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PROCEEDINGS ack
OF ‘THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR
PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
VOL. XLII.
JANUARY TO DECEMBER,
1903.
PHILADELPHIA :
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
1903.
LIST OF MEMBERS
American Philosophical Society
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE
(Founded 1743)
January, 1904.
4 pa |
ha
an
mx:
, .
4 4
rot Oe
hy
‘
.
1 :
is!
éé
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'
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iy
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here
1687.
1463.
2311.
2170.
1809.
2128.
2457.
2451.
1779.
1642.
2380.
1869.
1927.
2064.
2164.
2220.
2012.
2019.
1995,
1832.
2389.
2285. BAILtY, LL. H., Prof... .
1630.
1991.
2419,
2467.
2345.
2191.
1965.
1741.
2011.
2489,
LIST OF MEMBERS
OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
JANUARY, 1904.
Name.
ABBE, CLEVELAND, Prof... . . +
ABBOT, HENRY L., Gen. U.S.A. .
ABBOTT, ALEXANDER C., M.D...
ABBOTT, CHARLES CONRAD, M.D..
oO
ACKERMAN, RICHARD, Prof... .
ADAM RLU CIEN. Sole ers) '« cits: ©
ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS, LL.D.
ADLER, CyBus; Ph.Dui iets 2 5:
AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER, Prof... .
AGASsIz, Mrs. ELIZABETH. .
ALLEN, ALFRED H., F.C.S. ...
ALLEN, JOEL ASAPH, Prof. ...
AMES, REV. CHARLES G. ....
ANDERSON, ‘GEO. L., Maj. U.S.A.
ANGELL, JAMES B., LL.D., Pres’t..
APPLETON, WILLIAM HYDE, Prof.
ASHHURST, RICHARD L......
AVEBURY, The Right Hon. Lord.
BAGH R. MERADION J o50? 6).
BACHE, THOMAS HEwson, M.D.
BAER, GEORGEF.......
BAIRD, HENRY CAREY...
BatRD, HENRY M., Prof.
BALCH, EDWIN SWIFT. .... .
BALCH, THOMAS WILLING ....
BALDWIN, JAMES MARK, Prof.. .
BALL, SIR ROBERT STAWELL. .
DEBAR, HON. EDOUARD SEVE. .
BARKER, GEORGE F., LL.D., Prof..
BARKER, WHARTON .....e ee
BARNARD, EDWARD E., Sc.D
ye
Date of Election.
July
April
Feb’y
Dec.
July
Dec.
Feb.
May
April
Oct.
May
Sept.
Jan'y
Feb’y
Oct.
May
April
July
B
Jan’y
Feb’y
Dec.
May
Jan’y
Jan’y
Dec.
May
Oct.
May
July
April
April
April
27, 1871,
18, 1862,
19, 1897,
20, 1889,
21, 1876,
17, 1886,
15,
18,
1901,
1900,
16, 1875,
15, 1869,
20, 1898,
20, 1878,
21, 1881,
19, 1886,
18,
19,
18,
18,
18, 1884,
2, 1877,
16, 1898,
15, 1896,
15, 1869,
18, 1884,
15, 1899,
17, 1901,
15, 1897,
15, 1891,
21, 1882,
18, 1873,
18, 1884,
3, 1903,
Present Address.
U. S. Weather Bureau, Wash-
ington, D.C.
23 BerkeleySt.,Cambridge, Mass,
University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia,
Trenton, N.J.
Stockholm, Sweden.
41 Bard Sevigné,
France.
23 Court St., Boston.
Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington, D. C.
Cambridge, Mass.
Quincy St., Cambridge, Mass.
67 Surrey St., Sheffield, Eng.
Am. Museum of Natural His-
tory, New York.
12 Chestnut St., Boston, Mass.
Ordnance Board, Governor’s
Island, New York City.
Ann Arbor, Mich.
Swarthmore, Pa.
319 S: 11th St., Philadelphia.
High Elms, Down, Kent, Eng.
Rennes,
4400 Sansom St., Philadelphia.
233 S. 13th St., Philadelphia.
1718 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
Cornell University, Ithaca,N.Y.
810 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
219 Palisade Ave., Yonkers,N. Y.
1412 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
1412 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
Princeton, N. J.
Observatory, Cambridge, Eng.
Ramsgate, England.
3909 Locust St., Philadelphia.
119 S. 4th St., Philadelphia.
Yerkes Observatory, Williams
Bay, Wisconsin.
*
1902.
2490.
2119.
2421.
2482,
1968.
1802.
2255.
2326.
2264.
2416.
1788.
. BERTIN, GEORGES...
. BIDDLE, CADWALADER .....
. BRINTON, JOHN H., M.D
. Brock, RoBERT C. H.. .
. BROEGGER, W.'C., Prof... . . .
. BROOKS, WILLIAM KEITH, Prof. .
Name.
BARTHOLOW, ROBERTS, M.D. . .
Barus, CARL, Ph.D.,*Prof.. . .
BASTIAN, ADOLPH, Prof......
BAUGH, DANIEL... .. .<s
BECQUEREL, ANTOINE-HENRI, Prof.
BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM, Prof.
BELL, Str LOWTHIAN, Bart. ...
BEMENT, CLARENCE S. .....
DEBENNEVILLE, JAMESS ....
BERTHELOT, MARCELIN P. E.,
MENG, ). toree bats ~ahel ar cep ents
even a ists
BIDDLE, HON. CRAIG ......
. BILLINGS, JOHNS.,M.D......
. BISPHAM, GEORGE TUCKER...
BLAIR, ANDREW A... .
. BLAKE, WM. PHIpps, Prof. .. .
. Boas, FRANZ, Ph.D...
. VON BOHTLINGK, M. OTTO, ...
. BONAPARTE, PRINCE ROLAND. .
. Boyk, MARTIN H., Prof. ....
. BRACKETT, Cyrus Foae, Prof.. .
. BRANNER, JOHN C., Prof. ....
. BRASHEAR, JOHN A.,Sc.D. . .
. BREZINA, ARISTIDES, Dr... .. .
BROWN; AMOS? Profiicis, «« /sx's
. BROWN, ARTHUR ERWIN....
. Brown, ERNEST WILLIAM, Prof.
. BRUBAKER, ALBERT P., M.D...
. BRUSH, GEORGE J., Prof. ....
. BRYANT, HENRY GRIER, F.R.G.S.
. BRYCE, RIGHT HON. JAMES. .
Bunge, E. A. WALLIS, Litt.D. .
SBUB BV) SSE EY Js de-sess (¢. «
. BUTLER, HON. WILLIAM..-...
CADWALADER, JOHN. . a
CAMPBELL, JOHN LYLE, Ph.D.,
Lo) typi h Chie, Cet ic :
CV Suh eer:
Lv
Date of Election.
April 16, 1880,
April 3, 1903,
Dec. 17, 1886,
Dec. 15, 1899,
April 4, 1902,
July, 21, 1882,
April 21, 1876,
May 17, 1895,
Oct. 15, 1897,
May 17, 1895,
May 17, 1895,
Oct. 15, 1880,
Feb’y 2, 1877,
Feb’y 18, 1887,
May 17, 1895,
May 17, 1889,
Oct. 21, 1870,
April 3, 1903,
Jan’y 17, 1862,
Feb’y 15, 1895,
Jan’y 17, 1840,
Feb’y 2, 1877,
May 21, 1886,
April 4, 1902,
May 21, 1886,
Feb’y 19, 1886,
Dec. — 15, 1899,
Dec. 15. 1899,
May 21, 1886,
May 7, 1901,
April 18, 1879,
Dec. 16, 1898,
Oct. 18, 1895,
Jan’y 20, 1865,
May 20, 1898,
Feb’y 15, 1895,
Feb'y 15, 1895,
Jan’y 18, 1884,
April 15, 1881,
Q
May 19, 1899,
16, 1875,
Present Address.
1525 Locust St., Philadelphia.
30 Elm Grove Ave.,Providence,
Rhode Island.
Koniggritzerstrasse 120, Ber-
jn, Germany.
1601 Locust St., Philadelphia.
6me d’Urville, Paris, France.
1331 Connecticut Ave., Wash-
ington, D. C.
Northallerton, England.
3907 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
University Club, Philadelphia,
Palais de l'Institut de France,
Rue Mazarin, No. 3, VI¢.,
Paris, France.
11 bis Rue Ballu, Paris.
1420 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
2033 Pine Street, Philadelphia.
40 Lafayette Place, New York.
1805 DeLancey Place, Phila.
406 Locust Street, Philadelphia.
Tucson, Arizona.
Am. Museum of Nat. History,
Central Park, New York.
Seeburgstrasse 35, II, Leipzig,
Germany.
10 Ave.d’ Jena 22, Paris, France.
Coopersburg, Lehigh Co., Pa.
Princeton, N. J.
Stanford University, Cal.
1954 Perryville Ave.,
gheny, Pa.
XITIS St. Veitgasse,
Vienna, Austria.
1423 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
1612 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Christiania, Norway.
Johns Hopkins Univ., Balti-
more, Maryland.
20 E. Penn St., Germantown,
Philadelphia.
1208 Locust St., Philadelphia.
Haverford College, Pa.
105 N. 34th St., Philadelphia.
Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn.
Room 805 Land Title Building,
Philadelphia,
54 Portland Place, London, W.,
England.
British Museum, London, Eng.
400 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
West Chester, Pa.
Alle-
15,
1519 Locust St., Philadelphia.
Crawfordsville, Ind.
2361.
2402,
2282.
1808.
2480.
2369.
1811.
1557.
2417.
1923.
. CORA, GUIDO, Prof. . .
CRAMPS CHARLES Hic iss sus es
. CRANE, THOMAS FREDERICK, Prof.
. CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM .....
Name.
. CAMPBELL, Wm. W., Sc.D., LL.D.
. CANBY, WILLIAM MARRIOTT...
. CANNIZZARO, TOMASO ......
31. CAPELLINI, GIOVANNI, Prof, .
YS CABII; JOHN H., Prot. « 23%,
. CARNEGIE, ANDREW, LL.D . .
. CARSON, HAMPTON L., LL.D.
| GARTER, Hon. JAMES'C: . 2...
. CASSATT, ALEXANDER J
. CASTNER, SAMUEL, JR.
. CATTELL, J. MCKEEN, Prof... .
. CHANCE, HENRY MARTYN, M.D.
» CHANDIER; GC. 5) Prof. 2. | s
. CHAPMAN, HENRY C., M.D... .
. DECHARENCEY, COMTE HYACINTH
, CLARE, CLARENCE Hy ys oss.
. CLARK, WILLIAM BULLOCK, Prof.
; CLAYPOLE, EB: W., Prof... .. .
. CLEEMANN, RICHARD A., M.D. .
. CLEVELAND, HON. GROVER...
. COHEN, J. SOLIS, M:D.. . .. 2s
. COLES, EDWARD...
. COLLITZ, HERMAN, LL.D., Prof .
. CONKLIN, EDWIN GRANT, Prof..
CONVERSE: JOHN ELA 8 ait. 's 6 <) e
b COOK, OBS. \Gwtwrat ey) ae a elec
s = wife e
. CROWELL, EDWARD P., Prof. . .
. CULIN, STEWART ..
DALL, WILLIAM H., Prof. ....
DANA, CHARLES E....... z
Dana, EpwarD §., Prof. ....
DANNEFELD, C. JUHLIN.....
DARBOUX, JEAN-GASTON . .
DARWIN, GEORGE HOWARD, Prof.
DAVENPORT, SIRSAMUEL ....
DAVIDSON, GEORGE, Prof.....
DAVIS, WILLIAM Morais, Prof. .
DAWKINS, WILLIAM Boyp, Prof.
Vv
Date of Election.
April
Oct.
Oct.
April
Oct.
April
April
May
Oct.
Dec.
May
April
April
April
Dec.
May
April
Jan’y
Feb’y
Oct.
Jan’y
Dec.
April
Feb’y
May
May
Dec.
Dec.
Feb’y
May
3, 1903,
16, 1868,
16, 1885,
18, 1873,
14, 1875,
4, 1902,
16, 1880,
17, 1895,
18, 1872,
16, 1887,
18, 1888,
16, 1880,
16, 1875,
16, 1875,
17, 1886,
17, 1889,
4, 1902,
19, 1883,
15, 1895,
15, 1897,
18, 1884,
15, 1899,
4, 1902,
19, 1897,
20, 1898,
17, 1895,
17, 1886,
16, 1892,
2, 1877,
21, 1886,
16, 1898,
21, 1897,
17, 1897,
19, 1899,
15, 1896,
21, 1876,
4, 1902,
18, 1898,
20, 1876,
19, 1866,
20, 1899,
15, 1880,
Present Address.
Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamil-
ton, California.
1101 Delaware Avenue, Wil-
mington, Del.
Santa Maria fuori cinta, Casa
Roffa, Messina, Sicily.
Portovenere prés Spezia, Italy.
Pleasantville, Venango Co., Pa.
2 East 91st St., New York.
1033 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
54 Wall Street, New York City.
Haverford, Delaware Co., Pa.
3729 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
Garrison-on-Hudson, N. Y.
819 Drexel Building, Phila.
Columbia Univ., N. Y. City.
2047 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
25 Rue Barbet de Jouy, Paris,
France.
42d and Locust Sts., Phila.
Johns Hopkins University, Bal-
timore, Md.
Pasadena, Cal.
2135 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
Westland, Princeton, N. J.
182 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
2010 DeLancey Place, Phila.
Bryn Mawr, Pa.
University of Penna., Phila.
500 N. Broad St., Philadelphia.
819 N. Broad St., Philadelphia.
2 Via Goito, Rome, Italy.
507 S. Broad St., Philadelphia.
Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.
7 Kensington Park Gardens,
London, W., England.
21 Amity St., Amherst, Mass.
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and
Sciences, Brooklyn, N. Y.
U.S. National Museum, Wash-
ington, D.C.”
2013 DeLancey Place, Philadel-
phia. i
Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn.
Stockholm, Sweden.
36 Rue Gay-Lussac, Paris, France
Newham Grange, Cambridge,
England.
Beaumont, Adelaide, S. Aus-
tralia.
2221 Washington St., San Fran-
cisco, Cal.
Cambridge, Mass.
Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Man-
chester, England.
Name.
DAY, FRANK MILES.
SAW) VILLA Ge PTO s)< 44 8
. DE GaRMO, CHARLES, Prof... .
DERCUM, FRANCIS X.,M.D....
DewWaR, JAMES, LL.D., Prof... .
. DICKSON, SAMUEL . «2.20 §
. Drxon, SAMUEL G., M.D
DORBN, ANTON, IDTs.s sls» «8s
. DOLLEY, CHARLESS., M.D....
DONNER, OTTO: ,EQOM, icnle! 6, '< “ex's
146° Doorrmruz, C. Ty., (Prof.«< 2... +008
9405. DOOLITTUE, BlO ula «tek ete
2425. DOUGHERTY, THOMAS HARVEY.
1839. DouGLAs, JAMES, LLD.....
1924. DRAPER, DANIEL, Ph.D. ....
1787. DROWN, THOMAS M., Pres’t. . .
1918. Du Bols, PATTERSON .....-.
1878. DUDLEY, CHARLES BENJ., Ph.D. .
2180.
2364.
. DuPont, HENRY A., Col...
. DUNCAN, Louis, Ph.D., U.S.N.. .
DUNNING, GEORGE F. .... se
DUPONT, EDOUARD.. ee es 2
eal J
DUTTON,CLARENCE E., Maj. U.S.A.
. EASTON, MORTON W., Prof. . .
EGKFELDT, JACOBB..<..s
Eppy, H. TURNER, Prof
. Epison, THomas A., Ph.D... .
. EDMUNDS, HON. GEORGE F. ...
ELIOT, CHARLES W., Pres’t. . ..
. ELLIOTT, A. MARSHALL, Prof. . .
ELY, THEODORE N.
. EMERSON, BENJ. KENDALL, Prof.
. EMMET, W. L. R
EMMONS IS. h., ENOL sg 5 = «ys «
EVANS, SIR JOHN, K.C.B .....
. EWELL, MARSHALL D , M.D.,LL.D.
FENNELL, C. A. M., Litt.D. ...
FIELD, ROBERT PATTERSON .. .
FINE, HENRY B.,, Prof
vi
Date of Election.
Oct. 20, 1899,
May 19, 1899,
Dec. 17, 1897,
Dec. 16, 1892,
Dec. 15, 1899,
April 18, 1884,
Dec. 16, 1892,
April 3, 1903,
Dec. 17, 1886,
May 21, 1886,
Oct. 21, 1881,
April 3, 1903,
Dec. 15, 1899,
April 20, 1877,
Oct. 15, 1880,
July 16, 1875,
Oct. 15, 1880,
Jan’y 17, 1879,
Feb’y 19, 1886,
Jan’y 18, 1867,
April 18, 1873,
Feb’y 16, 1894,
Jan’y 20, 1871,
a =H)
Dec. 17, 1886,
Oct. 15, 1880,
Feb’y 2, 1877,
May 15, 1896,
May 17, 1895,
April 21, 1871,
May 17, 1895,
May 21, 1897,
Dec. 17, 1897,
Feb’y 18, 1898,
Jan’y 19, 1883,
Oct. 21, 1881,
May 17, 1895,
a5}
Feb’y 15, 1895,
May 16, 1890,
Dec. 17, 1897,
Fresent Address.
801 Penn Mutual Building,
Philadelphia.
Swarthmore, Pa.
Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.
1719 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
The Royal Institution, Lon-
don, England.
901 Clinton St., Philadelphia.
Black Rock Farm,Ardmore, Pa.
Marine Zoological Station,
Naples, Italy.
3707 Woodland Ave., Phila.
Helsingfors, Finland.
Upper Darby, Delaware Co.,Pa.
University of Pennsylvania,
Philadeiphia.
School’ House Lane, German-
town, Philadelphia.
Spuytenduyvil, NewYork, N.Y.
Meteorological Observatory,
Central Park, New York.
Lehigh Uniy.,S. Bethlehem, Pa,
401 S. 40th St., Philadelphia.
Drawer 334, Altoona, Blair Co.,
Pa.
Mass. Institute of Technology,
Boston.
Farmington, Conn.
Roya] Museum, Bruxelles, Bel-
gium.
Winterthur, Del.
Morgan Park, Cook Co., Ill.
224 S. 43d St., Philadelphia.
U.S. Mint, Philadelphia.
University of Minnesota, Min-.
neapolis, Minn.
Orange, N. J.
1724 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
17 Quincy St.,Cambridge, Mass.
Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Md.
115 Broad St. Station, Phila.
Amherst, Mass.
48 Washington Ave.,
nectady, N. Y.
1721 H St., Washington, D. C.
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead,
England.
59 Clark St., Chicago, Il.
Sche-
139 Chesterton Road, Cam-
bridge, England.
218 S. 42d St., Philadelphia.
Princeton, N. J.
2383.
2462.
1901.
2197.
2487.
. FRALEY, JOSEPH C. . .
. FRAZER, PERSIFOR, Dr. és-Sc. Nat.
. FULTON, JOHN. .. .
Name.
FISHER, SYDNEY GEORGE. ...
FLEXNER, SIMON, Dr... ....
FLINT, AUSTIN, M.D. . Dy
FORBES, GEORGE, Prof., F.R.S. .
FosTER, StR MICHAEL, K.C.B.,
F.R.S., D.C.L
FRAZIER, BENJ. W., Prof... . .
. FRIEBIS, GEORGE, M.D......
. FULLERTON, GEORGE S., Rev...
O.0 Es? =, wee
FURNESS, HORACE Howard, LL.D.
FURNESS, HORACE HOWARD, JR..
. FURNESS, WILLIAM H., 3d, M.D. .
. GARNETT, RICHARD, C.B., LL.D..
COG a rt ove D0 2901 02 Cee eae
. GATES, MERRILL E.,LL.D..
. GATSCHET, ALBERTS., Ph.D...
GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD
GEIKIE, JAMES, Prof... < ss <<
GONE BH Ae DB) so Sates ed <
GIBBS, OLIVER WOLCOTT, Prof
GIGLIOLI, HENRY H.., Prof.
GILBERT, GROVE K., LL.D... .
. GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL L., LL.D.,
Prof.” <5
GILL, THEODORE N., M.D., Ph.D.
. GILMAN, DANIEL C., LL.D....
. GLAZEBROOK, RICHARD T., F.R.S.
. GOODALE, GEORGE LINCOLN, Prof
. GOODSPEED, ARTHUR W., Prof.
MGGODWIN, “ELAROLD ccs. .e.s \eepc 1
GOOD WAN: Wie Wes EYOL...2) «snes
. GRAY, GEORGE, Hon. .....
. GREEN, SAMUEL A., M.D... ..
. GREENE, WILLIAM H., M.D... .
. GREENMAN, MILTON J., M.D. . .
vii
Date of Election.
Dec.
Feb’y
April
Oct.
April
May
. DI GREGORIO, MARCHESE ANTONIO Dec.
17, 1897,
15, 1901,
16, 1880,
16, 1891,
4, 1902,
16, 1880,
19, 1872,
18, 1896,
20, 1889,
16, 1890,
18, 1873,
16, 1880,
19, 1897,
19, 1897,
15, 1901,
20, 1883,
21, 1886,
17, 1884,
16, 1880,
21, 1876,
19, 1886,
21, 1854,
15, 1901,
4, 1902,
3, 1903,
19, 1867,
21, 1876,
15, 1895,
17, 1893,
15, 1896,
20, 1892,
15, 1895,
18, 1900,
20, 1893,
18, 1879,
19, 1899,
21, 1888,
Present Address.
328 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia.
60 E. 34th St., New York, N.Y.
34 GreatGeorge St.,S.W.London.
Nine Wells, Great Shelford,
Cambridge, Eng.
1833 Pine St., Philadelphia.
928 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
Lehigh Uniy., Bethlehem, Pa.
1906 Chestnut St., Philadelphia:
89, The Gladstone, Philadel-
phia.
136 Park Pl., Johnstown, Pa.
Wallingford, Delaware Co., Pa.
2034 DeLancey Place, Phila.
1906 Sansom St., Philadelphia.
27 Tanza Road, Hampstead,
London, England.
Logan P. O., Philadelphia.
1315 New Hampshire Ave.,
Washington, D. C.
2020 Fifteenth St., N. W., Wash-
ington, D. C.
28 Jermyn St., London, S. W.,
England.
31 Merchiston Ave., Edinburgh,
Scotland.
103 N. Front St., Philadelphia
158 Gibbs Ave., Newport, R. I.
19 Via Romana, Florence, Italy.
U. S. Geological Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
1002 Belvidere Terrace, Balti-
more, Md.
Smithsonian Inst., Washing-
ton, D.C.
614 Park Ave., Baltimore, Md.
Bushey House, Teddington,
Middlesex, Eng.
10 Craigie St., Cambridge, Mass.
Univ. of Pennsylvania, Phila-
delphia.
133 S. 12th St., Philadelphia.
Cambridge, Mass.
Wilmington, Del.
Historical Soc., Boston, Mass.
N. E. Cor. Arch and 16th Sts.,
Philadelphia.
Wistar Institute, 36th and
Darby Road, Philadelphia.
Al Molo, Palermo, Sicily.
2188.
2090.
2495.
. HAY, JOHN, Hon...
. HILLER, H. M., M.D.
. HopPin, J. M., Prof... .
Name.
GREGORY, CASPAR RENE, Prof. .
DE GUBERNATIS, ANGELO, Prof. .
GUMMERE, FRANCIS BARTON,
BE-D.; Prof. :..
. HADLEY, ARTHUR T., Pres’t. .
. HAECKEL, ERNST, Prof. .....
. HAGUE, ARNOLD, D.Sc. .....
HALE, REV. EDWARD EVERETT, .
. HALE, GEORGE E., Prof. ....
HALL, ASAPH, Prof... ... Bike
. HALL, CHARLES EDWARD.....
BeEUAT HN GHAR GRIM: «crcl caves. «
PALS, LYMAN EB. Prof... |. ss
CREDADES, ep) Oss llDia) cede (0) es
FVARRIN FOOSEEH) Se 11514) fel's Vera
HARRISON, CHARLES C., Provost.
HART, JAMES MORGAN, Prof. . .
HAUPT, HERMANN, Gen. ....
HAQPT: TinWiIs M., Prof . <2:
HADET PAULA CLOL.s (clte! «0s!
HAYES, RICHARD SOMERS, Capt .
Hays,I. MInts,M.D......
HEILPRIN, ANGELO, Prof. .
HEWETT, WATERMAN T., Prof. .
EYRE) PAUL, ED.D. 5. «<2 .s
HILL, GEORGE WILLIAM, LL.D. .
oe ie = ae
HILPRECHT, HERMANN V., Prof.
HIMES, CHARLES FRANCIS, Prof. .
. Hirst, BARTON COOKE, M.D...
HiTcHcock, CHAS. HENRY, Prof.
HOLDEN, EDWARD S., Prof. .. .
HOLLAND, JAMES W., M.D....
HoLMEs, WILLIAM H., Prof... .
HOOKER, Sir JOSEPH D., LL.D. .
HORNER, INMAN.
HouGH, GEORGE W., Prof. ... .
Sel eee, ie ee
. Houston, EDWIN J., Prof. ...
} HOWE, HENRY Mj Prot. 3.5
Viii
Date of Election.
May
May
April
eso
April
Oct.
April
Jan’y
April
Jan’y
Oct.
Dec.
Jan’y
May
May
Feb’y
Feb’y
Dec.
April
May
April
Dec.
May
Feb’y
April
May
May
April
Feb’y
Dec.
Oct.
Dec.
April
Dec.
Feb’y
Dec.
Jan’y
Oct.
Feb’y
Jan’y
Jan’y
Oct.
15, 1891,
21, 1886,
3, 1903,
4, 1902,
16, 1885,
3, 1903,
21, 1870,
4, 1902,
18, 1878,
15, 1875,
16, 1998,
16, 1885,
15, 1891,
20, 1887,
15, 1895,
2, 1877,
17, 1897,
21, 1871,
3, 1878,
4, 1902,
16, 1898,
21, 1886,
19, 1886,
20, 1883,
19, 1893,
17, 1895,
3, 1903,
19, 1897,
17, 1886,
16, 1874,
15, 1899,
15, 1870,
17, 1897,
19, 1886,
15, 1899,
15, 1869,
20, 1898,
19, 1886,
19, 1872,
19, 1872,
15, 1997,
Present Address.
Naunhofstrasse 25, Marien-
hohe, Leipzig-Stotteritz, Ger-
many.
Florence, Italy.
Haverford -College, Haver-
ford, Pa.
Yale University, New Haven,
Conn,
University, Jena, Germany.
1724 I St., Washington, D. C.
89 Highland St., Roxbury,
Mass.
Yerkes Observatory, Williams
Bay, Wis.
South Norfolk, Conn.
Instituto Geologico de Mexico,
Santa Maria, Mexico,Mexico.
Niagara Falls, N. Y.
Haverford Coll., Haverford, Pa.
40 Rue Lubeck, Ave. du Troca-
dero, Paris, France.
144 School Lane, Germantown,
Philadelphia.
400 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
1 Reservoir Ave., Ithaca, N. Y.
Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh,
Pa.
The Concord, Washington, D.C.
107 N. 35th St., Philadelphia.
2511 Madison Ave., Baltimore-
State Dep’t, Washington, D.C.
32 Nassau St., New York.
266 S. 2ist St., Philadelphia.
1801 Arch St., Philadelphia.
31 East Ave., Ithaca, N. Y.
Munich, Bavaria.
West Nyack, N. Y.
1510 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
403 S. 41st St., Philadelphia.
Dickinson Coll., Carlisle, Pa.
1821 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
Dartmouth Coll., Hanover,N.H |
U. S. Military Academy, West
Point, N. Y.
2006 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
Bureau of Ethnology, U. S.
National Museum, Washinug-
ton, D. C.
The Camp, Sunningdale, Eng.
New Haven, Conn.
1811 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
N.W.University, Evanston, Ill.
1809 Spring Garden St., Phila.
27 W. 738d St., New York.
2498.
2239.
"1843.
9248,
2373.
1773.
2217.
2010.
2302.
2375.
2049.
1954.
2017.
1989,
2322.
2169.
2422,
2329,
2021.
2392.
2450.
1723.
2278.
2392.
1767.
2424,
2167.
1694,
2411,
2377.
2344,
1858.
1781,
2505.
Name.
HOWELL, WILLIAM HENRY, Ph.D.,
Jeg) eal Ey Sat AT eRe g es
HuGGINS, Str WILLIAM, K.C.B. .
HUMPREWY Ee Cs.t) 55. ete
HUNTER, RICHARD S:......
HUTCHINSON, EMLEN.......
INGHAM, WM. ARMSTRONG. ....
D’INVILLIERS, EDWARD VINCENT.
JAMES, EDMUND J., Pres’t.....
JASTROW, MorRRIs, JR., Prof... .
JAYNE, HENRY LABARRE, LLD..
JAYNE, HORACE, (MED soo. lejicc's
JEFFERIS, WILLIAM W . .
JORDAN WE BANGIS. U'iicts ec lice
KANE, ELISHA KENT... ....
KARPINSKY, ALEX. PETROVITCH,
Protas; cites ales. vet
KEANE, JOHN J., Right Rev. .
KEASBEY, LINDLEY M., Prof. . .
KEEN, GREGORY B. ....2...
KEEN, WILLIAM W., M.D., LL.D.
KEISER, EDWARD H., Prof... .
KELLER, HARRY F:, Prof... : .
KELVIN, RIGHT HON. LORD. . .
FeRNNECLY, An: SC 42!
KNIGHT, WILLIAM A., Prof....
KONIG, GEORGE A., Prof. ....
KRAEMER, HENRY, Prof. ....
KRAUSS, FRIEDRICH S., Ph.D...
LAMBERT, GUILLAUME, Prof...
LAMBERTON, WILLIAM A., Prof .
DE LANCEY, EDWARDF....
LANCIANI, RUDOLFO, Prof... .
LANDRETH, BURNET.
LANGLEY, SAMUEL P., LL.D...
LANKESTER, EDWIN RAy, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
ix
Date of Election.
April
Feb’y
3, 1903,
15, 1895,
July
Feb'y
May
20, 1877,
15, 1895,
20, 1898,
al:
April
May
16, 1875,
19, 1893,
TJ
April
Feb.
May
Oct.
Jan’y
18, 1884,
19, 1897,
20, 1898,
16, 1885,
20, 1882,
April 18, 1884,
aS
April 20, 1883,
May 21, 1897,
Dee.
Dec.
Oct.
July
Dec.
20,
15,
1889,
1899,
15, 1897,
18, 1884,
16, 1898,
May
April
18, 1900,
18, 1873,
Feb. 28, 1896,
Dec,
Oct.
16, 1898,
16, 1874,
15, 1899,
20, 1889,
Jan’y 19, 1872,
May
May
Oct.
Jan’y
April
19, 1899,
20, 1898,
15, 1897,
18, 1878,
16, 1875,
April 3, 1903,
Present Address.
232 West Lanvale St., Baltimore.
90 Upper Tulse Hill, S.W., Lon-
don, England.
?
1413 Locust St., Philadelphia.
Aldine Hotel, Philadelphia.
320 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
506 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
5833 Monroe Ave , Chicago, Il.
248 S, 23d St., Philadelphia.
1826 Chestnut St., Phila.
318 S. 19th St., Philadelphia.
442 Central Park West, New
York City.
111 N. Front St., Philadelphia.
Kushequa, Pa.
Geological Survey, St. Peters-
burg, Russia.
Dubuque, Iowa. ,
Bryn Mawr, Pa.
2320 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
1729 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
Washington University, St.
Louis, Mo.
Central High School, Phila.
The Library, The University,
Glasgow, Scotland.
Harvard University,
bridge, Mass.
St. Andrew’s, Scotland.
School of Mines, Houghton,
Mich.
145 N. 10th St., Philadelphia.
VII? Neustiftgasse 12, Vienna,
Austria.
Cam-
42 Boulevard Bischoffsheim,
Brussels, Belgium.
University of Penna., Phila.
20 E. 28th St., New York.
2 Via Goito, Rome, Italy.
Bristol, Pa.
Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington, D. C.
British Museum, Cromwell Rd.,
London, S.-W., Eng.
Name.
1721. La RocHE, C. Percy, M.D... .,
1595. LEA, HENRY CHARLES, LL.D.. .
2407. LEARNED, MARION D., Prof...
1986. LEHMAN, AMBROSE E.......
2174. LE MOINE, SIR JAMES M.....
1934. LEROY-BEAULIEU, PAUL, Prof. .
2085. LEVASSEUR, EMILE, Prof. ....
saa ae Ws Gr ATIBERT sia sah ore, (0! s
2338. LIBBEY, WILLIAM, Prof... .\..
2432. LIPPINCOTT, J. DUNDAS .....
2312. Lister, THE RIGHT Hon. LorD.
1756. LocKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN,
cel CA) RS) PE RS Sr te er ee
2160. LopDGE, Srr OLIVER JosEPH, LL.D.
Pine ORB, JACQUES, (DIS « i.e s/s s/«
1872. LONGSTRETH, Morris, M.D... .
e- LOW, ION: SELEY 6 elis te ie eles
2350. LOWELL, PERCIVAL ....+-.-.
1629. LYMAN, BENJAMIN SMITH ....
2319. MABERY, CHARLES F., Prof... .
2107. MACALISTER, JAMES, Pres’t. ...
2207. MACFARLANE, JOHN M., Prof. . .
2404. MACKENZIE, ARTHUR S., Prof. . .
2368. McCay, LEROY W., Prof... ...
2366. McCLURE, CHARLES F. W., Prof.
2280. McCook, HENRY C., Rev., D.D..
1888. McCREATH, ANDREWS. .....
2299. MAGIE, WM. FRANCIS, Prof... .
2339. MAHAN, ALFRED T., Capt. U.S.N.
2042. MALLET, JOHN WM., M.D....
-1847, MANSFIELD, IRA FRANKLIN...
1857. MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW, Prof.
2461. MARCONI, GUGLIELMO......
2463. MARCOVNIKOFF, VLADIMIR, Prof..
1861. MARKS, WILLIAM D., Prof... ..
2078. MARSHALL, JOHN, M.D.....
C154. MasearT Fi. Profie. .sie = ss
1b72. MASON ANDREW s)5/c ve) ae "oie e
2451. MOABONOTIS*T,, PrOfe. . ss fs
2279, Mason, WM. PiTTs, M.D., Prof. .
2196. MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE, Prof.
x
Date of Election.
Jan'y 17, 1878,
Oct. 18, 1867,
May 19, 1899,
April 20, 1883,
Dec. 20, 1889,
April 15, 1881,
May 21, 1886,
Dec. 18, 1896,
Oct. 15, 1897,
Dec. 15, 1899,
May 21, 1897,
April 17, 1874,
Feb'y 15, 1901,
Dec. 15, 1899,
Sept. 20, 1878,
Feb. 19, 1892,
Oct. 15, 1897,
Jan'y 15, 1869,
IW
May 21, 1897,
Dec. 17, 1886,
Dec. 16, 1892,
May 19, 1899,
Dee. 17, 1897,
Dec. 17, 1897,
Feb. 28, 1896,
July 18, 1879,
Dec. 18, 1896,
Oct. 15, 1897,
Jan’y 16, 1885,
Jan’y 18, 1878,
Jan’y 18, 1878,
Feb’y 15; 1901,
Feb’y 15, 1901.
May 3, 1878,
May 21, 1886,
Dec. 19, 1890,
Jan’y 18, 1867,
Dec. 15, 1899,
Feb. 28, 1896,
May 15, 1891,
+. <a" oe
‘a
Present Address.
1518 Pine Street, Philadelphia.
2000 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
University of Penna., Phila.
506 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Spencer Grange, Quebec, Can-
ada.
27 Ave. du Bois de Boulogne,
Paris, France.
26 Rue Mons. le Prince, Paris,
France.
1834 DeLancey Place, Phila. ~
20 Bayard Ave., Princeton, N.J.
1333 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
12 Park Crescent, Portland
Place, London, England.
Royal College of Science, S.
Kensington, London, §. W.,
England.
The University, Birmingham,
England.
University of California, Berke-
ley, Cal.
1416 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
30 E. 46th St., New York.
53 State St., Boston.
708 Locust St., Philadelphia.
57 Adelbert St., Cleveland, O.
119 N. 18th St., Philadelphia.
Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Pa.
Bryn Mawy, Pa.
Princeton, N. J.
Princeton, N. J.
3700 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
223 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa.
Princeton, N. J.
160 W. 86th St., New York.
University of Virginia, Char-
lottesville, Va.
Beaver, Beaver Co., Pa.
Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.
The Haven Hotel, Sand Barths,
Poole, Dorset, England.
Imp. Moskovsky Universitet,
Moscow, Russia.
Westport, Essex Co., N. Y.
1718 Pine St., Philadelphia.
176 Rue de l'Université, Paris,
France.
30 and.32 Wall St., New York.
U.S. National Museum, Wash-
ington, D.C. ;
Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti-
tute, Troy, N. Y.
Paris, France.
2427.
2399.
2456.
2115.
2330.
2430.
2387.
2251.
2485.
1903.
1947.
1744.
2436.
2142.
2484.
2423.
2284.
2175.
1461.
2267.
2367.
2323.
2029.
1841.
2499.
2340.
2409.
2397.
1976,
2454,
2265.
2509.
2121.
2464,
2192.
2062.
1937.
2087.
2316.
1852.
Name.
MATTHEWS, ALBERT. . . ese
MEIGS, ARTHUR V.,M.D.....
MEIGS, WILLIAMM...%....
VON MELTZEL, HuGo, Prof. Dr.
MELVILLE, GEO.W., Rear Admiral.
MENDENHALL, THOMAS C, Prof.
MENGARINI, GUGLIELMO, Prof. .
RRC RR ERENT YG. er aiels) 5 sete
MERRIAM, C. HART, Dr... ...
MERRICK, JOHN VAUGHAN.....
MERRIMAN, MANSFIELD, Prof. .
MESSCHERT, MATTHEW HUIZINGA.
MEYER, ADOLPH B., Prof.....
MICHAEL, Mrs. HELEN ABBOTT .
MICHELSON, ALBERT A., Prof.,
Sc.D. (Cantab).........
MILLER, LESLIE W., Prof... . :
Minot, CHAS. SEDGWICK, M.D..
MITCHELL, HON. JAMES T....
MITCHELL, S. WEIR, M.D... .
MONTEGAZA, PAOLO. . ... =.
MONTGOMERY, THOS. H., Jr., Prof.
MOORE, CLARENCEB.......
Moors, JAMES W.,M.D.....
MOREHOUSE, GEORGE R.; M.D. .
MORLEY, EDWARD W., Ph.D.,
AGED ee ohn site roam ealot ve ate
MORLEY, FRANK, Prof... .. ;
Morris, HARRISON 8... . . « «
Morris, ISRAEL W..... ees
Morris, J. CHESTON, M.D.....
EO RINIS LOEEN) Dstt Walal” ints): 20la. re
Morse, Epwarp S., Prof... ..
Morse, HARMON N., Ph.D. .
oe
MucuH, MAatHxus, Ph.D., Prof. .
MUNEO; DANAIC.. Profi. . 32"
MUNROE, CHARLES E., Prof.
Morpock, J. B., Com. U.S.N...
MURRAY, JAMES A. H., LL.D. .
DE NADAILLAC, MARQUIS.....
NANSEN, FRIDTJOF, Prof. ....
NEWCOMB, SIMON, Pro’
xi
Date of Election.
Dec. 15, 1899,
May 19, 1899,
Feb’y 15, 1901,
Dec. 17, 1886,
Oct. 15, 1897,
Dec. 15, 1899,
May 20, 1898,
Feb. 15, 1895,
April 4, 1902,
April 16, 1880,
Oct. — 21, 1881,
Oct. 17, 1873,
Dee. 15, 1899,
May 20, 1887,
April 4, 1902,
Dec. 15, 1899,
May 15, 1896,
Feb’y 21, 1890,
Jan’y 17, 1862,
May 17, 189d,
Feb’y 18, 1898,
Octs 9153) 18972
Jan’y 16, 1885,
April 20, 1877,
April 3, 1993,
Oct. 15, 1897,
May 19, 1899,
May 19, 1899,
Jan’y 19, 1883,
Feb’y 15, 1901,
May 17, 1895,
April 3, 1903,
Dec. 17, 1886,
May 17, 1901,
May 15, 1891,
Feb’y 19, 1886,
April 15, 1881,
INT
May 21, 1886,
May 21, 1897,
Jan’y
18, 1878,
Present Address.
145 Beacon St., Boston.
1322 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
1815 Pine St., Philadelphia.
Koloszvar, Hungary.
Navy Dept., Washington, D.C.
Worcester, Mass.
Rome, Italy.
Doylestown, Pa,
U. S. Biological Survey, Dep’t
of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, D. C.
Roxborough, Philadelphia.
Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, Pa.
Douglassville, Berks Co., Pa.
K. Zoélogischesu. Anthropolo-
gisch-Ethnographisches Mu-
seum, Dresden, Germany.
140 Beacon St., Boston.
University of Chicago, Chi-
eago, Ill.
N..W.cor. Broad and Pine Sts.,
Philadelphia.
Harvard Univ., Cambridge,
Mass.
1722 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
1524 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Florence, Italy.
Univ. of Texas, Austin, Texas.
1321 Locust Street, Phila.
Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.
2033 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Adelbert College, Cleveland,
Ohio.
Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore.
Academy of Fine Arts, Phila-
delphia.
225 So. 8th St., Philadelphia.
1514 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
826 Drexel Building, Phila.
Essex Institute, Salem, Mass.
1117 N. Eutaw St., Baltimore.
XII{I Penzingerstrasse, 84, Vi-
enna, Austria.
Univ. of Wisconsin,
son, Wis.
Columbian Uniy., Washington,
D.C.
Navy Dept., Washington, D.C.
Sunnyside, Banbury Road, Ox-
ford, England.
Madi-
48 Rue Duphot, Paris, France.
Godthaab, Lysaker, Norway.
1620 P St., Washington, D. C.
. OPPERT, JULES, Prof
. ORTMANN, ARNOLD E., Prof.. . ,
. PAUL, J. RODMAN...
Pe EARSR) JOHN: eee ua ee + ©
. PECKHAM, S. F., Prof
. PEIRCE, C. NEWLIN, D.D.S.... .
. PEMBERTON, HENRY. .
. PENAFIEL, ANTONIO, Dr. ....
. PENNIMAN, JOSIAH H., Prof...
. PENNYPACKER, SAMUEL W., Hon.
Name.
NICHOLS, STARR Hoyt, Rev...
INTRETIN, SERGI, Prof,....:. «> «
& NORRIS, ISAAC, M.D: 2... he
PUNOTEALDL, MRS. ZELTA*. . . s\. .
Ottver, CHARLES A., M.D. ...
OLNEY, RICHARD, Hon... ..
. OSBORN, HENRY F., Prof... . .
OSLER, WILLIAM, M.D
. PACKARD, ALPHEUS §S., Prof. . .
; PACKARD, JOHN H., M.Di. 2. %
» PANCOAST, HENRYS .....
LP EATTERSON, C. STUARTS co s0 16
2. PATTERSON, EDWARD, Hon... .
. PATTERSON, LAMARGRAY ...
. PATTERSON, ROBERT.....
PATTERSON, THOMAS LEIPER ..
. PATTISON, ROBERT E., Hon...
PaTTON, FRANCIS L., D.D., Pres’t
ee wrre*'es ©
Mais 8) 4) Le
. PENROSE, R.A. F., M.D. ....
PEPPER, EDWARD, M.D.
. PEPPER, GEORGE WHARTON,LL.D.
. PETTEE, WILLIAM HENRY, Prof.
Pe LIS ELEN 6 6 @- © ost 's
PHILLIPS, FRANCIS C., Prof. ..
. PICKERING, Epw. C., Prof. ...
PIERSOL, GEORGE A., M.D... . .
; PILSBRY, HONKY A., Prof... .:.
p PLATT (CHARLES. sie BR obs J
xil
Date of Election.
July
Feb'y
Oct.
May
19, 1872,
19, 1866,
18, 1872,
17, 1895,
19, 1836,
17, 1897,
15, 1891,
17, 1897,
18, 1887,
16, 1885,
20, 1878,
18, 1867,
16, 1998,
16, 1885,
18, 1900,
20, 1898,
18, 1851,
15, 1853,
17, 1893,
17, 1897,
15, 1899,
15, 1875,
21, 1897,
8, 1878,
17, 1873,
21, 1886,
15, 1901,
21, 1886,
17, 1863,
19, 1886,
15, 1897,
20, 1898,
28, 1895,
19, 1899,
15, 1896,
15, 1897,
20, 1895,
20, 1898,
Present Address.
128 Main St., Danbury, Conn.
Geological Survey, St. Peters-
burg, Russia.
Fair Hill, Bryn Mawr, Pa.
Plaza de Alvarado, Coyoacan.
D. F. Mexico.
1507 Locust St., Philadelphia.
23 Court Street, Boston.
2 Rue de Sfax, Paris, France.
Carnegie Museum, Shenley
Park, Pittsburg, Pa.
American Museum of Natural
History, New York.
1 West Franklin St., Baltimore,
Md.
Providence, R. I.
University Club, Philadelphia.
a
267 E. Johnson St., German- ~
town, Phila.
1000 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Supreme Court, Appellate Div.,
1st Dept., New York City.
Guano, Amherst Co., Va.
329 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
176 Washington St., Cumber-
land, Md.
5930 Drexel Rd., Overbrook, Pa.
Princeton, N. J.
903 Pine St., Philadelphia.
317 Walnut Ay., Roxbury, Mass.
49 Pacifie St., Brooklyn.
3316 Powelton Ave., Philadel-
phia.
1947 Locust St., Philadelphia.
Ciudad Mexico, Mexico.
4326 Sansom St., Philadelphia.
Executive Mansion, Harris-
burg, Pa.
1331 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
El Afia, El Biar, Alger, Algerie.
701 Drexel Building, Phila.
554 Thompson St., Ann Arbor,
Mich.
5951 Overbrook Ave., Phila-
delphia.
P. O. Box 126, Allegheny, Pa.
Harvard Uniy., Cambridge,
Mass.
Chester Ave. and.49th St.,
Philadelphia.
Academy of Natural Sciences, ~
Philadelphia.
237 S. 18th St., Philadelphia,
sed.
. RAWLE, FRANCIS. .
. RAWLE, WILLIAM BROOKE... .
. RAYLEIGH, The Right Hon. Lord.
. RAYMOND, ROSSITER W......
Name.
. POINCARE, HENRI, Prof......
. POMIALOWSKY, JOHN, Prof... .
» POSTGATE, JOHN P., Prof... ). .°.
. PREECE, Str WM. HENRY, F.R.S.
. PREscoTT, ALBERT B., LL.D., Prof.
PRIME, FREDERICK ... .
. PRITCHETT, HENRY S, LL.D.,
President ...
. PUMPELLY, RAPHAEL, Prof... ..
3. PUPIN, MICHAEL I., Prof.
. PUTNAM, FREDERICK W., Prof. .
31. RADA, JUAN DE Dios-y DELGADO,
. RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM .....
LEVADTDVA TAT, HAC IMCD <<. sg) a) ven e
| AVENEL, MAZYCKI'P: Die. «
at tm (0) 6) Gevee: eo
. REDWOOD, BOVERTON. ....-.
. REMINGTON, JOSEPH P., Prof...
. REMSEN, IRA, President. ....
PRENEVIER, He. Prof... 2. 6 2 s
. RENNERT, HuGo A., Prof.....
SVU A UK, VR, ELOe oss Vepow Ue.
REVILLE, ALBERT, Prof. .... .\.
2. RICHARDS, THEO. WILLIAM, Prof.
. ROBERTS, ISAAC, Sc.D., F.R.S.. .
e
. ROBINS, JAMES W., Rev .....
. RoGprs, ROBERT W., Prof... .
2. Rouric, F. L. Orro, Prof.....
. ROLLETT, HERMANN, Ph.D.
. ROSCOE, SIR HENky E., F.R.S.,
LU Ga ee rs ee
ehh el) 56) 0 la
. ROSENGARTEN, JOSEPHG. ....
) DE ROSNY, UBON, Profi swe) a ol is
. ROTHROCK, JOSEPH T., Prof. . .
xii
Date of Election.
May 19, 1899,
Oct. 16, 1885,
May 21, 1886,
Dee. 15, 1899,
May 20, 1898,
April 16, 1875,
May =_:19, 1899,
April 17, 1874,
May 15, 1896,
May 15, 1895,
BEW
Dec. 17, 1886,
May 19, 1899,
Jan’y 18, 1878,
May, 17, 1901,
Dec. 16, 1898,
May 19, 1899,
May 21, 1886,
April 16, 1875,
May 20, 1898,
May 19, 1899,
July 18, 1879,
July 18, 1879,
Dec. 15, 1899,
Feb’y 2, 1877,
Dec. 17, 1886,
April 4, 1902,
Oct. 20, 1893,
April 2i, 1882,
Feb’y 21, 1890,
April 18, 1862,
Oct. 16, 1885,
April 3, 1903,
Oct. 16, 1891,
July 21, 1882,
April
20, 1877,
Present Address.
63 Rue Claude Bernard, Paris,
France.
St. Petersburg, Russia.
Cambridge, England.
12, Queen Anne’s Gate, Lon-
don, S. W., England.
734 S. Ingalls St., Ann Arbor,
Mich,
1008 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Boston.
Newport, R. I.
7 Highland Pl., Yonkers, N. Y.
Peabody Museum, Cambridge,
Mass.
Calle de la Corredera baja de S.
Pablo No. 12, Madrid, Spain.
University College, Gower St.
W. C., London, Eng.
Warren, Pa.
University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia.
328 Chestnut St., Philadelphia
230 So. 22d St., Philadelphia.
Terling Pl., Witham, Essex, Eng.
99 John St., New York, N. Y.
4, Bishopsgate St. Within, E. C.,
London, England.
1832 Pine St., Philadelphia,
Johns Hopkins Univ., Balti-
more, Md.
Univ., Lausanne, Switzerland.
4232 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
W. Ahornstrasse 2, Berlin, Ger-
many.
21 Rue Guénégaud, Paris,
France.
15 Follen St., Cambridge, Mass.
Starfield, Crowborough, Sus-
sex, England.
2115 Pine St., Philadelphia.
Drew Theological Seminary,
Madison, N. J.
4025 Oakland Ave., Pasadena,
Cal.
Baden bei Wien, Austria.
Woodcote Lodge, West Horsley,
Leatherhead, England.
1704 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
28 Rue Mazarine, Paris, France
West Chester, Pa.
4, ScHURZ, CARL, Hon
25. SCLATER, PHILIP LUTLEY, Ph.D.
. ScoTT, CHARLES F.
Name,
. SACHSE, JULIUs F., Litt.D. .
. SADTLER, SAMUEL P., Prof... .
. SAJouS, CHARLES E., M.D....
. SAMPSON, ALDEN... . <
. SANDBERGER, FREDOLIN, Prof. .
. SANDERS, RICHARD H.......
. SARGENT, CHARLES SPRAGUE, Prof
. DE SAUSSURE, HENRI......
. SCHELLING, FELIX E., Ph. D:. Prof.
. SCHIAPARELLI, GIOVANNI...
2. Scott, WILLIAM B., Prof. . .
70. SCUDDER, SAMUEL HUBBARD...
. STENGEL, ALFRED, M.D.
. STEPHENS, H. MorRsE, Prof... .
52. SEE, THOMAS J.J., LL.D. ....
. SELLERS, COLEMAN, S3.D.....
. SELLERS, COLEMAN, JR... 2.
. SELIGRS, WILLIAM. ..... « “
SERGI, GIUSEPPE, Prof. .....
. SHARP, BENJAMIN, M.D.. 1...
. SHARPLES, STEPHEN PASCHALL,
ROE sate, bo cnet LAN ar se
. SHERWOOD, ANDREW . mike Tat sea
22. SHIELDS, CHAS. W., LL.D., Rev..
. SIGSBEE, CHARLES D., Admiral,
O See, ee.) wis
LOLS, BARS Pairwise
. SINKLER, WHARTON, M.D.....
. SMITH, A. DONALDSON,
. SMITH, EpGarR F., Prof, .....
. SMITH, STEPHEN, M.D
Bs BMOCK, JOHN'C., Prof, . . . . ..s
iO a
SMYTH, ALBERT H., Prof. . .
. SNELLEN, HERMAN, JR., Ph.D. .
. SNOWDEN, A. LOUDON. .....
. SNYDER, MONROE B., Prof.
. SPOFFORD, A. R., LL.D.....
. STEVENS, WALTER LECONTE, Prof.
. STEVENSON, JOHN JAMES, Prof. .
. STEVENSON, SARA Y., Sc.D. .
» PIMGGWRLU, Liss ssc sos a
. STONEY, G. JOHNSTONE, Prof.,
F.R.S.
Xiv
Ss
Date of Election
Feb'y
Oct.
Feb'y
Dec.
April
Oct.
April
April
April
Feb’y
Sept.
April
Feb'y
Dec.
Sept.
Dec.
July
Dec.
April
Oct.
May
April
Oct.
Feb’y
Dec.
May
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
May
Feb’y
Oct.
Jan’y
Jan’y
April
16, 1894,
16, 1874,
17, 1888,
17, 1897,
20, 1866,
15, 1897,
21, 1882,
18, 1873,
4, 1902,
15, 1901,
20, 1878,
18, 1873,
18, 1898,
17, 1886,
20, 1878,
17, 1897,
19, 1972,
15, 1899,
15, 1864,
16, 1885,
21, 1886,
21, 1882,
15, 1875,
2, 1877,
15, 1899,
18, 1900,
15, 1897,
21, 1887,
15, 1875,
15, 1897,
20, 1887,
'16, 1894,
17, 1873,
18, 1884,
17, 1873,
3, 1903,
15, 1897,
18, 1884,
20, 1877,
18, 1895,
18, 1898,
4, 1902,
Present Address.
4128 Pine St., Phila.
N.E. cor. 10th and Chestnut Sts.,
Philadelphia.
2043 Walnut St., Philadelphia,
Haverford, Fa.
Univ. of Wirzburg, Wiirzburg,
Bayaria.
1225 Locust St., Philadelphia.
Jamaica Plain, Mass.
Geneva, Switzerland.
4211 Sansom St., Philadelphia.
Royal Observatory, Milan, ©
Italy.
54 William St., New York.
3 Hanover Square, London, W.,
England.
Westinghouse Electric Co.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Princeton, N. J.
Cambridge, Mass.
Mare Island Observatory, Cal.
3301 Baring St., Philadelphia.
410 N. 33d St., Philadelphia.
1819 Vine St., Philadelphia.
Universita Romana, Rome, Italy
Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia.
26 Broad St., Boston, Mass.
Mansfield, Tioga Co., Penna.
Princeton, N. J.
League Island Navy Yard,
Philadelphia.
1606 Walnut St., Philadelphia:
1820 Chestnut St., Phila.
3421 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
57 W. 42d St., New York.
Trenton, N. J.
5214 Main St.,
Philadelphia.
Utrecht, Netherlands.
1812 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
2402 N. Broad St., Philadelphia,
Library of Congress, Washing-
ton, D. C.
1811 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
University of California, Berke-
ley, Cal.
Lexington, Va.
University Heights, New York
237.8. 21st St., Philadelphia,
6th St., Lakewood, N. J.
Germantown,
80 Ledbury Rd.,
London, W., Eng.
Bayswater,
XV
Name. Date of Election. Present Address.
2094. SuEss, EDUARD, Prof....... May 21, 1886, K. K. Geologische Reichsan
‘ stalt, Vienna, Austria.
2258. SULZBERGER, MAYER, Hon.... May _ 17, 1895, 1303 Girard Ave., Philadelphia.
2092. SZOMBATHY, JOSEF, Prof... .. May 21, 1886, Burgring 7, Vienna, Austria.
ag
OLS, TATA, WILGEAM®). 0:6. sis») 6 Oct. 15, 1897, 1811 Walnut St., Philadelphia
2098. TEMPLE, RICHARD CARNAC, Col.. May 21, 1886, Port Blair, Andaman Islands,
: Bengal, India.
2289. TESLA, NIKOLA, LL.D. ..... May 15, 1896, Wardenclyffe,Long Island,N.Y.
2006. THomas, ALLEN C., Prof..... Jan’y 18, 1884, Haverford, Pa.
1993. THOMPSON, HEBER 8....... Jan’y 18, 1884, Sheafer Build’g, Pottsville, Pa.
1726. THOMPSON, SIR HENRY, Bart. . April 18,1873, 35 Wimpole St., Cavendish
Square, London, England.
2488. THOMPSON, SILVANUS P., Prof.,
SED. Seite’; eoaeaceteed site -..... April 4, 1902, Technical College, Finsbury,
Leonard St, City Rd., E.C.,
Eng.
1807. THOMSON, ELIHU, Prof. ..... April 21, 1876, Swampscott, Mass.
2507. THOMSON, JOSEPH JOHN, D.Sc.,
TEES ber ave. cab lcte cite Be cheay re Meiiet voles April 38, 1908, TrinityCollege, Cambridge, Eng.
1909. THOMSON, WILLIAM, M.D..... April 16, 1880, 1426 Walnut St., Philadelphia
2052. Im THURN, EVERARD F...... Oct. 16, 1885, Queens College, Neawara
Eliya, Ceylon.
1530. THuRY, A., Prof. ........ April 15, 1864, Univ. of Geneva, Geneva,
2 Switzerland.
2471. TILGHMAN, BENJAMIN CHEW. . April 4, 1902, 1126 S. 11th St., Philadelphia.
2123. TOPINARD, PAUL, Prof. ..... Dec. 17, 1886, 105 Rue de Rennes, Paris,
‘ France,
2249. TOWER, CHARLEMAGNE,JR.,LL.D.,
ELOTICAS Sty ctaomeiael bey Toomelitaiis . . Feb’y 15, 1895, U.S. Embassy, Berlin,Gemany,.
2503. TRELEASE, WILLIAM,Sc.D.... April 3, 1903, Missouri Botanical Garden,
St. Louis, Mo.
2418. TREVELYAN, GEORGE OTTO, Rt.
Hon. Sits. sc) 62,6)... 6 May 39)1899,, 8 Grosvenor Crescent, (Si W:.
London, England.
2288. TROWBRIDGE, JOHN, Prof... .. May 15, 1896, Harv. Univ., Cambridge, Mass.
2441, TRUE, FREDERICK WILLIAM, Dr. Dec. 15, 1899, U.S. National Museum, Wash-
ington, D. C.
1973. TSCHERMAK, GUSTAV....... Oct. 20, 1882, Universitat, Vienna, Austria.
2321. TSCHERNYSCHEW, THEODORE,
OL ancmementeeel (nie. pasts sais May 21, 1897,. Geological Survey, St. Peters-
burg, Russia.
1529. v. TUNNER, PETER R., Prof... . April 15, 1864, Leoben, Austria.
1983. TURRETTINI, THEODORE, Prof. . Dec. 19, 1890, Geneva, Switzerland.
2166. TUTTLE, Davip K., Ph.D..... Oct. 18, 1889, U.S, Mint, Philadelphia.
2163, TYLER, LYON G., Hon., Pres’t. . Oct. 18, 1889, Williamsburg, Va.
2138. Tyson, JAMES, M.D....... May 20, 1887, 1506 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
oy :
2185. UNWIN, WILLIAM C., Prof... .. Dec. 19, 1890, 7 Palace Gate Mansions, Lon-
don, England.
We
2400. VAUCLAIN, SAMUEL M.... .. May 19, 1899, 1533 Green St., Philadelphia.
2325. VAUX, GEORGE, JR........ Oct. 15, 1897, 404 Girard Building, Phila.
1670. VosE, GEoRGE L., Prof...... Oct. 21, 1870, Brunswick. Maine.
21586.
2508.
1904.
. WAGNER, SAMUEL
. WARE, LEWIsS...
. WILDER, Burt G., Prof
PEW AEGCOX, <POSKIPEH o) ile daa >!
. WISTER, OWEN
. WiITMER, LIGHTNER, Ph.D., Prof.
. WooD, RICHARD. ....
PV OODISAEUA I. dune) get Slavs: 6
. WooDWARD, HENRY,LL:D_,F.R.S.
Name.
VIOESION, DUIS § 5 ccos ax ef
DE VRIES, Huago, Prof.......
. WAHL, WILLIAM H., Ph.D. ...
. WALCOTT, CHARLES D., LL.D. .
. WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL, LL.D,
. WARD, LESTER F., LL.D... we. .
WARFIELD, ETHELBERT D., Pres’t
. WEIL, EDWARD HENRY .....
. WELCH, WILLIAM H., M.D... «
. WHARTON, JOSEPH. .... sine va
. WHITE, ANDREW D., Hon... ..
. WHITE, ISRAEL C., Prof... ...
SeWHITKTEED: R."Ps Prof: .)2 ¢
. WHITMAN, CHARLES OTIS, Prof. .
. WILLIAMS, EDWARD H., JR., Prof.
WILLIAMS, TaLcoTT, LL.D. ...
. WILKS, HIRNRY, Prof. (os. 6 <7
. WILSON, JAMES CORNELIUS, M.D.
WILSON, WILLIAM PoWELL, M.D..
. WILSON, WoOoDROW, Pres’t.. .
.WISTAR, (GEN, ISARGG. 2... » «
. WOODWARD, ROBERT S., Ph.D.,
Prof.
. WRIGHT, ARTHUR W., Ph.D,, Prof.
. WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS, LL.D .
4. WUNDT, WILLIAM, Prof......
WuRTS, ALEXANDER JAY ....
WurtTs, CHARLES STEWART, M.D.
WyckKorFfr, A.B., Lieut. U.S.N. .
YARNALL, ELLIS
1759. YOUNG, CHARLES AuGusTDS, Prof.
xvi
Date of Election.
Dec. 19, 1890,
April 3, 1903,
16, 1885,
16, 1874,
15, 1897,
18, 1873,
17, 1889,
21, 1881,
17, 1897,
16, 1885,
15, 1896,
16, 1869,
16, 1869,
Jan’y 18, 1878,
May 20, 1898,
Dec. 15, 1899,
May — 3, 1878,
Feb. 15, 1895,
Oct. 15, 1897,
May 18, 1888,
Feb’y 21, 1890,
Jan’y 16, 1885,
May 20, 1887,
Oct. 15, 1897,
May 19, 1893,
May 21, 1897,
Oct. 15, 1897,
April 18, 1879,
May 19, 1899,
July 17, 1874,
April 4, 1902,
May 15, 1896,
Feb’y 16, 1900,
Feb. 15, 1895,
Dec. 15, 1899,
Jan’y 21, 1881,
Feb’y 19, 1886,
RR
April 16, 1880,
April 17, 1874,
Present Address.
Consulate of France, Bombay,
India.
University of Amestet lam,
Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Greenbank Farm, West Ches-
ter, Pa.
15S. 7th St., Philadelphia.
U. S. Geological Survey, Wash-
ington, D.C.
Parkstone, Dorset, England.
1464 Rhode Island Ave., Wash-
ington, D. C.
Phila.BookCo.,15S.9th St., Phila.
Easton, Pennsylvania.
1720 Pine St., Philadelphia.
935 St. Paul St., Baltimore, Md.
P. O. Box 1332, Philadelphia.
White Library, Cornell Uniy.,
Ithaca, N. Y.
119 Wiley St., Morgantown,
W. Va.
American Museum of Natural
History, New York.
University of Chicago, Chi- —
cago, Ill.
60 Cascadilla Pl., Ithaca, N. Y.
‘“«The Clinton,’’ 10th and Clin-
ton Sts., Philadelphia.
53 Phillips St., Andover, Mass.
916 Pine Street, Philadelphia.
4036 Baring St., Philadelphia.
1511 Walnut St., Philadelphia,
233 S. 4th St., Philadelphia.
Prospect, Princeton, N. J.
S. E. Cor. Spruce and 17th Sts., .
Philadelphia.
328 Chestnut Street, Phila.
University of Penna, Phila.
1620 Locust St., Philadelphia.
1620 Locust St., Philadelphia.
British Museum, London, Eng-
land.
408 West 145th St., New York.
73 York Sq., New Haven, Conn.
Trinity College, Cambridge,
England.
Leipzig, Germany.
Nernst Lamp Co., Pittsburg, Pa.
1701 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Navy Department, Washing-
ton, D.C. f
420 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
16 Prospect Ay., Princeton, NJ.
PROCEEDINGS
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE
Vou. XLII. JANUARY-APRIL, 1903. No. 172.
Stated Meeting, January 2, 1903.
President WISTAR in the Chair.
The list of donations to the Library was laid on the table
and thanks were ordered for them from the Chair.
Messrs. Joseph C. Fraley, Patterson DuBois and Harold
Goodwin, the Judges of the annual election for Officers and
Councillors, reported that the same had been held on this
day, between the hours of 2 and 5 in the afternoon, and that
the following named persons were elected, according to the
laws, regulations and ordinances of the Society, to be the Offi-
cers for the ensuing year:
President.
Edgar F. Smith.
Vice- Presidents.
George F. Barker, Samuel P. Langley, William B. Scott.
Secretaries.
I. Minis Hays, Edwin G. Conklin, Morris Jastrow, Jr.,
Arthur W. Goodspeed.
Treasurer.
Henry LaBarre Jayne.
Pe te
4 MINUTES. [Feb. 6,
Curators.
Charles L. Doolittle, William P. Wilson, Albert H. Smyth.
Councillors to serve for three years.
George R. Morehouse, Patterson DuBois, Ira Remsen,
Isaac J. Wistar.
Stated Meeting, January 16, 1903.
President SMITH in the Chair.
The President, on taking the Chair, expressed his thanks
for the honor conferred upon him by the Society, and then
made some remarks on some recent researches in electro-
chemical analysis. :
Dr. I. Minis Hays was elected Librarian for the ensuing
year.
The Standing Committees for the ensuing year were chosen
as follows :
Finance.—Philip C. Garrett, Joel Cook, C. Stuart Patter-
son.
Publication Henry Carey Baird, Joseph Willcox, Amos
P. Brown, James W. Holland, Horace Jayne.
Hall.—Harold Goodwin, John Marshall, Frank Miles Day.
Library.—George F. Barker, Albert H. Smyth, J.G. Rosen-
garten, Edwin G. Conklin, Robert C. H. Brock. .
Dr. William W. Keen was elected a Councillor to fill the
unexpired term of Prof. Albert H. Smyth, resigned.
Stated Meeting, February 6, 1903.
President SMITH in the Chair.
The list of donations to the Library was laid on the table
and thanks were ordered for them from the Chair.
1908.] MINUTES. 5
The Secretaries announced the decease of the following
members :
Sir George Gabriel Stokes, of Cambridge, Eng., on Febru-
ary 1, 1903, aged 83.
Hoe: Berard Cruz, of Guatemala.
Prof. H. W. Wiley, of Washington, made some remarks on
the “ Investigations of the Bureau of Chemistry on the Com-
position and Adulteration of Foods.”
Prof. Edgar F. Smith presented a specimen of the metal
calcium obtained by electrolysis.
Dr. Samuel G,. Dixon made some remarks on the produc-
tion of tuberculosis by inoculation with tuberculin.
Stated Meeting, February 20, 1903.
President SMITH in the Chair.
A letter was read from Sir Michael Foster, of Cambridge,
accepting membership.
The list of donations to the Library was laid on the table
and thanks were ordered for them from the Chair.
Dr. A. C. Abbott offered some remarks on “Some of the
Problems of the Bacteriologist.”
Stated Meeting, March 6, 1903.
President SMITH in the Chair.
A list of the donations to the Library was laid on the table
and thanks were ordered for them from the Chair.
The decease of the following members was announced :
James Glaisher, F.R.S., at South Croydon, England, on
February 7, 19038, aged 94.
Rear-Admiral William Harkness, U.S.N., at Jersey City,
on March 1, 1903, aged 65.
Prof. Angelo Heilprin made some remarks on “The Scien-
tific Aspects of the Pelée Eruptions.”
6 MINUTES. [April 2, 3, 4,
Stated Meeting, March 20, 1908.
President SMITH in the Chair.
A list of the donations to the Library was laid on the table
and thanks were ordered for them from the Chair.
The decease was announced of Charles Godfrey Leland, at
Florence, Italy, on March 20, 1903, aged 79 years.
Prof. Wilder D. Bancroft, of Cornell University, made some
remarks on “The Electrolytic Dissociation Theory, with —
plication to Medicine and Biology.”
General Meeting, April 2,3 and 4, 1903.
APRIL 2.—Morninea Ssssion, 10 A.M.
President SMITH in the Chair.
The President made a brief Address of Welcome.
The following papers were read :
“The Structure of the Corn Grain and Its Relation to Pop-
ping,” by Prof. Henry Kraemer, of Philadelphia.
“ Beaver County (Pa.) Orchids,” by Mr. Ira Franklin Mans-
field, of Beaver, Pa.
“Development of the English Alphabet,” by Prof. Francis
A. March, of Easton, Pa.
“ Archeology and Mineralogy,” by Prof. Paul Haupt, of
Baltimore.
“The Activity of Mont Pelée,” by Prof. Angelo Heilprin,
of Philadelphia.
“The Forward Movement in Plant-Breeding,” by Prof. L.
H. Bailey, of Ithaca, N. Y.
“Reaction as an Agent in Securing Navigable Depths in
River and Harbor Improvements,” by Prof. Lewis M. Haupt,
of Philadelphia.
1903.] MINUTES. 7
AFTERNOON SEssIon, 2 P.M. |
Vice-President BARKER in the Chair.
The following papers were read :
“The Curtis Steam Turbine,” by Mr. W. L. R. Emmet, of
Schenectady, N. Y.
“The Principle of Least Work in Mechanics and Its Possi-
ble Use in Investigations Regarding the Ether of Space,” by
Prof. Mansfield Merriman, of Bethlehem, Pa.
“The Nernst Lamp,” by Mr. Alexander Jay Wurts, of
* Pittsburg.
“The Problem of the Trusts,” by Mr. C. Stuart Patterson,,
of Philadelphia.
“On the Dependence of what apparently takes place in
Nature, upon what actually occurs in the Universe of Real
Existences,” by Prof. G. Johnstone Stoney, F.R.S., of London.
EVENING Session, 8 P.M.
At the Hall of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, S. W. Cor. of
Locust and Thirteenth Streets.
President SMITH in the Chair.
The following papers were read :
“The President’s Address—A Brief History of the Society,”
by Prof. Edgar F. Smith.
“The Carnegie Institution During the First Year of Its
Development,” by President Daniel C. Gilman, of Baltimore.
Aprit 8.—Mornine Szssion, 10 A.M.
Vice-President LANGLEY in the Chair.
The following papers were read :
“The Double Star System 2 518,” by Mr. Eric Doolittle, of
Philadelphia. Introduced by Prof. M. B. Snyder.
8 MINUTES. [April 2, 3, 4,
“New Applications of Maclaurin’s Series in the Solution of
Equations and in the Expansion of Functions,” by Prof. P. A.
Lambert, of Bethlehem. Introduced by Prof. C. L. Doolittle.
“The Constant of Aberration,” by Prof. Charles L. Doo-
little, of Philadelphia.
“The Degree of Accuracy of the Newtonian Law of Gravi-
tation,” by Prof. Ernest W. Brown, F.R.S., of Haverford, Pa.
“The Mechanical Construction and Use of Logarithms,” by
Mr. Charles E. Brooks, of Baltimore. Introduced by Prof.
George F. Barker.
“The Theory of Assemblages and the Integration of Dis-
continuous Functions,” by Prof. I. J. Schwatt, of Philadelphia.
Introduced by Prof. C. L. Doolittle.
“The Franklin Papers in the Library of the American
Philosophical: Society,” by Mr. J. G. Rosengarten, of Phila-
delphia.
EXECUTIVE SESSION, 12.15 P.M.
President SMITH in the Chair.
Dr. Hays, by unanimous consent, offered the following pre-
amble and resolution, which were unanimously adopted :
“Tnasmuch as the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of
Benjamin Franklin occurs in January, 1906, it is proper that
the American Philosophical Society, which owes its existence
to his initiative and to which he gave many long years of
faithful service, should take steps to commemorate the occasion
in a manner befitting his eminent services to this Society, to
science and to the nation. ‘Therefore be it
“ Resolved, That the President is authorized and directed to
appoint a Committee of such number as he shall deem proper
to prepare a plan for the appropriate celebration of the bi-
centennial of the birth of Franklin, and to report the same to
this Society.”
1 A MINUTES. 9
The President thereupon appointed the following members
to constitute the Committee:
Hon. George F. Edmunds, Chairman.
Prof. Alexander Agassiz, Boston.
Prest. James B. Angell, Ann Arbor.
Prof. George F'. Barker, Philadelphia.
Prof. A. Graham Bell, Washington.
Mr. Andrew Carnegie, New York.
Prof. C. F. Chandler, New York.
Hon. Grover Cleveland, Princeton.
Prest. Charles W. Eliot, Cambridge.
Prest. Daniel C. Gilman, Baltimore.
Prest. Arthur T. Hadley, New Haven.
Provost C. C. Harrison, Philadelphia,
Hon. John Hay, Washington.
Dr. I. Minis Hays, Philadelphia.
Prof. Samuel P. Langley, Washington.
Capt. Alfred T. Mahan, US.N.
Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, Philadelphia.
Prof. Simon Newcomb, Washington.
Governor 8. W. Penrtypacker, Harrisburg.
Prof. E. C. Pickering, Cambridge.
Prof. Michael I. Pupin, New York.
Prest. Ira Remsen, Baltimore.
Prof. John Trowbridge, Cambridge.
Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Washington.
Hon. Andrew D. White, Ithaca.
Prest. Woodrow Wilson, Princeton.
The pending nominations for membership were read and
spoken to. The Society then proceeded to ballot for members.
The tellers subsequently reported the election of the follow-
ing named candidates as members :
Residents of the United States—
Edward E. Barnard, Sc.D., Williams Bay, Wis.
Carl Barus, Ph.D., Providence, RB. I.
Franz Boas, Ph.D., New York.
10 MINUTES. [April 2, 3, 4,
William W. Campbell, Sc.D., Mt. Hamiltoa, Cal.
Eric Doolittle, Philadelphia.
Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve, LL.D., Baltimore.
Francis Barton Gummere, Ph.D., Haverford, Pa.
Arnold Hague, Washington, D. C.
George William Hill, LL.D., Nyack, N. Y.
William Henry Howell, Ph.D., Baltimore.
Edward W. Morley, Ph.D., Cleveland.
Harmon N. Morse, Ph.D., Baltimore.
Edward Rhoads, Haverford, Pa. .
Alfred Stengel, M.D., Philadelphia. |
William Trelease, Sc.D., St. Louis. 3
Foreign residents—
Anton Dohrn, Naples.
Edwin Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S., London.
Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S., D.C.L., London.
Joseph John Thomson, D. Bat F.R.S. Cambridge ae
Hugo de Vries, Amsterdam. |
AFTERNOON Session,°2 P.M.
|
Vice-President Scott in the Chair.
The following papers were read :
“Further Notes on the Santa Cruz Edentates,” by Prof.
William B. Scott, of Princeton.
“Some Magnetic Properties of Nickel,” by Mr. Joseph
Wharton, of Philadelphia.
“ A New Fresh-Water Molluscan Faunule from the Creta-
ceous Of Montana,” by Mr. T. W. Stanton, of Washington.
Introduced by Prof. W. B. Scott.
“The Earliest Differentiation of the Egg,” by Prof. Edwin
G. Conklin, of Philadelphia.
“The Evolution and Distribution of the Proboscidea,” by
Prof. Henry F. Osborn, of New York.
“An Attempt to Correlate the Marine with the Non-marine
1903.] BROOKS—NEW GENUS HYDROID JELLY-FISHES. Na}
Jurassic and Cretaceous Formations of the Middle West,” by
Prof. John B. Hatcher, of Pittsburg.
“Hints on the Classification of the Arthropoda, the Group
a Polyphyletic One,” by Prof. Alpheus S. Packard, of Provi-
dence.
“Anatomy of the Flosculariidx,” by Prof. Thomas H.
Montgomery, Jr., of Philadelphia.
“ A Résumé of the Composition of Petroleum from Differ-
ent Fields,” by Prof. Charles F. Mabery, of Cleveland.
ApRIL 4.—Mornine Ssssion, 10 A.M.
President SMITH in the Chair.
The following papers were read :
“The Most Insidious Source of Error in Quantitative
Chemical Research,” by Prof. Theodore W. Richards, of
Cambridge, Mass.
“ A Further Classification of Economies,” by Prof. Lindley
Miller Keasbey, of Bryn Mawr, Pa.
“Some Features of the Supernatural as Represented in
Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays,” by Prof. Felix HE. Schelling,
of Philadelphia.
“The Hamites and Semites in the Tenth Chapter of Gene-
sis,” by Prof. Morris Jastrow, Jr., of Philadelphia.
“The Warfare Against Tuberculosis,” by Dr. Mazyck P.
Ravenel, of Philadelphia.
ON A NEW GENUS OF HYDROID JELLY-FISHES.
BY WILLIAM KEITH BROOKS.
(Plate I.)
(Read April 4, 1902.)
GENuS DICHOTOMIA.
Diagnosts of the Genus.—Hydroid jelly-fishes with four radial
canals which divide dichotomously two, three, four, or more times,
12 BROOKS—NEW GENUS HYDROID JELLY-FISHES. {April 4,
and open into the circular canal by sixteen, thirty-two, or more
distal branches; with two sorts of tentacles—hollow ones and solid
ones ; with a simple mouth and with a single circumferential gonad
which extends from the wall of the manubrium on to the radial
canals and their branches.
Dichotomia cannoides (Plate I, Figs. 1, 2 and 3).
Diagnosis of the Species —Bell subcylindrical, somewhat higher
than wide, with a conical apex. Manubrium fusiform, widest at
about the middle of its upper half. The four radial canals branch
dichotomously four (or more?) times. Near the apex the four
primary canals arise in two pairs from the ends of a short trans-
verse canal. There are sixteen long hollow tentacles, and about
thirty-two (or more?) short solid tentacles. The reproductive
organ extends from the wall of the manubrium on to the radial
canals and their branches for about half their length.
Special Description.—The four radial canals do not arise inde-
pendently and directly from the aboral end of the stomach, but in
pairs from the ends of a short transverse canal, in such a way that
the only planes which divide the jelly-fish into symmetrical halves
are the two primary interradial planes. When it is divided in
either of these planes each half is itself bilaterally symmetrical,
consisting of halves which are reversed copies of each other. In
all my larger specimens each of the primary radial canals was
divided dichotomously three times, so that there were eight sec-
ondary canals, sixteen tertiary and thirty-two terminal branches.
In one specimen, which is shown in Fig. 1, one of these terminal
canals was again divided into two, so that there were thirty-three
instead of thirty-two terminal branches. It is therefore probable
that the number of branches continues to increase with the age of
the jelly-fish, and that older specimens may have sixty-four or more
terminal branches. The subumbrella consists of two strongly
contrasted regions: an upper opaque portion which is nearly hemi-
spherical and which contains the arches formed by the reproductive
organ on the arched subdivisions of the radial canals, and a lower
portion which is cylindrical and transparent. About one-half of
the total length of the system of canals is joined to the reproduc-
tive organ, which extends from the wall of the manubrium to the
radial canals in a system of groined arches, dividing the upper
part of the subumbrella into pockets which are closed above, open
1903.] BROOKS—NEW GENUS HYDROID JELLY-FISHES. 18
below, and equal in number to the terminal branches of the radial
canals. All of these pockets open at the same level below, but the
sixteen pockets of the fourth set are very shallow, the eight pockets
of the third set and the four of the second set are deeper, and the
four primary pockets of the first set reach nearly to the apex of the
subumbrella. The primary tentacles are stout, hollow, contractile,
and when the jelly-fish is swimming they are stiffly extended with
their tips coiled into compact spiral whorls. There are sixteen of
these tentacles in every specimen that I have examined. The
young specimen which is shown in Fig. 2 has sixteen distal radial
canals, and a hollow tentacle arises from the circular canal in the
plane of each branch of each radial canal. In the older specimen
which is shown in Fig. 1 the hollow tentacles are still sixteen in
number, although the distal canals are twice as numerous and
although the hollow tentacles are now in the radii of dichotomy
instead of being, as they are in the younger specimen, in the radii
of the distal branches. The solid tentacles are short with little
power of extension or contraction; they are usually turned out-
ward and upward over the margin of the bell, and they remind one
of the solid tentacles of the Geryonidz. In all the specimens
that I have examired they are equal in number to the distal
branches of the radial canals: sixteen in the young jelly-fish shown
in Fig. 2, thirty-two in those with thirty-two canals and thirty-
three in the one shown in Fig. 1.
Color.—The gonads and the manubrium of old specimens are
opaque white. The bell and the subumbrella and the tentacles
are nearly colorless. The radial canals, the circular canal and the
axes of the hollow tentacles are colored in young specimens by
pigment-granules of a brownish-orange.
Size. —The bell is about one-third of an inch high and a little
less than one-fourth of an inch in diameter.
Locahty.—Several specimens were taken at high tide in an inlet
from the open ocean in the Bahama Islands, near Nassau, in 1887,
and at Bimini and at Green Turtle, in the Bahama Islands, in
1886 and 1888. It is common and widely distributed among the
Bahama Islands.
If the analytical key which Haeckel gives in his System der
Medusen were to be followed, the genus Dichotomia would belong
among the ‘‘ Leptomedusz,’”’ in the family Cannotidz, in the sub-
family Williadz, and in or near the genus Proboscidactyla (System
14 BROOKS—NEW GENUS HYDROID JELLY FISHES, _ [April 4,
der Medusen, p. 158), although it is so different from the Williadz
and in fact from all the ‘‘ Leptomedusz ’’ that it may turn out to
be a tubularian jelly-fish, or ‘‘ Anthomedusa.’”’ The simple manu-
brium and mouth, the hollow tentacles and the origin of the gonad
in the wall of the manubrium are all points of agreement with the
‘© Anthomedusz,’’ The solid tentacles have an axis made up of a
single row of chorda cells, but as tentacles of this sort are found in
undoubted tubularian jelly-fishes they afford no ground for exclud-
ing the genus Dichotomia from this group.
Prof. Walcott has described, from the Lower Cambrian of Ala-
bama, certain remarkable fossils (Fossil Medusa, by Charles
Doolittle Walcott: Monographs of the United States Geological
Survey, xxx, Washington, 1898) which he regards as the remains
of Medusz, and it is worthy of note that if the Medusa which is
here described were slightly distorted by pressure the digestive and
reproductive organs would exhibit some resemblance to one of the
surfaces of some of Walcott’s most characteristic types. At his
suggestion I made a model in clay of the reproductive organs of
Dichotomia in order to exhibit this resemblance, and Fig. 3 was
drawn from this model. The resemblance lends additional support
to the opinion that the Cambrian fossils are the remains of Medu-
se, although it does not indicate that there is any relationship
between Dichotomia and the fossils. In fact the resemblance is
only superficial. In all the general details of their structure the
Cambrian Medusze must have been very different from the one that
is here described.
The notes and drawings for this paper were made in 1888,
although I have been forced to delay their publication.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
Fic. 1, An adult specimen of Dichotomia cannoides, enlarged about six diame-
ters. From a drawing made at Nassau, New Providence, in 1886.
Fic. 2. A young specimen, enlarged about twenty diameters. From a drawing
made by R. P. Bigelow at Bimini, Bahama Islands, in 1887.
Fic, 3. A clay model of the reproductive organs of Fig. 1.
Ps
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ANGE SOO BALTIMORE
ry
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Fig.
DICHOTOMIA CANNOIDES.
sdings Am. Philos. Soc., Vol. XLII, No. '72.
1903.] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 15
THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS.
BY C. STUART PATTERSON.
(Read April 2, 1903.)
The ‘* Trusts’? in the popular, though not in the technical
acceptation of the term, are the trading corporations, and combi-
nations of such corporations, which control the production or
the sale of one or more natural or manufactured products.
‘*Trusts’’ thus defined do not include banks, nor other merely
financial institutions, nor those ‘‘ Public Service Corporations ’’
which exercise the power of eminent domain, or which occupy
public highways for their own purposes, as by laying rails, pipes
or conduits.
The ‘‘ Trusts’’ are the necessary result of an industrial evolution,
whose successive stages have been individual ownership, partner-
ships, limited partnerships, corporations and combinations of cor-
porations, Partnerships supersede individual ownership because of
the advantages of the combination of the capital or services of two
or more individuals. Limited partnerships are organized to facili-
tate the borrowing of capital by giving to the lender a compensa-
tion for the use of his money exceeding the current market rate of
interest, while limiting his liability to creditors to the amount of
the capital loaned. The same advantages of co-operation with
limitation of liability, and with added exemption from adverse and
discriminating regulation in other States, can be secured by asso-
ciation under *‘the Boston Trust Device.’’* Corporations are
organized to assure continuity of administration ; to obtain by the
issue of shares, and sometimes bonds, the use of capital contributed
by a larger number of persons than can conveniently be brought
together as partners; to secure to shareholders exemption from the
individual liability zz sof#do of partners; and to render the shares
negotiable zzfer vivos, and transferable, after the death of the
owner, to personal representatives, or legatees, without the inter-
vention of a court of equity in the settlement of partnership
accounts.
In recent years the country has enjoyed a degree of material
prosperity which has far exceeded the most hopeful anticipations.
1 The Financial Chronicle, Vol. 75, p. 314, article by Richard W. Hale, Esq.
16 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April 2,
This has come as a result of the growth of legitimate trade, and
several causes have been contributing factors of that growth. The
demand for labor; our wide expanse of territory; our isolation
from the struggle for the balance of power and the wars of Europe ;
our comparatively light burdens of taxation ; and our free institu-
tions, protecting the citizen against arbitrary power and affording
full opportunity for the development of individuality, have attracted
immigration and furnished recruits to the army of labor. The
policy of protection, whose justification is the equalization of the
conditions of competition in order that the products of home
industry may control the home market, has stimulated manufactures
by increasing the profits of manufacturers, has secured higher wages
for workingmen than laborers in similar industries receive in other
countries, has enabled our workingmen to maintain a higher
standard of living, thereby made them more useful citizens, and
enabled them in many instances to rise from the ranks of the
employés and to become employers. The railways have overcome
the disintegrating influences of distance and of conflicting sectional
interests. The establishment of the gold standard has given assur-
ance to the world that capital can be invested in our obligations in
confidence of a return in money of full purchasing power, and has
commanded for the industrial development of the country the sur-
plus capital of the world.
~The business of the United States cannot be done to-day by the
agencies of the past. The flatboat floating down the stream; the
Conestoga wagon floundering through the mud of a country road ;
the canal-boat dragged by the mules upon the towing path; the
small engine, of weak power and low velocity, drawing a few cars
of ten or twenty tons’ capacity upon a single-track line and the sail-
ing vessel of small tonnage have all had their day. The typical
agencies of modern transportation are the four or six track line, the
hundred-ton steel freight car, the engine drawing its passenger
train at a rate of sixty miles an hour, the electric lines expanding
for every city its tributary territory, and the steamship of more
than ten thousand tons’ capacity.
