work of correction was commenced, but has been interrupted by my
illness, and thus the uncorrected lists were unexpectedly laid before the
Philosophical Society. The examinations made during my illness, show
that a large proportion of the names are to be found in the list published
by Paxton in his Botanical Dictionary, and also in that most complete
descriptive work, the Arboretum, of London, and also, elsewhere. While
I have been preparing this statement in a condition of great suffering
and almost of helplessness from the violence of continued pain, my wife
has kindly marked 49 of these identified names with descriptions from
which any expert Botanist may recognise the plants. This work of
identification, Mr. Estabrook is quite willing to undertake as soon as the
spring shall bring out the foliage. Truly yours,

JNO. C. CRESSON, Chief Engineer.

SECOND LJ
ECLOLOEICAL SURVEL of PENNSWVSYANIA,

J.P. LESLEY, DIRECTOR

A SURVEY ofthe SCHUYLKILL WATER CAP
IN THE COUNTIES OF

Sthaylkill and Berks
PENNA.

SSSHAOS
yy) oN NX . REFERENCE
aS & AB Line ofSfeclion VIS.
<i coline of hed kUlire Shales.
eF Line of Uplhrow.
Lontour Lines 2g fect apart |
Add 352 feel for beraltore above T. |

EM Chance Volunteer Asst! c J

Jan. 15, 1870. J d0L {[ Delmar,

THE RESOURCES, PRODUCTIONS AND SOCIAL CONDITION
OF SPAIN.

By ALEXANDER DéLMAR,

LATE DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, January 15, 1875.)

INTRODUCTION.

Until very lately there were few or no histories or works of reference
in the English language relating to Spain which contained any informa-
tion with regard to that country later than for the period 1855-61; and
a survey of the condition of Spain from the stand-point thus afforded
presented but a gloomy prospect. During the sixty-one years ending
with the latest date to which these works bring the student, the popula-
tion of Europe and America had nearly doubled, and this increase in the
numbers of the foremost races of the world was, as it always is, merely
the type of that vast and almost universal material progress which ren-
ders such increase possible.

During the same momentous period, serfdom and slavery had been
condemned or abolished in both continents, and with it the feudal system
and the corvée. During the same time mankind had armed itself with
the titanic powers of steam and electricity, and rushed with renewed
strength into that perpetual struggle with nature, which is its heritage,
but in the maintenance of which, at about the beginning of the period
referred to, it had become well-nigh exhausted, for lack of suitable
weapons and appropriate agencies. This epoch, too, had witnessed
in many couatries the separation of Church and State, the obliteration
of castes, the spread of popular education, the establishment of popular
representation, the mobilization of proprietary rights, the development
of great scientific progress, and a brilliant series of discoveries in every
dspartment of thought.

During all this time, marked by the mightest strides of material
progress which the world had ever seen, that country of Europe which,
while the rest of the Continent was shrouded in the darkness and
bigotry and superstition of the Middle Ages, once held aloft the lamp of
science and built up with the hands of its Semetic occupiers a civilization
several centuries in advance of its time; that country from which subse-
quently went forth the imperial dicta that controlled one-half of the
Continent, and all of the newly discovered world beyond the Western
Ocean, lay inert and motionless.

The country of Abderrahman, of Alfonso el Sabio, of Ximenes, had
made no sensible progress for centuries. The numbers of the people were
substantially the same, the institutions were the same, the lives they led
were the same. So late as the year 1855 but one-fifth of the surface of Spain
was cultivated; the rest had been blasted by a ruinous system of exploita-

A. P. §.—VOL. XIV. 2M

Delmar. ] 302 [Jan. 15,

tion. A great portion of the entire country, cultivated and uncultivated,
was owned by the Church and nobility. The Inquisition had been but re-
cently suppressed; the peasantry were still in a condition of serfdom, the
corvée was in vogue, the country swarmed with drones, bandits, smugglers,
vagabonds and beggars; religious liberty was denied, and popular education
was almost wholly unknown. ‘There was no scientific development ; no
well-established middle class, and but the beginnings of a newspaper
press and a railway and telegraph system. There were few or no roads,
or manufactories, while commerce was restricted, and free discussion
prohibited. Ina word, Spain, though she had made more than one abortive
attempt to do so, had not yet fully awakened from the torpid condition
into which she had been cast ages before by the cold hands of ambitious,
unpatriotic and selfish ecclesiastics. The rest of the world had long since
awakened to a life of freedom and joined in the race of modern develop-
ment; Spain was still asleep, drugged with the fumes of prescribed
ignorance and dictated intolerance.

It is not held that this was truly the condition of Spain so late as up to
1855-61; but that this is substantially the picture of it that is to be found
in many of the most authoritative and latest works of reference now
extant in our language on the subject.

The following view of Spain was written during the reign of Ferdi-
nand VII—about forty or fifty years ago (Macgregor, 994) :

‘¢ Exclusive of about a fourth of the population, composed of persons
living on their property without doing anything, Spain, according to the
census of 1797, contained 100,000 individuals existing as smugglers, rob-
bers, pirates and assassins, escaped from prisons or garrisons ; about
40,000 officers appointed to capture these, and having an understanding
with them; nearly 300,000 servants, of whom more than 100,000 were
unemployed, and left to their shifts ; 60,000 students, most of whom
begged or rather extorted charity at night, on the pretence of buying
books, and if to this melancholy list we add 100,000 beggars, fed by 60, -
000 monks at the doors of their convents, we shall find that at the period
referred to, there existed in Spain nearly 600,000 who were of no use
whatever in agricultural or the mechanical arts, and who were only calcu-
lated to prove dangerous tosociety. Lastly, having made these and other
necessary deductions, we find that there remained 964,571 day laborers,
917,197 peasants, 310,739 artizans and manufacturers, and 34,399 mer-
chants, to sustain by their productive exertions 11,000,000 of inhabitants.
These results which, -nutatis mutnndis, are applicable at the present day
as at the time when they were deducted, exhibit a state of society so
radically corrupt and debased as to render all hopes of its regeneration
very nearly desperate.”’

Said M’Culloch, writing in 1844: ‘‘ Owing to vicious institutions, bad
government and other causes, Spain has, for a lengthened period, con-
tinued stationary or made little progress, while other nations have
advanced with giant steps in the career of improvement.”’

1875. ] 3035

[ Delmar.

Said Macgregor, in 1850: ‘‘ The government of Spain can scarcely be
considered less despotic than Russia or Turkey ;’’ and he goes on to
speak of “the backward state of agriculture in Spain, the indolence of
the rural population, the great numbers who are otherwise employed than
in husbandry, and the preference given to pastoral occupation over that
of tillage,’’ etc.*

Appleton’s Cyclopedia, which is dated 1864, though it notices the
beginnings of a recently developed appearance of progress in Spain,
states that agriculture there is still in its infancy, notices the continuance
of the Mesta and other institutions of the Middle Ages, and chronicies
the then recent conservative reaction typified by the restoration to the
Church of al] the lands that had not been sold.+

In brief, the picture of Spain, which is obtained from the usual works
of reference on the subject, depended upon, or accessible to, the Ameri-
cw student, is that of a Spain still sleeping the sleep of the centuries.

But this picture is incorrect. Since the date of these works, or of the:
information which they contain, Spain has made, what is for her, enor-
mous progress. From absolutism to constitutionalism was.for her but a
single jump, and not like France in 1789 through a Reign of Terror, but
by the progressive steps of an orderly and deliberate revolution. This

* The following tables, though obviously imperfect, may nevertheless afford an indi-
cation of the backward social condition of Spain previous to recent changes:

DRONES IN SPAIN.

Year 1797. Year 1826. Year 1857.
CLASSES OF DRONES. Macgregor, p. 994, Macgregor, p. 944, Martin, ete.
and M’Culloch, 849. and M’Culloch, 840.

Smugglers, etc............ 100,000 TOOK O OOS ay TE eo Dent terse rays
Custom Officers............ 40,000 40,000 27,922
Domestic Servants....... 300,000 276,000 206,090
Student Beggars...... S000 BONO OO irs, eee eelilite eesti 47,312
IBORFeMESy Sogou bouboade! Som 100,000 SOO OOW ma whats burps
WOMENS ioogqdacsucgoHeduaDGo 61,617 61,727

NWS consocoodobadog000000 32,500 24.007 125,0.0
Other Ecclesiastical...... 81,803 85,735

\WAERIOOMOIS Goodosonoudabom i). loogaea NAO Tek TEU eS odaao
have WNIEMWO HS ob socaGans000000 2,705, f

Officers Oi IGN WHOM sooo 8 —— geosoo ZESUUY oe gaba0e
Wandering a ConwviCts--m eel) loseeees ZEON) ws A eqnood
Army and Navy........... 500,000 100,000 241,335
IOLA T ocd soo00G6000q000 SDOSOO ON Weenie ih eiilartaeScternrers 478,716

The classification involves questions of opinion and taste in which I am far from
agreeing with the writers from whom I quote..

The following table, from various authorities, shows the ecclesiastical population of
Spain at various dates:

Year. Number. Year. Number.
LPT I yratotate els aie tals el svs{eieinateya 188,625 MBS staid raze cistels iawielorereioieiaeiers 125,000
SSO Speratetetetairetotstetsietateletetelete\els 203,298 SG Qi eran asttevete eee o0Ga0 39,885
Sa omtctetetetetelcrerektst-teisistalelate 175,574 1870

See cee ee see ereeeeesoee 8 oseeee

Without feeling at all certain of the accuracy of these numbers, I think it safe to con-
clude that since 1855 the porportion of ecclesiastics in Spain has very materially
decreased.

. | These lands were again taken from the Church and sold, the Church receiving an
equivalent for them in money. During the subsequent civil war this payment was
stopped. Upon the recent accession of Alfonso XII, it wasresumed. The substantial

point of the whole history is that the people haye got the lands and no reaction can
deprive them of them. A

Delmar J 304 [Jan. 15,

revolution, like its predecessor in the same country of half a century
before, may have gone too far and subjected itself to the evils of a con-
servative reaction which in time will destroy all its good effects, but this
is not believed to be the case. During the late years preceding and dur-
ing its republican government, the Spanish nation sotboroughly destroyed
the power of the bigots, so utterly abolished feudal institutions, so
seatte.ed to the winds the privileges of castes and monopolies and so
clinched and riveted these reforms by the educational institutions and
agencies of material progress which it created, that for it to go back to
the dark ages of twenty years ago is simply impossible. Several millions
of people in Spain have learned to read during the past fifteen or twenty
years; several thousand miles of railways have been built; several mil-
lions of acres of additional land brought under cultivation. These are
works of progress that cannot be undone. Spain is like an inert mass
suddenly hurled into the illimitable space of action; she must go on now
forever.*

In endeavoring to portray the recent progress of Spain, I shall confine
myself in this paper chiefly, though not entirely, to the important topic
of agriculture, and the sub-topics more immediately connected with that
greatest of all industries. This is done not only because progress in Spain
means, and must, for some ages yet, mean, necessarily and above all
things, progress in agriculture; but also because it is upon this subject
that current works of reference on Spain are most deficient.

NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE, ETC.

Of this once most foremost country of the world, it may be said briefly
that nature gave her every original resource and man destroyed them all.
Situate in the temperate and tropical zones, watered by two oceans, and
penetrated by no less than 230 rivers, nearly one-half of her soil still lies
barren, for the want of moisture denied her by the destruction of her
forests. The average fall of rain during the year is stated to be ‘‘19.45
inches, while the average heat is 65° 42’ Fahrenheit, even in winter only
falling to 56° 54’ and in summer ascending to 999.’”’ U. 8. Com. Rel.,
1868, p. 373.

In Alicante and many other provinces it seldom rains at all. When it
does, the floods are often very destructive. In November, 1864, an extra-
ordinary inundation took place in the province of Valencia, causing the
river Incar to overflow its banks, partially destroying the town of Alcira,
and inflicting damage to the amount of over two million dollars (Br. C.
R. 1865, p. 73). Spain is essentially a country of mountain ridges and ele-

* “Tyon José Sanchez de Bazan gave me some highly interesting accounts of recent
Spanish progress, and the state of affairsin his country. There were three thousand miles
of railways in Spain; over twelve million passengers were annually carried upon them;
there were seven thousand miles of telegraph, fitteen thousand miles of common roads,
ete. The Constitution guaranteed complete civil and religious liberty; the priests
were banished; the press was free, and Spain would soon once more lift up her head

among the nations.’”—A Summer Tour in 1872, by Alex. Delmar. Appleton’s Journal :
New York, November, 1873.

1875.] SUD { Delmar,
vated plateaux, the former being filled with mineral riches, the latter once
the scene of immense agricultural productions.

Moneys, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Previous to July 19, 1849, the weights and measures of Spain differed
in every province*, though those of New Castile, the provinee in which
the capital of the country is situated, were the ones generally employed
in works relating to the entire country. The following table shows the
principal moneys and principal weights and measures in use previous
to the establishment of the metrical system :

Moneys, Weights and Measures—Old System.

$0.50 U. S. Gold.
10 iva be
03 be be
4.268 gallons. ? +
3.823 u
1.105 acres.

1 Escudo,

1 Real de Plata,
1 Real de Vellon,
1 Arroba of wine,
1 Arrobia of oil,

1 Aranzada,

1 Fanegada, ageyt OG) 98 at
1 Fanega, 1.55 bush.
1 Libra, 1.0144 lbs. avoir.$

There is also a land measure used in Valencia, and perhaps elsewhere,
ealled the hanegada, equal to 0.2062 acres. The cahiz is equal to 12
Janegas, er 18.6 bushels.

Moneys, Weights and Measures—New System.

Although the metrical system was established throughout the entire
kingdom of Spain by the law of July 19, 1849, the old metrology con-
tinued to be employed in Spanish works so late as 1859, and sometimes
it is still used. Under the present system Spanish names are given to
the French moneys, weights and measures. The france is called the
peseia; the metre, metro; the litre, létro, ete. The equivalents of these
terms are well known.

The reform effected by the adoption of the metrical system in Spain,
though insignificant when compared with tke far more essential reforms
which will presently be alluded to, is nevertheless not altogether unim-

* For a full account of Spanisk provincial metrology see book of Instructions to Spanish
Consuls, a work te be found in the hands of the various Spanish consular officials
throughowt the world.

+ Von Baumhauer.

{ The best authorities for these equivalents are: 1. The Official Instructions to Span-
ish Consuls; and 2. The able paper of M. Von Baumhauer, published in the Report of
the Seventh International Statistical Congress, vol. 3, p.173. These authorities agree
substantially as to the Castilian Aranzada and Fanegada. The Spanish work estab-
lishes the Aranzade at 4471.92644 metres; M. Von Baumhauer says 44.71918 ares. The
Spanish work fixes the Fanegada at 6439.574075 metres; M. Yon Baumhauer says
64.39553 ares. But when it comes to the Fanega they differ. The Spanish work sets it
down at 55.101055 litres; while M. Von Baumbhauer says 55.5)123 litres. Other authori-
ties differ from both of these. Deeming the Spanish official publication the highest
authority on the subject, I have adopted the equivalents therein established as being
the most correct. The American equivalents of the metrical weights and measures are
from the invaluable little work of Dr. b. F. Craig, of Washington, D. C., which corrects
the errors of the British Assay Office.

§ Yon Baumhauer.

Delmar. ] 306

[Jan. 15,

portant ; for it rendered possible intercommunication and commercial
dealings between the various provinces of Spain which, under the old sys-
tem, were almost impossible. There were arrobas and fanegas and fane-
gadas in all the provinces, but no two were of like value, and they differed
enormously. The fanegada, which contained 576 estadales carrés in Cas-
tile, contained from 100 to 625 in the other provinces, and the aranzada,
which contained 400 in Castile, contained from 300 to 600 elsewhere.
(Von Baumhauer.) With an illiterate population, such a diversity of
terms was tantamount to an almost entire prohibition of intercourse
between the provinces.

ToTaL AREA OF CoUNTRY.

In the Spanish statistical tables, Spain is usually meant to embrace the
Balearic and Canary Isles. The following table gives the total superfices:

KILOMETRES Mere enne
CARRES. | a : i
Spal propels cee ce 494,946 190, 257 121,764,480
Balearic Isles.............. 4,817 + 1,852 1,185,280
Cananyplslesian ree | 7,273 2,196 1,789,440
Mota wu. ericson 507, 036 194,905 124 739,200

CULTIVATED AREA AT VARIOUS DATES.

I have before me nine different accounts of the cultivated area of
Spain at four different periods, viz.: 1. The account of Miguel Ozorio y
Redin, who wrote in the last half of the seventeenth century; 2. The
official returns for the year 1803; 3. An account from the Junta de Medios,
concerning the divisions of land in 1803; 4. A statement laid before the
Cortes in 1808; and 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, various accounts relative to the
divisions of land from the year 1857 to the present time. Of these
accounts the earlier ones have generally been treated by English writers
as more or less fanciful; on the contrary, I believe them, when
rightly understood, to be more or less correct. Confusion of the terms,
‘¢productive land,’”’ ‘‘cultivable land,” ‘‘cultivated land,’’ ‘‘arable
land,” ‘‘ area sown in grain,”’ and ‘‘areain which grain is sown,’’ as well
as error in the translation of ‘‘fanegadas”’ and ‘‘ fanegas’’ being suf-
ficient to account for their apparent discrepancies.

Selecting the second one, as perhaps the most reliable, we have the
following divisions of Spain proper for the year 1803:

DIVISIONS OF LANDS 1803. SQUARE LEAGUES. ACRES.
Onitieeediinnds a uiecaiio een : 4,310 27,627,100
Pastures and commons).-.-- 45 se oes 11,658 74,727,780
Horestsandicopsesmimenica-cinericioe eee 1,580 | 10,127,800
Mountains/and| riversmece scree sere 1,342 8, 602,220

MObal ss eos wajeereleeerantece wlenie cece herne 18,890 121,084,900

1875. ]

307

[Delmar

I deem the following to be the most reliable one relative to any late
year preceding the period of recent progress:

DIVISIONS OF LAND IN 1857. ACRES.
Land sown in grain, potatoes, beans and peas, roots, vege-
tables, commercial crops, fallow land, grass land under
rotation, chestnut groves, orchards and gardens......... 92,210,071
WANING AUC SLA yey e stair enalaney ae foimeay eh cl nave Vahetaloh vera anGa avaleisloie Seales 2,906, 783
Olivewouco unr Sty eS ecee AR cA SUR aa ver eae Me UM RG 2, 122,730
NIGACO NS GNC CASEI Ass Wakao oeddoomoesodd douboeos bene 16,926,028

Mountainous lands

eee cee coro oe

ee soso ere eo se ee eee coe

eocee secre e ee eo eee seen

10,832,730
3,086, 247

Kotaleproductive land. cra.t-sciieletactetsle <n eclerci ar 68,584,589
BOVE SUS Hee retee oe el ere eae caer etate toate lous ict syetnusieiet scebsicueresesaiie <tueleven crete 6,885, 600
Barren and waste; also lakes, rivers, roads, etc........... 49,269,011
Grand Go tal ass see vate a apeciei ood ceroueiaie oraa eo eipen sel he ores 124,739,200

Comparing the two accounts, so far as their different classifications
will enable a comparison to be made, we have the following results:

{ 1857.
DIvIsion or LAND, Spain PROPER. |SPAIN AND THE nia. Gunns or Loss.
ACRES. ACRES. ACRES.
Cultivated and fallow 27,627, 100 37,239,584 G. 9,612,484
RESUSHRecnenasarsinaoaietote A 6,2 85,6
Soar he f 10,127,800) eof HOSS
Mountains............. \ 8 602,220 10,832,830.
INCHES» Sas oomneRboebee yeee"\Ine. in “Barren.’’ | ¢ Unchanged
SIF, CIOs od0500c cuceboloo0c0006000000 3,586, 247,
Meadows and pastures. \ 74. 727.780 16,926,028 Unchanged.
Barren, waste, etc..... etna’ 49,269,011 Loss.
Motalee to cavevesvaie ss 121,084,900 124,739,200]

Beyond the essential point that nearly ten million of acres were added
to the cultivated lands, it can only be stated roughly that the forest
lands of Spain, which, so far as concerns the period under review, were
never extensive, slightly diminished ; the pasture lands (properly speak-
ing, there were few or no meadows in Spain), remained unchanged,
and the common and waste lands diminished, by being brought partly
under cultivation.

IRRIGATION.

Of the above mentioned 37,239,584 acres of cultivated land, 2,857,648
acres were irrigated as follows:

FANEGADAS,

DrivisIons OF IRRIGATED LAND. Ben OnElcoeNcomel ACRES.
Arablerlandiserceaacoceerasce oe 1,370,090 2,192,144
WiteyAWelS 5660 ccoccon0 0000000000000 67,374 107,755
OURS) MAVOUITGIS Ga oossconccuooonoEEdod 74,618 119, 389
(Oe aero Py Gale erences DL EEC earn oa 273,970 438, 360

oy eT cates rope ne Bios Pe or Re eX a 2 1,786,025 2,857, 648

Delmar. ] 308 [Jan. 15,

Lanp SOWN IN GRAIN AND POTATOES.

Of the 32,210,071 acres of land devoted to grain and other products, or
in fallow, the following portions were sown in grain and potatoes only:

VVila Cai tere rar crcl onaeavarausconacievctiesboravaconctons(ayovevctelcberenens 7,311,892 acres.
Barley sree serie ceric ie ects) Ieee r 3,182,100
IR \She oma du Mane 4 osac oOo ie SO UPOS ob done 2,961,863 *
Maize and other grain..............222+.-e0- 1,351,687
JETRO eae o OO BAe Une OO bad Soa audio d au onc 509,503 = *¢
ROGAN Se i encateyass age ateevne erator Seis wiatekare 15,316,865 ‘

The divisions of land in 1874 are estimated as follows:

Divisions OF LAND In 1874. ACRES.
Cultivated and fallow :

Arable land, #.¢., land sown in various crops, fallow land,
grass under rotation, groves, orchards and gardens....| 40,000,000
Wihnenenle sco s066005 conden cocund0oGaGo SUCRE GOUEHOGCDS 3,000,000
Oliver eroundsier vate crescileleyte tere ler foieicl~ tte ear tere a 2,000,000
Mead owsand pastures cee ser ercteteree tie citer i lteleitertteie tet 17,000,000
MODE NIKO DIS KGlngiys Seas ge apocitodosd Goode moor deaad Ob 10,800, 000
Sites, mines and QuarrieS.......c-..-eseee creer e eee eeees 3, 700, 000
IMGRERIS Sdn aon boodoUdooddooeDOO COO OOOOTOoODO0 DOO Uo OOON 6,800,000
Barren, waste, public and water surfaces............ ..... 41,439,200
OTS Gell ec ist saat seek cs o ence narane eicGaN ogy Tie theyetemeonete che EIEN 124, 739, 200

The cultivated and fallow lands, which amounted to less than 28,000,000
2cres in 1803, and about 37,000,000 acres in 1857, now amount to 45,000,000
acres; showing as great progress during the seventeen years from 1857 to
1874 as occurred in the fifty-four years from 1803 to 1857. According to
this measure, progress has been thrice as rapid during recent years as it
was previously.

POPULATION.

According to Martin, Spain, in the time of Julius Cesar, contained a
population of 78,000,000; according to a Spanish author quoted in the
U. S. Com. Rel., 1865, p. 169, she had 68,000,000; according to Appleton’s
Cyclopedia she had 40,000,000. I place no reliance whatever on these con-
jectures. Seaman’s Progress of Nations, p. 551, also contains a series of
conjectures on the subject which are certainly wrong or fallacious. The
earliest authentic account of the population of Spain, dates about five
centuries ago, when under the Moors, she was stated to have contained
21,700,000 inhabitants. This account—from the number and opulence
of her towns, the works of improvement executed and which still remain,
the breadth of land cultivated, the number of houses, workshops, artisans,
etc., all of which are known with reference to many localities,—this
account I believe to be substantially correct.

Through the expulsion of the Moors, who were the agriculturists, and
the Jews, who were the manufacturers and merchants of Spain, this vast
population, which, in my opinion, is the greatest the soil of Spain ever

1875.]

309

{ Delmar.

supported, gradually dwindled down to about 7,600,000 inhabitants in

1725.

what over 17,000,000 at the present time.*
The following table exhibits the data on this interesting subject,
together with such remarks as I have deemed were necessary to be made
and the authorities from whom I have quoted. I have indicated the
figures which I consider incongruous by placing them in brackets.

From the last named period it has very slowly increased to some-

POPULATION OF SPAIN AT VARIOUS PERIODS.
(The figures in brackets do not appear to agree with the others.)

Year. |Population Authority. Remarks.

isth Cen. | 21,000,000 |Rep. Br. Sec. Leg, 1866......-...... (Quoted from Spanish author
1380 21,700,000 |Castile 11,000,000, Arragon 7,000,-

000 and Grenada 3,000,000 bsosecoullooppobcd00G00q000 000000 00000000
1594 ROG TIL INR, Bin, SG, IEG, WIAT conobocoossllcosooaccocaousmoescsoosa0560000
1618 [93000*000i]||Cevaillos merrier icisieelccieleicler-rlevieisiclevele Quoted “by Macgregor.
1618 UDO DOO) NMOISEIRIEA, cacdene cogsdabbondodDeaAG Quoted by Macgregor.
1688 [8;000:000i} WES Come Rel-, W865... 2. ecw ceil acne © vie o1eicie nicl wlelwlevinisivlelsieiels elejere
1700 [8,000,000 ]| Macgregor At death of Charles IO
1723 7,625,000 OG From an official census.
1726 [5,423,000 ] 6G Excludes nobility and clergy
1768 DO TASOON Combe rele lO oeerretseielecisesiels eiciniatel licleleleinievereteteteteletctalelelel-lelelstetelntel-tol=l-t-
1769 9,301,728 |Macgregor ...........0.....06 ....|Includes Canaries | and Afri-
1770 9,307,000 ca MMMM eY VeVeteyatexeYolefeyevcleloverorereveteerers can settlements.
1788 10,143,000 i, | esacddada0occcsoDudeecus Excludes Canary Isles.
1789 LOST615485) | Comte Reels glS65.c\-lleseielcleisieil-aee cine Includes Canaries, etc.
1797 10,541,000 Appleton’s (GW@hoeccooccnsdaosodon0dlloaon00 codgos000sca009D00a0000C
We — | LE COO-OCOI|\Clomn, TRAM, WIR. .c50560c0escaGc5s0all>acdanas0a000 pooob0cQ0IROGD00GD
1803 10,351,000 Macgregor Elev fodsicveveiatelcTeie lave] sfevevesvaverats Census, Spain proper.
1803 10,351,075 |U. Ss. Census, USOS 105 XO rogodanas Spain and Balearic Isles.
1820 IH OOO,O00) Coun, IRC. WH ccoccodesoobodsoodnallesoooecoseeo coocds390G0n00R000
1821 11,248,000 Macgregor Ieee ya ever eravase eto natelotos Census, Spain proper
1821 THLE GAG NOs SIs Ceinems, WIAD, ocococndocecoscec :
1823 12,000,000 |Com. Rel., 1865............ 0.2 cece elec cere seme ert eetecc eet eeeene
1826 [BS fal: 25000))|| Miacoxer ont eeneee er aeieieniciccces Cadastral ret’ns, Spain pro’r
1827 [18,953,957] Oe? Goud ado obosonnduopadcece Cadastral ret’rn, Spain and
Balearic.
1828 [18,698,000]|Com. Rel., 1865..................2-- Martin says 13,698,029.
1833 12,087,991 |Ency. Amer., vol. 14............... Official. Excludes Balearic. .
1833 12,386,841 |Alm. de Gotha, 1850................ Official. Includes Balearic
and Canary Isles.

1834 (45660000) Maconeporseecae ssc eee Estimated.
1834 12,232,194 |U. S. Census, 1850.................. From Guibert.
1834 12,168,774 Cs A ally ah ena AMEE From M’Culloch.
1837 12,222,872 |Martin ............. cece cence eee cel ee eect cence este terete tcceeas
1842 12,054,000 STi Metate vate nave Ceyerararatarete uvaieceieveiey ofelersvevel l elaisusieveteietevereleieleret sieaieleisisiavets seleee
1846 12,166,774 Foie Mteere strc soe ersinneerciacteleatee Includes isles.
1849 1337005900) All na dies Goth arse. veces eeciels lee ctelele Spain proper.
1850 [10,942,280]|Br. Rep. Sec. Leg...........0ce.00- Incorrect.
1857 14°95", 010) |) Alm: del Gothaonecc- sss ose sence cee Spain proper.
Tey || (ENO EST NNN 5 so sco5 cadonaoosusbogcesodoec Spain proper. Details given.
1859 A SYABOLOOON | eeracmys tease arti atari mon manioinie ese Estimate.
1860 15,673,481 |Rep. 7th Inter. Stat. Cong., vol.3..|)
1861 15,867,304 oe rs Ob Of 6G The enumeration dates
1862 16,043,703 se 00 06 aC we Dec. 31 in each year.
1863 16,180,183 ee ce OG G6 6
1864 [5,752,607]|Br. Stat. For. Coum................ Spain proper.
1864 16,302,148 |Rep. 7th Inter. Stat. Cong, vol. 3
1865 16,378,481 & ot ce The enumeration dates
1866 16,526,474 ee mo OG Ob 06 Dec. 31 in each year.
1867 | 16,656,879 ‘“ Bh Ge Cola
1868 TO GPHUEYS | NIG tS), PALS EGER) oe Congoudsoeoonoocilacosc0asnooedoanbogecaGaGOdeODG
1868 [16,090,550]|Br. Stat. For. Coun................ Spain proper.
1869 16; S00\0008 EStimateran cece eee eee Spain proper.
1870 16,935,613 |Br. Stat. For. Coun................ Spain proper, census returns.
1871 MAOOOLOOOR EIStimabene eens eeeee eee eee eene Spain proper.
1872 17,100,000 SEEM Set eietopainy daierar davetereciebetinaien Spain proper.
1873 _ | 17,200,000 LOL SEP ONA ATSC BUSES ECO n OO hot Spain proper.
1874 17,300,000 SOE ans AT a rae alert ote avalpreoaveieerees Spain proper.

* It is believed by some writers that the population of Spain again retrograded subse-

Delmar. } 310 [Jan. 15,

This is a most instructive table.

First. It shows an extraordinary decrement of the population of Spain
from about the beginning of the fifteenth century until after the beginning
of the eighteenth. This is attributed chiefly to the Moorish and Jewish exo-
dus which commenced to take place in the year 1492, the same year in which
that New World was discovered in which eveatually so many of the exiles
found both homes and religious liberty. From first to last it is supposed
that no less than 300,000 Moorish and 300,000 Jewish* families, or nearly
three millions of intelligent and industrious people were driven from Spain,
and amidst the most shocking cruelties. These, together with the num-
bers who fled after the conquest of Grenada and the colonists to America,
contributed to reduce the population from nearly 22,000,000 in the four-
teenth century to little more than 7,000,000 in the seventeenth. Notwith-
standing the persecution of the Moors and Jews, it is stated that consid-
erable numbers remained in Spain, professing, if not believing, in the
doctrines of the Church, and forming the bulk of the agricultural and
industrial classes in many localities. This is affirmed by Macgregor and
denied by Buckle, but I think the weight of evidence is with the former.
M’Culloch, p. 845, says there were 60,000 Moriscoes in Grenada in his
time, about the year 1840.

Evidence of the large population that dwelt in Spain under the Moorish
régime is found ina class of facts, of which the following are examples:

“« Before the Conquest in 1487 (the city of) Grenada had 70,000 houses
and 400,000 inhabitants, 60,000 of whom were armed. It was defended
by ramparts flanked by 1030 towers and two vast fortresses, each of which
could receive in garrison 40,000 men.

“The kingdom (of Grenada) of which it is the capital, was only thirty
leagues in breadth by seventy in length, but it contained thirty-two large
cities and ninety-seven towns and 3,000,000 of inhabitants. The whole
population at present does not exceed 83,000.

‘The city of Cordova under the Moors occupied nearly eight leagues
of the banks of the Guadalquiver, and contained 600 grand mosques, 3,837
small mosques or chapels, 4,320 minauts or towers, 900 public baths, 28
superbs, 80,455 shops, 213,070 dwelling-housegs, 60,300 hotels or palaces.”’
Moreau de Jonnés, 1834.

‘The last official census states that 1,511 towns and villages were then
totally uninhabited and abandoned.’’ Macgregor, 1850.

For further evidence on this point, consult Buckle’s Hist. Civ., Draper’s
Hist. Civ. and Civil Policy of America.

Second. The table of population shows a very slow increment from the

quent to the year 1830. This opinion is probably based on the cadastral returns of
1826, or thereabouts, and the smaller numbers of the census returns of 1833. It may be
well-founded; but I have ventured to disregard it in arranging the figures of the text.

* This is the highest estimate. Buckle, who quotes a number of authors, states that
the number of Jews actually expelled is differently estimated at from 160,000 to 800,000.
—Hist. Civ., ii, 15.

1875.] dll [Delmar.

beginning of the seventeenth century to about the year 1850. The popu-
lation is stated to have been 7,500,000 in the year 1618 and 138,705,500 in
1849. This is an increase of but 82.7 per cent. in 231 years!

Third. The table shows a comparatively rapid increment of population
since about the year 1850, to-wit: from 13,705,500 in 1849 to about 17,300, -
000 in 1874, an increase of 26.2 per cent. in 25 years. This is the period
of recent progress in Spain to which attention has been directed, and it
is believed no better proof can be adduced in support of this allegation
of progress than the rapid increment of population which, in spite of
foreign and civil wars, has taken place.

RURAL AND CIvic POPULATION.

The cadastral returns of 1826 gave the rural population at 80.4; the
civic at 18.5, and the ecclesiastical at 1.1 per cent. of the whole. The
proportion of rural population therein shown is probably correct at the
present time.

AGRICULTURAL POPULATION.

Spanish statistics, at least as they reach compilers outside of Spain, are
proverbially incomplete, contradictory and obscure, and they are no less
so on this simple subject than on any other which I have found it neces-
sary to examine. The agricultural population of a country but half
cultivated, and that portion but indifferently tilled—a country, which, as
a rule, has forbidden the importation of breadstuffs, while it had none to
export ; which is neither a pastoral nor a new country ; and in which the
struggle for subsistence is so great that a local and temporary drought is
enough to stimulate what is else a constant but sluggish stream of emi-
gration to other countries—ought to be uncommonly large. On the con-
trary, my information states it to be comparatively small. If the latest
figures before me are corrret, the agricultural population of Spain is but
59 per cent. of the whole ; whereas I am confident it is not less than 65
to 70 per cent. The following is the statement :

OCCUPATIONS OF THE POPULATION OF SPAIN, 1857.

Non-AGRICULTURAL MALE ADULTS. NUMBER.
Army, Navy and Military functionaries................... 241,335
OfticialseaStateien peccisca er nee ees ean ase 22,362
VUTICIpall evr erencwe canis see wes eierienetaioe 62,976
JERR PUL O Rr Oe WG SoU COO A ere Aten Re, 4,693
—- 90,031
INTO O BIN ie oa ra G mip UDG Orn oc TOR CODE OTICn ET hus ot EE Aee an 478,716
(ONG (oie ap Rech ac co Ge OOO A DRA ACO nm COMBE oH OAC Deon ee 125,000
SLUG LS Eno onan BAG GE oy oe HER eEO Ae apeneecnay ola ior 47,312
IAC OCALES tara isverapicirerer er stareeret Sch amietn near aut 5,673
\WanlighS soieoe-aameoddodiadd an Fan Uenaneecr i ial ack eae seae ees 9,551

— 62,336

Delmar. | 312 [Jan. 15,

ison AcmcTmnTEAD A Aum. om,

STE NOLES 8 Ct R IGA ace IES AO SD OS GUIS Ree GOCE mn am uma a | 206,090
ENTE TCHATUES To terc ate cee ntere ronnie CareiSta ees wid oid Ble Gee bea ene eceveumucrenereieets eye 119,234
SS CONIM A DTG) 9d ois CARI SIC ERS ClcLAecn Siei At eure reat Ein Bee ayn unas Pa 39,736
Artistsimd; mechanics eric scree tera eoielererere 88,728
Miata Cher ire. cies ces ysuccave seu sraxeisepsie auevswaremeusicgsnes suesererane aucteaedecene 67,327
Miners, (1864) ........ 2... 2c eee cece ee eee eee eee eee 32,201
Workmen in refining and smelting vos (USO): cB Sibo cies 9,945
Fishermen; S665. e i ened ceed. WO) Lyin Rae cna 39,440
Seamen in ports, harborsetcaml| SGserce rarer mornin nies er 11,285
ae foreign trade, (SG5 ne Mer acc ae 16,181

eS Coastine trade SG3. aceite iret ice 21,606

Mt Na) ee) Ee ene AE I haa Hn Ng eT he em Gey oln h aa ato | 1,645,191

Total able-bodied men, 3,803,991. This would leave, at the most, but
2,158,800 agriculturists. At an average of four inhabitants to each able-
bodied man, this would imply, at the most, an agricultural population of
8,632,000, which is 55 per cent. of the whole. Add to the 2,158,800 male
adult agriculturists about 340,000 female laborers, and we have in round
numbers 2,500,009 persons actually employed in agriculture. This num-
ber forms less than 16 per cent. of the whole, a proportion that, taking
into consideration the rude state of tillage in vogue, would seem entirely
inadequate to produce the requisite amount of food for all.

Macgregor (p. 944) publishes the details of a cadastral return of the
population for 1826, concerning the correctness of the total sum of which
there is perhaps some doubt. The total figure is 13,712,000, while the
total of the table of details is but 15,211,301. In this table the agricul-
tural population is placed at 1,836,520 heads of families and others, and
6,777,140 women and children, the first-named figure being 13.9 per cent.
of the whole and the latter 65.2 per cent. The details of heads of agri-
cultural families and others are as follows : Proprietors, 364,514 ; farmers
(middle men), 527,423 ; laborers, 805,235 ; proprietors of herds and flocks,
25,530; and shepherds, 115,628.

I am inclined to believe these proportions to be nearer the truth, and
the truth at the present time, than those deduced above.

The discrepancies have doubtless arisen less from any material changes
in the occupations of the people than from the fact that in many districts
the agricultural laborer often alters his trade during the year; so that
the agreement of two censuses would depend largely upon the time of
the year they were taken respectively. (See on this point, L. T., 24, § 9.)

FEMALE LABORERS.

In Galicia and Asturias the number of female laborers is nearly equal
to the male. These districts comprise about one-fifth of the population.
In Carthagena, province of Murcia, population 380,969, female labor is
seldom or never employed for field work. In Minorca female labor is
employed hardly at all. In Majorca it is employed. Female laborers are

187d. ] 313 [Delmar.
employed, but not generally, in Guipuzcoa, Basque Provinces, population
162,547. In Biscay, Basque Proviuces, population 200,000, all the females
work in the fields at times, and female labor is largely employed. In the
Provinces of Malaga, Granada, Almeria, and Jaen, population 1,565,979,
female labor is hardly at all employed in the cultivation of land, only in
gathering olives and cutting grapes. From these and other reports (Land
Tenures, Part III), I have ventured to estimate the number of female
laborers in Spain at about 340,000, though I dare say the true number is
upwards of 500,000.
LAND TENURES.

The laws of 1820 abolished the right of primogeniture and all other
species of civic entail (mayorazgos); then followed that of 1841 on ecclesias-
tical benefices, and finally that of 1855, which declared in a state of sale land
and house property belonging to the State or appertaining to corporations
of towns, beneficence, public instruction, clergy, religious fraternities,
pious works, sanctuaries, etc. Like many other reforms which have
taken place from time to time in Spain, certain provisions of this one
were rescinded, and it was not until 1865 that the Crown lands were finally
decreed in a state of sale. It is, however, from the year 1855 that the
freedom of Spain from religious and feudal tenures really dates.

When it is considered that these tenures were abolished in France by
the Revolution of 1789, in the United States, generally, during the ear-
liest days of their history as independent Commonwealths, and in Prus-
sia in 1820, it cannot be deemed strange that a country which did not
succeed in throwing them off until 1855 should have failed to show any
signs of progress until within very recent years.

The condition of affairs in 1840 is thus described :

“‘Mr. Townsend (ii, 238) mentions that the estates of three great lords
—the Dukes of Osuna, Alba, and Medina Coeli—cover nearly the whole
of the immense Province of Andalusia ; and several in the other prov-
inces are hardly less extensive.’’ M’Culloch, p. 837.

‘The great estates belonging to the corporations, or towns, are held in
common ; and in consequence are wholly, or almost wholly, in pasture.”’
—Tbid.

In 1850, we have the following account :

‘« Among the causes of the defective state of agriculture in Spain are
the tenures of land. The unalienable, indivisible mayorazgos (entails) are
considered as having for a long period comprised, including the property
of the Church, about three-fourths of the territorial surface of Spain.

‘The Mesta is another great, although secondary, cause of the neglect
of agriculture. This is the name of a great incorporated company of
nobles, ecclesiastical chapters, persons in power and members of monas-
teries, who were authorized to feed their flocks, at scarcely any expense, on
all the pastures of the kingdom, and have almost an imperative special code
of laws (Leyes y Ordenenzas de la Mesta) for maintaining their originally
usurped privileges. It holds its courts and has numerous Alcaldes,

oe
Delmar. ] 314 [Jan. 15,

-Entregadors, Quadrilliers, Achagueros, and other law officers. Within
the last five years, the Mesta has possessed about half of the sheep in
Spain.’? Macgregor, p. 1016.

For lists of the religious establishments and the enérmous properties
and reyenues they absorbed, see pp. 1023-5 of the same work.

As to the condition of affairs at the present time, the bulk of agricul-
tural lands in Spain appear to be still held by wealthy or noble proprie-
tors, who live in the cities and lease them out on half produce, a la meta,
to indigent peasants. Feudal tenures are indeed swept away, but many
of the features of feudality remain, and it is still the custom in Alicante
and perhaps elsewhere, for the metayers to present the proprietors with
a certain number of fowls each year. The custom is now voluntary and
by no means relished by the owner, who feels bound to make some
return ; but it serves to indicate the relations between the metayer and
his landlord. The metayers onrice plantations in Valencia pay one-third
produce. Certain rights of commonage appear to continue. (L. T., 40,
$7.) In Galicia, the ‘‘foro”’ is mentioned so late as September 30, 1870.
(Com. Rel., 1871, p. 1008.) The “ foro”’ is a sort of land impost created
some eight or nine centuries ago, and continues to be paid annually by
the present owners to the descendants of the former proprietors of
land. ‘‘The importance of this tribute is such that it sometimes absorbs
the total productions of the soil ; thus it is that two-thirds of it has never
been cultivated.’’ (1béd.?) In October, 1873 (Com. Rel., 1873, p. 946), it is
stated that the feudal tribute of ‘‘foro’”’ had been declared redeemable
by the Government.

In fine, Spain may be said to have scarcely even yet emerged from the
feudal state. A large portion of her soil is still owned by absentee land-
lords and rented, partly for money rents and partly a la meta. The pro-
prietors seldom sell their properties (L. T., 42, § 10), and there is no
compulsion on their part to sell, lease, or otherwise dispose of their
property to peasants or others. (L. T., 49, §§ 6-7-8.) But as the law of
descent and division is the same that applies to personal property (dzd,
43, $2), it is merely a question of time when they will be divided and
absorbed by peasant proprietors.

Another drawback is the allodial duty of two per cent. on the sale of
lands. (lL. T., 31.) There is a government duty of three per cent. on all
transfers of property (p. 47, § 18). Whether the allodial duty of two
per cent. is added to this, does not seem clear.

But the great fact remains that the feudal system and all entails are
abolished ; the lands of the religious establishments and the Crown* are
sold, the corvée and the mesta swept out of existence, small peasant
properties exist in large numbers all over the country, and the door is
opened to further reform and future progress.

* Jn 1866 laws were also passed to facilitate the sale of mountainous lands,

51 i
1875. ] old [ Delmar,

LAWS OF SUCCESSION.

Land may now be willed as the owner chooses provided he has no
children. In case he has, these are his natural heirs, and the division is
in equal parts. He can, however, dispose of one-fifth thereof in favor of
his widow, or some particular child, or even of a stranger. Should the
property have increased in value since the marriage day of the owner, his
widow has a right to the half of the increase (L. T., 19). While this is
stated to be the law of Spain, the same authority speaks of the existence
(Dec. 7, 1870) of separate codes of law affecting real estate in different
provinces. (See pp. 40 and 43.) But this I doubt. The law of descent
seems now to be general throughout the land, and to have been based on
Novela exviii of the Roman laws of Justinian.

MortTMAIN.

The abolition of mortmain (law of desamortizacion) took place in 1855,
but many persons refused to buy church property on account of religious
scruples. In 1858 the Pope’s sanction was obtained, when the sales were
actively continued, the Government giving great facilities to the pur-
chasers. The payments are made one-tenth in cash and the remainder in
promissory notes running from one to ten, and in some cases, nineteen
years, and secured by mortgage on the property. Owing to these facili-
ties of purchase the biddings have often more than twice exceeded the
true market value of the parcels put up. The churches, etc., receive com-
pensation for their lands thus sold, and the nation gains by the operation,
what benefit accrues from throwing open lands to peasant ownership and
industrious tillage, which had been either entirely sequestered or negli-
gently worked by metayer tenants subject to the church. About $100,090, -
000 have been paid (in Government stock) to these institutions for their
lands, and about $200,000,000 (in cash and mortgages) received from the
purchasers. The total payments (for the operation has not yet quite ceased)
are estimated at $125,000,900, and total revenues at $250,000,000 ; so that
the Government will have made $125,000,000 by the law of mortmain. The
interest on the payments to the religious establishments, which were
made in Government securities, was stopped during the Republic, but an
order for its resumption was among the first acts of Alfonso XII upon his
accession to the throne of Spain in January, 1875.

REGISTRY SYSTEM.

‘‘ The sale or transfer of property (land) of every sort is always (now)
done by deeds drawn up by a notary and inscribed in the Land Register.
Leases of smaller importance are made by contract before witnesses. A
tax of two per cent. is paid to the State in cases where property is held
(hired?) or transferred ; but where a son inherits directly from his
father, or vice versa, no succession duty is paid. It exists, however, when
the inheritance is from any more distant relative and increases propor-
tionately.”” Report of Percy Ffrench, First Sec. H. B. M. Legation in
Spain. L. T., 18.

Delmar. ] 316 [Jan. 15,

Property is still administered and managed in Spain with great disorder
and negligence, and extreme irregularity exists in the registration of
leases, etc. Thisis probably due to the heavy registration, succession and
other fees, and attempts to avoid them by neglecting proper formalities.
Stamped paper must be used; only a feed notary can draw the papers,
and fees attend every step of registration, search or certification. The
average cost of transfer is about one and a-half per cent. ad valorem.
(L. T., p. 44). In other respects the registry system, which has only
been in force since 1863, appears to be similar to that which has always
existed in the United States.

HYPOTHECATION OF REAL ESTATE.

The very recent abolition of feudal and ecclesiastical tenures, the con-
tinued monopolization of the land by the wealthy (L. T., p. —), the new-
ness, the exactions and disorder of the registry system, together with
other causes, combine to render diffizult the hypothecation of real estate.
In cases where these obstacles do not exist, where the title is undoubted
and the land held in fee, there is no difficulty in obtaining loans to the
extent of one-third to two-thirds the value of the property, at six to ten
per cent. perannum. But in most cases it is the landless metayer who
desires to borrow ard has nothing to offer as security but his growing
crops. Upon such a precarious basis, ten to fifteen per cent. is a low rate
to charge for interest, and often from thirty to forty per cent. is paid.
(L. T., 18). With the means thus obtained numerous small holdings of
mountain land (common land sold by Government under act of 1866)
have been purchased by the peasantry on seven year annual installments
(p. 80). This points to an extension of the same sort of spade culture
which is to be seen in the hilly parts of Italy, and to the abandonment of
the better but metayer-held lands ‘of the nobility—a tendency that should
not exist.

Positos.

‘© Positos’’ are described by Macgregor as a sort of co-operative society
to supply seed corn and food in calamitous years, numbers of which have
existed all over Spain since the time of Philip Il. M’Culloch, however,
defines them to be merely public granaries where corn may be ware-
housed until it is disposed of. The name, which means ‘‘depositories,”’
proves this definition to be the correct one. They have diminished in
importance of late years, probably because the fears of occasional
scarcity, which, no doubt gave rise to them, have been removed by the
construction of roads and railways and a more liberal policy in respect of
the corn laws. The peasants and dealers in grain in Castile formerly
preserved their stocks in s¢los, or subterranean caves, for sometimes five
or six years.

MEsTA.

As has already been explained, Mesta was a right of common which

certain privileged classes possessed, but which is now abolished. It is

1875.] 317

[ Delmar,

said to have originated in the fourteenth century during a famine. This
right enabled the privileged owners of large flocks of sheep to drive them
over village pastures and commons there to feed at pleasure, and to com-
pel the owners of cultivated lands, which lay in the line of their migra-
tions, to leave wide paths for the pasturage of the flocks. Nor could any
new enclosures be made in the line of their march, or land that had once
been in pasture be cultivated again until it had been offered to the Mesta,
or corporation of flock-proprietors, at a certain rate! It is easy to per-
ceive that with the continuance of such monstrous privileges as these it
would only be a question of time when all the cultivated lands would be
turned into pastures, and all the pastures fall into the possession of the
Mesta. It was a great reproach to Spain that this feudal privilege existed
so long as it did, but its recent abolition is equally an undoubted sign of
progress.
NUMBER AND SIZE OF FARMS.

The number of farms in Spain in the year 1800 was but 677,520 in the
hands of 273,760 proprietors and 403,760 tenant farmers. (Martin.)
The number of landed properties, rural and urban, in 1857, was 2,433,301
(L. T., 46), and the number in 1870 was 3,612,000. (Zid, 19.) The pro-
portion of rural properties in late years is not stated by these authori-
ties, nor are the tenures by which they are held set forth. The number
of tenant farmers had increased from 403,760 in 1800 to 595,635 in 1857,
and probably upwards of 600,000 in 1870; but meanwhile and particu-
larly since 1855 the number of properties had increased, both by the
subdivision of land and the industrial absorption of mortmain and Gov-
ernment lands and village commons. The bulk of the peasant farms will
average between ten and fifteen acres. There are many vineyards of not
over one-eighth of an acre, and on the other hand, many large properties,
cultivated and uncultivated. The opinion appears to prevail among late
observers that from one-fourth to one-third of the cultivated land is held
by peasant proprietors (L. T., 50 and ?), and that the rest is cultivated by
agricultural laborers, of whom there were 2,354,110 in 1857, in the employ
of large owners, or farmed out to tenants for a money rent, or a la meta.

SYSTEM OF CULTURE—SEEDING AND FERTILIZERS.

Compared with other countries west of Russia and the Orient, the sys-
tem of culture in Spain is still very backward. There are a few garden
spots in Spain—the huertas of Granada, Murcia, and Valencia—but such
exceptional instances of careful culture are to be found in the worst eul-
tivated countries, even miserable Egypt possessing a Faioum. The gen-
eral aspect of Spanish agriculture, until very lately, was much the same
as it was a century ago when Arthur Young visited Spain. The great
and numerous barrens he described are being brought under cultivation,
and in that respect Spain is much improved ; but the mode of cultivation
is only now undergoing change. The forests were, centuries ago, burned
for the few fertilizing materials to be obtained from their ashes, while

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 20

Delmar. | 318 [Jan. 15,

their annual efforts to increase were kept down by a similar treatment of
their undergrowth and copses. Hence, barrens, afflicted with alternate
droughts and floods. The system of agricultural irrigation was mainly
a legacy from the exiled Moors, since whose time it had been but little
enlarged. The means used for raising the water are the familiar sakye
and shadouf of the Orient, the sakye being known under the name of
noria. (L. T., 57.) The water obtained by these laborious means is
known as agua de arte ; that by diverting the course of streams as agua
viva, or running water. (C. R., 1868, p. 3738.)

As going still further to show the indebtedness of even Modern Spain
to Moorish industry, it has been stated that the best olive trees in Spain
to-day are those left by the Moors ; while even the stone fences and other
enclosures left by them are still performing the service for which they
were constructed a thousand years ago.

Rotation was, until recently, very little followed in Spain, and even the
fallow system, though in general use, was in many parts ignored and the
ruinous one of exploitation, by a constant succession of the same sort of
crops, employed in its place. (C. R., 1871, p. 1037.) Even two and some-
times three different crops were obtained from the same piece of ground
in one year; though as Young and other writers have shown, with no
aggregate increase of product, but on the contrary, diminution. Corn,
root, or pulse crops were frequently sown in olive groves and vineyards to
the mutual detriment of both tree or vine and crop. In the Provinces of
Malaga, Granada, Almeria and Jaen, mention is made of a three-field
system of, 1. Wheat, barley or beans; 2. Fallow ; 3. Pasture on the un-
irrigated lands ; and also of the continuance, so late as November, 1869,
of village commons (dehesas de proprios) for cattle,—both of them wretched
and antiquated features of agriculture. But since 1855 all these features
have been undergoing change, and the dehesas de proprios were probably
in a moribund state in 1869.

The quantity of seed used is uncertain. It is stated by M’Culloch that the
fanega (about 14 bushels) is the measure of seed-corn commonly sown upon
a fanegada (about 15 acres) of land, and hence, the similarity of terms.
This is probably a true explanation with regard to the terms, which must,
however, have arisen from the results of favorable sowings ; for the prac-
tical fact is still that not less than two bushels are generally sown to the
acre of wheat, the staple corn of Spain.

In the use of fertilizers the same recent improvement is to be observed
as in other respeets. Previous to 1855, beyond the fertilizers mentioned
by Arthur Young nearly three-fourths of a century before, there does not
appear to have been any improvement. These consisted of wood-ashes
obtained from the burning, not of forests, for they had been burned long
before, but of copses and undergrowth. Near some of the large cities
poudrette seems to have been prepared, but the use of this fertilizer was
not common.

Since the ameliorations, which date about the year 1855, Peruvian

1875. ] 319 [Delmar.

guano appears to have been largely imported into Spain. I have the
statistics by quantities for only the years 1852 to 1856 and 1863 to 1867,
inclusive ; but these will serve to show the extent of the movement,
which first began in 1852:

IMPORTS OF PERUVIAN GUANO INTO SPAIN.

YEARS. KILOGRAMS. TONS.
SH RLOMS Osan ClUSIVeRee arene eine cre 49,115,446) 48, 247*
LUESKOB sl eS Re RUA Se ER I Se Nae 39,514,969 39, 209
HLS GA ea raid Se Ae TR INR te ART MAING ATMS TE SAN 6, 437,943 6,324
HLS Gps ARCATA Ne eed oa BE a hl ead te 11,956, 769 11,746
HESS GG Pespen sey si sresren GeAES SHE aeE INSP rs rae eaten Beam eee 46,872,576 46,048
HES Giiieepae eet cec. sca at area RRR Mt iLL cha rant nhl Sea atla 37, 666, 000 37,000

To show the relation which these quantities bear to the world’s con-
sumption of guano, it may be stated that the 48,000 tons imported im
1852 to 1856 formed but 2} per cent. of the world’s consumption of”
Peruvian guano ; while the average annual quantity of 28,000 tons im--
ported during the years 1863 to 1867 formed 7} per cent. of the world’s.
consumption, which was 370,000 tons per annum during that interval..
(For details of the consumpticn of each country, see Com. Rel., 1867,.
p. 361.)+

The extent to which fertilizers are now being used in at least some-
parts of Spain, may be judged from the fact that the U.S. Consul at-
Valencia reported in 1871 that the ground in that district was being
burned up by an immoderate use of guano!

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

There seems to have been no improvement in respect of agricultural
implements since the days of Arthur Young. The corvée is abolished
and the absentee landlords of vast estates, of whom he has so bitterly
complained, are things of the past; but the old Roman plow, with its
wooden mould-board, without a bit of iron upon it (Arthur Young, ii,
p. —), and its four or five inch blade (Com. Rel., 1871, p. 1087,) remain.
Indeed, even the plow is rarely met with in some provinces (C. R., 1866.
219), the “‘laya,’’ or two-pronged fork, and the spade being used in its
place (L. T., 37 and 51).

Until within a very few years, agricultural machinery was wholly
unknown in Spain. The corn was left in the fields for lack of barns
(Young) ; it was threshed by driving mules over it ; it was winnowed by
throwing it in the air (M’Culloch) ; and most frequently it was ground
by hand rather than by wind-mills or other machinery. (Zdid.)

* Quantities exported from Chincha Islands fo Spain, 1852-57.—App. Cye., viii, 529.

} The average annual consumption by the United States before the war is set down
by this authority at 40,000 tons; while the actual imports into the United States from
1850 to 1861, inclusive, were 954,989 tons, an annual average of double the quantity.
However, a portion of this gaano came from other places beside Peru. For complete
statistics on this subject, see U. S. Com and Nav., 1867, p. xlvi. ;

Ye
Delmar ] 320 [Jan. 15,

Fanning machines are now in use near the towns; the thresher has
been introduced ; and the first American mower and reaper was imported
a year or two ago.

English implements are too heavy for Spanish hands (L. T., 29), and
many that have been imported are left to rot for want of men able to
handle them. The American implements are much preferred.

On the whole, it may be stated that Spain is but on the threshold of a
change from the inefficient implements of antiquity to the powerful
machines of modern agricultural progress.

Domestic ANIMALS.

Since the destruction of her forests Spain must have lost much of the
pastoral character which undoubtedly distinguished her to a great degree
under the rule of the Moors. There are now, properly speaking, no
meadows (grass lands) in Spain. Young noticed a single patch during
his journey in 1787; but late observers do not speak of any at all. (L.
T., 28, and elsewhere. )

Said M’Culloch, about forty years ago:

‘““The Pyrenees, the hilly parts of Biscay and the Asturias, the vast
plains of Andalusia, the two Castiles, Estramadura and Leon, are almost
wholly in pasture ; and in some parts the traveler may journey for many
miles without seeing either a house or an individual. In point of fact,
however, half the pastures really consist of heaths, or of neglected tracts
covered with thyme and other wild herbs, that are at present next to
worthless. There are few or no irrigated meadows, and hay is seldom or
never prepared for fodder.”’

Except that portions of this waste land have of late years been reclaimed,
this description will answer for to-day.

The following table exhibits a comparison of the number of domestic
‘animals in Spain in 1808 and 1865, respectively, from which it will be
seen that there has been a small increase of horses, a considerable increase
of mules and asses, a decrease of horned cattle, sheep and goats, and an
increase of swine.

It should be stated that a great many incomplete and incorrect state-
ments on this subject have appeared in statistical works.

The authorities for the figures given in the text are, for 1808, the report
to the Cortes quoted by Macgregor, and for 1865 the report of Senores
Feliciano Herreros de Téjada and Victoriano Ballaguer to the Statistical —
Congress of the Hague.

Domestic ANIMALS. YEAR 1808. YEAR 1865.
HOUSE Siero isis eo aleystoleloloikey ieruenatelohoe tansreke 539, 926 680,878
Mules and asses ...... lta nee et emtetere ete ease 1,079,002 2,319,846
Hionrmedecattle syne <tsleversiorisustelo okesniere 3, 694, 156 2,967,303
Shee pramad) lamas: jets pase alors ieyedewictsteleier: 24,916,212 22,468, 969
IPMS GUE Reade ott o dome mnHo eG odode 3, 628, 283 4,351,736
COMI SOO MU CORO « COUT SSE Eu cis 6,916,890 4,581,228
(Chinas pesodsadoonoesoo0n ¢ LGGoaoseyon s No data. 3, 104
aol traypersee serie eo stei ePee eee eee lersits Sapo: ss ‘No data.

1875.] 32 i [ Delmar.

In some parts of Spain there are no inclosures (fences), and cattle can-
not be kept with ut injury to the crops (L. T., 28). Of late years a new
and considerable trade has sprung up between Spain and England, con-
sisting of exports of horned cattle and of eggs from the former to the
latter. The following table shows the development of this trade since 1860:

QUANTITIES OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS IMPORTED FROM SPAIN PROPER
INTO THE UNITED Kinepom ANNUALLY SINCE 1860.

Calendar |Horned Cattle.| Eggs. | Calendar \Horned Cattle. Eqqs.
Year. Number. Great Hund’ds Year. | Number. Great Hund’ds

UekAOss coc BiB. loo daotoadoo se 1867 Seats 13,816 | 93.064
HS Gileeeee 8,596 123,842 ||1868..... | 15,985 116,895
Web 5 oo6 6,787 139,628 | SG O Meer | ORD SO | 96,131
Ushio aoe 6,566 Tews NESTS s 665 | 27,271 112,638
1864.5.) | 8,281 BLAGH Stil) | 1G 184, 114
ISGoaneer 8,209 | Bilge WUITYoooas | 15,462 151,296
UNG 6 od - 8,490 80,055 I!1878..... | 19,888 151,564

CHIEF ARTICLES OF NATIONAL DIET.

The Spanish peasantry is even to-day but wretchedly fed; what it
starved upon in the long and terrible ages of Ecclesiastical domination
and feudal tyranny, defies all sober description. (On the general subject
of peasant wretchedness in the Middle Ages, see The Harth as Modified
by Man, by Marsh; New York, 1874, pp. 5-7, the foot notes.)

The usual fare is bread, porridge and pulse. Chestnuts and other mast
also form articles of diet in the few wooded districts which the country
possesses. (L. T., 24.)

The following accounts relate to the years 1869 and 1870: In Guipuzcoa,
the nurture is beans, cabbages, milk, chestnuts, and Indian corn cakes in
place of bread. Meat is scarcely known; occasionally a small piece of
bacon is attainable. (L. T., 38.) In Biscay, the fool is ‘‘ puchero,’’ a vege-
table soup composed principally of cabbage ani beans. Lard is oceasion-
ally added, and sometimes even a scrap of meat or dried codfish. (Jbdid,
40.) The beverage in Asturias and Guipuzcoa is cider; in Biscay, it
was ‘‘chacoli,’’ a thin mixture of wine and water. Of late years this is
becoming replaced by the common wine of Navarra, ete. In Majorca,
the diet is vegetables and bread. (did, 32.) In Minorca, it is potatoes.
(Ibid, 35.) In Alicante, it consists of a pottage of rice, beans and oil,
with barley or maize bread, and occasionally a little codfish or sardine ;
but butcher meat is seldom enjoyed. (Jdid, 51.) In Valencia, the usual
food is, at morning, a pilchard (salted) and bread; at noon, a stew of
beans and potatoes, with pieces of bacon ; and at night, the same as at
morning or noon. These articles of diet are usually supplemented with
thin wine and sometimes fruit. (Jbid, p. 54, and private information.) In
Galicia and Asturias, the food is potatoes and vegetable soup, condimented
with lard; also bread of rye or maize ; sometimes a piece of pork. (Jd7d,
20.) In Andalusia, corn bread ; seldom meat. (lid, 49.)

322

Delmar. ] [ Jan, 15,

EFFECTIVENESS OF .LABOR.

In Galicia and Asturias a good workman is expected to plow about
one-fifth of an acre per diem. (L. T., 20.) One laborer only is required to
every six acres yearly. (Jbid, 24.) One man with two horses or mules can
plow in two days six fanegadas or 1.237 acres, equal to about five-eighths
of an acre per day. (L. T., 53.) Consult also pp. 28 and 50 for similar,
though less definite statements.

This extraordinary degree of inefficiency is not the result of indolence.
All writers, from Arthur Young to the present time, agree in giving the
Spanish peasantry the credit for untiring industry and perseverance. It
is rather the product of weak and insufficient food and lack of comfort.
(See Arthur Helps on Brassey.)

CONDITION OF THE PBRASANTRY.

Galicia and Asturias, 1870. Their houses of rough stone—mostly con-
sisting solely of the ground floor—are poor and dirty, the same roof fre-
quently giving shelter to the proprietor’s family and to the produce of
his farm, including his oxen, cows, pigs and. fowls. Some of the better
conditioned of the same class construct with wood an upper story to their
houses, which serves for their dwelling and granary, in which case the
lower part is occupied entirely by the live stock. (L. T., 20.)

Majorca, 1870. Their houses are wanting in accommodations. Their
food is frugal ; their dress modest. (did, 82.)

Minorca, 1870 Their cottages are of a cleanness that is remarkable,
being whitewashed inside and outside twice a month. Their clothing,
bedding, etc , are also very clean. Their habits are moral and religious.
All disputes settled by arbitration. (ldid, 32.)

Guipuzcoa, 1870. They are badly housed and have none of the com-
forts of the English. The kitchen is black, dirty and full of smoke
They dress in home-spun flax. (/b7d, 38.)

Alicante, 1870. They are clothed in the linen shirt and short, wide
trousers of their Moorish ancestors. (L. T., 51.)

Valencia, 1870. The peasants live in small stone or brick houses of one
story, and in mud huts with thatched roofs. Their donkeys and pigs
occupy a shed at the back of the house; but all pass through one door.
Gag a5 fish)

Biscay, 1870. They are housed in stone buildings with no comfort and
searcely decency. Stables for oxen and pigs on the ground floor ;
sleeping apartment above. Results : dirt, discomfort and fever. Home-
spun clothes, the men cloth, the women cotton and flannel from abroad.
Habits thrifty. The tenant farms descend regularly from father to son
by force of custom. (L. T., 41.)

Andalusia, 1870. The great mass of the country population are hired
laborers. The Spanish peasantry are generally poorly housed, fed and
clad. The country is still insecure, and abductions for ransom by

.
9)
1875. ] 323 [ Deimar.

banditti are not unfrequent. (Jd¢d, 45.) The British Consul at Cadiz,
under date of February 15, 1865, says :

“Property and life are much more secure throughout the country than
they were twenty years ago. Robberies are very much more rare; the
police, and especially the rural police (gens d’armes) in the provinces, are
in general respectable officials, and are becoming useful and effective.
In numerous small towns (I speak of Andalusia especially) they are
active, earnest and conscientious local magistrates, quietly doing a great
deal of good.’’ (B. C. R., 1865, 96.)

The travelers’ guide-books of recent dates, which are pretty good
authority on the subject of personal security, agree in stating that
brigandage and all molestation on the highways have wholly ceased. This
happy result is attributed indirectly to the general improvement of affairs
in Spain, and directly to the guardas civiles, a body of police or gens ~
@armes, selected from the veteran corps in the armies, and composed of
men noted for high moral traits and physical pre-eminence.

Concerning the tendency of thought among the peasants, it is stated
that :

- *‘Socialistic and communistic doctrines are spoken and spread in
Andalusia where the peasantry, though very bigoted, are argumentative
and of an independent turn of mind. If ever Protestantism, in some
shape or other, be put before the Andalusian, it will spread like wildfire,
for it exactly suits his mode of thought.”’ (L. T., p. —.) Socialism is gain-
ing ground among the laboring classes of Andalusia. ([bid, p. 51.) ‘‘Spain
has a peasantry superior to that of most European countries ; but no
middle class.”,—London Economist, January 5, 1867.

The military conscription, which is compulsory in Spain, is perhaps,
-the most oppressive institution against which the peasant has now to
struggle.

ILLITERACY AND EDUCATION.

The following table shows the condition of the population of all Spain
in these respects in the year 1860 :

Males. Females. Total.
Classes. =
Number. | P. C. Number. PaO. Number. |P. C.

C.
Able to read and write.) 2,414,015) 15.4) 715,906) 4.6 3, 129,921 20.0
Able to read only...... 316,557; 2.1 389,221 2.4) 705,778) 4.5
Not able to read or write) 5,034,936) 32.1 6,802,846 43.4|11,837,782| 75.5

Motil sees eae | 7,765,508} 49.6] 7,907,973) 50.4/15,673,481|100.0

Owing to the ecclesiastical policy popular education showed no per-
ceptible progress in Spain until about the year 1868, since which time it
has made considerable strides. (A. G. Fuertes, U. 8. Consul at Corunna
October 1, 1873.)

Delmar. ] o24 [Jan. 15,

In 1797 only 393,126 children attended the primary schools of Spain
and these were very imperfect.

Up to 1808 public education was entirely in the hands of the eccle-
siastics.

Until 1838 there was scarcely any progress.

In 1848 the number of pupils attending all the schools was 663,711.

On January 1, 1861, the number was 1,046,558, as follows: Private
schools, superior, elementary aud mixed, 3,800 with 134,383 scholars ;
public schools, same classes, 18,260, with 912,175 scholars.— Martin.

It is believed that since 1861 the number of pupils has fully doubled.
For a summary of the extremely liberal provisions for public education
since 1861, consult U. S. Rep. Com. Education, 1871, p. 477.

WAGES.

Years 1787-89. (Arthur Young.) Wages near Esparagara, spinners, six
cents a day; carders, eleven cents; lace-makers, nine cents and food.
Near Gerona, Jaborers twenty cents, without food. Near Barcelona,
laborers, twenty-five cents a day, without food; highest, thirty-three
cents, lowest, twenty-two and a-half cents.

Year 1864. (Com. Rel., 1865.) Wages in Bilboa, day laborer, 20c.@25c. ;
mechanics, 40c.@45c., without food.

Year 1864. (Com. Rel., 1865.) Since 1854, a notable rise in wages in
Bilboa: Day laborers now, 55c@70c.; mechanics, 95¢.@$1.25 without
food.

Years 1869 to 1871. (Land Tenures, pp. 20, 24, 32, 38, 40, 45, 51 and 53.
Com. Rel., 1871, p, 1010.) The following table gives the wages current
in various provinces of Spain :

DaiLy WAGEs OF AGRICULTURAL LABORERS, WITHOUT Foon, 1870-1.

PROVINCES. MEN. WoMEN.
Galicia and Asturias.................. 24 @ 28 cents.|14 @ 20 cents.
IAS EUMTAS \. ose cjershretarenorets apoiateksta Nereysoreeenerat Bw (@ si 2 a5 @ AD %
WE WICECEIAS Sod RABE Abo 6 5 sooo olau bobo c AG) 30 8s nO) (@its
WMO S Ss stooeb obo anata DbIDosegeo co Pe Cee iE ae
GAT UAT OR ae OA SSG ain anIb es bahia Sted ae wi Be 6 ho@ a.
IBIS Netcom Ba adic dooumocoGnoe Gab Aoadbop 2 @ 40) SS 120 (@ 25 ae
Amdalusiance:. sean ciscmeier ce cles stine AOS @) OOK ee eae seperate
Micamte sta. ea aes cleiae prettier s cats ciotans 25@ 30 “* 10@ib *
SO MSDE WIR cooancosnbne0 sodes OMEN BO CN boo sek
WENGE REAR lane co cam nae ono sane aocGs PA) (Cay PO bbs ae 4
IWOOT Bara Ses am aOA mace cn Sabre orn 50, @ BF Neo aoos
SoeHtiay REET “cogs - se egoogadondgoeKe BI) (Gy BO) Spoons

* This last and probably unreliable line is from the C. R., 1871, p. 1010. The same
authority quotes mechanics’ wages throughout Spain at 40@75 cents per day, which
is undoubtedly below the truth. It states the working hours in summer at fourteen,
and in winter ten, which is probably correct.

1875. ] 325 (Delmar,

Dainty AGRICULTURAL WAGES, WITH Foon, 1870-1.

Men. | Women. | _ Boys.

ASEM Ooo Ap soo ooo QoO OOO INES . @ 124 56 @OVk | esbcec
WATT nsedodeccancdonooontnbele .. @ 10 50 (@ OB. G- Sadaoc
WMO ooo cocdouccoocgRuoUdS sient (Gall ae nmeneteretoee sr 1G Veatabsre «t=
‘¢ harvest, long hours...... 80 @) 4) | sacees | codons
Grip VAsoRh "5 Eooccs Socnceeeceae I@ UO |) phd a06 05 @ 06
IBVEGAT Ho So dos cabosaboboODCOGGOE 66 @B- |) conse 03 @ 04
ATOMS Os odo cccccodoodouus So GAD willy ites Sieh gam comets
UR CLR 64 Od hits aE Stace ing ae iat (Cala an em ee lsetta ee |W YMG Re sie

From these tables it would appear that in some places probably
throughout Spain, wages continued, from the close of the last century to
about the year 1855, without material change ; but that since the last
named date they have doubled. Whether this is due to the great
ameliorations set on foot at that time in Spain, or to other causes cannot
be determined in this place.

EMIGRATION.

During the years 1840 and 1841, at least 20,000 agricultural laborers
left Valencia for Algiers. (Macgregor, 1015.) The immigration into the
Argentine Republic (Buenos Ayres), which up to year 1862 was less
than 7,000 persons a year, rose to between 10,000, and 12,000 persons in
1863 and 1864, and to over 40,000 persons in 1870. About 15 per cent. of
of these persons in 1864 and 1870 were from Spain. (Private information.)
There are now nearly forty agricultural colonies in the Republic. Of
these, twenty have been formed since 1870. Many of the agriculturists
are from Spain. The immigration of Spaniards into the United States,
from 1820 up to and including 1870, was 23,504, and since 1870 has been
as follows :

Leto opdoo Moe6bs co aeecde pope SH Ow eM AIS Or Ca aa Marie. Sale MANET Sh ea 546

Large numbers of Spanish emigrants go to Cuba and South America,
whence a few afterwards find their way to this country. In 1870, there
were 3,764 natives of Spain residing in the United States.

I know of no statistics which show the total emigration outward from
Spain, but it must be considerable. In Galicia and Asturias it is reckoned
at 60,000 to 70,000 per annum, or 23 per cent. of the population. (L. T.,
20). One half of those from Asturias go to Spanish colonies. (/d7d,
24.) From Murcia 1,000 persons a month during six months of the sum-
mer and fall of 1869, went to Oran, coast of Africa. (bid, 28.) In the
Balearic Isles emigration is not common, and the military conscription the
principal cause. (/bid, 32.) From Guipuzcoa there is a considerable
emigration mainly to South America. The emigrants go chiefly by way
of France. Cause, want of work. (did, 38, 39.) From Biscay a large

* Guipuzcoa ; boys $20@$30 a year, with food and lodging. Biscay, $15 a year, same.

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2P

we)

Delmar. ] 26 [Jan. 15,
emigration, which has been gradually increasing during the past fifteen
years, occurs to South America, chiefly to Buenos Ayres and Montevideo.
The local government has not been able to restrain this drain of popula-
tion. (Jbid, 40.) From Andalusia emigration is rare, chiefly from Almeria
and only in years of great drought. (Jdid, 45.) From Alicante, in years
of drought the emigration to Africa is considerable. Many return when
the weather (and, I suppose, their fortunes) improve. In good years they
do not emigrate. (bid, 51.) The Valencians rarely emigrate. From the
towns on the coast they frequently go over to Algiers and Oran for the
harvest, and afterwards return home. (did, 53.) The army and navy
in the West Indies, and especially Cuba, constitute a regular drain upon
the population by robbing it of its most energetic elements.

The American Cousul at Corunna, under date of September 30th, 1870,
says that 140,000 emigrants have left that district (in Galicia), for South
America and Cuba within a few years, and that 4,000 to 5,000 more bound
to the same ports sail yearly from Corunna. ‘‘The agents at this port are
always willing to offer them passage, to be paid in small installments.
Repeated applications have been addressed to this Consulate regarding
the emigration to the United States. The applicants are generally all
handsome and remarkably healthy young men, used from their infancy to
farming and field labor, as well as to mechanical pursuits and are withal
of an excellent moral conduct and pleasant disposition, but as they are
too poor to pay for their passage, I could offer no inducements to them.”’
The same Consul writes in 1873, that he had induced a Liverpool shipping
house to send some steamers to Corunna for the United States, and that
they had arrived and taken out to New Orleans a large batch of respecta-
ble young field laborers.

PRICES AND RENTS OF LAND.

It is almost impossible to make anything out of the fragmentary and
loose evidence on this point contained in Arthur Young and Land Ten-
ures, the best authorities for the latter half of the last and present centu-
ries, respectively. Roughly speaking, arable land seems to be worth at
the present time from $70 to $125 an acre, and in the huertas of Valencia
as high as $500 to $1,000 an acre, the latter price being quite common.
Rents range from 3 to 34 per cent. on the value of the property (L. T.,
41), and are stated to be on all the lands in Spain, including, I suppose,
the barrens, from $2 to $4 an acre (L. T., 18), and on the irrigated huer-
tas of Valencia, $20 to $35 (Jbid,) the common rate being about $30 an
acre. (lL. T., p. 54.)