Discoveries in science and inventions in the arts have created
new subjects of commerce, and have made the luxuries of yesterday
the necessities of to-day. Great mills now manufacture the goods
which formerly were made in individual workshops. Daily and
hourly mails, the telegraph and the telephone have brought widely
1908. ] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 17
separated mines and factories within the limits of combined con-
trol. Machinery has increased the rapidity, while diminishing the
cost, of manufacture and enlarged the possibility of output. In retail
trade department stores have absorbed small shops. It is therefore
not surprising that industrial organizations should have been, and
should be, formed in number and upon a scale larger than ever
before to compete, not only for the trade of their own cities and
States, but also for the trade of the country, and in many instances
for the trade of foreign countries.
Competition in manufacture and trading, when uncontrolled, is
wasteful. It results in reducing the selling price of goods below
the minimum necessary to give the producer a fair profit ; in over-
production in excess of the market demand ; in an increase of dis-
bursements unconnected with production or distribution, and con-
nected only with the conduct of competition ; in unnecessary cost
of transportation of the raw material to distant points of manufac-
ture, when that raw material could be more economically manufac-
tured nearer to its point of supply ; and in the unnecessary cost of
the transportation of manufactured products to distant markets,
when those markets could be more economically supplied from
nearer points of manufacture." Uncontrolled competition also
results, in the case of weaker competitors, in lowering the standard
of production and in placing upon the market inferior grades of
goods.
To meet these results of uncontrolled competition, there came
into existence pools or agreements between competitors to secure
the maintenance of prices by restrictions upon output, or by limita-
tions of sales. Such agreements are clearly contracts in restraint of
trade, and as such non-enforceable in law,’ and being without legal
sanction were, like treaties between sovereign states, broken when
either party fancied that its interests would be subserved by their
abrogation. Intelligent business men then saw that the expanding
trade of the country could not be conducted upon lines which, to
quote the words of Mr. Schawb,? are built upon ‘‘ the restriction of
trade, the increase of prices and the throttling of competition.’’
They saw also that in manufacture the maximum of efficiency at
1 The Trust Problem, Prof. J. W. Jenks, 1902.
2M. R.C. Co. uv. B. C. Co., 68 Penna. 173; Cummings v, U. B. S. Co., 164
New York, 401 ; Cohen v, B. & J. E. Co., 166 N. Y. 292.
3 Speech to The Bankers’ Club, Chicago, 21st December, Igol.
PROC, AMER. PHILOS. 800. XLII. 172. B. PRINTED MAY 8, 1908.
18 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April2
the minimum of cost can only be accomplished by securing a con-
stant supply of raw material, by making promptly every alteration
and improvement in plant and machinery which can effect greater
economy in operation, by offering inducements to managers of
superior administrative ability, by giving steady employment to
workingmen at just wages, by accumulating a reserve fund available
for extraordinary expenditures, by increasing the output so as to
decrease the cost of production per unit, by expanding trade by
creating new avenues for it, and by reducing the price to the con-
sumer, while increasing the profit to the producer. To attain these
cost-saving and profit-producing results, combinations of corpora-
tions and of properties have been and are being effected, in some
cases by the merger and consolidation of existing corporations, and
in other cases by the organization of new corporations, to hold and
acquire the properties to be consolidated, or to obtain a controlling
interest in the shares of the corporations to be combined.
For this there is needed the command of more capital than can
be contributed by any one individual or by any group of individ-
uals. Clear-sighted men saw that the prosperity of the country had
not only made great fortunes for a comparatively small number of
individuals, but had also aggregated in the deposits in the saving
funds, in the accumulated reserves of the life insurance companies,
and in the deposits in the banks and trust companies a fund of
enormous and steadily increasing size, which must necessarily seek
profitable investment, and which could be relied upon to make a
market for the bonds and shares of corporations with a reasonably
probable earning capacity, either by direct investment in those
securities or by loaning funds for investment therein ; and the appeal
was successfully made to these new reserves of loanable funds.
Therefore, to-day the capital which is operating the railroads, min-
ing the ore and running the mills of the country is not provided
by the rich men of the country, but is the accumulation of the sav-
ings of labor.
The test of the investment value of an industrial security is its
reasonable probability of a continued earning capacity adequate to
the payment of fixed charges and dividends at a rate exceeding that
yielded by securities of a higher grade; and that probability of
continued earning capacity will be affected by the relation between
the cost and the real value of the properties bought for combination
by the moderation or extravagance of the compensation given to
1903.] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 19
the promoters and underwriters, by the soundness of the principles
upon which the combination is organized and conducted, and by
the freedom of the business from governmental interference. It is
not surprising that the number of the industrial organizations and
the magnitude of their operations should arouse the public interest
and should cause more or less fear as to possible consequences.
Every great industrial development has excited such fears. The
steam engine, the railways and all forms of labor-saving appliances,
from the spinning jenny to the typesetting machine, have seemed
n their turn to threaten large additions to the ranks of the unem
ployed and heavy losses to different classes of people; and yet, in
each case, the result has been the opening of new avenues to
employment and a substantial advance in civilization. So to-day
no one who is accurately informed as to present industrial condi-
tions can doubt that, because of American financial skill in secur-
ing combination of resources and concert of action, the products of
industry have been brought to a higher standard, the labor which
produces them is better paid than ever before, and the consumer
buys them upon relatively more favorable terms.
Concurrently with the organization of corporations with
increased capital for production, manufacture and trade, there have
come into operation unions of laborers of larger membership and
greater activity. Every one ought to concede that it is right that
workingmen should receive full and adequate compensation for
their labor and should have that legally guarded freedom of
contract which will enable them to sell their labor to the best
advantage. Every one ought to concede also that workingmen
should form associations for the protection of their interests and to
secure increases in their wages ; but it is not right that those union-
should undertake to reduce the mass of workingmen to a low level of
mediocrity by means of limitations of the hours of voluntary labor,
and by restrictions upon the quantity and quality of work to be
performed by the individual laborer; nor is it right that the unions
should attempt to monopolize the supply of labor by preventing the
employment of non-union laborers. Such limitations and restric-
tions aggrandize the labor leaders, but they degrade the working-
men ; they tend to deprive intelligent, industrious and ambitious
workingmen of the opportunity to rise out of the ranks; they
diminish that effectiveness of American labor which has been not
the least of the causes of the country’s industrial supremacy ; and
20 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April2,
they endanger the continuance of our present prosperity. Combi-
nations of laborers for such purposes are monopolies in restraint of
trade.! The law should clearly recognize the right of association,
but it should also require the incorporation and registration of
labor unions in order that there may be legal responsibility for
broken contracts; it should, in cases of strikes, impartially enforce
law and maintain order, and it should sternly repress any attempt,
by whomsoever made and howsoever made, to hinder men in the
exercise of their right to work. We find nothing in party plat-
forms, and we hear nothing from executive officers, legislators or
candidates for office as to the need of legislative or executive action
to curb the power of the labor leaders or to restrain the excesses of
their misguided followers. But we hear much of the need of
executive and legislative control and regulation of industrial corpo-
rations.
It is said, and it is doubtless true, that some industrial organiza-
tions are over-capitalized. In considering the capitalization of a
corporation, it must be remembered that whatever be the par of a
share of stock, that par is not, like the par of a bond, a principal
obligation, to be discharged in a certain number of dollars, but it
is only the right to an a@/guot proportion of the net assets of the
corporation, and it really represents an amount in dollars, more or
less than its par, in proportion as those assets when liquidated shall
realize more or less than the aggregate capital of the corporation.
The market price expresses the investors’ valuation of that represen-
tation as affected by the demand for and supply of the particular
stock.
The authorized capitalization of a corporation is, in general,
determined by the probable cost of the plant, with the addition of
the amount of working capital in money necessary for the success-
ful conduct of the business to be transacted, and sometimes with the
further addition of a capitalization of the estimated earning
capacity of the plant. Obviously, the issued capital should not, in
_a properly managed corporation, exceed at any time the actual
value of the plant and working capital as determined by present
and not prospective earning capacity. In other words, there
should be no watered stock.
1 In re Debs, 64 Fed. Rep., 724, 745, 7553 158 U. S., 564; Zhe Law of
Contracts in Restraint of Trade, with Special Reference to Trusts, by George
Stuart Patterson, Esq.
1903.] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 21
It is asserted by no less eminent an authority than the distinguished
lawyer who is now the Attorney General of the United States* that
the necessary effect of ‘‘ over-capitalization ’’ is to unduly lower the
wages of labor and to unduly increase the prices of the product by
imposing upon the managers of the corporation the obligation of
paying dividends upon the improper excess of capitalization. This
view does not seem to be reasonable, for it would obviously be the
effort of the managers at all times to keep down the expenses of
operation, to make as many sales as possible, and to realize as large
prices as possible, without reference to the interest or dividends to
be earned or paid, if for no other reason than that of demonstrating
the ability of the managers, and this effort would neither increase
nor diminish because of the greater or less size of the capitalization.
Indeed the only possible influence of a large capitalization upon
the prices of the product of the over-capitalized corporation would
be in some cases to cause a lowering of such prices, because of the
necessity of making realizing sales.
Complaint is made that competing corporations, in order to
destroy competition, discriminate in their prices. But competi-
tion is industrial warfare. The seller seeks the highest price that
he can obtain ; the buyer pays as little as he possibly can. When
competition is actively conducted, the seller attains his ends, not
only by underselling in order to effect a particular sale, but also by
carrying his underselling to the extreme limit of driving his com-
petitors out of business and securing for himself complete control
of the market. This is done, as Lord Justice Bowen said,’ from
‘the instinct of self-advancement and self-protection, which is the
very incentive of all trade.’’ . . . . ‘*To say that a man is to trade
freely, but that he is to stop short at any act which is designed to
attract business to his own shop, would be a strange and impossible
counsel of perfection,’’ and to attempt to prohibit it ‘‘ would prob-
ably be as hopeless an endeavor as the experiment of King
Canute.’’ You cannot have a real competition which does not
compete. Successful commerce buys in the cheapest and sells in the
dearest market. Is it proposed that there shall be a general legisla-
tive regulation of prices, and if so, what would that amount to?
Among the evils charged against the ‘‘ Trusts’’ are an alleged
1Speech of Hon. P. C. Knox, Pittsburg, 14 Oct., 1902.
2 Mogul S. S. Co. v. McGregor, 23 Q. B. Div. 598; [1892], C. A. 43.
22 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April 2,
‘¢insufficient personal responsibility of officers and directors for
corporate management.’’ It is enough to say as to this that the
laws of some States do, and the laws of all States can, hold
corporate managers to a strict responsibility for non-feasance and
mal-feasance.
It is also said that these trade organizations have ‘‘ a tendency to
monopoly,’’ but except in the cases of patents and copyrights, and
of those who control the sole and exclusive source of supply of
a natural product, it is not possible in this day of the world’s his-
tory to maintain and enforce more than temporarily extortionate
prices, for the reason that there is always available a large amount
of uninvested capital seeking profitable employment and keenly
watching for opportunities of remunerative investment, and there-
fore intelligent managers of a successful business do not advance
prices to a point at which destructive competition will be invited.
Prices of commodities are automatically regulated by the law of
supply and demand. When, by reason of an apparent permanence
of demand and a present inadequacy of the means of supply, prices
rise to a level that gives a reasonable assurance of profit to pro-
ducers, the surplus capital-of the world can always be relied upon
to augment the means of supply.
It would seem that there is a popular demand for industrial
organizations sufficiently strong to overcome repressive legislation.
Beginning with the Congressional Anti-Trust law of 2d July, 1890,"
and the Mississippi statute of the same year,? and ending at this
time with the sixth section of the United States statute creating the
Department of Commerce and Labor, the United States and
twenty-nine States and Territories have legislated upon the subject,
and two States have deemed it of sufficient importance to place an
anti-Trust prohibition in their Constitutions. Some of these State
statutes regulate and others of them prohibit, and all of them
impose penalties by fine or imprisonment and forfeiture of corpo-
rate privileges. Notwithstanding this mass of adverse legislation,
industrial corporations have grown and flourished ; and yet there is
a political clamor for more legislation.
Attempts to regulate trade by legislation are not of new inven-
tion. Whenever and wherever there has been an absolute govern-
ment there have always been attempted restrictions upon trade. In
1 26 Stat. 209, c. 467.
Zc, 30:
1903.] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. yi
medizeval times it was the theory and the practice that it was the
‘‘duty and the right of the State to fix hours of labor, rates of
wages, prices, times and places of sale and quantities to be sold.’’!
The selfish commercial policy of England, intelligently directed to
the restraint of colonial trade and manufactures, was the great
cause of the War of Independence. When the success of the War
of the Revolution had substituted the sovereignty of the people for
the supremacy of the Crown, there was naturally a jealousy of gov-
ernmental power and a determination to guard individual liberty
against oppression. ‘The framers of the Constitution of the United
States therefore founded the government, not only upon ‘the
supremacy of the federal government in the exercise of the powers
granted to it, but also and equally upon the independence of the
States and the freedom of the citizen. They foresaw the evil
effects of an unrestrained exercise of the popular will. They
endeavored to establish and make perpetual the reign of law. They
crystallized into the Constitution the great principles of free govern-
ment, and they made it impossible to hastily change that organic
law. They declared in express terms the supremacy of the Consti-
tution and the laws made in pursuance thereof; and they created a
Supreme Court whose judgments should give effect to that declara-
tion. They united the States in a nation, with full powers of gov-
ernment for all national purposes, but they retained the sovereignty
and independence of the States for all purposes of local self-govern-
ment, and they reserved to the individual citizen as much freedom
as is consistent with the enforcement of law and the maintenance of
order. While they granted to the United States the power of regu-
lating commerce, they limited the exercise of that power to foreign
and interstate commerce.
It is to the States, and not to the United States, that we ought to
look for the legislative and administrative regulation of the indus-
trial organizations of the present and the future. The power of the
State is ample. A State may create corporations, with or without
conditions, and it may authorize a corporation to do any business
which an individual may lawfully do. A State may forbid a for-
eign corporation to do business within its territory ; it may permit
that business on conditions; and it may, with or without reason,
revoke a permission theretofore granted.? It may, therefore,
1Mrs, Green, Zown Life in the 15th Century,
aN. BP: OnCong Lexassn7 7 Ui. 28,
24 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April 2,
enforce with regard to foreign corporations all, and more than all,
the restrictions which it enforces with regard to corporations of its
own creation. On the other hand, the United States, save as the
domestic government of the District of Columbia and the Terri-
tories, cannot even grant a charter of incorporation, except as a
means incidental to the exercise by the United States of a power of
government,’ and it can, but only under the power of regulating
foreign and interstate commerce, control the operations of a
corporation chartered by a State. It does not avail to say that the
legislation of a State can have no extra-territorial force, and that in
order to have a rule of uniform application throughout the country
there must be Congressional legislation, for the conclusive reply is
that every State, under the Constitution, is entitled as of right to
determine for itself by what agencies and under what conditions
commodities shall be manufactured or sold within its territory,’
subject only to the paramount right of the United States to levy
duties and taxes, and to regulate transportation. Nor is it to the
interest of the people that a Constitutional amendment should be
adopted vesting in the United States the proposed power of
regulation. The fatal facility of compromise as shown in the
history of the slavery question and the silver issue, and exhibited
in every tariff act, and the lack of appreciation of the demands of
legitimate business as evidenced by the failure of Congress to do
away with the antiquated sub-treasury system and to authorize an
elastic currency, demonstrate the unwisdom of vesting in Congress
a power which, if exercised, may injuriously affect the business
interests of the country.
So far as concerns Congressional legislation under the Constitu-
tion as it now is, it would seem that the Supreme Court has put the
question at rest, for it has decided® that ‘‘ the relief of the citizens
of each State from the burden of monopoly and the evils resulting
from the restraint of trade among such citizens were left with the
States to deal with ;’’ and that an organization to manufacture and
sell is a subject matter of State regulation, for the reason that,
while it may bring the operations of commerce into play, it affects
1 McCulloch v, Maryland, 4 Wheat., 316.
?U. S. v. De Witt, 9 Wall., 41; McGuire v. The Commonwealth, 3 za@., 387 ;
Patterson v. Kentucky, 97 U. S., 501.
»
3U. S. v. E. C. Knight Company, 156 U. S,, 1, 11.
1903.] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 23
commerce only incidentally and indirectly. That judgment is
unreversed and unshaken, and it is to-day the law of the land.
In the past, the country has had to overcome, under conditions
of inadequate transportation facilities, the disintegrating tendencies
of the expansion of territory and the growth of population, but as
the results of the triumph of the nation in the suppression of the
Rebellion, and the development of means of transportation and
communication, our perils are now those of governmental consoli-
dation and not those of dissolution. The silver legislation, threat-
ening a degradation of the standard of value; the income taxing
law of 1894, unnecessarily vexatious and inquisitorial in its provis-
ions and, by reason of its exemption of incomes less than $4,000
in amount, unjust and unequal in its intended operation ; and the
laws imposing taxes upon inheritances, increasing progressively in
proportion to the amount of the distributive share and teaching the
many to expect that the necessary expenditures of government will
be borne by taxation to be levied on the few, are illustrations of
_ the perils which may threaten the prosperity of the country. Any
legislation which conflicts with the American doctrine that all men
are equal before the law, and that equality of rights implies equality
of obligations, and that subjects rights of property and freedom of
contract to administrative control, is dangerous in a republic
governed by universal suffrage.
Every State should encourage the organization under proper
conditions of manufacturing and trading corporations, and it
should permit them to do any business that an individual may
lawfully do. While a State should not undertake to guarantee to
the public ‘‘in all particulars of responsibility and management ”’
the corporations organized under its authority, it should by con-
ditions annexed to the grant of the charter protect intending and
actual shareholders and creditors of the corporation, so far as can
be done. It should prohibit and punish fraud in organization or
administration. It should afford access to public records showing
how the capital has been or is to be paid, and if paid in property,
so describing and identifying that property that its value can be
tested. It should require the publication at stated periods of bal-
ance sheets stating the liabilities under the headings of ‘‘ shares,’’
‘bonds, ’’ and ‘‘ other indebtedness,’’ and the assets under the
headings of ‘‘real estate and machinery at cost’’ less stated
amounts charged off for depreciation, ‘‘cash,’’ ‘‘ debts collect-
26 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April 2,
ible,’’ and other ‘‘ assets,’’ and it should compel the publication at
stated periods of an income account, setting forth the total amounts
of gross earnings, of operating expenses, interest charges,
dividends, and undivided profits. It should also protect minority
shareholders by defining the powers of officers and directors, and
by requiring due notification of shareholders’ meetings.’ The
duties imposed upon the corporations and their officers and the
requirements as to reports should be fixed by law, and should not
be subjected to the discretion of public officers. If so subjected,
there will be a possibility of favoritism on the one hand, or of
political intimidation on the other.
The officers and directors of a corporation are trustees for its
creditors and shareholders. It is the duty of such trustees, and the
interest of their cestud gue trusts, that there should be, on the part
of the trustees, absolute good faith, and as much frankness as is
consistent with the protection of the rights of shareholders. No
other policy will commend the securities of a corporation to the
favorable consideration of investors. Nevertheless, it is certain
that no amount of legally enforced publicity will avail to prevent
unwise investments and consequent loss. ‘Those who may properly
encounter the risks of investment in industrial securities will not do
so before they shall have obtained for themselves information as to
honesty of organization and adequacy of earning capacity. Those
in whom the haste to become rich, and the disinclination to wait
for the slow but sure results of industry and frugality have caused a
fever of speculation, will take the chances and buy for a rise in the
market without regard to the condition of the corporation, real or
reported.
Neither the government, nor the public, nor even the purchasers
of Trust products provide the capital of the ‘Trusts, but that
capital is contributed by their bondholders and shareholders. In
so doing, they are not making investments which are of certain
return, either in principal or income. As they take the risk of
loss, they are entitled to security in their business, to protection in
the use of their properties, and to a return proportioned to the risk
they have taken and exceeding the current market rate of interest
upon securities of a higher grade.
1 1903, Report of the Massachusetts Committee on Corporation Laws, by H.
M. Knowlton, C. G. Washburn, and Frederic J. Stimson.
i
1903.) _ PATTERSON—-THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 27
While the corporation is a legal entity, distinct from the bond-
holders and shareholders who contribute its capital,’ nevertheless
the fact remains that the bondholders and shareholders are the per-
sons, or the successors of the persons, whose contributions in
money or in property, real or personal, constitute the capital of
the corporation, and it is they, or their successors in title, who are
benefited by the prosperity of the corporation or injured by
its adversity. In the days of the ‘‘greenback’’ agitation, the
‘bloated bondholder’’ was the object of fierce denunciation, but
when the facts were investigated it was found that the ‘‘ bloated
bondholders’’ were the saving funds, with whom were deposited
the accumulated earnings of labor, the insurance companies, to
whom every provident man looked for the future protection of his
dependent wife and children from want in case of his death, and the
banks, with whom all business men, great and small, deposited the
money which they needed for daily personal and business use.
Again, when the banks were assailed as heartless money lenders and
oppressors, it was seen that the profits of banking accrued to the
men, women, and children, who were the shareholders. Again,
when Mr. Bryan, in 1896 and in 1900, denounced the holders of
‘fixed investments’? and ‘‘the idle owners of idle capital, ’’
intelligent people knew that those whose interests he threatened
with destruction were the depositors in saving funds, the share-
holders in banks, and the holders of policies of life insurance. It
will likewise be found to-day that those whose interests will be
injured by unwise legislative restraints upon trade and industry
will be the workingmen to whom the Trusts offer employment, and
the hundreds of thousands of individuals who are, directly or
indirectly, the owners of the securities of the Trusts. The leaders
of public opinion will do well to remember that, as Mr. Lecky has
said,? it is an inexorable condition that all ‘‘ legislation which
seriously diminishes profits, increases risks or even unduly multi-
plies humiliating restrictions, will drive capital away and
ultimately contract the field of employment.’’
1 Regina v. Arnoud, g Q. B. 806, 58 E. C. L.; Van Allen uv. The Assessors, 3
Wall., 573.
2 Democracy and Liberty, Vol. I1, page 463.
28 RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. [April 4,
THE INCLUSION AND OCCLUSION OF SOLVENT
IN CRYSTALS.
An Insipious SourcE OF ERROR IN QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL
INVESTIGATION.
BY THEODORE WILLIAM RICHARDS.
‘(Read April 4, 1903.)
Perhaps the most frequent and the most insidious cause of error in
quantitative chemical research is the unsuspected presence of water.
The disturbing effect of this impurity is frequent, because water is
one of the most plentiful of substances; and insidious, because
there is usually ne easy quantitative or qualitative test for small
quantities of it.
The object of this paper is to recount several experiments indi-
cating the prevalence and magnitude of inaccuracy from this cause,
to show how many published results have been vitiated by it, to
emphasize the theoretical aspect of the phenomenon, and especially
to point out the methods of reducing the inaccuracy to a minimum.
In a number of isolated cases it has been shown by various chem-
ists that substances crystallizing from a solution enclose within
their crystals small quantities of the mother-liquor. It is very well
known, for example, that crystals of common salt explode or
decrepitate upon being heated, because of the vaporization of the
enclosed water. Thus when common salt is weighed some water
is weighed with it. This water is not combined as water of crys-
tallization, of which common salt has none; it is entirely acci-
dental. Following the nomenclature of the mineralogists, a liquid
imprisoned in this way is best called ‘‘ Included solvent.’’ The
mother-liquor is thus imprisoned, in addition to combined water,
also in salts which contain this latter as an essential part of their
crystal structure ; in these cases it is even more difficult to detect
and more generally overlooked, because of the simultaneous pres-
ence of the combined water.
Although these facts have been thus occasionally pointed out,
the frequency of the occurrence of this cause of error has not often
been realized by quantitative analysts. It is no careless exagger-
ation to state that in all my chemical experience I have never yet
obtained crystals from any kind of solution entirely free from acci-
dentally included mother-liquor; and, moreover, I have never
found reason to believe that anyone else ever has. Whether the
1903.] RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. 29
solvent is water, an organic liquid, or a fused salt at high tempera-
ture, and whether the crystallization is quick or slow, in small or
large crystals, the effect is always traceable, although of course in
varying degrees. The amount of the enclosure varies from perhaps
0.01 per cent. to 0.5 per cent. of the total weight of the crystals.’
As a general rule, the clearer the crystal, the less the included
mother-liquor ; but appearance is not a wholly safe guide, since
sometimes the refractive index of the mother-liquor is not far from
that of the crystal. In this case the included impurity is invisible.
Moreover, the inclusion may, and undoubtedly does, often occur in
cells so small as to be beyond the reach of the best microscope.
It is not contended that the production of a perfectly pure crys-
tal from a solution is impossible, but only that no evidence has
been obtained proving that this end has ever artificially been
reached, while much contrary evidence is available.
In looking over the records of the determinations of atomic
weights, it is surprising to see how many experimenters in even
this most exact field of quantitative analysis have either entirely
overlooked the danger, or have taken inadequate means to over-
come it. This is especially true when the salts to be weighed con-
tain combined water of crystallization ; indeed it is almost safe to
rule out utterly all such results, without further consideration.
Among other more or less vitiated cases, where salts supposedly
anhydrous have been weighed, may be mentioned especially a
number of the analyses of typical salts of osmium, iridium,
platinum, and palladium. Often a painstaking but unthinking
chemist has spent months in eliminating the hundredth of a per
cent. of some foreign metal and finally ignored the ¢emth of a per
cent. of water in his preparation. It is not, however, the purpose of
this paper so much to seek the errors in individual instances of past
work, as to point out the ways in which these errors may be avoided
in the future. ;
How then is this included solvent to be eliminated without de-
composing the substance which we desire to weigh?
It is usually considered as a sufficient precaution to powder the
material finely and expose it to the air for a short time, in order
to allow the undesirable water to evaporate. This crude proceed-
ing involves a double uncertainty ; in the first place, the unwar-
1 For examples of carefully obtained evidence, see Richards, Proc, Amer, Acad.
Arts and Scicnces, 23, p. 177 (1887); 26, p. 267 (1891); 28, p. 11 (1893); 29,
p. 60 (1893); 33, p- 299 (1898); 35, P. 139 (1899); 37, P. 434 (1902); 38; P.
411 (1902).
30 RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. [April 4,
ranted assumption is made that every hidden cell containing*the
mother-liquor has been split open by the pestle, and in the next
place the equally unwarranted assumption is made that all the
mother-liquor thus exposed evaporates into the uncertain mixture
constituting the atmosphere of the laboratory.
The former of these assumptions will be considered first. Is it
possible to open all the cells enclosing mother-liquor by means of
any finite amount of powdering ?
This question cannot be answered a priori ; accurate experiments
are needed to decide it, and no published work known to me
seems to furnish the needed data. Accordingly a series of experi-
ments was planned which involved the progressive powdering of a
typical substance. In order to separate the powders of different
degrees of fineness four pieces of brass netting were used, having
openings about 0.5, 0.3, 0.23, and o.16 mm. in diameter respec-
tively. This netting was cleaned with acid and ammonia, and
showed a brilliantly clean surface in the microscope.’
The test substance chosen was baric chloride, because careful ex-
periments on the atomic weight of barium had shown that it may be
analyzed with ease and accuracy. A pure finely-crystallized speci-
men of the salt was slowly and carefully powdered and sifted
through the successive sieves. That which went through the finest
sieve was still more finely powdered, until the average diameter of
the particles as estimated in the microscope was perhaps one-
twentieth of a millimeter, some being coarser and some finer.
Each specimen was thoroughly air-dried.
Thus were obtained four examples of baric chloride containing
crystal-water, of four different degrees of fineness, the coarsest
particles averaging about a thousand times the bulk of the finest.
Upon analysis by heating to constant weight at 400° these samples
yielded respectively 14.780, 14.771, 14.763, and 14.760 per cent.
of water.
The data, reduced to the vacuum standard, were as follows.
The experiments were made in 1893:
Average diameter Weight of Loss on Per cent. of
No. of particles. salt, heating. water found,
Bs Set acme ee 0.45 mm. 4.15929 0.61475 14.780
2, wis siiteeene tats 0.27 mm. 3.65127 0.53933 14.771
Bie ale ovat eee 0.20 mm. 4.54136 0.67047 14.763
AGS hs; < atone 0.05 mm. 10.13720 1.49620 14.760
' The material sifted through this netting was tested for copper, with satisfac-
torily negative results.
1903.] RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. 31
The results thus show a steady decrease in the amount of water
as the powder becomes finer; hence each successive powdering
must have opened new cells.
When the figures are plotted a somewhat irregular curve is
obtained, the study of which seems to show that further powdering
would have but little effect upon the last-named amount of water
held by the crystals. As a matter of fact, among many scores of
determinations of the quantity I have never found in a pure speci-
men of baric chloride less water than this. Is this limit then,
observed in the very fine state of division, the true amount of water
in the salt? This question is easily answered in the negative, for
from the universally accepted atomic weights of barium, chlorine,
oxygen and hydrogen it is easy to calculate that the theoretical
amount of water is 14.744 per cent., an amount less by one part in
a thousand than the lowest limit recorded above.
Similar results were obtained from cupric sulphate, and it seems
probable that any other salt would behave in the same way. Thus
it appears that although powdering and drying will diminish the
excess of solvent, it will not wholly remedy the error. It is prob-
able that anything short of molecular division would fail to open
the minutest enclosing cells, although the larger cells are broken
up with comparative ease.
The irregular shape of the curve drawn from the data given sug-
gests that there is another cause of error superposed upon the effect
just studied—an influence which grows in magnitude as the fineness
of the powder is increased. A moment’s reflection serves to show
what this new cause of error must be.
It is well known that water adheres to or wets almost anything,
except a few fats and oils ; and even these absorb or dissolve water
to some extent. In consequence of this tendency to adhere, water
is condensed or adsorbed in an invisible film, from the always
slightly moist atmosphere, upon the exposed surface of nearly all
substances. This adhering film increases the weight of these sub-
stances.
The extent of the adsorption varies with the nature of the sub-
stance and in many cases is easily appreciable. With a given sub-
stance it is of course dependent upon the pressure of the aqueous
vapor and the temperature, as well as upon the extent of surface.
Since the adsorption increases with the surface it is evident that
fine pulverization, while tending to diminish the inclusion, will
32 RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. [April 4,
tend to increase this new cause of error by increasing the field of
its action.
Thus the irregularity of curve shown by the results with baric
chloride is easily explained, as well as the abiding presence of an
excess of water. In the effort to escape the Scylla of inclusion the
chemist has run foul of the Charybdis of adsorption.
Adsorption of aqueous vapor can be eliminated by greatly rais-
ing the temperature or by greatly reducing the tension of the
surrounding aqueous vapor. ‘These means may be used either with
anhydrous salts or with the sundry chemical vessels used for
containing substances while weighing ; but unfortunately either of
these changes drives out also the crystal-water contained in a
hydrated salt.
For these reasons tt seems to me impossible to determine with the
exactness demanded in the most accurate work the true weight of any
salt containing water of crystallization.
In the case of anhydrous salts, which may be heated and placed
in a perfectly dry atmosphere without decomposition, it is easy to
eliminate adsorbed moisture, as already stated. It is not by any
means so easy, however, to drive off the included solvent
imprisoned in hidden cells. Some means must be used which dis-
integrates the walls of these cells; and the means adopted depends
upon the nature of the substance being studied.
Either mechanical, thermal or chemical influences may be used
to effect the disintegration. The mechanical means, pulverization,
need not be further discussed. The application of heat first tends
to vaporize the imprisoned solvent, if it is volatile, causing great
pressure in the small space. ‘This pressure often causes the enclos-
ing cell to explode, and thus the solvent is set free. It is not by
any means certain, however, that all the cells are thus able to dis-
charge their contents, especially in tenacious substances ; and in
many cases hours of intense heating are necessary to drive off every
trace of water, as with silica and iron rust. In the case of metals
precipitated as such from aqueous solutions, temperatures not far
from the melting-points must be used for drying, in order that their
condition may be soft enough to yield to the internal pressure of
the enclosed solvent. This precaution has usually been overlooked
by physicists determining electro-chemical equivalents, although
Lord Rayleigh pointed it out in the special case of silver twenty
years ago.
1903.] ° RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. 83
A much safer plan, where it is practicable, is to fuse the cystal-
line precipitate. With the freedom of motion given by the liquid
state volatile iinpurities usually soon escape, leaving the fused mass
free from them. It is true that there is often danger that a portion
of the substance itself will evaporate, or at least that it will attack
the containing vessel ; minute precautions must be used to avoid
these causes of error. In extreme exigency the electrolysis of the
fused mass, a plan suggested by Richard Lorenz, may be used as a
means of destroying the last traces of water; but in most cases
these may be’ swept out by the vapors from easily decomposed
ammonium salts, just as bubbling air sweeps out carbonic acid
from its solution.
A yet further and better thermal means of preparing a substance
free from water is to vaporize and condense or sublime it in a per-
fectly dry atmosphere. Here crystals form under conditions
excluding water, and the danger is wholly overcome. Unfortu-
nately other impurities are usually introduced from the walls of the
vessel used for the sublimation ; but frequently these may be found
by analysis much more directly and precisely than the water could
be.
A chemical method of disintegrating the structure of a substance
crystallized from'a solution has been alluded to above. This
method, although not always available, may sometimes serve when
the other methods are inapplicable, and is often of great use in
preparing chemically pure substances. This procedure, like the
others, has been used in individual cases for years ; but it does not
seem to have been emphasized as a general method.
In brief the chemical method is as follows: The substance is
crystallized from the solution, not directly in its desired form, but
rather in chemical combination with a large quantity of some other
substance which may be volatilized by suitable subsequent treat-
ment. ‘The clear, dry crystals are then subjected to this decompos-
ing treatment, and the volatile constituent is expelled. The
substance sought is thus left in the form of a porous mass, a skeleton
of the former crystal, in which every cell enclosing mother-liquor
has been opened by the chemical disintegration of its walls. From
such a skeleton soluble impurities may often be washed out by
lixiviation, and volatile ones escape at once.
For example, it is easier thoroughly to dry sodic carbonate when
this salt is crystallized with its maximum amount of crystal-water,
PROC, AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XLII. 172. C. PRINTED MAY 8, 1903.
BE RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. [April 4,
. than it is when the salt is crystallized immediately in the form
devoid of crystal-water. Again, it is far easier to obtain pure iron
by the reduction of the oxide in hydrogen than it is by electrolytic
precipitation direct from a solution.
Yet another chemical method might sometimes be helpful,
although inherently of a somewhat restricted usefulness. In a
careful study of the behavior of gases included in oxides,’ it was
found that in these compounds oxygen could work its way out from
a cell in which it exists under pressure, while nitrogen could not.
It is possible that this fact is typical of a general principle; that
any substance may escape from. pressure when this substance forms
one of the easily dissociated components of the containing
walls, by a process of alternate dissociation and recombination of
the materials constituting these walls. Thus certain hydrated
salts, heated to a temperature of perhaps 120° in superheated steam
at atmospheric pressure, might in time part with their enclosed
water without losing their water of crystallization. This inference
will be further tested in the near future.
In this connection, one other point must be strongly emphasized,
because of its important bearing both upon chemical purification
and upon dynamic geology. The microscopic cells in a crystal
contain not only the solvent, but also all the other substances in
the solution. They are miniature samples of the solution, not per-
haps in strict quantitative measure, because of varying adsorption,
but at least qualitatively.
Hence, if a chemically pure substance is desired, great pains
must be taken to keep away from the solution anything which can-
not be expelled or extracted from the disintegrated crystal, after
the enclosures have been opened. For example, pure iron must be
obtained by the reduction of oxide or hydroxide obtained from the
nitrate, not from the sulphate. If the latter salt were used, the
iron would probably contain sulphur. This practice of continually
avoiding impurities obviates also the possible danger from ‘‘ solid
solution,’’ as van’t Hoff pertinently terms the homogeneous distribu-
tion of foreign matter in a solid. Solid solution, or occlusion, may
be said to be the limiting case of cuc/usion. In this limiting case
the enclosing cells are so small as to contain only single molecules.
The distinction between occlusion and inclusion in solids is
theoretically interesting, corresponding perhaps to the difference
1 Richards, dm, Chem. Four., 20, p. 701 (1898).
1903.] RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. 35
between true solution and colloidal solution in liquids; but for
present practical purposes this difference need not be further
emphasized.
All these considerations have been carefully heeded in the recent
determinations of atomic weights made in this laboratory.
Since the fundamental properties of material have probably not
changed since the archzan times of mineral growth, natural crystals
must have been subject to the same effects as those grown to-day,
and all except those formed by sublimation must contain traces of the
solutions from which they once separated. In some cases, of
course, the very slow formation might reduce the inclusion toa
very small amount. ‘Those minerals coming from aqueous solutions
would be supposed to contain accidentally enclosed water (often
erroneously confounded with the true water of constitution), while
those separating under fused or metamorphic conditions would con-
tain non-volatile impurities taken from their immediate surroundings.
Of these impurities the non-volatile ones must certainly remain ;
and many of the volatile ones may also, if closely enough
imprisoned. As a matter of fact, we are very familiar with the
traces of impurity in natural crystals, even the clearest of diamonds
leaving some ash on combustion.
While the selective effects of adsorption and solid solution and
the results of subsequent pressure must complicate the interpreta-
tion of these facts, and forbid their immediate quantitative utiliza-
tion, it seems to me nevertheless that these enclosed traces of
impurity might be used more often than they are used in geological
reasoning, in order to discover the media from which crystals have
separated, and hence the mechanism of their formation. Thus a
phenomenon very troublesome to the chemist might become very
useful to the geophysicist.
The contents of this paper may be summarized briefly as follows :
(a) Experiments are recorded and quoted showing that many, if
not all, crystals separated from solutions contain included mother-
liquor. »
(2) The experiments show also that before the mother-liquor can
be eliminated by pulverization the adsorption of water from a moist
atmosphere begins to augment the weight of the substance.
(c) It is pointed out that this adsorption cannot be wholly over-
come in the case of hydrated salts without a loss of water of crys-
tallization also. Hence hydrated salts cannot be accurately weighed
according to any usual procedure.
36 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. _ [April3,
(@) In the case of anhydrous salts the elimination of adsorption —
is easy, but in order to remove included solvent the cell walls
enclosing it must be disintegrated.
(e) Mechanical, thermal and chemical methods of such disinte-
gration are classified and applied to the preparation of pure
materials.
(/) It is pointed out that other impurities besides the solvent
will usually be enclosed in the cells, and that these other impurities
must never be forgotten in subsequent processes of purification.
(g) Finally, it is suggested that these enclosed impurities might
be used more frequently than they are as a clue to the manner of
growth of natural minerals, and hence to the mechanism of
geophysical processes.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MAss.
A RESUME OF THE COMPOSITION AND OCCURRENCE
OF PETROLEUM.
BY CHARLES F. MABERY.
(Read April 3, 1903.)
I have said and written so much about petroleum during the last
fifteen years, it may seem that I have reached the limit of interest
and about exhausted the subject. Twenty years ago when I first
went to Cleveland I began the study of petroleum, and have since
devoted a considerable portion of my time to the examination of
the constituents of petroleum from many different fields. But
instead of exhausting the subject it is evident that only a beginning
has been made, and the foundation for what is probably the most
difficult and intricate parts of this interesting field of research.
The series of hydrocarbons which form the portions of petroleum -
distilling below 350° zz vacuo, corresponding to 475° atmospheric
pressure, are now well understood, and the members of the various
1 The subject matter of this paper is based on the results of work carried on in
the chemical laboratory of Case School of Applied Science, with aid of grants by
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences from the C. M. Warren fund for
chemical research.
1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 37
series have been identified with respect to their molecular weights.
But concerning the structure of these hydrocarbons, except those of
the series C,H,,,, and the lower methylenes nothing whatever is
known. It is reasonable to assume that the members of the series
C,H +42, or the so-called paraffine hydrocarbons, have the open-
chain structure which characterizes the lower members of this
series. In earlier literature on petroleum it was generally assumed
that the ethylene hydrocarbons, series C,H,,, formed a considerable
proportion of the constituents, and even after the discovery of the
series C,H,,, the naphthenes, according to the earlier nomenclature
of Markownikow, many writers still insisted on the presence of the
ethylene hydrocarbons. It is now safe to assert that these bodies
are present in any petroleum at most in very small amounts. We
have found them apparently in Canadian petroleum, but in very
small quantities.
The series C,H,,, which has been identified in petroleum from
many sources, is now well known as the methylene series. Ina
paper published last year on the composition of Pennsylvania
petroleum, I purposely abstained from naming the hydrocarbons
with high boiling points of this series which we had separated and
identified, for although it seemed probable that these bodies were
methylenes, I preferred not to suggest names for the several mem-
bers until more is known concerning their structure. The names
suggested by Dr. Bogert in his summary of the results described in
that paper for the Journa/ of the American Chemical Society, seems
to refer those hydrocarbons to the ethylene series ; but any nomen-
clature for these bodies must await sanction by proof of structure
when some courageous investigator shall force his way into this
difficult field.
Another feature of the petroleum problem is the form of the
hydrocarbons which form the highest boiling portions—the so-
called asphaltic hydrocarbons. The main body of these high boil-
ing oils are no doubt composed of series poorer in hydrogen than the
methylenes, the series C,H,,_2, CaHmn_4, etc. The hydrocarbons of
these series already appear in the higher boiling portions of Penn-
sylvania, Ohio, Canadian, etc., petroleum, as we have shown in
part, although much of this data has not yet been published.
It does not at present seem clear how this problem shall be
attacked. By exclusion of air and depression of boiling points the
petroleum hydrocarbons can be distilled indefinitely as high as
38 -MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April8,
350°. Between 300° and 400° cracking begins, and it cannot be
avoided by straight distillation. The heavy hydrocarbons seem to
become so inert, by reason of their high molecular weights, they
cannot retain their atomic composition at their boiling points; they
simply fall to pieces through the influence of mass. In distillation
from the crude oil evidently another influence comes into opera-
tion—the effects of the oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur constituents.
Since fractional distillation is the only means at present known for
the separation of the homologous members of these series, the
problem of their isolation becomes a difficult one.
Nevertheless I regard this field as offering great attractions,
provided, as I mentioned some time ago, suitable facilities are pro-
vided for carrying on the work. A grant of ¢$5000 annually from
the Carnegie University could be made to yield results commensur-
ate with the expenditure, for there is no more promising field for
research of such magnitude awaiting a vigorous hand. As for
myself, I shall be content with what I have been able to accomplish
with the aid of the C. M. Warren fund and the facilities of the
Case School laboratory in defining the series and principal members
in petroleum from different fields that has come under my obser-
- vation.
In presenting a general summary of present knowledge concern-
ing the composition of petroleum, it may be of interest to refer to
what was known on this subject twenty years ago when I began the
work. At that time the only petroleum on the market in America
was obtained from the Pennsylvania fields and the territory in
Canada. The composition of Russian petroleum was then under
investigation by Markownikow. As a result of their elaborate
investigation on American petroleum Pelouze and Cahours had
assigned the formula C,H,, 4, as representing the principal series of
hydrocarbons. But the high specific gravity of their distillates
could not have been given by hydrocarbons separated from Penn-
sylvania petroleum, since these bodies give much lower values.
Since the source of their products was not mentioned, it must be
assumed that they came from the heavier Canadian oil, although
the hydrocarbons in this oil have not the composition of the series
C,H», 42 which Pelouze and Cahours deduced from their analyses,
but, as we have found by results not yet published, the composition
of the series C,H,,. Pentane, hexane, heptane and octane had
been identified by Schorlemmer, and the classic work of C. M.
1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 39
Warren had shown the existence in Pennsylvania petroleum of the
two series of isomeric hydrocarbons from pentane to octane. The
large deposits of petroleum in northern Ohio and Indiana, Texas,
Colorado, Wyoming and Kansas had not then been discovered.
In 1885, soon after the first well was drilled that yielded oil from
the Trenton limestone, two oil inspectors brought me a five-gallon
can of Trenton limestone oil and remained while I examined it for
them. This was my first acquaintance with the sulphur petroleums.
I recognized at once the large percentage of sulphur and soon after-
»ward began a study of the sulphur compounds. I am not now fully
satisfied as to the nature of those sulphur compounds. Not long after-
ward I also procured the Canadian sulphur oil, and carried along
together the study of these products, the one from Trenton lime-
stone and the other from the Canadian Corniferous limestone. The
composition of Ohio oil has only recently been determined, with
respect to the principal series of hydrocarbons, by a research com-
pleted during the present month, seven years after it was begun.
At first I had no preconceived ideas as to the series of hydro-
carbons which compose these crude oils, except what knowledge I
had gathered from the work of my predecessors ; but after the work
had progressed far enough to see that the crude oils from the differ-
ent fields were essentially different in certain constituents, especially
in sulphur, I was inclined to look on the Trenton and Corniferous
limestone crude oils as a special species, the sulphur petroleums,
and to agree with Peckham in his specific classification of the dif-
ferent petroleums as varieties of bitumens. But I soon became
convinced that no such sharp distinctions based on composition
could be drawn. Now after these years of arduous labor I have
reached the conclusion that petroleum from whatever source is one
and the same substance, capable of a simple definition—a mixture
in variable proportions of a few series of hydrocarbons, the product
of any particular field differing from that of any other only in the
proportion of these series and the members of the series. I arrived
at this conclusion only one year ago, when it was found that the
higher distillates from Pennsylvania petroleum contain the
series C,H,,_., which until then I had supposed was only to be
found in the heavier California arid Texas oils, or the so-called
asphaltic oils. Results obtained within the last two months show
that Ohio petroleum has a similar composition.
In support of this definition I would suggest that, so faras known,
a
40 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3,
all petroleum contains nitrogen and sulphur, although the propor-
tion of nitrogen in Pennsylvania and Ohio crude oils is much
smaller than that in California oil, and that the percentage of
sulphur is much smaller in the Pennsylvania sandstone oils—only a
trace as compared with the larger amounts in Trenton limestone,
Corniferous limestone, in California and Texas oils. With this
definition the distinction drawn, at least in commercial circles,
between paraffine and asphaltic oils disappears, for Pennsylvania
crude oil contains the asphaltic hydrocarbons, although I cannot
assert that California oil contains paraffine. I have crystalline
hydrocarbons separated from California oil, but their identity is
not yet fully established. The refiner is more definite in his classi-
fication; he knows from experience that the best yield of gaso-
line is from Pennsylvania oil, and none from California oil. He
is fully aware that it is useless to expect to obtain a respectable
yield of burning oil from California or Texas petroleum, and that
he cannot hope to obtain paraffine from those heavy oils. But
his very heavy lubricating oils and heavy pitches and asphalts he
knows can come only from the heavier petroleums.
With reference to a nomenclature of the petroleum series and
hydrocarbons, no system can safely be adopted until the structure of
these bodies is better understood. The aromatic hydrocarbons
benzol and its homologues are present in all petroleum so far as
examined, but in widely variable proportions. Pennsylvania crude
oil contains the lower members in small amounts, but not the higher
homologues. It is true that anthracene and its congeners have
been described as separated from petroleum residues, but it is prob-
able that such bodies are not present in the original oil; they are
doubtless formed by decomposition during distillation. California
petroleum contains much larger proportions of the aromatic hydro-
carbons, especially of the xylols and others with higher boiling
points. In one of our distillates from California crude oil so much :
naphthaline was present that the distillate became solid on slight
cooling. This distillate came over at about 215°. The only other
instance in which naphthaline has been found in petroleum was
its separation by Warren and Storer from Rangoon petroleum.
The terminology of the series C,H.,4. has been well defined,
and the names adopted by Kraft for the members with high boiling
points, liquids and solids, which he separated from shale distillates
are applicable to the corresponding bodies in Pennsylvania crude
1903.) MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 41
oil. It is interesting to note that Pennsylvania petroleum alone,
unless we include the analogous Berea Grit and other similar sand-
stone oils of southern Ohio and Virginia, contains the unbroken
series up to and including the solid paraffine constituents.
Although the Ohio Trenton limestone oil and the Canadian
Corniferous oil contain paraffine, the former in large proportions,
the liquid members of series C,H.,4. stops with C,H. in both
Canadian and Ohio oil. The liquid hydrocarbons from there on, so
far as examined, are members of series poorer in hydrogen.
The series C,H,, has been variously named. When first discov-
ered in petroleum, and the hydrocarbons found to be identical with
the hydrogen addition products of benzol and its homologues, the
hydrocarbons from petroleum were described as hexahydro-bodies.
On the discovery of a long series of these hydrocarbons in Russian —
oil, Markownikow suggested the name naphthenes. But when later
the origin and nature of the methylenes were better understood and
cyclic hydrocarbons found in petroleum identical with the
synthetic products, the name methylene was adopted for the lower
petroleum hydrocarbons. ‘These closed-chain hydrocarbons differ
in their deportment toward reagents from those with an open-chain,
C,H.,4.. While it is to be assumed that the series C,H,, is rep-
resented in its higher members by the methylenes, some extension
of the nomenclature is necessary to include those bodies. There
can evidently be but one ring with these proportions of carbon and
hydrogen. For instance, the hydrocarbon C,,H,, must be regarded
as a long chain with the ends connected, dodecamethylene, or a
lower ring with several side chains.
When the series C,H,,_, is reached it becomes necessary to
assume a union of two rings attached by one carbon atom in each
ring. In the series C,H,,_, the union would be between two
carbon atoms in each ring and the members should include, for
instance, octohydronaphthaline which would represent the hydrocar-
bon C,,H,,. In the line.of this suggestion, following the analogy of
naphthaline, one side chain should be capable of oxidation giving
a derivative of phthalic acid. But the methylene hydrocarbons
seem to possess a different order of stability toward the action of
reagents, and we have observed this peculiarity in bodies separated
from petroleum which appear to be derivatives of the methylenes.
For instance, the nitrogen compounds separated from California
crude oil cannot be oxidized into closely allied products, the
42 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3,
oxidation always proceeding to the formation of ultimate products,
nitrogen and CO,, and we have found it impossible to check it.
The same is true of the sulphur compounds, which also appear to
be methylene derivatives. ‘These bodies oxidize with the greatest
ease to sulphuric acid, and it is difficult to control the oxidation.
We have done this, however, and have obtained well-defined sul-
phones. In general terms, the addition of hydrogen to benzol and
its homologues weakens the resistive action toward reagents. This
difference in stability between the series C,H.,4, and the series
poorer in hydrogen appears in commercial use of the heavier pro-
ducts. We have recently compared the flashing point and fire test
to heavy distillates from Pennsylvania crude oil and crude oils from
California, Texas, etc., and it appears that the products from
Pennsylvania oil have higher flashing points and fire tests than
those from other fields. We have an excellent opportunity to
ascertain the general application of this observation, for we have at
hand samples in gallon lots of the principal lubricators made from
Pennsylvania and Ohio oils on the market, and also samples of
crude oils from the various fields; for example, two barrels of crude
oil from Baku in the Russian field.
Products are now being prepared from the crude oils to compare
with Pennsylvania lubricating oils. The inferior stability of petro-
leum which the series C,H,, or series poorer in hydrogen pre-
dominates has appeared in all our work on the various crude oils.
For instance, the admission of air into hot Pennsylvania distillates
never causes an explosion ; but explosions are sure to follow the
contact of air with hot distillates from other fields where the prin-
cipal series is lower than the series C,H,, 4».
In combustion it is easy to see the difference in stability, in the
readier separation of carbon. Then in analysis of a series, say
from C,,H,, to C,,H,,, in the lower members no carbon separates in
the boat, but it gradually appears with increasing molecular weight,
in larger and larger amounts.
The greater stability of the Hydrocarbbne C,H,, +2 doubtless ex-
plains the superior quality of burning oils prepared from Pennsyl-
vania petroleum, together with the fact of a larger proportion of
hydrogen. The series poorer in hydrogen more readily separates
carbon as soot and is more difficult to burn. A mixture of the
two series C,H,,,, and C,H,, forms a good burning oil and prob-
ably accounts for the excellent quality of Russian burning oil.
1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 43
As I shall presently explain, Ohio crude oil contains a much
smaller proportion of the series C,H,, 4., and it cannot be expected
to yield burning oil of as good quality as Pennsylvania crude oil.
Canadian burning oil should be still poorer in quality, which is
easily seen by the consumer who will pay a high duty on United
States oil rather than use his own product.
PENNSYLVANIA PETROLEUM.
As mentioned above, Pennsylvania crude oil contains minute
amounts of sulphur and nitrogen compounds, and a small propor-
tion of benzol derivatives ; but the great bulk of the oil is com-
posed of the series C,H,, 42, beginning with the butanes and end-
ing with solid hydrocarbons of such high molecular weights that
they cannot be determined by any method now known. We have
reached the hydrocarbon C,,H,., and it is the last one of the series
whose molecular weight could be determined. It is quite proba-
ble that there are as many as eight or even more of the hydro-
carbons with greater molecular weight.
It has been an open question with practical oil men, and per-
haps is still with some, as to whether solid paraffine is contained in
crude petroleum or whether it is formed in the process of distilla-
tion. In the ordinary process of refining crude oil, a very consid-
erable proportion of the hydrocarbons is lost in the last stages of
the destructive distillation which ends with a large mass of coke.
On comparing the thin liquid crude oil with products obtained
from it in refining, it would be natural for the superficial observer
to reason, from the appearance of coke at the end of the distillation
and other heavy products, that solid paraffine should be formed in
a similar way by decomposition of the light liquid crude oil.
But careful consideration of the nature and origin of petroleum
precludes the possibility of its formation by distillation. It is true
that paraffine was first obtained by Reichenbach by the distillation
of vegetable and animal organic matter, and there is no question
that it has been formed ina similar manner by natural processes.
But petroleum must be regarded as a final product of decomposi-
tion, and while the series may be changed from one to another to a
limited extent, decomposition of the constituents leads to the
formation of simpler products until finally carbon is reached.
Therefore, instead of paraffine as a result of decomposition of other
44 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3,
hydrocarbons, paraffine itself is decomposed into hydrocarbons of
lower molecular weight. But while this view is well supported by
the facts observed relating to the nature of paraffine, we have not
been satisfied with less than actual proof by experiment of its
presence in crude oil, and several lines of work have been carried
on in this direction.
Last year we placed several liters of crude petroleum in a large
flue of the laboratory, with strong draught, and allowed it to evap-
orate during several weeks. Much the larger portion of the original _
oil had evaporated, and the residue was so very thick it would
scarcely flow. By careful extraction of the oil with ether and
alcohol we obtained a small amount of solid paraffine, as shown by
its melting-point and resemblance to ordinary solid paraffine hydro-
carbons.
In another line of work, the results of which have not been pub-
lished, we procured ten gallons of a semi-solid mass of hydro-
carbons from a refining company at Coreopolis, Pa., that had been
collected from the sucker rods in pumping oil and had never been
distilled ; this oil is very heavy, light yellow in color and is used
for the preparation of commercial cosmolines and vaselines. By
cooling some of this product and crystallization we were able to
separate from it a mixture of hydrocarbons closely resembling par-
affine. A considerable portion of this pasty mass was subjected to
fractional distillation, and a series of hydrocarbons separated with
the composition of the series C,H,,,,. The oils separated by
cooling and pressure gave results on analysis corresponding to
series poorer in hydrogen.
We next took up the composition of the mixtures that form the
vaselines and cosmolines. The refiner makes a sharp distinction
between crystallizable and uncrystallizable paraffine. But there
seems to be but one form of solid paraffine hydrocarbons. Vasel-
ine is simply a very heavy oil saturated with paraffine, and con-
taining an excess of solid paraffine in the form of an emulsion.
The oil is composed of the heavy oils of the series C,H,, and
C,,H,, 42, and the solid bodies members of the series C,H,,4,. The
so-called scale paraffine of the refiner is solid paraffine containing
sufficient of the heavy oils to prevent it from assuming a well-
defined crystalline condition.
The appearance of the series C,H,, and the series C,H,,_, in
Pennsylvania petroleum distillates, as shown in a paper published
1908.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 45
last year, indicates that the so-called asphaltic hydrocarbons forma
part of this petroleum with very high boiling points. This places
Pennsylvania petroleum in the same category with the heavier
petroleum from such fields as California and Texas, the chief dif-
ferences being the predominating series C,H,,,, in Pennsylvania
oil and the series poorer in hydrogen in the heavier products. As
explained above, the large proportion of the paraffine hydrocarbons
in the heavy portions of Pennsylvania oil apparently render the
lubricating distillates more stable. Just what effect it has on the
lubricating qualities, so far as I know, has not been completely
determined. Some experiments on the very heavy lubricants from
Beaumont oil have demonstrated very superior lubricating qualities.
Ou10 TRENTON LIMESTONE PETROLEUM.
Since the first discovery of this petroleum, there has been great
uncertainty concerning its composition. In the preparation of
commercial products, the refiner discovered essential differences
between it and Pennsylvania oil which were fully understood with
reference to its refining qualities. The first serious obstacle was
the large amount of sulphur compounds that must be removed for
the production of acceptable burning oil. Innumerable patents
were issued for processes which included distillation over quartz,
precipitation with mercuric chloride, oxidation with potassium per-
manganate, and numerous other impracticable ideas that had been
tried only on paper. The ordinary refiner distils over scrap iron
and refines with alkaline lead oxide. From much the greater part
of refining oil sulphur is removed by distilling over heated copper
oxide and recovery of the oxide, a process that is said to have
originated in Canada, but is known as the Frasch process. Prob-
ably fifty tons of sulphur daily is a conservative estimate of the
amount extracted from Ohio oil and burned off into the atmos-
phere. It is claimed for this process that it is capable of removing
the sulphur to 0.02 per cent., which is probably correct. Excel-
lent burning oils are made from Ohio petroleum.
The composition of Ohio petroleum, so far as the portions
readily distilled are concerned, has only been arrived at within the
last few months. Several years ago an examination of the sulphur
petroleums, as Ohio and Canadian petroleum was then designated,
showed that the series C,H,, ,, formed the portions of Ohio crude
46 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3,
oil which distilled below 212°, and the same members were dis-
covered that had been previously identified in Pennsylvania oil,
although the proportion of these hydrocarbons was smaller than in
Pennsylvania oil. The proportion of aromatic hydrocarbons is
higher in Ohio than in Pennsylvania oil. The lower methylenes
are also probably contained in larger proportion in the Ohio oil.
An investigation just finished on the hydrocarbons contained in _
the limits between 112° and 280°, tension 30 mm., has identified
thirteen hydrocarbons, with very satisfactory data on the propor-
tions of carbon and hydrogen which establish the series, and the
molecular weights and indices of refraction which identify the
members of the series. The following hydrocarbons of the series
C,H,, were found: C,H», CysHe., CAs; Cube Cy,Hy, Cy Hess
Unfortunately the distillate that should yield the hydrocarbon
C,,H,;, was lost, although its specific gravity was ascertained before
filtration.
Of the series C,H,, _,, the following hydrocarbons were identified :
GCipHas; Cop Hs, Cas, 'CuHla; andof the series CJ 4, (Dean
carbons: (Co bl4,, Cosel, optdue:
The change in series is attended with a greater difference in
specific gravity between adjacent hydrocarbons; for instance, the
last change in series is very marked, as the following table shows:
Distillate. Sp. Gr. Hydrocarbon. Difference in Sp. Gr.
224-2270 -8614 Gea is Ws
237-2409 -8639 CH .0025
253-2550 -8842 Gokia. 0225
263-2659 -8864 C, Hyg 0022
The-distillates from which these hydrocarbons were separated
above 150°, 30 mm., contained a large proportion of solid paraffine.
The higher fractions were solid at ordinary temperatures, but no
attention was given to the solid constituents, for without doubt
they are identical with the solid hydrocarbons identified in Penn-
sylvania oil. Much difficulty was met with in separating the liquid
constituents. The distillate was first cooled to o° and filtered,
and the filtrate then cooled to —10° and again filtered.
In purifying these heavy oils they were first dissolved in gasoline,
and after purification the gasoline was removed by distillation.
The greater preponderance of the series poorer in hydrogen in
Ohio oil over Pennsylvania oil explains the higher specific gravity
1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 47
of Ohio crude oil. The series C,H,,_, does not appear in Penn-
sylvania oil within the range of distillates below 300°, but it does
appear in Ohio oil. The proportions of the series still poorer in
hydrogen in the residues of distillation from Ohio oil are doubtless
still greater.
CANADIAN CORNIFEROUS LIMESTONE PETROLEUM.
In the paper referred to above, the composition of the distillates
from Canadian oil was explained, including the hydrocarbons
C,,H,, and C,,H.,, which were identified in the fractions 196°
and 214°: This limits the series C,H,, 4. in Canadian oil to the
lower members. ‘Two years ago the higher fractions were exam-
ined for the individual hydrocarbons and results obtained, not yet
published, that show a continuation of the series C,H,, ; and the
hydrocarbons separated included the following: C,,H.., C,;H.,,
CiHy,, CisH 9, C,H.
These bodies were identified by combustion for the series, and
their molecular weights ascertained for the individual members of
the series ; the specific gravity of each hydrocarbon agrees closely
with that of the corresponding hydrocarbon of Ohio petroleum.
These values were still further confirmed by the formation and
analysis of the chlorides.
The proportions of the lower members of the series C,Hi»1;,
which form the naphtha and gasoline in Canadian petroleum, is
considerably smaller than in Ohio petroleum. The proportion of
burning oil distillates is also less, and it is not possible to make
from Canadian oil sv good burning oil. The series C,H,, shows
less stability on standing than the higher series C,H,,,,. I have
samples of burning oil from Canadian petroleum that have stood
ten years; they have changed from ‘‘ water white,’’ the original
quality of the oil, to very dark yellow. Much larger quantities of
gas are evolved in refining the Canadian oil, which is run back for
heating the stills. Some paraffine is made, but the yield is small.
The sulphur in the crude oil gives much trouble in refining, and
it is not all removed in the burning oil. The percentage of sul-
phur is higher than in Ohio petroleum as a rule, usually about one
per cent. Canadian petroleum should give good grades of lubrica-
tors, but I have never examined these products.
48 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3,
CALIFORNIA PETROLEUM.
In a paper published two years ago the composition of California
petroleum oil from different sections of those fields was explained,
and the principal series in the range of distillates examined, which
included those below 214° in all specimens of crude oils, showed
the series C,H,,.
Allusion was made in the former publication to a specimen of
exceptionally heavy oil from Summerland, Santa Barbara county,
of especial interest, since it came from wells sunk below the level
of the Pacific Ocean at high tide. No distillates were collected
from this oil below 200° atmospheric pressure. Under a tension —
of 60 mm. continued fractional distillation separated very heavy
oils that were colorless or slightly yellow. They were purified by
dissolving in gasoline and agitating with sulphuric acid, com-
mon and fuming, and the gasoline distilled off with the aid of a
current of carbonic dioxide. The composition of these products
proved to be very different from that of the other California oils,
or from any others we have examined. For instance, the fraction
210°-215°, 60 mm., gave as its specific gravity at 20°, 0.9085, and
the proportions of carbon and hydrogen corresponded to the
hydrocarbon C,,H,,, or the series C,H,,_,. The higher members
were the most viscous distillates that we have separated in what
appears to be a pure form from any petroleum.
So far as we have carried the examination of California petro-
leum, no solid paraffine hydrocarbons have been found. From
several fields oil has been obtained whose higher distillates on
standing deposited large well-defined crystals, but unlike paraffine.
From the fractions between 275° and 295°, 60 mm., separated
from Torrey cafion oil, a considerable quantity of crystals separated
on standing several months that melted at 57° to 62°. These
crystals were readily soluble in benzol and alcohol, and crystallized
from hot alcohol on cooling apparently in a pure form, unlike the .
solid paraffine hydrocarbons that are very sparingly soluble in
alcohol; sufficient of this product for complete identification has not
yet been obtained. The higher portions of heavy California petro-
leum offer an attractive field for study of the series poorer in
hydrogen.
Texas PETROLEUM.
Much attention has been attracted to the recent discoveries of
oil in Texas, and in some respects these deposits of oil possess a
1903.) MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 49
peculiar interest. The older Corsicana field yields an oil that is
adapted for the preparation of a fairly good grade of burning oil,
but it is inferior to Pennsylvania oil, since, as Richardson has
shown, it is composed chiefly of the methylene hydrocarbons. The
heavier oil at Beaumont does not yield a sufficient proportion of
burning oil distillate to make its preparation economical, but it is
stated that a distillate can be separated in small quantities without
cracking that can be refined into an inferior grade of burning oil.
So far as examined the Beaumont oil does not contain members of
the series C,H,,4,, which is essential in oils that yield the best
grades of kerosene. The unique occurrence of this crude oil, under-
lying beds of sulphur under rather loose beds of shale, should
exclude any of the most volatile constituents, such as are found in
Pennsylvania oil. As we have demonstrated, the predominating
series of hydrocarbons include the methylenes and condensed
series. The crude oil is very heavy; it easily decomposes under
distillation, but by exclusion of air very heavy distillates may be
separated without decomposition, from which superior lubricating
oils may be prepared, especially of the heaviest type. The
heaviest residue from Beaumont oil, if decomposition has been
prevented, forms the best sort of petroleum asphalt, much heavier
than similar products to be obtained from any other than California
crude oil; in fact all the products to be obtained from Texas oil
resemble those prepared from California oil.
The sulphur compounds in Texas oil seem to be much less stable
than those in Ohio and Canadian oils, perhaps on account of their
higher molecular weight. It is worthy of note that heavy petro-
leum, such as that from Texas and California fields, contain more
sulphur than more volatile crude oils, like the Pennsylvania.
Petroleum from other fields, such as Colorado, Wyoming, Japan
and South America, all partake of the properties of the heavier
products from the fields in this country. The Japanese crude oils
were very carefully sampled for our examination three years ago.
There is promise of a great development of oil territory in South
America. I scarcely believe that the sample of heavy oil we
‘examined some years ago represents the true condition of the oil
fields there. The heavy petroleums are rapidly increasing in
value as fuel. Prices have recently been advanced in Texas to
seventy-five cents per barrel.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 172. D. PRINTED MAY 9, 1903.
°
50 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3,
I have a large amount of unpublished data on the sulphur and
nitrogen compounds in petroleum. Although I have had the sul-
phur compounds under examination for nineteen years, I am not
yet sure as to the form of the higher series. In a paper presented
to the New York Section of the Society of Chemical Industry two
years ago, and published in the Soctety Journad, a brief account of
the sulphur and nitrogen compounds was given. It was explained
that these bodies are members of a series C,H,,S, and that they
oxidize into sulphones and very readily into sulphuric acid. These
bodies are doubtless ring compounds, as was then suggested, similar
to the thiophenes.
California petroleum contains a larger proportion of nitrogen
base than any other, so faras known. Two per cent. of nitrogen,
the amount contained in several specimens of crude oils examined,
corresponds to twenty or twenty-five per cent. of the basic oils, or
about one-quarter of the crude oil consists of the nitrogen com-
pounds. In structure these bodies are tetra- or octohydro-ring
compounds in homologous series. The tetrahydro-condition is
shown by their instability.
It is, therefore, apparent that a similar condition of instability
prevails in the methylenes, and in the sulphur and nitrogen com-
pounds from heavy petroleum. The sulphur and nitrogen bodies
are found in considerable quantities only in such petroleum as is
mainly composed of the methylenes or series poorer in hydrogen.
Another interesting series of bodies found in California, but not
in Eastern oils, at least to the same extent, are the phenols, which
are present in considerable quantities in some of the California oil.
NATURAL FORMATION OF PETROLEUM.
Muchas has been said on this attractive subject, a broader knowl-
edge of facts is necessary before definite conclusions can be
reached. What is known forms the basis for only one explanation
concerning the formation of petroleum, and that is that it was
formed from vegetable or animal matter by slow decay or breaking
down from the complex forms of vegetable or animal life under
the influence of natural forces, with no great elevation in tempera-
ture such as is necessary for distillation.
Mendelejeff's theory of the formation from carbides at high tem-
peratures, recently asserted with greater force on the basis of
1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM, 51
Moissan’s work with the electric furnace, demands too many hypo-
thetical assumptions, and it has too little support on the basis of
fact. ‘To reason from the artificial formation of alloys and carbides
in an electric furnace to the natural formation of petroleum con-
taining nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen, in the form of hydro-
thophenes, hydrochinolines, and phenols, demands a too broad
reach of the imagination to make the connections.
Bearing in mind the fact that petroleum may now be regarded
as one and the same substance whatever its source, and that the
deposits in different fields are composed of the same series, differing
only in the proportions of these constituents, it must be admitted
that it had one origin and one only. With reference to the
series of hydrocarbons, it is immaterial whether its source was ani-
mal or vegetable, for under the influence of natural agencies it
could have been formed as well from one as from the other.
This question has been attacked on chemical grounds from the
wrong direction. Because hydrocarbons of the marsh gas series,
ethylene series or acetylene series at temperatures of decomposition
form minute quantities of the aromatic series, or that hexahydro-
aromatic bodies are formed from the aromatic hydrocarbons by
heating with hydriodic acid, to assume that these same changes
were produced by natural agencies and resulted in the formation of
the hydrocarbons which now constitute petroleum, together with
the other constituents of petroleum, ascribes to these natural
agencies a direction of action and power that we do not know they
possess.
In considering present knowledge with reference to the natural
formation of petroleum, it seems to me that the following questions
must be answered :
1. What is the chronology of petroleum: in what order were
the deposits formed in different fields ?
2. Were the least volatile constituents formed from the most
volatile or the reverse ?
3. What is a reasonable explanation of the formation of the other
constituents of petroleum ?
The first question must be answered by the geologist.
It is natural to assume that the limestones formed by the accumu-
lation of the shell remains of animal life were deposited first from
the ancient sea. The sandstones, as products of erosion from the
older rocks, were deposited last. The question as to whether the
a
52 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM, [April 3,
different deposits of petroleum were formed 77 situ, or formed in
other strata and by some natural agency transferred to their present
location, has not I believe been satisfactorily answered by the
geologists. In the case of the limestone petroleum, it would seem
that it must have been formed where it is now to be found, as Hunt
and Orton have ably maintained.
The theory of distillation from some other strata is not tenable
in the light of present knowledge of the constituents of petroleum.
Neither could any known constituents of plants that could form
petroleum be distilled, nor could the heavier portions of petroleum
be distilled ; the result would be only very volatile distillates and
deposits of coal or graphite. In this condition deposits of petro-
leum should ‘always be accompanied by coal, or with coal in the
near vicinity.
In the case of Pennsylvania and the allied southern Ohio and
West Virginia petroleum, it would be a great discovery to connect
these deposits with the coal formations, for then the source would
unquestionably be vegetable growth and would support the pre-
vailing opinion that this was the source of petroleum of this class.
It is reasonable to assume, as is now believed, that Pennsylvania oil
was not formed in the sandstones, but found its way there by natural
agencies from lower strata, probably the Devonian shales. The
infiltration of the crude oil through sandstones would have a purify-
ing effect. It is quite probable that the very light yellow crude
oils from the Berea Grit and other sandstones were filtered a second
time or more into their present positions.
With reference to the source of the limestone oils, the evidence
is all in favor of animal origin, and the same is true of California
oil, although its formation is probably far more recent than that of
the others. Texas petroleum has not been sufficiently studied in
relation to its occurrence and composition, but it is evidently of
more recent origin, like California oil.
With reference to the second question, is it more reasonable to
assume, for instance, that the solid paraffine hydrocarbons were
formed from the lower members of this series, or that the lower
members were formed from paraffine? On this point some experi-
mental evidence may be brought to bear. Reichenbach obtained
paraffine from both vegetable and animal organic matter. Engler
obtained paraffine by the distillation of fish oil, as Warren and
Storer had done many years previously.
*
1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 53
It is well known that paraffine breaks down very readily into
hydrocarbons with lower molecular weights, but it is not possible
to polymerize the lower hydrocarbons into the solid paraffine hydro-
carbons. The tendency in cracking of any constituents of petro-
leum is toward the formation of the lower series and finally carbon
in the form of coke. So far as experimental evidence and observa-
tion have shown the nature and relations of the hydrocarbons
which compose the different series in petroleum, the conclusion is
convincing that the lower members of the series were formed from
the higher. A single break in the ring of a methylene is sufficient
to form by the addition of hydrogen a paraffine hydrocarbon.
In answer to the third question, as to the formation of the sul-
phur, nitrogen and oxygen compounds in petroleum, these bodies
have evidently not been built up synthetically, but are the products
of decomposition of more highly organized constituents of organic
bodies. It would seem that the small proportions of these bodies
in Pennsylvania oil, as compared with the larger proportions in the
limestone oils and California oil, should be strong evidence in
favor of a different origin, that Pennsylvania oil came from organic
vegetable remains, which should permit of the small amounts of
sulphur and nitrogen compounds found in this class of oils.
But I think it can be asserted as a fact that the very large pro-
portion of nitrogen compounds in California petroleum, amounting
to one-fifth or more of the total weight of the oil, can only be
accounted for by accepting animal remains as the source of their
formation. As a summation of what is at present known of the
origin of petroleum, the following answers may be given to the
questions propounded above:
1. Petroleum containing large proportions of the volatile hydro-
carbons, especially of the series C,H.,4., such as Pennsylvania
petroleum, was formed from vegetable organic matter. The lime-
stone petroleum and California petroleum was formed from organic
matter of animal origin.
2. Cellulose, starch and other similar bodies in plants, and the
fats and nitrogen compounds in animal bodies, by gradual decom-
position with exclusion of air, gave first the heavier bodies found
in petroleum, and by natural agencies during long periods of time,
with no considerable rise in temperature, further decomposition
included as products the hydrocarbons with smaller molecular
weights.
54 BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. [April 2,
3. The nitrogen and sulphur constituents of petroleum could
only have been formed directly from or through the agency of
animal organic matter.
There is an attractive field for the chemical geologist to study,
more intimately than has ever been done, the occurrence of petro-
leum in connection with its composition.
CLEVELAND, O.
THE FORWARD MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING.
BY L. H. BAILEY.
(Read April 2, 1903.)
The first specific interest in cultivated plants was in the gross
kinds or species. As the contact with plants became more inti-
mate, various indefinite form-groups were recognized within the
limits of the species. Gradually, with the intensifying of domes-
tication and cultivation, very particular groups appeared and were
recognized. These smaller groups came finally to be designated
by names, and the idea of the definite and homogeneous cultural
variety came into existence. The variety-conception is really a
late one in the development of the human race. It is practically
only within the past two centuries that cultivated varieties of plants
have been recognized as being worthy of receiving designative
names. It is within this period, also, that most of the great breeds
of animals have been defined and separately named.
All this measures the increasing intimacy of our contact with
domesticated plants and animals. It is a record of our progress.
The peoples that are most advanced in the cultivation of any plant
are the ones that have the most named varieties of that plant. In
Japan, to this day, the plums pass under ill-defined class-names.
We have introduced these classes, have sorted out. the particular
forms that promise to be of value to us and have given them
specific American names. Not long ago a native professor in
Japan wrote me asking for cions of these plums,*in order that he
might introduce Japanese plums into Japan. ‘The Russian apples
are designated to some extent by class-names; im fact, it was not
until the appearance of .Regel’s work, about a generation ago,
that Russian pomology may bé said to have been born. What
—
1903.] BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. 55
constitutes a variety is increasingly more difficult to define, because
we are constantly differentiating on smaller points. The growth
of the variety-conception is really the growth of the power of
analysis.
The earlier recognized varieties seem to have come into exist-
ence unchallenged. There is very little record of inquiry as to
how or why or even where they originated. That is, the quest of
the origin arose long after the recognition of the variety as a
variety. Even after inquisitive search into origins had begun
there was little effort to produce these varieties. The describing of
varieties and the search into their histories was a special work of
the nineteenth century. One has only to consult such American
works as Downing’s Fruzts and Fruit Trees of America and Burr’s
field and Garden Vegetables of America, te see how carefully and
methodically the descriptions and synonymy of the varieties were
worked out. These are types of excellent pieces of editorial and
formal systematic work.
There have been isolated efforts at producing varieties for many
years. These efforts began before the time of the general dis-
cussion of organic evolution. In fact, it was on such experiments
that Darwin drew heavily in some of his most important writings.
Roughly speaking, however, the conception that the kinds of
plants can be definitely modified and varied by man is a product of
the last half century. We now believe that there is such a possi-
bility as plant-breeding. It is really a more modern conception,
so far as its general acceptance is concerned, than animal-breeding.
But both animal-breeding and plant-breeding are the results of a
new attitude toward the forms of life—a conviction that the very
structure, habits and attributes are amenable to change and control
by man. This is really one of the great new attitudes of the mod-
ern world.
Formerly, and even up to the present time, the variety has been
taken as the unit for plant-breeding work, as it has been for
descriptive and classificatory work. Whether we believed it or not,
we have accepted it as a fairly definite thing or entity. Yet, what
is a variety? Only the ideal of one man or a set of men.
Custom may define its boundaries, but in fact it has no boundaries.
At best, a variety is only an assemblage of forms that agree rather
more than they differ: and any one of these forms may, with equal
propriety, be called another variety. Shall we continue to
56 BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. [April 2,
consider the variety as a unit or basis from which we are to
breed for the purpose of producing other varieties? Or shall we
still further refine our ideals and find that the variety-conception is
really only a mark of an imperfect and superficial development of
an immature age?
Now, plant-breeding is worthy of the name only as it sets
definite ideals and is able to attain them. Merely to produce new
things is of no merit: that was done long before man was evolved.
A child can ‘‘produce’’ a new variety, but it may learn nothing
and contribute nothing in producing it. I have myself produced
1500 new kinds of pumpkins and squashes, but I had no idea what
I was to produce, the world is no better for my having produced
them, and I am no wiser (except in experience) than I was before.
In many ‘‘new’’ things that are produced, there may be dispute as.
to whether they are new and as to whether they are distinct enough
to be named and therefore to be ranked as varieties at all. This is
not science, nor even breeding: it is playing and guessing.
What does the world care whether John Jones produces ‘‘ Jones’
Giant Beardless wheat’’? But it does care if he produces a wheat
having a half of one per cent. more protein. We must give up the
production of mere ‘‘ varieties ’’; we must breed for certain definite
attributes that will make the new generations of plants more
efficient for certain purposes: this is the new outlook in plant-
breeding.
Happily, we are not without abundant accomplishment in this
new field. The last ten years has seen a remarkable specialization
in the producing of plants that are adapted to particular needs.
The days of merely crossing and sowing tHe seeds to see what will
turn up are already past} with those who are engaged seriously in
the work. The old method was hit-and-miss and the result was to
take what good luck put in your way : the new method proceeds defi-
nitely and directly and the result is the necessary outcome of the
line of effort. The crux of the new ideal is efficiency in one
particular attribute in the product of the breeding. These attrib-
utes are measurable: the kind of results are foreseen in the plan,
or are predictable.
All these remarks are typically illustrated in the experiments with
corn-breeding conducted in Illinois. It is significant to note what
are the reasons for breeding new corns, as stated by Professor Hop-
kins in Bulletin 82 of the Illinois Experiment Station :
A
i
\
.
{
1903.] BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. 57
‘¢Tn its own publication a large commercial concern, which uses
enormous quantities of corn, makes the following statements :
«¢¢A bushel of ordinary corn, weighing fifty-six pounds, contains
about four and one-half pounds of germ, thirty-six pounds of dry
starch, seven pounds of gluten, and five pounds of bran or hull, the
balance in weight being made up of water, soluble matter, etc.
The value of the germ lies in the fact that it contains over forty
per cent. of corn oil, worth, say, five cents per pound, while the
starch is worth one and one-half cents, the gluten one cent, and
the hull about one-half cent per pound.
“©<Tt can readily be seen that a variety of corn containing, say,
one pound more oil per bushel weuld be in large demand.
«¢<« Farmers throughout the country do well to communicate with
their respective agricultural experiment stations and secure their
co-operation along these lines.’
‘These are statements and suggestions which should, and do,
attract the attention of experiment station men. ‘They are made
by the Glucose Sugar Refining Company of Chicago, a company
which purchases and uses, in its six factories, about fifty million
bushels of corn annually. According to these statements, if the oil
of corn could be increased one pound per bushel, the actual value
of the corn for glucose factories would be increased five cents per
bushel ; and the president of the Glucose Sugar Refining Company
has personally assured the writer that his company would be glad
to pay a higher price for high oil corn whenever it can be
furnished in large quantities. The increase of five cents per
bushel on fifty million bushels would add $2,500,000 to the value
of the corn purchased by this one company each year. ‘The
glucose factories are now extracting the oil from all the corn they
use and are unable to supply the market demand for corn oil. On
the other hand, to these manufacturers protein is a cheap by-pro-
duct and consequently they want less protein in corn. ’
‘“¢Corn with a lower oil content is desired as a feed for bacon
hogs, especially for our export trade, very extensive and thorough
investigations conducted in Germany and Canada having proved
conclusively that ordinary corn contains too much oil for the pro-
duction of the hard firm bacon which is demanded in the markets
of Great Britain and Continental Europe.”
It is very interesting to note that this does not mention the
improvement of Leaming’s White, or Jones’ Yellow Dent, or any
58 BAILEY--MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. [April 2,
other named variety of corn, nor does it propose that any new
variety shall be created. It suggests what may be done with any
variety of corn. The experiments in Illinois demonstrate that
‘*the yield of corn can be increased, and the chemical composition
of the kernel can be changed as may be desired, either to increase
or to decrease the protein, the oil, or the starch.”
The breeding of the corn proceeds along two general lines—for
physical perfection and for chemical perfection. Selection for
physical merit proceeds as follows, to quote again from Professor
Hopkins: ‘‘ The most perfect ears obtainable of the variety of corn
which it is desired to breed should be selected. These ears’
should conform to the desirable standards of this variety and
should possess the principal properties which belong to perfect
ears of corn, so far as they are known and as completely as it is
possible to secure them. These physical characteristics and prop-
erties include the length, circumference, and shape of the ear and
of the cob; the number of rows of kernels and the number of ker-
nels in the row; the weight and color of the grain and of the cob;
and the size and shape of the kernels. In making this selection
the breeder may have in his mind a perfect ear of corn and make
the physical selection of seed ears by simple inspection, or he may
make absolute counts and measurements and reduce the physical
selection almost to an exact or mathematical basis.’’
The selection for chemical content is made on two bases—on
the general gross structure of the corn kernel as determined by
‘mechanical examination,’’ and on chemical analysis of the
kernel.
Chemical examination by means of mechanical examination is as
follows :
‘“The selection of seed ears for improved chemical composition
by mechanical examination of the kernels is not only of much
assistance to the chemist in enabling him to reduce greatly the
chemical work involved in seed corn selection, but it is of the
greatest practical value to the ordinary seed corn grower who is
trying to improve his seed corn with very limited service, if any,
from the analytical chemist. This chemical selection of seed ears
by mechanical examination, as well as by chemical analysis (which
is described below), is based upon two facts:
‘rz. That the ear of corn is approximately uniform throughout in
the chemical composition of its kernels.
.
1
4
1903.] BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. 59
‘2, That there is a wide variation in the chemical composition
of different ears, even of the same variety of corn. These two facts
are well illustrated in Table 1.
TABLE I. PROTEIN IN SINGLE KERNELS.
Ear A, Lar B, Banics Ear D,
protein, protein, protein, protein,
per cent. per cent. per cent. percent,
BEC LING) MC ore 6c nie mraicinl reo 12.46 11.53 7-45 8.72
UO io Ca ogee aetna ot 12.54 12.32 7.54 8.41
i Oy 8 B54 ANA 6 salon 12.44 12.19 7.69 8.73
6 Soe GR aon oO Sear 12.50 12.54 7.47 8.31
“e RON Nal Oe Mea ene) E2230 12.14 7.74 9.02
ce COTE | (eines as pF 12.49 12.95 8.70 8.76
<s CO LURES eae te Pe 12.50 12.84 8.46 8.89
Re ee x sleistea epee ae 12.14 8.69 9.02
“ Sot Oia\aiesains,9 eine sha os 12.14 12.04 8.86 8.96
cs SEU ERT Os) artshoieteter ois se icve ts 12.71 L275 8.10 8.89
‘‘Tt will be observed that while there are, of course, small
differences among the different. kernels of the same ear, yet each
ear has an individuality as a whole, the difference in composition
between different ears being much more marked than between
different kernels of the same ear.
‘‘ The uniformity of the individual ear makes it possible to esti-
mate or to determine the composition of the corn by the examin-
ation or analysis of a few kernels: The remainder of the kernels
on the ear may then be planted if desired. The wide variation in
the composition between different ears furnishes a starting-point for
the selection of seed in any of the several different lines of
desired improvement.
‘‘The methods of making a chemical selection of ears of seed
corn by a simple mechanical examination of the kernels is based
upon the fact that the kernel of corn is not homogeneous in struc-
ture, but consists of several distinct and readily observable parts of
markedly different chemical composition (see illustrations). Aside
from the hull which surrounds the kernel, there are three principal
parts in a grain of corn:
“¢1, The darker colored and rather hard and horny layer lying
next to the hull, principally in the edges and toward the tip end of
the kernel, where it is about three millimeters, or one-eighth of an
inch, in thickness.
1 Determination lost by accident.
60 BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. [April 2,
‘¢2, The white, starchy-appearing part occupying the crown end
of the kernel and usually also immediately surrounding, or partially
surrounding, the germ.
«3, The germ itself which occupies the central part of the kernel
toward the tip end.
‘‘ These different parts of the corn kernel can be readily recog-
nized by merely dissecting a single kernel with a pocket-knife, and
it may be added that this is the only instrument needed by any-
body in making a chemical selection of seed corn by mechanical
examination.
‘‘The horny layer, which usually constitutes about sixty-five per
cent. of the corn kernel, contains a large proportion of the total
protein in the kernel.
‘‘ The white, starchy part constitutes about twenty per cent. of
the whole kernel, and contains a small proportion of the total pro-
tein. The germ constitutes only about ten per cent. of the corn
kernel, but while it is rich in protein, it also contains more than
eighty-five per cent. of the total oil content of the whole kernel,
the remainder of the oil being distributed in all the other parts.
‘¢ By keeping in mind that the horny layer is large in propor-
tion, and also quite rich in protein, and that the germ, although
rather small in proportion, is very rich in protein, so that these two
parts contain a very large proportion of the total protein in the
corn kernel, it will readily be seen that by selecting ears whose
kernels contain more than the average proportion of germ and
horny layer, we are really selecting ears which are above the aver-
age in their protein content. As a matter of fact, the method is
even more simple than this, because the white, starchy part is
approximately the complement of, and varies inversely as, the
sum of the other constituents ; and to pick out seed corn of high
protein content it is only necessary to select those ears whose ker-
nels show a relatively small proportion of the white, starchy part
surrounding the germ.
** As more than eighty-five per cent. of the oil in the kernel is
contained in the germ, it follows that ears of corn are relatively
high or low in their oil content according as their kernels have a
larger or smaller proportion of germ.
‘«In selecting seed.corn by chemical analysis, we remove from the
individual ear two adjacent rows of kernels as a representative
sample. ‘This sample is ground and analyzed as completely as may
1903] | BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. 61
be necessary to enable us to decide whether the ear is suitable for
seed for the particular kind of corn which it is desired to breed.
Dry matter is always determined in order to reduce all other deter-
minations to the strictly uniform and comparable water-free basis.
If, for example, we desire to change only the protein content, then
protein is determined. If we are breeding to change both the pro-
tein and the oil, then determinations of both of these constituents
must be made.”’
Any careful farmer can make such examinations as these. The
relative abundance of one or the other of the three areas in the
kernel will indicate what ears should be chosen for seed. Professor
Hopkins proposes a system of field trials in which one ear furnishes
plants for one row, thereby allowing the operator to see and meas-
ure the individuality of each ear. By choosing ears that most
nearly approach the ideal, and then by continued selection year by
year, the desired result is to be secured and maintained.
It is impossible to overestimate the value of any concerted corn-
breeding work of this general type. The grain alone of the corn
crop is worth about one billion dollars annually. It is no doubt
possible to increase this efficiency by more than one per cent.
An interesting cognate inquiry to this direct breeding work is
the study of the commercial grades of grains. It is a most singu-
lar fact that the dealer’s ‘‘ grades’’ are of a very different kind
from the farmer’s ‘‘ varieties.’’ In the great markets, for example,
corn is sold as ‘‘ Yellow No. 1,’’ ‘‘ Yellow No. 2,’’ ‘‘ Yellow No.
3.’ Any yellow corn may be thrown into these grades. What
constitutes a grade is essentially a judgment on the part of every
dealer. It so happens that the grade tends to deteriorate as the
grain reaches the seaboard, for the tendency of each dealer is to
mix with the better grades just as much of an inferior grade as will
allow the carload or cargo to pass the inspector’s examination.
The result is that the grain is likely to be condemned or criticised
when it reaches Liverpool. Complaints having come to the Gov-
ernment, the United States Department of Agriculture has under-
taken to determine how far the grades of grain can be reduced to
indisputable instrumental measurement. This work is now in the
hands of Mr. Scofield, in the Division of Botany. ‘The result is
likely to be a closer defining of what a grade is; and this point
once determined, the producer will make an effort to grow such
grain as will grade to No. 1, and thereby reach the extra
62 BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. [April 2,
price. Eventually the efficiency points of the grower and the
commercial grades of the dealer ought nearly or quite to coin-
cide. There should come a time when corn is sold on its inherent
merits, as, for example, on its starch content. This corn would
not then be graded 1, 2 and 3 on its starch content, because that
content would be assured in the entire product ; but the Grade 1
would mean prime physical condition, and the lower grades infe-
rior physical condition. Eventually something like varietal names
may be attached to those kinds of corns that, for example, grade
fifteen per cent. protein. The name would be a guarantee of the
approximate content, as it now is in a commercial fertilizer.
Closely allied to the corn-breeding work of Illinois (which is
carried on by the Experiment Station and also by a commercial
firm organized for that purpose) is the wheat-breeding and flax-
breeding work in Minnesota under the direction of Professor Hays.
Mr. Hays’ aim has been chiefly to increase productiveness. The
following sketch is made from his notes:
‘‘ Here are three examples of increased efficiency produced at
the Minnesota Experiment Station in co-operation with the U. S.
Bureau of Plant Industry.
‘‘Minn. No. 163 wheat was bred by selection from Fife parent-
age. During three years’ comparison in field tests at University
Farm, near Minneapolis, it averaged 2.7 bushels gain per acre,
or eleven per cent., better than its parent variety, as shown by the
following table:
AVELNV ERMINE OS) oie scisle’ e-slajelelelel«/cfe tere ol ouyec atettele eat ».... 28,5 bushels.
HIEG WOATENE shoe Suissa ewe cieletesioremicleteye ele viet Aioia oper Oe 25.8. pee
MNCKEASC o15 ic jo'o cw mie Bio wis/eh Ov me sel Sle ojadere aere eee 27. ae
-€JTn 1899, this wheat wassold to one hundred farmers, thirty-
eight of whom made the comparison between this and their com-
mon wheats in a manner fair to both. The following table shows
the average increased yield to have been 1.4 bushels per acre, or
eight per cent.:
Moin NolaGs averape.yield ©. 2.5. clssc/as cae mente 18.1 bushels,
«= Common wheats, average yield................00000- LO.7) 7 xe
1.4 it
‘*Minn. No, 169 wheat was bred by selection from a Blue Stem
1903.] BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. 63
foundation. During the first four years that it was in our field
tests it averaged 4.9 bushels more than the parent wheat, as dis-
played by the following table of average yields, showing an increase
over its parent variety of more than twenty per cent.:
PUES ety PIN MOM sw 5's <6 lag ait catan pu ate otvia Unvars Oh eeotn 28.5 bushels,
RENUEREE ONES) UOTE oo Ss cit ahasnig aie oh erathin ais 314 eS TE 236. «6
CETUS oes DATE ie ERNE eR Eo mee amp ted Age
“‘In 1902, this wheat was sent in four-bushel lots, at $1.50 per
bushel, to three hundred and seventy-five farmers. Eighty-nine
reports gave comparisons that were fair both to the new and old
wheats, and there were obtained the following average yields,
showing an increase over the common wheats of the entire State of
eighteen per cent. If this increase could be applied to one-tenth
of the area of the wheat crop in Minnesota, the increased yield
would be worth over a million dollars :
Maren ARTO TOGA. Solas aedees was wis Gee eae eae e's back 21.5 bushels,
Sommonbkwheatsa2 N45 Fie sesso snake S08 ee Se TOLz ees
LT CRRSE RS eat Sse HANS AEN RE Cat aa RE A 35S) wre
“The third example is even more pronounced. Seven years ago
Prof. Hays chose seven samples of the common Minnesota and
Dakota flax, and made by selection many new types for the pro-
duction of seed, and numerous other types especially for produc-
tion of fibre. The following table gives the general results:
Yield of Yield of Height in
grain, straw, inches,
Av. of 4 best varieties selected for seed.......... 17.8 1,40 23
Av. of 4 best varieties selected for fibre.......... 10.5 1.76 35
Av. of 4 best common varieties (from outside
PUICE)G Gor bo 2 obs Doe oae.cenoee ae cero II.9 1,52 24.
5-9 =
‘‘Here in field trials, in 1902, the increased yield per acre of
the new varieties bred for seed is forty-nine per cent.; and the in-
creased height of the new varieties bred for fibre is forty-six per
cent. more than the common flax,’’
‘‘We have developed statistical methods,’’ Professor Hays
writes, ‘‘of dealing with such plants as wheat, alfalfa, corn, and,
64 BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. [April 2,
in fact, nearly all of the field crops where it is necessary or very
advantageous to grow or plant in a hill, that selections may be
made and the breeding powers of parent plants measured. The
general features of this statistical work may be stated as follows:
Every acquisition or newly-bred variety receives a number written
thus, ‘Minn. No. 13 corn,’ for example. It is also botanically
described and the facts concerning its history, name, description,
etc., entered in our Minnesota Number Book. If the newly-
secured variety is an exceptionally promising one it is put into
field tests, but ordinarily in the preliminary garden test the first
year. Promising acquisitions and promising newly-bred hybrid
stocks are entered in the nursery, where their breeding by rigid
selection is begun, and large numbers of plants are grown, one in
each hill, giving each plant the same space and opportunities as
each other plant. By processes of elimination, the few best per-
formers are secured. The next year we plant a large number of the
progeny of each of these superior mother-plants. The average
yield, height and other measures are taken of the progeny of each
mother-plant. These tests of the breeding values of the mother-
plants are continued two and sometimes three years. Seeds from
parent plants producing the best average progeny are used alone or
in mixtures of close-pollinated species, and in mixtures in open
pollinated species as the foundation of new varieties. These are
tested in the field with the parent and other best standard varieties
for three years. Any introduced or newly-bred variety which is
an especially good yielder of value per acre is sent to the co-opera-
ting State Experiment Stations in surrounding States and to our sub-
stations, and its quantity is rapidly increased. Any variety that is
specially promising after being tried for, say, two years at several
stations is increased to sufficient quantity to sell to a number of
farmers in each county in the State. This seed, backed by all
the force of pedigree that we can command, is sold at a high price,
so as to make the seed business profitable, and men are induced to
raise it and sell large quantities at a price which will yield them a
profit. In this way our: first new wheat will be planted on hun-
dreds of thousands of acres this year, and other new things are
being widely disseminated.”’
A most gratifying augury of this coming type of effort is to be
found in the work of the Plant-Breeding Laboratory of the national
Department of Agriculture. This is an organization effected for
1903.] BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. 65
the purpose of producing types or kinds of plants that shall meet
particular requirements. Its work is now proceeding with many
groups of plants, but the burden of all its effort is efficiency in the
final product. Its work with cotton promises to do nothing less
than to revolutionize the cotton industry. The special difficulty
with the present Upland cotton is the shortness of the “‘ staple’’ or
fibre. This inch-long staple sells at present (1903) for eight to
eight and one-quarter cents a pound, whereas the long staple of
the Sea Island cotton sells for twenty-five to thirty cents per pound.
The effort is to secure a longer staple for the Upland, either by
crossing it with the Sea Island or by working with some foreign
long-staple type. The Egyptian cotton has a long staple, and this
is now being used as one of the foundation stocks. But the
Egyptian cotton possesses faults along with its long staple. It will
be the work of years’ by means of careful selection, to augment or
maintain the desirable qualities and to eliminate the undesirable
qualities ; when this is done, the cotton will no longer be the
Egyptian, but practically a new creation, and this new creation
should receive a new name in order to distinguish it from the infe-
rior Egyptian from which it will have had its birth. Under the
leadership of Mr. Webber, this new plant-bleeding enterprise
(probably the largest in the world) is now extended to citrous
fruits, apples, pineapples, oats, tobaccos and other crops; and
there is every indication that its usefulness will expand greatly
within the immediate future. Other institutions, and other divis-
ions of the Department of Agriculture, are conducting similar
work. Time is now on when every resourceful farmer must look to
the improving of the intrinsic merits of his crops.
The modern methods of plant-bleeding demand, first, that the
breeder shall familiarize himself thoroughly with the characteris-
tics of the group of plants with which he is to work. He must
have very specific and definite knowledge of what makes the plant
valuable and what its shortcomings are. Then he must secure as
starting-points plants that give promise in the ‘desired direction.
Thereafter his skill will be taxed in selecting along responsive
lines, making accurate and significant statistical measures, in devis-
ing workable systems of testing. He must grow large numbers of
plants, if he is working with farm crops, in order to multiply his
chances of securing desirable variations and to minimize the errors.
A promising course of breeding is one that shall develop disease- .
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xLII. 172. E. PRINTED MAY 9, 1908.
66 BAILEY —MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. [April 2,
resisting races within the variety. Considerable progress has
already been made in this direction with cotton, oats and some
other crops. Now and then a hill or a row or a variety of potato
resists the blight. Why? May it not be used as a starting-point
for the development of a blight-resistant strain? The development
of disease-resisting and pest-resisting races is one of the most
promising developments in the new plant pathology.
Nor are all these advances to be secured from seed selection
alone. The cuttings and grafts of fruit plants perpetuate the par-
ental characteristics with a good degree of surety. The time must
soon come when it will not be sufficient to multiply the Bartlett
pear from the Bartlett pear. We shall still further specialize our
ideals and propagate from particular Bartlett pear trees that have
made record performances. ‘This subject is being tested in New
York and elsewhere. It is one of the most important problems
now before the nurseryman and orchardist.
All this plant- breeding work is especially of a kind to demand
governmental support. The progress of invention can be left to
private initiative, because the person can patent his device and”
secure all the financial returns that it is worth. A variety cannot
well be patented or controlled. This is particularly true of these
great race improvements, in which no distinct and namable variety
results ; and these race improvements are the very ones that are
most likely to be of greatest benefit to agriculture and therefore to
the nation.
These methods and ideals may all be summed up as follows:
I. To determine on what the merit in any group of plants
depends, and to find out what is needed to make the plants more
efficient. What makes a potato ‘‘ mealy ’’?
II. Securing a start in the desired direction by
(a) Choosing for seed-bearing any plants that are promising ;
(4) Introducing prominent foundation-stock from other regions
or other countries ;
(c) Crossing for the purpose of injectirg a new or better char-
acter into the strain.
III. Continued selection, careful testing and accurate statistical
measurements and records to keep the progress true to line.
The first thing that strikes one in all this new work is its strong
contrast with the old ideals. The ‘‘ points ’’ of the plants are those
of *‘ performance’’ and ‘‘efficiency.’’ It brings into sharp relief
1903.} BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. 67
the accustomed ideas as to what are the ‘‘ good points” in any
plant, illustrating the fact that these points are for the most part
only fanciful, are founded on a@ priort judgments, and are more
often correlated with mere ‘‘looks’’ than with efficiency. An
excellent example may be taken from corn. In ‘‘scaling’’ any
variety of corn, it is customary'to assume that the perfect ear is one
nearly or quite uniformly cylindrical throughout its length and
having the tip and butt well covered with kernels. In fact, the old
idea of a good variety of corn is one that bears such ears. Now
this ideal is clearly one of perfection and completeness of mere
form. We have no knowledge that such form has any correlation
with productiveness, hardiness, drought-resisting qualities, protein
or starch content—and yet these attributes are the ones that make
corn worth growing at all. An illustration also may be taken from
string beans. The ideal pod is considered to be one of which the
tip-projection is very short and only slightly curved. This appar-
ently is a question of comeliness, although a short tip may be asso-
ciated in the popular mind with the absence of ‘‘string’’ in the
pod ; but we do not know that this character has any relation to
the efficiency of the bean pod. We are now undergoing much the
same challenging of ideas respecting the “ points’’ of animals.
These ‘‘ points,’’ by means of which the animals are ‘‘ scored,’’ are
in large part merely arbitrary. Now, animals and plants are bred to
the ideals expressed in these arbitrary points, by choosing for
parents the individuals that score the highest. When it becomes
necessary to recast our ‘‘scales of points,’’ the whole course of
evolution of domestic plants and animals is likely to be changed.
We are to breed not so much for merely new and striking char-
acters that will enable us to name, describe and sell a ‘ novelty,’’
as to improve the performance along accustomed lines. We do
not need new varieties of seedling potatoes so much as we need to
improve, by means of selection, some of the varieties that we
already possess. We are not to start with a variety, but with a
plant. It is possible to secure a five per cent. increase in the effi-
ciency of our field crops; this would mean the annual addition of
hundreds of millions of dollars to the national gain,
The purpose, then, of our new plant-breeding is to produce plants
that are more efficient for specific uses and specific regions. They
are to be specially adapted. These efficiency-ideals are of six
general categories :
68 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2,
Yield ideals.
Quality ideals.
Seasonal ideals.
Physical conformation ideals.
Regional adaptation ideals—as to climate, altitude, soil.
. Resistant ideals—as to diseases and insects.
The main improvement and evolution of agriculture are going to
come as the result of greater and better crop yield and greater and
better animal production. It is not to come primarily from inven-
tion, good roads, rural telephone, legislation, discussion of
economics. All these are merely aids. Increased crop and animal
production are to come from two agencies: improvement in the
care that they receive; improvement in the plants and animals
themselves. In other words, the new agriculture is to be built upon
the combined results of better cultivation and better breeding. So
far as the new breeding is concerned, it is characterized by perfect
definiteness of purpose and effort, the stripping away of all
arbitrary and factitious standards, the absence of speculative theory
and the insistence upon the great fact that every plant and animal
has individuality.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y.
NAM WD
THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE.
BY W. L. R. EMMET.
(Read April 2, 1903.)
The development which this paper describes is based upon the
original theories and inventions of Mr. C. G. Curtis, of New York,
whose ideas were first made the subject of patent application about
1895. Since that time these inventions have been the subject of
experimental investigation at Schenectady, under the direction of
Mr. Curtis and of the General Electric Company’s engineers; the
object of these experiments being to establish data and laws which
would form a basis for the correct design of commercial apparatus.
The difficulties of such an investigation are very great. All new
facts must be established by the tests of different machines or parts
which are difficult and expensive to produce. About two years ago
1903.] EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. 69
the results of these experiments gave us data which showed great
commercial possibilities, and since that time work has gone on on
a large scale in the production of commercial machines. The con-
tracts for these machines now aggregate 230,000 H. P. in turbine-
driven electric generating units, the largest size so far built being
7500 H. P. Thus a great industry has been brought into existence
in a very short time, and since the work has all been done in one
place and by a few persons very little information concerning it has
reached the public. This paper is the first printed matter which
has appeared on the subject.
The reason for this immense demand and production, without
publicity and in so short a time, is that the improvements effected
are radical in economy, simplicity and efficiency of action.
All improvements in prime movers are of great importance to
the engineering world. The steam turbine is destined to effect the
first really great improvement since the days of Watt, and the forms
of Curtis turbine here described make the first great stride in
advance of other steam engines.
Every efficient steam engine must provide means by which a fair
proportion of the expansive force of steam can be converted into
useful work. In the engines of James Watt and his successors this
result is accomplished in various degrees by the application of pres-
sure from the steam to moving pistons. In steam turbines the
expansive force imparts motion to the steam itself, and this motion
is given up to a revolving part by impacts of the moving steam
upon it.
The idea of the steam turbine is quite simple, and is similar to
that of the water turbine or impulse wheel. The practical difficulty
which has heretofore prevented the development of good steam
turbines lies in the very high velocity which steam can impart to
itself in expansion, and the difficulty in efficiently transferring this
motion to wheels at speeds practicable for construction or practical
use. Steam expanding from 150 pounds gauge pressure per square
inch into the atmosphere is capable of imparting to itself a speed
of 2950 feet per second, and if it is expanded from 150 pounds
gauge pressure into a 28-inch vacuum it can attain a velocity of
4010 feet per second. The spouting velocity of water discharged
from a nozzle with too feet head is 80 feet per second. These
figures illustrate the very radical difference of condition between
water turbines and steam turbines. In both water and steam tur-
10. EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2,
bines the theoretical condition of maximum economy exists when
the jet of fluid moves with a velocity equal to about twice that of
the vane against which it acts. In water-wheels this relation is
easily established under all conditions, while with steam the total
power produces a velocity so high that the materials available for
simple wheels and vanes are not capable of sustaining a proper
speed relation to it under practicable conditions.
Before the appearance of the Curtis turbine two practical methods
of accomplishing fair economy had been devised, namely, the
turbines of Carl De Laval, of Sweden, and of Hon. Charles Alger-
non Parsons, of England, both of which were brought out more
than fifteen years ago.
In the De Laval turbine the total power of the steam is devoted
to the production of velocity in an expanding nozzle, which pro-
duces velocity very efficiently. The jet so produced is delivered
against a set of vanes on a single wheel which, by an ingenious
construction and method of suspension, is adapted to operation at a
very high peripheral velocity. The very high rotative speed which
this construction entails is made available for dynamo driving by
very perfectly made spiral-cut gears which effect a ten-to-one speed
reduction. The peripheral velocity of the wheel in the largest
De Laval turbines is about 1200 feet per second, while the velocity
which energy can impart to steam is over 4000 feet per second.
Thus the wheel falls far short of the theoretically economical speed.
In the Parsons turbine the steam is carried in an axial direction
through the space provided, between a succession of internal revolv-
ing cylinders and external stationary cylinders which enclose them.
Both the internal and the external cylindrical surfaces are covered
by many successive circles of vanes so arranged that the steam has
to pass alternately through rows of moving and stationary vanes.
In passing through this turbine the steam never acquires a speed
which approaches the velocity which it attains in the De Laval
nozzle ; but instead moves along alternately, acquiring velocity by
expansion, and partially giving it up by impact with the moving
vanes.
Both of these turbines have attained some success, but neither,
as thus far developed, affords sufficient advantage over the steam
engine to cause any very rapid or radical change in engineering
conditions,
The important disadvantages of the De Laval type are, that it is
|
|
1903. ] EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. #0
limited by the imperfections of high-speed gearing, that its effi-
ciency is not particularly high, and that the design is not con-
veniently applicable to large sizes. ‘The Parsons type is principally
limited by the multiplicity and weight of its parts, and the high
cost of construction.
The Curtis turbine retains some of the features of its prede-
cessors, but introduces new ideas which make possible a much
lower speed, less weight, fewer and simpler parts, higher economy,
less cost, and other important advantages.
The general arrangement of a turbine generating-unit of this
type is shown by the drawings which accompany this paper. Its
functions may be briefly described as follows, and are illustrated by
the accompanying cut:
STEAM CHEST
ZY) CCK AVY
>> MOVING BLADES
CCG vx10000 exs0es
DPD PPP} wovme acaves
CCC STATIONARY BLADES
DD PPDPPDPDPDDDDDDDDD DY MOVING BLADES
~~ . ~ ~ ~~ DIAPHRAGM
vome xeesl LD}
aise KER
SOO
= “=p drPDIDY))) ) Bi Dy
Diagram of Nozzles and Buckets in Curtis Steam Turbine.
72 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2,
Velocity is imparted to the steam in an expanding nozzle so
designed as to efficiently convert nearly all the expansive force,
between the pressure limits used, into velocity in the steam itself.
After leaving the nozzle, the steam passes successively through two
or more lines of vanes on the moving element, which are placed
alternately with reversed vanes on the stationary element. In pass-
ing successively through these moving and stationary elements, the
velocity acquired in the nozzle is fractionally abstracted, and
largely given up to the moving element. Thus the steam is first
thrown against the first set of vanes of the moving element, and
then rebounds alternately from moving to stationary vanes until it
is brought nearly to rest. By this means a high steam velocity is
made to efficiently impart motion to a comparatively slowly moving
element. The nozzle is generally made up of many sections adja-
cent to each other, so that the steam passes to the wheels in a broad
belt when all nozzle sections are in flow. ;
This process of expansion in nozzle and subsequent abstraction
of velocity by successive impacts with wheel vanes is generally
repeated two or more times, the devices for each repetition being
generally designated as a stage. ‘There may be various numbers of
stages and various numbers of lines of moving vanes in each stage.
The number of stages and the number of lines of vanes in a stage
are governed by the degree of expansion, the peripheral velocity
which is desirable or practicable, and by various conditions of
mechanical expediency.
Generally speaking, lower peripheral speeds entail more stages,
more lines of vanes per stage, or both. Our general practice is to
so divide up the steam expansion, that all stages handle about equal
parts of the total power of the steam.
The losses and leakages of the earlier stages take the form of
more heat or more steam for the later stages, and are thus in part
regained. Much water of expansion, which might occasion loss
by re-evaporation, is drained out of each stage into that which
succeeds it.
The governing is effected by successive closing of nozzles and
consequent narrowing of the active steam belt. The cut shows
part of the nozzle open and part closed ; the arrows showing space
filled by live steam. In the process of governing, the nozzles of the
later stages may or may not be opened and closed so as to maintain
an adjustment proportional to that of the first stage, which is
%
.
1903.] EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. fa
always the primary source of governing. Some improvement of
light-load economy may be effected by maintaining a relative
adjustment of all nozzles; but in many cases the practical differ-
ence in economy is not great, and automatic adjustment of nozzle
opening in later stages is dispensed with in the interest of sim-
plicity. In some machines an approximate adjustment is main-
tained by valves in later stages, which open additional nozzles in
response to increases of pressure behind them. ‘These are used as
much for limiting the pressures in stage chambers as for maintain-
ing the light load economy.
The principle of the Curtis steam turbine is susceptible of appli-
cation to a variety of purposes. Within the scope of this paper I
intend to give only a general idea concerning existing designs for
its application to electric generators. Its development, even for
this purpose, is very recent, and will doubtless be subject to impor-
tant future improvements. In its present state, however, it embod-
ies many important advantages, as has already been stated. The
most important of these advantages is the high steam economy
which it affords under average conditions of service. This economy
is shown by the accompanying curves, which are derived from
actual tests of the first commercial machine of this type which was
completed. This machine drives a dynamo of 600 Kw. capacity.
The curves give its performance at a speed of 1500 R.P.M., which
is a safe and practical speed for commercial operation, and which
corresponds to a peripheral velocity of about 420 feet per second.
The results, with superheat, given in these curves are not derived
actually from tests of this turbine, but are plotted from data
obtained on smaller turbines. They correspond to the results
obtained on turbines of other types and are undoubtedly reliable.
Curve 1 shows the steam consumption of this machine in pounds
per kilowatt-hour output at various loads and under the conditions
stated, the lower curve giving the steam consumption at various
loads with 150 degrees superheat.
Curve 2 shows the results which could be obtained from.this tur-
bine if it were operated with high pressure and a high degree of
superheat, these conditions of operation being perfectly practical
with the machine, while with steam engines the use of such high
temperatures would with ordinary constructions be prohibitive.
The results shown by these curves are better than any heretofore
produced by steam turbines of any make or size, and are very much
74 EMMET---THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. {April 2,
better than those obtainable from the types of steam engines
generally applied to the production of electricity.
It should be noted that these curves show a very high efficiency
at light loads, as compared with results obtainable from steam
engines, and that the efficiency does not fall off at overload, as it
must necessarily do with all engines which operate economically
under normal full-load conditions. This light-load and overload
economy is an important feature of the Curtis turbine, and arises
from the fact that the functions of its working parts is virtually the
same under all conditions of load.
Curves 3, 4and 5 show the effect upon steam consumption of
changes in the steam pressure, the degrees of superheat and in the
vacuum. It will be observed that the superheat and vacuum curves
are straight lines so inclined as to indicate a great advantage by the
use of all degrees of superheat and also an immense advantage in
the use of very high vacuum. The most important reason why the
Curtis turbine so greatly surpasses the steam engine in economy is
that it is adapted to use effectively the highest possible degrees of
expansion, while in the steam engine it is practically impossible to
provide for high degrees of expansion. As the exhaust pressure
approaches a perfect vacuum, the volume naturally increases at a
rapid rate—the volume of steam with a 29’’ vacuum being double
that with a 28’’ vacuum. To handle high degrees of expansion, it
would, therefore, be necessary to make cylinders of steam engines
very large, and this increase of size and weight of parts fixes a prac-
tical limit which cannot be passed without excessive cost and com-
plication. In the turbine, the highest degrees of steam expansion
are easily provided for, and consequently a much larger proportion
of the total work in steam can be utilized by turbines than by steam
engines.
There are other conditions in the Curtis turbine which make high
degrees of vacuum more easily attainable than they are under ordi-
nary conditions. ‘The machine is so constructed that leakage of
air into the vacuum chamber is easily rendered impossible. The
leakage of air into condensing engines is considerable, and is gen-
erally not checked owing to the small value of improved vacuum
to an engine.
With turbines of the type here described, no oil comes into con-
tact with the steam, and consequently condensed water can be
taken from surface condensers and returned to boilers. The use of
a
=
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Or
1903.) EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE.
surface condensers under such conditions renders unnecessary the
introduction of air either in feed or circulating water, and conse-
quently makes possible a very high vacuum with small air-pumping
apparatus.
The results shown by these curves are obtained from a machine
of 600 Kw. capacity, and are naturally inferior to results which are
expected from the very large units which are now being built. It
is hoped that very soon after the reading of this paper a 5000 Kw.
unit, which is now complete, will be put into operation in Chicago.
This machine is expected to give considerably better steam econo-
mies than are shown by the accompanying curves, and will be supe-
rior particularly in the matter of light-load performance. The
variation of efficiency in this machine from half load to fifty per
cent. overload will not exceed three per cent.
The external appearance and dimensions of this 5000 Kw. unit
are shown by one of the drawings which accompany this paper,
and another drawing shows this unit compared with an engine-
driven generating unit of similar capacity. Each unit is shown as
complete with prime mover and generator, one being the machine
for Chicago, above mentioned ; the other, one of the units which
are operating in the Manhattan Railway Company’s Power Sta-
tion at New York. The comparison sufficiently illustrates the
improvement which the turbine has introduced. The respective
weights of these completed units, exclusive of foundation, are in
the ratio of 1: 8, and the saving in foundations alone is a very
important item. Other drawings which accompany this paper
show a 500 Kw. unit recently installed at Newport, and also a com-
parison drawn to the same scale between this 500 Kw. unit and a
cross compound engine unit of equal capacity designed to operate
at 1oo R.P.M. The contrast here is even more striking.
If the extreme simplicity of the Curtis turbine is considered in
combination with these figures and comparisons, it is easy to appre-
ciate that a very great engineering advance has been accomplished.
It has been conservatively estimated that engine units, like those
in the Manhattan Company’s station, can be replaced by turbines
like that in Chicago, and that the cost of such replacement can
be paid for by saving in operating expenses in three years.
Whenever an improvement has been effected in prime movers,
the influence upon engineering and business conditions has been
very marked. When the release cut-off principle was introduced
76 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2,
by Corliss, a certain improvement in engine economy was effected,
and although this improvement was accompanied by no diminu-
tion in cost, the change resulted in a very great activity in engine
building, and the renewal of most of the large mill engines in the
country. It is, therefore, safe to predict that the influence of the
steam turbine will be of radical importance. The steam turbine is,
on account of its high speed, particularly adapted to the driving
of electric generators, and its introduction will consequently
stimulate the use of electricity rather than other power trans-
mitters.
In the past the most economical use of steam has been confined
to the most expensive and elaborate plants, while in the future it
will be within the reach of all where condensing water is available.
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1903. ]
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Cross-section of Parsons Turbine without Generator.
80 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2,
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Plan and Elevation of 500 Kw., 1800 R,P.M. Curtis Turbine with Generator,
1903. ] EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. 81
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Comparison of 500 Kw., 100 R.P.M. Cross3compound Engine and 500 Kw., 1800 R.P.M.
Curtis Turbine.
PROC. AMER, PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 172. F. PRINTED MAY 27, 1908.
82 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2,
eoetenbe
NOGSRSSSGRSREReRe
i au Sees
Pah ea ah See
PRSECE EEE SEeSGGEC
/00 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
CurVE I.—Curve showing water consumption, in pounds per Kw. hour, of 600
Kw. Curtis Steam Turbine, operating at 1500 R.P.M., with 140 lbs. gauge
pressure and 28.5// of vacuum.
1 Without superheat.
2 With 150° F. superheat.
1903.] EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. 83
See Re weees Peptic |b"
ees eke eee (3 Sh ee
Se Sea eee Reece es
2) sepals. | Paes Mas ea |
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Ce a SSeS
= SBN
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$ Pee eaters
a a
¢ hin FAN GE ES)
So] oe Ai SRR Rea
JSS aeons 2 SaaS
fe feels Wee S| ee pee A Pea
100 200 300 ‘400 500 600 700
AW.
CuRVE 2,—Curve showing water consumption, in pounds per Kw. hour, of 600
Kw. Curtis Steam Turbine, with different loads; speed 1500 R.P.M.;
vacuum 28.5//; pressure 200 lbs. gauge, with 1500 F. superheat.
; ERS Reese
S >) Pa
* MERE REBEsRe
&20 REESE
e Se
(aah Shh See eee eee
He Reese + AFI |
eer sey abide, ise eae ah TI
100 110 120 130 /40 /5O0 /60 170 180 190 200
/nitial Pressure (Gauge)
CURVE 3.-—Curve showing water consumption, in pounds per Kw. hour, of 600
Kw. Curtis Steam Turbine, at full load wi h different initial pressures ; speed
1500 R.P,M.; vacuum 28.5//.
84 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2,
wv)
9
=
©
WP. Per H.W.
/6
O 20 40 60 80 /00 /20 140 160
Superheaqt Degrees Fehr
CurVE 4,--Curve showing water consumption, in pounds per Kw. hour, of 600
Kw. Curtis Steam Turbine, with different degrees of superheat when
operating with full load at 1500 R.P.M.; vacuum 28.5/’; pressure 140 lbs.
gauge.
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Vacuum /ns. Mercury
CuRVE 5.—Curve showing water consumption, in pounds per Kw. hour, of 600
Kw. Curtis Steam. Turbine, at full load with different degrees of vacuum;
speed 1500 R.P.M ; steam pressure 140 lbs. gauge.
SCHENECTADY, N, Y., APRIL 2, 1903.
1903. ] LAMBERT—-MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 85
NEW APPLICATIONS OF MACLAURIN’S SERIES
IN THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS AND
IN THE EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS.
BY P, A. LAMBERT,
(Read April 3, 1903.)
I.—INTRODUCTION.
The modern theory of differential equations is based on
the expansion by Maclaurin’s series of the solutions of the
equations in infinite series. The striking analogy existing
between the theory of algebraic equations and the theory of
differential equations suggested the possibility of expressing
the solutions of algebraic equations in series to be obtained
by an application of Maclaurin’s series. After some experi-
menting the author happened on the device of introducing
a factor r into all the terms but two of the equation f(y) =0,
whereby y becomes an implicit function of +. The succes-
sive r-derivatives of y are now formed, and together with y
are evaluated for +=0. By Maclaurin’s series the expan-
sions of y in powers of + become known. If + be made
unity in these expansions, the roots of f(v)=0 are found,
provided the resulting series are convergent.
To illustrate this method, consider the equation
(1) yt—8y? + 75y—10000 = 0.
Maclaurin’s series
yy a yy es yg a
= Yo + ae (Ot aya) + ax,33! dee ay ss
dy PYo dy" ao, Se
, a |
where Yo, 5 IR Re TRY stand for the values
f dy @y @y dy
>a’ de®” de® dae -- when # is made zero, expands y,
a function of x, in powers of 2.
By introducing a factor x in the second and third terms of
(1) an equation is formed
(2) yt— dary? + T5ry — 10000 — 0
which defines y as an implicit function of 2.
86 LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. [April 3,
Differentiating (2) twice in succession
dy
(3) 4y° OU __ ay? + Toy — Gay SH 4 + 75x tr =
Ae dy 9,, UY dy dy\? __
(4) dy Gat ey (4) —12y "+ 1504 — br (S*)
a Be te ey
6ay — da? = + 5a qa
Making x zero in (2), (3) and (4)
iy | 10 S40 ey 100 0
20 — — 1195, — 2625, +. 1875 — .075 /—1, + .1875 + .075/—1
0
oy °—__ 0029, — .0029, — .0000015 + .00391/ —i,— .0000015 — .0039/ —1,
Ls
Substituting these four sets of values in Maclaurin’s series
and placing « —1, the roots of equation (1) are found to be
Y, = + 9.886, y, =— 10.261, ys = + .1875 + 9.927 Y—1,
Y, = + .1875 — 9.927 V—1,
all correct to the last decimal.
This method will be applied to the solution (II) of tri-
nomial algebraic equations, (III) of general algebraic equa-
tions, (IV) of trinomial transcendental equations, and finally
(V) the method will be applied to obtain expansions com-
monly obtained by Lagrange’s series.
II.—TrRinoMIAL ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS.
The general trinomial equation of degree n has the form
(1) y®—nay>*—b=0.
Introducing a factor x in the second term of (1)
(2) y®—naay?*—b=0.
Applying the method and denoting the n“ root of b by w
2
(3) y=o + ot* a + ot (1 2 4-0)
3
+ ol (1— 3k +n) (1 —8k + 2n) aT
4 wise (1 —4k-+ n) (1 — 4h + 2n) (—ae-+ Bm) sey
1903.] LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 87
To determine when series (3) is convergent, group the
terms numbered 1, n+1, 2n+1, 3n+1,.... , then those
numbered 2, n+2, 2n+2, 3n+2,.... , finally those num-
ered, 27; Bn, 41,6... wn. Each of these n partial series
is found by Cauchy’s ratio test to be convergent when a” is
numerically less than k*(n—k)**b*. When this condition
of convergency is satisfied series (3), by substituting for w
in succession each of the n values of the n” root of 6b, deter-
mines the n roots of equation (1).
By introducing the factor x in the third term of equation
(1) and applying the method a series is obtained which deter-
mines k roots of equation (1), and by introducing the factor
x in the first term of equation (1) a series is obtained which
determines n —k roots of equation (1). The two series thus
obtained are convergent when a" is numerically greater than
k*(n—k)**b*. When a*=k*(n—k)**b* equation (1) has
equal roots. There is therefore developed a complete theory
of trinomial equations.
The general fifth degree equation can, py Tschirnhausen
transformations requiring the solution of equations of the
second and third degrees only, be transformed into the tri-
nomial equation y’+ay+b=0. If a@ is numerically less
625
256
ing the method to y?+ary+b=0. If a’ is numerically greater
625
than 356
to y+ay+br=0 and zy’+ayt+b=0. If a numerically equals
6255.4
206 ”
moval of the equal roots makes the solution of the fifth
degree equation depend on the solution of an equation of a
degree not higher than the third. A third degree equation
becomes trinomial by removing the second term, which is
accomplished by a linear transformation. The method of
this paper therefore effects "the complete solution of the
general fifth degree equation in infinite series.
In Weber’s Algebra, volume I, pages 396-399, the real and
imaginary roots of the equation 2? —2x —2=0 are computed
by a method invented by Gauss for the solution of trinomial
than
b*, the five roots of this equation are found by apply-
b‘, the five roots are found by applying the method
the fifth degree equation has equal roots, and the re-
88 LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. [Apml3,
equations. The convergency test shows that the series found
by introducing the variable factor in the second term is con-
vergent. Now the mathematician is satisfied when the con-
vergency of the infinite series he uses is established, but the
computer desires that the infinite series he is obliged to use
shall converge rapidly. By transforming the equation
x? — 2x — 2=0 into another lacking the first power, which is
accomplished by placing += ya the equation
54y3 — 18y —23=0 is found. The series found by applying
the method to 54y?— 18%y— 23=0 converges much more
rapidly than the series obtained from the original equation.
Differentiating 54y? — 18%y —23=0 four times in succession
and making x zero,
Yo 7524, — 8762 + .8762V —3
@Yo 4477, -- 0738 = .0738// 3
dx
i oe
21 da? %, 4
1 BY = — ar ae
5 dag) = 0019, + .0010 = .0010/ —3
1 dy, = as
cam ae = .0004, — .0002 = .0002/ —3.
The three values of y are .889 and —.4492 + .3012/ —3,
the corresponding values of x are 1.768 and
— .8847 + .5898Y —1. If the computations are made by
logarithms they are not very lengthy.
The equation y!— 11727 y+40385=0 occurs in a paper by
Mr. G. H. Darwin ‘‘On the Precession of a Viscous Sphe-
roid,” published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society, Part II, 1879, page 508. The convergency test shows
that the factor x must be introduced in the last and in the
first terms. The equation therefore has two real positive
and two imaginary roots. Applying the method to
1903.] LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 89
y* —11727y + 403852 =0,
Yor= 22.720, — 11.360 + 11.360V —3
a Pann ty =
da?
2 ‘ i ane
Sa 116, 058+ .058V—3
2! dit,
es Pada ze Tan
ST gata (Ole, 010 .010Y —3
a
Tae — 004 — 04
Three roots of the equation are 21.432 and
12.444 + 19.759V—1. Applying the method to
ay*—11727y + 40385 = 0,
Yo = 3.4436, ie = ,0120, 4 Sh. = ,0002.
The fourth root of the equation is 3.4558.
This method applied to trinomial equations proves that an
equation of degree n has n roots, determines how many roots
are real, and presents a uniform scheme for computing all
the roots, real and imaginary.
II]. —GENERAL ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS.
The method applied to the complete equation of degree n
(7 —1)
. nN : Hes
furnishes —,,—~ series, and it becomes necessary to deter-
ow
mine which of these series give n convergent series for the
roots of the equation and if possible to insure rapidity of
convergence of these n series.
Suppose the equation of degree n to be
AP SEIS) 1 SP oat 4 amma oA ee a oA ai
+ i aca -- pS + OO hm -+ Bhatti -- Cr papain tee
+ dye 4 dgyp mt +... try +90,
and suppose the terms which are underscored to be the terms
from which the two terms into which the factor « is not intro.
duced must be selected by taking consecutive terms in regu-
lar order from the left. The problem is how to recognize
the terms which must be underscored.
90 LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. [April3,
If the factor x isomitted from the first two underscored terms
a
Y= (— 1 *. if from the second and third underscored terms
a
we)
1
yo=(—2)"; if from the last two underscored terms
- if from the third and fourth underscored terms
1
Y= (— ‘ Lia Altogether n values of y, are found, and it
is seen ata glance what values of y, are real and what are
imaginary. In order that these values of y, shall be close
approximations of the roots of the given equation, the suc-
Tyo BYo VY UY |.
4 s . €
cessive derivatives a :
Berens 1 «6X? aS dat
- must be small.
dx»
2
Forming ove corresponding to y,= (— >) and assuming that c
Ly a
is of such a magnitude that the term containing c overshadows
all the other terms in the numerator of = it is found that
0
Ye is necessarily small if the ratio of b**+' to a'c* is numeri-
i)
cally large. This same condition insures that the following
BY PYo
Ota ue as
In like manner it is shown that the derivatives correspond-
1
derivatives . « are small.
ing to I,=(— 5) are small provided the ratio of c!+™ to
4=d@' is numerically large, and that the derivatives corre-
1
sponding to y,= (—2) are small provided the ratio of d=—*—
to cmsn—k-l-m is numerically large. This ratio should, if
possible, be made larger than 10 to insure rapid convergence.
The directions for underscoring terms are therefore as
follows :
Underscore the first and last terms of the equation. Such
other terms are to be underscored as satisfy the condition
that if any three consecutive underscored terms be chosen,
the ratio of the coefficient of the middle term with an ex-
1903.) LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 91
ponent equal to the difference of the degrees of the first and
third terms to the product of the coefficient of the first of
the three terms with an exponent equal to the difference of
the degrees of the second and third terms and the coefficient
of the third term with an exponent equal to the difference
of the degrees of the first and second terms shall be a large
number.
To illustrate the method, the following equations are
discussed :
(a) y& — 10y° + Gy + 1=0.
Here all the terms are underscored, for the ratio of
104 to 6 is large, and the ratio of 6’ to 10 is large. The
method must be applied to (1) y— 107+ 6ry +2=0,
{2) xy? — 10y? + 6y +x =0 and (3) ay — 10ry*?+6y+1=0.
The computation determines the following values:
From (1) Yo = + 3.167, — 3.167
dy
ae — 0.100, + 0.090
2
} el = — 0,008, + 0.008;
Lo
From (2) Yo = + 0.775, — 0.775
dYo __ ee
aoa + 0.107, + 0.060
te ees
Sige = — 0-008, + 0.016 ;
From (3) RTE Sr ge 7
fs = SS (Uy = — 0.007.
dz
The roots of the given equation are y, = + 3.05,
Y= — 3.06, yz= +0.87, ysz=— 0.69, y;=— 0.17.
(6) at + 4a3 — 4? — ile + 4=0.
Here the terms to be underscored in addition to the first and
last are probably the second and fourth, but as the ratio of
43 to 11 is rather small, it is safer to transform the equation
into another lacking the second term by the substitution
x=y—1. There results
y — 10y? + 5y + 8 = 0.
The terms to be underscored are the first, second and last
and the roots are obtained by applying the method to
92 LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. [April 3,
y' — 107?+52y+8xr=0 and xy! — 10y?+5a4y+8=0. From
each of the two equations two real roots, one positive and
one negative, are found.
(c) Tat + 202° + 382? — 162 —8 = 0.
Here the terms to be underscored are probably the first,
second and last, indicating the existence of two imaginary
and two real roots, one positive and one negative. All doubt
is removed by transforming by x=y — .7 into
Ty + Ay? — 18 42y? — 1.404y — .5093 = 0.
The transformation x=y —.7 is selected because it is a
simple transformation which makes the coefficient of the
second term very small.
(d) x + 12a + 592° + 1502? + 2012 — 207 = 0.
Here probably only the first and last terms are to be
underscored, indicating the existence of four imaginary roots
and one real positive root. Transforming by r=y — 2,
which makes the coefficient of the second term small,
y° + By -b Sy? =P ay? by — Bal 0.
The roots are found by applying the method to
y? + 2ay*t + Bry? + 4ay? + dry — 321 = 0
(e) xt — 80a* + 19982? — 149372 + 5000 = 0.
Here probably every term should be underscored, indicat-
ing four positive real roots. Transforming by the substitu-
tion z=y+20,
y* — 402y? + 983y + 25460 — 0.
Here the terms to be underscored are the first, second and
last. More rapidly convergent series are found by reversing
the last equation,
234600 + 9830? — 4020 + 1=0,
and making the substitution »=z—.01, whence
2546024 — 35.42% — 416.2142? + 8.233062 + .9590716 = 0,
When z has been computed, zx is found from
20002 + 80
Fe Ne ee a
1903.] LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 93
Only linear transformations which make the coefficient of
the second term of the complete equation or of the equation
reversed zero or small are used, as other transformations
become too complicated to make the method practicable.
IV.—TRANSCENDENTAL TRINOMIAL EQUATIONS.
Let an equation of the form y+aj(y)+b=0, where }(y) is
a transcendental function, be called a transcendental trinom-
ial equation. Such equations are readily solved by the
method, provided the resulting series is rapidly convergent,
but in the absence of a transformation which insures rapid
convergence the method has little practical value.
Suppose the equation 2y+logy — 1000=0 to be given.
Applying the method to 2y+zlogy — 1000=0, if the
Napierian logarithm of y is taken, y,=5000, = = — 4.30625,
2 ia —/0 _ 4.000215, and y=4995.69; if the common logarithm
dz,
ies —1.84948,1 © — + 9.00018, and
of y is taken, Yo= 5000, | t da,?
y= 4998. 15.
V.—EXPANSIONS.
If y=z+ve¢(y), where v and z are independent variables,
Lagrange’s series expands any function of y in powers of v.
These expansions may be obtained by writing y=z+vzr¢(y)
and expanding [ (y), which now becomes a function of 2, by
Maclaurin’s series and making x unity in the result.
The method will be illustrated by obtaining two expan-
sions which occur in theoretical astronomy. From the
equation H=M-+e sin EH, where EF is the eccentric anomaly,
M the mean anomaly and e the eccentricity of the orbit, it is
necessary to find H and (1 — ecos EL)?
To find HE, write H=M-+ex sin E, whereby EL becomes an
implicit function of x. Differentiating twice ir succession
with respect to x,
dE
j d#
dp ¢Sin H+ ew cos H ,
CEH dH he dk
dg ee # ag t ex cos H daz &% sin (4 =
94 LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. [April3,
dk,
: @E ‘
Making x zero, H,=M, =e sinM, dn? = 2 cos M sin M.
0 0
Substituting in Maclaurin’s series and making x unity,
2
E=M+esnU+ > sin(2M) +....
To find (1 — ecosH)-, write H=M-+ezxsin EH and
y=(1—ecos£)~. Since y is a function of x through EH,
1
pt ey (1 — e cos #)—* sin yy
dx dz
Ly RE 8S os #)—+sin? wo
ae 6e? (1 —ecos #)—‘sin i.
2
— Re (1—ecos H)—*cos #( )
dx
— Re (1—ecosH)—'sin # ue
dx*
Placine: 2—0; when w=; Le =esinM and
CH Lone
ap 26 sin M cos M,
Y = (1 — e cos M)—’,
Wo _ __ 96 (1 — ¢ cos M)— sin? Wf
dX
2
ayo = Get (1 — e cos M)-—‘sin‘ I,
dxy as
— 6e (1 — e cos M)—‘sin? YU cos M.
Substituting in Maclaurin’s series and making z unity,
(1 — e cos H)— = (1 — e cos M)— — 2¢ (1 — e cos M)— sin? M
+ 8c ( — ¢ cos M)—‘sint M
— 3é (1 — e cos M)—sin’*M cos M+ ....
In like manner all expansions obtained by Lagrange’s
series may be obtained by a direct application of Maclaurin’s
series. Of course it is evident that if e is considered a varia-
ble the derivatives with respect to e may be formed and the
introduction of x is unnecessary.
193.1 | LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 5
HistoricaL NOTE.
Lagrange, in the memoir ‘‘ Nouvelle methode pour
resoudre les Equations Litterales par le moyen des Series,”
read before the Berlin Academy in 1770, found all the roots
of an equation in infinite series. McClintock, in Volume
xvii of the American Journal of Mathematics, obtained by his
Calculus of Enlargement series better adapted to computa-
tion. It was recognized that these series may be obtained
by Lagrange’s series. McClintock calls the coefficients of
the terms which have been underscored the dominants of the
equation. The method of the present paper brings the com-
putation of the roots of equations by means of series within
the range of elementary instruction.
Since completing this paper the author found in an extract
of a letter from Cauchy to Coriolis, of January 29, 1837,
published in the Comptes Rendus of the Paris Academy, an
announcement of important results to be obtained by break-
ing up an equation into two parts and introducing as a factor
a parameter into one part, which parameter is ultimately to
be made unity. Ina postscript Cauchy states he discovered
the advantage of making one part a binomial. But the
author has been unable to find the method sketched in this
letter developed. It would indeed be surprising if a method
so strikingly direct had escaped notice.
LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, SOUTH BETHLEHEM, PA,
96 GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. [May 15,
ON THE PROPERTIES OF THE FIELD SURROUNDING
A CROOKES TUBE.
BY ARTHUR W. GOODSPEED.
(Plates II and III.)
(Read May 15, 1903.)
The investigation of the subject implied by the title of this arti-
cle was suggested by the unexpected presence on some radiographic
records of peculiar markings outlining certain bodies de/ow the
plate, in addition to the expected shadows of the objects above the
plate—z.e., between the sensitive film and the vacuum tube.
While using an iron tripod stand with a ring-shaped top as a
support for a radiographic plate, it was noticed that the plate when
exposed to X-rays seemed to be influenced locally by the presence
of the iron ring below. For after exposing a circular piece of
bronze placed on the upper side of the plate which had rested on
the stand during exposure, the development showed that just above
the metal of the stand the plate was appreciably less affected
through the bronze than under that portion of the latter which
had not been over the metal support. ‘This startling observation
suggested at once more careful investigation, especially since on
first thought it would seem that if the metal below the plate could
have any effect, the result should be quite the contrary to what was
observed—z.e., if the metal below sends off ‘‘emanations’’ of
some sort which might produce an effect on the sensitive film, the
latter would be expected to show an increased density where influ-
enced both by the rays from above and by the emanations from
beneath.
Apparent anomalies have on several occasions been noticed on
radiographic plates, some similar to that just mentioned, but these
have never been definite enough to invite special investigation.
A large number of experiments were made at once in rapid
succession with strips and plates of various substances both below
and above. the sensitive film, with results ‘always the same in char-
acter though differing in intensity of effect in different experi-
ments and with different materials. As examples of the character
of some of the tests, sheets of paraffin, mica, and of aluminum were
successively placed between the under metals and the film, with the
result that the effect in every case was similar, only a little less intense
1903.] GOODSPEED—-FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. 97
than when no screen was interposed. The original records of all
these experiments and the particular conditions in each case have
been carefully preserved. A single figure will be enough to illus-
trate this effect.
Fig. 1 shows the result when two zinc blocks, one of them pol-
ished, were placed below the photographic plate upon which the
latter rested. On this were a strip of copper, one of lead, a tri-
angular and thicker piece of uranium, and a piece of metallic
indium about one millimetre thick and three centimetres square.
Fifteen centimetres above this combination the discharge tube was
operated for twenty-five minutes, the rays being directed down-
ward. ‘The zinc blocks were below the lateral edges of the plate
and covered each about a third of its area. There certainly is
nothing ambiguous about the result, and the degree of polish seems
to have nothing to do with the effect. The middle third is dis-
tinctly darker than the rest in those parts just under the metal
pieces.
The transverse strip in the middle was lead and is distinctly less
pervious than the copper on the left.
In looking up some of the early work of Roentgen, I found that
one of his experiments was almost identical in character with those
just described, but less strenuous and designed for quite a different
purpose.’ He arranged star-shaped pieces of four metals, platinum,
lead, zinc and aluminum, covered by a light-protected photographic
plate, film towards the stars and glass towards the tube. On devel-
opment after exposure to the rays from a focus tube identical in
principle with that universally used at present, the metal stars
showed darker than the rest of the ground. The purpose of his
experiment was to demonstrate a possible reflection from the metal
stars, and the result obtained was interpreted as conclusive evidence
at the time that such was the case.
For obvious reasons it seemed desirable to repeat Roentgen’s
experiment as nearly as possible as he made it. This was done with
some difficulty, on- account of the fact that the apparatus in use
developed rays of such penetrating power that the glass backing of
the sensitive film offered little obstruction, and even with a very
short exposure the whole film was so dense as to show nothing of
the metal pieces.
Increasing the thickness of the glass made it possible, after several
trials and by using a contrast-developer especially prepared for
PROC, AMER. PHILOS. soc. XLII. 172. G. PRINTED MAY 28, 1903.
98 GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. [May 15,
over-exposures, to produce a fairly definite result, as shown in Fig.
2. It is to be noted, however, that the parts of the film just next
the pieces are Zess dense than the rest—7z.e., the shadows are light
on a darker ground.
Fig. 3 shows the result when to the glass of ordinary thickness
was added thick blocks of zinc. The characteristics of these two
plates are identical, except that the latter is more dense and shows
greater contrast.
In Fig 4 we have reproduced a plate made just as was that of
Fig. 3, except that the exposure was thirty minutes instead of
fifteen. The appearance is certainly remarkable, for though the
direct X-rays had been entirely cut off by the zinc blocks the
shadows are exactly as would have been produced by reversing the
process and exposing directly to the Roentgen rays, though for a
-much briefer time.
The influence on the side of the plate remote from the tube
seems to have more than neutralized the Roentgen reflection effect,
-and the more so the greater the exposure.
From these three experiments it seems probable that with a much
less powerful X-ray generator, a suitable exposure would show the
result noted by Roentgen. As is seen below, this was probably not
due to reflection.
The next plate (Fig. 5) shows the impression of the ring stand,
above spoken of, when the former was covered with a sheet of
copper about a millimetre thick and exposed twenty-four minutes.
In Fig. 6 the stand is replaced by a brass ring supported by a block
of wood. The penumbral effect around the inside edge is to be
noted.
As an interesting modification of this experiment I asked one of
my associates, Dr. Richards, to hold his hand beneath the plate,
protected above with thick metal blocks, and exposed the combina-
tion five minutes. The result (see Fig. 7), though lacking in defini-
tion, is quite like the first radiographs made without a focus tube.
We seem now to be led up to a satisfactory explanation of what
we have observed so far—z.e., of this apparent ‘‘ nether effect ’’
reaching completely around into the shadow of an obstruction
totally impervious to X-rays proper, and acting in a direction just
opposite to that of the rays from the tube.
It must be noted here that so-called ‘‘ X-ray diffusion’’ has
long been recognized, and an early experiment” with a fluoroscope
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC., VoL. XLII. No. 172. PLATE Il.
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1903.] GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. 99
behind a thick steel plate was explained variously, the most thought-
ful suggestion perhaps being by Prof. Elihu Thomson, who pro-
posed that the screen was rendered luminous by the action of
X-rays reflected from various objects in the room.
From all the experiments yet made in the effort to account for what
at first seemed to be, to say the least, a paradox of science, it looks
as if the whole space field in the neighborhood of a focus Crookes
tube in operation is full of some sort of subtle energy, radiant pos-
sibly, but incapable of affecting the human eye, though leaving its
mark on a photographic plate.
It was found by Sagnac* that many bodies in the path of X-rays
acquire the property of emitting emanations of some sort capable
of causing fluorescence and photographic action.
Undoubtedly then the effects above described are due to the
secondary radio-activity of the air, the table and other bodies favor-
ably located to be impinged by the X-rays directly.
In order to gain more knowledge of the possible limitations of
this ‘‘radious”’ field, metal tubes of various sizes and lengths were
placed on the plate, and now for convenience the entire local order
of the articles used was completely réversed. Furthermore, the
Crookes tube was enclosed in a black wooden light-tight box, and all
experiments were made in the night, so that every trace of optical
light might be more easily excluded. We have now the tube in its
box, so placed that the axis of the ray-cone is directed vertically
upwards. On the upper surface of the box and over the focus of
the tube is a bundle of lead plates about one centimetre thick. On
this, film upward, is the photographic plate.
This arrangement differs from that of Sagnac in that the fvores-
cent light from his tube was not filtered out, as it is here, by the
box enclosing the X-ray bulb.
In Fig. 8 we have the result of a twenty-three minute exposure,
when a brass tube five centimetres high, eight centimetres in diam-
eter and three millimetres thick is placed on the plate, the tube
being open at the top. This experiment was repeated with a thick
block of pine wood, placed on top of the brass tube, with no
change in result. The condition of the enclosed space is inde-
pendent of the presence of the wood, and the enclosed area of the
film is much affected.
When however the tube is covered with a thick block of zinc,
this seems to protect the sensitive film completely from outside
100 GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. [May 15.
influence, for the density of the exposure was found to be the same
over the area within as under the edge of the tube, z.e., nearly zero.
It does not seem possible that this effect could result entirely
from the action of the Sagnac rays, since little if any of the area at
the base of the brass cylinders can be reached by a straight line
from any particle of matter traversed by the direct X-rays. It can
be explained as a tertiary effect, produced by the air or wood just
over the top, which had received its energy from the secondary
emanations of other bodies in the direct path of the X-rays, or
possibly the secondary or Sagnac rays may be of the nature of dark
phosphorescence, 7.¢., lasting for a time after the cause has ceased.
Reasons for favoring the latter view appear as a conclusion to this
paper. In this case the diffusion of the air in the room would cause
the whole space to be uniformly active.
The arrangement just described suggested some easy tests on
reflecting or diffusing power of different surfaces, as Sagnac had
made in a different way in his investigations. In a brass tube
similar to the one used above, at two points 90° apart, windows
were cut 1 centimetre wide and 4.5 centimetres high. This tube
was capped with zinc or lead, so that nothing could enter except
through the windows. It was placed on the plate and a polished
zinc block arranged opposite one window. Fig. 9 shows the result,
all other conditions being as before. The exposure was twenty
minutes. The streak entering the window opposite the zinc is
unmistakable, and the diffused ‘‘radious’’ state of the whole
enclosed space is demonstrated by noting the line of contact of the
tube. A little brush in at the other window, too, is clearly dis-
tinguishable though faint. It seemed most desirable now, if pos-
sible, to make this phenomenon optically visible, and with this
in view the following arrangement was set up:
Instead of the smaller lead block used with the radiographic
plates, sheets aggregating one centimetre in thickness and a little
larger than a 7xg screen were placed on the box. On this a barium
platinum cyanide screen was placed, face up, but covered with a
piece of pasteboard. In this cover a circular hole was cut just the
outside diameter of the window tube described above, through which
the latter was placed, resting on the fluorescent screen. Its length
was doubled by placing an extension on top. This was found by
experiment effectually to exclude all noticeable influence except
that through the windows.
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC., VoL. XLII, No. 172. PLATE Ill.
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1903.] GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. 101
The whole was in a perfectly dark room optically, and the eye was
placed above the tube looking down. After the eyes had acquired
a maximum sensitiveness by the total exclusion of light for ten to
fifteen minutes, the Crookes bulb was set in operation and the space
within the brass tube critically examined from above. The screen
was unmistakably luminous to the eye and the windows were clearly
located. Now the polished zinc was moved about in front of one of
the openings, in the hope of detecting a variation of luminosity on
the screen opposite this window. The result was at first disappoint-
ing ; the position of maximum effect was certainly not that of 45°, as
employed in the photographic experiments. In fact, very incon-
sistent positions seemed to give the greater illumination through
the window under attention. Finally it became quite obvious that
the zinc had little to do with what was visible. In fact, on laying
aside the metal I was able to light up brighter than ever the inside
of the brass box by holding my hand in a suitable position in front
of the window.
This experiment made certain by ocular demonstration that the
human hand has by being placed in the path of the X-rays absorbed
some sort of energy, by means of which it has acquired the prop-
erty of emanating something capable of exciting fluorescence
upon the screen. It remains now to demonstrate what effect
these emanations will have upon a photographic plate as compared
with those from the zinc, and Fig. to shows the result of a three-
minute exposure with my hand only, placed opposite one of the
windows, the tube resting upon a photographic plate in its usual
protecting envelopes. A similar experiment was next tried (see
Fig. 11) by holding a hand in front of each window, one of the
latter being closed by a thin sheet of plate glass.. It is obvious
from the results obtained that the physiological rays emitted by the
hands affect the plate through its protecting covers, but are unable
easily to penetrate glass.
It is only a step now to produce a ‘‘ physio-radiogram,’’ and Fig.
12 is a reproduction of a record made by the secondary activity
emanating from my own hand stimulated by a stream of Roentgen
rays with an exposure of three minutes. The shadows are those of
acent, a gold finger-ring and a piece of aluminum about half a
millimetre thick, and it is apparent that aluminum is somewhat
translucent to these rays.
Although Guilloz‘* had made just such shadow radiographs with
102 GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. . [May 15,
Sagnac rays emanating from his hand, the visible fluorescence gen-
erated by the tube was not cut off by any opaque screen, and there
is no reason for assuming that this light may not have played some
part in his results. In the present experiments everything has been
done in complete optical darkness.
I have been unable to find out if Guilloz’s pictures were actually
published, and so cannot compare his results in detail with my own.
In connection with the present subject, my attention has been
called by unpleasant personal experience to a very suggestive coin-
cidence. The nature and pathology of X-ray dermatitis is, and has
been from the first, surrounded with mystery. Much ‘ingenious
technical literature has been published in the medical journals all
over the world for the last six years, with the result that to-day
little is known about either the real cause, the nature, the proper
method of preventing, or the best treatment of this most distressing
and lingering affliction. A comparative history of many cases
reveals many inconsistencies, followed by an increased sense of
ignorance on the subject. The personal experience to which I
~ refer suggests a possible step towards a better understanding of the
phenomenon.
During a week in June, 1902, I occupied the Roentgen ray room
asasleeping apartment. At the end of this time an acute inflamma-
tion of the eyes and throat appeared, all symptoms of an ordinary
cold or of any digestive disturbance being absent. At the end of
the week referred to I left town and the inflammation gradually
subsided during the next three or four days. For similar reasons I
had occasion to sleep in the same room during the first week of the
present month. At the end of that time my attention was pain-
fully called to a.recurrence of the symptoms observed a year ago.
On ceasing to sleep in the room all trouble disappeared.
As I have never had any such experiences other than those referred
to, it seems not too much to infer that the peculiar inflammatory con-
dition may have been due to some action of the secondary emana-
tions sent out by the walls and air of the room after the generation
of X-rays had ceased. Continuous breathing of such ‘‘ darkly
phosphorescing ’’ air might well account for the trouble in the
throat and vocal chords. In the daytime the doors and windows
were always more or less open, so that the air was continuously
changing, and my eyes were protected considerably by glasses,
through which neither the primary nor the secondary rays pass
easily.
i903.| GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. 103
The inference seems fair that the recurrence of the inflammatory
condition was not a mere coincidence, and that these secondary
rays may be found to be of more importance than has been sup-
posed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1 Thompson, X-Rays, p. 70.
2 Thompson, X-Rays, p. 129.
3’ Sagnac, Compte Rendus, 1897-98. Sagnac, Annales de Chemie et de
Physique (7), xxii, 1901; pp. 493-563. Perrin, Comte Kendus, Vol. cxxiv,
p- 455. Townsend, J. S., Proc. Camb. Philos, Soc., 1900, x, pp. 217-226.
4 Guilloz, Compte Rendus, February, 1900.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA,
RANDAL MORGAN LABORATORY OF PHYSICS,
May 15, 1903.
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PROCEEDINGS
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE
Vou. XLII. APRIL—May, 1903. No. 178.
ON THE DEPENDENCE OF WHAT APPARENTLY TAKES
PLACE IN NATURE UPON WHAT ACTUALLY
OCCURS IN THE UNIVERSE --OF REAL’ EXIST-
ENCES.
BY G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., SC.D., F.R.S.
(Read April 3, 1903.)
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION.
Hitherto attempts to ascertain the events that are actually hap-
pening in the universe of real existences, and to ascertain what
those existences are—in other words, the study of ontology—have
been pursued almost exclusively from the standpoint of the meta-
physician of the human mind. This mode of treatment has led to
a few negative results which are chiefly of value by helping to
dispel some popular errors, but it has established little that is posi-
tive, or that can be of service to the scientific student of nature.
And yet investigations of Natural Science have been pushed in more
than one direction into contact with problems of ontology, and
are there brought to a stand owing to the different levels at which
these two fields of investigation lie. Examples of this are met
with in physiology, when we find our progress blocked on coming
face to face with the problem as to what is the true nature of the
interdependence between the thoughts of animals and changes in
their brains; and generally throughout physics, when we make
any attempt to penetrate to the causes of the events that cccur. It
appears, therefore, to be in an eminent degree desirable that an
attempt shall be made to bring natural science and ontology into
line by carrying on the ontological investigation from the stand-
point of the scientific student of nature.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 800, XLII. 173. H. PRINTED JUNE 6, 1903.
106 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
There are other reasons also why the inquiry should be taken up
by scientific men. The difficulties which have to be encountered
are perhaps not so much intrinsic as collateral, They all arise from
the circumstances under which we, men, have to carry out the in-
quiry, and are of a kind with which scientific men are better fitted
to cope than others. A very serious liability to error is consequent
upon the excessively secluded position of the human mind in the
universe of existing things. How indirect and how slender the
connections will appear in the sequel. This creates illusions greater
than those experienced by the old astronomers who were misled by
man’s being tied to an earth that seemed to them to be stationary.
Another chief source of our difficulties is that we have to enter on
this study hampered by crude beliefs in which we have been brought
up, which are embedded into the language we are obliged to use,
and in which we habitually think; but which the inquiry shows to
be a jumble of truth and error. These.we must make it our busi-
ness to correct, retaining the germ of truth in each, and by slow
degrees acquiring the power of amending, promptly and without
effort, all those parts of these beliefs which require correction. We
are far from having done enough when we merely become aware of
the errors; nor is it even enough that we shall have discovered
what ought to take their place. We have not accomplished our
task till it becomes our second nature to do this habitually and
without premeditation, with regard to all that is about us and all
that is within us. This takes time. But when it is accomplished
the reward is great. A special difficulty arises from our being
obliged to use some one of the languages that can be understood by
our fellow-men. Every language that has been devised by man
implies mistaken views in ontology ; and that not occasionally, for
every human language is permeated by these errors.
Now, students of natural science, men who have had an exten-
sive training in the study of nature, and especially those who have
devoted themselves mainly to the dynamical and physical aspects.
of that study, are better equipped for contending successfully with
these difficulties than are their fellow-students whose main training
has been confined to the tiny plot which lies within the ring-fence
that surrounds the works of man—the languages he has devised, his.
literature and history, his music, poetry, architecture, painting and.
sculpture, his jurisprudence, his moral relations, the metaphysics of
his mind, and so on; in fact, all branches of what in our universi-
— |.
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 107
ties are called the humanities. Explorers of nature, investigators
of the work done or being done: which is not man’s work, stand a
better chance of success than those whose thoughts mainly travel
within the narrower range: and on several accounts; first, because
they find less difficulty in freeing themselves from the limitations of
the human standpoint, which we may liken to the Ptolemaic point
of view, and in grasping the wider resources of a more Copernican
survey ; largely, too, because they more easily ‘become expert in
using such symbols as words in a generalized or otherwise modified
sense when it becomes necessary to do so; but perhaps most of all
because they are already familiar with the contrast between the two
kinds of supposition which those physicists who use language care-
fully distinguish as ¢heortes and hypotheses. As some readers of the
papers I have already written on these subjects have found here their
chief difficulty, it appears desirable ‘to devote a chapter of this essay
to its elucidation. This, indeed, is almost necessary; inasmuch as
sound progress in the task before us is not even possible unless this
distinction is clearly grasped, and unless a facility has been acquired
in handling both hypotheses and theories without risk of the confu-
sion between them which has been too often made.
CHAPTER 2. OF THEORIES AND HYPOTHESES.
‘Both theories and hypotheses are suppositions—a theory means a
supposition which we hope to be true, a hypothesis is a supposition
which we expect to be useful. Theories accordingly are either cor-
rect or incorrect, true or false, quite irrespectively of whether we,
men, can make much, or little, or any use of them. Zhe merit
of a theory ts simply to be true. It often, indeed usually, happens
that the true theory is also useful; but it by no means need be
so. Accordingly, the question whether a particular theory is of
any use is irrelevant.
On the other hand a hypothesis is a supposition which aims at
being useful, and which ts legitimate if useful. A hypothesis may
be a theory—in other words, a supposition which we make expect-
ing it to help us forward in our investigation, may also be the sup-
position which we think to be true: but it by no means need be so;
and in fact the best, z.c., the most useful, hypotheses are often of
the kind that make no pretense to being true. For example, all
applications of mathematics to the investigation of nature are de-
ay
4
>
‘
108 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES, [April3,
ductions from data, in which simpler machinery is intentionally
substituted for complex operations going on in objective nature.
Thus, in computing the mutual perturbations of the planets, the
planets are treated as though they were spheres, made up of untex-
tured spherical shells, each of uniform density throughout ; and it
is left out of account that they approach to being spheroids, with
mountains on their surface, irregularities of a like kind at greater
depths, rocks in those mountains, minerals in those rocks, a differ-
ent molecular texture in each mineral involving numberless motions
among and within the molecules; moreover with tidal strains, heat
expansions by day, contractions by night, and so on; perhaps seas
and an atmosphere, vegetation and animals, all in constant and
complicated movement ; with a multitude of other details. Now
it is legitimate to omit all these from our calculation, for though
every one of them produces its effect in actual nature, the differ-
ence between their joint operation and that computed from the im-
mensely simplified hypothesis made by the mathematician, can be
shown to be too small to make any approach to being detected by any
human appliance. Hence, for any purpose which is of use to man,
the approximation arrived at by the simpler problem is sufficient,
wherever the errors are of such a nature that they are not cumulative.
Nevertheless, tt should be clearly recognized that tt is a model of
nature—a mechanism tllustrating nature—and not nature tself, that
has been mathematically investigated. So it is with all dynamical
1 This has been sometimes overlooked, A recent instance is in a determina-
tion of the rate‘at which gases escape from atmospheres, based on the insufficient
data commonly used in the mathematical investigation of such problems, and
leading to a rate for the escape of helium from the earth’s atmosphere which is
negatived by observation (see Bryan, on the Kinetic Theory of Atmospheres,
Phil, Trans. of the Royal Society, vol. 196 A, 1901, p. 1; and Stoney, on the
behavior of helium in the earth’s atmosphere, Astrophysical Fournal, vol. xi,
1900, p. 369).
In such cases it may be difficult, and is sometimes impossible, to put our finger
on the oversight that has been made. In this instance it may be conjectured with
some probability that the mistake has been in the tacit assumption that the par-
tition of energy between the internal and the translational motions of the mole-
cules takes place with a frequency which warrants our arguing from the supposi-
tion, tacitly made in the mathematical investigation, that it goes on without inter_
mission, There seems reason to believe that this partition of energy actually
takes place, not at every encounter, but only at encounters as infrequent from
the molecular standpoint as those that make chemical reaction possible between
the molecules of a mixture of suitable gases. Now this, in the case of a mixture
ee ee
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXJSTENCES. 109
investigations: the data of nature are loaded with minute detail
and are far too much involved ; they have to be simplified to bring
the task within the range of man’s power over mathematical
analysis.
But for our present purpose a specially instructive instance is
found in Geometrical Optics. The correct objective theory of light
appears to be that light consists objectively of waves of alternating
electro-magnetic stresses advancing through the ether. Now the
whole of Geometrical Optics—which is one of our most useful
sciences—is built upon:the supposition that light consists of rays—
a supposition which must not be mistaken for a ¢heory of light: on
the contrary, this supposition is to be employed as a useful and
therefore legitimate hypothesis. In Geometrical Optics what we
investigate is the succession of events, not in nature, but in a model
of nature. We have substituted a model which contains far more
easily handled machinery than that which operates in nature, every
step in the progress of which can be foretold by the application of
singularly easy mathematical analysis, can be represented in easily
understood diagrams, and can be imagined and followed without
difficulty by students who possess but little skill. What a loss we
should sustain if that most useful hypothesis were not available ! the
justification of which is that it is so easily dealt with, and that it
furnishes results that are true within known limits. For example,
the new machinery furnishes the correct positions of optical images,
although the image itself, the geometrical image as it is called,
differs in material respects from any real image. Thus, it pre-
sents us with an unlimited amount of detail, much of which must
be regarded as false, because it is detail which does not exist in the
images produced by nature. The hypothesis is useful wz¢hzx cer-
tain limits, but will mislead if misapplied.
of equal volumes of hydrogen and chlorine, only occurs about once in 1000
million encounters in sunshine, and less frequently in feebler light, down to about
once in 100 millions of millions of encounters, so far as the observations have
been recorded. An infrequency of this kind would have but little effect at the
bottom of our atmosphere, but would make the distribution of molecular speeds
differ altogether from that which has been computed in that penultimate stratum
of the earth’s atmosphere from which the escape takes place.
110 : - STONEY—-UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
CHAPTER 3. OF THE ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE SIGNIFICATIONS
OF TERMS.
We may make use of Geometrical Optics for another purpose—
to illustrate the variety of meanings which such words as existence,
theory, hypothesis, actual, real, etc., may have. They are freely
used in Geometrical Optics. They are there used in a relative
sense, in subordination to the hypothesis that light consists of rays,
which for the time being must be left unquestioned, and which we
may call the master hypothesis, as it governs the use to be made of
those terms. Thus we speak of ~ea/ rays in front of a mirror, and
of wrtual rays behind it; we say that the true /Aeory is that the
image on the retina is formed by rays reflected from the front of the
mirror, but that it is legitimate to make the Ayforhesis that they
emanate from a virtual image behind. When, however, we take
the wider view that light is an electro-magnetic wxdulation, we
recognize that what a moment ago we called real rays are not real,
but a machinery substituted for what is real in the new sense that
we have now to give to that word. For we are now using the term
real in subordination to a much wider hypothesis, viz.: the great
objective hypothesis that not only do our perceptions exist tempo-
rarily, but also that each of those syntheta of perceptions which we
call natural objects exists as a whole and persistently. And when
we come in turn to recognize that this, in its turn, is not the true
theory of existence, but only an eminently useful hypothesis—
probably, indeed, the most useful hypothesis known to man—and
when we find that we must advance a step behind it to reach the true
theory of existence, then at last we reach the stage at which we may
use the word vea/in its fullest abso/ute sense; if we succeed in acquir-
ing a right to apply it to what is going on in the autic universe, the
universe of real existences. Thus such terms as existence, theory,
real, actual, etc., only attain their absolute, which is their fullest,
meaning when applied to the events that go on in the Universe of
Auta; and are to be understood in their objective, which is a rela-
tive, sense when applied to what we regard as going on in that great
objective hypotheton which we call nature; and in another still
more removed relative sense when used in subordination to the nar-
rower hypothesis which we have to entertain while investigating
nature by the science of Geometrical Optics. When once this is
clearly understood we are warned, and in some degree forearmed,
Ta
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 111
against falling into mistakes between the various shades of meaning
which the poverty of language obliges us to put up with in such
terms as existence, theory, actual, real, etc. If in any context we
have occasion to employ any of these terms in more than one of its
permissible meanings, it may sometimes be advisable to distinguish
between them in some such way as that which is familiar to mathe-
maticians when they write a, a’, a’, etc., for different quantities.
Availing ourselves of this device, we may write [real], within square
brackets, when we wish to make it explicit that the word is to be
understood in its absolute, that is in its autic, sense; and [real],
with a dash, when the word is used in its objective, which is it
principal relative, sense ; while [real]”, [real ]’”, etc., may be used to
signify the other relative meanings which the term has when used in
subordination to more limited hypotheses, as when we describe the
rays of Geometrical Optics as being some of them [real]” and others
virtual. The same treatment may be extended to any other terms
that seem to require the precaution. It is against mistakes between
the odjective and the auzic significations of words that we have to be
most on our guard. ‘This will become clearer as we proceed.
CHAPTER 4. Or AUTA: AND OF THE MEANING TO BE ATTRIBUTED
TO THE WorD Zofality.
It may be seen from the foregoing pages that the human mind
is better fitted to cope with the scientific study of what apparently
occurs in nature, than with the attempt to penetrate behind nature
to the causes of these appearances. To do this requires us to
inquire what has been happening in the universe of real existences,
and to endeavor to determine what those existences are.
In the scientific study of nature we travel along one of the great
highways of human thought; in ontology we have to make our
roads as well as to push our way along them. It is therefore all
the more important that we should bring to our aid every help
which the scientific study of nature can supply. The present essay
is an attempt to avail ourselves of this assistance.
Let us for convenience call the real existences aufa (ta dvta atta)
—the very things themselves. An auto, then, is a thing that really
exists, and in no wise depends on the way we—human minds—
may happen to regard it. Our impressions or beliefs about it may
be correct or may be erroneous, but the term auto means the thing
ttself.
112 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
We may also use the term wmverse to mean the Zofality of these
auta. To prevent confusion, it may be well to designate the
totality of natural objects by some other name. We may call it
nature, or the cosmos, reserving the term universe for ‘he fofality of
auta. Or, if at any time the word wmzverse is applied to the totality
of natural objects, it may be written with a dash, the objective
[universe]’, to distinguish it unmistakably from the autic [universe].
It is to be noted that here and elsewhere the word /ofality is to be
understood as having a more comprehensive’ meaning than the
word aggregate. .Any collection of auta, however disorderly,
would be an aggregate of those auta. By their /ofality is to be
understood those auta, uuder one definite set of conditions—viz. :
under the conditions that actually prevail—with those mutual rela-
tions, performing those operations, undergoing those changes that
actually occur.
CHAPTER 5. IN WHAT SENSE THE TERM ¢hought 1s EMPLOYED.
We shall want a term which is applicable to everything of which
T or my fellow-men or the lower animals can be conscious ; and as
at present no word in the English language has this wide significa-
tion, we shall extend or generalize the meaning of the term ¢hought,
so as to make it serve. Accordingly ¢hough?t, in the generalized
sense in which we shall use it, embraces sensations, perceptions, be-
liefs, feelings, memories, emotions, sentiments, judgments, motives,
acts of will, and so on—in fact, everything which comes within the
consciousness of any animal. I shall also use the term J, or the
ego, or my mind, to denote the totality (not the mere aggregate) of
a certain group of these thoughts, which may be spoken of as my
thoughts. Observe that the word mind is here used in one of the
two significations which it has in the English language, and that it
will not in the present essay be used in the other of those senses.
Accordingly, in the present essay, the term znd will not be used
to signify the ‘ spiritual substance’ which, according to a view very
widely entertained, is supposed to be in existence, as well as the
1JIn Formal Logic the comprehension of a term is the collection of ideas
which are included in the definition of the term. Accordingly, the greater the
comprehension of a term, the fewer will be the individuals to whom that term
can be applied. This is expressed in Logic by saying that the greater the com-
prehension of a term, the less is its extension. For example, Spaniard is a term
which has a greater comprehension and a less extension than European.
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. a igs:
thoughts. This supposed existence, if there is occasion to speak
of it, will be called the man’s spirit ; but his #zvd, at a given time,
will mean simply ¢he fotality of a certain definite group of thoughts
at that time.
CHAPTER 6. THE POSTULATES OF THE PRESENT INQUIRY.
We are now in a position to present a list of the postulates upon
which our further progress will be built. Almost all men are agreed -
that these beliefs are fundamental, and most men would add con-
siderably to the list. The very short list here set forth has been
obtained by excluding from the longer list all that on trial were
found not to be necessary for our inquiry.
Postulates.
First Belief.—That my present thoughts exist.
Second Belief.—That my remembered thoughts have existed.
These two beliefs involve a third, viz. :
Third Belief.—That time relations exist.
Fourth Belief.—That minds more or less resembling mine exist
in my fellow-men and in some other animals.
Observation.—By intercourse between my mind and the minds
of my fellow-men I learn that they experience sensations which are
closely related ‘to those that present themselves as a part of my
mind. Whence, and from much other evidence, I infer:
Fifth Beliefi—That my sensations and theirs have their source
in some existing thing or things which are not any part of my own
present or past thoughts.
Bishop Berkeley entertained this belief as emphatically as other
men. He held that sensations are produced in human minds by
acts of will of a ‘‘ governing spirit.’’
Sixth Supposition.—Another belief is freely made use of in the
present essay, viz.: that my organs of sense and parts of my brain
are in some way associated with the introduction of sensations into
my group of thoughts.
This belief is, however, not a necessary postulate of the investi-
gation. The argument can be stated in language which does not
'
114 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April3,
include it; but the supposition is true, and therefore unobjection-
able, and it is introduced thus early because without it we should
be obliged to use unfamiliar forms of expression which would be
less perspicuous.
With the same end in view, viz., to attain lucidity, the language
of causation is freely used throughout the essay, but will be found
not to involve anything beyond what is included in the fifth of our
postulates until we enter on the consideration of ‘‘ efficient ’’’ causes.
CHAPTER 7. Or Ecorstic AUTA, AND OF SENSE-COMPELLING
AUTA.
My own thoughts are, at all events, things that exist (Postulates
1 and 2): they at least are auta so long as they last. They are,
accordingly, while they last, a part of the universe of existing
things. But they are not the whole of that universe. In the first
place, the thoughts of other men and the thoughts of the lower
animals are also things that exist (Postulate 4). And beside all
these auta there are also auta of the kind that produce effects
within men’s minds through their [organs of sense]* (Postulate 5).
This is a complete enumeration of auta—things that exist—so far
as known to man.
The minds of my fellow-men and the minds of the lower animals
may conveniently be classed along with my mind as ¢he egotstic
part of the universe—being the part of the universe which I am
already in a position to know consists of auta of the same kind as
those that make up the ego.
Auta of the other kind we may provisionally speak of as sezse-
compelling auta, in contradistinction to my mind and the minds of
other men and animals, which are groups of auta that receive cer-
tain definite additions when and so long as our [organs of sense]
are forced into action by sense-compelling auta. The totality of
these sense-compelling auta we may, for brevity, designate she
1 By [organs of sense], within square brackets, are to be understood the real
existences, the antitheta in the autic universe, which cause in us those percep-
tions which when synthetized furnish the phenomenal objects to which the term
organs of sense is also applicable, and which, when we have occasion to distin-
guish them from their antitheta, may be written [organs of sense]’, with a dash.
The antitheta are popularly imagined to be « material substances’ of the phe-
nomenal objects: but this conception of them conveys an entirely erroneous
ilea, as will appear in the sequel. See also Chapter 4, above.
1903.] STUNEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXIsTENCKS, 115
sense-compelling universe, which will accordingly mean the same as
the sense-compelling part of the universe.
The whole universe, then, as known to man, consists of this
sense-compelling universe and of the thoughts of men and animals.
This division is convenient, although it is faulty from a logical
point of view, since we shall find that the parts of which it consists
overlap. We shall, nevertheless, make use of the distinction pro-
visionally, for the sake of its great convenience to us, z.e., to minds
that consist of egoistic auta when venturing upon the study of other
autic existences.
CHAPTER 8. OF THE COMMUNICATIONS MApDE TO ME BY THE
SENSE-COMPELLING PART OF THE UNIVERSE.
Now when I open my eyes or exercise any of my other senses,
sense-compelling auta transmit messages to me through my [organs
of sense]. These messages finally present themselves as parts of my
mind, of my group of thoughts ; and 2” the actual form in which they
arise within my mind I propose to call them éekmerza*—signs within
my mind that events are happening in a part of the universe that is
distinct from my mind. Thus, when I look towards the fire in the
room in which I sit, the actual existence, the sense-compelling
auto, the antitheton of the phenomenal object, which in its rela-
tion to us it is appropriate to call the aitio-fire (ro afrov, that part
of the entire body of causes leading up to anything to which we
may attribute that thing), transmits one message cr signal to me
through my [eyes], viz.: what is commonly called the visual appear-
ance of the fire. This is one tekmerion made to be a part of my
mind by the aitio-fire so long as it is acting upon me. When, at
the same time, I hold out my hands, it transmits a second message
to me, the perception of warmth, through another of [my senses].
And it sends another tekmerion to me, another witness that it is in
existence and producing effects, through my [sense of hearing],
viz.: the sound of the flame playing over the coals.
Thus, so long as I am employing my senses upon the fire, some
cause which is distinct from my mind, 7.e., which is not a part of my
little group of thoughts, is in three different ways and in each of
them a very indirect way, sending me what may be called tele-
graphic signals; and these three tekmeria become, for the time, a
part of that fluctuating group of thoughts which is my mind.
1 Texufjpiov, a sign which is at the same time a proof of something.
116 STONEY-——UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
To prevent misapprehension, it may be well, before going farther,
to invite attention to the guarded statements that have been made,
which, while embodying the whole of what may, up to the present,
be legitimately inferred from the six postulates upon which we con-
struct our argument, do not include the further illegitimate state-
ment, which is usually added, that the aition, or source from which
the messages have been transmitted to our mind, is a ‘ material
substance’ occupying that portion of space which is apparently
occupied by the phenomenal object. This mistake, so often made,
seems to have its source in an impression that the cause (the aition)
- will resemble its effects (the perceptions which, when synthetized,
build up the phenomenal object). The presumption is quite the
other way; notwithstanding which, when men are forming their
ontological judgments (and all men have to form ontological judg-
ments of one kind or another), they often tacitly assume that causes
are like their effects, or suppose that the relations between the
causes are of the same kind as those which they find prevailing
among the effects. We should be very carefully on our guard
against these errors.
What may legitimately be stated is that some of the auta of the
sense-compelling universe have been operating upon one another
and have produced extensive changes—changes which may have
affected the auta themselves or their relations and operations. Of
this widespread effect, some small—excessively small—outlying
portions have filtered as far as to my mind, to my little group of
auta, through a chain of intermediate effects within certain narrow
and tortuous channels, my [organs of sense]. In the form in which
they ultimately reach me they are ¢ekmeria, signs to me that events
_are occurring beyond my own mind,
CHAPrER 9. Or My MInp anp Irs SyNERGOs.
In ontology we are confronted with a difficulty bearing some
relation to that experienced by biologists in their attempts to
arrange the genera and species of plants or animals in a satisfactory
natural order. In their floras and faunas they are obliged to
adopt a linear arrangement ; whereas the progress of the events that
brought about the morphology with which they are dealing did not
follow any such single line. So, in ontology, expositions, like that
here attempted, must proceed, chapter after chapter, in a linear pro-
ee
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. EEF
gression ; whereas at one stage we may find ourselves in want of
knowledge that cannot be satisfactorily dealt with till some subse-
quent stage. We are in this predicament at present. For further
progress in this inquiry it is essential that we shall know something
about the synergos (ovvepyés , a coadjutor or co-operator) which is
associated with my mind in all, or almost all, its operations,
which contributes largely to every message that my mind receives
from abroad, and to every message that comes down to it through
memory from its own earlier experiences; and without which my
mind would, in fact, be an absolute blank as regards all that is
going on outside itself, and would be destitute of any knowledge of
its own past thoughts. As the relations between this synergos and
the mind have to be dealt with prematurely, the reader is requested
to pardon the intrusion into this chapter of matter which cannot be
adequately expounded till farther on.
The [events]’ in a man’s brain! which are associated with the
thoughts that are his mind, do not occur except while the man is
alive ; and only, during life, when he is either awake or dreaming.
All these objective events can be shown to resolve themselves in
ultimate analysis into motions of one kind or another going on in,
or in connection with, the brain. But they are far from being the
whole of the motions of which (under the diacrinominal view of
nature, see Chapter 17) the brain consists—in fact, they are an exces-
sively small and quite peculiar selection from the totality of motions
that are the brain. It is possible to satisfy ourselves of this by in-
stituting a comparison of time relations. Accordingly, a bystander
would see this selection of motions going on in my brain while lam
awake, if he could make it an object of observation, and if his
senses were acute enough to see all that is going on objectively.
If, however, he could see all that is going on objectively, he
would see a vast deal more than the changes or motions that are
associated with my thoughts. We thus, and from other evidence,
learn that the aitio-brain—the source in the autic universe of the
perceptions and ultra-perceptions which make up that object of
nature which we call the brain—is a collection of auta which in-
cludes many more auta besides those that are my mind: and these
‘many more auta’ are the synergos.