These prices and rents do not appear to differ materially from those
quoted by Arthur Young, nearly a century before. (See Young, ii, p.
326 and elsewhere.)

I take it that, at the rents quoted above, the tenants pay the taxes; yet
as the following passage occurs in Land Tenures, p. 56, relating to
Valencia, this point does not seem certain :

1875. ] 327 [ Delmar.
‘“The taxes on landed property are for account of the landlord, and if
the Government taxes the land, for a larger sum than it really produces,
then the landlord pays only to the extent of the rent and the surplus is
paid by the tenant and is denominated as colonization.’’ Spoliation were
a better name.
TAXES.

Transfer and succession duties on land have already been adverted to.
Although there is some discrepancy in the accounts, all agree in repre-
senting these dues as exceedingly onerous.

“The cost of registration is, in the first place, a Government transfer
duty of 3 per cent.: on the price in cases of sale or barter ; 10 per cent. in
cases of donation inter vivos (during life), and from 1 to 10 per cent. on
successions, according to the nearer or remoter degree of relationship be-
tween the deceased proprietors and the heirs ; inheritance from ascendant
to descendant is free of duty, and on a lagacy to very distant relations or
to mere friends, being strangers in blood, the duty is 10 per cent. The
Registrar’s fee varies according to the length of the deed inscribed, but
it never exceeds 3 per mil (3 cents on $10) on the price or value of the
property.”’ (L. T., 44.)

Such heavy taxes and fees would seem to amount virtually, to a prohi-
bition on the sale of land and must have very injurious effects upon agri-
culture.

The taxes levied in Spain are general, provincial and municipal.
(Com Rel., 1856, p. 56.)

The municipal taxes consist partly of octroi duties. For example, in
Bilboa and possibly all over the country, the octroi duties are: ale 2 cents
per pound ; brandy, 4 cents per pound; oil, 20 cents per arroba of 28
_ pounds ; salt, 30 cents per fanega of 110 pounds, beside others. (Com.

Rel., 1865, p. 190.) The Galicians are taxed on almost everything they
possess in the way of property: land, labor, food and raiment. (Com.
Rel., 1871, p. 1008.)

Similar charges are exacted in Cadiz and on foreign products which
have paid duty as well as on domestic. (Com. Rel., 1866, p. 222.)

Heavy taxes are also spoken of in Valencia. (L. T., 54, § 13.)

The General Government levies export duties (Vom. Rel., 1873, p.; 961)
also import duties, direct taxes on land, mines, industries, commerce,
mortgages, excise, tolls, stamps, railway passengers, and miscellaneous.
It derives revenues from the following monopolies: tobacco, salt, gun-
powder, lotteries, mints, military establishments, post office and miscel-
laneous, and from the following domains : mines, property of the State,
clergy and provinces, besides a revenue from the colonies. The total
annual revenues of the General Government during the period 1865-70
were estimated in the budgets at between $107,000,000 and $138, 000,000
per annum. This would amount to an average of about $7 per capita of
population.

If the provincial and local taxes be added to these, the total bur- .

Delmar. ] , 328 [ Jan. 15,

den of taxation would be exceedingly onerous —especially when the
industrial condition and efficiency of the country, as compared with
other countries at the same period, is taken into consideration.

‘“The direct tax on real property, on agricultural produce and on cattle,
has, during the last twenty years, nearly doubled, throughout the whole
of Spain.

1846 to 1848, it amounted to $12,500,000.

1849 to 1855, “ «15,000,000.
1856 to 1857, «“ «© 17,500,000.
1858 to 1863, « «20,000,000.
1864 to 1866, « “© 24,500,000.

The same tax levied by the local authorities throughout Spain, for
provincial and municipal purposes, has risen, during the same period,
from $1,750,000 to $4,434,585.”’ (Br. Con. Rep. 1866-5, p. 375.)

INTEREST.

In the year 1545, Charles the Fifth fixed the legal rate of interest in
Spain and the Low Countries at 12 percent. (WV. Y. Social Science Review,
1865, pp. 362-3.) From that time until toward the close of the last cen-
tury, the market rate of interest in Spain continued to fall, not so much
from increased profits or security as from an increasing absence of oppor-
tunities for the investment of capital. This is proved by the fact that
while generally the market rate of interest fell, the rate on Government
securities rose.

At the time of Arthur Young’s travels the market rate on landed se-
curity in Catalonia was 8 to 10 per cent.

Since that time the usury laws have been entirely abolished, and now
interest is left free to be determined by the contracting parties. (L. T., 24.)

The prevailing rates on landed security about the year 1870 were from
4 to 5 per cent. per annum in Biscay and the Balearic Isles, the two
extremities of Spain (L. T., 31, 37, 40), to 10 or 12 per cent. in Murcia.
(Ibid, 28.) Inthe rest of the provinces, and Spain generally, it appears
to be from 6 to 10 per cent. (Jbid, 18, 20, 24, 44, 50, 53.)

On the security of growing crops, or personal security the rates are
most frequently 30 to 40 per cent., though of course they vary with the
degree of risk in each case. ([bid, 18, 24, 44.)

According to the quotations of the Madrid Bourse, at the close of the
year 1874, Government securities were at prices that yielded interest at
the rate of from 12 to 20 per cent. per annum.

CopE oF LAw—CREDIT—DEBT—EXECUTIONS.

‘“‘The habits, customs, laws, have accumulated from the earliest ages,
—Gothic, Christian, Jewish and Moorish,—forming an inextricable web
which no legislator has attempted to unravel. Codification has been often
talked of, and even attempted, and as yet produced nothing. The conse-
quence is that most Spanish proprietors are perpetually involved in law

1875.] 329 [ Delmar.

suits, which are lost and won, and lost again, going from one province to
another and appealing to different courts and tribunals, one after the
other.”” H. B. M. Sec. of Leg. Perey Ffrench, Madrid, December 7, 1870.
(ie 4tGo alle»)

For organization of courts of law and proceedings on judgments and
evictions, see L. T., 26.

There are no special courts of bankruptcy. (Jizd.) ‘No questions are
submitted to jury.”’ (bdid.)

Agricultural-banks on the German plan have been tried but failed. (L.
T., 55.) The system of legal procedure against debtors is the great draw-
back to credit based upon land. Even lending money upon mortgage is
dangerous. (L. T., 44 and 47.) In many places money on land is only to
be had on a sale @ retro, or @ remoré (L. T., 47), which seems to be a sale
with power of redemption.

The laws give the landlord to whom rent or allowances for deteriora
tions are due, a preference over other creditors to the extent of the cattle,
household effects and other moveables found upon the property (L. T.,
26, 34, 38 and 48); but not the mules, horses, plows, or carts ; which
appear to be exempt from execution. (Jbid, 51.)

A custom is said to exist in Valencia which is peculiar, and as it may be
common elsewhere in Spain, and has a bearing on the tenure of land and
security, credit and interest, I insert an account of it here :

‘“*When an eviction occurs (generally a rare thing in the agricultural
parts of Spain), if the landlord dses not pay the colonist or tenant the
value of the buildings (erected by the latter), the tenant pulls them down
and carries away the materials; this, however, rarely happens.”’ (L.
Wop. G05)

Common Roaps.

‘‘Owing to the badness of the roads and their unfitness for carriages,
the principal carriers of merchandise are the arieros, or muleteers, who
traverse the country in all directions along beaten tracks, many of which
are accessible only tothem. * * * Three-fourths of the entire inland
traffic in corn is carried on by their means. Recently, however, wagons
have begun to be introduced.’?’ (M’Culloch, 11, 839.)

This was the condition of affairs described in 1844.

Under date of July 1, 1865, the British Secretary of Legation, at Mad-
rid, wrote as follows :

‘“¢Hven the few main roads (common roads) which exist, are insuffi-
ciently provided with bridges, and it is not an uncommon sight to see
eighty or ninety ‘‘carros’”’ or country carts laden with agricultural pro-
duce, detained on the banks of a flooded river until able to ford, some-
times for three or four days. ts ae as Fifty years ago the in-
ternal communication was entirely carried on by means of mules, and
few, if any roads existed.’’? (Br. Rep. Sec. Leg. 1866, p. 184.)

330 [Jan. 15,

Delmar. ]
Common RoOavDs IN 1860.
KILOMETRES. | Mies.
Birstrclasseee ee ee ee ae ee | 9,097 | 5,640
Second Msc wmeen oj Mine ihre deme eect stele AA The, 550) ee 961
MIM otro ig) aie ete Rr as cm mete iass esa ceie: a Niesais | 629 390
BROtALE: (ae ee EE ee eae Go

‘© Also in course of construction 4,276 kilometres or 2,651 miles.
Amount expended on roads in 1861 and 1862, $14,735,829.”’ (lbid.)

Since the conclusion of the civil war, the Government has constructed
upwards of 10,000 miles of turnpike roads, exclusive of Biscay, where the
roads have been built by the local authorities. (Br. Con. Rep. 1865, p. 83.)

A better view of the progress that has taken place is afforded by the
following :

TABLE SHOWING THE LENGTH AND CONDITION OF THE VARIOUS CLASSES
OF COMMON ROADS IN SPAIN IN THE YEAR 1867.

CLASSES. | KILOMETRES. MILEs.

JMEe CLASS THORNS 5 GoG06000600n06500000000 7,999 4,550
Second ‘‘ SiS oe Ai Naiel watt yanota svallepe iors camsiers | 9,566 5,931
auinniel |S CE Yaroietencevosiliiee cotati siseayane regener 17,766 11,015
County CO Tasca Rd Sarai Roar wh eater eek | 4,540 2,815
“MOTEL ooemotiod 5 Boa MMO e nae aos rome | 39,212 24,311

Of the above roads 12,342 miles were built, 2,087 miles in course of
construction, and 9,882 miles projected in 1867. (Br. Stat. F. C. xii, 292.)

CANALS AND SLACK—WATER NAVIGATION.

Since the destruction of the Spanish forests, such of the rivers of Spain
as were navigable before, were rendered unnavigable. Of these only the
Tagus and Guadalquiver had been rendered partly navigable up to the
year 1844. (M’Culloch.) :

In 1871, owing to recent improvements in the river channel, vessels
drawing from 16 to 18 feet of water could ascend the Guadalquiver to
Seville. (C. R. 71, 1028.)

T have no other advices with respect to the progress of slack-water
navigation in Spain. Of the canals of Spain, glowing accounts in general
terms are to be found in many descriptions of the country (¢.g. Appleton’s
Cyc., xiv, 805, Old Ed.), but I cannot find sufficient basis for them.
There appear to be but three canals of any importance in Spain, and the
aggregate mileage of the three is not over 300. These are 1. The Ebro
Canal, in Arragon, from Tudela to Santiago, 41 miles below Saragossa.
It was built in the reigns of Charles III, IV and Y, is about 85 miles long
and is navigable by barges, and used also for irrigating purposes. 2. The
canal in Old Castile from Segovia, past Valladolid and Palencia, to
Aguilar del Campo, and thence to the Bay of Biscay, with a way branch

1875.] 331

[Delmar.

to Rio Seco and another to Bourgos ; commenced inthe year1753. 3. The
Urgel Canal in the Gerona district of Catalonia. These canals are also
navigable for barges. I do not find any other navigable canals of import-
ance, and to say that the aggregate navigable canals of Spain are less
than 500 miles in length would probably be largely within the truth.

RaAILWAyYs.

The following is a tolerably complete list of all the railways in Spain
at the close of the year 1872, omitting branches and turn-outs :

z( ut MILES
RAILWAYS. I OREN ED:
* Madrid to Saragossa and Madrid to Alicante.............. | 885
* Saragossa, Pamplona and Barcelona................. sooca| 385
* Barcelona to France via Figueras................--+2+---- 109
* Northwestern Railway, Palencia and Corunna, Palencia,

arral bean aie CHO Ghaswseunbcoseooreeonossocemeoedsous | 158
* Medina del Campo to Zamora and Orense to Vigo

(Medina to Zamora finished; Zamora to Orense not)

begun ; Orense to Vigo unfinished)...............-..-.- 56
2 Cordova Wo Sew. coc600ced0 conccod0c0bo0d005000005000000 81
Sewillle tro, CHACHA ROO o6. od be adousEe Koso oDsuboUlDUOCEObodES | 80
BrarichetorMoromabOubsee sc monet oe te deamon cere weal. | 20
© C@RoOvre WO MRE . coccadodogoc0b0cG5DcDDDEDDD UG UaODDODS | (

JB ARNEIN HO AMARONE. 6000 60d00000000000000000000000000000C 184
Brame © Iara to), Camara) oscoganouccgcusus0d00cGG00 doou0K Biot §
Saberridaltomveus ange UarragOna..\...02 22056 4-5-00e 2 sess | 50
* Aranjuez to Cuenca, 80 miles unfinished.................. | sor
2 ATID 1) INO so06 6 soos bocn06 obs oodEBCDODUOD Sa GDOOHOS | 25
=2 SMH AIO, M7) AUS bOI OGL coooncecuundooccanGdcogcccod 6006
== ine Camel letnil\yehyjen oc cocooececn = opaudacu0bou0odeooddd| 30
* East Coast Railway, Almansa + to Valencia and Tarra-

POM, .o06 acooocacv00cdon dg 0900n 0 cdGoVaCD UDC OND UCD NDNE 200
Temiamone, 10) Isepealone ys sooédheusancoapocoubcosdcu0o“sodoc 80
Madrid to Avela 40 miles, Avela to Medina del Campo aD)

miles, Medina to Palencia 50 miles, about............... 140
Cordova to Alcazar (on Madrid and Alicante Pevlvay

DOU poem ee treet clycyeticictoponswiu-! tic eicfeasrerave errs icfelepeussncyeiaie cte-c ous 100
Badajos to Manzanares (on last named Railway), (this)

line connects with Lisbon, Portugal), about............. 250
Palencia to Burgos and Miranda, about..................0.. 100
Bilboa, Miranda and Saragossa, about..............ee-eeee- 150
Pnlemers, ancl Seinimincler, HoOWy>s doodoocabooabeacocg5c00b0 dol 100
Barcelona andeGeronasabOlblpe: ein 4+. cies ams aceite sects | 60
Granollers to Junction with last named Railway, about... 25
BarcelonaanGeneussa bOUbmrrrie neil s etn meee trreree 80
Miranda, Vitoria, Pamplona and Alfara, about.............. 100
San Sebastian to Muentarabia, about s2.-.-2-+.+sscee +s. ve - 20
San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa and Alsasua, about............... 50
Cartagena, Murcia aud Chinchilla, about.................... 150
COrdOva LOLBCIMC Zire cry -potorer sie torrey arenes here tetera 45

Motalemilestopenediyryr sir teteicieht-rerrelstetteteveyer sso teee rs 3,771

* Subsidized by Government.
+ I.e., from near Almansa on the Madrid and Alicante Railway.

302 [Jan. 15,

Delmar. ]

The first railway, 153 miles in length, was opened in 1848 from Barce-
lona to Mataro on the line now completed from Barcelona to Gerona.
The following table shows the progress made from time to time since
that year :

MILES

CLOSE OF THE YEAR. OBEN CLOSE OF THE YEAR. Pe
A Bisa ey eetye anbianeealncliates OS SGD ae raccnispevs cura acne 1,694
SS OMnc es See en | LO AILSGS vc Wee anes 2,208
TOS At Sad OME Ns 826 SOA St ie Ee 2,525
TST el se eer a ue 418 SGD Gece alanaer Meee eens 2,982
LS) Sis nected face leis roe eleeene ts | 529 MSG Geers reer 3, 184
THEO): srs ane ASS Ee Gow ates | MDE AST Oia: Cenecwaacnornecel eens 3,080
SOO Rie cece nusumneatiatnaree 1,191 i ltoH Poe OURO A SINE G4 nn diate 3, 711
AS Gila ose eaeauelareneys 1,475 Blot (4 Spar ate Hise ee intg 4,100

From this table it will be observed that from 1848 to 1860, inclusive, a
period of thirteen years, hardly 1,100 miles of railway were cov_
structed in Spain; while from 1860 to 1874, inclusive, a period of fifteen
years, nearly 3,000 miles were opened.

The area of Spain proper is 190,257 square miles, and of California
183,981 square miles. At the close of the year 1873 there were 1,368
miles of railway constructed in California ; so that Spain with about the
same area had nearly three times the railway mileage of California.

Beside the above there are many other roads in course of construction;
for example: Oae from Seville to Lisbon via Merida and Badajos, the
distance from Seville to Badajos, which is on the Portuguese border,
being some 150 miles. (C. R., 1871, 1029.) One from Cordova to Bel-
mez, 45 miles. (Zdéd.) Opened in 1873. (C. R., 1878, 959.)

Concerning the roads which form the line between Madrid and the
French frontier, the American Counsel at Bilboa, wrote in 1864 to the U.
S. State Department, as follows :

“The Great Northern Railway, Linea del Norte, was opened (asa
through line) on the 20th of August, 1864, for passengers and merchan-
dise, from Madrid to Irun, on the French Frontier, where it connects
with the railway to Paris. The line has been operated through Castile
and other sections, for a considerable period; but the heavy character of
the work—the engineering difficulties of carrying the line over and under
the Pyrenees, which here break up into detached spurs—has long de-
layed the enterprise, lately so happily completed. The largest tunnel—in
Guipuzcoa—is 2970 yards in length, and is 1669 feet above the sea-level.
Besides this, there are 22 other tunnels, measuring in all, six miles. The
Viaduct of Orinostiqui is 1120 feet long, and is carried over five arches,
each haying a span of 150 feet.

The construction of this road is a grand tribute to engineering skill,
_ and will place Madrid within 35 hours of Paris.”” (Com. Rel., 1864, 279.)

Qgn
1875.] BoD {| Delm vv

HARvEstTs IN SPpaAInN—RECENT YEARS.

1865. Grain abundant. (U. S. Com. Rel., 1866, 215.) One-third above
average. (Ibid, 219.) Largest for many years. (Jdid, 1865, 175.)

1866. Grain hardly average. Potatoes deficient. (U.S. Com. Nel., 1867,
343.) Grain one-third less than in 1865. (Br. Con. Rep., 1867, 83.)
Drought in Alicante. (bid, 1867-4, 133.)

1867. Grain moderately good. (Br. Con. Rep., 1868-7, 521.) Olives failed
(Ibid, 1867-3, 87.) Also silk; this being the fifth year of failure.
(1bid.)

1868. Grain deficient. (Br. Con. Rep., 1867-8, 521.)

1869. Grain barely average. (U. 8. Com. Rel., 1871, 1008.)

1870. Grain harvest good.

1871. Lemon crop in Andalusia the largest ever obtained. (U.S. Com.
Rel., 1871, 1022.) .

1872. Grain crops fair. (U. 8. Com. Rel., 1872, 777.)

1873. Grain crops excellent. (U. 8. Com. Rel,, 1875, 938.)

1874. Grain crops good.

It is said that when the harvests are good in one section, the north or
south of Spain, they are bad in the other; (Br. C. R., 1868-7, 521); but
this statement must be taken with considerable allowance for error.

VARIETY OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.

The agricultural products of Spain are almost endless in their variety.
The principal ones are as follows :

Grain Crops.—Wheat, maize, barley, rye, buckwheat, millet, oats, rice.

Green Crops.—Clover, grass, kitchen vegetables.

Root Crops.—Sweet and Irish potatoes, cassava, (montato or convolvolus
batatas,) raised in the Balearic Isles, and much used by the peasants for
food ; (L. T.,) liquorice; catufas de Valencza; peanuts.

Leguminous Crops.—Beans: 1 French beans; 2 string beans ; 3 gar-
banzos ; 4 carob-beans (the algarobvo or locust bean, used as cattle fodder).

Frutts.—Apples, peaches, apricots, nectarines, pears, plums, cherries,
grapes, oranges, lemons, limes, pomegranates, figs, olives, melons, ber-
ries, prickly pears.

Commercial Crops.—Sugar cane, cotton, esparto grass, hemp, flax,
saffron, madder, red pepper, capers.

Nuts and Forest Products.—Chestnuts, walnuts, almonds, hazel-nuts,
cork, oak and pine bark, acorns.

Animal Products.—Silk, wool, cheese, leather, eggs.

Liquids.—Wine, spirits, ale, cider, oil.

The grain crops will be more particularly mentioned hereafter. Of the
other crops, those which demand attention on account of their importance,
are oranges and lemons, figs, olives, esparto grass, almonds, cork, silk,
wine and olive oiJ. Some idea of the production of these articles in
Spain may be gathered from the list of exports hereinafter given, after
due allowance is made for the quantities consumed in the country of
their production.

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2Q

Delmar. ] Jo4 [Jan. 15,

PRICES.
The average of the prices of grain and meat in all the 49 departments
of Spain in the month of July, 1874, is shown in the following table from
the Gaceta de Madrid:

Average Prices in all the Provinces of Spain, July, 1874.

Wine, CHHGD) sca cas sbeocsbbopaobaasoocdpod per bushel, $1.573
Wevslewn (OMICS 's obs oolaseanodasadogneeods ue 94
IPOs (COMMGROY Seb asogde6 cabs Souccecn0 moder a 1 00
WENA OU GHD ne eisnoagooh by opadicie Haaice Sale ef 1.14
ARI COS SCAT OR) his re avhepoeiere sce rasie erslorcecis a reiele per pound, 055
Iuarge Chick Peas, (Garbanzos)..........-.- 36 06
Mutton (arveno) eer ete ene BG 10
BS Ce he EVACON Is reper aych cretion pevotade) leveseter steerrste tare of 115
Bacont GHOCtIO) eit tie eis iiaraer He 163

Maximum and Minimum Prices in Various Provinces.

Wheat, mavimum........ BEN Ae ea ema per bushel, $2.73
60 WOMANI, oo pob 000g DoD boo SDDOD GOONS A awe.

BOW, MCMUMUMs oocsaodcnbecubodsodsound a 1.49
es NTTIVCNTVANG 4 Boonbe Sraisieb erate ie lavateuclevvene “ 50

Tt is not explained how these prices are determined, nor whether they
are wholesale or retail ; but I take it they are determined by public sales
at market towns and at wholesale. The difference in prices in the vari-
ous provinces, ranging from 913c. to $2.73 per bushel for wheat, and 50c.
to $1.49 per bushel for barley, show that, notwithstanding numerous
railways, there still exist in Spain obstacles to the mobilization of bread-
stuffs which should demand the serious attention of the Government. It
can hardly be due merely to the cost of transportation by railway that
wheat and barley are three times as high in one province as another, and
the tables published every month in the Gaceta show this to be the case,
more or less, throughout many years. Spain is an extensive country, and
as yet comparatively destitute of water-ways and other cheap modes of
carriage. Still, 500 miles by rail will carry a bushel of wheat from one
end of the country to the other, and unless the extreme prices quoted
are in places as yet remote from the established railway lines, or octroi
duties hinder the free circulation of commodities, Iam ata loss to account
for the disparities shown in the prices of the principal edibles.

CommMERctAL PoLticy—Corn LAws—TARIFFe, ETC.

The severe restrictions which formerly characterized the Spanish com-
mercial policy have been much modified of late years.

Until 1865 the exportation of breadstuffs, with occasional excep-
tions at long intervals, was prohibited, except to the colonies. (U. 8.
Com. Rel., 1866, p. 215.) I find, however, that in 1860, 1861 and 1862
there were, comparatively speaking, considerable exports of grain and
flour from Spain to England, and I infer from this that the harvests of

1875.] 335

[ Delmar.

those years were unusually abundant in the former country. Although
the prohibition to export breadstuffs appears to have been removed in
1865, there only appear to have been considerable exports of those arti-
cles, since that date, in 1866, 1867, 1872, 1873 and 1874.

The principal features of the regulations with regard to the importa-
tion of breadstuffs appear to have been as follows :

1849. Act of July 17 prohibited imports of breadstuffs except at periods
of scarcity. (Com. Rel., 1862, 220.)

1856. Grain crop deficient. Decree of May 13, 1857, admitted breadstuffs
free until December 31, 1857. Decree of September 16, 1857,
extended the time until June 30, 1858. Breadstufts imported
from France, Morrocco, Egypt, England and the Baltic. (Com.
Rel., 1858, pp. 99-100.)

1863. January 1, new tariff. Metrical system introduced at custom houses.
Octroi duties abolished and tariff increased on principal ‘‘tropical’’
imports, such as tea, coffee, etc. Tariff schedule simplified, but
rates not lowered; on contrary, raised. Importation of breadstuffs
still prohibited. (Com. Rel., 1868, 217.) ~

1865. April 1, regulations regarding imports of flour into colonies. June
28, other regulations, to wit: heavy discriminating duties on
foreign flour into colonies. For example, duty on American flour
into Cuba $9.50 per bbl.; on Spanish, $2.25. (Com. Rel.,
1865, 176.)

1867. Duties on agricultural implements reduced to one per cent. in
Spanish and one and one-fifth per cent. in foreign vessels. (U. S.
Monthly Statistics, November, 1867.)

1867. July 1, importation of grain still prohibited. (Br. Con. Rep.,
1867, 228.)

1867. August 22, decree admitting breadstuffs as dutiable articles for
four months. October 25, time extended to June 30, 1868.

1868. January 11th and 17th, wheat and other alimentary substances
admitted free. April 22, free entry of above articles extended to
December 31, 1868.

1869. July 12, new tariff in force from August 1. Duties reduced on
certain classes of articles about five per cent. Premium of $3.50
per 100 kilogrammes on exports of sugar refined in Spain. Dis-
criminating duties abolished. Duties on agricultural implements
one per cent. ad valorem. Duties per 100 kilos on rice, cleaned,
$1.60; oats, 52c. ; barley and maize, 45c. ; wheat, 60c. ; and peas,
beans, etc., 60c. On flour 50 per cent. in addition to the grain of
which it is made. (For full schedule, see U. S. Monthly
Statistics, July, 1869.)

1878. Breadstuffs still permitted to be imported.

1874. 66 66 66 U 66 66

Delmar.] 336 [Jan. 15,

COMMERCE.

As increase of commerce is far from being a necessary indication of
increase of wealth, I do not offer as evidence of progress in Spain the
increase which has lately taken place in her commerce, both foreign and
domestic. But as I wish to show the character of her foreign commerce,
particularly the exports, and still more particularly the exports of agri-

cultural produce, I herewith append a complete table of the exports of
1872, and such other statistics on the subject as will tend to show the

nature and extent of the agricultural and mineral products of Spain.

Table Showing the Quantities of the Principal Articles Hntered for Hxpor-
tation at the Custom-Houses of Spain (ineluding the Balearic Isles)
during the Calendar Year 1872.

Principal Articles, Quantities. Principal Articles. Quantities.
Olive oil, pounds..... 2.2.22... 42,187,505|| Wheat flour, lbs.............-. 10,379,672
Spirits (aguardiente), gallons.. LSPA SOTAIIISKORN 05 MOS coccoacac0n00s0GceH0C 10,460,624
Preserved food, pounds......... 4, 673, CHBWYOOL, THI WO cosobesb0c0ecc00c 9,708,472
Corks: manufactured. M...... le 015, 312||Legumes: carob beans, lbs.... 16,881,755

in SAI, WI .cocbdasdane 3,212,532, garbanzos, Ibs.. 7,576 205
TH TONGS, Ws odcdco4oe 1,248,643 Deans, lbs.. 646,672
Esparto:) crude, IbS............ 104,789,203} | French beans, ‘Ibs. 1,338,113
manufactured, lbs.... 6,201,923) |Metals: quicksilver, lbs...... 4,180,946
Spices: anise, lbs.............. 1,379,697 copper, ingots, lbs... 780,960
SatiromemlO Sicvyelreseierel 174,900 THROM, WOE soc¢coeadca000 12,476,058
GwaAUID, WOSs36s000¢0n5000 458,858 lead, lbs 207,701,747
pepper, ground, lbs.... 846,270/ Ores: zine, lbs 73,696,800
Dry Fruits: almonds. Ibs...... 8,229,487 OOOO, NOS sccopocooncsc0 584,987,900
hazelnuts, lbs....| 12,257, 696 | TiRoVa, MoS 4 5a0n500000 c0ca05 Pitts eral 00)
peanuts, Ibs....... 4, 278, 446) OUNE, M5 cocoscsdc00ecs 105,015,984
raisins, Ibs........ 110,471,456 Paper} ilibstinseesasoerieclseececies 4,304,582

all other, lbs...... 10, 190, 715 | |Soup pastry (maccaroni
Fresh Fruits: lemons, lbs...... 15, 847, ZRH; GOs) WOS coococoop0oces0n600c0 5,189,497
oranges, M...... "p4T, ,400/ Taiconices Loot wloSeacmeeceeeer 13,719 741
grapes, lbs ...... 9, 620, 080) extract and paste,lbs 1,604,931
all other, lbs.... 2, 485, UO Sule, Wess sop ssocossscas000 00000 328,908,186
Wattle smmumiberyaerecresceeeeee 26, 946) Silk, raw, lbs........ Sistcieeetalee 809,661
Grain: Canary seed, lbs........ 7,051 Wines: white, gal’s........... 1,250,200
rice, MSs a daascpene pee 10,934,605 common, gal’s........ 24 564,700
oats, WSos5 4600 3,472,341 do. of Catalonia, gal’s 2,645,400
barley, lbs 11,862,480 sherry and port, gals 9,120,400
TAY, MOBsco-05 Gagssaeood96 6,394,923 Malaga, gal’s. 4 567,000
WAetity WO scsosacabso0ds 113,809, 762| | other sweet, gal’s, 43,000

The most valuable articles of export at the present time are, 1. Wines;
2. Metals and ores ; 3. Fruits; 4. Breadstuffs: 5. Oil; 6. Cork ; 7. Cat-
tle; 8. Salt; 9. Wool; 10. Esparto; 11. Silk; and 12. Spirits; and
generally in the order named.

Wines.—The export of wine consists chiefly of sherries, which had
usually amounted to some 8,000,000 or 10,000,000 gallons per annum, but
in 1873 rose to 15,000,000 gallons, and of common red wines, which had
usually amounted to some 25,000,000 gallons per annum, but in 1878 rose
to 40,000,000 gallons. The following remarks on these two classes of
wine will doubtless be read with interest :

About one-fifth of the entire shipments of so-called sherry wine
from the Cadiz district consists of low and spurious compounds mixed in
Spain, and worth in Cadiz from $50 to $100 per butt of 30 arrobas, say, net,
100 gallons. About two-fifths consist of ordinary sherry, worth from

1875. ] 337 [ Delmar.

$125 to $225 per butt. About three-tenths consist of good sherry, worth
from $225 to $350 per butt. The balance, one-tenth, consists of superior
sherry, worth from $350 to $1,000 per butt.

The best wines come from the district between Port St. Mary and
Jerez, the low grades from other parts of Spain. The grapes are pressed
with the feet, cased in sandals of esparto grass, and the wine has an
earthy, tarry flavor, which is only removed from it after doctoring. The
spurious compounds contain some of this wine, to which are added Ger-
man potato-spirits, water, molasses, litharze and otheradulterations. It is
these two last grades of wine that the British chiefly sell and Americans
buy. Indeed we buy from the British if even we buy in Cadiz ; for there
a large portion of the houses engaged in the trade are English. The
wines are entered at our custom-houses as containing less than 22 per
cent. of alcohol ; while they really often contain 40 per cent.

There are four substances generally used in the manufacture of sherry.
First, gypsum ; second, a coloring substance ; third, a sweetening sub-
stance ; fourth, a spirituous substance. It has already been stated how
these adjuncts are supplied to the low grade sherries ; it only remains to
state what substitutes for those mentioned are used in the preparation of
the medium grades.

First, gypsum ; second, color-wine, or wine boiled down to the consis-
tency of sugar-house syrup; third, sweet wine, or wine made from
raisins ; fourth, brandy. Wine made in this manner is tolerably palata-
ble. Most of the ‘‘crack’’ dry sherries belong to this class. They are
entered at our custom-houses as containing not over 22 per cent. of alcohol.
They really contain from 32 to 36 per cent.

The only really pure sherry wine is Amontillado, but as every sort of
trash is called Amontillado, it is difficult for any one but an expert to
distinguish the genuine article from the spurious. However, it is pretty
safe to say that little or none of it comes to the United States.

Amonutillado is not always the product of design. The quantity made
in Spain is quite small, and the wine often the result of accident. To
make this wine, the fruit is gathered some weeks earlier than for other
sherries. The grapes are trodden by peasants with wooden sabots on
their feet. The wine is then allowed to ferment for two months or more,
when it is racked and placed in depositories above ground. Of a hundred
butts but two or three may turn out Amontillado. This Amontillado is
neither the product of particular vineyards, nor always the result of a
careful or special mode of treatment, but the unaccountable offspring of
several modes of treatment before, during and after fermentation. Fair
Amontillado (by nomeans the best) is worth in Cadiz $1.50 to $2 a bottle.
It probably cannot be purchased in the United States at any price. There
is not a drop of spirits added to it, and no sherry wine containing foreign
alcohol can be Amontillado.

I am assured by the Spanish Consul at Philadelphia that a very con-

Delmar. | 308 {Jan. 15,
siderable proportion of the so-called French claret wines, mostly the
lower grades, are compounds, made of Spanish wines, imported chiefly
at Cette. These wines are mixed with water, cheap spirits, a purple-col-
or'ng matter, and some other substances. They are then bottled, labeled
with high sounding names and exported to all parts of the world as Bor-
deaux wines. In many cases the adulteration is carried so far that there
is scarcely a trace of wine in the mixture, and what there is of it is the
common vino tinto of Spain, worth about 22 to 23 cents a gallon in that
country. (The total value of the 37,262,126 gallons of this class of wine
exported from Spain in 1873 was $8, 467,785. )

The following table shows the quantities of wines exported from the
Peninsula of Spain and the Balearic Isles during the years 1872 and 1873 :

Exportations of Domestic Wines from Spain in the Calendar Years 1872
and 1873, respectively.

1872. 1875.
CLIN) Oe NNTESEEE GALLONS. | GALLONS.
Maui WAS Gogoocdooccacsnoccononcasuon dood 1,250, 153 1,409,110
GommiomiwAWes jercilseietuee vsesle sii) leisure cree 24,564,686) 37,262,126
DittovotsCatalomiavaycisacieee seca tein 2,645,432 2,713,083
Jerez (sherry) wineS............ dione Dooodss 9,120,389) 14,840,609
WGibeey WANE souec pbosconsonoabocoDbboSKSuC 566, 504 315,998
Rich wines (generosos) from various parts.... 43,001 120,518
MO ballisescsog of cic) <a sexeloverekg ets eee Meee eden es 38,190,165] 56,661,444

Breadstuffs—This trade has increased enormously. Since the pro-

hibition to export breadstuffs was removed in 1865, the shipments from
Spain have increased over four times, or from about 5,250,000 bushels of
wheat and flour to about 23,000,000 bushels.

TaBLE SHOWING THE EXPORTS OF WHEAT AND WHEAT FLOUR FROM

SPAIN:

Fiour. W heat. Total. Flour. Wheat. Total.
Year.| pounds Pounds. Pounds. |{ ¥©®T- | Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds.
1860 96,800,000 | No data. | 96,800,000 1867 110,074,800 | 95,256,000) 205 330,800
1861 160,600,000 OG 160,600,000 1868 43,434,600 5,040,000 48,474,600 ©
1862 94,600,000 0 94,600,000 1869 | No data.| No data.| No data.
1863 84,620,800 4,043,040 | 88,663,840 1870 Ob Oe ou
1864 78,234,200 2,430,300 | 80,664,500 1871 OG O16 Wa
1865 | 87,687,600 | 35,940,000 | 123,627,600|| 1872 | 223,036,000 | 250,382,000] 473,418,000
1866 167,312,200 | 147,336,000 | 314,648,200 18738 441,540,000 | 931,480,000] 1,3730, 20,000

The exports of breadstuffs other than wheat or flour are unimportant.
The following tables gives the details for the year 1872 and 1873 :

1875.]

[Delmar.

TABLE, SHOWING THE EXPORTS OF VARIOUS GRAINS AND LEGUMES FROM
SPAIN, IN THE YEARS 1872 AND 1873, RESPECTIVELY:

1872.

1873.
Bar sp Siu ys: POUNDS. POUNDS.

ULC Obrtetete crm are cee acre re etuish css: os euc cudarlererase etree Rete 10,934,605) 10,441,506
OTS RABIN RR eere ee tea ts ars tie aie ei cia rates aetna 3,472, 341 6,174,870
Barley avrcvasven ators ies Sree sdieiaieneittos le Sacer 11,862,479 6,389, 007
IN\Bocd ob COSMO OTe G Cece te a err ee EREUR i 5 as 6,394, 923 4,033, 663
DOUMPPOASUE Seer Aer eyelsuieia cov = 5 eiclinbe ttre cise sin eveveemons 5,139,497 4 723,582
CERO) Or OORT sista pie a ety hans eee meen aan ial aan 16,881,755 8,783, 780
Garbanzos (large chick peas)................. 7,976,205 7,885, 100
AS CAUT Seatvrep eens ener eral svataavcheis leiave) shaskse Nae aval chau staievers 646,676 1,255, 465
Frenchior Kidney beans). ..-..-.5..........- 1,338,118 1,571,123

UR oticalersenetegs, 3) atone) of Skee bya saiey elena Seep tenctian of acciess 64,246,594! 51,258,046

The imports into Spain consist at the present time chiefly of tropical
products and northern manufactures. Breadstuffs, chiefly wheat and
maize, are only imported in years of scarcity. The following are the
imports of breadstuffs in the year 1872 aud 1873, respectively :

1872. 1873.
BREADSTUFFS. POUNDS. POUNDS.
“Tar Tee ees hc a 62,473, 622 154,000
@iher grain 9) oe) 17062208 | -2509,690
TTC see RG chk Raa 16,179,207 | 153,000

MINING.

The revival of mining in Spain dates from the decree of Ferdinand
VIL, of July 4, 1825. (Br. C. R., 1868-5, 299.) That this judgment
must be well based is very evident from the degree of progress shown in
the following tables. The statement for 1780 is from Hoppensack, quoted
by Macgregor. Those for late years are from the Br. Con. Rep., 1867-8,
560, the U.S. Monthly Stat., Mar., 1870, and U.S. Com. Rel., 1878, 964.

Table showing the number of metrical tons of (2,200 pounds each) of Ore
raised in Spain during the years named.

Year. Tron. Lead. aioe | Silver. | Copper.
1780 9,000 SOO ORs i Meade eer ct vente ms Mgmenteer. nays | 15
1860 175,503 BAG To Sesoo 4,230 224.152
1861 130, 259 SOL GA a aie ects nes 3,005 246,611
1862 213,192 Poe | oeeooe 2,023 313,913
1863 212,676 | BIGHOO IL hl Gersies's 3,060 343 141
1864 258,120 — 274,589 25,111 1,818 213,389
1865 191,684 271,318 19,323 1,125 273, 184
1866 180,131 267,494 21,312 1,704 279,527
1870 436,586 318,985 33, 248 2,679 395,695

340

Delmar ] {Jan. 15,
Year. | Tin.) Zine, eae | Phosphorus. | Antimony, | Manganese.
1780 125 DOOM RS lf eererenexts B00 ere verereees
UO. Moco TORR] SIGE ao eens eb a 28,863
TB | s5of RES) | US Bk Pe vee 14,071
1862 | 41,104 RAAT aly sora oes 6,459
1863 |....) 48,124 DOC oO Lamina sn eh ee 14,860
1864 | 63) 80,222 ONS OU are et. 7 eA 6 44 22 246
1865 | 93) 70,158 16,425 12,800 29 24,864
1866 | 380) 73,423 18,547 9,304 AM 39,624
1870 28} 118,588) 23,744 | ei orts! 80 16,828
Year. Alkali. Alum Sulphur. Coal.. Lignite. lagunciiaa
SEZ SON ei] antpereetctea wy | oe meme onl Ate merca (1858, 170,000)| ...... Facts
1860 UAB PS Doooo 23,045 321,773 17,5238 acco
1861 IDG I | osoade 23,148 331.055 22,292 5e00
1862 OOPPA |b soe000 12,639 360.246 28,696 Sood
1863 G08 |) arose 11,982 401,301 50,302 onO6
1864 11,822 8,179 9,788 387,904 38,529 3,825
1865 7,667 9.044 10,708 461,396 34,455 795
1866 9,912 7,588 16,242 393,105 39,559 2,663
1870 7.978 13,250 15,156 621,847 40,095 47

The number of metrical tons of Salt produced in the Government Salt
Mine was as follows °

|
Year | Met. tons. | Year. Met. tons.
| |
1860 | 391,692 1863 187,271
1861 201,775 1869 170,000
1862 | 182,208 1870 37,917

The number of producing Mines of all kinds throughout Spain and the
laborers and steam engines employed therein are as follows:

Year. Number of mines. ns a la- A ae
1860 1,988 83,297 39
1861 1,795 33,603 51
1862 1,386 36, 635 52
1863 1,594 39, 801 64
1864 1,842 37,201 76
1865 1,912 37,015 80
1866 2,283 38 ,483 94
1870 3,381 * 41,010 148

It needs but a cursory glance at these tables to perceive that of late
years Spain has made great progress in this important branch of her na-
Details of the smelting and refining establishments

tional industries.

for iron and steel, lead, silver, c»pper, etc., none of which nor their pro-
ducts, have been included in the above tables, will be found in the

* To wit: men, 33,277; women, 1,508; boys, 6,225.

1875. ] d41 [ Delmar.

U. S. Com. Rel, for 1873. For account of power-looms, see Br. Con.
Rep., 1867-8, 550; of fisheries, U. 8. M. S., Mar., 1870; of manufactories
in Catalonia, U. S. Com. Rel., 1862, 208; and 1864, 262.

PRODUCT OF BREADSTUFES.

The accounts of this product which have appeared from time to time
vary so considerably, both as to total amounts and details that it is very
difficult to reconcile them.

The earliest account relates to the last half of the seventeenth century
and is, I believe, from Miguel Ozorio y Redin. It states the total product
of grain to be 120 million bushels, two-thirds wheat and rye, and one-
third barley and oats. The population is believed to have been at that
time about seven and a-half millions. The product adduced would there-
fore equal 16 bushels per capita per annum, which seems excessive. The
account is, however, not to be rejected as valueless. The numbers of
the population supposed to have existed at that time are by no means
certain ; the consumption of grain was probably greater, and of meat,
less than at more recent periods. The account may not relate to an
average year, but an exceptionally good one; finally, it is to be presumed
that, though not specified, the product of chestnuts, dry legumes and
other substitutes for grain, is intended to be included in the principal
articles mentioned.

The next account, quoted by Macgregor from the ‘‘Census and Re-
turns’”’ of 1803, is as follows :

Breadstuffs—Product of Spain, in 1803.

Hectolitres. | Bushels.

SWE ce em MRO) Chiat 17,060,000 47,768,000
TBE og Re a eee ee ee oe aa 8,321,000, 23,298,800
TRG = oo ce A ee Re ran ar re 5,626,000 15,752,800
Oa eswUIaiZewriGe se lCesni a ciscisedor: 5/9 ale ecient 3,619,000) 10,183,200

34,626,000) _ 96,952.890

We have here, a total product of some 97 million bushels of grain for a
population of some 10,400,000 souls, an average of about nine and a-half
bushels per capita. Bearing in mind that potatoes, chestnuts and
legumes are omitted, I am inclined, for various reasons, to regard this es-
timate as substantially correct.

Mr. L. S. Sackville West, H. B., M. Secretary of Legation at
Madrid, in reporting to his Government, under date of July 1, 1865 (Rep.
Sec. Leg., 1866, 179), states that ‘‘fifty years ago, Spain, say with a popu-
lation of 10,000,000, produced 88 million hectolitres (1064 million bushels)
of grain.’”’ This statement corroborates the census and returns of 1803.

An estimate for the year 1849 appears in Mr. Joseph Fisher’s work on
Food Supplies (London, 1866), and gives the total product of cereals (omit-

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2R

Delmar. | 342 : {[Jan. 15,

ting maize) at 12,584,322 quarters, or say 100,674,576 bushels. Allowing
20 million bushels for maize and two million bushels for rice, we have a
total in round figures of 123 million bushels of grain. The population at
that time amounted to about 13,700,000, and the product of grain was
therefore about nine bushels per capita, a proportion which appears to
be substantially correct.

Says Mr. Sackville West: ‘‘In 1863, France produced * * * and
Spain 66 million hectolitres of grain.’’ As it is evident from the context
and also from the fact that the cadastral census of Spain was taken in
1857, that that is the year to which Mr. West refers in regard to Spain,
I have taken the liberty to so treat his statement. Sixty-six million hec-
tolitres amount to 184,800,000, bushels, and this, among a population of
15,000,000, amounts to an average of about 124 bushels each. If Mr.
West’s statement is applied to the year stated, 1863, when the population
was a fraction over 16,000,000, the result would be an annual product per
capita of about 114 bushels. From both of these results I am inclined to
believe that Mr. West’s estimate includes potatoes, chestnuts and le-
gumes. In such case I regard it as substantially correct.

For the year 1857 we have another account. This was given by no less
an authority than the late Albany W. Fonblanque, the accomplished sta-
tistician of the British Board of Trade, and is published in the Agricultural
Returns of H. B. M. Board of Trade for the year 1867. Ever since that
year it has been regularly published in the Returns as the ‘‘estimated
quantities of the principal kinds of corn and potatoes produced in Spain,”’
and it therefore appears in the A. R. for 1874, over the signature of Mr.
A. R. Valpy, Mr. Fonblanque’s no less accomplished successor. Not-
withstanding these high authorities and the official sanction which the
publication of the account in such a work coaveys, I am compelled to
regard it as defective. It states that Spain produced in 1857, 168,140,692
bushels of wheat; of barley 76,427,587 bushels ; and of rye, 24,727,483
bushels ; together, 269,295,762 bushels of grain ; an average of nearly 18
bushels per capita of population, to say nothing of maize and patatoes,
which are important articles of consumption in Spain; nor of oats, rice,
buckwheat, millet, chestnuts nor legumes—proportions that so radically
differ from all other accounts as to lead to the suspicion that error has
been committed in the conversion of the quantities.

For the year 1868 we have the account laid before the Statistical
Congress at the Hague, by Mr. Samuel B. Ruggles, of New York. This
is as follows :

Cereal product of Spain, with Balearic Islands, in 1868: wheat, impe-
rial bushels, 87,732,150; rye, 44,427,940; barley, 47,731,500; oats Gncluded
with other cereals); buckwheat and millet, 22,975,300; maize, nz/, rice,
2,000,000; total 204,866,890 imperial bushels. With the exception of rye
which is over-estimated, and buckwheat and millet, the estimated pro-
duct of which ought to be credited almost entirely to maize, I am inclined
to regard Mr. Ruggles’ account as substantially correct. The total sum

1875.)

343

[Delmar.

gives an average allowance of grain per capita of about 124 bushels,
which agrees with all of the estimates that are regarded as reliable.

For the year 1873, I have the following very explicit and detailed ac-
count, recently transmitted to me from Spain :

Account of the produce of Breadstuffs in Spain and the Balearic and Ca-
nary Islands for the year 1873.

BREADSTUFFS. BUSHELS. BREADSTUFES. BUSHELS.
Wincanton se H0N000L000 Rico eee 2,000,000
Barley percie chetetss aie 40,000, 000! Buckwheat and Millet 5,000,000
linvOdwiagae se CoO OeeG 20,000,000)Potatoes............ | 25,000, 000
(CRNIS) Goidid d's Gd Seka renee 3,000,000/Chesnuts. ........... | 3,000,000
WEWVADS choo sae mOeboOe 25,000,000) Dry Legumes........ | 5,000, 000

“URGEN hace ninco aoe Bee 238, 000,000

Reckoning the population in 1873 at about 17,200,000, the result is an
average of all kinds of breadstuffs of 13.8 bushels per capita, and of
grain alone 170,000,000 bushels, or about 9.9 bushels per capita. Allow-
ing 23,000,000 bushels for the export of grain, the consumption would be
147,000,000 bushels, or 8.5 per capita.

I am inclined to believe that this account, though it agrees very well
with those relating to previous years, underrates the true product
of Spain, though perhaps only to a small extent. Altogether it is the best
account we have, and must be taken as an exponent of Spain’s present
capacity to produce breadstuffs until a more definite account can be ren-
dered. Grouping together such of the preceding accounts as seem reli
able, we have the following comparative results :

CoMPARATIVE ESTIMATE OF THE BREADSTUFFS PRODUCT OF SPAIN
At VARIOUS PERIODS.

Grain Potatoes, chest Total Bread-| ponutati

: nuts an opulation.
Year. Bushels. LA ees GDL OaUiMatine
US O Sir. pre clareusevenerncgos De UNOLOUN ss cosoccovunsiloscusocccooe 10,400,000
AG ee arelane ts ciais piers IPE OOOO O Moga Hoan eel lsc ae ameincet 13,700,000
USI) Tig 5.6 BRO ralo HELCHOR CON CRORE See | rR 184,800,000} 15,000,000
NSGSRetes ciacteiaicoteion AU CUO OOD acccocooocesioccscoedcou 16,700, 000
1873 Ue fode Sravistenc aero oh eve 203,000,000! 33,000,000! 238,000,000! 17,200,000

These results, in the transcendantly important department of agricul-
tural production, show the same remarkable advance during the past
twenty years as has already been noticed in other respects, and fully
establish the claims set forth at the outset of this paper.

It will perhaps be noticed that, except as to exports in the year 1873, I
have taken no notice of the imports and exports of breadstuffs. The
reason for this was that among the periods under review relating to agri-
cultural production, 1873 was the only year in which the foreign com-
mercial movement of breadstuffs appeared worthy of note.

Chase. ] 344 [Jan. 1,

GRAVITATING WAVES.
By Puiny EARLE CHASE,
PROFESSOR OF Puysics IN HAVERFORD COLLEGE
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, January 1st, 1875.)

In my various discussions of luminous and gravitating harmonies, I
have shown mapy slight discrepancies, between theoretical and observed
results, which are of the same order of magnitude as planetary orbital
eccentricities. Although it would be unreasonable to look for any speedy
and complete solution of those discrepancies, I think it right to try such
questionings of nature, as seem likely to lead to a fuller understanding
of the common laws of molar and molecular force.

The hypotheses of Newton and Le Sage seem necessarily to involve a
repellent action of the «ethereal waves between two bedies or particles,
as well as a centripetal appulsion by the exterior waves. If the ratio of
these activities is discoverable, it seems reasonable to look for it in the
relative positions and motions of the three controlling bodies in the prin-
cipal subdivisions of our system,—Sun, Earth, and Jupiter.

In the simplest form of gravitating or other central revolution, the
tangential ‘‘lines of force’ are continually deflected, by radial centripetal
waves, so as to form a system of semi-circular undulations. The velocity
of circular orbital motion communicated by any central force being repre-
sented by radius, (or twice the virtual centripetal appulsion), the length
of the aggregating radial wave : the length of the deflected semi-circular

wave::1:7z. But the length of the wave of dissociation* : the length
of the limiting wave of aggregation : : 2 : <*. Combining these propor-
tions, we find that the length of the dissociating or repelling wave : the
length of the primitive wave :: 2: 7°, or :: .0645 : 1. Iftherepulsion

of the surfaces of two bodies from their common centre of gravity is

2
—, of the appulsion towards the centre of gravity, the distance of

the common centre of gravity from, the principal centre of mass

= (1 be ) » = 1.0645 r.

The mean distance of Jupiter from Sun being 1117.87 7, the mass of
(Sun = Jupiter) should be, to accord with this hypothesis, 1117.87
= 1.0645 = 1050.14.

I have already shown that the limit of dissociating velocity (v,) for
Jupiter and Earth, corresponds to the limit of planetary velocity for Sun,
thus indicating an equality of radial and tangential action, such as we might
reasonably have anticipated. If we adopt Cornu’s determination of the

* Proc. Am, Assoc., Hartford Meeting, 1874; Am. Jour. Sci., ‘‘ Velocity of Primitive Un-
dulation,’”’ Noy. 1874.

1875. ] d45 [Chase.

velocity of light, so as to derive all our data from observations which are
always suscaptible of verification, we find the following accordances.
J. For Earth:
2 4p 15851

o, == ar = 660” .46 per 2.
325<7925.5
a \' 2 gr = zak Sent) == AO Ce
t 2
0, = S- = 21 __ 32432003600 — 940545 wt
- Vo 5280
0 + //214.86approx. Solar j/gr at @ GRO ah na

Multiplying by 8766” and dividing by 27 we get, for an approximate es-
timate of Sun’s distance, 89,711,000” (a).

The distance corresponding to Cornu’s estimate of the Solar parallax
(8’/.86) is (206264.81 + 8.86) >< 3962.75 = 92,255,000 ” (7).

Dividing (7) by (2) we obtain 1.0284, which is nearly equivalent to
V1.0645.* Therefore v, for Earth is nearly, if not precisely, equivalent
to planetary velocity in a circular orbit at the centre of gravity of Sun
and Jupiter.

Il. For Jupiter :

The uncertainty of the elements in this case precludes the possibility of
any minute verification of hypothesis, but it is evident that the point at
which the gravitating waves must act,in order that the dissociating velocity

of Jupiter (», = Z) may equal the limit of planetary velocity, must
be at or near Jupiter’s surface. For the mass of (Jupiter = Harth)

1 8.863 f P
= SS) SE (lS) = Sls eee ; die fare P
= Fos0.14 4,43 ( sa00) 308.92. The apparent diameter of Jupiter
is variously estimated, from 3/ 13/’ to 3/ 25/’.5 at Earth’s mean distance
from Sun. Dividing by 2><8/’.86, we find for diameter (2/ = ©)

10.89 @ 11.60, and for g (4 + @) 2.8 @ 2.6. The estimates for the

time of rotation (¢) vary between 17700” and 17880°°”

Therefore :

% = 2 gi Seale @ 1,014,283” per. The geometri-
cal mean of these possible extreme values, differs from the value found
for Earth by only 7-10 of one percent. The other planets, both of the
Jovian and of the Telluric belt, would all be dissipated and absorbed in
their primaries before they had attained the dissociating velocity of Jupi-
ter and Earth. This intimate dependence of planetary aggregation, dis-
sociation, and rotation, upon Solar attraction, and the dependence of
Solar aggregation, dissociation, rotation, and planetary revolution upon

* 7/1.0645 — 1.0317.

€
Chase. ] 346 [Jan. 1, 1875.

the velocity of light, therefore point to the same unity of force as has been
indicated by the modern researches in heat, electricity, and magnetism.

III. For light and Terrestial Gravity :
If g = equatorial gravitating velocity, and ¢ = a sidereal year,

2 alee
Heke I 4" = 365.256 < 86400 + 5280 + 1.0645 = 185,880 m per

73
second. This corresponds to the velocity of light, giving a Solar distance
of 497.83 185,380 = 92,287,700 miles.
VI. Wave Lengths:
The primary radius, 1.0645>< 92,255, 00063360 + 214.86 — 28,959,800, -
000 inches. Dividing by the number of wave-lengths* in radius, 66456

pie in. The radial
229181

waves should be accompanied by deflected tangential waves of three
kinds, viz. :

(10,4, we find for the value of one wave length, u =

x 1

DS a = {450692 = wave of simple rotation.
1
5 Oy = 7) = 2. — we ir - orbit.
1 7a934.” wave of circular orbit
3. Wy = 2ru = Man in. = wave of virtual fall doing work — Solar
‘

orbital wave — 4 w..
According to Eisenlohr,} the wave-lengths in the diffraction spectrum

are as follows:

U tini : in
pper actinic, Tase80
Lower actinic, or upper luminous, 71940 in.
Lower luminous, or upper thermal, 35070 iN.

V. Miscellaneous :

Among other note-worthy accordances in this connection are the fol-
lowing :

1. The approximate equality of Mass (2/ + ©) to distance fallen
through in (time of fall to centre = time of circular revolution).

2, The equality of orbital o/s viva in Jupiter and Saturn.

3. The equality in the ratio of orbital v/s viva (VW = 6) to the ratio
of orbital to radial waves (w = 2).

4, The connection of Sun’s radius, modulus of light, and the limits
of the planetary system ; the velocity of planetary revolution and Solar

rotation being equal at 37 ©); v. of revolution at 37 U (= ) == % Ot

rotation at 3.
5. The stellar-solar parabola, between a. Centauri and Sun, and its

relations to the planetary distances.

* Loc. cit. +Am., Jour. Se. [2] xxii, 400.

Feb. 19, 1875. ] DAT [Sellers.
AN OBITUARY NOTICE OF MR. JOSEPH HARRISON, JR.

By CoLEMAN SELLERS.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 19, 1875.)

When we review the life of any prominent individual and attzmpt t)
analyze the motives that seem to hive actuated him, and which may have
led to his success, we can scircely avoid noting a resemblance to other
lives ; we find the same results following the same general course of
action inall. This orderly sequence of events leads us to think we are
subject to some fixed law, with which law seemingly accidental causes
may interfere to give endless variety in detail, yet not materially to alter
the result. That the good and obedient son, the industrious apprentice,
the faithful workman, should in time grow to be the much-respected and
influential citizen, seems so natural and orderly that life in such a case
appears as if “it was a sum duly cast up giving results in particular
figures.”’

In rendering tribute to the memory of our late associate, Joseph Harri-
son, Jr., by reviewing the prominent events of his life and recording the
results accomplished by him, the high position held by him in his latter
days demands a careful consideration of the orderly growth of a life
which had its beginning in the enforced economy and habits of industry:
of the apprentice and in a few years of home training.

So far as any chronological record of his life is needful, the task you
have honored me by imposing on me is rendered easy by his own fore-
thought in presenting to his children a well-written autobiography se
clear and precise in its narrative that it is difficult to avoid the use of his
own words in giving here the outline of his life. Previous to the War of
Independence Mr. Harrison’s ancestors seem to have been well-to-do;
but his grandfather, who was a large land-holder in New Jersey, entered
the army, and afterwards neglecting his personal affairs, died in 1787,
leaving but little for his family. His son, Joseph Harrison, was sent to
Philadeiphia when fourteen years old, and was employed by Mr. Charles
French, grocer, whose daughter he married in 1803. He seems to have
been unfortunate in business, and the subject of this memoir was born,
as he says, in the dark hours of his familyhistory. This was on Septem-
ber 20th, 1810, so that Joseph Harrison, Jr., was 633 years of age at the
time of his death, March 27th, 1874.

In his youth he seems to have been fond of reading the few books
at his command, and very early he evinced a strong inclination
towards mechanical pursuits. Following this bent after what schooling
he could obtain before he was fifteen years old, he was at that age inden-
tured to Frederick D,. Sanno, in the old district of Kensington, to learn the
art and mystery of steam engineering. In about two years the failure of
Mr. Sanno canceled his indentures. He considered the change that this
necessitated a good thing for himself, as he was then enabled with some

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2s

Sellers. ] 348 [Feb. 19,

experience to enter a better shop upon more advantageous terms. His
second employer was ‘‘an uneducated Englishman, but avery good work-
man,’’ and in his shop he soon became more proficient, and at the age of
twenty, before he was yet free, he was made foreman of part of the establish-
ment and had under him thirty men and boys. At the expiration of his
apprenticeship to James Flint, he continued with the firm, then Hyde &
Flint, for one year, and left them to take employment with Philip Gar-
rett, a Quaker gentleman, who had a small shop for the manufacture of
‘‘small lathes, presses for bank-note engravers and the like.’’ He
remained with Mr. Garrett until 1833, then went to Port Clinton, Penn-
sylvania, to start a foundry for Mr. Arundus Tiers, with whom his father
was engaged as accountant. This was the end of the varied experience
as a mechanician preceding his career as a cunstructer of locomotives. In
1834 he was employed by William Norris, then engaged with Colonel
Long in building locomotives (rhe design of the latter-named gentle-
man). Here he obtained his first insight into that branch of the mechanic
arts that was afterwards to be his life-work. He seems to have
considered this part of his mechanical education as of a negative
character, as he said ‘‘he had been schooled in the midst of fail-
ures,”’? so that when in 1835 he was engaged by Messrs. Garrett &
Eastwick as foreman, and was intrusted with the designing of the
locomotive ‘‘Samuel D. Ingham,’’ he endeavored to avoid what he
believed to be ‘‘ the errors with which he had been made familiar.”
This engine was considered a success, and led to the construction of
others like it. On December 15, 1836, he married Miss Sarah Poulterer,
whom he had met in New York in January, 1835. After his marriage, in
1837, he became a partner in the firm of Garrett, Eastwick & Co., invest-
ing jis skill, the only capital he had, in the venture. In 1839, when Mr.
Garrett retired from business, the firm took the title of Eastwick & Harri-
son. In 1840, he designed an engine at the request of Mr. Moncure
Robinson, of the Reading Railroad. This engine, named the ‘‘Gowan &
Marxz,’’ ‘‘ proved to be, for its weight (eleven tons), the most efficient
locomotive for freight purposes that had been built anywhere.”’ This event
seems to have been the turning point in his life, for two Russian Engineers,
Colonels Melnekoff and Kraft, were in America at that time studying
the railway system of this country. They saw this engine and were so
well pleased with its operation that they procured tracings from the
drawings of it, and took them to Russia. This style of engine seems to
have been adopted by the authorities in Russia, and Mr. Harrison was in-
vited to visit that country, money being forwarded to defray his expenses.
He was cordially received, and in 1843, in association with his part-
ner, Mr. Eastwick, and Mr. Thomas Winans, of Baltimore, he concluded
a contract with the Russian Government to build the locomotives and
rolling stock for the St. Petersburg and Moscow Railway. This contract
amounted to three million dollars; the work to be done in five years, it
being conditioned that all the work should be done in St. Peters>urg, by

1875.] n49 [Sellers.

Russian workmen or such as could be hired on the spot. It was at this
critical period of his life that he experienced ihe advantages of his early
training. The great work was to be carried on in a land where every
kind of corruptioa was the rule; where all the subordinate officials of the
land fed and fattened on the commissions c llected from those who had
contracts with the Government. The payments were to be made as the
amount of work completed; inspectors were to examine into the work done,
and report as to the correctness of the monthly statements. The inspectors,
for a pecuniary consideration, were ready to endorse any statement, no
matter how false, yet would threaten annoyance if they were not bribed.
This, added to the trouble of working inexperienced hands, made the
task of the contractors the more difficult. Mr. Harrison had been told by
Count Bobrinski that the officials would wear them out long before the
term of their contract wasended. The Count, meeting him in after years,
spoke of the conversation and said the success of the American contractors
had been a mystery to every one. They did not understand how that con-
tract and subsequent ones could have been carried out without resorting
to the usual practice of doing Government work in that country. In
their efforts to act fairly and honestly in their work they seem to have
been upheld by all the higher officers, and their course won the confidence
and approval of the Emperor himself, who was a careful observer of the
work as it progressed. In all of Mr. Harrison’s successes under these
many difficulties his character as a cautious, prudent and strictly upright
man was manifest, and was clearly the outgrowth of his early training.
The confidence inspired led to other contracts, as in 1850 to one to
maintain the moveable machinery of the road already equipped by them
for the term of twelve years. This contract bears date August 25, 1850,
and the parties to it were Messrs. Joseph Harrison, Jr., Thomas Winans
and Wm. L. Winans, the latter having purchased Mr. Eastwick’s interest
in the contract of 1848, previous to its completion. As an evidence of the
Imperial favor, valuable diamond rings had been given to the members of
the firm, and Mr. Harrison was made the recipient of the ribbon of the
Order of St. Ann, to which was attached a massive gold medal, upon
which was inscribed in the Russian language the words ‘ For zeal.”’
This honor was conferred upon him at the time of the completion of the
bridge across the Neva, accomplished by the firm during the time of the
first contract, which had been extended one year for this purpose. Dur-
ing Mr. Harrison’s residence abroad he seems to have noticed with inter-
est the effect of the art galleries on the working people, and when he
returned home he at all times advocated the foundation of public art
museums open to the people at all times, and was active in the establish-
ment of one in our Park. He frequently expressed his opinion of the
need of art culture in improving the taste of artisans and rearing among
us competent designers. An appreciation of the beautiful prompted him
to collect about him many paintings and other works of art, which
served to beautify the home he soon built for himself in his native city.

Sellers. ] 390 [Feb. 19,

It was in 1852 that he returned from abroad and located himself in Phila-
delphia to enjoy the rest from active business cares needful after his
many years of labor. The ample means that had rewarded his enter-
prise abroad enabled him to gratify his taste for art and later to do good
service to the world in his crowning achievement yet to be alluded to—
his safety steam-boiler.

Soon after his return to America he built the house which was his
home for the remainder of life. The planning and arranging of many of
the seemingly minor details of this building gave him pleasing employ-
ment for some years. It was at this time that the writer became
acquainted with him, was made aware of his mode of thought and his
ability as a mechanic. He can bear testimony to the fact, of interest it
may be to mechanics only, that hidden under the plaster of that house
are very many ingenious devices to insure stability and to economize space
by the use of iron in forms and shapes not commonly known to architects
at that time. These were special adaptations suggested by a mind fertile
in resources, familiar with the use of iron and possessed of a knowledge
of how to form it and use it to good advantage.

He chose to invest much of his means in real estate, and numerous fine
buildings which serve to beautify the city were erected by him. At one
time he advocated the concentration of all the railroad termini at one central
point in the city, and to combine with the depot commodious hotel accom-
modation. With this end in view he attempted to purchase land, notso much
as a speculative movement as to render sucha plan possible. It is believed
that he felt disappointed when this scheme was shown to be impractica-
ble. In this connection it may be well to mention that in 1860 he
desired to return to Europe with his family, and upon the eve of his de-
parture he sent a message to the writer requesting him to call to see him.
He then said that he desired to tell one who understood him why it was
that he was about to leave so pleasant a home. He spoke of the many
plans he had had in view to benefit the city, and said with sorrow that he
felt that his motives had been misconstrued, and in some respects his
efforts had been failures on this account. He desired to go abroad, to be
absent for some years; that while away his plans should be forgotten
and when he returned he could begin again in some other direction.
Previous to this, in 1858, he mentioned to his friends an invention he
had made to obviate the danger of disastrous explosions in steam-boilers.
Starting with the idea that the strength of any structure is the strength
of its weakest point, he aimed to construct a steam-boiler built up of
units of some given strength. He claimed that a sphere of metal, say
of cast iron, might be formed with its walls not more than three-eighths
of an inch in thickness and of such a diameter as would establish its
bursting pressure at may be 1000 pounds per square inch. Such a sphere
would doubtless be safe for the pressures usually required by users of high-
pressure steam. He proposed casting these spheres in groups of two and
four, uniting them in one plane by curved necks and making openings at

1875. ] 301 [Sellers.

right-angles to these uniting necks in the form of half necks with rebate
joints to match with similar joints on the other groups. <A group of four
balls might be called a unit, and a pair of balls a half unit, corresponding
with whole bricks and half bricks in building usage. Each of these units
would possess a strength measured by the strength of each individual
ball or sphere forming part of the unit, and a boiler structure built up in
any form and to any extent would have a strength identical with the
strength of each unit used in its construction. As the various groups of
balls were to be held together by bolts passing through the opening from
end to end of the pile, it was presumed that these bolts would stretch
under an unusual strain and thus permit a leak at the joint, so, making,
as it were, a great many safety-valves to relieve the strain. It was of
primary importance that the walls forming all the sides of these groups
of balls should be of uniform thickness. To accomplish this resu.t a
knowledge of the founding art would be needed. When Mr. Harrison
presented this idea to the public he had evidently carefully considered
all the difficulties that would occur in the practical realization of it and
in its introduction. He had already perfected his plans and was prepared
to direct the preparation of the patterns from which these groups of
spheres could be cast of uniform thickness of metal, on what is techni-
cally known as a green-sand core, so that the first group or unit cast
was perfect in all respects. He had also matured a plan of dressing the
rebate-joints in the groups by machinery, thus insuring accuracy of size
and making the parts interchangeable, without depending on the skill of
the workman.

The first boiler built on this plan was tried in the establishment of
Messrs. William Sellers & Co., in this city. It was erected in the spring
of 1859, and for many months supplied all the steam needed in that
establishment. To avoid all risk from so novel an experiment the cast
iron boiler was worked for several months at Mr. Harrison’s own expense,
fires being kept under the wrought iron boilers in readiness for use should
the new one give out. It may be well to mention that from that time to
the present writing, these boilers have been in constant use in the same
place under some of the many forms afterwards designed. The invention
of this kind of safety boiler marked a distinct era in boiler construction ;
and whatever may be the ultimate history of this invention, whether its
use be continued in future, or it be superseded by other forms, it is
nevertheless a well-established fact that its inception preluded all the
forms of sectional safety boilers now in use which are presented, each
with some special claim for efficiency, durability and safety. Mr. Harri-
son did not claim for his invention diminished first cost, nor did he antici-
pate any greater efficiency than was obtainable by any first-class boiler,
but he was sure of a greater safety in the use of high-pressure steam and
he thought that the use of his invention might render possible the safe
employment of higher pressures, if desirable, than was before considered
possible with any of the ordinary types of wrought iron boilers.

Sellers. ] oo2 [ Feb. 19,

Had Mr. Harrison presented to the world no other work but this his
life would have been justly classed among the benefactors of our race.
As it was, this invention was a crowning achievement of a life full of use-
fulness.

Much of the detail of the machinery needed to produce these steam-
generators was perfected during the years he was abroad, between 1860
and 1863, he returning to America in the summer of the latter year.
After his return he erected a factory for the production of his boiler, and
in the arrangement of this establishment he evinced mechanical ingenuity
of the highest order. He introduced many novelties in the methods of
founding ; in modes of cleaning the castings and in the general system of
proving the work when done. He aimed to so systematise the work as to
dispense with skilled labor as far as possible, using machinery in its
place.

As Mr. Harrison had passed through the various conditions of life
as an apprentice, as journeyman, as foreman, and then as principal in
his career as a mechanic, and had achieved proficiency as a skilled work-
man before the days of modern machine-tool and labor-saving appliances,
he naturally believed such training to be the proper one for the youths of
our day, and in a measure deprecated the practice of keeping young
men too long at school if they looked toward successinthe workshop. As
this was emphatically announced in public near the end of his useful life,
it may be well to give it more than mere mention. In the journey of life
there are in the memory of all persons events which stand as landmarks
on the road ; certain points that appear prominently in view and are
remembered at all times in their proper order. In looking backward
along this road traveled but once, these important events are clearly seen,
no matter how long the road may have been, and the more distant ones
seem crowded in close proximity, the space between them having
been lost to view, so that the sum of life seems made up of the strongly
marked events only. If these events lead step by step towards affluence
and position, they must seem to the traveler on that road to have surely
marked it as the only path that could have led to such results. Mr.
Harrison saw in his early application to the workbench, in his early in-
dustry grown to habit, in his enforced economy in boyhood, the founda-
tion of own his success. He prided himself on his skill as a workman, and
although he ceased to work with his hands when he took control of his
greater enterprises, yet he felt that in learning how to work he had stored
his mind with the knowledge of most use to him as a master-mechanie.
Hence we are not surprised to hear him advise the need of early appren-
ticeship to those who desire to become mechanics. His expression, ‘‘ In
mechanical and other trades it is the education of the work shop and not
the education of schools, that is most required,’’ was prompted by the bias
of his own career, and was strengthened by observation of the course of
many others who, like him have, from rough beginnings, achieved distinc-
tion. His life, like the lives of those many others, was a long period of

met 6,
1875. ] 300 [Sellers.

study. He pursued such knowledge as he needed, because he did need if,
and for its use to him he loved it. The varied incidents of his life abroad,
the persons with whom he came in contact, aided his mental culture. Ilis
manual skill secured his advancement in the workshop. The knowl-
edge he needed was obtainable from daily observations only ; it was not
written in any book ; mere skill as a workman would not give him this
knowledge, but it did give him opportunities of observation, and he was
ready to avail himself of the fund of information so collected. His
opinion in the matter of the education of mechanics has weight and
needs careful consideration. He had but to pointto his own car.er as an
example to prove the rule he laid down. There are comparatively few
of the youths of the present day who care to go through the years of
apprentice life. The tendency of all modern schooling is to make trades-
men of them, not mechanics. Of these few who from strong inclinations
would lead a mechanic’s life but a still smaller proportion can find places
in the work-shops of the land. Hence the need of schools that may take
the place of these work-shops and give to our young men tbe very knowl-
edge that Mr. Harrison claimed they most needed. He did not believe
that mere manual skill would insure success ; he knew that much learn-
ing was needed, but he believed that knowledge was within the reach of
every one who would diligently seek it. He says of himself that while
guick to learn at school and was in some branches at the head of his class,
yet strange to say he never wrote a composition at school, and did not
wiite his first letter until after he was twenty years of age.

So far as technical education was needed by him in his career as a
locomotive-builder, it must be borne in mind that it was in that direction
unobtainable when he most needed it. No books were yet written to guide
him ; the locomotive-engine was a new thing, railroads were yet young.
His mind grew with the progress of the art, and he did his full share in
that progress. Had he continued to the end of his life at the same work he
would have still grown with his work, and would doubtless have still been
a master-mind in that direction. But it must be remembered that the work
he did and that others have done in advancing the mechanic arts, makes
now more learning needed on the part of one who would take up engineer-
ing as a science at the place where he and they left off.

Towards the close of his life, Mr. Harrison turned his attention towards
recording some of his thoughts and experiences. After writing some
verses, eutitled ‘‘ The Iron Worker and King Solomon,”’ intended for the
amusement and instruction of his children, and designed to impress their
minds with the ‘‘ value of what is but too frequently thought to be very
humble labor,’’ he published a folio volume of over two hundred pages,
containing this poem and some fugitive pieces accompanied by his auto-
biography, and many interesting incidents of life in Russia, also all the
leading particulars of the invention of his boiler. He wrote a paper on
the part taken by Philadelphians in the invention of the locomotive, an
account of the completion, and opening of the bridge over the Neva in

Sellers. | dod [Feb. 19,

Russia, and a paper on steam boilers. In all these he showed considera-
ble literary ability and fully sustained his claims to the possibility of
self-education.

The dignity of labor was a favorite theme with him, and he held in
high esteem the producers in the world’s economy. He said that when
he returned to America he found that undue prominence was given in
society to mercantile pursuits and an underrating of mechanical occupa-
tions. During the year 1859, he gave a dinner party to fifty gentlemen,
who were invited ostensibly to hear a lecture by Dr. Hays on the Open
Polar Sea, but planned in reality to bring together certain persons in dif-
ferent positions in life who were representatives of different classes, and
who were not well-known to each other. This object was fully explained
by him to the writer, and was much dwelt upon in his mind at that time.
He said that banking facilities were extended to merchants what were not
accorded to mechanics ; that in his early career he had felt this want of
confidence very keenly, and he earnestly desired to help place the producer
in his proper place in the opinion of the world as to usefulness. He lived
to see a great change in this respect due somewhat to his own exertions,
but may be more to the enforced need of exactness of mercantile pursuits
in the conduct of the business of the manufacturer.

His interest in the fine arts was continued up to the close of his life,
and it was known that he desired to give to his valuable collection some
permanency, but pain and suffering came upon him too soon and thus
suddenly checked much of his exertions. Only those who were near to
him knew how much he suffered during the last few years of his life, and
with what patience he bore a malady which he was conscious might at
any time end his life in pain and suffering, and of which he yet hoped he
might be cured. It is probable that his malady seriously affected him as
early as 1869, for a letter dated August 12th of that year, addressed to
him at Saratoga by his physician, says in speaking of the cause of his
decease: ‘‘I have seen many cases of it in my life and they have all
finally thrown the disorder off.’? This, however, was not to be in his
case, and the best medical skill of the land only gave him partial relief,
and five years of great suffering were only ended by the hand of death.