1 By [events]’ is to be understood events in the od/ective world which we call
nature. If written [events], without the dash, it would denote events in the
universe of auta.
118 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
The group of auta which includes the auta that make up the mind
along with those that make up its synergos, is the true existence in
the autic universe which corresponds to that natural object which
we call the brain. The prevalent belief that the true existence is
a ‘material substance’ hovering about that portion of space within
which the phenomenal object appears to be situated, is an utter mis-
take, although it is a belief which has been handed down to us by
generations of our predecessors, and in which we were all brought
up. Numberless are the errors which have crystallized about the
phrase ‘material substance’; and the mischief that has been
wrought by them may be judged from the circumstance that they
have quite shut out of view the wonderful capabilities of the true
autic existences, of which we get one very instructive glimpse when
we find that the thoughts that are our mind are a small—a very
small— part of one of them.
Superstance would be a less misleading term than substance ; but
it is better to cut ourselves completely adrift from all the mislead-
ing associations bound up with the word substance. When the rela-
tion between a natural object and its autic cause is under consider-
ation, the present writer has found it convenient to speak of the
natural object as the frothefon and the autic cause in the sense-
compelling universe as its aztitheton. Using this nomenclature,
the drain of a man is a protheton, and his mnd + synergos are its
antitheton. The mind -synergos are a part of the true autic
universe: the brain is a part of that hypotheton which we call
nature.’
With this imperfect treatment of the subject we must be content
1 The labors of physiologists lead to the conclusion that no thought becomes a
part of the mind of any animal without being accompanied by some change in
its brain, using the word brain here to mean, not the onto-brain but the objective
brain, which is a part of nature. These objective changes are motions of some
kind Hence we find here an instance in which the autic anthitheta of certain
motions are thoughts.
The above relation is often so stated as to imply that the change in the brain
is in some way the cause of the thought. This is to mistake the weather-cock for
the wind. What occurs in the autic universe is the cause of the appearance of
change in nature, and not vice versé.
Nevertheless it is legitimate for physiologists to work, as they usually do, under
the Ayfothesis that it is the objective events that cause the autic; provided that
they do not make the mistake of supposing that this interchange between cause
and effect is theory.
1903.] STONEY—-UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 119
until we can resume the discussion with the advantage of having
learned what a natural object is, and what space relations are.
CHAPTER 10. Or PERCEPTIONS.
The tekmeria, the messages from abroad, as I experience them
when an auto acts on me through my [senses], are more than mere
sensations. ‘To enable me to see this it is only necessary for me to
direct my attention to the remarkable judgments about space rela-
tions which have annexed themselves to, and in some cases even
substituted themselves for, my sensations. When I hurt my foot
and when I hurt my elbow there is a difference in the sensations ;
and this difference my mind, largely assisted by the synergos,’ has
come to translate into the perception of a space relation between
these two sensations, and between them and others. Thus the first
pain is felt as a pain in the foot, z.¢., 7 or about a certain position
in space; the second pain I similarly /ocadize. So also with other
sensations when they have come to be transformed into perceptions.
The red which I now see in each coal of the fire is a sensation
which seems to me of a certain shape and size, and at a certain
distance from muscular sensations which I feel at the same time,
viz.: the sensation of turning my head towards the fire, of con-
verging my eyes in succession upon different parts of it, the sensa-
tion of now and then winking, and the sensation of making and
maintaining the focal adjustment of my eyes: all of which latter
1 The physiological view of these events would be somewhat as follows: the
hurt foot and the hurt elbow are in communication with different regions of the
brain, and the [effects ]/ produced in the brain are not the same in the two cases,
Although part of these effects are the protheton of the thought in the mind, much
more of them are the protheton of changes in the synergos; for, whatever the
change in the brain has been, it #zzs¢ have included a body of molecular events
and others with time-relations too rapidly varying to be the protheton of any such
slowly changing auto as a human thought. These accordingly are part of the
protheton of the synergos, since the brain as a whole is the protheton of that
group of auta which includes both the thoughts that are the mind and those other
auta that’ are the synergos. And as the more slowly changing events in the
brain and those that change more rapidly are so interdependent that neither can
be other than it is, without its affecting the other, so are the thoughts in the
mind and the autic events in the synergos interwoven and they affect each other.
It would also appear that in dreamless sleep, those special slower events spoken
of above cease to occur within the brain. But some, at least, of the swifter ones
are still present, so that at such times the whole antitheton of the objective brain
consists of the synergos only.
120 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April3,
sensations appear to me to be located elsewhere, viz.: at or near
the centre of space, as J apprehend space. So also with the sensa-
tion of warmth which seems to me to be on the surface of my hands
when I hold them to the fire. Now-.sensations which thus appear to
occupy positions in space are perceptions.’
In such cases the perception is far from being a mere coexistence
of sensations. It is the result of a very subtle synthesis, a synthesis
usually of many sensations and of my mind’s present and past experi-
ence, with probably other materials. My mind assisted by its syn-
ergos could not have effected this synthesis but for their inherited
tendency to make it and their inherited capacity for doing so.
By the synthesis which results in my wéswa/ perceptions, a very
remarkable co-ordinaticn has been effected between the muscular,
the tactual and the visual sensations produced in me by sense-com-
pelling auta; an equally remarkable co-ordination between the per-
ceptions of my own mind and the perceptions of my fellow-men and
of other animals; above all a co-ordination between my own per-
ceptions, past, present and future: which co-ordinations enable me
promptly to form correct predictions and are of the greatest service
to me in regulating my acts. Natural selection has probably helped
to develop them. Of all the syntheses by which the mind assisted
by its synergos succeeds in translating sensations into perceptions,
that which provides us with our visual perceptions appear to accom-
plish the greatest and most useful transformation. The intense ten-
dency to make this particular synthesis and the extraordinary fa-
cility with which I can effect it, are no doubt due to the frequent
repetition of the process in an immense series of progenitors: and,
in fact, there is evidence to show that the co-ordination, substan-
tially as my synergos and I now make it, had been effected in my
ancestors at a very remote geological period.’
1 Perceptions are distinguished from our other thoughts by having relation to
zwo situations in space—to that position in space which the object observed seems
to occupy (or, in the case of warmth, to some situation on the surface of the
body), and to that position which seems to be occupied by the portion of the brain
which is affected when this particular thought presents itself in the mind. Our
other thoughts—affections, beliefs, sentiments, motives, etc.—have relation to
only one of these situations in space, viz,: to the situation in which the part of
the brain affected seems to be located.
? Before birds were differentiated from other vertebrates. See the marvelous
representation of balls within sockets or beans within a pod, each supported by
a little stalk, which is found on the secondary wing feathers of the male Argus
2
1903. ] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. iZt
A synthesis does not mean merely the act of collecting materials
together. It means that and much more, viz.: the building up of
a definite structure (cvyr/@jue includes the meaning of the Latin
verb construere as well as of colligere). The completed structure
may be conveniently called the sywtheton (obvOetov, the structure
resulting from synthesis).
It is to be noted that these syntheta, my perceptions, while they
last are auta, real existences: they are thoughts, parts of my mind.
In fact, up to the present we have been dealing exclusively with
auta, things that really exist, some of them non-egoistic, others of
them parts of my own little group of auta. But in the next step
which the mind takes—a very important step—it transcends these
limits.
CHAPTER 11. Or HyYportHeETa.
Hitherto we have treated of auta, z.e., real existences, with as
little reference to hypotheta, or supposed existences, as was found
practicable. It is impossible for a student of ontology commencing
his inquiry from the mental attitude in which we, men, must start,
wholly to disentangle auta and hypotheta from one another in the
earlier stages of his inquiry; but this becomes more and more
feasible as he proceeds, until, in the end, there need be no out-
standing confusion at all.
In the present chapter we direct our attention to what is probably
the most important hypothesis that the human mind makes, a
hypothesis of which we all make daily use, and which confers upon
me and upon my fellow-men and upon other animals—in fact, upon
pheasant. This most astonishing work of art produced, by nature, is effected by
six or seven different colors or shades of color disposed in the same way in which
a human artist would lay them on with his brush to produce the same effect.
Darwin, in his Descent of Man, has shown how Variation with the codpera-
tion of Thoughts in the minds of the cock and hen pheasants, can account for
the development of these wonderful artistic productions. The thought on the
part of the ccck is a desire or impulse to please the hen by an exhibition of his
plumage, and the thought on the part of the hen is an appreciation of different
degrees of excellence in the artistic effect achieved in the pictures submitted to
her judgment. This implies that the hen bird possesses the same wonderful
power that we possess of translating coloring and shading into form; which
therefore was attained by our ancestors before birds were differentiated from
other vertebrates, unless (which is less probable) it has been separately devel-
oped along the two lines of descent since that time.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XLII. 178. I. PRINTED JUNE 6, 1908.
122 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
all the minds that consist of egoistic auta, z.e., minds which are
supplied with information through organs of sense—an inestimable
benefit, by creating for our advantage those supposed existences
which are called natural objects. They arise in the way described
in the next paragraph: and according as we make progress in
tracing out the way in which they arise, it will become obvious
why they do us such inestimable service.
Perceptions—/.z., sensations which appear to me to be planted
out in space—are the tekmeria or messages which I receive from
sense-compelling auta. Auta of this kind form a part of my group
of thoughts whenever and so long as any sense-compelling auto
is acting on my mind and my synergos, through my senses. But
the perceptions which it creates within me at any one time are but
a small part of all the tekmeria that it can send tome. Which
of all the possible tekmeria shall exist at any one instant de-
pends on the particular line of communication which is at that
time open between the sense-compelling auto and me; and when-
ever I make those changes which are popularly described as
‘looking at the object from a different side,’’ ‘‘ touching it in
a different place,’’ and so on, what I do is simply to change the
channel of communication without altering the sense-compelling
auto. But I thereby alter the perceptions, the tekmeria which reach
me from it. Now the sensible 07ect—which persons untrained in
the study of their own mind are apt to mistake for the cause of
their sensations—is simply the result of the mind and its synergos
effecting a synthesis of all these tekmeria. They cannot actually
exist, except in succession ; but my mind, aided by its synergos, has
the power of conceiving them as though they existed—
1. Simultaneously,
2. Persistently, and
3. Without being any part of itself.
In this power of conception consists tts power of effecting this most
useful synthests.
[t is of importance to bear in mind that while I am what is called
‘‘looking at the object,’’ one of the tekmeria, my visual perception
at that time is acfwa/—that is, it is in true autic existence; the
rest of the perceptions which are compacted along with it to make
up the syntheton are fofentia/—that is, they are not at present in
existence, but they can be brought into existence. When I ‘turn
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES, 123
my eyes away,’’ none of the tekmeria are actual: they are all
potential. Meanwhile the originating auto continues in existence
during all this performance, and will, with certainty, reproduce the
first-mentioned tekmerion if ‘‘I turn my eyes back,’’ 7.¢., if the
channel of communication between the sense-compelling auto and
me is reopened.
It thus appears that the sensible od7ec¢ is not at all made up of
any of the parts of which the sense-compelling au/o consists, but
only of certain minute outlying portions of the widespread effects
of its great activity, viz.: those effects which, by its activity, it can
produce within me through a few narrow and tortuous passages ;
while at the same time most of its great activity is being expended
in other directions. This clearly shows—
1. That the sensible object is not the auto; and
2. That for all human purposes my attaining a knowledge of
this hypothetical existence is as useful to me as if I knew
what the auto is.
It, in fact, tells me, 2” a direct and in the most compendious form,
what effects the auto, under every variety of circumstances, w7//
produce within me; for it is itself a structure Juz/t up of these very
effects put together.
It is to be observed that ordinary language is throughout built
upon the erroneous popular belief that the objects of the phenomenal
world are existences, in the autic sense of that term; and, more-
over, that they are the cause of the perceptions that come into
existence when we exercise our senses, This is a mistake of the
kind which is called ‘‘ putting the car before the horse’’: it is to
imagine that a structure built up out of the effects of a thing can
be the cause of those effects. The sensible object is built up of
perceptions instead of being the cause of them. Their cause is to
be sought in the sense-compelling universe of awa, not in the phe-
nomenal world of odjects. We must always be careful to distinguish
between autic or true existence and objective existence, which
means forming a part of that great objective hypotheton which we
call nature. We may sometimes find it convenient to distinguish
between them by writing [existence] for autic existence, and
[existence] for objective existence. Autic existence means exist-
ence in the absolute meaning of that term; objective existence
124 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
means existence in a relative sense, namely, what we are to regard
as existence under the Objective Hypothesis.
Ordinary language suggests to all who use it a number of mis-
takes of the kind referred to in the last paragraph. It is, accord-
ingly, apt to mislead us very much, and we must be constantly
on our guard against illusions into which we may but too easily be
led by the usages of common speech, and by associations which
have grown up around familiar forms of expression. Illusions will
be found to lurk in what are apparently quite harmless forms of
expression, such as ‘‘I perceive a cloud moving across the sky’”’ ;
and to get at what we are really justified in believing, it is well
diligently to practice ourselves in converting such expressions into
less misleading forms, wate/ we do so with facility. ‘Thus the fore-
going statement is equivalent to—
1. I am a fluctuating group of associated thoughts, and the
perception of a moving cloud is for a short time one of
this group. This is an autic group.
2. The perception of a moving cloud is also a part of another
group, in which it is joined, not with the other thoughts
at present in my mind, but with all the other perceptions
which the antitheton of the cloud could successively pro-
duce in my mind.
3. This useful hypothetical group, which may be called the
objective cloud, is not the cause of my perceptions. Their
true cause must be sought elsewhere, and, to give it a
name, it may be called the aitio-cloud, or the onto-cloud.
It is the antitheton, in the autic universe, of the objective
cloud. The objective cloud is the protheton of this real
existence, and is a part of the great hypotheton which we
call nature.
Nature is here used to signify the totality of all semszble objecis.
This definition is in accordance with the usual acceptation of that
term.
We have passed successively under review two acts of synthesis
—the synthesis of the first order, whereby sensations are transformed
into perceptions ; and the further synthesis, which may be called a-
synthesis of the second order, whereby perceptions are built together
into the sensible objects around us, each of which is a kind of
synopton, or collected view, of materials only a small part of which
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 125
are in existence at any one time. But, in reality, these two acts
of synthesis are now carried on by my mind and its synergos simul-
taneously and with astonishing ease and promptitude; and it is
probable that the gradually acquired power to make them was
developed far passu in my ancestors at a very remote geological
period.
The instinct which impels us to assign a position in space to
sensations affects our visual and tactual sensations most, including
under the latter term our muscular sensations, as well as sensations
of roughness, smoothness, resistance, hardness, softness, and some
others. We also perceive it conspicuously in the allied sensations
of tickling, warmth, coolness, pain, and several others. We localize
with somewhat less precision our sensations of taste and smell: and
of all our more conspicuous sensations sound is that which we least
refer to a definite position. We have less power of doing so than
many other animals who are furnished with ears which can be
turned so as to distinguish the direction of sound; and far less
power than some nocturnal insects who, by their feathery antenne,
which are their auditory apparatus, are able to determine the direc-
tion of a sound with a precision approaching that of eyesight.* In
man there are but slender materials for the synthesis.
It may make some parts of this and of the succeeding chapters
clearer to give here a definition of the term odyect. This term
might be applied to the objects of any hypothesis, z.¢., to the sup-
posed existing things, which we are to suppose to be in existence
so long as we are making use of the hypothesis. Thus, under the
hypothesis made use of in Geometrical Optics, it would be intel-
ligible to speak of rays in front of a mirror as having an odjective
existence ; which would mean that they are the ‘ objects’ of that
hypothesis, viz.: what we are to regard as being in existence under
that hypothesis. But it is usual to make the terms object and
objective more definite by restricting them to one particular hypoth-
esis; and unless it is otherwise specified, they will be applied in
the present essay only to the objects of that great objective hypoth-
esis described in the present chapter, which by ‘the synthesis of
the second order’ supplies us with what are popularly called the
natural objects about us.
1See Professor Alfred M. Mayer’s experiments on the mosquito, in which he
satisfied himself that the male insect can determine the direction of a sound
within an angle of 5° (Pitlosophical Magazine for November, 1874, p. 380),
126 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April3,
Men and dogs and other animals, and among men different indi-
viduals, are able to make this synthesis with more or less success.
It is made with most success when the conceived perceptions, which
are so large a part of the syntheton, are correct pictures in the mind
of what they would prove to be if the proper measures were taken
to make them in succession actual perceptions. Accordingly, the
‘objects of nature’ about us may appear to one man somewhat
different to what they do to another. In the present chapter we
have dealt with them as ‘sensible objects,’ z.e., as the objects of
nature, such as they present themselves to ‘the man in the street.’
In subsequent chapters we shall deal with them as they present
themselves to scientific men; and it will then become apparent
why the scientific objects of nature are to be regarded as con-
structed with more success than the mere sensible objects of unin-
structed men.
It may also be noted that, while we are what is popularly described
as ‘looking at’ or ‘touching’ or in other ways ‘ exercising our
senses upon’ the objects about us, these syntheta of perceptions are
made up of perceptions a very small part of which are in autic
existence, while the bulk of them have only an’ objective, 7.e., a
supposed, existence. Thus, while I am looking at a chair or table,
the sensible object is made up of my actual visual perception at
that time, and of a great body of conceived perceptions which have
to be joined to it to make up the whole syntheton: there is, as it
were, a veneer of auto with a hinterland of hypotheta; forming,
when combined, a syntheton which, viewed as a whole, is a
hypotheton.
CHAPTER 12. OF THE PHYSICAL HYPOTHESIS.
It will be well to treat of the Physical Hypothesis next, as it is a
hypothesis which is entertained and made use of, with more or less
success, by all men, and not by scientific men only.
Natural science may be defined as the investigation of how nature
[works]’, of how and why events in nature [occur]’. In this defi-
nition we have to use the verbs work and occur in their objective
sense, since what have [really] done the work have been, not the
hypotheta which people the objective world, but their antitheta in
the universe of real existences. The relation between what goes on
in the autic universe and the events which as a consequence appear
in the objective world may be likened to the relation between the
ae
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 127
motions of a great machine and the movements amongst the shad-
ows which the parts of the machine cast when the sun shines. If
the machine moves in an orderly manner, so also will the shadows
move in an orderly manner; and Natural Science is the study of
these movements amongst the shadows. If we had adequate access
to the machine, the best way to investigate the movements of the
shadows would be to study what takes place in the machine, and from
it to forecast what must happen among the shadows. But, unfortu-
nately, though we can see the shadows, we can bring only an exces-
sively small part of the machine under close inspection, and we have
but glimpses of the rest. The only part of the stupendous autic uni-
verse which a human being can adeguate/y examine is that exces-
sively small group of auta which are the thoughts of his own mind,
with the similarly small groups that are the minds of his fellow-
men and of some other animals: he cannot even make any ade-
quate study of the events that go on within the synergos which is so
closely associated with his mind, and can only collect mere scraps
of information as to what the real events are throughout the rest of
the vast machine.. As to that tiny group of auta that are one human
being’s thoughts, it bears somewhat the same relation to the mighty
whole of the autic universe as their protheton, namely, some of the
more slowly changing events within the cortex of his brain, bears to
the enormous totality of motions that are going on objectively
throughout the whole of nature. This makes it evident that the part
of the autic universe that man can adequately examine is but one
drop of an immeasurable ocean, and although that little drop is an
actual specimen of the kind of things that auta are, it is very plain
that we are not justified in assuming that it is a fair average speci-
men of them.
Working under these disadvantages, man (and the same is true of
the more intelligent of the lower animals) has constructed the Physz-
cal Hypothesis whereby to enable him to form a correct forecast of
the changes which will occur in nature. The physical hypothesis is
the supposition shat the objects of nature can act on one another, either
directly (action at a distance) or through intervening media (which
by many is supposed to be an essentially different kind of action).
Now the objects of nature are syntheta of perceptions and ultra-
perceptions (as appears from the last chapter read along with those
which follow) ; and syntheta of perceptions cannot be what really
act. Nevertheless, it is eminently useful to carry on our investiga-
128 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
_ tion under the physical hypothesis that it is they which act, and to
confine our’ efforts to tracing out what effects this action must be
supposed capable of producing, and under what laws it must operate,
in order that it may account for what occurs in nature.
This, however, is felt by many persons to be too abstract an atti-
tude of mind; and, to satisfy them, and import into the hypothesis
the plausibility which they demand, by relieving the fundamental
conceptions of what is oppressively felt as the absurdity of suppos-’
ing that syntheta of perceptions act, it is usual to supplement the
syntheta by piling an aérial Pelion upon this solid Ossa, and by sup-
posing that in addition to the sensible object which occupies any por-
tion of space there is what is called 7¢s material substance occupying
the same position, which, partly directly and partly by its motions,
acts on other material substances—the ether being one of these so-
called swdstances. According to this, which is the prevalent hypoth-
esis among both scientific and non-scientific men, it is these ‘ sub-
stances’ which travel about through space ; and the sensible objects,
which are what we see and feel, are supposed to accompany them
in their peregrinations by reason of the way in which they, the
substances, act (usually through intermediate ‘ substances’) upon our
organs of sense.
This is the usual point of view: but more careful thinkers will
do well to eschew this somewhat convenient, but by no means ne-
cessary, encumbrance upon the unadulterated process of physical
investigation which treats the sensible objects themselves, the bare
syntheta of perceptions and ultra-perceptions, as though they were
what bring about the changes that occur in nature ; and will do well
to occupy themselves exclusively in tracing out the laws that must,
under this Ayfothesis, be in operation in order that the effects may
be what they are.
This, the true physical hypothesis, is eminently useful and is
therefore legitimate; but the addition that has been saddled upon
it, that there are ‘ material substances’ present, is unnecessary, and
as it is misleading and tends to keep out of view the really ex-
istent autic universe, it ought to be discarded by all persons who
‘wish to think clearly. This is the course which all careful think-
ers should prefer, because it keeps clearly before our minds that in
the Physical Hypothesis we make use of a hypothesis and not of a
theory. By being thus careful we avoid the risk of throwing dust
in our own eyes. It cannot be too distinctly kept in view that the
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES, 129
justification of the physical hypothesis is its utility, not its truth—
its incomparable efficiency as a means of investigating nature.
This is a matter about which it is far better, although it cannot be
said to be essential, that students of Physics should make no mis-
take.
It is obvious that causation, in the full sense of that term, can
operate only-between the real existences of the autic universe, and
that everything else that appears to us to take place isa consequence
of what occurs there. In fact, efficient cause and autic cause are
synonymous terms.
Nevertheless, it is convenient and quite legitimate for scientific
-men to speak of ‘ physical’ causes, meaning thereby what they have
to treat as causes when engaged in carrying on an investigation
under the Physical Hypothesis.
_A very useful scaffolding which helps us in building up our inves-
tigation is the introduction of forces between the physical cause
(which is always the vicinity of some natural object) and the effect
to be attributed to it under the physical hypothesis. We are thus
enabled to speak of the acceleration of a stone in its fall towards
the earth, either as being due to the neighborhood of the earth, or
as being caused by a force of gravitation which acts on it, which
force is, in its turn, regarded as brought into existence by the prox-
imity of the earth to the stone. The introduction of this piece of
intermediate scaffolding is found to be of service—
1. Because the force can be represented by a line whose length
accurately represents the intensity, and whose direction ac-
curately represents the direction, of the effect upon the stone
of the vicinity of the earth ;
2. Because the same effect upon the stone might have been
due to other physical causes, as, for example, to a spring
urging it forwards; in which case the same piece of scaf-
folding, a force represented by the same line in the same
position, would occupy its place between the cause and the
effect ; and
3. Because the effect might have been different, while the
physical cause remained the same: thus, if the stone lay on
the ground, what the vicinity of the earth would have occa-
sioned is stress between the stone and the ground.
Accordingly, by referring effects in nature to the operation of
130 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April3,
forces, we are enabled in each case to indicate with accuracy
the intensity and direction of the effect, without having to specify (as)
which of several possible physical causes is the one in operation, or
(2) which of the possible kinds of effect is that which is being
produced: and this in practice is found to be an immense con-
venience.
Such is an outline of the principles that underlie the dynamical
investigation of nature, which is the form of investigation that
penetrates most deeply into its secrets.
CHAPTER 13. OF SPACE RELATIONS.
In order to apprehend clearly how much has been accomplished by
synthesis it is advisable that we should scrutinize more closely space
relations, and man’s instinctive judgments about them: and as
these judgments are a more conspicuous factor of my visual and
tactual perceptions than of others, it will be instructive to treat
specially of them.
Many slight muscular and other feeble sensations accompany the
use of my visual and tactual organs of sense. These obscure sen-
sations are constantly changing while I am using those senses, and
in an excessively complicated way. That out of such tangled
material synthesis has been able to evolve so simple a result as my
judgment about space relations is because, amid all the appar-
ent disorder, there do exist [real] relations between those much
varying sensations ; and the syntheton which can be produced de-
pends on what these relations are. They in turn depend on what
relations exist between my [organs of sense] and the various parts
of the auto which is transmitting messages to me; for it is while
varying these that the sensations in question arise. Hence, finally,
the synthesis which can be effected depends on what relations prevail
in the autic universe between my [organs of sense] and other parts of
that universe. We have no reason to suppose that these onto-rela-
tions as they may be called, these relations between auta, are in the
least Zhe space relations, the space relations being syntheta con-
structed out of the obscure sensations that are indirectly occasioned
by the onto-relations, after these have been worked up by the mind
and its synergos with memories of past experiences and other
materials. :
Whatever the onto-relations may actually be, ¢hey are at all events
1903.] STONEY—-UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. For
a part of those conditions in the autic universe which determine
whether auta can act upon auta. So much I know, because I have
to adapt my organs of sense to them in order to get tekmeria; and
it is in doing this that I experience the complicated sensations
which have come, by reason of what has occurred in my long series
of ancestors, to be synthetized for me into instinctive judgments of
objective space relations between perceptions. It is evident then
that my judgments about space relations are the result of a synthesis
of materials which are themselves consequences of relations that
prevail in the autic sense-compelling universe. It is these onto-
relations, whatever they are, that have an autic [existence]: the
space relations have only an objective [existence |’. This means
that we are to treat these space relations as though they existed
whenever we are availing ourselves of the great and most useful
objective hypothes?s, which supposes that not only do our percep-
tions exist but that the hinterland also exists which with them make
_. up what are called the natural objects about us. But while making
Ber
every possible use of this hypothesis, we ought, if we care to think
clearly, to keep steadily before our minds that this is a hypothesis
to be made use of, but not the correct theory Zo be believed.
CHAPTER 14. OF MorTIoNn.
We are now in a position to deal with the important subject of
motion. The apfsearance of motion is an auto, a perception in my
mind; and while this perception lasts it is a tekmerion, a proof to
me that an event capable of producing this appearance has occurred
in the sense-compelling autic universe. This event could send dif-
ferent tekmeria to me, according to the way I employ my senses
upon it; and the syntheton formed by putting all these together is
what is meant by the term motion. It is accordingly a part of the
great objective Hypotheton which we call Nature. If we want to
indicate the real occurrence in the sense-compelling universe, we
may speak of it as the onto-motion or aitio-motion, meaning by
these terms the autic event which corresponds to the syntheto-
motion in the objective world. Itis an antitheton, and the syntheto-
motion is the corresponding protheton. The word motion, like all
similar terms, is ambiguous, and in common speech it has to be
sometimes interpreted as meaning the protheton in the objective
world, and in other contexts as meaning its antitheton in the uni-
-?
.
)
“a
132 STONEY——UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
verse of real existences. The protheton is in fact a kind of synop-
ton, or conjoint view, of the actual effects which are at that time
being produced and of the possible effects that might have been
produced, within modern men’s minds, by its antitheton the onto-
motion. It is necessary to describe it as a A¢ud of synopton, since
the materials that come in, or could come in, from abroad are modi-
fied by being worked up with materials contributed by the mind
and its synergos.
CHAPTER 15. OF THE PHENOMENON, OR PHENOMENAL THOUGHT ;
AND OF ITS RELATION TO THE PHENOMENAL OBJECT.
The word phenomenon has three established meanings: 1. It is
used by metaphysicians to mean thought in the mind. This is the
original or at least an early meaning of the term: the other mean-
ings are of recent date. 2. It is used to mean an extraordinary
circumstance. This is the popular acceptation of the word. 3. It
is used to mean any natural object or event in nature. This is the
meaning attributed to it in works on Natural Science.
For the sake of convenience it is well to assign a name to my
thought about an object of nature, or as it is often called a phe-
nomenal or sensible object. My thought about it we may call the
phenomenon, or phenomenal thought, availing ourselves of the first
of the above meanings of this term. Accordingly the phenomenon
within my mind at any particular time consists of all or some of
the following:
1. The actual perceptions which at that time the sense-com-
pelling auto is producing in me, if there are any such per-
ceptions existing in my mind at that time.
2. My memory of the perceptions which that auto has on other
occasions produced in me.
3. My anticipation of such perceptions as I suppose it would
produce in me under other circumstances.
4. Certain suppositions with respect to this group of percep-
tions.
This phenomenon, or phenomenal thought, is itself an auto, a
part of my group of thoughts ; while, in contrast to this, it is only
as ahypothesis that ‘he object of this thought, the phenomenal object,
can as a whole be regarded as in existence. Part of it no doubt
ee,
"
ee | ee
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. igo
may be temporarily in existence, viz.: so long as the sense-com-
pelling auto which is the source of the perceptions happens to be
acting on me through my senses. During this time some of the
perceptions that go to make up the phenomenal object are tz actual
existence, but only as a part of my group of thoughts. None are
in existence independently of the mind, nor are any of the rest of
the perceptions that go to make up the phenomenal object in exist-
ence at that time either in or out of the mind. That the whole
phenomenal object is supposed to be in existence and to be distinct
from the mind is therefore a hypothesis ; most useful, but not to be
thought of as ¢he ¢rue theory. On the other hand, the phenomenon,
7.é., my thought about the phenomenal object, while it has the
advantage of being an auto, is transitory, imperfect, very variable, and
almost always erroneous in some respects; depending as it does on the
extent of my information and the amount of attention I give to it:
while the phenomenal object, though a hypotheton, has in it nothing
in the least shifting or arbitrary. J¢ zs perfectly definite : including
as it must a// the tekmeria which its antitheton, the sense-compel-
ling auto, does actually or can legitimately create in human minds
through human organs of sense. It is intended by the word /egi#-
mately to exclude cases of illusion, or defects that arise through
imperfection of the senses. Legitimately is to be understood as
meaning when every part of the line of communication is working
normally and satisfactorily.
CHAPTER 16. OF THE PHENOMENAL OBJECT, WITH WHICH NAt-
URAL SCIENCE DEALS.
It is in accordance with the signification we have given to the
word [real ]’, when written with a dash, that motion in the phe-
nomenal world shall be deemed real when it is a syntheton of the
actual perceptions which an onto-motion does or of the potential
perceptions which it could produce by acting on human minds
through human senses. But Science, in its progress, has found this
definition too cramped. The definition would limit the stamp of
being vea/ to those cases in which man’s senses are competent to
act as channels of communication between the sense-compelling
universe and him. Now, scientific investigation has penetrated
much farther than this—even the flimsy appreciation of what goes
on in nature which is necessarv for man’s everyday work, renders
"a
134 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April3,
essential some extension of the meaning of the word vea/—and
accordingly the exigencies of common life, but more especially of
scientific inquiry, have made an extension inevitable, so that
a motion or other part of the Objective Hypotheton is still to be
regarded as [real]’, although too small or too rapid or in some other
way unfitted by its time or space relations to be a syntheton of
human perceptions, whenever justification for this extension exists.
The objects with which the scientific student of Nature has to deal
are in fact syntheta of—
1. Actual perceptions ;
2. Potential perceptions; and of
3. Certain ultra perceptions, namely, those which scientific
investigation does or can warrant.
By an ultra perception is to be understood what would be a percep-
tion, if our senses were more acute.
These are more than the syntheta of actual and potential human
perceptions which we have called sensible objects, and to distin-
guish them it will be well to give them a different name. We shall
call them phenomenal objects. They are in much closer relation to
what is actually going forward in the autic universe than it is pos-
sible for the ‘sensible objects’ to be. This is a necessary conse-
quence of the restricted range of the senses possessed by man, by
which the amount of detail which can be present in the sensible
object is limited.
CHAPTER 17. OF THE DIACRINOMINAL OBJECT.
Motions are by far the most important part of the phenomenal
hypotheton, as will be obvious from the following considerations.
Scientific investigation has brought to light the significant facts
which are described in common language by saying that men and
animals receive their sensations of sound from motion in the air, of
light from events in the ether which can be ultimately analyzed into
motions, and in the same way their other sensations from motions
somewhere in Nature. This, put into. less objectionable language,
is equivalent to the statement that the auta and autic events of the
sense-compelling universe which produce in me the sensation of
sound through one channel of communication, viz., through my
sense of hearing, are such as are also competent to produce in me
through other channels, namely, through my senses of sight and
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 135
touch, another tekmerion, viz.: the perception of motion; or, at
least, differ only from those autic causes which are capable of pro-
ducing an actual perception of motion through those senses, in the
way that the autic cause’ of the perception of one visible motion
differs from the autic cause of the perception of a similar visible
motion which is swifter or slower or on a different scale.
These remarkable discoveries have led scientific men to entertain
a new and very important view of nature, in which it is regarded
as made up of objects each of which corsists of almost inconceivably
minute and swift motions. These and the drifting about in space of
some objects, 7.e., of some masses of internal motions, are the whole of
this hypotheton. It may be regarded as the utmost simplification
of which any synoptic view of the effects produced within the
human mind by the mighty march of actual events in the real uni-
verse is susceptible ; and it is therefore that synoptic view of those
effects which stands in closest relation to the autic causes that have
produced them.
The remarkable hypothesis described in the last paragraph may
appropriately be called the Diacrinominal Hypothesis, as it has dis-
criminated between the various tekmeria produced within us by the
autic universe, and has selected for further synthesis one special
group—our perceptions of motion—on the ground that it, and that
it alone, is able dy ztself and without being mixed up with other tek-
meria to people Nature with objects which are complete as bodying
forth in a collected form the information sent us by the real auta of
the actual sense-compelling universe ; and which, owing to their
simplicity, stand in a closer relation to those auta than the more *
complex objects of Phenomenal Nature. Phenomenal objects are
bright, warm, hard or soft, colored, sweet or bitter, and so on; as
well as moving or at rest. In diacrinominal nature motions take
the place of all these. An attempt was made to give a summary of
the results of this hypothesis in a Friday Evening Discourse, deliv-
ered before the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1885, and
printed in the Jowrna/ of that Society, so that it is the less to be
regretted that it would make this paper too long to dilate upon
them here. We may therefore pass at once to the consideration
of the last circumstance which it seems necessary to make clear
in order that we may be at length in a position to understand how
the scientific study of objective Nature stands related to the real
186 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
existences and real activities of which the true universe actually
consists: which is the problem we proposed to investigate.
. CHAPTER 18. Or PuysICAL CAUSES AND OF EFFICIENT CAUSES.
Causation, in the full sense of that term, implying efficiency in
the cause, can only prevail in the operations of auta.
When an efficient cause operates within the sense-compelling
universe, it produces some change therein, and if this change be
such that the sense-compelling universe can produce one set of
effects within human minds before the change and another set after
the change, then will the hypothetical existence which we call
nature also undergo a change. ‘This is because nature before the
change is the syntheton made by fitting together the former set of
possible effects, and nature after the change is the syntheton of the
latter set of possible effects. We may liken the sense-compelling
universe to a mighty machine, and nature to a shadow cast by it in
a very special way. If the machine is set in motion and changed
from one position to another, it produces one shadow before the
change and another after; and if the change in the machine has
followed a definite order, the second shadow will succeed the first
in a corresponding orderly sequence: but the relation between the
shadows is not the relation of cause and effect.
Accordingly, in the laws of Nature which have been discovered
by scientific investigation we find abundant instances of unfailingly
concomitant events and of uniformities of sequence, but not a single
instance of genuine cause and effect. The so-called Physical causes
’ are not causes in the full sense of that term. We might write them as
[causes |’ with a dash, but not as [causes] without one. Nevertheless
it is Jegitimate as an hypothesis, to treat them as though they were
causes when and so long as we are engaged in making use of the
Objective Hypothesis. If a stone be allowed to drop in the vicin-
ity of the earth, its downward speed is accelerated by a perfectly
definite law. In this case the vicinity of the earth to the stone and
the acceleration of the stone’s vertical velocity are two unfailingly
concomitant events. This is one of the Uniformities of Nature
which scientific inquiry has brought to light. But w¢thin the domain
of Physics there is no cause for the acceleration. To reach the
cause we must travel beyond the hypothetical domain of Physics
and study the events that have taken place in the universe of real
1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 137
existences. If we confine our view to Nature, the facts as to what
occurs can be observed ; the circumstances under which they occur
can be investigated ; similar cases can be compared ; and the laws
to which the simultaneous or successive events conform can be
brought to light. But here the knowledge conveyed to us by the
great Objective Hypothesis ends: Physical Science has said its
utmost.
Now all this is changed when we turn to the only field of obser-
vation accessible to us in which we are dealing directly with auta.
The thoughts of which I consist, the thoughts that are my mind,
are auta: no doubt a very small group of auta in the stupendous
totality of all auta, but still a actual sample, although a very special
and perhaps one-sided sample, of what auta are. In the operations
that go on in my mind I do find instances, some few instances, of
causes producing effects. The familiar case of a geometrical demon-
stration producing in a man’s mind a belief in the truth of the
conclusion is a case in point. Here the understanding of the proof
is the efficient cause of the belief in the conclusion which accom-
panies that understanding. A wish to accomplish something, and
a knowledge of how to go about it, are part of the autic universe
since they are thoughts, and they are a part of the efficient cause
of subsequent events in the autic universe, unless counteracted by
other causes. A few other examples can be obtained from the
same small field of investigation: and this is all that man, in his
isolated position, has any right to expect; for the bulk of his
thoughts are due, at least in large part, to autic causes which lie
outside his mind, either in the synergos or beyond it in the sense-
compelling part of the universe; and it is there also that those
of his thoughts that are known to be causes usually exhibit their
effects. When perceptions or when memories arise in my mind,
the effect is indeed within my mind, but the cause lies beyond it ;
and when ‘I move my muscles,’ the cause is within my mind, but
it is outside my mind, upon the antitheta of those muscles, that it
operates. The instances are indeed few where the causes and the
effects are doth within my tiny group of auta, and it is only in
these few cases that I can have the process of causes producing
effects under my inspection.
But since cases can be cited, however few, they suffice Zo estaéb-
lish the fact that the relation of cause and effect in its full sense
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 173. J. PRINTED JUNE 11, 1903.
138 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
does exist in some instances in the autic universe; whereas it has
nowhere any place within the domain of physical science. I am
even under the impression that every event which has occurred in
the real universe, every change that has taken place there, has been,
as a matter of fact, brought about by true adequate causes ; although
I am bound to admit that man lives too secluded from the rest of
the universe, and with channels for communicating with it that are
far too indirect, for me to be entitled to dogmatize and to say to
myself or my fellow-men that I absolutely know this to beso. At
the same time it recommends itself to my mind as intrinsically
probable; and it is supported by direct evidence which makes it
seem to me prodadle in a high degree—
1. Since there are some instances in which the whole process
of causation operating among auta can be observed ;
2. Since no instance can be found in which observation is
possible, and in which it does not prevail; and
3. Since the alternative supposition appears to be improba-
ble. The only alternative is that, while the few changes
among auta which can be investigated are found to be due
to adequate causes, the rest, or some of the rest, which we
cannot investigate are uncaused.
All men experience within themselves what is called the freedom
of their Wills; and this may by some be regarded as presenting an
exception to the second of the above statements. But no amount
of introspection has enabled me to detect any exercise of my Will
which had not been caused by some motive, z.e., by a thought
which forms one of my group of thoughts, or else by some inher-
ited or acquired habit ; that is, by the intervention of my synergos.
This shows me that what I describe as the freedom of my Will does
not exclude adequate causes.
It is noteworthy that statistical inquiries have revealed to us the
fact that averages taken over great numbers of the acts due to the
free exercise of the Wills of human beings, conform to definite laws.
This suggests that a corresponding freedom of the Will may prevail
throughout the mighty Autos—the totality of all auta—and may,
nevertheless, produce perceptions in egoistic minds (¢.e., in minds
supplied by the Autos with information through organs of sense)
of such a kind that these perceptions when synthesized into the
objects of nature exhibit that orderly sequence of events which we
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1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 139
find in nature. For this, it would be only necessary that percep-
tions should be caused in us not by individual events in the mighty
Autos, but by vast swarms of such events operating together and
producing in us an average effect. And this, on other accounts,
seems to be the case (compare, for example, the significant slowness
of human thoughts with the swiftness of molecular [events]’). If
this view be correct, what are known to us as the [ Laws]’ of Nature
are an outcome from [Laws] of averages among auta. To attempt to
penetrate farther lies beyond the scope of the present essay. We
must not be tempted to engage here in the study of the little that
man is competent to learn about the individual events that are in
progress amongst the auta of the sense-compelling part of the uni-
verse, or the efficient causes that operate there.
CHAPTER 19. RECAPITULATION.
What has been chiefly learned in the foregoing pages is: 1. That
the objects of nature are syntheta of perceptions; and 2. That
there is no warrant for our assuming that the true autic cause of
human perceptions, or of the events that occur among the objects of
nature, are in the least like those objects. On the contrary, every
evidence that we can collect points to the conclusion that the true
source of the perceptions of our egoistic minds, and of those events
in nature which are usually attributed to an interaction of the
objects of naturé upon one another, is in reality as utterly unlike
those objects of nature as the thoughts of a man are unlike the
events within his brain associated with those thoughts.
These considerations when followed up lead us to reject the com-
mon belief in ‘ material substances’ as erroneous, and it is more-
over found to be misleading. It is an error which blinds the minds
of those who entertain it to the stupendous Autic Universe, which
is what really exists, and which transcends the supposed material
universe as much as do the boundless range and vast variety of the
thoughts of a human mind altogether differ from and infinitely
transcend that selection of movements within the brain which
accompanies those thoughts.
A theory of existence, such as that which we have sought to
expound in this essay, is to be judged, not by the use we are able to
make of it, but by its truth. At the same time this theory is far
from being useless to the thoughtful student of nature. It becomes
140 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3,
available just at those points where the assumptions usually made
by scientific men leave us in the lurch—as when we are brought
face to face with the problem of the true relation between a man’s
thoughts and the events in his brain associated with them ; or when
the problem is to ascertain of what kind are the true efficient causes
of those events that occur about us in nature.
APPENDIX.
In the foregoing pages the author has freely used passages ex-
tracted from others of his writings, altering them and adding to
them so as to obviate, as much as in him lay, difficulties which
have been felt by some of the readers of those preceding papers ;
and his hope is that none of these difficulties will be felt in reading
the present essay.
The attempt has been made to keep to that one special path
through the territory opened up to us by the study of ontology,
which pursues its way among the topics of most use tous as scientific
students of nature. But much may be learned by other excursions
into this great field of exploration, and they end in presenting us
with a spectacle of unsurpassed sublimity.
It may be well so far to trespass upon this new ground as to men-
tion some results of the further inquiry. In certain parts of the
new territory we have to venture on less firm ground than that
which we have trodden in the preceding essay, and must be content
with results arrived at with probability. It is then found that such
evidence as can be brought to bear appears to tend with consider-
able emphasis to the conclusion that not only the auta that are our
minds are thoughts, but that the same is true of the auta that
are our synergos. Now the mind and its synergos are, when taken
together, the antitheton or true autic existence corresponding to the
objective brain. A similar conclusion is indicated with regard to
the rest of objective nature. The antitheta of the objective events
—the true autic events which corréspond to them—seem, with a
considerable degree of probability, to be essentially thoughts;
most of them no doubt with vastly different time relations to those
of the thoughts that are the human mind, but still in several mate-
rial respects not unlike them. If this view is correct, the only
things that [really] exist are thoughts, and the effects produced by
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1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 141
thoughts upon thoughts ; and the laws of averages spoken of above
in Chapter 18 are part of a much greater group, viz., the Laws of
Thought in general, which if this view is correct are the real ulti-
mate laws of the real universe. It will of course be seen that the
laws of thought here spoken of are different and altogether beyond
that paltry little group—the laws of human thought—to which they
stand related much in the same way as does the whole science of
dynamics to the laws of the movements of a watch.
Egoistic thoughts, such as those of the human mind, must be
related in the way that we call being within the same consciousness,
in order to be able to influence one another. The understanding
of the steps of a proof by my mind does not produce any percep-
tion of the truth of the conclusion in another mind. The effect
and the cause must both be within a group of thoughts that fall
within one consciousness. Starting from this, and collecting all
the evidence available, we are ultimately led to the conclusion that
the Autos, the totality of all thought, is a universal mind, meaning
by a mind thoughts related to one another in the way that is
described by saying that they are within one consciousness: This,
if true, is a very pregnant conclusion, leading on further study to
very important results.
Again, the perceptions produced within egoistic minds by sense-
compelling auta are an exceedingly trifling part of the great march
of autic events, whence but little would be lost out of the great
procession if they were discontinued, as would happen if such
minds as those of men and animals ceased to be produced.
With them, however, the whole ‘ material’ universe, the great ob-
jective hypotheton, would come to an end. Similarly, it was cre-
ated, not at once, but gradually according as the minds that consist
of egoistic thoughts by degrees acquired the power of transforming
sensations into perceptions, and the power of synthesizing the per-
ceptions into the objects of nature.
Similar reflections meet us at every turn while we are engaged in
prosecuting the further investigation ; but it would lead us too far
from the immediate object of our essay to refer further to them in
this necessarily desultory way.
The inquiry on which we have had to enter may be approached
either in the skeptical or in the scientific frame of mind. These
are not only different but opposed. The motive which rouses the
scientific man to exertion is his earnest desire for the increase of
142 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April3,
knowledge. For this he is willing to do his utmost in any and
every direction that is open to him. The motive which controls
the philosophical skeptic is his fear of a false step. He is indis-
posed to stir at all until secure of his footing. The mind when in
a scientific attitude is patient even of known error, if only it can be
made the basis of a really good working hypothesis that will help
the inquirer forward, and which may then become susceptible of
revision and correction. Numberless instances can be given in
which this process has led to valuable results. In fact, most of
man’s scientific knowledge of nature is owing to it. But sucha
method is repugnant to the philosophical skeptic, whose attitude
damps all advance unless it can be carried on from the beginning
under conditions of perfection—in other words, under conditions
which are impossible in the early stages of almost every inquiry.
30 LeEpBuRY Roap, Lonpon, W., March, 1903.
HINTS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARTHRO-
PODA; THE GROUP A POLYPHYLETIC ONE.
BY ALPHEUS S. PACKARD.
(Read April 8, 1903.)
Of the ten or twelve chief groups or phyla into which the animal
kingdom is subdivided by systematists, nearly all except those of
the old groups Vermes and the Arthropoda are acknowledged to be
fairly well limited. There is a general agreement of opinion as to
the naturalness and monophyletic origin of the Protozoa, Porifera,
Coelenterata, Echinodermata, Mollusca and Chordata. Those of
the ‘‘ worms’’ and the great group Arthropoda are still the cause of
more or less difference of opinion.
The group Arthropoda was established by Siebold in 1848, but in
late years, with the increase in our knowledge of the morphology
and embryology of the Arthropodan classes, especially of the Tri-
lobita, Merostomata, Malacopoda (Peripatus) and Myriopoda, there
has been expressed by several zoologists the opinion that the Arthro-
podan phylum is a more or less artificial one, and should be sub- —
divided into more natural groups—z.e., that it is composed of
several phyla.
Were it only a matter of convenience, the great group Arthro-
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1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 143
poda might be retained. The fundamental characters are the pos-
session of jointed or polymerous appendages, and the great reduc-
tion or entire absence of a ccelomic cavity. Besides this the ante-
rior body-segments are grouped into a head, while the trunk-seg-
ments may be either separate and homonomous or differentiated into
a thoracic and abdominal region. But it has been pointed out by
Kingsley and also by Laurie that the possession of jointed legs in
the different classes may be due to convergence, or to homoplasy.
Kingsley and others have shown that the gills and trachez are
adaptive characters, and that the retention of the groups Branchiata
and Tracheata is not warranted. Gills and trachez are adaptive
features. We have in the phylum Paleopoda the classes of bran.
chiate Trilobita and branchiate Merostomes, while from the latter
appear to have evolved the terrestrial tracheate Arachnida. The
mode of respiration affords fair class characters, but not phylum
characters.
HISTORY OF OPINION AS TO THE POLYPHYLETIC NATURE OF
ARTHROPODA.
As early as 1869 the present writer’ rejected Miiller’s (1864) and:
Haeckel’s view (1866) that the insects and other tracheates had
descended from the zoéa of the Crustacea, and claimed their ances-
try from the Annulata. Kennel?* in 1891 stated his view that the
Crustacea arose by an independent line of descent from that of the
Annelida, the two groups having diverged from a Preannelidan
ancestor, his Protrochosphera, from which the Mollusca also sprang.
The tracheate classes he traces back to the Peripatiformes, from
1 My views were stated in an article, entitled « The Ancestry of Insects,” in
the American Naturalist, iii, p. 45, March, 1869. In commenting on Haeckel’s
view that the ancestor of insects, spiders, and myriopods was a zoéa-like form, a
view previously expressed by Fritz Miiller, and also held by Dohrn, I rejected
this theory and suggested that the ancestor of insects and other tracheates “ must
have been worm-like and aquatic.” A little later I referred the ancestry of both
the insects and crustacea, “independently of each other, to the worms (Annu-
lata)” (American Naturalist, iv, p. 756, February, 1871).
2« Die Verwandtschaftverhaltnisse der Arthropoden (Schriften Naturf.
Gesells. Dorpat, vi, 1891). Kennel’s view that the Nauplius form originated
from the Rotatoria was earlier expressed by the writer, as follows: “The Nau-
plius form of the embryo or larva of all Crustacea also points back to the worms
as their ancestors, the divergence having perhaps originated in the Rotatoria”’
(American Naturalist, v, p. 52, March, 1871).
144 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April 3
which Peripatus arose, with two lines of descent, one ending in
the Chilopoda and Insecta, the other in Diplopoda, Pauropoda and
Symphyla, the branch finally ending in the Arachnoidea. He thus
divides the Arthropoda into Branchiata (Crustacea) and Tracheata.
He quotes Plate,’ who in 1889 considered that Crustacea and the
Tracheates followed each an ‘‘entirely separate developmental
path,’’ since he derived the Crustacea from the Rotatoria, and the
Tracheata from the Annelida.
In 1883 Kingsley’ inquired whether the group Arthropoda is a
natural one, calling attention to the fact that the insects have been.
derived from Peripatus, while the Crustacea ‘‘had an ancestor
resembling the Nauplius of the Phyllopoda or the Copepoda.’’ In
1894* he divided the Arthropoda into three subphyla: I. Bran-
chiata; II. Insecta or Antennata, and III. Diplopoda, rejecting
the old grouping into Branchiates and Tracheates (though retain-
ing the Branchiata), and he states his belief that the three divisions
he makes ‘‘ are but remotely related to one another, and it may yet
be proved that they have no common ancestor nearer than the
Annelids.”’, *
Indeed, as early as 1886, A. C. Oudemans* thus expressed his
views as to the relations of Limulus with the trilobites, and of the
derivation of the scorpion from the Eurypterida: ‘‘ Though some
zoologists doubt the relationship of Limulus with the Trilobita, the
Paleontologists have long ago been convinced of it. Among the
numberless Trilobita there occur all possible transition forms be-
tween them and Limulus, and to Scorpio the .Eurypterida form a
partial bridge.’’ His genealogical tree represents the Xiphosura as _
originating from the trilobites and the scorpions as derived from
the Eurypterida, in this respect theoretically anticipating the results
attained by Pocock with Paleophonus. Oudemans also acknowl-
edges the close resemblance of trilobite larve to that of Limulus.
1« Ueber die Rotatorien fauna des bottnischen Meerbusens, nebst Beitragen
zur Kenntniss der Anatomie der Philodiniden und der systematischen Stellung
der Raderthiere” (Zeztschrift f. Wissen. Zoologie, xlix, December, 1889).
2 American Naturalist, xvii, p. 1034, 1883.
3 American Naturalist, xxviii, pp. 118 and 220, 1894.
4« Die gegenseitige Verwandschaft, Abstammung und Classification der so”
gennanten Arthropoden” (Zijdschr. d. Nederland. Dierk. Vereen, 2° Ser.
Deel 1, 1886).
]
1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 145
I also stated in 1893" that there are four lines of development in
the Arthropoda (throwing out for the present the Linguatulina and
Tardigrada), viz. : ‘‘ the Podostomatous line, the first to be struck oft
from the Annelidan stock (the trilobites being the first forms to
appear) ; second, the Arachnidan line; third, the Crustacean line,
nearly coeval with the first or Podostomatous ; and the fourth, the
line culminating in Myriopods, Scolopendrella and insects; and it
is safe to suppose that the terrestrial tracheate groups of Arachnida,
Myriopoda and insects were later products than the marine,
aquatic branchiate classes—/.e., the Podostomata and the Crus-
tacea.’’
Afterwards in 1898, in my Zext-Book of Entomology, as a
result of the memoirs of Lankester, Kingsley, and the work of
Kishinyoue on the embryology of the Japanese Limulus, from mor-
phological and embryological data, having abandoned earlier
opinions as to the Crustacean affinities of Limulus, I gradually
was led to recognize the close affinity of the Merostomes and
Arachnida, stating that the embryology of Limulus and Arachnida
‘“ shows that they have descended from forms related to Limulus,
possibly having had an origin in common with that animal, or
having, as some authors claim, directly diverged from some primi-
tive eurypteroid merostome’’ (p. 6). Again, on p. 8: ‘The
Arachnida probably descended from marine merostomes, and not
from an independent annelid ancestry.’’ Again, on p. 3, ina dis-
cussion of the relation of insects to other Arthropoda: ‘It is be-
coming evident, however, that there was no common ancestor of
the Arthropoda as a whole, and that the group is a polyphyletic one.
Hence, though a convenient group, it is a somewhat artificial one,
and may eventually be dismembered into at least three or four
phyla or branches.”’
Subdivision of the Arthropoda into five Phyla.—I would suggest
the following grouping of the principal classes of the Arthropoda,
beginning with what may be regarded as the most primitive assem-
blage of classes, and for which I would propose the name Pa/eopoda,
in allusion to the very primitive and homonomous nature of their
post-antennal or post-oral appendages, when compared with those of
1«¢ Further Studies on the Brain of Limulus Polyphemus, with Notes on its
Embryology ” (Memoirs Nat. Acad. Sciences, p. 322, 1893). Compare also
Zoologischer Anzeiger, April 20, 1891.
146 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA, [April 3,
the Crustacea.’ I also add what appear to be the essential characters
of the phylum.
Phylum I, Pat&opopa. Composed of three classes—/. ¢.,
Trilobita, Merostomata, Arachnida.
Body trilobate (in Trilobita and many Merostomata), never pro-
tected by a true carapace, composed of a head and trunk region;
the head-region separate from the trunk, in Trilobites (Triarthrus)
composed of (judging by the appendages) five segments (som-
ites, arthromeres), in Merostomes six, while in Arachnida the head
fused with the so-called thorax (cephalo-thorax) also consists of six
segments. The first pair of head-appendages, in a single trilobitic
genus (Triarthrus), are long, slender, uniaxial and antenniform, or
biramose, chelate (Merostomata and Arachnida) ; all the post-oral
appendages, in the most primitive class (Trilobita), biramose, con-
sisting of an outer and inner many-jointed division, but all homon-
omous, or retaining the same fundamental and primitive shape from
the mouth to the end of the body, and never (as they are in Crus-
tacea) differentiated into true or functional mandibles, maxille,
maxillipedes, ambulatory uniaxial thoracic legs, or biramose
abdominal limbs. The gnathobases, or coxal joint of each limb,
especially those near the mouth, armed with inward projecting
spines, acting as jaws to tear and to keep the food or prey from
escaping. In the Merostomata the post-cephalic or trunk (abdomi-
nal) limbs biramose and adapted for swimming, and either (in
Trilobites) expanded posteriorly and probably serving both for
swimming and respiration, or in Merostomes (Zzmu/us) bearing on
the exopodite of each limb, except those of the first pair, a pile of
numerous gill-sacs. In Arachnida, in adaptation to a terrestrial life,
the six pairs of abdominal or trunk limbs are reduced, mostly
atrophied, represented in the scorpion by the pectines and the four
pairs of invaginated book-lungs, and in spiders by the two pairs of
book-lungs (Mygale) and the three pairs of spinnerets, which are
2-3 jointed, external free appendages. A hypostoma is present
and well developed in Trilobita and Merostomata, as also a double
underlip, the chilaria of Limulus.
The eyes of -Asaphus, etc., and of Limulus are compound, al-
1 Paleeocarida was proposed when I believed that Limulus and its allies were
Crustacea; my name Podostomata was proposed for a greup embracing the two
classes Trilobita and Merostomes; the present name, Palzopoda, is needed to
embrace the three classes mentioned.
1903.] PACKARD—-CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 147
ways sessile, and distinguished by the thick, either lenticular or
long conical lenses, arranged in quincunx order.
_ The integument.is chitinous, insoluble as in insects, never con-
taining carbonate or phosphate of lime, or forming a solid crust
as in the higher Crustacea. The cartilaginous plate (endoster-
nite), so large and well developed in Limulus, is also present in
Arachnida.
In the living forms (Limulus and Arachnida) the digestive canal
may be differentiated into a slender cesophagus, a proventriculus
armed with rows of numerous chitinous teeth (Limulus) and an
intestine, the stomach being but slightly differentiated. The liver
or hepato-pancreas is large and voluminous. In the Merostomes
(Limulus) there are no salivary glands, though occurring in Arach-
nida. Genital openings always (Merostomata and Arachnida) proso-
goneate, the oviducts or seminal ducts opening out separately on the
posterior aspect of the basal abdominal limbs (Limulus), or in
Arachnida united into a single terminal passage, opening bya single
orifice at the base of the abdomen. In the marine forms, with gills
or localized respiration, the heart is tubular and the arterial system
remarkably developed and finely divided, whereas in the tracheate,
terrestrial forms the arteries and veins are absent, respiration being
carried on throughout the body (chiefly abdominal) cavity.
In the Palzeopoda there is no true metamorphosis like chat of the
Crustacea, no nauplius or zoéa stage. The first or earliest larval stage,
the profaspis’ stage of Beecher, can, so far as we can see, in no way
be likened to the nauplius of a crustacean. The nauplius has an oval
body, not differentiated into segments, but with three pairs of
slender swimming limbs, which finally become the two pairs of
antenne and the mandibles of the adult. In the protaspis of trilo-
bites, as defined by Beecher, the conditions are entirely different
and such as suggest the origin from a polymerous Annelid ancestor.
The minute disk-like or suborbicular larva of different genera of
Trilobites described by Barrande and by Beecher consist of two
regions, a head and trunk or abdomen. There are in the head
indications of five annulations, the same number as in the adult
Triarthrus; the much shorter abdominal region has from ‘‘ one
1 This term was proposed by Beecher in his paper on ‘‘ The Larval Stages of
Trilobites” (Amer. Geologist, September, 1895). Previously to that, A. C,
Oudemans, in 1886, in the article cited, proposed the name /roagnostus for the
same stage. If used, this name might be amended to read Protagnostus stage.
148 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April 3,
to several annulations,’’ which probably represent segments.
From this we logically infer that in the protaspis of trilo-
bites there were more than three pairs of head-appendages, and
possibly two or three pairs of abdominal appendages. Now the
larva of Limulus is hatched with two body-regions, of the same
general shape as those of the trilobites, and it is also trilobed; the
embryo, sometimes before hatching, with its thick spherical body,
strongly recalls the protaspis stage of trilobites, and seems to justify
the view that the freshly hatched larva of Limulus is a protaspis.’
In the protaspis-like fossil Cyclus, which seems to represent an
ancestral type of Limuloids persisting into the Carboniferous
Period, there are traces of head-appendages like those of the
embryo Limulus.
The metamorphosis of the Palzopoda is, then, incomplete; the
limbs of the protaspis retain the form and functions of the larva,
the adult simply differing in acquiring at successive molts additional
trunk-segments, with their corresponding limbs.
The eggs of Limulus as well as of Arachnida are large and not
sO Numerous as in some Crustacea ; those of Limulus are laid in the
sand. The eggs of trilobites are also large, spherical, and evidently,
like those of Limulus, were deposited in the sand or sandy mud, as
they occur separately from the trilobites themselves.
The embryology of Limulus presents some unique features, and
yet there is such a close resemblance to that of the scorpion that
the embryology of the Arachnida, as I have freely acknowledged,
affords very strong proofs of their relationship to and descent from
merostomes. In the embryo of the scorpion and spiders there are
six pairs of head- (cephalothoracic) appendages, and the mode of
origin of the book-lungs of the scorpion and spiders seems to prove
that they are derivatives of the exopodites of the abdominal limbs
of Limulus.
It results from what is now known of the structure of the Trilo-
11 freely acknowledge that many years ago (1872) I supposed that the embryo
Limulus passed through a nauplius, and that I called it a « subzoéa stage,” but this
view was long since abandoned, as also my contention that Limulus was nearer
the Crustacea than the Arachnida. It need hardly be added that while as pre-
viously I cannot agree with the view that Limulus is an actual Arachnid, it has
for some years, through the result of the work of Kingsley and Kishinyoue, been
evident that the Merostomes are closely related to the Arachnida, and I adopted
this view in my memoir on the brain of Limulus (1893).
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1903. ] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 149
bita that they have no relationship with the Crustacea. To include
them in that group, otherwise a mos: natural one, is not good tax-
onomy. The chief characters which are given for retaining the
Trilobita as a primitive group of Crustacea are the presence of the
antenne-like preoral appendages of Triarthrus and one or two
other genera. That this is not so important as might seem at first
sight is the presence of four antennz-like appendages in the head
of Eurypterus; Holm having discovered that the first pair are
chelate, like those of Limulus.
Both Trilobita and Crustacea have biramose limbs, adapted for
swimming, but so nas any marine arthropod; the fact that the
limbs are divided is the result of their inheritance in either class
from Annelids with parapodia, but in the multiarticulate structure
of each ramus and the entire lack of differentiation of the whole
series of postoral limbs in Triarthrus we have fundamental charac-
ters which are diagnostic of the Trilobites, and widely separate the
class from the Crustacea. Whether the Merostomata are widely
distinct from the Trilobita or not, we submit that it is a mistake to
include the latter in the class of Crustacea.
Entirely disagreeing with those who widely separate the Merosto-
mata from the Trilobites, after repeatedly going over the subject, the
close relationship of the two groups seems to us to be very apparent,
the differences being only such as would separate the two classes of
a single phylum. It has seemed to us that the merostomes and
trilobites either had a common ancestry, which was a protaspid, or
the Merostomes by way of the Synxiphosura diverged from the
trilobite stem after it had been established in Precambrian times.
Thus far, unfortunately, we know nothing of the nepionic stage of
any of the Eurypterida. Their earliest adult form (Strabops of
Beecher!) occurs in the Cambrian, while the Synxiphosura date
from the Silurian. It is not improbable that some genus of this
group gave origin to the Xiphosura. On the other hand, is there
not so close a resemblance between some of these Synxiphosura,
such as Neolimulus and Bunodes, as to suggest that the Merostomes
are direct descendants of the Trilobita? If we compare the figures
1 Although Beecher refers this early form to the Eurypterida, it appears, judg-
ing from his figure, to quite as much resemble certain Synxiphosura, as Bunodes
and Neolimulus, in the short, broad head and shape of the trunk-segment and
telson, though it has two segments more than in the Synxiphosura and one seg-
ment less than in the Eurypterida.
150 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April 3,
of Aglaspis eatoni with that of Dalmanites (Figs. 1414 and 1331
of Zittell-Eastman’s Paleontology), is there not such a close
resemblance in the shape of the head (or cephalothorax) and of
the trunk-segments as to suggest a close alliance, even though mem-
bers of two distinct classes? To answer this question by saying
that this is a case of convergence, the objector might be referred to
the other Synxiphosura, which also suggest a common origin of the
two classes from a protaspis ancestor. It has been suggested that
some of the Cyclidz are larval Eurypterida or Limuloids ; if this
should prove to be the case (of which we are by no means sure, as
no Cyclidz have yet been found below the Carboniferous), we should
have an additional argument for the common origin of the two
classes, for the Cyclidz somewhat resemble the larval trilobites.
Relation between the Merostomata and Arachnida.—While we
have from the first maintained that the Merostomes should not
actually be included among the Arachnida—v. ¢., that Limulus is
not a genuine Arachnidan, as claimed by Van Beneden, Lankester
and later authors—from the evidence we now have as to the mode
of origin of the book-lungs and the morphogeny of the appendages
in general, and especially the interesting and remarkable discovery
by Mr. Pocock,! that the Silurian so-called scorpions are probably
marine links between scorpions and Eurypterida, whatever objec-
tions I have formerly expressed to their Arachnidan affinities are
now overcome, and it seems plain that the scorpion is a direct
descendant of some Eurypteridan. Pocock’s fortunate discovery
in the Silurian scorpion (Paleophonus hunteri) of the inner branch
of a two-jointed appendage, which appears to be the homologue of a
recent scorpion’s ‘‘pecten,’’ should it be confirmed by the dis-
covery of additional examples ; as well as the thickness of the head-
appendages, the last four pairs of which end in a single point, not
in claws, as in modern scorpions—these discoveries appear to give
the clue to the line of descent of Arachnida from some Merostome,
one would say from some Eurypterus-like form, though, from other
features observed by him, Mr. Pocock takes the view that ‘‘ Palzo-
phonus occupies an intermediate position between Limulus and the
Eurypterida on the one hand and recent scorpions on the other,
standing, if anything, rather nearer to the former than to the
latter.’’
1« The Scottish Silurian Scorpion,” Quart. Fourn. Micr. Sc., Vol. 44, 0. S.,
1902.
1908. ] PACKARD-——CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 151
We quite agree with Pocock’s opinion that Paleeophonus was not
adapted for land and aérial respiration, but ‘‘ lived in the sea, prob-
ably in shallow water, its strong, sharply-pointed legs being fitted
for maintaining a secure hold on the bottom.”’
In conclusion, then, we would suggest, from our present knowl-
edge of the Palzeopoda, that the group is a natural one, that the
line of descent of the phylum from some Annelid-like worm was
independent of that of the crustacean phylum, and that the affini-
ties shown by morphology and embryology to exist between the
Trilobita, Merostomata and Arachnida are so close that they form
a tolerably definite series of interrelated classes.
Phylum If. PancarRipA. Represented bya single class, Crus-
tacea. ‘The phylum name is proposed for the reason that the group
is so well circumscribed, none but the genuine Crustacea or Carides
belonging to it, forms as to whose position in nature all zoologists
are well agreed.
In this group there is a decided advance over the Palzopoda in
the differentiation of the appendages into from three to six kinds,
with corresponding functions. In the lower or more primitive,
though somewhat modified, group of Cladocera, such as Daphnia,
there are two pairs of antennz, a pair of mandibles, of maxille, |
and of legs or trunk-appendages, the whole performing four different
functions; while in the Decapoda there are besides the antenne,
mandibles and maxillz, three pairs of maxillipedes, five pairs of
thoracic and six of abdominal legs, or appendages, in all performing
six different kinds of functions—a degree of differentiation and
specialization not exceeded by any other Arthropodan group.
The members of the phylum show an increasing tendency, as we
rise towards the more specialized forms, to a heteronomous segmen-
tation and also to a wonderful transfer of parts headwards (cephal-
ization), the cephalothorax being covered by a carapace formed by
the hypertrophy or excessive development of the tergites of the
second antennal and mandibular segments. In the Phyllocarida
the cephalothorax is covered by a bivalvular carapace, with a weak
adductor muscle; while in Apus it, in adaptation to its burrowing
in soft mud, assumes the general shape of the shield of Limulus;
while in the Estheridz the entire body is protected by the two
valves, which are connected by a definite hinge and ligament. On
the other hand, the head-shield of the Palzeopoda, as well as the
pygidium when occurring, is the result of the simple fusion of the
152 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April 3,
segments. While the Phyllopoda are generally regarded as the most
primitive group—their swimming limbs closely resembling those
of Annelid worms—it may be questioned whether the Phyllocarida
are not astill more primitive group; certainly they are the most
composite or synthetic, and were the earliest known group of
Crustacea.
Crustacea are, like the Paleopoda, prosogoneate ; but when we
take into account the fact that there is in the adult but a single pair
of nephridia (the green gland), or in other forms (Phyllopoda) the
shell gland, there has been a great reduction in the number of pairs
from what may have been the ancestral type, while Limulus still
retains four pairs. In all Crustacea the eggs are carried attached
to the body of the parent, and never, as in trilobites and meros-
tomes, deposited loosely in the sand.
In their metamorphosis, which is a complete one in all the typi-
cal forms, the larval stage of the lower Crustacea being a nauplius,
we have another feature wanting in the Palzopoda. As is well
known, the early embryo of Moina passes through a prenauplian
stage like that of Annelida, and the indications are that the nau-
plius is itself a derivation from the trochosphera stage of Annelid
worms. te
Now, as is well known, the most primitive groups or members of
a group do not undergo transformations ; and in this respect the
Pancarida are a later, more specialized group than the Paleeopoda.
It will be remembered that the most primitive insects (Synaptera)
do not undergo a metamorphosis, and if several of the lower orders
of winged insects it is incomplete, there being no larval and pupal
‘stages; in the Arachnida only the extremely modified Acarina
undergo a slight metamorphosis. That of the Meropoda is slight.
Enough has been stated, we think, to show that the Paleopoda
are quite remote from the Pancarida, and that a union of the trilo-
bites in the same class with the Crustacea brings about an unnat-
ural association, and tends to an unnecessary amount of confusion.
Dr. Kingsley regards the Trilobita as the more primitive sub-
class of Crustacea, but we are unable to see any features in Crustacea
which could have been derived from trilobites; there are no
transitional forms, and the larval forms are widely distinct, as he
has well shown. ‘The gap between the two groups is, on morpho-
logical and embryological grounds, a very wide one. Already in
the early Cambrian seas trilobites were a predominant type, while
"i
ty
+
.
i
A
;
1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 153
the Crustacea were comparatively scanty in numbers, and repre-
sented by primitive types showing no trace of trilobite characters.
The Chief Factors in the Evolution of Classes.—Assuming that
the Arachnida, represented by the most typical form, the scorpion,
have evolved from the class of merostomes, in the way suggested
by Pocock, the entire process or phenomenon has the most direct
and instructive bearings on the method of evolution of one class
from another.
In the first place, the single group of scorpions—say a single gen-
eric form—appears to have arisen from some genus of Eurypterida,
allied to Eurypterus, and by divergent evolution the great class of
Arachnida, with its eight orders, appears to have originated by one
step after another from a single type, not necessarily an individual,
but many, all the members of the genus being modified by similar
causes, in the same manner and at the same time.
The modification of a marine Eurypteroid form, perhaps living in
a shallow, land-locked basin, perhaps finally becoming brackish, into
a terrestrial scorpion, was due to changes in the environment, in
the topography; this reacted on the Eurypterid and resulted in
change of habits, and consequent adaptation to brackish, and per-
haps to fresh, water, and finally to land. With little doubt, all the
forms inhabiting the area underwent the same kind of modification
and similar adaptation to a new medium, the same changes of func-
tion resulting in the disuse of organs adapted for marine existence
and the evolution of structures adapting the animal for terrestrial
life.
The changes by which the connecting links (Palzeophonus) be-
came transformed into a genuine scorpion, the ancestor and founder
of the Arachnida, were the following :
1. The loss by disuse of the abdominal swimming appendages
‘(except the pectines), and the ingrowth and reduction by disuse of
the expodites, the gills attached to them being carried in, forming
eventually the book-lungs of the scorpion, each with its spiracular
opening, adapted for aérial respiration.
2. The four hinder pairs of cephalothoracic appendages became
slenderer after the animal had left the water and adopted a life on
land, under stones or the bark of trees, etc.,and the single stout
claw of the original Paleeophonus became by use, in climbing trees,
etc., two-clawed, like those of all Arachnida and insects.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XLII. 173. K. PRINTED JUNE 11, 1908.
154 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April3,
3. The compound eyes of the Merostomes became broken up
into groups of single eyes.
4. Most remarkable changes took place in the internal organs,
resulting in the development of salivary glands, none occurring in
Crustacea and other marine Arthropods.
5. The acquisition of Malphigian or urinary tubes which exist
in terrestrial Arthropods, Arachnida, insects, etc., but in no
marine Arthropods.
6. A gradual reduction in the number of pairs of nephridia, all
Arachnida having but a single pair, Limulus having four pairs, and
the Eurypterida presumably as many.
7. After the scorpion type became fixed and the spiders arose,
the number of pairs of book-lungs became reduced from two pairs
in Mygale to one in other spiders, and then began an evolution of
tracheze from dermal glands—a process seen in certain terrestrial
planarian worms as well as land-leeches.
8. While the arterial system of Limulus, owing to its localized
organs of respiration, is remarkably developed, in the scorpion the
arterial system is greatly reduced, and in the tracheate Arachnida,
such as the spiders, there are no arteries or venous lacune.
It is most probable that the evolution of the Palzeophonus descen-
dants, viz., the scorpions of the Carboniferous—assuming that they
were true scorpions—took place with comparative rapidity, z. e., by
tachygenesis, without the extremely slow method postulated by the
natural selectionists, the modification suggested above having con-
temporaneously affected all the individuals, many thousands or tens
of thousands alike. The method was not, as Darwin imagined, the
result of a single chance variation gradually and by numberless
intermediate forms passing into a species which gave origin to
many others, from which were gradually evolved new subgenera,
genera, subfamilies and so on, but the method was radically differ-
ent. The Paleophonus, an Eurypterid, became, we take it, in a
comparatively few generations the parent of a scorpion, the repre-
sentative of a distinct class. The class characters, great as are the
differences, especially in its internal organs, between an Arachnid
and a Merostome, were assumed with comparative suddenness.
New classes, like new species, did not arise from a single but from
a large number of individuals. This was Lamarck’s doctrine, and
it has been reaffirmed by De Vries. This shows that even classes
1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 155
are in a degree artificial or ideal conceptions. And so it was with
the evolution of mammals from theromorphous reptiles, and of birds
such as the Archzopteryx from reptiles. With our present knowl-
edge we can trace an almost exact parallel between the tachygenic
origin, by change in the medium, inducing changes in habits and
the functions, of flying in sectsfrom Synapterous forms, that of the
Arachnida from the Merostomes, of Amphibia from Ganoid fishes,
of reptiles possibly from Amphibia like the Labyrinthodonts, of
birds from dinosaurian reptiles, and of mammals from theromorph
reptiles (unless the Amphibians, as some contend, were the source
of mammalian life).
The exciting causes of the differentiation of classes, as well as
orders, families and genera, were geological and topographic
changes, enforced migration and consequent isolation, adaptation
to a new medium, to new conditions of life, such as a change from
marine to fresh water, from fresh water to land, and in the case of
pterodactyls, birds and insects, from a terrestrial life to one spent
partly in the air.
The early Paleozoic ages as well as the Precambrian were periods
of the rapid evolution of phyla, and of class and ordinal types, as
shown by Hyatt, the writer, and others. Indeed, it would seem as
if the evolution and differentiation of varieties and species suc-
ceeded rather than preceded the formation of genera and higher
groups. It may be questioned whether the natural selectionists
could make any progress in evolution, so to speak, by beginning
with merely simple variations, although after the higher or more
general groups were originated, and this was by far the most diffi-
cult and important step, specific variations set in very rapidly, as
early as Cambrian times. Few, except paleontologists, appear to
appreciate the rapidity with which evolution in Precambrian and
Cambrian times must have operated among the plastic forms which
here and there crowded the early paleozoic seas.
Phylum III. Meropopa. This group is proposed to include
the classes of Pauropoda, Diplofoda and Symphyla.
Prosogoneate myriopods, in which the body is in the typical
forms cylindrical, the ‘trunk-segments variable in number, but
usually numerous, and each segment ‘‘ double’’ —z. ¢., united bya
dorsal plate, which was originally two plates which had been
fused together (Heathcote), unless we adopt the views of Kenyon
that the alternate plates disappeared, the remaining plates overgrow-
156 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. ([April3, |
ing those behind them, so as to give rise to the anomalous double
segments ; the feet arise close together along the median line of the
body, there being no sternal plates between them. In the typical
Diplopoda the head consists of three segments, the preoral or an-
tennal and two postoral, bearing the mandibles (protomalz) and
the single pair of maxillz (deutomale) united to form the gnatho-
chilarium or underlip. As all the members of this phylum agree in
having from two- to three-jointed mandibles, in which respect they
differ from Chilopod Myriopods and especially insects, we have
given the name JZerogoda to this phylum in allusion to the primi-
tive nature of these appendages, which resemble the maxillz rather
than the mandibles of insects.1_ The mandibles of the Diplopods
consist of three segments, a basal segment (cardo), a middle seg-
ment (stipes), and a distal one (mala mandibularis), which sup-
ports two lobes homologous with the galea and lacinia of the —
maxilla of an insect. Diplopods are also provided with eversible
coxal glands, in position like those of Scolopendrella ; these perhaps }
functioning as blood-gills, and in Lysiopetalum occurring between
the coxe of the third to sixteenth pair of limbs. |
A primitive feature, and the one diagnostic of the Meropodaas
compared with the Chilopodous Myriopods, is the paired genital j
ducts and openings which are situated near the head between the
second and third pair of legs. In the Symphyla the opening is
single, proving the later origin of that group. Another diagnostic
feature is that the male genital glands lie beneath, while in Peri-
patus, Chilopods and insects they lie above the digestive canal.
The tracheary system is also more primitive than in Chilopoda |
and insects, the trachez not being branched (except in Glomeridz) .
and anastomosing, and the tracheze themselves are without spiral
threads (tenidia). In Diplopods the stigmata, which are per-
manently open, are placed beneath the legs, oreven in the coxal
joints. The nervous system is much more primitive than in Chilo-
poda and insects. The external genital armature, a complicated
apparatus of male claspers and hooks, apparently arises from the
sternum of the sixth trunk-segment, and they are modifications
of the seventh pair of legs. F
In their embryology the Diplopoda are more primitive than the
1 There is an approach to this trimerous condition in Thysanura and Orthop-
tera (Blatta) and certain Coleoptera (see my Zéext-Book of Entomology, p. 60,
also p. 12),
1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 157
Chilopoda. In Polydesmus the method of formation of the blas-
toderm more resembles that of the Crustaceans and Arachnida than
that of Chilopods.
The larva of the Diplopods, though bearing but three pairs of
legs, differs from that of any insect in that these limbs are not
appended to consecutive segments ; either the second or the third
segment in different species of Julus being legless, while in Blaniulus
the legs are borne on segments 2 to 4 behind the head.1 The new
double segments with their two pairs of legs arise at successive
molts, so that the animal undergoes a partial metamorphosis ; while
the Chilopods are hatched in the form of the adult, being poly-
podous.
Pauropopa. Nothing has been added to our knowledge of these
forms since the publication of the thorough works on them by
Kenyon and by Schmidt.
The group was regarded as an order (Pauropoda) by Lubbock.
Kenyon, however, created the order Protodiplopoda, including in
it Pauropus and Polyxenus.
The Pauropoda are regarded by Kenyon as degenerate Diplo-
pods, owing to the absence of tracheal and circulatory systems,
and distantly related to Polyxenus; on the other hand, the sim-
plicity of the segmentation, the fact that there is but a single pair
of legs to a segment, and other features pointed out by Kenyon,
lead us to provisionally regard the group as a class more primitive
and distinct from the Diplopoda. The number of mouth-appen-
dages is the same as in the Diplopods; the genital aperture opens
on the third trunk-segment, and the testis is situated above the
intestine (the ovary below).
History of the Opinions regarding the Taxonomy of the Meropoda.
—The first writer to doubt the naturalness of the group Myriopoda,
and to state that the Chilopoda and Hexapoda were more nearly
allied than the Chilopoda and Diplopoda, was Pocock,? in 1887.
A year later Dr. Kingsley ® arrived independently at the same opin-
ion, adding the anatomical data in support of this view.
1 The young of Polyzonium, however, is hatched with four pairs of legs, borne
on each of the first four trunk-segments (Rimsky-Korsakow, Travaux Soc. Imp.
Naturalistes de St. Petersbourg, xxv, 1895, Pl. 1, Fig. 8).
2 Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., xx, October, 1887.
3 American Naturalist, December, 1888, p. 1118.
158 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April3,
In 1893 Pocock?! divided the tracheate Arthropods into two sec-
tions, the Progoneata (including class Pauropoda and class Diplo-
poda), and Ofisthogoneata, embracing the Homopoda (class Sym-
phyla and class Chilopoda) and Hexopoda (class Hexopoda).
Afterwards? he placed the Symphyla among the tracheate Progo-
neata.
This classification of Myriopoda was adopted by Schmidt in
1895, and has been adopted by Verhoeff* and the term Myriopoda
will probably hereafter be merely used as a convenient appellation
for polypod tracheate arthropods.
We would add that, rejecting the old term Tracheata, the proso-
goneate Myriopods appear to us to constitute an independent
phylum, rather than a subphylum, and for that reason we have ven-
tured to propose the name Merofoda for the group (epog, a part
or segment; zoug, zodos, a leg), from the fact that the mandibles
are more distinctly divided into segments than in any other group
of Arthropods, thus more closely resembling the other appendages
of the body, whence it follows that all the limbs, including the
mandibles, have the primitive feature of being composed of several .
segments.
The Symphyla in respect to the structure of the mandibles are
less primitive than the Diplopods, but I am now inclined to agree
with those who have pointed out their Diplopods affinities and to
place them among the Meropods. .
The Systematic Position of the Symphyla.—This is a puzzling
problem. In my TZext-Book of Entomology I have with some
care reviewed the chief points in the anatomy of Scolopendrella
and the opinions of different authors regarding its systematic rela-
tions. Having studied sections of the animals, I prepared a figure
or reproduction from the sagittal sections of a female, of which the
accompanying illustration (Fig. 1) is an enlarged reproduction.
Comparing the digestive tract with that of Pauropus, it is divided
into three portions ; the cesophageal valve opening into the stomach
is seen at @. v., and the beginning of the rectum is well marked ;
the two urinary tubes are large, arising at the posterior end of the
intestine and ending in front at the third segment from the head
1 Zoologische Anzeiger, xvi, Jahrg. 3, Juli, 1893, p. 271.
2 Natural Science, x, February, 1897, p. 114.
3 Bronn’s KZassen. u. ord. Thier-reichs, Bd. V, VI, Abth. Arthropoda, Leip-
zig, 1902. -
N ’ 8.9] t i
CoO! as SEER,
est S Y
C4 ae
aoe
Waeducclipigieeocon oes eetcO)
Ore ae REA MaeA IAA aaa,
WES a2
Fic. 1. Section through Scolopendrella immaculata ; @, cesophagus ; @.v, cesophageal valve entering the stomach ; 7,
?
intestine ; 7, rectum; 47, brain; us, abdominal chain of ganglia; ova, oviduct; ov,
ovary; s.g/, silk gland, and of, its outer
opening in the cercus; wr. ¢, urinary tube; cg, coxal glands or blood-gills—Author, de/.
1903.] | PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 159
(ur. ¢.). The ovary (ov.) is seen to lie partly beneath but mainly
above the intestine; the median opening of the oviduct (ovd.)
being indicated by the arrow between the third and fourth pair of
legs. Attention should be called to the eversible coxal sacs (c. g.),
of which there are eleven pairs situated at the base of the legs of
each pair; the sac is largest and most developed in the middle of
the body and is a convoluted tube which makes three turns. The
silk gland (s. g/.) at the end of the body is large, its direct opening
situated at the end of the cercus, while the gland itself extends as
far forward as the third segment from the end of the body. The
brain and nerve-cord are large and thick, much as in Pauropus.
The dorsal vessel, fat body, rectal glands and the salivary glands
are not represented.
There is in Scolopendrella a mixture of Diplopod and Thysan-
uran characters, the former the more primitive and predominating.
My original idea that it is a Thysanuran is certainly a mistaken
one. The Symphyla evidently forms a group by itself, and I am
inclined to agree with Pocock and with Kingsley that it should for
the present be associated with Pauropods and Diplopods. Yet
were it not for the anterior position of the genital opening we should
regard it as the representative of a group from which the insects
have descended.
The Symphyla is evidently a much less primitive group than the
Pauropoda and Diplopoda, as proved by the single genital opening
and the Thysanuran characters it possesses. It would seem as if it
had already begun to diverge from the Diplopod stem, and was
becoming modified in the direction of the Thysanura.1! It is a true
composite or prophetic type which has persisted from very early
paleozoic times, and we may well imagine that there once existed a
form intermediate between it and the Thysanura in which the
genital outlet had moved back to the position it holds in Chilopods
and insects. As I state in my Zext-Book of Entomology, *‘ cer-
tainly Scolopendrella is the only extant Arthropod which, with the
1 The thysanurous characters and the fact that it has but asingle pair of legs to
a segment (unless, as Schmidt suggests, the parapodia “ represent the vestiges of
a second pair of legs and correspond to the hinder pair of limbs of the primary
double segment,” thus indicating I would add the diplopod origin of Scolopen-
drella) appear to indicate that it is a form which has become considerably
detached from the Diplopod stem, and has gone part way towards the incoming
Thysanura. Campodea also possesses these so-called “ parapodia.”
160 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April3,
sole exception of the anteriorly situated genital opening, fulfills the
conditions required of an ancestor of Thysanura, and through them
of the winged insects’? (p. 22). Meanwhile, until the embryology
of this form is thoroughly worked out and compared with that of the
Diplopods on the one hand, and Campodea, as treated by Uzel, on
the other, we must be content to let the Symphyla remain provis-
ionally associated with the Diplopoda in the phylum Meropoda.
Phylum IV. PROTRACHEATA. Class Ma/lacopoda. ‘The-arthro-
podan features of Peripatus are discussed in my TZext-Look of
Entomology (p. 9). Its nature as the probable ancestor of the
Chilopoda is, notwithstanding the immense gap between it and
Chilopods and insects, such as to still compel us to suppose that it
resembles the probable progenitor of the Chilopods and of the
insects. It would be difficult to know what better to do with it.
It certainly cannot be placed among the Annelids, or in any other
Arthropodan phylum, and it is with little doubt a very ancient
type which has persisted from perhaps early paleozoic times.
Phylum V, ENTOMOPTERA. Class Chilopoda and class Jmsecta
(Hexapoda). While the Chilopoda are the nearest allies of the
Insects, there is certainly a wide gap between them, and there
are no structures in insects which unmistakably point to their origin
from Chilopods, although Uzel in his account of the embryology
of Campodea shows that in some respects it develops like Geophi-
lus. «At present, however, we are in the dark as to the origin of
the thysanurous Synaptera from any form, unless we invoke a Sco-
lopendrella-like ancestor in which the genital opening has moved
back to a position homologous with that of Peripatus, Chilopods
and insects.
The combination of Chilopoda and Insecta as here given is a
new one,’ and for the Phylum, as we limit it, a new name seems
necessary. As the Chilopods are a quite subordinate group, and
the great mass of the orders is composed of winged forms, I have
ventured to propose the term Axtomoptera to cover this great group
of Arthropodous animals, reserving the name Insecta for the class
which has always borne that name. Each of the phyla as here
limited appears, judging from their structure and what we know of
their development, to represent distinct and independent lines of
development, and are submitted for consideration by zoologists. It
1The Antennata of Lang comprises all the Myriopoda and the Insects.
ai awvs'-e
1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 161
may at least be claimed that the breaking up of the Arthropoda into
more definite, well-circumscribed groups will lead to greater exacti-
tude and definiteness when referring to them.
After this article was completed I discovered that A. C. Oude-
mans as early as 1886 thus expressed his views as to the naturalness
of the Arthropoda: ‘‘It is desirable that the group of Arthropoda
should be given up. The groups of Acaroidea, Arachnoidea,
Crustacea, Pantopoda, Onychophora, and Insecta are independent
of each other, and should, therefore, be treated separately in the
manuals. The very complicated structure would then become
clearer to the student. A comparison of the groups with each
can best take place afterwards and not beforehand ” (Z. ¢., p. 20).
The following diagram will roughly indicate the different Phyla
and the principal classes into which they are divided. It should
be observed that the Annelidan ancestors of any of these five Phyla
probably had few trunk-segments, being probably primitive Tro-
chozoa with parapodia already developed.
Insecta
Arachnida
Symphyla
Crustacea
/ |
Merostomata /
| Trilobita Diplopoda Chilopoda
|
Malacopoda
Paasopoday = 0. TAR Sst | eee
foot sa
I II III IV Vv
PALZOPODA PANCARIDA MEROPODA PROTRACHEATA ENTOMOPTERA
Protagnostus
(Protaspis)
Annelida — Annelida Aumelida Annelida
or
Trochosphera
PROVIDENCE, R. I., March 28, 1903.
‘
162 MERRIMAN—LEAST WORK IN MECHANICS. [April 2,
THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST WORK IN MECHANICS AND
ITS USE IN INVESTIGATIONS REGARDING
THE ETHER OF SPACE.
BY MANSFIELD MERRIMAN.
(Read April 2, 1903.)
The principle of least work has been extensively used in applied
mechanics since 1879, when it was first formally stated and estab-
lished by Castigliano. Previous to that time, various authors had
discussed the principles of least action, of least constraint, and of
least resistance, and had applied them in the solution of special
problems. The principle of least work, however, is capable of
more definite statement and demonstration than the other mini-
mum laws, and its range of application in statical investigations on
elastic structures is wide, while it has been found to be of great
practical value to civil engineers.
When a structure like a bridge truss contains members sufficient
to prevent distortion of its panels and no more, the stresses in these
members due to given loads can be readily computed by the prin-
ciples of rigid statics, the members in this case being called
necessary ones. If there be superfluous members, however, rigid
statics cannot determine the stresses, since the number of unknown
stresses is greater than the number of statical conditions. In this
case the structure is said to be statically indeterminate, and the
principle of least work must be applied. This principle asserts that
the stresses under consideration have such values that the potential
stress energy stored in all the members of the structure shall be a
minimum. If there be # stresses under consideration and m
statical conditions, the remaining 7 — conditions are expressed by
n—m equations, which are deduced by equating to zero the deriva-
tives of the expression for the total stored energy, these being the
conditions that render this energy a minimum.
Asa simple example the case of a rectangular table with four legs
may be considered, it being required to find the stresses in these
legs due to single load placed on the table in a given position.
This is a statically indeterminate problem, since rigid statics furnishes
but three conditions, and the solution cannot be made if the legs
are rigid. The legs are, however, really elastic and each one is
shortened in supporting the load, the stress in each leg multiplied
by the amount of shortening being proportional to the stored
os
2
1903.] MERRIMAN—LEAST WORK IN MECHANICS. 163
energy init. The amount of shortening is, moreover, proportional
to the stress, if the elastic limit of the material be not exceeded.
Accordingly, the stress energy in the four legs due to the given load
is proportional to the sum of the squares of the four stresses, and
this sum is to be made a minimum. This condition, in connection
with the three statical ones, enables the four stresses due to the
load to be readily determined for any given position of that load,
and that these stresses actually occur is easily verified by experi-
ment.
A close analysis of the principle of least work as applied to any
framed structure will show that its applicability and its validity depend
upon the fact that the longitudinal deformation of any member is
proportional to the stress uponit. ‘This law of elasticity, commonly
known as Hooke’s law, is closely true for the materials used in
engineering structures, provided the elastic limit be not exceeded.
In all cases of the design of structures it is intended that this limit
shall not be surpassed, and hence the principle of least work may be
used with confidence and success in computations of stresses in
statically indeterminate trusses.
It is sometimes asserted that the principle of least work is a state-
ment of a general law of nature which is obeyed not only by
materials under stress but by.animate beings. While it may be true
that men and animals endeavor to perform their tasks in the way
most economical of effort, this analogy has no bearing upon the
demonstration of the principle of least work. For this demonstra-
tion rests upon the theorem of virtual velocities, the formula for
the stored stress energy being the integral of that of virtual veloci-
ties. On analyzing this proof it is seen that the integration is
rendered possible by the fact that the deformation of each member
is assumed to be proportional to the stress upon it. This assump-
tion indeed is the same as that of the superposition of forces, for it
supposes each stress to produce its effects independently of the
existence of other stresses. The theorem of virtual velocities applies
to all cases of equilibrium, but its integral form does not give the
principle of least work unless Hooke’s law of elasticity is fulfilled.
This principle, therefore, is of limited application in mechanics,
and it states no general law of nature.
In the method of least squares the conditions and rules for find-
ing the most probable values of observed quantities are derived
from the principle that the sum of the squares of the residual errors
164 MERRIMAN—LEAST WORK IN MECHANICS. [April 2,
shall be a minimum. In theoretical mechanics the condition for
finding the centre of mass of a system of bodies may be expressed
by saying that the moment of inertia of the system shall be a mini-
mum. In the mechanics of elastic bodies the principle of least
work is analogous to these, for the conditions which must be
fulfilled are those found by making the stored energy of the system
a minimum. In all these cases the algebraic conditions are
expressed by linear equations while the laws from which they are
derived are in quadratic form, and these laws are only true when
each elementary error or particle produces its effects independently
of others.
Solid beams and tubes, as well as framed trusses, are subject to
the principle of least work, provided the materials of which they
are made conforms to Hooke’s law of elasticity. For instance, the
thick hollow cylinder of a gun tube is stressed under the pressure
arising from the explosion of the powder, and the stress at any
point varies inversely as the square of the distance between that
point and the centre of the tube. It is easy to show that this law
of variation is the one which makes the stored energy in the tube a
minimum. So in a hollow sphere subject to interior pressure, the
stresses throughout the spherical annulas vary inversely as the cubes
of their distances from the centre, and this law of variation is the
one which renders the stored stress energy a minimum.
The ether that fills space and transmits the force of gravitation
from every particle of matter to all others has been regarded by
many physicists as an elastic solid which obeys Hooke’s law. Ifso
it must be subject to the principle of least work. Any portion of
matter may be supposed to exert upon the ether a compressive
force, due to the fact that its molecules have displaced the ether
and crowded it outwards. Then the stresses in the ether due to
this displacement must be so distributed that the stored energy in
the infinite sphere may be a minimum. Stating the algebraic
expression for this energy due to a spherical body, it is found that
its minimum value occurs when the stress at any point in the ether
varies inversely as the cube of the distance of that point to the
centre of the body. If gravitation be a differential effect, due to
the difference of the stresses upon opposite sides of a body, the
force of attraction between two spheres should vary inversely as
the fourth power of the distance between their centres. From no
point of view does it seem possible to deduce the actual law of
5
¥
4
4
»
_y eae
1903.] ROSENGARTEN—“ FRANKLIN PAPERS.” 165
gravitation from the stresses which must exist in the ether under the
supposition of perfect elasticity.
The use of the principle of least work in investigations regarding
the ether of space hence leads to negative results, as far as its appli-
cability is concerned. It indicates, however, the important con-
clusion that the ether is not an elastic substance in which stresses
are proportional to deformations, and accordingly studies concern-
ing it should be based upon other suppositions concerning its
properties. Since the ether cannot be made the object of experi-
ment and since all we know concerning it is from rough analogy
and indirect evidence, negative conclusions are valuable. By suc-
cessively discussing and rejecting one assumption after another, it
is possible that in due time properties of the ether may be found
which will explain not only the inertia and gravitation of matter,
but also the phenomena of electricity and magnetism.
LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, SOUTH BETHLEHEM, PA,
THE ‘‘ FRANKLIN PAPERS”’ IN THE AMERICAN
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
BY J. G. ROSENGARTEN.
(Read April 3, 1903.)
In the collection of this Society there are some seventy large
folio volumes of ‘‘ Franklin Papers.’’ Franklin left all his papers
to his grandson, William Temple Franklin, who, after a long inter-
val, published in London and Philadelphia six volumes of Frank-
lin’s works. Of course, this represented but a small part of his
papers. Those used in the preparation of Temple Franklin’s
edition are now the property of the United States, which has never
yet printed a Calendar of them. Temple Franklin selected from
his grandfather’s papers those that he thought suitable for publica-
tion, and left the rest in charge of his friend, Charles Fox, to
whom he bequeathed them, and Charles Fox’s heirs, in turn, after
a long lapse of years, presented them to the American Philosophi-
cal Society, in whose custody they have remained ever since. They
have been roughly classified, and are bound in a rude and careless
way. Under the present efficient Librarian, Dr. Hays, a Calendar
is being made as fast as the limited means at his disposal will per-
166 ROSENGARTEN—“ FRANKLIN PAPERS,” [April 8,
mit, and when that is completed, it is hoped that it will be printed
as a useful guide to the miscellaneous matter collected here.
Sparks and Haleand Ford and Parton and Fisher and others who have
written about Franklin have used them, but even the most indus-
trious student may well be appalled at the labor required to master
all the contents of these bulky volumes, representing Franklin’s
long and many-sided activity.
He kept copies of most of his own letters and the originals
addressed to him, often endorsing on them the heads of his replies.
These volumes contain papers from 1735 to 790—the first forty-
four volumes letters to him; the forty-fifth, copies of his own let-
ters; the forty-sixth, his correspondence with his wife ; the forty-
seventh and forty-eighth, his own letters from 1710 to 1791; the
forty-ninth, his scientific and political papers; the fiftieth, his
other writings—notably his Bagatelles, those short essays which
had such a vogue and are still read; the fifty-first, poetry and
verse, his own and that of others, no doubt selected by him for use
in his publications ; the fifty-second, the Georgia papers—he was
agent for that colony; and the remaining twenty volumes, all the
multifarious correspondence, other than official, mostly during his
long stay in France, his various public offices at home and abroad,
his enormous correspondence about appointments from men of all
nationalities, who wanted to come to America, under his patronage,
to fight, to settle, to teach, to introduce their inventions, for every
imaginable and unimaginable purpose.
Both in England and France he kept all notices of meetings,
such as those of the Royal Society and other scientific bodies of
which he was a member, invitations, visiting cards, notes, business
cards, etc., and at home he kept copies of wills, deeds, powers of
attorney, bonds, agreements, bills, etc., and drafts, checques,
bills of lading, public accounts, and even certified copies of Acts
of Congress, and account books, and, in addition, Temple Frank-
lin left eight volumes of letters to him from 1775 to 1790.
In this mass of material his biographers have found much that
was of value, but there remains almost untouched the interesting
correspondence of his friends in England during the years before
and those of the War of Independence. There are examples of his
own clever jewx ad’ esprit in the ‘‘ Intended Speech for the Opening
of the Parliament in 1774,’’ in which the king himself is made to
foretell the ‘‘seven or ten ‘years’ job’’ that his ‘‘ Ministers have
a
1903.] ROSENGARTEN— FRANKLIN PAPERS.” 167
put upon him to undertake the reduction of the whole Continent of
North America to unconditional submission.’’ His friend Hartley
sent it to him in 1786, when the prophecy had been fully realized.
Again in 1778 he received a full report of the famous dying speech
of Chatham, and of that of Lord Shelburne in his defense of the
American cause.
During these eventful years, his correspondents in England and
in the Colonies kept him well informed both of the actions and
plans of the Government and of the Opposition. Some of these
may be of interest as showing how earnestly both sides were pre-
sented to him that he might use his influence to maintain peace.
Priestley, who was then the Secretary of Lord Shelburne, writes
from London, in February, 1776, with a due report of political and
scientific information, and Lee and Wayne write to him during the
campaign which was to end in Burgoyne’s surrender, and thus
contribute largely to the alliance with France, which owed so
much to Franklin’s influence not only with the French Court and
French statesmen, but with the philosophers and the people.
His correspondence in Paris is a perfect picture of the time.
One day he gets an invitation to attend experiments in electricity
from a correspondent, Brogniart, who reports the successful treat-
ment of sick people by electric fluid, in 1778, and soon after the
Curé of Damvillers asks him for a. cure for dropsy for one of his
parishioners. One writer submits a plan for eliminating poverty in
the United States, and Turgot asks what method Franklin advises
for burning smoke and thus diminishing the consumption of wood,
which was steadily getting dearer. Then comes from London an
offer to disclose a method of refining common salt and using it to -
cure and preserve flesh and fish, for the modest fee of 2000
guineas. Genet, afterwards so well known from his troublesome
career as French Minister in this country, reports progress made in
August, 1778, in translation of the Pennsylvania Gazette accounts
of battles for the French papers, and the same mail brings a letter
asking Franklin’s approval of mechanical and mathematical prob-
lems, and for news of Fouquet, Master Gunpowder Maker at York,
Pa. Brogniart invites him to witness new experiments in elec-
tricity, and soon after he is told of a plan of six or eight Germans,
men of letters and prominent position, to go to America to found a
college, where the instruction can be given in Latin until the
‘teachers have mastered English. He receives poems and eulogies
PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOc. XLII. 178. L. PRINTED JUNE 26, 1903.
168 ROSENGARTEN—" FRANKLIN PAPERS.” [April 3,
in all languages, and offers to write histories of the new Republic,
provided Franklin will furnish material, maps, etc. Then comes a
request to look into an invention to reunite broken bones in all
cases of fracture. The Palatinate Academy of Sciences, at Mann-
heim, sends its works dealing with electricity, etc., and urges
establishing a German Scientific Society in Philadelphia.
A man and wife, with six children and six farm laborers, desire
to settle in America, and ask Franklin to get Congress to give
them land near Philadelphia, enough for the support of twenty
persons, their connections. Franklin notes that his reply was that
land was so cheap in Pennsylvania, that there was no need to apply
to Congress.
Then came an offer to establish a Swiss clock and watch factory
at Boston or Philadelphia. Even Franklin’s patience was tried by a
request to explain the right of America to assert its independence,
for on this letter he endorsed ‘‘ Impertinent.”’
The letters are a perfect picture of Franklin’s busy social life in
Paris, with politics, science, literature, war, privateering, all repre-
sented in his correspondence.
There are many letters from John Paul Jones about his naval
exploits, and frequent appeals for help in securing the release of
prisoners captured at sea, for help to return them and other Ameri-
cans in distress to their homes. Dr. Price writes from London to
know if it is true that Washington is grown unpopular, and that his
army deserts in great numbers, and that the suffering in America is
excessive. William Strahan reminds Franklin that in 1763 he spoke
of America as England’s strongest ally and of France as that per-
fidious nation. Vaughan sends to Chaumont (who reports it to
Franklin) a message of greeting for their friend who always carried
spectacles on his nose and kingdoms on his shoulders.
His correspondence came from England and from all parts of
the Continent and from the West Indies in an unending stream.
A very curious letter is one from Richard Penn, dated London,
October 20, 1778, which I think has never been printed :
‘‘ Dear Sir :—Nothing but necessity could have induced me to
take the liberty of begging your attention for a few moments, from
those various and important affairs with which you are entrusted,
and which you have executed with so much reputation to yourself
and advantage to your country; at the same time I am aware that
the name subscribed will nct at first sight bring you much in favour
PN ee eae ee
1903.] ROSENGARTEN—“ FRANKLIN PAPERS,” 169
of the writer. Nevertheless I have too high an opinion of your
character to imagine that any misunderstanding which might for-
merly have subsisted between you and any part of my family, in
which I myself could have had no share, will not at all prejudice
you against me and in any degree withhold you from lending me
your advice and perhaps assistance upon the present occasion. I
flatter myself I have some slight ground to go upon in this case,
which I own I am most willing to catch at.
‘‘T am married to your late ward, the eldest Miss Masters, and
have now living with me her younger sister, still under age, and,
of course, ina manner claiming your patronage, as well as their
mother, the widow of your late friend. From this connection it is
well known that I possess a very considerable property in the city
of Philadelphia and its environs, besides two or three valuable
estates of my own in the Province of Pennsylvania, a whole un-
divided Proprietary of New Jersey; yet with all this property, I
have not been able for more than two years past to procure one
shilling from that country, nor have during that time so much as
received a line from my friend and agent, Mr. Tench Francis, who
it is probable has at this time a handsome sum of money belonging
to me in his hands. The purse I brought with me to England is
nearly exhausted, tho’ it has been managed with the strictest
economy. Ihave not yet tried, nor would I willingly at present,
what American security would produce in this country.
**T should think myself infinitely obliged to you if you could
point out to me in what manner I could procure either from
America, or in any other way, a temporary subsistence. I have
not a doubt but that in time matters will turn out much to the
advantage of everybody concerned and connected with that country.
** Let me entreat you to favor me with an answer to this letter
under cover to my Bankers, Messrs. Barclay, Bevan & Co., No. 56
Lombard street, in doing which you will lay a lasting obligation
upon one of the many who revere your character and admire your
abilities.
“¢ Give me leave to subscribe myself, Dear Sir,
*¢ Your very sincere friend,
** RICHD. PENN.’’
When it is remembered that the hostility of the Penns to Frank_
lin was so strong that Governor John Penn declined to be Patron
170 DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR JS 518. _ [April3,
of the American Philosophical Society because it had chosen
Franklin for its President, and that Richard Penn had been
Lieutenant Governor (as Deputy for that uncle and his brother)
from 1771 to 1773, it must have been difficult for Franklin not to
feel that such a letter from such a man was indeed a tribute to his
position, achieved solely by his own efforts.
From this mass of correspondence, I have selected some letters
showing the state of public opinion in New England in 1774,
and from London in 1775, including a characteristic letter from
Priestley and from Charles Lee and Wayne in the field. Much
more might be printed to show how well Franklin kept in touch
with all that was of interest during his long and busy career. It is
well that this venerable Society, so largely the result of his labors,
should be made the custodian of the papers that follow almost his
daily thoughts, and it is to be hoped that the preparation and pub-
lication of a Calendar showing their contents may be completed
at no distant day, certainly by the two hundredth anniversary of
the birth of our founder, and thus perpetuate his memory.
Franklin’s legacy to the Philosophical Society was ninety-one
volumes of the Astory of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,
thus helping that collection of publications of scientific societies
that make so valuable a portion of its Library.
THE ORBIT OF THE DOUBLE STAR 2 518.
BY ERIC DOOLITTLE.
(Read April 3, 1903.)
INTRODUCTION.
It is well known to astronomers that many of the stars of the
sky which to the naked eye appear to be but single stars are when
viewed with the telescope seen to be made up of two or more stars
very close together. About twenty thousand such double stars
have been measured and catalogued, and the number is continually
being added to through the discoveries of the great modern tele-
scopes. There are scarcely fifty of these, however, of which a
determination of the orbit is possible.
It was in the years 1802 and 1803 that the classic memoirs of
Herschel appeared, in which it was shown for the first time that
pissin, Mew
—*
1903.] DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR ~ 518. 171
the two stars of a binary system revolve in elliptic orbits about
their common center of gravity. The first method for determining
the orbit of the companion star about its primary was given by
Savary in 1827, who applied his method to the binary ¢ Urse
Majoris. This was thus the first double star of which an orbit was
computed.
In the method of Savary, the elements of the orbit were derived
from the least possible number of measures which would theoreti-
cally determine them. It was thus but very poorly adapted to
secure good results, since all double star measures are liable to
errors which are very large in proportion to the quantities ‘to be
determined from them. The method was improved by Encke,
and other methods were subsequently devised by Sir John Herschel,
Villarceau, Thiele and others; but in all of these the development
was from the point of view of the pure mathematician, rather than
from that of the practical astronomer.
The astronomer who essays to compute the orbit of a double star
_ will find that he has at hand a great mass of measures, which,
having been made by observers of varying experience and with
instruments of all degrees of perfection, are more or less discord-
ant. Each one of these measures consists of a determination at a
given time of the distance and direction of the companion star
from its primary.
If now these measures be plotted, by taking a point on the paper
to represent the principal star and laying off from this, point each
measured distance and direction to the companion star, a series of
other points will be obtained which will represent to the eye the
path which the companion has pursued about its primary. Were
the measures free from error, the points which indicate the position
of the companion would lie accurately upon the perimeter of an
ellipse ; but practically they are very far from doing so, especially
if the double star is very close and difficult of measurement.
The ellipse which the companion appears to describe does not
represent the true orbit of the body in space, since the true orbit
is viewed more or less obliquely. It is evidently the projection of
the true orbit on a plane tangent to the celestial sphere at the point
at which the double star is situated. While the true orbit in space
is an ellipse of which the principal star occupies the focus, the
apparent or projected orbit, though also necessarily an ellipse, will
not have its focus at the principal star. Nevertheless, Kepler’s
172 DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR Y 518. [April3,
second Law, which states that the areas swept over by the radius-
vector are proportional to the corresponding times, will evidently
be true, provided that in the apparent orbit these radii-vectores are
drawn from the principal star instead of from the focus.
Having plotted the series of measures as above described, the
first step in the determination of a double star orbit is to draw the
apparent ellipse in such a manner that it shall represent them rea-
sonably well; the various sectorial areas are then measured with a
planimeter, or otherwise, and the trial ellipse changed in shape and
position until finally, after several trials, the measured positions and
the law of areas are both approximately satisfied.
To fix the shape of the true orbit and its position in space, and
to predict the future motion, there must next be determined the
following seven elements :
(1) Zhe Period, P. This can be measured directly from the
apparent ellipse, since, by Kepler’s Law, any secturial area is to
that of the whole ellipse as the time occupied in the description of
the area is to the Period.
(2) Zhe Time of Periastron Passage, T. This is the date at
which the companion passes the nearer vertex of the true ellipse.
It can evidently be found from the apparent ellipse by an applica-
tion of Kepler’s Law.
(3) Zhe Eccentricity, e. This, since it is a ratio, can be ob-
tained from the apparent ellipse.
(4) Zhe Inchnation, ¢, of the true orbit to the tangent plane.
(5) Zhe Longitude, 2, of the intersection of two planes.
(6) Zhe Longitude, 4, of periastron.
The last three elements are obtained ‘by solving a spherical tri-
angle. The longitudes are measured from the hour circle passing
through the star, from the north point in the direction of motion.
(7.) Zhe Semi-Major Axis, a,
The elements of the true orbit as thus obtained enable us to
predict the direction and distance of the companion for any time.
The next step of the computation is to obtain the computed distance
and direction at the date of each observation. A comparison of
the computed with the observed positions furnishes a basis for im-
proving the elements by the principles of Least Squares. The
same process is repeated with the improved elements, until a satis-
factory agreement between the computed and observed positions is
obtained.
1903.) - DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR 2 518. Lis
THE COMPUTATION,
There are available for this determination measures on 141
nights, as shown in the following table. In the first column will
be found the date of observation; in the second, the measured
distance; in the third, the measured angle; in the fourth, the
number of nights on which the measures were made, and in the
fifth, the name of the observer.
Date. | p. 6. aoe Observer.
di 41 °
I 1783.13 4to8 326.7 I Herschel.
2 1825.12 287 + I Struve.
3 1835 to 36 WW ~
4 1850.94 3.96 156.60 2 Otto Struve.
5 1851.06 32 159.96 I Dawes.
6 1851.49 3.87 155.10 2 Otto Struve.
7 1853.64 3-93 158.30 3 e
8 1854.79 4.13 155.30 I “
9 1856.80 4.51 152.90 I ‘“
10 1857.82 4.40 153.00 I “
II 1864.84 4.45 147.60 2 Winnecke.
12 1865.89 4.26 143.95 2 Ot'o Struve.
13 1869.10 4.46 140,40 I Ss
14 1871.99 2+ 1254 I Knott.
15 1872.56 4.62 140,65 I-2 |* Otto Struve.
16 1873.99 4.27 133.90 I ss
17 1874.10 4.39 135.70 I «6
18 1875.14 3.80 138.10 I +
19 1876.11 4.01 130.50 ro &
20 1877.12 2+ 120, I Flammarion.
21 1877.84 3.36 127.50 3 Cincinnati.
22 1877.84 3.92 128,24 6 Burnham.
23 1877.95 3.94 126.45 4 Dembowski.
24 1878.14 4.36 125.50 I Otto Struve.
25 1879.05 3.49 125.38 4 Burnham,
26 1879.18 3.52 125.00 2. | Hall.
27 1879.75 3.29 120.00 1 | Cincinnati.
28 1880.09 3.28 121.30 5 Burnham,
29 1880.95 3.16 122.06 5 4
30 18381,84 3.53 119,00 Gn 8 ce
31 1882.12 2.25 {18.15 2 |) Hall,
32 1883.00 3.07 119.20 2 Burnham.
33 1883.81 3.10 115.80 2 Hall.
34 1884.16 3.74 118,20 I Herman Struve,
35 1886.00 2522 DI2.15 2 Leavenworth,
a Ang
174 DOOLITTLE—ORRIT OF DOUBLE STAR 2 518. [Aprils,
Date. p. 6. n. Observer,
di fe}
36 1886.09 3.00 112.23 6 Hall.
37 1886.92 3.01 111.03 8 Tarrant.
38 1887.14 2.56 109.18 I-4 Schiaparelli.
39 1888.08 2.26 109.48 2 me
40 1888, 12 3.04 107.68 5 Hall.
4! 1888.84. 2.94 106.83 3 Burnham.
42 1888.87 2,31 105.05 3 Tarrant,
43 1889.03 2.87 107.59 I-2 Schiaparelli.
44 1889.12 2.79 103.55" 4 Hall.
45 1890.73 2.68 99.95 4 Burnham.
46 1890.98 1.72 99.00 3 Hough.
47 1891.01 2.62 101.49 2 Schiaparelli.
48 1891.06 2.65 98.56 5 Hall.
49 1891.78 2.48 97.38 4 Burnham,
50 1893.21 2.18 93.8 I Comstock.
51 1895.89 83.65 O-I Doberck.
52 1895.91 2.32 87.4 I Collins.
53 1897.97 2.62 77.22 3 Aitken.
54 1899.11 2.39 73.6 2 cr
55 1899.80 2.30 68.35 3 Doolittle.
56 1900.92 2.40 63.41 2 3
aT 1903.14 2.34 55-22 4 :
Notes—(1) Herschel placed the pair in his ‘‘ Class II,’’ which
indicates that he estimated the distance as between 4” and 8”,
Otto Struve considers that at this time the distance must have been
less than 4”, which seems the more probable. No use has been
made of this measure in the final adjustment. (2) Excessively
difficult. The angle was estimated roughly as being in the direc-
tion of the principal star, of which the position angle is 107°.
The entire unreliability of this measure was first pointed out by
Burnham in 1894. (3) No trace of duplicity. (14) This is merely
a rough estimate. Knott used a7™%inch refractor. (51) ‘‘ Nearly
invisible.’’ (53) and (54) Made with the 12-inch. I have given
half the theoretical weight to numbers (5), (38) and (43). (57)
Was not used in the computation; these observations were made
after the work was completed.
These observations were corrected for precession, and then plotted
as above described, and the elements of the true orbit were de-
rived from them. These elements were the following:
ee
—
rier an
1903.] DOOLIZ TLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR 2 518. "75
P = 180,084 years |
Ti) NOA 2.7.2 |
é= 0.129 |
= 61.78 , Elements of the
8 First Approximation.
Q = 148.76
°
A ==)321.22 |
df
a = 4.681 J
‘For the purpose of effecting a least square solution, twelve
normal places were next formed from the observations of the pre-
ceding table, as follows :
4
Date. é. Ai ed p. n
° ° 4]
1852.48 156.89 157.13 3.95 9-8
1857.31 152.95 153-17 4.45 2
1867.95 143.54 143-70 4.42 7-6
1874.83 134.55 134.67 4.12 4
1879.03 124.89 124.99 3.56 31
1882.54 118.35 118.44 2537 13
1887.71 108.53 108.59 2.93 31
1891.13 99.01 99.05 2.46 18
1894.06 90.60 90.62 2.25 2
1898.54. 75.81 75.82 2.50 5
1899.80 68.35 68.35 2.30 3
1900.92 63.41 63.41 2.40 2
From these there resulted twelve equations between the six
unknown quantities, the residuals in angle only being employed.
These equations were weighted and solved for the corrections to
the elements, the results being as follows:
P = 180.039 years. }
Le GAG 22 |
é = 0.133 |
ene 62.96 \ Elements of the
2 | Second Approximation.
Q = 150.01
°
A = 320.24 |
41
a= 4.681 J
176 DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR 2 518. _[Aprils,
The residuals from these elements were not wholly satisfactory,
especially between the years 1853 and 1879, when they steadily
maintained the positive sign. For the purposes of a further im-
provement, therefore, the original observations were next grouped
into the following thirty-three normal places :
Date. p. 6. n. Observer.
!
4/ °
1850.94 3.96 156.6 2 \OiSr
1851.28 z.50. | 156.7 3 O. S., Da
1853.64 3.93 158.3 3 O..S.
1854.79 4.13 155.3 i rf
1856.80 4.51 152.9 I SOF
1857.82 4.40 153.0 I ce
1864.84 4-45 147.6 2 Wi.,
1865.89 4.26 144.0 2 OS
1869.10 4.46 140.4 I s
1871.99 2 125+ I Kn,
1872.56 4.62 140.6 1-2 O.S.
1873.99 4.27 133-9 I ff
1874.10 4.39 Va5o7 I Ke
1875.14 3.80 138.1 I BS
1876.11 4.01 130.5 I a
1877.86 3.80 Reyes II D, GOs
1878.14 4.36 125.5 I OS:
1879.09 3.50 125.3 6 B., Ha.
1880.52 3:22 121.6 10 B
1881.84 3.53 119.0 6 is
1382.12 3.25 118.2 2 Ha.
1883.40 3.09 117.5 4 B., Ha.
1884.16 3.74 118.2 I Hi. is.
1886.30 3.04 II1.9 II bP ts Be be
1888.51 2.95 106.7 II Ha:s B. ike
1889.12 2.79 103.6 4 -Ha
1890.84 21247 99.6 7 B., Ho.
1891.38 PE) 98.1 9 B:, Ea.
1893.21 2.18 93-8 I Com.
1895.90 2.32 85.5 I-2 DIAG.
1897.97 2.62 Chie 3 A.
1899.53 2.34 70.4 5 A., Doo.
1900.92 2.40 63.4 2 Doo
These measures were corrected for precession, and to the result-
ing 33 equations there were assigned two series of weights, the
first depending only on the number of nights, and the second being
1903.] DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR J 518. Le
arbitrarily assigned. Only the residuals in angle were employed,
so that there resulted 33 equations between the six unknowns.
The final values obtained from this solution led to the following
elements :
P = 180.0288 + 2.776 years. |
T = 1843.185 + 1.051
é = 0.13423 + 0.0221 |
i= 63.26 40.74 | The Final Elements,
° °
Visa ho: 62-1 0.71 |
° 9°
A = 319.54 +057
Mt
a = 4.791 J
The value of « was obtained from a series of equations of the form
a = cos (2 — fc) sec (v 4+ A) psaee td
(¢ —-e COS €)
The weighted mean was taken for the value of a.
The following table shows the agreement of the observed posi-
tions with the positions computed from the final elements. These
residuals are perhaps as small as can be expected with a star of this
character :
178
DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR J 518.
[April 3-
!
Date. 6c. Prec. |\0c—pr.| 00. | 00—Oc
° ° ° ieee °
1783.13 | 327.33 | +.0.58 | 326.75 | 326.7 | + 0.00
1825.12 | 234.22 0.37 | 233.85 | 287 +
1835.86 | 189.907 | 0.32 | 189.65 |
1850.94 | 1€0.15 0.25 | 159.90 | 156.60 | — 3.30
1851.06 | 160.00 0-25 | 159-75 | 159.96 | + v.21
1851.49 | 159.45 0.24 | 159.21 | 155.10 | — 4,11
1853.64 | 156.83 0.23 | 156.60 | 158.30 | + 1.70
1854.79 | 155.47 0.23 | 155.24 | 155.30 | + 0.06
1856.80 | 153.10 0.21 | 152.89 | 152.90 | + 0o.or
2857.82 | 151.91 Q.2I | 151.70 | 153.00 | + 1.30
1864.84 | 144.06 0.18 | 143.88 | 147.60 | + 3.72
1865.89 | 142.85 0.17 | 142.68 | 143.95 | + 1.27
1869.10 | 139.06 | + 0.15 | 138.91 | 140.40 | + 1.49
1871.99 | 135.49 0.14 | 135-35 | 125 + | —10.35
3872.56 | 134.80 0.14 | 134.66 | 140.65 | + 5-99
1873.99 | 132.29 0.13 | 132.76 | 133.90 | + 1.14
1874.10 | 132.74 0.13 | .132.6x | 135.70 | + 3.09
1875.14 | 131.31 0.12 | 131.19 | 138.10 | + 6.91
1876.11 | 129.89 0.12 | 129.77 | 130.50 | + 0.73
1877.12 | 128.41 0.11 | 128.30 | 120 + | — 8 30
1877.84 | 127.36 0.11 | 127.25 | 127.5 | + 0.2
1877.84 | 127.36 0.11 | 127.25 | 128.24 | + 1.0%
1877.95 | 127.19 0.1% | 127.08 | 126.45 | — 0.63
1878.14 | 126.89 0.11 | 126.78 | 125.50 | — 1.28
1879.05 | 125.44 0.10 | 125.34 | 125.38 | + 0.04
1879.18 | 125.22 0.10 | 125.12 | 125.00 | — 9.12
1879.75 | 124.25 0.10 | 124.15 | 120.00 | — 4.15
1880.09 | 123.67 0.10 | 123.57 | 121.30 | — 2.27
1880.95 | 122.19 0.09 | 122.10 | 122.06 | — 0.04
1881.84 | 120.67 0.09 | 120.58 | 119,co | — 1.58
1882.12 | 120.15 0.09 | 120.06 | 118 r5 | — 1.91
1883.00 | 118.48 0.08 | 118.40 | 119.20 | + 0.80
1883.81 | 116.89 0.08 | 116.81 | 115.80 | — 1.01
1884.16 | 116,27 0.08 | 116.13 | 118 20 | + 2.07
1886.00 | 112.13 0.07 | 112.06 | 112.15 | + 0.09
1886.09 | 111.94 0.07 | 111.87 | 112.23 | + 0.36
1886.92 | 110.10 0.07 | 110.03 | 111 03 | + 1.00
1887.14 | 109.61 0.06 | 109.55 | 1cg.18 | — 0.37
1888.08 | 107.43 0.c6 | 107.37 | 109.48 | + 2.11
1888.12 | 107.32 0.c6 | 107.26 | 107.68 | + 0.42
1888.84 | 105.52 0.06 | 105.46 | 106 83 | + 1.37
1888.87 | 105.45 0.06 | 105.39 | 105.05 | — 0.34
1889.03 | 105.05 0.05 | 105.00 | 107.59 | + 2.59
1889.12 | 104.82 0.05 | 104.77 | 103.55 | — 1.22
1890.73 | 100.39 0.05 | 100.34 99-95 | — 1.39
1890.98 99-70 0.05 99-65 99.00 | — 0.65
1891.01 99.62 0.04 99-58 | 101.49 | + 1.91
1891.06 | 99.49 0.04 99-45 98 56 | — 0.89
1891.78 97-40 0.04 99.36 97-38 | — 1.98
1893.21 | 93.10 0.04 93.06 93-8 | + 0.70
1895.89 84.17 0.02 84.15 83.65 | — 0.50
1895.91 84.14 0.02 84.12 87.4 + 2.30
1897.97 76.73 0.01 76.72 77.22 | + 0.50
1899.11 72.49 0.00 72.49 73.6 | + 1.10
1899.80 | 69.50 0,00 69.50 | 68.35 | — 1.15
1900.92 65.61 0.00 65.61 63.41 | — 2.20
T9GFI4||' 157.49 |e O 62 57-21 55.22 | — 1.99
Oo CO CO
N CO.\O
DaAAD B32 r
Anwp
OHOKH BOhana a
COHQD Nw Onn
-
po. po—pc.
“ “be
4 to 8
3.06 a“l
eats — 0.02
3.87 — 0.14
3-93 — 0.16
4-13 — 0.02
4.51 + 0.29
4.40 + 0.18
4.45 + 0.19
4.26 + 003
4.46 + 0.32
2+ |— 1.99
4.602 + .65
4.27 + .38
4.39 i SE
3.80 — .02
4,01 ap dé
ara || oles)
3.36 — .28
+e + .28
394° |) aR iar
4.36 + .74
SEM aes SH
3-52 = oS
3-29 gene’
3.28 — .20
3.16 — .26
B53 7) tie 28
3-25 — 08
3.07 — 20
3-10 — chs
3-74 + .56
3-22 + 0.18
3.00 — 0.03
3.01 + 0.04
2.56 — 0.39
2.26 — 0.62
3.04 + 0.16
2.94 + 0.12
2.81 — 0.01
2.87 + 0.06
2.79 — 0.02
2.68 —"G.02
1.72 — 0.96
2.62 — 0.06
2.65 — 0.02
2.48 — 0.05
2.18 — 0.37
2.32 —o.11
2.62 + 0.26
2.39 + 0,06
2.30 — 0.02
sil
MN Rw OO
[s)
|
n.| Observer.
HN HH HW
nm
baa)
fale
s
4
HH HW D
= Ceeee
5
Pann
necke
ROS
~]
PANN NINH
ow
eo
SOOO O
HH we oe
ec
p
5
B
p
Lf
°
a]
> HP OW
m POOwO
UT ss)
WHC
p
fey
Aum HN
wim OD
Ss
NHNWNDN
x!
= ate
=
Leavenw’th
Hall
Tarrant
Schiaparelli
Schiaparelli
Hall
B.
‘Tarrant
Schiaparelli
Hall
B.
Hough
Schiaparelli
Hall
HO OW
HARUONW BA
oo
Comstock
Doberck #
Collins
Aitkin 6
Aitkin
Doolittle
WNW HH
Doolittle
4| Doolittle
nn
1<* A very vague estimate’ (O. S.).
2“ No trace of duplicity.”
3 This is a rough estimate merely ; Knott used a 734-inch.
4 «Nearly invisible.”’
5 12-inch.
‘
F
4
‘
‘
‘
1903.] MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 179
There have been two determinations made of the parallax of this
star ; the first determination was by the heliometer by Gill in 1882,
and the second was by micrometric measures by Hallin 1884. The
results were :
Gill, o//,16 19.6 light years,
Hall, 0//,22 14.6 light years.
If we assume the ‘mean of these, or 0”.19, as the most probable
value, the dimensions of the orbit and the combined mass of the
two components can readily be determined. We find that the sum
of the masses of the two components is nine-tenths the mass of our
sun, and that the semi-major axis of the true orbit is 23.5 times
the distance from the earth to the sun. The orbit is thus larger
than the orbit of Uranus, but inferior to that of Neptune.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA.
SOME ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF QUEENSLAND
AND VICTORIA.
BY R. H. MATHEWS, L.S.,
MEMB. ASSOC. ETRAN. SOC. D’'ANTHROP. DE PARIS.
(Read October 3, 1902.)
Last year I contributed to this Society a short description of the
Gundungurra, one of the native tongues of New South Wales. In
the following pages it is proposed to furnish the outlines of the
grammatical structure of some aboriginal languages spoken by the
native tribes of Queensland and Victoria.
The method of spelling adopted is that recommended by the
Royal Geographical Society of London, with the following qualifi-
cations :
As far as possible vowels are unmarked, but in some instances
the long sound of a, e, and u are indicated thus, 4, é, i. Ina few
cases, to avoid ambiguity of pronunciation, the short sound of u is
thus represented, wu.
G is hard in all cases. R has a rough, trilled sound, as in
‘‘hurrah !’? W always commences a syllable or word. Y at the
beginning of a word or syllable has its ordinary consonant value. _
The sound of the Spanish fi often occurs; at the beginning of a
180 MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. [April 3°
word or syllable I have given it as zy, but when terminating a word
the Spanish letter is employed.
Ng at the beginning of a word or syllable has a peculiar nasal
sound. At the end of a syllable it has substantially the sound of
ng in ‘‘sing.”’
Dh is pronounced nearly as th in ‘‘ that,’’ with a slight sound of
d preceding it. Nh has likewise nearly the sound of th in “ that,”’
but with an initial sound of the n. A final h is guttural, resembling
ch in the German word ‘ bach.”’
T is interchangeable with d, p with b, and g with k, in most
words where these letters are used.
Ty and dy at the commencement of a word or syllable has nearly
the sound of j. At the end of a word ty or dy is pronounced nearly
as tch in ‘“batch”’ or ‘‘ ditch,’’ omitting the final hissing sound.
All the details supplied in this article were taken down by myself
from the lips of the natives speaking the languages herein dealt
with—a tedious and laborious task. .
THE MUuURAWARRI LANGUAGE.
In acommunication to this Society in 1898 I described the social
divisions and laws of intermarriage prevailing in the Murawarri
tribe, together with a comprehensive list of totems, and will now
proceed to exhibit the structure of their language. This tribe
occupies an extensive region on the southern frontier of Queens-
land, between the Warrego and Culgoa rivers, reaching also some
distance into New South Wales. Languages similar in grammar to
the Murawarri, although differing somewhat in vocabulary, extend
northerly into Queensland for hundreds of miles.
NOUNS.
Number.—Nouns have three numbers, the singular, dual and
plural. Gula, a kangaroo. Gulabural, a pair of kangaroos.
Guladhunna, several kangaroos. The suffix daunna is frequently
shortened to dhu, in rapid conversation.
Gender.—Mén, aman. Mugifi,a woman. Guthera, a small boy.
Gutheragamba, a small girl. The sex of animals is distinguished
by using, after the name of the creature, the words dhungur, male,
and guni, female, and these words take inflexion for number and
‘case.
SAS gt, Oe
ipt®
1903. | MATHEWS— ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 181
Case.—The principal cases are the nominative, causative (or
nominative-agent), genitive, accusative, instrumental, dative:and
ablative. ;
The nominative merely names the animal or thing, as, ngurui,
emu; dhaggufi, paddmelon ; wirri, bandicoot ; wagan, crow; mulli,
boomerang ; kinni, yamstick ; giindal, dog; gugai, opossum ; ngura,
acamp; wungga, a bird’s nest.
Causative: Guladyu ngunna wirrunga, a kangaroo me scratched.
Instrumental : Méndyu wagan mullinyu bundhara, a man a crow
with a boomerang hit.
Genitive: Mugingu kinni, a woman’s yamstick. Wagangu
wungga, a crow’s nest.
Dative: Dhan yanna nguranggu, come to the camp.
Ablative: Dhirri yanna ngurango, go away from the camp.
Accusative: This is the same as the nominative.
ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives are placed after the nouns they qualify, and are simi-
larly inflected for number and case.
Nominative: Gundal kittyu, a dog small ; gundalbural kittyubural,
a couple of small dogs ; gundaldhu kittyudhunna, several small dogs.
Causative: Mugindyu thurdadyu guthera bundhara, a woman
large a child beat.
Genitive: Méngu thurdagu mulli, the large man’s boomerang.
Adjectives are compared by using such phrases as, thurda nhu,
kittyu niingga, large this, small that. Superiority is implied by
saying, thurdaburra, very large.
PRONOUNS.
Pronouns are inflected for number and person, and comprise the
nominative, possessive and objective cases, some examples of which
are given in the following table. There are forms in the first
person of the dual and plural to express the inclusion or exclusion
of the party addressed :
Singular.
Nominative, Possesstve. Objective.
act Persog) ) i... s..- Ngadhu Ngundi Ngunna
Rg ORS, Se Ngindu Ingga Bunga
RCS SERENE Sah ett Yallunggo Ngumboga Bunha
/
182 MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. [April 8,
Dual.
Biarsvere teiave Negulli Neulliga Ngullinya
on { ee Ngullifiamba Ngu!ligilunna Ngullinyanumba
GERMAN iY latsiiiehale oles Nula Nulaga Nulanna
BONETSE Shek, 0. o's v's . Yallabural Bulaga Burannha
Plural.
{ Efage evans Nginna Nginnaga Ngurranna
ek ee Nginnadyula Nginnagadyula Ngurranadyula
PAE, Ben otto ikoters Nura Nuraga Nuranna
cs lal I Megs eee Yalladhunna Dhurraga Dhurrana
There are forms of the pronouns signifying ‘‘to me,’’ ‘‘from me,’’
‘“ with me,’’ and so on, as in the following few illustrations:
Dhangandhera dhiga, he brought it to me.
Dhirrithunggia dhigamil, he ran away from me.
Ngunnhura niambu, with me rests he.
Interrogatives: Ngannga, who? Nganngabural, who (dual)?
Nganngadhunna, who (plural)? Ngangagu, whom belonging to?
Minya, what? Minyanggu, what for?
Demonstratives: This, nhu; that, nhurana. These demonstra-
tives are very numerous, according as the object referred to is in
front of, behind, near, or far from the speaker. Many of them ~
take inflexion for number and person.
VERBS.
Verbs have the singular, dual and plural numbers, the usual per-
sons and tenses, and three principal moods—indicative, imperative
and conditional. There is a distinctive form of the verb for each
tense—present, past and future; but number and person are shown
by short pronominal suffixes to the stem of the verb. These rules
will be readily understood on perusing the following conjugation of
the verb, bundhera, to beat:
Indicative Mood—Present Tense.
NSE HECKSOD), ous tice sn I beat Bundhiyu
Singular.... BE) CAE ate Se eta Thou beatest Bundhindu
REEL ATES ot oh athe ren He beats Bundhibu
We, incl., beat Bundhili
[ Ist Person....... | We, excl., beat Bundhilingmba
Dual....... : ad C6 ee You beat Bundhinula
| 3d OO Siavaco oat _ They beat Bundhibula
ini es ie i
~————-—_—
1903.] MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 183
( We, incl., beat Bundhina
oa J Tae feet ge We, excl., beat Bundhinadyula
ural,..... 2d échc 3 SS, You beat Bundhinura
| 34 £6 sapere They beat Bundhira
Past Tense.
( ISt, Personw= aa. : T beat Bundharanyu
Singular.... 2d eared Renee Thou beatest Bundharandu
( 3d Ds IO EOe He beat Bundharabu
*
future Tense.
Mats Bersomertos< 2). oe). I will beat Bunggunyu
Singular.... J 2d Coo at ae Se Thou wilt beat Banggundu
3d C6 irks oles fice ee He will beat Binggubu
It is thought unnecessary to give the dual and plural numbers of
the past and future tenses.
Imperative Mood.
BOSIELVES |. p tia oletar stele Beat Bungga
IVGBALIWES sy) 6 5 dies Beat not Bungga wulla
Conditional Mood.
I may beat Wullawurri bunggunyu
Reflexive.
I am beating myself Bundherriyu
I was beating myself Bundherriaiyu
I will beat myself Bundherriguyu
The inflexion continues through all the persons.
Reciprocal.
Dual § We, incl., are beating each other Bumbullali
at hl ae | We, incl., will beat each other Bumbullaguli
We, incl., are beating each other Bumbullana
Piarall. ye « | We, incl., will beat each other Bumbullaguna
The second and third persons of the dual and plural also take
reciprocal inflexion.
_ The following examples show the native way of expressing the
English verb ‘‘ to be’’:
x PROC. AMER. PHILOS, SOC. XLII. 173. M. PRINTED AUG. 1, 1903.
184 MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. [April 3,
IBTESEDE Rac 516 Tam well Murrif indiyu (well am I)
11S BOA Ses aa I was well Murrifi indayu (well was I)
ILE res eis I will be well Murrii inguyu (well will be I)
ADVERBS.
Yes, kaila. No, wulla. Here, nunggo. There, ngurra. Now,
kunyegaila. By and bye, kunye. Yesterday, ginda. Tomorrow,
burda. A few days ago, buggera dhurungga. Long ago, muttya-
gaila. Perhaps, wullawurri. Slowly, min-gi. Rapidly, kurdu-
gurdu. Where, dhirrungga? Where (if two), dhirrambula?
Where (plural), dhirradhunna? How many, minyungurra?
PREPOSITIONS.
_ In front, kurbu. Behind, billungga. In the rear, durungga.
Inside, mugungga. Outside, bullungga. Beside me, gurgungga
dhiga. Between, dhunningga. Down, burrungga. Up, ginda.
Over or across (referring to a river, hill, etc.), gurrundha. This
side of, nhubarafi. The other side, beyond, gowurrigurrundha.
Through, gaimyu. ‘Towards, dhai. Away from, dhirra.
Several prepositions take inflexion for number and person: Be-
hind me, billunggadhiga.. Behind thee, billunggabunga. Behind
him, billunggabuga. Behind us, billunggangurriga, and so on.
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.
It is not thought necessary to supply illustrations of these parts
of speech.
NUMERALS.
One, yaman. Two, kubbo. Several, murabirri.
THE WamBA WAMBA LANGUAGE.
This language is spoken among the remnants of the native tribes
about Swan Hill on the Murray river, and extending southerly into
the State of Victoria beyond Lalbert and Tyrrell creeks, the lower
Avoca river, etc. The people are divided into two phratries,
Gamaty and Gurgity, the men of one phratry marrying the women
of the other. For lists of totems attached to these phratries, the
reader is referred to a paper I contributed in 1898 to the Anthro-
pological Society at Washington."
1 « The Victorian Aborigines: their Initiation Ceremonies and Divisional Sys-
tems,” American Anthropologist, Vol. xi, pp. 333, 334. Map of Victoria,
Plate V.
1903. | MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 185
All the languages spoken in the eastern portion of Victoria are
identical in grammatical structure with the Gundungurra language
reported by me to this Society last year, although their vocabularies
are altogether different. Westward of the 145th meridian of lon-
gitude all the Victorian languages have the same structure as the
Wamba Wamba, with the exception of a strip of country on the
lower Murray river.
NOUNS.
Number.—Karrange, a kangaroo. Karrange bullang, two kan-
garoos. Karrange girtawal, several kangaroos.
Gender.—Wurtinge, aman. Laiur,a woman. Banggo, a boy.
Bannulaiur, a girl. Bupu, a child of either sex. The sex of ani-
mals is indicated by using the word mamo for males, and baba for
females ; thus, willunge mamo, a male opossum; willunge baba, a
female opossum.
Case.—The nominative: Wanne, a boomerang. Kenninge, a
yamstick. Wirrangin, adog. Litrnge, a camp.
The Causative: Wurtulu karange dhakkin, a man hit a kan-
garoo. Laiuru bupu dhakkin, a woman beat a child.
Possessive: Wurtua wanne, a man’s boomerang. Every object
over which ownership can be exercised is subject to inflection for
number and person, thus:
PSU ECESOM: er-sictseve ae My boomerang Wannai
Singular .... 4 2d ie hit eee ae Thy boomerang Wannin
3d Cn eee torte His boomerang Wannu
This declension extends to all the persons and numbers, in each
of which one example will be sufficient :
10 1 Lee ae Our, inclusive, boomerang Wannul
places arctan Our, inclusive, boomerang Wannangurkullik
lara fee. 2 Our, inclusive, boomerang Wannungur
Dative: Lirndal, to the camp.
Ablative: Ltrnung, from the camp.
ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives follow the noun qualified, as kurwinge kurong-untu,
an emu large. Kurwinge bannutu, an emu small. They are in-
flected for number and case like the nouns, and comparison is
effected as in the Murawarri
186 MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. [April 3,
PRONOUNS.
Pronouns have four numbers, singular, dual, trial, and plural.
There are double forms of the first person to include or exclude the
person spoken to. The following table shows the nominative and
possessive pronouns :
Singular.
Ist Person...... I Yetti Mine Yenneu
2d BEA cliche lett fe Thou Nginma Thine Nginneu
3d Gage ipa s de He Kinyi or Kalu His Kikinga
Dual.
Pp We, incl., Negulli Ours, incl., Ngullidha
Est hereon. We, excl., Negullu Ours, excl., Ngulludhu :
2d &“ You Nyuia Yours Nyuladhu ;
3d “ They Kalubulang Theirs Kinyebuladhu
1
Trial. |
2 We, incl., Yangurkullik Ours, incl., Yanguradhukullik |
Ist Person... ) We, excl,, Vandakkullik Ours, excl., Yandhadhukullik
2d ‘“ You Ngutakullik Yours Ngutadhukullik
3d “ They Kaludhanakullik Theirs Dhanadhukullik
.
Plural.
. We, incl., Yangur Ours, incl., Yanguradhu a
re eee We, excl., Yandhank Ours, excl., Yandhadhu |
od “ You Nguta Yours Ngutadhu ,
3d “ They Kaludhana Theirs Dhanadhu
There are objective forms of the pronouns, signifying me, with
me, towards me, from me, and so on. Interrogative and demon-
strative pronouns are also various and precise.
VERBS.
Verbs have the same numbers and persons as the pronouns, three
tenses and three principal moods; as exhibited in the following
conjugation of the verb ‘‘to sit’’:
Indicative Mood—Present Tense.
1st Person, ;...-2 I sit Ngangan
Singular’. aay 20M tie (steer Thou sittest Ngangar
cI ae es a He sits Nganga
Ba a —— -
1903.] MATHEWS—-ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 187
[ a ete (a e, incl., sit Ngangangul
Dual We, exclu., sit Ngangangullu
7 A 2d «s You sit Nganganyulu
3d <s They sit Ngangabulang
: Wie, iapioia yeh
[ Fen ae i bi incl = Ngangangurkullik
rec eae e, excl., sit Ngangandhankullik
2d se You sit Ngangangutakullik
3d “ They sit Ngangandhanakullik
a We, incl., sit Ngangangur
Plural We, excl., sit N gangandhak
pla G9 2d “ You sit Nganganguta
L 3d “ They sit Ngangandhana
Past Tense.
Ist Person...... I sat Nganginan
Singular .... 2d DG ht ae Thou sattest Nganginar
3d CATS Raed He sat Ngangin
future Tense.
USEVREISOME <1, o's I will sit Nganginyan
pineular . 2 ..0. 2d Oe soli eee Thou wilt sit Nganginyar
3d eee atale, eiaie He will sit Ngangin
The remaining moods are omitted, being similar in constitution
to those of the Murawarri.
This is the first occasion on which the /a/, or tr7pée, number
has been reported in the verbs of any Australian language. Mr.
J. J. Carey, from the MS. of the late Mr. F. Tuckfield,* published
alist of pronouns in what he calls the Woddowro language, but
which I spell Wuddyawurru, in which he shows an incomplete set
of trial pronouns. He did not, however, observe the double form
in the first person of the dual, trial and plural, which is now com-
municated by me in the languages of Victoria for the first time.”
Among the native tribes on the upper Campaspe, Lodden and
Avoca rivers, instead of £u//k being the sign of the trial, the word
baiap is employed, as, Ngurnabuingunyinbaiap, we three sit.
1 Rep. Aust. Assoc. Adv, Sct., Vol, vii, p. 842 and p. 853.
2 | have, however, previously discovered and reported the existence of two
forms of the first person of the dual and plural in the nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adverbs and prepositions of the Gundungurra, one of the native languages of
New South Wales: Proc. AMER. PHILOs, Soc., Vol. xl, pp. 140-148.
188 STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. [April 3,
Tyilbuingunyinbaiap, we three beat. It will be apparent that the
words Jatap. or kullik are merely superadded to the suffix of the
plural.
In the Motu, one of the languages of New Guinea, Rev. W. G-
Lawes reports that the dual and trial of pronouns are formed by
additions to the plural.’
If a line be assumed to be drawn on the map of Victoria from
Melbourne to Echuca, then the whole of that portion of Victoria
situated on the eastern side of that line has no trial number in its
speech, but in all the languages to the west of that line the trial
number obtains.
ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.
In principle these resemble the same parts of speech in the
Murawarri and Gundungurra,, and some of them take similar
inflexion for number and person.
Interjections and exclamations are not numerous and have been
omitted.
NUMERALS.
One, yuwaia. Two, bulle. Several, girtawal.
A NEW FRESH-WATER MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE FROM
THE CRETACEOUS OF MONTANA.
(Plate IV)
BY TIMOTHY W. STANTON.
(Read April 3, 1903.)
An interesting collection of fresh-water invertebrate fossils, col-
lected in Montana by a recent expedition from the Geological
Department of Princeton University, has been placed in my hands
for study through the courtesy of Prof. W. B. Scott and Dr. A. E.
Ortmann. Although the collection contains only half a dozen
species, it is of more than usual interest on account of the excellent
preservation of the fossils and the fact that they probably come
from either a new horizon for fresh-water mollusks, or at least a new
1 Motu Grammar (Sydney, 1896), p. 9.
.
|
:
a
————
1903.] STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. 189
basin, as is indicated by their apparent distinctness from all de-
scribed species.
According to the labels the fossils all come from one locality on
Wettacombe’s ranche near Harlowton, on the Musselshell River,
Montana, where they were collected by Dr. M. S. Farr and Mr.
A. Silberling. The interesting Mesozoic and Tertiary section of
this region lying in Sweetgrass county, east of the Crazy Moun-
tains and south of the Big Snowy Mountains, has been somewhat
fully described by Mr. Earl Douglass,' who states that the Fort
Union, the Laramie and the familiar Meek and Hayden section of
the marine Upper Cretaceous are well represented. Beneath the
Fort Benton formation is a thick series—‘‘ many hundreds of feet ”’
—of sandstones and shales, of which the upper part is supposed to
represent the Dakota and the lower part—‘‘ largely red in color ’’
—yielded bones of large Dinosaurs, fossil wood and these inverte-
brates. Douglass refers this part of the section with doubt to the
Jurassic, though he states that the vertebrate remains have not been
studied. I have not been informed as to whether the mollusks and
vertebrates occur in exactly the same bed. Apparently the ex-
posure does not extend to beds as low as the marine Jurassic, which
is known to occur in this general region, and which belongs to the
upper part of the Jurassic system.
It is evident from the above statement that the fresh-water
horizon in question lies somewhere between the marine Upper
Jurassic and the Fort Benton, which may be correlated with the
Turonian of Europe. This interval, covering the lower part of the
Upper Cretaceous, all of the Lower Cretaceous and possibly the
latest Jurassic, is not represented by marine strata in the northern
interior region. Instead there is a number of non-marine forma-
tions in various parts of the region, whose relationships to each
other are obscure, their principal point of resemblance in most
cases being an apparently similar stratigraphic position.
Since in other parts of the continent this interval includes the
equivalent of the Comanche series, consisting of several thousand
feet of marine sediments and containing a number of distinct
faunas, it is evident that there is room for many distinct horizons
of fresh-water beds, and it would not be surprising if those of dif-
ferent ages were in some cases developed in different parts of the
1 Sctence, n. s., Vol. XV, pp. 31 and 272, January 3 and February 14, 1902;
Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XI, pp. 207-224, 1902.
190 STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. [April 3,
large area, so that their exact stratigraphic relations with each other
are not observable. It will therefore be necessary to consider the
different formations and horizons that have been recognized, in
order to make an approximate determination of the age of the fossils
now under consideration.
In southern Wyoming the marine Jurassic is immediately over-
lain by the Como beds (formerly called Atlantosaurus beds), con-
taining a large reptilian fauna and a considerable number of Unios
and other fresh-water shells. Similar beds that are correlated with
them by means of the fossils occur in the Black Hills, along the
Front Range in Colorado and elsewhere in the Rocky Mountain
region. These beds have usually been referred to the jurassic,
though recently several paleontologists have referred them to the
Lower Cretaceous. The mollusca are of modern types, mostly
belonging to genera that are still represented by living species, but
the specific forms are quite distinct from all those found fossil in
later beds. Of all the species that have been assigned to the Como
horizon only one (Viviparus gilli M. and H.) is comparable with
a form in this Montana collection, and that one is from a locality
near the head of Wind River, Wyoming, where it was associated with
Liaplacodes veternus M. and H. and Weritina nebrascensis M. and
H. As none of these three species has been found elsewhere,’ the
age of the bed from which they came is doubtful, and may well be
later than the Como.
Two non-marine formations of this general region, the Cascade
and the Lakota,” have been referred to the Lower Cretaceous. The
Cascade formation, which occur in the neighborhood of Great
Falls, Montana, is coal-bearing and has been correlated by means
of the fossil plants with the Kootanie of the neighboring Rocky
Mountain region in Canada, and with the lower Potomac of the
Atlantic border. Its geographic position and the apparently simi-
ilar stratigraphic relations favor the supposition that the fresh-water
beds near Harlowton may belong to the Cascade (Kootanie) for-
mation, but unfortunately the former have yielded no plants except
fossil wood, and the fauna of the latter is practically unknown.
Obscure imprints cf Unio have been reported from the Cascade,
but nothing sufficiently definite for description. A few undescribed
1 Logan inadvertently describes Planorbis veternus as Liaplacodes from the
Freeze-out Hills of Wyoming, in Kansas Univ. Quart., Vol. IX, p. 132, 1900.
2 Named by Weed in the Fort Benton Folio, Geo/. Atlas of the United States.
1903.] STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. 191
fresh-water gastropods have been collected from beds immediately
overlying the Cascade and referred by Mr. Weed to the Dakota,
_ and these are of types different from any in the Harlowton collec-
tion. That is, they are not specifically comparable.
The Lakota formation is found in the Black Hills region, where
it is said to overlie beds correlated with the Como beds, and to
underlie the Dakota. It is characterized by a flora, by means of
which its Lower Cretaceous age has been determined, and it has
been tentatively correlated with a part of the Potomac and by
inference also with the Kootanie and a part of the Glen Rose beds.
It has yielded no animal remains, and therefore needs no further
mention in this connection.
Beds that have been referred to or correlated with the Dakota
have a wider distribution than any of the other formations above
mentioned. ‘The original area is in northeastern Nebraska on the
Missouri River, from which the formation has been satisfactorily
traced and identified through Nebraska and Kansas, where it
covers considerable areas on the Great Plains. It consists of sev-
eral hundred feet of coarse sandstone with some shales, passing up
into the Fort Benton shales with evident continuity of sedimenta-
tion. Paleontologically it is chiefly characterized by its large
flora. It has yielded a very few marine and brackish water mol-
lusca, but although it was evidently deposited at or near sea level
it seems to have been largely non-marine in character, since a num-
ber of localities in it have yielded fresh-water mollusca. The
abundant land flora also indicates non-marine conditions. The
fauna’ includes species of Unio, Margaritana, Corbula, Goniobasis,
Viviparus and Pyrgulifera, none of which is specifically closely
related to the species described In this paper. The Dakota has
also been well identified in the Black Hills region and along the
eastern base of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. It has been
mapped in many areas farther west in Wyoming, Montana, Utah,
and elsewhere, but the correlation is certainly erroneous in some of
these areas and must be considered doubtful in many of them,
because the identifications have been based entirely on very gen-
eral comparisons of the lithology and stratigraphy. It has been
the general custom to refer to the Dakota any formation con-
sisting in part of conglomerates and sandstones and underlying the
1See C. A. White, « Notes on the Invertebrate Fauna of the Dakota Forma-
tion,” Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol: XVII, pp. 131-138, 1894. .
192 STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. [April 3,
marine Cretaceous. That the formations thus assigned in many
cases include the equivalent of the true Dakota is very probable,
but that they may also include other horizons, laid down in the long ,
interval between the Jurassic and the Upper Cretaceous, is equally
probable. In the Yellowstone Park and adjacent areas the sup-
posed Dakota includes bands of impure limestone filled with fresh-
water shells not found elsewhere. Among them is a Unio repre-
sented by rare casts and fragments, but the most of them are
simple gastropods, the most common of which I have described as
Gontobasts ? pealet, G.? increbescens and Amnicola ? cretacea.._ The
beds referred to the Dakota near Great Falls, Montana, already
mentioned, contain another assemblage of three or four species of
fresh-water mollusca not known elsewhere. None of these sup-
posed Dakota beds in the region just mentioned yielded the char-
acteristic Dakota flora.
The Bear River formation of western Wyoming is the last one to
be considered in this connection. It consists of a great thickness
(as much as 4000 feet in some sections) of conglomerates, sand-
stones and shales, having a large and peculiar fresh-water fauna.
Its principal known area extends from the neighborhood of Evans-
ton, on the Union Pacific Railroad, northward near the western
boundary of Wyoming for more than a hundred miles. Origin-
ally it was assigned to the Tertiary, afterward to the Laramie, or
uppermost Cretaceous. It is now known to lie between the Fort
Benton and the marine Jurassic,” but just how muck or what part
of this interval it represents is not positively known. Some of the
conglomerates associated with the fossiliferous beds have probably
been mapped as Dakota by the early surveys. ‘The occurrence of a
few undetermined dicotyledonous plants of modern type in the forma-
tion favor its assignment to the Upper Cretaceous. The fauna is not
closely related to any other known on this continent, as all the species
are restricted to it, and at least two of the gastropod types are so
peculiar that they have been described as new genera. The entire
fauna has been reviewed and figured by Dr. C. A. White,* who has
made detailed comparisons with other non-marine faunas. One of
the most striking of the common fossils of the fauna is Pyrgulifera
1 Monog. U. S. Geol. Surv., Vol. XXXII, Pt. 2, pp. 632, 633, 1899.
2See Stanton: «The Stratigraphic Position of the Bear River Formation,”
Am. Four. Sci., 34 ser., Vol. XLIII, pp. 98-1 a5 1892.
. > Bull, U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 128.
rr.
ig)
1903.] STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. 19
humerosa Meek, and the genus to which it belongs was not known
to occur in America outside of the Bear River formation until a
few years ago, when a species apparently referable to it was de-
scribed from the Dakota of Nebraska, and another undescribed
species is now known from the same formation in Kansas. This
fact is an additional indication that the Bear River and Dakota are
of nearly the same age.
It is worthy of note that the Bear River fauna includes an Ostrea,
which proves that the formation was deposited at or near sea level,
and that the waters occasionally became brackish, at least locally.
The geographic distribution of the older marine formations makes
this occurrence of Ostrea still another reason for considering the
Bear River an Upper Cretaceous formation.
The six species of invertebrates from near Harlowton will be
described on succeeding’ pages under the following names:
Onio farri.
Cnio douglasst.
Campeloma harlowtonensis.
Viviparus montanaensts.
Gontobasis ? ortmanni.
Goniobasts ? silberlingt.
These are all new specific names, and it will be necessary to
depend on the known range of the species that appear to be most
closely related in attempting to determine the age of the beds from
which they came.
Two of the species, Unio douglasst and Campeloma harlowtonensts,
have their nearest relatives in the Bear River formation. Unio
douglasst is of the same general type as U. vetustus Meek and has
very similar beak sculpture, though it differs considerably in out-
line and proportions. Campeloma harlowtonensis resembles C.
macrospira Meek so closely that it is difficult to separate them.
Viviparus montanaensis, as has already been stated, is closely
related to V. gé/ii M and H., which has been doubtfully referred to
the Jurassic.
The other species of Unio is of modern type, but apparently not
very closely related to any known fossil species, while the two
forms that are here referred to Goniobasis have a very modern
aspect, suggesting Upper Cretaceous rather than older types.
Although the evidence is not fully convincing, the indications are
that this fresh-water horizon near Harlowton is not far from the hori-
194 STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. [April 8,
zon of the Bear River formation—possibly contemporaneous with a
part of it—and that it is certainly not older than Lower Cretaceous,
and more probably should be assigned to about the base of the
Upper Cretaceous.
The facts thus briefly related should call renewed attention to the
important and apparently complex history recorded in the non-
marine formations of the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous of the
Northwest—a history that is as yet far from being fully understood,
although it is evident that the deposits contain the record of a
great many facts that await the detailed investigation of the region
for their interpretation.
DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.
Unio FARRIn. sp. Pl. IV, Figs. 1, 2.
Shell small, short and relatively convex; beaks somewhat prom-
inent and inflated, situated about one-third the length of the shell
from the anterior end, not sculptured nor eroded ; dorsal margin
nearly straight ; ventral margin moderately convex; anterior end
regularly rounded ; posterior end obliquely subtruncate ; umbonal
ridges rather prominent, rounded, extending to the postero-ventral
angle ; surface marked only by moderately prominent, irregularly
arranged lines of growth.
The type specimen measures 37 mm. in length, 22 mm. in
height, and 16 mm. in convexity of both valves. The largest
specimen of the eight in the collection is 45 mm. inlength. Three
of the specimens are relatively somewhat more compressed and
longer and have the posterior end more obliquely truncated.
These differences are believed to be sexual rather than specific and
are not greater differences than are seen in some living species of
Unio. One of these compressed specimens (represented by Fig.
2) measures 40 mm. in length, 22 mm. in height and 13 mm. in
convexity.
This species is suggestive of the parvus group of living Unios,
but is not sufficiently closely related to any fossil species from our
Western formation to require detailed comparison.
Locality.—Wettacombe’s ranche near Musselshell River, in the
vicinity of Harlowton, Montana.
Horizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Upper
Cretaceous.
1903.] STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. 195
UNIO DouGLAssiI n. sp. Pl. IV, Figs. 3, 4.
Shell below medium size, elongate, rather slender and moder-
ately convex; beaks small, inconspicuous, situated about one-
fourth the length of the shell from the anterior end ; dorsal margin
nearly straight ; ventral margin very gently convex ; anterior end
regularly rounded ; posterior end broadly rounded below and very
obliquely subtruncate above, so that its termination is acutely sub-
angular ; umbonal region strongly sculptured over an area about
17 mm. long and 7 mm. high, with prominent concentric ribs,
crossed on the posterior portion by two sharply elevated, linear,
radiating ribs, one of which is on the umbonal ridge and the other
midway between it and the postero-dorsal margin. The con-
centric ribs change their direction abruptly and have their con-
tinuity more or less broken in crossing the radiating ribs, especially
the upper one. The rest of the shell shows only moderately dis-
tinct growth-lines, except on the postero-dorsal area above the
umbonal ridge, which shows numerous faint, slightly curved, irreg-
ular radiating lines.
An average specimen measures 56 mm. in length, 24 mm. in
height and 15 mm. in convexity (both valves), the greatest height
and convexity being about midlength of the shell. A few speci-
mens appear to be relatively somewhat more compressed and higher,
but this is due, in part at least, to accidental distortion. The
species is represented by about forty specimens.
This species closely resembles Uno vetustus Meek from the Bear
River formation in all the details of sculpture, but it differs from
that species in its smaller size and much more slender form.
Locality.—Wettacombe’s ranche near Musselshell River, in the
vicinity of Harlowton, Montana.
Horizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Upper
Cretaceous.
VIVIPARUS MONTANAENSIS n. sp. Pl. IV, Fig. 5.
Shell small, rather stout, subovate, consisting of about five
rapidly increasing whorls ; volutions rounded below and obtusely
subangular and flattened above, so that they are more or less dis-
tinctly shouldered ; last volution slightly expanded at the aperture,
which is broadly ovate ; outer lip simple, nearly straight in profile
outline; inner lip moderately thick, closely appressed to the shell
above, very slightly elevated and reflexed below; surface bearing
only very fine lines of growth.
196 STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. [April 8,
The figured type, which is of about the average adult size, gives
-the following measurements: Height, 12 mm.; greatest breadth,
1o mm.; height of aperture, 7 mm.; breadth of same, 5 mm. The
collection contains about two hundred specimens, which show little
variation except in size. Part of the specimens, supposed to be
immature, are considerably smaller than the type.
This species is very similar in general appearance to Viviparus
gilli Meek and Hayden, which was described’ from beds provision-
ally referred to the Jurassic at the head of Wind River, Wyoming,
but it differs from the Wyoming form in being slightly smaller, and
in having more distinctly shouldered whorls, a more oblique aper-
ture, and with the inner lip more closely appressed to the shell and
not so prominent.
Locality.—Wettacombe’s ranch near Musselshell River, in the
vicinity of Harlowton, Montana.
ffTorizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Upper
Cretaceous.
CAMPELOMA HARLOWTONENSIS n. sp. Pl. IV, Figs, 11, 12.
Shell iarge, elongate subovate, consisting of about six elevated
convex whorls, separated by a linear impressed suture; aperture
large, ovate ; inner lip moderately thick, forming a rather heavy
callus on the shell above and slightly reflexed below, so as to
partly cover the small umbilical depression or chink; surface
marked only by fine, slightly sigmoid lines of growth.
The type, which is the largest specimen in the collection, measures
63 mm. in height (with apex restored) and 38 mm. in greatest
breadth; height of aperture 34 mm. and breadth of same 23 mm.
The other figured specimen is 57 mm. in height (with apex re-
stored), 38 mm. in breadth, and the corresponding dimensions of
the aperture are 29 mm. and 22 mm. respectively.
This second specimen shows other differences in the aperture
besides its relatively greater breadth, the inner lip being thicker
and not so closely applied to the preceding whorl above and having
a larger umbilical depression uncovered below. These variations
are probably all accidental, as there is distinct evidence of injury
to the shell during the life of the animal, shown by a repaired
break nearly parallel to the outer lip and a few millimeters from it.
1 Palaeont. of the Upper Missouri, p. 115, Pl. V, Fig. 3, ¢, 4, Washington,
1865. Figured also by White in Bull. No. 29 and in 7hird Ann. Rept. U.S.
Geol. Surv,
1903.] STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. 197
There are seventeen other less perfect specimens in the collec-
tion, all of which agree fairly well with the type so far as their
characteristics are preserved.
This species is very closely related to Campeloma macrospira
Meek,’ and may prove to be not more than a variety of that species
from the Bear River formation in western Wyoming. Compari-
son of C. harlowtonensts with the type and with a large suite of
specimens from the same horizon in Wyoming show that Meek’s
species averages considerably smaller, and that it is somewhat more
slender, with the sutures slightly more oblique and the last whorl
relatively larger. The last-named peculiarities cause a greater
difference in the aspect and proportions of the shells than would be
indicated by measurements. There are also differences in the form
of theinner lip. There are, however, associated with the typical
form of C. macrospira a few specimens that approach more closely
to the form here described, and this fact suggests the question
whether there are really two species, or only varieties of one
variable species.
Locality.—Wettacombe’s ranch, near Musselshell River, in the
vicinity of Harlowton, Montana.
Hforizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Upper
Cretaceous.
GONIOBASIS? ORTMANNI n. sp. Pl. IV, Figs. 7-10.
Shell small, moderately slender, consisting of about six convex
whorls ; aperture elongate ovate, slightly produced below; inner
lip somewhat thickened, closely appressed to last whorl above,
slightly reflexed below so as to partly cover the small umbilical
chink ; surface bearing inconspicuous growth-lines, usually crossed
by a variable number of much more prominent sharply elevated
spiral lines, which in some cases are strong enough to be called
small carinz. Specimens which may be considered to have the
average or typical sculpture show four spiral lines on the whorls of
the spire, with about six additional on the base of the last whorl
1 Named by Meek in a list without description in Regt. U. S. Geol, Surv.
Zerr., for 1872, p. 478. Described in 1877, U. S. Geol. Expl. 40th Parallel,
Vol. IV, pt. 1, p. 180, with figures of a small shell doubtfully referred to the
species. Figures of Meek’s original type are published by White, Zwel/th
Ann. Rept. U, S. Geol. Surv. Terr., Pl. 30, Fig. 2a; Third Ann. Refi. VU. S.
Geol. Surv., Pl. 8, Figs. 6,7, and Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 128, Pl. 10,
Figs. 2, 3.
198 STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. [April 3”
and sometimes a few finer intermediate lines. A few individuals
show five lines on the spire, while others have only three or two.
Smooth forms like that represented by Fig. 10 usually show incipi-
ent spiral lines on the last whorl.
Height of an average specimen, about 17 mm.; greatest breadth,
8 mm.; height of aperture, 7 mm.; breadth of aperture, 5 mm.
The most striking feature of the species is the variability of its
sculpture, though in this respect is comparable with such living
species as G. virginica Gmelin. Of about 200 specimens in the
collection nearly half either lack spiral sculpture or have it very
faintly developed.
The generic reference of Goniobasis is not entirely satisfactory,
as the aperture differs in some respects from typical living species
of the genus. It slightly suggests Lzop/acodes veternus Meek from
the supposed Jurassic at the head of Wind River, but it is specifi-
cally very distinct and I think not referable to the same genus.
In sculpture it resembles G. ¢enuicarinata M. and H. from the
Laramie more closely than any other fossil form.
Locality.—Wettacombe’s ranch near Musselshell River, in the
vicinity of Harlowton, Montana.
_ Horizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Up
Cretaceous.
GONIOBASIS? SILBERLINGI n. sp. Pl. IV, Fig. 6.
A single fragmentary specimen associated with the preceding
seems to be worthy of description, although the generic reference
is very doubtful. It is the basal portion of a shell consisting of
nearly two whorls and may be described as follows:
Shell of moderate size, rather stout ; whorls very convex; aper-
‘ture broadly ovate; inner lip thin, slightly reflexed below over a
distinct umbilical pit ; surface of the spire with four strong spiral.
ridges or carine, which are unequally spaced, the space between
the uppermost one and the suture and also between it and its neigh-
bor being broader than the other smooth bands.
The fragment measures 13 mm. in height and 13 mm. in greatest
breadth; height of aperture, partly estimated, 9 mm.; breadth of
same, 6 mm.
The base of the aperture is broken, and it is possible that the
large size of the umbilical pit is due to abnormal individual devel-
opment. If this isa normal example of the species, it can hardly
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC., VoL. XLII, No. 173.
STANTON—NEwW FRESH-WATER MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE.
PLATE IV.
a
————— ee a
at
1903.} HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 199
be placed in the same genus with G.? or/manni. In sculpture it
suggests the carinated forms that White has very doubtfully referred
to Lioplax endlichi from the Bear River formation.
Locality.—W ettacombe’s ranch, near Musselshell River, in the
vicinity of Harlowton, Montana.
Horizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Upper
Cretaceous.
°
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Unio farrit Stanton.
Fig. 1. Right valve of type.
Fig. 2. Right valve of compressed form, probably male.
Unio douglasst Stanton.
Fig. 3. Left valve of a small specimen.
Fig. 4. Dorsal view of an average-sized specimen.
Viviparus montanaensis Stanton.
Fig. 5. Aperture view of the type, enlarged.
Goniobasis ? silberlingi Stanton.
Fig. 6. Aperture view of the type, enlarged.
Goniobasis ? ortmanni Stanton.
Fig. 7. Aperture view of fragmentary specimen with strong sculpture,
enlarged. Outer lip restored from another specimen.
Fig. 8. Dorsal view of a similar specimen, enlarged.
Fig. 9. A specimen with only two spiral lines on the spire, enlarged.
Fig. 10. Aperture view of a specimen without spiral sculpture except on
back of last whorl, enlarged.
Campeloma harlowtonensis Stanton.
Fig. 11. Aperture view of the type.
Fig. 12. Similar view of a broader, more umbilicated specimen.
REACTION AS AN EFFICIENT AGENT IN PROCURING
DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS IN THE IMPROVE-
MENT OF RIVERS AND HARBORS.
BY LEWIS M. HAUPT, A.M., C.E.
(Read April 2, 1903.)
Consumption, production and distribution are the three main
elements of trade. Without great facilities for distribution it is
not possible to maintain a nice adjustment between supply and
demand. One section of the earth may be starving, while another
may be burning its excess of food for lack of cheap transportation.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 173. N. PRINTED AUG. 5, 1903,
200 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2,
The question, therefore, has its humane as well as its financial and
scientific aspects. It is the aim of the engineer and the capitalist
to reduce the cost of transportation to a minimum for the general
welfare of mankind,
The great improvements which have been effected in the railways
of the world have resulted in a rapid reduction in the average rates
of freight, which are still falling. Roadmakers have caught the
infection and are mending their ways as rapidly as the means
become available. Sailing vessels are transformed into the schooner
type of greater dimensions and are designed to be handled by
smaller crews, so that it may be said they represent the cheapest
class of carriers. The steamer also is being greatly enlarged in its
capacity with the same end in view, but it has not and cannot reach ;
the limit of its economic possibilities because of the absence of
adequate channels at its terminals.
These great evolutions in transportation have been made possible
in the United States by the concentration of mind, money and ma-
terials, working in harmony and resulting in a system of overland
movements which is without a rival. It is the outgrowth of private
capital, employed to develop limited areas, but gradually consoli-
dated into trunk lines, and which finally, assisted by the National
Government, united the two oceans. The merging of these great
interests still continues and the end is not yet. These bands -
of steel have enabled our excess of production to reach the seaboard
and be distributed to foreign markets, and it may not. be out of
order to glance very briefly at the magnitude of this movement.
Thanks to a beneficent Providence and the industry and intelli-
gence of our people, our exports exceed our imports by an amount
greater than that of all other nations. Their increase within a.
generation is startling. While the population has doubled in
the past thirty years, the per capita of money has increased from
$17.50 to $28.66.1 The number of artisans has increased 2.7
times, while his average earnings have risen from $387 to $500 per
capita per annum. ‘The capital employed has expanded fivefold
and the value of the output more than threefold. In consequence
the per capita of our exports has increased in this same period from
$7.29 to $18.81, of which the largest part is food-stuffs.
The increase in agricultural exports was over 300 per cent., and
that of manufactures 750 per cent., so that this country heads the
10. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, in Zhe World’s Work.
1903.] HAUPT—D#EPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 201
list of exporting nations, having reached nearly one anda half bil-
lion dollars in 1901. The United States produces more wheat than
any other country of the world ; more corn than all other countries
combined ; more beef and pork than any other; three-fourths of
the world’s supply.of cotton ; of coal our exports exceed those of
any other nation, and at far less cost. Weare the mainstay of the
world for petroleum for light, heat and other purposes, and we lead
in the quantity and value of manufactured articles.’
_ For the internal distribution of the nearly 900,000,000 tons of
traffic, resulting from our splendid resources and energies, we have
Over 200,000 miles of railways, or more than two-fifths of the
world’s mileage, to say nothing of the superior facilitiés for the dis-
tribution of thought by mail, telephone and telegraph. . Thus it is
seen that, although the population of the country has doubled
within thirty years, the productivity of the nation has far exceeded
this ratio, and that it is the main reliance of Europe for many of its
necessities. Our importance as a base of supplies for the Orient is
also rapidly increasing, and it is reasonable to suppose that the next
generation will realize even greater developments than this.
The present year heralds the preparation which the great masters
of transportation are making for ‘‘ round-the-world” lines by the
consolidation of the ocean carriers into the International Mer-
cantile Marine Company, so that our exports may be delivered in
vessels under domestic control at less cost, and. our heavy freight
bills to foreign flags be reduced. This is as it should be, and every
possible encouragement should be given to all legitimate efforts to
increase the circulation of material products and to reduce the cost,
thus extending the market-range. But the mere multiplication in
the number of vessels does not lower the cost‘unless it develops a
keen competition between rivals. This competition is to some
extent neutralized by combination, but under good management
this effect may be more than offset by the reduction in fixed charges
and by the use of vessels of greater tonnage, which can be operated
at less cost per ton of cargo transported.
This brings us directly to the crux of the argument, for the ves-
sels, having already outgrown their channels are obliged to await
favorable conditions, clear with partial cargoes or lighter ; in every
case adding to the cost at the expense of the consumer, or restrict-
ing deliveries. It has been predicted that ere long vessels of 1000
10, P. Austin, Statistician, Treasury Department, Washington.
202 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2,
feet length and forty or more feet draft would be upon us, but this
economic ideal cannot be realized until some better method is
developed for the creation and maintenance of much deeper chan-
nels. To meet this demand for deeper water more powerful
dredges are building, in the hope of combatting successfully with
the ceaseless activities of the bar-building elements, by sporadic
mechanical devices, costing large sums to operate and offering
serious obstacles to navigation by their presence in narrow chan-
nels. With the exception of Port Royal, with twenty-one feet ;
Gedney’s Channel, with twenty-three feet ; the Golden Gate, with
thirty-two feet, and the Columbia Bar, with nineteen feet, the nat-
ural depth of scour over our alluvial bars seldom exceeds fifteen
feet, and is more frequently limited to from three to twelve ; while
a modern vessel, fully laden, may draw thirty-two, and should have
a channel depth of from thirty-five to forty feet for safe passage over
a rough bar at low water. Hence the urgent demands made upon
the national treasury for larger appropriations, that at least the most
important of our railroad and commercial terminals may utilize
these economies in transportation.
For the forty-four years prior to 1866, when our commerce was
carried in much lighter-draft vessels, the total expenditure for
waterway improvements was but $14,990,170; but between 1867
and 1901 they expanded to $332,487,627—-making a grand total
to that date of $347,477,897, to which should be added the appro-
priations of the last Congress of about $60,000,000 more, thus
swelling the aggregate to over $400,000,000. In reporting the last
bill the Chairman of the River and Harbor Committee stated that
‘the total amount which would be required for the completion of
projects for river and harbor works . . . now considerably
exceeds $300,000,000.’’ If but ten per cent. of this sum can
be secured annually it is evident that our commerce must ‘* drag its
slow length along’’ for many years, while the increase in the de-
mand for greater facilities cannot be met unless greater efficiency
may be secured in the methods in vogue.
During the score of years succeeding 1867 the average expendi-
tures were $4,480,000, but soon thereafter, when deeper channels
were demanded and the use of the submerged and twin jetties
supplemented by dredging became the main reliance, the annual
average reached nearly $13,000,000, with a rapidly increasing ratio.
In the past quarter century the estimates and expenditures at only
1903.] HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 208
eight of our most important seaports, where jetties have been built
or proposed for channels of modern depth, foot up to $50,515,784,
but the difficulty of securing the depth has necessitated in such
cases a resort to dredging to create and maintain the channel.
These new conditions have resulted in the construction of powerful
sea-going hydraulic dredges with great capacity, and have in a
measure revolutionized the practice of deepening by scour, as it is
considered by some more economical to use the dredge without
regulating works. In consequence it is found that the amounts
expended and estimated to complete the approved projects at only
four of our principal ports by dredging alone will aggregate
$41,396,129, exclusive of the large additional sums required for
maintenance.
In view, therefore, of the important interests involved, the unre-
liability of dredged channels, the inadequacy of twin jetties and the
great cost, it would seem pertinent to inquire whether the profes-
sion of engineering has reached its ultimatum in this department
of science. Is it not possible to utilize to greater extent the
boundless resources of nature for the purpose of creating deeper
channels at our ports?
The magnitude of these forces will be. better understood when it
is shown that the sun as a prime mover evaporates approximately
15,000 tons from each square mile of the ocean’s surface every
twenty-four hours, so that his daily work upon the 150,000,000
miles of water surface represents a load of two and a quarter trillion
tons, a large portion of which is carried by the wind-driven clouds
to the land where it is recondensed. Assuming the precipitation to
be proportional to the ratio of land to water, there would be 562
billion tons falling on the land surface, and taking the run-off at
but 4o per cent., there results 225 billion tons of stored energy
flowing down to the sea every day of the year, or, reducing this
weight to its volumetric equivalent, we have nearly fifty cubic miles
or 264,000 square miles of water one foot deep, an area greater
than the State of Texas.