These years of illness did not prevent him from taking a great interest
in all that was going on in the world of art and science,and he busied him-
self much in writing. He had lived to see his children grown up and
settled. He leaves behind him a widow and six children—William,
Henry and Annie, who was born in this country before he went to
Russia; Alice M’Neil, Marie Olga and Theodore Leland, born in Russia,
and Clara Elizabeth, born in America after their return. In his home life
he was an affectionate husband, a kind and indulgent father, and at all
times a dutiful son. The words written by himself to his family are full
of love and kindness. His book for their use and comfort was dedicated:

1875. ] By9)5) [Sellers.

‘To ‘THEE
Wao Hast BEEN
For More THan Hautr My Lire
My Truest FRIEND,
My CouNsELOR,

My WIFE.”’

Dnring the latter part of his life he was connected with the Protes-
tant Episcopal Church,* and had been a regular attendant at Divine ser-
vice at alltimes. He made no outward show of religious bias, but ever
bore himself as an honest, upright citizen striving to do what was right.
His worth and ability led to his being asked to fill many positions of
honor and trust, and he received many substantial evidences of apprecia-
tion of his work. For what he had done in the direction of safety in
steam-boiler construction he was, on May 30, 1871, made the recipient of
the great gold and silver Rumford medals by the American Academy of
Arts and Science ‘‘for the mode of constructing steam boilers invented
and perfected by’’ (Mr. Harrison), which ‘‘secures great safety in the
use of high-pressure steam, and is, therefore, an important improvement
in the application of heat.”’

Mr. Harrison was elected a member of this Association July 15, 1864;
signed the Constitution and was introduced to the presiding officer,
Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, December 2d, 1864, having accepted
his membership by letter dated September 26, 1864. He was also a mem-
ber of other learned societies, but with the exception of few papers read
by him he did not take a very active part in the business of any of them.
Of him it cannot be said that fortune was more kind than to others. His
success was the legitimate outgrowth of his beginning. There may be
some who ‘‘ when they have planted their feet on the first rung of a ladder
must needs mount ;’’ with some the ladder of life isan unbroken one and
to fall in climbing can be but from sheer carelessness. But his life was
not without many trials. There were many missing rungs in that ladder,
and these gaps, sometimes very wide, had to be crossed with prudent
care. To him was intrusted the keeping of many talents, and he proved
himself a good and faithful steward.

* Mr. Harrison was confirmed by Rt. Rev. Wm. Bacon Stevens, at the Church of the
Holy Trinity (Nineteenth and Walnut streets), Sunday, May 2d, 1869. Rev. Phillips
Brooks, Rector.

A. P. &.—VOL. XIV. 2T

AF pe
Sees 900 [Feb. 19,

AN OBITUARY NOTICE OF CHARLES B. TREGO.
By SoLtomon W. Roperts.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Heb. 19, 1875 )

Charles B. Trego was born near Newtown, Bucks County, Pennsyl-
vania, November 25th, 1794.

His ancesters were French Huguenots, who emigrated to England and,
some of the family having become members of the Society of Friends,
came over to America in the time of William Penn and settled at Ches-
ter, on the Delaware, and afterwards removed to Bucks County.

His boyhood was passed on his father’s farm, and he went to school in
the neighborhood ; but not liking the occupation of farming, and anxious
to improve himself, he began when young to teach school, and at the
same time to study German ; which was the language commonly spoken
by many of the farmers. His handwriting was remarkably regular and
beautiful, and continued to be so even to old age.

About 1821 he removed to Philadelphia, and taught a school in the city,
living for a time in the same house with a German teacher of languages,
and adding to the study of German, that of French, Spanish, Latin,
Greek and Hebrew.

He taught school until he was about forty years of age, and studied
Geology, Mineralogy and Botany, making a special study of Geology.

Although much occupied in studying and teaching, le took a lively in-
terest in public affairs. In 1835 a political change took place in Pennsyl-
vania, and the party to which he belonged was successful, electing the
Governor and controlling the Legislature; and Mr. Trego was elected a
member of the House of Representatives from the City of Philadelphia.
He was also re-elected in the following year.

Soon after his election he introduced and was mainly instrumental in
having enacted into a law, the Act for the first Geological Survey of
Pennsylvania. It is understood that the post of State Geologist was
offered to him by Governor Ritner, and declined by Mr. Trego. Profes-
sor Henry D. Rogers, received the appointment, and began the survey in
1836. In 1837, Mr. Trego became an assistant of Professor Rogers, and
he continued in the survey until 1841; when he was again elected to the
Legislature, and was re-chosen, year after year, until 1847 ; when he de-
clined a re-election, and was succeeded by the writer of this obituary
notice.

Mr. Trego was an intelligent, careful, pains-taking and honest legis-
lator, and a faithful servant of the City of Philadelphia and of his native
State. His knowledge of the different parts of Pennsylvania, and the
character of his culture, gave him broad views, and added to his influ-
ence with his fellow members, and to his usefulness as a member from
the city ; as in many cases members from the country show an unwilling-

1875. ] 307 [ Roberts.

ness to be influenced by those from the city, unless they find them
to be familiar with the interior of the State.

There is no doubt that the degree of success that attended the first Geo-
logical Survey, was largely due to Mr. Trego’s influence at Harrisburg.

In 1843 he prepared and published a work on the Geography of Penn-
sylvania, which is a book of nearly four hundred pages, containing a large
amount of information concerning the State. In the preface he says
that ‘‘in the course of his duties as Assistant State Geologist, during
four years, and on various other occasions, the author has visited most
parts of the State, and has thus enjoyed opportunities of acquiring much
local information concerning the different subjects embraced in this
work.”’

He also prepared a mass of materials with the view of writing the his-
tory of the City of Philadelphia, and it is to be regretted that he never
completed it.

Mr. Trego was, for some time, Professor of Geology in the Scientific De-
partment of the University of Pennsylvania, and delivered lectures upon
it in that institution.

On the 20th of January, 1843, more than thirty years ago, four persons
who had been active in the affairs of the Franklin Institute, were elected
members of the American Philosophical Society. They were Charles B.
Trego, Charles Ellet, Jr., Ellwood Morris and the writer of this notice,
who is now the sole survivor of the four.

On the 7th of January, 1848, Mr. Trego was elected one of the Secre-
taries, and was soon after chosen Librarian ; and on the 15th of August,
1851, he was elected Treasurer of the Society, which office he retained
until his death, a period of more than twenty years; and he also con-
tinued until the close of his life to be one of the Secretaries.

On the 30th day of June, 1854, the corporate existence of the Districts,
Boroughs and Townships of the County of Philadelphia ceased, and they
were merged in one municipal corporation with the City of Philadelphia ;
and about that time Mr. Trego removed into what had been the District
of Spring Garden, and at once identified himself with the political and
other interests of that part of the consolidated city.

From 1856 to 1862 he was a member of the City Council, and for four
years of that time he was President of the Common Council. His long
Legislative experience had made him very familiar with the rules of order
of representative bodies, and his uprightness and firmness fitted him to
preside. In 1863, when about sixty-nine years of age, he retired entirely
from public life.

From that time untilshortly before his death, he devoted himself, during
eleven years, very much to the business and to the interests of the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society ; not only attending the meetings, but occupy-
ing himself, for much of his time during business hours, in the Library
of the Society. Here he was fond of seeing his old friends, and of talk-
ing over curious incidents in the history of the City and State.

Britton and Cresson. ] 308 [Nov. 6,

He died of the disease of the heart, on the 10th of November, 1874 ; at
which time he was within fifteen days of being eighty years old. He was
buried in the burial-ground attached to the Friends’ Meeting House, at
Wrightstown, Bucks County. His widow and one son constitute his sur-
viving family.

A number of the facts contained in this brief biographical notice, have
been communicated to the writer by Mr. Trego’s son, Mr. F. A. Trego,
who has sought among his father’s papers since his death, for his private
journal, but has not been able to find it.

In looking back over the life of Mr. Trego, we see that while it was not
distinguished by any very remarkable incidents, he has left behind him a
good record.

He maintained the good reputation of the race from which he was de-
scended ; and living to the age of nearly four score years, he was useful
to the end of his career, and as the faithful Treasurer of the American
Philosophical Society, and the collector and disburser of its funds for
nearly a quarter of a century, his memory well deserves to be honored by
the members of the Society, as that of a good citizen, a lover of science,
and a faithful steward of the talents with which he was intrusted.

ANALYSES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN COAL.

By J. BhopGer Brirron AND C. M. CrREsson.

(Read at « Meeting of the American Philosophical Society, Nov. 6, 1874.)

The four coals from east of the Rocky Mountains and on the line of the
Union Pacific Railroad, exhibited at the meeting held on the 6th ult., I
have since analyzed for metallurgical purposes, with the following results :

CARBON Coat, FROM THE MINE At CARBON.

(Sample consisted of several pieces, and weighed 12 tbs.)

AEH aA oO ny SO AIAN o ct SM Actes SENT oIS oon aA CTS co'G 12.50

Volatile combustible matter...,.............---.---- 30.47

IDIb<-YO MERA NOR ANN Hoo ODO GH EMO Ana OOUGR COO COIN Ge DoF 44.96

DN) a TRG RR PORT To SO MOA Ino ROLL SOLAS OO ab. 7.07
100.00

One hundred parts of the raw coal gave of coke....... 52.08

The coke was composed of
Carboni een Me oe eae 86.42
NIN S600 1000 FiO CIEE NE eT cieies iata 13.58

100.00 Including sulphur 1.03
Phosphorus ...,..trace

1s74.] 359

[Britton and Cresson.

CoaL FROM ALURY MINE.

(Sample consisted of several pieces and fine stuff, and weighed 214 ths.)

\NGLIGIRSebioS bie 6.6 Dad Co.soudta a UaoIOIOe ane ollicnn ceeReee 12.95

Wolatilercombustible matters. 445 ae ere ele eee eee 32.54

TES CAT DOMer wastes tecrsne see tee eer tat aa eras 44.56

JST G tre noe BRO ROI B GEA SOROS NS Bid DOLODRG oo Here 9.95
100.00

One hundred parts of the raw coal gave of coke...... 54.51

The coke was composed of
CAT DONY Ss seolv atten selec 81.75
PACS IV ararereeccemivecchaee eae sain ae 18.75

100.00 Including sulphur .29
Phosphorus...... 04

Coau No. 3, FRomM MInzr At ROCK SPRING.

(Sample consisted of a single piecc, and weighed 183 tbs.)

VV EDULE G Heats yegeilays ersten shows sitesi oeaPeN cuehotel ei aulatines eran ansrnaeies se gschel dete 13.40

Nolatilexcombustiblemmatterseecasce ee eenee eee ee 39.25

1D b:qa6 EP HE Oa Urn Ht ORE SIE MAING ORT TIO OS eT ae 49.81

PAU Tageecte sty cps yeraec i Wu etepsl ov aclowanarcl ein hats isieue rahe eins lectins rehranG 1.54
100.00

One hundred parts of the raw coal gave of coke..... 51.35

The coke was composed of
Carbon s Sak eee a take 97.01
IAS TAG UO) ee AL rE 2.99

100.00 Including sulphur .63
Phosphorus...... 02

CoaL FROM EXCELSIOR MINE, AT Rock SPRING.

(Sample consisted of several pieces and fine stuff, and weighed 164 ths.)

WWWitiberrewrrrty setae riattaemiconie ele enslepslaerils eaters cuahoua cree 10.10

NVolatilexcombustiple mmatberseee nasser se csee aces 36.76

Bixedmcath OMGemmiecciertia acm ese cle. siunatc tana aitban soneterateters 51.08

INNS GARE A OSSD CUE ED IG BOGOR OL Tanta enme sasotenavols: Sierras 2.11
100.00

One hundred parts of the raw coal gave of Coke..... 53.14

The coke was composed of
Carboarire. cites are cetnines 96.03
INSTI. dincecavenstereitiats.cs mar nieretnaess 3.97

100.00 Including sulphur .92
Phosphorus...... trace

Britton and Cresson. ] 360 [Nov. 6, 1874.

The coals swelled very littl during the coking. When powdered and
heated they agglutinated. The cokes resemble in appearance the kind
produced from the average bituminous coals of Western Pennsylvania.

A portion of the sample from Carbon Mine was subjected for an hour
and a half to a temperature of 178° F., and lost in weight 5.72; subjected
for one hour more to a temperature of 280° F., the loss was increased to
7.31; and again for two hours more to the same temperature, the whole
loss was found to be 7.55. Another portion of the same sample was then
subjected for three hours to a temperature of 500° F., and the loss was
9.55. The watery vapor was condensed in a cold glass tube, the tube was
carefully weighed and then the water was evaporated ; the tube when
cold was weighed again, and from the loss the weight of water was as-
certained. The coal wis then weighed, and its loss was found to corres-
pond very nearly with the weight of the water. <A portion of the same
coal was immediately put into another tube and subjected for a moment to
a low red heat, when more water passed off and collected in the cold part
of the tube ; subjected for another moment to a little higher tempera-
ture, a dark brown oil passed off and condensed on the top, and ran
down the sides of the tube in the space between the coal and water.
The oil emitted a strong odor, the same as the oils produced by distilla-
tion from the brown friable lignites of Southern Arkansas and Texas.
The other three coals produced water and oil in like manner at a low
red heat.

These coals are not lignites, and I believe that if dried at a temperature
of about 500° F., or a little above, will answer for puddling iron and the
purposes of the blacksmith, and that the cokes will answer for producing
pig iron in the blast furnace. J. BLODGET BRITTON,

Iron Masters’ Laboratory.

They were examined for steam and illuminating gas purposes by Dr.
C. M. Cresson, The following is his report:

OFFICE AND LABORATORY,
No. 417 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. ;

Coals marked ‘‘Carbon Mine,’’ ‘‘Excelsior,’’ ‘‘Mine No. 3” and
‘“‘ Alury,’’ have been examined as to their fitness for the production of
steam, and suitability for producing illuminating gas, Pittsburgh (Penn-
sylvania Gas Coal) being used as the standard of comparison.

The following results have been obtained:

G the |Value of Five| Value of Five

Pounds of Wa- eae ae Gaen Cubic Feet of Cubic Fl. when

Coal. ter evaporated| nen all of the Gas in Candles ihe amount is

by one pound Gas is worked When all of the limited to 4.4

of Coal. off. Gas is worked Cubic Feet per

Off. eee of Coal.
Carbon Mine....... 13.42 5.17 Cu. Ft. 9.52 10.30
Excelsior <-0..-.- => 13.53 Dede hi as 11.80 12.00
Mine No.3.....-.. aes 265. CLOG cs 7.80 12.30

INIiwp sees eboo bene TEE asin 0: 0c 6.90 9.

ante Gas Coal.. 14.67 RB 86 ob 12. 14,

Feb. 5, 1875.] 361 [Cone.

The heating power of these coals compares favorably with that had
from the majority of semi-bituminous and many bituminous coals. They
should be burned in boilers adapted for use with bituminous coals.

As gas coals, Excelsior and Mine No. 3 possess fair qualities. They
yield a very large amount of gas, and with a little enrichment (either by
the admixture of cannel or a small amount of oils) will prove serviceable
to the gas-maker.

If these samples are from outcrop or from near the surface, it will
most likely be found that the quality of the coal will improve, as it is
obtained from a greater depth; so that without any limitation in the
quantity of gas yielded, they will compare more favorably with the east-
ern bituminous coals for gas purposes. Respectiully,

CUARLES M. CRESSON, M.D.

SYNOPSIS OF THE VERTEBRATA OF THE MIOCENE OF
CUMBERLAND COUNTY, NEW JERSEY.

By E. D. Cope.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Feb. 5, 1875.)

The marls of the Miocene period appear in a limited area in South-
western New Jersey, chiefly in Cumberland County. Their mineral
character is similar to that of the marls of the same age in the Southern
Atlantic States, viz.: a calcareous clay containing small percentages of
phosphate of lime and potash. In New Jersey its strata abound in
shells, and Vertebrate remains are rathercommon. Timothy A. Conard,
the father of our Marine Tertiary Geology, as early as 1832, in his ‘‘Fos-
sil Shells of the Tertiary,’’ called it the upper marine formation, and
stated that it ‘‘ first appears in New Jersey, southeast of Salem, and con-
tinues throughout all the States south of this.’’ Professor Rogers, in his
Geology of New Jersey, published in 1840, p. 2938, calls the beds Ter-
tiary, and remarks ‘‘ though this proposition (of shells) might rather im-
ply an Eocene date for the deposit .... while on the other hand all the
species are either identical with those of the Miocene of Maryland and
Virginia, or exhibit a close analogy of form.’’ In a memoir read before
the American Philosophical’ Society, and published in the volume of
Transactions for 1837, p. 334 Prof. Rogers, assigns the corresponding
beds in Eastern Virginia to the Miocene period. ‘The evidence derived
from the vertebrate fossils does not conflict with this view. A full ae-
count of the geology of the formation as it appears in New Jersey, is
given by Prof. G. H. Cook, in his report ef the Geological Survey of New
Jersey, 1868.

_A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 2U

Cope. ] 362 [ Feb. 6.

ELASMOBRANCHII.
LAMNA ELEGANS.
LAMNA CUSPIDATA.
LAMNA DENTICULATA.
OXYRHINA XIPHODON.
OXYRHINA MINUTA.
OTODUS APPENDICULATUS.
CARCHARODON MEGALODON.
CARCHARODON ANGUSTIDENS.
HEMIPRISTIS SERRA.
ZYGAENA PRISCA.
GALEOCERDO ADUNCUS.
GALEOCERDO EGERTONII.
NOTIDANUS PRIMIGENIUS.
AETOBATIS SP.
MyLIOBATIs SP.
ZYGOBATIS SP.
PLINTHICUS STENODON, Cope, Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. History, 1867,
p. 316.
PRISTIS AMBLODON, Cope, ibidem, 312.

ACTINOTERI.

PHYLLODUS CURVIDENS, Marsh, Proceed. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science,
1870, p. 229. -

CROMMYODUS IRREGULARIS, Cope, Proceed. Amer. Philos. Society, 1869,
p. 248; Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. History, 1869, p. 311.

-PHASGANODUS GENTRYI, Cope, sp. nov.

Represented by one of the long teeth of the anterior part of the jaws.
Jt is slender and curved backward, and the anterior view presents a cut-
ting edge fron the apex to the base ; there is no cutting edge nor angle
.on the posterior face, unless it be at the apex, which is broken off in the
specimen. On one side the cementum is smooth; on the other, and
posteriorly, the crown is keeled-striate from the base to near the apex.
Length preserved, .010; long diameter at base, .0022; do. near apex,
.0020; short diameter at base, .0012. Dedicated to my friend Thomas
C. Gentry, of Philadelphia, an acute observer of nature.

SPYRAENODUS SPECIOSUS, Leidy, Sphyraena speciosa, Leidy, Proceed.
Acad, Nat. Sciences, 1856, p. 221.

SPHYRAENODUS SILOVIANUS, Cope, sp. nov.

Represented principally by a portion of the dentary bone, supporting
five teeth, and containing alveoli for four others. The jaw is compressed
and slightly curved and with smooth surface. The teeth are subequal,
compressed, rather short and acute, and without roots; at their bases
the alveolar borders are notched. Length of fragment, .020; depth at
middle, .004 ; length of a. tooth, .003; long diameter at base, .002.

2 ‘
1875. ] 363 [Cape.

REPTILIA.

TRIONYX LIMA, Cope, Ext. Batr. Rept. N. Amer., 1870, p. 153. Pl. vii.
Fig. 14.

PUPPIGERUS GRAND&VUS, Leidy, Chelone grandeva, Leidy, Proceed.
Acad. Philadelphia, 1861, p. 203; Puppigerus grandevus, Cope, Ext.
Baltr. Rept. N. A., 1870, p. 235.

THECACHAMPSA SERICODON, Cope, Proceed Acad. Phila., 1867, p. 143 ;
Ext. Batr. Rept. N. Amer., 1870, p. 43, Fl. v. Fig. 8.

INCERTAE SEDIS.

AGABELUS PORCATUS, Cope, gen. et sp. nov.

Established on an osseous body which nearly resembles the elongate
muzzle of a Priscodelphinus without teeth, but with the alveolar lines ex-
cavated into a deep groove on each side. The superior surface possesses
a Shallow median groove as in most delphinoid cetaceans, while the sup-
posed palatal face is plane and sharply defined by the lateral grooves.
The latter are bounded above by a thin overhanging border on each side,
and their fundus is marked by a series of nutritious foramena of small
size, apparently corresponding to the positions of teeth of other genera.

With this imperfect material it is impossible to decide positively on the
character of this genus, but I suspect that it will be found to be allied to
the sword-dolphins of the genus Rhabdosteus, Cope.

Char. Specif. The general form is depressed, and the outline tapers
regularly to near the apex. The upper face presents two convexities,
one on each side of the median groove, but towards the base these parts
are not exactly symmetrical. There is a narrow bevel descending to the
margin on each side. The grooves are wide and deep, anteriorly wider
than the palatal rib which separates them, and opening outward as well
a; downwards. Bone moderately dense, surface not covered with the
cementum and faintly longitudinally line-grooved. Total length of frag-
ment, M. .065 ; width do. at base, transversely .012, vertically, .006 ; with
palate at base .007 ; at broken extremity, .002; depth at do. .0035.

MAMMALIA.

SQUALODON ATLANTICUS, Leidy, Cope, Proceed. Academy, Philada., 1867,
p. 153; Macrophoca atlantica, Leidy, 1. ¢. 1856, p. 220.

ZARHACHIS VELOX, Cope, Proceed. Acad. Philadelphia, 1869 (March).

PRISCODELPHINUS HARLANI, Leidy, Proceed. Acad. Phila., 1851, p. 327.

PRISCODELPHINUS LACERTOSUS, Cope, Delphinapterus lacertosus, Cope,
ibidem, 1868, p. 190.

PRISCODELPHINUS GRAND&VUS, Leidy, ibidem, 1851, p. 327. Tretosphys
grandevus, Cope, ibidem, 1869 (March).

PRISCODELPHINUS URAEUS, Cope, Tretosphys wraeus, Cope, 1869 (March).
The four preceding species may be regarded as congeneric for the

present, as they are similar in the forms of the vertebre, especially in

6 2
Frazer. ] 04 [Mareh 19,

the lumbar diapophyses. A few years ago I defined a genus, based on
several species from the Miocene of Maryland, in which the lumbar
diapophyses are spiniform. Supposing the Priscodelphinus harlani of
Leidy to possess the same character I retained the same generic name for
the Maryland species. After an examination of considerable material from
the New Jersey locality, including bones of P. harlanii, I have failed
to observe a single species with the spinous processes alluded to. It thus
becomes evident that Priscodelphinus must be retained for the species
termed by me 7’retosphys, while that for which I retained the name Pris-
codelphinus must receive anew one. For this I propose Belosphys with
B. spinosus, Cope, as type, and B. atropius, B. conradi and B. stenus as
species. At the same time I add that the presence of Jzacanthus coelos-
pondylus, Cope, in the New Jersey Miocene mentioned in Cook’s Geologi-
cal Survey of New Jersey by the writer, is doubtful.
Total number of species, thirty-three.

ORIGIN OF THE LOWER SILURIAN LIMONITES OF YORK
AND ADAMS COUNTIES.

By PERsIFOR FRAZER, JR.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 19, 1875.)

The three great deposits of Lower Silurian limestone which occur in
this State, are: Ist. That of the Chester Valley which begins at Willow
Grove, in Montgomery county, and terminates about a mile west of
Minerstown, in Lancaster county; 2d. The great Lancaster and York
county basin which, commencing about a mile northeast of Morgantown,
crosses the Susquehanna River in two prongs, the longer (most northerly)
of which terminates almost on Mason and Dixon’s line in the southeast
corner of Adams county; and 3d. The great valley, par excellence, which
enters the State at Easton on the Delaware River, and passes into Mary-
land in a wide belt, which stretches fifteen miles east and the same dis-
tance west of Middleburg, Franklin county.

Accompanying all these limestone basins are belts of iron ore which
crop out at tolerably uniform distances below their edges. In the still
lower measures of the Silurian, and above the Potsdam sandstone, are
other belts of ore entirely disconnected from the limestone ores.

In the first Report of the Geology of Pennsylvania (Vol. I, p. 218), it is
stated of the Rathfon Ore Banks of Lancaster county, that in this, as in
most of the other iron veins connected with the magnesian limestones,

1875.] : 305 [ Frazer,

the position of the ore is precisely at the junction of the limestone and
slate. ‘‘It is indeed only a very ferruginous variety of the metamor-
phosed slate regularly stratified and intercalated with it.”’

Again, ‘‘ west of the Gantner Ore Diggings,”’ zh cs “<the ore
lies in decomposed sandy talco-micaceous slate between the sandstone
and an outcrop of limestone south of it.’? And just beyond, ‘‘ The
Conewango Ore Bank lies at the junction of the Auroral limestone and
the talco-micaceous slates of the primal series.’? In another place, the
section of this limestone at Strickler’s Run is given, commencing at the
lowest number of the series :

. Limestone, 150 feet.

. Blue talcoid slate, 200 feet.
Limestone, 15 feet.

. Dark-blue slate, 20 feet.

. Limestone (?).

. Bluish talcoid slate, 200 feet.
. Limestone (?).

(Total 405 ++ feet).

IED oT PR HO WW

Of the iron ores of York county, it is stated simply that a belt is trace-
able along the southern edge of the limestone towards Littlestown, but
has been long neglected, owing probably to its containing a considerable
portion of the oxide of manganese. All these statements agree in placing
the limonites just beneath the Auroral limestone. The older ores seem
not to be mentioned at all.

The ores of York county are of three kinds: 1st, pyritiferous and
partly magnetic limonites; 2d, the limonites proper, which were the
special objects of my investigation last summer; and 3d, the micaceous
and magnetic ores of the Mesozoic sandstone. The first fact of import-
ance with regard to the second of these kinds, is that (corroborated by
Prof. Prime), they never occur far from the Auroral limestone, but
always on its edges, thus skirting the entire basin (when not overlain by .
the Red Sandstone), and forming a line of ore wherever, within the
limits of the basin, from folding and subsequent denudation, an edge of
this Auroral limestone is exposed. 2d. They are almost always in the
form of segregations in yellowish and bluish clay. 3d. Not only is each
belt of ore made up of small pockets and nests lying without regularity
in the decomposed slates constituting the clay, but in some cases the belt
itself is capricious and appears to run out whenever the rock becomes less
easily decomposable.

I should hesitate to ascribe the source of this iron supply to the
minute crystals of pyrite which undoubtedly permeate some horizons
of the great Calcareous deposit, both because their number and the
porousness of the limestone as observed in connection with the ore,

Frazer. } 366 [March 19,

seem to bear no relation to the latter. Besides, the supply of iron from
such minute crystals in the limestone would be insufficient to produce
the limonite beds. It seems much more probable that the source of the
supply of iron were the pyrite crystals of the slates which, once towering
high in the air, have been carried down by denudation and deposited in
the Atlantic. Even these slates which are not so situated as to permit
the percolation of water through them, exhibit a porous structure, the
pores being filled with brown ochreous limonite, and this occurs to a
considerable depth, and the slate merges by imperceptible degrees in
a direction normal to the plane of bedding, first into completely meta-
somatized pseudomorphs of limonite after pyrite (but still retaining
the form of the latter); then the same with a kernel of pyrite; then the
pyrite itself, first with a shell and then with a mere stain of ferric
hydrate ; and finally the same slates are revealed porphyritic from the
pyrite, but not at all decomposed.

The question as to the source of the iron in these limonite beds, is this:
Does it come from the percolation and solution of its pyrite disseminated
through the more recent limestone, or does it come from the decomposed
pyrite in the slates of the same age? For it will hardly be disputed,
that the main source of the supply consisted of pyrite, nor that the
decomposition of the slates into clays was the means of providing the
impermeable medium in which the iron solutions were caught and im
prisoned. If the former hypothesis be the true one, we should ex-
pect to see an absence of limestone in the vicinity of the large deposits ;
for (granting for the moment that the limestone contains enough pyrites
to account for the entire deposit (a fact which at least admits of some
question), a percolation of water sufficient to oxidize the sulpbur of these
pyrite crystals and carry away enough iron to produce the beds, would
entirely honey-comb and finally, both by solution and attrition, dissipate
the limestone bed. But in and near some of the largest limonite beds we
find the limestone scarcely weathered, and in few cases, if any, is it ren-
dered ferruginous or even stained to any great degree by chalyheate
waters. Indeed, the absence of the familiar iron stain from the calcareous
member of this formation is so marked, that this point of difference from
the adjacent members of the series cannot fail to arrest attention.

Again the uniformity of the occurrence of these limonite deposits on
the skirts of the basin and the lower edge of the elevated limestones and
their absence elsewhere, cannot but be the result of the law of their for-
mation. Were these deposits derived from the pyrite disseminated
through the limestone there would be no way of explaining the adher-
ence to the rule when the strata were highly inclined or vertical, except
by supposing that the ferruginous solution from the limestone found its
way across the decomposing slate beds in a direction perpendicular to
their planes of lamination—an hypothesis opposed to all experience.
But this would not account for the absence of iron oxide on the re-
maining edges of the limestone itself, for even if we could accept the

[p) 2
1875. ] 30% [ Frazer.

flow of the waters through the bedding we should be at a loss to account
for the absence of that flow along the planes of bedding. -It is objected
in short to the hypothesis which would derive the limonite beds from the
disseminated pyrite in the overlying limestone. 1st. That the less the
limestone actually overlies, ceteris paribus, the greater the extent of the
limonite deposits. 2d. There is no appearauce of wasting in the lime-
stone commensurate with the effect produced, and not even the staining
from chalybeate waters which must have accompanied such a genesis.
3d. Very similar deposits are found in regions widely remote from the
limestone (thousands of feet of measures below it,—7. ¢., Hofacker’s,
and the Cameron Iron Co.’s mine, &c.).

The facts which are most intractable according to the former hypothesis
might have been predicted on the latter. A large portion of the slates
underlying the Auroral limestones are pyritiferous. A specimen taken
from a point on the Peach Bottom Railroad, about five miles southeast
of York was selected rather than one nearer to the limestone basin,
because in these latter the pyrite is distributed in crystals too minute to
be easily counted, while probably not differing materially in the
amount of iron contained. A slab of this slate 3} < 2}. 2 inches was
examined to ascertain the number of prints of pyrite crystals which it
contained. On the area of the surface 3} < 24 = 8.75 sq. inches there
were counted 350 such pits visible to the naked eye.

A micrometric measurement of a large number of these pits gave all
intermediate dimensions between ;, and ,, of an inch. Assuming the
mean of the cubes of these dimensions or 0.000213 cubic inch as the average
size of a crystal, we have 40 such crystals in 1 square inch, occupying
0.00851 cubic inch. In the specimen examined which was 2 inch thick,
there were nine layers distinctly visible to the naked eye. Hach layer
was therefore ,1, inch in thickness, and supposing only 0.00852 cubic inch
of pyrite in each square inch of laminze, we have 0.00852 « 24 « 12 >
= 12.27 cubic inches of pyrite in every square inch of area and 5 feet of
thickness of these slates. One cubic inch of pyrite weighs 126.1 grains.
In the above thickness and area of these slates there are then 1547.25
grains, or in each square foot of the same thickness 222803.57 grains —
31.81 lbs.

This would give us for every mile of outcrop and 1000 feet of arch
above the present surface the enormous sum of 168,009,600 lbs. = 75,004
tons of 2240 lbs. But the metallic iron in this mass of slates one mile in
length and five feet in thickness would weigh 47729.7 tons, and supposing
it to be also oxidized, the anhydrous oxide would weigh 68185.2 tons and
as limonite 79691.5 tons.

Assuming ; of this to be washed into the soil and ? to be left as earthy
iron ochre in the pits originally filled by pyrite in the slates still in place
and only partially decomposed,—which lie in juxtaposition to the ore ;
then eyery outcrop of these slates one mile long and one foot deep has con-
tributed about 20 tons to the deposits. But the entire mass of the rocks

Frazer. ] 368 [March 19,

which were formerly above the present surface have been washed away,
and with them their 47,730 tons of metallic iron, or their 79,691 tons of
limonite (if all this iron was hydroxidized), for every 1000 feet of slope,
5 feet of thickness and 1 mile of outcrop. Added to the smaller contri-
bution of the partialiy weathered slates at the surface, this gives the
total of 79,711 tons of limonite per mile, which has been gradually carried
down the dip and segregated among the clays. But these slates are of
very great thickness—at least 100 times what has been assumed. Allow-
ing, then, for all loss by transportation into the sea, and through breaks
in the continuity of the clay beds to great depths under ground, and for
combination with the silicates to form double salts, we still have more
than enough to account for all the largest ore banks. It willbe asked,
why these deposits should bear so close a geographical relation to the
limestone basins ? An example taken from Feigley & Brillhart’s bank in
the Dunkard Valley, one mile east of Logansville, is interesting in this
connestion. Here is the southwest limit of the easterly portion of the
small limestone trough which runs parallel with and south of the greater
York county synclinal. About a quarter of a mile east of Brillhart’s
works there occurs a rock almost indistinguishable from the other slates
but which contains + 33 per cent. (?) of calcium carbonate.

This indicates either that these slates have been subjected to a long
soakivg with calcium bicarbonate or that the deposits of the carbonate of
lime proceeded together with the mechanical deposition of the sediments
which formed the slate bed.

In reference to the older limonite formations of Lancaster county, it is
said (Vol. I, p. 183): ‘‘An interesting inquiry is here suggested as to
what can have been the geological atmospheric condition which produced
the remarkable percolation which carried down so large an amount of ore
out of these ferruginous beds. Was it tepid rain charged with carbonic
acid in an early Paleeozoic period? Or could it have been a long filtration .
of surface waters such as now soak the earth? Or are we to surmise an
action of internal steam issuing upwards through crevices in the strata
ina period of crust movement and disturbance? I am inclined to the
first conjecture.”’

Dr. Hunt in his essay on metalliferous deposits (XII, Chem. and Geol.
Essays, Boston, 1875, p. 229), says: ‘‘The question has been asked me—
Where are the evidences of the organic material which was required to
produce the vast beds of iron ore found in the ancient crystalline rocks ?
I answer that the organic matter was in most cases entirely consumed
in producing these great results, and that it was the large proportion
of iron diffused in the soils and waters of those early times which not
only rendered possible the accumulation of such great beds of ore, but
oxidized and destroyed the organic matter, which in later ages appear
in coals, lignites, pyroschists and bitumens. Some ofthe carbon * *
is, however, still preserved in the form of graphite,’’ &c.

With reference to the Ferric Sulphide or pyiite, the same author

1875. ] 369 [ Frazer.

ascribes its formation to the deoxidizing agency of decaying organic
matters out of contact with air on soluble sulphate of lime and magnesia,
giving rise, if carbonic acid be present, to Hydrogen Sulphide which
‘“‘in some conditions not well understood contains two equivalents of
sulphur to one of iron.’’ He adds that he has observed that the ferrous
sulphide or proto-sulphide of iron in presence of a per-salt of iron loses
one-half of its iron, the rest being converted to Ferric Sulphide.”’

It seems at least a possible explanation for this more prominent de-
termination of limonite along the edge of limestone, that by the oxida-
tion of the pyrites of the slates an equivalent of sulphuric acid in addi-
tion to that necessary to form Ferric Sulphate has been produced. That
this molecule of free sulphuric acid in its passage over the mica and
chlorite slates has dissolved out part of their alkalies, especially soda.
That this solution of sodium sulphate has mingled in the clay beds below
with the solution of calcium bicarbonate, produced by the drainage of
rain waters over the limestone beds, giving rise to sodium bicarbonate and
calcium sulphate. That this sodium bicarbonate reacting on the Ferrous
Sulphate has precipitated Hydro-Ferrous Carbonate which has been by
oxidation rapidly converted to Ferric Hydrate, while the Ferric Sulphate
has been immediately thrown down as hydrous oxide. This, be it re-
peated, is simply one of many explanations which may suggest them-
selves of the observed fact that the limonite deposits are more frequent
and extensive in the neighborhood of limestone deposits.

But though the solutions from such basins may favor the deposition of
this ore, they are not always necessary.

It has been incidentally stated that one proof that the supposed iron in
limestones was not necessary for the formation of these limonite beds, is
that very similar limonite beds are known to occur miles away from any
known outcrop of limestone. Such are the beds referred to as the Ho-
facker, Cameron Co., Keeny Banks, &c., &c., which occur in the lower
part of York county and the upper portion of Baltimore and Car-
roll counties, Maryland. The circumstances of occurrence alike in
both cases are the pyritiferous character and the highly inclined strata.
The former is much more coarsely porphyritic in the older beds so that the
hydroxidation of the pyrites has not been so perfect, and the ore is much
more red short than is the case close to the limestone. But the large
amount of pyrites in the rocks, in all stages of transition to limonite,
would seem to render the search for any other sourse of supply of iron
unnecessary. \

ALP. S VOL. XIV. 2V

9
Stevenson. ] d10 [Feb. 5,

NOTES ON, THE GEOLOGY OF WEST VIRGINIA.
IN@s 10?
By Jno. J. STEVENSON.
PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 5th, 1875.)

During July and part of August, 1874, I made a reconnaissance of a
portion of West Virginia lying between Rich Mountain and the Ohio
River. In this area are included parts of Randolph, Upshur, Harrison,
Lewis, Doddridge, Ritchie and Wood counties. To connect this work
with that reported in my previous paper, 1 made some examinations in
Taylor and Marion counties.

This whole region has suffered much from erosion, and its surface is a
confused mass of hills and ravines apparently without system. In the
eastern portion, that drained by the forks of the Monongahela River, the
valleys are usually quite broad and the hills are rounded except in the
vicinity of Rieh Mountain, where, owing to the increasing dip, the slopes
become quite sharp. In this drainage area the main streams flow across
the dip, whence result the broad valleys and gentle slopes observed on
Tygarts, Buckhannon, and the West Fork River. On the west side of
the divide, separating the Monongahela from Hughes’ River on the Little
Kanawha, the conditions are different. There the streams flow, for the
most part, with or opposed to the dip, so that one finds the country
abrupt and the valleys narrow until he approaches the Ohio.

Between Rich Mountain and the Ohio the soil is not very rich, owing
to the comparatively small quantity of limestone present. In portions of
Randolph and Upshur counties, however, there is much rich land along
the ‘‘bottoms,’’ the alluvium being in a measure derived from the lower
carboniferous rocks. The western portion of the area is very lean, as
the soil has resulted simply from disintegration of the Upper Barren
shales or sandstones, or in other localities from similar disintegration of
the red argillaceous shales of the Lower Barron Group. It is said that in
Doddridge, Ritchie and Wood counties, there is comparatively little land
rich enough to yield forty bushels of corn per acre.

Over the greater portion of the area, the hills are covered by a dense
growth of valuable timber, consisting chiefly of poplar (tulip-tree), red
and other oaks, chestnut, beech and maple. The oak and poplar are
quite valuable. At the west, much of this timber is floated to the Ohio
by way of the Little Kanawha, not a little of it being sent down as single
logs from the smaller tributaries. The magnificent timber on Rich
Mountain will soon be available, as the obstructions in Buckhannon and
Tygarts’ Rivers are to be removed, so as to open the way to Grafton,
where immense sawmills have been erected.

The availabilities of the country have not been fully tested, and for the

* No. I was published in Trans. A. P.8., Vol. XV, p. 16.

1 4
1875. ] 3 ‘ 1 [Stevenson.

most part, it is thinly settled. Such of the inhabitants as have means,
devote themselves to raising stock or wool, while the poorer classes are
wasting their substance by cutting the fine timber into staves or shin-
gles.

Throughout this whole region, evidences of drift are entirely wanting.
The superficial deposits are thin except at the east, where the debris on
the hills is so thick as to render satisfactory tracing of the strata almost
impossible. Along the northwest Branch of the Baltimore and Ohio
Railway, one finds frequent proof of the deepening of waterways, for on
top of many hills, seventy-five to one hundred feet above the present
streams, there occur fresh-water shells similar to those now living in the
creeks.

Rich Mountain is the western slope of a great anticlinal ridge, whose
eastern slope is known as Cheat Mountain. Between the two mountains
is the anticlinal valley of Tygarts’ River, whose scenery can hardly be
excelled. Along the central line of this valley the dip of the strata is
nearly 65° northwest and somewhat less southeast. Taking the Staun-
ton pike westwardly, we find the dip diminishing, so that on top of Rich
Mountain it is only 18°. Thence the decrease is very rapid, and at Roar-
ing Creek the strata are almost horizontal. This condition continues for
nearly twelve miles along the pike ; after which the northwest dip is
resumed, now 120 feet to the mile, and is retained until about two miles
west from Buckhannon. There it is reversed, and we meet the anticlinal
fold of Laure] Hill. The plane of this axis crosses the pike about three
miles west from Weston, and there the dip is again toward the north-
west at the rate of nearly 150 feet per mile. This rate continues for about
twenty miles, beyond which the strata become almost horizontal. The
Laurel Hill anticlinal crosses the railroad not far from Flemington, and
the flattening of the strata begins near Long Run Station, thirty miles
farther west.

About one-eighth of a mile east from Ellenboro’ and forty-five miles
west from Clarksburg, a sharp fault occurs, on whose eastern side the
rocks dip almost due east at an angle of 26°, while on the western side
the strata are horizontal. The exact line of fault is not exposed, and
there is an interval of seventy feet concealed between the points of ob-
servation. The approximate horizontality continues westward to within
a mile of Petroleum, where the dip becomes eastward and rapidly in-
creases, followed west, until just west from that station it becomes 36°.
From this point almost to Laurel Junction somewhat more than one mile,
the dip is very confused, but a shattered anticlinal can be traced, the
rocks meanwhile dipping east or west, as the case may be, at from one
to five degrees. Near Laurel Junction the dip becomes five, ten, twenty,
forty or even seventy-five degrees westward. In the cut immediately
west from that station the rate decreases to five degrees within a space
of six feet horizontally, and soon afterwards falls to only ten feet per
mile. Beyond this to the Ohio the rocks remain almost horizontal.

Stevensen.] [Feb. 5,

The section obtained in passing from Rich Mountain to the Ohio em-
braces the whole of the Upper Carboniferous as found in West Virginia,
and, if begun on the east slope of the mountain, includes also a very
large portion of the Lower Carboniferous. The anticlinal valley of
Tygarts’ River is cut out of the Lower Carboniferous series, which is
well exposed on each wall to the crests of the mountains. On top of Rich
Mountain we find the Great Conglomerate forming the crest throughout
Randolph county. Onthe western slope of the ridge are the Lower
Coals, which pass under the surface before reaching the Buckhannon River
in Upshur county. The Lower Barren Group is well exposed toward the
foot of the mountain near Roaring Creek, and thence westward in the
bluffs for nearly forty miles; but, owing to the flattening of the dip near
Roaring Creek, it is the surface series tor only a few miles in the area
examined. Northward from the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, or, better
perhaps, at the State line, the Upper Coal Group finds its eastern outcrop
several miles from Laurel Hill, but followed southward this outcrop is
seen approaching the crest of the axis until near the railroad it crosses it.
Along our southern line the fold becomes very gentle, so that the Pitts-
burg crosses its crest and has its outcrop nearly twenty-five miles east
from it. The eastern boandary of the group is very tortuous. The Upper
Coals extend westward almost to the line of the Ellenboro’ fault, where
the Lower Barren Group is thrust up. This continues to the especially dis-
turbed area known as the ‘‘ Oil-break,’’ in which the Lower Coal Group
is exposed. Beyond the ‘‘ break ”’ to the Ohio River the only rocks ex-
posed are those of the Lower Barren. The region lying west from the
Ellenboro’ fault will be described separately.

The Upper Barren Group is cut off by the Ellenboro’ fault, but east-
ward from that for nearly twenty miles its rocks are those covering the
surface, those of the Upper Coal Group being found only in the deeper
ravines.

THe CoaL MEASURES.

In this paper the terms, Upper Barren, Upper Coal, Lower Barren,
and Lower Coal, as designations of the several groups into which the
Coal Measures are naturally divided, are used in precisely the same sense
as in my previous paper.

UprerR BARREN Group. This group, which includes all the rocks
above the Waynesburg Coal, covers a large extent of territory, whose
western line is the Ellenboro’ fault. The eastern outcrop is an ill-defined
line, passing a little west from Troy, in Gilmer county northward, and
coinciding almost with the western line of Lewis county. It crosses the
Northwestern Railroad near Wolfe’s Summit, eight miles from Clarks-
burg, and running irregularly northeast, reaches the Baltimore and
Ohio Railroad about three miles north from Fairmont, passing finally
into Pennsylvania nearly four miles west from the Monongahela River.

The northwestern boundary in West Virginia is a line passing from the

1875.] 563) [Stevenson.

Pennsylvania border near the junction of Ohio and Marshall counties,
West Virginia, to a little below Moundsville, on the Ohio River. This is
the overlying group in Doddridge, Tyler and Wetzel counties, as well as
in the eastern half of Rit:hie and the western portions of Monongalia,
Marion, Harrison, Lewis and Gilmer counties.

The sudden cutting off of this group by the Ellenboro’ fault and the
consequent wearing away of the rocks by erosion prevent us from ob-
taining as full a section along this line as may be found farther north,
The succession as observed here is as follows :

Titi, LG
1. Sandstones and shales....... 400
Qemblackwshaless.cncakencusine cr 2!
8. Coal ‘* Brownsville’’........ 3!
Aba OMA GR Acre: wenaeranenae mes eres 20/
H, Samckromesegeccecoososaeccs 5-15 Interval, 38 ft. to 28 ft.
GRES Walle wean imma seer ists 3
HCO GUE Macalesats crater sus merece cua: 2
Sta olial eects eas. 20 3
9. Sandstone and some shale.... 55 ; PSEA, 1D ho

The total thickness of the group as here exposed is only five hundred
and twenty feet. For comparison, I present a condensed form of the
excellent section worked out by Mr. I. C.. White,* in southwestern
Pennsylvania and northwestern West Virginia :

its In.
1. Sandstones and shales,......... 300 5
PAMMGIMVESLONE cable ots sionae sei neioy= cies 1 6 ( 4913 ft.
DM SAMSON Cs seven eyevetdersearsrsyeraees 190 §
ATS (OOOH Sele CEOS RSE Ot RESTA 1 6 :
DEC ANOSLONE yarrctercee ctor tae e iris 95 t Interval, 95 ft.
Gy COT G nin d calc saracunnaIe ce ash a cele 2
7. Shale and sandstone........... 85
SeaiMeSLONE ec Ge maeoeie se 3 Interval, 128 ft.
Oem inalerrcrctusiscepme a cine mel svope rats 40
WO FaR OG Caen seater) arta steas Wee aa asa 1 4
11S HSE as ocean once n cess tates 10 ) :
HOM IMAESTOTIO tre ma trees aee ute 2 Interval, 52 ft.
Ba lial OVS spacer etscerae sss s Sane oe 40 j
14. Coal *‘ Brownsville” .......... 2-3 6
HGpMeEH bod Od odode sonumesMeoee 20 t Interval, 20 ft.
NG. COGUE Beans m ome eee 1
Les Hall een ae eceinsatarcebera tee mentor ae 5 2
{6° Sandstone, (tl aber etke Jeach } Pnteryals 80760 ft

In this section the total thickness is eight hundred and sixty feet. It

* Annals Lyceum of Nat. Hist., Vol. XI, p. 46.

rd
Stevenson. } 3 ( 4 [ Feb. 5.

will be seen, however, that in my section the strata reach far enough up
to include a portion of No. 3, in Mr. White’s section, so that sufficient
is found in the south to afford material for comparison of conditions in
the two areas. It is noteworthy that the interval between the Waynes-
burg and the Brownsville is much greater in the southern than the north-
ern section.

No. 1 of the section is entirely free from limestone, and consists of
compact sandstones and loose shales. At the east, the sandstones greatly
preponderate, and are very coarse in grain. Westward they diminish in
quantity and are replaced by the shales. These are reddish gray to
yellow and usually quite fissile. The whole series is finely exposed along
the Northwestern pike, about four miles west from Salem, where the road
descends a long steep hill and is merely a shelf, cut out of these rocks.
Near Cherry Camp, thirteen miles west from Clarksburg, the base of the
series is a bright yellow fissile shale, twenty feet thick, containing many
crushed specimens of an aviculopecten. This shale is not persistent,
being wanting at all exposures examined farther to the west. The other
strata seem to be entirely free from fossils.

Along the Northwestern Railroad, the Brownsville* coal is fir st seen at
the east end of Brandy Gap Tunnel, ten miles west from Clarksburg.
There it was worked formerly, but the banks have been long deserted
and no measurement can be made. At the west end of the tunnel the
coal is seen about twenty feet above the track and nearly three feet thick,
Near Cherry Camp, one mile beyond, it has been worked in the creek
bank by stripping. It shows there

Shale, 2 ft.; Coal, 9 in.; Bony Coal, 5 in.; Coal, 14-16 in.; total, 2 ft. 6 in.

The shale is full of vegetable impressions, some of which are very fine.
If this shale could be reached farther in the bank, where it has not been
exposed to the action of the weather, the locality would no doubt yield
some excellent material to the paleo-botanist. The coal is said to be of
very fair quality. Some taken from the same bed where it lies exposed
in the stream, about one-fourth of a mile farther west, is said to have
been very good.

The next exposure was found on the Northwestern pike, somewhat
more than five miles west from Salem. The bed is there more complex
than at Cherry Camp, and shows the following section :

Coal, 9 in.; Shale, 2 ft.; Bituminous shale, 1 ft.; Clay, 3 in.; Coal, 1 ft. to
1 ft. 6 in.

The sandstone rests directly on the coal. The bituminous shale con-
tains many thin plates of coal and is so carbonaceous throughout that it
will burn, though poorly. The coal is said to be quite good, and is
mined by stripping. Near the railroad crossing, two miles east from
Smithton, this bed was formerly worked. At Smithton its outcrop is

* So named by Mr. White, from its importance, near Brownsville, Monongalia county,
West Virginia.

1875. ] 379 [Stevenson.

seen one hundred and fifteen feet above the Waynesburg, and near West
Union it was observed in a railroad cutting, where it appears to be about
one foot thick and single.

Near Pennsboro’ an old opening is seen twenty feet below the level of
the railroad. We there find the following section:

Sandstone,—; Shale, 10 ft.; Coal, 1 ft. 10 in.; Compact clay, 3-6 in.;
Coal, 8 in.

The overlying shale is argillaceous below, but becomes arenaceous
above and passes gradually into sandstone. The rocks are well exposed
in the vicinity for nearly two hundred and fifty feet above the bed and
are wholly sandstone and arenaceous shale. The coal seems to be quite
good and must contain very little pyrites. The bank has been deserted
for nearly twenty years, yet fragments lying on the dump are as sound
and fresh-looking as though they had been thrown out withia two or
three days. The same bed is mined somewhat on the other side of the
railroad. The coal is compact, open-burning, and leaves a pulverulent
ash, quite bulky but not heavy. The bed can be traced in the vicinity
of the railroad almost to Ellenboro’. The blossom is seen near the junc-
tion of the Northwestern pike and the Harrisville road. Near Harrisville
its place is shown by a line of springs. On the Staunton pike it was seen
only near Smithville, in Ritchie county, where it is one foot thick.

‘The small coal, No. 7, was observed only in the deep cut at the east end
of Brandy Gap tunnel.

The shale underlying the Brownsville coal is variable in character and
thickness. Occasionally the whole mass for thirty-five feet is argillaceous,
blue to gray or drab, and quite thinly laminated. At other times, the
whole interval between the Brownsville and the Waynesburg is occupied
by a coarse sandstone.

The Waynesburg sandstone, No. 9, is a well marked and very persist-
ent member of the series. It is ordinarily a compact and fine-grained
sandstone, and at no place along the railroad is it at all conglomerate.
Near Brandy Gap tunnel, where it has been largely quarried by the rail-
road company, its lower portion is somewhat flaggy. At Long Run,
Smithton and West Union, it stands out in cliffs upon the hill sides, and
is compact throughout. On the Staunton pike, it may be seen just west
from Troy, where it is somewhat coarser than at the localities just
mentioned.

Uprer Coan Group. Under this name are included all that series of
rocks beginning with the Pitisburg and ending with the Waynesburg coal.
Along the Northwestern Railroad the group is well exposed from Clarks-
burg west. The general section is approximately as follows :

l=? >
Stevenson. ] 5) ( 6 [ Feb. 5,

Ft. In.

1. Waynesburg Coal. ...2..-..... 4 )

QS alle ease eran iets ceei pee nelsonone 8/

3. Limestone and shale.......... 6

4, Argillaceousshale............- 20 }

Home inMMe SLOM Chyeyaeien leks icrere terete retell 1 6 |

6. Arenaccous shale.............. 30 t Interval, 132 ft.
7. Limestone and shale.......... ti |

8. Variegated shale.............. 8 '

Os ID Rik SINS cogdacdoodebdosodc 6

OM Sand/stomennrececr cries 40
HAUSA ene eey ec peo enter tre icnonsrsionsze cist 6

Wes /Sonnalilloy Cole son5 55650000 680004 2-3
iléy Sirllescadscssocossosdcodosanne 41 \ Interval, 41 ft.
14. Redstone Coal... ...........+. 3-2
NBs TOUROGENs ooagdcosssocdnbaodood 2
16. Limestone and shale........... 8 Interval, 20 ft.
sR ial Oreae ene ares areratenas otters mone netats 10
le, Jason COM. oococcsoceandss 6-9

The interval between the Waynesburg and the Sewickly is very much
smaller than in the northern portion of the State, where it varies from
one hundred and seventy-five to two hundred feet, averaging about one
hundred and eighty feet. Near Morgantown, this interval is one hun-
dred and eighty, at Fairmont almost the same,* at Clarksburg one hun-
dred and sixty, and ten miles west from Clarksburg, as given in the section
above. The interval seems to decrease in this direction. Were this
evidence absent, the character of the bed itself would leave no room for
doubt respecting its identity with the Waynesburg.

No satisfactory exposures of this coal were observed except near the
railroad. Its blossom is seen on the northside of the railroad near Clarks-
burg, at one hundred and sixty feet above the Sewickly. It is worked
slightly at about nine miles west from Clarksburg, where it shows four
feet of coal, divided nearly midway by a clay parting one foot thick.
From this point westward, it was not seen until within two or three
miles of Smithton, where there have been numerous openings, nearly all
of them now deserted. At all of these, the bed is overlaid by twelve feet
of dark argillaceous shale, containing vegetable impressions and holding
midway, a layer of calcareous iron ore. At Smithton, the coal is worked
by Mr. Smith, at whose bank the following structure is shown :

Shale, with vegetable impressions, 4 ft.; Coal, 2 ft. 2 in.; Clay, 3 in.;
Coal, 2 in.; Cannel, 3 in.; Shale, dark-gray, fissile, 8 ft.; Coal, 1 ft. 6 in.
The coal is not very good, owing to the considerable proportion of sul-
phur. The bottom layer yields the best fuel, but as it is mined by strip-

* The Sewickly has not been seen at Fairmont, and this calculation is based on the
relation of the Waynesburg to the Redstone.

9
1875. ] OUT [Stevenson.

ping in the run, the superiority may be owing entirely to removal of the
pyrites by the water. The same bed is mined somewhat extensively at
West Union, where one finds

Shale, 2 to 8 ft.; Coal, Cannel, 3 in.; Clay, 2 in.; Coal, 31 in.; Clay, 4-11
in.; Coal, 6 in.; Fire-clay, 3 ft.; Shale, to road, 7 ft.

The overlyirg shale is drab or slate-colored, quite fissile, and contains
much nodular iron ore. It exhibits vast numbers of vegetable impres-
sions, chiefly Neuropteris, Cyclopteris, Pecopteris and Sphenophyllum.
Many of these are beautifully defined and equal those from the same
horizon in Monongalia county. This shale varies in thickness at the ex-
pense of the sandstone above it. The fire-clay underlylng the coal passes
gradually into ferruginous, slightly arenaceous shales, below which, some
limestone is seen farther up the stream. The upper parting in the bed
occasionaily shows leaf-prints. The lower parting is variable in thickness,
and sometimes holds two sheets of coal, each one inch thick. The main
coal is very hard, evidently open-buraoing and bears much resemblance
to semi-cannel. It is said to be an excellent fuel. Though showing but
little pyrites, when freshly mined, it becomes streaked with copperas
when exposed to the weather. In this vicinity the bed is cut by numer-
ous vertical seams of drab clay, which are quite distinct in the solid
coal.

Along the Staunton pike this bed is much degraded. Several openings
have been made upon it between Smithville and Troy, but it nowhere
exceeds two feet. -Ata short distance east from Harrisville, in Ritchie
county, itis found varying from six to eighteen inches in thickness.

Northward from the railroad this coal steadily increases in thickness
until near the State line it averages more than eight feet, varying from
eight to eleven. It is rarely single, usually double, and frequently
triple.

The rocks occupying the interval between the Waynesburg and the
Sewickly, show variations which deserve some consideration. Near the
State line on the Monongahela River we find here, fifty-six feet of lime-
stone, and at Wheeling there is one mass of limestone and calcareous
shale, fully one hundred feet thick. At both localities much of the
limestone is compact and quite pure. Along the Northwestern pike and
the railroad, not more than sixteen or twenty feet of limestone can be
found, and most of this is so poor that it ought rather to be called a
compact calcareous shale. Still farther south, along the Staunton and
Parksburg pike, not one foot of limestone was observed in this interval.
From the northern portion of the State to the railroad, the limestone
diminishes and gives place to shale, but from that line southward the
shale apparently disappears, and sandstones appear instead. Along the
railroad the limestones were seen near Wolfe’s Summit, near Smithton
and West Union. Traces of them occur east from Harrisville.

The Sewickly coal was identified at only two localities. At Clarksburg,

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2W

Stevenson. | 378 [ Feb. 5,

it occurs two feet six inches thick, and seventy feet above the Pittsburg.
No attempt has been made to ascertain its value. On Wolfe’s Summit,
eight miles west from Clarksburg, the coal is only twoinches thick. This
bed seems to have as little persistence as the coals of the Barren Group,
when traced southwardly. It has not been found at Fairmont, in Marion
county.* No traces of it occur along the Staunton pike, in Gilmer
county, and I cannot speak with certainty respecting its presence in
either Lewis or Upshur county. It is, howéver, by no means improbable
- that the small coal above the Pittsburg in the latter county, is the
Sewickly, and not the Redstone.

The interval between the Sewickly and the Redstone is entirely free
from limestone. It is occupied by shale, none of which is calcareous.
At Wheeling this space is filled with limestone, and on the Monongahela
River near the State line, it contains thirty-one feet of limestone. On
the Staunton pike the shales are replaced by flaggy sandstones.

The Redstone is a wide-spread and persistent coal, though rarely of
economical value in West Virginia. At Fairmont, in Marion county, it
is three feet thick and of good quality, but is not mined. Between that
town and Clarksburg, its blossom is frequently seen in the roadside, and
at the latter place it is six inches thick at the outcrop. At Wilsonburg,
four miles west from Clarksburg, it is barely one foot thick, while at
Coketon, two miles beyond, it is four feet, and of excellent quality.
Where last seen toward the west, at Wolfe’s Summit, it is only three
inches thick. A thin coal, varying from one to two feet, is found above
the Pittsburg in Upshur eounty. Whether or not this is the Redstone, the
material in my possession is not sufficient to decide.

The rocks occupying the interval between the Redstone and the Pitis-
burg are subject to great variations in character and thickness. At Fair-
mont the interval is eighty feet, at Pruntytown, seventy-five, at
Bridgeport, sixty-five, and at Weston, somewhat less. At all of these
localities which lie along a nearly northeast and southwest line, the in-
terval is occupied by sandstone and shale at the base, and limestone on
top. Westward from such a line passing through Morgantown, Fair-
mont, Bridgeport and Weston, the distance between the coals rapidly
diminishes. At Clarksburg, it is twenty-five feet, occupied by shale or
sandstone ; at Wilsonburg, it is the same, filled with argillaceous shale ;
at Coketon, it is twenty-eight feet; while at Wolfe’s Summit, it is
twenty feet, the rocks being shale and limestone. A similar condition
exists in the vicinity of Morgantown, as stated in my previous paper.

The limestone disappears altogether before reaching the Staunton pike,
so that with the exception of a few scattered nodules no limestone occurs
among the strata of this group along that lire.

* In my previous paper, I stated that it occurred at Fairmont. I had misunderstood
the statement made to me by Ex-Governor Pierpoint, respecting the coals of that
vicinity.

1875. ] 379 ; [Stevenson.

Pittsburg Coal. The eastern limit of this bed aside from small out-
lying areas, is marked by a line beginning near Cheat River, on the
Pennsylvania border, and extending west of south to Fairmont, and
crossing the Tygarts’ Valley River, a little above that town. Thence
irregularly to Pruntytown, where it turns east by south to Flemington.
From this point it follows a south-southeast course, almost to Tygarts’
River, thence southward, crossing the Buckhannon River near the Up-
shur county line. There it again turns east by south, and so continues
almost to the middle fork of that river, when the course changes to -
southwest, and so remains to the line between Upshur and Lewis coun-
ties. From this locality to where the bed crosses Pocatalico Creek near
the Great Kanawha River, I have not followed it. The extreme eastern
exposure occurs in Upshur county, about five miles east from Buckhan-
non, on the Staunton pike.

The extreme western line of exposure begins at the Pennsylvania line,
nearly two miles west from Monongahela River, crosses that river about
a mile below Fairmont. It lies a little west from the West Fork River,
crossing Harrison county from Shinnston to Wolfe’s Summit, on the
Northwestern Railroad. Thence it runs southwestward through Lewis
county, reaching Gilmer, near Troy, on the Staunton pike, and crossing
the Little Kanawha, just below Glenville.

Owing to the abruptness of the Laurel Hill anticlinal, the area in
which this bed is available is very narrow at the north, hardly more than
six or seven miles wide. Southward the anticlinal becomes gentler and
this area rapidly increases in width until along the Staunton pike the
coal is available for a distance of nearly forty miles. The bed attains its
greatest thickness toward the north, and diminishes toward the south
and southeast.

In Monongalia county, this bed is double, except where overlaid by
sandstone. This characteristic prevails in Pennsylvania and Ohio, as
well as in the Ghio Panhandle of West Virginia. But southward from
Fairmont thisdivision is rarely marked by a distinct clay parting, though
the difference between the upper and lower benches sufficiently proves
that the bed is still double. Occasionally, however, as at Shinnston and
near the tunnel east from Clarksburg a well-defined clay parting sepa-
rates the two branches.

In Upsher county the openings are quite numerous.in the vicinity of
Buckhannon, and the Pittsburg is the only source of supply for a large
aiea. The coal varies from three feet nine inches to.four feet, and is said
to be of very fair quality. Though the parting is exceedingly thin, the
upper and the lower benches are very distinct, the former being hard and
leaving a bulky red ash, the latter being soft and clean, yielding a white
ash. Inthe northern part of the county, very near the Barbour county
line, the coal is mined on the Westfall property, where it shows

Coal, 32 in ; Parting, }in.; Coal, 34 in.; total, 5 ft. 6 in.

Though very thin, the parting is persistent The upper bench is quite

9a
Stevenson. ] 380 [ Feb. 5,

hard and contains a good deal of bony semi-cannel, but the proportion of
good clean coal is quita large. It burns wel!, but leaves a bulky ash.
The lower bench is a remarkably clean coal. Layers of apparently pure
bitumen are seen, two to four inches thick, structureless, showing no
lamination, and breaking with bs3autifully conchoidal fracture. At this
opening the coal is exceedingly good, and shows no py:ites under a glass,
It dogs not disintegrate upon exposure, nor does it exhibit streaks of
copperas. Near this opsning is the Connolly bank. At the time when
it was examined, this had not been fully opened, and only five feet of
coal were exposed. ‘The appearance is somewhat strange, as no division -
into benches can be made out, and the bed seems to be homogeneous.
The coal is pure throughout, and evidently very rich in volatile combus-
tible matter. The coal from these banks would yield an excellent coke,
and would be exceedingly profitable in gas-making.

In Lewis county, this bed is easily accessible, and it is worked quite
extensively to supply local demand. Openings were examined only along
the Staunton road, though many were seen on the West Fork River,
both above and below Weston. In the central portion of the county the
thickness varies from four feet six inches to nearly eight feet, increasing
northward. The bed is apparently single, but close examination shows
_ the existence of two benches, the upper being invariably harder and less
pure than the lower. Owing to the thinness of this bed in the southern
portion of the county, many persons do not believe it to be the Pittsburg,
but refer to that horizon the Upper Freeport, which appears to be quite
thick in the river near Weston.

In Gilmer county the coal is mined near Glenville, where it is from
four to five feet thick. About one mile east from Troy, an opening shows
the following section :

Shale, gray, 8 ft.; Coal, 29 in.; Parting, $} in.; Coal, 38 in.; total,
5 ft. 74 in.

The.coal is very good and shows but little pyrites. The upper bench
‘is quite compact and leaves a red ash. The lower is softer and burns
more readily, leaving a not bulky, white ash. About one-half mile
farther east isa bank in which the coal is seven feet at the mouth, and
farther io is said to reach nine feet. Near the county line the coal is
again opened, but there it is barely five feet thick.

In Harrison county, openings are quite numerous along the railroad,
-and the coal is mined extensively for shipment. Notwithstanding the
presence of a good deal of pyrites, it finds a ready market as a gas
coal.

At Clarksburg, one of the most extensive openings shows the structure
of the bed as follows :

Coal, 3 ft. 6in.; Parting, } in.; Coal, 5 ft. 4in.; total, 8 ft. 10 in.

Excepting four inches at the bottom, the lower bench is a fine clean

1875.] 381 [Stevensor.

coal, while the upper bench is somewhat bory, quite hard and bears
much resemblance to the ordinary roof coal of this bed as seen farther
north and northwest. The parting varies from } in. to 14 in. and is per-
sistent in all the openings in this vicinity. In the lower bench there
occur three thin partings, twelve, fifteen and eighteen inches respectively
from the bottom, between which is the soft coal, the ‘‘bearing-in bench”’
of the miner. The character of this lower bench is precisely the same
with that of the lower division of the Pittsburg throughout northern
Ohio. Some pyrites occur here, but the quantity is not great. The
upper bench contains a layer of ‘‘slate,’’ four inches thick and irregular
in its place. On the north side of the railroad the seam is much troubled
by sandstone horsebacks, some of which are quite extensive, having
been traced for more than half 'a mile across the entries of different
openings. In one bank such a horseback was found, eight feet wide. It
was followed for five hundred yards, but showed no sign of thinning out.
Along the whole distance, it has not only cut out the coal, but has also
trenched the fire-clay and sandstone below. It is said to be more com-
pact than the overlying sandstone.

At Wilsonburg, four miles west from Clarksburg, the coal shows an
average thickness of seven feet six inches, but near the mouth of the
main entry increases toeight feet four inches. The parting is black clay,
and varies from } to 2in. The coal at the base for one foot is very poor
and hardly marketable, but the remainder of the lower bench is a very
fine coal, containing, it is true, much nodular pyrites ; but this is easily
separated. There are no well-defined minor partings in this bench.
The upper bench is quite hard and contains much splint coal. It is said
to be quite as good for gas-making as the lower portion is, so that all
parts of the bed are shipped together, the single foot at the base except-
ed, as that is too sulphurous.

At Coketon, the bed varies from five to seven feet. For three inches
at the bottom the coal is very bad, but the whole bed above is taken out
for shipment. The upper bench is heavy, compact and leaves much ash.
The parting is one inch thick and consists of hard carbonaceous clay.
Pyrites occur plentifully throughout the bed but, being in nodules, is
readily removed. The roof is a slickensided clay.

Where the bed disappears, near Wolfe’s Summit, it is six feet thick
and roofed with ten feet of argillaceous shale. East from Clarksburg, it
is mined at Bridgeport and several other localities, but only to supply
local demand. Numerous banks are worked in a small way along the
West Fork River, and on the road to Shinnston, in this county. They
show no material difference from those already described.

In Taylor county, openings were seen near Pruntytown and Fleming-
ton, in each case near the eastern outcrop of the coal. At Pruntytown,
the bed is single and nearly eight feet thick. Above it is a dull reddish-
gray shale, on which rests a massive sandstone. The coal, for the most
part is somewhat inferior here, as the roof is very thin and usually not

Stevenson: | 302 [Feb. 5,

soun?. At Flemiugton the thickness is eight feet. There'are no dis-
tinct partings, and the roof is ashaly sandstone, which occasionally forms
a troublesome horseback. The coal from the banks here is said to be
very good anl to command a ready market for use in gas-making.

Lower Barren Group. It will be remembered that in the section
given in my former paper, eight strata of limestone, having in all a
maximum thickness of thirty feet, were represented as belonging to this
group. These disappear southwardly, so that at Clarksburg only two re-
main, one underlying the Pittsburg coal, and the other about one hundred
feet below it. Still farther south, in Lewis county, we find that only the
upper one holds out, and that disappears long before reaching the Great
Kanawha River. Even the fossiliferous limestone, which, in the Ohio
Reports, I have named the Crinoidal Limestone, thins out finally before
reaching the Northwestern Branch of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad,
though it is persistent in Ohio, Pennsylvania and northern West Virginia.
The fossiliferous shales accompanying this limestone were traced to near
Pruntytown, in Taylor county, beyond which, southward, they were not
seen. Not far from Pruntytown, they yield beautiful specimens of Pro-
ductus prattenianus, Nucula ventricosa, Nucula (2) anodontoides, Yoldia
carbonaria, Yoldia stevensoni, Hdmondiu aspenwalensis, Pleurotomaria (?)
tumidaand Bellerophon meekianus.

Southward to the railroad and east from the Laurel Hill axis, the
shales increase greatly, but farther toward the south and especially along
the axial line they are replaced by sandstone, so that on the Staunton
pike, where the whole section is fully exposed for three hundred feet
below the Pitisburg coal, the only rocks are sandstones. Hast from the
axis the shales predominate, and for the most part are of a deep brick-
red color. The same color characterizes them in the disturbed region
at the west.

In Upshur and Rindolph counties, between Buckhannon and Beverly,
the Lower Barren Group seems to contain no coal, but in the vicinity of
the former village, there is a small seam about forty feet belew the Pitis-
burg. Between Buckhannon and Clarksburg another is seen about one
hundred feet below that coal, and it occurs also at the latter place.

The thickness of this group shows little variation along the eastern
border, and is not far from four hundred feet.

Lower Coan Group. In Upshur and Randolph counties, it is im-
possible to procure a detailed section of this group without the expendi-
ture of very much more time than was at my disposal. The whole
country is deeply buried under debris, and connected exposures are rare.
The rapid and somewhat irregular increase of dip near Rich Mountain,
and the long stretches of ‘‘concealed,’’ along the roads and streams
render the building of a section exceedingly difficult. It is, however,
sufficiently evident that this group, bareiy two hundred feet thick, near
the Peunsylvania line, has rapidly developed so as to be in these counties

)
1875. ] 383 [Stevenson.

searcely less thick than on the Great Kanawha River, where it is nearly
nine hundred feet from the Conglomerate to the top of the Mahoning
Sandstone. The following partial section, beginning with the Mahoning
Sandstone, is said to have been obtained in a salt well bored on Buck-
hannon River:

He A RO RRR cee an ec Unie ne thane CURSO cRoae cae 60 ft
Dt (OYE Has Han AC UOTE De ty NR AOR RMN a gE oO) ria ate ea 15 ft
Sy2 ASL H KEN aie Rs arnr a Ni eats Rae eae et ar era ee Ul et nee 32 ft
AN SACS HOM hays Seve into nVa eas ce eae ee a Re oats thoi 40 ft
Bi ODS cosa OUT REP ROLE SI re URE TR CGE NTR ENE 4 ft
Gove OC Kester charesevsea an cae Merete alee Blo esa nat oun ues rarvi batat atic demeaus 160 ft
Wes = (GEA SES Agee RP Ds ESE Ee ne ee ea 4 ft
Se SAIN SE OIC Eee tava sestenan a bate: Grant ser svstevek siorspeitec aes acne 40 ft
Ds GOD SERS Ge GOS DL GT OOO OS SORA 3 ft
NOME ANC SLOMEP prayer yeee ccasisvesceetein eter ets geuci ai vaeretemeat 120 ft

May RE Leal uae aoe ee OR Ce OIC ae 478 ft

The boring clearly stopped far short of the base as it did not reach the
large and very persistent coal bed resting on the Conglomerate. As
nearly as can be determined, the thickness of the whole group is not far
from seven hundred feet.

No. 1 of the section, the Mahoning Sandstone, is ordinarily separated
from the underlying coal by from six to ten feet of shale. It is a coarse
sandstone, with numerous lines of pebbles, arranged parallel to the
general plane of bedding. Some portions show extensive cross-bedding,
and occasionally the rock is a coarse conglomerate. It is of uneven
texture, and weathers into irregular cavities. Rude casts of vegetable
stems are of common occurrence, and a thin coal is sometimes found
about forty feet from the base.

No. 2is the Upper Freeport Coal. Its changes in Upshur, Randolph
and Barbour counties are very interesting. Hast from Buckhannon, on
the Beverly road, it is first seen at the Sand Run crossing, in a deserted
opening. The shale above it is dark, fissile, and about seven feet thick.
Above this is the Mahoning Sandstone. The first satisfactory exposure
is on Roaring Creek, at the foot of Rich Mountain, where the coal is
worked and shows the following section: \

Ft. In.
ie Shaledrabearoillaceouss. io. i). secles uel 10
LAC ODN PSRs SEINE Rane shes ogee 4
ou Shales dark, argillaceous. 32.2) 02s. eee 2 4
NOMS OGUE AS ERO ELVA CASES, TUE a Re 10
d& Olay, ccarbonaceousnt::.. a Haki neo AA 1
GUO COATS. citi rslreee REM MER eT ces 10
iBT AOC i: a ALORA AM Maehs Rincaar ae a temnA ete Nome apt Abts z
SC OGU AIAN, Sieh Ales ILO aie ANT: 8 9

Stevenson. ] 4 [Feb. 5,

Ft. In.

allel OWE gah s atone Se ie ace re cere AC Sa z
LOSCoalssemi-camnelis 1. .mc.1tt.0- wiser reise 1 1

HTN © Laiyp tone eset anereset ast ove texasers Wey -torenetctomonelerasverns 4
12. Coal, mostly semi-cannel.................. 3 2
as Clay, slickensided se ctcc5.c2 1 oceteto se os ee 4
MAD COG Si Narels hacen Sale hele shearer Tuas Ne 1 9
UG SISh ale, arabe srw jeresctcecreecnsrrarderetelateters ha aaisersies 4
LOR Coal, Poor, SCO m nc crstecrton tec eee il 11

Total

Of this section, the portion from No. 4 to No. 14, inclusive, yields a
coal, fairly good, but of very uneven quality. It is a good fuel, and care-
lessly examined, appears to be quite clean. Under a glass it shows many
minute crystals of pyrites, and when exposed to the weather, soon be-
comes streaked with copperas, so that its commercial value is at least
doubtful. On Sand Run, several miles south from the crossing of the
Beverly road, a remarkable expansion of the bed is exposed in the bank
of the stream. The section is as follows: —

Ft. In.
1 Bituminous yshaleyas ses lee eee 5
2 COGUGE Jaicta sista fectets Seah Goh et St aest otal etatict ctonsttotcl secnetat 7
3. Cannel; poorss ssehcessec. are sss seenne anes 2 6
4, Shale, slightly carbonaceous............... +
Dy Coal, slaty, 225. 2s.24 skeen hameietible Oe wees il 10
6. Shale, slightly carbonaceous.........\...... 1 3
ie Coals pattlycamnela 45445455 aa ae pee 2 2
S-eiClay,udras terccesearccnene iret oo lae 8
92 (Coal, DOnyRBik tee SSE. De aa 6
MO *Clayeons fat-tas cicie trove areersleveusiasee inte © reereceaceverets 8
Mab O oailiaslaitiy fe Siaceyarsnc ayenenedet stoves eronanekecneyey chonces take i 1
12. Clay, with streaks of Coal................- 1 2

MOtaler tan. torn parceenen oiesaicd teak ronNet Rrra Paliag, (Tbe,

Tn all this, the only coal which is fit for any purpose is No. 7, and even
that is good for fuel only in case nothing else can be had. Yet this
enormous mass of bituminous shale and bad coal has aroused great ex-
pectations throughout Upshur county. Its vastness, as reported on by a
voluntary committee of the Legislature, is said to have caused a number
of the legislators to look with favor upon Buckhannon as the site for the
State Capital. The prevailing opinion respecting this bed is that its
value is incalculable, whereas it is utterly worthless. Passing over to
Grassy Run, another tributary to Buckhannon River, we find this bed
mined on the property of Mr. G. Marple. Only a portion is exposed,
giving the following section :

1875. ] 380 [Stevenson.