This is the fluid solvent which, in the laboratory of nature, is
daily applied to earth-sculpture, while the portion at work in the
chemical and metallurgical laboratories of the interior is much
greater than this. The former is all that is available for the avenues
of domestic commerce, while the latter is the part which contributes
to its tonnage by developing its products.
204 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2,
For the foreign commerce there is the illimitable ocean with its
dynamics—the tides, winds and currents—which are not yet fully
understood nor utilized.
The poet Milton has aptly said :
ss Accuse not Nature, she hath done her part;
Do thou but thine.”
This prompts the question, How? It is to answer this query that
attention will be briefly directed.
It is well known that engineering, like many other sciences, is
largely empirical, and that more is learned from failures than from
successes, for failures are the buoys which mark the channel to
success. It becomes important, therefore, to review the experiences
of the past, in which this country is particularly rich, that their
lessons may guide us in preparing to satisfy the demands of the
future. With this end in mind, a brief review will be made of
a few types of harbor improvements, showing their physical features
and results, and the methods which have produced them.
ExistTING METHODS.
The devices in use to-day for the alleviation of the evils of ocean
bars are twin jetties, dredging and dynamite, either singly or com-
bined. The theory of the two-jetty system has been so long and
ably discussed that little need be added further than to state that it
is based upon the idea of preventing a dispersion of the currents by
the building up of parallel or convergent training walls to concen-
trate the discharge upon a single path across the bar.
The objections to this system are that, being built out from
shore, the confined waters are projected upon the inner slope of the
bar, which is pressed» seaward as they advance. Moreover, being
at a fixed distance apart, they cannot be adapted to great ranges of
stage, for if adjusted to a normal low-water discharge they will be
too close to pass the floods without retardation, or the reverse. In
any case there must result a sedimentation above, within or beyond
the works, as will be shown later, and dredging must be applied for
relief, and, furthermore, they reduce the tidal influx. Until within
a few years twin jetties aided by dredging have been the panacea
for all classes of harbor bars, regardless of the relations between
deposits, discharge and the many other conditions affecting their
1903.) HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 205
formation and maintenance. It is important that a careful diagnosis
be made of each case to ascertain its preponderating element.
PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
Thus it is seen that the physical agencies become of fundamental
importance, and that a clear distinction must be made between bars
formed from littoral drift and those formed from the detritus car-
ried down by streams. For tidal inlets it is also important to ascer-
tain the prevailing direction of the littoral movements which have
frequently but erroneously been supposed to follow the prevailing
winds, whereas it is more frequently found to be the resultant of the
configuration of the adjacent coast line and of the angular wave
movements, especially during the flood tide, when the waves are
most heavily charged with silt.
Knowing the direction of this general resultant, the engineer can
then determine on which side of the channel his protecting work
should be placed, although there still seems to be a radical differ-
ence of opinion as to whether it should be on the near or far side,
for only recently it was recommended that if a single jetty were
built at a certain inlet on the Southern coast, it should ‘‘ be located
on the south of the channel, since the drifting sands come from the
north. At this place, however, while the drift is comparatively
slow, it is an enormous sand bank which moves, and which always
moves very positively in one direction, and it is difficult to see how
such a constant force from the north could avoid crowding the
channel close to the jetty.’ The jetty plan was therefore rejected.
Frequent experience in the construction of two jetties, where the
farther one has been built in advance of the nearer one, has served
to show the fallacy of this location and order of procedure.
The requirements to be met at tidal inlets are, free admission
of the flood tide as the only source of ebb energy, protection of the
bar channel from the prevailing direction of the littoral drift, con-
servation of ebb tide as it passes seaward over a narrower path on
the bar, development of its potential energy in useful work locally
on the bar crest and an automatic adjustment to any stages of wind
or tide. All of these may be better fulfilled generally by one jetty
than by two, and manifestly at about half the cost. These results
are rendered possible by placing in the way of the ebb current a
curved resisting medium in such position as to maintain a contin-
uous reaction along its concave face. In fine, this structure be-
206 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2,
comes the tool for the conversion of the effluent energy into useful
work, with lateral transportation of the eroded material.
REACTION VERSUS VELOCITY.
The opinion is prevalent that the deep pockets frequently ob-
served at the ends of spurs or obstacles or at contractions in rivers
are due to velocity, and it has been stated that because a mean ebb
velocity of two feet per second maintains a depth of over 100 feet
at the Narrows of New York Harbor, therefore a similar contraction
on the bar near Sandy Hook would produce some such depths.
This was made the basis in 1886 for a proposition to build a jetty
nearly five miles long, closing three of the channels across the
New York bar. The great depth at the Narrows is not a velocity
but a reaction depth, due to the resistance which the converging
shores oppose to the passage of the flood, not the ebb tide, which
increases the head before reaching the pass, depressing the resultant
to the bottom, from which it reacts and scours out a depth to com-
pensate for the lateral contraction. At other points in the harbor
velocities of more than two feet per second do not scour to depths
exceeding three feet, so that the results must be ascribed to some
other cause than mere velocity.
An extended investigation of these abnormal depths leads to the
conclusion that they are caused by eddies operating in a vertical
plane, these eddies being caused by obstacles placed in the path of
a current in such manner as to retard the flow by the interference
due to converging forces, thus creating a head with a downward
resultant and scour until compensation is secured by enlarged aper-
ture. Here the reaction produces a change of direction of the re-
sultant, which is deflected upward with dispersion of energy, deposit
of material and ultimately restored equilibrium. These facts are
doubtless well known to many observers, but the particular point to
which attention is directed in this connection is that the downward
movement producing scour is supplemented necessarily by the up-
ward resultant, accompanied by deposit in the same vertical plane,
so that whichever way the eddy operates, whether with flood or ebb,
the bar is a sequence of the pocket, unless other forces come to the
rescue. Thus it appears that an eddy both scours and deposits.
These effects are reciprocal results of the same eddy, and not of two
separate ones. But eddies also operate in horizontal planes, and
with like results. When the obstacle is limited in extent the effect
1903.] - HAUPI—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 207
is local, but when the resistance is maintained the reaction con-
tinues to be developed and the energy to be expended until the
resistance ceases.
The great advantages resulting from a continous reaction pro-
duced by a concave directrix appears to have been largely ignored |
in the work of river and harbor improvement, and yet the location
of the best channels under the concave banks of rivers attests its
value to commerce. It is true that numerous curved dikes and re-
vetments have been placed in the concave bends of rivers, but the
object has been to protect them /vom erosion and not to encourage
it. Their value as tools to cut away an ocean bar does not appear
to be fully appreciated, since where single curved jetties have been
built the convex face has generally been turned to the current, to
encourage, as has been said, the tendency which water has to
follow a convex curve. (?)
The concave directrix has also the great advantage of maintain-
ing the head due to centrifugal force and thus changing the direc-
tion of the resultant downwardly, producing the lateral scour and
resulting convex bank or counterscarp created by the stream acting
as an hydraulic auger, and of automatically adjusting this counter-
part to the variable requirements of its regimen.
These general principles will be more fully elucidated by illustra-
tions selected from surveys and models, showing the holes bored by
reaction and the shifting of channels by artificial works, which are
instructive.as to the intimate relation between cause and effect.
A study of the natural effects found to exist under certain condi-
tions enables the engineer to predict with some assurance the results
which may follow a utilization of the available forces at any site.
One of the most instructive examples of the vertical eddy is to be
seen in the Narrows at New York, to which reference has already
been made. Here the bottom currents are with the flood tide for
about eleven hours out of the twelve, and this resultant flood ex-
tends as far up as the Battery. The ebb resultants are greatest at
the surface and diminish rapidly with the depth, reaching their point
of reversion at or near forty feet in the Narrows. On the bar the
ebb currents show a feeble resultant at a depth of less than twenty-
four feet in but one of the channels.
The remarkable ‘‘slue’’ which has maintained its position athwart
the path of the currents since the earliest surveys has excited some
attention as to its phenomenal position and depth of fifty-two feet.
208 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2,
It is referred to in the early Coast Survey Reports, and was made
the subject of a special paper by the late honored member of this
Society, Prof. Henry Mitchell, who prepared a manuscript report
upon it, in connection with the physics of the lower bay, in 1858,
but which was not published. It serves to confirm the claims of
this paper that depths may be and frequently are the result of eddy-
ing action rather than velocity. The confluence of three currents
produces a resultant having a northeasterly set which impinges upon
the bar at the head of Gedney’s Channel and is deflected thence
by this resisting bank of sand northwardly, boring out the slue for
a length of a mile and a width of a half mile. The latest survey
shows a depth of fifty-three feet, with but eighteen feet on either
flank. It was proposed at one time to change the direction of this
resultant by cutting off one of its components and training the cur-~
rents seaward to open Gedney’s Channel by the utilization of this
force, but it was not accepted. Again, the reaction at the head of
Sandy Hook has produced a maximum depth of sixty-eight feet,
diminishing within about a mile to thirty feet, while abreast of the
point and a half mile distant the depth is but sixteen feet.
The construction of the old Breakwater at the mouth of the Del-
aware in 1828 furnishes some instructive lessons as to the changes
effected by obstacles placed in a tideway. Here, at the ends of the
ice-breaker and of the breakwater, are to be found the character-
istic deep holes resulting from the head generated by the resisting
structures. At the gap the pockets are on the outside of the open-
ing, and the depths are the effects of the flood-tide. Both of these
pockets are fifty feet deep, and the material scoured out from them
has been carried into the harbor and deposited in the lee of the
structures, making a shoal with only ten feet at one point. At the
southeastern end of the breakwater the ebb reaction has scoured to
a depth of fifty-four feet, while at the western end of the ice- breaker
the hole is due to the flood, and is limited to about forty feet.
Moreover, the diagrams of velocity curves show that in the centre
of the harbor, where the maximum velocity of the ebb is six feet
per second, the bottom has not been prevented from shoaling to
about fifteen feet, while a similar ebb velocity at the ‘‘ gorge’”’ is
able to maintain depths of thirty feet. If these depths are due
solely to velocities they should be equal, since like causes should
produce like effects.
Numerous other instances of these abnormal depths due to reac-
1903.] HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 209
tion, and not to velocity simply, might be cited, but a few must
suffice.
In the Thoroughfare at Longport, N. J., the landing pier has
caused a hole forty-eight feet deep, while 800 feet away there was a
bar bare at low water, but covered by a tidal current almost as
swift as that past the pier.
In the Charleston gorge the maximum depth was eighty-two
feet, while on the bar seaward thereof the depth was zero, and
the best crossing was six miles south of the gorge. At Fernan-
dina (Cumberland Sound), Ga., the maximum depth at the head
of Amelia Island, projecting into the channel, was sixty feet, and
abreast of it bare at low water.
The Galveston gorge shows about fifty-eight feet, while the
normal bar depths were twelve to thirteen. The St. John’s river,
Fla., swings to the sea through a radius of one mile, carrying a
maximum depth of fifty and three-tenths feet, and as the axis
straightens to a tangent the depth diminishes to twenty feet. It
then strikes a jetty at an abrupt angle which develops its latent
energy and scours to fifty and two-tenths feet, but as this is not
maintained by the convex curve of the jetty, the channel deterio-
rates to about eleven feet.
The building of a spur in the Mississippi river at right angles to
the bank had the effect of increasing the depth from twelve to
nearly one hundred feet in consequence of the violent eddy which
was created, and now that the spur is covered and the river has
assumed a new regimen, the depth has shoaled to about thirty feet,
which is maintained. — .
From these few instances it would seem to be a fair inference
‘that depths may be developed quite as well by single lines of con-
cave directing works as by two, if proper attention is given to the
volume of affluent as well as to the relative amount and direction
of the motion of the bar-building materials.
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS.
In view of the requirements as previously stated, it is evident
that to protect the proposed channel from the littoral drift a sub-
merged low-tide or half-tide jetty will not suffice to arrest this drift,
but it should extend above the highest tide. It must also be placed
between the channel and the source of the prevailing drift, just as a
210 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2,
snow- or a sand-fence must be placed to ‘‘ windward ’’ to protect a
rail- or wagon-way.
It must be curved, concave to the effluent currents, to develop a
continuous reaction, and should be constructed inward from the
outward slope of the bar, to avoid the advance of the crest and to
utilize the force of gravity in cutting shoreward and downward,
instead of seaward and upward. These are some of the conditions
which give promise of the greatest results attainable at a given
location. Taking now a few typical illustrations of the several
methods in vogue, it is seen that the New York entrance is to be
deepened by dredging some 42,000,000 cubic yards from the bar,
beginning at the easterly end of Ambrose Channel, at a cost of
about $4,000,000, but with no definite time limit.
Although this sector of the bar shows a remarkable degree of
permanency, it can hardly be expected that the formation of this
deep cut, created by artificial means in the open sea, at a point
where the natural depths are steadily maintained at from sixteen to
eighteen feet, will long remain open. If it be assumed that normal
conditions would be restored, say, in a period of ten years, it would
represent an annual accretion of about 4,000,000 cubic yards to be
removed by dredging, which at the present price would cost $360,-
000, or the interest at three per cent. on $12,000,000. Fora much
smaller sum it would be possible to train the currents through this
new and shorter channel by permanent works which would main-
tain it and at the same time become a valuable aid to navigation.
The effects of the submerged jetty type is best seen at Charles-
ton, where the littoral drift is southward. Here the outer ends of
the jetties are raised above high water, but the shore flanks are far
below the surface, to admit the tides freely. The result is that the
beach sand travels across them and forms shoals within the har-
bor, while it also travels around the outer end and maintains a bar
in the open sea more than half a mile beyond the works, through
which the channel must be maintained by dredging.
At Galveston, where the submerged plan was modified to reach
above high water, the building out of the south jetty first has caused
the bar to advance some three miles, adding that length to each of
the jetties, which are 7ooo feet apart, and a new bar is forming
across the mouth in the lee of the north jetty. The channel must
also be maintained by dredging.
At the mouth of a sedimentary river, like the Mississippi, where
1903.) | HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 211
the silt comes from within, two jetties give much greater promise
of success, and the great work of Captain James B. Eads in open-
ing the South Pass by parallel jetties curving to the westward has
proven to be a boon to the country. These jetties were built under
adverse conditions, as payments were conditioned upon results to
be secured, and as the first pair of jetties did not suffice to give the
requisite depth, it became necessary to build spurs, then a second
line of works, and finally a second series of spurs before the legal
depths were obtained. This, however, resulted in an over-con-
traction of that outlet, and has caused the retarded currents to drop
their sediment in the Pass above the jetties instead of beyond them,
involving dredging.
Probably the most successful work of this kind at a river’s mouth
is that completed at the mouth of the Panuca river, Tampico,
Mexico, where in two years’ time two parallel straight jetties were
constructed about a mile and a quarter long across a bar, having
depths varying from five to twelve feet, and as soon as they were
finished a severe flood flushed the channel so completely that the
depths of twenty-seven feet have remained ever since, the littoral
current here being sufficiently strong to remove the sediment car-
ried out beyond the jetties. The engineer of this work was E. L.
Costhell, C.E.
At Aransas Pass, a purely tidal inlet on the Texas coast, a single
reaction breakwater, in an incomplete condition, has produced a
progressive deepening by the control of feeble tides, unaided by
dredging, and at a cost of less than one-third that of the estimated
project, thus fully demonstrating the great practical utility of the
single reaction jetty system at”the only point where an opportunity
has been afforded for a test on a large scale in this country, after
about fifteen years of persistent effort The Consulting Engineers
of this work were Messrs. H. C. Ripley, Geo. Y. Wisner, and the
writer.
212 RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. [April 4,
THE WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS.
BY MAZYCK P. RAVENEL, M.D.
(Read April 4, 1903.)
It would seem almost*superfluous to dwell on the terrible destruc-
tion of human life due to tuberculosis, or to dilate on the urgent
necessity that exists for general and combined efforts to lessen its
ravages; yet, in spite of all that has been said and written on the
subject during the last ten years, and in spite of certain encour-
aging signs of awakening interest in the public mind, it is still true
that there exists a lamentable and inexplicable apathy in regard to
this scourge of the human race. Philanthropists are lavish in their
gifts to colleges, hospitals, libraries, museums and such like institu-
tions, yet in America at least there have been very few substantial
donations toward the eradication of tuberculosis, though it would
be hard to imagine a greater boon to stricken humanity than the
accomplishment of this end. Legislators give freely to all kinds of
charitable institutions, but the amount given to the army of the
tuberculous is pitiably small. This attitude of legislators may to a
great extent be taken as indicative of public sentiment. This sen-
timent becomes harder to understand when we consider that three
facts have been absolutely demonstrated in regard to the disease :
1. It is communicable. 2. It is preventible. 3. In the early
stages it is curable.
It is well to inquire into the causes of this lack of interest, and
see if there is sound reason for them. One of the greatest draw-
backs has been the persistent belief in the hereditary character of
the disease, which is even now quite prevalent among the masses,
and held by many physicians. While it has been shown that tuber-
culosis may be transmitted in this manner, it has been equally proven
that it is of very rare occurrence, and practically negligible. Among
the lower animals healthy offspring may be constantly obtained from
tuberculous mothers by separation at birth and artificial feeding—a
plan carried out on a large scale in Denmark by Prof. Bang. It is,
however, true that tuberculosis runs in families, the reason being
that the children of phthisical parents are constantly exposed to
infection. In man only some twenty cases of true hereditary tuber-
culosis are on record (Osler), and in cattle there are less than roo to
be found in the literature. Another obstacle to progress is the inevi-
1903. ] RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. PAIS:
table tendency of the human mind to grow accustomed to danger.
We have grown accustomed to the death-rate from tuberculosis, and
do not realize what it means. A panic would be caused in any one
of our large cities by 100 deaths from cholera, yellow fever or
plague, yet in New York 10,000 deaths and in Philadelphia 2800
deaths are caused each year by tuberculosis without exciting even
passing comment from the average person. The only real differ-
ence is that tuberculosis is with us always, demanding its lion’s
share of victims with each recurring year, while the other diseases
are rare visitors.
The total number of deaths in the United States-each year from
tuberculosis is estimated at 150,000, which means a money loss of
$330,000,000 to the country. This should be sufficient reason for
preventive measures on our part, even if we leave out of consider-
ation the distress of the victims and their families. The slow and
insidious onset of tuberculosis no doubt tends to lessen the fear we
have of it, but in this very fact lies much danger, since it is more
difficult to persuade persons of the relation of cause and effect than
in a malady where exposure is promptly followed by attack. The
magnitude of the task deters some from undertaking it. Very
recently a legislator who was being urged to assist in procuring
State aid brought up such an objection. The task is unquestion-
ably a great one, but it can be stated with assurance that the total
eradication of tuberculosis is feasible.
Another class of obstructionists are those persons who regard all
discoveries as ‘‘ new-fangled notions,’’ and quote the mode of life
of their grandfathers, who did not find measures for the prevention
of tuberculosis necessary. It is impossible to argue with such per-
sons, asarule. It may be pointed out, however, that tuberculosis
is essentially a disease spread by overcrowding, and, like all com-
municable diseases, the more dense the population the greater nec-
essity for preventive measures. Conditions change materially with
increase of population, and the new conditions must be met by new
measures which may have been unnecessary before.
PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS.
All efforts at the eradication of tuberculosis to be successful must
be based on the fundamental fact of its communicability, and in
the main it is to be treated as the other contagious diseases, though
214 RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. [April 4,
the restrictions need not be so severe, since more or less prolonged
exposure is necessary to bring about infection.
Two parties are to be considered, the tuberculous person and the
community, and while the former is entitled to every consideration
and attention, the good of society in general must be the principal
consideration which guides our actions. Fortunately, the interests
of the two parties are not irreconcilable, and much can be done by
education to smooth the difficulties which lie in our path. With
this end in view there should be in every State, and in all large
cities, societies whose object is the study of methods of prevention,
and the dissemination of such knowledge in short, plainly written
tracts among the people. In addition to this, Boards of Health
should issue circulars constantly giving such information and advice.
At present only twenty-two States and seven cities issue such circu-
lars and recommendations, while five States have State societies and
five cities have local societies for the prevention of tuberculosis.
These societies can do much good also by shaping legislation.
States and cities should have uniform laws regarding expectoration
in public conveyances, buildings and on sidewalks, overcrowding
of factories and tenement-houses, the construction of such build-
ings as regards light and ventilation, and the employment of chil-
dren under age. Health officers should have the power to force
ignorant and vicious tubercular persons who persist in reckless
expectoration and other offenses against public hygiene into hospi-
tals provided for them bythe public. There should be notification.
and registration of the persons suffering from phthisis, and apart-
ments occupied by such persons should be thoroughly disinfected
periodically, and always after death or vacation of the premises
before new tenants are allowed to enter them.
All of these things can be carried out with little or no increase
of expense, and much good can be accomplished along these lines.
However, the urgent need is for institutions in which the sick can
be cared for and instructed. These should be of at least two types :—
sanatoria, built in open country districts in regions known to be
specially adapted to the treatment of tuberculosis; and, second,
hospitals in or near cities for the hopelessly ill and destitute, where
the maximum of comfort can be given them, and where they will
cease to be sources of infection to their families and the public in
general. In connection with the sanatoria convalescent farms are
most useful, and may be made self-sustaining toa certain extent. On
1903.] RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. 215
such farms patients who are well enough to be discharged from the
sanatoria can find light employment under good conditions until
strong enough to return to their usual avocations in factories, etc.,
without danger of relapse.
I have not tried to outline an ideal method of dealing with tuber-
culosis, and much could be added to what has been said, but have
limited myself to what appears to me imperatively demanded by
the conditions which confront us, and to what is entirely in our
power to effect. The affair is, however, beyond private charity,
and governmental aid is necessary, each State doing its share.
In spite of the enormous expenditure which would be involved
in providing hospital accommodations for the indigent tuberculous,
it would cost less than the present money loss to the country from
deaths alone, estimated, as said before, at $330,000,000 annually ;
and in a few years we could confidently expect a marked and pro-
gressive decrease in outlay. It must be borne in mind that the
demonstration of the communicability of tuberculosis has resulted
in special hardships to the poor consumptive, since most general
hospitals now close their doors to these afflicted ones. The poor
consumptive reaps but little aid from the vast donations from public
and private sources to general hospitals ; hence the urgent necessity
for special provision for them, both on the score of humanity as
well as protection to the public health.
Hand in hand with such measures should go efforts directed to
the eradication of tuberculosis from cattle, since we must look on
cattle as the source from which a certain amount of human tubercu-
losis springs, chiefly in children.
Without entering into matters of controversy, the following proven
facts may be stated as grounds for this belief:
(1) The tubercle bacillus as found in bovine animals differs from
that found in man chiefly in its greater virulence for practically all
experimental animals, including man’s nearest relative, the monkey.
It would be an anomaly if man, one of the most susceptible of all
animals to tuberculosis, were immune to the most powerful type of
the germ of tuberculosis known to us.
(2) There are numerous well-authenticated cases of accidental
inoculation of man by the bovine tubercle bacillus, with the pro-
duction of typical disease at the point of inoculation. Some of
these cases have been followed by general tuberculosis, ending in
death, attributable with good reason to the inoculation.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 173. 0. PRINTED Aue. 7, 1908.
216 RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. [April 4,
(3) A number of instances have been recorded in which the
onset of tuberculosis followed the use of milk from tuberculous
cows. In some of these the relation of cause and effect is so close
that Nocard has well said ‘‘they have almost the value of an
experiment.’’
(4) That food containing bovine tubercle bacilli may and does
produce tuberculosis in man seems already proven by finding in the
intestinal tract (mesenteric glands) of children who have died of
tuberculosis tubercle bacilli which have all the characteristics of the
bovine germ, and which have an intense degree of virulence for
cattle.
(5) The close relationship of the human and bovine’ tubercle
bacilli has been shown by the recent experiments in immunization,
in which it has been proven that injections of bacilli from human
sources will protect animals against virulent bovine germs. This
has been done by Trudeau, De Schweinitz, and Pearson and Gilli-
land in this country, and by Behring and Thomassen in Europe.
Wuat Has BEEN DONE IN THE UNITED STATES TOWARD THE
SUPPRESSION OF TUBERCULOSIS.
Three States and four cities require the reporting of cases of tuber-
culosis ; in five States and five cities report is optional; in one city
it is under litigation.
Two States have general anti-spitting laws, while five States have
local laws, and fourteen cities have their own laws. ‘Twenty-two
States and seven cities issue circulars and recommendations.
The United States Goverrment has two sanatoria for persons in
its employ ; five States have five special institutions, and nine States
have projected sanatoria. Two States have tent colonies on a small
scale. Only three cities have special municipal hospitals for con-
sumptives. There are forty-two private institutions in eleven States,
some supported by private charity, some partially self-supporting,
and some for pay patients only.
Twenty States and twelve cities have laws regarding bovine tuber-
culosis. Twenty States have done nothing in regard to human or
bovine tuberculosis; six States have done something to combat
tuberculosis in man only, and eight States have done something
against bovine tuberculosis alone."
1 These figures have been taken almost entirely from the valuable paper of
Dr. S. A. Knopf, read before the American Medical Association at Saratoga,
June, I902. Since then considerable advance has been made. .
1903.] RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. ehh
Comparisons are said to be odious, but in the hope of stirring up
our people in the United States, I quote the most recent statistics
of what is being done in Germany, which may be taken as an index
of the attitude of most of the countries of Europe toward the
scourge of tuberculosis.
THE FicHt AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS IN GERMANY.
According to the Imperial Health Office in Berlin, the deaths
from tuberculosis are about one-tenth of those of all diseases. In
1899 the number of patients treated in hospitals in the empire was
226,000. According to the latest statistics there are at present 57
public sanatoriums for the tuberculous in Germany, of which 34 are
located in Prussia, 6 in Bavaria, 2 in Saxony, t in Wurtemberg, 1
in Hessen, 1 in Sachsen-Weimar, r in Thuringia, 1 in Reichsland, 3
in Baden, 2 in Brunswick and 5 in the Hansa cities. Besides these
there are 4 four institutions near the sea—namely, Nordeney, Wyk,
Gross-Muritz, Zoppot. There are also 23 public sanatoriums nearly
completed, among these being Buch, near Berlin. The city of
Berlin has at the present time 3 public sanatoriums—namely, Mal-
chow, Blankenfelde, Gutergotz. There are also 20 private German
sanatoriums, and 1 in Davos (Switzerland). Inthe 78 sanatoriums
for the tuberculous there are 7000 beds. Ifwe calculate that each bed
is used by four persons in the course of a year, we find that about
30,000 tuberculous patients annually enjoy the benefit of treatment
in the sanatoriums. The efforts made in the German Empire to
combat tuberculosis, both by direct regulations and by general pre-
ventive measures, are being actively carried on. In particular, the
Imperial Government, the governments of the different States, the
executive authorities, the national insurance institutions and the
municipal governments are seriously and actively participating in
this work. ‘The result of these efforts, which have been now carried
on for some years, is already noticeable in a decrease in the number
of deaths from tuberculosis, which in the future will be still more
marked (American Medicine, March 21, 1903).
ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY AND SERUM-THERAPY.
For many years constant effort has been made to discover a serum
or lymph for the specific treatment of tuberculosis, and several such
- substances have been announced from time to time. All of them
218 RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. [April 4,
have proved disappointing, however, not excepting Koch’s lymph
or tuberculin, the discovery of which was hailed with delight and
enthusiasm by physicians and consumptives alike in all parts of the
world. Recently it has been demonstrated authoritatively that it is
perfectly possible to produce artificial immunity against tuberculosis
in animals by a process of vaccination, as such methods are now
generally termed, and with this demonstration comes the well-
founded hope that we are within sight of the goal so much hoped
for, the discovery of a specific serum for the cure and prevention of
tuberculosis. Indeed, we have already the news that two well-
known bacteriologists have produced such a substance. While the
details have not yet been made public, the names of these two men,
Behring, of Germany, the discoverer of diphtheria antitoxin, and
Marmorek, of the Pasteur Institute, in Paris, the discoverer of
streptococcus antitoxin, are of such weight as to justify strong hope
that they have achieved success. We may feel assured that ig
progress has been made, to say the least.
I have not dwelt on the pathetic side of this question—the fearful
loss of life and suffering entailed by a preventable disease. On this
point I cannot do better than to quote a short editorial from a
recent issue of American Medicine (March 28, 1903). While this
deals with the city of New York, it is equally applicable to every
city in the United States, the figures only needing modification.
THE TRAGEDY OF THE HOMELESS AND FRIENDLESS.
‘¢In the year 1902, in the borough of Manhattan, there died of
tuberculosis, chiefly in the various hospitals of the city, 1787
patients. Of these, 950 were ‘‘not known’’ at the addresses
given; 456 gave no addresses; 275 gave the address of a lodging-
house, and 106 gave an address outside of the city. It must be
remembered that these deaths constituted only about one-seventh of
all the deaths that took place. Moreover, for every death there are,
according to Dr. Farr, about two years of illness endured. When
one thinks how much our happiness, even in health, depends upon
home, and love and friendship, and that in illness and death the
blessedness of these things is vastly increased, and then when one
realizes that there are so many thousands of the sick and dying in
our cities utterly homeless and friendless, the pity of it all becomes
indeed terrible. The tragedy of obviable disease and needless
1903.] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 219
death kindles our zeal to stop the spread of infection, to discover
the means of preventing the suffering, and, when this is not pos-
sible, to surround the lonely sick and dying with the best medical
skill, attention and kindness that is possible. The desolation of
their appalling loneliness is often doubtless greater than that of their
illness and oncoming death combined.”’
PHILADELPHIA, April 4, 1903.
ON ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALLIZED
DOMEYKITE, ALGODONITE, ARGENTODO-
MEYKITE AND STIBIODOMEYKITE.
(Plate V.)
BY GEORGE A. KOENIG.
(Received June 1, 1903.)
In a paper on mohawkite, domeykite and other copper arsenides
of the Mohawk mine (Zettsch. f. Krystall., etc., Vol. xxxiv, 1 Heft),
I mentioned some attempts made by me to obtain domeykite in
measurable crystals by the action of arsenic vapors upon metallic
copper. One experiment gave crystals, although not measurable,
but further trials failed at the time, evidently through my inability
to maintain the proper temperature by means of an Erlenmeyer
combustion furnace. The range between the temperature at which
the crystals form and that at which the crystals melt is a very nar-
row one. On the other hand the eagerness with which the copper
absorbs the arsenic causes heat, and hence the difficulty in adding
just the right quantity of thermal energy from the outside. It
occurred to me to try an electric current as a source of heat. The
very first trial gave most promising results. The experiments were
taken up in November, Igoo, and continued until March, 1901.
The adjoining figure illustrates the simple apparatus which proved
itself adequate to all requirements.
In watching the rapid growth of the crystals the similarity of the
phenomenon with the development of an egg occurred to me, and I
applied the name ‘‘ incubator’’ to the apparatus, than which no
other could be more expressive.
220 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June1,
The incubator consists of a piece of combustion tubing (T), closed
at one end. The length is unimportant since only about three
inches of it are in actual use. I have varied the diameter from
three-eighths to three-fourths inch with no apparent difference in
the action. The crystals do not grow any larger in a large tube
than in a small one. Around the tube is wound a very thin plati-
num wire (W), beginning at the closed end. In order to keep the
coils separated I laid three strips of thin asbestos paper (E) length-
wise upon the glass and then began winding. The first turn returns
to the start, a twist is made, and thus a well-fixed start is secured
= 7 a
iNET
which will prevent the wire from slipping. The pitch of the thread
will be governed by the maximum of heat desired. This will be
variable with different metals and may be varied even for the same
metal, as I have frequently done, the variation being between one-
eighth and one-thirty-second of an inch. The last coil is secured
in the same way as the first. Twoinches of winding were mostly
sufficient. Whenever the glass gets to full red heat the wire will
fuse into it and will be broken in unwinding. To avoid this spoil-
ing of the wire it would be the best thing to cover the whole glass
surface with the asbestos sheet. But doing so would also prevent
the observation of the phenomena occurring within. One might
as well, or even preferably, use a porcelain tube. One would have
to forego the great pleasure of seeing the so-called inanimate things
1903.] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 221
come to life, and one would make many more failures by either too
much or too little heat. The wear and tear of the wire seems
trifling when held against this loss. Being thus prepared the tube
is ready to be charged.
At A (Fig. 2) I place from five to ten grams of resublimed
arsenic, on top of this a loose plug of asbestos (P). In the first
experiments I thought copper filings would be the best material to
act upon. These filings I poured on top of P, forming a column
about one inch high, and secured this column by means of a second
asbestos plug (P’). Such an arrangement of parts promised to
restrain the arsenic vapors from passing by the copper without
action. It proved an unnecessary precaution, as the copper acts
toward that vapor as asponge toward water. Coarse turnings were
tried instead of filings, and later solid copper bars with even better
results than the filings had given. Similarly the close proximity of
the copper to the plug P was found objectionable and, therefore,
in all the later experiments the tube was placed, after charging the
arsenic and inserting P, in a horizontal position by means of a
clamp at the open end. Then the metal pieces to be acted upon
were shoved into the desired distance from the plug, a loose asbes-
tos plug next to the metal to avoid air currents, and finally a stop-
per holding a narrow glass tube, bent at right angles, was inserted
into the open end. The glass tube was then made to dip under
mercury and thus expansion of the air made possible, without
danger of air entering. Whatever oxygen was in the tube made
As,O,, which was always found as a ring sublimate behind the
metal. Fig. 1 shows the outside of the tube, clamped to the stand -
S. The stout contact wires, w, w’, were found very serviceable.
By their use the field of high temperature may be enlarged or
restricted as well as shifted. These wires are simply laid upon the
coil wire. Their position must not be shifted or altered without
switching off the current; the thin wire will melt in the moment
when the contact is broken. I spoiled considerable wire in this
way, besides the time consumed in rewinding is quite an item. A
suitable, easily changeable resistance to modify the tone of the
222 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June1,
thermic energy is made part of the circuit. A water resistance
answers very well if a Mariotte’s bottle be provided to keep the
water level, and if the one wire be fastened to a swivel ; the latter
arrangement permits a quick and easy modification to ;)455 amps.
In my work with the incubator a drum resistance coil with roller
contact was used. The apparatus was placed into a dark room in
which the faintest glow could be seen and thus the lower limit of
temperature was probably 450° C., with the upper limit of C. 500° to
700°. The most satisfactory range for domeykite is about 600° C.
AIMS OF THE INVESTIGATION.
At the start the aim was not so much the mere production of
domeykite crystals, as the demonstration that nickel and cobalt
might replace copper in’the molecule without changing the symme-
try, in other words to establish the isomorphous character of
domeykite and mohawkite. This original scope became at once
wider, when the results showed the ease with which domeykite was
formed in good crystals. The action of arsenic upon iron, lead,
silver, cobalt, nickel was included and equally satisfactory results
were fondly hoped for.
A still farther circle could be described by drawing in antimony
since silver was known to unite with antimony as Ag,S,. The
hopes were not realized. Under other conditions perhaps better
results may be obtained, at least in somecases. I am referring here
to the action in vacuo. Up to this time I have not tried the
vacuum, so much other work is constantly crowding in. I will not
pre-empt work in this line and shall gladly see any colleague step
in to take up this undoubtedly highly interesting work.
1. ACTION OF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON COPPER IN THE INCUBATOR
—DoMEYKITE.
a. Coarse copper turnings were placed in the tube (C. Fig. 2) so
that about three-fourths inch of free space were left between the cop-
per and the asbestos plug P, and the contact wires were so placed that
the evaporation of the arsenic was fairly rapid, whilst the tempera-
ture of copper remained near the lower limit of say 500° C. Soon
one saw shooting out from the copper very thin, brilliant leaves. The
direction of growth was parallel with the tube’s axis. The growth
keeps up until the entire free space is filled with the bright crystal
aggregate. The latter looks much like sublimed arsenic, and that I
1903. ] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 2235
thought it to be until the analysis showed it to contain 72.9 per cent.
of copper. The crystals even penetrated into the asbestos, and
from this very extremity the material for the analysis was taken.
This experiment was carried on from 8 a.M., January I1, 1900, for
forty hours. Here was a phenomenon of molecular or ionic
activity without parallel; at least to me extraordinary, for I had
not seen any record of a similar observation. It is not difficult to
understand the building up of crystals from a medium which con-
tains the molecules in the liquid or gaseous state. But what I
observed here implied a very different condition of things. Not -
even the skyward growth of a tree, which somewhat resembles this
stretching out of the domeykite toward the supply of arsenic, is
comparable. For the cells draw their nourishment from the liquid
sap and the gaseous air. The growing may happen from the root
by pushing or by growing at the front. In the latter case the cop-
per ions must be supposed to be going like the ions under the direc-
tion of a current, but going in the solid condition, and this is the
point at which the imagination recoils. Either alternative rests
upon a push or a draw impulse. The present experiment would
seem to point toward a push from the root as the cause, that is to
say to a mobility of the copper arsenide molecule Cu,As. In Fig.
3 is represented one of the results of a later experiment, which
gives support to the notion that the copper ions are moving and not
the molecule CusAs. Here C is a piece of copper turning. On a
slender stylus S sits the large domeykite crystal D (the tabular type,
three millim. in diameter). The crystal is incomplete on one side.
From it leads a second stylus S', and upon this another somewhat
incomplete crystal of domeykite D has been growing. All the
material for the crystals must have come through the stylus S.
Instead of all the material, 1 should say more correctly all the
copper. The stylus habit for the crystallization is very common ;
Fig. 3 merely represents an unusually fine specimen of this habit.
Looking at the phenomenon of molecular mobility in the solid
state merely as a physico-chemical process, aside from crystalliza-
tion, I can see an analogous occurrence in the so-called cementa-
tion process of steel or case-hardening process. In this process a
bar of soft iron is exposed to red heat in a packing of solid char-
coal, and becomes gradually converted into carbid Fe,C to the very
innermost parts. It would seem that the solid carbon ions become
mobilized, passing from one group of iron ions to the next until
224 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June1,
chemical saturation has been reached. To my knowledge, how-
ever, no experiments have been put on record which absolutely
precluded the coaction of gasified carbon as CO; I mean that
the experiments were not carried on in perfectly air-tight vessels.
Yet, granted even that the solid carbon travels by exchange through
a bar of iron, the phenomenon is not quite correlated to our
problem. For if the two were similar then the arsensic would
have to penetrate to the core of the copper chip without altering
practically its original shape. But in the specimen Fig. 3 the cop-
per chip C is perfectly bright metallic copper, even immediately
under the stylus S. Furthermore all the other metals behaved
toward arsenic vapors as iron toward carbon: the arsenic penetrates
Fig. 4
and crystals do not shoot forth. Copper possesses, therefore, a
unique tonic mobility. Since copper stands at the head as a con-
ductor of both heat and electricity, may not this be due to that
mobility of the ions ?
6. If acopper chip be placed into the incubator and both resist-
ance and contact wires be so adjusted that very little arsenic vola-
tilizes, and that the copper is just below glowing heat, that is dark
in a perfectly dark room, then the domeykite crystals arise from
the copper as very thin tabular individuals, often of perfect hex-
agonal outline. Many of the crystals are only fractional (Fig. 4),
and in this case look like bristles or spines, always at right angles
to the surface, or if the latter be curved then the bristles will be in
radial position. At first’a few scattered crystals will come out,
always nearest to the supply of arsenic, but later the entire surface
will become covered with bristles. Under these conditions large
1903.] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 225
and full-faced crystals were never obtained. The largest crystals
of the tabular habitus 4-5 millim. with prismatic and pyramidal
faces well developed, but striated, so that they did not serve for
measurements, were grown in a twenty-four-hour experiment. The
crystals are fast to the asbestos of the plug P.
c. Experiment made January 14, 190.
inch copper wire two and one-half inches long was wrapped at one
end with asbestos cord so as to form a plug which would support
the wire within the incubator in a central position, thus giving a
chance for free growth in all directions. At the end of fourteen
hours the wire had been modified as shown in Fig. 5. The result
was unexpected, probably owing to the change of current in the
2arly morning, when the dynamo current had replaced the storage
battery and the temperature had risen beyond the intended point.
A piece of one-fourth
Fig 5
It is, however, all the more instructive, although a failure of the
intention. Exceptionally large and fine crystals were expected to
form by the arrangement, hence the failure. Instead seven distinct
zones appeared, each telling a different story. Zone 1st(a@). The
end of the wire nearest to the asbestos plug and the arsenic and
in the centre of the heated field is completely fused, showing a
lead-gray color and dull compared to its neighbor. The end is
deeply converted into arsenide and this has been fused. Zone
2d (6). Bright gray of the color of antimony, a jumble of crystal-
line faces, but no crystals, has been partly fused. Zone 3d (c).
A narrow strip of small but well-formed crystals, which belong to
226 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF ORYSTALS. [June 1,
thick tabular type, has not been fused. Zone 4th(@). A collar of
bristling hexagonal plates, some with prismatic and pyramidal
faces, but withal belonging to the thin type. This collar of crys-
tals looks jet-black, the contrast with the bright gray both striking
and beautiful. In different light the crystals always appear black,
only in reflected light the color is gray. This zone marks the mini-
mum of temperature at which combination of copper and arsenic
takes place. Zone 5th(%). Is very narrow and dull gray; it reveals
miniature crystals of the thin type. Zone 6th (7). Shows the
beautiful pale red color of pure copper. Evidently arsenic vapors
surrounded this part of the wire ; the temperature sufficed to let this
arsenic combine with the oxygen of the surface, and thus give the
latter the pure copper color, the peroxyd subliming. Next to this
we find the wire with the usual red color due to a thin film of
cuprous oxide.
ad. A piece of quartz two inches long and just wide enough to go
into my largest combustion tube, that is three-fourths inch, had a
number of native copper crystals, pseudomorphous after quartz.
This specimen was incubated. A growth of thick tabular domey-
kite crystals formed all over the one side of the quartz. The arti-
ficial nature is disguised by the quartz and the epidote in the asso-
ciation to such an extent that any mineralogist would take it as a
thoroughly natural production and hence a most unique specimen.
2. ACTION OF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON ALLOYS OF COPPER, NICKEL
AND CoBALT—MOHAWKITE, KEWEENAWITE.
An alloy was made of the three metals in about the same propor-
tion in which they are found in the natural mohawkite, that is
Cu = 74
Ni = 21
coq 5
100
The alloy was cast into a bar one-fourth inch wide, and parts
of this bar were successively exposed in the incubator under differ-
ent conditions of temperature, of rapid or slow evaporation of
arsenic.
First Experiment, December 18, 1900.—The alloy is converted
into filings and these are put directly against the plug P in the
1903.] KOENIG—-ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 227
manner as described under copper, but the filings only occupied the
lower half of the tube. Upon the upper flat surface crystals form
of the thick tabular type, the first pyramid prevailing over the basal
plane. The crystals are coherent laterally, crustlike, over a loose
aggregate of bright, light gray crystalline matter with indistinct
faces. At the time I thought these two materials were alike. But
recently, on re-examination, it is seen that whilst the crystals have
become much tarnished, the gray material has not changed at all.
The crystal layer was detached as much as possible from the loose
substance, for the analysis, but it was not possible to do this
thoroughly.
The analysis of the crystals gave (0.216 gram) :
Gui 66.37): 63) == 1. O05 27
(Ni + Co) = 2.43: 58.6 = 0.0415
PG EES Beiaio His = 0.4120
1.0930
99-70
Ratio:
(CuNi Co) : As = 2.655 : 1.000
The analysis of the gray loose material gave (0.2325 gram):
Cu = 44.30 :63 =0.7032
Ni = 12.54 } : 58.6 = 0.2822 0.9854
Co= 4.00
AS = 39-25 275 = ee
100.09
Ratio:
(CuNi Co) : As = 1.88: 1.00 = 2:1
This then is typical Keweenawite, described recently by me
(Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. xiv, December, 1902) as found at the
Mohawk mine. The non-tarnishing quality is inherent also in
the natural mineral, as mentioned 7. c. The crystals on the other
hand are mohawkite; the excess of arsenic making the ratio
2.655: 1 instead of 3: 1 is explained by the impossibility of
separating the crystals from the adhering keweenawite.
Experiment of December 24, 1901.—Instead of filings, two frag-
ments of the alloy were exposed in the incubator for twenty-seven
hours. Hexagonal plates, very thin, formed upon a crust of gray
material strongly crystalline. The plates stood at right angles to
the surface and could be brushed off with small camel’s-hair brush.
228 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June 1,
The analysis with 0.0867 gram of the absolutely pure crystals
gave :
Cu (605402 103) Fe —— rOoe f 1.1463
(Ni + Co) = 2.70 : 58.6 = 0,0461 ‘
AS ae Be as 0.3750
100.13
Ratio:
(CuNi Co) : As = 3.06: 1.00 = mohawkite
Both experiments show conclusively that nickel and cobalt will
enter the crystals without changing the hexagonal symmetry; that
domeykite and mohawkite are indeed isomorphous. At the same
time the interesting fact is to be dealt with that nickel and cobalt
do not pass into the arsenide with the copper in the ratio in which
the alloy exposes them to the action of the arsenic vapors. That
in fact the ionic mobility of nickel and cobalt is only approximately
one-sixth that of the copper. For in the alloy the ratio of copper
to nickel and cobalt is nearly 4 : 1, whilst in the crystals it is 25: 1.
The highest percentage of Ni + Co furnished for mohawkite was
4.51, but the analysis was otherwise unsatisfactory.
3. ACTION OF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON NICKEL.
Two cakes of nickel were exposed in the incubator for twenty-
four hours. No crystals could be obtained, not even of the most
imperfect type. A brittle material formed as a thin crust of a dull
gray color. It was not analyzed. The action upon cobalt was
similar. The ionic mobility of these metals under these conditions
seems to be near zero. We may infer that in the previous experi-
ments Ni and Co were moved by infection from the copper’s ionic
vigor.
4. ACTKON oF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON AN ALLOY OF COPPER WITH
SILVER—ARGENTODOMEYKITE.
The metals were melted together in the proportion 9:1. The
alloy was cast into a bar and fragments of this were exposed in the
incubator.
Experiment of January 22, 23, 1901.—The material for action is
a solid piece of the bar about 15 x 25 millimeters. The crystals grew
out of this alloy towards the arsenic as rapidly as out of pure cop-
per. They are of the tabular variety, medium thickness. The
1903.| KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 229
pyramidal faces are hollow (see Dr. Wright’s Fig. 3). The dark
gray crystals are surrounded at the base by a fringe of sz/ver- white
crystals of the thin plate type. It happened that the exposure
began about 9 A.M. ona Saturday morning. At.6 P.M. the crop
of crystals had developed finely, but I hoped that they would
become extra large by longer exposure. On Sunday I was prevented
from going to the laboratory, and on my arrival on Monday I found
the incubator barely warm to the touch. The storage battery had
run down over Sunday, and to this accident we owe this beautiful
and interesting preparation which I now hold in my hand. On
seeing the silver-white crystals I thought, first thing, that I was
beholding a silver arsenide, but the analysis proved my judgment to
have been in error.
The composition is
Cui== 80.49 91/63, 5 1.2773
Ag == 2:60):3107.6'—= 0.0242 t #3085
As sl Olosi75) 0.2257
Hence the ratio:
(CwAg): : As = '5.77.4 1 == 62
This substance then is argentoalgodonite.
The dark gray crystals have the composition :
Cu = 70.40
Ap .2.20
(By difference) As = 27.30
100,00
This is the ratio:
(CuAe)s As == 3705
or what I will name argentodomeykite, which we shall, sooner or
later, find undoubtedly as a natural mineral. But how about the
algodonite? In no other experiment was it observed. Since the
form of the crystals is identical with the argentodomeykite, I ven-
ture to assert that the algodonite is pseudomorphous after the
domeykite, and owes its existence to a retrogressive process in this
way: when the temperature was slowly going down (with the cur-
rent from the battery) the arsenical atmosphere became more and
more rarefied with the greed of the metallic copper still active.
Hence the copper began to draw the arsenic from the nearest
230 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June1,
domeykite crystals and the latter became algodonite. Since the
algodonite is only found at the base, near the copper, the explanation
seems to me plausible enough.
Experiment of January 5, 6, 7901.—A piece of silver was ; exposed
in the incubator. It was supposed to be quite pure; but, as will be
‘seen from the analysis, it contained several per cent. of copper. For
several hours no action appeared to take place, behavior being simi-
lar to nickel. Then the edges began to round and towards even-
ing the piece of alloy went into complete fusion at a temperature
certainly not above 450°C. Seen by candle-light, through the glass
tube, the material had the appearance of a large drop of mercury,
being seemingly very mobile. The following morning (with the
weaker current) it was found solidified, but nosign of crystals. The
substance broke readily under the hammer; the fracture shows
cleavage faces.and a light gray color.
The analysis gave (0.4795 gram):
Atoms.
Aoi 7.22 0.688 ee
Gee 763
ic—«, Te 0.075 ie
(Difference) As = 20.96 0.273
100.00
Ratio:
(AgCu) : As = 2.79: 1.00
There is, therefore, a molecule Ag;As with a tendency, how-
ever, to pass into Ag,As; some of the latter is shown in the ratio
%, instead of 3, which corresponds exactly to 4 Ag,As + Ag,As.
Experiment of January 21, 1901.—Piece of alloy (1 copper, 1
silver) exposed twenty-one hours. A beautiful growth of thick
tabular crystals, which sit up on a gray crystalline layer, under
which appears a thin zone, silver-white in color, 1/2 millimeters
thick ; then comes copper-red. The growth is entirely in the axis
of the piece and tube towards the arsenic.
The analysis of the crystals gave:
Cu 62'62 0.9844 |
Ag = satan oateaeip a
AS = 26.57 0.3569
100.00
Ratio:
(CuAg) : As = 3.05 : 1.00
1903.] KOENIG—-ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 23]
The silver-white zone under the crystals demonstrates to the eye
the difference in the ionic mobility of copper and silver. One sees
how the copper is drawn away from the silver. It would be of in-
terest to know whether the outermost crystals carry less silver than
those nearest the metallic base, but as this gain of knowledge would
also involve a destruction of the specimen I abstained, satisfied with
the average result as exhibited in the above analysis.
Lxperiment of February 24, 1901.—An alloy of 1 copper with 1
silver was made and a piece weighing about 5 grams was exposed in the
incubator for fourteen hours (overnight). The front and upper sur-
face of the ingot was found covered with crystals. They are not good,
but they show distinctly the habitus of the thick tabular domeykite.
There is no tendency to rise ; the silver is evidently as little mobile
as the nickel and acts depressingly upon the activity of the copper.
The crystals are laterally grown together, forming a strongly coher-
ing crust, which cracks off with the hammer blow.
Analysis of the crust gave (0.3057 gram) :
Atoms.
Cr .87 = 0,88
Ag = oot — oa t nowt
(By difference) As = 29,12 = 0.388
100.00
Ratio:
(CuAg) : As = 2.65 : 1.00
This corresponds to a mixture of 5 (CuAg),As with 3 (CuAg),As.
The tendency is always rather for the building up of Cu,As than of
Cu,.
Experiment of February 28, rg0r.—A piece of alloy 1 Cu + 1 Ag
exposed in incubator for two days and nights at very low temper-
ature. The end reaching towards the arsenic showed a fused,
bluish-gray, apparently homogeneous material. At the opposite
end are small crystals with bright faces. Habitus: steep hexago-
nat pyramid with striated sides, capped by the normal or funda-
mental pyramid..
Analysis with 0.3412 gram gave:
Atoms.
Cu = 4094 — 0,650
-98
4 Ag = 36.62 — 0.339 t es
(By difference) As = 22.44 = 0.2992
100-00
Ratio:
(CuAg) : As = 3.3: 1.00
PROC, AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XLII. 173. P. PRINTED AUG. 7, 1903.
232 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS, [June1,
This is the single instance in which the metal exceeds the 3 ratio,
if we exclude the instance of the algodonite. I venture to explain
it by a similar process of retrogression, or, perhaps, better, by
ingression of the still very mobile metal ions into the molecule #
after the arsenic vapor had become too rarefied for addition from
the outside, as the temperature was sinking—z.e., the current going
down. All the experiments with the copperssilver alloy prove:
1. Silver and copper together replace one another isomorphously
in the molecule ?. 2. The representation is 63 Cu by 107.6 Ag—
z.e., divalent copper with monovalent silver. 3. There isa molecule,
Ag,As, whose melting-point is below the temperature of forma-
tion ; hence not crystallizable in the incubator. 4. Higher temper-
ature tends to forming Ag,As, same as Cu,As,
5. THE ACTION OF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON AN ALLOY OF COPPER
AND ANTIMONY—STIBIODOMEYKITE,
If copper and antimony were melted together in such proportion
as Cu,Sb, which corresponds nearly to copper 3 parts, antimony 1
part, in percentage Cu = 75.6, Sb = 24.4, and such an alloy were
to be exposed at the proper temperature to the arsenic vapors, one
might be justified in supposing that by simple addition of one atom
of As we would get
Cu,Sb + As = 2 Cu,(SbAs)
if there were a tendency in the elements to form such a combina-
tion; or if the molecule Cu,Sb(Cu = 66 Sb = 34) were exposed,
then one As might couple together two molecules of Cu,Sb.
Experiment of February 1, 2, 3, 1901.—The alloy Cu,Sb was
exposed for three days and nights at very low temperature. In
the absolutely dark room the wire coil showed dull redness. Very
large tabular crystals form, drawn in the axis of the tube forward
the arsenic. The crystals have the color and habitus of domey-
kite. Their composition is:
Cu= 69.34
(0.1422 gram) Sb= _ 1.26
(By difference) As — 29.40
100.00
Ratio:
Cu: CASSb) = 2.76): 1.00
1903.] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 233
The analysis reveals two points: 1. Arsenic does not add itself
to a ready-formed molecule Cu,Sb. The same preferential attrac-
tion towards copper comes into play as in the case of the metallic
constituents of copper alldys. The ionic mobility of antimony is
low; at any rate, at the low temperature in use during this
experiment. 2. The ratio indicates that antimony is probably
merely mechanically carried along so long as copper is at hand
for the arsenic; for if antimony be considered out of the mole-
cule the ratio will be Cu: As= 2.82: 1.00. But even this is
unsatisfactory for a crystallized body with no mechanical admix-
ture likely, for the crystals were all separate and large enough to
be fully scrutinized.
For more light I went to examine into the material directly under
and back of the large crystals. This material is loose, in small
loose grains of angular habitus, not scaly at all, as the large crys-
tals. Habitus quite unlike that of the domeykite ; color darker gray.
The analysis of this material (0.0570 gram) gives:
CuO = 0.0393 Chesed Awe) 03 0 08800
Sb,S, = 0.0028 Sb 92/53 2 122.0028,
As,S, = 0.0480 AS'== 401665"): 175 0.5421 t ar
99.61
Ratio:
Cal CASSb)) — Ssor57 0 —-3 Ooi. 2
As the copper becomes scarce, the arsenic being still plentiful,
this new 3/2 molecule forms. In spite of the superabundance of
antimony, the selection of copper continues. With nickel we saw
in similar conditions the forming of 2/1 molecule. The affinity
for antimony is quite low, and yet it is probably the influence of
the Jatter through which 3/2 and not 2/1 are brought into being.
The excess of arsenic in the large crystals accounts for itself by
the presence of this 3/2 molecule under the influence of antimony.
Lxperiment of February 4, rgoz.—The same alloy Cu,Sb was ex-
posed for thirty-six hours at a higher temperature, about 550° C.
Two products were obtained. Forward, towards the arsenic, a lus-
trous gray mass, apparently of fused crystals. The outermost part
of this mass was broken off, revealing a hollow center, an inner
layer of dark-gray mass, an outer layer of lighter color. Could not
separate the two. Let this be material (a). The second substance
234 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June1,
is composed of crystals of the domeykite habitus, thin and thick
tabular ; all but very few show rounded edges—that is, incipient
fusion. <A part of the crystals was removed. Material (@).
Analysis of a (0.4801 gram); many individual plates, others
grown together. ¢
Cu — 69:70): 637 — 0.1078
As = 20.32: 75 = 0.2709
Sb= 9.74: 122 —0,0800 03509
99.85
Ratio:
Cu : (AsSb) = 3.11 : 1.00
These crystals are thus proved to be stdiodomeykite. It also fol-
lows that higher temperature increases the ionic mobility of the
antimony.
The analysis of the material (a’) (0.4823 gram) gives:
Cu == 45. 10':)63.== 0.7158
Sbi== 36.83 2122013059 0.5428
AS 18:07 175. —'0:2406
100.00
Ratio:
Cu): (SbAS)i=— 4,32): 1,00) — Aiea
I take this to mean a mixture in which the outer crust is Cu (SbAs),
whilst the inner layer is Cu,(SbAs) 2; 1/71 +3/2—4/3.
Experiment of February 7.—A fragment of the alloy Cu,Sb was
again exposed with the intention of keeping the temperature, if
possible, below that of the one preceding, and yet higher than in
the first experiment. The exposure was forty hours. It must be
remembered that owing to the local conditions a perfectly uniform
temperature could not be maintained unless the ammeter were under
steady observation—an impossible or at any rate too difficult a pro-
position. Hence the temperature would steadily decrease, whilst
the potential sank from 120 to 110 volts and would rise (during the
night) to 125 volts, when in the forenoon the dynamo was coupled
to the storage battery.
The original alloy was found covered with three products :
1. A fine granular crust.
2. Over this a peculiar sort of crystals not showing any one of
1903.] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 2385
the habitus of domeykite. These crystals are all fused together
laterally ; the faces are rough like the leaves of reeds. They are
not measurable.
3. On these faces rise curious pyramidal forms as shown in Fig. 6.
The crystals are slender and small. Their faces are bent and very
uneven from the alternation of pyramid and prism. The acute
pyramid predominates, but apex is closed by the normal pyramid
(see Dr. Wright). Some of the forms, as at a.a., resemble minute
cup corals; others, as at 4.¢., imitate a club, whilst ¢.c. may be
likened to a church steeple.
ad. t1and 2. Crust and crystals cannot be separated.
Analysis gives (0.0532 gram):
Cu =='67.74 :) 63 — 1.0752
Sb = 1.00%: 122 == 0,0082
(Difference) As = 31.26: 75 — 0.4168
100.00
Hence ratio:
Cu: (AsSb) = 2.52: 1 == 5:2
Corresponding to a molecular mixture :
Ss fs fe
ad. 3. The crystals are so small that the whole of them would
not make o.1 gram. The sacrifice of any of them came hard.
3-97 milligrams weighed on a button balance, which is accurate to
236 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [Junel,
0.005 mg., was dissolved in H NO, and evaporated to dryness. The
dry mass dissolves in water, to which a drop of dilute H,SO, has
been added. Solution is without opalescence. Hence antimony
can only be present in traces. Then 2.78 mg. of fine copper wire
was dissolved in H NO,, this being just seventy per cent. of the
arsenide. Both solutions made ammoniacal were compared in
proper dilution of 50 cc. on the colorimeter. The color of the
solution from the pure copper is slightly lighter and by adjustment
brings the percentage
Cu 72
The crystals are thus proven to be domeykite and not stibiodo-
meykite. The strange habitus of the crystals, so unlike that of the
prevalent habitus,.must be looked for in the influence of the anti-
mony, though the latter does not itself enter the composition.
6. ACTION oF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON ZINC.
Experiment of March 2, r90z.—A piece of chemically pure
zinc, broken from a stick, was exposed for twenty hours, The sur-*
face is covered by a crust which is developed into mamillary groups,
somewhat like psilomelane. The crust detaches itself by a blow
from the hammer and breaks into flaky pieces resembling graphite.
Analysis gives (0.222 gram):
Zno = 0.1720 = 0.1381 Zn
Hence
; Zn =-62:20
(By difference) As = 37.80
100.00
Zn : As = 959 : 504 = 1.902: 1
Zn,As
Zinc acts toward arsenic vapors like nickel; the ratio 2/1 seems
to be the normal.
7. ACTION OF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON LEAD.
The lead melts. Exposure for twenty hours. Product is:still
Peeteata + «
1903. ] WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. 237
malleable to some extent, but breaks off short when nicked with
the chisel and then bent. Looks homogeneous.
Analysis gave:
Pb = 96,10
AS 3-75
99.85
Pb: As ==-0.4637 : 0.050 = 9.27: 1
The ratio is that of whitneyite. The ionic mobility is small.
MICHIGAN COLLEGE OF MINEs, May, 1903.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES.
BY FRED EUGENE WRIGHT.
The following group of artificial minerals, which Dr. Koenig has
kindly intrusted to me for crystallographic investigation, is charac-
terized by high metallic luster, tin-white to steel-gray and even
black color, conchoidal fracture and hardness : 3-4. The crystals
obtained are all small and rarely exceed a millimeter in length.
The character and quality of the crystal faces is not uniform for
the whole group. Those of domeykite are usually sharp, well
formed and furnished single reflection signals on the goniometer,
whereby a fairly exact determination of its elements could be
obtained. The crystals of the remaining minerals are far less per-
fect, their uneven undulating faces evincing such indistinct, mani-
fold reflexion signals on the goniometer that an accurate determina-
tion of their elements was impossible.
The crystals were measured on a Goldschmidt’s two-circled
goniometer (model 1go1), with attachment for observing small, weak
faces and an electric arc goniometer lamp.’
1The electric goniometer lamp (Fig. A) consists of a box (a2) made of Rus-
sian sheet iron, lined with asbestos cardboard, and of an electric lamp (4). The
bazk of the box (a) is left open to allow the insertion of the electric lamp—a
small black movable curtain serving to shut off all false light, which might dis-
turb in measuring. The mirror (a) and cap (e) are used to light the verniers
and were taken bodily from a Goldschmidt’s Auer burner gas goniometer lamp
(see Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie, Bd, xxiii, 1894, p. 149. V. Goldschmidt.
Eine neue Goniometer-lampe). The electric lamp (4) is the No. Io, hand
feed, of J. B. Colt & Co., Chicago, Ill. (price, $10), together with an adjustable
theostat (seven to eighteen ampéres, $13). By means of the latter the intensity
238 WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. [June 1,
DOMEYKITE.
Twelve domeykite crystals were measured, all of which indicated
the holohedral division of the hexagonal system with the following
observed forms :
Letter : c b a z v p x
Symbol Bravais........ QOOI 1010 1170 2023 I011 2021 Ti2Z2
Goldschmidt.... 0 ome) 00 20 10 20 4
Also two uncertain forms ? 1 0 (1016), which occurred only once
6 ’ y
of the light may be regulated. An ammeter may be used, but is hardly neces-
sary, In the slits in the tube (/) two small colored (blue and green) pieces of
glass are placed, which cut down the intensity of the light and impart to it a color
restful to the eye. In case very bright light is needed one of the glass plates
Fig. A.
may be removed. The carbons are observed through a round piece of glass fitted
in the cap (¢). The electric arc goniometer lamp is especially adapted for the
measurement of etch figures and minute crystal faces, but serves equally well for
ordinary measurements as the light intensity may be regulated and cut down at
will.
1903.] WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. 239
as a sharp, perhaps vicinal face on crystal No. 4; and? 41 (1232),
observed once as a small rounded face (crystal No. 3).
Element : fp = 1.0259 + 0.0006
Fo 1 10,5085)"
@:c, =1: 1.539
The element p, was calculated from the mean of the angles of
27 sharp, single reflecting pyramidal faces of the measured crystals,
no attempt being made to separate the different types of crystal
habit. The form zv, 10 furnished 12 of these faces (g = 30° 00’,
p = 45° 44’, possible error + 1’), the form /, 20, 11 faces (g =
30° 00’, p = 64° or’, possible error + 3’), and the form 2, 20, 4
ftees) (== 30" .00',, p == 34° 22’, possible error = 1’);
Table of Angles.’
C1539 c==018721|lg @—005135\lg f,—=OO1 112 wemB 235 =H) (G,)
- - | Bra- : : - ad
ae vais | ° p 50 | 7% 5 Cee oak @, y == ig p
(#29)
° ° ° ° ° fe}
c o 0001) — | 0.00} 0.00) 0.00} 0.00) 0.00 fe} |. «0 fo)
?a@ « |1 1 2.0|30,00/90,00/90,00|90.00} 30.00/60.00; 0/.5 773 oo 00
6 | © 0 |107 0) 0,00]90.00) 0.00|90.00} 0.00|g0.00 oO oe eo
2 2 0 |2028| 0,00/34.23) 0.00/34.23) 0.00/34.23 fo) |0/.6840|0/.6840
v I 0 |1011] 0,00/45.44| 0.00|45.44| 0.00|45.44 fo) '1/,0259|1/.0259
Pp 2 0 |2021] 0,00/64.01|} 0.00|64.01| 0.00)64.01 fe) 2/,0518/2/.0518
2% 4 1 1 2 2|30.00/41.37/23.57|37-34|19.23|35.06| 0/.4443 |0/.7730/0/.8885
IOUDO db
DESCRIPTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL Forms.
1. The form ¢, o (ooor) was absent on only one crystal (No. 9,
Fig. 4). It has sharp hexagonal outline, splendent metallic luster
and is usually perfectly flat, except in the larger crystals where it
is frequently uneven and undulating. If observed under a micro-
1 @ : ¢) denotes the axial relation of the pyramid 10 (IfoT1) and a: c¢, those of
the pyramid 1 (1121). See V. Goldschmidt, /udex der Krystalformen, Vol. i,
P= 35>
2 Calculated according to scheme given in Winkeltabellen, von V. Gold-
schmidt,
240 WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. [June1,
scope lighted by auto-colimation the basal plane frequently appears
covered with three systems of fine lines, cutting one another at an
angle of 60° and running parallel to the outer edges of the crystal.
The strize are usually so fine that they are invisible to the naked
eye and have no effect on the sharp reflexion signal from the face.’
2. The form a, «© (1120) is rare, occurring but once on one crys-
tal, and then somewhat rounded. From the correct position of the
reflexion signal, however, the character of the zone and relations
to the other faces, the form was considered probable. Its position
on the crystal is given in Fig. 4.
3. The form 4 (10To), «© o was observed on ten of the twelve
measured crystals, often perfectly even and flat, at times, however,
striated parallel to the basal edge—a phenomenon especially notice-
able on the hollow skeleton-like crystals (Fig. 3), and due probably
to the imperfect formation of the face.
1903.] WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. 241
The character of the three pyramidal faces z, v, f, is uniform and
unvaried. Long narrow faces exhiting occasionally fine strize
parallel to the basal edge, particularly on the hollow crystals.
The form z, 2 o (2073) appeared on three of the measured crys-
tals, v, 10 (1071) on ten, and the form 4, 20 (2021) on ten and
on one crystal as the only pyramid (Fig. 5).
The form x, 4 (1172), like a, «© 0, occurred but once and on |
the same crystal with the latter, as a small rounded face (Fig. 4).
Its reflexion signal was approximately in its correct position. The
form is considered probable.
Fig. 1 gives a gnomonic projection of all the observed forms on
domeykite.
Types of Crystal Habit.—Fig. 2 (crystal No 1, dimensions
1.2 < 1.2 X 0.3 mm.) illustrates the first and most common type
of domeykite crystals. Flat, thin tabular cystals with the
forms 0, © 0, Io, 20, the last three as narrow, sharp faces fre-
quently striated horizontally. These artificial crystals are occa-
242 WRIGHT— CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. [June 1,
sionally hollow and resemble then Fig. 3 (crystal No. 8, 1.1 X 1.0
<o0.4mm.). The central part of the prism faces is not filled out
as yet, while the basal plane is perfectly flat. although in some cases
a mere fragile paper-like film. The pyramid faces are usually
present in the form of narrow strips. The hollow parts of the
crystals seem to consist of a pile of innumerable thin plates piled
one on top of the other, similar to the structure of a biotite crys-
tal. The first type passes gradually into a thicker tabular one, in
which the pyramid faces are more prominent. Fig. 4 (crystal No.
5,0.9 X 0.9 X 0.5 mm.). In one case the steep pyramid 4, 20,
with J, 96 0, were the only faces developed. Fig. 5 (crystal No. 9,
I Xo0.5 0.6 mm.). Fine horizontal strize were then apparent on
all faces of the crystal. Rounded transitional faces between vand ¢
were noticed on one crystal.
Of the measured crystals No. 1 (with the observed forms c¢, 2, J, 2),
No. 7 (with ¢, v, ~, 4), No. 10 (with c, v, f, 6), No. 12 (with ¢, 2,
1903.] WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. 248 |
Pp, 4) belonged to the first type of crystal habit; No. 8 (with ¢, Z, 4)
to the second ; No. 2 (with ¢, z, v, 5), No. 3 (with ¢, v, ~, 4), No.
mmr. a, 0, 450 (2)) No. -§ (6,2, 0, fy ay Gyee), NON 6 (c's, 2,
p, 6) and No. 11 (¢, v, p) to the third, and No. g (with J, 4) to
the fourth.
Development of the Crystal Forms.—The only zone of any ccn-
sequence present is that of the pyramid from the base to the prism.
Considering the base and prism as primary forces the series reads
¢, 2, U, p, 6 or 02 1 2 w. This series is normal except for the
second member 2. The sense of this variation is not apparent.
The primary forces have produced in the domeykite crystals the
most common crystal faces. The simple dominant of the series
v, 10, and the form /, 20, appear equally well developed, while
the most highly differentiated form z, 2 o occurs least frequently.
The crystals of domeykite tarnish easily to iridescence, and are
then unfit for measurement. Luster of fresh crystals splendent
metallic ; color tin-white to steel-gray in reflected light, black in
diffused light, often with a tinge of red. Fracture conchoidal,
uneven. Brittle. Indications of a cleavage or parting after the base
may result from the leafy texture mentioned above. Cleavage after
the prism @ (11Z0)) o imperfect but distinctly noticeable. The
specific gravity was left undetermined, as sufficient material for
an accurate measurement was not available.
EtcuH FIGuREsS.
In these experiments the etch figures on the basal plane only were
observed. ‘This face is the largest and most perfect, and the one
best adapted to reveal the crystallographic nature of the mineral.
The other faces, moreover, occur only as narrow bands, frequently
striated horizontally—two features detrimental to the formation of
good etch figures.
In the process of etching, the minute domeykite crystals were
placed in a small receptacle or holder made of finely woven plati-
num wire meshes, attached to which was a long handle of thicker
wire, and then dipped into the acid, allowed to remain there a
certain length of time, finally removed by means of the thick wire
handle and plunged quickly into water. In this manner it was pos-
1Compare V. Goldschmidt, ‘* Ueber Entwickelung der Krystallformen,” Zez¢s-
chrift fiir Krystallographie, Bd. xxviii, p. 1-35, 419-451. }
244 WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. _[Junel,
sible to measure the time of attack or exposition of the acid exactly
to a second.
Etching acids used were NO,H and HCl. The action of these
two acids on the domeykite crystals is totally different. The nitric
acid works energetically and causes a strong development of gas
which keeps the submerged crystal in constant motion. The hydro-
chloric acid in contrast attacks the crystals very slowly (even when
heated), causes no gas bubbles but becomes gradually colored
yellow.
Nitric Acid.—With this acid the best results were obtained with a
cold (15° C.) dilute solution of four parts concentrated nitric acid
(70.6 %, sp. gr. = 1.426) and five parts water, with time of ex-
position 10”—20”. On one crystal unusually sharp etch figures were
observed after an exposition of 13”. A long series of different con-
centrations were tried (from concentrated NO,H down to 1: 2 and
lower). The times exposed varied from 10” up to 120”. Nitric acid
appears to etch most rapidly parallel to the outer edges of the crys-
tal. The etch figures are very small, remarkably flat and shallow ;
exhibit generally sharp hexagonal outline, and grade especially on
too long exposition or too concentrated acid into a hexagonal net-
work of three systems of straight lines running parallel to the outer
edges of the crystal. Compare the following figures;
Fig. 9 (dilution 4:5. Time of exposition 30/’. Magnification 40 x ).
Fig. 10 ee ihe Ge “c “ec 20/!. “ce to x ):
Fig. Pr “ss AK 5: “ “ce 4o!/, “ 40 X yi
Fig. 12 “ ats “ “ 60/’. “ 60 X ).
On one crystal, however, three-sided figures were observed, their
slightly convex lines running parallel to the outer edges of the crys-
tal. On several crystals one of the three systems of lines appeared
in certain parts of the field to be less strongly developed than the
remaining two sets, while in other parts of the field a second system
was absent, etc. (Fig. 11). The rule seems to hold good in such
cases that in the near vicinity of an outer edge that system of lines
is poorly developed which runs parallel to the edge. The outer edge
seems to have had a certain influence on the development of the
lines of the etch figures. Usually, however, all three sets of lines
are equally well formed (Fig. 12). The etch figures are so small
that they give no noticeable reflexion signals on the goniometer.
Hydrochloric Acid.—Hydrochloric acid attacks domeykite under _
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC., VoL. XLII, No. 173. PLATE V.
44
a
1903.] WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. 245
all conditions of concentration and temperature only very slightly.
In one experiment with cold HCl (1 part concentrated HCl 30.5 %,
Sp. g. == 1.515 with 1 part water, time of exposition 7’), however, very
small etch figures with sharp hexagonal outline were produced, not
unlike those resulting from nitric acid. Their edges ran also paral-
lel to the outer crystal edges. The absence of one set of parallel
lines in the vicinity of that outer edge to which it was parallel was
also observed on one crystal, etched with HCl. It is noteworthy
that in this chemical process no noticeable gas bubbles are seen to
escape.
Both the crystallographic measurements and the etch figures seem
thus to prove the hexagonal nature of artificial domeykite crystals.
On the following minerals, however: argentodomeykite, stibio-
domeykite and mohawkite, the basal plane was so poorly developed
that good, trustworthy etch figures could not be obtained. Their
crystallographic system was deduced solely from the goniometric
measurements.
In a recent article’ on artificial domeykite crystals, Mr. Stevano-
vics considers the crystals examined by him to be orthorhombic,
notwithstanding the hexagonal symmetry of his measurements, and
bases his conclusions on the appearance of a cleavage after the
macropinacoid, 100. A careful investigation by the present writer
confirmed the cleavage noted above after three faces 60° apart. The
cleavage seemed equally good after all three faces. In certain pieces
cleavage fragments of perfect hexagonal outline (equilateral tri-
angles) were produced. On the goniometer the angle between two
such cleavage faces was found to be approximately 60°. The basal
plane was uneven and did not permit an exact adjustment of the
crystal.
The elements and forms described by Mr. Stevanovics were the
following :
Orthorhombic: @ :.6: ¢ =0.5771: 1: 1.026
Forms: ¢ m 6 p a v g 2 Cea asige ng bee q?
oor Ifo O10 IIL O2% I12 OF I13 023 043 O41 0.5.12
with ¢, ~, g rare and uncertain.
As hexagonal crystals these elements and forms become:
1 Zeitschr. f. Krystallographie, Vol. xxxvii, pp. 245-246, 1903.
246 WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. [June 1,
Element : eS 1.0206
@:Cyg9= 1 : 0.8838
a: gy =I: 1.531
Forms : (MMP ETT (5) ea ey ea TAY OF) OCS 2 q(?)
Bravais,..... OOOI I07O 404I 2031 IOTI 40g3 2023 50512
BRGD aie Sis. oc fo) fe) 2 4 2 5
oss 4 fe) 10 : Z0 50
ARGENTODOMEYKITE.
The crystals of the artificial argentodomeykite belong also to the
holohedral division of the hexagonal system. Four crystals only
were measured, each crystal exhibiting slightly different elements,
due probably to a varying percentage of silver. For the form 2,
20 of the several crystals
The angle p = 65° 14’ + 29’, py = 2.167 + 0.047, in the first crystal.
p = 65° 08/ + 20/, p, = 2.158 + 0,032, in the second.
p = 64° 33/ + II’, py = 2.101 + 0.017, in the third.
p = 64° 36/ + 15’, p) = 2.106 + 0.024, in the fourth.
Although the above quantities vary considerably, still they show
clearly that the entrance of the silver in the domeykite crystal par-
ticle causes a change in its elements, the pyramids becoming steeper.
Fig. 6.
The quality of the faces of these artificial crystals was so poor that
the influence of the silver in per cent. could not be determined.
Size of crystals and character of faces similar to domeykite. Of
the pyramids the form Z, 20 predominates, the form v, 10 occurred
but once, while A, 3 0 was not observed. The face /, 20 frequently
exhibits a slight cylindrical rounding, the axis of which runs par-
allel to the basal edge. Its reflexion signal is then a short light
band, its bright central part indicating the position of the face. The
faces are invariably striated horizontally. The different types of
1903. ] WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. 247
crystal habit are illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7 (dimensions of crystals
0.9 X 0.9 X 0.4mm. and 1x0.5 X 0.4 mm.).
The external appearance of the artificial argentodomeykite resem-
bles that of domeykite. Its color is perhaps more nearly silver-
white. The crystals tarnish easily and become iridescent.
STIBIODOMEYKITE.
The artificial products of this mineral were not suitable for gonio-
metric measurement. The faces were without exception uneven.
An examination of the various preparations with a pocket lens
revealed two different types of crystal habit—the first of them tabu-
lar with the base predominating, the other faces practically unde-
veloped ; the second long prismatic, almost arrow-shaped, the hori-
zontally striated pyramid faces terminating either in a short point
or becoming wider at the top, and resembling then an overturned
bottle or inverted cone.
Color, light steel-gray. Tarnishes less readily than preceding
minerals and iridescence rarely noticeable. Fracture conchoidal.
H = 3-4.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XLII. 173. Q. PRINTED AUG. 7, 1903.
248 WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. (June 1,
MoHAWEKITE.
The artificial crystals of mohawkite are extremely small, and not
so well developed as those of the domeykite. On the goniometer
their faces exhibit unclear, manifold reflexion signals which render
an exact determination of the element impossible. The measure-
ments indicated again the holohedral division of the hexagonal
system.
Observed forms :
Letter: c a 6b
z v p
Symbol Goldschmidt. . 0 we) 0 0 20 10 20
Bravais...... OOO IIZo 1070 20273 I07I 2091
Element : Po = 1.001 + 0,008
2A e =ai ia EOr
2: Cy = 1: 0.867
The element was computed from the mean of all usable angles.
Possibie error + 14’.. The marked variation in the angles was due
to the poor quality of the crystal faces. A careful search through
the entire material showed that not one of the faces was perfectly
even. The dimensions of the crystals are so small that the observer
is unable to judge, even with the aid of a pocket lens, accurately as
to the quality of the faces. The individual forms exhibit a sharp
outline but an uneven, rolling surface. On the goniometer, after-
wards, these characteristics are only too noticeable.
Table of Angles.
¢==1/501 lg c—017656\lg ay—006247 lz fy 000043 @=1/154|f,—1/001| (G.)
Let-| Sym-| Bra- £ s a dad
Vo, EPS be Sas @ p So IN & ” | (Prisms) y =tgp
(¥: y)
° ° ° ° ° ° °
I & fo) ooo! | — | 0,00} 0.00} 0.00) 0.00} 0.00} 0/5773 ° °
2 a ro) I1ZO |30.00|90.C0} 0.00/90.00] 30.00|60,00 ° or 0
a é 0 | I0TO | 0.00|90.00|g90.00/90.00} 0.00|90,00 fo) oo oo
4 z 20 | 2023) 9.00)33.47| 0.00)33-47) 0.00) 33.47 fo) 0/669; 0/669
5 v 10 | IOZI | 0 00)45.02) 0.00/45.02) 0.00/45.02 fo) 1/OOI| 1/001
6 p o | 2071 | 0.00/63.27| 0.00/63.27| 0 00/63.72 fo) 2/002] 2/002
_ 1903.) MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 249
The general character and relation of the faces on the mohawkite
crystals is similar to that of domeykite. The form a, 0.00 0 (11Zo),
however, occurs more frequently and is better developed. Fig. 8
(size of crystal 0.6 X 0.3 mm.) illustrates the usual habit of the
Fig. 8.
mohawkite crystals. Thin, tabular crystals like those of Fig. 2 are
rare.
Luster, splendent metallic. Color, light tin-white to steel gray.
Fracture conchoidal, crystal habit thick tabular to equidimensional .
The crystals tarnish more readily than those of domeykite and
become iridescent in brilliant, variegated hues.
LANGUAGES OF THE NEW ENGLAND ABORIGINES
NEW SOUTH WALES.
BY R. H. MATHEWS, L.S.,
4 é
ASSOCIE ETRANGER SOC. D’'ANTHROP. DE PARIS.
(Read May 15, 1903.)
SyNnopsis.—Introductory—Orthography—The Anéwan Language
—The Banbai Language—A Mystic Language—Anéwan Vocabu-
lary.
The native tribes of New South Wales are disappearing rapidly
before the advancing tide of European population, and unless some
1 See foot-note, page 243.
250 MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. [May 15,
person qualified for the task shall take up this highly important
subject, the languages and the customs of an interesting primitive
people will be lost to science.
The languages spoken by the native inhabitants of the New
England district of New South Wales are quite different in vocabu-
lary and intonation from those found in any other part of New
South Wales which I have visited. Therefore I consider myself
very fortunate in being the first author to report their grammatical
structure.
In the following pages I shall endeavor to record and preserve
the elements of two aboriginal languages, with a vocabulary of one
of them. All of the materials of the grammars, and also of the
vocabulary, have been collected by me in the camps of the abo-
rigines, and were noted down direct from the mouths of the native
speakers, so that I can become entirely responsible for their
accuracy.
In common with other Australian languages reported by me, the
Anéwan and Banbai tongues possess a double form of the first
person of the dual and plural, in’ every part of speech subject to
inflection, by means of which the person spoken to may be
included or excluded. It may be stated here that I was the
first author to give full details of this peculiarity in the languages
of Australia,’ although it had been observed to a certain extent in
some of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and among the Amarinds
of North America. These two languages likewise contain a dual
and plural number in all parts of speech.
It is hoped that these efforts of mine may prove of some value,
by enabling philologists to compare the native tongues of Aus-
tralian tribes, not only among themselves, but with other languages
in the islands of Polynesia, Melanesia, and various parts of the
Pacific Ocean, as well as with the speech of other primitive tribes
in different parts of the world.
The space at my disposal in the PROCEEDINGS of this Society
render it necessary to describe only the leading elements of the
languages dealt with.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
The system of orthoepy adopted is that which is recommended
by the Royal Geographical Society of England, but a few addi-
1« The Gundungurra Language,’”? Proc, AMER. PHIL. Soc., Vol. xl, p. 140.
193.] MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 251
tional forms of spelling have been incorporated, to meet the
requirements of the Australian pronunciation, as follows:
As far as possible, vowels are unmarked, but in some instances
the long sound of a, e and w are indicated thus, 4, é, tu. Ina few
cases the short sound of w has been marked thus, wt.
G is hard in all cases. # has a rough, trilled sound, as in fhe
English word ‘‘hurrah!’’ W always commences a syllable or
word.
Vg at the beginning of a word or syllable has a peculiar nasal
sound. At the end of a syllable or word it has substantially the
sound of zg in the English word “ sing.’’
The sound of the Spanish fi is frequent; at the beginning of a
word or syllable I have given it as zy, but when terminating a word
the Spanish fi is used. Yat the beginning of a word has its ordi-
nary consonant value.
Dh is pronounced nearly as z# in the English word ‘‘that,’’ with
a slight sound of @ preceding it. JV/ has also nearly the sound of
th in ‘‘ that,’’ but with a slight initial sound of the z.
T is interchangeable with @, p with 4, and g with 2.
Zy and dy at the commencement of a word or syllable have
nearly the sound of the English 7, or the Spanish ch; thus, dya or
tzya closely resemble ya or cha. At the end of a word or syllable zy
is sounded as one letter, closely approaching the ¢ch in the English
word ‘‘catch,’’ but omitting the final hissing sound.
In all cases where there is a double consonant, each letter is
enunciated.
THE ANEWAN LANGUAGE.
The remnants of the Anéwan tribe are scattered over the southern
half of what is known as the ‘‘ table-land’’ of New England, in-
cluding Macdonald river, Walcha, Uralla, Bendemeer, Armidale,
Hillgrove and other places.
ARTICLES.
The indefinite article, a, is not represented, but the demonstra-
tive pronouns, in their numerous modifications, supply the place of
the definite article, as ‘‘ this man,’’ ‘‘ that woman,’’ ‘‘ yonder hill.”
The English adverb, Here, in its several native forms, is frequently
treated as a demonstrative, and is then also a substitute for the
definite article.
252 MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. [May 15,
NOUNS.
Nouns have number, gender and case.
LVumber.—There are three numbers—singular, dual and plural.
Kana, acrow. Kanaburala, a pair of crows. Kananyeta, several
or many crows.
Gender.—Gender in the human family is denoted by different
words. Tana, a man. Kettyura, a woman. Romunna, a boy.
Kémika or nganda, a girl. Kwanga, a child of either sex.
Among animals gender is distinguished by using words signifying
‘¢male’’ and ‘‘female.’’ Pwéla, an opossum. Pweéla rula, a male
opossum. Pwéla imbarra, female opossum.
-Case.—The principal cases are the nominative, causative, instru-
mental, possessive, accusative, dative and ablative.
Nominative: This case simply names the subject, as imboanda, a
kangaroo; naia, a yamstick, without any change in the noun.
Causative: When a transitive verb is used the noun takes a
suffix, as Tananda imboanda nyuna, a man a kangaroo is beating.
Kettyuranda pwéla nyuna, a woman an opossum is beating.
Instrumental: This takes the same suffix as the causative. Ketty-
uranda tana nyuna naianda, a woman a man is beating with a yam-
stick. Tananda imboanda nyimbina arkananda, a man a kangaroo
hit with a boomerang.
Possessive: Tanango arkana, a man’s boomerang. Kettyurango
naia, a woman’s yamstick.
Accusative: This is the same as the nominative.
Dative: Rullagu, to a camp.
Ablative: Rullunge, from a camp.
It should be mentioned that in all the expressions illustrating the
several cases, both in the Anéwan and Banbai languages, the demon-
strative pronouns are omitted, for the two-fold purpose of saving
space and of avoiding confusion by introducing any more words
than are really necessary to show the declension. For example,
where I have given ‘‘man kangaroo hit with boomerang’’
would be fully expressed by the native thus: ‘‘ Man this-on-my-
right kangaroo yonder-in-front boomerang struck-with,’’ or as the
subject might require.
These remarks apply to every example of aboriginal sentences
throughout both the languages dealt with in this article.
i a,
1903.] MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 9538
ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives succeed the nouns they qualify, and take the same
inflections for number and case.
Tana birkungirra, a man large.
Tanango birkungirrango arkana, a large man’s boomerang.
§ Tananda birkungirranda kwanga nyuna, a large man is beating a
child.
It is not necessary to give examples of the other cases.
Comparison of adjectives is effected by two positive statements,
such as, This is good—that is bad: runyerra indya—irrunga indy-
unda.
PRONOUNS.
Pronouns have three numbers, with inclusive and exclusive forms
in the first person of the dual and plural. The following table
exhibits the nominative pronouns:
Ist Person...... I Yukka
Singular .... 4 2d soe Sikvateas Thou Indyukka
3d Corb RL ears Sy He Gambaua
[ We, incl., Téka
Ist Person... | We, excl., Tala
Dual. ...... 4 2d eS eae VOU Twukka
L 3d Ces of PULHeY, Takana
We, incl., Nyukka
[ rst Person... i We, excl., Nala
ees: +* ade ek. 6. Vou Audilla
{| 3d chyna Fae «They Nalena
The possessive and objective pronouns are as under:
Singular.
BStOerson. ... Mine Yinga Me Enna
2d ee Thine Nyunga Thee Nunya
3d poms) ees His Onning Him Onna
Ours, inc., Tenyunga Us, incl., Tenya
eon... Ours, excl., Tambiga Us, excl., Tuanya
2d Sees ee) YOUTS Twanyung You
3d Pix. . » Lheirs Lambiga Them Walanya
Ours, incl.. Nyambiga Us, incl., Nanyabura
een: Ours, excl., Nyanyambiga Us, excl., Nanyumbinga
2d ee... Xours Nuka You Audumbinga
3d cee. Lheirs Nambiga Them Nanya
254 MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. [May 15,
There are forms of the pronouns meaning ‘“‘ away from me,”
‘‘towards me,’’ etc., which must be passed over for want of space.
Interrogatives: Who, anunga. What, nyanga. What for,
nyangabura.
Demonstratives: This, indya. That, indyunda. The demon-
stratives are numerous, and of various forms, frequently taking the
place of pronouns of the third person in the singular, dual and
plural. This accounts for the great diversity of the third personal
pronouns, which have little or no etymological connection with
the others.
The demonstratives in this language, by the combination of simple
root-words, can be made to indicate position, direction, distance,
movement, possession, number, person and size. If space permit-
ted, I could show tables of these demonstratives which would be
most important for comparative purposes. This applies also to the
Banbai demonstratives.
VERBS.
Verbs have the singular, dual and plural numbers, with the usual
tenses and moods. There is a form of the verb for each tense,
which remains constant through all the persons and numbers of
that tense. Any person and number can be expressed by using the
required pronoun from the table given in the foregoing page.
Following is a short conjugation of the verb Nyuka, ‘‘to beat
or strike.”
Lhdicative Mood—Present Tense.
EStsbersone. 6.6 I beat Yukka nyuna
Singular’ ..... 2 2d Se Pere ayer Thou beatest Indyukka nyuna
3d ie - Sako He beats Gambaua nyuna
and so on through the dual and plural.
Past Tense.
Sinpulariscn an <4 PSE MP SLSON, sac I beat Yukka nyumbina
Future Tense.
Sitigulars... <u... TSEMECrsON) |. 6s I will beat Yukka nyumarala
Imperative Mood.
Beat, nyumera Beat not, yinna nyumera
1903.1] MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 255
Conditional Mood.
Perhaps I will beat Yukka neta nyumarala
Reflexive.
Present. .I beat myself Yukka nyugatina
Past ....I beat myself Yukka nyugatimbina
Future ..I will beat myself Yukka nyugatila
Reciprocal.
Dual....We, exclusive, are beating each other, Tala nyutaka
Plural... We, exclusive, are beating each other, Nala nyutaka
ADVERBS.
The following are a few of the more commonly used adverbs:
Yes, ngeh. No, apala. Today, lunna. Tomorrow, yin. Soon,
lanabura. By and bye, loka. Long ago, toangga. Now, ilan.
Recently, irrandya. ,
How, thanggana. Where, renya. How many, thambula. Here,
awa. There, gamba. The two last are frequently used as demon-
stratives.
PREPOSITIONS.
In the rear, yanda. In front, gattanda. Around, lunggai. In
the middle, umtinda. Up, dapai. Down, irrakirran. Between,
ilkongga.
CONJUNCTIONS.
The general absence of conjunctions is attributable to the nu-
merous modifications of the different parts of speech, by means of
which sentences are brought together without the help of connect-
ing words.
INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.
These parts of speech are not numerous.
NUMERALS.
One, nyoanda. ‘Two, tuala.
THE BANBAI LANGUAGE.
The aboriginal tribes speaking this language adjoin the Anéwan
community on the north, and are located at Guyra, Ben-Lomond,
Wollomombi and Kookarabooka.
256 MATHEWS—-LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. [May 15,
NOUNS.
Number.—There is no special declension for number, but the
noun is followed by words signifying two or several.
Ginggér bulabulari, kangaroos two.
Ginggér girrawa, kangaroos several. —
Gender.—Man, thaimburra. Woman, burranyen. Boy, bod-
yerra. Girl, dillanggan. The sex of animals is denoted by words
meaning ‘‘male’’ and ‘‘ female’’ respectively, placed after the
creature’s name, as, Margan dyillawara, a buck wallaby. Margan
kandura, a doe wallaby. Among birds, boro means a cock, and
ngapara, a hen.
Case.—There are the nominative, causative, instrumental, pos-
sessive, accusative, dative and ablative cases.
Nominative: Tua, a boomerang. Kunnai, a yamstick. Wan-
dyi, a dog.
Causative: Ginggéru nganya bittang, a kangaroo me scratched.
Burranyendu nganya buang, a woman me struck.
Instrumental: ‘Thaimburradu nganya bindaimang tuandu, a
man at me threw a boomerang.
Possessive: Burranyengu kunnai, a woman’s yamstick. Thaim-
burrangu tua, a man’s boomerang.
In the Gundungurra, and in several other aboriginal languages
of New South Wales and Victoria, the article possessed takes a
suffix, as well as the possessor. For example, warrangan means a
boomerang, and murrifi a man, but ‘‘a man’s boomerang’”’ must be
expressed, Murrin-gu warrangan-gumg. Until reported by me,’
this peculiarity of a double suffix in the genitive case of Australian
nouns had not been observed by any previous author.
Dative: Nguralami, to a camp.
Ablative: Nguranga, from a camp.
Accusative: This is the same as the nominative.
ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives take the same inflections as the nouns which they
qualify.
Thaimburra burwai, a man large.
Thaimburradu burwaidu nganya buang, a man large me struck.
Thaimburrangu burwaigu tua, a large man’s boomerang.
1 «The Gundungurra Language,” Proc. AMER. PHIL. Soc., Vol. xl, p. 143.
'<-*
a
1903.]
MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Zot
Comparison: Nyam dhurrui—nyam yonggo; this is good—that
is bad. Nyam dhurruiinba, this is very good.
PRONOUNS.
Pronouns have the nominative, possessive and objective cases, as
in the subjoined tables.
There are two forms in the first person of
the dual and plural—one in which the person or persons addressed
are included with the speaker, and another in which they are ex-
clusive of the speaker.
the nominative case:
1st Person...... I
Singular .... J 2d Soe rayefttacers Thou
3d SEN Par aten gis (a He
[ Ist Person... i) rer:
Bee. J ] me excl,
2d i 4) eee VOL
3d ce They
{ We, incl.,
| We, excl.,
2d £6 toe VOW
L 3d oe They
[ Ist Person...
lurall Me sccxs 4
The following is a list of the pronouns in
Ngaia
Nginda
Ngurrung
Ngulli
Ngulligai
Bulala
Bulagai
Nyeilla
Nyeillagai
Nguddyilindya
Yangbéndu
The possessive and objective forms of the pronouns are exhibited
in the following table:
Singular.
Ist Person..... Mine Ngunyo
2d Ue a ( Nginnu
3d ip atte His Gurragunga
Dual.
Ours, incl., Ngullimba
eee om: Ours, excl,, Ngullimbagai
2d ce Yours Bullamba
3d ss Theirs Bullambagai
Plural.
Ours, incl., Ngeiimba
egeon Ours, excl., Ngeumbagai
2d a Yours Nguddyimba
3d a Theirs Itty aran
Me Nganya
Thee Ngéna
Him Nyam
Us, incl., Ngullinya
Us, excl., Ngullinyagai
You Bulanya
Them Bulanyagai
Us, incl., Ngeanya
Us, excl., Ngeanyagai
You Nguddyinninya
Them Ittyarambén
258 MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. [May 15,
There are also forms meaning ‘‘ with me,’’ nganyumbulla, Ngaia,
as in the table, is used with an intransitive verb, as, ngaia nganggi,
I sit; but when a transitive verb is used, the pronoun is changed to
ngatya, as, Ngatya bonggi, I beat. These rules apply to the other
persons and numbers. Other forms of the pronouns are omitted
for want of space.
Interrogative pronouns: Who, wuttanya. Whom belonging to,
wuttanyannin. What, minya. How many, minya-minya.
Demonstrative pronouns: This, nyam. That, mumum. These
are frequently used as adverbs, and they mean ‘‘here’’ and
Er Ehere.
VERBS.
The rules for the conjugation of verbs are similar to those of the
Anéwan language. An example in the singular number of each
tense will be sufficient :
Lndicative Mood—Present Tense.
EStyeerson -.)-- 2 I beat Ngatya bonggi
Singular ...<42d “ ..,... Thou beatest Nginda bonggi
PRU EE oN iets He beats Ngurrung boaggi
Past Tense.
SIMS UlAL, vices. ESC Person. «5 ow I beat Ngatya boang
Future Tense.
Singular....... Sty ersOn ese I will beat Ngatya boanggo
The imperative, conditional, reflexive and reciprocal forms of
the verb will be passed over for want of space. .
ADVERBS.
Yes, nge. No, wuna. Today or now, gillu. Tomorrow, gur-
lau. Soon, gurubilli. By and bye, kanga. Long ago, dhullimba.
Yesterday, nyukkumba. Certainly, yare. How, dyirrung. Per-
haps, dyirraugam. Where, dyota. How many, minya-minya.
Here, nyam. There, mundyaba. Yonder, mungga-munggara.
Maréda, far away. Close to speaker, tulbaia.
The adverbs ‘‘here’’ and ‘‘there’’ are often used as demonstra-
tive pronouns, and have the same meaning as “‘this’’ and ‘‘ that.””
1903.] MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 259
PREPOSITIONS.
In front, munggara. In rear, wallungga. Between, pimita.
On the other side, kawatadyula. On this side, ilamgidda, Up,
kaba. Down, warri. Around, kokari.
Conjunctions and interjections are omitted.
NUMERALS.
One, kurrukun. Two, bulari.
A Mystic or SECRET LANGUAGE.
Before concluding this short article on the speech of the Austra-
lian aborigines, I wish to refer to a secret language, used by the
men at the ceremonies of initiation, but which is never spoken in
the presence of women, or in the presence of those youths who
have not yet entered upon the prescribed course of initiation.
Whilst the novitiates are away in the bush in charge of the elders
of the tribe, they are taught a mystic name for surrounding objects
of every-day life, for animals, for parts of the human body, and
short sentences of general utility. This language is different in
different tribes.
I was the first author to draw attention to this mystic tongue,*
and during the past year I contributed to the Royal Society of New
South Wales some vocabularies of the secret languages of the
Kurnu’ and other Australian tribes. I consider my discovery of
this secret form of speech is of great linguistic importance, and
invite my readers to peruse the vocabularies referred to.
In connection with this subject it may be mentioned that in 1901
I contributed an article to the Royal Geographical Society of
Queensland, on some ‘‘ Aboriginal Songs at Initiation Ceremo-
nies,’?* in which I published several sacred chants in the secret
tongue, which are the first songs of the kind ever set to music.
VOCABULARY OF ANEWAN WORDS.
The following vocabulary, containing about 210 of the most im-
portant words in general use by the Anéwan tribes, has been pre-
pared by me from notes taken in the camps of the aborigines.
1 Yourn. Anthrop. /nst., London, Vol. xxv, p. 310.
2 Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol. xxxvi, pp. 157-160.
3 Queensland Geographical Journal, Vol. xvii, pp. 61-63.
260 MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. [May 15,
Every word was carefully written down by myself from the mouths
of the natives.
In a communication to the Royal Society of Victoria in the year
1896,’ I gave a comprehensive description of the initiation cere-
monies of the Anéwan, Banbai and other tribes. Again in 1897,
I contributed a paper to the Royal Society of New South Wales,’
in which I described the Anéwan laws of marriage and descent,
with lists of their ¢ofems. On account of the two articles referred
to, it has not now been thought necessary to repeat the subjects
therein dealt with.
English. Anéwan. English. Anéwan.
Man tana Teeth yella
Boy rumunna Tongue tuinda
Elder brother irkomba Navel dyikanga
Younger bro- Back twila
ther ilpaminda Arm kytinda
Father peta Shoulder irringala
Woman kettyura Elbow indina
Girl kemika Hand nyella
Elder sister pauana Calf of leg yula
Younger sister paua Thigh illanba
Mother irrapella Knee gwunba
Child of either Foot nyalla
sex kwanga Heel nungan
Blood gwianba
The Human Body. Wanian’s
Head kwulla breasts ipinda
Forehead tui Fat pyenna
Hair of head _rella Skin twunda
Beard nutyina Penis duna
Kye ila Testicles ilwundandha
Nose nyanba Semen bungan
Jaw dhanda Copulation bungadala
Ear nakuna Masturbation bungalulamun
1 «The Buarbiing of the New England Tribes,” Prac. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Vol
ix, N. S., pp. 120-136.
7“ The Totemic Divisions of Australian Tribes,” Journ. Roy. Soc. N.!S.. Wales,
Vol. xxxi, pp. 168-170.
1903.] MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 261
Lnglish. Anéwan. English. Anéwan.
Venereal tharpunda Rainbow rumira
Anus billa Large flat rock lara
Excrement ngunba Camp rulla
Urine itirra Anis.
Natural Surroundings. Kangaroo imboanda
Porcupine iwutta
Sun Ara. Wild-dog irritanga
Moon ternda Opossum pwela
Stars ikina Flying-fox ramana
Sky runbinna Kangaroo-rat bara
Thunder lamutika Native-bear — lauanha
Lightning kimmitta Wallaroo lumulla
Rain veneers Bandicoot imbunga
Fog sh nl Ring-tail opos-
Snow ikana sum aunda
Frost lala Native-cat kyura
Hail arrepanna Wallaby kyatta
Water ukunda Tiger-cat yara
The ground = kyuna Bat lyunganda
Stones rola
Sand raikana birds.
Darkness illona Birds collec-
Coldness inganna tively pillang
Fire inba Emu runda
Smoke rutta Eagle-hawk — lambara
Night lonna Black-duck rungara
Food (flesh) kara Pelican wuyara
Food (vegeta- Laughing jack-
ble) kyaia ass rokala
Honey irrota Crow kana
Hill kuta Swan dyuwula
Watercourse __ retta Native-compan-
Any tree dulla ion rualgunda
Leaves of trees indora White cockatoo érpatha
Path kurra - Black cockatoo wellara
Shadow tonba Common mag-
Summer ilkaiwa pie imbota
Winter tyerwanba Plover tharringga
9262 MATHEWS—LANGUAGES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. [May 15,
English. Anéwan.
Curlew rilwinnu
Brown-hawk owara
Parrokeet imbanga
Mopoke irking
Fishes.
Perch indanga
Jewfish lyinda
Codfish guyu, or ruta
Sprat birran
Eel indhurra
Reptiles.
Black iguana __rutyala
Water iguana nhawala
Ground iguana tyunda
Spotted iguana laipara
Jew-lizard nura
Snakes collec-
tively yenda
Death-adder minda
Rock-lizard roppung
Turtle yiwang
Stinking-turtle werra
Big frog imbottonga
Carpet-snake imbiala
Sleepy lizard pwoggana
Invertebrates.
Bee ronnang
Locust warra
Centipede engara
Louse irrakanba
Nits of lice minna
House-fly rulunga
Spider alman
Mosquito irwala
English.
| Bulldog ant
(red)
Bulldog ant
(black)
Scorpion
Crab
Anéwan.
thanda
oppunga
imbunda
thambanna
Trees and Plants.
Kurrajong
Ironbark
Stringy bark
Wattle
Grass-tree
Peppermint
Apple-tree
Gum-tree
Scrub-gum-tree
Pine
White box
Reeds
Forest oak
Cherry-tree
Jeebung
| Mountain ash_ o-inba
nunggutta
girranba
indwarra
luna
dunburra
néwurra
tunba
orrulla
bikkara
wungulla
yina
moanda
réwilla
poara
lwainda
Weapons, ete.
War spear
Hunting spear
Jagged spear
Spear shield
Club shield
Club
Spear. thrower
Boomerang
Tomahawk
Fighting-hook
Nulla-nulla
Koolamin
Net bag
kyenba
anbelang
mumberifi
indita
bekang
raipella
womur
arkana
mukung
lényang
rularokara
tilla
loia
- species.
ie the
263
1903: ] GREGORIO—ERRONEOUS SYNONYMY.
Linglish. Anéewan. Linglish. Anéwan.
Yamstick naia Walk nadiga
Stone knife imbonda Run nuppanati
Sis Break wammin
grees. p Give unumbia
Large birkingirra Sing peka
Small latherana Weep poplin
Good ree Steal nomekka
Bad Pee Bite irruttela
Hungry imbyura Catch anamarai
pousty ambia Climb irrukka
Quick i eargaiate | Hear nugguna
Slow numbadia Laugh indeka
Afraid pi eee Scratch nirmatin
Angry qn See aikunna
Greedy ake: Dance thekinna
Verbs. Swim imbwiana
Eat méka Stand ragya
Drink imbekka Throw imbia
Sit nina Pretend twandyingan
Speak oidekka Swallow pwika
ON SOME NAMES (CHIEFLY LINNEAN) OF ANI-
MALS AND PLANTS ERRONEOUSLY
PAIRED IN SYNONYMY.
BY MARCHESE ANTONIO DI GREGORIO.
(Received April 15, 1903.)
It is well known that a great many new genera have been made ~
for the old Linnean species. One of the chief creators of generic
names was Lamarck, the great naturalist. After him a large num-
ber of authors have proposed many new genera for the Linnean
The same is true, also, for many species proposed by ~
ancient authors that have been related in synonymy, when a new
genus has been created for the same species.
In my note, ‘‘ Intornorno ad alcuni nomi di conchiglie linneane,”’
published in the Bz//etin of the Italian Malacological Society (Vol.
x, 1884), I have proposed to retain the original Linnean names for
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. soc. XLII. 173..R. PRINTED AUG. 7, 1903,
264 GREGORIO—ERRONEOUS SYNONYMY. [April 15;
the species, though this may have been chosen to denote the genus.
For instance, the name of JZya vulsella L. (as a new genus has been
created) has been changed in Vulsella lingulata. The name of
Ostrea malleus \.. has been changed in Madleus vulgaris Lamk.
I have proposed in similar cases to retain the original name of the
species, which I believe is the more correct. So I have proposed
to call these species Vulsella vulsella (L.), Malleus malleus (L.).
My proposition has been accepted by many malacologists.
Indeed now instead of Péicatula ramosa Lamk. (= Sponottlus plica-
tus L.), it is better to employ the name Picatula plicata (L.) sp.
Instead of Lima sqguamosa Lamk, (= Ostrea lima I..) the name of
Lima lima (1..) sp.; instead of Hippopus maculatus Lamk,
(=Ostrea hippopus (L.)) the name of Hippopus hippopus (L.)
Sp:; tc:
I think that this modification might be conveniently adopted also
for plants as well as animals. I believe, for instance, it is much
better to say Zymnus tymnus than Scomber tymnus or Tymnus vul-
garis. For the same reason I believe it to be much more correct
to say Malus malus instead of Pyrus malus or Malus communis.
What I have said for the names of Linné, is also applicable to the
names of other authors which have been changed, because recent
authors have chosen the name of the species as a generic name.
I call the attention of zoologists and botanists to this interest-
ing innovation. I hope that it will be adopted for plants and for all
animals, as it has been for the mollusks.
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHIGAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE
Vou. XLII. May-DEcEMBER, 1903. No. 174.
Stated Meeting, April 17, 1903.
President SmiTH in the Chair.
Dr. Alfred Stengel and Prof. Edward Rhoads, newly elected
members, were presented to the Chair, and took their seats
in the Society.
Letters accepting membership were read from:
Edward E. Barnard, ScD., Williams Bay, Wis.
‘Carl Barus, Ph.D., Providence, R. I.
Franz Boas, Ph.D., New York.
Eric Doolittle, Philadelphia.
Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve, LL.D., Baltimore.
Francis Barton Gummere, Ph.D., Haverford, Pa.
George William Hill, LL.D., Nyack, N. Y.
~ Harmon N. Morse, Ph.D., Baltimore.
Edward Rhoads, Haverford, Pa.
Alfred Stengel, M.D., Philadelphia.
William Trelease, S5ce.D., St. Louis.
The decease was announced of Mr. William V. McKean,
at Philadelphia, on March 29, aged 82.
Dr. H. ¥’. Keller presented a paper on “Recently Discoy-
ered Elements.”
PROC, AMER. PHILOS. S0C, XLII, 174.8. PRINTED DEC. 14, 1903.
266 MINUTES. [May 15,
Stated Meeting, May 1, 1903.
President SmitH in the Chair.
Letters accepting membership were read from:
Arnold Hague, Washington.
Edward W. Morley, Ph.D., Cleveland.
Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S., London.
Prof. Hugo de Vries, Amsterdam.
An obituary notice of Joseph M. Wilson was read by Mr.
Henry Pettit.
The decease of the following members was announced:
Theodore D. Rand, at Radnor, Pa., on April 24, zt. 66.
Prof. J. Willard Gibbs, at New Haven, on April 28, zt. 64.
Prof. Lightner Witmer read a paper on “The Modern
Laboratory of Psychology,” which was discussed by Prest.
MacAlister, Prof. Haupt, Prof. Keasbey, Mr. Rosengarten and
the President.
Stated Meeting, May 15, 1903.
President Smirx in the Chair.
Dr. Francis Barton Gummere and Mr. Eric Doolittle,
newly elected members, were presented to the Chair and took
their seats in the Society.
The following papers were presented:
On the “Languages of the New England Aborigines, New
South Wales,” by Mr. R. H. Mathews (see page 249).
“On Radio-Activity,” by Prof. George F. Barker.
“On the Properties of the Field surrounding a Crookes
Tube,” by Prof. Arthur W. Goodspeed (see page 96).
ae
1903.] MINUTES. 267
Stated Meeting, October 2, 1903.
President SmitH in the Chair.
Letters accepting membership were read from:
William W. Campbell, Se.D., Mt. Hamilton, Cal.
William Henry Howell, Ph.D., Baltimore.
Dr. Anton Dohrn, Naples.
Edwin Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S., London.
Joseph John Thomson, D.Sc., F.R.S., Cambridge.
The decease of the following members was announced:
Dr. Thomas George Morton, at Cape May, on May 20, xt. 67
Prof. J. Peter Lesley, at Milton, Mass., on June 1, et. 84.
Prof. Edward Rhoads, on July 4, zt. 29.
Prof. A. Radcliffe Grote, at Hildesheim, Germany, on Sep-
tember 12, et. 62.
Prof. Edward North, at Clinton, N. Y., in September,
et. 83.
Prof. Angelo Heilprin made some remarks on “The Causa-
tion of Voleanic Phenomena, with New Researches in Mar-
tinique,”’ which were discussed by Mr. Joseph Wharton,
Prof. Amos P. Brown, Prof. Goodspeed and Mr. Bryant.
The following papers were read:
“The Existing Genera of the Trionychide,” by Mr. O. P.
Hay. .
“ Artificial Production of Crystallized Domeykite, Algo-
domite, Argentodomeykite and Stibiodomeykite,” by Prof.
George A. Koenig and Fred. Eugene Wright (see page 219).
“Some Names of Animals and Plants erroneously paired in
Synonymy,” by Marchese Antonio di Gregorio (see page 263).
268 HAY—EXISTING GENERA OF THE TRIONYCHIDA. [Oct: 2,
ON THE EXISTING GENERA OF THE TRIONYCHID#/i.
BY ‘Go cP. ELAW.
(Read October 2, 1903.)
This subject was discussed in an interesting and instructive man-
ner by Dr. George Baur in the PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN
PHILOSOPHICAL SociETy, Vol. xxxi, p. 221, 1893. However, the
present writer, on investigating the subject, has not been able to
agree with Dr. Baur in all his conclusions, disagreeing with him
partly regarding the types of some of the genera which he adopts,
but especially on the value of some of these genera.
Dr. Baur was undoubtedly correct when he pointed out that the
current employment of the name Zrconyx for the majority of the
living Trionychide is not justified, and that the genus has for its
type Zestudo granosa Schoepff, called Zrionyx punctata by Baur,
but recorded by Boulenger in his Catalogue of the Chelonians,
p. 269, as Emyda granosa. ‘This is in agreement with the views of
Agassiz (Cont. Nat. Hist, U. S., Vol. i, p. 395), who severely con-
demns the use of the name myda in this connection. Geoffroy’s —
genus Zrionyx was divided by Wagler in 1830. TZ7ionyx was
retained for Zestudo granosa, while for most of the other species
then known the new name Asfidonectes was adopted. The names
of the species included under it are found in the second column of
the table on opposite page. No type was indicated for the genus.
In 1831, Dr. J. E. Gray, in Appendix to Vol. ix of Griffith's
Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, pp. 18, 19, and again in his Synopsis
Repiilium, p. 49, applied the name Zmyda (preoccupied) in place
of Wagler’s Zrionyx, and Trionyx in place of Wagler’s Aspidonectes.
It is not necessary to add anything here to what Agassiz and Baur
have said regarding this procedure, nor to do more than refer to
Duméril and Bibron’s proposal of the terms Gymmopus and Cryptopus
to replace Aspidonectes and Trionyx respectively.
In 1836, Fitzinger (2utwurf Syst. Anordnung Schildkr., pp. 119,
120, 127) further subdivided the species of soft-shelled tortoises.
He made use of five sections, and these have since been em-
ployed as genera. These are Z7rionyx, Aspidonectes, Platypelits,
Pelodiscus and Amyda. The species enumerated under each of
these are shown in’ the table already referred to. No types were
indicated, but granosa was the only one named under Z7onyx,
269
HAY—EXISTING GENERA OF THE TRIONYCHIDA,
- 1903.)
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270 HAY—EXISTING GENERA OF THE TRIONYCHID#. [Oct. 2,
Dr. Baur, in the paper referred to, concludes that inasmuch as the
species cartilagineus (javanicus') was fully figured by Fitzinger, it
is the one to be regarded as the type of Aspidonectes. In coming
to this conclusion he does not give due weight to what Fitz-
inger himself, in 1843, has done in the case; much less has he
noted what Bonaparte had donestill earlier. In Wiegmann’s Archiv
fiir Naturgeschichte, iv, 1, 1838, pp. 136-142, we find a paper by |
C. L. Bonaparte, entitled ‘‘Cheloniorum Tabula Analytica.’”’ In
1836 the same author issued at Rome a pamphlet of ten pages
which bore the same title. This is understood to be a reprint from
the Giornale Arcadico. I have not been able to see either the
paper in the Gzorna/e or the reprint, but Dr. Theodore Gill kindly
informs me that the reprint made at Rome differs-in only unimpor-
tant respects from the paper in the Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte.
We find therefore, in this paper of 1836, that Bonaparte accepts
two genera of Trionychide, Amyda and TZyionyx, with four
divisions under the former. With each of his names he mentions
a single species, and these species, it seems to the present writer,
must be regarded as the types of these subdivisions, all later treated
as genera. Under Zrionyx he mentions Zestudo granosa; under
Aspidonectes, Trionyx triunguis (egyptiacus); under Platypeltis,
Testudo ferox; under Pelodiscus, Aspidonectes sinensts, and under
Amyda, Trionyx subplanus.
In 1843, Fitzinger (Systema Reptilium, p. 30) presented essenti-
ally the same arrangement of the Trionychidz that Bonaparte had
published in 1836. His two genera are Zrtonyx and Aspidonectes,
the latter having under it five subdivisions, or subgenera, For
Trionyx, Aspidonectes, Platypeltis, Pelodiscus and Amyda, he
employed the same species as examples, or types, as did Bonaparte.
For the newly proposed subdivision Potamochelys he used as type
P. cartilagineus (javanicus). Dr. Baur made the objection that
Fitzinger did not define the genus Potamochelys ; but since the lat-
ter author refers to it a well-known species, it must be accepted as a
valid genus, in case it really possesses generic characters. That is,
technically it meets all the requirements of a generic name.
It may be noted here that Fitzinger’s error of 1836, in distributing
the species ¢riumguis, under the names @gyptiacus and labiatus, to
1In the present paper the specific name now recognized is employed; if the
author who is quoted employed a different name, this follows in parentheses,
193.) HAY—EXISTING GENERA OF THE TRIONYCHIDA. 271
both Aspidonectes and Pelodiscus, was not repeated in his work
of 1843.
We may then, it appears to the writer, regard it as established
that the type of the genus Zyconyx is the species granosus; of
A spidonectes, the species ¢riunguis ; of Platypeltis, the species ferox ;
of Pelodiscus, the species sinensis, and of Amyda, the species
subplana.
We must now consider how these determinations are to affect the
work of subsequent writers, especially that of Gray, Agassiz, and
Baur.
In 1844, Gray (Cat. Tort., Croc. and Amphib., p. 46) established
the new genera Zyrse, Dogania and Chitra, besides propagating his
erroneous uses of the terms Zyrionyx and Emyda. The type of
Chitra is Trionyx tndica Gray, and this genus is yet recognized as
avalid one. The type of Dogania is naturally the only species
mentioned under it, swdp/anus; but this had already in 1836 been
made by Bonaparte the type of Amyda, from which fact it follows
that Dogania is a synonym of Amyda. Under Zyrse there were
named six species, but no type was selected. In his later publica-
tions Gray dropped from Zyrse all the species originally included
under it, except ¢riunguis (nilotica). We must then suppose that
he regarded this species as the type of the genus; but this was, as
we have seen, the type of Aspidonectes, made so by Bonaparte in
1836. Zyrse, therefore, becomes a synonym of Aspidonectes.
Agassiz accepts Zrionyx ferox as the type of Platypeltis. While
rejecting Pe/odiscus as a valid genus, he correctly states that it rests
on Zrionyx sinensis Wiegm. He does not say what he regards as
the type of Aspidonectes, but he includes under it Z7zonyx spint-
ferus. Amyda, he states, has for its type LeSueur’s 7rionyx muti.
cus; and he tells us that this generic name was vaguely applied by
Fitzinger to one of his genera. “As we have seen, no type was indi-
cated for Amyda in 1836, but in 1843 Fitzinger names under the
genus only the species sudp/ana. There certainly was no vagueness
in this procedure. Furthermore, Bonaparte had already in 1836
indicated the same species as the type of Amyda.
As already stated, Dr. Baur regarded the species cartilagineus as
the type of Aspidonectes and Trionyx muticus as the type of Amyda ;
whereas Bonaparte in 1836 and Fitzinger in 1843 made ¢riunguis
(agyptiacus) the type of the former, and swép/anus as the type of
the latter. Baur recognized Zestudo ferox Schweigg. as the type of
272 HAY—EXISTING GENERA OF THE TRIONYCHIDA. [Oct. 2,
Platypeltis, Trionyx sinensis as the type of Pe/odtscus, and T. sub-
planus as the type of Gray’s Dogania. Dr. Baur also recognized as
valid genera Cyc/loderma Peters, with its type C. frenatum; Cycla-
norbis Gray, with the type Crvyptopus senegalensis; Isola Gray, with
the type Zrionyx leithit ; Chitra Gray, with the type Zrionyx indt-
cus, and Pelochelys, with the type P. cantorit.
Leaving out of consideration the genera Pelochelys, Chitra,
Cycloderma and Cyclanorbis, as being valid, and likewise invulner-
able on other grounds, as well as the various genera founded since
1846, and cited by Boulenger as synonyms of his 77/onyx, let us
consider the content and value of the others.
In his classification of the Trionychide, Dr. Baur gave great
weight to the amount of reduction of the posterior nares by the
inner and posterior extension of the maxilla. To the present
writer this character seems to be of little value. The two con-
ditions of being ‘‘reduced’’ and of being ‘‘not reduced’’ can
hardly be defined, and they are probably connected by every grada-
tion. It is solely on this character, so far as we know, that he
has separated generically his Pelodiscus agassizit and Platypeltis
ferox (Amer. Naturalist, xxii, p. 1121; Proc. AMER. PHILOs.
SOC: ,) XXXL, Pp. 277).
Trionyx, with Zestudo granosa as type, must be regarded asa
valid genus.
Aspidonectes Wagler, restricted by Bonaparte, 1836, and Fitz-
inger, 1843, with Zestudo triunguis Forsk. as type, must be applied.
to the group designated by Boulenger I, B, 3 (Cat. Chelonians,
p- 245), and to that included by Baur (Proc. AMER. PHILOs. Soc.,
xxxi, p. 220) under the name Pedodiscus, with the exception of his
P. agassizit. In the same genus the present writer would include
Boulenger’s group I, B, 2, containing the species cartilagineus, for-
mosus and phayret. These were placed by Baur in the genus Asfi-
donectes, as this was limited by him; but did the group form a
genus distinct from that whose type is Zestudo triunguts, it ought to
be called Potamochelys ; since, as already stated, Fitzinger in 1843
made the species cartilagineus (javanicus) the type of this genus.
This group differs from the preceding only in having ‘‘ the alveolar
surface of the lower jaw with a strong longitudinal symphysia]
ridge,’’ a character which appears to the writer as insufficient. In
the same genus must be placed Z7ionyx subplanus Geoffr. As
1903.] HAY—EXISTING GENERA OF THE TRIONYCHIDA. 273
already said, Baur recognized it as the type of Dogania ; but if it is
a member of a genus distinct from Aspidonectes, it must be called
Amyda, according to the systems of both Bonaparte and Fitzinger.
Platypeltis comes next, having as its type TZestudo ferox
Schneider. It will include all the American soft-shelled tortoises,
except Aspidonectes californiensis (Rivers). The writer believes
that this group is sufficiently characterized by the possession of only
seven pairs of costal plates. The smooth or granular condition of
the skin of the young is possibly a character of generic value. In
this group must be included LeSueur’s Zyrionyx muticus. There
appear to be no characters which justify its separation as a distinct
genus. Baur makes it the type of Amyda, following Agassiz. The
only character given by Baur to distinguish it from P/atypeltis
spiniferus, for instance, is the separation of all the costals at the
midline by means of neurals; whereas in the other American
Trionychidz the hindermost pair are in contact. This difference
depends wholly on the greater or less development of the seventh
neural plate; and this will almost certainly be found to vary in
different species and in different individuals of the same species.
Some importance has been attributed to the absence in mudicus of
the commonly occurring ridges, or papilla, on the septum of the
nares; but this character appears te the present writer to be of
slight value. On similar characters the Trionychidz might prob-
ably be divided into as many genera as there are species. If, how-
ever, Zrionyx muticus is to form a distinct genus, a new generic
name must be coined for it.
For Boulenger’s group I, B, 1, Dr. Baur accepted Gray’s generic
name /so/a, having, according to Baur’s statement, 7rionyx letthit
as its type. This is, however, an obvious error. The genus was
proposed by Gray in 1873 (Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 51) for the
reception of Z7rionyx peguensis Gray, and this is, according to
Boulenger, a synonym of Zxeonyx formosus. T. leithit was after-
_ward (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. [4], x, p. 157, 1873) referred to the
same genus with some doubt. J/so/a is therefore a synonym of
A spidonectes, as recognized in the present paper.
The group of tortoises referred by Baur -to /so/a includes the
species gangeticus, hurum and /eithit. These species differ from
those of Aspidonectes, especially in possessing two neural plates
between the first costals. It appears to be worthy of generic rank.
A search among the generic names which have been applied to the
274 MINUTES. ~ [Oct. 16,
members of the genus shows that none of them is available. I
therefore propose the name ASPIDERETES. (aezis, a shield, and
epétns, a rower). The type is Zytonyx gangeticus Cuvier, and the
other living species will be 4. hurum and A. Jdeithit. It seems
probable that a number of fossil forms must find their place in the
genus.
Stated Meeting, October 16, 1903. 2
President SMITH in the Chair.
The following papers were presented:
“Evolution and Epigenesis—New Light on an Old Prob-
lem,” by Prof. E. G. Conklin, which was discussed by Gen.
Wistar. |
“A Review of Parthenogenesis,”’ by Mr. Everett F. Phillips,
communicated by Prof. E. G. Conklin, which was discussed by
Gen. Wistar.
1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 275
&
A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS.'
BY EVERETT F. PHILLIPS,
HARRISON FELLOW IN ZOOLOGY.
(Read October 16, 1903.)
_ GENERAL INTRODUCTION. :
In the great majority of cases the sex cells disintegrate unless
they unite with the products of the opposite sex of the same
species, but in many cases in the animal kingdom cells are given
off from the germinal epithelium which, without fertilization, are
able to undergo development, as is manifested by cell division.
That these are true ova is evident from their origin, appearance, be-
havior and fate, and the only difference between these and eggs
requiring fertilization is that they have in them the ability to divide
mitotically without receivirig the external stimulus given by the
male sex cell. To this phenomenon the name Parthenogenesis is
applied.
The importance of facts of this kind cannot be overestimated,
especially from the standpoint of cytological investigation. The
various ways in which these eggs behave during maturation and the
sex relations connected with the different kinds of Parthenogenesis
give us most valuable guides in our study and afford invaluable
material toward the solution of that much debated problem—the
determination of sex.
In view of the importance of the subject and the scattered con-
dition of the literature, it has seemed desirable to give a brief
summary of the most important work done, together with a litera-
ture list of all important papers. Most attention has been given to
the case of the Honey Bee, since it was on this form that Dzierzon
worked and especially since the most conflicting theories have
been advanced concerning it. A somewhat lengthy discussion of
this one case will make clearer what follows concerning other
species, but it is hoped that this will not make it appear that I con-
sider this the most important case, but that it is simply used as a
basis for the later discussion.
The preparation of this paper was begun at the suggestion of
Prof. E. G. Conklin to fill partially the need of some such
review. I wish at this time to express my appreciation of the help
1 Contribution from the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Penns) 1-
vania.
and suggestions given me by Dr. Conklin all through the work.
I wish also to state that I have referred constantly to the review of
Taschenberg (1892) and especially to his long literature list. His
paper is an excellent review up to the time of its publication.
HIsTORICAL SKETCH OF THE THEORY.
The word Parthenogenesis (Greek zap@évos, a virgin, yéveors,
production) was first used by Owen’ in the sense of Alternation of
‘Generations.
In 1856, in his classic paper, ‘‘Wahre Parthenogenesis bei Schmet-
terlingen und Bienen,’’ Carl Th. Ernst v. Siebold used the word in
the sense of the development of eggs without fertilization, in which
sense it has since been universally adopted. Previous to 1856 the
phrase Zucina sine concubitu nulla and similar terms were used in
practically the same sense in which the word parthenogenesis is
now used.
For the first observations on parthenogenetic development we
must go back to Atistotle, as is true for the beginnings of so many
lines of observation. This old Greek scientist recorded extensive
observations on the Honey Bee which will be referred to in another
place.
The next writer who gave any intimation of a belief in such
phenomena was Goedart (1667) who succeeded in raising larve
from eggs laid by an unfertilized female of Orgyta gonostigma.
After that Leenwenhoek (1695), Blancard (1696), Albrecht (1706)
and Réamur (1737 and 1741) recorded somewhat similar results.
In 1745 Bonnet, of emboitement fame, described, rather fully,
parthenogenetic development in plant lice. Oscar Hertwig, in
his ‘Historical Account of Embryology,’’ in the Axtwicklungs-
fehre, speaks of Bonnet’s work in the strongest terms and does
not hesitate to designate it as marking one of the milestones in
the history of embryology.
Just one hundred years after this, Dzierzon (1845) announced
his theory on the parthenogenetic development of the drone eggs of
the common bee, Ais mellifica, which will be treated more fully
in a later section. During this period of one hundred years a
1V. v. Prosch, in 1851, in Om Parthenogenesis og Genexationsvexel, et
Bidrag til Generationstaeren (Kjobenhayn, Trijkt hos J. C. Scharling), used
the word in the same sense.
276 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0ct. 16,
as Oe an
1903.] PHILLIPS—-A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 206
number of papers appeared in which the development of unfer-
tilized eggs was described, but the importance of the observations
was not recognized fully until after Dzierzon published his first
paper. This paper, published in a bee journal, may well be
looked on as the starting-point of the Theory of Parthenogenesis,
since it started a very important discussion and marks the begin-
ning of a host of work along similar lines.
The most important papers of the period between 1745 and 1845
will be found in the literature list at the end of this paper. It
does not seem desirable to go into a detailed account of these
earlier papers since, while they are valuable, the greatest additions
to our knowledge of these phenomena have been made since the
time named.
As stated on a preceding page, more attention has been paid to
the parthenogenesis of the Honey Bee, in the preparation of this
paper, than to any other form. A full statement of the present
state of our knowledge of the phenomena in this species will make
clearer what follows concerning other species.
THEORIES ON THE Honey BEE PREvIOUS TO 1845.
Before discussing the various theories and experiments on the
parthenogenetic development of the drone eggs of the common
bee, it may be of interest, from the historical standpoint, to review
briefly the various theories put forth previous to 1845 which were
used to explain the peculiar phenomena observed in the hive in
regard to the sex of the bees. Since the bee is of economic value
it has been the object of much investigation for centuries, and for
this reason the peculiarities of its development have long been
known.
Aristotle, in his A7storta animalium, wrote: ‘‘All persons are
not agreed as to the generation of bees, for some say that they
neither produce young nor have sexual intercourse ; but that they
bring their young from other sources. . . . Other persons affirm
that they collect the young of the drones from any of the sub-
stances we have named (flowers of the honeysuckle, reed or olive),
but that the rulers (queens) produce the young of the bees (work-
ers). . . . Unless the ruler (queen) is present drones only are
produced. Others affirm that they have sexual intercourse, and
that the drones are males and the bees females.’’ In his De gene-
ratione animalium he wrote: ‘‘ The drones develop in a queenless
278 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0ct. 16,
stock’’ and ‘‘The bees produce drones without copulation.”’
Here we get a rather clear statement of what was rediscovered
centuries later.
Huish gives an account of other theories advanced, and a large
part of the information from which these summaries of the earlier
work were made is from his paper.
1. Schirach says that the hive consists of three kinds of bees:
(1) queens, the mother of the hive, (2) drones or males, and (3)
workers, a middle sex with greater affinity to the queen but desti-
tute of procreating powers. The parts which belong to the queen
lay concealed in imperceptible minuteness, and just as soon as they
-recelve the necessary space for their expansion, increase takes
place in size and a queen is developed. Drones from fertile
workers and queens arise from false or corrupted eggs, to which the
name ‘‘abortion’’ is applied. Some of the opponents of Schirach
‘held that all workers lay eggs, the view being based on the fact
that in queenless hives drones are produced by the ‘fertile
workers.”’
2. Herold was one of the greatest opponents of Schirach, main-
taining that the queen copulates: with a male worker, producing
male and female workers. The true workers, male workers, per-
form their duties outside the hive, collect honey and pollen and
copulate with the queen and female workers which remain inside
the hive. The female workers lay eggs (fertilized by male
workers) which produce drones of no sex whatever. This was at
once proven false by an anatomical examination showing that the
drones are males. The hive was then considered as an Amazon
republic with drones raised to the rank of males or husbands, a
view that had many supporters up to the time of Heinmetz.
3. Heinmetz proposed a double genealogical tree for the bee
family, symmetrically for both the male and female lines. (1) The
queen as the great mother bee copulates with a male worker and lays
eggs producing insects like their sire (male workers). If laid in large
cells they produce great male bees, if the rudiments of a great male
exists in the egg.’ ‘* But as only small male workers are the issue,
although they may be bred in large cells, the conclusion must be
drawn that in these male eggs the rudiment was only existing for
small workers and that from these no great male bees are pro-
1 Quotation from Huish. See former reference.
1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 279
duced.’’ (2) The queen also lays eggs producing females which
resemble the queen or are female workers or mothers of the drones.
The working bees are partly male and partly female and are derived
from the queen. On the other hand the drones are from a mother
drone, as follows: A mother drone copulates with a great male
drone and lays only drone eggs which develop as small drones or
as great drones (like their sire). Needless to say, a theory of this
kind had many opponents.
4. Voigt and Lucas. These men separately maintained that the
queen is the mother of all the bees, laying in six months of the
year an almost incredible number of fertilized eggs, from which in
twenty to twenty-four days are produced common workers which are
both male and female. The males dy thetr mouths fructify not only
the queen but common female workers or mother drones, and from
eggs laid by the latter in May and June drones are developed.
This fructifying or vivification of all these eggs is performed and
executed by the principle of life or by the animating creative
spiritual power, aura seminalis, contained in the spittle, the process
of which is so very visible in the frequent application of the pro-
boscis of the common male bees to that of the queen. This theory
was based on the facts that workers and queens can compose a per-
fect hive without adding drones and that workers produce drones.
5. Haumann maintained that the queen is the only mother of
her like and of workers and drones. The bees (workers) are
nurses and co-operate in breeding, and without them the eggs prove
abortive. In the small cells the sex property of female eggs is lost
and the egg becomes a common bee, but in a royal cell a queen or
fertile mother, and in drone cells a spurious mother drone. The
male eggs in common cells become bees devoid of sex, and in
drone cells a male or drone. Hummel attacked this most vio-
lently on the principle that it is at variance with every analogy of
nature to invest an insect with the power of altering the sex char-
acter of an egg after laying, and impart to it a power which did not
belong to it in its original nature. From Hummel’s argument was
founded one of the chief objections to the hypothesis advanced by
Huber, that a common bee is possessed of the power of generating
a queen from a common egg.
6. Strube held that the queen with a double-branched ovarium
lays male and female eggs. The male eggs are placed in small cells
and become male workers. The female eggs become queens
\
280 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0et. 16,
in queen cells or ‘degraded queens. The remaining workers are
those which can breed only drones ; they are fertilized by the male
workers and not by drones. The eggs of drones of May are laid
by degraded queens. The ovaria of these queens cannot develop in
the small cells and are weakened. During honey flow these
degraded queens lay eggs. The eggs from which early drones arise
are laid in the autumn and are outside the heat of the hive in
winter, developing in spring. It is only when there is a deficiency
of male workers that the queen is fertilized by a drone.
HABITS OF THE BEE.
In order to appreciate fully the experimental work done on the
subject of the parthenogenetic development of the male bee, it is
necessary to know something of the babits of the different members
of the hive orcolony. The habits of no insect are better known to
zoologists, but a very brief statement may not be out of place here,
although necessarily incomplete.’
At the age of about five days the queen takes what is commonly
spoken of as her ‘‘ marriage flight,’’ flying from the hive to meet a
drone. She returns in about half an hour with the organs of the
male generally hangi: g to her; the copulation taking place on the
wing and the male being killed-in the operation. Before the mar-
riage flight the spermatheca is filled with a clear fluid and afterward
it contains a white liquid, the seminal fluid, the number of sperma-
tozoa having been estimated at several millions. Since a queen lays
during her lifetime, averaging three or four years, a total of possibly
500,000 eggs, it will be seen that the apparatus for preserving sperm
cells is very perfect. The spermatheca opens by a tube into the
oviduct, the tube being surrounded by highly enervated muscles
and accompanied by accessory glands which probably nourish the
spermatozoa. ‘These muscles must contract during the laying of a
1 The facts here given regarding bees are gathered from various sources and
from personal observation, and only such facts are here introduced as seem
necessary to a better understanding of the discussion following. For more de-
tailed accounts any book on apiculture may be consulted, of which the follow-
ing are some of the well known examples :
Root, d B C of Bee Culture, Medina, O.
Cook, Manual of the Ajiary, Lansing, Mich.
Benton, 7he Honey Bee, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C,
32
1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 281
drone egg, so that no sperm cell can reach the oviduct to fertilize
the egg.’
During the active season the queen can under stress of circum-
stances lay eggs at the rate of four a minute, although generally
much slower, and in twenty-four hours can lay over 4000 eggs, the
total weight of which is more than the weight of her own body.
The eggs are laid at the bottom of the cells, the abdomen of the
queen being put into the cell during the oviposition, and the eggs
are attached to the middle point of the base of the cell by the end
opposite the micropyle. In the hive the eggs are laid in what are
known as brood cells, generally situated near the middle of the
hive, these cells being used for the storing of honey when not used
for larve. The cells from which the workers hatch are about one-
fifth of an inch across, while those from which drones hatch
measure about one-fourth inch; these being spoken of as worker
and drone cells respectively. The royal or queen cells, in which
queens develop, are shaped like an acorn and occupy about the
space of three ordinary cells, these being built naturally only when
the hive is queenless, when the queen is to be superseded by
another on account of her age, or at the swarming season when the
hive is to be divided. ‘The queen passes quickly from one cell to
another, laying in each an egg which almost invariably develops
according to the size of the cell. This necessitates a very fine
manipulation of the entrance of the spermatheca or seminal recep-
tacle, as the sex is dependent upon whether a spermatozoon is
allowed to escape or not.
Various theories have been advanced to explain the power of the
queen to control the escape of the spermatozoa since we cannot
believe that it is a conscious act, in spite of statements to that
effect. A very plausible one is that the difference in the size of
cells causes a difference in the pressure of the abdomen, and by a
reflex nervous action, of the nature of which we know nothing, the
muscles are contracted when the abdomen is put into a drone cell.
Kiickenmeister was probably the first to advance this theory. In
opposition to this Cook (1881) and many others cite the fact that
queens lay fertile eggs in cells where the walls have not yet been
built up, and in such cases pressure on the abdomen could play no
part. We have not as yet been able to account for the nearly
1 For a description of these parts of the queen see Cheshire, F. R. (1886).
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XLII. 174. T. PRINTED DEC. 14, 1903.
282 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. Oct. 16,
infallible ability of the queen to determine the sex of each egg.
Probably queens never lay eggs in queen cells, but when a new queen
is desired the workers build out a queen cell over a cell containing a
very young worker larva (less than one day old). At any rate, this
is the general method of procedure, although I have seen a drone-
laying queen lay eggs in a partly built queen cell.
When a hive becomes hopelessly queenless it frequently happens
that certain of the workers begin to lay eggs, which of course pro-
duce nothing but drones since a worker never copulates with a
drone. These are called Fertile or Laying Workers, and are far
more easily produced in the races of bees found in Eastern Asia
than in the Italian bees.
The species Apis medlifica is divided into several races, the prin-
cipal differences being in the coloration of the segments of the
abdomen, although the instincts differ slightly, especially as regards
the production of queens. The two races on which experiments on
parthenogenesis have been performed are the Germans and Italians.
The former are almost entirely black, while the latter have bands of
yellow on the abdomen, three to five in number, or occasionally
six. This difference has been used as a means of determining the
truth of the parthenogenetic development of the males.
THE THEORY OF DZIERZON.
The parthenogenetic development of the male eggs of the bee,
Apis mellifica, was first observed by Johannes Dzierzon, a priest of
Karlsmarkt, Germany. He was a bee-keeper of many years’ experi-
ence and a good observer. The theory was first announced in the
Lichstadt Bienenzeitung in 1845, and in 1852 was published in book ©
form. His arguments were briefly as follows:
(1) 7A queen to be of any value must be fertilized by a drone.
This takes place on the wing, high in the air. Drone eggs are not
fertilized, but worker and queen eggs always are. ‘‘?In copulation
the ovaries are not fecundated, but the seminal receptacle, that little
1 The results of his investigations and his conclusions appeared in the Zzch-
stadt Bienenzeitung and other journals, most of which were not accessible in
the preparation of this paper. They were recorded in a very large number of
short papers and it does not seem desirable to refer to all of them at this time.
A complete list of the writings of Dzierzon can be found in 47bfiotheca Zoo-
logica, 11, O. Taschenberg, to which the reader is referred.
2 The quotations from Dzierzon are translations made by Lowe (1867).
——-
==
1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 283
vesicle or knot which in the young queen is filled with watery
moisture, is saturated with semen, after which it is more clearly dis-
tinguishable from its white color.’? The supply of semen is enough
for a lifetime. No clipped queen can be fertilized, as copulation
never takes place in the hive. ‘‘ The power of the fertile queen,
accordingly, to lay worker or drone eggs at pleasure is rendered very
easy of explanation by the fact that the drone eggs require no
impregnation, but bring the germ of life with them out of the ovary ;
whilst otherwise it would be inexplicable and incredible. Thus the
queen has it in her power to deposit an egg just as it comes from the
ovary, and as the unfecundated mothers lay it; or by the action of
the seminal receptacle, past which it must glide, to invest it with a
higher degree, a higher potency, of fertility and awaken in it the
germ of a more perfect being, namely a queen or a worker bee.’’
(2) The most important point in the theory is that ‘‘ All eggs
which come to maturity in the two ovaries of the queen bee are only
of one and the same kind, which when they are laid without coming
in contact with the male semen become developed into male bees,
but on the contrary when they are fertilized by male semen produce
female bees.’’
This, as v. Siebold expresses it, ‘‘ strikes at the root of and com-
‘pletely abolishes the time-honored physiological Jaw that an egg
which is to be developed into a male or female individual must
always be fertilized by male semen.’’ D2zierzon refers to Riem, a
French naturalist, for the fact that fertile workers lay only drone
eggs (a fact now well known from many sources), and Mme. Jurin
found on anatomical investigation that these fertile workers were
queens with the spermatheca aborted and the ovaries not fully
developed. Dzierzon also asserted that a queen must be able to lay
either drone or worker eggs af wi//.
v. Siebold wrote: ‘* We might beforehand expect that by the
copulation of a unicolorous black-brown German and reddish-
brown Italian bee the mixture of the two races would only be
expressed in the hybrid females or workers but not in the drones,
which are produced from unfecundated eggs. They must remain
purely German or purely Italian according as the queen selected for
the production of hybrids belongs to the German or Italian race.’”
In 1854 Dzierzon wrote: ‘‘ Continued observations of the hybrid
hives also must be no less adapted to raise the veil, more and more
to penetrate into the obscurity and finally bring the mysterious
284 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [Oct. 16,
truth to light. If the drone egg does not require fertilization,
Italian mothers must always produce Italian drones and German
mothers, German drones, even when they have been fertilized by
drones of another race.’’ His faith in this proposition was so
strong that when in a few years he found one case in which it did
not seem to hold good he gave up his theory, just when it was
becoming generally accepted, and as an explanation took up the old
exploded theory of Swammerdam of the vivifying action of an aura
seminalis. Either the experiments of Count v. Berlepsch’ or the
work of v. Siebold reconverted him, for in 1861 he reiterated his
belief in his theory.
EXPERIMENTS AND LATER INVESTIGATION ON BEES.
Owing to the fact that the phenomena connected with partheno-
genetic development of the Drone Bee are so striking, even to a -
person not used to scientific methods of investigation, many experi-
ments have been tried to test the Theory of Dzierzon. Journals
‘devoted to Bee Culture as well as more strictly scientific publica-
tions have recorded a large number of experiments, of which but a
few can be mentioned here.
Lowe (1867), after several years of experimenting with hybrid
hives, denied the truth of Dzierzon’s Theory. With Italian queens
fertilized by common black drones he could get no definite results,
‘but with Egyptian queens fertilized by black bees he obtained
many drones which appeared to have characteristics of the male
parent. His work was not so carefully recorded as was that of
Perez which will be mentioned later.
Landois (1867) put worker eggs in drone cells and drones were
‘produced, and vce versa. This he did many times and his results
‘were verified by the presence of the little piece of wax, to which
‘the eggs had been attached, sticking to the cocoons. He in every
‘case cut out a little piece of the wax at the base of the cell and
stuck this with the egg attached into the new cell, so that the egg
was not injured by the transfer. His earlier experiments were not
successful, due to imperfect manipulation. His conclusion then
was that sex in the bee is determined by the food given the larva
ty, Berlepsch upheld the theory in a large number of papers in the Zichstadt
Bienenzeitung. For a list of his writings see Bibliotheca Zoologica, O. Tasch-
enberg, Zweiter Band, pp. 252-3.
cs ty
1903.) PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 285
and not by fertilization. It is known that after the eggs are
hatched, at about the third day, the workers pour into the cell a
food paste for the nourishment of the larva. Great quantities of
this are eaten for six days and then the workers cap the cell, and in
ten or eleven days the bee in its adult form comes out. The cap
put over the smaller worker cells is flat; that over drone cells,
arched. vy. Siebold (1868), in answer to this theory, points out that
sex is differentiated early in insect larve. Herold, for Preris rape,
was able to tell sex early. On the other hand Meyer did not see
this in caterpillars only a few days old. Weismann, in Musca
vomitoria and Sarcophaga carnaria, confirms Herold, but is not so
sure in the case of Corethra plumicornis.. Leuckart (1865) found
first traces of external genitalia on the sixth day in Apis. v. Sie-
bold insists that all embryos (queens included) up to the sixth day
get food paste (digested chyle paste). The queens continue to get
this, and from that time on the workers and drones get undigested
honey and pollen. The food of the drones and workers is therefore
the same. Landois thinks the drones of unfertile queens and of
fertile workers are due to scanty nourishment or weak larvee, for in
Vanessa urtice only males are produced if badly fed. v. Siebold
(1871) does not find this true in Polistes gallica, for in the spring,
when food is scarce, workers are produced; and Cuenot (1899)
denies the truth of all such statements which make the sex depend
upon nutrition.
Sanson and Bastian (1868) attempted to repeat the experiments
of Landois, but in every case when the egg was put in a different
cell the workers in the hive carried it outside. Never in a single
case was the egg allowed to develop and they were therefore led to
deny the experiments of Landois. The reason for their failure, as
pointed out later by Landois, was imperfect manipulation. They
cut out the entire bottom of the cell and stuck it in place by melting
the edge with a hot needle, and this made such a bad job as
compared with the work of the workers that they cleaned it out.
Sanson (1868), in opposition to Landois, also cites cases of the pro-
duction of drones in worker cells. This is now well known, as is
also the converse, and this fact alone is enough to overthrow all of
the work of Landois.
Perez (1878) put a pure Italian queen fertilized by a French
drone into a hive with pure French workers and no drones. Later
in the season he collected and examined carefully three hundred
286 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0ct. 16,
drones from this hive. If these drones were produced from unfer-
tilized eggs then they should, since the queen was pure Italian,
show no trace of French characteristics. Perez first examined pure
Italian and pure French drones from other colonies and determined
what were the varietal markings in each case; and with these charac-
teristics well mapped out examined the three hundred drones, and
found one hundred and fifty-one pure Italians, eighty-three pure
French and sixty-six showing various gradations between the Italian
and French varieties, indicating that one hundred and forty-nine,
almost half, had some French characteristics, which he held must
have been derived from the French drone that had fertilized the
queen.
Arviset (1878) announces a similar case, and Matter (1879)
writes of three hundred black drones taken from the hive of an
Italian queen fertilized by a black African drone.
Sanson (1878), in a reply to this paper, criticised the experiments
of Perez, claiming that in this case the results had been modified by
atavism, all bees having been derived from an original black
- variety. The possibility of the impurity of the queen was also sug-
gested. He insisted that the purely parthenogenetic origin of
drones was undoubted. It cannot be claimed that the contraction
of the spermathecal opening is due to the pressure of the side of the
cell on the abdomen of the queen, since drones often develop from
unfertilized eggs in worker cells and workers from fertilized eggs in
drone cells. He insisted that in the ovary all eggs are male and
impregnation is necessary to produce female characters. Ifa queen
is frozen and revived it is found that she afterward lays only drone
eggs, and an examination of her spermatheca shows only dead
spermatozoa.
Girard (1878) thinks that probably these hybrid drone eggs were
laid by the hybrid workers which would result from the union of
the Italian queen and French drone, and Hamit (1878) also takes
the same stand ; but according to the testimony of bee-keepers fertile
workers are rare in a well-regulated hive, except in the cases of the
Eastern varieties (Syrian, Palestine, etc.).
Perez replies to these criticisms in a later paper. The queen was
obtained from a well-known firm of Italian apiarists and there can
be no doubt of her purity, since the mother of the queen used in
the experiment later produced many pure Italian queens. The
possibility that the hybrids and French drones might be visitors
1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 287
from other hives is denied by Perez on the ground that such visita-
tions are not usual between hives, but this argument is not substan-
tiated by other investigators. The hive used for the experiment
had been used formerly for a pure French queen, but she could not
have laid any of these eggs since considerable time had elapsed, and
at any rate she would not have produced any of the sixty-six
hybrids. ‘The hybrids ard French drone eggs could not have been
laid by fertile workers since the drones all appeared at the same
time.
Cook (1879) claims that these experiments are not wide enough
to overthrow a theory which has so many arguments on the other
side. Queens reared in autumn, when there are no drones, pass
the winter as virgins and always after produce only drone eggs.
Deformity and clipping of wings to prevent the marriage flight and
consequent fertilization produces the same result. He suggests that
possibly the queen used by Perez was a hybrid. ‘This is emphati-
cally denied by Perez.)
The argument of atavism used by Sanson is such that a positive
denial is impossible. One cannot but get the idca that Sanson was
trying to make the facts fit his theory, however valid the argument
may be.
In the face of the careful work of Perez it was evident that there
must be some other explanation for these results, and it occurred
to me that perhaps the mistake in the work came in when Perez
mapped out the racial markings. In a recent number of a bee
journal I noticed a letter from a novice at bee raising, complain-
ing that some queens guaranteed to be pure Italians produced black
drones, although the workers were yellow. I consequently decided
to leave the matter to a bee-keeper of many years’ experience, and
wrote to Mr. E. R. Root, one of the editors of Gleanings in Bee
Culture, and the following, by permission, is quoted from his let-
ter: ‘‘ We have repeatedly had queens direct from Italy that were
supposed to be as pure as any stock could be; yet the drones from
these queens varied greatly in their markings. Some of their sons
would have a great deal of yellow on them, while others would be
quite dark. If Perez had seen these drones he would have con-
cluded some of them were French, some German and some Italian.
Now the remarkable fact is that dees (workers) from these queens
were all uniformly marked. They showed all the chracteristics of
pure stock.”’
283 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [Oct. 16,
‘‘ Pure Italian queens vary all the way from a jet black to a bright
yellow. We had one daughter from an imported Italian that was
very black ; but her bees (workers) were uniformly well marked
and showed all the characteristics of pure Italians. Some of the
queen daughters of the imported queen are quite yellow and some
quite dark. Any one who attempts to judge of the purity of
drones or queens by their markings has much to learn about
pees:!” ‘
I put a great deal of confidence in the statements of Mr. Root,
since he is thoroughly informed in things relating to bees from a
practical standpoint and is a man of high standing in his line of
work. We must conclude then that in the honey bee we have a
case in which certain racial characters are constant only in the
abortive females, although they do not normally enter into the
reproduction of the species. Since these markings are not a con-
stant character, even in pure drones, any attempt to use them as
tests of hybridism is not warranted.
A comparatively large number of cases have been recorded of
hermaphroditic or androgynous bees. This fact was long since
noticed by Lucas, more recently by Doenhoff, Menzel and Engster,.
and in 1864-5 by v. Siebold and Leuckart. There is a mixture of
male and female characters, varying in different individuals, in
both internal and external organs. Very often on each side of the
body a few testicular cords and a few ovarian tubes, a well-devel-
oped male copulatory apparatus and a sting are developed, or one
side of the body may be entirely male, the other side female. Ac-
cording to Leuckart all these must be regarded as workers with
some male characteristics. The explanation offered is that ferti-
lization did not take place here until after the male characters had
become too well fixed to be thrown aside by female characteristics.
Boveri (1901) in a late paper suggests that such cases are due
to the late fertilization of the egg, after mitosis has commenced,
and as a result part of the cells have paternal characters and are
therefore female, while the unfertilized portion remains male. This
would, of course, easily explain the great differences in hemaphro-
ditic bees.
There are numerous cases on record of queens which have taken
their marriage flights and on their return to the hivé, and during
the rest of their lives, have laid eggs which never develop. The
opponents of the theory of parthenogenesis eagerly take up a case
’
me
=
1903. | PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 289
of this kind, claiming that for some reason the queen has not been
ertilized and that on this account her eggs will not develop.
v. Berlepsch was probably one of the first to make any observations
on this line, and his conclusion was that it was due to some patho-
logical condition of the queen.
Claus and v. Siebold (1873) took up this subject and carefully
studied several cases that came to their notice. One of the cases
was that of an Italian queen, born May 15, began to lay June 15
and continued until October 5, when she was killed. Her eggs
did not hatch and an examination showed that her oviducts were
normal, spermatozoa present in the spermatheca, but the ovarian
tubes were degenerate. The conclusion, from this and other cases
examined, was that all such cases of sterile queens are probably due
to some irregularity in the formation of the ovum, and especially
of the vitellus. Leuckart (1875) reports other cases examined and
corroborates Claus and v. Siebold.
Of the opponents of the theory of Dzierzon, none perhaps are
as radical as Ulivi (1874-82). His views were briefly as follows:
Queens are usually fertilized in the hive, and he claims to have
witnessed the act of copulation several times. The spermatheca, on
the return from the so-called ‘‘ marriage flight,’’ is clear and con-
tains no spermatozoa, as was demonstrated by numerous examina-
tions. The marriage flight is explained as being merely for exer-
cise. Drones are not mutilated in copulation, and on examination
the white appendage which is always seen on the queen on
her return from the marriage flight is found to be excreta. Every
egg, male or female, is fertilized. Queens that were never allowed
to fly (their wings being clipped) were put in hives without drones
and laid no egg or eggs that did not hatch. Every queen whose
spermatheca is distended has been fertilized. None of the eggs of
a queen that has never met a drone will hatch. There is no such
thing as a fertile worker. Fertilized eggs will keep through the
winter and hatch out in the spring. He also claims that there can
be no true parthenogenesis when a fertile copulation is admitted.
The effect of the spermatic threads does not consist of a simple
excitement of the supposed vital germ preéxisting in the egg, but of
a real infusion of the absolute principle of life. No transforma-
tion of sex can be effected by spermatic injection. It need scarcely
be added that such views have found no supporters.
For the past two or three years Dickel has been advancing a new
290 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0ct. 16,
theory in regard to the determination of sex in the bee and he has
some supporters, although the number of these seems to be decreas-
ing. His views are briefly the following: Eggs laid by unferti-
lized queens or fertile workers produce drones, but these differ
from the drones of a colony with a fertile queen. The egg before
fertilization contains only male elements, the sperm cell only
female, and after union of the two these are equally balanced. A
fertile queen can lay only fertilized eggs since she cannot withhold
sperm cells. The workers, in crawling over the brood cells just
after the eggs are laid, pour out a secretion which penetrates the
chorion of the egg. The wax, in the formation of brood cells, is
kneaded in the mouths of workers and is impregnated from the
salivary glands with a secretion characteristic of drone or worker
cells, and this determines the kind of cell made and consequently
the nature of the secretion poured out over the egg when laid.
The two sexes are equally balanced in the newly-laid egg and the
workers pour out a secretion from one of two glands in the head,
the secretion from one causing the egg to develop into a male; of
the other, into a female. The secretion of the ‘‘ salivary ’’ gland
of the workers is comparable to a sexual act and probably pro-
duces similar emotions. Sex cannot be determined by mere size
of cell or by food. These glands have been observed in the queen
in a rudimentary state and in wasps. It is further claimed that
experiments (performed by Dickel himself) on hybrid hives have
clearly shown paternal characteristics in male offspring.
Weismann and his students, Petrunkewitsch and Paulcke, have
pointed out the errors in this theory and, from work of their own,
strongly reaffirm the view of Dzierzon, that sex is here determined
by fertilization. ‘
OTHER CASES OF PARTHENOGENESIS.
Classification.—Parthenogenetic development manifests itself in
a variety of ways and many synonymous terms have been applied
to the different kinds of parthenogenesis. The following classifica-
tion will serve to make clear the relations of the different phenomena
to one another and to show the synonymous terms used :
PARTHENOGENESIS (Agamogenesis).
1. Partial.
Development to early cleavage or larva.
e.g., Vertebrates (?) and Echinoderms.
.
1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 291
2. Complete—to adult condition.
(a) Occasional—exceptional—Tychoparthenogenesis (Henne-
guy).
€.g., Bombyx mort.
(2) Normal—Isoparthenogenesis (Hatschek).
(1) No Alternation of Generations.
¢.g., Apis, Nematus.
(2) Alternation of Sexual and Parthenogenetic Generations
— Heteroparthenogenesis (Hatschek), Hetero-
geny (Leuckart), Pseudoparthenogenesis (Spen-
cer).
e.g., Aphis, Daphnia.
The following classification of Complete Parthenogenesis is based
on the sex of the resulting individuals :
1. Homoparthenogenesis (Henneguy), Complete Parthenogenesis
(Spencer).
One sex only produced from unfertilized eggs.
(a) Arrenotoky (Leuckart),«Androgenetic (Breyer).
Males produced. ¢.g., Apis.
(6) Thelytoky (v. Siebold), Gynogenetic (Breyer).
Females produced. e.g., Psyche.
2. Heteroparthenogenesis (Henneguy), Mixed Parthenogenesis
(Stein).
Amphoterotoky (Taschenberg), Amphotoky (Lankester).
Both sexes produced parthenogenetically. ¢.g., Aphide.
An Alternation of Generations often accompanies partheno-
genetic development, and in the literature considerable confusion
occurs by a mixing of the terms. For this reason the following
classification is given so that the occurrence of Parthenogenesis in
relation to Alternation of Generations may be made clear:
Alternation of Generations (Metagenesis Owen).
1. Sexual Generation alternating with a Budding Generation.
(a) Buds remain attached to form colonies.
e.g., Medusz and Polyps.
(6) Buds separate.
é.g., Salpa.
2. Sexual Generation alternating with Parthenogenetic Generation.
Heteroparthenogenesis (Hatschek), Heterogeny (Leuckart).
‘
292 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS, [{0ct. 16,
3. Two Sexual Generations differing in form—Alloigony (Leuckart).
(a) One free generation, one hermaphroditic and parasitic.
e.g., Rhabdonema, Allantonema.
(4) Seasonal Dimorphism.
e.g., Lophyrus pint.
Pzedogenesis or the parthenogenetic reproduction by larval
forms is frequently met with (e.g., Diptera). This term was intro-
duced by v. Baer (1864), but unfortunately it has since been
applied by Seidlitz (1872), Dilling (1880) and others to all cases
of sexually mature larve, even though the reproduction be truly
sexual’ Thus they would include under this term the reproduc-
tion of Axolotl and of Gyrodactylus. v. Siebold (1869) used the
term pzdogenesis for the reproduction of the Strepsiptera, but in
this case the sexually mature female is simply a degenerate adult
and not a larval form as v. Siebold supposed, and the reproduction
is sexual as far as the evidence at present goes. Toaid in the clear-
ing up of this confusion of terms, Taschenberg (1892) suggests the
term Proiogony for all cases of sexually mature larve, so that the
word Peedogenesis can be used in its original and proper meaning.
Chun (1892) uses the term Dissogonie for cases like those found by
him in Cydifpe, where the same individual at different stages of
development is sexually mature, and these stages are separated by a
metamorphosis.
The word Pseudoparthenogenesis has been applied by some
writers to cases in which the eggs are fertilized from a seminal recep-
tacle (¢ g., female eggs of Ags), and in which copulation does not
take place for each egg. The use of such a word is unfortunate
since it implies that there is a similarity to parthenogenesis, while
there is really a very fundamental difference.
INSECTA.
HyMENOPTERA.—Besides the case of the Honey Bee referred to
at some length on preceding pages, numerous other cases of par-
thenogenesis occur among the Hymenoptera.
Tenthredinide.—The first case described in this family was that
of Mematus ventricosus (=. ribesiZ) by Robert Thom (1820) who
wrote: ‘*The insect is male and female, but the ova of the
female produce caterpillars, even when the male and female flies
are kept separate. How long this offspring would continue to
1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 293
’ breed has not been ascertained. . . . There is some reason to
suspect that there is a connection between male and female cater-
pillars, for I have frequently observed them twisted together for
some time after they have ceased eating, and a little before they
cast their skins to go into the pupa state.’’ This same form was
investigated by Kessler (1866) and especially by v. Siebold (1871).
Other papers on this family are those of Cameron (1885), Fletcher,
(1880), v. Stein (1881-83) and Brischke (1887). Taschenberg
(1892) gives a long list of members of this family for which par-
thenogenetic development has been recorded. The various mem-
bers of the group afford examples of Arrenotoky, Thelytoky and
Amphoterotoky.
Cynipide.—In this family many species are known only from
females, males being entirely absent or very rare. Leon Dufour
(1841) found no males in two hundred individuals of Dzplolepis
galle tinctorie collected, and Hartig (1843) no males in nine
thousand examples of Cynips divisa. Osten-Sacken (1861) at-
tempted to explain this by claiming that the males live in differ-
ent galls from the females and are not recognized as the same
species. Such a dimorphism is known for some Cynipidz and it is
probably true for many more. Taschenberg (1892) gives a list of
nineteen cases in which males and females have been described as
different genera and are now known to be but cases of sexual
dimorphism. Cynips quercus-erculata (Osten-Sacken) which pro-
duces a large gall in the autumn, in the spring of the next year
lays eggs which produce galls of another form, originally named
C. 9g. spongifica. ‘The autumn brood of this Cyzps consists of par-
thenogenetic femalés, while the spring brood is of both males and
females.
Neuroterus lenticularis produces galls of a certain form on the
under side of oak-leaves and the flies appear in the early spring.
These deposit their eggs on the buds of the oak which produce
galls unlike those of the autumn and the fly, of both sexes, which
emerges from the second gall has been referred to a separate genus
(Spathegaster baccarum). ‘This in turn lays eggs which produce the
original form of euroterus, all females.
In the families of Ants and the family Vespidz parthenogenesis
similar to that of Ags is very common, as is also true for other
species of the family Apidz. ‘The best known cases are those
investigated by v. Siebold (1870-71), Vespa germanica and Polistes
gallica.
294 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0Oct. 16,
Andrenide.—In Halictus, according to Fabre (1880), a mixed
brood results:from the development of the unfertilized eggs, Am-
photerotoky. Cf. Perez (1895).
Ichneumonide.—v. Siebold (1884) describes Thelytoky for
Paniscus glaucopterus.
Chalcidide.—Adler (1881) describes an alternation of genera-
tions and probable Arrenotoky for P/eromalus puparum. '
CoLEOPTERA.—Few cases of parthenogenesis are recorded for
this sub-order, Osborne (1879-81) and Jobert (1882) being the
only observers who record such phenomena. The cases recorded
are Eumolpus (Adoxus) vitis and Gastrophysa raphani ( Gastroidea
viridula). Osborne considered parthenogenesis in G. raphani to be
as frequent as in ematus ribesiz, while Jobert suggests that the
form. studied by him (Adoxus) is hermaphroditic. v. Siebold
(1869) described pzedogenesis for the Strepsiptera, the females of
which are wingless and worm-like with a flattened triangular head —
and live in the abdomen of bees and wasps. The female is vivi-
parous, producing hundreds of young, but is not a larval form at the
time of reproduction, and there is no evidence that fertilization
does not take place.
LEPIDOPTERA.—In Bombyx mori occasional parthenogenesis has
been observed. Constans de Castellet (1795) first recorded this,
and it was confirmed by Herold (1838) and Leuckart (1855).
v. Siebold (1856) and a pupil Schmid got both sexes from unfer-
tilized eggs. Verson (1873) showed that reproduction in this case
is generally sexual and (1888) claimed that parthenogenetic devel-
opment for this species is usually partial. Tichomiroff (1886-91)
produced partial parthenogenesis in this form by mechanical
excitement (1886) and by putting the eggs in 65 per cent. sul-
phuric acid for two and one-half minutes (1889). Nussbaum
(1898) found that two per cent. of the eleven hundred unfertilized
eggs examined showed segmentation but never hatched, and in
similar observations on the eggs of Parthesia and Lipfarts he did
not get cleavage in any case.
In Solenobia triquetrella, S. lichenella, and Psyche helix true
Thelytoky occurs and we have a succession of parthenogenetic
females, and only occasionally in P. helix is a male produced.’
Much of the early work on parthenogenesis was done on Lepidop-
1 Described by Claus, 1866. No males are known for Solenobia.
= ae =
1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 295
tera, some of the workers being Réaumur (1738), Pallas (1767),
Degeer (1771), Kiihn (1775), Schiffermiiller (1776), Schrank (1776
and 1802), Scriba (1790) and Reutti(1810). v. Siebold was at first
(1849) inclined to doubt the existence of parthenogenesis in these
species, but in 1856 published the results of elaborate experiments
in which it was fully proven. Speyer (1847), Wocke (1853) and
Reutti (1853) reached similar conclusions, and Leuckart (1858)
examined the females of So/enodca and found no spermatozoa in
the seminal receptacle, although there was a micropyle on the egg.
Hartmann (1871) raised many successive generations of individuals.
parthenogenetically.
HeEmiPTERA.—The first to investigate the reproduction of Aphids
was Leeuwenhoek (1695). He found that the young are pro-
duced vivaparously and that there are few males, and Réamur
.(1737) from like observations, on theoretical grounds, held that
they are protandric. Bonnet (1745), who generally gets the credit
of having first observed the reproduction of the group, raised nine
generations of viviparous females in two and one-half months in
summer, and in the fall males appeared which copulated with the
females, and eggs were laid which hatched out in the following
year. Degeer (1773) worked on Lachnus pini and Aphis rose, and
concluded that sexual individuals could be entirely done away
with by keeping the insects protected from cold, and in this he
was confirmed by Kybér (1815), who raised fifty successive genera-
tions of viviparous individuals in four years. Most of these earlier
workers thought that the viviparous individuals were larval forms,
which would afterward develop into the oviparous individuals.
Similar experiments led Duvau (1825) to believe that the ovipar-
ous and viviparous individuals are entirely distinct and that they
never have the power of reproducing in both ways, and later Mor-
ren (1836), for Aphis persica ; Ratzeburg (1844), for Aphis oblonga,
and Newport (1847), for Aphis rose, came to similar conclusions.
Dufour (1841) repeated the experiments of Bounet and referred
the reproduction of Dzplo/efis galle tinctorte to ‘‘spontaneous or
equivocal generation, in which impregnation is in no way con-
cerned.’’ Morren (1836) also believed in this spontaneous genera-
tion and thought that Aphids are developed in the body of the
virgin parent : ‘‘ Comme chez quelques entozoaires par individuali-
sation d’un tissu precédément organise.” ?
1 Page 90, /oc, cit.
296 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [Oct. 16,
v. Siebold (1839) examined the viviparous and oviparous females
and found that there is no appreciable difference between the
ovaria of the two, but that the former lack a receptaculum seminis,
and are, therefore, incapable of copulation. In the former point
he was confirmed by Owen (1849), but: not by Steenstrup (1842),
who insisted that the viviparous individuals do not have ovaries
but a. well-developed uterus ; to these he gave the name ‘‘ Ammen ”’
or nurses.
A most important step in advance was made by Steenstrup
(1842) when he introduced the idea of an Alternation of Genera-
tions in Aphid development, as well as for other forms. He and
Carus (1849) concluded that the viviparous development is com-
parable to the Cercaria stage of the Fluke worm, and the theory,
first suggested by Duvau (1825), that here we have two generations,
each distinct from the other, but each in turn giving rise to the
other, was strengthened. Steenstrup would not, however, admit
that the viviparous development is at all comparable to the ovipar-
ous, for he wrote: ‘‘No true ovary has been discovered in the
larval and larviparous Aphids, but the germs, as soon as they are
perceptible, are situated in organs which must be regarded as
291
oviducts and uteri.
About this time the theory of Dzierzon (1845) was advanced for
the parthenogenetic development of the drone eggs of the Honey
Bee, but such an explanation was not accepted for Aphids, and even
v. Siebold, in his celebrated paper, ‘‘ Wahre Parthenogenesis bei
Schmetterlingen und Bienen’’ (1856), although advocating par-
thenogenesis for the forms on which he worked, refused to admit
it for plant lice, for he wrote: ‘‘ Die viviparen Blattlause keine
Weibchen sind, welche sine concubitu im jungfraulichen Zustande
entwicklungsfahige Ejier hervorbringen, sondern geschlechtlose
mit Keimstécken ausgestattete Ammen-oder larvenartige Individuen,
welche von den wirklich jungfraulichen Blattlause-Weibchen him-
melivert vorschieden sind.’’ ?
Owen (1849) applied the term Parthenogenesis to the develop-
ment of Aphids, not in the sense in which it is now used, but as an
equivalent of the term Alternation of Generations used by Steen-
strup. Owen thought that the fertilization which takes place in
1 Page 112, English translation.
2 Page 14, loc, cit.
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1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 297
the fall was enough to furnish what he designated as ‘‘ spermatic
force ’’’ for the development of the numerous summer generations.
«Tn the vertebrated and higher invertebrated animals only a single
individual is propagated from each impregnated ovum. Organized
beings might be divided into those in which the ovum is uni-
parous and those in which it is multiparous. This is the first and
widest or most general distinction which we have to consider in
regard to generation, and in proportion as we may recognize its
cause will be our insight into the true condition on which Par-
thenogenesis depends.’’ *
The next step in advance was made when it was discovered by Ley-
dig that there is no observable fundamental difference between the
ova of the viviparous and oviparous females. There is, of course, a
great difference between the summer eggs which develop partheno-
genetically and the winter eggs as to size and amount of yolk, but
this is only such a difference as may be observed between the eggs
of various species and in no way argues for a dissimilar origin.
This, then, put the Aphid development in the same class with that
of Solenobia, Apis and other species known to develop from unfer-
tilized eggs ; but so firm a hold had the idea that fertilization is neces-
sary to the development of a true egg that Huxley (1858) and Lub-
bock (1857) gave the name ‘‘ Pseudova’’ to the eggs of the vivi-
parous females. From this time on it has been held that the
viviparous development was a case of true parthenogenesis.
The Alternation of Generations and parthenogenetic development
is further complicated by other factors. Thus in Aphids the last of
the viviparous generations is a generation known as the sexupara,
the parthenogenetic and viviparous descendants of which are
winged males and wingless females. After copulation, these
females lay the fertilized winter eggs. This cycle of develop-
ment is still further complicated by migrations from one plant host
to another. A winged parthenogeretic generation frequently
appears, and then may migrate to a different plant there to repro-
duce itself, and in a later generation return to the original host
(Lichenstein, 1875). These generations have been distinguished
by Blochmann (1889) as emigrants, alienocole and remigrants.
Thus Pemphigus terebinthi (Derbes, 1872) gives rise to a wingless
parthenogenetic generation (@), which produces another winged
1Page 62, Joc. cit.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. soc. xLIt. 174. u. PRINTED D2c. 15, 1903,
298 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [Oct. 16,
generation (4), the emigrants. This generation goes to another
plant and produces a third generation (c), the remigrants and sexu-
para, which hibernate, return to the original plant and produce the
small wingless sexual forms (@), the ‘‘sexuales.” Here the sexual
generation occurs in the spring rather than in the fall, as in most
other forms,
Similar conditions are found in the Chermetidz, except that here
the parthenogenetic generations as well as the generations arising
from fertilized eggs are oviparous (see the works of Blochmann,
Dreyfuss and Cholodovsky). In Chermes adietis the fertilized egg
develops into a wingless parthenogenetic female (a@), which hiber-
nates at the base of the buds of Adzes dalsamia and produces galls.
In the spring winged females (4) are produced, which migrate to
the Larch and give rise parthenogenetically to a wingless genera-
tion (¢), which hibernates under the bark. These alienocole in
the following spring produce parthenogenetic winged females (2),
remigrants or sexupara, which return to Adzes and produce wingless
males and females, the eggs of which produce the first generation
named in the cycle. Here two years is required to complete the
cycle.
In Phylloxera quercus (Lichenstein) the winter eggs are laid on
Quercus coccifera and give rise to females, which produce partheno-
genetically a winged generation (emigrants), which fly to Q. pedun-
culata and Q. pubescens. These parthenogenetically produce sev-
eral generations of alienocole and finally produce the remigrating
sexupara, which return to Q. coccifera and produce the sexual gen-
eration. In Phylloxera vastatrix the generation which develops
from fertilized eggs laid under the bark of the grapevine wander
to the roots and there produce parthenogenetically several genera-
tions of wingless forms, which cause the swellings of the roots.
This series is closed by the production of winged sexupara which
go to the surface and swarm. ‘Their eggs, which develop without
fertilization, vary in size according to the sex, and the resulting
individuals again begin the cycle.
The physiological difference between fertilized and parthenia
genetic eggs is often accompanied by difference in appearance.
The parthenogenetic ones are generally small and poor in yolk and
develop in a shorter time and in greater number, while those
requiring sexual cell union are larger and develop more slowly. The
former are called summer eggs or Sudctaneter; the latter winter
4
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1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 299
eggs or, because of the fact that they remain undeveloped for some
time after fertilization, Dawereter or retarded eggs.
DipTERA.—This group furnishes some excellent examples of
pzedogenesis or pedoparthenogenesis, and the phenomena as shown
in various genera grade into each other in such a manner that it
becomes evident that no line of demarcation can be drawn between
parthenogenetic development from eggs laid by adult females and
pedogenesis. While it is perhaps well to make a distinction
between the phenomenon of parthenogenesis as exhibited by eggs of
adult females and the same phenomenon as shown by the eggs of
females which have not yet reached the last or adult stage of their
development, yet the fundamental principle is the same in each
case and it is not well to put too much stress on the degree of
development of the parent when such a distinction tends to hide
the similarity of the two kinds of reproduction.
Wagner (1862), in a Russian paper, reported cases of fly Jarve
which bring forth young viviparously and, as he thought, from a
transformation of the fat body, the parent dying at the birth of the
offspring. This was in opposition to every principle of zoology
and was, of course, not accepted on account of the announced
method of formation of the embryos. In a short time, however,
v. Baer (1863) and Meinert (1864) confirmed Wagner in all points
except the source of the young, and later Wagner came to the con-
clusion that the viviparous young, are developed from true eggs.
These conclusions were confirmed by Ganin (1865). The forms
worked on were Mastor and Cecidomyia.
The next phenomenon of the series is that shown in Chironomus
(Grimm, 1870). Here the use lay eggs which develop partheno-
genetically. This case comes nearer to what is observed in
Hymenoptera, and the next step, which completes the series, is that
of Chironomus Grimmit (Schneider, 1885) in which the imago
lays parthenogenetic eggs.
Without going into a discussion of other forms on which work
has been done, it will be evident that here we have a series of cases
in which the Cecidomyidz have reached the most specialized con-
dition, they being able to bring forth young viviparously from a
larval parent without waiting for the parent to reach the adult con-
dition before acquiring sexual maturity. The case reported by
Grimm for Chironomus would then appear to be one in which this
power of bringing forth young very soon had not been so com-
300 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [Oct. 16, —
pletely acquired, since the female must here wait until she reaches
the pupal stage before she is sexually matured, and then she has not —
the power of viviparity but must lay her eggs; viviparous reproduc-
tion being undoubtedly an advantage to a species from the stand-
point of increasing their numbers. It would then seem that some
Diptera have not only acquired the advantage of parthenogenetic
development but have shifted this power back to the pupa, or even
larva, so that they may still more profit by this specialized method
of reproduction.
ORTHOPTERA.—The development of eggs without fertilization has
recently been described for this group by several] persons. Dom-
inique (1899) obtained parthenogenetic development (thelytoky) in
Bacillus gallicus, while Heymons got one male to every twenty to
twenty-five females in the parthenogenetic offspring of B. Rossiz ; and
Azam (1898) and Stadelman (1898) also got some parthenogenetic —
individuals in the last-named species. Bolivar (1897 and ’99) got ©
three cases out of ten in which isolated larvee of Heptynia hespanica —
produced eggs which developed ; but he is not sure that they were ~
not fertilized, although Pautel describes parthenogenesis as occurring
in this species [cf. also Brunn (1898)]. ;
From the evidence now at hand it would appear that partheno-
genesis in this group is exceptional.