Ft. In.
ie ATenaceous|shalelsyntmmciiia iccclewiceieisiorick: 4
M2 Meals ON VA COUN ch te crete Aictercsiausvorcrae cia aie tees Raeelel ey 3
BL MEDI e HT oy eames Reyer ase Meare table Mey cp aE Fares z
LE MONONA Sse EES re ee SSS ae Eateg epee eetaaaes arash 11
Dey Clay partimoey. .sie-c sash EE RONG 1s hese tg eo 4
ORB Oniyg COMM jes erste acest ancecueracia eee a sie 6
FiSeAS LA GON po) ks araca Ses saere encase Me Ao 11
Sy; 2 ABLOLUN EL CHOY] Ren Ges cy SEN ARG OOO G Co aero 1 4

The coal from this bank is not very highly esteemed. About a mile
farther down the run, an exposure in a bluff is as follows:

Ft. In.
Ganiwelsnienye POOG sc tace Secs soko 4
COE IVOIRE Gh adae maaan boas aamon den Some 1
@layselickensidedsesseenics ter cle cil ce
Con, SOIUECINNV, Sodb5cbo0bcenoc0s0c05000
Siales carbonaceous see eerie cei citer ect
ATT SLOMOS Sette eae Ata vene ee laren tesco are oe
COGN Sec cee ben CODY ocr oA Tala Sate Rae Oe
Cannel spoorvenc sec seal ea ORE BINO DOE 1
Oil, Sohn Ke saonnnepannoownoo ben coed oolooeD
NO; Gadi, BOOG & ooleccossocrasoggd5G00000006a50 1
TUG Oleh Senet an anes beans hae aa Sed eam AEoT Eo

ee
aSOmrItarrwobhere Pww Dwr

tole

S89 FS Coe oe

17. Clay, slickensided with remains of plants
and streaks of coal, seen.............---.- 1

Sika tale aes See awe Mie, Rath 18 ft.) 124n:

A similar section occurs on Buckhannon River about ten or eleven
miles above the village of Buckhannon, but itis unnecessary to give it
here. The coal is visible at many points along Roaring Creek to Tygart’s
River. and on that stream to within a few miles south from Grafton. On
Roaring Creek, Mr. Jabez Woolley has measured it at three exposures,
where he found the thickness eight, twelve and twenty feet respectively.
Wherever it falls below twelve feet, it contains coal in sufficient bulk to
be workable. The quality seems to be quite inferior throughout this
region. Hx-Goy. Pierpoint informs me that some years ago it was pro-
posed to mine this bed on Tygart’s River, seven or eight miles above
Grafton. The coal exhibited was very handsome, and to the naked eye
showed no evidence of pyrites, but as soon as it was put under a glass it
proved to be loaded with minute crystals of that mineral. It was thought

A. P. §.—VOL. XIV. 2x

286) tae

Stevenson. ]

unnecessary to resort to chemical analysis for further information, and
the enterprise was abandoned.

Near Weston, in Lewis county, this coal is said to occur in the bed of
West Fork River, which is very probable, as the river cuts through the
Laurel Hill anticlinal north from Weston. Following this anticlinal
northward, we find it rapidly increasing in sharpness, so that at Valley
Falls, where it is cut. by Tygart’s River, the Great Conglomerate is in
the bed of the stream, and the Mahoning Sandstone barely crosses the
crest unbroken. Near this point, at Nuzum’s Mills, probably forty miles
from Weston, the following section of the Lower Coal Group is ob-
tained :*

Iii In.
AS anmd stone) sae pete | ee see mien oun reaebereiets 60
PISO OGYIHIS Aint cant eataen aera Va eee nial at Bulimia id Gio ania 3
SHAS ATM SEOME Rite ol peterttel reve ev anette etree teliorerelie 30
AL MATIN ESEON Gps Sais eke eee ieee Ler Rea ueT ae: 3
EMO ANCST OME ase crs erecta craters Sretinearepseey es anata ever 30
621 Coal WWewhree ports comet aeics cmer ere 5-6
eupanadstoney eer sae: IgE IEE 2s MBit 45
een GYeo Meme Oa penn NAL Ht oe nee oe mean nonce eey en 2
O, IMG, COMIC. cocasdoabsdeubososdodos il
10. Sandstone and shale........... Lui rattan uta 65
LT OG ce wraehanens costars Sele ei sen cre ie ag aer tara ou ap ues 6
AAs EW KER cos PRE per acto orcnarc bars taerere Dees catty Nee ti cela 15
TBE OCCT IRMA ap RS rine SIA Ise i rialls maetnmienas 0-3
4b, IBRDACE NY, COMM OES o oocoosas00b00bd0b000000 3 to 6
TUS] ELON) gles ig I een Bee RU ARUN ot near rainy aT 2 to 6
AUG RESS) ONE Veiner er Pn eA eae Se re Pela en einai rt Re 15
WeAnGreatEe onclomenrabenereremceer acres

The Upper Freeport here shows, Cannel, 1 ft.; Bituminous Coal, 4 to
5 ft. Itis somewhat inferior owing to the presence of much sulphur,
but is a good strong fuel. On Prickett’s Creek, in the same county
(Marion), the cannel is at the bottom, and in greater quantity. Exten-
sive arrangements were made here, years ago, for distilling oil from the
coal, but the discovery of petroleum brought the enterprise to premature
dissolution. On Booth’s Creek, in Monongalia county, some old open-
ings are still accessible. One a little way north from the creek shows:
Clay, 1 ft.; Coal, 1 ft. 11 in.; Clay, 8 in.; Coal, 2 ft. 9 in.; Clay, 24 in;

Coal, 1 ft. 1 in.

A deserted opening near the old farnace on this stream gives:

Cannel, 1 ft.; Carbonaceous shale, 11 in.; Coal, slaty, 4in.; Clay, 7 in.;
Coal, 2 in.; Clay, 4in.; Coal, seen, 4 ft.

* This section and the remaining notes on the Upper Freeport Coal were dropped by
the printer in making up my previous paper on West Virginia.

1875. ] 387 (Stevenson.

The coal at the base is certainly much thicker than is stated. The old
props lying in the deserted entry are somewhat more than five feet long.
Another exposure near the mouth of the creek shows the bed much de-
graded, giving the following section :

Coal, 1 ft. 9 in.; Clay, 3in.; Coal, 6in.; Shale, 2in.; Coal, 1 in.

The roof here is sandstone. Elsewhere upon the creek it is shale,
which abounds in vegetable impressions. The coal from these openings
is said to be very good fuel though it contains considerable proportion of
sulphur. It contains much volatile combustible matter and cokes
readily in heaps.

Returning to Upshur county, we find underlying the Upper Freeport Coal
a sandstone about fifty feet thick, more or less flaggy, and apt to change
into arenaceous shale. Below this is a thin tough limestone, not very
pure, which seems to represent the Freeport Limestone. It was seen on
the Staunton pike near Roaring Creek and on Sand Run. Between the
limestone and the coal below, the sandstone is coarse and flaggy. The
interval varies from twenty to thirty feet.

The next coal, No. 5, of the salt-well boring, was seen at only two
localities, one on Roaring Creek, near the Staunton pike, and the other
on Sand Run, near the great exposure of the Upper Freeport. It is a
persistent bed and quite regular in thickness, varying little from four
feet throughout this vicinity. The coal is irised, exceedingly rich in
bituminous matter, and containing not a large amount of sulphur. It
burns nicely and cokes well. No regular workings were found, and only
“crop”? coal could be examined. This is extremely brittle, so that,
unless it improve greatly under the hill, it will hardly prove fit for ship-
ping.

The beds, No. 7 and No. 9, of the boring have not been identified at
any locality. Three miles east from Roaring Creek, and five hundred
feet higher than the opening on the Upper Freeport, the blossom of a
coal-bed occurs at the roadside. This is probably one of the lower beds,
but the question cannot easily be determined, as eastward the dip in-
creases rapidly in steepness, and the whole western slope of the maun-
tain is so deeply buried under shingle and so thoroughly paved with
fragments of sandstone and conglomerate, that connected exposures can-
not be found.

East from this blessom, almost two-thirds of a mile distant along the
pike, and very near the crest of the ridge, a coal-bed is worked. The
mouth of the mine is three hundred feet higher that the blossom in the
roadside. In the interval along the road everything is concealed except
occasional exposures of sandstone. The bed near the crest is dipping
northwestward at twelve degrees, so that the space between it and the
coal above would be nearly five hundred feet, provided the dip does not
vary. It is perhaps better to regard the interval as about four hundred
feet. The coal is within a few feet of the conglomerate, but the inter-

Stevenson. ] 388 [Feb. 5,

vening rock is concealed. At the opening made by Mr. S. B. Hart, near
the pike, the bed exhibits the following structure :

Shale, ——.; Coal, sulphurous, 4 in.; Black clay, 1 in.; Coal, 8 ft. 6 in.;
Clay, 1 in.; Coal, 1 ft. 7in.; total, 5 ft. 7 in.

The bottom coal is very inferior, being about one-half slate, and con-
taining a notable proportion of pyrites. The bench next above it is a
good fuel, though rather soft and toward the base somewhat sulphurous.
It is extensively mined to supply Beverly and the adjacent country. I
made as careful search for other outcrops as is possible in a wild region,
covered with loose rocks and a dense forest. No other was found, unless
the bed exposed at the head of Casseday’s Fork of Buckhannon River
be the same. This occurs near the crest of the ridge on the west slope,
about ten miles south from the Staunton road. It is a large bed, and is
most likely this coal. There is no doubt that this is the same with that
found on the conglomerate in Marion and Monongahela counties. If it
be as irregular in thickness here as in northern West Virginia and Ohio,
its outcrop will be traced only with great difficulty.

Aside from the Freeport, itself reduced almost to nothing, no lime-
stones were seen in this group. Asin the other groups, the limestones
disappear southward. They occur in Pennsylvania, but thin out rapidly
after coming into West Virginia.

THE GREAT CONGLOMERATE.

This rock forms the crest of Rich Mountain for nearly sixteen miles,
within the region examined. For the most part it is a coarse sandstone
loaded with pebbles from 4 of an inch to 2 inches in-diameter. Along the
Staunton pike it shows some layers of slightly micaceous and very com-
pact sandstone near the bottom. Here itis greatly increased in thick-
ness. Near the northern line of the State it is barely three hundred and
fifty feet thick, but in Randolph county, it is not less than six hundred.
This expansion continues southwardly, as shown by the observations of
Professor Fontaine, in the New River region. On Rich Mountain it con-
tains no fossils, but in portions there are vast numbers of quartz crystals,
some of them three-fourths of an inch long, and beautifully terminated
at both extremities.

On the Staunton pike, along the eastern slope of the mountain, there
was seen midway in the conglomerate, what appeared to be the blossom
of a coal-bed. As I had observed no evidence of coal in the conglomerate
northward from this locality, this exposure was studied with some care,
but nothing definite could be ascertained. Six miles farther south, on
the same side of the mountain, a small coal-bed occupies this place on
the property of Mr. Bradley. There it is three feet thick, quite soft,
but of excellent quality, and being almost free from sulphur, is highly
prized by blacksmiths. Another opening has been made on the ridge
near the bridle path, seven miles south from the Staunton pike, and a

1875. ] O89 [Stevenson,
third is seen near the same pith, three miles farther south. These
openings hardly deserve the name, as only a few sackfuls of coal have
been taken from each. In all of them the coal shows the same character.

This little bed is of much interest. Here in the vicinity of the Staun-
ton pike is the northern termination or better, perhaps, the beginning of
the important group of ‘‘conglomerate’’ coals so fully described by
Prof. Fontaine, in West Virginia, which farther southward become the
main source of supply in Tennessee. In the northern portion of the
State no coal occurs in the conglomerate. The local geologist, quoted by
Prof. Fontaine and myself, who asserted that two beds occur in this
group, is an ignorant man, who regarded the Tionesta Sandstone as part
of the conglomerate, and so placed the Tionesta coals in this group.

LOWER CARBONIFEROUS.

My observations in the Lower Carboniferous were made along the east
slope of Rich Mountain at two or three localities between the Staunton
pike and the Huttonsville bridle-path, a distance of somewhat more than
ten miles north and south. The results therefore are not of much im-
portance.

The red shales were seen on the Staunton pike. There they are in
part quite arenaceous, and are almost a thinly laminated shaly sand-
stone. Their thickness cannot be accurately determined at that expo-
sure, but I take it to be little more than fifty feet. They do not appear
to contain any important deposit of iron ore, such as occurs near the
Pennsylvania line. Six miles south from the Staunton pike, the shales
are entirely wanting, and the conglomerate rests directly on the lime-
stone. The line of contract is finely exposed at several localities but at
none better than at a place nearly two-thirds of a mile north from Mr.
Bradley’s house, where the limestone and conglomerate are seen in con-
tact along a bluff for about thirty feet.

The shales are of a deep red color, and the micaceous sandy layers are
almost as deep red as the pressed brick on our house-fronts. As a whole,
this series bears very close resemblance to the red shales of the Lower
Barren Group, and might easily be mistaken for them. About fifteen
miles north from the Staunton pike, at the gap made by Tygart’s River
on its passage through Rich Mountain, Mr. J. Woolley found these shales
two hundred feet thick ; their identity being certified by the conglome-
rate above and the limestone below. Within twenty miles south from
that locality they have wholly disappeared.

The rapid thickening of the limestone is remarkable, contrasting
strangely in this respect with those of the Coal Measures. Near the
State line on Cheat River the limestone mass is barely one hundred feet
thick, as ascertained by boring. In Randolph county, I saw a continu-
ous exposure of nearly four hundred feet. A space of twohundred feet
is concealed, and below that a calcareous shale occurs, so that the thick-
ness is not less than seven hundred feet. In Pocahontas and Greenbrier

Stevenson. ] 390 [Feb. 5,

counties, the expansion is greater, reaching in the former to eight hun-
dred feet. On the Staunton pike the topmost layers are exceedingly
fure and very compact. They yield an excellent lime, and are the
source of supply for the whole region to a distance of nearly twenty
miles. Farther south the upper layers are quite impure, and are nearly
calcareous shale. On the property of Mr. Bradley, a seam of coal occurs
amid some shales in this mass, about two hundred and fifty feet below
the conglomerate. Itis two inches thick, quite impure and very sul-
phurous. It is seen in a little run below Mr. Bradley’s house.

The fossils obtained from this limestone were found chiefly in the
upper layers and are similar to those procured in Monongalia county.
The most common are Spirifer Leidyi, Athyris subquadrata, Productus
elegans, Productus piletformis, Hemipronites crassus, Allorisma sp., and
Straparollus planidorsatus. These show the rock to be of the same age
as the Chester group of the west. I had in my possession several fine
specimens of Lithostrotion canadense, wnich were said to be from Ran-
dolph county, and I expected to find the St. Louis group well defined.
No species belonging to that group fell under my observation, and I
doubt whether the Lithostrotion came from this portion of West
Virginia.

The strangest feature in the Lower Carboniferous of this region is the
entire disappearance of the sandstones and shales usually found between
the limestone and conglomerate. Judging from Rogers’ reports, one
would expect to find them, not merely persistent but greatly expanded,
as compared with more northern localities. At Westernport, on the
Potomac, they are six hundred and fifty feet thick, and in Pocahontas
county, that adjoining Randolph on the south, they are twelve hundred
and sixty feet. Yet in Randolph county they disappear completely. A
local anticlinal must have existed here during the latter portion of the
Lower Carboniferous period.

THE DisTURBED REGION.

By this title I designate that portion of West Virginia lying between
the line of the Ellenboro’ fault and the Ohio River, which includes about
midway between its east and west boundaries the especially broken tract
known as the ‘‘oil-break.’’

The line of the Ellenboro’ fault crosses the Staunton pike near Webb’s
Mills, on Hughes River. Northward it passes a little west from Harris-
ville and crosses the railroad about one-fourth of a mile east from Ellen-
boro’. Its place is entirely concealed on the Northwestern pike, though
its presence there is indicated by the change in the character of the rocks.
How far northward it extends I am unable to say, but if it continue in
that direction, it should cross the Ohio River not far from New Martins-
ville. The best information within my reach leads me to suppose that
it disappears long before reaching the Ohio. Southward this fault cer-
tainly disappears long before reaching the Great Kanawha River, for,
according to Dr. Briggs, the Pittsburg coal shows a continuous outcrop

1875. ] 391 (Stevenson.

across the State through Braxton, Clay, Kanawha and Putnam counties
to the Ohio River. Indeed, in every respect the disturbance from east to
west in this region seems to have been greatest in the vicinity of the line
followed by the railroad. Near Ellenboro’ the fault is quite abrupt and
is seen to good adyantage in the creek’s bed, about one-fourth of a mile
from the station. On its eastern side the rocks of the Upper Barren
Group are seen turned up and dipping at 26°, while on the west side the
strata of the Lower Barren Group lie almost horizontally. The direction
of the fault is about N. 10° E. Mag., and the upper rocks dip 8. 8L° F.
Mag.

From this fault westward, the strata are almost horizontal, or have an
easterly dip so slight that it cannot be determined by the barometer, until
the edge of the oil-break is reached where they are abruptly turned up
ata high angle. Within the ‘‘break,’’ a narrow strip, nowhere more
than two miles wide, the dip is irregular, but shows traces of anticlinal
structure, and at no time exceeds 5°. On the west side the conditions
seen at the east are repeated. The strata are sharply upturned and dip
toward tne west. The angle of dip quickly diminishes and soon becomes
only ten feet per mile. About five miles east from Parkersburg, another
fault occurs, quite as sharp as thatat Ellenboro’, with the upturned rocks
dipping westward. Beyond this, the rocks are almost horizontal to
the Ohio River.

On each side of the oil-break the strata belong to the Lower Barren
Group, as far east the Ellenboro’ fault and as far west as the fault near
Parkersburg. What the rocks between this fault and the Ohio River
are, can be determined only by approaching them from Ohio. Before
entering into a discussion of the ‘‘break,’’ it is well to describe these
rocks as they occur east and west from it.

Lower Barren Group outside of the Oil-break. Near Ellenboro’, and
almost directly on the edge of the fault a boring was made several years
ago in search of oil. No record has been preserved, but the enterprise
proved unsuccessful. Both fresh and salt water were found, and a little
oil was obtained. The rocks appeared to be much shattered. At first
the drill descended nearly twenty feet each day, and farther down many
crevices were struck, in which the tools would drop four or five feet in-
stantly. Five hundred feet down, the drill stuck fast and the work was
abandoned.

Along the railroad, westward from Ellenboro’ to near Petroleum, the
section appears to be:

1. Debris, with nodular limestone................ 75 ft.
QC ODL ee pekeky PIE Toke OS Elaphe AL LOIS p, Habeyt CPR LEE 1 ft.
stag oY SANASTONE sclera yaa sen Sete ol 3 40 ft.

SURE shales. PS) BUTE VE RER Gre peed ares 10 ft.
RHO ANE STOMO TURES Ee ire aged SPORE TS See IE a ey tee? 15=25) ft.

Stevenson. ] 392 [Feb. 5,

The limestone and coal both were seen near Ellenboro’, as well as in
the hills near a deep cut three miles farther west. This coal, I take to be
the same with that whose blossom is seen in the roadside between Harris-
ville and Cornwallis Station, not far from the former place. The sand-
stones, Nos. 5 and 7, are soft, light gray, somewhat feldspathic and con-
tain much mica. The upper is the more compact and durable. Both
may be seen near Cornwallis Station, where the upper stratum is quarried
extensively by the railroad company for building purposes. The lower
one is apt to become flaggy. No. 8 is first seen near Cornwallis, and is
the prevailing rock exposed in the cuttings from that place to near Pe-
troleum, except near Silver Run Summit, four miles east from Petroleum,
where the grade of the road brings one into the upper members of the
group. The shales greatly predominate. When freshly exposed, they
resemble a reddish shale enclosing nodules of sandstone. The whole,
however, is a mass of slightly arenaceous clay shale, without definite
bedding, of dull red color, with brownish patches, and readily breaking
up into coarse powder on exposure. The color is characteristic, and once
seen cannot fail to be remembered. No such shale occurs in the Upper
Barren Group. It does occur in the Lower Barren Group along Buck-
hannon River and the Staunton pike, in Upshur county. No other group
resembles it except the Red Shales of the Lower Carbniferous. Near
Petroleum we find under it a sandstone, which, doubtless, belongs to the
Lower Coal Group.

Along the Northwestern pike only the upper members of the group
are exposed, until one approaches the eastern slope of this ‘‘ break.”

Southward from the railroad the rocks show the same character. Ata
short distance west from Harrisville a boring was made for oil. It was
continued to the depth of five hundred feet and then abandoned. No
record of it is accessible. I am informed that for most of the distance
the drill passed through red shales, and that two very thin beds of coal
or carbonaceous shale were passed through. On the Staunton pike, these
rocks are well exposed for nearly twenty miles, by the road. They are
said to contain two very thin beds of coal. Of one of these I saw the
blossom about three miles west from Webb’s Mills. It seems to be about
ten inches thick. A very notable feature just east from the break is a
sandstone, about twenty feet thick, resting on shale.

Leaving aside, for the present, all reference to the strata involved in
the slopes of the oil-break, we pass across the break to the west, where
we find a similar series of rocks, differing only in this, that the red tint
is not the only one in the shale, many portions along the railroad having
a bluish cast.

Upon the line of the railroad, west from Laurel Junction, we find the
rate of dip quickly decreasing to less than one degree. Before reaching
the tunnel, one mile west from the Junction, the blossom of a thin coal
is seeninalowcut. This is probably two hundred feet higher than the
rocks in the Junction cut, and is overlaid by a mass of bluish-red shale

1875.] 393

[Stevenson.

and sandstone. From the tunnel westward to Walker’s Station, the
grade of the road falls, and meantime the dip becomes barely ten feet per
mile. Nearly one mile east from Walker’s, a thin coal is seen which may
be traced through several cuts. It is eight inshes thick, very slaty, and
is no doubt the same with that just mentioned. Above it, in the hills is
a succession of sandstones and red shales. Similar rocks occur all the
way to Parkersburg. No break or fault was seen along the railroad, but |
in a well bored near Claysville, the strata are said to have been found
much shattered. On the Northwestern pike the exposures are very incom-
plete ; no succession can be made out, but there are evidences of at least
two small breaks in continuity of the rocks.

Upon the Staunton pike, the exposures are quite as satisfactory as
those along the railroad, for the road runs in the valleys cut by the Little
Kanawha and Hughes’ Rivers. Starting up the Little Kanawha from
Parkersburg, we find at five miles from that city a well-marked break or
fault, very similar to that observed at Ellenboro’. Up to this point the
westward dip is almost zero; but here at once it increases to 25°. The
exposure is at the roadside, ina cut. Mast from this break the strata are
horizontal, at least no dip in any direction can be made out with the
barometer. On both sides the rocks are apparently the same. Sandstones
and brownish red, slightly arenaceous shales. Judging from their litho-
logical characters alone, one would regard them as belonging tothe same
group. Atashort distance below Newark, the road passes through a
cut, in which is exposed a series of sandstones and dark-red shales, in all
about one hundred and twenty-five feet thick. On top there is a hand-
some, light olive sandstone, which is quarried to supply material for
building the locks on the river. Though soft, it is said to be quite
durable.

At Greenville, where the road crosses Hughes’ River, the same shaly
sandstones and shales are seen in the river bluffs, and at some distance
farther on, the massive sandstone appears in the hills, twenty feet thick
and standing out as a cliff. Huge fragments of it have fallen off and lie
strewn over the hillside, and in the river channel. It has been used here
for building purposes, and serves well, as it is not very hard, dresses
easily and is quite durable. This rock is seen along the road to within
one mile of Freeport P. O., where the exposures become obscure, as we
are approaching the western boundary of the oil-break. It is the same
sandstone with that already mentioned as occurring just east from the
break on. this pike.

THE OIL-BREAK. This name is given to an irregular tract, from one
to nearly two miles in width, having a general trend of N. 10° E. Mag.,
and with the strata on its sides, dipping N. 80° W. and 8. 80° E. Mag.
I have been able to examine it along the Staunton pike, the Northwestern
Railroad, and the Northwestern pike, as well as at several points
between these lines, embracing in all about fifteen miles of its length.
The region of greatest disturbance is in the neighborhood of the railroad:

A. P. §.—VOL. XIV. 2¥

¢ 4
Stevenson. ] 394 [Feb. 5,

north and south from this line the abruptness diminishes. Its extent
southward is not well determined. Col. Byrne, State Superintendent of
Instruction in West Virginia, informed me that he had traced it to the
Great Kanawha River, near Charleston. This seems hardly possible, for
at the Great Kanawha, in that vicinity, there is no anticlinal, certainly
there is no break. It is, however, by no means improbable that the re-
markable horizontality of the strata there may result from the flattening
out of this anticlinal in that direction, so that if the flattening occur
gradually southward, the anticlinal might be traced to that river.

Northward, where the break crosses the Ohio River near Cow Run,
it is said to be a gentle anticlinal, over which the upper rocks pass un-
broken ; and this belief is supported by Dr. Briggs’ section along the
Ohio.* In that section the whole mass between Wheeling and Pomeroy
is referred to the Upper Coal Group, and the Pittsburg coal is regarded
as being at no point more than two hundred and fifty feet under the
river. There is certainly an error somewhere in this work, since in that
portion of West Virginia, fronting on the river, a little south from
Marietta, the surface rocks belong to the Lower and not the Upper Barren
Group, for I have found the section along the Staunton pike to be the
same on both sides of the break, and along the railroad it is practically
the same. I have no records of borings made west from the break, but.
two on the east, one near Ellenboro’ and the other near Harrisville, were
driven five hundred feet and passed all the way through shales and
sandstones, cutting at most only two streaks of coal. If these rocks
belonged to the upper series, the Pittsburg coal should have been struck
at about three hundred feet from the surface near Ellenboro’, and at
much less near Harrisville. At Wolfe’s Summit, eight miles west from
‘Clarksburg, the Pitisburg goes under, dipping northwestward, at the rate
f somewhat more than one hundred feet per mile. From that place
westward to Ellenboro’, the strata of the Upper Coal and Upper Barren
Groups are followed without a break, the dip continuing northwest all
the way, though gradually diminishing in sharpness. At Ellenboro’, the
rocks change and the dip becomes slightly eastward. From this line we
find only the characteristic red shales with the accompanying sandstones
until we reach the oil-break where the rapidly-increasing dip brings us
into the Lower Coal Group. As will be shown farther on, the rocks
within and the steeply-sloping sides of the break form a continuous and .
uninterrupted series with those outside. If this series between the oil-
break and the Ellenboro’ fault belong to the Upper Barren Group, what
has become of the Lower Barren and Upper Coal Group? Neither of
these is found along the Staunton pike, where the whole structure is
very clearly exposed. It is absolutely certain that the Pittsburg coal
appears nowhere between the Ellenboro’ fault and the one a little
way east from Parkersburg, except possibly in isolated patches on tops
of the very highest hills.

* Rogers’ Report Geol. Virginia, for 1840.

1875.] 395 [Stevenson.

Dr. Briggs’ statement can be accounted for only by supposing that the
Ellenboro’ fault disappears long before reaching the Ohio, and that the
oil-break itself flattens out rapidly, so as to become a low anticlinal near
the river, over which the upper groups may pass unbroken. Still this
does not wholly remove the difficulty. What the conditions may be
above Marietta, along the river, I do not know, never having examined
that region ; but I do know that rocks belonging to the Lower Barren
Group are found near Valley Mills, in Wood county, three miles from the
river and seven miles northeast from Parkersburg. In that vicinity, I
was unable to discover any rocks belonging to the upper groups.

The oil-break passes through Wirt, Ritchie and Pleasants counties.
Beginning at the south, let us see the structure in the vicinity of the
Staunton pike, which runs along Hughes’ River. The section of the west
slope is very prettily exposed on Fox’s Run, about one mile north from
the Staunton pike, where we find :

MANE CUSINALSS). ce trera sy acini e ere etree ahs a ae ats cues not measured.
Qe ShallivaSaMadstONes 5 wrest sleversete sie cies reise tare ss 20 ft.
SIRE GASIATE Sa iererpetnche ec toacreker nclesee re enatore: cierminteraue Ts 105 ft.
AL SIM, RENNIE) s GaduoppoodoGoou ood Suibonodbon 30 ft.
De edushaslesieana cere ec SRT AIG REL a NCEE 50-60 ft.
6. Sandstone, shaly to massive................2+- 65 ft.
Tes MOM IUES Bk rh So RRS oA eR EES Dab ee ini test 5-12 ft.

No. 1 is not far from one hundred feet thick, and on it rests the massive
sandstone already mentioned as seen along the pike west from the
“‘break.’’ Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7 are wholly involved in the abrupt side, and
No. 3, partially so. The sandstones are all of a dull red color, and in
the wells bored just outside of the break, the whole mass was recorded
as red shale. On the east side of the break the exposure is yet more
satisfactory, as the road passes along the river bank, so low down as to
exhibit the flexure in the flint where the dip abruptly decreases from 35°
to 3°. The sandstones and shales of the preceding section are seen in
the hill above the flint, thus proVing indisputably that the rocks on
each side of the ‘‘break’’ belong to the same horizon.

There is no evidence of faulting on either side. The succession from
the inner portion of the abruptly tilted strata outward to the horizontal
strata is unbroken and perfectly clear.

Within the break the rocks are almost horizontal and not much broken.
They describe a flattened anticlinal, for beginning inside and proceeding
outwards, say on the west side we find the dip first horizontal, then 2° or 3°,
then 28°, then 56°, then 38° or 5°, and finally outside almost horizontal.
A similar condition is found on the eastern edge. Along the line of
section the chert is the last to show the abrupt dip.

If now we ascend the hill from Fox’s Run and go east about one-third
of a mile we find near Mr. Sharpnack’s steam-mill, the sandstone and

Stevenson. | 396 [ Feb. 5,

chert almost horizontal. The sandstone is the highest rock in the hill.
The section is as follows:

IM SE RNCKIROIYS Gsnado ooo KC UM COOn Baud Osco adboa Oo o0aC 60 ft.

PM ONCE RNC EE Te OEE roe Sab OG on Shas 6-12 ft
SuShaleyand Himestoneracecencicc seas Ooi. 9 ft

AVIS Varela sliail ei evaye hinezeters teue aici areiece rc uederm teks eetee sous ore 3 ft

HERO OE ecru ae ier aslo Ri cia fegabe ake gicet arene unah eet e) ae aROEES 6-12 inches.
Ga ohalefand:sandstonemenre ccs oes ile cele 120 ft.

We Sandstone bo) Livelemrtore cient cree not measured.

The chert is light-red to yellow, and in some cases dove colored. It is
quite compact, and forms a striking feature in both sides of the break as
well as on the hills within it. It is well exposed on the pike, where it
has been used for macadamizing the road. The limestone in No. 3,
occurs in nodules, varying from two inches to two feet in diameter. It
is variegated and extremely compact. If a sufficient quantity could be
obtained, this would be valuable as an ornamental marble for indoor use,
since it receives a beautiful polish. The coal is sulphurous and slaty.
It can be seen on the pike near each edge of the break. The sandstone,
No. 1, is said to contain a coal, eight inches thick. The black shale
overlying the coal No. 5, is quite rich in fossils. Ina few minutes, I
obtained from it a large number of individuals belonging to the following
species: Chonetes granulifera, Solenomya sp., Schizodus sp., Plewroto-
maria grayvilliensis, Bellerophon montfortianus, Bellerophon percarinatus
and Huomphalus subrugosus. From this shale some very fine specimens
of a Nautilus, allied to NV. occidentalis, have been procured.

Near Freeport P. O., midway in the break, a well was bored to the
depth of fifteen hundred feet, but the record seems to be wholly lost. All
accounts agree in stating that for several hundred feet before the work
was stopped, the drill passed through nothing but red shale. In a boring
made near the middle of the break, thin coals are said to have been met
at sixty, eighty and one hundred and twenty feet, respectively, from the
surface. By comparing the results of two borings made here by Mr. J.
Lillie, I make out the following partial section within the break :

Le Sandstone fics eeclee oe oeletie scat reteie ot evererorarepereneete 60 ft
DO) nVeh ar eNtrcn DSi Rae Naas shen rng picun a RU CC gana a Gide 6-12 ft
owiShalerandw@limestomememernie erie ier ir eerie 9 ft.
yl) Neri Vane e Sicingrre a Srna nai ANIA rats at ie 3) iii
SPRY O12 0 1 ARENA) an nea Pp an Ae ena TE IS ade le cyt arte 6-12 in
(Gea) OVS Brenan oda pani ialiy aenehs Wie De haat bel tbo 30 ft
Sand stOMes ec cariecnce sreceiey tae ceterers cineremae iste 59 ft
BUH ales ire ae Mime ora ce cia tetenmnratane caer nee eaenea eine eerie ance 41 ft
9) “SandstOne: hens wees coke sens csalere sien nant aler are 105 ft
TU eietel 6 cp aimabeAne -, ae eMUnies tari pa anita tne ches citar polos cy ec 0 9 ft
dil WGanidsStOMe: secs cc ce eae eee eee eee ree eee 76 ft

1875. ] O97 [Stevenson.

TERA pSV OW CSTR Oy TSE ey 8 ta Mere eu en TTT ea ge sits
HEY A OGIRIEMIS ORE a GO ne Oa Oa ET Oe eae conte 3) in,
MA SS aie) eae ae ep MARR AP A NT aso yiac sre auaaR AML BOA ca eat 20 ft.
DEAT CSEOMEN me tnrewardeteteren ens toners tole ckevare ei ghelsuachongare 27 ft.
TG ofS) oy ene SRG er, 15 ati 5 eel sR RE SCR aNd ta RE 6 ft.
ens lale:s blacks. syrevarveacuveevan eee REAR aS casket 10 ft.
TSK SI NEW Keema et anata Rea eral oun. filer Nel ccd AK RS A ea ae 50 ft.
HOMES ard SCONCE asistencia ae eS ee 20 ft.

Rotale Aas Sater glean ors ka tavoeera MN evaumac tole sae calls oomhts

Oil was found in Nos. 9 and 19. The coal, No. 13, is said to be very
soft and in appearance to resemble the Grahamite. It is not exposed
everywhere and has been found only in borings.

Respecting the horizon of these rocks there is no room for doubt. The
chert is undoubtedly the same as that found on the Great Kanawha River,
immediately below the Mahoning Sandstone. Here, as so frequently
elsewhere in West Virginia, that sandstone holds a thin bed of coal. The
shale below the chert is rich. in species of fossils, which, in the Appala-
chian region, are thus far utterly unknown at every horizon above the
middle of the Lower Barren Group. Such a fossiliferous shale is very
often found between the Mahoning Sandstone and the immediately under-
lying coal. From the sandstone down, the whole facies is that of the
Lower Coal Group, and at an inconsiderable depth the shales of the
Lower Carboniferous are reached.

Along the line of the Northwestern Railroad, the conditions are much
more complicated, and one finds some difficulty in working out the true
structure. Here the uplifting agency was exerted much more energeti-
eally than on any other line, whether north or south from the railroad.

Approaching Laurel Junction from the west, we pass through the
Lower Barren Group. The strata are dipping westward very slightly
until we approach the station, when the dip instantly changes to 309,
and within a very short distance increases to 75°. It then declines almost
as rapidly to 2° or 3°. On the east side of the break near Petroleum, the
conditions are similar, the easterly dip suddenly increasing from a frac-
tion of one degree to twenty, and then to thirty-six degrees. On each
side of the break the uplifted rocks are certainly not far from eight
hundred feet thick, and they may possibly be somewhat more. The dis-
turbed conditions renders it difficult to make a good estimate. In these
rocks we find near Laurel Junction a thin coal bed, one foot, separated by
about ten feet of shale from a slaty coal, barely eight inches thick. Boty
coals are badly broken, fire-clay and shale having been forced into them.
From information given me by Prof. Fontaine, I am inclined to think
that this same double bed is seen a little farther east in another cut,
still sharply upturned. Near Petroleum, a similar bed is involved in the
abruptly sloping rocks, and a little east from that village a thin coal is
occasionally worked, which is said to be double and to resemble the one

Stevenson. ] 398 [Feb. 5,

under consideration. There seems to be no room for doubting that the
coal near Laurel Junction and that at Petroleum are the same.

Prof. Fontaine, nearly two years ago, madea very careful section along
the railroad from Laurel Junction to the middle of the break, where the
summit of the anticlinal is shown. He has very kindly submitted his
notes to me without restriction. Inthe main, the results of my observa-
tions do not differ from those previously obtained by him. I do not re-
produce the section, as the details are unimportant here.

Within the break, that is, in that portion where the rocks lie some-
what irregularly horizontal, a coal is seen in several cuts. The section
in connection with it varies slightly, owing to crushing, while the coal
itself exhibits every evidence of having been subjected to strong pres-
sure. The fullowing sections were obtained at different points upon the
railroad. No. I, being by Prof. Fontaine, and No. II, by myself:

I. IL.

1. Massive sandstone........ 12/ 1. Sandstone, massive.... 25/
2. Black arenaceous shale.. 5//—4/ Po IAN) Gs a00cooGDK0oNS 2/—4/
8 CO se sense cop uosaooss 30!’ Sa GOS oeaotoeeescast se 15//-28//
4, Gray sandstone........ 33/ | 4. Sandstone and shale 6/
OOM bereeserye a evcieeiocin etree 8!’ Gh ONLI DAR Oar h as a ciate Bes 10”
6. Black shale............ 3/ G2 Clays iebeieinie i leleeritemets 3!
7. Flaggy sandstone...... — US CODUBS SEs Cat Aor ags a aoe « 8//-12/’

8. Shale to track.......... 6’

At the base of the massive sandstone there is a thin layer of conglome-
rate made up of rounded pebbles, one-half inch in diameter and cement-
ed by oxide of iron. The shale contains no impression of plants. This
seam is evidently the same as that mined near Volcano, about one mile
north from the railroad, where the section to the coal, as obtained in a
well, is shale 40/; sandstone, 40/-50’; Coal, 3/-5’. The coal is double

and very irregular in thickness. Below it the rocks are principally sand-
stone to a depth of nearly five hundred feet, beyond which are reddish
shales, which have been bored to seven hundred feet more without reach-
ing their base. Two thin coals have been found within the break above
this main bed, but they are not persistent.

Within the break the strata are thrown about in considerable confu-
sion, and well-marked faults are not infrequent along the railroad line.
One of these is exhibited in following figure, which, as well the descrip-
tion, I take from Prof. Fontaine’s manuscript, the details being more
satisfactorily given than in my own notes.

The fracturing of the rocks is especially marked on the western side of
the break. The superintendent of one of the oil companies informed me
that, on that side, it has never been found necessary to ‘‘torpedo”’ the
wells, while that expedient is necessarily resorted to on the east side.
The anticlinal structure is well shown west from Petroleum in the first
cut which exposes the coal.

There is no room to doubt that the original structure here was that of

an anticlinal, but certainly there is no true-anticlinal now. This is easily
shown by reference to only a few facts.

1875. ] 599 [Stevenso .

East and west from the break along the railroad, the rocks do not dif-
fer materially in character from those in similar position along the Staun-
ton pike, where the relations are very clear. They are, therefore, of
Lower Barren age. Borings made near the pike, say twelve miles south
from the railroad, show the thickness of the Lower Coal Group and the
Conglomerate to be not far from six hundred feet, and borings imme-
diately north from the railroad show about the same thickne‘s. In the
several cuts near Laurel Junction on the railroad, there are exposed sev-
eral hundred feet of strata dipping at angles varying from ten to seventy-
five degrees. These cannot belong wholly to the Lower Barren Group,
for by far the greater portion has no equivalent in that group, being sand-
stone clearly underlying the mass of shales. From what we know of the
Coal Measures in this portion of the trough, it is deemed impossible for
the Barren Group to increase so enormously within barely twelve miles.
The greater portion of these upturned rocks must belong to the Lower
Coal Group, and must be identical with the shattered fragments arranged
in rude horizontality between the sides of the break.

SeClIEN of, fuulling <<] G

tn Lhe West Virgina ae

On Break. oe ee

Amer. Phil Suc. ae ==
Proceed ngE7 . Ke ae oe =

FENG

‘«¢q?__rather heavy bedded gray sandstone, weathering reddish brown;
‘}’—thin sandstone plates, placed on each other like saucers, and abut-
ting on ‘ce,’ which is a bluish fine shale; ‘d’ and ‘e’ are dark heavy
bedded sandstones ”’

Such being the case, it is evident that we have here the remains of an
anticlinal. All the conditions go to show that the upheaval was not slow,
but very violent, even explosive. it seems as though the rocks had been
blown out with such force as to fracture them on the crest of the anticli-
nal and as though the fragments, thus produced, had fallen into the broad
gulf and keyed up the sides. In conversation, Prof. Fontaine has com-
pared the conditions with those which would result if the top of a hollow
anticlinal was battered in, and the simile is a good one. What the na-

Stevenson. ] 400 [Feb. 5,

ture of the agency producing the disturbance was, it is difficult to deter-
mine. It cértainly was exerted over a broad area, extending in the re-
gion examined from the line of the Ellenboro’ fault to the Ohio River.
Fissures are frequent throughout this area, the most notable one being
that containing the Grahamite. This has been fully described by Prof.
Fontaine in the American Journal of Science.

The oil is obtained chiefly from rocks, which I regard as belonging to
the Great Conglomerate. The grade, for which this region is particularly
noted, is of heavy specific gravity and is known as lubricating oil.
Lighter oils are obtained, but occur at a greater depth than the others.

Appendiz. Since writing this paper I have received from Dr. W. H.
Sharp, of Voleano, West Virginia, the records of eighteen borings made
in different portions of the oil break. A comparison of these leaves no
room for doubt that the strata within the break, though apparently hori-
zontal, are badly broken up, in many places even dove-tailing or not in-
frequently crushed into irregular masses. This is sufficiently evident
from the variations in the interval between two well marked strata, —the
coal-bed, already mentioned, and a limestone at some distance below. It
is possible, however, to make an approximate estimate of the thickness
of the rocks, for several wells bored at somewhat distant localities show
a close agreement. I give condensed sections of four borings. No. Lis
near the eastern edge; No. II is in similar position, but one mile farther
south; Nos. II] and IV are near the central line of the ‘‘break’’ and
were made on lots 56 and 383 of the Volcanic Company’s tract :

I, Tie
I COG oconsbonoxcodeo sas 3/ IU OCT Rr aisin SOLS Cel olde 3/
Qe Stray woh Ga CO ate We)
31) SAHDUORIGOMSb os ooo 5063baec 20! 2. Interval not given in de-
AL Dew SIMs os ooconcc990 ay ||. Ss tail, but chiefly Gray
5. Gray Sandstone........ TO! toss PEVKOISIOME 6. c6acccdcs 238!
6 Tight Shale “028: 33), 2
7. Gray Sandstone........ 24) &
8. Shale and §.58......... 81/ |
9. Aren. Shale and lL. 5... 77’ J
NOS YOMOHIONE 5. SBS NES cee 22/ 8h JMORONG » ob ceo ganesh 40 25/
Wi, BlaaIe, gooocbeteoudcocds sa 5 | 4. Shale and Sandstone. ...123’) 5
iS) cr
leaiSandstoney peers: een: 32/3) P orl os Sandstone meer oereae aw &
13. Variegated Shale....... 388/+- 6. Variegated Shale....... 213'+
: III. IV.
1. Goal and Shale’........ 8/ 1. Coal and) Shales ees... 11’
2. HamdStONe . 22. -.e\- 2 /-')- KO), asl) 2b) SEMIGISWOU G5 Scan dso kade ign]
So Darke Slvalenaaeniceee S2/a| ASF han Damas inal eee rerrenens sien te 12
4, Gray Sandstone......... 16’ ¢ —| 4. Sandstone.............. 58 | ss
Deg all Gers peice ator ston eer ae 128’ | @ | 5. Shale... ............00. 48 t
Gauisandstone. oe eee 170) =)" 6. Shalevand) Ss. o.ae ses ee 23 o>
(ee SADASTOMC Er eietecetele cen 82 | ot
8. Sandstone and 8........ 56
OF Sand stoners eceetaets 42 J
Bo LRMPMONGs 560500560840 8/ Os LLOMMESIONO 5 60 2000950000 17
8. Sandstone and some lie Sandstone: cacyaneeeeee ce 39
SHENeo anu EEooo0Es 50 128’+

1875. ] 401 [Stevenson.

In these sections the interval varies from 233 to 426 feet. In another
boring, which passes through both the coal and the limestone, the dis-
tance is 364 feet. Two other wells were driven to a depth of 386 and 397
feet respectively below the coal, without reaching the limestone. In all
these wells the succession of strata is strikingly similar, though there is
no resemblance in the thickness of individual layers. It seems quite
probable that the interval is not far from three hundred feet, making all
due allowance for exaggerated thickness owing to irregular dip of the
rocks. The abrupt variations in the interval can be accounted for only
by supposing that the strata are not only broken, as they usually appear
in many of the railroad cuttings, but also actually crushed by lateral
pressure, as indeed is shown in one of the illustrations given above.
That this crushing is a common phenomenon appears from the frequent
-occurrence of the term ‘floating sand’ in the records.

The record of one boring gives, as overlying the limestone, ‘‘18 feet of
sandstone and coal.’’? Since this coal is referred to in no other record, I
am inclined to regard the statement as an error. Above the main coal
and separated from it by a thin stratum of shale, there is in every in-
stance a sandstone, whose thickness appears to vary from 20 to 80 feet.
On this in two localities and eighty-five feet above the main bed is a thin
coa], two feet thick, and, at one place, still another seam, of similar
thickness occurs sixty-three feet higher. Above are shales for a consid-
erable distance, probably two hundred feet. These borings confirm the
conclusion, previously given, that the main coal is the Upper Freeport of
Pennsylvania, the No. VI of Ohio.

Eleven of the borings pass through the limestone and five others show
by their sectioas that they have stopped not far short of it. In fourteen
of these, the overlying rock is described as sandstone and in the other
two as sandy shale. In twelve instances the sandstone is more or less
conglomerate. Respecting the limestone I have no direct information.
It is seen ina run near the railroad, a short distance east from Laurel
Junction, but no search has been made in it for fossils. Under the lime-
stone, sandstone occurs in ten borings and black shale in one. In four
instances the sandstone is quite conglomerate. Below the sandstone is
the variegated shale, whose thickness is unknown. Near the Staunton
pike it is more than seven hundred feet.

This succession leaves no room to doubt that the overlying rock is the
Great Conglomerate, that the limestone is the Lower Carboniferous lime-
stone (Umbral) and that the underlying rocks are the Waverly Conglom-
erate and shales (Vespertine).

Oil is found in the Great Conglomerate as well as in the shales and
conglomerate of the Waverly. The heavy lubricating oil, for which this
district has been celebrated, occurs at the upper horizon, while the lighter
oils are obtained at greater depths. Dr. Sharp informs me that extensive
‘‘water-veins’’ are seldom encountered in the borings.

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 22

Frazer. ] 402 [April 16,

ON THE TRAPS OF THE MESOZOIC SANDSTONE IN YORK
AND ADAMS COUNTIES, PENNSYLVANIA.

By PERsiror FRAzER, JR., A. M.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 16, 1875.)

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.

All igneous rocks consist principally of compounds of some kind of
feldspar (or Nepheline or Leucite) with pyroxene, hornblende, mica or
quartz, and generally with some magnetite and other subordinate min-
erals. All these again may be divided into those poor in Silica or Basic,
or those rich in Silica or Acidic.*

The average compositions of these two kinds of igneous rocks are :

BASIC. | ACIDIC.

PER CENT. AVERAGE. PER CENT. AVERAGE.
Silicapeemeere 45-60 52 | 55-80 67
Alumina... .. 10-25 17 10-15 12
Ferrous oxide
Ferric oxide } 128 1) 1-15 8
iN so5ocKso 1-15 8 0-8 4
Magnesia .... 1-12 7 0-4 2
Potashteaoeee 1-9 5 1-11 6
Sodaiwse. ties 1-7 4 2-8 5
Water....... 0-4 2 0-6 3

Taking these ideal average percentages of the constituent compounds
of these two classes of rocks, throwing them into a more convenient
form and neglecting small fractions, we have :

BASIC.
PER CENT. OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO.

SHO Nedane tes sondecs ae oosbeoo 24.96 27.0 27
ANTONI 5 oo Sed doHoodoSdsb000 9.00 8.0
Iron from Fe,O, say........ Hite, ALO 2.0 10
Iron from FeO say............ 5.0 1.5)
CEG od dododddcoc6o05005000 5.7 2.3 g
Magnesium..............+.-.+- 4.3 2.7 ( 10
Rotassimmayyrn serra eer eit 41 0.8
Sodiwmaiyiicrsaaetrete scree eteeareter 2.9 1.0
Ey droceniiee yaar 0.2 1.8J if

Total oxygen............ 47.1

Of course it is understood that these figures represent no combination

* Rocks Classified and Described, by B. v. Cotta. Translated by H. Lawrence. Lon-
don. Longmans, Green & Co., 1866.

1815 403

[ Frazer.

of elements actually possible, and that the ratio of the Oxygen of the
Silica to that of the protoxide and sesquioxide bases is only approxima-
tive to that of a mixture of minerals representing a mean of the highest
and lowest percentages of those elements which are more commonly

found in Basic igneous rocks.

The same remark applies equally to the next following class :

ACIDIC.
PER CENT.
ICOM ae aeictors mcreisemsierncens 32.16
ANIMA Sg ese Soedocodoos add 6.38
Tron from Fe,O, say........... 2.80
Tron from FeOsay............ 3.08
@alciumy ash asals soonest 2.86
MIR ANESIRINS sobacogcccdos000n0 1.22
HZOLASSIUNNG aio ert creer ercten 3.24
SOCEM ep ters rr share cite setchetepe doco. sbi)
EV ORO Ge Merrie as re eerste e's 0.33

OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO.
34.84 34.84
5.62 rs
1.20} Poe
6.92

1.14
0.88

2.76
1.0 |

2.67

9.67

51.33

PYROXENIC. TRACHYTIC.

. 48.47 76.67
. 30.16 14.23
5 lilies 1.44
5 Wack) 0.28
5) Noe 3.20
- 0.65 4,18
. 100.00 100.00

OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO.
25.21 25.21
7.05 }
4.55
3.40)

2.67 |
0.51 6.69

11.60

SHU IKOR rise oreo oR Aeerorer cnet coer crane eC Cra
Alumina
BOUT sac \ Ba am ome cr at, ony
IDI SESS OBO CUS CORB AOC OO A Coco e cers
WAGAIAS EVES oe Se aah se OBE eee aeOO RON Or
ISKOXG pat Se eal ements aarses geCe ry nt
IPODS ho Boo Oe oO Oe CRS EMR ace ear
Mo tal er vee astro araha cn aieca et datetslicls
Bringing them into the same form as the above, we have :
PYROXENIC.
PER CENT.
SilICOMe esate tts s oaieverenne 23.26
Aluminum (say 15 p.c. Al,O;). 7.95
Iron (say 15.16 p. c. Fe,O;).... 10.61
Wal cima net ecins aioe ores hes 8.47
Magnesium ........ boocdadouT 4,22
SOGUMUMY eels care Serereke es 1.45
IPOtASSIUIN ssa en oe ees 0.54

ICAISR RAM else he notes 56.48

0.11 |

43.50

* Pogeg. Ann., 1851, Vol. LXXXIII.

404 [ April 16,

Frazer. ]
TRACHYTIC.
PER CENT. OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO.
Silicon keepin: see mir eet 36.80 39.87 39 87
Aluminum (say 7 p. c. Al,O;).. 3.71 ee
Iron (say 7.23 Fe,O,).....+-.+- 5.06 2.17 a
Calcintm wpe cocci ie 1.03 0.41)
NPGS. Son bgsocos seated 0.17 0.11 | 2.06
SOGMUMI ois onic celewle serene evele 2.070 0.83 | a
Botassram, .cyiyerukyetcies sere pels 3.47 0.71 |
Osaxaer can fone cadens pA AU CS 47.38

CALS eis aerate 52.61

In the Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. IX, March, 1875, is a paper
by Mr. Geo. W. Hawes, on the Trap Rocks of the Connecticut Valley, in
which a number of closely accordant analyses 9f dolerites are given, the
specimens being selected from various localities in the Mesozoic Sand-
stone Belt of that State.

A Dolerite taken from a dyke known as West Rock, and standing west
of New Haven, gave to Mr. Hawes the following results, which have been
embodied in the form of the preceding hyp»thetical compositions.

ANALYSIS I, OF WEST ROCK.

PER CENT. OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO.

SIT COMPA or esas evsrcle ever teers stoke 24,86 26.94

MbPhosphotusces kaos 0.06 He oe
ANIMMVNIINe sao sagtoegodcess60 7.09 6.65, \ 799
Ibgorn Goxod WE) s6acecdbsaco 2.48 1.07 vies
Ibo Cheon BGO) ssccccdsoogc0e 6.36 1.90}
Manganese (from Mn0O)....... 0.32 0.10
Gril inihass qanaahione sacs} cide 7.58 3.00 8.58
Maome sims, iter jetere ics serene 4.67 2.96
Sodiwmn es Oe rae lore ices 1.59 0.56
Potassium ae: eee 0.32 0.06 J
Tignition’ 23. Me StSis cots Bicrer spateretove 0.63
Oxy CON ss Needs once ene 43.32

Acid and basic radicals.. 56.42

On comparing this analysis with the hypothetical composition of
Cotta’s Basic Igneous Rock, it will be observed that the Silicon (inclu-
ding under this head the small per cent. of P. present in West Rock), is
almost the same in both, as also is the percentage of radicals in the pro
toxide bases, while the per cent. of Oxygen of both protoxide and ses-

1875. ] 405 [ Frazer.

quioxides, and the per cent. of the radicals of the sesquioxide bases
are somewhat less in the actual, than in the hypothetical analysis.

In tabular form the proportions would stand as follows :

HYPOTHETICAL BASIC
IGNEOUS ROCK. WEST ROCK.

SUTCOM 2) CdteouobscooudeHOdoooosbooE doe 24.96 24.92
Ong fash Ree Geman ice a sea necnen cobs 27.00 27.02
Aluminum Leite tiece ie eee 13.50 10.03
Iron (from peroxide) !

Oxay Sere eu el Pa ccrctorabaart aera ct eyele 10.00 7.72
Radicals of protoxide bases ).........-+. 22.20 20.84
Oxygen \ UA RO ed 10.00 8.58

A mean of 40 analyses of Labradorite recorded in Dana’s Mineralogy,
is as follows :
PER CENT.

SS IMT @ Fy eeescy ae eet audit ais te crave ate ata aul Mince ne tareu np pei Sr oc oP Oe 53.09
PUTRITIO eM Rar mc oe Gracey rocirerar hnic cro aoe Doe ee en ce 27.96
ISRO iOp-alelayeen ae cari Held y Sighinme Miao oe BEBO ADOC HOODOO OCS 1.383
IMiaiomesiaeets i pri sael seston etfelerReiseopete. aires benieperee san cir to 0.93
INE Eira ey cee erat et seer se ade city Sera palais eM pa aR ella enene nelvaias as 10.88
OG atetayeiccs scarlet tet teal ores draaivaietasns Se aoheaychin obama laeletuiidiae a: ahaa eere 4.09
HO Gals ln atgacs Ais caps sy ay giclee Shescietoihe cher ous a iselcus su cianacsiaiayal st sharsieve ware 1.08
Vai Gees Nosh pekys CRwsesiaten es el omeqeine Cate sehen ralarsnacesatt aig cantly Gare 0.84

TRO alba Shee ay se OAM a ter Di penidie 8h Nala Morar eedeerocet aan eval east eh ons 99.39

PER CENT. OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO.

UT COMM sc aae ehieea in tree 25.48 27.61 27.61
PA UAT TAUTIT,. S)eeAN So e nee W478 12.96 ; 13.36
tron (@rompHe Oia aesecuen aes 0.93 0.40 ;
JW GveaT ESI Goce Dero e Mo cedas 0.24 0.15

Cal cima eens eons reeeeara ible att By llil |

OGM presto erotics eceesaheausiers 3.03 1.06 + 5.96
Potassium ...... Ure ect Hse See 0.98 0.19 | oat
eG Oheoyegeinn oo caranenooU doo Kee ().09 0.75 J

Mr. Hawes extracted enough crystals of pyroxene from one specimen
of Connecticut trap to enable him to determine its constitution.

It bears the nearest resemblance to an Augite of the Rhone, analyzed
by Klaproth : :

Frazer. ] 406

[ April 16,
| | Ignition,
| Si. | Al.| Fe. |Mn.| Ca./Mg.|Alkalies and) Total.
Loss.

Connecticut pyroxene .|24.34/1.88)11.90)0.63/9.53/8.34 2.65 56.62

Oxygen.) ose 26.87/1.76) 8.40,0.18/3.82/5.29 40.82
~ — = —— = = Se —— — a a

Augite (Rhone*)....... 24.96 3.06 8.480.19/1.007.80 4.23 | 54.49

Oxyeonl sus eheee oe 27.042.70) 2.54,0.06)4.0014.95 41.29

Assuming the pyroxene analyzed by Mr. Hawes to represent that con-
stituting part of these traps, and assuming furthermore, the above
average of 40 analysis of Labradorite as constituting the remaining part,
we have the following comparative table, which is calculated by com-
paring the sum of the percentages of each element of the two minerals
with double the percentage of the same element in West Rock.

Si. 25.48 24.34 | 49.72 | 0.10 —

P. a ae 0.12 | ce
Al, 14.78 1.88 15.10 ical —
Fe," _ O08 —_ 4,96 — 4.03

Fe’ & Mn” 12.53 13.36 — 0.83

Ca. Hotty 9.53 MMH bile ——
Mg. 0.24 8.34 9.34 0.76
Na. 3.03 1.65(?) 3.18 | 1.50(?) —

K. 0.98 1.00(?) 0.64 1.34(?) —

Of the constituents necessary to form a mixture of one molecule of each
of the above mentioned minerals, there are in West Rock :

* Dana’s Min,, p. 218, II. 7.

407

1878. ] [ Frazer.
CHEMICAL UNITS.
Elements. | Deficient. In Excess.
paula 0.165
Fe," — 0.216
Fe’! & Mn” | —— 0.030
Ca. 0.107 ———
Mg. | — 0.063
Na. | 0.065 —o
K. Ne 0.084 Pare Ve: =
Sum | 0.371 | 0.309
Si. | 0.014 ae
12. | — 0.011

Supposing the basic radicals in excess to replace those deficient, there
are wanting 0.062 (= 0.28 p. c.), and of the acid radicals 0.003 units
(= 0.018 p c.) to fulfil theoretical requirements.

Or, to throw this into a rough practical form susceptible of easy com-
parison :

Double Equivalent of Constituents
of West Rock.
S 24.92 x 2 25.48 1 molecule Labradorite.
Si. (P. &e.) 24.34 1 <6 Augite.
= 49.82 | 49.82
A 10.03 2 15.66 1 molecule Labradorite.
Al &c. 1.88 1 N Augite.
== 20.06 | 17.54
Dyad and 20.84 >< 2 11.80 1 molecule Labradorite.
Monad 30.40 1 a6 Augite.
Basic
Radicals, == 41.68 | 42.20

Frazer. ]

408

[ April 16.

A specimen of Dolerite was taken from Beeler’s farm, 2 miles 8. W. of
York, York county, Pa., and submitted to Dr. F. A. Genth for analysis,

which is as follows :

PER CENT.

Sil c1emacid ee cereals 52.58 |Silicon....... 24.51
Phosphoricacidiy- 2... 0.15 | Phosphorus... 0.06
MATEO BOW! soscocbecceacd 0.32 | Titanium.... 0.19
PAC UUINAI MA eeetoers ee lalos eisai ens 14.35 | Aluminum .. 7.65
Were Ordcless ccacocecd050e 5.93 | Iron (from Fe,O,) 4.15
IN ARO GIS Od-ICOES Seb ooooobonS 5.45 | Iron (from FeO) 4.23
Manganous oxide.......... trace | Manganese... ——
Miaonesiar. aaltcn sitio stron 7.99 | Magnesium . 4.79
AGLI GR Se eee okey cares aioe gener 10.27 | Calcium..... 7.33
DiGhai aes ee ae ic faintest trace. | Lithium .... ———
SOC ae ie a ee ree acai cis 1.87 | Sodium ..... 1.38
IP ObAS ie cee ae eae 0.92 | Potassium... 0.76
Coppenecrr atomic tiss trace. | Copper...... —
SME Acaaendoddooodeadc 0.08 | Sulphur . 0.08
HeEPMMMO Ds c0000000 0000006006 1.23

TNO Gallant eile. ctanetotts or stateless 101.04

These constituents in chemical units give:

SUTPCOMG see esie ree ee i ede oie ee tereesseaee 3.900 )

MGA MUUM ener ee ene ee ae Rana 0.015 3

Ty al hs oa beh dao ae ob aa ey baat tele

PANT TONTTTIIA eee ceca ice sie eseiie es orevrs erie ven vores 0.834 |

JronGromisesquioxide)eqencee. sees 0.222

ORO (CHRON, jOIROWOXGCIO)) oc sc0cccgcguscaccade 0.150

WIEVEROESONTN so os poo don do oe sab oo0CNNauSbOKS 0.399 +

Galery ee eicecie coerce ee ie bas eyeraventacein ore 0.366

SOGIUIM ye Melee orice eto eee Re rene 0.060

IPO LASSIMMAA Ry aclerert usin ees acetal ietevereinee eieeneiais 0.019 |

PIMETS MCC eoeas seceseeatareresceh persis lonctets

DOLERITE FROM BEELER’S.

Total units in rock

(Ghiverrarcayl (mbes Ge Sik ancl Woo an cocoobocuodooDsobodadar

6¢ ce

of basic radicals

Excess of units of Silicon, &c

eee ee orc ecoe ee eo ee ose ee ose oe seve

(Neglecting Sulphur)

eoec ee ee oe +e oe ee eee oe

Oxygen.
28.02
0.10
One
6.70
8.48 1.78
——f 1.21
; 38.20
8.005 2.94

28.24

2.050

1.465

1875.] 409 { Frazer

CHEM. UNITS.

Motalvchemicalewmitsioh Oxyeenres <cie steiner ctcveieeer=|-1= 5.565
Excess of units of acid over basic radios (= units of
SALULAGING) OX VOM) vere lelverpstaleretelee ie clelet teal roles l= «y= 1.465
isha aa FG EHEM 6 ogobSuwbabolInoSoonoOHDOODABOOOOUS 4.100
=== B2Latl) {05 ©

Saturating Oxygen = 11.72 p. c.

Hence the conclusion that 4.09 p. c. of this rock is Silicon combined
as ortho-silicic acid, according to the formula M’,Si‘vY O/’,, and the re-
maining 20.51 per cent. exists in the form of the mono-meta acid, or as
M’.Siiv O//,.

The excess of the chemical units of Si. over those of the basic radi-
cals, will alse serve te explain the fact (mentioned te me by Mr. Hawes in
reference to the Ct. Traps, but which I have not yet sufficiently verified
in those from our own State), that in many cases free Silica is observed
in them.

It may be added that the reduction of the analysis of these rocks to a
form which gives the measure of chemical force employed in the com-
position of their constituent minerals, and in a single unit, 7. é., the
ratio ef the percentage weight by the equivalence to the atomic weight,
seems a very convenient ene to employ in discussing the questions here
considered.

It is interesting te observe that while the analysis of the Connecticut
Dolerite agrees very well with a mixture of one molecule of Labradorite
to one of Pyroxene, that from Beeler’s farm corresponds even more closely
with a mixture of two molecules of Labradorite to one of Pyroxene. In
this table the same analyses of Labraderite and Pyroxene are used as in
the former case.

3 molecules of Beeler’s

dolerite. :
49.40 (24.7 >< 2) 2 molecules of Labradorite.
Sj 24.65 < 3 | 24.34 1 molecule, Pyroxene.
I.
= 78,95 | 73.74
alse S< 3 32.40 (16.2 2) 2 molecules, Labradorite.
Al; &e. 1.88 1 molecule, Pyroxene.
— 35.43| 34.28
Na 23.60 (11.8 2) 2 molecules, Labradorite.
Dyad and | 18.45 x 3 30.40 1 melecule, Pyroxene.
Monad
Basic
Radicals, 55.85 | 54.00

A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 3A

Frazer. ] 410 {April 16

OPTICAL PROPERTIES.
SYENITE (?) FROM CEMETERY HILL, NEAR GETTYSBURG, ADAMS Co., Pa.

Contains Feldspar, Hornblende and Magnetite, and some Biotite, with
Quartz rarely. With a single Nicol’s prism, the blades of Hornblende are.
fully dichroic. Both that and the feldspar are speckled and spotted.

Between two Nicol’s prisms the Labradorite polarizes through blue,
yellow, and lilac ; the Hornblende from white to brown and black; and
the Quartz, which is sparingly present, gives brilliant colors.

In the thick specimen examined under the microscope the feldspar dif-
fers from that of the equally thick specimens of dolerite in being more
transparent and “ icy’’-looking, resembling Adularia, and here and there
are seen small grains of a transparent mineral giving the rainbow colors
of quartz.

The fine slice reveals the feldspar in a state not easily distinguishable
and of weathered appearance, and also several objects, which from their
colors, green and red, resemble small fragments of pyroxene. While
therefore, there is no doubt of the oceurrence of hornblende in suffi-
cient quantity to give the character to this rock, the question as to its
proper name will be remanded to future study.

DOLERITE FROM BEELER’s Farm, 2 Mines 8. W. oF YorK.

This slide at 275 diameters and between Nicol’s prisms, shows an ag-
gregate of irregular portions of crystals of pyroxene and Labradorite with
the accompanying magnetite. The surfaces of the crystals are rough,
but they do not seem to be so much affected by weathering as in that
marked No. 3. P

DoLERITE (No. 3) FRoM BEELER’s Farm, 2 MILEs S. W. oF YORK.

The Labradorite and pyroxene of this specimen, under 275 diameters,
appear in much the same condition as those of the slide from the Mum-
per dolerite. The blades of Labradorite are twinned and sometimes gen-
iculated ; the two individuals polarizing alternately light and brown.

Certain parts of this slide are very rich in a fine rod-like crystal ap-
parently uniaxial which may be set down with safety as apatite. A very
large number of these little crystals is distributed throughout the whole
mass.

DoLERITE FROM MuMPER SHAFT, 1 Mite N. or Dituspure, YORK
Co., Pa.

The thin section (magnified 56.8 diameters) and with } in. aperture,
exhibits blades of Labradorite very finely and regularly striated, mixed
together with yellowish green masses of pyroxene irregularly cleft and
stippled on the surface like fish roe and containing magnetite, around
which is to be seen a brownish-yellow stain due to its partial conversion
into ferric hydrate. With appertures of }in., } in., and 3-16, the same
appearances are manifest, but not so clearly.

1875.] 411

[ Frazer.

With the Lieberkiihn reflector the fragments of magnetite assume a
partially metallic lustre.

With one Nicol’s prism there is a faint appearance of dichroism in
some isolated sputs of some of the pyroxene crystals but in general there
is no change.

Between two Nicol’s prisms the pyroxene changes from green to pink
(sometimes giving a transient spot of deep purple), and the irregular rifts
in its mass are more plainly visible.

The Labradorite changes abruptly along the planes of twinning to light
brown and pale greenish-blue from white. The striation is very appa-
rent and polarization is usually complementary in two or three sections
of the single blade.

The magnetite of course remains unchanged.

Between Nicol’s prisms and magnified 275 diameters the outlines of the
constituent crystals of this rock are very sharp, and the pyroxene in par-
ticular shows very brilliant shades of purple and green,

The cleavage is quite apparent, and the whole rock seems but little
altered.

DOoOLERITE FROM LOGAN’s SHAFT, 1 MILE N. or DinuspurG.

This slide resembles the others but is less decomposed and compounded!
of finer crystals than the others. It exhibits Labradorite, pyroxene and
magnetite, besides acicular crystals which appear to be apatite.

Under 275 diameters the Labradorite and pyroxene have a rough ap-
pearance, as if covered with little bubbles, due perhaps, to incipient de-
composition. A number of small needle-like apatite crystals are scat-
tered through the mass.

The greater part of the Labradorite (which is twinned as usual) lacks
sharpness of outline. 5

The photographs and zinc plates from the photo-zincograph process have
been prepared by Mr. Anthony Wenderoth, of this city, to whom great
credit is due for his skill in overcoming what have been hitherto considered
insuperable difficulties. In the present state of photography it is im-
possible to make a picture from nature of the constituents of a complex
rock of this kind, and at the same time to preserve the identity of each
to the eye. Indeed the outlines of the separate minerals will blend more
or less into each other when the colors are such as will affect the sen-
sitized plate imperfectly. Another drawback is that yellow and red min-
erals photograph black, and the former being one element of the color of
many pyroxenes, the black spots, which should indicate magnetite, are
sometimes extended out of all reason, when the two last mentioned min-
erals occur together. Another evil is that the same mineral may, by rea-
son of slightly differing thicknesses in different parts of the slide, assume
totally different colors. And still another, is that part of the stippled ef-
fect is often due to the necessities of the process. Yet in spite of these
disadvantages, some of which at least experience and patience will enable

?)
Frazer. ] 41 a [ April 16.

us to overcome, these plates are among the most faithful representations
of the facts as seen through the microscope which have yet appeared.

With suitable apparatus and after some prefatory trials, I have hopes of
produciag more perfect results, and of obtaining sharp level photographic
outlines, which can be colored if necessary to correspond to five or six
positions of the analyzer during its rotation.

[ Norn.—In connection with this paper a series of thin slices of Con-
necticut Traps, made by Mr. E. 8. Dana, of Yale College, the Penn
sylvania specimens referred to in the text, as also, photographs of maps
of York County and Gettysburg, and the positive picture on glass of the
slices of 136 diameter enlarzement, were projected on the screen. ]

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Puate LI.

Fie. 1. This photograph was among the first made with-an ;8, micro-
scopic objective. A portion of the edge of the section was included in the
field in order that the portion represented might be more easily recog-
nized and studied under the table-microscope.

The enlargement is very nearly 34 diameters. The original is a
dolerite (No. 3) containing pyroxene (a), magnetite (), plagioclase (abra-
dorite) (c), and some scattered needles of apatite (d).

The previous description of the dolerite No. 3 from Beeler’s farm
applies to this specimen.

Fie. 2. The negative of this print was made in polarized light and is
another portion of Fig. 1, Pl. IV.

The object is a specimen of dolerite from Beeler’s farm marked No. 4.

The rock is seen to be a confused mass of crystal fragments consisting
of labradorite (a), pyroxene ()), and magnetite (c).

PuatTe II.

Fic. 1. The negative of this print was taken with a 4+ microscopic
objective, and the enlargement is about 136 diameters. The minerals
constituting this rock, (which occurs on Cemetery Hill, Gettysburg,
Adams County, Pa., and has been provisionally called Syenite, ) are more
or less weathered, as their rough appearance, caused by their numerous
cavities, sufficiently shows.

a. Crystals of feldspar.

b. Hornblende.

c. Magnetite.

Fie. 2. This object is specimen 1 of dolerite from Beeler’s farm, 3
miles 8. W. of York, and is magnified 136 diameters.

a. Labradorite.

b. Pyroxene.

c. Magnetite.

>)
1875. ] 413 [ Frazer.

The surfaces of both feldspar and pyroxene (and especially of the
latter) are covered with small cavities.

PLATE IIL.

Fig. 1. This is a dolerite from Logan’s, a shaft contiguous to the
Mumper shaft. Besides exhibiting the relations of the light-colored slabs
of labradorite to each other, and the pyroxene which forms a matrix
for them, there are two distinct apatite crystals reproduced in the print.

a. Labradorite.

b. Pyroxene.

c. Apatite.

Central black spot, Magnetite.

Fie. 2. Thin section of a dolerite from a shaft on Mumper’s property
about 1 miJe N. of Dillsburg. The dyke of which this is a section cuts
the ore bed at a short distance beneath the surface.

In this print there is a labradorite of unusual size, in which is im-
bedded a small mass (of pyroxene) (2) which appears black in this light.
The striation of other labradorite crystals is distinctly seen, while the
outlines of the magnetite crystals are unusually sharp.

a. Labradorite.

b. Pyroxene.

ce. Magnetite.

Puate LY.

The figures in this plate were photographs of the same object but
under different conditions of polarized light. Figs. 1 to 5 inclusive,
were photographed in five different positions of the analyzer. A peculiar
crystal of pyroxene which exhibits a median line differing in color from
the body of the crystal was made the guide. The purpose of these ex-
periments was to see whether means could not be discovered to discrimi-
nate between the effects of anactinic light and opacity, by the camera
alone. The object was a thin section of a dolerite from Beeler’s farm,
2 miles S. W. of York, marked No. 4.

Fic. 1. This pyroxene appears of a light color and with a dark core,
which in turn contains an irregularly formed light-colored axis. The
boundary between this crystal and the magnetite at its right hand extrem-
ity is sharply defined ; and the division between this pyroxene and a
neighboring fragment just below its lower edge is also evident.

Fie. 2. In this photograph polarizer and analyzer are in the same
phase. The main crystal is still lizht-colored, but there is less defini-
tion about the middle part of its dark nucleus, a light band extending
nearly across it at this place. The pyroxene lying below its lower edge,
which was dark in Fig. 1, has now become light, and the line of division
between the two crystals is nearly obliterated, except at one point where
a small magnetite appears in relief against the light background. The
angle of the analyzer was not determined.

Hofiman. ] 414 [ April 16,

In Fig. 3, the main crystal has become almost entirely black with a
light core. The upper end now blends with the magnetite alongside of
it, and the pyroxene on the lower side has become sensibly darker, but
still leaves the small crystal of magnetite apparent. The angle of the
analyzer was not determined.

In Fig. 4, with an angle of + 135° from the first position, the appear-
ance is nearly the same as in Fig. 1; and in Fig. 5 as in Fig. 3.

In Fig. 6, which was taken in the same position of the analyzer as Fig.
4, a new condition was iatroduced, viz.: a thin plate of selenite was
interposed over the slide and between polarizer and analyzer. The
effect is a general resemblance to Figs. 1, 2 and 4.

These attempts to utilize the art of micro-photography, for the delinea-
tion of the facts as seen through a microscope of moderate power, are yet
crude and undoubtedly susceptible of very great improvement, and my
only excuse for offering them to the Society in their present unfinished
state, is the supreme importance of using every means in our power at the
present time to illustrate the conditions of structure of these micro-crys-
talline (once crypto-crystalline, but now so no longer) igneous rocks ;
and the hope that the effort to enlist the pencil of the sun in these repro-
ductions, however imperfect it may be in its beginning, may be ulti-
mately successful.

It has not been attempted in this paper to specify alJ the constituents
of these traps ; to do this a further laborious study of many more slides
would be necessary : but only to point out those of most frequent occur-
rence and of principal importance, which can be recognized in the photo-
oraphic representations.

ON CREMATION AMONG THE DIGGER INDIANS.
By W. J. Horrman, M.D.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 16, 1875.)

In my last communication, I described, in part, the funeral ceremony
of that sub-tribe of Pah-Utes inhabiting the vicinity of Spring Mountain,
Nevada, and in looking over my notes made in 1871-2, I find that cre-
mation was also practiced by the Digger Indians (Pah-Utes) living around
Marysville, Cal. I would here state, that as far as I have been able to
compare the language, or rather dialects, customs, beliefs, ethnology»
etc., [ am inclined to trace the various sub-tribes of Utes, Pah-Utes (in-
cluding Diggers) and Gosh-Utes, to one common type. Their bands are
scattered over an extent of country, from the northera interior portion
of California, southward throughout that State to Owen’s Lake, thence
irregularly eastward into Utah and Colorado, making a distance between
the two limits of about one thousand miles. The dialects are similar to
a great extent, except where they haveadopted many Bpanie words, and
these incorrectly pronounced.

1875. | A415

[ Hoffman.

Cremation as practised at Marysville, is very similar to the form at
Spring Mountain, but to give as clear an idea as possible, I shall repeat
it. When an Indian (e. g., a male) becomes dangerously ill, all the re-
maining ones of that rancheria move a short distance away, leaving the
sufferer to himself. The wife, or one of his relatives, supplies him daily
with food and water. In case death ensues, the male friends of the de-
funct prepare everything for the usual ceremonies. Some, wrap the
corpse into a blanket, and tie it with grass ropes to keep the body stiff
and straight; while others gather pine wood, which they arrange into a
pile about four feet broad and eight feet long, high enough to contain
rather more than a cord, upon which the corpse is placed, with all his
favorite valuables, such as bows and arrows, blankets, gun, etc. All the
Indians then form a circle around the pile, fire is applied, and several
men are stationed near, with long poles, to stir up the coals and burning
embers, to hasten the work. When the body has. been reduced to the
smallest possible quantity or bulk, (ashes or crisp) the widow approaches
and scraping up some of the resinous exudation of the pine, covers her
face and hair with it, signifying that she will not entertain any proposals
of marriage as long as any trace of the resin adheres to her person. The
remains are then collected and transferred to a piece of blanket or buck-
skin, in which they are buried near camp. Their reason for burning all
the usual trinkets, etc., of the dead, is the same as at Spring Mountain,
?.é@., that when the Indian reached the better land (the white man’s
hunting-ground in the direction of the rising sun), he must be prepared
to take part in the chase, as he was wont to do on this earth.

x * * * * * x

The Modocs, now so well known, also practised this custom as late as
the year 1868, when it was discontinued, they having adopted the mode
of burial practised by the tribes living to the north of their territory.
The only differences were that the chief mourner would cover his (or
her) face and hair with the blood and grease which ran from the burning
body, instead of using the resin ; and that the ashes were buried, usually,
in a small basket made of grass or fine roots, and shaped like a small
basin or bowl. The ashes were also buried near camp, from two to three
feet below the surface.

In conclusion, I would say, if the name Digger is applied to those Pah-
Utes who obtain their food to a great measure from the ground such as
roots, lizards, etc., etc., why not call those tribes Diggers also who are
lower in the scale of humanity, as the Seviches, who live on the Colo-
rado Plateau, near the western terminus of the Grand Cafion. They are
decidedly the most loathsome beings who live within the limits of the
United States. (1 shall report more accurately upon this, and adjoining
bands in some future paper.) The Sho-sho-nees and their sub-tribe, the
Snakes, also live on roots, herbs, lizards, toads and insects, besides the

fish and fowl they are sometimes able to obtain.
* %* * * * * *

Reading, April5th, 1875.

Chase. } 416 [April 16,

LUNAR-MONTHLY RAIN-FALL IN THE UNITED STATES.

By Puiny Earute Cast, PRoFEssoR oF Paysics IN HAVERFORD
COLLEGE.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 16, 1875.)

When the Meteorological Department of the Signal Service Bureau was
first organized, I believed that the extent of territory embraced by the
observations would soon furnish material for useful generalizations, in
respect to the importance of climatic influences which many regard as
either problematical, or wholly insignificant.

If any considerable improvement in our present system of weather
forecasts should ever become possible, it will doubtless be brought about
by a fuller understanding of cyclical changes. Howard and Sabine long
ago showed that barometric pressure and magnetic force are sensibly af-
fected by the moon, and the cumulative effect of undulations is such that
the daily atmospheric tides, though singly of small magnitude, may, by
regular succession, lead to such blendings of currents as will produce
cyclical winds and storms. By my numerous comparative investigations
I have shown that, while there is a great discrepancy in the forms of the
lunar rain curves at different stations, the discrepancy is no greater than
is found in the solar curves. I have also shown that there is a likeness
between the curves for different independent periods, at the same station,
which cannot be attributed to chance, such likeness being most striking,
and the inflections of the curves being greatest where the lunar-tidal
forces are strongest.

Any normal lunar, or planetary, wave-producing influence may be
greatly obscured by local or accidental disturbances. The daily an-
nouncements of ‘“probabilities’’ often seem to fail in a given locality,
when the weather map shows that they are wonderfully verified in an
entire region. Soa lunar disturbance which would ordinarily bring rain;
may be marked by cloud or wind at some stations, while, if we had re-
ports from the entire district, we should find a general prevalence of rain.
We may, therefore, look for results from observations at a large number
of stations, extending over only a few years, analogous to those which
would be shown in a long series of years, by the observations at a single
station in the same district.

The influence of the Rocky Mountains upon our storms has been well
known since the days of Redfieldand Espy. The intersections of normal
winds, near the base of those mountains, as well as the analogous inter-
sections which occur in the West Indian birthplace of tornadoes, I have
pointed out in a previous paper. In neighborhoods where there is a
natural tendency towards a blending of currents, cumulative tidal influ-
ences may be supposed to have a special efficiency.

Influenced by these views, I have examined the morning weather maps
for the past three years, tabulating, in accordance with the moon’s age,
both the number of reporting stations and the reported rain-fall upon

1875. ] 417 [Chase.

each map. I then divided the total rain-fall upon each day of the lunar
month by the total number of stations reporting for the corresponding
day, and took successive differences between the resulting averages, by
Airy’s method. The normals thus deduced are givenin the accompanying
table, together with the normals for various local curves. The curve de-
duced from 48 years’ observations at Philadelphia, covers a longer period.
than any other to which I have had access in the United States, and its
striking resemblance to the Signal Service curve is shown by the diagram.
The resemblance is the more significaat in view of the fact that the
periods represented by the two curves are entirely independent. The flex-
ures in the Philadelphia curve average about 1% days earlier than those of
the general curve. On the hypothesis of cumulative tidal undulations,
this would represent a daily difference of 123 hours, or 222°, a difference
corresponding to disturbances originating in our Western territories.

Occasional breaks in my series of weather maps, the interference of
storms with the transmission of reports, and other causes, combine to
render these results imperfect, but their indications are of such a char-
acter as to convince me that a careful study of the full returns, which
are forwarded thrice a day to the Signal Service Bureau, would lead to
the discovery of important laws governing the lunar influence at various
seasons of the year, at various periods of the day, and in various sections
of the country.

Lunar-Monthly Rain-fall, from Observations of Signal Service Bureau,
and at Local Stations.

iS) & : Ss : .

Rod Sid aid 2B Be n $2 =

De Bae BS ee) Sa ee

Lunar Day. Ee ® a es 28 £3 SS 2s
Bio) ie Sohn Sel Sek ese 6 Se. yee

=e) = =~ ee ‘a0 iS eo) joalKe'o) oo)

= con oars Bao Sloe rm i

tetera as 105 96 100 93 97 90 106
arora ees ary 106 88 96 94 97 79 106
PEE NE Sean, 101 86 94 97 94 ed 99
1 as Beate eet 99 87 92 102 92 84. 90
Disereyorarctaurers 98 94 96 103 96 89 85
Oeorerccitans 104 104 103 100 104. 88 83
Ni See as tone 111 110 111 97 107 85 84
SEIN Ee rae 106 108 107 86 108 82 89
CS Earcumet er rye ts 97 102 97 96 107 86 93
ID BGe ago uae 85 94 89 96 103 93 98
1 Rae ees 93 84 87 95 97 99 105
DO roe rem ats 100 79 88 94 99 106 118
ay pet pee 95 81 87 94 110 110 128
TA ae ees 87 87 87 94 125 107 126
aera a aiater 87 97 93 96 138 98 118
ll Gistsks,crestveteians 91 103 98 100 134 93 117
TEP siete rence 87 102 96 106 115 96 126
Bab RAINE 87 105 97 113 105 103 135

A, P. 8.— VOL. XIV. 3B

Chase. ] 418 [April 16, 1875.

Lunar-Monthly Rain-fall, from Observations of Signal Service Bureau,
and at Local Stations—CcONTINUED.

|
|
|
|

° ° S
me Se cut os een ere Se S
Sel Belo SE adie cae ene ame
D@D Sc Dm oO foYoen! gr rom or.
Lunar Day. vali co ho aS ire) ie Do
fh ality as Lota a) ws Ris
go #8 BE 28 [@y bea ae
aon) ao aS "=O Meo) Rw @
- S so =3 =< ay a a —
OBS OAR Ea 101 113 107 115 104 104 135
We saeee nese ALY 115 116. 113 96 104 124
DULL Ai Sise pea 127 112 119 108 85 104 106
Fe ese ne te FS 123 107 114 104 83 109 85
2D he BITES 109 105 107 102 86 116 68
Ae Sree 102 107 104 102 88 121 62
PADIG CSO DTC OES 105 104 104 99 89 12) 67
PATENO ee ern 104 58 99 96 86 123 igi
QWs se eee 94 98 95 98 81 116 86
OBE mines tees 89 109 100 101 85 108 91
2 Oa. eae Nee 94 118 1138 99 93 105 93
SOLE 2 100 111 106 95 96 100 100

In the diagram each vertical space represents .05 of the mean rainfall ;
each horizontal space, a lunar day. The curves begin and end on the
day of new moon. The Signal-Service curve for three years is the un-
broken line ; the Philadelphia curve for 43 years, the broken line.

Stated Meeting, January 1, 1875.
Present, 14 members. '
Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Rawson
W. Rawson, Esq., Governor of Barbadoes, dated Govern-
ment House, Nov. 24, 1874.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from Royal In-

419

stitution, London, Dec. 2, 1874, (92); the Chemical Society,
London, (92); the Society of Antiquaries, London, Dec. 8,
1874, (92; wanting 88); Mr. J. D. Cox, Toledo, Ohio, Dee.
24, 1874, (92); the Anthropological Institute of Great
Britain and Ireland, London, 4 St. Martin’s Place, W. C.,
Dee. 1, 1874, (92).

Letters requesting (62 and 88) missing numbers of the
Proceedings were received from the Royal Geographical
Society, London, 1 Saville Row, Burlington Gardens, W..,
Dec. 3, 1874.

A letter respecting publications for 1875 was received
from Putnam & Sons, Fourth Avenue and Twenty-third
street, New York, Dec. 17, 1874, for Amherst College.

A letter from A. H. Barclay, President, Rantoul Literary
Society, Rantoul, Champaign County, Ill., Dee. 26, 1874,
acknowledging receipt of (92) Proceedings and giving an
account of the progress of that Society was read.

Donations for the Library were received from the Natural
History Society at Emden, Royal Academy at Brussels,
Geographical Society at Paris, Revue Politique, editors of
London Nature, Boston Natural History Society, Worcester
County Medical Association, Franklin Institute, editors of
Penn Monthly, and the U. 8. Department of the In-
terior.

Prof. Frazer exhibited a new and convenient retort for
the manufacture of oxygen; a hollow cone of copper plate,
fitting tightly down upon a short conical ring of copper
plate, mounted upon a disc or base of the same, and forming
a box to receive the residuum. Plaster of Paris is run into
an outside groove to lute the joint. The instrument is
eieaned with speed and ease; the resistance is so slight as to
render an explosion little dangerous. Prof. Frazer claimed .
for it the merit only of being a convenient modification of
Prof. Morton’s apparatus.

Mr. Briggs described an explosion at Kirkbride’s Hospital,
by which the engineer of that institution was killed,
although connection was made through a pipe 80 feet long.

420

He thought experimenters should take warning by the fre-
quency of these accidents. Prof. Morton, after three explo-
sions, made habitual use of a water trap.

Prof. Frazer then read a paper in defence of Prof. Tyn-
dall, entitled “Criticism of the Belfast Address of Prof.
Tyndall.”

Prof. Chase communicated additional results respecting
the Magnitude of Gravitating Waves. (See page 344.)

The report of the judges and clerks of the annual election
was then read, by which it appeared that the following
officers for the ensuing year had been elected:

For President,
George B. Wood.

For Vice- Presidents,
John C. Cresson, Isaac Lea, Frederick Fraley.

For Secretaries,

FY Ols. Kendall, John I. leConte. Pliny, ba:@haccmemees
Lesley.

Councilors for three years,

Daniel R. Goodwin, Eli K. Price, W. L. W. Ruschenberger,
Henry Winsor.

For Curators,

Joseph Carson, Charles M. Cresson, Hector Tyndale.

For Treasurer,

J. Sergeant Price.

J. P. Lesley was nominated as Librarian.
Pending nominations 764, 765 were read.
New nomination 766 was read.

And the meeting was adjourned.

421
Stated Meeting, January 15, 1875.
Present, 15 members.
Mr. Fratery, Vice-President, in the chair.

A letter resigning membership on account of his inability
to attend the meetings was received from Mr. Lloyd P.
Smith, of Germantown, Philadelphia.

A letter requesting Proc. No. 88 was received from the
London Iorticultural Society, per Prof. Asa Gray, Dee. 31,
1875.

A letter requesting Proceedings January—June, 1872, pp.
225-232, was received from the Boston Athenseum, dated
Jan. 8, 1875.

A letter acknowledging Proceedings 81 to 92 and asking
for the preceding numbers of the set, was received from Mr.
R.S. Williamson, dated San Francisco, Jan. 2, 1875.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Agri-
eultural Society at Lyons, Oct. 30,1875, (Proc. 1 to 91, want-
ing 5, 17, 21, 23, 25, 29 to 31, 34, 68 and 64); and from the
London Statistical Society, London, Dec. 14, 1874 (92).

A letter of Envoy was received from the Royal Society of —

Victoria, dated Melbourne, March 10, 1874.

Circular letters were read from the K. K. Geological In-
stitute, Vienna, respecting its Twenty-fifth Anniversary Fes-
tival, Jan. 5, 1875 ; from the Royal Belgian Academy respect-
ing a monument to M. Quetelet; from the Canadian Parlia-
mentary Companion; from the Linnean Society at Lyons;
and from the Congres Internationale des Américanistes.

Donations for the Library were received from the Royal
Society at Victoria; The German Geological Society; the
Physico-Mediecal Society at Erlangen ; the Zoologische Gar-
ten ; the Flora Bataya; Agricultural Society at Lyons; Nou- -
velles Méetéorologiques, and Revue Politique at Paris ; Royal
Astronomical Society, Chemical Society, Victoria Institute,
and Editors of Nature; the Cornwall Polytechnic Society ;
American Journal of Science, New Haven ; New York Ly-

ceum of Natural History ; Journal of Pharmacy; U.S. Sur-
vey of the Territories ; Department of the Interior ; and the
Editors of “ the Western.”

Mr. Wharton called attention to the fact that there seemed
to be a movement on foot to favor the inauguration of
another Arctic Expedition; suggesting that the Society
should take the initiative by proposing to the Secretary of
the Navy a plan which should involve the use of the stores
of the Polaris.

Mr. Delmar, by se tay read a memoir on the Progress
and Statistics of Spain, previous to and since 1855, the date
of the Great Reform laws. (See page 301.)

On motion, Mr. Lesley was chosen Librarian, and the
standing committees were nominated and elected for the en-
suing year:

Finance,
Mr. Fraley, Mr. HE. K. Price, Mr. Marsh.

Publication,
Dr. LeConte, Dr. Brinton, Dr. H. Allen, Dr. C. M. Cresson,
Mr. Tilghman.

fTall.
Gen. Tyndale, Mr. E. Hopper, Mr. S. W. Rober

Library.
Dr. Coates, Mr. H. Kk. Price, Dr. Carson, Dr. Krauth, Mr.
Whitman.

Pending nominations 764, 765, 766 were read.

Pending nominations 764, 765 were balloted for.

On motion the reading of, the list of members was
postponed.

On scrutiny of the ballot boxes by the Presiding Officer,
_ the following were declared duly elected members of the
Society :

Dr. Jared P. Kirtland, Ohio.

Mr. John B. Pearse of Philadelphia.

And the meeting was adjourned.

423

Stated Meeting, February 5, 1875.
Present, 13 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Franny, in the chair.

A letter enclosing his carte de visite photograph for the
album was received Bonn Dr. Robert Peter, dated eS HOD,
Ky., Jan. 28, 1875.

A letter ai acknowledgement (92) was received from the
Rantoul Literary Society, Jan. 26, 1875.

A letter of envoy was received from Mr. Alex. Agassiz,
dated Cambridge, Jan., 1875, stating that missing numbers
of his father’s works, for the Society’s set, were sent by
express to supply the deficiency, and requesting the return
of any duplicate parts in the possession of the Society.

Donations for the Library were received from Dr. Max.
Marques de Carvalho, of Rio Janeiro; Mr. Ff. W. C. Trat-
ford, of Zurich; the R. Belgian Academy; the Editors of
Revue Politique, and Nature, and the British Trade Jour-
nal; the Royal Astronomical Society ; Mr. Alex. Agassiz, of
Cambridge, Mass.; the Franklin Institute; Editors of
Penn Monthly, Medical News, Journal of the Medical
Sciences, Journal of Pharmacy, and the American Chemist ;
Mr. H. OC. Carey ; the Chief of Engineers of the United States ;
and the Geological and Agricultural Survey of Texas.

The death of Mr. Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff, at Bos-
ton, Oct. 17, 1874, aged 63, was announced By the Secretary.

The death of Mr. Brancis Kiernan, F’.R.8., Dec. 31, 1874,
was announced by the Secretary.

Mr. Coleman Sellers announced that he was prepared to
read an obituary notice of the late Joseph Harrison at the
next meeting. ; |

A letter was received from Daniel B. Smith, of German-
town, Philadelphia, quoting a letter from Mrs. Davidson,
dated Nagasaki, Dec. 10, 1874, describing the scene of ob-
servations at the time of transit:

To THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY :

I have this morning received a letter from Prof. Davidson’s wife,
dated Nagasaki, Dec. 10, 1874, which I transcribe for the Society :

424

*We were 24 days on the passage over and remained one week in
Yokahama and Yedo, before taking the steamer for Nazasaki. No time
was to be lost, and at 12 o’clock, on the day of our arrival they had 30
coolies bein the road up to the side of the observatory, which is 300
feet high, and about a mile and a half south of the town. They have
been working night and day ever since, feeling somewhat hurried. You
can imagine with what anxiety every cloud was watched for several days
before—which had been hazy or cloudy in the mornings —blowing over
by midday.

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The preceding night was clear and beautiful until day-break, when clouds
began rapidly to form, breaking away again about 74, and clouding over
again by 93. The observers remained all night on the hill and the others
were at their post by 7 o’clock. I weat up inasedan chair (carried by four
Coolies), and we were all at our posts of duty by ten o’clock and as the
time draws nearer, you can imagine our suspense. In my husband’s
observatory (the large equatorial), just before the computed time, the sun
seemed to be breaking through the clouds and all was in readiness ;
George, the largest boy holding the chronometers up to his father’s eye
and ear ; and I seated (where I would see my husband’s face,) with book
and pencil in hand, with closed doors and perfect silence, save the regular

425

beats of the clock and chronometers. [t was almost a solemn moment.

The sun broke forth with one gleam—I was almost startled to my feet
with the shout of ‘‘ Commence,’’ given by my husband, as warning to the
Photographers as the instant was about to arrive. In a few seconds he
gave an exclamation of delight and the first contact was accomplished
and duly recorded. After giving us an instantaneous peep, observations
were kept up till the next critical moment of the secood contact ; the sun
growing less bright, but still bright enough for observations, the second
contact was seen and further observations as the body was passing over
the sun—growing thicker and thicker and leaving scarcely a hope for the
third contact and also for the fourth which were not visible and then the
whole thing was over, not wholly successful, but by no means unsuccess

ful, and I think my husband is pretty well satisfizd ; he certainly feels.
that they made the most of the situation, everything working well and:
only failed on account of the weather.

One thing strikes me as very wonderful—of course the exact spot om
the sun’s limb where the contact should appear was only known by com-
putation from our previous data, and under such large magnifying
power, which took in only about 54 diameters of Venus, one minute of an:
are would have been fatal. Mr. D. had gone over his calculations several
times and that same morning had gone over them to satisfy himself, and
then pointed his instrument and sure enough there came Venus, right in
the centre of his pointing, 3} minutes later than the English computed
time, and 14 earlier than the American time.

I hope the Society will think this account worthy of an early publi-
cation. Respectfully,

DANIEL B. SMITH.
Germantown, 1st mo., 29th, 1875.

The letter of Mrs. Davidson was ordered to be published
as soon as possible.

The Secretary presented a communication, entitled “ Notes.
on the Geology of West Virginia,” No. IL, by Jno. J.
Stevenson, Prof. of Geology, University of N. Y., and ex--.
plained the author’s work in that region, in connection with
the proposed oceupation of a new district in Southwestern
Pennsylvania by the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.
(See page 370.)

Mr. Fraley reported the receipts, and payment to the
Treasurer, of $152.79, being the last quarterly payment of the:
interest on the Michaux Legacy.

The following report of the Trustees of the Building
Fund of the A. P. 8. was read by its Treasurer, Mr. Marsh

A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV 3C

426

CAWee Os =e OOM Gls tie faye eee) orator trove Aneel tapetcetietevaye $1,C00 CO
‘Schuylkill Nav. Co. Boat and C. loan............. 500 00
‘‘Pennsylvania State 6 per cent. bonds..........- _. 1,500 00
‘Philadelphia City & CO SARS A aC REL HE aN are 6,900 00
“*Stock of the McKean and Elk Land and Improve-
ment Co., 200 shares, subscribed................ 1,000 00
Ei OAS TAURErs arlale dveeelate! Whe: ale ial aie Miaeene PAU rele nena Na eps | mone aatLaraes 3 91
Totaly \ 5: cit spots faayaye fesercine. eager asset $10,903 91

Signed—‘“‘ by order of the Trustees.

BErJAMIN VY. Marsu, Treasurer.”’
PHILADELPHIA, FEB. 5, 1875.

In the absence of members of the Hall Committee, Mr.
Fraley stated, that the city authorities had undertaken to
make alterations in the lower stories of the Hall of the
Society, in view of another court room ; and that the Insur-
ance Companies had been consulted on the subject, and had
given permission to make alterations and repairs. At his
request the Secretary read from the minutes of July 17, and
Aug. 21, 1863, the resolutions passed by the Society respect-
ing the lease of said stories by the city.

Mr. J. 8. Price expressed his conviction that danger to the
Society’s Cabinet and Library from fire was imminent; the
Secretary adding his testimony to that effect.

On motion, it was then unanimously

Resolved, That the subject of the city tenancy of the two
lower stories of the Hall of the Society and the proper pro-
tection of the property, from fire, or other casualty, be referred
to the Hall Committee, the Presiding Officer, Mr. Fraley,
and the Treasurer, Mr. Price, with power to take such order
as they may think proper in the premises.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, February 19, 1875.
Present, 18 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the chair.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Im-
perial Academy at Vienna, (90, 91), Herr Tunner, Leoben,
(90, 91), Dr. Rokitansky, Vienna (90, 91), Geological Society

427

at Dresden (90, 91), the Society at Freiburg i. Br. (90, 91),
the Society at Emden (90, 91), the Society at Geneva (89,
90, 91, XV. i.), the Society at Berne (89), and the Society at
Neweastle-on-Tyne (92).

Letters of envoy were received from the Natural History
Societies at Freiburg, Emden, Marburg, Berne, and Geneva.

A circular letter was received from the Linnéan Society, of
Normandy, concerning a proposed statue to Khe de Beaumont
at Caen.

A cireular letter was received from Mr. W. Whittaker,
dated Geological Survey Office, Jermyn Street, London, Jan.
30, 1875, on the part of a proposed new Geological Magazine,
entitled Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology, British
and Foreign.

Donations for the Library were received from the Prag
Observatory ; Vienna Geological Institute; Royal Prussian
Academy ; German Geological Society ; Dresden Geological
Society ; Natural History Societies at Freiburg, Emden,
Marburg, Schaffhausen, and Geneva; the Anthropological
and Geographical Societies; Editors of the Annales des
Mines and Révue Politique, at Paris; the Meteorological
Committee of the Royal Society, and Nature, London ; Prof.
J. D. Dana; Silliman’s Journal ; American Chemist ; Frank-
lin Institute; Mr. John McArthur; McCalla & Stavely ;
Medical News and Library; American Pharmaceutical As-
sociation ; the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania; Depart-
ment of the Interior, U. 8.; and Mr. A. R. Roessler.

An obituary notice of Joseph Harrison, Jr., was read by
Mr. Coleman Sellers. (See page 347.)

An obituary notice of Charles B. Trego, was read by Mr
Sol. W. Roberts. (See page 356.)

The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Officers
and Members in Council were read.

Pending nominations, Nos. 766, 767, 768, and new nomi-
nations, Nos. 769, 770, 771, 772, 778, 774, and 775, were
read.

Mr. Roberts reported the improvements made and to be
made in the furniture of the Hall.

428

Mr. Fraley reported progress in negotiating a more satis-
factory understanding with the city authorities, respecting
the tenaney of the lower stories of the Hall building.

On motion, the Secretaries were authorized to place the
new Geological Magazine, London, on the list of correspond-
ents to receive the proceedings, if they thought proper to
do so.

On motion of Mr. Price, the Committee on the Hall were
authorized to obtain a new table, to re-cover the president’s
desk, and see to a better condition of the carpeting and
furnishing of the room in which the members meet.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, March 5, 18%5.
Present, 10 members.
Mr. Eni K Price, in the chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. J.
P. Kirtland dated Cleveland, Ohio, Feb. 22, 1875.

A letter of acknowledgment (93) was received from the
U. 8. Naval Observatory, dated March, 1875.

A letter of acknowledgment (93) was received from the
Rantoul Literary Society, Rantoul, Ill., Feb. 27.

A letter from Mr. 8. P. Langley, Directory of the Alle-
gheny Observatory, requesting the donation of Transactions
of the A. P. 8. was referred to the Publication Committee.

Donations for the Library were received from the Royal
Academy at Brussels ; Editors of the Révue Politique ; Royal
Astronomical Society ; and London Nature ; Essex Institute ;
Editors of Penn Monthly; Pharmaceutical Association ;
Medical News and Library ; and Judge Brewster, of Phila-
delphia ; Engineer Department and Secretary of War, Wash-
ington; Wisconsin Historical Society ; Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences and Arts; and Editors of the Western.

The death of Sir Charles Lyell was announced by the
Secretary, at London, Feb. 24, 1875, aged 78 years

429

The death of Dr. Geo. W. Norris, at Philadelphia, March
4, 1875, aged 67 years, was announced by Mr. J. 8. Price.

Mr. Cope read a paper by the title, ‘‘ A Synopsis of the
Vertebrata of the Miocene of Cumberland County, New
Jersey.” (See page 361.)

Dr. Cresson exhibited a map or diagram arranged on a
vertical scale to represent the five coal beds mined at Ellen-
gowan, near Mahanoy City, representing the thickness and
subdivisions of each bed; and on a horizontal scale to ex-
hibit the proportions of the various chemical elements ob-
tained by analysis. Of the mammoth bed, the uppermost
group of four benches is, at Ellengowan, separated from the
middle group of three benches by 150 yards of rock, and the
middle from the lower group of four benches by an equal
distance, all three groups lying together, without the inter-
vention of rock measures, in the neighboring collieries on
each side; the total thickness of coal remaining always
about the same.

Dr. Cresson exhibited and explained an American modifi-
cation of Bunsen’s apparatus for determining the specific
gravity of any gas, and the obstacles to accuracy of the inves-
tigation when the given gas was either much heavier or
much lighter than the common air into which it escaped.

Prof. Chase, being referred to, said that he had been re-
quested by Dr. Cresson to experiment with the imstrument
in order to discuss its eccentricities, and had used the city
gas, obtaining various curves of velocity of exit, when the
uppermost and lowermost, or the two, or three, or other
numbers of inches at the top or bottom of the tube were
paired against each other ; but without entirely satisfactory
results.

He considered it probable that the causes of irregularity
fell under three heads, viz.: 1st, the difference of density of
the medium into which the fine jet of gas issued (through a
microscopic hole in platinum foil); 2d, the vertical spiral
forms into whreh the currents must be thrown ; and 34d, fric-
tion, varying with condensation inside the instrument,

430

whenever the general temperature of the laboratory falls.
To this latter cause he ascribed differences of results ob-
tained in the morning and evening, amounting to twenty
per cent. He thought that under favorable circumstances
and with requisite care, an approximation to accuracy can
be made within two per cent., and much closer than with
the Bunsen instrument.

Professor Frazer communicated the fact of the discovery
of titanic iron, in the form of a perfect erystal and of
unusual size, half an inch on a side, associated with chlorite,
in chromic iron, at Frank Wood’s Mine, in Lancaster
County, Pa. The specimen is in the possession of Mr.
Tyson, near King of Prussia, Chester County, Pa. A small
portion of the crystal was submitted to the blowpipe by
Prof. Brush. (The specimen is mentioned in Dr. F. A.
Genth’s Report on the Mineralogy of Pennsylvania, Reports
of Progress of the Second Geological Survey, 1874.)

Prof. Chase read a letter from Goy. Rawson, of Barba-
does, in which he writes that he expects to obtain the ap-
pointment, by Government, of a salaried officer, intrusted
with the duty of continuing the meteorological observations
at Barbadoes, the importance of which is made the greater by
the fact that the island is near the hypothetical cradle of the
Atlantic cyclones and tornadoes of the Gulf of Mexico.

Prof. Frazer described some microscopic sections of trap
dykes on the Mesozoic red sandstone of Pennsylvania and
Connecticut. He had taken specimens from the vicinity of
Gettysburg, both as slides and fragments, to New Haven, and
compared them with similar slides and fragments of the
Connecticut traps in the possession of Mr. KE. 8. Dana.
There were fine grained greenish dolerites exactly alike in
both localities. Coarse-grained gray rock, which in fragments
seemed identical, under the microscope showed differences
between the Connecticut and Pennsylvania varieties; that
of the former being merely a coarse-grained dolerite, while
that of the latter was a true syenite. He said :—

During a recent trip to New Haven, [had the pleasure of examining the

431

very large collection of microscopic slides of the traps of the Mesozoic
sandstone in the vicinity of that town.

Mr. Dana exhibited to me fragments of the traps, which when com-
pared witb the fragments which I had brought with me seemed to be
identical lithologically so far as the eye, aided by a magnifying glass,
could determine. There were two varieties of this trap which had been
_ considered in my work essentially distinct, viz.: the doleritic and the
syenitic. Both these varieties are represented within a small area in the
immediate environs of Gettysburg, and even bear the appearance
of running together (to judge from a rough guess from the topo-
graphy). Now the finer-grained dolerite is of green color, and the speci-
mens from New England, and those I took with me, showed under the
microscope, and with the polarizer alone, the following mineral con-
stituents. Pyroxene (Augit), plagioclastic feldspar, magnitite (in fine
grains and irregular masses), and chrysolite. Mr. Hawes, of the Min-
eralogical laboratory, assures me that he has frequently found quartz in
these dolerites.

The coarse-grained rock (both the specimen from Gettysburg and that
from Counecticut,) is gray and granular, consisting of black and white
crystals so mingled as to produce the familiar granite color to the eye.
In fact the rock from Gettysburg is called ‘‘Gettysbure Granite.’’ It
was absolutely impossible to distinguish the fragments of this rock from
the localities apart, yet under the microscope and the single Nicol the
effect, was very different. The Connecticut variety showed the same con-
stituents as the other traps—was in fact a coarse dolerite; whereas
that from Gettysburg showed the characteristic dichroism of hornblende,
and also under a high magnifying power crystals of biotite.

In the specimen which I took with me to New Haven, there were no
cleavage planes to absolutely settle the character of the supposed horn-
blende, but in others in my possession this was very marked and settles
definitely the question of the occurrence of syenite in the Mesozoic
sandstone.

Mr. Dana warns me of a possible error in this conclusion, viz.: that the
mass from which I took my slides was only a bowlder—not in place.
This would be a very serious objection were it not for the absolu‘e
identity of the rock in the immense masses of slab formed rock, from the
quarry which supplies the tombstones and the walls of our national ceme-
tery, as well as cubic roods of rock in Culp’s Hill, Great Round Top,
Granite Spur, and Devil’s Den—localities which must ever remain
familiar to us as connected with the history of one of the decisive battles
of the world.

Besides this, as the Gettysburg locality lies miles south of the extreme
southern limit of the drift, there would seem to be no adequate theory to
account for such transportation.

In order to set at rest this doubt and decide this question finally, further
sections will be made from rock without doubt in situ und the results
communicated to the Society.

432

Pending nominations, Nos. 766 to 776, and new nomina-
tions, Nos. 777, 778 were read.

On motion of Prof. Frazer, it was

Resolved, That the Hall Committee be requested to con-
sider the propricty of placing in the Society’s rooms one
of the instruments of the American District Telegraph
Company, and the Treasurer be authorized to pay $18.00
as the annual rental of the same.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, March 19, 187.
Present, 18 members. :
Vice-President, Mr. FRauey, in the chair.

Photographs of Prof. Sadtler and Prof. Thomson, of the
University of Pennsylvania, were presented for insertion
in the album.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Liter-
ary and Philosophical Soziety of Liverpool, dated Jan. 25
(XIV., XV., 1., 90, 91, 92); and Smithsonian Institution
(90, 92).

A letter was received from the New Jersey Historical
Society, Newark, March 12, requesting that deficiencies in
their set of Proceedings and Transactions A. P. 8. be sup-
plied (Proe. I., I1., 111, 77. Transactions, all but the First
Series [1T., 1. Cat. 1).

A letter was read from Mr. Wm. Holden, Librarian of the
Ohio State Library, desiring to exchange copies of the Geo-
logical State Survey for Dr. Wood’s and Mr. Cope’s memoirs
on the Arachnid and Myriopoda, in the Transactions and
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.

_ Lettersof envoy werereccived from the Austrian Academy,

Sep. 30, 1874; the St. Petersburg Physical Central Observa-
tory, Jan., 1875; the Greenwich Observatory, Feb. 19, 1875 ;
the Literary and Philosophie Society, of Liverpool, Jan. 28,

433

1875; and Department of the Interior, Washington, March
10, 1875.

Donations for the Library were received from the Aus-
trian Academy of Sciences; Belgian Academy of Sciences ;
Editors of the Révue Politique; London Chemical Society ;
Royal Institution; Editors of Nature; Society of Arts and
Institutions in Union; the (Travancore Observatory) Maha- ,
raja,of Travecore ; Silliman’s Journal ; Prof. O. C. Marsh; and
the Department of the Interior, U.S.

The decease of Nathaniel B. Browne, of Philadelphia,
March 13, aged 55 years, was announced by Mr. E. K. Price,
and on motion Mr. Robert Patterson was appointed to pre-
pare an obituary notice of the deceased.

Mr. Frazer described and discussed the origin of certain
beds and belts of limonite in Southern Pennsylvania, with
the help of a colored map of York and Adams County, and
a geological map of Pennsylvania. Dr. Konig and Mr.
Lesley spoke on the same subject. (See page 364.)

Pending nominations 766 to 779 were read.

On motion of Dr. Cresson, for the Publication Committee,
an additional appropriation of one hundred dollars was .
made to defray the expense of the illustrations of Dr. Al-
len’s Memoir now being printed in the Transactions.

General Tyndale presented the request of the Directors of
the Franklin Insurance Company that the Society permit
Mr. Waugh to make for them a copy of the portrait of
Franklin in the possession of the Society. On motion of
Mr. Chase, the curators were authorized to permit such copy
to be made, taking the usual and proper precautions for the
security and safe return in good order of the picture.

On motion of Dr. Cresson another album volume similar
to the one now filled with portraits of the members of the
Society was ordered to be purchased.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Norte By Dr. Carson.
The picture of Franklin in the possession of the American Philosophi-
cal Society is by Martin, of London, a copy by himself of a picture painted
A. P. S.—-VOL. XIV. 38D

454

by him, of Dr. Franklin, for William Alexander’s grandson, Heury J.
Williams, Esq., of Philadelphia. The copy was placed by Franklin,
about 1765, in the keeping of the Supreme Executive Council of Penn-
sylvania, and upon the abolition of that body at the time of the Revo-
lution came into the hands (probably) of Mr. Peale when his Museum
was in the Hall of the American Philosophical Society, and was by him
there left at the removal of the Museum to the State House. This state-
inent is made to Dr. Carson by Mr. Williams, who has the original.

Stated Meeting, April 2, 1875.
Present 15 members.
Mr. Ext K. Prices, in the chair.

Letters of envoy were received from the Meteorological
Office of the Royal Society, London, March, 1875; and the
U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, March 19,
1875.

A letter from Harvard College Library was received re-
questing a missing signature, pages 225-232 of the Proceed-
ings, Vol. XIII.

Donations for the Library were received from the Prus-
sian and Belgian Academies; the Editors of the Révue
Politique and Nouvelles Meteorologiques; the Astronomical
Society ; Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society ;
the Cobden Club; and the Editors of ‘“Nature;” the
Chief Geologist of Canada; Essex Institute; College of Phar-
macy; Academy of Natural Sciences; and Mr. Delmar, of
Philadelphia; the U. 8. Department of the Interior; and U.
S. Department of Engineers ; and the Academy of Sciences

at St. Louis.
The death of Dr. D. Francis Condie, March 21,1875 aged

9, was announced by Dr. Bridges.
Pending nominations Nos. 766 to 779, and new nomina-
tion 780 were read.
And the meeting was adjourned.

435

Stated Meeting, April 16, 1875.
Present 16 members.
Dr. Carson in the chair.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Natu-
ral History Society at Wiesbaden, the British Association,

and the American Ethnological Society in New York.

A letter of envoy was received from the Central Physical
Observatory at St. Petersburg.

A letter was received from the Academy of Sciences of
Chicago requesting the replacement of Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society lost by the fire. On motion,
the request was granted.

A. letter was received from the Department of the Interior,
U.S. Bureau of Education, dated March 31, calling for in-
formation respecting the Library. On motion, referred to
the Librarian. /

Donations for the Library were announced fromthe Acad-
emies at Berlin and Bruxelles ; the Societies at Gorlitz, Wies-
baden, and Bonn; the Editors of the Annales des Mines,
Revue Politique, and Nouvelles Meteorologiques ; the Royal
Institution; Editors of Nature; and Mr. Robert Twining ;
the Societé Literaire et Philosophique, Quebec; the Massa-
chusetts State Board of Health ; Silliman’s Journal; State
Geologist of New Jersey ; American Journal of the Medical
Sciences; Department of the Interior, U.8.; and editors of
the Western.

The death of Dr. Andrew A. Henderson, at the U. S.
Naval Laboratory, Brooklyn, N. Y., on the 5th inst, aged
09, was announced by Mr. Lesley. On motion, Mr. Lesley
was 1equested to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased.

The death of Mr. John Henry Towne, of Philadelphia,
at Paris on the 6th inst., was announced by Mr. Lesley.
On motion Mr. Sol. W. Roberts was requested to prepare an
obituary notice of the deceased.

Dr. LeConte read another communication from Dr. W.

436

J. Hoffman, dated Reading, April 5, 1875, respecting the
Practice of Cremation among the Pah-Utes, or Digger In-
dians, of California. (See page 414.)

Prof. Frazer read a communication on the composition of
trap rocks and gave illustrations on a screen, from slices,
with a lime light, and various powers of lens. (See page 402
and plates 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Mr. Chase communicated a comparison between the lunar-
monthly rain-fall in the United States as indicated by the
morning weather-maps for three years, and the Pennsylvania
Hospital observations for 43 years. (See page 416.)

Mr. Lesley said that the members present might be in-
terested in the fact that he had succeeded in obtaining a
cross-section projection of the two azoic mountain ranges
which once occupied Southeastern Pennsylvania, giving for
the first time a correct explanation of the structural geology
of the gneiss and mica-slate belt commencing at Easton, on
the Delaware River, and passing through Philadelphia, Del-
aware, Chester, and Lancaster Counties toward Baltimore.
The sharp synclinal at the soapstone quarries separates an
anticlinal mass to the north from a broader anticlinal mass
to the south. The axis of the latter passes through the
Fairmount reservoir, in Philadelphia; and a careful colla-
tion and projection of the dips observed, (by Messrs. Young
and Fagen, aids on the survey,) along the Reading Railroad
track, up the west bank of the Schuylkill, upon a base line
of vertical section transverse to the general strike, namely,
N. 5° E,—S. 5° W. shows that the highest rock now seen in
that synclinal originally rode over Fairmount at an altitude of
about 15,000 feet; and over the northern anticlinal at an
altitude of 10,000 feet. The dips of the northern anticlinal
swing round from south by east to north in a regular curve,
showing that the northern mountain mass declined rapidly
eastward, that is towards Easton, where the whole of the
azoic sinks beneath the New Red, of New Jersey. This
mountain, dying down eastward, stopped the normal course
of the Schuylkill from Reading to Chester; and the present

437

notable zigzag of the river towards the Northeast and then
towards the Southeast is thus explained. The ancient drain-
age passed around the eroded east end of the mountain. For
a good many years he had maintained the existence of these
ancient Alpine ranges in early times, but without until now
deducing the opinion from regularly compiled structural ele-
ments of observation.

Pending nominations Nos. 766 to 780 were read, and Nos.
766 to 779 balloted for, and the following persons declared
duly elected members of the Society:

Mr. Wm. A. Ingham, of Philadelphia.

M. Viollet le Due, of France.

Mr. John McArthur, Jr., of Philadelphia.

Judge Joseph Allison, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Edward Penington, of Philadelphia.

Dr. Henry Chapman, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Alexander Agassiz, of Cambridge, Mass.

Prof. Frederick Prime, Jr., of Easton, Pa.

Prof. S. P. Langley, of Allegheny City, Pa.

Mr. H. 8. Hagert, of Philadelphia.

Prof. C. F. Chandler, of New York.

Mr. Rossiter W. Raymond, of New York.

Prof. Leonard G. Frank, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Wm. P. Tatham, of Philadelphia.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, May 7, 1875.
Present, 20 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Frauny, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Mr.
Alex. Agassiz, dated Cambridge, Mass, April 20; Judge
Joseph Allison, dated Philadelphia, April 21; Mr. John Mc-
Arthur, Jr., dated Philadelphia, April 20; Prof. Leo. Geo.
Frank, dated Philadelphia, April 19; Mr. H. 8. Hagert,

453

dated Philadelphia, May 3; Mr. W. A. Ingham, dated Phila-
delphia, April 19; Prof. 8. P. Langley, dated Allegheny,
Pa., April 19; Prof. Frederick Prime, Jr., dated Lafayette
Coilege, Easton, April 19, and Prof. Rossiter W. Raymond,
dated New York, April 24.

A letter of acknowledgment was received from the Royal
Society, dated Edinburgh, Dec., 1874 (XIV. i. i. Proc.
83-87).

A letter of envoy was received from the London Meteor-
ological Office of the Royal Society dated April, 1875.

Donations for the Library were received from the Royal
Academies at Berlinand Turin; the Observatories at Green-
wich, Cape Town, and Oxford; the Geographical Society
and Editors of Revue Politique at Paris; the Royal Geo-
graphical and Royal Astronomical Societies and Editors of
“Nature” at London; and Literary and Philosophical So-
ciety, Liverpool ; Natural History Society, of Northumber-
land, at Neweastle-on-Tyne ; Royal Society and Royal Botan-
ical Garden at Kdinburgh; Royal Geological Society at
Dublin; Essex Institute; Museum of Comparative Zoology,
at Cambridge, Massachusetts; Boston Society of Natural
History ; American Antiquarian Society at Worcester; Sil-
liman’s Journal; Prof. J. D. Dana; Editors of the American
Chemist ; Columbia College School of Mines; New Jersey
Ilistorical Society ; Editors of the Medical News and Penn
‘ Monthly; College of Pharmacy; Dr. C. M. Cresson; Mr.
Lorin Blodget; the U. 8. Coast Survey; U. 8. Engineer
Department; and U.S. Department of the Interior.

Dr. Barker exhibited the performance of his new arrange-
ment of the galvanometer for lecture illustration, describing
the successive contributions to its perfection made by Sax-
ton, Poggendorf, Sir Wm. Thompson, President Morton, and
Prof. Mayer.

A discussion followed on the galvanic currents in rocks,
and the magnetism of the earth.

Mr. Blodget referred to a former communication to the
Society on the subject of the vertical descent of air in the

439

ease of the meteoric “ Northers,” and to similar views ex-
pressed by Professor Loomis at the last meeting of the
National Academy at Washington, regretting that he had
not had leisure to place all the facts which he had observed
and gathered in support of his views before the Society.

Pending nomination No. 780 was read.

Mr. Fraley reported the receipt of the quarterly interest
of the Michaux legacy, due April Ist, amounting, with the
premium on gold, to $154.48.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, May 21, 1875.
Present, 15 members.
Vice-President, Mr. FRAuzy, in the Chair.

A letter acknowledging the receipt of Proceedings 92
was received from the New Bedford Free Public Library.

Letters of envoy were received from the Asiatic Society
of Japan, dated Yokohama, April 5; the United States
Coast Survey office; the Norwegian University, Christiana ;
and Mr. H. Wheatland, Salem, Massachusetts, May 5, 1875.

Donations for the Library were received from the Uni-
versity of Norway; Dr. Boekh; the Royal Society at Got-
tingen; Royal Academy at Berlin; Horticultural Society,
Berlin; Dorpat Observatory ; Imperial Geological Institute,
Vienna; Société Vaudoise, Lausanne; Editors of Revue
Politique, Paris, and “ Nature,” London; Mr. H. Wheat-
land, Salem; Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts ;
New Bedford Free Public Library ; Prof. Dana, New Haven ;
Buffalo Society of Natural History ; Editor of the American
Chemist, New York; Department of the Interior, U. 8.;
and Mr. Winchell.

Letters requesting back numbers to complete a set were
received from the Royal Academy, Berlin, and Triibner & Co.

Mr. Lesley described the changes made in the theoretical

Barker ] 440 [May 7,

geology of the country south of Lake Erie, suggested by the
work of the New Geological Survey of Pennsylvania; the
most important of these changes, namely, the adoption of an
east and west strike for a northeast and southwest strike,
being necessitated by the probability that most of the expo-
sures of conglomerate throughout Warren, Venango, and
Crawford Counties in Pennsylvania, and Cattaraugus and
Chautauque Counties in New York, belong to a horizon 200
feet below that of the Great Conglomerate, No. XII, the
base of the Productive Coal Measures.

Dr. Cresson referred to the discussion of thermo-electric¢
currents at the last meeting to state his own opinion that it
is not needful to have two metals, or an unhomogeneous
mass of one metal for the exhibition of such currents. He
had found water alone to be a sufficient medium for the pro-
duction and exhibition of the phenomena under discussion.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Officers
and Members in Council were read.

Pending nomination, No. 780, and new nominations, No.
781 and 782 were read.

And the meeting was adjourned.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.

No. I.

A NEW VERTICAL-LANTERN GALVANOMETER.

By GrorGeE F. Barker, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 7th, 1875.)

Desiring to show to a large audience some delicate experiments in
magneto-electric induction, ina recent lecture upon the Gramme machine,
a new form of demonstration galvanometer was devised for the purpose,
which has answered the object so well that it seems desirable to make
some permanent record of its construction.

Various plans have already been proposed for making visible to an
audience the oscillations of a galvanometer needle; but they all seem to
have certain inherent objections which have prevented them from coming
into general use. Perhaps the most common of these devices is that first

1876. ] 441 { Barker.

ly)

used by Gauss in 1827, and adopted subsequently by Poggendorft and by
Weber, which consists in attaching a mirror to the needle. By this
means, a beam of light may be reflected to the zero point of a distant
seale, and any deflection of the needle made clearly evident. The advan-
tages of this method are :—1st, the motion of the needle may be indefi-
nitely magnified by increasing the distance of the scale, and this without
impairing the delicacy of the instrument ; and 2d, the angular deflection
of the needle is doubled by the reflection. These unquestioned advan-
tages have led to the adaption of this method of reading in the most
excellent galvanometers of Sir William Thomson. While therefore, for
purposes of research, this method seems to leave very little to be desired,
yet for purposes of lecture demonstration it has never come into very
great favor ; perhaps because the adjustments are somewhat tedious to
make, and because, when made, the motion to the right or left of a
spot of light upon a screen fails of its full significance to an average
audience.

Another plan is that used by Mr. Tyndall in the lectures which he gave
in this country. In principle, it is identical with that employed in the
mevascope; 7%. €., a graduated circle over which the needle moves is
strongly illuminated with the electric light, and then by means of a lens
a magnified image of both circle and needle is formed on the screen. The
insvfficient illumination given in this way, and the somewhat awkward
arrangement of the apparatus required, have prevented its general
adoption. j

A much more satisfactory arrangement was described by Professor
Mayer in 1872,* in which he appears to have made use, for the first time,
of the excellent so-called vertical lantern in galvanometry. Upon the
horizontal plane face of the condensing lens of this vertical lantern,
Mayer places a delicately balanced magnetic needle, and on each side of
the lens, separated by a distance equal to its diameter, is a flat spiral of
square copper wire, the axis of these spirals passing through the point of
suspension of the needle. A graduated circle is drawn or photographed
on the glass beneath the needle, and the image of this, together with that
of the needle itself, is projected on the screen, enlarged to any desirable
extent. The defect of this apparatus, so excellent in many respects,
seems to have been its want of delicacy ; for in the same paper the use of
a flat narrow coil, wound lengthwise about the needle, is reeommended
as better for thermal currents. Moreover, a year later, in 1873,+
Mayer described another galvanometer improvement, entirely different
in its character. In this latter instrument, the ordinary astatic galvan-
ometer of Melloni was made use of, an inverted scale being drawn on the
inside of the shade, in front of which traversed an index in the form of a
small acute rhomb, attached to a balanced arm transverse to the axis of
suspension of the needle, and moving with it. The scale and index were
placed in front of the condensing lenses of an ordinary lantern, and-their

*American Journal of Science, IIT, iii, 414, June 1872.
tAmerican Journal of Science, IIT, v, 270, April, 1873.

Barker. ] 442 [May 7,

images were projected on the screen iu the usual way by use of the
objective. This instrument is essentially the same in principle as the
mirror galvanometer ; but it cannot be as sensitive as the latter, while it
is open to the same objection which we have brought against this—the
objection of unintelligibility. In the hands of so skillful an experimenter
as Mayer, it seems, however, to have worked admirably.

It was a tacit conviction that none of the forms of apparatus now de-
scribed would satisfactorily answer all the requirements of the lecture
above referred to, that led to the devising of the galvanometer now to be
described, which was constructed in February of the present year. Like
the first galvanometer of Mayer, the vertical lantern, as improved by
Morton,* forms the basis of the apparatus. This vertical lantern, as con-
structed by George Wale & Co., at the Stevens Institute of Technology,
as an attachment to the ordinary lantern, is shown in the annexed cut,
figure 1. Parallel rays of light, from the lantern in
front of which it is placed, are received upon the
mirror, which is inclined 45° to the horizon, and are
thrown direetly upward, upon the horizontal plano-
convex lens just above. These rays, converged by
the lens, enter the object glass, and are thrown on
the screen by the smaller inclined mirror placed
above it. The upper face of the lens forms thus a
horizontal table, upon which water-tanks, etc., may
be placed, and many beautiful experiments shown.
To adapt this vertical lantern to the purposes of a
galvanometer, a graduated circle, photographed on
glass, is placed upon the horizontal condensing lens.
Above this, a magnetic needle, of the shape of a very
acute rhomb, is suspended bya filament of silk, which
passes up through a loop formed in a wire, stretched
= close beneath the object glass, and thence down to

Fie. 1. the side pillar which supports this objective, where -
it is fastened by a bit of wax, to facilitate adjustment. The needle itself
is fixed to an aluminum wire, which passes down through openings drilled
in the scale glass, the horizontal lens, and the inclined mirror, and which
carries a second needle near its lower end.| Surrounding this lower

*Jour. Frank. Inst., ILI, lxi, 300, May, 1871; Am. J. Sci., III, ii, 71, 153, July, Aug.,
1871; Quar. J. Sci., Oct., 1871. In Duboseq’s vertical attachment, which was advertised iny
his catalogue in 1870, the arrangement is similar, except that the beam received upon
the mirror is a diverging one, and consequently the horizontal lens is of shorter focus.
A total reflection prism, placed above the object glass, throws the light to the screen.
The instrument gives a uniformly illuminated but not very bright field.

+ After the new galvanometer was completed and had been in use for several weeks,
I observed, in re-reading Mayer’s first paper, a note stating that the idea had occurred
to him of using an astati¢ combination consisting of two needles, one above the lens and
the other below the inclined mirror—the two being connected by a stiff wire passing
through holes in the condenser and the mirror. The plan of placing the coil round the
lower needle does not seem to have suggested itself to him. Indeed, it does not appear
that the arrangement he mentions was ever carried into practical effect.

1875.] 443 { Barker,
needle is a circular coil of wire, having a cylindrical hollow core of an inch
in diameter, in which the needle swings, and a smaller opening transverse to
this, through which the suspension wire passes. In the apparatus already
constructed (in which the upper needle is five centimeters long, ) the coil is
composed of 100 feet of No. 14 copper wire, and has a resistance of 0 235
ohm. The accompanying cross section (Fig. 2,) of the vertical-lantern
galvanometer as at present arranged, drawn ona
scale of ;/,, will serve to make the above descrip-
-. tion more clear. A is the needle, suspended di-
rectly above the scale-glass D, by a silk filament,
passing through the loop B, close under the obj: c-
tive C. This needle is attached to the aluminum
wire «@ 6, which passes directly through the scale-
glass D, the condensing lens EH, and the inclined
mirror F at H, and carries, near its lower end, the
second needleI. This needle is shorter, (its length
is 2.2 centimeters, ) and heavier than the upper one,
and moves in the core of the circular coil J, whose
ends connect with the screw-cups at K. This coil ~
rests on the base of the lantern, enclosed in a suit-
able frame. It is obvious that when the instru-
ment is so placed that the coil is in the plane of the
Fie. 2. magnetic meridian, any current passing through
this coil will act on the lower needle, and, since both needles are at-
tached to the same wire, both will be simultaneously and equally deflect-
ed. Upon the screen is seen only the graduated circle and the upper
needle ; all the other parts of the apparatus are either out of the field or
out of focus. Moreover, the hole in the lens is covered by the middle
portion of the needle, and hence is not visible. The size of the image is,
of course, determined by the distance of the galvanometer from the
sereen ; in class experiments, a circle 8 feet in diameter is sufficient ;
though in the lecture above referred to, the circle was 16 feet across,
and the needle was fourteen feet long, the field being brilliant.

The method of construction which has now been described, is evidently
capable of producing a galvanometer for demonstration, whose delicacy
may be determined at will, depending only on the kind of work to be done
with it. In the first place, the needles may be made more or less perfectly
astatic, and so freed more or less completely from the action of the earth’s
magnetism, and consequently more or less sensitive. Moreover, an astatic
system seems to be preferable to one in which damping magnets are used,
since it is freer from influence by local causes; though, if desirable for
a coarser class of experiments, the considerable distance which separates
the needles in this instrument, allows the use of a damping magnet with
either of them. Jn the galvanometer now in use, the upper needle is the
stronger, aud gives sufficient directive tendency to the system to bring
the deflected needle back to zero quite promptly. In the experiments
referred to below, the system made 25 oscillations per minute.

Barker. } 444 [May 7,

Secondly, the space beneath the mirror is sufficiently large to permit
the use of a coil of any needed size. Since, therefore, the lower needle
is entirely enclosed within the coil, the field of force within which it
moves, may be made sensibly equal at all angles of deflection, as in the
galvanometers of Sir Wm. Thomson. Hence the indications of the instru-
ment may be made quantitative, at least within certain limits. The cir-
cular coil, too, has decided advantages over the flat coil, since the mass of
wire being nearer to the needle, produces a more intense field. Were it
desirable, a double coil, containing an astatic combination could be
placed below the mirror, the upper needle, in that case, serving only as an
index. The instrument above described has a coil three inches in
diameter and one inch thick; the diameter of the core being one inch.
Since its resistance is only about a quarter of an ohm. it is intended for use
with circuits of small resistance, such as thermo-currents and the like.

The results of a few experiments made with this new vertical-lantern
galvanometer will illustrate the working of the instrument, and will
demonstrate its delivacy. The apparatus used was not constructed
especially for the purpose, but was.a part of the University collection.

Induction Currents.—1. The galvanometer was connected with a coil
of covered copper wire, No. 11 of the American wire gauge, about ten
centimeters long and six in diameter, having a resistance of 0.323 ohm.
A small bar magnet, 5 centimeters long and weighing six and a-half
grams, gave, when introduced into the coil, a deflection of 40°. On with-
drawing the magnet the needle moved 40° in the opposite direction.

2, A small coil, 20 centimeters long and 3.5 in diameter, made of No. 16
wire and having a resistance of 0.371 ohm, through which the current of a
Grenet battery, exposing 4 square inches of zinc surface, was passing, was
introduced into the centre of a large wire coil, whose resistance was 0.295
ohm, connected with the galvanometer. The deflection produced was
20°, The same deflection was observed on making and breaking contact
with the battery, the smaller coil remaining within the larger. .

3. A coil of No. 14 copper wire, sixty centimeters in diameter, and con-
taining about 40 turns, the resistance of which was 0.85 ohm, was connected
with the galvanometer, and placed on the floor. Raising the south side
six inches, caused a deflection of 4°. Placing the coil with its plane ver-
tical, a movement of two centimeters to the right or left, caused a deflec-
tion of 3°, and of twenty centimeters, of 10°. A rotation of 90° gave a
deflection of 12° and one of 180°, of 24°. These deflections were of
course due to currents generated by the earth’s magnetism.

4. Thermo-currents.—Two pieces of No. 22 wire fifteen centimeters
long, were taken, the one of copper, the other of iron wire, and united at one
end by silver solder. On connecting the other ends to the galvanometer,
the heat of the hand caused a deflection of the needle of 20°.

‘5. A thermo-pile of 25 pairs, each of bismuth and antimony, was con-
nected to the instrument. The heat from the hand placed at five centi-
meters distance caused a deflection of 3°.

1875. ] 445 [ Barker.

6. Two cubes of boiling water acted differentially on the pile. At the
distance of five centimeters, the detlectioa was 20°; moving one to ten
centimeters, the deflection was reduced to 5°.

7. Voltwic current.—A drop of water was placed on a zinc plate.
While one of the connecting copper wires touched the zinc, the other was
made to touch the water. The deflection was 16°.

The claim which is here made for the instrument however, is rather for
the general principle of its construction, than for the advantages possessed
by the individual galvanometer above described which was constructed at
short notice, to meet an emergency. The comparatively small cost for
which it may be fitted to the vertical lantern, the readiness with which it
may be brought into use, the brilliantly illuminated circle of light which
it gives upon the screen, with its graduated circle and needle, the great
range of delicacy which may be given to the instrument by varying the
coil and needles, so. that all experimental requirements may be answered,
and finally, the satisfactory character of its performance as a demonstra-
tion galvanometer, all combine to justify the record which is here made
of it.

Philadelphia, April, 1875.

ERRATA.

The following are the Errata in ‘‘ List of North American Pinay rents
&e.,”’ by A. R. Grote, Proceedings No. 93, page 256:
Page 263, line 1: Mr. Lintner states that Crepera is the female of Robiniz.
Page 263, line 21 : for ‘‘(1793)’ read ‘‘ (1775). ”’

Page 263, line 30: for ‘‘quadrigattatus”’ read “ quadriguttatus.”’

WASHINGTON

SKETCH MAP
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June 18, 1875.] 447 [Stevenson.

THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE LIGNITIC GROUPS.
By Joun J. STEVENSON,
PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 18, 1875.)

The principal lignitic areas of our country are two; one on the Pacific
Coast, extending in all from Alaska to Lower California ; the other in the
Rocky Mountain Region, stretching from the Arctic Ocean to New Mex-
ico. Between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains no lignites
_ have been discovered.

Within a few years the controversy respecting the geological relations
of these lignites has become very keen, some regarding them as Creta-
ceous, others as Tertiary. In many instances, the conclusion reached by
investigation of the flora is directly contradictory of that reached by
study of the fauna. Over aconsiderable portion of the Rocky Mountain
Region the rocks of the Great Lignitic Group are barren of animal re-
mains and only plants are found. Where the fauna is seen the genera
and species are usually Cretaceous, and where they are not clearly so
they are fresh-water, and therefore of little value either way. The flora
is very closely allied in general character to the Tertiary flora of Europe,
many species in each being apparently identical.

During my connection with Lieut. Wheeler’s Expedition, I passed over
a portion of the disputed ground, and so became involved in this contro-
versy. Ihave thought it necessary to study with care all the material
within my reach which seems to bear upon the subject. While this study
has shown me that the question at issue is by no means so simple as. I
supposed it to be, when I rendered my report to Lieut. Wheeler,* yet it
has confirmed me in my conclusion there given, that the Great Lignitic
Group, or the Fort Union Group of Hayden, is Cretaceous and not Eo-
cene.

It is essential here to determine the value respectively of the various
forms of geological evidence, for all have been cited in this discussion,
and in some respects they seem to be contradictory.

In every case where applicable, stratigraphy is final. So long as we
can trace a rock continuously we have no doubt of its identity. But
stratigraphy in this simple form is not often available to any great extent.
So variable are the rocks in large areas, owing to the different conditions
under which matter may be deposited synchronously at distant localities,
that direct comparisons of sections by lithological characters, or even by
tracing, becomes impossible. We are compelled, therefore, to resort to
paleontology in addition. Our geological column is based upon the suc-
cession of the marine invertebrata.

The stratified rocks, with the exception of comparatively insignificant
portions, were deposited under the ocean, and of those which contain the
remains of terrestrial organisms, by far the greater proportion was formed

* June, 1874,
A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 3F

Stevenson. ] 448 [June 18,

along the sea-border, exposed to frequent irruptions of sea-water. The
lacustrine, or purely fresh-water deposits, are small both in extent and
duration, and are confined chiefly to the later portions of geological time.
As the sea always covered the greater part of the earth and afforded an
easy medium of migration for water-breathing animals, one would expect
to find in the rocks of marine origin the most satisfactory record of
changes in animallife. This would be a close record of changes in physical
conditions, for animals are of a high type of organization, and, therefore,
very sensitive to alteration of circumstances. The record is remarkably
complete. From the base of the Silurian to the present time the gaps are
few and usually of limited extent. In our country there is no group of
rocks, excepting one, which does not yield a plentiful supply of inverte-
brate remains over perhaps the greater part of its area. Even the Trias-
sic, usually so bgrren in America, is at many localities rich.

So distinct is the succession of invertebrate life, so sharp the breaks at
the close of many periods in the world’s history, that geologists by com-
mon consent have adopted this form of life as the foundation-stone of our
system. By stratigraphy the succession of the rocks was determined,
but by the succession of invertebrate life the great mass was divided
into groups and geological history could be written. Rocks containing
a certain fauna were called Silurian, others with a different grouping
were termed Cretaceous, and others Miocene. These divisions were made
on the basis of the fauna and on no other basis. This should be borne in
mind.

The same succession is employed in making the minor divisions. In
the Upper Missouri Region a mass of rocks is found, possessing a fauna
closely resembling that of a series in Europe, termed Upper Cretaceous.
This, all accept as proving that the two series occupy equivalent positions
in the geological succession. Closer investigation shows that the Upper
Missouri series is made up of five distinct groups, each characterized over
an immense area by a peculiar assemblage of invertebrate remains. These
groups make the section. If in any portion of the whole Western region
we find the fossils of any one of these groups in a mass of rocks, we may
legitimately expect to find the others over or under it, as the case may
be. It may occur that over large areas a group thus established is per-
fectly barren of animal remains. This does occur in the Cretaceous
groups. The Dakota Group is often barren, and can be identified only
by its previously determined stratigraphical relations. The Fort Pierre
and Fox Hills Groups, we are told by Dr. Hayden, show extensive zones
of barrenness, whereas they are generally prolific. To explain this varia-
tion is not always easy, but we cannot do it by any assumption that the
prolific portions mark the site of lagoons held by elevation and contain-
ing a few relics of a pastage. In some instances these ‘‘lagoons’’ would
involve us in difficulty, as the fossiliferous layers in different zones occupy
different horizons, so that the past age, whose fauna was preserved in
the ‘‘lagoons,’’ would need to be ‘‘past’’ and ‘‘ present ’’ alternately for

1875. ] 449 (Stevenson.

along period of time. The lagoon theory is quite ingenious, but unfor-
tunately cannot accommodate itself to the facts.

Some species of invertebrates showed remarkable tenacity of life. Thus
Strophomena rhomboidalis reaches from the Lower Silurian quite to the
base of the Lower Carboniferous. Atrypa reticularts existed from near
the beginning of the Upper Silurian to near the close of the Devonian.
In each group they show marked peculiarities which almost suffice to
mark the horizon from which the specimens were obtained. But no pa-
lzontologist would be reckless enough to determine a horizon with these
shells as his only data. While we find instances of this kind passing up-
ward, we have never found characteristic Carboniferous species in lower
formations. But if we should, we must yield to the superior evideuce.
Spirifer cameratus associated with a strongly marked Devonian fauna in
rocks occupying the Devonian position, would be a worthless witness.
So, if the thing were possible, should we find Ammonites at a Silurian
horizon, we would reject the testimony in favor of Mesozoic and accept
the stronger testimony for Silurian. Eveninvertebrate life must yield to
stratigraphy, if the two contradict.

Vertebrate life is too imperfectly preserved to be ordinarily of much
service alone. The succession is not fully given. Yet it may be service-.
able. If certain reptilian forms are found constantly associated with a
certain invertebrate fauna, as, for example, certain forms in the Creta-
ceous, we may accept those as evidence where other evidence is wanting,
for their horizon has been definitely fixed. This, however,.applies only
to marine forms. To terrestrial forms, the same objection applies as to
plants. In every case, however, the horizon must be fixed for a conti--
nent, not for the world, since the conditions affecting such life may have:
been different in America from what they were in Europe.

Vegetable life shows no such history as to entitle it to much considera-.
tion. So patent is this fact that little use has been made of vegetable re-
mains in determining the succession of rocks. Fucoids are worthless ex-
cept in limited areas, since their organization is so low as to enable them
to withstand changes which would be fatal to higher organisms. Land’
plants are unsatisfactory, because they are preserved in disconnected
fragments, and because the areas on which they grew were so widely
separated and formed so small a portion of the earth’s crust. Let us look
at the succession as we find it.

Until a very short time ago the existence of land plants during the Si-
lurian and early Devonian of America was denied, and some told us why
no such flora could exist. Two water-worn logs of coniferous wood,
found in the Corniferous Limestone, changed our belief, but gave us little
information. Respecting the flora of the Middle and Upper Devonian
and of the Lower Carboniferous, we have but limited knowledge, and the
localities yielding specimers are few indeed. Of the Coal Measure vege-
tation we know quite well that portion which grew in the swamps, but
of the upland flora we have only fragmentary information, in the shape of

Stevenson j 450 [June 18,

stray logs which floated down to the marshes. From the Carboniferous
to the Trias, a great change is shown by the fossils, but we have no evi-
dence to prove that this change is a true exposition of the actual change.
For aught we can tell to the contrary, a flora closely allied to the one
termed Triassic may have existed during the Carboniferous. In the Cre-
taceous the condition is little better. In the lower portion, leaves of
dicotyledonous plants occur in prodigious numbers, but they are not of
plants growing where the leaves occur. For the most part they are single
leaves, washed in by streams from the land. Between this sandstone and
the Lignite Group, there is an interval mostly unrepresented at the East,
but at the West occupied by a mass of shales, limestones, and fine-grained
sandstones, one thousand to two thousand feet thick, and absolutely
barren of leaves everywhere. This was a long period, during which,
under the sea, nothing but fine-grained materials were deposited. In the
Lignite Group, leaves are numerous, but so far as has fallen under my
observation, they are in the same condition as those at the base of the
Cretaceous.

Such is the record of plant-life—a record little better thana blank, with
here and there a few markings, many of which are too indistinct to be
deciphered. In each horizon which yields relics of plants by far the
greater portion of the area is barren—even in the Carboniferous age, how
small a proportion of the rocks are leaf-bearing in the most favorable
localities, while the whole vast area west from the Mississippi has yielded
but a beggarly array of specimens. At best, the specimens are fragment-
ary. The same frond on a fossil fern, when broken up into its pinnules,
may yield two or three genera and haif a dozen species. When only
fragments are found, it is impossible for the paleontologist to resist the
temptation to make species. Describing fossil ferns from fragments, is
almost as accurate work as making genera and species out of fossil teeth
of sharks. In the ease of leaves of dicotyledonous plants, the matter is
evidently worse. The limit of variation of a species has never been ap-
proximately determined among living plants, where one has the whole
tree at hand. With only imperfect and separated leaves to study, it
would seem almost impossible to determine this matter respecting extinct
plants.

Like vertebrate remains, vegetable relics may be made serviceable.
The character of the coal flora has been so carefully studied for many
years that it is quite well understood. Here, indeed, the matter in many
cases is quite simple, for the roof of a coal-bed as exposed in the tunnel
of a mine, not infrequently exhibits the material for the reconstruction
of an entire plant. Unfortunately, attempts at re-construction are not
common, and the investigator is usually satisfied to describe fragments
as species, in preference to carefully studying their relation. But the
horizon of these plants is now fixed, their general type is well understood,
and they can be used as evidence when the animal remains are absent.
The day may come when dicotyledonous plants will have been studied to

1875. ] 451 [Stevenson.

the same extent. Asitis, they are of some local service. The flora of
the Dakota Group serves to identify that formation at many localities,
east from the Rocky Mountains when the rock is barren of animal re-
mains. The position of this flora has been fixed by means of its position
in and below rocks containing the ordinary Cretaceous types of animals.

But why do we call one flora, Cretaceous, or another Triassic, or a
third, Tertiary? Simply because it is found in rocks belonging to such
agroup. Let it not be forgotten that we do not call the group Creta-
ceous, or Tertiary, because of the flora. Stratigraphy determined the
general succession of rocks ; animal life determined the division into
groups.

The florasof our later geological eras cannot afford a satisfactory basis
for generalizations looking to a determination of equivalent horizons in
Europe and America. The conditions on the two continents were widely
different. This general statement has been practically accepted as true
by our palzo-botanists, Dawson, Lesquereux, and Newberry, all of whom
have acknowledged that the testimony of plants is inferior to that of in-
vertebrates. This story is a brief one.

In 1858, Mr. Meek and Dr. Hayden submitted to Dr. Newberry a col-
lection of dicotyledonous leaves which they had obtained from the Da-
kota Group, of Nebraska. Dr. Newberry found great resemblance
between these and the Tertiary flora of Europe, but regarded them as of
Cretaceous age, being convinced by the stratigraphy and the testimony
of invertebrate remains in the overlying rocks, Sketches of some of
these were sent to Prof. Heer, who, in a letter to Mr. Lesquereux,* very
positively asserted that Newberry erred in his conclusions, and that the
plants are all of Tertiary forms. His language is as follows:

“Tt is true that I have seen only some drawings which were sent to me
by Messrs. Hayden and Meek, but they are all Tertiary types. The sup-
posed Credneria is very like Populus leuce, Ung. of the Lower Miocene,
and the Hitinghausiana seems hardly rightly determined. Besides, it is
a genus badly founded, and as yet has no value. All the other plants
mentioned by Dr. Newberry, belong to genera that are represented inthe
Tertiary and not in the Cretaceous. And it is very improbable that in
America the Cretaceous flora had the characteristic plants of the Tertiary,
and this would be the case if these plants did belong to the Cretaceous.”’

To this the editors of the Journal append a note, stating that similar
leaves had been collected by Prof. Cooke, from the base of the Creta-
ceous, as well as by Dr. Newberry, from the same horizon, in New
Mexico, so that if the leaves are Tertiary, our Cretaceous is abolished.

Dr. Newberry replied,+ stating that he had collected such dicotyledon-
ous leaves from the Lower Cretaceous sandstones at Galisteo Creek, in
New Mexico, where the Upper Cretaceous sandstones also are exposed,
and at various localities further east to the Canadian river where charac-

*Amer. Journal of Sci., 2d series, Vol. 28, p. 88.
_ tAmer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 29, p. 299.

Stevenson, ] ; 452 [June 18

teristic Cretaceous 2 and 3 are seen resting upon the sandstones. This
statement afforded peculiar gratification to the editor, who takes occa-
sion in another portion of the volume to rebuke Messrs. Marcou and
Heer very severely for considering these plants as Miocene. If these
plants are Miocene, the editor thinks the roof of our geological house
was put on before the foundation was laid. This is a very proper and
judicious conclusion.

Mr. Lesquereux’s rejoinder* was quite keen, defending Prof. Heer’s
conclusion and fully endorsing it. So that he, as well as Profs. Marcou
and Heer regarded these plants and the including rocks as of Miocene
age.

In 1863, Profs. Marcou and Capellini undertook a journey to Nebraska,
to effect a final determination of the question. Evidently, the testimony
of the plants was of little value in their eyes, for on their return they pro-
nounced the Dakota Group Cretaceous, and not only Cretaceous, but at
the base of that series as developed in America. In his work describing
the leaves collected by these gentlemen, Prof. Heer confessed the superior
value of the faunal evidence, and placed the leaves in the Cretaceous. In
1868, Mr. Lesquereux did the same, describing a number of Cretaceous
plants from the Dakota Group. In this paper he announces that a re-
markable generic affinity exists between the Cretaceous and Tertiary flora
of America. In 1874 he published a quarto volume on the Cretaceous flora
of the Dakota Group. It is sufficiently evident, then, that Mr. Les-
quereux regards his plants as affording by no means positive grounds
for generalization respecting equivalence of horizons in Europe and
America.

Mr. Lesquereux has claimed that the determination of Miocene charac-
ter, made by Prof. Heer and endorsed by himself, should not be regarded
as in any way affecting the question of testimony, because the material at
their disposal was soimperfect. Such a plea is unfortunate, and the excuse
is worse than the error, if error it was. If the material was too imperfect
to justify a positive conclusion, why was the conclusion so emphatically
stated ? Hitherthe material was sufficient, or the interpreters are untrust-
worthy because of rashness. That the material was sufficient is clear,
because the general statement of close resemblance to Tertiary forms still
holds good. This whole discussion very fairly exposes the value of palzeo-
botauy as an aid in the determination of equivalent horizons on discon-
nected continents.

The plants of the Great Lignite Group are no better. Of these, Mr.
Lesquereux has described a great number of species. Of those identified
with European forms, the relations, with hardly an exception, are Mio-
eene, yet they are placed in the Hocene. One very eccentric feature here
is, that in some localities the groupis Lower, and in others Upper Kocene,
while the stratigraphy seems to show that both epochs may belong to the
same horizon, and that the difference in the florais local and synchronous.

*Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 29, p. 434.

¢
1875. | 453 [Stevenson.

Why the paleo-botanist should put these plants into the Eocene, rather
than into the Miocene, is not known, unless it be done in deference tothe
stratigraphy.

Other illustrations might be given, such as the occurrence in the Ameri-
can Carboniferous, of types which in Europe are Triassic or Jurassic, but
it is hardly necessary. It certainly seems clear to me from the showing
of the paleo-botanists themselves, that the plants have nothing to do
with the matter ; that the fact that certain forms occur at a certain hori-
zon in Europe is no evidence, pro or con, that their horizon in America
is equivalent to that in Europe. The dicotyledonous leaves of the Lig-
nitic Groups, 7@. ¢., the Dakota and Fort Union, are locally of service, in
that by them we may not infrequently trace the formation on both sides
of extensive areas, from which the rock has been eroded, or in localities
where the stratigraphical relations are doubtful.

It appears, then, by the common consent of all, that we must determine
the European equivalents of our strata by means of animal, not by means
of vegetable remains. This being understood, we may look at the facts
as we have them.

The Lignitic areas are two, one on the west coast, and the other in the
Rocky Mountain Region. The history of these is different, and they re-
quire to be taken up separately.

LIGNITES OF THE PACIFIC COAST.

According to Mr. Gabb, the lignites occur at three horizons in this re-
gion. At the lowest line are the lignites of Vancouver and the adjacent
portions of Washington Territory ; higher up he finds the lignites of
Monte Diablo, in California. These contain all the workable lignites.
But at a still higher horizon there occurs an extensive deposit of lignitic
beds, none of which are of economical value. The last group he regards
as of Miocene age, but the others he places in the Cretaceous.

The California lignites have been sufficiently discussed by the geolo-
gists of that State. I do not know that the reference of these to the Cre-
taceous has ever been seriously called in question, so that it is unneces-
sary to speak of them here. The deposits possessing chief interest for
us are those of Vancouver. These have been carefully studied by a num-
ber of geologists, and the fossil remains, both animal and vegetable, have
received close attention from paleontologists of the highest standing.
The deposits of Bellingham Bay, Birch Bay, aud other localities on the
continent, can hardly be regarded as fairly coming within the range
of this discussion, as the animal remains have not yet been worked up
thoroughly.

According to Richardson, the coal deposit of Vancouver is divided into
two distinct fields, one on the east coast, known as the Nanaimo Field;
the other on the west and northwest coast, named by him the Comoa
Field. Both of these have been examined by him, but his more elaborate
work was done in the latter.

Stevenson. | 454 [June 18,

The Nanaimo Field was examined by Dr. Hector, in 1859. He suc-
ceeded in working out a section of the region, which is practically as fol-
lows :*

i, Pmrple GENS sabaed5ugocconusnsn.cn0dd0 Bey see not measured.
2. Conglomerate and sandstone.................. 500 to 600 ft.
3 Gaal, SC DOORS?! SEEN, so oaccsoacacsn oA KoOs6 3 ft. 6 in.
APC Ong lOMeLALOM iapietlleei eisai eit 60 ft.
%, Cowl, SING ERS? SEAM Sonoboss0son caosses 6 ft.
Gs Sem@lspows soncosapovs0ccebo0gs5000500 7
7. Conglomerate ..... HEN OD yt deere ie |
SiGreenisandstone.eeerceeee cree eoc : { about 400 ft.
Os SUMP OWIS TO G odo cgdndaodcg0esuG000D |

10. Greenstone conglomerate ............. J

11. Igneous rocks....... Foe ovusouDS POR HOUbID COeOS

No. 8, is richly fossiliferous, containing as determined by Mr. Hthe-
ridge, Trigonia Emoryt, Cytherea Leonensis, Hxogyra two species, Arca

three species, Ostrea two species.

The sandstone of No. 2, contains a thin coal, accompanied by plant-
bearing shales. Yew-like fronds occur in the arenaceous shales associa-
ted with the larger coals.

No. 1 is a thick mass of shale somewhat variegated in color and con-
taining great numbers of ‘‘ nodules or septaria’’ enclosing fossils. From
these nodules there were obtained Inoceramus Crispii, (Conrad), I. Tex-
anus, I. Nebrascensis, I. unduloplicatus, 1. confertim-annulatus, I. mytt-
loides, Baculites compressus, Baculites two species undt., Ammonites
geniculatus, Ammonites two species undt.

Mr. Brown’s} observations at Nanaimo, confirm those of Dr. Hector.
In the shales accompanying the coals, he obtained great numbers of leaf
impressions, both mono- and di-cotyledonous ; while from the associated
sandstones, he procured various species of Ammonites, Baculites, Inoce-
ramus, Hxogyra, Ostrea, Pecten, Arca, Trigonia, Cytherea, Psammobdia,
Tellina, Mactra, Natica, Rostellaria, etc.

In the northwestern or Comoz field, he found a grouping of conglom-
erates, sandstones, fire-clays, and coals similar to that observed in the
vicinity of Nanaimo. Throughout the series there are fossiliferous
beds. Dicotyledonous plants are most frequent among the leaf impres-
sions, while among the animal remains there occur Ammonites, Baculites,
Pectunculus, Plagiostoma, Inoceramus, Trigonia, Hippurites, Astarte,
Natica, and Paludina.

Mr. Richardsont examined the Nanaimo field in 1871, and the Comox:

* Journal of Geological Society, 1861.
+Transactions Edinburgh Geol. Society, Vol. I.

{Reports Canada Geol. Survey, 1871-2 and 1872-3.

~~
1875. } 455 (Stevenson.

field in 1872. His report for 1871 is not in my possession. In the Comox
field the rocks fall naturally inte seven well-marked groups as follows :

Gar Uippenconplomenraterierrrtei cis -sieieie eiaiiein ici 320 ft.

I DEI SM ALOS |. 65, ors eycteaaycrersie exeveisiaysceyopey ey ie anousvevegare ce 776 ft. 6 in.

Hi. Middle conglomerate....-........-2..---.---- 1100 ft.

De Mrid dle shales coos. sa.ccueveyer asco te secheustnns ois. spikes 76 ft.

CS Lower conglomerate) occ crear osctcss sales ce 900 ft.

SmI O WELSH AIOSS 5.2. cig s/o10.stars) agsleunicte ey aeasee Sieweaoestaieis 1000 ft.

Aue roductivercoalumeasures-eEcsceenteescio.. 7 436 ft. 6xin.
PMO DAs ence lehereyayors otesciese alnusheheroussetehe kerr eRe 4912 ft.

Below these come at once the crystalline rocks, so that the fossiliferous
sandstones found below the Nanaimo coals must be absent, or, if present,
overlapped by Division A.

Division A, consists of shales, sandstones, and coals, the latter very
irregular. The rocks contain no animal remains, though vegetable im-
pressions are abundant. B is made up of brownish-black argillaceous
shales with thin layers of gray sandstone and arenaceous shale. The
argillaceous portions are rich, both in individuals and species of
animal remains. Mr. Richardson obtained Ammonites, 7 sp., Ancyloceras,
2 sp., Inoceramus, 4 sp., undetermined Lamelli-branchiata, 15 sp., and
Natica, 1 sp.

Division C is composed of coarse pebbles, held in a brownish-gray
sandy matrix, which contains wood and occasional shells. The fossils
from this division are rare, as would naturally be expected, but Mr.
Richardson obtained one species of Ammonites and one of Arca. Division
D resembles B, but is rather more arenaceous. Thin streaks of coal are
common. Lenticular patches of limestone are of frequent occurrence,
and yield Ammonites, Baculites, Nautilus, Ostrea, Inoceramus, Arca,
-Nucula, together with numerous undetermined fragments of Lamelli-
branchiata and Gasteropoda.

Division E is an exceedingly coarse conglomerate, and its matrix is a
coarse sand. No fossils were observed in the matrix, though some were
seen in the included fragments of limestone. Division F resembles D,
but is much more arenaceous. Near the top it contains thin streaks of
coal and many fragments of fossil wood, which show the structure dis-
tinctly. For the most part G resembles E, but contains no fragments of
limestone. At the base it usually exhibits a mass of gray sandstone,
with thin seams of coal and occasional Belemnites.

During 1872, Mr. Richardson examined also the deposits in the Queen
Charlotte Islands, north from Vancouver. The section shows the follow-
ing succession, but the groups were not measured :

1. Upper shales and sandstones.
2. Coarse conglomerates.
3. Lower shales with coal and iron ore.

A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 3G

Stevenson. ] 456 [June 18,

Organic remains, both animal and vegetable, occur abundantly
throughout Division 3. No. 1 is lighter colored and more arenaceous
than 3. Near its base thin layers of argillaceous dolomite occur, and
near the top a fossiliferous layer was found.

No doubt those readers to whom these facts are new will feel aston-
ished to learn that any person has ever disputed the Cretaceous age of
these coals. The whole trouble has arisen from the finding of some
vegetable fragments which have been so far affected by prolonged mace-
ration as to be readily identifiable with almost anything. The interpre-
ters of these impressions are not entirely agreed among themselves.

Mr. Lesquereux* has examined a large collection of plants from Nanaimo
and the adjacent portion of Washington Territory. Out of the specimens
he made a nuniber of new species, while he recognized a number identical
with species previously described in Europe. So closely allied to the flora
of the European Miocene are these that Mr. Lesquereux refers both Na-
naimo and Bellingham to the Miocene. Somewhat latert he published a
letter from Prof. Heer fortifying his position by showing the identity of
several of his species with those knownin Kurope. Both of these paleo-
botanists agreed in referring Vancouver tothe Miocene. The editor of the
American Journal of Science felt it necessary to append to this letter an
apology for Prof. Heer, in which he stated that the Professor had not had
access to the paper by Meek and Hayden on the Vancouver fossils.

The collections made at Nanaimo, Bellingham Bay, and other localities
in the vicinity, by Mr. Geo. Gibbs, were submitted to Dr. Newberry, t who
regarded the Bellingham Bay deposit as most probably Miocene. He had
in fact thus announced it in 1856. Some molluscan remains obtained with
the leaves, induced Dr. Newberry to regard the Nanaimo coals as Creta-
ceous. Itis evident from his language that nothing in the plants would lead
one to suppose that they belong to a Cretaceous horizon, but, on the con-
trary, that enough was showa by them to cast doubt upon any such con-
clusion, were satisfactory evidence lacking. His words are as follows :

‘<The evidence now before us—if the specimens in the collection were
obtained in the circumstances reported—shows conclusively that all the
plant-bearing strata about Nanaimo are of Cretaceous age ; indeed, so far
as at present known to us, all the fossils collected at Vancouver’s Island
are of that formation.”’

The vegetable remains obtained at Nanaimo, in 1871, by Messrs.
Selwyn and Richardson were submitted to Dr. Dawson. Among these
were Taxodium cuneatum, Newb., Sequoia Langsdorfit, Heer, Sabal, Pal-
macites, Populus, Quercus, Platanus, Cinnamomum Heert, Lesqx., Taxi-
tes, Cupressinoxylon.

‘“‘Dr. Dawson states that the plants led Lesquereux and Heer to
refer the beds to the Miocene, but that Newberry has shown thai the

* American Journal of Science, 2d series, Vol. 27.
tIbid., Vol. 28.
{Boston Journal of Natural History, Vol. 7.

1875. ] é 457 [Stevenson.

evidence of the associated marine fossils makes them Cretaceous, which
is the opinion now generally accepted, the species including Ammonites,
Baculites, etc.’’*

The 1872 collections of Mr. Richardson were submitted to Dr. Dawson
for examination. The results as announced are quite positive, somewhat
contrasting in this respect with those already given.{ Possibly his con-
clusions may have been affected by the presence of so great an abundance
of animal remains. Be this as it may, his language is open to no charge
of obscurity.

‘“‘The fossils from the Queen Charlotte Islands, consisting entirely of
Pines and Cycads, while decidedly Mesozoic, would indicate a somewhat
older stage than the others, say the Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous.

‘¢The fossils from the coal-field of Vancouver, embracing in addition
to coniferous trees, both wood and leaves of several species of angio-
spermous exogens, coincide with those of the Cretaceous of other parts
of America, for example of Nebraska.

‘“‘The fossils from Hornby Island, in shales believed to overlie those of
Vancouver Island, are also Cretaceous, and there is nothing to preclude
their belonging to the upper part of that system.”’

It should be mentioned here that Dr. Dawson refers to the Upper Creta-
ceous of Europe, the only portion of that system represented in America,
east from the Rocky Mountains. The Lower Cretaceous of Europe is
probably represented on the Pacific Coast by the Charlotte Island coals
and the Shasta Group of the California geologists.

The evidence given by the animal remains is indisputable. The coals
at Nanaimo are at the horizon of the Niobrara, or Fort Pierre Group,
probably not far from the dividing line. The coals of the Comox field
are lower inthe system ; while the Queen Charlotte coals may belong to the
Lower Cretaceous (of Europe), or to the Jurassic, being on about the
same horizon as the Shasta Group of California.

It is certainly very strange, after the publication of facts so convincing
as those given years ago by Meek and Newberry, and later by Gabb,
Selwyn, Richardson, Dawson, and Billings, that Mr. Lesquereux should
still maintain his original statement, as he does in the Seventh Annual
Report of the Geological Survey of the Territories. It is the more re-
markable because, in a volume published simultaneously with that report,
he places his Miocene flora of the Dakota Group at the base of the Creta-
ceous for no reason except that the Dakota rocks clearly underlie others
containing characteristic marine fossils of Cretaceous. This inconsis-
tency may be explained, however, by the fact that he has seen the rela-
tions of the Dakota Group in Nebraska, while he has never visited Van-
couver.

THE Rocky Mountain REGION.

In this region there seems to be two horizons of lignitic rocks ; one at

the base of the Cretaceous, extending probably from the far north in

* American Journal of Science, 3d series, Vol. 5, page 478.
+ Report of Geological Survey of Canada, 1872-3.

Stevenson. ] 458 - [June 18,

British America southward, with more or less irregularity, into New
Mexico, along the eastern and southern borders of the mountains, with
an occasional lignitic bed in the interior of the region ; the other reaching
barely beyond our northern line into British America, and extending
southward to New Mexico, covering a vast area east from the mountains,
as well as within the disturbed region and beyond it at the south in New
Mexico.

For a proper understanding of the conditions here, it may be well
to give a brief description of the various formations as they are exposed
along the east flank of the mountains.

Silurian strata rest upon the metamorphic schists, and above them come
the Carboniferous, the Devonian being absent, or not satisfactorily iden-
tified. Frequently overlapping and concealing these formations, there is
a very persistent mass of red beds, more or less conglomerate, and con-
taining marls and beds of gypsum. These have been referred to the
Triassic, principally, however, because of negative evidence. They
are succeeded by shales containing limestone, which frequently yields
Jurassic fossils. Upon this last rests the Cretaceous, of which five well-
marked divisions have been ascertained in the upper Missonri region.
These are, ascending, * ,

No. 1. Dakota Group, sandstones, shales, and lignites.

No. 2. Fort Benton Group, usually argillaceous shales.

No. 3. Niobrara Group, limestones and calcareous shales.

No. 4. Fort Pierre Group, shales with nodules of clay-iron stone.
No. 5. Fox Hills Group, sandstones, more or less calcareous.

In Colorado and New Mexico, especially in the latter territory, it is not
always possible to make out the groups accurately, and some of those who
have worked in that region are satisfied to use the following classifica-
tion :

Lower Cretaceous, equivalent to No. 1.
Middle Cretaceous, equivalent to Nos. 2, 3, and 4.
Upper Cretaceous, equivalent to No. 5.

The lower Cretaceous yields animal remains at few localities, and these,
in many cases, are of such a character as to render its reference to the
Cretaceous a somewhat doubtful one. It contains vast numbers of vege-
table impressions, strikingly resembling the Miocene flora of Europe.

The Middle Cretaceous is quite variable in composition, but there are
few exposures of the lower portions which will not yield fine collections
of animal remains. The ferruginous nodules of the upper part are in-
variably fossiliferous. It occasionally contains thin beds of lignite, one
having been observed at Sage Creek, Wyoming Territory, by Dr. Hay-
den, and a similar one at Cafion City, Colorado, by myself.

The upper boundary line of No. 5, is very indefinite. Indeed it is th®
matter in dispute. The rock is sometimes a rusty arenaceous shale but

* This succession was elaborated by Mr. Meek and hisco-laborer, Dr. Hayden.

1875. | 459 Stevenson.

ordinarily a not very compact sandstone, rusty yellow in color and con-
cretionary in structure. In parts it is calcareous, and where it shows
such a composition, is very fossiliferous. Dr. Hayden notes the interest-
ing fact respecting the Fort Pierre and this group, that there are zones
or belts in which they are almost non-fossiliferous. This feature, ob-
served in the Upper Missouri Region, f found to be quite characteristic of
the Upper Cretaceous in Colorado and New Mexico. The group is marked
by a rich fauna, largely of Cretaceous forms, but mingled with many
types of more recent character.

Above the unquestioned Cretaceous, there comes the great lignite series,
termed by Dr. Hayden, the Fort Union Group. This isan immense mass
of sandstones, shales, and beds of lignite, having a maximum thick-
ness of not far from four thousand feet. Marine organic remains are com-
monly found in the lower portions, but over a part of the area, as one as-
cends in the series, he finds the traces of marine life disappearing, while
land and fresh-water shells occur associated with vast numbers of leaves
of dicotyledonous plants. The northern and southern portions of this
group have never been joined by direct tracing. At the north it under-
runs the White River Group near Fort Fetterman. From that point
southward it is concealed for about three hundred miles, re-appearing
from under the same group in Colorado, twenty miles south from Chey-
enne. A careful study of Dr. Hayden’s reports leaves no room to doubt
the correctness of his conclusion that the formation near Fort Fetterman
and that south from Cheyenne are the same.

Tur LowER LIGNITIC GROUP.

For convenience in this connection I thus designate the Dakota Group,
Cretaceous No.1. This yields lignites over an enormous area, reaching
from the Arctic Ocean into New Mexico, but for the most part the beds
are thin and the lignite itself is very impure.

The only detailed reference to this group in British America, which I
have at hand is that of Dr. Hector.* Sir J. Richardson’s ‘‘ Journal of a
Boat Voyage through Prince Rupert’s Land,” is not within my reach, and
his statements in the Appendix to Franklin’s Expedition are very unsat-
isfactory. Dr. Hector’s observations were made upon the Saskatchewan
River and its tributaries. He found a well-defined series of coal-bearing
strata on the North Saskatchewan, or Red Deer River, and on Battle
River. On Red Deer River he obtained the following section, descend-
ing,

Sandstones and dark clays.
Banded marlites, clays, and limestones.
. Shell conglomerate.
Clay.
. Banded clays with clay-iron stone.
Coal, three feet thick.
Clays.
. Silicified wood and brown coal.
. Sandy clays.
Total thickness of section, 600 feet.

* Journal of the Geological Society, 1861.

Stevenson. } ‘ 460 [June 18,

The shell-conglomerate contains vast numbers of Ostrea cortex, while
the overlying banded clays exhibit Ostrea cortex, O.vellicata and Oytherea
Texana, and one of the limestone layers yielded Ostrea anomiceformis,
Mytilus, 2 sp. Cardium multistriatum, Crassatella, Venus, Rostellaria, and
Paludina. In tracing this group from Red Deer to Battle River no
change was observed in the section, but at the latter locality, and some-
what higher in the series, a concretionary sandy limestone was found
containing Avicula, Cardium, Cytherea, and Baculites compressus.*

On the North Saskatchewan the relations of the coals are not shown
fully beyond cavil. In that region the formation was traced over a great
extent of country and diligently searched forsfossils, but without much
success. The coals underlie a mass of variegated marly clays, many of
them containing comminuted fragments of vegetable matter. These are
similar to those of the Red Deer section. In the immediate vicinity of
Fort Edmonton, on the North Saskatchewan, there are found fragments
of silicified wood, the same as those occurring near the base on Red Deer.
In the absence of the higher and fossiliferous strata, Dr. Hector regards
the silicified wood and the remarkable lithological resemblance as proving
the identity of the two sections as far as compared.

East from the Rocky Mountains, within the United States, the lignite
of this group is small in quantity and of very poor quality. A number
of localities have been given by Dr. Hayden and others. The lignite is
never really workable; and, except at one locality in Wyoming, mentioned
by Dr. Hayden, it is not useful for fuel. At one locality, midway be-
tween Denver and Colorado Springs, in Colorado, I saw a deserted open-
ing upon a thin bed. It had proved of no value.

In the interior of the Rocky Mountains this group seems to carry lig-
nite very rarely. Prof. Marsh, in 1870, discovered a bed of coal on
Brush Creek, a tributary of Green River. Overlying it is a sandstone
containing a layer full of Ostrea congesta, and further up, another which
yielded a crinoid, evidently allied to Marsupites. Below the coal, copro-
lites, cycloidal scales of fish, together with teeth resembling Megalosaurus
were found. This locality was afterwards visited by Mr. Emmons, who
ascertained that the rocks belong to Cretaceous, No. 1.

T regret that the reports of Messrs. Gilbert and Howell to Lieutenant
Wheeler are still unpublished. They contain important details respect-
ing the distribution of the lower lignitic series. The report of Dr. New-
berry upon the San Juan Expedition has never been printed. It thus
happens that, although a large portion of New Mexico has been very
closely examined, none of the results are accessible except those ob-
tained by Dr. Newberry on the Ives Expedition and by Dr. J. L. Leconte
in 1868.

Dr. Newberry} found this group at many localities in New Mexico,
carrying thin beds of lignite. At Camp 92, there is an alternation of

* These fossils were identified by Mr. Etheridge.
+ Ives’ Expedition. Report on Geology, pp. 81, 85, 87, 89, 94.

1875. ] 46 1 [Stevenson.

coal and shale, twelve feet thick, resting almost directly upon Triassic
marls, and underneath a yellowish sandstone filled with dicotyledonous
leaves. At Camp 96, and at Oraybe, he found above this bed, green and
blue shales two hundred and fifty feet thick. Toward the base this series
contains Ammonites percarinatus, Inoceramus Crispti and Gryphea navia,
while toward the top it shows Pinna (?) lingula, Gryphea Pitchert, with
beds of lignite, above which are impressions of Platanus, Alnus, Quercus,
etc., along with Sphenopteris. From the Moqui country eastward for
about twenty miles, these beds are continuously in sight ; but, at length,
they under-run a mass of Tertiary rocks, which Dr. Newberry thinks
may prove equivalent to the White River Group of the Upper Missouri
Region. At Camp 100, beyond the eastern border of this Tertiary basin,
a group of lignites and brown sandstones is found between the Triassic
and Cretaceous, but it is not persistent. Near Fort Defiance, the Lower
Cretaceous Series is seen resting on the Triassic and consists of ‘‘ green
and dove-colored shales, brown and greenish sandstones, brownish-yellow
concretionary limestone containing Gryphwa Pitcheri, and beds of lig-
nite.’ The section here is about the same as at Or Bye: At Campbell’s
Pass, the section is as follows :

1. Cretaceous sandstones, shales, and lignites........... 700 ft.

RANE seer SCLIOS Ae Pieces isles casisieicicietoiene joie sieieietolei6-oset- 750 ft.
Triassic

APO PANG salts Group yrs cous delesieccis Saeed sae arse c's 520 ft.

7. Carboniferous limestone.

The shales in No. 1 contain Gryphea Pitcheri.

The same section was traced by Dr. Newberry directly to the Rio
Grande, and at Galisteo Creek, not far from Santa Fe, the section is:

1. Cretaceous sandstones and shales with beds of lignites.
2. Red and white marls, all somewhat indurated, with silicified wood.
3. Soft'red sandstones of the Salt Group.

Above these are the Santa Fe marls which rest unconformably upon
the Cretaceous.

Dr. J. L. Leconte’s notes* give few details respecting this region, but
they serve to confirm the earlier observations by Dr. Newberry.

In 1869, Dr. Hayden visited Santa Fe and its vicinity. His notes are
given in his report for that year. The section obtained by him at Santa
Fe is certainly eccentric. On Galisteo Creek, he identifies No. 2 and 4
of the Cretaceous. The remainder of the section is as follows, ascending,

1. Coal Group, with abundant impressions of deciduous leaves, resting
conformably upon well-marked Cretaceous strata.

2. The Galisteo Sand Group, consisting of variegated sands and sand-
stones, overlying conformably the Coal Group, and concealing it on the
east and northeast flank of Placiére Mountain. This group shows pecu-
liarities here, not seen in the lignite series elsewhere. The color varies

* Notes on the Geology of the Smoky Hill Route.

Stevenson. ] 462 [June 18,

from light-red to deep brick-red, dull-purplish, deep-yellow, white,
brown, drab, etc. The only fossils are silicified trunks of trees.

3. Santa Fe Maris, which rests unconformably upon the Galisteo Group,
and are of much later date.

Dr. Hayden of course refers this whole section to the Tertiary. Mr.
Lesquereux does the same, in consideration of six species of leaves, four
of which are peculiar to the locality, and two occur elsewhere, also. But
a careful comparison of this section as given by Dr. Hayden, with the
details of the geology along Dr. Newberry’s route from Santa Fe west-
ward, as given in Ives’ report, will, I think, satisfy anybody that Dr.
Hayden has by some oversight inverted the order, and that the Galisteo
Group underlies the Coal Group. The Galisteo Group is unquestionably
the Triassic, as abundantly appears from the descriptions of that system
in New Mexico, by Newberry and Leconte.

In Utah and New Mexico, Messrs. Gilbert and Howellhave found coal
beds of much economical value at about the horizon of this group, but
their work, being unpublished, is not accessible.

THE UPPER OR GREAT LIGNITIC GROUP.

This is the Fort Union Group of Dr. Hayden. Its relations to the
Upper Cretaceous are so intimate that the description of the one requires
constant reference to the other.

This group, so far as our present knowledge extends, seems to pass but
little beyond our northern boundary. For information respecting its
character at the north, I have consulted the writings of Messrs. Hayden,
Meek, Lesquereux, and Emmons, while for the southern extension in
Colorado and New Mexico, I have drawn from the observations of Hay-
den, Lesquereux, Leconte, Cope, and myself.

Dr. Hector observed some lignites at La Roche Percée, not far north
from the United States boundary line, which he regards as the northern
extensioa of the Missouri lignite basin, and therefore places them in the
Tertiary, though he thinks they may possibly be Cretaceous. Prof. Hind
thinks that they belong to the Fox Hills Group of Meek and Hayden.

Throughout the Upper Missouri Region, this Lignite Group is perfect-
ly conformable to the Upper Cretaceous, and the line of separation can-
not be determined. During many years of exploration, only one case of
unconformability, that between Spring Cafion and Bridger Peak on
Laramie Plains, has been found.

On the Yellowstone, below the mouth of Big Horn River, the Upper
Cretaceous (5) passes upward into a dark-gray sandstone, containing many
Cretaceous species. This, in turn, changes into a coarse-grained friable
ferruginous sandstone, containing many concretions. This latter rock
yielded a few indistinct bivalves, which were evidently of marine origin.
Ata locality between Big Horn and Powder Rivers, No. 5 is composed of
clay and marls, with layers of concretionary, ferruginous, calcareous sand-
stone, containing several Cretaceous species. It passes almost imper-

1876, | 463 [Stevensor.

ceptibly into the Lignitic Group above. On Powder River one of the
lower sandstones of the latter group has layers hardened by the presence
of calcareous matter, so that the rock weathers into architectural forms,
the pillars being protected by a cap of the harder rock.

On Gardiner’s River the intimate relations of the two groups are well
shown. At one locality, where 1200 feet of strata, belonging to them are
exposed, it seems impossible to draw any line of division, ‘“‘this great
group of beds, simply alternate beds of sandstone and arenaceous clays,
passing down into the dark sombre clays of the Cretaceous.’’ At Cinna-
bar Mountain, above the mouth of Gardiner’s River, ‘‘the dark, laminated
clays of the Cretaceous, passing up into the Upper Cretaceous, are well
shown with perfect continuity, then passing up into a great thickness of
the sombre brown sandstones of the Coal Group. There is a great uni-
formity between the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary series. We can de-
tect some variations in color and texture, but they are of minor import-
ance and could not easily be described in words.’’*

On Box Elder Creek, not farfrom Fort Fetterman, the lignite series con-
sists of rusty sands and sandstones and arenaceous clays, with some seams
of lignite. On Deer Creek, twenty-seven miles from the Fort, the black
clays of No. 4 are capped by a thin bed of ferruginous arenaceous clays,
above which are two beds of sandstone. The lower one of these is concre-

tionary throughout, being filled with sandstone concretions imbedded in
- an indurated clay, which also shows a tendency to concretionary struc-
ture. Inthe harder portions, a few specimens of Baculites, Inoceramus,
etc., were found. The upper bed has a similar rusty-yellow color, but
yields no fossils. Both rocks, but especially the lower one, tend to weather
into architectural forms. Near old Fort Casper a yellow ferruginous:
sandstone, containing Inoceramus and huge concretions, is seen resting
on black shaly clays which Dr. Hayden assigns to the horizon of Creta-
ceous, No. 2.

On the North Platte River, from Sage Creek to Medicine Bow, and
thence to Bridger’s Pass, the sandstones and the associated clays lying at
the base of the Lignite Group, are almost continuous. They rest direct-
ly upon Cretaceous clays. The sandstones are irregularly concretionary
and occasionaly yield an Inoceramus or Baculites. Some rusty calcare-
ous beds contain Ostrew. Along the Platte, four beds of the sandstone can
be distinguished. The first, second, and third, beginning at the base, are
in all fifty to eighty feet thick, drab-brown, and quite massive. The
fourth is yellowish-gray, full of large rusty-brown concretionary masses,
which are laminated, and in reality are arenaceous limestones. Between
the beds are thin layers of sandstone and sandy limestones. At Cooper’s
Creek the rusty arenaceous beds of No. 5 pass up gradually into the coal-
bearing layers without any perceptible break, and without any marked
change in the sediment. The latter series is from 1500 to 2000 feet thick
and consists of rusty-yellow sandstones, alternating with greenish-gray

*Haycen. Report for 1871, p. 62.

A. P. §S.—VOL. XIV. 38H

Stevenson.} 464 . [June 18,

indurated sands and clays. In the neighborhood of Fort Steele the sand-
stones, seen at Medicine Bow, are found resting on Cretaceous clays, and
passing up into the coal-bearing strata. These contain a characteristic
fucoid, which Mr. Lesquereux has designated by the name of Halymenites
Major. |

Along the Union Pacific Railroad, from Como to St. Mary’s, nearly fifty
miles, the lignitic rocks prevail and the heavy sandstone at the base
is traceable to Carbon, where a coal overlying it is mined. This is
the fucoidal or lignitic sandstone, showing the fucoid just referred to.
The overlying rocks contain vast numbers of deciduous leaves. Beyond
Rawlings’ Springs this series is again seen, overlying Cretaceous clays, and
at Separation a coal, probably the same as at Carbon, is worked. At this
locality leaves and fresh-water shells are found in the upper portion of
the group which appears to be not far from two thousand feet thick.

From Separation to Bitter Creek Station horizontal Tertiary beds pre-
vail, but occasional borings have demonstrated that the coal-strata are not
deeply buried. These Tertiary beds are of fresh-water origin and con-
tain Unio, Melania, and other fresh-water species. They are unconform-
able to the lignite series and occupy a synclinal trough formed by these
rocks.

According to Messrs. Meek and Bannister, there occurs between Bitter
Creek Station and Green River an enormous accumulation of coal-bear-
ing rocks, not much less than 4000 feet thick, and underlaid by about
1000 feet of sandstone. The greater portion of the upper series is clear-
ly of brackish-water origin, as it contains layers at various horizons, from
which Ostrea, Corbula, Melania, and Goniobasis were obtained. Many
layers are rich in deciduous leaves, and from one in the upper portion of
the series the remains of a saurian were obtained. These were after-
wards described by Prof. Cope, under the name of Agathaumus sylvestris.
Before reaching Green River, these rocks under-run, unconformably, a
later series, known as the Green River shales.

Messrs. Meek and Bannister made no examination at Point of Rocks.
At this locality Mr. Lesquereux found an anticlinal which exposed the
shales of Cretaceous, No. 4, underlying conformably the great fucoidal
sandstone. This rock is 185 feet thick, and contains Halymenites major,
Lesqx. This sandstone has a striking lithological character, which is
widely persistent in the Rocky Mountain region. It is a little strange
that these Cretaceous rocks do not appear under the Bitter Creek series
at Salt Wells, where Meek and Bannister found the great mass of sand-
stone.

From Green River westward to Bear River the coal rocks are not seen,
and the same is true respecting the region between Bear River and Coal-
ville. These areasseem to be utterly isolated. Mr. Emmons finds them
surrounded on all sides by the Tertiary beds in such a way as to prevent
any junction by stratigraphy with other areas.

At Bear River, the strata haye been so distorted that it is not easy to

1875.]

465

[Stevenson.

construct a satisfactory section, but on Sulphur Creek, a tributary of
Bear River, Messrs. Meek and Bannister found exposures affording an

interesting series of disconnected sections.

The following shows the suc-

cession, ascending, as far as it seems to have been worked out satis-
factorily :

1. Shales and sandstones, not well exposed, about

2. Two or three rather heavy beds of yellowish-gray

. Sandstones, clays, and arenaceous shales
. Not exposed, a horizontal distance of about
. Light-gray sandstones and clays, including a Coal bed,

sandstone, with some clays. Near the base, two
layers of sandstone occur, containing Ostrea solen-

iscus, Trapezium micronema, ete., about........

. Greenish and bluish-gray sandy clays and some dark

Sale ray sucnttc iolerercPeystatsva chet opetpebetatcee ats) a stan of SM aeR ee re

COG arte ei aioa e toarguic akan Mikal « cveteiast disagrees Oeeele

Massive sandstone, light-colored, with sandy clay at
base

cece seo ee ee eos ees eo eee oo ee oF eo reo eo eo eee ee OD
coe sees eocecee

eee oes ec ce

7 ft. 6 in., sandstone, over coal, containing Jnoce-
ramus problematicus, Cardium and undetermined
UM TW cos We aaGabopecos GoSadosboou atau om came

100 ft.

100 ft.
7 {t. 6 in.

95 ft.

275 ft.
2100 ft.

150 ft.

At Coalville, in Utah, the same gentlemen obtained the following mag-
nificent section. The order is ascending :

1. Sandstones, clays, and arenaceous clays............. 163 ft
2. Clays and thin sandstones, with Inoceramus problem-
aticus, Cardium subcurtum, Lucina, Macredon, Mo-
diola multilinigera, Corbula, Arcopagia, Martesia,

Neritina pisum, Turritétia, ete.............+--++-- 150 ft

SoC LAY Shandy SANG SOME Rte feyeevoiae te ieicieiers soiree oko 80 ft

A OO OUI so urala aie renape laters Cancer als ehsla, Spa Cialane uid atesedcnetal ae tang cats 13 ft
5. Yellow-gray sandstones, roof of coal, containing In-

oceramus and Ostrea soleniscus?.......-+...e.00% 25 ft.

6. Very dark clay with Inoceramus problematicus..... 80-100 ft.

7. Clays and sandstones, motawellvexposedueecs steiecicie 100 ft.
8. Sandstenes, rich in fossils, Halymenites major, Avic-

ula, Cardium, Trapezium, Tellina, etc.......... 100 ft.

Oe ClaystanGysandstOnese metre ci xs soe risie srcierene ce 80 ft.
10. Clays and sandstones, with Ostrea soleniscus, Avicula,
Cardium, Teliina, Arcopagia, Gyrodes, Cyprimera,

CLR Oca oe i ae ins cp RRC re eer aca re EEE ere co aie 190.f¢

11. Clays, sandstones, and some conglomerate.......... 200 ft.

12. Not well exposed, shales and clays.................-. 600 ft.

13. Shale and sandstone......... predated afer oRecfetchey weleterelcheteye ov ft.

WAAC ORY trpevela sia ateotarcstetererye sy-tiste sta sueiora aac spe tthe steerer 2+ ft.
15. Claysand some sandstone, with mixed fauna, Anemia

Stevenson. ] 466 [June 18,

Inoceramus, Unio, Cardiwm, Cyrena, etc. ....... 48 ft
ISS COM cosbacocgedep doconabosondokoEGCUdCBasanHdoooe 54 ft.
IG OOnVeeM esl siconoceoqucd vonaduo co podoUd dou US eoHoHSOuuS 60 ft.
LS weMMcissiviensand SbOME erilasiers selersisleelstesetolerevercloretaletaneretete 220 ft.
19. Sandstone and sandy clay with O. soleniscus......... 14 ft.
20. Sandstones and clays, not fully exposed............. 775 ft.
21. Gray sandstone, with Inoceramus, Cardium, Ostrea,

COMM Ma ad mony aa cA Gu AG BANOO ER aA SON Eau hho eaoaen 30 ft
22. Sandstones and clays, with fragments of Ostrea..... 191 ft.
Dd. .WONCEAVEM Cie tse lapses eheetantelapeteiei peveater dulelcectey terete tate ayets 380 ft.
24. Conglomerate, more or less coarse..............---- 860 ft.
25. Great Echo Cafion Conglomerate, more than........ 700 ft.

Mr. Meek is inclined to regard this whole section below No. 25, as not
only Cretaceous but as belonging to the Middle Cretaceous, not higher
than No. 3. This conclusion appears to be quite improbable. This, it
is true, lies very near the western shore-line of the Cretaceous sea, for
no rocks belonging to that system have been found west from the
Wasatch Mountains at this latitude, which explains sufficiently the
coarseness of the sediments toward the base of the section. It certainly
seems proper that all above No. 6 should be placed in the Upper Cre-
taceous, for the fauna approximates the fauna of that horizon. The
succession of the rocks below No. 6 fully favors this view.

Mr. Emmons, who has studied this region elaborately, maintains that
the Coalville and Bear River areas are but fragments of the great lignite
series seep further east, and that they are the western portions of the
Bitter Creek Group. That the Coalville section above No. 6, is equiva-
lent to the Bitter Creek Group, and therefore to the Fort Union Group, is
rendered very probable when we consider the enormous thickening of the
rocks, shown alike by both sections, the general lithological resemblance,
and the presence of the fucoid, hitherto unknown below that horizon.
Of Mr. Emmons’ work nothing has been published, except a brief resumé
in Volume III, of Mr. Clarence King’s reports. Mr. Lesquereux regards
the two groups as practically equivalent.

Returning now to the east face of the mountain, we reach the Colorado
and New Mexico portion of the area, about twenty miles south from
Cheyenne. In Colorado and eastern New Mexico, the Lignitic Group
shows the following section:

1. Sandstones, yellowish, ferruginous, more or less conglomerate.

2. Sandstones, shales, and coal-beds. The sandstones, gray to light-
yellow.

3. Sandstone, rusty-red to yellow, brown, and gray, containing thin
coals, more or less concretionary, and passing downward into
a mass of clays and argillaceous sandstones.

In many localities the clays and argillaceous sandstones seem to be
almost absent, but where the section is complete, as at Cafion City and

1875. ] 467 [Stevenson.

Colorado Springs, they form a perfect and imperceptible transition from
the Sandstone No. 3, downward to undisputed Cretaceous. With possi-
bly one exception, the Lignitic and Cretaceous series are everywhere per-
fectly conformable. Mr. Marvine found distinct unconformability between
them in Middle Park near Mt. Bross; but this must be quite local, for
Dr. Hayden states respecting Middle Park, in the same vicinity , that the
Tertiary rocks are found in great thickness and perfectly conformable to
the underlying Cretaceous. At many localities east from the mountains
a conglomerate occurs resting unconformably upon the lignitic rocks.

About twenty miles south from Cheyenne, this group is exposed. The
Cretaceous passes up imperceptibly into the fucoidal sandstone, which is
ninety-five feet thick. Ata few feet above the sandstone is a coal-bed,
four to six feet thick, roofed by clay, containing an oyster like O. swbtri-
gonalis. On Boulder Creek, the same Ostrea is found above the coal.
Near Golden, the sandstone is separated from the Cretaceous beds by
only a few inches of clay, and contains dicotyledonous leaves along
with Halymenites major. Near Colorado Springs this rock contains a
a variable seam of coal, and affords the fucoid and dicotyledonous leaves.
Below it are layers of clay and shale, yielding Baculites with other Cre-
taceous forms, and passing downward into Cretaceous dark shales.

In the vicinity of Canon City, on the Arkansas, the succession is clearly
shown. The dark Cretaceous shales gradually merge into a mass of
clay and argillaceous sandstones which passes upward imperceptibly into
the fucoidal sandstone. In the upper portion of this loose-grained rock
there are many impressions of fucoids and, in some of the more compact
layers, indefinite impressions of mollusca. In the upper portion of the
clay-beds Dr. Hayden found an imperfect Inoceramus. From this locality
southward, the sandstone is easily followed, standing out like a wall for
long distances. Near Trinidad, on the Purgatory River, Mr. Lesquereux
found it 200 feet thick, resting on the dark shales of the Middle Creta-
ceous. On Raton Creek it is 178 feet, resting on the Cretaceous shales,
and overlaid by 300 feet of coal-bearing rocks. On Vermejo Creek, the
sandstone contains three thin seams of coal. At Cafion City it contains
certainly two.

Respecting the relations of the Cretaceous and the Lignitic Group, east
from the mountains, Dr. Hayden says, ‘‘ These black shales pass gradu-
ally up into rusty arenaceous clays, which characterize No. 5; and No. 5
passes up into the Lignite Tertiary beds, where they can be seen in con-
tact, without any weil-defined line of separation that I could ever dis-
cover.’’*

In its southern extension and near the mountains the fucoidal sand-
stone is for the most part of a texture unfavorable to the preservation of
organic remains and seldom contains any other than very rude specimens
of fucoids. Dr. Hayden states, that he has searched it over an area of
many miles, but has succeeded in finding no fossils excepting ‘‘one

* Reprint of Reports, p. 121.

Stevenson. ] 468 [June 18,

obscure fragment of a marine bivalve, like the clam, while in the mud-
beds and shales below, species of Inoceramus are common.’’* In the
Raton Pass, Dr. Leconte found a small Inoceramus, badly preserved, as
would naturally be expected by any one familiar with the rock. Major
Hawn, in his report to Lieut. Ruffner, says that he obtained Cretaceous
fossils near Cafion City at only a few feet below the coal. Above this
sandstone, in the shales among the coal-beds, there are several layers
crowded with an Ostrea of undetermined species.

Along the South Platte, about forty miles north from Denver, there
occurs a great mass of sandstone which, in my report to Lieut. Wheeler,
I have regarded as the great fucoidal sandstone. Mr. Arnold Hague, who
explored this region with much care in connection with the Geological
Survey of the Fortieth Parallel, maintains that the sandstones belong
not at the base, but at the very top of the Lignitic Group. He is doubt-
less correct. The section, as I followed it, begins at the mouth of St.
Vrain’s Creek and continues without a break to Evans and Greeley, a dis-
tance of about twenty miles. The dip in this direction is quite small,
as the road crosses the true dip. My examination here was a hasty one,
and I had no opportunity to follow up either St. Vrain’s or Thompson’s
Creek, so as to ascertain what underlies this rock. The whole mass cer-
tainly overlies the thin lignites of Platteville. The clays and sandstones
seen below the sandstones at the mouth of St. Vrain’s bear much resem-
blance to those below the fucoidal sandstone at Cafion City, and this in-
duced me to regard the section as the same. But a careful comparison
and summing up the sections, shows me that the total thickness, several
hundred feet, is far too great to permit us to suppose it the fucoidal sand-
stone, and we must therefore regard it as belonging much higher in the
series. |

These sandstones are several hundred feet thick, light-bluish-gray to
reddish-brown and yellow, and rest on a mass of clays and shaly sand-
stones. They are all friable and yield readily to the weather, wearing
into immense cavities and breaking down into loose sand. In the red-
dish ferruginous sandstones, which form the top of this group, there are
many thin argillo-calcareous layers, which are prodigiously rich in fossils.
Some of these are simply masses of the fucoid, Halymenites major, Lesqx,
while others contain characteristic species of Cretaceous No. 5, such as
Ammonites lobatus, Cardiwm speciosum, Nucula cancellata, Mactra alta,
Mactra Warrenana, Lunatia Moreauensis, and undetermined species of
Anchura. The same species were obtained from this vicinity in 1874, by
a party under the direction of Dr. Hayden, to whom I had minutely des-
cribed the locality.

From the interior of New Mexico we have but little information re-
specting this group. Much material has been gathered, but it is unpub-

* Reprint of Reports, p. 154.

+1lunderstand that Dr. Newberry proposes to visit Colorado this year. He will ex-
amine this vicinity closely.

1879. ] 469 {Stevenson.

lished. Prof. Cope* has given a brief statement of its relations in the
region northwest from Santa Fe, and lying between the Chama and San
Juan Rivers. This region had been visited previously by Dr. Newberry
in 1859, and by myself in 1873, but the trails followed merely crossed the
region, and only skirted that portion referred to by Prof. Cope. The
Tertiary lake mentioned by Prof. Cope is evidently the same with that
crossed by Dr. Newberry, when with the Ives Expedition. The Cretaceous
here consists of Lower Cretaceous, sandstones, Middle Cretaceous, mostly
dark shales and limestones, Upper Cretaceous, sandstones. Throughout
the whole series Cretaceous species occur. In the Upper group Ammo-
nites, Baculites, and other indisputable forms occur in great abundance,
associated with Halymenites major. The following is Prof. Cope’s state-
ment:

“The shore of this lake was formed by rocks of the Cretaceous forma-
tion of an age near the No. 3, of Meek and Hayden. In approaching it
from the east we traverse the sandstones of Cretaceous No. 1, both hori-
zontal and tilted at various angles, and find No. 2 resting upon it, fre-
quently unconformably, and tiltedat higher angles, frequently 45°, some-
times 50°, to the west and southwest, and containing numerous fossils, as
Inoceramus, etc. The upper sandstones of this formation pass into a
brackish or fresh-water formation, which includes a bed of lignite, of
sometimes 50 feet in thickness. Above this rests, conformably, where seen,
a moderate thickness of rather soft marine rocks, containing numerous
shells, Acephala, Gasteropoda, and Cephalopoda, including Oysters, Bacu-
lites, and Ammonites resembling A. placenta most, with sharks’ teeth.
Resting unconformably upon these, with a much reduced dip, is a mass
of brown and reddish sandstone, some 1500 feet in thickness, inclining
perhaps 10° south and southeast. These pass continously into the super-
incumbent red and gray marls, alternating with brown and white sand-
stones of the fossiliferous beds of the Eocene. The observed part of
these beds is about 1500 feet in depth.”’

Having been within not more than fifteen miles from the verge of the
Eocene basin, I feel assured that Prof. Cope is inaccurate in his reference
of these rocks to Nos. 1, 2, and 3, of the Cretaceous. They are the Lower,
Middle, and Upper divisions of the Cretaceous and represent the whole
series.

Prof. Cope’s mistake was a natural one in his circumstances, as he had
devoted no time to the study of the Cretaceous in New Mexico, though
he had examined that formation quite closely at the north.

Respecting the. geological position of this group there has been great
difference of opinion. On one side the statements have been for the most
part very positive, while on the other they have been uncertain and more
or less compromising. ‘Those who have studied the plants, throw the
beds into the Tertiary, while those who have studied the fauna and the
stratigraphy regard the greater portion of the mass as Cretaceous though

* Lieut. Wheeler’s Report of Progress for 1873. Appendix.

low A
Stevenson. ] 470 [June 18,

they are generally inclined to admit that the highest portions may be
Kocene.

After a careful study of plants collected by Dr. Hayden in the Upper
Missouri Region, Dr. Newberry referred the Fort Union Group, as there
exhibited, to the Miocene. This conclusion was based upon the close re-
semblance of this flora to the so-called Miocene flora of Greenland and its
intimate relation to the Miocene flora of Europe. Dr. Newberry still
holds this opinion respecting the Upper Missouri Region, though he shows
some inclination to dispute the assertion, that the southern portion is as
recent as the Eocene. The stratigraphical evidence, however, is so strong
to prove the identity of the group throughout the Rocky Mountain Re-
gion, that all parts of the area must belong to the same horizon. If one
part is Miocene the other is Miocene also. -

Mr. Lesquereux has published several elaborate and very able papers
upon the flora of this group. Though it has close affinity to the Miocene
flora of Europe, he does not regard it as Miocene throughout, but divides
the series containing it into Upper and Lower Eocene, the former repre-
sented at Carbon, Hvanston, and Sage Creek, and the latter at Raton
Mountains, Golden, Black Butte, Spring Canon, and Fort Union. Asa
whole, he regards this vegetation as Oligocene. Above the Lignitic
Group he finds the Miocene at Green River, Eiko Station, South and Mid-
dle Parks. }

Dr. Hayden has long halted between two opinions. He looksupon the
Coalville and Bear River sections as Cretaceous beyond doubt, but con-
cerning the rest of the Great Lignite Group he is by no means so de-
cided.” Sometimes he speaks of the Lignite Tertiary, at others he seems
Ko) regard the group as partly Cretaceous and partly Tertiary, while for
the most part in his more recent publications he is disposed to regard
the whole as, in great measure, beds of transition. From the beginning
his inclination has been to favor the Tertiary hypothesis. Under such
circumstances one cannot fail to admire the frankness with which all the
facts are given in Dr. Hayden’s reports, many of them bearing directly
against the deductions previously published by the Doctorhimself. Judg-
ing from his readiness to receive the truth even at the expense of discard-
ing cherished opinions, there is every reason to hope that before very long
Dr. Hayden will be one of the most energetic expounders of the doctrine
that the Lignitic Group is Cretaceous.

Mr. Meek refers the Coalville and Bear River areas as well as a portion
of the Bitter Creek Series to the Cretaceous but thinks the upper portion
of the Bitter Creek section may be Tertiary. He is quite positive that
the Black Butte portion of the section is Cretaceous; but this lies far up
in the series.

Prof. Cope is very positive respecting the Cretaceous age of the Black
Butte section, because Agathaumus sylvestris occurs there. Prof. Marsh
is equally positive regarding some other localities. Dr. Leconte, Mr.
Arnold Hague, and myself have referred the Colorado beds to the Cre-
taceous.

=
1875. ] 4 ( 1 [Stevenson.

CONCLUSIONS.

As the Lower Lignitic Group underlies a great mass of strata, contain-
ing abundance of Cretaceous species, its geological relations have long been
regarded as definitely settled. For precisely the same reason there is no
longer room for dispute respecting the Vancouver beds.

In the matter of the Great Lignitic Group the evidence is not so easily
obtained as in the other cases, nor, when obtained, is it so absolutely
convincing as to stop all discussion. Looking over the facts already
given, one finds

First, That the Cretaceous, No. 5, and the Great Lignite Group are
everywhere comformable to each other, and that the latter is conformable
withinitself and unconformable to the fully recognized Tertiaries above it.
In an area of many thousands of square miles, which has been closely ex-
amined in almost all its parts, only two instances of unconformability be-
tween the groups have been recorded, both of which are very local, while
one of them is, to say the Jeast, of uncertain existence.

Secondly, That from the beginning of Cretaceous, No. 5, to the close
of the Great Lignite Group, there was no change in the general condi-
tions, which would be of more than merely epochal value. The Upper
Cretaceous (No. 5), is a rusty yellow sandstone, usually concretionary
when compact, which passes upward imperceptibly into the rusty-yellow
sandstones at the base of the Lignitic Group, themse] ves more or less con-
cretionary. Ordinarily the gradation from one to the other is so perfect
that they cannot be separated. At few localities indeed is it possible to
define any line of separation. In Colorado, the fossils of No. 5 are
usually absent from the lower sandstones, so that the Lignitic Group
appears to rest directly upon the shales of the Middle Cretaceous. The
only fossils characteristic of No. 5, ever obtained from Colorado, were
procured from rocks, which are most probably among the very highest
strata of the Lignitic series. ;

The variation in character of the strata above the fucoidal sandstone,
giving us shales, sandstones, coal beds, and local limestones, is hardly
sufficient to be of even epochal value. The marine conditions remained
the same, for the fucoid Halymenites major passes through the series, and
the land conditions could have undergone but little change, for of the
plants, whose leaves occur in the great sandstone, many occur higher up
in the group. The sandstones themselves exhibit a very remarkable re-
semblance to each other. The changes in structure are no greater or
more abrupt than those in the Coal Measures. It is quite evident that
the relations of the great sandstone (in which I include also that portion
termed Cretaceous, No. 5), to the main series of lignites, is precisely the
same with that held bythe Conglomerate to the Coal Measures. In each
case the underlying mass contains thin beds of coal, and is part of the whole
series, distinct yet not separate. No one would think of placing the
Conglomerate and the Coal Measures in different periods, much less in
different ages.

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 381

Ad
Stevenson. ] 4 ( 2 [June 18,

Thirdly, That the conditions observed ia the Great Lignitic Group, are
but a repetition or continuation of those commonly observed in the Lower
Cretaceous and less frequently in the Middle Cretaceous. The sandstones
of the Lower Cretaceous, when unaltered, can hardly be distinguished
from those of the Lignitic series ; coal beds occur at both horizons ; while
on the Pacific Coast coal beds frequently occur in the Middle Cretaceous.

Fourthly, That the fauna consists for the most part of marine or
brackish-water species. At the base of the series, in the great sandstone
(including No.5), the species are all marine ; among the coal beds they are
usually brackish-water, while at the highest horizon found in Colorado
and New Mexico, they are marine. Here and there the fauna is a mixed
one, and at times, over no inconsiderable area, it consists solely of fresh-
water forms. There would be room for surprise were it otherwise. A
shore deposit, such as this must have been, would be exposed to the influ-
ence of salt and brackish water alternately. The slow subsidence might
be interrupted so as to permit the silting up of portions of the area,
where fresh-water ponds of considerable extent might be formed.
Such evidently was the case during the formation of the Coal Measures.
Dr. Dawson has found a mixed fauna in the South Joggins Coal Field, and
Mr. Meek obtained shells, closely allied to Pupa, from the upper coals
near Wheeling, W. Va. Unfortunately our knowledge respecting the
distribution of land and fresh-water forms during geological time is so
limited that we cannot trace out the history of genera with any degree of
satisfaction. No positive argument, bearing upon age, can be based
upon their presence in any group of rocks. |

Fifthly, That the fauna, wherever found, is Cretaceous, or of such a
character, as to render it neutral testimony, affecting the issue neither
in one direction nor the other. Throughout a large portion of the area
the fauna is lacking. That barren zones occur in the Upper Creta-
ceous was observed years ago, by Dr. Hayden, in the Upper Missouri
Region. The same is true of it throughout the whole Rocky Mountain
Region, north from New Mexico. But we must determine fauna by what
-we have, not by what we have not. This we do inthe Coal Measures, where
the barren zones are quite as remarkable as those of the Upper Cretaceous
in the Rocky Mountain Region. In the Anthracite area, animal remains
are rare ;in West Virginia, south from the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad,
where the Coal Measures are exposed to a thickness of not far from two
thousand feet, there is not a single stratum which is fossiliferous ; and in
the northern portion of the Great Bituminous Group, where the Coal
Measures are nearly three thousand feet thick, there are but two strata,
which persistently contain the fauna. Yet west from the Cincinnati axis,
over a vast area, animal remains occur profusely at numerous horizons
in the series.

A similar condition seems to have existed during the formation of the
Lignitic Group. Near the old shore line, animal remains are rare, but as
we pass from that line, they become more numerous. It should be re-

1875.] 473 [Stevenson.

membered, that at no great distance from the mountains, this group is
no longer within reach, having been removed by erosion, or buried under
later deposits. Let us look at the succession of the whole series, Cre-
taceous and Lignitic, in New Mexico and Colorado :

New Mexico. Colorado.
1. Bright-yellow to red and gray 1. Same as in New Mexico.
sandstones, more or less con-
glomerate and concretionary,
with lignites, containing
many mollusks, and Halymen-
ites major throughout.

2. Shales, limestones, variegated 2. Same as in New Mexice.
marls, some of the shales
sandy.

3. Bright-yellow to gray sandstones 3. Same as in New Mexico.

with shales and lignites.

No. 2 is the Middle Cretaceous representing Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of the
Upper Missouri Group, while No. 1 represents the Lignitic Group and
Cretaceous No. 5. There is no difficulty in proving the identity of the
two sections; it is simply a matter of tracing. In the New Mexico
region, Dr. Newberry found at occasional exposures many characteristic
Cretaceous species, while in its uppermost layers, Prof. Cope found a
rich profusion of specimens.

East from the mountains, at rare localities, Dr. Leconte, in Colorado,
and Dr. Hayden, further north, have found Cretaceous species in the
lower portions, while in the topmost portions Mr. Arnold Hague and
myself have found a grand profusion of species characteristic of Creta-
ceous No. 5. Far in the interior, Messrs. Meek and Bannister have
found the undoubted Cretaceous forms at various horizons in the series.

Sizthly, That there is an utter lack of any positive evidence to show
that the series is of later date than the Cretaceous. This statement may
seem strange in view of Mr. Lesquereux’s very emphatic assertion that
the flora proves Tertiary age beyond all doubt.

The reasons given in a previous portion of this paper, are certainly
sufficient to show that, in our present stage of knowledge, the testi-
mony of plants can have no bearing upon the discussion. If a witness
be shown utterly unworthy of credence in an important case, he cer-
tainly cannot be received as trustworthy in a similar and equally import-
ant case. Halsus in uno, falsus in omnibus. We have seen already that
the plants showed the Dakota Group to be Miocene, and the Vancouver
Coals to be of the same age. Yet everybody concedes that their testi-
mony was invalid in the former instance, and everybody, excepting Mr.
Lesquereux, concedes the same in the latter case.

But Mr. Lesquereux points out that the flora of the Great Lignitic
Group is very different from that of the Dakota Group. This is not won-

Stevenson. ] AT4 [June 18,

derful. There would be room for wonder if the upper flora were not very
different from the lower one, since the length of time represented by the
Middle Cretaceous must have been enormous. Its rocks are limestones,
fine shales, and very fine grained sandstones. These certainly were not
deposited in haste. What changes in the vegetation were going on
during this great period, we have no means of ascertaining, for not a
leaf remains to tell the story. We know only that great changes did
take place during the interval, since after its close the forms are different
from those prevailing before its beginning. Butitis very difficult to see
how this difference in character is an argument to show that the rocks
are Tertiary and not Cretaceous.

But the plants of this group are insufficient witnesses. Their testi-
mony is as bad as that of the Dakota plants. The fucoid, Halymenites
major, which Mr. Lesquereux does regard as diagnostic of the Tertiary, *
is not a Tertiary fossil. It is Cretaceous or nothing, for whenever it is
associated with a marine fauna, whether in New Mexico, Colorado, or
Utah, that fauna is Cretaceous. Mr. Lesquereux acknowledges this as
satisfactory evidence in one part of the series—why not in the other?
The land plants are in some instances so eccentric in their range as to be
of little service. In the Rocky Mountain region there are found seven
species which occur also at Nanaimo. Their distribution in the Rocky
Mountain region is as follows, according to Mr. Lesquereux :

Sequoia Langsdorfii, A. Br. Lower Eocene, Upper Miocene.
Salisburia polymorpha, Lesqx., Upper Miocene.
Sabal Grayana, Lesqx., Lower Eocene.

Populus mutabilis, A. Br., Lower Eocene.

Cinnamomum Heeri, Lesqx., Dakota Group.

Andromeda Grayana, Lesqx., Lower Eocene, Upper Eocene.
Diospyros lancifolia, Lesqx., Upper Eocene.

So in the Rocky Mountain region we find the Nanaimo species floating
about from the base of the Cretaceous to the top of the Miocene. No
doubt the distribution of these species shows that the Nanaimo beds and
the Rocky Mountain beds are on the same horizon, and that they are both
Lower Eocene as Mr. Lesquereux would have us believe. If they do, the
fact must be taken by faith and not by sense.

As already stated, the occurrence of fresh-water shells or of land shells
in any portion of the group is not satisfactory evidence, either for or
against the Cretaceous or Tertiary age of the deposit.

In view of these facts,

1st. That the series above Cretaceous No. 4, to the top of the Great
Lignite Group, is conformable within itself throughout,

2d. That no change of importance occurred in the general conditions
during the formation of this series,

* See his remarks on ‘‘ Coalville”? in Hayden’s Report for 1872, p. —.

1875.] A4T5 [Cope.

’ 8d. That the Cretaceous from the beginning was a lignite-producing
period,

4th. That the fauna, whenever of a character to be compared with
known standards is Cretaceous, even to the top of the series,

5th. That the hypothesis that this group or any portion of it is Ter-
tiary is unsupported by definite evidence,

I am compelled to regard the Great Lignitic Group as Cretaceous,
simply a renewal of the conditions marking the period of the Dakota
Group. 7

ON THE REMAINS OF POPULATION OBSERVED: ON AND
NEAR THE EOCENE PLATEAU OF NORTH-
WESTERN NEW MEXICO.

By HE. D. Cope.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 18, 1875.)

While encamped on the Gallinas Creek, at the point where it issues
from the Sierra Madre, with the party detailed by Lieut. Wheeler for
purposes of geological exploration, I occupied intervals of time in the
examination of the traces left by the former inhabitants of this portion
of New Mexico.

Had time permitted, the exploration of these remains might have been
much extended, but under the circumstances a mere beginning was made.
The observations show that the country of the Gallinas, and the Eocene
plateau to the west of it, were once occupied by a numerous population.
Now, there are no human residents in the region, and it is only traversed
by bands of the Apache, Navajoe, and Ute Tribes of Indians. The in-
dications of this ancient population consist of ruined buildings, pottery,
flint implements, and human bones. Broken vessels of baked clay are
frequently found, and the fragments occur in all kinds of situations
throughout the country. They are usually most easily discovered on the
slopes of the hills and hog-backs of Cretaceous and Tertiary age, and
where abundant, generally lead to a ruined building standing on the
elevation alone.

The hog-back ridges which i have described in my geological report,
extend in a general north and south direction on the western side of the
Sierra Madre, south of Tierra Amarilla. They vary from two to four in
number, and stand at distances of from half a mile to three miles from
the mountain range. The Gallinas Creek flows between two of them
near their southern extremities for perhaps fifteen miles. At one point
the hog-backs of Cretaceous Nos. 3 and 4 approach near together,
and the creek flows near to the foot of the eastern front or escarpment of
No. 3. The rock of this ledge is a hard sandstone, and resists
erosion hence its outcrop forms continuous sharp ridges, with distant
interruptions, which are termed by the Mexicans the Cuchillas or Cris-
tones. The hog-back of No. 4, being composed of softer material, is
worn by erosion into a succession of sub-conical eminences.

A. P.S.—VOL. XIV. oJ

= oe
Cope.] 47 0 [June 18,

My attention was first called to the archeology of the region by
observing that the conic hills just mentioned, appeared to be in many
instances crowned with stone structures, which on examination proved
to be ruined buildings. These are round, or square, with rounded angles
and from fifteen to twenty-five feet in diameter, and composed of stones
of moderate size, which have been roughly dressed or built without
dressing into solid but not very closely fitting masonry. The walls re-
maining measure from ten feet high downwards. The floor inside is
basin-shaped, or like a shallow bird’s-nest, and frequently supports a
growth of sage-brush (Artemisia) of the same size and character as that
growing on the plains below, and other shrubs. Sometimes they con-
tain pifion trees (Pinus cembroides) of one and two feet in diameter,
which is the average and full size to which they grow on the adjacent
ridges and plateaus. Within and about them, fragments of pottery
abound, while flint implementsare less common. As these are similar in
all the localities examined, they will be subsequently described. A build-
ing more or less exactly agreeing with this description, was found on the
summit of every hill of a conical form in the vicinity. Their form is
probably due to the shape of the hill, as they were differently built on
the level hog-backs. None of the circular buildings were found to be
divided, nor were any traces of such buildings observed on lower
grounds. ;

The hog-back of Cretaceous No. 3 is, at the locality in question, only
one or two hundred yards distant from the eastern crest of the hills just
described, from which it is separated stratigraphically by a bed of lignite.
At some points this stratum has been removed by atmospheric erosion,
leaving a ravine between the hog-backs. Near the middle of a section
of the hog-back of No. 3, a portion of this formation remains, form-
ing a narrow causeway, connecting it with the ridge just behind it. The
eastern face is a perpendicular wall of sandstone rock, of about three

hundred feet in elevation ; the western face is the true surface of the
stratum, which here dips about 45° to 55° west by north. The top of
the ridge varies in width from four to eleven feet.

In riding past the foot of the precipice, I observed what appeared to
be stone walls crowning its summit. Examination of the ridge disclosed
the fact that a village forming a single line of thirty-two houses extended
along its narrow crest, twenty-two of them being south of the causeway
and ten north of it. The most southern in situation is at some distance
from the southern extremity of the hog-back. I selected it as a position
from which to sketch the country to the south and west ; see figures 16
and 17 of the geological report. It is built on the western slope of the
rock ; a wall of twelve feet in height supporting it on that side, while
the narrow ledge forming the summit of the ridge is its back wall. It is
square, 3.355 metres on a side, and has a floor leveled with earth and
stones. Two stout cedar posts probably once supported the roof ; their
stumps remain well cracked and weathered. Bushes of sage, similar in
size to that of the surrounding plain, are growing within the walls. ‘The

lndand
1875.] ATi [Cope.

second house is immediately adjoining, and is surrounded by an inde-
pendent wall, that on the lower side of the ridge being still twelve feet
in height. The length of the enclosure is 4.69 metres, and the width
2.68 metres ; full sized scrub-oak and sage-brush are growing in it. The
stumps of two cedar posts remain, one five, the other eight inches in
diameter. The third house adjoins No. 2, but is surrounded by a dis-
tinct wall, except at the back or side next the precipice, where a ledge of
rock, completes the enclosure. The latter is 4.02 metres long ; it con-
tains a scrub-oak of three inches diameter, which is an average size for
the tree.
Beyond these ruins is an interval of sixty-nine metres, where the sum-
mit of the rock is narrow and smooth, and the dip on the west side 55°.
The walls of an oval building follow (fig. 1), which enclose a space of
4.69 metres. They are two to two and a-half feet in thickness and stand
eight feet high on the western side; the eastern wall stands on the sheer
edge of the precipice. A building adjoins, with the dividing wall com-
mon to the preceding house. Its east and west walls stand on parallel
ledges of the sandstone strata, whose strike does not exactly coincide
with the axis of the hog-back. Diameter of this enclosure 5.37 metres.
A space of 15.4 metres follows with precipices on both sides when we
reach house No. 6. The eastern wall stands five feet high on the sum-
mit of the precipice, from which a stone might be dropped to the ground
perhaps three hundred and fifty feet below, only eight feet of the western
wall remained at the time of my examination. The enclosure is 6.04
metres long, and not quite so wide, and is divided transversely by a wall
which cuts off less than one-third the length of the apartment. In one
of the opposite corners of the larger room is the stump of a cedar post
five inches in diameter. This house can only be reached by climbing
over narrow ledges and steep faces of rock. House No. 7, follows
an interval of 42.30 metres. Its foundation wall encloses an irregular
square space 4.70 metres long and 3.69 metres wide ; it is eleven feet
high on the western side, and very regularly built, and well preserved ;
on the east side it is eight feet high, and is interrupted by a doorway of
regular form. From this a narrow fissure offers a precarious hold for
descent for a considerable distance down the face of the precipice, but
whether passable to the bottom I could not ascertain.
The crest of the ridge is without houses for 52.34 metres further ;
then a building follows whose enclosed space is an irregular circle of .
4.70 metres diameter. A transverse summit-ledge forms its southern
wall, but the remaining portion is remarkably massive, measuring three
feet in thickness. Its western wall is twelve feet high, and contains many
huge stones, which four or five men could not lift unaided by machinery.
Several scrub-oaks, of three inches in diameter grow in this chamber,
and stumps of the cedar posts that supported the roof remain. Here
follows a row of ten similar ruined houses, measuring from 3.35 to 6.24
metres in length. Of these, No. 13 is remarkable for containing
a scrub-oak of thirteen inches in diameter, the largest that I have

Cope.] AT8 : [June 18,

seen in the country, and the species is an abundant one. In No.
14, the remaining part of the western wall is fifteen feet in height.
There was a good deal of pottery lying on the western slope of the rock,
but of flint implements and chips, I found but few. All of these ruins
contain full-grown sage-bushes. No. 18 is the largest ruin; the
length of its enclosure is 8.62 metres, and the width 6.71 metres; its
west wall is six feet high; the floor is overgrown with sage of the
largest size. This building stood 51 metres from No. 17; 12.80 metres
northward, the ridge descends slightly to the level of the causeway
already mentioned. Here are five more ruined buildings of the same
average size as the others, interrupted by but one short interval.

From this depression, that part of the hog-back which is north of the
causeway rises abruptly in a perpendicular face. It is composed princi-
pally of two layers of the sandstone dipping at 45°W. which are separa-
ted by a deep cavity from a point fifteen feet from the base upwards.
This niche has been appropriated for a habitation, for it is walled across
to a height of six feet from its base. The foot of the wall is quite in-
accessible, but by climbing round the eastern face of the precipice, a
ledge is found at the base of the projecting stratum which forms the east
wall of the enclosure. This was scaled by means of a staircase of stones,
a number of which were in position at the time of my visit. The re-
maining portion of the hog-back is elevated and smooth, and the founda-
tion stones only of several houses remain. One of these contains two
stout posts of which four feet remain above ground; the last is near the
end of the ridge, and is bounded by a wallof ten feet in height which
forms its western side.

The walls of these houses are built ‘with a mortar of mud, mixed in
many cases at least with ashes, judging from the abundant specks of
charcoal which it contains. It is not of good quality, and has weathered
much from between the stones. I could not discover any indication of
burning of the houses by fire, either on the stones or the cedar posts. The
latter doubtless lost, by weathering, such indications had they existed,
and the combustion of the entire contents of such small edifices could
hhave affected their stone walls but little. I found noremains of bones of
animals or men about them.

This town I called Cristone. The same hog-back recommences a little
more than a mile to the north, rising to a greater elevation, say six or
seven hundred feet above the valley. The east side is perpendicular,
while the dip of the west side is 60°, and sometimes even a higher
angle. On this almost inaccessible crest, I could see from the yal-
ley the walls of ruined stone buildings such as I have described, but
unfortunately my limited time prevented me from making a detailed
examination of them. In the opposite direction, I observed a similar
ruin on an outlying hill adjacent to the southern portion of the southern
hog-back. This one is of larger size than any of the others ; but I was
unable to visit it. -

The position of these buildings is susceptible of the same explanation

lan
1875.] 479

[ Cope.

as that of the still inhabited Moquis villages of Arizona, so interestingly
described by Lieutenant Ives in his report on his survey of the Rio Colo-
rado of the West, and of the route from its cafion to Sante Fé. They
were doubtless perched on these high eminences for purposes of defense,
and they were conveniently located near a perennial stream, which per-
mitted them to carry on a system of agriculture, no doubt similar to that
now practiced by the Moquis. The inhabitants of Cristone felt, how-
ever, one disadvantage not known to the Moquis; they were, so far as
present indications go, without water on their elevated rocks, but were
dependent for their supply on the Gallinas Creek. I found no indications
of cisterns which should furnish such supply in time of siege, although
they doubtless could depend for a considerable length of time on rain-
water which they caught and preserved in the many vessels of pottery
whose fragments are now so numerous about the ruins.

At this point the bluffs of the Eocene bad-lands are from nine to ten
miles from the Gallinas Creek. Here also the slopes are in places covered
with broken pottery, and on the summit of some cf the less elevated
buttes, circular walls indicate the former existence of buildings similar
to those crowning the conical hills along the creek. The latter contains
the nearest water to these ruins. In other localities ruined stone build-
ings occupy the flat summits of mesa hills of the bad-lands, often in very
elevated and well-defended positions. It was a common case that the ero-
sion of the faces of these bluffs had undermined the foundation of the
houses, so that their wall stones, with the posts were mingled with the pot-
tery on the talus below. At one point, foundation walls stand on an isth-
mus connecting a butte with the mesa, of which a width of twenty feet
remains, but which is furrowed with water channels. Here Eocene fossils
and crockery, including a narrow-necked jug, were confusedly mixed
together. At another point the narrow summit of a butte of nearly two
hundred feet elevation is covered with remnants of stone buildings
which extend for a length of two hundred yards. The greater part of
them had been undermined, and the stoues were lying in quantities on
talus at the time of my visit. At one end of the line, the bases of two
rectangular walls, perhaps of towers, appeared to have been placed as
supports to the terrace. Very dry cedar posts occur among the ruins,
and. three such, standing upright on the summit of the butte, mark a spot
as yet unaffected by the disintegration of the cliff. In another portion of
the ruins, a row of large earthenware pots was found buried in the earth;
thé slow moving change of level of the marl had already fractured
them. At another locality I took from a confused mass of ruins, the tem-
poral bone of an adult person, the ilium of a child, ribs and other bones.
At a remote portion of the ruins on a remaining ledge, I found a square
enclosure formed of stones set on edge, three stones forming each half of
the enclosure. I excavated this for the depth of a foot, without finding any
indication of its use. In some of these localities, I found chips, arrow-
heads, and thin knives of chalcedony, with similar implements of obsi-

=,
Cope. ] 480 [June 18,

dian. The obsidian knives are similar to those which I have seen as
commonly found in Mexico.

At the head of the Cafoncita das Heguas there are numerous low
hills of the Eocene marl, covered with pion forests of adult trees. Ona
low slope of one of these, I found the burial place of one of the inhabit-
ants, as indicated by his bones, and trinkets doubtless buried with him.
His tibia was a marked example of the platycnemic type. Close to them
were some good quartz crystals, of course intruded in such a formation,
a piece of chalchuttl, an apparently transported scaphite, some implements
of obsidian, flint, etc., and a single perfect lower molar of a large mam-
mal of the genus Bathmodon, attached toa piece of the jaw, which looked
as though the ancient proprietor had not been ignorant of the peculiar
products of the neighboring bluffs.

In traversing the high and dry Eocene plateau west of the bad-land
bluffs, I noticed the occurrence of crockery on the denuded hills for a
distance of many miles. Some of these localities are fifteen and twenty
miles from the edge of the plateau, and at least twenty-five miles from
the Gallinas Creek, the nearest permanent water. In some of these

‘localities the summits of the hills had been eroded to a narrow keel,
destroying the foundations of the former buildings.

Jn no locality did I observe inscriptions on the rocks or other objects,
which were probably the work of the builders of these stone towers ; but
I give a copy of figures which I found on the side of a ravine near to
Abiquiu, on the river Chama. They are cut in Jurassic sandstone of
medium hardness, and are quite worn, and overgrown with the small
lichen which is abundant on the face of the rock. I know nothing re-
specting their origin.

It is evident that the region of the Gallinas was once as thickly inhab-
ited as are nowthe more densely populated portions of the Eastern States.
The number of buildings in a square mile of that region, is equal to, if
not greater than the number now existing in the more densely populated
rural districts of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Whether this is the
case to the south and west, I do not know, as I was unable to devote the
necessary time to the examination. [I found, however, that without in-
vestigation, it is very easy to pass the ruins by unnoticed, since their ele-
vated position, ruinous condition, and concealment by vegetation, ren-
der them almost invisible to the passing traveler. In general, I may say
that the number of ruins I found, was in direct proportion to the atten-
tion I gave the matter ; where I looked for them I invariably found them
in suitable situations.

Perhaps the most remarkable fact in connection with these ruins is
the remoteness of a large proportion of them from water. They occur
everywhere in the bad-lands to a distance of twenty-five miles from any
terrestrial source of supply. The climatic character of the country then
has either undergone material change, or the mode of securing and pre-
serving a supply of water employed by these people, differed from any
known to us at the present time. I found no traces of cisterns, and the

1875. ] 481 [Cope.

only water holders observed were the earthenware pots buried in the
ground, which did not exceed eighteen inches in diameter. There is,
however, no doubt that these people manufactured great numbers of
these narrow-necked globular vessels, whose principal use must have
been the holding of fluids, and chiefly of water. Nevertheless, it is
scarcely conceivable that the inhabitants of the houses now so remote
from water, could have subsisted under the present conditions. Pro-
fessor Newberry (Ives’ Report) is of the opinion that a diminution in the
amount of rain-fall over this region has taken place at no very remote
period in the past, and cites the death of forests of pine trees which still
stand, as probably due to increasing drought. It is of course evident,
that erosive agencies were once much more active in these regions than
at present, as the numerous and vast cafions testify, but that any change
sufficient to affect this process should have occurred in the human period,
seems highly improbable. In other words, the process of cutting cafi-
ons of such depth in rocks of such hardness is so slow, that its early
stages which were associated with a different distribution of surface
water supply, must have far antedated the human period.

Nevertheless, if we yield to the supposition that during the period of
residence of the ancient inhabitants the water supply from rains was
greater than now, what evidence do we possess which bears on the age of
that period? There is no difference between the vegetation found grow-
ing in these buildings, and that of the surrounding hills and valleys ;
the pines and sage-brush are of the same size, and to all appearances of
the same age. I should suppose them to be contemporary in every re-
spect. In the next place, the bad-lands have undergone a definite amount.
of atmospheric erosion since the occupancy of the houses which stand
on their summits. The rate of this erosion under present atmospheric
influences is undoubtedly very slow. The only means which suggested
itself as available at the time, was the calculation of the age of pine
trees which grow near the base of the bluffs. These have, of course,
attained their present size since the removal of the front of the stratum
from the position which the trees now occupy, so that the age of the
latter represents at least the time required for the erosion to have re-
moved the bluff to its present position. But how much time elapsed
between the uncovering of the position now occupied by the tree and its
germination, there is, of course, no means of ascertaining. My assistant,
an educated and exact man, counted the rings in a cut he made into the
side of a pifion (Pinus cembroides) which stood at a distance of forty
feet from a bluff, not far from a locality of ruins. Ina quarter of an
inch of solid wood he found sixteen concentric layers, or sixty-four to an
inch. The tree was probably twenty inches in diameter, which gives
six hundred and forty annual growths. The pifion is a small species,
hence the closeness of the rings in an old tree.

At present it is only possible to speculate on the history of the builders
of these houses, and the date of their extinction. The tribes of Indians
at present inhabiting the region at irregular intervals, can give no account

6
Cope. ] 482 [June 18, 1875.

of them. But it is not necessary to suppose that the ruin of this popula-
tion occurred at a very remote past. On the Rio Chaco, not more than
thirty miles from the Alto dos Utahs, are the ruins of the seven cities of
Cibolla, the largest of which is called Hungo Pavie. These have been
described by General Simpson,* who shows that each of the towns con-
sisted of a huge communal house, which could have accommodated from
1500 to 3000 persons. Their character appears to have been similar to
that of the existing Moqui villages. The ‘‘cities of Cibolla’’ were
visited by the marauding expedition of Coronado, in 1540, which captured
them to add to the vice-royalty of Mexico. In his letter to Mendoza, the
viceroy, Coronado, states that the inhabitants on the fourth day after the
capture ‘‘set in order all their goods and substance, their women and
children, and fled to the hills, leaving their town as it were abandoned,
wherein remained very few of them.’’ There can be no doubt that the
Eocene plateau and hog-backs of the Gallinas offer hills of the greatest
elevation in the entire region, and it is highly probable if the account
quoted be correct, that some at least of the exiled Cibollians found a
refuge in this region, and may have been the builders of Cristone. This
would place the age of the ruins described, at three hundred and thirty-
five years. Of course, it is possible that they represent villages con-
temporary with and tributary to the seven cities.

The inhabitants of the rock-houses of the Gallinas, necessarily
abandoned the communal type of building generally employed by their
race, and appear only to have considered the capacities of their dwellings
for defense. Yet the perils of life in Cristone, due to the location alone,
must have been considerable. Infant sports must have been restricted to
within doors, and cool heads were requisite in adults to avoid the fatal
consequences of a slip or fall. Intoxication must have been rare in
Cristone. There is no trace of metal in any of the ruins of the Gallinas,
and it is evident that the inhabitants were acquainted with the use of
stone implements only, as was the case with the builders of Central
America. I have already alluded to their pottery. It is usually of a
bluish-ash color, but is occasionally black, brown, and more rarely red.
It is never glazed, but the more common kind is nicely smoothed so as to
reflect alittle light. This pottery is ornamented with figures in black paint,
which are in lines decussating or at right angles, or enclosing triangular
or square spaces; sometimes colored and uncolored angular areas form a
checker-board pattern. The coarser kinds exhibit sculpture of the clay
instead of painting. The surface is thrown into lines of alternating pro-
jections and pits, by the use of an obtuse stick, or the finger nail; or it
is thrown into imbricating layers by cutting obliquely with a sharp flint
knife. Thus the patterns of the ornamentation were varied according to the
taste of the manufacturer, although the facilities at their disposal were few.

With these observations, I close this sketch of a glimpse at one
locality of the earliest civilization known on the American continent.

~ * Report of St. Jas. H. Simpson, of an expedition in the Navajoe Country in 1849. Ex.
Doe. 1st Sess. 31st Congress.

2
Aug, 20, 1875. ] 485 [| Gabb.

ON THE

INDIAN TRIBES AND LANGUAGES
OTC: OSM Aan C748:

BY WM. M. GABB.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, August 20, 1875.)

CHAPTER 1.

GENERAL ETHNOLOGICAL NOTES.

The Indians of ‘Costa Rica, with the hardly probable exception of the
Guatusos, all belong to one closely allied family. I only make this possi-
ble exception in deference to the almost absolute ignorance which yet
exists in regard to this isolated tribe.

Before entering on the consideration of the better known peoples of the
southern part of the Republic, it may be as well to make a brief summary
of what is known of the Guatusos up to the present time. They occupy
a part of the broad plains north and east of the high volcanic chain of
North-Western Costa Rica, and south of the great lake of Nicaragua, espe-
cially about the head waters of the Rio Frio. I have fortunately fallen in
with various persons who have entered their country, and who have had an
opportunity of seeing the people and their mode of life. The stories of
some are so evidently exaggerated that I shall suppress them; but by
carefully sifting the evidence and giving a due preponderance to the testi-
mony of those whom I consider most reliable, I have arrived at the fol-
lowing results.

Thomas Belt, the author of ‘‘The Naturalist in Nicaragua,”’ says he
has seen of them, five children and one large boy, ‘‘and they all had the
common Indian features and hair; though it struck me that they ap-
peared rather more intelligent than the generality of Indians.’’ He also
says that ‘‘one little child that Dr. Seeman and I saw in San Carlos in

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 3K

Gabb.] 484 [Aug. 20,

1870, had a few brownish hairs among the great mass of black ones ; but
this character may be found among many of the indigenes, and may result
from a very slight admixture of foreign blood.’’ All the persons with
whom [ have conversed assert that the name Guatuso, as applied to the
tribe, is given on account of a reddish or brown tint of their hair, resem-
bling the little animal of that name (the Agouwt?), This is also denied by
Mr. Belt, who says that the names of animals are often applied to Indian
tribes by their neighbors, to distinguish them. Allowing full weight to
this opinion, supported by analogy as it is in North America, (¢ g.
Snakes,) I do not think it fully warranted in this case.

Of half a dozen persons with whom I have conversed ; people who have
been on the upper Rio Frio, all, with one exception, distinctly assert that
they have seen people of light color and with comparatively light hair
among them. One person went so far as to assert, that in a fracas in
which he nearly lost his life, his most valiant and dangerous opponent
was a young woman, a mere girl, ‘‘as white as an Englishwoman,’’ (tan
rubia como una Inglesa). Another, who had amore peaceful opportunity
of seeing a party of two or three women, himself unseen, used the same
words in describing one of them. I believe, however, that these were ex-
aggerations. Still another person told me that they were of all shades
‘*from a rather light Indian color, to nearly white, the same as our-
selves’ (referring to the varying shades in the mixed blood of the Costa
Rican peasantry). However, in an interesting conversation with Don
Tomas Guardia, President of Costa Rica, I learned that when, some years
ago, he headed a party passivg through their country for military purposes,
they encountered one or more bodies of these people and had some
skirmishes with them. He says they are ordinarily of the color of other
Indians, although rare exceptions exist, of individuals markedly lighter
than the others, and really possessing a comparatively white skin and
brownish or reddish hair. This is in keeping with the statements made
to me by others whom I consider reliable, and must, I think, in defer-
ence to the authors be taken as final.

The origin of light complexions among an isolated tribe of Indians has,
of course, been the source of much speculation, but General Guardia, and
Don Rafael Acosta, an intelligent gentleman of San Ramon, not far from
the borders of the Guatuso country, both suggested to me, independently,
the same theory. They claim that when, a couple of centuries ago, the
town of Esparza was sacked by the English freebooters, many of the in-
habitants took refuge in the mountains, and were never afterwards heard
of. These refugees were many of them pure whites, men and women.
Now from Esparza, it is only about three or four days’ journey to the
borders of the Guatuso country, and it does not seem improbable that
some of these poor wretches may have found their way there. If this is
really the case, the admixture of blood, and consequent lightening of -
color is satisfactorily accounted for.

In consequence of almost uniform bad treatment, robbery and massacre

‘@)
1875.] 485 [Gabb.

included, to which these people have been subjected by the rubber hunters,
who enter their country from Nicaragua, and their not possessing fire-arms
to repel the aggressors, they have become so timid that they fly on the
first approach of strangers. The few who have been captured are either
young children, or persons taken by surprise. I have been unable to
learn of any in Costa Rica, although a boy, now dead, lived for a while in
Alajuela. A few are said to have been taken to San Juan del Norte,
(Greytown, ) and to Grenada, Nicaragua. The Alajuela boy, although he
learned the meaning of some Spanish words, so as to know what was
meant, when spoken to, was represented as sullen. When asked the
names in his language of things that he was familiar with, like plantain,
banana, &c., he always remained silent, and neither coaxing nor threats
could extort a word.

The people are invariably represented as of short stature, broad, and of
enormous strength. They live in neighborhoods ; they cannot be called
villages, the houses being scattered over an extensive area and at dis-
tances of from one to several hundred yards apart. The houses are low,
consisting of a roof, pitching both ways from a ridge pole, and resting on
very short but very thick posts. This is thatched with palm leaf and is
entirely open at the ends and sides, under the eaves. Their tools are
stone axes set in wooden handles, good steel machetes (all agree that
they have seen these, but where do they get them?) and planting sticks
similar to those used by the Bri-bris. With these tools they cultivate
great quantities of plantains, bananas, yuca, coco, (Colocasia esculentum, )
besides possessing large plantations of the pehi balla palm and of cacao.
Of the furniture in their houses, I was told of cord hammocks and net
bags, similar to those of Bri-bri, and of blocks of light wood for seats.
They seem to sleep on the ground floor of their houses, simply spreading
down a layer of plantain leaves. Their bowsand arrows are described as
similiar to what I have seen elsewhere, except that the arrows are not sup-
plied with any harder points than those furnished by the pehi balla wood.
The dress is described as identical with the old styles in Talamanca ;
mastate breech cloths for the men, and the same material, in the shape of
short petticoats for the women.

The country of the Rio Frio is said to consist of broad fertile plains,
unsurpassed in beauty and fertility by any lands in the Republic. The
Rio Frio itself is large and is navigated by the large canoes of the huleros,
or rubber hunters, to a point within three days’ walk of Las Cruces on the
Pacific side. But the poor inoffensive people who inhabit this region are
now so intimidated by the ‘‘ Christians’? who have visited them, that
they can only be approached by a foreigner by stealth. If they can
escape they do so, but if driven to bay, or think they can overpower the
strangers, they greet them with a flight of arrows. They are especially
afraid of firearms, and a pistol shot is sufficient to depopulate a set-
tlement.

I believe the above short statement contains the most reliable informa-

Gabb.] 486 [Aug. 20,

tion ever yet accumulated with reference to the Guatusos. I have care-
fully rejected many wonderful stories told me by persons claiming to tell
what they saw, and have only availed myself of the accounts of those who
seemed to exaggerate least, or whose position forbade me to doubt their
assertions.

The tribes of Southern and South-eastern Costa Rica are better known.
The Terrabas, living on the Pacific slope, and their neighbors, the Borucas
or, as they call themselves, Bruncas, live under complete subjection to
the laws of Costa Rica, and the rule of a missionary priest. They may
be strictly called civilized. But those on the Atlantic slope have had a
powerful ally in the forces of nature, in resisting the civilizing efforts of
the Spanish invaders. The heavy rainsof the Atlantic seaboard produce
a luxuriance of vegetation that may well nigh be called unconquerable.
Broad swamps, dank and reeking with malaria threaten the European
with bilious fever, fatal to energy if not to life. Three centuries ago
Columbus sailed along the coast from the Bahia del Almirante, and in his
usual florid style called this the Rich Coast, and yet it has never yielded
to the conqueror or paid him tribute. Two centuries ago a little colony
was planted far back in the mountains and one or two outlying missionary
posts were scattered among the then powerful tribes. Buta just retribu-
tion fell on San José de Cabecar. The hardy mountaineers did not submit
to the oppressors’ yoke like the gentle and hapless victims of Cuba and
Santo Domingo. Even now the traditions are well preserved among them,
and I have listened to more than one recital of outrages which I dare not
believe to be exaggerated. Father Las Casas tells of even worse oppres-
sions. In 1709 the people rose and massacred all who fell into their power.
A pitiful remnant escaped from the colony, to wander for weeks in the
woods and finally a handful reached Cartago. The Viceroy of Guatemala,
in retaliation sent forces by way of the forest trails from Cartago and others
across the mountains by way of Terraba. They surrounded, killed, and cap-
tured all the Indians they could, and carried their prisoners to Cartago.
Some of these were divided among the settlers as servants, and have left a
strong tinge on the cheeks of many a would-be high-toned Costa Rican.
The remainder were settled in the villages of Tucuriqui and Orosi, where,
though partly civilized, they still retain their original language, badly
corrupted with Spanish. Since this disastrous ending to the colony, both
parties have kept up a wholesome dread of each other and no further ef-
forts have ever been made to found a colony on the Atlantic side of the
country. At the same time, the Indians not only dread, but hate the
Spaniards and even a trace of Spanish blood, or fluency in the language
on the part of a dark-skinned or dark-haired person is a warrant for sus-
picion. It is not a hatred of the white race. Englishmen, Americans,
and Germans are invariably respected and treated well, by the same peo-
ple who are either insolent to the Spaniard or treat him at best with
restraint.

On the Atlantic slope, there are three tribes intimately allied socially,

1875.] AST [Gabb.

. politically, and religiously, but differing markedly in language. The
Cabecars occupy the country from the frontiers of civilization to the
western side of the Coen branch of the Tiliri or Sicsola River. Adjoin-
ing them, the Bri-bris occupy the east side of the Coen, all the regions of
the Lari, Uren, and Zhorquin and the valley lying around the mouths of
these streams. The Tiribris, now reduced to barely a hundred souls, live
in two villages on the Tilorio or Changinola River. Itissaid that on the
head waters of the Changina, a large fork of this latter stream, there are
yet a few individuals of the Changina tribe, but the other Indians report
them as implacably hostile and their very existence is only known by
vague reports of their savage neighbors. The Shelaba tribe, formerly
living on the lower part of the same river is now entirely extinct. A few
half-breeds are all who perpetuate the blood, and their language is utterly
lost. Still further down the coast, beyond the Costa Rican boundaries is
another allied tribe, partly civilized, in so far as that they trade and work
a little and drink a great deal of bad rum, spending most of their earnings
onthat bane of the race. They are called by foreigners Valientes. Cross-
ing over to the Pacific slope, the Terrabas are tribally identical with the
Tiribis. The tradition still exists in a vague form, that they are emigrants
from the Atlantic side ; but when or why the emigration took place, is
forgotten. The home of the tribe is in a very narrow, rough caion,
traversed by a river that might better be called a torrent, a country
strongly contrasted with the fertile plains and broad savannas of Terraba,
and it is not improbable that under the press of a crowded population
several migrations took place. They still tell how, twenty or thirty years
ago, a priest came over from Terraba, baptized all who would submit to
the rite, and by glowing stories of the abundance of meat and other in-
ducements that he shrewdly imagined would tempt them, carried off over
a dozen of their best men, who never returned. A glance at the vocabu-
lary will show how little separated are these two branches of the tribe in
language. The Borucas or Bruncas, who occupy a little village, not far
from the headquarters of the Terrabas, are apparently the older occu-
pants of the soil ; perhaps crowded into a corner by the invaders.

Other tribal names are mentioned by various authors, such as Bicei-
tas, &c. The name Biceita is not known in the country, and, although
used to the present day outside of the Indian country, is unknown to
them, or at best, is supposed to be a Spanish word. The district of that
name is probably the western part of Bri-bri, the most eastern point to
which the slave-hunting expeditions from San José Cabecar penetrated.
The Blancos are properly the Bri-bri tribe, but this word is rather loosely
used, and is often applied alike to the Cabecars and Tiribis.

But little can be gathered of the history of these people. What hap-
pened in the times of their grandfathers is already ancient history and
partly forgotten. All recollection of the first arrival of the Spaniards is now
lost. They have no traditions of the use of stone implements before the in-
troduction of metal. When asked what they did for axes before the traders

Gabb:] 488 [Aug, 20,

came among them, I could get no more satisfactory answer than that
they went to Cartago to buy them. I have been told a vague story, how-
ever, that long ago there were two bands living in the country now occu-
pied by the Bri-bris. Those living in the valley, around the junction of
the branches of the Tiliri were more powerful than the mountaineers,
and forced the latter to pay tribute when they descended to hunt, or cut
the material for their bark-cloth clothing. But gradually the lowlanders
died out ; the highlanders, becoming the more powerful, rebelled against
these impositions, and eventually emigrated in such numbers to the
country of the former, that the distinction became lost by an amalgama-
tion of the two parties. Even now the Bri-bris, who occupy the lowlands
and most of the hill regions of the Sicsola, look down on their neigh-
bors the Cabecars and treat them as inferiors. The Cabecars, on the other
hand, tacitly acknowledge even a social supremacy, and in a mixed party
submit to assume the more menial occupations, like bringing water and
wood ; and are always obliged to wait until the last when food or drink
is being served. Few of the Bri-bris speak the Cabecar language, but
there are few of the Cabecars who do not speak Bri-bri, and they usually
use it in the presence of strangers. The Cabecars have no chief of their
own, but are entirely under the rule of the Bri-bri chief, and have been,
from time immemorial. Their subjugation is, in short, complete. At
the same time they have the honor of religious supremacy, ia so far as
that the high priest, the ‘‘Usekara,’’ whose office will be explained fur-
ther on, belongs to their tribe. The ordinary priests, the ‘‘ Tsugurs,”’
who, like the ‘‘Usekara,’’ are hereditary, come from a group of families
on the Coen River, but belong to the Bri-bri tribe.

About the beginning of this century there was a bitter war between the
Bri-bris and the Tiribis. The youngest members of the war parties are
now mostly dead, and the few remaining survivors are very old men.
The last of the warriors proper, mature men at that time, died about
1860, at an extremely advanced age. I have heard the traditions from
both sides the question, and of course each party throws all the blame
on the other. The Bri-bri story is that some people, a whole family,
living on the extreme eastern portion of the Uren district, were found
murdered, and no clue discovered to the perpetrators of the act. Not
very long afterwards other murders occurred in an equally mysterious
manner, which threw the whole country into a state of excitement.
Afterwards a small party was attacked by some uuknown Indians, a
portion killed and some left to tell the tale. The tracks of the stran-
gers were followed through the woods, always keeping to the east,
until they were lost. Following this clue, the chief of the Bri-bris sent
out a party of armed scouts, who ciimbed to the summit of the divi-
ding ridge, overlooking the Tilorio. From here they discovered for
the first time that they had neighbors ; seeing their houses and corn-
fields in the distance. A large war party was fitted out; they passed
the mountains, and -without warning descended on the unsuspecting

1875. ] 489 [Gabb.

enemy, killing large numbers. After this a desultory warfare was kept
up; each party striving to take the other unawares, and to capture as
many heads as possible. This went on until the Tiribi, reduced toa
handful, sued for peace and submitted as a conquered people to the
Bri-bris. Since then, the chief of the Bri-bris has always retained the
right of final choice of chief of the Tiribis, after nomination of the can-
didate by his own people. Beyond this, no actual control has ever been
exercised. The Tiribi story does not differ from the above, except in
the origin. It throws the blame of the first aggression on the Bri-bris.
In some respects the Tiribis are superior to the Bri-bris. The children
are more respectful to their parents; the women are more modest in dress
and behavior, and the men are more industrious. This is their boast, and
while they look down on the Bri-bris, the latter despise them as a con-
quered people. Very little communication occurs between the two tribes,
and I could learn of but two cases of intermarriage between them.

I have already said the Tiribis and Cabecars are under the political rule
of the Bri-bris. The form of government isextremely simple. One family
holds the hereditary right of chieftainship, and up to 1873 the reigning
chief had theoretically full powers of government. The succession is not
in direct line, but on the death of the incumbent, the most eligible mem-
ber of the royal family is selected to fill the vacancy. Often a son is
passed over in favor of a second cousin of the last chief. The present
chief is first cousin of his predecessor, who was nephew of his predecessor,
who was in turn a cousin to his. ©

Formerly the chiefs held only a nominal control over their people. The
principal advantages derived from the position were rather of a social
than a political nature. The chief was conducted to the best hammock
fora seat on entering a house. He was treated to their great luxury, cho-
colate, when persons of less note were fain to be content with chicha. But
in case of a quarrel*the chief had to defend himself from the blows of the
long, heavy fighting-stick like any ordinary mortal. Within the last
decade or two, the traders, by throwing their influence on the side of the
chief, have caused him to be treated with more respect, and endowed him
with the attributes of a judge over his people, in all ordinary disputes.
About 1870 or 1871, Santiago, the then chief, paid a visit to Cartago and
San José; was well treated, and received an appointment from the Gov-
ernment, for the position which he already held, with the full approval of
his tribe. It had been customary for the heir-apparent, the future suc-
cessor, to hold a position as second, or subordinate chief, with little or
no authority. One Lapiz was at that time second chief, and claimed
that he was more entitled than the other to the chieftainship. Exagger-
ated ideas of great mineral wealth in ‘‘Talamanca’’ have been long held
in Costa Rica and the Commandant of Moen, a little settlement on the
Atlantic coast, used principally as a penal station, conspired with Lapiz
against Santiago. This individual, named Marchena, advised Lapiz to
assassinate his chief, and thereby place himself at the head of the tribe.

Gabb.] 490 [Aug. 20,

It seems that Marchena’s plan was to put a creature of his own over
the Indians, so as to gain access to the supposed rich mines and thereby
benefit himself. Instigated by a ‘‘ Christian,’’ the savage, nothing loth,
conspired with his people, but Santiago learned of it and made efforts to
arrest him. Learning of this, he fled to the mountain fastnesses of
Bri-bri where, broken down by disease and hardships he died, leaving,
Indian like, his revenge as a legacy to hisadherents. Santiago, who was
a drunkard and, when intoxicated, a tyrant, gradually enstranged his
people from him, and his relatives, Birche and Willie, placed themselves
at the head of the opposition. The occasion sought for was not long in
being found, and one morning Santiago was shot in the woods by an am-
bushed party, who at once took possession of the.government, burnt their
victim’s house, appropriated his effects, including his three wives, and
defied his friends. Birche, as the oldest of the two cousins and claimants
to the chieftainship, took precedence and Willie became second chief.
Mr. John H. Lyon, an American from Baltimore, who had lived in the
country since 1858, had acted as secretary to Santiago, and only their re-
spect for an upright man who had always treated them justly, coupled
with the fact that he was not a ‘‘Spaniard,’’ prevented them from vent-
ing their resentment on him, in common with the other friends of the
murdered man. He remained at his house for some weeks despite the
storm. But at last, thinking discretion the better part of valor, he left
the country with his Indian family and remained absent some months.
On his return he found matters settled after a fashion: the Birche party
in power, but by no means secure against an outbreak from the friends
of Santiago, who only wanted a leader. They urged Lyon to head them
but his better council prevailed, and they perforce accepted the situation.
I visited the country first in March, 1873. accompanied by the Command-
ante of Limon, Don Federico Fernandez. He then formally approved of
Birche as chief, Willie as second, and re-appointed Lyon as Secretary.
This was a great step in advance for Birche who now, for the first time,
felt himself secure. The assassination of Santiago was practically ig-
nored, but they were told ‘‘to be good and not do it again.’’ This was
succeeded by an infinite number of petty quarrels between the two
chiefs ; each disliking the other, and each wishing the other out of the
way. By dintof constant interference on the part of the foreigners, they
were prevented from coming into actual collision, although one attempt
was made by the friends of Willie to kill Birche, Lyon, myself and my
assistants at a blow by planting an ambush for us on one of our journeys.
However, in December, 1873, business taking me to San José, I induced
Birche to accompany me. On my advice, Don Vicente Herrera, the
Minister of Interior, gave to Birche a formal commission as ‘‘ Jefe Polit-
ico’’ of Talamanca, confirmed Willie as second chief, and appointed Mr.
Lyon ‘‘Secretary and Director of the tribes,’’ fixing suitable salaries for
each. This was the first time that the tribe had formally submitted to
the Costa Rican government. The action of Santiago was purely an in-

1875. | 491 : [Gabb.

dividual affair, and looked on with great disfavor by the tribe. Matters
went on very wellfor a few months under the new regime. fut Birche, a
manof little capacity, at the sam2 time a coward and a tyrant, could not
be content with his position. He began a system of ill treatment against
which the people grumbled, but which they feared to resent. At first
both Lyon and myself tried to quiet the complaints, believing that pun-
ishment had been justly inflicted, and knowing that

“*No man e’er felt the halter draw
With just opinion of the law,
Or held with judgment orthodox
His love of justice in the stocks.”’

But it soon became apparent that his majesty (they are always called
king) was abusing his power. The Indians dared not quarrel with
Birche, for fear of offending the government, but came to Lyon almost
daily with complaints. At last we decided to effect a change. Birche
went to Limon to draw his salary, and at the same time to complain of a
purely personal quarrel with Willie, in which he had fared worst. I ar-
rived there a few days later, having completed my exploration, and being
on my way to the Capital. On being asked for information and adyice by
the Commandante, I told the story and urged his removal. This could
only be done by the minister, but he was suspended until the decision of
that officer could be obtained. In a few daysI saw Mr. Herrera, and
after a conversation he decided to endorse the Commandante’s action.
Birche was accordingly removed, Willie was given a nominal chieftain-
ship, and Lyon instructed to assume all responsibilities. Tnus in less
than two years the people have, without knowing how it happened, been
deprived of their hereditary chiefs, and a foreigner placed over them.
Willie remains with the empty title of chief without even the power to
issue an order or punish an offender, except when ordered by Lyon. This
gentleman has their entire confidence and respect, and many of the In-
dians begged to have even the title taken away permanently from the
‘‘royal’”’ family. I have been thus prolix on this branch of the subject,
because I was an eye witness, a participator, in the latter part of the
events I relate. Trivial as they are, they may interest some, throwing
light on the manner in which one tribe after another is subdue }.

A strange fatality seems to hang over these Isthmian Indians. Even
when not brought into contact with the debasing influences of civilization,
the tribes are visibly diminishing. Less than two centuries ago, the
population of Talamanca, as Costa Rica calls her southeastern province,
was counted by thousands, now barely 1200 souls can be found. The
Shelaba tribe is extinct ; the Changinas are at the point of extermination,
the Tiribis number but one hundred and three souls, and Lyon tells me
that the Cabecars of the Coen have diminished fully one-half within the
last seventeen years, while the decrease in the Bri-bris is hardly less
rapid.

During my travels in Talamanca I collected in each district an accurate

A. P. §.—VOL. XIV. 3L

)
Gabb.] 492 [Aug. 25,

enumeration of the population. My process was to get together several
of the most intelligent and well-informed men in the district ; cause them
to compare notes and then to tie a series of knots in strings as they are
accustomed to do ; different kinds of knots distinguishing the sexes. Each
house was counted separately, so that I obtained an exact census of the
whole country with the following results. This cord census is now in the
museum of the Smithsonian Institution, with many other articles, illus-
trating the life and customs of the people.
The population of each district is as follows :

APTA 1h 9 A OD PAPER st EARS TEERS LES nn ET PRS LITE 103
MSs FG UNOS ACG UTR ISP ADO bie ae nat egal atcha, ae ae 604
FS TTS OIE AS Se ae I and Oe SER hha ae ee aa 172
CaWec areca eye Oe Ue iy LOE ere ear 128
Mine Malleyereriae paste nclsae w taiciveddeerelenore rate 219

SMO Gave teh nentcy Ala ecahraere te Yeu Oat et Atee ae ey een eae ee 1226

This covers all of the water-sheds of the Tilorio and Tiliri rivers ex-
cept two small bands; the Changinas on the Changina branch of the
Tilorio and a refugee remnant of the Cabecars on the extreme: head of
the Tiliri. Probably an additional hundred would cover all of these.

On the North or Estrella river, and on the Chiripo, there are a few
more Cabecars who have little communication with the headquarters of
the tribe, but who are in the habit of going out to Limon or Matina for
what little trade they require. These are probably in all, not more than
200 or 300 in number. Nearly all speak Spanish and they are gradually
approximating to civilized or semi-civilized ways.

‘The cause of the rapid decrease in the population is their extreme in-
‘dolence. With a country fitted to produce all the fruits of the tropics ;
where maize grows luxuriantly,; and where cattle and pigs increase with-
-eut care or labor ; they are content to make plantains their staple, and
almost their only food. Chicha the form in which most of their maize
is used, is a beverage very slightly intoxicating, if drank in large quanti-
ties, but the amount of nutriment derived from it is unimportant. Meat,
whether of domestic or wild animals, is a rarity and a luxury, and the
bauana or plantain make up all deficiencies. The natural consequence
of a bulky and comparatively innutritious diet is a low physical state.
The system has little resisting power against disease, or healing power
over wounds. A slight attack of coast fever, which, with an ordinary
strong man of our own race, would be comparatively harmless, is very
apt to terminate fatally with these people. Indolent ulcers are so com-
mon that perhaps a full fourth of not only adults, but even children
have them, usually on the legs, originating in some slight scratch or
bruise ; and very few of the elderly persons are without their scars.
These ulcers often last for years, and I have seen them as broad as the
two hands opened side by side. Although the local diseases are few, the
entire absence of medical treatment, the ignorance of the first principles

1875. ] 493 [Gabb.

of hygiene, and the universal negligence of the sick, on the part of the
well, all contribute to shorten the average life-term of the people, so that
very few old men or women are to be found, and the mortality is so great
among the young that the deaths more than counterbalance the births.
Unless some great change takes place, the whole of the tribes of Tala-
manea will have disappeared within two or three generations more. The
Tiribis, who like the others have strict rules about marriage, within cer-
tain degrees of consanguinity, are now so reduced tbat several young
men and women are to-day forced to remain unmarried for want of proper
mates sufficiently removed in relationship. But at the beginning of this
century they were powerful enough to give battle to the Bri-bris. The
Changinas and Shelabas have disappeared and the fate of the other tribes
requires no prophet to foretell.

Physically, the people of all the tribes bear a strong resemblance to each
other. They are of short stature, broad shouldered, heavily built, full
in the chest, with well-formed limbs, and well muscled throughout. Their
color is similar to that of the North American Indians, or, if anything
different, perhaps a little lighter. There seems to be but little, if any
admixture of foreign blood among them. Their history would hardly
lead us to expect it. They have lived very exclusively, and it has hardly
been half a century since they have ceased to live in a state of open war
with all intruders from the coast side. The Spanish occupation closed so
disastrously over a century and a half ago, was of too short duration, and
and the whites were too few, to make a permanent impression on a then
populous country.

The following measurements taken from my servant, a full grown man,
who is not more than an inch, if so much, under the average height, will
give a fair idea of their build. He measures in height, 5 ft. 15 in., cir-
cumference of chest, under the arms 385? inches; of hips 34 inches, of
waist 33 inches, length from axilla to tips of the fingers, 243 inches ; lez,
from the groin to the ground, 29 inches. Both sexes are marked by an
almost perfect absence of hair from all parts of the person except the
head ; where there is a dense growth of coarse, straight black hair. This
the wowen plait with considerable taste. The men wear theirs cut mod-
erately long and of an even length all round ; or a few retaining an older
fashion, have it a little over a foot long, apparently its entire natural
length, and either let it stream loosely over the shoulders, gather it into
two plaits, or twist it into a roll, bound with a strip of mastate, and
coiled at the back of the head in a round flat mass.

The breasts of the women are not conical, as occurs with many, if not
most of the Indian races; but are fully as globular as those of the

‘European or African. Nor are they directed laterally. They are not
generally large, though some marked exceptions occur to thisrule. But
they have one strongly marked peculiarity. The entire areolar area is
developed into a globular protuberance, completely enveloping and
hiding the nipple. The development of this part begins with, almost

Gabb.] 494 [Aug. 20,

before, that of the mammary gland proper, on the approach of puberty,
and is more obvious then, than after the gland has acquired its full
rotundity. After marriage, the areola gradually sinks, leaving the nipple
standing out prominently in its centre.

In treating of the manners and customs of these people, I shall include
the three tribes of Tiribi, Bri-bri, and Cabecar as one, and shali only
mention them separately where points of difference occur. First in the
order comes the birth of the young savage.

All the world, or rather all the ignorant world, and even a part of that
which considers itself reasonably enlightened, entertains a belief in the
influence on the child, of certain impressions made on the mother during
pregnancy. Doubtless the general mental state of the mother has an in-
fluence on her progeny. But the belief exists among these Indiams, in
its full force, that the sight of certain objects by the mother will influence
her child physically. They go further. The mother is given to wearing
certain charms to that end. The eyes of the fish hawk give the future fisher
the power to see his prey beneath the water ; the teeth of the tiger (also
worn by both sexes for purely ornamental purposes), when used as an
amulet makes the future hunter swift and strong in the chase ; the hairs
of a horse make him strong to carry loads, and a piece of cotton pushed
inside of her girdle by a white man, is certain to make the child of a
lighter complexion.

When the time of parturition approaches, the father goes into the woods
and builds a little shed, at a safe distance from the house. To this the
woman retires as soon as she feels the labor pains coming on. Here,
‘alone and unassisted, she brings forth her young. Difficult delivery is as
rare as among the lower animals. As soon as the delivery is effected, the
mother of the woman, if present, and in her absence, some other old
woman approaches the mother and, with great circumspection to avoid
the defilement of bu-ku-ru’, of which I shall speak further on, places within
her reach a piece of wild cane, so split as to make a rude knife. The mother
ties the umbilical cord and severs it with this knife. No other kind is
permitted. She is also supplied in the same manner with some tepid
water in a folded plantain leaf, in which she washes the child. She then
collects the after-birth, &c., and buries it, after which she goes to the
nearest water and bathes herself. An awa, or medicine man then ap-
pears on the scene. He causes the mother to theoretically wash herself
again, by dipping her fingers into a calabash of water, which he forth-
with drinks. He then lights a pipe of tobacco, blowing the smoke over
her. He then purifies himself by washing his hands, after which, and
not before, all are permitted to return to the house. The recovery of the
mother is so prompt that it may be more properly said, she has nothing
to recover from. I have seen a young mother, with her first child not
‘yet a week old, attending to her ordinary duties as if nothing had hap-
pened.

The matter of names is very loose and arbitrary. It is almost impossi-

1875. | 495 [Gabb.

ble for a stranger to learn the true name of an Indian, directly from the
person himself, although his friends may divulge it, and this is looked
upon almost in the light of either a breach of confidence, or a practical
joke. After long acquaintance, they may be prevailed upon, but even
then are more apt to give a false name than to tell the truth, so great is
their reluctance. One fellow, who was my servant for over three months,
after always denying having a name, at last told me a pet name, or
““nick-name’’ that he had had asa child. It is customary for children
to have provisional names, or to be called only ‘‘boy’’ or “ girl’? as the
case may be, until the whim of an acquaintance or some equally arbitrary
circumstance fixes a title to them. Besides the native name, generally
derived from some personal qua.ity, or not seldom the name of some ani-
mal or plant, almost all of the Indians possess a foreign name, by which
they are known, and which they do not hesitate to communicate. Among
themselves, when the name is unknown, a person is called by the name
of the place where he lives. Mr. Lyon says all the women have names,
as well as the men. But my experience with them is never to have heard
them called by other titles than ‘‘girl,’’ ‘“‘woman,’’ “wishy’’ (applied
familiarly to young married women), or ‘‘so-and-so’s wife’’? or daugh-
ter, except in the case of a few of the more civilized men, who have given
Christian names to their families.

Children are not generally weaned early. In case of the birth of a se-
cond child, the first is weaned perforce. But it is nothing strange to see
a child well able to walk, say even two years old, go to the breast as a
matter of course, although sufficiently accustomed to more solid food.

Small babies are carried on the back, astride the hips of the woman,
aud supported by a broad strip of bark or cotton cloth, passed around
both, and secured in front by a dexterous tucking in of the ends. When
they become larger, they are carried on one hip, supported by the arm ;
or are placed on top of the load, if the mother is traveling. They sit
perched on the bundle, with a foot dangling either over or behind each
shoulder of the mother, and soon learn to hold on like monkeys.

The training of the youth is left almost entirely to themselves. Among
the Tiribi they are taught to respect and obey their parents, but in the
other tribes they are more insolent and disrespectful to their parents than
to other persons. I have seen a boy of ten years old absolutely refuse to
obey some trifling command of his mother, and she seemed to have no
power to enforce her order. The little girls learn early to accompany the
older girls and women when they go out to bring water. Their usual
station, in the house, is at the side of the fire, where, as soon as they are
large enough, they assist in fanning the fire, preparing plantains for the
pot or watching the cooking. The boys will sometimes deign to hunt
fire-wood, but they are more apt to be playing by.the side of the river
with mimic bow and arrow, learning to shoot fish under water. Their
toys are mostly diminutive copies of the tools and weapons of more ad-
vanced age. The machete of the man is represented by a good sized

Gabb.] 496 [Aug 20,

knife, often the only article worn by the boy ; the long hunting and fish-
ing bow is foreshadowed by one a yard long, perhaps made of a simple
piece of wild cane; the blow gun, a tube longer than the person, is in
constant use; and I have seen some few actual toys such as a top made
of a large round seed with a stick through it; and a rattle differing only
in the degree of care in the making, from those used by the priests in
their incantations.

The arrival of puberty is the signal for marriage, at least on the part
of the girls. The courtships, if such they can be called, are carried on
principally at the chicha drinkings, and I am assured that very few young
women retain their virginity until marriage. A plurality of wives is
allowed at the option of the husband. Many have two, and some three
women. When a young man wishes to marry, having arranged with the
girl, he applies to the father. The consent is practically a foregone con-
clusion ; but the details of the bargain must-be arranged. In most cases,
the groom goes to live at the house of his father-in-law, becomes, at least
for a time, a member of the family, and contributes with his labor to the
common support. Girls are thus available property to their families.
But in case the man already has a wife; is in short, settled in life, and
has his own home, he may not want to change his residence. He then
compounds with the family ; giviog a cow, a couple of pigs, or other
equivalent for the woman, in place of his services. No form of cere-
mony is required, and the marriage lasts as long as it suits the conve-
nience of the parties. In case of infidelity on the part of the woman, or
undue cruelty on the man’s part, they may separate. Sometimes, if the
woman is unfaithful, the man whips her severely, and perhaps returns
her to her family, or she, in a fit of resentment, leaves him. This may
be for a year or so, or may be final; but during such separation either
party is at liberty to make new connections, thereby remaining perma-
nently apart.

Probably there is no better place to mention kissing than in connection
with courtships and marriages. This agreeable custorm seems to be
entirely unknown. I have never seen one person among them kiss an-
other, not even a mother her child.

There are certain limits within which parties may not marry. The
tribes are divided into families, or something analogous to clans. Two
persons of the same clan cannot marry. This is now a source of difficulty
among the Tiribis. The tribe is so reduced that a number of marriage-
able persons of both sexes are unable to find eligible mates. I could not
ascertain exactly how the question is settled as to which clan a person
belongs, whether he inherits from father or mother, but so far as I could
gather, I think from the father. Cousins, even to a remote degree, are
called brother and sister, and are most strictly prohibited from intermar-
riage. The law, or custom, is not an introduced one, but one handed
down from remote times. The penalty for its violation was originally
very severe ; nothing less than the burial alive of both parties. This

1878.] 497 [Gabb.

penalty was not only enforced against improper marriage, but even
against illicit intercourse on the part of persons within the forbidden
limits. Mr. Lyon related to mea case that occurred since he has been
living in the country, where the power of the Chief Chirimo was insufii-
cient to protect a man who married his second or third cousin. Fortu-
nately for the delinquents, they succeeded in making their escape, though
with difficulty, being followed two or three days’ journey by the aven-
gers.

Infidelity is not rare, and the husband has the redress of whipping the
woman and dismissing her if he desires, and of whipping her paramour
if he is able. But so cautious are the people about the blood limit of in-
termarriage, that a woman on giving birth to an illegitimate child, for
fear that it will not know the family to which it belongs, will usually
brave the punishment, and at once confess its paternity.

As cousins are called brother and sister, so are not only the brothers
and sisters, but even the cousins of a wife or husband all called indiscrim-
inately brother and sister-in-law ; so that a person may on a sirgle mar-
riage find that he has annexed fifty or a hundred of these interesting
relations.

On the death of the head of the family, the next oldest brother, or in
default of a brother, a cousin or uncle assumes his place, and is then
called father by the children. This does not involve any especial mate-
rial duties, such as the support of the family; but is rather a sort of
honorary title; giving him, however, the ruling voice in any family
council or discussion.

On the death of an individual; if a young person, a woman, or a per-
son of but little consequence, the body is prepared as soon as possible in
the mauner described below, and carried to the forest ; but if a person
of more consideration, there are some preliminary ceremonies. These I
had the opportunity of witnessing in the case of an old man who died on
the Uren when I was present. He belonged to one of the distinguished
families, an ancestor, perhaps his father, having been one of the leaders
in the war with Tiribi, and he the heir fo, and possessor of, one of the
few gold ‘‘eagles,”’ or iusignia of rank. He died in the night, and next
morning, the body being in his hammock, covered with a piece of bark
cloth ; all of the chicha, chocolate, and food that the poor people of the
house could get together on short notice were prepared. A fire was
lighted, amidst singing, by twirling a pointed stick in a s°cket on the
face of another. This was the sacred fire, which was communicated to a
small heap of wood placed on one side in the house. This could be used
for no common purpose whatever. No ordinary fire could be lighted
from it ; not even could one use a stick of it to light his pipe. It must
burn continuously for nine days. Im case of its accidentally going out
before that time, it must be relighted in the same manner as at first; and
at the end of that time, only a priest could extinguish it, and he only with
a calabash of chocolate, and during, or at the end rather, of the suitable
incantation,

Gabb.] 493 [Aug. 20,

The custom of burying or otherwise placing with the dead all of his
valuables, evidently existed at one time with these people. The Tiribis,
who bury their dead, did so, up to within the memory of persons still
living, and all matters that could not be buried, like live stock, fruit trees,
&¢e., were ruthlessly destroyed. A more practical method has grown up
with the present generation, and they now divide the property of the de-
funct among the heirs, with as much avidity as in more enlightened com-
munities. So do the Bri-bris and Cabecars, but these compound with
their consciences. Whether the Teribis have a similar custom, I am not
prepared to say, not having seen a funeral, and having no information
that I consider sufficiently trustworthy.

The next step after lighting the fire, was for the master of ceremonies,
appointed by mutual consent, to cause to be collected some small serap-
ings of a peculiar wood, called Palo Cacique, by the Spaniards. Itisa
wood used only for walking sticks, and will be again referred to in that
connection. He also obtained a large lump of cotton wool, some seeds of
a species of pumpkin, and asmall root of sweet yucca. All the male friends
of the deceased present, seated themselves on low benches in a double
line, facing each other, with another bench between. A part of the cot-
ton, spread out so as to make a bulk about the size of a man’s hand, was
placed in front of the principal person, who then began in a sing-song
tone between a recitation and a chant, to relate the merits and deeds of
their departed brother. As he proceeded, and mentioned for instance that
he bad planted much corn, he laid carefully on the cotton a piece of shaviug
which he said was the ‘‘ planting stick”’ used in that operation. Another
laid aside of it a piece of pumpkin seed, which represented the corn.
Another taking up the song, related how he had shot fish, and another
shaving was the arrow. An impromptu string a couple of inches long,
twisted out of the cotton, and stained red with the powder from some
annatto seeds, was a rope with which he had led a cow, bought years be-
fore in Terraba. This lasted for an hour, until every tool or weapon he
had ever used was represented by a little pile of seeds and shavings on
the cotton. But he was a great man and his ‘‘eagle’’ was not to be for-
gotten. A very rude imitation of it was cut out of the skin of the yucca
root and placed on top of all his other property, and then the edges of the
cotton were doubled over making all into a ball. This was placed on his
breast, next his body, and he was thus armed and equipped with all he had
used or owned in this world, ready for use in the other; and his heirs
none the poorer.

The body was then enveloped in the piece of ‘‘mastate’’ or bark cloth
that he had used as a blanket, together with the hammock in which he
swung. A quantity of ‘‘platanillo”’ leaves, a leaf not unlike that of the
plantain, but only half the size and much tougher, were placed on the
ground, two or three deep. The bundle was laid on this, the edges of the
leaf envelope, doubled over, and dexterously tied by strips of bark string
and the whole turned out a very respectable Egyptian mummy done in

1875.] 499 [Gabb.

green. By means of three strings, this was swung under a pole, ten feet
long, raised on the shoulders of two men, who trotted off unconcernedly
to the woods a mile or so distant. They were accompanied by two or
three more, armed with machetes.

A little boy whom I had for a servant for a few months, died on one of
my journeys. We watched by him and did all in our power to save him,
and were assisted by two of our men, one of whom was an ‘‘awa’’ or
doctor. As soon as we saw that he was dying, and I had given up the
last hope, the awa took charge. He motioned us all off. From that mo-
ment the moribund becomes unclean and only the awa can touch him.
As soon as we pronounced him dead, the doctor covered him up. Next
morning, the death taking place about midnight, without ceremony he
was bundled up in his blanket and the usual leaves, and carried off in the
same manner to the bush. But he was of no consequence. Only a boy
who was nobody and had done nothing. I mention this case to show the
difference in treatment, according to the person.

Next to a woman in her first pregnancy, the most bu-ku-ru’ (unclean)
thing is a corpse. An animal that passes near one after it is placed in its
temporary resting-place, is defiled forever, and must be killed, as unfit for
food. Accordingly, an unfrequented spot is selected, where tame pigs or
cattle never go. Here a low bench is made of straight sticks, about the
size of a coffin, raised a foot or two from the ground ; it is carefully fenced
in ; the corpse is laid on it, and the whole is then covered with another
horizontal layer, making a sort of box, carefully bound together with
vines. Overall, a pile of branches and brush-wood is thrown so that
buzzards and other carrion-eating animals cannot obtain access to the
body. The body remains here about a year, to allow complete decompo-
sition.

In the meantime, the family, or next of kin, on whom devolves the re-
sponsibility, proceeds to secure a sufficient number of animals, pigs, or
beeves, according to the importance of the defunct. He also plants a
corn-field, to supply the material for the chicha. About. a year, more or
less, after the death, one or more priests are engaged. Generally one is
sought and he selects his assistants. For an ordinary person, one is suf-
ficient ; while for a chief, or person of distinction half-a-dozen are hardly
enough. The chief fixes the time when he will be ready. Another offi-
cial, a steward, called Bi-ka/-kra is also engaged. This latter personage
takes entire charge as commissary and master of ceremonies. Under his
direction, the corn is ground for the chicha. The number of bunches of
plantains that he orders, is obtained ; the animals are killed and cooked
as he direct’ ; and the food and drink are served to whom, and in what
quantities he designates. The host resigns all to him and becomes thence-
forth merely a guest, until all is over. j

When the day approaches, a party goes to the place where the body
was deposited. One person, set apart for similar unclean work, opens
the package, cleans and re-arranges the bones and does them all up ina

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 3M

Gabb.] 500 [Aug 20,

bundle about two feet long ; enveloped in a piece of cloth of native make,
prepared by being painted in an allegorical manner.

These cloths, about four feet long by two wide, are painted with a 1ed
vegetable juice, in figures two to four inches long. The devices vary ac-
cording to the cause of the death of the individual; whether it be from
fever or other disease, old age, snake bite, wounds, &c. One of these
cloths, in the Smithsonian museum, is painted for a person who is sup-
posed to have died from snake bite.

The bones, having been tied up in the new bundle, are carried, again
under a pole, to the house where the feast is to be held, and are there
placed on a little rack overhead, out of the way of persons passing under-
neath.

Everything being ready, the first installment of food cooked, the chi-
cha brewed, and chocolate boiled, the feast begins.

I had the rare good fortune, not only to witness the ceremony at the
death of the persons mentioned above, but also to be present at the death
feast of the chief Santiago. That is to say, I saw all that happened on
the first and the last days; the intervening thirteen or fourteen being all
alike ; a succession of eating, drinking, dancing; a disgusting scene of
carousal and debauch that did not possess even the merit of variety.

The feast was held in a large house, adjoining the residence of the
chief Birche. The house is about seventy-five feet long and forty wide ;
the ends being round, and the only light entering by the large doorway
left open at one end. A little rack, made of wild cane was tied up to the
sloping side of the house, about eight feet from the floor, and on this was
laid the bundle containing the disjointed skeleton of the murdered chief.
At a given signal, the principal singer or priest took his position on a low
stool, flanked by the other priests and some volunteers. All were regaled
with chocolate served in little gourds. The priest began a low chant and
two men started twirling the stick to light the fire. As fast as one tired,
another took his place until the sparks glowed in the pit bored in the
lower stick. A yell from the priest announced this, and a piece of cotton
wool was ignited from the burning dust ; with this the fire-wood, pre-
viously prepared, was lighted and the fire placed under the remains.
Here it was kept up until the end of the feast. After the lighting of the
fire, singing and dancing began in earnest, interrupted occasionally by
eating and drinking.

The dances are very similar ; the principal differences visible to an ob-
server are in the disposition of the dancers, whether in a circle or in one
or two straight lines. In the latter case, the two lines are parallel, and
the dancers face each other. The dancing is kept up to the ‘‘music’’ of
small drums, carved out of a solid piece of wood, with a single head,
made of the belly skin of the iguana; the other end is open. The drum
is held under the left arm, and is beaten with the tips of the fingers of
the right hand. The drummers, ranged in a line, sing a monotonous
song, with a chorus ; the time being beaten on the drums. Sometimes a

1878. | 5OL [Gabb.

dried armadillo skin is scraped with a large bean-like seed ; in the same
manner as I have seen the negroes of the West Indies scrape a roughened
calabash with a bone. The dancers clasp each other over the shoulder,
around the waist, or hook arms; both sexes taking part in the dancing,
but not in the singing or drumming, these being the especial province of
the men. The steps are usually about three forward and to one side, and
then the same number backward. When arranged in a circle, this carries
them gradually around the musicians. Wheninastraight line, they keep
on the same spot. The songs are a sort of recitative, sometimes im-
promptu, sometimes of fixed words ; the chorus a sort of ‘‘fol-de-rol,’’ a
series of meaningless syllables. These songs for dancing must not, how-
ever, be confounded with the sacred songs of the priests, of which I shall
have occasion to make fuller mention in the proper place.

The dances are kept up nearly all, and sometimes all night at the
funeral feast ; the participants retiring from time to time and sleeping an
hour or two when exhausted, and returning with renewed vigor to chi-
cha drinking, eating, and dancing. It is particularly on these occasions,
when the older people are too drunk, or too busy to keep strict watch,
that the younger folks manage to evade their vigilance and ——. These
eminently practical courtships almost invariably precede the asking of
the father’s consent by the would-be bridegroom.

After more than two weeks of this license and debauchery, during
which three cows, about a dozen pigs, hundreds of bunches of plantains,
several quintals of rice, and hundreds of gallons of chicha had been de-
voured, the di-ka-kru or steward announced that the commissary had
given out and the riot must come to anend. I was notified according
to previous agreement and went at the time appointed. As distinguished
guests, our party of four were shown to the best hammocks, where
we were seated, and in a few minutes served with cupsof chocolate. Ina
little while, all of the priests seated themselves on low benches, the leader
in the middle. The lay chorus singers were ranged in a double line
facing each other and below the priests. The fire was carefully carried
from its place under the corpse and piled almost between the feet of the
principal priest. All drank chocolate and the priests sounded their
rattles. The leader began a low dirge-like song in the sacred jargon,
which I was told described in detail the journey of the defunct to the other
world. It told of the dangerous rivers he had to cross, where alligators
lay in wait to devour him ; of the great serpents who disputed his path ;
of the high hills he had. to climb with weary steps ; of the fearful preci-
pices he must scale; of the beautiful birds with sweet songs, compared
with which even the flute-like sé/guero was as a crow; of the gorgeous
butterflies that lightened up the path like flying flowers, and finally of
his safe arrival at the country of the great Si-bu, where he would have
nothing to do but eat, drink, sleep, and enjoy himself.

The song was divided into stanzas, and the priests all followed the lead
of their chief, the words being a series of set phrases, but in a language

Gabb.] 502 [Aug. 20,

in part unintelligible to the uninitiated. At the end of each stanza was
a chorus, where the priests, who during the stanza kept time with their
rattles, now gave a peculiar twirl, and the lay singers joined in the chorus.

As the song approached its end, the leader was furnished with a
big gourd of steaming chocolate, holding about a quart. As he finished,
landing the dear departed safe beyond further troubles, he announced it
with a most unearthly yell, in which all hands joined; he at the same
time turning the chocolate over the tire, totally extinguishing it. The
party at once arose and for a minute or two all was bustle and confusion
of preparation.

A person, whose office it is to handle the dead, endeavored to lower the
bundle but it was a little out of his reach. Nobody else could touch it
for fear of defiling himself. To lend a hand would have cost an Indian
three days of purification, I drew my long knife, which all learn to carry
in this country, as an actual necessity ; and with a couple of blows cut
the fastenings and brought the little cane rack, bundle of bones and all,
tumbling into the outstretched arms of the official, with much more haste
than solemnity. Nobody seemed shocked, and being a foreigner, and
withal a medicine man, who had made cures where their best doctors had
failed, I was of course impregnable to bu-ku-ru’. The aforesaid official
now lashed the package to its stick, and two long slender strings of loose-
ly twisted cotton were tied to the head of the package.

Santiago had had three wives. One of them had re-married to his suc-
cessor; but there were two remaining in widowhood. A procession was
formed. First came the priests with their rattles. Next the chorus
singers with their drums. Next the corpse, borne by two men, and pre-
ceded by the two widows, each holding the end of one of the cotton
strings, leading the dead, as it were, to his final resting-place. Next
ourselves, as the most distinguished persons present, and escorted by the
two chiefs. Behind us came the older men, and following them the usual
rag, tag, and bob-tail of young men, women, boys, and persons of no ac-
count generally. Some of the boys however, true to boy nature, were
as usual irrepressible, and instead of keeping decorously in place, skir-
mished ahead, and on the flanks of the procession, mounting stumps,
logs, or other commanding points to take in the general effect of the
pageant. As the procession filed out of the house, some old chicha jars
were carried out and ostentatiously broken; but I observed that nothing
of real value was destroyed. As soon as the line got fairly under way, the
priests struck up another song which was kept up until the procession
halted.

Everybody had been on go long a debauch that it was decided to take
a rest of three or four days before the party started off. But it was
necessary that the bones should be removed from the house. A tempo-
rary ranch had therefore been built a few hundred yards distant ; and to
this the remains were carried and deposited until the bearers were in a
fit condition to proceed.

1875.] 503 [Gabb.

The final disposal of the remains is a matter of great care. The whole
of the tribe goes to the district of Bri-bri for this purpose. The recepta-
cle is a square pit, about four feet deep and ten feet square. This is
paved on the bottom with stones, and is roofed over from the weather,
by a series of heavy hewn slabs of a very durable wood, open on the front
and ends, and sloping to the ground at the back. Each family possesses
one of these pits and here, after the funeral feast, the bundle of bones is
carried and deposited. After the rest, the remains of Santiago were
carried to the “royal’’ pit and deposited without further ceremony.

The Cabecars, according to Mr. Lyon, have about the same ceremony,
but their pits are mere holes, not paved, and covered by planks laid on
the ground level.

The Tiribis have a death feast, but it differs in some respects from the
others. The body is buried immediately after death, but no longer with
the property of the deceased, and, of course, the defunct is not present at
his final feast, as with the Bri-bris.

Mr. Lyon, to whom I owe much of the information in the present
memoir, has described to me one circumstance, in connec ion with these
death feasts, that I have not witnessed. The warriors among the Bri-
bris, who fought in the war with the Tiribis were honored with a little
different ceremonial. They are now all gone, and the ceremony is ex-
tinct. At the death feast, a person entered, clad in a long gown, wig,
and mask. The gown and wig were made of mastate, or bark cloth,
covered with ‘‘ old man’s beard ”’ moss, sewed all over it, making a shaggy
and nearly shapeless mass. The mask was made of half a ‘‘tree calabash,”’
properly fixed up with a wax nose, &c. A copy of this entire dress was
made for me by an old Indian, and is now in the Smithsonian museum.
The person thus accoutred, took part in the dance, made free with the
women and scared the children without let or hindrance. Mothers with
young children took them to him and placed them for a moment on his
shoulder, ‘‘to prevent the evil spirit from doing them harm.” Neither
Lyon nor the Indians could give me a very clear account of what spirit,
whether good or evil, this represented. But tle people seemed to regard
him as rather of the malevolent sort; to be classed under the general
head of ‘‘ 62”? or Devil. Doubtless this, at one time had a distinct mean-
ing, now lost.

No strictly religious belief can be said to exist among these Indians, in
the sense that it is usually understood among us. They have, however,
a series of ideas or beliefs which affect their daily lives and are never lost
sight of. In connection with the funeral feast, described above, I have
referred to their idea of a future state.

During the year that the body lies in the woods, the disembodied spirit
prowls around, living on wild fruits, of which the wild cacao is the only
one of which I know the name, although others weie also pointed out to
me. At the end of that time, when the funeral fire is kindled, the spirit
is thus attracted to the feast, whence it departs on its final journey.

=
Gabb.] 5OL [ Aug. 20,

When I asked an Indian where it went, he responded, to the country of
Si-bu’, and in reply to the question; where is that? he pointed un-
hesitatingly to the zenith. Oa inquiring where the road was, he told me it
was invisible to the eyes of the living, but that the spirit (wig'bru) coull
see it.

In the other world there are no troubles, no cares. There is plenty to
eat and to drink, of those things that the Indian loves most here. Plan-
tains and corn are never wanting ; meat and chicha are always to be had ;
and chocolate, the luxury, par excellence of the Costa Rican Indian never
runs uut, or becomes scarce as, alas too often, it does in Talamanca. He
needs all his arms and implements, but it does not seem that he will be
obliged to work. These little discrepancies, the wisest 7'sw-gur does not
attempt to explain. After death, the soul remains wandering about near
the corpse until the burial feast. Then, by means of the songs of the
Tsu-gurs or priests, it makes its jou:ney to the ‘‘ promised land.”

Their superstitions are however, somewhat more definite and tangible
since they affect their every day actions. There are two classes of un-
cleanness, nyw aud bu-ku-ru’. Auything that is essentially filtby, or that
was connected with the death of a person is “ nya,’’ anything unclean in
the Hebraic or Hindu sense is bu-ku-ru’. But bu-ku-ru/ is even more
powerful than it is supposed to be by the Orientals. It suffices not only
to make one sick, but even kills. Ina party where du-ku-ru’ is excited,
it does not affect all alike, but only attacks the weakest. Bu-ku-rw!
emanates in a variety of ways ; arms, utensils, even houses become affected
by it after long disuse and before they can be used again must be puri-
fied. In the case of portable objects left undisturbed for a Jong time, the
custom is to beat them with a stick before touching them. I have seen a
woman take a long walking stick and beat a basket hanging from the
roof of a house by a cord. On asking what that was for, I was told that
the basket contained her treasures, that she would probably want to take
something out tne next day and that she was driving off the du-ku-ru’,
A house long unused must be swept and then the person who is purifying
it must take a stick and beat not only the movable objects, but the
beds, posts, and in short, every accessible part of theinterior. The next
day it is fit for occupation. A place not visited for along time or reached
for the first time, is bu-ku-ru’. On our return from the ascent of Pico
Blanco, nearly all the party suffered from little calenturas, the result of
extraordinary exposure to wet and cold andof want of food. The Indians
said that the peak was especially bu-ku-ru’, since nobody had ever been
on it before. Even we foreigners were sick from it, and had any of them
gone tothe summit, they would have surely died. On one occasion, while
buying some implements, I pulled down off a rack, two or three ‘blow
guns”’ that, from the dust on them, must have lain there undisturbed for
weeks, perhaps months. As I reached out my hand, I heared the warn-
ing ery of ‘‘bu-ku-ru!” from all around ; laughingly disregarding it, and
telling them that bu-ku-ru’ couldn’t hurt us, I began examining them.

1875.) 505 [Gabb.

Some of the people looked very serious and shaking their heads, said I
would see before long, that somebody would pay for it. Two or three
weeks after, a fine little Indian boy whom I had with me as a servant,
poisoned himself by eating excessively of a kind of wild almond called
variously the‘ bri-bri,’’ or ‘‘eboe’’ nut. There was not an Indian in that
party but who firmly believed that it was the bu-ku-rw’ of the blow-guns
that killed him. From all the foregoing, it would seem that bu-hw ru’ is
a sort of evil spirit that takes possession cf the objects, and resents being
disturbed; but I have never been able to learn from te Indians that they
consideritso. They seem to think of it as a property the object acquires.
But the worst du-ku-ru’ of all, is that of a young woman in her first
pregnancy. She infects the whole neighborhood. Persons going from the
house where she lives, carry the infection with them to a distance, and all
the deaths or other serious misfortunes in the vicinity are laid to her charge.
In the old times, when the savage laws and customs were in full force, it
was not an uncommoa thing for the husband of such a woman to be
obliged to pay damages for casualties thus caused by his unfortunate wife.
Nya (iterally filth) is a much less serious affair. As soon as the woman
is delivered of her child, she ceases to be du-ku-ru', but becomes nya and
has to be purified in the manner already described. All the objects that
have been in contact with a person just dead, are nya and must be either
thrown away, destroyed, or purified by a ‘doctor.’ He can handle them,
but must purify himself afterwards. The persons who assist in prepar-
ing the corpse, who carry it to the temporary resting-place, or who even
accidentally touch it or the unclean things, are all nya and must be
purified.

Purification from this latter uncleanness is a simple matter. The per-
son washes his hands ina calabash of warm water, the “ doctor”? blowsa
few whiffs of tobacco-smoke over him, and the thing is done. But the
former is much more serious. For three days the patient eats no salt in
his food, drinks no chocolate, uses no tobacco, and if a married man,
sleeps apart from his wife. At the expiration of that time, the warm
water and tobacco smoke are called into requisition and the cleansing is
complete.

Of Gods, deities, spirits, or devils, there are as follows; the ‘‘ great
spirit’? or principal superhuman | being is called Si-bu’ by the Bri-bris and
by the Cabecars ; by the Tiribis he is called Zi- bo’, by the Terrabas Zi-bo’
and by the Bomicae! Si/-biuh. A good spirit, from whom nothing is to be
feared, he receives a sort of passive respect, but no adoration or worship.
He is rather looked on as the chief of the good country, of the future
state, but as not troubling himself much about mundane matters. It
will be seen, therefore, that in their theology, the entire family of tribes is
essentially monotheistic, although they have taken the first insensible
step towards a plurality of gods; in the manner so admirably indicated
by Max Miller, in his ‘‘Chips from aGerman Workshop.’”’ They believe
in but one God, and assert his unity with anemphasis worthy of Moslems

Gabb.} 506 [Aug. 20,

and yet their priests give him twenty names, in their songs. These
names, so far as I could ascertain, all refer to his qualities. One Bri-bri,
whom I had with me as aseryant for over half a year, and from whom I ob-
tained much valuable information, particularly in regard to the language,
said to me, ‘‘ Why do you foreigners ask us how many Gods there are ?
There is only one, and that is Si-bw’.’’

The Devil, or devils, are minor personages, who receive no worship of
any kind. They are called, Bi, by the Bri-bris and Cabecars, Aw in
Tiribi, Avh in Terraba, and Ka-gro' in Boruca. The devil is generally
malevolent, but does not seem to be specially feared. Li among the Bri-
bris is a term also used for a variety of lesser devils, or evil spirits who
have special missions, like making people sick, Gc. Some of these in-
habit the less frequented parts of the forests and mountains, and are.
very jealous of their domains. People entering an unfrequented region,
make as little noise as possible. If they make the local Bi angry with
their noise, he will revenge himself by a shower or by causing somebody
to fall and hurt himself, or to be bitten by a snake, &c. A person who
has once been in these places can return with less risk, but all new-comers
must keep at least a comparative silence. Another class of beings inhabit
the rocks on the summits of certain mountain peaks. They live inside
the rocks, net among them, consequently their habitations are undis-
tinguishable to mortal eyes, They seem to have the same habits as
ordinary humans. One of these peaks, a mile or two across a canon, in
front of a place called Sar-we, is thus inhabited according to the accounts
of the people of Sar-we. They told me of hearing singing, the beating
of drums, &c., coming from that direction. The configuration of the
hills is such that a glance showed me, that a drum beaten at certain of
the houses in the cafion of Uren, would echo back from this hill to Sar-we
and thus account for the sounds. These people of the U-juwms, as the
naked peaks are called, are said to be the owners of the tapirs which
roam through these solitudes. They are very jealous of their domains
and cause, by some occult means, the death of any one who dares ap-
proach their homes. I could not induce an Indian to accompany us to
the summit of Pico Blanco, partly on account of bu-ku-ru’, and perhaps
more still for fear of the people of the U-jum or peak. In addition to
these beliefs, they also believe in the efficacy of incantation by their Awas
or doctors, of whom more immediately ; and further in certain ceremo-
nies or observances of their own. I have seen a woman carefully collect
a bunch of some weed and taking it to the river wash her face, neck,
breast, and arms with it. This was to bring good luck to the men who
were at the time at work turning a stream to dry its bed, for the purpose
of catching fish. She had her reward ; hundreds of fish of 2 to 4 pounds
weight were captured, and of a quality as fine as shad.

There is a peculiar wood, of which I shall have occasion to speak
further on, used only for walking sticks for the chiefs and more eminent
persons. The growing tree is unknown and it is only obtained by the

—

fe
1875.] 507 [Gabb.

accidental discovery at rare intervals, of a half-rotten trunk in the woods.
It is prized principally for its color, which is between that of old mahog-
any and rosewood, and which is probably in part due to seasoning, or to
some change in the heart, consequent on the decomposition of the sur-
face. When an Indian finds one of these sticks, he marks the spot, but
dares not take possession immediately. He must purify himself by a
three days fast before he can begin work on it. It is believed that these
sticks are under the protection of a poisonous snake, and if the person
has not properly prepared himself, the guardian will revenge the outrage
by biting him.

The privileged classes, apart from the chiefs, are three. Two of these
are hereditary. The U-se’-ka-ra is a sort of high priest, and is of nearly
as great importance in the eyes of the people as the chief. In fact, the
time was, and not very long ago either, when the chiefs themselves made
journeys to visit him as suppliants. The present incumbent is a youth
of perhaps twenty-five years of age, and is not yet full fledged. His pre-
decessor, his father, died recently, and, until after the funeral feast, he
cannot enter fully into the exercise of his functions. The family lives far
back in the hills of Cabecar, and, although a member of that despised
tribe, has from time immemorial held undisputed sway over both it and
the Bri-bris.

The former U-se/-ka-ra was very arrogant, and would hold no commu-
nication with foreigners. He claimed supernatural powers, and held fre-
quent interviews with spirits. On these occasions he went alone to a cave,
several miles from his house, and spent days together there. On his
return he would not converse even with his own family. Nobody but his
familiar, now a very old man, was allowed to serve him, or even to speak
to him for a certain number of days after his return from one of these
mysterious journeys. He rarely traveled about, or visited his neighbors.
He lived by levying contributions on the people, or by voluntary presents.
His only beverage was chocolate, and the cacao was contributed as
voluntary gifts from people far and near. If he entered a house, and
offered to buy, or expressed even admiration for anything, whether a
chicken, a pig, or any other object, it was at once presented to him. It
was considered as good as forfeited. If not presented, it would be sure
to die anyhow, and his ill-will would be gained besides. In case of any
public calamity, like an epidemic disease, or a scarcity of food from
drought, the chief only must visit him, and beg his intercessions with the
spirits. He would pay no attention to private appeals. In case he felt
inclined to be gracious, he would retire to his cave, and in due time after
order a fast. The young man who now holds the position, is one of
the finest looking men in the country. He is tall and well formed, his
good-natured looking face bears an expression of seriousness hardly in
keeping with his youth ; and his whole bearing is grave and impressive.
I was forcibly struck by his manner, being so strongly in contrast with
the light-hearted, talkative character of most of the people. When in

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 3N ~

Gabb. ] 508 [Aug. 20,

Cabecar he visited us twice, and on neither occasion did he speak, except
when spoken to, unless it was to make some remark, in very few words,
and in a low tone of voice, to some of his attendants. His dress consisted
of a white shirt, not over clean, a woven cotton breech-cloth, a bright-red
handkerchief, tied in a roll around his head, aad a magnificent necklace
of four strands of large tiger’s teeth. He sold me two of the strings for
half-a-dollar, and I presented him with some trifles, among which was the
rather suggestive article, a bar of soap. He accepted them without any
acknowledgment. But then they don’t know how to say, ‘‘thauk
you.”’

Next in importance are the 7’su’/-gurs. These are the ordinary priests,
and their duties are confined to officiating at the feast for the dead. Like
the preceding, they are hereditary ; only members of one or two families
can become priests, and these seem to have all descended from a common
ancestor. I have already described the performances of the 7’su/-gur at the
death-feast of Santiago, and there is nothing to add in that connection.
Other feasts only differ in the less degree of profusion and the shorter
time they occupy. But there is one circumstance of which I have said
little, and that has always seemed to me mysterious. Unfortunately, from
no want of effurt on my part, I was not successful in investigating this
more thoroughly. The songs of these priests are in a language, dialect,
or jargon, whichever it may be called, in great part unintelligible to.the
uninitiated. Some words used are in the vernacular, but many of the
nouns are peculiar. Si-bu, or God, has at least twenty names ; many na-
tural objects have names peculiar to the priests, and the difference is so
great that not only I, with my imperfect knowledge of the language, but
Mr. Lyon, who speaks it as well as an Indian, could not understand even
the purport of the songs. These songs are taught by rote to the young
candidates to the priesthood, and are always rehearsed by the priests
apart, before being sung. I made several efforts to obtain a vocabulary, but
in each case was defeated, rather by the want of understanding on the part
of the priest, than from avy unwillingness to impart what they knew. At
last I made an agreement with the most intelligent and best informed of
them. He was to visit me at a certain time and answer all my questions
—for a consideration. Buta severe attack of rheumatism prevented his ~
coming and lost me the last chance. I have no theory to offer as to the
origin of this singular fact. But two explanations however, seem pos-
sible. Either the whole thing is an invention, which I think hardly proba-
ble, or the system is an exotic, and the songs are in the original language
of the missionary who introduced it. I can hardly express my regret at
failing to obtain some clue to so interesting a problem.

Finally come the Azwas, sorcerers, or doctors. This is an open profes-
sion, and since it requires but little preparation, gives certain privileges
an standing, and brings occasional emoluments, it is pretty numerously
filled. The fellows are an arrant set of quacks, and I do not believe there
is a single one whoacts in good faith. Nevertheless, the people as a rule

1875. | 509 [Gabb.

believe in them. Some of the more intelligent or more civilized of the
Indians, these who have been most in contact with foreigners, take for-
eign medicines when sick, but they are the exceptions. Their method of
purifying an unclean person has already been described under the heads
of child-birth and uncleanness. They.also claim to bring or drive away

rain. To dothis, the doctor must have a pipe full of tobacco, or a cigar.

He goes into the open air, smokes, blows the smoke in certain directions,
calling out in an imperative tone of voice, ‘‘ Rain, go to—’’ whatever
place he may see fit to designate. Once when prisoners between two

swollen rivers, forced to wait for them to fall low enough for us to ford ;
one of our few means of amusement was to give one of these fellows, in
our suite, a pipe full of tobacco, and set him to clearing up the weather.

He would go outside of our little hut, and between the puffs of smoke
would call out, ‘‘Rain, go to Panama,”’ ‘‘go0 to Chiriqui,’’ ‘‘go to Car-
tago,’’ in short, to every remote place of which he happened to know the
name. It took him ten days before his efforts were crowned with success,

and when ultimately the blue patches did begin to appear in the sky, he
had the effrontery to calmly claim it as his doing! They also claim to
‘blow’ a proposed route of travel, so as to drive away snakes and bring
good luck on the route. In this case, the modus operandi is practically
the same as for the weather. But their master efforts are when charming
away sickness. To see the process, two of my companions feigned sick-

ness and called in the services of one the doctors. He caused each one

to procure a live chicken. Catching the animal by the neck and heels he
made passes all over the body of the patient, in every direction. Any
small animal will answer. Sloths, opossums, even young alligators are
used, and are said to be equally efficacious.

After some minutes of this manipulation, he lighted a pipe and blew
tobacco-smoke at them. Having given them numerous injunctions about
diet, such as forbidding the use of coffee, tobacco, pepper, and salt for a
day or two, he went outside the house, and spent half the night seated
under an orange tree, singing a doleful ditty, enlivened at irregular
periods by unearthly howls and groans. His fee for all this was, in addi-
tion to the two fowls, used in the ceremony, and which was all he would
have received from an Indian, sixty cents from one and forty from the
other ; the fees being graduated by the gravity of the supposed infirmi-
ties. These doctors claim that their powers are based on the magic
merits of certain charms they carry about with them. These charms are
supposed to be calculi, extracted from the viscera of animals. Our friend,
who tried to change the weather, possessed three of these. One pur-
ported to be from the liver of a sloth, another from the bladder of some other
animal, &c. I examined them with a glass, and am convinced that they
were mere fragments of little calcareous veins, common in the metamor-
phic rocks of the country, and which had been ground smooth by friction.
My little knowledge of medicine, and a moderately well-supplied medi-
cine-case, enabled me to make numerous cures, and of course I soon

Gabb.] 510 - [Aug. “20,

acquired the title of Awa. When asked by my brother professionals to
exhibit my charms, I always gravely produced my little pocket compass,
which, by its mysterious movements, never failed to impress them. I
never could persuade the boldest to touch it.

Three kinds of fasts are observed. The first is only when ordered by
the U-se'-ka-ra on great public occasions. This is general and simulta-
neous overall the country. Sufficient food is prepared beforehand to last
for three days, the usual time fixed. During those three days, no fires
are lighted; the food is served and eaten in silence ; no unnecessary
conversation is allowed; the people stay strictly inside their houses, or if
they go out during day time, they carefully cover themselves from the
light of the sun, believing that exposure to the sun’s rays would “‘turn
them black’’; no salt or other condiment is usedin the food ; no chocolate
is drunk, and even tobacco is forbidden. The second kind is similar,
though less rigid than the first, and is voluntary; the same restrictions
are observed with reference to fires and food, but the people may talk
and go out, avoiding, however, carefully all chance of contact with
bu-ku-ru’. The tind! is still more limited, and is the individual fast
already referred to for cleansing from bu-ku-ru’.

The feasts are of two classes; the death feast already described, and
re-unions for labor. In the Teter case ; when a person wants to do an
extraordinary piece of work, like clearing a piece of forest for a planta-
tion, he provides a suitable quantity of food, and especially of chicha.
On the day appointed his neighbors unite early at his house, or at the
spot designated, and work industriously until about noon. All then re-
pair to the house, and, after a good round of chicha drinking, food is
served, followed by more chicha. After a while dancing begins, and is
kept up as long as the chicha holds out. Sometimes the work is con-
tinued for two or three days, but always ends early in the day, the after-
noon and evening being devoted to eating and especially to drinking.

No labor can be accomplished without liberal allowances of chicha, and
the man who is the most profuse in this respect is the best fellow. A
man will sometimes undertake to make his own clearing, unassisted, but
it is very slow work, and drags on at the rate of two or three hours’ work
a day, with many days of rest. The trees once cut down, the man will
burn off the brush, assisted by his sons, or sons-in-law, if he has any, and
then plants his crop ; usually corn for making more chicha. After that
it has to take care of itself. He goes out occasionally to hunt, fish, or some-
times to bring a bunch of plantains. When the corn is nearly ripe, the
boys have to watch it to scare off the parrots and pigs. If there are no
boys in the family, then all hands usually go and occupy a little shed in,
or on the edge of the cornfield. They feast on the green and ripening
corn until it is too hard to boil, and then collect what has been left to
ripen.

The labor of the women is to bring plantains and water, and to cook
and wash. They are never required to do work in the plantation, unless

1875.] 511 [Gabb.

it be perhaps, to help gather and to help carry home the corn. All the
sewing is done by the men, even of the little shirts or jackets worn by
the women. In carrying loads, the women rival the men in power and
endurance. It is nothing uncommon to see a woman, with a big load on
her back, and her year old baby seated on top, with his little legs dang-
ling over the front edge of the load. The little monkeys ride securely
there through the bush and dodge the overhanging vines and branches as
expertly as could be done by an old horseman. When working for each
other the people use their own machetes and axes, as a matter of course ;
but when hired by a foreigner, they invariably expect to be furnished with
tools by their employer.

Domestic industry is at the very lowest ebb. Manufactures can hardly
be said to exist. The only articles made, beyond furniture, arms &c., are
hammocks, net bags, cotton cloth, and pottery. All of these are coarse
and inferior in quality. None of the skill exhibited by the Guatemalan
Indians exists here. The hammocks are made of a coarse twine, derived
from the leaves of a species of agave, and are loosely woven in a frame?
with a needle. They are hardly long enough for an ordinary person to
lie at length in them with comfort, and are used more for seats than for
sleeping. They are swung between the posts of the house, near the door,
and at a height of from a foot to a foot and a half from the floor. Every-
thing is carried in net bags. They are made with a needle of bone and
“meshed ’’ like our fish nets. Some of them are very fine and they are
of all sizes, from three inches to two feet deep. They are suspended by
a string made of the same material, usually an inch wide and woven
openly, in the same manner as the hammocks. . The material of the finer
and ordinary bags is the fibre of a species of aloe, or agave, much finer
than that used for hammocks, and naturally nearly white. Jt is usually
dyed of various colors to suit the fancy of the maker. The colors are
obtained from several of the native plants and are very durable. A
coarser kind is made of the same fibre as the hammocks. These are made
with larger meshes, and are used to carry plantains, corn &c., from the
field to the house. ;

The people of Tiribi procure all their bags from the Bri-bris, and I
believe, their hammocks also. The Valientes, living beyond the Tiribis,
in the adjoining parts of the District of Chiriqui, make similar bags, but
much finer and mure elaborately wrought. The colors inthe Bri-bri nets
are always arranged in simple bands, while the patterns of the Valiente
nets are often complicated and exhibit considerable taste.

Belts, breech-cloths, cloths for wrapping the bones of the dead, and
women’s petticoats are woven of cotton. The cotton is raised with no
care beyond planting a few seeds and allowing the plants to take care of
themselves. They grow to the height of ten or twelve feet, and almost
every house has a few in its vicinity. The yellow flowers, buds, and open
bolls are seen all the year round, together on every tree. The women
collect the ripe cotton, pick it from the seeds with their fingers and spin

Gabb.] 51 2 [Aug. 20,

it. The loom is a simple frame of four sticks, the two upright ones are
planted in the ground ; the other two rudely tied to these. The warp is
wrapped around the two horizontal bars and a simple contrivance of
threads is arranged to open and reverse it. The thread for the woof
wound on slender sticks is then passed through in the usual manner and
driven tight by blows of a smooth stick. The process is exceedingly slow
and tedious and I have never seen it performed except by the men. The
belts are usually two to three inches wide and four or five feet long.
Breech-cloths are about four feet long and a litle more then a foot wide.
The cloths for the dead and the women’s petticoats are wider and a trifle
longer. Except the cloths for the dead, which are woven white and after-
wards painted, most of this cotton work is ornamented with colors. Be-
sides native vegetable dyes, the people of Bri-bri buy cotton dyed a dirty
purple with the blood of the murez. This is procured from the people of
Terraba on the Pacific. They also now occasionally buy colored threads
of foreign production, especially a rich bluish purple, of which they are
particularly fond. All of this weaving is with very coarse thread, nearly
as thick as the finer twines used by shopkeepers in the United States for
tying small packages. The cloth is consequently coarse in texture and
rough in appearance, but closely woven and soft to the feel. It makes
excellent towels, though rather heavy for that purpose. The largest
piece of work of this kind I ever saw, was a blanket large enough to cover
a good sized double bed. It was in possession of an old woman who
wanted to sell it to me for a cow, and refused ten dollars cash.

The pottery now made is the coarsest and poorest I have ever seen.
None of the finely made and elaborately ornamented vessels found in the
huacas or graves are made at present. The use, for half a century or
more, of foreign cast-iron pots and kettles has restricted this industry,
and possibly helped to injure the character of the work. But two or
three vessels taken by me from Tiribi graves, certainly not less than fifty
or sixty years old, are in no respect superior to those made at the present
day. Native earthenware is now only used for receptacles for chicha. The
jars are large-—say from ten to twenty gallons capacity. The form is very
simple, the workmanship is rough, the clay is coarse and badly mixed,
_ the burning is almost always imperfect, and they are always without the
slightest attempt at ornament. The jars are moulded by hand, the clay
being added spirally, and moulded by the fingers and trimmed with a
smooth stick, in exactly the same manner as I have seen done by the
negro women in Santo Domingo. After a certain amount of drying, they
are burnt in the open air, in a fire of sticks heaped over them. Hach jar
is burnt separately. ; :

Although not given to unnecessary exertion, these people travel occa-
sionally from house to house, and even make journeys to Terraba and
Limon. The laziest will gladly walk for two days toadance. They also
occasionally go off into the less frequented regious to collect sarsaparilla,
with which to buy whatever of foreign manufacture they may want, like

Sila
1875. ] 515 [Gabb.

axes, machetes, cotton cloth, &e. They never travel alone; always two
or more going in company. This is a very prudent measure, since acci-
dents are liable to happen, like snake-bites, or a bad fall, and a person
alone and disabled in these wilds, would be more than apt to die before
he would be discovered. The preparations for a trip into the forest are
simple, but require time. If there are no plantains to be found in the
neighborhood to which they are going, a large supply is collected. They
are skinned, boiled, and dried hard in the smoke of a slow fire. This is to
diminish the weight. A sufficient supply of corn is ground and made
into a paste, either with or without the admixture of ripe plantain, for
chicha. Thisis done up in bundles of about a gallon and a half in bulk,
carefully wrapped in large leaves and tied with strips, torn from the foot-"
stalk of the plantain leaf. At last, all being ready, every person loaded
with all he or she can carry, they start out, the loads done up in as com-
pact a bulk as possible and carried on the back, suspended from the fore-
head by a strip of mastate, or bark cloth. Each person also carries in the
hand a staff, four or five feet long, made of some tough wood. For ordi-
nary purposes, the entire trunk of certain slender palm trees is used.
This makes a stick about as thick as an ordinary civilized walking stick,
but very strong, and sufficiently elastic to yield a little without breaking.
The chiefs and a few other persons of consequence, like the priests, usually
carry a stick of the red wood described above. This is neither so strong
nor so light as the palm stick, but it is a privilege of rank, and is pre-
ferred in consequence. If the party is going ona trading trip-—while the
stronger members carry the load of sarsaparilla or rubber, still there are
always some, either women or boys, who carry the inevitable bundles of
chicha paste. Even when going from one house to another visiting, or to
a dance, the chicha is not forgotten, unless the distance is so short that
they are not liable to become thirsty onthe road. On arriving at a house,
the party enters without a word, and each person seats himself where
most convenient, but as near the door as possible. The owner of the
house, or in his absence, his wife or the next most responsible person
approaches the new arrivals and salutes with, ‘‘ You have come;” “I
have come;”’ ‘‘Are you well?”’ ‘‘I am well, howare you?”’ ‘‘L[am well.”’ If
a particular friend, or a person of consequence, he is invited to seat him-
self ina hammock. The people of less importance are allowed to take
care of themselves. In afew minutes the women of the house approach
with calabashes or vessels made of folded leaves full of chicha. If choco-
late is to be had, it is prepared at once, and offered in place of chicha.
This is a delicate attention, only shown to friends or persons of considera-
tion. Common folks must be content with chicha. Whether chocolate or
chica, it is served at least three times, at very short intervals, and at last,
when you cannot swallow any more, the polite thing is to say to the per-
son offering 11, ‘‘drink it yourself,”’ an advice usually followed, and which
stops the supply. If the people are particularly inclined to be hospitable,
and are fortunate enough to be well supplied, it is not uncommon for the

Gabb.] : 514 [Aug. 20,

visitor to be overwhelmed with little presents of food. I have been pre-
sented within half an hour, in one house, with five calabashes of choco-
late, at least half-a-dozen quarts of chicha, a dozen or more ears of green
corn, and a dozen ripe bananas. The little boys, with whom I made
friends, fared sumptuously, for it wasn’t polite for me to refuse any-
thing.

The houses of the Bri-bris are usually circular, from thirty to fifty feet
in diameter, and about the same in height. They are composed of long
poles, reaching from the ground to the apex. These rest on a ring of
withes or vines, tied in bundles, eight or ten inches thick, and resting on
a series of upright crotched posts, set in the ground in a circle about a
third smaller than the outer circumference of the house. Above this ring,
if the house is large, are one or two more, according to its size, not rest-
ing on posts, but tied to the sloping poles. The whole is thickly thatched
with palm leaves, aud finished at the apex by an old earthen jar, to stop
the leaks. There is but one aperture to the house, and this is a large,
squarely cut door, left on one side. Over the door there is sometimes
made a little shed, to keep the rain out. The interior is always very dark.
Sometimes, among the Bri-bris, instead of building the house in a cireular
form, it is elongated and has a ridge-pole, but the ends are rounded, and
the door is in one of the ends.

Formerly the Cabecar houses were built in the same style; but now
most of them are mere sheds, sloping to one side only and open at the
ends and in front. The most pretentious house I saw in Cabecar was a
roof sloping to both sides from a ridge pole to the ground, but open at
both ends. The Tiribi houses are simply a roof. raised on short posts,
sloping both ways from the ridge but open all around below. Mr. Lyon
told me that formerly the Tiribis as well as the Cabecars had round houses
like the Bri-bris, but that the present style is due only to carelessness.
The tribes are dwindling so rapidly that they seem to have lost heart even
jn so importanta thing as building comfortable houses ; and are content to
put up with any make-shift that will shelter them from the weather. The
Bri-bri houses are not only better constructed but are much better fur-
nished than those of their neighbors. Beds are placed around the house
in the space between the posts and the sloping sides. These are made
by planting in the ground two sticks, forked at the upper ends ; cross-
sticks are laid on these, the other ends being lashed with vines to the
sloping rafters. Over these two horizontal sticks are placed boards made
of the outer shell of a species of palm ; or wild cane is lashed close together.
Tn front of the beds are slung hammocks, between the posts, or to the ends
of horizontal sticks projecting a little beyond them. The fire is placed
opposite the door near the back side of the house. It is kept up by plac-
ing close together, the ends of three large logs which are pushed up as
they burn off. Over the fire is a barbacue or frame, sufficiently high to
let people pass under it. On it is placed food to keep it out of the way
of the dogs, pigs, chickens, and ants. The smoke of the fire is sufficient

1875. ] D515 [Gabb,

protection from the latter. Back of the fire-place are ranged the chicha
jars, two or three in number. Being round bottomed, they stand on the
floor propped up by stones. Scattered around the house are stools or
benches, rarely more than six inches high, each carved out of a solid
block of wood. They generally have four feet, though occasionally a
small, roughly made one is seen, with but two feet, and which is only
kept in upright position when somebody is sitting on it. The pots and
kettles about the fire are all of American cast iron, aud vary in size from
less than a quart to ten gallons capacity. Hanging from the barbacue
over the smoke, is generally seen a cocoanut shell or a leaf bundle full of
salt. Itis kept here because it is the only place where it will remain dry.
Suspended from the roof are baskets of from one to three cubic feet
capacity. They are usually made of a peculiar, very hard, and very flex-
ible vine. These are the trunks of the people, and in them are kept their
clothing and all of their little personal treasures and ornaments. They are
also used for storing corn or other seeds, like beans, the basket being then
lined with leaves to prevent spilling. The women also use them for
carrying water calabashes. These are either gourds or the shells of the
fruit of the calabash tree, with a small round hole cut in one end. One
other use of the baskets is to carry loads when the net bags are scarce.
These nets are also often suspended about the house in the same manner
as the baskets. Axes, always of the make of Collins, of Connecticut,
and long machetes, either of this or of some inferior make, are to be
found in every house. Collins’ hardware has gained a permanent reputa-
tion among. these people, who will give twice as much for a leather
handled machete of this brand, as for any other kind. Of other tools,
the most noteworthy is a heavy stick sharpened to a chisel edge at one
end and beveled on one side. This is used for making holes in planting
corn or plantain sprouts, and the edge is used to beat down high grass.
It works almost as effectually as a scythe. Hooked sticks for lifting the
iron kettles, others cut with short radiating branches at the end, like a
_five or six pointed star, for stirring chocolate, and paddles for stirring
food are always found near the fire. Calabashes and gourds with small
holes cut in one end for water bottles, and other calabashes cut in half
for drinking cups, are also found in every house. Food usually, and even
drink sometimes, are served in leaves, called in Spanish ‘‘ platanillo,’’
smaller and tougher, but otherwise resembling those of the plantain.
These are dexterously folded so as to hold a quart or move of fluid with-
out spilling.

Of arms, besides the inevitable machete and very good double-barreled
guns, they possess hows made of a very tough kind of palm wood. They
are straight and usually about five feet long. The string is made of the
finer kind of agave fibre. The arrows are of three kinds. All have a
butt two and a half to three feet long, made from the light flower stalk
of the wild cane. This is a mass of pith, with a thin hard shell on the
outside, giving the requisite stiffness. They are not feathered. The

A. P.S.—VOL. XIV. 380

Gabb.] 51 6 [Aug. 20,

front end, from two to even four feet long, is made of the same wood as
the bow. For fish this is sharpened to a point and is barbed 0a one, two,
or even three edges, or is made round. For quadrupeds, the wood is
shorter, not barbed, and is tipped with a lance-like head made by
laboriously grinding down an old knife blade to the requisite form. For
small birds, the head ends in a broad round button, flat on the face... The
Tiribis use also a little arrow, ending in a slightly open bunch of small
reeds. These are for killing a fish, common ia the Tilorio, never more
than five or six inches long, and which rests attached to rocks by a sucking
surface. The fish is so small that several points are necessary to the
arrow, so that if ove does not strike another may. No poison is used on
the arrows, and, in fact the people seem to know of none. In their
quarrels, a stick is used over six feet long, nearly an inch thick and
about two inches wide, and made of the same wood as the bows, arrows,
and planting-sticks. It is very heavy and is grasped by the fingers and
thumbs of both hands in such a manner that they are guarded from a
blow. They guard and strike an ‘‘over-blow’’ always holding by both
hands. They are going out of use now that the people have discovered
the easier, but more dangerous process of litigation. Cracked heads and
broken arms give wayto damages. For killing small birds the blow-gun
is used. This isa tube seven or eight feet long, made by punching and
burning the pith out from the heart of a palm trunk, nearly two inches
thick. They are made very straight and true inside, and are provided
with a double sight on top, made of two glass beads placed half an inch
aoart: when finished they are covered with some resin or a species of
pitch to keep them from cracking or warping. The missiles are clay
balls. These, previously prepared are carried in a little net, with them
there are two bone implements. One, simply a straight heavy piece of
bone used to drive a ball out of the tube by its weight, in case of sticking.
The other is similar in appearance, but the end is worked into a round
pit with sharp edges, for trimming the balls to the proper size and shape.
During the war between the Bri-bris and Tiribis, at the beginning of this
century, the principal arm used was an iron-headed lance fastened to a
shaft barely four feet long. For defense, round shields were carried on
the arm, made of tle thickest part of the hide of the tapir. I was
fortunate enough to secure specimens of both, together with nearly all
the other implements, &c., described in the present paper. They are all
in the Smithsonian Museum.

All people have some kind of music which doubtless gives pleasure to
them, although to our unappreciative ears it may sound rude and dis-
agreeable. The Marimba, an African instrument, found all over semi-
civilized Central America, is unknown here. I cannot understand the
surprise of an eminent African traveler, who writes wonderingly of the
coincidence, of finding this instrament in use in Africa and among the
Indians of Central America. It was introduced with the African slaves
and has been retained among their descendants and neighbors. The

>
1875.] 514 [Gabb.

savage Indians do not possess it. The drum is their greatest favorite.
It is from twenty inches to two feet long, cylindrical for half its length,
with a diameter Of six or seven inches ; it then tapers convexly to near
the other end and then widens out a little. The pattern is always the
same, and the size varies but a few inches. The larger end is tightly
covered with the skin from the belly of the ignana lizard. It is giued on
by fresh blood, being held in place with string untildry. <A cord tied
around each end suspends it loosely from the left shoulder, and it is held
under the lefs arm, being beaten with the tips of the fingers of the right
hand. It is used principally to accompany and keep time to singing and
is an indispensable part of every feast or gathering of whatever kind.
To accompany the invigorating music of the drum and help the din, an
armadillo skin is sometimes used. This is scraped over the rings with a
large hard bean-like seed. It at least helps to add to the noise, if
it does not contribute melody. A little flute, about as musical as a penny
whistle, is sometimes added to the concert, though it seems rather to be
looked upon asa toy. These flutes are made of a bone of some bird, per-
haps a pelican. The bone has half-a-dozen holes drilled in it, and the
end is plugged with wax, so as to direct the air to the larger apertuie
near the end. I bought one from a Tiribi made of a deer’s bone. The
priests use in their songs a rattle, made of a small pear-shaped tree cala-
bash, lashed to a bone at the small end. This contains a few seeds of the
‘‘shot plant,’? er Canna. It is held upright and solemnly shaken in time
with the song until the end of the stanza, when, as a signal for the chorus
to strike in, it is given a dexterous twirl, throwing the seeds rapidly around
inside. On very solemn occasions a curious box is also used. It is about
eight inches long by four square on the end. It is carved out hollow, with
a long tongue on one face, isolated by a U-shaped slit. A heavy handle
is attached to one end, also carved out of the same block. When used, it
is simply struck on the above-mentioned tongue with a bone or piece of
hard stick. This is only used on the death of a chief. There is but one
in the tribe, and no bribe that I could offer sufficed to buy it-

Fashious in dress change even among savages, at least as civilization
approaches. Formerly the dress of the men consisted only of a breech-
cloth. It was made of mastate, or bark cloth, about a foot wide and seven
or eight feet long, tapering at one end. The cloth is made by taking the
inner bark of either the India rubber or another tree and beating it with
a roughened stick over a log. This loosens the fibre, and renders it soft
and flexible. It is then carefully washed until all the gummy matter is
washed out. After drying, it is rubbed a little and becomes soft and
smooth to the feel. To apply the breech-cloth, the wide end is held
against the belly, the remainder being passed between the legs; it is then
wound around the waist and the point tucked in; the broad end then
falls over in front, for about a foot long, like an apron. When cotton
cloth is used, it is simply caught up in front and behind urder a cotton
belt, with a similar apron in front. Sometimes, for warmth, a shirt of

Gabb.] 518 i [Aug. 20,

mastate was worn ; simply a strip with a hole in the middle for the head,
and tied under each arm with a piece of string. Now many of the men
have discarded the breech-cloth, and wear cotton shirts and pantaloons,
buying the stuff from the traders and sewing them themselves. Others,
not so far advanced, wear a shirt and’a breech-cloth. Formerly the hair
was worn as long as it would grow, sometimes rolled up aud tied behind
in aknot. Some of the conservatives still stick to the old style and follow
this custom yet; others of the men wear their hair in two plaits, but the
majority cut it to a moderate length, and either confine it by a bright-
colored handkerchief tied round the head in a roll, or wear a hat.

The dress of the women originally consisted of a simple petticoat (bana)
of mastate. Very few now use this material, preferring the softer cotton
cloth of the traders. The favorite coloris a dark indigo-blue, with figures
five or six inches across, in white. The bana is a simple strip of cloth
wrapped round the hips, with the ends overlapping about six inches in
front. It is suspended at the waist by a belt, and reaches more or less to
the knees. When on a journey in rainy or muddy weather, I have seen
a simple substitute. It was made of a couple of plantain leaves, stripped
to a coarse fringe and wound round the waist by the midribs. With
nothing above nor below it, it is the nearest approach to a fig leaf one
can imagine. Only of late have the women begun to wear anything
above the waist, and even now it is considered hardly necessary.
Some of the women wear a sort of loose little jacket, or chemise, very low
in the neck and-short in the sleeves, that barely reaches the waist and
only partially conceals the bosom. I have frequently seen a woman, in
the habit of wearing one of these, either take it off entirely, or fan
herself with it, if warm, in the presence of a number of men, and evi-
dently innocent of improper intentions, and unaware that she was
doing anything remarkable. With this scanty dress, I must do these
people the justice of saying that they are remarkably modest, both
men and women. Ina year and a half of life in their country, travel-—
ing constantly with a body of them, bathing, fording rivers, living in
their houses, and seeing more than strangers generally do of the inti-
mate domestic life of the people they are among, I can only recall a
single instance of carelessness, and not one of a wanton exposure of
those parts of the person, that their ideas of modesty required to be
kept covered. °

The dress just described is that of the Bri-bris and Cabecars. The
Tiribi men, where they do not wear pantaloons, always use the native
cotton breech-cloth, never the mastate. The women wear a long strip
of cotton cloth, made with a hole in the middle, like a poncho, and
reaching before and behind, nearly to the ground. It is gathered up at
the waist by a belt, and the edges are caused to overlap at the same
time, so that the whole person is securely covered. I was also told that
under this they wear a species of breech-cloth or drawers. They are
much more retiring in their manner than their Bri-bri sisters ; never speak

1878. | 519 [Gabb.

to a stranger except when spoken to, and then reply in as few words as
possible and with apparent bashfulness. /

For ornaments, all wear necklaces. The favorite ones are made of
teeth, of which those of the tiger are most highly prized. Only the
canine teeth are used. Small strings are sometimes made of monkey,
coon, or other teeth, but are not much thought of. I have seen one of
these made of five strings of tiger teeth, gradually diminishing in size, and
covering the entire breast of the wearer. The women rarely, almost never,
wear these. If they wear teetb, they are of some very small anima). In place
of them, they use great quantities of glass beads. I have seen fully three
pounds of beads around the neck of one old woman, and she was the envy
of all her friends and neighbors. Even little girls are often so loaded
down that the weight must be irksome to them. Money is often worn by
the women. On one occasion I paid a man six dollars, all in Costa Rican
quarters, for his month’s work. After a few days I went to his house
and saw the entire sum strung on his wife’s neck. Shells are also some-
times, though rarely used. The men sometimes carry, suspended from
the necklace, the shell of a small species of murez, with the varices
ground off and a hole drilled init tomake a whistle. These are bought in
Terraba, and are highly prized.

The men sometimes wear head-dresses made of feathers. The most
highly prized are the white downy feathers from under the tail of the
large eagle. Others are made from chicken feathers, or are worked in
rows of blue, red, black, yellow, &c., from the plumage of small birds. I
have seen one head-dress made of the long hair from the tail of the great
ant-eater, in the place of feathers. The feathers are secured vertically to
a tape and extend laterally so as to reach from temple to temple, curling
over forward at the top, the tape being tied behind, so as to keep the hair
in place.

Painting is somewhat in vogue, to assist in the adornment of the per-
son, but is not confined to either sex. The commonest manner is to color
each cheek with a square or parallelogram, about ‘an inch across, either
solid or made up of bars. This is done with the dark reddish-brown sap
of a certain vine, and the pattern resists wear and tear, and water for a
week or more. Anatto is also used, but more rarely, and is applied in
bars or stripes to the face, according to the skill or taste of the artist.
Besides, a hideous indigo-blue stain from a fruit, is sometimes smeared
on the face or body, but even savage taste does not seem to approve of
this, since it is very unusual.

Formerly the Tiribis tattooed small patterns on their faces or arms; but
the younger people have not kept up the custom, and the Bri-bris and
Cabecars say they never did it. The chiefs on great occasions wear gold
ornaments, ‘similar to those now found in the Hwacas, or graves of Chiri-
qui. Whether these have been recovered from some of these graves, or
whether they have been handed down from time immemorial is not
known. There are but four or five in the tribe, and two of these belong

Gabb. ] 520 [Aug. 20,

to the reigning chief. The others were formerly also property of the
chiefs, but are said to have been given as rewards of merit to the most
successful leaders in the Tiribi war. The two belonging to the chief, as
well as one belonging to the descendants of one of those warriors, all
represent birds. The people call them eagles. The largest is between
three and four inches across; the smaller of the chief’s two, is double-
headed. In connection with these ‘‘eagles’’ another royal emblem might
be mentioned. It isa staff of hard black palm wood, over four feet long.
The top is carved in the shape of an animal, not unlike a bear sitting on
his haunches. But there are no bears in this country, aud it must have
been intended for some other animal. Below this figure, the stick is
square, and is carved out into four pillars several inches long, with spaces
between them. In the interior, between them, is a cavity in which a
loose piece of the same wood can be shaken about. It was evidently left
there in the carving, after the fashion of the Chinese. Below this, the
stick is plain. I tried every means in my power to obtain this, but could
uot buy it.

Games of chance or of skill are equally unknown, and even when
brought into contact with civilizition, they do not seem to take kindly
to gambling. In fact, they have so little to win or lose, and that little
is so easily obtained, that the inducement does not exist.

Their food is simple in material and there is but little variation in the
manner of preparation. Of meats, besides chickens, they have beefand pork,
which are however rarely used except at feasts. They know nothing of salt-
ing meat for future use and can only consume one of these animals when a
large number is together. Besides the scarcity of beef is so great that
probably no Indian possesses more than one or two animals at a time.
Wild meat, like peccary, red monkey, (the other species are rarely eaten, )
tapir, tiger, even o.ter, armadillo, and some other small animals are oc-
casionally shot. In this case, all of the meat that is not eaten at once is
dried as hard as a bone, and perfectly black, in the smoke of a slow fire.
Larger species of birds like curassow are also treated in the same way.
It is an interesting fact, universally attested, that the bones of this bird
are absolutely poisonous to dogs, while the meat, though tough, is not
unpalatable and is perfectly innoxious to man. After a meal it is the
never-failing custom to gather all the bones carefully, and either burn
them or place them out of reach of the dogs. I do not know whether the
flesh would be equally dangerous, though I doubt if it was ever wasted
on a dog. This property is said to be due to some fruit or seed they
eat. -Of vegetable food, plaintains are the staple. In times of scarcity,
bananas take their place, besides being eaten raw when ripe. The In-
dians also occasionally eat a raw ripe plantain, although they are coarse
and the flavor is inferior. The methods of preparation are, roasted
green, when they make a poor substitute for bread; roasted ripe, when
they are eaten with chocolate, with the idea of sweetening it. They are
also boiled green, with meat, with green corn, or evenalone. Ripe plan-

}

1875. ] [Gabb.
tains boiled and mashed, are mixed in equal quantities of corn-meal paste
to make chicha, or to bake in cakes. They are also, when ripe, boiled,
mashed into a paste, and mixed with water into a gruel. This is drank
under the name of mish’-la. Maize is raised in considerable quantities,
and this really involves fonr-fifths of all their agricultural labor. The corn
is of a variety of colors ; white, yellow, red, purple, blue, and almost per-
fect!y black. Sometimes the ear, rarely more than six or seven inches
long, is of a uniform color, but more generally the grains are of two or
more colors. It is boiled green and eaten from the cob, and is thus con-
sidered a great delicacy. It is, when ripe, ground for all other purposes.
The process of grinding is rude and simple in the extreme. If possible, a
stone, three feet long and two wide, with a flat upper surface, is procured.
In default of this, a broad slab of wood is used. For this purpose, a piece
cut from one of the plank-like buttresses of the Ceiba tree is procured,
and one side dressed smooth. The remainder of this primitive mill, is a
stone, about a foot or fourteen inches long, a few inches less in width
and three or four inches thick. One side must be regularly curved. The
corn, soaked over night to soften it, is placed on the flat surface and the
stone last mentioned is rocked on its edge, from side to side. This is
always done by the women. When the corn is sufficiently ground, the
paste is put into an iron pot and boiled to mush. If it is intended to
make cakes, a part of the raw paste is mixed with an equal quantity of
boiled ripe plantain paste, to sweeten it. It is then rolled in plantain
leaf and baked in the ashes. When the paste is boiled, sometimes a part
of it is separated, thinned to the consistency of gruel, and drunk hot. If
it is intended to make chicha for the road, the thick mush is at once
mixed with an equal part of ripe plantain paste as before, and tied up in
leaves. This will keep sweet for two or three days, but gradually fer-
mentation takes place, and at a week old, it has a not unpleasant sweet-
ish acid taste. When ready for drinking, it is dissolved in cold water to
a thin gruel. The taste for it is easily acquired, and I admit, I be-
came very fond of it. It certainly does possess intoxicating properties,
but I cannot conceive how any civilized stomach could accommodate a
sufficient quantity to produce exhilaration.. Still I have seen Indians
very happy from its effects. But since I desire these notes to be believed,
I do not dare to state the quantity I have seen one of these fellows drink.
Were only half the truth told, it would appear ineredible. The method
of preparing the chicha for use in the house is slightly different. The
paste is thinned at once, while yet hot. The plantain paste, also thinned,
is poured into the earthen jar with it, and sufficient water is added to
bring it to the proper thinness for drinking. To produce rapid fermen-
tation another process is yet necessary, which I saw once at Dipuk on
the Uren. A young girl (young girls only, with sound teeth perform this
operation,) having previously rinsed her mouth with a little water, sat
down on a low stool, with a pile of tender raw corn beside her, and a
big calabash in her lap. She chewed, or rather bit the grains from the

6)»)
Gabb.] 522 [Aug. 20,

ear and ejected them from her mouth into the calabash. The rapidity
of the process was marvelous. She seemed to shave all the grains from
an entire ear almost without stopping. There did not to seem be much
chewing done, but of course the object was to obtain the saliva secreted
during the operation. As fast as her calabash was full she emptied it
into the jar of chicha, and proceeded to refill it. I lay in my hammock
fully half an hour watching her until she had finished. The next day
that chicha was drank and pronounced excellent. Inever tried this kind.
Such is the force of prejudice. I learned early to prefer doing my own
eating.

Beans are also used to some extent, but the quantity planted is gene-
rally small, and the people soon have to return to their regular plantains
and chicha. J do not think I ever saw half a bushel of beans together in
one house. They are large, dark, and generally mottled. They never be-
come very hard, and are of a very good flavor. Small quantities of sugar
cane, of a very excellent quality, are raised, but it is only for the purpose
of chewing. They never attempt to make sugar or syrup, although some
of the foreigners in their country as well as the negroes on the coast make
the latter, and the Indians are perfectly familiar with the process. Of the
foreigners in the country, perhaps a dozen in all, sambos or mulattoes,
with the exception of Mr. Lyon, all raise rice as one of their most import-
ant food-staples. The Indians are fond of it, frequently buy it, but never
attempt to cultivate it. Of the less important items, they have the fruit
of a species of palm called du-ko’ (pejiballe of the Spaniards). Thisis a
small pear-shaped fruit, growing in great clusters ; it has a thin skin on
the outside, and a small round seed in the centre. It may be compared
to a diminutive cocoanut, the edible portion corresponding with the
fibrous husk of that nut. The seed corresponding with the cocoanut
proper, is solid and very hard, but has a pleasant flavor. The fruit is
very easily raised, requires no care beyond the first planting, and a little
weeding for the first year or two, and yet, except at Sarwe, it is very
scarce. It is from the wood of this tree that the bows, the arrow tips,
the planting and fighting-sticks, &c., are made. Another species of
palm furnishes a food, agreeable to the taste, an excellent salad when
properly dressed, a perfect substitute for cabbage when cooked, but
withal, as my party discovered on one hard journey we made, not very
nutritious. It is the bud’ of tender, half-formed leaves at the top, and
can only be obtained by cutting down the tree. It is similar to the
deservedly famous palm cabbage of the West Indies, and differs prin-
cipally in being only about half as large. We found, after living on it
almost alone, for nearly a week, that it was good principally for de-
ceiving one’s self into starving on a full stomach. A7litd, or “‘ greens”? is
a favorite dish, probably not much more nutritious than the last. It is
made from yarious tender leaves, put into a pot with little or no water,
and gradually steamed into a paste with their own juice. This is eaten
with salt when they have it ; otherwise, without. \

1875.] 523 [Gabb.

Cacao is in great demand. The delicious sub-acid pulp is first sucked
from the beans, which are roasted and ground on the chicha board, or
stone into a coarse paste. It is the greatest luxury they possess. And
still, I have never seen a young cacao tree belonging to an Indian. They
depend for their supply on the old trees, planted by past generations.
I have known an Indian make a two days’ journey to collect a little cacao,
when less labor would plant him fifty trees near his house.

Fishing is rarely performed with hook and line. They have two
methods. One is to shoot the fish from a canoa (all the canoes belong to
foreigners), or from the shore, ora rock. They use very long arrows,
described previously, and are quite expert. Another method is to select a
channel of the river beside an island. A frame-work is built at each
end, of sticks and cane, which extend completely across the stream.
When everything is ready, the people stationed at the upper end rapidly
cover the frame-work with the leaves of the cane, so as to stop the water
running through. Those at the lower frame, also spread on cane leaves,
but thinner, only so as to keep the fish from passing through. Both par-
ties must work at the same time, and as rapidly as possible, because as
soon as the fish find the level of the water lowering they attempt to
escape, and I was told that it has sometimes happened that every fish
has gotten away before the dams were finished. In the course of a
few hours the water is so low that the fish congregate in the deeper
pools and are shot with arrows, or even taken out by hand.

The only divisions of time known are the natural astronomical ones :
the day, the lunar month, and the year. A glance at the vocabulary
will show that special words are used for day in the abstract as distin-
guished from night, and for to-day, to-morrow, day after to-morrow, &c.,
and for yesterday, &c. The month is called by the same name as the
moon, ‘‘s7.”” ~The year is counted from dry season to dry season, and is
recognized by the ripening of the flower-stalks of the wild cane, on
which they depend for arrow-shafts. It is called da-was’ from this con-
nection.

The local diseases of the country are fevers, acquired by going to the
coast; or by the hill people, by going down to the low lands. They some-
times seem to become epidemic, due to an unusually wet season, or to
the continuance of the rains throughout what should be a dry season.
The summer of 1874 was particularly fatal in this respect. Rheumatism
is common, especially with the older men. It is brought on by much
exposure to rain, and by wading rivers when heated, on journeys. But
the commonest infirmities are indolent ulcers, usually on the legs. They
originate from any little scratch or bruise, and are the result of the low
vital state of the system, due to a bulky but innutritious diet. A
wound which, in a person in good health, would heal in a week, may
result with one of these people ina sore lasting years, and perhaps at
times involving an area twice as large as the hand.

Of remedies, they may be safely said to have none. They are learning

A.P. S.—VOL. XIV. 3P

Gabb.] 524 [Aug: 20,

to apply to the traders for medicines for fever. All goto Mr. Lyon in
case of snake-bite, and when taken in time, he-says he has never failed
to cure a case with either ammonia or iodine, as seemed to be indicated.
It may be interesting to note that after obtaining no relief with one of
these medicines, he has given the other, and with immediate good results.
He gives the iodine in the form of alcoholic tincture in 10 to 15-drop
doses, every 10 to 15 minutes. Some of them seem to believe in the in-
cantations of the Azwas or doctors, but foreign medicines are gradually
gaining ground over sorcery. For rheumatic pains, headaches, &c.,
there are two remedies used. The simplest is counter-irritation by whip-
ping with nettle leaves. The otheris bleeding. The lancet is made usually
from the tongue of a jew’s-harp, broken off at the angle and sharpened to
a point. This is set at right angles in a little stick for a handle, and is
used by holding it over the affected part and striking it briskly with a
finger. They never regularly open a vein and draw off a quantity of
blood, but every stroke makes a separate puncture, from which only a
few drops exude. At Borubeta I saw aman bled to relieve the aching of
fatigue in his arms. He had been scraping agave leaves, to extract the
fibre for hammocks. He had at least fifty punctures made over his two
arms.

The natural products of the country are principally sarsaparilla root
and india rubber. The sarsaparilla vine is green, angular, and covered
with thorns. It grows very long and climbs over bushes and even trees
in the more open parts of the forest. At short distances it is jointed, and if
it touches the ground every joint sends out a new set of roots. The leaves
are large and acuminately oval and have three longitudinal ribs, the mid-
rib and two paraliel ones, half way between the middle and the edge. The
fruit is round and grows in a cluster something like grapes. ‘The vine
has a'tap-root, and besides sends out a large number of horizontal roots
near the surface of the ground, and from six to ten feet long. The sarsa-
parilla hunter first clears away carefully all the bushes and undergrowth
with his machete. He then, with a hooked stick, digs into the ground
at the base of the vine until he loosens the earth and finds where the best
roots are. The tap-root is never disturbed, and it is customary to dig up
only half the roots at a time, to avoid killing the vine. Having selected
those that look most promising, he places his hand under one or two and
gently lifting them, follows their course with his hooked stick, loosening
the soil and lifting them out, following them to their ends. They are
then cut off, the dirt carefully replaced around the vine, and the roots
laid in the sun, or hung up to dry. A vine yields generally from four to
nine pounds of green roots. When dry they are tied into cylindrical rolls
a foot long and four or five inches thick, weighing about a pound.

India rubber is obtained by scoring the bark of the trees obliquely.
Several cuts are placed one above another and in pairs converging down-
wards ; the sap being directed in its flow by a leaf placed at the bottom,
which serves as a spout, to direct it into the vessel placed to receive it.

Ror
1875.] J-0 [Ga b.

When collected it looks like milk. It is caused to coagulate and turn
black by the juice of a species of convolvulus. It is generally made into
cakes a little over a foot long, about eight inches wide and an inch thick.

It is with these two articles, and an occasional deer skin, that all the
purchases are made from the traders. They buy various kinds of cotton
cloth for clothing, colored handkerchiefs, needles, thread, machetes,
axes, knives, iron kettles and pots, a few medicines, and powder, shot, «
and caps. Their intertribal trade is still more limited. The Bri-bris sell
net-bags and hammocks to the Tiribis, and formerly made the large cot-
ton blankets, already described, for sale in Terraba. They buy in Ter-
raba cows and dogs, murex-shell whistles, murex-dyed cotton, and beads
made by rubbing down a small species of shell of the genus Conus.
Sometimes both the Bri-bris and Cabecars, but especially the latter, carry
sarsaparilla or rubber a hard ten-days’ journey to Matina, to exchange it
for c2ca0, of which they might have enough and to spare for the mere
trouble of planting it. But Indians are, almost without exception, a lazy,
miserable, and unimprovable race.

Tt is perhaps advisable to state that the whole of the present memoir
was written in Costa Rica, and it was not until my return to Philadel-
phia, that I encountered the elaborate compilation of Bancroft, on ‘‘the
Native Races of the Pacific States.’’ At the date of the present. writing,
but three volumes of the promised five have made their appearance.
While I regret that the information in that work, on the present field is
so meagre, and in some respects so different from my own observations,
I have said nothing which I wish either to retract or modify. I state
nothing but what I have seen and learned while living among the people
whom I describe. At the same time I trust that 1 may not be accused
of aspirit of antagonism, in pointing out some of the more serious errors
in the work in question, and which, if not corrected, might seriously
mislead future students.

Vol I. Chapter VII. p. 684, et seg. is devoted to ‘‘the wild tribes of
Central America,’’ and the Indians living below Lake Nicaragua, and
the San Juan River are here designated as Isthmians ; an appropriate
name, since the family seems to cover all of Costa Rica and most, if not
all of the State of Panama. But the map, facing p. 684 is utterly incor-
rect in so far, at least, as it professes to give the distribution of the In-
dians of Costa Rica.

The region of Talamanca described by me, as containing the three
tribes of Cabecars, Bri-bris, and Tiribis, and known to the Spaniards
under the generic term of Blancos, is here given up to the Valientes, who
should be placed to the south and south-east of the Chiriqui lagoon ; and
the Ramas, who live in Nicaragua, back of the Mosquito coast. The
central plateau, in which are situated the cities and towns of Atenas,
San Ramon, Alajuela, Heredia, San José, Cartago,; &c., in short, that
occupied by practically the entire Hispano-American population of Costa
Rica, is here given to the Blancos, and on the shores of the Gulf of

Gabb.] 526 [Aug. 20,

Nicoya, where at present no Indians live, are placed Orotifians and
Guetares. Further, no tribes are placed in South-western Costa Rica,
where the semi-civilized Terrabas and Brunkas live ; but on p. 748, the
author states that ‘‘dwelling in the western part of the state are the
Terrabas and Changuenas, fierce and barbarous nations, at constant
enmity with their neighbors.’’ Nowthe Terrabas, as well as their neigh-
bors the Brunkas, or as the Spaniards call them, the Borucas, live in one
or two little villages, and are under the complete control of missionary
priests, both ecclesiastically and municipally, and are rapidly losing
their language, as they have their savage customs, and are approaching
the civilized condition of the villages of Pacaca, Coa, Quiricot, &c., in
Costa Rica, where the Indians speak only Spanish, and have even lost
the traditions of their former state. Again, the Changuinas formerly
occupied the valley of the Changuina or Changina River, the main
branch of the Tilorio, on the Atlantic slope, and are either entirely ex-
tinct, or only represented by a handful of individuals, swallowed up by
the neighboring Tiribis on one side, and the Valientes on the other.

In the proper place I have noted what can be said of the Guatusos ;
there is nothing to add, until a responsible observer has the good fortune
to penetrate their country, and survive to tell his tale.

On p. 793 of Vol. 3, is a very short vocabulary of ‘‘the language of the
Talamancas,’’ copied from the publication of Scherzer. This traveler
did not visit Talamanca, but from internal evidence I believe the
words to have been obtained from some of the half-civilized Cabecars of
Tucuriqui or Orosi, little villages not far from Cartago. In evidence of
its unreliability, I note two or three of the most glaring errors of the

list.
‘“‘Man signa-kirinema. Woman signa-aragre.’’

Here signa, clearly a clerical error for stgua, means foreigner, and the
word given for woman—sigua erdkur means foreign woman. So, the
prefix sa and su before the names of parts of the body is the personal
pronoun—our. Suhu is sahu ‘our house.’’ ‘I be-he,’’ isreally thou, the
error arising from the Indian answering thou, when he was asked, ‘‘ how
do you say I,”’ the interlocutor doubtless pointing to himself. Fortun-
ately the vocabulary is very short, but I am sure there are not more than
three or four words in it that would be intelligible to a Costa Rican In-
dian.

é
1875. ] 527 [Gabb.

CHAPTER II.
THE LANGUAGES OF SOUTHERN COSTA RICA.
SECTION ].—THE BRI-BRI LANGUAGE.

In the following notes, I have endeavored to embody such ideas and
conclusions as I have arrived at while studying the language and com-
piling the vocabulary. From the difficulty of obtaining information from
ignorant people, and from my own, by no means perfect knowledge of
the language, possibly errors may have crept in, but while I do not think
aby important ones will be found, I do not venture to claim infallible
accuracy. For a year I labored to find some rule for conjugation, and was
obliged, as it were, to educate my informers up to the point of being able
to give me information about a subject they had never thought of, and
could see no use for. Not content to accept their statements categorically,
I watched carefully the use of the verbs in their inflexions, and by dint
of cross-questioning a number of people, and rejecting everythirg that
was contradictory, I think the few verbs I have selected are correctly
given. I have had the advantage not only of a year and a half in the
country, in daily contact with a fellow-countryman who spoke the lan-
cuage fluently, enabling me thereby to learn it ; but for two months, in
the meantime, while absent, I had several intelligent Indians with me
who understood Spanish, and finally, after returning to civilization, I had
with me for eight months a native, with whom I talked habitually in his
own language, and from whom I obtained many corrections of the errors
that a stranger must necessarily make. This boy became an apt teacher
and voluntarily set me right whenever he heard me use an incorrect ex-
pression.

Counting the few abstract words which have doubtless escaped me,
and all the specific names of animals and plants, and many of the latter
are made up of an adjective, or the name of some plant, combined with
wak (tribe), I do not think the language can contain two thousand
words, and perhaps not fifteen hundred. In preparing the vocabulary
I have rejected most of these specific names, because there is no corres-
ponding English word, and a c»mplete natural history collection, careful-
ly studied by competent students, would be required, so as to obtain an
equivalent. Even then it would have been useless, because the names
vary locally as much as similar words do in English.

In compound words, I have in most cases pointed out the roots, and
separated the component parts by a + sign. Although so much detail
may have been unnecessary, the study was interesting to myself, and
some of the curious results may also interest others.

There can be no doubt but that this and its allied dialects, like all
unwritten languages, are undergoing great changes. The language
spoken in Terraba was formerly, and probably not long ago, the same as
that of Tiribi. There are marked differences between the Cabecar of
Coen and that of the Estrella or North River, and even local differences
in the use of 7, J, and d, can be observed between the half of the Bri-bri

i |

Gabb. ] 28 [Aug. 20,

tribe living on the Uren, and the others scattered over the rest of the
country. In different districts ‘‘a little,’’ w?-ri-wi/-ri is also pronounced
bi-ri-bi/-ri and wi-di-wi'-di, and many other words especially those with
r or d before a vowel, vary fully as much. As has been justly observed by
Max Miiller, laziness often helps this. The present name for rain kon/-ni
for instance, is clearly derived from koig/-lz. In fact the proof exists in the
form of the word for dust kovig/-mo-li. But kon'-ni is easier to pronounce
than kovg/-l, and has taken its place.

It would be an interesting study to trace out the ideas which have in-
fluenced the formation of compound words. In Bri-bri, a hill is hovig/-
bé-ta, the point of the country ; in Cabecar it is Kovig-tsu’, the breast of
the country, from tsw, a woman’s breast. Again in Bri-bri a sharp knife
is said to be a-ka/-ta, toothed (that it may bite, or cut), the beak of a
bird is called its tooth; and the same root (kwo) is used for a finger-nail,
a fish-scale, a bird’s feathers, the bark of a tree, or the rind of a fruit.

Some few words are used in such varied connections that they warrant
special notice. Among these are wo, hovig, i-tu, kin, &c. Kong is a part
of nearly all words relating to the earth, the sky, the atmosphere, in
short the general surroundings. It means the country, the day, the
weather. In composition it forms part of the word for a hill, valley, &c.
Wo means originally round, either circular or globular. It is also ap-
plied to almost all masses or lumps; it further forms a component of
words having a reference to entirety or completeness; thus alone, it
means the human face, in compounds it forms a part of the names of the
sun and moon, of many parts of the human body, of a drop of water, of
a knot, of fruits, seeds, &c ; and of verbs, such as to make, to close, to
open, to extinguish, to tie, &c.; 7-iw’ means originally to chop, but is
applied to shooting, striking with intention of wounding (in contradis-
tinction to 7-pu/ to whip). It also forms part of the verbs to shut, to ex-
tinguish, to lie (or throw one’s self) down, and, in the latter sense is
also used for to pour (to throw out of a vessel). A7vn means a region, or
district, and is always used in connection with some qualifying word ;
thus Lari-kin, the country or region of Lari; dé-je/-kin the salt region or
sea ; tsong’-kin the sand region, or beach; but nyo-ro’-kin means in or
on the road, and bé-ta/-kin on top (of a hill or mountain). A7-cha’ means
originally a! string ; derivatively a vine to tie with is tsa’ ki-cha, or a
string vine. Veins and tendons are called by the same word on account
of their resemblance to strings, while the joints of the limbs are called
ki-cha'-wo or the lump of strings. Pa and pe, mean people; the former
combined with the 3d person, singular, ‘personal pronoun ye, makes ye-pa,
the 3d person, plural. It is also used combined with wak, tribe ; thus,
Lari-wak, means the people of Lari; sa wak-i-pa, our people; in this
case used probably as much for clearness as anything else, since tsa. wak,
(‘‘vine-tribe’’) means ants! Ha-wak-t-pa, your people. Pe, used alone
means somebody ; whose is it? ‘‘pecha;’’ ‘“‘somebody’s,”’ cha being the
sign of possession.

1875. | 529 [Gabb.

There are several words which change their form, or which are even
substituted by others, according to the sense or connection ; thus w/-te-kin,
sometimes pronounced hu/-te-kin, means out or outside of the house or of
anything else in all ordinary cases; but for a person to go out of the
house is not mtu u/-te-kin or mia hu'-te-kin, but mia hu pa'-gl. This pa/-gl
is used in no other connection; and the sound occurs nowhere else in the
language except as pagl-chi-ka (sugar) and pagl, the numeral eight with
either of which, it is obviously not related. But the numerals illustrate
this most markedly. For instance three is m-nyat, and as such it is used
in counting all things; three houses, hw m-nyat; but three men are pé
m-nyal and three days are koiig m-nyar. Bit, how many, becomes Dil,
how many persons, &c. Old, fat, to grow, pregnant, &c., change ina
similar manner when applied to animate and inanimate, or to human and
lower objects.

It is remarkable that in alanguage otherwise so poor, at times it should
go to the other extreme. In civilized languages, notably in Spanish,
there is a great variety of words to express the shades of colors of ani-
mals, particularly the horse. These words, originally adjectives, are
ofter used as nouns. But in Bri-bri we have eight nouns to distinguish
pigs, six of which are for color ; viz.:

white, mu-lush’.
black, do-losh’.
gray, bish!.
red, mash (a as in far).
half-white, half-black. bi-tsus’.
black, with white face, ki-jos’.
with throat appendages, bu-lish’.
_ Sshort-legged, na'-na (Spanish enana, a dwarf).

These words are in every sense nouns only, and are just as correctly the
names of the respective animals as the generic term ‘‘coche.’’ Chickens
and dogs have similar distinguishing names, but I have never been able
to learn that horned cattle (vaca, whether bull or cow,) are so honored.
Horses are comparatively unknown. The only representative of the
race in the country being Mr. Lyon’s old yellow mare, there has never
arisen the necessity for the additional tax on their inventive powers.
Words expressing physical qualities of matter are as abundant as in more
civilized languages, and their use is as strictly limited. Hard, strong, or
stiff, is dé-re’-re. Soft, like a cushion or fresh bread, is b-jo/-b jo, while soft
like cloth it is a-nz!-a-ni or a-ni'-ni-é. Weak or fragile, like a string, or a
vessel, powerless like a weak person, or tender like meat, are to/-to or to-
toi’. Elastic, like caoutchouc, is ki-tsung’-ki-tsung ; when like a switch,
it is kras’-kras. Plastic, like mud or putty, is 7-no/-i-no. Pasty, like
dough, is 7-tu-wo’. When more fluid, like very wet mud, it is a-bas’-a-
bas. Viscid, like syrup or honey, is kit-nyo/-ki-nyo ; while very fluid,
watery, is di-se-ré-ré.

Gabb.] 530 [Aug. 20,

Plantains, bananas, maize, and beans must have been in use by the In-
dians before the arrival of Europeans, since they have specific names for
all of them, but all domestic animals have only the names that came
with them.

I have found very few words that I can trace clearly to foreign sources.
The names of introduced animals, mentioned above, articles of clothing, and
foreign utensils make up almost the entire list. We have ar/-roz, Spanish
arros’; sombre/no, Sp. sombrero; zapato, pure Spanish; pana, English
pan, all hollow vessels of thin metal, of whatever form; cuchara,
Spanish ; b¢-2w0, English bead, wo native word for anything round ; tégera,
Sprnish; pussy, English ; chi-chi, Aztec techichi, the edible dog of Mexico
(fide Belt), a word used all over Spanish America, and adopted by the
Bri-bri and adjoining tribes in the Spanish form; cachimba, vulgar
Spanish ; du-wa’, probably corrupted from tabaco; ko-no’, corrupted from
canoe ; vaca, caballo, and coche, Spanish. Alma, a corpse, bears a suspi-
cious resemblance to the Spanish alma, the soul. Do -ko-ro’, a chicken,
seems to be derived from the crow of the cock; 7-e/-na, is probably not
the Spanish J7ena, with which it corresponds in meaning, but is derived
from e/-na, finished. Hse, that, and es-es (= Spanish ¢éso es) are probably
derived from the Spanish.

The enumeration is decimal, and is simple in structure. Few pretend
to count beyond ten, and in counting loose objects if the number is con-:
siderable, they are set apart in groups of ten; thus forty-six would be four
tens and six. In speaking of numbers the fingers come into play. It is as
common to see three, four, or more fingers held up, with the remark ‘‘so
many”’ as to hear the numeral mentioned. Beyond ten, the toes are called
into service, and the surplus over the ten toes is counted on the fingers, held
downwards in this case. The word fox five, skang, is clearly (w-ra) ska,
the fingers. Beyond ten we have ‘‘ten more one,” &c., but from twenty
upwards I found so much confusion of ideas and contradiction that I
strongly suspected my informers of politely trying to invent compounds
to please me. By careful questioning, and still better, by watching con-
versations, I found that twenty is ‘‘ ten two times,’’ &c., after which the
form of the ‘‘ teens’’ is repeated; so that twenty-one is ‘‘ten two times
more one,’’ d’bo05 but juk ki et. There is no word for one hundred unless
we use d'bob d’bob juk, which would be legitimate and intelligible, al-
though I confess I never beard it used.

Wa, ka, ke, and ta added as suffixes are equivalent to the English ed.
Thus 7-da-wo’, to die; 7-da-worg'-wa, dead; lin’-a, crazy; ya lin’-a-ka, he is
crazed ; pat/ye, to paint ; pat-yet/-ke, painted; su-tat’, flat ; sat-tat/-ke, flat-
tened ; bot, good ; boir!-ke, healed ; bé-tw’, a point; bé-ta’/-ta, pointed, &e.

Kili used as suffix is equivalent to our zsh; thus bo2, good; boi-kli, goodish
(i. €. pretty good or well); tyng, large; tyng/-kli, largish; mat/-ke, red; mat’-
kli, reddish. Ung and ong, which in Terraba and Tiribi are almost the
universal signs of the active verbs, are represented by the termination

1875. } 538l [Gabb.

ung in nearly a dozen Bri-bri verbs, where it has about the same value as
English affix ate.

Articles and conjunctions do not exist in the language, the other parts
of speech being however present.

Nouns have no inflections for gender, number, person, or case. If it is
desired to express sex, the word male or female is used; thus my daughter is
called je la e-ra’-kur, my woman child ; a bull is vaca we'-nyt or male cow.
The only exceptions to this rule are the few words referring to the
human race, like man, woman, and some of the family relationships.
Beyond this no distinctions of gender occur.

Number is always indicated by a numeral or by such words as much,
many, &c. Two or three words occur that may be considered as apparent
exceptions. Di-cha’ means a bone; di che’is bones. Di-ka’is thorn
and di-ke’ is thorns, not two or three, but all the thorns on a tree, ina
collective sense. U-ra/-ska (u-ra arm) is a finger, while w-ra-shkwe’
(? fingers) is the hand. The coincidence in the termination of these iso-
lated plurals, if they can be so called, is worthy of note.

Person is only indicated by the addition of a personal pronoun. The
only semblance of inflection for case, is the addition of cha, the sign of
possession, alike to nouns and pronouns ; or of the prepositions, wa, ta
(with), &c., as suffixes, making an ablative.

The personal pronouns are all monosyllables except ye-pa (they), @
compound of ye (third per., sing.) and pa people. Although normally of
one syilable, they are often used with the termination re (except ye-pa)
for either emphasis or euphony ; thus it is equally correct to say je or je’-
re. Me (yourself) is used only in connection with a verb, like meé-shkie,
move yourself; me tu ts, lie (yourself) down. The sign of possession, as
stated above, is added alike to the pronoun, or to the name or title of a
person; je-cha, mine. Hse (that) is probably derived from the Spanish, and
with @ (literally what) does duty for the neuter. Where the nouns in a
language are so simple, it is hardly to be expected that the adjectives aud
adverbs should suffer many changes. Boi, good or well, used either as
an adjective or adverb, becomes boi-na, better, and a sort of superlative
is formed by adding very ; boichukli. Tyng, large, is in an increased de-
gree either tyng chukli, very large, or tyng bru; bru meaning also large
but adding emphasis when the two words are combined. To bo2 and tyng,
kli is added as a suffix to qualify the sense, like 7sk in English ; bo7-kiz,
goodish, pretty good, and tyng-kid, largish, or somewhat large.

The short 7 which begins most of the Bri-bri verbs, is not specially the
sign of the infinitive, but is almost universally used where the verb is not
preceded by another word, and is sometimes used even then for
euphony.

There are four well-defined moods: the infinitive, the indicative, the
subjunctive, and the imperative. The subjunctive is as simple as in Eng-
lish, being formed from the indicative by mi-ka-re’ (if) placed at the be-
ginning of the sentence.

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 3Q

Gabb.] 532 [Aug. 20,

Humboldt,* in speaking of the language of Venezuela, says: ‘‘ The
Chayma and Tamanoc verbs have an enormous complication of tenses,’’
and adds that ‘‘this multiplicity characterizes the rudest American lan-
guages.”’ It certainly does not apply to the Costa Rican family, which
is equally remarkable for the simplicity of its inflections. The present
tense does duty for the present participle, and the perfect for the perfect
participle ; besides which we have the past and but a single future.
There is no variation for number or person.

The auxiliaries used are not constant. For the imperative, jw is some-
times prefixed, and mia is often the sign of the future. It is generally a
prefix, but in 7-haw-na, to fall, it is added to the end of the word. LHtso
(from etso-st, to be,) is the sign of the present tense in pat-yu, to paint.

The following examples will give a better idea of the conjugations than
a lengthy explanation. They were selected from a large number, and
have been verified with as much care as the difficulties of the case would
admit. I believe they may be safely trusted, inasmuch as they are words
that I have heard in constant use for over two years, and not trusting to
categorical information, have watched their habitual use in conversation.
The first example, 7-mz’-a, is the most variable verb in the language. The
forms given in each tense are usable interchangeably. It is equally correct
to say, ‘‘je mit-ka,’’ or, ‘‘je mi-at'-ka,’’? I go. The past re, and ra/-re, are
used everywhere except by a few people on the Coen River, where the
more regular form, m7-a/-na, is used.

CONJUGATIONS.
To go.
Inf. j-mi/-a.

; f mi-at/-ka,
Ind. Pres., ees

re, from the verb, ra/-tski,;
Past, }

\ used interchangeably.

ra/re, { the forms ordinarily used.
mi-a/-na; used only on the Coen River.

Perf., mi-cho’.

Fut., f mi/-a, affirmative.

\ (ke) mi/-na, negative (ke, not.)

Imperative, ju. When in combination with an object expressed;
be su i-tu, ‘thou go shoot.’ This is the al-
most universal auxiliary sign of the imper-
ative mood.

ju-shka, ju, as above; shka (shku), to walk.

mi/-shka, confined to the first person plural. It
means, ‘“‘let us go,’’ or, ‘‘come,’’ and can
be used as an auxiliary to almost all the
other verbs; mi-shka du tu, “‘let us go
birds shoot.”’

* Trav., vol. i., p. 827, Eng. Hd.

18TE.] 533 [Gabb.

To barn.
Inf. j-nyor/-ka.
Ind. Pres., i-nyor-ket/-ke.
Past, 1-nyor-no/-ka.
Perf., 1 nyor-no/-wa.
Fut., 1-nyor-wa/-ne-ka.
To cook.
Inf. ilu’.
Ind. Pres., i-luk’.
Past, i-li/-na.
Perf., i-let/-ke.
Eitan) ui

Imper. j-luk’.
To speak.
Inf. 1-Shtu’.

Ind. Pres., i-8htuk’.
Past, i-Shte’.

Perf., i-Shtet/-ke.
Fut., i-Sbte’.
Imper. j-Shtuk’.
To walk.
Tnf. j-shku’.

Ind. Pres., i-shkuk’.
Past, i-shke’.
Perf., i-shket/-ke.
Fut., i-shku’.
Imper. shku/-ta, walk to (come).
ju/-shka, walk from (go).

To this verb we must add the following irregular forms: shkat/-ke, to
walk ahead; its derivative, ¢t-kat/-ke, has gone ahead, and mi/-shka, for
which see the note to the first verb, 7-mia.

To shoot, to chop.

Inf. j-tu’.
Ind. Pres., ‘i-tuk’.

Past, i-te/-na,

Perf., i-tet/-ke.

Fut., (mia) i-tu’.
Imper. Gu) actu’.

To paint.

Inf. pat/-yu.
Ind. Pres., (etso) pat-yuk’; (etso, to be).

Past, pat-ye’/.

Perf., pat-yet’-ke.

Fut., pat-ye/-ke.
Imper. pat-yuk’.

Gabb.] Sot [ Aug, 20,

To eat.

Inf. i-ku-tu’.

Ind. Pres., i-ku-tet/-ke.
Past, sakuete/:
Perf. i-ku-te/-wa.
Fut., i-ki-te’.

Imper. 1-ku-tuk’.
To start.
Inf. i-bé-te/

Ind. Pres., i-be-te/.
Past, i-bé-te’.
Perf., i-bé-tet/-ke.
Fut., 1-bé-te’.
Imper. i-bé-ti/-nuk. Only used in a negative
sense, ‘‘ke bé-ti/-nwk,’’? do not start (or
move); 7. €., ‘keep perfectly quiet.’’

To roast.

Inf. i-ku-ke’.

Ind. Pres., 1 ku-kuk’.
Past, i-ku-tu/-na.
Perf., i-ku-ket/-ke.
Fut., i-ku-ke’.

Imper. i-ku-kuk’.

To exchange.

Inf. i-mne/-we.

Ind. Pres., i-mne-wet/-ke.
Past, i-mne/-ung.
Fut., (mi/-a) mne/-we.

Imper. i-mne/-ung.
To sleep.
Inf. ki-puk.

Ind. Pres., ki-pa-wet/-ke.
Past, ki-pe’.
ki-pug’-wo.
erty, { ki-pet/-ke; third person plural only.
Fut., ki-put/-ke.
Imper. (Gu) ki-put/ke.

To lose (inanimate objects).
Inf. i-cho’. wa.

There are no changes in this verb, except that mia is added to the Ind.,
Fut. There is no Imperative.

1875.]

To lose (animate objects).

Inf.

Ind. Pres.,
Past,
Perf.,
Fut.,

Inf.

Ind. Pres.,
Past,
Perf.,
Fut.,

Imper.

Inf.

Ind. Pres.,
Past,
Perf.,
Fut.,

Imper.

Inf.

Inds Bess,
Past,
Perf.,
Fut.,

Inf,

Ind. Pres.,
Past,
Perf.,
ipyities

Imper. >

Inf.

Ind. Pres.)
Past,

Fut.,

535

j-cho-rai’.
i-cho-rai/,
j-cho-rai’.
j-cho-rat/-ke.
j-cho-ret/-ke.
To listen.
j-Shtsu/.
j-shtsuk/,
1-Shtse’.
i-Shtset/-ke.

To count.
i-shtaung’.
j-shtaunk’,
j-shta/-we.
i-shtaung’.
(mia) shta/-we.
i-shtaunk.

To fall.

j-haw/-na.
j-haw/-nuk.
j-haw/-ne.
j-haw-net/-ke.

j-haw/-na (mi), (mia).

To push.
pat/-ku.
pat/-kuk.
pat/ke.
pat-ket/-ke.
pat/-ke.
pat/-kuk.

To feed.

[Gabb.

jé-Kku’ has the same terminations as pat/-

jTo want

i ei-a/-na.

( j-ki-a/—-na,

[ku.

i-ki-et/-ke, third person only ; when

1-ki-e’.

“he wants you.”’
j-ki-e’. =

—

Gabb.] 53516) [Aug. 20,

The place of the accent is strictly determined by the structure and
etymology uf compound words. In words composed of a noun and an
adjective, the accent is placed on the adjective; thus di+k7-bi’, large
water, 7. ¢., river ; chi-ka+tyng’, large substance, 2. €., stout ; sa-et/+juk,
cotton substance or raw cotton. This applies equally to the emphasis in
a similar phrase like pé how’-7t, other, or different people. When the
word is composed of an adjective or adverb, with a verb, the accent goes
with the verb; thus, i-shwig +pu’, to spread ; i-wo+tu’, to shut. When
composed of a noun and a verb, it follows the same rule; thus,
bé-ta-+on'-te, the remainder (7. ¢., the end stays or remains). When com-
posed of two nouns, one in an adjective sense, the accent is on the quali-
fying noun, like mo’-+-wo, navel; du’+hu, nest or bird-house ; tsw/-+ di-o,
milk or teat-juice; tsu/+wo, a woman’s breast ; tsw-wo/-+bé-ta, nipple.
This rule is almost universal in Bri-bri, and obtains generally in the
other languages ; the greatest number of exceptions being in Terraba.

In the simplest sentence, the nominative begins, followed by the object,
and the verb comes last. Whena noun is qualified by an adjective, the
adjective follows the noun. In the same way the adverb follows the verb ;
aud the verb closes the sentence, unless it is accompanied by an adverb,
or adverbial phrase. In case there are, in addition to the nominative,
object, and verb, another noun, governed by a preposition, these latter
close the sentence. I strike you; je be pu, I thou strike. I strike you
hard ; je be pu derere. The strong man chops the wood well; wew? dérere
kar tu bot. Will you go with me?; be mia je-ta, thou go I with. Ta,
wa, aud weg (see notes on the nouns) are always added as suffixes to
the nouns or pronouns which they qualify, and form a sort of ablative
case. But where wey is used in the sense of ‘‘ where is,’’ it begins the
sentence. Whose hat (is this)? 77 sombreno? Mine; je’-cha. How many
people are there in your house? pe bil tsosi be hu-weiiy? people how many
are thy house-where? Where is he? wevig ye ’tso? where he is? He re-
mained in the middle of the road; ye onte nyoro shong, he remained road
middle. Give mea chair (or bench), kri-wa’ mu’-nya,; chair give me.
Give him, m/-ye. Reach me my hat; je sombreno be ura reska, my hat
thou hand reach. Heat the water; di ba-ung, water make hot. The
water is hot; di ba ba-na, water warm heated (is). Put out the fire;
bowo wo-tu’, fire extinguish (or close). The fire went out; bowo i-to’-wa.
Shutthe door; hw shkw wo-tw’, house door shut. Unfasten the door; hw
Shku wo-jet'-sa. Open the door ; hu Shku wo-hu'-wa. Where is my knife?
weny je tabe? where my knife (et so, to be, understood)? Your knife is there;
be tabe tsosi diya, thy knife is there. Give me my knife ; je tabe munya, my
knife give. My knife is very sharp; je tabe ckata boi, my knife toothed
good. Go shoot a bird, or go shoot birds; be ju dw tu, thou go bird
shoot. What with? i-wa? Witha gun; mokkur wa, gun with. What
kind of a gun? mokkur is? gun what kind? Our country gun (blow-
gun); sa konska mokkur, own country gun. There are no balls (the
clay balls or pellets); mokkur wo ke ku, gun round (things) no more

1475. ] 557 {Gabb.
(are understood’. Why do you not make some? 7 kuenke be ke mokkur
wo juwo? why thou not gun round (things) make? There is no clay (or
material) ; mokkur wochika ke ku, gun round (things) material no
more. Is your gun a good one? be mokkur boi? thou (thy) gun good ?
Does it shoot well? itu boi? shoot well (or good)? Good morning ; be
shke/na ? thou art awake, or arisen (literally, straightened up). Reply;
je (1) shke’na. Be ratski; thou hast arrived (salutation on a person
entering a house). Je ratski, I have arrived. How are you? 7s be ’tso?
how thou (et-so/-s?) art? I am well; je ’tso bot. Where did you come
from? weg be bete’? where thou start? Who went with—? ji re —ta?
who went —- with? I did not see; ke je wai suna, not I (wat idiom)
saw. I do not know; ke je wai uphchen. This wai occurs nowhere
except in these two instances. What did you go for? dub be re? why
thou went? I went to call my people; je re je wakipa ikiu, 1 went I
(my) people to call. Are they coming? yepa ratski? they come (or
arrive? No; I think they have gone away; au, je hénbeku ye micho,
No; I think they have gone. Letusgo too; mishka hekepi, let us go alike.
Where is —-? wevig——? He has gone ahead; ye ’t-katke, he has walked
ahead (see note on i-shku, in conjugation). Put on your clothes ;
be sa-wi’ t-u, thou clothing (cotton) put into.

Section I].—MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

Although the tradition exists that the people of Terraba are a com-
paratively late emigration from the region of the Tiribis, and although
the tradition is sustained by the general resemblances of language, and
by the fact that the Brunkas (or Borucas), evidently older occupants of
the soil, are crowded into a corner like the Celtic tribes of Europe;
yet there are marked differences between the idioms spoken in Tiribi
and in Terraba. The Dialects of Southern Costa Rica can be divided
into three groups: First, the Bri-bri and the Cabecar; second, the
Tiribi and Terraba ; and lastly, the Brunka. The three divisions possess
many roots and even entire words in common, and may well be com-
pared -in their resemblan:es and differences with the Latin languages.
The first group is strongly marked by the short 7 before nearly all verbs
and by a generally more musical sound ; while tbe second is harsh, in
consequence of the frequent repetition of sound of z. The Cabecar 7
before the verb is not so persistent as in Bri-bri, but is more strongly
pronounced, approaching more nearly the ordinary Latin or Spanish 7.
The terminations ung and ong are as marked as the sign of the verb, in
the second group, as 7 is in the first. The 2 which almost invariably
accompanies this termination, is rarely a part of the last syllable, but
is usually sounded at the end of the penultimate, unless when abbreyi-
ated into zw or zo.

A gradual process of change is clearly discernible in these languages.
As yet the Bri-bri and Tiribi have been but little affected. But the Cab-
ecar of Coen is absorbing many Bri-bri words because the people of the
Coen, although they use their local dialect among themselves, all speak Bri-

Gabb.] 538 {Aug. 20,

brialso, while the latter, as the conquerors, despise the Cabecars and never
attempt to learn their language. The Cabecars of Estrella rarely speak
Bri-bri, but nearly all understand it, as well as Spanish and some speak
English, and words of both these latter languages are gradually being
adopted. The Tiribis are too isolated to acquire many foreign words;
but their near relatives the lalf-civilized people of Terraba as well as the
neighbors of these latter, the Borucas, are rapidly acquiring Spanish at
the expense of the corresponding words of theirownlanguage. Ina party
of five Borucas, there was not one who could count except in Spanish ;
and one of my Terraba friends could remember no word for girl, ex-
cept muchacha (Spanish), until I suggested (supported by analogy) the
word wa-re’ (woman), when he remembered that he had heard some
of the old people use wa-wa-re’! In like manner, he persisted in giving
me the Spanish, ‘‘/ucero’’ for star, besides many other words.

Many roots run through the entire group of languages unchanged, or
with changes so trifling that they are not worthy of note. Again some-
times the root varies while the ruling idea is the same. An illustra-
tion of this last case is the following: In Bri-bri, to forget is hen-i-
cho; toremember is ke hén t-cho, from ke not, hén the liver, and 7-cho to
lose. To think is also hén be-ku (probably from be ket-ke, ready). Liver ia
Tiribi is wo, in Terraba wo, and in Cabecar her; while to think is, in
Tiribi wo tnizung, in Terraba woi-du, and in Cabecar her-wik. The acts
of thought, memory, &c., have been attributed to the liver, with about as
. good reason as we yet place the seat of sentiment in the heart.

In Bri-bri, to lie down is tw ts, to throw down ; imperative me (yourself)
tu is. In Terraba tush ko (down) is used in the same manner; fa tush
ko, thou sit down, and fa bu tush-ko,-lie down (bu) long.

Changes of roots are illustrated by the following. In Bri-bri, k7-puk’ is
to sleep, and a hammock is k?-pu’. In Cabecar a bed is ka-pu!-gru, in
Tiribi and Terraba it is bu/-kru; and in Brunka sap is to sleep.

In Brunka a ghost is ¢-wik, and a shadow is ka-wik’, and a devil or evil
spirit is kag’/-bru. In Bri-bri, a ghost, or spirit of a dead person is wig'-
bru. In Cabecar, a shadow is wig/-ra, while in Tiribi it is ya'-gro, and
in Bri-bri, sé-r7-w/-gur, thus connecting the word in Bri-bri for ghost, or
departed spirit, with that for shadow by means of the allied idioms,
although without the intermediate changes of the root, it would not have
been demonstrable.

It is evident that the Cabecar mog-2’, straight, and the Bri-bri maz/-kz,
true, are identical. Although the Bri-bri word s¢/-gua, foreigner, has been
replaced in the other languages, by other words, it remains in the
Terraba, as a compound, in the name of the banana, bin-sigua, evidently
‘foreign plaintain,’’ from ding, a plaintain ; because it may have been
introduced at a later date than the larger fruit, and when the word sigua
was yet in current use.

Again, the idea changes, and with it, words from other roots come in,
thus: lightning, in Bri-bri is wra wo'-nyn, ‘‘the thunder flashes ;”’ the

1875] 539 [Gabb.

Tiribi ehgu-ring’ and the Terraba zhu-ring’, seem to be specific ; but the
Cabecar, kong-wo-hor!-kn is ‘‘the atmosphere burns,’’ while the Brunka
ji'-kra is simply “ fire.”’

Like the two or three cases of imperfect plural in Bri-bri, already men-
tioned, the Terraba hasa single plural word ; or rather only an approach,
a sort of transitional form. Zhgring is a vib, and zhgring’-ro, the ribs in
their collective sense, rather as the bony case of the thorax, than as the
several bones.

As stated above, the compound words in the voeabulary of Bri-bri are
divided by a + sign between the component parts. In the other lan-
guages, there are doubtless many that have not been properly separated,
because I have not ventured to make theoretical divisions, and have only
separated those that were obviously compound. My less perfect acquaint-
ance with them has not warranted me in this step, nor in the probably
unnecessary detail of analysis to which I have subjected the language of
Bri-bri.

In Terraba the 3d person, singular, pronoun kwe, while not varying:
for gender or number, has three forms which always appear according to
a peculiar condition, thus :

he, she, (sitting or lying down) so’-kwe.
ec (Standing) shon/-kwe.
GS (cexoyunnees)) her-shon-kwe’.

In Brunka, I, thou, he, (or she) and we, (a-dé-bi’, &c.,) are used with
the termination dé-bi’ whenever they occur alone. When combined with
other words in a sentence, the first syllable only (a, ba, 7, and ja) is used.
The termination is almost an integral part of the word and must be used
when alone. This is the reverse of the termination ré in Bri-bri, which
is rarely used except in a seatence, and then only for euphony or emphasis,
and at the option of the speaker.

CHAPTER III.
VOCABULARY OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE BRI-BRI INDIANS.

[ Norz.—In this, and in the accompanying vocabularies, the vowels
have the same sounds as in Spanish, unless marked with a special sign ;
é is pronounced as in English met; 7 asin pin; 7 asin mum. J has the
sound as in John ; ng as in thing; 7g like the French nasal 1; sh like ch
in the German ich; h is aspirated as in English. A few words having
unusual yowel sounds are noted separately, not to add unnecessary com-
plication of conventional signs ; like si-az’, blue and ku-kw’, ear.

Compound words are written with a + sign between the component
parts. Accent is of great importance, the change in position of the ac-

A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 38R

(rabb. ]

540

[Aug. 20,

cent sometimes changing the sense of the word entirely like 7-juk’ to
drink, 7/-jwk earth, soil. ]

to ache

to adhere
afraid
afterwards

again
against

ago

to agree

to aim

air

alike

alive

all
alligator
alone

alongside
already
also
always

angle

anory
ankle
ant,

ant-eater

j-de-li/-na
i-ba/-tsa-wa
su-wa/-na
e/-wa

1-sa-ka/
1-bé-tsu/-wa

er’-a-pa

| en-i-al’,
nyo-nyo/-ni

f i-shun/-lu

\ nyi/--wo-yu
j-shun/-sa-a

kone’-+-shu-wang

nyi-+ ke’

nyi-|shtsei/

tse/-ka

f seng

‘Lo-vi-te-ne/
to-rok/

f e/-kur

le/mi
i-yaw/-mik
je-bak’
j-sa-ka/
shu-ar/-i-a

be-ta/
si-chi/-a
o-ru/-na

o-ra-bo’ :
tsa/-_wak

hie:

Lene

“See pain.
See against.

Not 7/-wa, interrogative,
“what with.’

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