CRUSTACEA.
Next to plant lice, our earliest knowledge of the develop-—
ment of unfertilized eggs was for cases among the Crustacea.
Schaffer (1755) described the development of eggs from unfertilized
females of Daphnids, and by isolation he succeeded in producing
several generations without fertilization and described this as being
similar to what was known to take place in Aphids. Ramdohr-
(1805) raised ten successive generations parthenogenetically, and
Jurine (1820) also confirmed the work. Ramdohr, however, did
not look on these forms as true females but as hermaphrodites.
These observations were on summer eggs, there being practically
the same difference in this group as we find in Hemiptera. The
summer eggs as in Aphids develop parthenogenetically, while the
winter eggs require fertilization.
v. Siebold (1856) stated that he thought that Aus cancriformis,
Limnadia gigas and Polyphemus oculis, in which no males had been
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-1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 301
observed, showed true parthenogenesis, and Leuckart (1857)
_ expressed the same opinion for Daphnia. In 1858 males of Asus
were discovered and were examined by v. Siebold and he thus
learned that some broods can go on developing parthenogenetically,
like the Lepidoptera (Thelytoky), while other broods have both
sexes present. For several years he watched a small pool near
Munich, and at one time with great care removed every individual
and found no males in 5796 individuals. In pools where both sexes
occurred the proportion of males and females was very variable, and
y. Siebold was led to believe that in these cases the males are dis-
appearing, since from examinations in different years he found a
constantly increasing proportion of females.
v. Siebold foresaw the objection that males might have been
present previous to the examination of the pools, and consequently
‘examined the male genital organs and spermatozoa and then the
ovaries and their development. He never succeeded in finding any
spermatozoa in the female genital organs. The structure of the
ovum made this observation decisive since he found a hard egg-
_ shell formed in the uterus and no micropyle, so that if fertilization
takes place it must be before the egg is laid. Brauer (1872) found
that fertilized eggs of Afus produced males.
Several other groups of Crustacea show a similar method of
development, but do not differ toany extent from 4fus. Partheno-
_ genesis has been observed in the Phyllopods, Ostracods and Cope-
pods, but in none of the Malacostraca.
In Artemia salina, Joly (1840) found no males in 3000 individ-
uals examined and explained this as due to hermaphroditism, but
Gerstacker (1867) and especially v. Siebold (1871) established this
as a case of true parthenogenesis. In A. Milhauseniz, Fischer v.
Waldheim (1834), Rathke (1836) and Fischer (in Midden-
dorf’s Reise, Zoologie) found that males are rare, and the same is.
true for Limnadia Hermanit, both cases being explained like that
of A. salina. ‘The maturation of the parthenogenetic egg of 4.
salina (Brauer, 1893) is discussed in another place.
A case worthy of note is that of Zeptodora hyalina, a Daphnid,
in which the winter eggs follow the usual plan of Crustacean devel-
opment and form a Nauplius stage, while the summer eggs develop
directly into an adult form with all limbs present. This is one of
the striking cases which indicate that parthenogenesis is acquired
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302 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0ct.16, _
where it is desirable to produce individuals quickly, since here the
larval stages are omitted.
Unisexual and bisexual generations alternate with each other in
various ways in Crustacea and the mode of the alternation is
remarkably related to their environment, as has been shown by
Weismann. According to whether the causes of destruction visit a
colony once or several times during the year we find forms which
have one or several cycles of parthenogenetic and bisexual genera- ~
tions, and finally species are known which show no alternation.
These are designated as monocyclical, polycyclical and acyclical
respectively.
TREMATODES.
The development of the cercaria and redia stages of Disto
mum has been the subject of much discussion for a long time. —
Leuckart, in his Parastten des Menschen, gives an historical
account of our knowledge of the development of these forms up
to the date of its issue (1879). That there is a development with-
out fertilization is admitted on all sides, but the question as to
whether the vedig develop from true germ cells is still a peint of
dispute. Leuckart (1882) and Schwarz (1886) consider this as a
true case of pedogenesis, the internally developing redie being
looked on as arising viviparously from cells of the germinal epi-
thelium. On the other hand, Wagener (1857) and Biehringer
(1885) maintain that they arise from cells of the body wall and are
therefore not produced sexually but by budding. Korschelt and
Heider, in their Zext-Book of Embryology (1890), do not consider
this difference of great significance. ‘‘*This difference does not
seem to us to be important, for we have already seen that the
parietal cells and the germ cells are embryologically of the same
origin. In a portion of the cells of the body wall even, a differen-
tiation into separate histological elements appears not to have
taken place, and for this reason they may continue to develop in
the same way as the real germ cells. In harmony with this view is”
the statement of Thomas,* who derives the rediz from both the
germ cells and the cells of the body wall; if the supply of the
former were exhausted, then the latter might take their place.”’
1]J. Bd., p. 488 and following pages.
? Page 183, Vol. I, English Translation.
5’ Thomas (1883).
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If such an explanation be the true one, then it would appear that
the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction is not so
great as is generally supposed.
ROTIFERS.
The phenomena of development are very complicated in the
Rotifers. In most cases the males differ from the females in
being smaller and in the absence of an alimentary canal. The
eggs are of two kinds, the same difference being seen here be-
tween summer and winter eggs as in Aphids. Cohn (1856-58)
first worked out the development of this group and found that the
winter eggs are fertilized, while the summer eggs are not. Huxley
(1857) looked on these summer eggs as sexless buds, but the work of
Joliet (1883), Plate (1884-85) and Maupas (1889-90) established
this as true parthenogenesis. Here, asin Aphids and Daphnids, the
males appear at the beginning of an unfavorable period in the life
cycle.
Under the subject of the Maturation of Parthenogenetic Eggs the
work on Rotifers is mentioned, and the results there recorded are
the most interesting features in connection with the phenomenon of
parthenogenesis in the group. The principal point of interest is
that the male and female eggs behave differently during their
maturation, although eggs of both sexes have the power of develop-
ment without fertilization.
Lauterborn (1898) found that the Rotifers could be classified into
three groups as follows: (1) Species found all the year around ;
(2) Species found in summer, and (3) Species found in winter.
In the summer and winter species the fertilized and yolk-laden
eggs appear after-a long series of parthenogenetic generations ; they
are monocyclic. In the species found during all seasons of the year
the appearance of the males and the consequent fertilized eggs may
occur twice or more times during the year; they are polycyclic.
Probably some species are acyclic; that is parthenogenetic forms
can be produced indefinitely and ‘‘ winter’’ eggs are unknown.
The determination of the appearance of males in Rotifers has been
variously explained, the amounts of heat (Maupas) and nutrition
(Nussbaum) being often considered as the causes. Lauterborn con-
cludes that such external causes do not fully explain this but that
some internal factor is the principal cause. The cyclic appearance
3804 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0ct. 16,
of fertilized eggs recalls the periodic ’occurrence of conjugation
among protozoa, and according to Wesenberg-Lund (1898) and
Lauterborn (1898) senility is an important factor in determining
the length of the cycle. That lack of nutrition and the appearance
of a senile condition are intimately connected seems very probable,
if we may be permitted to reason from analogy on work done on
Paramecium caudatum. Calkins, in a recent paper,’ records that
he has been able to raise Paramcecia for six hundred and sixty-five
generations by fission, and they were rejuvenated five successive
times by change of food rather than by conjugation, or as he
expresses it ‘‘ parthenogenetically.”’
VERTEBRATES.
The question as to whether there is a parthenogenetic develop-
ment among any of the Vertebrates is one which has been much
discussed. If there are any cases at all they are cases of partial par-
thenogenesis, since in no case is it claimed that development goes
farther than the first few cleavage stages. Bonnet (1899) discusses at
some length the evidence on this subject, and since he has so well
reviewed the literature it is not necessary to do more here than
state the general conclusions to be reached from a survey of what
has been reported.
Eggs of Amphioxus lanceolatus (van der Stricht, 1895) show a
tendency to divide if not fertilized. This is not pronounced.
Cleavage of unfertilized eggs in the ovary are reported among the
Gadide by Burnett and Agassiz (cited by Oellacher, 1869), for the
Sturgeon by Bellonci (1885), and for the Trout by Oellacher (1872).
Oellacher attributed this to the retention of the eggs for too long
a time.
For the Frog and other Amphibia many. investigators have
claimed parthenogenetic cleavage, since it frequently happens that
eggs which pass from the female when she is not copulating with a
male show cleavages, but these are generally irregular. Pfliiger
(1882) was able to show rather conclusively that such cases are due
to fertilization of these eggs by spermatozoa in the water which are
nearly dead, and consequently the development is short and irregu-
ular. Kulagur (1895) and Bataillon (1900) did some experiments
1 Calkins, Gary N., 1902, “Studies on the Life History of Protozoa,” III.
The Six Hundred and Twentieth Generation of Paramcecium caudatum, zo/.
Bull,, III, No. 5, pp. 192-205.
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1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 805
on artificial parthenogenesis, but these must not be considered as
arguing for a true natural parthenogenesis.
Among Reptiles, Strahl (1892) reports irregular parthenogenetic
cleavages.
In the Birds, the evidence for a parthenogenetic development is
perhaps the strongest of that for any vertebrates. It frequently
happens that a blastoderm is formed on an egg which is appa-.
rently not fertilized. Cases of this kind are found in the Chick
(Coste, 1859; Oellacher, 1869 ; Koelliker, 1879, and others), in
the Turtle Dove (Motta Maja, 1877; cited by Duval, 1884), and
for several other birds (Duval, 1884). Balfour (1880) pointed out
that care must be exercised in passing judgment on these cases,
since it is known that spermatozoa can live for a considerable time
in the female and that possibly these are really cases of fertilized
eggs. ‘This is entirely upheld by the later work of Lau (1895) and
Barfurth (1895), who show that eggs from virgin hens do not show
cleavage in thé same way as do those from hens which have copu-
lated with a cock even a considerable time before. In eggs from
virgin hens the blastomeres do not have a cellular character, since
all but a few lack nuclei, and when nuclei are present they do not
divide mitotically. The blastoderm lacks all power of assimilation,
the blastomeres are irregular and the whole shows no thickening at
the posteriorend. There is never a segmentation cavity. Lauand
Barfurth looked on such cases as due to a physico-chemical process,
caused partly by evaporation and partly by coagulation of the pro-
toplasm. Cases in which the female has previously copulated would
then appear to be similar to those of the frog, in which there is a
fertilization accomplished by a partially devitalized male cell.
Even in Mammals, cases are recorded of the cleavage of the egg
while still in the Graffian follicle. Janosik (1896) reports several
cases (Rabbit) in which a cleavage has taken place, asemblance of a
cleavage cavity formed and the whole mass has broken away from
the membrana pellucida as in normal development ; but the phe-
nomenon is so evidently connected with disintegration from the very
beginning that it must not be considered as parthenogenesis.
The question as to whether Dermoid cysts are due to the par-
thenogenetic development of an egg has received a great deal of
attention, and the exceptional case reported by Répin (cited by
Duval, 1895) would point strongly to such an explanation as the
true one. This cyst had four limbs and terminated in a kind of
306 PHILLIPS—-A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0ct. 16,
head composed of bones arranged in a cube and surmounted by
three teeth. The bones of the feet and hands were perfectly rec-
ognizable. There was no alimentary canal in the body, but beside
it was a tube which histologically resembled an intestine.
It would appear then that these phenomena are not true partheno-
genesis, unless it be that we consider that as the explanation of the
cysts. The fact that the cleavages do not follow the regular plan
of fertilized eggs would not of itself bar these cases as being classed
as a true development from an unfertilized egg, since in other cases,
where there is undoubtedly a parthenogenetic development, the
method of growth differs from that of the fertilized egg of the same
species, ¢.g., Leptodora. Neither must we bar these cases because
the development goes but a short distance, since the life of an
individual must be considered as beginning with the unsegmented
egg, and if that egg shows a power of development without ferti-
lization, that phenomenon is as truly parthenogenesis as if an
adult animal resulted. However, since in these casés we find the
segmentation of the egg to be more in the nature of a physico-
chemical change than a true cleavage, we must consider it as
entirely different, and we must, of course, bar out all cases in
which the proper amount of care has not been taken in proving
that fertilization has not been aftected bya half-dead spermatozoon.
ARACHNIDS.
But one well authenticated case is known to exist in Spiders
(Campbell, 1883). Parthenogenesis in this group has recently
been discussed by Montgomery (1903), and it is not necessary to
repeat his discussion since it has been done so recently.
In many other animals there is a marked tendency for the mature
egg to go on dividing if fertilization does not take place. This is
often observed in Echinoderms, some Annelids and Molluscs. Such
eggs never develop beyond a very early stage, and only a very
small proportion of eggs show this cleavage. A point worthy of
note is that these very forms are the ones which have yielded the
best results in work done in Artificial Parthenogenesis, and the
explanation which seems to follow from this is that such eggs
normally require a very small amount of stimulus from the male
cell, and the addition of some chemical to the water is enough to
take the place of the male stimulus. In fact the results of artificial
1903.] PHILLIPS—-A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 307
parthenogenesis differ from what is normally found only in the
greater proportion of parthenogenetic eggs.
THE MATURATION OF PARTHENOGENETIC EGGS.
The main point of interest in parthenogenesis is perhaps that of
the maturation of the parthenogenetic eggs, cn account of its gen-
eral bearing on the theory of fertilization and on account of its
support of the theory of the individuality of chromosomes.
Minot (1877), in an article on the theoretical meaning of matu- -
ration, suggests that parthenogenesis may be due to failure to form
polar bodies, and since the entire mass of chromatin remained in
the egg it would be hermaphrodite and capable of development
without the addition of any chromatin from the male cell. Balfour
(1880) follows out the same line of thought in suggesting that the
function of forming polar bodies has been acquired by most ova
to prevent parthenogenesis, and van Beneden (1883) held a nearly
similar view.
Weismann (1886) found that one polar body is given off in the
case of Polyphemus (Daphnid), and he later determined the same
thing for parthenogenetic Ostracodes and Rotifers.* Blochmann
(1888) found in Aphids that one polar body is given off in the case
of eggs which develop parthenogenetically, while two are produced
in eggs which require fertilization. Weismann was thus led to the
view that the second polar body is of special significance in par-
thenogenesis. In insects (Blochmann and others) the polar bodies
are not thrown out of the egg as in most other animals, but the
chromatin masses remain embedded in a vesicle in the proto-
plasm of the egg, near the periphery, and are called ‘polar
nuclei.’’
Boveri (1887) found in Ascaris megalocephala that the second
polar body might remain in the egg (as is normally the case in
insects) and give rise to a nucleus indistinguishable from the pro-
nuclei. He, therefore, suggested that parthenogenesis might be
due to the retention of the second polar body in the egg and its
use as a male pro-nucleus.? ‘‘The second polar body would thus, in
a certain sense, assume the rdéle of the spermatozoon, and it might
1 Compare Lenssen (1899), Erlanger u. Lauterborn (1897) and Mrazek
(1897).
2 Boveri (1887), p. 73.
308 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. /[Oct. 16,
not without reason be said: Parthenogenesis is the result of fer-
tilization by the second polar body.’’
This conclusion was in part confirmed by Brauer (1893) on the
parthenogenetic egg of Artemia salina. ‘There are two types of
maturation in parthenogenetic eggs occurring in the same animal,
one in accordance with the idea of Boveri and the other not irre-
concilable with it. Fora brief description of the two methods in
Artemia the statement of Wilson ' is quoted :
Jn both modes typical tetrads are formed in the germ-nucleus
to the number of eighty-four. In the first and more frequent case
but one polar body is formed, which removes eighty-four dyads, .
leaving eighty-four in the egg. There may be an abortive attempt
to form a second polar spindle but no division results, and the
eighty-four dyads give rise to a reticular cleavage-nucleus. From
this arise eight-four thread-like chromosomes and ¢he same number
appears in later cleavage stages.
S Se
“Tt is the second and rare mode that realizes Boveri’s concep-
tion. Both polar bodies are formed, the first removing eighty-four _
dyads and leaving the same number in the egg. In the formation
of the second, the eighty-four dyads are halved to form two daugh-
ter groups, each containing eighty-four single chromosomes. oth
these groups remain in the egg and each gives rise to a single reticu-
lar nucleus, as described by Boveri in Ascaris. These two nuclei
place themselves side by side in the cleavage figure, and give rise each
to eighty-four chromosomes, precisely like two germ-nuclet in ordinary
fertilization. The one hundred and sixty-eight chromosomes split
lengthwise and are distributed in the usual manner, aud reappear
in the same number in later stages. In other words, the second
polar body here plays the part of a sperm-nucleus precisely as
maintained by Boveri.
‘*Tn all individuals arising from eggs of the first type, there-
fore, the somatic number of chromosomes is eighty-four; in all
those arising from eggs of the second type, it is one hundred and
sixty-eight. This difference is clearly due to the fact that in the
latter case the chromosomes are single and univalent, while in the
former they are bivalent (actually arising from dyads or double
chromosomes). ‘The remarkable feature, on which too much em-
phasis cannot be laid, is that the numerical difference should
1 Wilson, Zhe Cell in Development and Inheritance, pp. 281-284.
1908.1 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 809
persist despite the fact that the mass and, as far as we can see, the
quality of the chromatin is the same in both cases.’’
Blochmann (1889) studied the maturation of drone and worker
eggs in Afis meliifica with the following results: The first polar
nucleus is given off normally and remains undivided, but the second
polar nucleus often appears to divide. The fact that these three
nuclei are not, as in some cases, due to a division of the first polar
nucleus is proven by the position of this nucleus, which is always
found just under the surface of the egg and separated by some dis-
tance from the other two. The female pro-nucleus soon becomes
vesicular in form and goes to the axis of the egg, where it forms 9
spindle and gives rise to the blastoderm cells. The polar nuclei
change as in Musca vomitoria, but do not become vesicular in
form, approach one another and are enclosed by a rather large
vacuole of the superficial protoplasm, which is free from yolk. In
this vacuole they break up into fine chromatin granules, which
become. scattered through the whole cavity of the vacuole. We
may suppose that the contents are later removed from the egg. In
fertilized eggs the ovarian nucleus undergoes the same divisions as
the unfertilized.
Platner (1887) also found two polar nuclei in Lzfaris dispar, a
parthenogenetic Lepidoptera. These two cases, the first two
recorded, are not in accord with the previous views of Weis-
mann, and in 1891 he sought to explain these cases as follows:
** Das Kernplasma einzelner Eier einer Art das Vermégen des Wachs-
thums in grésserern Masse als du Majoritat derselben besitze, oder,
im Falle der Biene, jedes Ei besitze de Fahigeit, sein auf die Halfte
reducirtes Kernplasma, wenn es nicht durch Befruchtung wieder
auf das Normalmass gebracht wird, durch Wachsthum wieder auf
die doppelte Masse zu bringen.’’
Petrunkewitsch (1901), studying Afzs, found that eggs laid by
the queen in drone cells never showed any signs of having been
fertilized. As in a fertilized ovum the first polar nucleus is separa-
ted by an equatorial division, in the second maturation there is a
reduction of chromosomes to one-half. Similarly the first polar
nucleus always divides with a reduction and the peripheral half is
liberated and perishes. The restoration of the number of chro-
mosomes in non-fertilized eggs probably occurs by a longitudinal
splitting of the chromosomes, but with a suppression of the corre-
sponding division into two daughter nuclei. The central half of
310 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [Oct. 16,
the first polar nucleus conjugates regularly with the second polar
nucleus and forms a ‘‘ Richtungscopulationkern,’’ with the nor-
mal number of chromosomes. ‘This nucleus in the drone egg gives
rise by three divisions to eight cells with double nuclei. In ferti-
lized ova and in drone eggs laid by fertile workers this nucleus
forms a spindle, which either simply disappears or gives rise to a
number of nuclei, one to four; but these always show disruption
phenomena in the chromosomes and ultimately disappear. In a
later paper the same author (Petrunkewitsch, 1902) asserts that the
products of the Richtungscopulationkern ultimately become the
testes of the adult drone.
Paulcke (1899) found that in drone eggs there are four groups of
chromosomes. Of these two seem to be the result of division of
the first polar nucleus, one of the second polar nucleus and the
fourth the egg nucleus. In twelve eggs examined from worker
cells, fifteen minutes after they were laid, eight show sperm nuclei
with their radiating systems. In eight hundred drone eggs exam-
ined no sperm nuclei were seen, but in three cases dark corpuscles
were observed, which might have been sperm nuclei. In fertile
worker eggs there were no indications of male pvro-nuclei.
Mrazek (1897) and Erlanger und Lauterborn (1897, studied the
maturation of the eggs of Asplanchna, a Rotifer. They find in
this genus three kinds of eggs: (1) Parthenogenetic male eggs;
(2) parthenogenetic female eggs, and (3) female eggs which require
fertilization. When the female eggs requiring fertilization begin
to develop, all other eggs begin to show cleavages of a degenera-
tive nature, not like the normal cleavage, probably due to lack of
nutrition (Mrazek). The parthenogenetic female eggs give off one
polar body which never divides, while the parthenogenetic male
eggs give off /wo polar bodies, the first of which normally divides.
The female eggs requiring fertilization act like the parthenogenetic
male eggs. In the parthenogenetic male eggs there is no indica-
tion of a union of the second polar body with the egg. The num-
ber of chromosomes is not determined (Erlanger und Lauterborn).’
Riickert (1895) found that in Cyclops sternuus the second matura-
tion division cuts off a polar nucleus which remains in the egg, in a
direction tangential to the second division figure. It does not
.
1See also Lenssen, 1899, ‘* Contribution & l’Etude du developpement et de
la maturation des ceufs chez 7? Hydatina sexta,” Cellule, xiv, pp. 421-51, 2 pl.
- &s
a
a
—
1903. ] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENKSIS. dll
form the primordial germinal cells. The first’ maturation division
gives off a true polar body.
Causes of Parthenogenesis.—When we consider the difference in
behavior of various parthenogenetic eggs during maturation and the
differences in sex relations exhibited by the various groups, together
with the wide range of the scattered cases where such development
occurs, it is evident that parthenogenesis has had a separate origin
in many places in the animal scale. All that is necessary in the
maturation of a parthenogenetic egg is that the normal number of
chromosomes shall be retained, and this may be brought about by
the retention of the second polar body, fertilization by the second
polar body or perhaps by the division of the chromosomes without
the corresponding cell division.
In seeking for a cause for the appearance of parthenogenesis in a
group of animals, it must be borne in mind that we are dealing with
a phenomenon that to all practical purposes is like asexual reproduc-
tion, in that the species is not dependent on the union of the two
sexes for the propagation of all the individuals of the species and
that the causes for the appearance of asexual and parthenogenetic
reproduction are practically identical, it being merely a question as
to which method of agamic reproduction is most readily acquired
by a given form when the necessity for such a thing arises. And,
too, it is probable that the cause is not the same in all cases, since
the environments and habits of the various forms possessing this
power are so varied.
In the first place, parthenogenesis is generally associated with
and probably caused by the necessity of the appearance of a great
many individuals suddenly at a certain period of the year or of the
life cycle. A large part of the forms exhibiting this method of
reproduction are small short-lived animals which are represented
during the winter or some adverse time in the life cycle by a very
few individuals and, in order that the species may survive, are
compelled to acquire some method of rapid agamic reproduction.
In the case of the Aphids the necessity is for females and we find
thelytoky evolved ; in the case of the Honey Bee the necessity is
for males, so that the queens may not go unfertilized, and we find
arrenotoky.
The question of economy enters very largely into the problem and
is, in fact, almost identical with the preceding cause. In many
312 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [Oct. 16,
cases males are exceedingly rare at all'times or except at certain
seasons, and it is manifestly to the advantage of the species if it is
able to survive without the presence of any but propagating
individuals. ‘Thus in the case of the bee, previously mentioned, it
would be detrimental to the species to have countless drones feed-
ing on the hive supplies during the winter; but for the purpose of
increasing the hereditary influence, it is beneficial to the race to
feed these males for a brief period when food is plentiful, in order
that the fertilization may bring about the results known to come in
all cases from such a union.
In still other cases the very habits of the animal make the chance
of the occurrence of a sexual union too small, and in consequence
the females have acquired the agamic methods of reproduction.
The case of Cercaria offers a good example of this. If we accept
the conclusions of Thomas, we see that here we get a transition
from unisexual to asexual reproduction; and. while these two
processes are usually widely separated, yet the same difficulty of
a sexual union may be looked upon as the probable cause of either
phenomenon.
Determination of Sex.—From what has gone before we see that
the problem of sex determination is very closely related to that of
parthenogenesis, since parthenogenetic eggs so frequently show such
peculiar sex relations. In some groups unfertilized eggs produce
only males (arrenotoky), in others only females (thelytoky), while
in some both sexes are produced (amphoterotoky). ‘Taking as an
example the Honey Bee, we know that the male eggs are not fertil-
ized and the female eggs are ; and reasoning from this, it seems true
that the act of fertilization is the one determining factor, since no
one has yet been able to find any other fundamental point of
difference. As was shown under another heading, other explana-
tions, such as differences in food or size of cell, have been advanced,
but these have already been answered. Such work as that of Mrs.
Treat (1873) on Caterpillars, of Born (1881) and Yung (1881) on
Amphibia, and of Nussbaum (1897) on Rotifers would seem to
indicate that lack of nourishment favors the production of males;
but until we have more evidence we are perfectly justified in
explaining these cases as simply survivals of the more fit sex under
trying conditions, and cannot use them as arguing for theories like
those of Dickel. In fact Cuénot (1899) did not succeed in verify-
ing the results of Mrs. Treat, for he found that the proportions of
, a
4. “aes
4
;
es
Br
1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 813
males and females remained approximately the same under all food
conditions, and concluded that sex is determined in the ovary in
insects.
There have recently appeared two papers of interest in this con-
nection as offering suggestions for future work. Beard (1902) and
v. Lenhossek (1903) conclude, on theoretical grounds, that sex is
determined in the ovary of the mother and that there are in all
cases two kinds of eggs, male and female, fundamentally differing
from one another. Cases where such a state of affairs is known
to exist are Phylloxera, Dinophilus, some Rotifers and _pos-
sibly in Raza batts (Beard, 1902). According to these views, the
sex is determined before leaving the ovary and consequently fertil-
ization can have no influence, but at present we cannot look on
these theories as more than interesting suggestions. It must be
admitted that the determination of sex by fertilization is in direct
opposition to what we know to be true for the great majority of
animals where both sexes alike arise from fertilized eggs, and on a@
priort grounds the theory of Cuénot, Beard and von Lenhossek
seems probable; but in this instance, as in all others in zoology, @
priori reasoning is unsafe and we must wait for future investigations
to decide whether there is any truth in these suggestions.
Comparison of Various Sex Relations.—As has been pointed out
by several investigators, the process of fertilization has two distinct
purposes—the giving of a stimulus for development to the mature
egg, and the increasing of the number of hereditary tendencies of
the offspring by giving it a blending of hereditary traits from two
parents. The power of parthenogenetic development possessed by
some animals takes the place of the stimulation of the male sex cell,
since the ovum has given to it in the ovary enough vital force to go
on dividing mitotically even after it becomes a part of another gen-
eration.
The second office of fertilization is simply omitted where fertil-
ization does not occur, the advantage of agamic development more
than balancing the advantage to be gained by the meeting of two
lines of heredity. During ordinary maturation the egg gives off in
its polar bodies one-half of the number of its chromosomes, the
heredity carriers, and by the aequisition of an equal number from
the male cell, carrying hereditary tendencies from the male parent,
the original number is regained ; and in order that the normal num-
PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xLiI. 174. V. PRINTED DEC. 15, 1903.
314 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS, [Oct. 16,
ber may be retained in parthenogenetic eggs the reduction division
is omitted, or in some other way the same result is accomplished.
This omission of a mixing of two lines of ancestry in the repro-
duction of a species is, if our conception of its significance is
correct, a very important one. There is, however, a great differ-
ence in the extent of this omission in the various kinds of partheno-
genesis. In Arrenotoky at every second generation a crossing
occurs of necessity, since the females are produced from fertilized
eggs. In Thelytoky, on the other hand, a mixing may be very rare
or even entirely wanting; while in Amphoterotoky it generally
occurs at regular intervals, as in the fall in Aphids. On the other
hand, Thelytoky and Amphoterotoky are much more beneficial to a
species from the standpoint of its propagation, since at no time is
fertilization an absolute necessity, while in Arrenotoky fertilization
is necessary for the production of the individuals which do the
most toward the reproduction of the species. What the species
loses in hereditary influences is more than made up by the increased
advantage of these two most specialized kinds of parthenogenesis.
Pedogenesis—lf we look on parthenogenesis as a phenomenon
which has arisen in various groups of animals so that the species
may be reproduced rapidly and without so much dependence on
chance, then it is but another step in the same direction to find this
process shifted back to an embryonic stage of development so that
the reproduction would not be delayed until the female reached the
adult state. The same precocious segregation of the reproductive
process is met with in forms which always require the fertilization
of the egg, ¢.g., Amdlystoma (Axolotl), but in these cases the coin-
cident phenomenon of parthenogentic development has not been
necessary or desirable and we distinguish such cases as Proiogony.
We may look on certain groups of the Diptera as in a transition
stage, between the parthenogenesis like that observed in Chivonomus
Grimmit and that of Mastor. The species of Afzastor has still
further acquired the advantage of viviparity for the protection of the
youngest embryonic stages, and seems almost to have reached the
limit of advantage that a species can acquire for the propagation of
its kind.
Partial Parthenogenesis.—As has been seen, eggs which have not
been fertilized often begin to develop, but after a short time die.
On this account it has been argued that such cases are not really par-
thenogenesis, since an adult or a sexually mature individual does not
<=
1903.) PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 315
result from the division. Such an argument cannot hold, since the
fundamental principle involved is the same whether an adult
results or not. We must consider that the life of the individual
begins with the unsegmented egg, and if that egg has in itself the
power of growth, manifested by cell division, then we must class it
as a parthenogenetic egg; the only difference between such cases
and examples like the male eggs of the bee being that there is in
the former not so much of the power of unisexual development: it
is merely a difference in degree and not in kind. It would seem
that many of the cases of artificial parthenogenesis described are
exactly similar to these cases of partial parthenogenesis, and that
the change in environment produced artificially simply allows the
egg the power of growth already in it to go on for a short time
exactly as if fertilized.
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324 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [Oct. 16, _
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a
«Pmt. pee eee
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1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 341
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Stated Meeting, November 6, 1903.
President Samira in the Chair.
A letter was read from the Schlesische Gesellschaft fir
Vaterlandische Cultur, announcing the celebration of its
one hundredth anniversary on December 17, and inviting the
Society to send a representative to take part in the celebra-
tion. The Hon. Charlemagne Tower was thereupon ap-
pointed as such representative.
The decease was announced of Prof. Robert Henry fhurs-
ton, at Ithaca, on October 25, et. 64.
Prof. Charles F. Chandler, of New York, read a paper on
“The Electro-Chemical Industries at Niagara Falls.”
Dr. Hans Goldschmidt, of Essen, Germany, explained his
method for producing intense heat by his Thermite process. |
A paper on “Dying American Speech-Echoes from Con-
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 174. X. PRINTED JAN. 23, 1904.
346 PRINCE, SPECK—-DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES. [Nov. 6,
necticut,” by Prof. J. Dyneley Prince and Frank G. Speck,
was read.
The Amendments to the Laws recommended by the Officers
and Council, and duly proposed at the meeting of May 1,
were adopted.
DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES FROM
CONNECTICUT.
BY J. DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D., AND FRANK G. SPECK.
(Read November 6, 1903.)
It was my good fortune last summer to light upon a small and
little-known reservation on the west bank of the Housatonic river,
about two miles south of Kent, Litchfield County, Conn., occupied
by sixteen Skaghticoke Indians. There are, however, about one
hundred and twenty-five individuals not on the Reserve who claim
tribal rights and relationship with this clan. The present Indians
on the Reservation are mixed with a very appreciable percentage of
negro and white blood and, according to their own account, came
originally from various Connecticut tribes. The clan is said to
have been founded in 1728 by one Gideon Mawehu (the modern
family name Mawee, evidently a corruption of English Mayhew)
who was either a Pequot or a Wampanoag. The ranks of the
Skaghticoke settlement were swelled by refugees and stragglers
from other tribes, until in 1731 they reckoned one hundred and
fifty warriors. DeForest mentions among these foreign elements
Potatucks from Newtown and Woodbury, Paugussets from the
upper Housatonic territory, Salisbury and Sharon Indians origi-
nally from Windsor, besides Pequots, Narragansetts and Wam-
panoags. This mixture of race is evidenced in the various loan-
words of New England origin pointed out below by Professor
Prince.
From one man, James Harris, who claims to be a full-blood and
whose skin certainly shows the dark red hue characteristic of the
eastern Algic races, I was able to obtain in the old language
twenty-three words and three connected sentences which Professor
|
1903.] PRINCE, SPECK—DYING AMERICAN SPEECH: ECHOES. 347
Prince has analyzed below. Harris has only a vague and dis-
connected idea of the language. What little he knows he learned
in early youth from his grandmother, one of the Mawee family,
who, according to his statement, had a connected speaking know-
ledge of the ancient idiom. The present Skaghticokes are Indians
more by tradition than fact, and with the single exception of Harris
have little of interest to impart to Americanists.
The name Skaghticoke was originally pronounced 7’ sha‘tikuk,
z.¢., ‘fat the forked river,’’ from the same stem as Abenaki
fp skaot’ kwen ‘*branch’’-++the ending -¢vkw, which always means
“*river’’ incomposition. The river-names Piscataquis (Maine) and
Piscataqua (New Hampshire) are undoubtedly corruptions of the
same word and have an identical meaning (see Prince, American
folklore Journal, 1900, pp. 125 ff.).
: FRANK G. SPECK.
Thanks to the efforts of Mr. Speck, who is a student in my
department in Columbia University, a modern form of the ancient
Pequot-Mohegan dialect has been discovered in its last throes (see
Prince and Speck, American Anthropologist, V, pp. 193-212).
Mr. Speck has now found the still more scanty remains of another
Connecticut language, that of the Skaghticokes, which, as will appear
from the following exposition, is probably the last surviving remnant
of the Delaware-Mohican idiom formerly used at Stockbridge,
Mass., which was expounded by J. Edwards, Jr., and J. Sergeant
(see Pilling, Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages, s. v. these
authors). This Skaghticoke language is distinctly not a New Eng-
land product, but came from the Hudson river region with that
branch of the Lenni Lenape called Mohicans who settled at quite
an early date on the site of Stockbridge, Mass. This AZohican
idiom is only indirectly connected with the AZohegan1-Pequot lan-
guage just mentioned, found by Speck at Mohegan, near Norwich,
Conn. Perhaps the longest specimen of the Stockbridge Mohican
tongue has been preserved in J. Quinney’s Assembly Catechism,
printed at Stockbridge in 1795. For the modern dialect of the
Delaware Lenape, see Prince, American Journal of Philology, XX1,
Pp. 295-302.
1Nete that Mohican and Mohegan, although both forms of the same word;
are now used purely arbitrarily, the first to indicate the Hudson River Lenapian
Mohican clan, and the second to denote the Pequot mixed race at Mohegan, near
Norwich, Conn.
848 PRINCE, SPECK—DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES. TNOV.6;
The name Mohican=Mihiganiik means “‘ those dwelling on the
tide-water’’ from Del. makhaak ‘‘great’’ and hican ‘‘tide” (so
Zeisberger) and plainly shows the geographical origin of the tribe,
How this name came to be applied to the Pequot-speaking
Mohegans. of Mohegan, Conn., has been explained at length by us
(Anthropologist, V, pp. 194 ff.). The Skaghticokes apparently do
not know the name Mohican as applied to themselves.
It is curious and characteristic of human nature that a number of
obscene words and phrases have survived with some accuracy in the
mouth of Harris, Mr. Speck’s informant. Such words would
naturally live longer than others in the speech of the uncultivated,
no doubt owing to their desire to speak of such subjects with
secrecy.
It is quite plain that Harris has only a very imperfect knowledge
of.his grandmother’s language, as he does not know the exact mean-
ing of two out of the three sentences which he gave to Mr. Speck.
His three connected sentences are as follows :—(t) Wichowan tipa-
stik stihdgitinon, ‘hurry up to the hotel and get adrink.’’ This
seems to me to mean ‘‘ come along, my friends, and we will have a
drink.”? See Glossary, S. Os hdgitinon, tapastck sae wichiwan. (2)
Gikwi dia n pirmids ‘‘o sleep in the barn.’’ This should be
translated ‘* you sleep there or the night.” See Glossary, 5. U.
giikwi and n'pimids. (3) Mani'pa maénik lift up your clothes,”
said with obscene intention to a woman. This translation. is
correct, as will appear s. v. munu‘fa and mdnuk. Finally, in this
conpection, it should be noted that Harris gives the incorrect forme
mamitukkit for manitikki af devil’ niskéhikian for miskahikian
“cider,’” n'pimids for n'piwids ‘at night’’ and Lapasik for
nitdpésik “my friends’’ (see Glossary, s. v. these words).
The following words of the pone are all Delaware Mohican : :
gukwi ** thou Sleepest “5 ; kwon SJESe os mamitickkts for ménitiskhic
‘xdevil*"; nishahikian hoi miskahikidn ‘cider; 2 ’ pimids for
n ‘parwids ‘ceat night '; samut “tripe’’; Skzk in Shikarik © snake 3
tipiisik for nitapisick ‘‘my friends’’; 77/ipds ‘‘ tortoise’’; wichdwan
‘come along.’’ On the other Hand: the following are probably
New England loanwords froin native Connecticut dialects akin to
the Natick :—chakis Begs de ; hanikwok, pl. of kinkdi ** private
parts”; manth “coat,” «* paca. = ritig “* crushed corn ae
skwa ** dai if . sukkita¥ “ succotash ”; 3 tipi ‘* devil’’; and waniix
‘‘white man.’’ These loanwords are, of course, not surprising in
ae
1903] | PRINCE, SPECK—-DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES. 349
a language spoken in such an environment... The words swdx
(=Del. gohan, but Natick 66; Peq. nur—yes, so Stiles? in his
vocabulary) and Spuiti ‘anus ’’==Del. sapurti, would, alone be
sufficient proof of the Lenapian character of the Skaghticoke idiom.
The Skaghticoke actually preserves the jesqunnilc so rare in
modern Algic, in the words ritig ‘crushed corn”? and skikaris
‘snake.’ This is, so far as I am aware, the only modern: instance.
of ~ in Algic, except. in one dialect of the northern Cree. The x
undoubtedly existed in Lenape.at the time of the Old Swedish
occupation of New Jersey and Pennsylvania (see Brinton, Zhe
Lenape and their Legends, p. 96 and, below, s. v. ritig). As was
the case among the Abenakis, this » changed to /at a very early
date. In Rasles’ dictionary of the ancient Abenaki, it is the regu-
lar rule to find 7 for modern /, but no living Abenaki pronounces 7
in the modern language. A most interesting parallel case is found
in the Iroquois idiom spoken at the St. Regis Falls Reservation,
where the Indians, instead of the x so common in Iroquois speéch,
now pronounce a thick medial consonant between 7 and Z. Only
the old people retain the primitive r-sound. My Iroquois informant
tells me that a pure Z will probably be pronounced by. the next
generation.
I must regard it as most fortunate for students of Algic philology
that Mr. Speck has been able to collect these scanty and incorrectly
preserved relics of a lost Algonquian language.
GLOSSARY OF. SKAGHTICOKE WorDS.
Chakis “negro ’? is undoubtedly cognitive with Stiles’s Pequot
auchugyeze ‘* blackbird’? which must stand for chokésu; cf. RW.®
suckésu “he is-black’’.from suck? ‘‘ black.’? The Del. sukach-
qualles negro’? is evidently a more distant cognate. I believe
that chd@#iis was a New England loanword among these Skaghticoke
Indians. The Aben. mazawigit ‘‘negro’’ is perhaps cognitive
with Natick mz, the regular word for ‘‘ black”’ in that language.*
2 President Stiles was the author of a Pequot vocabulary, the MS. of which is
now in Yale University Library. This glossary is extensively quoted in J.
Trumbull’s Wasick Dictionary, Washington, 1903.
3RW denotes Roger Williams in his Aey into the Language of America,
which is-a treatise'on the Narragansett idiom,
. 4 In indicating the pronunciation of the Skaghticoke words in this article, I
have’ used the Italian yowel values, except #—=w in “‘ but,”’ and ’=a short inde-
350 PRINCE, SPECK—-DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES. [Nov. 6,
Gikwi did ‘‘ you sleep there,’’ from 4=2 p.+hawi “sleep”
(=Del. gauwin, Aben. kawi); diéd=talli ‘“‘there.’’ Cf. Peq.
dai=dali, Aben. az; da/i after a vowel.
Kigitinon « get a drink”? (so Harris); I think the full form is
k stkagitinon ‘we (incl.) shall drink,’’ see below s. v. wichowan.
Kédgi is the same stem seen in Peq. gehiwit ‘*he is drunk’’ (Prince
and Speck, Anthrop., V, p.'206), but it also occurs in Del. 42 kaki-
wus ** thou art drunk.” m 9 :
Kanukwok ‘private parts,’’ a plural of 4inkdi. (g. v.), is
probably.a N. E. loanword from the same stem as Natick dinuk-
kinum ‘he mixes, mingles’; cf. Nat. Renugke ‘among.’ In
modern Peq. hanithi ‘“privates.”’
Kinkdi, given a Harris as ‘‘anus,’’ undoubtedly means either
“ membrum virile’? or “* pudendum femina,”’ 7. e. ‘the mixer.”
It seems to be the singular of hanikwok, Q. U.
Kwon ‘‘yes"’-is undoubtedly identical with Del. gohan ‘‘ yes”
(Brinton, Lenape Dict., p. 45, 2).
Mamitickkic “devil” is a corruption of manitikhit Bai is the:
(evil) spirit.”’ Note in Natick mastanttoog ‘‘devils.’" In Del.
manito is the regular word for ‘‘ ae God’’; cf. Aben. madahido
“«devil’’; Peq. muzundo ‘‘ God.”’
Manuk is a-very interesting survival of a New England a
word, 7. ¢., from Nat. monak ‘“‘an English coat, a petticoat ’’; cf. _
RW. maunek <* a European garment ”’ (see Natick Dict., p. 266).
Niskéhikian must stand for ' miskahikian Scien widen is a
derivative from Del. masgichien ‘‘ May apple’. (Len. Dict., p.
74, 19):
_ LV'piimids is translated by Harris ‘ barn,’’ but is clearly a
form of Del. mzbahwi, 7. e.=n ’ piwids as eit the men ’?; cf. the
Del. xidahwi and Aben. 2/6é/w7 ‘in the night-time.’
Nini Le ‘‘lift up’’ must. be a reduplicated form of Del. nipachton
‘raise up.’” “I think the guttural breathing should have been on
the third a ae ipsulgaas:
Riitig “¢crushed corn ’’; Peq. yokeg ; Nat. xuhkik, lit. -** some-
terminate vowel similar to a short €. The consonants have the same values as in
English, except f=s and ‘, which is a soft rough breathing like the Arabic
medial 4. * In the Abenaki the 6 is a nasal asin French om in mon.- The Natick
and Narragansett words are quoted in the English system which was followed by
Eliot and Roger Williams, while the Delaware material is given in the German,
notation, following the usage of Brinton’s Lenape Dictionary.
x
4
1903.] PRINCE, SPECK—-DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES. 351
thing softened,’’ according to Eliot, “flour.’”? This word appears
as rucat in the old New Jersey Lendpe trading idiom: Cf. Aben.
nokhigan ‘* flour’’; Del. Zoken, from the stem Jokenummen ‘smash
up, crush.’’ .Note that 7, y and x interchange in the N. E. Algic
dialects; cf. Nat. wit, Quiripi 7#¢ and Peq. jaf (Stiles yews)
aire?’ (see s. v. Shikari®)..
Samit ‘“tripe’’<is evidently the same stem as Del. schameu
« preasy, <j Deke Dict., p. 126, 9.
Shikarif snake” isa curious formation. It must of course be
from Skik**snake’’; Aben. skog; Nat, askik; RW. askug ; Morton
N. E. Canaan deibep te Peq. skoogs (with diminutive -s); Del.
achguk. “The -ris ending is difficult. It probably stands for
-nis, t. e. Shaikanif ‘a little snake,’’ as distinct from a, ‘Ser-
pent,’’ with intercalated #. For interchange of # and rv see s. v.
ritig.
S pitti, given by Harris as ‘ buttocks,’’ really means ‘‘ anus.’
This is the same word as. Del. safutéi (Zeisberger), Len. Dict,
By t24, 1G.
Skwé ‘“woman’’; Nat. sguaas; RW. sguaw; Del. ochgueu,
okhgueh; the original stem meant ‘‘prepuce.’’ This is a well-
known Eastern word, but appears only as an ending in Abenaki,
as in Ainjames-iskwa ‘‘queen,’’ from kinjamés “king” (=—King
James).
S@ seems to me to be a particle in the possible combination’
hk stikagitinon “we (incl.) shall drink.’ “It may have a cohortative
force.
Suphita¥ “succotash’” is a well-known N. E. word. Cf. RW.
m' sickquatash -*€something : beaten eo: fom m’ sukgquttahhash
“the. things een: Dil.) beaten to pieces.’’ Sukguttahham phe
beats it to pieces."’ Sz&kzitas is plainly a loanword in the Skaghti-
coke dialect.
Tapasich, given by Harris as ‘hotel,’’< probably stands. for
nitapesith ee uay. friends’’ (dim. - oo _Cf. Aben. zidé6ba, Penobscot
nidabe, Pass. nitap “‘my friend.’
Lipi ash is probably a spachit loanword, from Peq. «di
‘<devil,’’ cf. Prince and Speck, Axthrop., V, 203. The Del. word
for Séspirit” is tschipey, cf. Aben. chidaz. Tipi in _Skaghticoke
may,. however, pee for Del. ¢schipi « ‘strange,”’ the same stem as
ischipey «€ spirit.”” ,
‘Tilipés *‘turtle’’ is evidently a diminutive (-s) from %//7fd;
352 MINUTES. (Dee. 4,
cf. Del. /ulpe, Aben. /o/ba ‘‘ turtle’; Nat. sunuppasog ** tortoises.”
Wanax ‘*white man,’’ cognitive with Aben. awanoch, now used
for ‘Canadian Frenchman ’’; Pas. wemoch ‘‘ white man.”” Cf. Pegg
Stiles waunuxuk ‘‘ white men’’; Nat. awaunagessuck, Natick Dict.,
p. 253. The word is.a derivative from the.indefinite pronoun seem
in Del. auwen, Aben. awani, Penobscot: dweni, Munsee awaun,.
Pass. wen, ‘‘who, someone.”
‘Wichiwan ‘‘come along” and not ‘‘hurry up,’’ as Harris
gives it. Cf. Del. witschewan, Aben. wijowi ‘‘come along with
: { need st
me,’’ etc. _See s.v. sapasiik and kagitznon.
J. DyNELEY PRINCE.
Stated Meeting, November 20, 1903.
President SmitH in the Chair.
The following papers were read:
“The Testimony of the Huacos (Mummy-grave) Potteries
of Old Peru,’’ by Albert S. Ashmead. (See page 378.) 3
“On a Geological Tour to Labrador,” by Prof. Amos P. —
Brown. ;
i
Stated Meeting, December 4, 1903. ;
President Smirx in the Chair. 4
The decease of the following members was announced:
Dr. Charles Schaffer, at Philadelphia, on November 23,
eet. 66 years. cS
Prof. Alphonse Frangois Rénard, at Brussels, on July 9,
et. 61 years.
Mr. Henry Carey Baird made some remarks on “The
Alaska Frontier.”
Prof. Percival Lowell read a paper on ‘‘The Cartouches of
Mars,’’ which was discussed by Prof. Haupt, Prof. Conklin,
Mr. Goodwin, Prof. Doolittle, Prof. Ernest W. Brown and
Prof. Heilprin. x
1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 30a
THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS.
BY PERCIVAL LOWELL. e
(Read December 4, 1903.)
That changes take place upon the surface of Mars is manifest to
anyone who has given the planet prolonged study. Not only do
the polar caps wax and wane with regular rhythm, but the dark
markings with which the disk is diversified deepen in tone or fade
away as the months succeed each other. The phenomena known
as the ‘‘canals’’ are likewise subject to transformation. At times
they are conspicuous; at times invisible. And what is yet more
striking, each canal has its own times and seasons, its exits and its
entrances. What dates the one does not date its neighbor; and
still less its antipodes. The Ganges will be seen when the Titan is
invisible and the Titan. be evident when the Ganges can scarcely
be made out.
Particular ‘‘ canals’’ are not sole instances of such change.
On occasion ‘‘canals’’ in whole regions appear to be blotted out.
The most careful scrutiny fails to detect them, though distance be
at its minimum and definition at its best. Yet before or after,
under conditions much less favorable, the region stands out peopled
with lines. Even the strongest and best known of these strange
pencilings seem at certain seasons but wan ghosts of their usual
selves. As for their more tenuous companions, it almost taxes faith
to believe that they can ever have existed at all.
In order to discover what, if any, law underlay these shifting
phenomena, I bethought me some two years ago of deducing from
my drawings the percentage of visibility of given markings at in-
tervals during an opposition, and of then collating the results. The
great number of drawings at my disposal at once suggested this
method and increased its trustworthiness, since the accuracy of a
percentage heightens with the number that go to make it up.
To get the percentage I had recourse to the following plan.
Taking the mean longitude of the marking from the map, I
considered all the drawings which, from the longitude of their
centres, might be expected to show the marking within certain
zones from the central meridian, and then noted the appearance or
non-appearance in each of the marking in question. Three such
)
)
304 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. |Dee. 4,
zones I thought it best to take—those from the centre to 20° out on
either side of it; next, those from 20° to 40° out; and last those
from 40° to 60° away. ‘This tripartite arrangement had the advan-
tage, which indeed was the reason of its adoption, of furnishing
comparison between a marking’s visibility at different distances
from the centre of the disk. And I may say in passing—for the
came out in accordance with what realities on the planet’s surface
would show.
Were the disk always full the application would be simple and
forthright. Being presented generally with a phase, certain cor-
rections have first to be introduced. Since the illumination
degrades from the point under the sun out to the terminator where
it ceases altogether, a marking from this cause alone tends to
disappear as it nears that boundary, and indeed within a certain
distance of the night-line can never be seen at all. As such /erra
non I took empirically a zone 25° in from the terminator, such
being from my observations the mean value of the semi-obliterated —
area. Subsequent calculation shows that this is about the value
needed to equalize the chances of detection in the three pair of
zones mentioned above when all the factors of position conducing
to visibility are taken into account.
Convenient epochs for testing the visibility of a canal were self-
offered by its several presentations. A presentation of any part of
the planet is the occasion of the presentment of that part to an ob-
server upon the earth. As Mars takes forty minutes longer to
rotate than our own globe, its longitudes lose on the average 9°.6 a
day in coming to the disk’s meridian. In consequence of thus
slowly falling behind time they complete an apparent backward
revolution in about 38 days (from 37 to 41 days), since 9°.6 goes
into 360° some thirty-eight times. After the lapse of this period,
the two planets again show the same face to each other at the same
hour. For a third of the time, therefore, the marking is well
placed for observation ; for the other two-thirds, it is either not to
be seen because the planet is below the horizon or practically invisible
because the planet is not high enough up. Thus the presentations
make natural epochs for comparing a marking with itself and
noting any change in aspect it may have undergone in the interval.
The data were furnished by the drawings. In the present inquiry
these consisted of those made by me at the opposition of 1903
—
—_—-
1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 309
just passed, 375 complete ones in all. They date from January 21
to July 26, inclusive, and were divided by months as follows :
ANALY) Sete e causa rae crernc tee hares ee 18
HC DEUALY eee nett eee ete ed ee La Tate se mE 48
MMT A Lay SS yee pay He er MG Cay, BION se Rien eee 49
BNE ats erst cpen one Ses pA ON SYNE BeGNe tee Saas rater ea 70 + I unfinished.
IVAN Ss ch ewbyafee (car's wepskaroyetowices gels lcke-o jake miu ats ReMttee 63
Jie SD aa eRe ho CAS cia Re ae eri ees 70
“Fall UE Se Ne ee er sieleceietshap tala 57 -+ 1 unfinished.
375 + 2 unfinished.
Sketches of particular parts are not included in the list, as being
unfit for comparison purposes.
The principle I adopted in making the drawings was that of
momentary representation. My object in each was not so much an
exhaustive map as an instantaneous photograph. From ten to
twenty minutes only was the time allotted to each. .In that period
the shift of the longitudes is not enough substantially to change the
degree of visibility of a marking and thus to make of the drawings a
composite picture.
Eighty-five canals were examined for presence or absence in
these drawings. The average number of times a canal might have
been seen, had it been sufficiently conspicuous, proved to be about
one hundred. The number of times it actually was seen varied
with the particular canal, some canals being but rarely detected,
others being almost continuously visible. From the above it
follows that eight thousand five hundred separate examinations for
the visibility or non-visibility of the canals had to be made in all ;
an undertaking of some length, but adding proportionately to the
trustworthiness of the result.
For getting the percentage visibility of a canal at any presen-
tation it seemed on the whole best to consider all three of the above
pair of zones together, or, in other words, the percentage of visi-
bility within 60° of the central meridian, limited as above described
toward the terminator. Any other pair of zones might have been
used with equal correctness, but the greater number of determin-
ations got from considering all three together commended itself for
its increased accuracy.
The percentages thus obtained’ proved sufficiently suggestive,
even before any corrections had been applied. To give them,
356 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. LDee. 4,
however, their full import two corrections had in rigor to be
taken into account: one for the varying distance of the planet and
the other for the varying quality of the seeing. At the several
presentations the planet was not at the same distance from the
Earth. Now distance affects the visibility of a marking by altering
its size. If the markings be large, their apparent size decreases as
the square of the distance. If, as in the case with the ‘‘ canals,”’
they have length without width, we may take them as of one
dimension. For beyond a certain length increase of that quantity
does not seriously affect the visibility. Their width, however,
although unrecognizable as such, improves their chance of being
seen in the direct ratio of the planet’s approach.
Now if we take the chance that a canal of twice the width of a
given one is twice as likely to be made out, we may regard it as the
inverse of the relative chance of commission of twice a given error
of observation. We may then use the areas bounded by the curve
of probability, with the width of the canals taken for abscissz,
respectively as the measures of the likelihood of detection in the
two cases, since these areas include all the chances of seeing a canal
of the given width. By taking the area from the central ordinate
of the curve out to where that area shall equal the percentage of
visibility shown at a given distance, then multiplying the ordinate
there found by the inverse ratio of the given distance of the planet
at the time to some fixed distance taken as standard, and then find-
ing the area corresponding to this last ordinate, we shall get the
percentage at the standard distance. It will be noted that on this
principle, as the planet approaches the Earth the percentage of visi-
bility increases gradually to unity, that is certainty of detection if
the object exist at the time, since the area enclosed by the curve of
probability approaches unity as the abscissa is indefinitely increased.
For standard distance I took that of the planet’s nearest approach
to us during the opposition, when its disk subtended 14”.6 of arc.
On this principle have been computed the corrections for distance.
The correction for the seeing was got in the following way. The
seeing at the time of each drawing was entered in the course of obser-
vation by the side of the drawing, together with all the other
marginal notes. By taking the mean of these values for all the
drawings which entered into the determination of the percentage
visibility of a given canal at a given presentation, we get the mean
seeing under which it was observed. The correction needed in
aA
’
ee eed wt
a ans
oe igo FP,
1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 357
consequence was then applied to the curves of visibility as now to
be described.
Using the percentages of visibility as ordinates and the times
before and after the summer solstice of the planet’s northern hemi-
sphere as abscissze, I plotted the resulting determinations and
connected the points so found by a smooth curve. These curves
may be called the cartouches of the canals, since they are their dis-
tinctive sign-manuals. Each portrays on its face the varying
visibility of its canal during the time that it was under observation,
but it masks much more. Were the canal intrinsically unchange-
able, its curve or cartouche would be a straight line, since correc-
tions for all extrinsic causes of apparent variability have already
been applied. Its cartouche would be a line parallel to the axis of
abscisse and at a distance from it proportionate to the canal’s
strength. On the other hand, any intrinsic change in the canal
reveals itself at once by a departure from a straight line. If the
canal be for any reason augmenting, its curve will rise; if it be
dwindling, the curve must fall. Thus the curves or cartouches tell
us.not only of the apparent change in visibility but of the real
change in development during examination.
On scrutinizing the cartouches the first point noticeable is the
well-nigh total absence of straight lines among them. There are
but two or three instances throughout the eighty five. Thus the
great majority of the canals were, during the time they were under
observation, in a state of flux. For the quiescence of the remaining
few we shall a little later in the paper be able to assign a probable
cause.
It is next to be noticed that opposition fell not far from the
centre longitudinally of the curves, and the time of the planet’s
nearest approach to the Earth still nearer the middle, since the first
of these events happened on the 30th of March, the second on the
3d of April. The summer solstice occurred earlier, on February 28.
Another epoch worthy of regard is the date of the first frost in
the Arcticregions. This, as explained elsewhere (Lowe// Odserva-
tory Bulletin, No. 1), took place 126 days after the northern sum-
mer solstice. It is indicated in the first diagram by a dotted line.
On casting one’s eye down the list of cartouches arranged alpha-
betically, no order or law is apparent. Some canals had their
minimum early, some late, according seemingly to their own
personal peculiarity. But if now we seek some natural order and
858 LOWELL—THE CARTUUCHES OF MARS. [Dec. 4,
take the latitude as a probable criterion, we shall suddenly be
aware of a very different state of things. As the canals are not
points but lines, we must select for purposes of precision some
point in them as their distinctive latitude and longitude. Their
mean point, or more properly the mean of all their points, has
therefore been taken in each case, since it is with mean values that
we find ourselves concerned. On this principle we may classify
the canals by zones of latitude, advancing down the disk from the
north polar cap. The canals were therefore ticketed and arranged
according to the following zones:
Arctic zone, containing the canals whose mean latitude lay between 86°N.-65°N.
Sub-Arctic zone, « 6“ 6 “ 65°N.—50°N,
North Temperate zone, “ “ “ “ 50°N.-35°N.
North Sub-Tropic zone, “ " + —-35°N.—25°N:
North Tropic zone, & és 6 “ 25°N.—I0°N.
North Equatorial zone, <“ ss sc ce 10°N,—0°
South Equatorial zone, “ “ of x 0° =-10°S.
South Tropic zone, ss “ ss “ 10°S.—25°S,
South Sub-Tropic zone, “ “ «6 “ 25°S.-35°S.
86°N. was taken as starting-point because of the coming down of
the north polar cap to about this latitude throughout the course of
the observations. On the other hand the lowest zone extends only
to 35°S., because, owing to the tilt of the north pole of the planet
toward the earth, a tilt which ranged between 21°.1 and 25°.9 dur-
ing the same period, the farthest observable canal south had 27°S.
for its mid-point. The date at which each canal was at its mini-
mum visibility is shown in the following list :
Time OF MINIMUM DEVELOPMENT OF CANALS.
Arctic Canals—86°-65° Lat. North.
Lat. No. Days After
N. Name. of Canals. Summer Solstice.
78° Ceraunius N.......... 4
ma, < Sirenius/N ... js). 44: «!-y0 6
Te ANNE ISONNS Task 0na ge ede ce)
Wize Hash ISOM sys © 61.15 cle tafage’e fo)
OR NAR ATCCS Soe Gs inti a\< be = s
GOP FVRGIZIIS ee s\n eect ete —9
65H rladese an wia wet. ae 2
7 fe) Mean oO
1903. |
un
° °
io)
°
to
G2 G2 Gd W Go Lo
ie
to
°
LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 359
Sub-Arctie Canals—65°—50° Lat. North.
No, Days After
Name. of Canals. Summer Solstice.
SVEGIS els seeus cipaataca II
ADE LIS si 0/) 4 eager 14
LISTE Ra ee eat oa 18
REET HOES oe toc ce ;s 10
SIME ho stanc<i='s ee 15
Afonanes) eye reins aie 12
6 80 Mean 13
North Temperate Canals—s5o°-35° Lat. North.
PRISTON. Wate s¥o5 cers: o> as: 7
LOWES \ LN LORS eee an 24
MeraAUNIWs, Sas <0.) v4 2a). 24
LG) 3S ana ear ee 25
S52 3G GAeboe CEeEnae 28
UGA Seatac near 20
Sirenius Middle...... 25
7 153 Mean 22
North Sub-Tropic Canals—35°-25° Lat. North,
ReMMERg L 2 Sficy ian a's 59*
STAO UM. yes tn oe sek sols 53%
HS TOMECS HO Nis cicrcle thaseaayt)c 27
Iie Nga nea aeeae 30
Bettanniiale af. sicers- che e.e 20
IMASAMI OM a'er. sis, sre,ehs 43
SILAGUS ys relate cieie oe 2 —9*
ID SS BS Arar eee OIE 29
INGOkerasigecsift ste ls'aye 35
PenisOne IN, oN ps > 8 e 42
Euphrates N........ 42
II 371 Mean 34
Mean *33
North Tropic Canals—25°-10° Lat. North.
LETS Se et Sao eee 42
Pyriphlegethon N.... 34
PDPUBOUD So) crepes, sere. >) - 43
Jamuna N.........-- 47
Libycum,........-+- 54
* Denotes 2 canal extra ordinem, which is omitted in the starred mean.
a4 a a “haat Te
| air Pee ix ras
% z 7 a rs Mi
LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS, [D
No. Days After
Name. of Canals, Summer Solstice.
HS GHLETOL ters): 1a ie reiehere 35
PASS avie wat eee 64*
INilokerassln, aes. 42
TGEhesic a eee eee “ 44
Photh as teeeiys a uialete 25%
Tiddelcel = sana sere 55
Tamyras Noses ere
ORMSH eer cet 42
Usanins | Ae eras 28
TS ayes Rhian oma Phu 40
KO DUS: Fee eek B aya acer 31
Gihonis Dwar eer ns 50
SitacustS ahs. Bic —14*
INTNEMUNES 2a eee 67*
BIDS v5.) Uh eit ee ote 18* 5
PCAN AS WM ae warspnae es 46
FAVOASDES' wu store 45
22 838 Mean 40.
Mean *32%
North Equatorial Canals—ro°-o° Lat. North.
GigasiNi si son Boke ios te 46
ORGUSies fucet eee 50
EA GENIK. choys rere teri te avs 4 45
Cerberus N,).0...2.. 49
Euphrates S........ 48
IPisonins si ene yee 47
Chryssorrhoas,...... r 42
LUE CNN Care Guess hae 47
Nepemnthes. .\e i fajrts 2 25*
MCTCOM ars eeetts shen ye 26*
Bontunee sects ee ees 46
Ganiges 3 apes 47
12 516 Mean 43/008
; Mean *47 a
af i
~
South Equatorial Canals—o°-10° Lat. South. a
No. Days Atter
Name. of Canals. Summer Solstice.
BYOREGS S22. aed oh 2 50
Clitummnus, see eee 52
Pyriphlegethon S,.... 54.
———
1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 3861
Lat. No. Days After
S. Name. of Canals. Summer Solstice,
Bae Litahl Sie ss. ae ce ces 60
Awe Jamiunarisee 25.5% 2 = 53
Be aerbergsy Se), bi. shen tis 54
oe atartarushs 2s bo a 63
Seat HEVSSES. 5) 5 5hci. c/s lale’ «ais 71
Guan lecestry conte sy: ete e/aens 52
CY ClOPS sat cctee Soules ss 46
See OLOSINESE fe sta senses, 6 58
MOSeMAUNSONIUIMN, «ers rai os 66
Me GATOR co (ete cae «o's 56
13 735 Mean 57
South Tropic Canals—1o0°—25° Lat. South.
Roce eEryimanthuss.aisae.-- «< 54
TEGO ASS fever oret elateie i 54
Me SILEDITIS AS xicis/opays sieve. 63
Dee MatHONIAS. hoe ew ele 73
yom Waneamanes!s. o..s 76
menue lisont. 1 eee 68
MO Cee AUNTIE EJs 21s STA 73
Sere WOGUGAlich isc. tare afl oe 80
8 541 Mean 68
South Sub- Tropic Canals——25°-35° Lat. South.
Se EIN CRIA inna a aioe y «se I 95 Mean 95
Of the eighty-five canals the number falling into each zone
respectively was as follows :
BUREMENAGILE cia pt Mtge ad aiecrahelt k's o'd la apolar ou besiege 7 Canals.
SLD EACLLCEZON CM ey cae keine ciaccth sareda vice eye Pomme a oe tals 6 “
NWoninie RemperateyzOney eh own catatie ais csin cysianeds odes 7 ‘
INOREMPSMD -ALOPICEZONE)1 00s... ad cas ceys aude oe eis Io ec
RG POPIC ZOOM ns at oie sha ee Seek ea ee Eola 22 “é
INGUIN Gitatorial ZONE foe clave era's ch aisle ye cis itm tee 12 “
MGOMUAMECUAtOTIAlNZOME saci Wo ec) eset shed dice tect 13 «“
Donte Mrapre: Zone: Lays ing). Gaited soe ate iteatass asec eee hs a ‘“
HOUMA SGD -UTOMIC ZONE Mi vot ai hss aieiolebis meee st aais I “
85
Naturally the canals on a globe are more numerous near the equa-
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. Soc. xLiI. 174, Y. PRINTED JAN, 26, 1904.
862 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. [Dec. 4,
tor. Why the north tropic ones are more numerous than the south
tropic in the list we shall see later.
Taking now the position in time of the minimum value of the
curve of each canal within a given zone, and then determining the
mean minimum for all the canals in that zone, we find as follows:
Mean Minimum, in
days after the Or Exclusive of
Summer Solstice. Starred Canals.
Arctic Zone x... >... wiacebe Grob ect Sehueent ie fo) o*
DL YATCHEIZONE koe). c\ers terns ieee a hee aioe 13 Lge
North bemperateszone)s2 5.102) ero bee 22 22*
Niarllgiincpit pZOney rive cone, Veg teins ae 34 3a7
North Sub-lropie:Zone i. . farce ee cee 40 42*
North Equatorial ,zone 23... s si. 4.20056 43 LM fis
South Equatorial Zone, |... 06s ose ees oe 56 56*
South! Dropicizone vs. acs tees ennce eee 68 68*
South Sub-Fropic’ zone’, 2/005 sk. «aim osu. 95 95*
Disclosed stands a steady progression in the time of minimum
development of the canals as we travel from the neighborhood of
the polar cap to the equator. The orderly advance becomes even
more noticeable when certain canals which appear to contain mis-
takes or misidentifications or mutual exchanges of visibility are
eliminated. Such seem to be the Amenthes-Thoth-Nepenthes-
Triton system, in which just after opposition the Thoth-Nepenthes-
Triton apparently replaced the Amenthes, and then died down
later as if nothing out of order had happened. The Indus and the
Gihon II, or that part of the Gihon north of the Deuteronilus, are
not impossibly another case of interchange. The two Sitacus
and the Apis may be cases of straight li; masked in their earlier
presentations by distance and unfavorable seeing. For the out-of-
place development of the Isiacum, I am at a loss satisfactorily to
account. Omitting the above canals from the count we get the
second row of minima, which show a yet closer approach to uni-
formity of progression. Indeed, if we now plot the mean curves or
cartouches of the mean canals at ordinal intervals corresponding to
the degrees of latitude at which they occur, we shall find that a
straight line will nearly pass through all the points. This is shown
in Plate XV, which, based on Mercator’s projection, makes of the
straight line a curve slightly convex on the advancing side. But
what is more remarkable, the progression does not stop at the
Pa ow lela +
ee ~
i a a eR Sa ae
—
1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 368
equator, but continues on into the planet’s southern hemisphere,
the sign curvature changing when it crosses the line.
Thus much of canal development the curves definitely state ; but
we may infer more.
Whatever constitute the canals, it is evident that their develop-
ment proceeds from the pole down the disk, and, furthermore,
that it advances over the surface at a fairly regular rate. It starts
at the summer solstice; that is it follows the melting of the polar
cap. ‘This suggests the source of the quickening. In consequence
of the water then let loose the ‘‘ canals’? come into being. That
this can be due to a bodily transference of matter, the water in ques-
tion, seems negatived by the area concerned. More darkened area
is gained than is lost. But this is not an easy point to be sure of.
More forthright is the negativing of such transference by the time
taken. Water would make its presence felt long before the actual
darkening takes place. For at the latitude of 75°, the mid-latitude
of the Arctic canals, the darkening begins on the day of the sum-
mer solstice, which is considerably after the date of the most rapid
melting of the cap.
But though water directly does not account for the phenome-
non, water indirectly does. A quickening to growth of some kind
would produce the counterpart of what we see. And these statis-
tics furnish us with a key to its character. It is a seasonal change,
but a little consideration will suffice to show us that it is quite
unlike in behavior the seasonal change we know on earth.
Could we get off our earth and view it from the standpoint of
space we should mark, with the advent of spring, a wave of ver-
dure sweep over its face. If absence of cloud permitted of an
unveiled view this flush of waking from its winter’s sleep would be
evident, and could be watched and followed as it crept higher and
higher up the parallels. Starting from the equator shortly after the
sun turned north, it too would travel northward toward the pole.
Here, then, we should mark, much as we mark it on Mars, a wave
of darkening, the blue-green of vegetation superposed upon the
ochre of ground, spreading over the planet’s surface; but the two
would differ, the mundane and the Martian vegetal awakening, in
one fundamental respect—the earthly wave travels from equator
to pole ; the Arean from pole to equator. Clearly the causes com-
pelling them differ. Yet are they both seasonal in character. To
what then is the difference due? ‘To the presence or absence of
moisture.
364 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. [Dee. 4,
Two things are necessary to the begetting of vegetal life, the raw
material and the reacting agent. Oxygen, nitrogen, water and a —
few salts make up the first, the sun does the second. Unless both |
be present the quickening into life never comes. Now the one
may be there and the other not, or the other there and the one not.
On earth the material including water is, except in certain destitute
spots, always present; the sun it is that periodically withdraws.
Observant upon the coming of the sun is then the annual quicken-
ing of vegetal life. On Mars, on the other hand, it is the water that
is lacking. This we know from many other phenomena the disk
presents. There is no surface water there save for what comes from
the periodic thawing of the polar caps. Vegetation cannot start
in any quantity until this water reaches it. Vegetal change, there-
fore, on Mars should start from the pole and travel equatorward.
On the earth it should do the precise opposite. _Nowsuch is exactly
what the curves of visibility of the canals exhibit. Timed prima-
rily not to the coming of the sun but to the coming of the water,
vegetal dife there follows not the former up the latitudes but the
latter down the disk. We may conclude then that the canals are
strips of vegetation fed by water released from the polar cap.
The two curves of phenological quickening, the mundane and
the Martian, are shown in Plates XVI and XVII. The stars mark
the dead-points at successive latitudes.
We now come to a deduction from the evidence before us even
more startlingly pregnant of information. Glancing at Plate XV
of the mean canals, we see that the quickening proceeds rapidly
and very nearly if not quite uniformly down the disk. It takes a
the darkening only fifty days to descend from the seventy-first
parallel to the equator, a journey of some 2600 miles. This means
a speed of fifty-three miles a day, or two and two-tenths miles an
hour. And it does this in the face of gravity. For the spheroidal _
flattening of Mars, ;3, of the polar diameter, shows that the figure
of the planet is in fluid equilibrium under the axial rotation. A
particle of water, therefore, would know no inclination to move
from where it initially was. Of its own accord it would not flow
toward the equator. And as it does flow toward the equator, and
with a remarkably steady progression too, the inference seems —
inevitable that it must be carried thither by artificial means. We
are thus led to an artificial origin and maintenance of the markings
called canals, and one which in essence justifies that appellative.
Nor do I see any escape from the deduction.
1903.1 LOWELL---THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 365
This idea is strengthened by another circumstance connected
with the development exhibited by the table. The progress of the
minima, which betoken the later and later starting of the quicken-
ing down the disk, does not stop at the equator, but advances with
fine indifference to that natural limit into the planet’s other hemi-
sphere. Now there the physical conditions to affect it are the
precise opposite of what they were in the first ornorthern one. If,
therefore, it were due to such cause the action should there be
reversed. That it is not shows that we are here face to face with a
phenomenon not simply inexplicable on natural laws but abso-
lutely antagonistic to them. °
The study here presented leads, then, to three conclusions: (1)
The ‘‘canals’’ develop down the disk from material supplied by
the melting of the polar cap; the development proceeding across
the equator into the planet’s other hemisphere. (2) The canals
are from their behavior inferably vegetal and (3) of artificial
origin.
Boston, December 4, 1903.
366 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS.
R
Days before Sol Serine Days after
° JO 60 go 720 '
Lat.78°N
Mean Long.74°
Lat.75°N
Sirenius N.
Mean Long 110°
iz
HE
a
Lat.74°N
W. Kison
Mean Long 355°
Lat 72°N
E.Kison
Mean Long 345°
Lat7i°N
Jaxartes
MeanLong 25°
J.
i
Lat 69N
Rhiztus
Mean Long 300°
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@)
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Hades
MeanLong 168° -
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* = Minimum Visibility ARCTIC CANALS
Plate I.
1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 367
| Days before — Sor'erice _ Daysafter
30 0
ior
iS}
8
So
8
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Lat.64N
Syrgis
Mean Long. 300°
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Lat 63°N
Em petis
Mean Long.266°
Lat 62°N
Pierius
Meantong.320°
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Lat 58°N
Callirrhoe
MeanLong o°
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Lats7°N.
Singames
MeanLong.235°
Lat 52°N.
Jomanes
Mean Long.318°
(9)
|
se
{*)
a
ce
= Minimum Visibility SUB-ARCTIC CANALS
Plate II.
, koko aaah ee eee Bah. r
4 7 latAd & b a
F Rt aS
. e
368 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. (Dee. 4
Days before sovarvct Days after |
-30 ° 30 60 90 £50
&
(@)
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(*)
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Arnon So)
Mean Long 34r :
S ome
Lat 4g°N
Dis N
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bas:
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|
Lat 47°N
Geraunius S.
MeanLong. 98”
Lat 42°N
Halex
Mean Long 105
Lat 42°N
Styx
Mean ong 211”
Lat 42°N
Udon r
Mean Long 86
be
Let 36°N
StreniusMiddle
MeanLong 124°
PV IAT AL
© ©
& = MinimumVisibshity NORTH TEMPERATE CANALS
Plate III.
4
j
1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 369
j = Sera Re]:
im Days before Sea Days after
~j0
Lat 35°N
Cthonit
7 Mean Long 15°
a
Lat 34°N
[51acum
Meanlong 282°
Lat 33°N
Broriles N. ‘=
Mean Long 159° ©
Lat 33°N
Titan N
Meanlong 16q”
_
Lar 32°N
Brittanta
Mean Long. 303°
Lat 32°N
Nasamon
MeanLong 275
°
Lat 30°N
Sitacus N
Meanlong 300°
tat 26°N
Dis J.
Mean Long 201°
Lat z8°N
Nilokeras
MeanLong.s2°
Lat 28°N
Phisor N.
Mean Long 308°
& = Minimum Visibilily
|}—___—}-|
wlewe roe rocn
ad | ee
go
———
NORTH SUB-TROPIC CANALS |
Plate IV.
~30
Lat.27°N.
LuphratesN.
Mean Long 336°
Days before SOLSTICE
SUMMER Days afte ”
go
* = Minimum Visibility
NORTH SUBTROPIC CANALS, (continued)
ate
Plate V.
370 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. [Dee 4, _
Days before ipl aie Daysafter
=
Lat.2s°N |
Phrixus
MeanLong:so°
Lat 25°N
PyriphiegethonN.
Mean Long 140°
Lat.23°N.
Djithoun
Mean Long o°
S
(@)
@)
i |
@)
Lat 23°N
Jamuna N.
MeanLong 38°
Lal 23°N
Libycum
Mean Long. 269°
iw
ite
Lat.z2"°N
Acheron
Mean Long 133°
Lat 22°N
Indus
MesnLong 20°
a
let 22°N
Nilokeras/1.
MeanLong 48°
Lat 21°N
Lethes
Mean Long 240°
Lat 2iN.
Thoth
Mean Long 258°
ign
we
~
oe
©)
= MinimumVisibility NORTH TROPIC CANALS
SS
Plate VI.
The broken lines denote such portions of the curves as for certain intrinsic
reasons seems the more probable.
4
if
1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 371
Raysbefora SSS, Daysafter
. Oo
Lat.20°N.
Hiddeket
Mean Lang. 350°
Lat.zo°N.
TamyrasN.
Mean Long.149°
a
F
DA
ae
Lat.1g°N.
Uranius
Mean Long. 84°
RE
eee
Lat.18°N
Ls
Mean Long.2°
a ()
;
=
ee |
Lat.17°N.
Erebus
Mean Long.180°
Lat.16°N.
Gthon Lt
MeanLong. 3°
Lat.16°N.
Sttacus S.
MeanLong.335°
Lat.is°N.
Amenthes
MeanLong.253°
ae
& ae on a
& = Minimum Visibility NORTH TROPIC CANALS, (continued)
SUMMER
SOLSTICE
Lat 12°N.
Mean Long. 243°
LatirN.
Hydaspes
} MeanLong.28°
& = Minimum Visibility NORTH TROPIC CANALS, ( concluded.)
Plate VIII.
372 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS.
SUMMER
Daysbefore Solstice Days after
Lat.ro°N.
GigasN.
Mesn Long. 123°
Lat.8°N.
Orcs
MeanLong.183°
Lat.7°N.
Phenix
MeanLong.240°
Lat.6°N.
CerberusN
MeanLong.207°
_ | vats.
Euphrates S.
MeanLong.336°
Cam em Md
Lat 5°N.
Phisons.
MeanLong.325°
Lat.4°N.
Chrysorrhoas
Mean Long.74°
| oO
Lat. 4°N.
Irts
MeanLong.105°
Lat.3°N.
Nepenthes
MeanLong.270°
Lat.2°N.
Triton
MeanLong.257°
()
* =MinimumVisibility WORTH EQUATORIAL CANALS.
Plate IX.
Days before SUMMER i HS
30° oO
Lato*
Fortunae
Mean Long 100°
oo
=
* = MinimumVisibility pene CANALS, continued )
Plate X.
Lat o°
Ganges
MeanLong 60°
i !
/
1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 373
Days before Penrice Days after
eid o 30 60 go i20 150
pe
Lat.o° (es) 2
Brontes S. =
MeanLong.i66°
ts)
©
t+ © |
Lat.1°S. 1
Clitummis £2)
MeanLong.67°
© © oH
Lat.2°S. ‘O; ©
Pyriphlegethon S.
MeanLong.117°
Lat.2°S.
Titans.
MeanLong.169°
Lat.4°S.
Jamunas.
MeanLang. 49°
Lat.5°S.
Cerberus.
MeanLong-225°
Lat.5°S.
Tartarus
Mean Long.182°
Lat.s°S.
Ulysses
MeanLong.115°
Lat.6°S.
Laestrygonr
MeanLong,201°
Lat.7°S.
Cyclops
Mean Long. 217°
SouTvH EQUATORIAL CANALS
*& = Minimum Visibility
Plate XI.
SUMMER
SOLSTICE
Orostnes
Mean Long. 290°
Lat.10°S.
Ausonium
Mean Long. 280°
Lat.10°S.
Dosaron
Mean Long.300°
Daysbefore symmen, 5, Deer
90, £20
Lat 2°S,
Erynanthus
Mean Long.278°
Lati2°S.
Gigas S.
MeanLong.155°
Lat.12°S
StrentussS.
MeanLong.124°
, Lat15°S
Tithonius
Mean Long.go°
“Lat 7°S
Dargamanes
Mean Long.28°
Aurum
Mean Long.to”
Lat.22°S
Deucalion
MeanLong.340°
SOUTH TROPIC CANALS
* = MinimumVisibility
Plate XIII.
1908.]
LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS.
SUMMER
SOLSTICE
Days before
Lat.27°S.
Nectar
Mean Long.78°
Days after
*& =MinimumVisibility
0; =
SOUTH SUB-TROPIC CANAL
Plate XIV.
MEAN CANAL CARTOUCHES. E\RsT
Arctic
Meen Lat 72°
SeebArctic
Mean tat 58°
N Temperate
Mean Lat 425°
NV SubTropic
MeenLet 31°
N Tropic
Mean lat 18°
N Equatorial
Meen Lat 5°
S Equatoriac
Mean Lat -5°
STropic
Mean Lat -17°
S Sub-Tropic
Meen Let - 27°
-jo - o
UMMER
| Days before — Soustice
-%= Minimum Visibility (add Cartals tazen)
‘A a °
— &)
7
Days after
+= Minimum Visibility (starved ones excepted)
Plate XV.
: af i cua 3) an ay A. SS -
bates.
376 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS.
Days before SURMer Days after
o R 60 x ane a0 £20
med
;
i
50 mehr at
S. Sub-Tropic
27°S.
STropte
pon
J Equator pal
ss.
N Temperate 4°
425N.
SubAretic
SEN.
15 N, ia
? to at ea —-<
240° 260° 280° 300° 320° 340" zoe
Co Go° 100° 120° 140° £60° 180” 200° 220°
PHENOLOGY CURVES —MARS.
= Dead Point of Vegetation.
Plate XVI.
1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 377
————
Days before SS Ce Days after
s30 o 70 60 #20 iv
74
+4 ;
"20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 720” 140° 100° 180° 160° [40° 720° 100° 80° 60° go° 20° O°
PHENOLOGY CURVES —EARTH.
% = Oead Point of Vegetation.
Plate XVII.
ty
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 174. Z. PRINTED JAN. 25, 1904.
378 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. (Nov. sf 7
TESTIMONY OF THE HUACOS (MUMMY-GRAVE) POT- —
TERIES OF OLD PERU.
BY ALBERT S. ASHMEAD, M.D.
(Read November 20, 1903.)
When we search the cemeteries of old Peru, we find by the side
of every mummy a number of objects which are useful for him. —
His pious hands have withia ready reach whatever is needed for his
eternal voyage. Drink being indispensable in a country of so
much dryness as Peru, good care was taken to place convenient to —
his hands a quantity of water or wine vessels to appease thirst.
These clay vessels have human form and give rise to our admira-
tion, just as do the statuettes of the Egyptian tombs or the earthen
Cuites found in those of Tanagras among the Greeks.
Historians agree in recognizing in these Egyptian and Grecian —
images the doudb/e or duplicate or soul which survives the departed.
Death was definite only if these statuettes disappeared.
The belief in a soul, very widespread among every eo
existed in Peru. And to satisfy it these people found it convenient
to transform the drinking vessel into a sow/, that is to say, an image — .
resembling the deceased. Besides, these little rotteries had reality — 3
pleasing to the artist. The varieties of them are great, representing
the child, the woman, the old man, the fat, the lean, the noble and
the poor man, with every expression of physiognomy, as sorrow,
joy, anger, etc. Occasionally the figures have pendants on the
ears or the nasal septum perforated for the introduction of a ring.
This last character of figure is in the Museum of the Trocadero, —
Paris.
Some of these potteries show signs of diseases. I have seen one —
representing a double hare-lip. Syphilitic and lupoid (wolf- —
cancer) lesions are very frequently shown on the faces, especially — .
the nose and upper lip. We know that these diseases existed —
in America long before the time of Columbus, and some eminent —
scientists have made the mistake to believe that because the former
disease was very widespread, so common that the old Mexicans had
deified it by incarnation into a god (Nanahuatl), that it was carried _
first to Europe by returning Spaniards. But this is a great mistake, —
for Virchow shows that this disease had existed in Europe certainly —
as early as 1472. And Raymond, of Paris, who dug up the bones of
1903.] ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 379
the ‘‘ Madeleines’’ of France, as the cemeteries of the old leper
asylums of the middle ages are called, found unmistakable evi-
dences of its presence as early as the eleventh, twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries. Evidently many persons afflicted with that
destructive disease were thought to be lepers and were locked up to
die with them. In ancient Mexico this disease was considered as
that of the nobles, the great, a sort of ‘‘ King’s evil.”’ The origin
of it in America has been thought by the same scientists to be by a
migration of those ancient races from Asia. This is also a great
mistake. For had that disease come from Asia, leprosy would
have come with it. Now there was no leprosy in those ancient
races until Spaniards, Portuguese and negroes had inoculated
them with the germs. Syphilis originally in America was the
disease of the ancient llama, the pack-animal of Incans and
Aymarans.
When the ice age had retreated northward and the rivers and
valleys of South America became flooded, man emigrated in two
ways, in latitude with his beloved and necessary reindeer north-
ward with the snow, and in altitude with his beloved and necessary
llama to escape the floods. This animal was a part of his house-
hold—his horse by day and his blanket by night, for its alpaca
wool kept him warm on Andean heights. Thus man contracted
the disease which belonged to the llama.
As to the origin of lupus (wolf-cancer), which is also represented
frequently on the ‘‘ huacos pots’’ of the mummy-graves, it came
from the birds, especially parrots, of the Andes. Lupus is skin-
consumption. Its germ is the bacillus of Koch. Insects would
feed on the parrots dead of aviary tuberculosis and then inoculate
human beings. Thus there would be local contamination, skin-
tuberculosis, which quickly became systemic. As soon as the
lungs of man became affected, his sputum acted as a means of pro-
pagating the disease in his family and village.
Amputation of the feet is also a common representation on these
potteries and it is real, with flaps covering the ends of bones. But
never is a hand shown as amputated.
Noses and upper lips are represented as clean cut off, evidently by
a surgeon of skill, to cure wolf-cancer of those parts. This surgical
procedure must have been quite commonly practiced in those pre-
Columbian days.
In the guano beds of the Chincha Islands, as Mantegazza tells
380 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20,
us in his Z’ Amour dans [ humanité, there have been found some
wooden figures bearing about the neck a serpent which was believed
to devour the body. These images were zdo/s, and this representa-
tion was the expression, as I defined it, of the disease, syphilis,
before those ancients of Peru had a word for it in their language.
The serpent is represented in the act of devouring a certain part of
the body in a series of the figures preserved in the Museum of the
Trocadero. There is also one of these figures in the American
Museum in New York.
Here are five of these Peruvian vessels, presented to the Museum
of Paris by Mr. Drouillon and derived from Moche. All show in
diverse degree some destructive lesions of the upper lip and of the
nose.
Figure I, Peruvian Vase from Moche’ Figure 2. Limited destruction of the
(Museum of the Trocadéro). The upper lip.
extremity of the nose is destroyed.
In the first the extremity of the nose (septum and wings) is
destroyed. There is no other alteration. The rest of the nose
and the upper lip are intact.
The second subject has undergone a limited destruction of the
middle of the upper lip. A portion, in the form of an obtuse angle
with its summit bordering on the septum, has disappeared, throwing
into view the gums and teeth which remain intact. The borders of
the lesion are clean, and appear cicatrized ; the nose seems pointed,
and the two wings are strongly spread out.
1903. ] ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 381
Figure 3. The upper lip is eaten Figure 4. Cicatrization following ne-
away. crosis of the upper jaw.
The third subject expresses an alteration most grave. The upper
lip is devoured, likewise the nose, uncovering the gums, which are
red and bleeding.
The teeth are complete, but the end of the nose has disappeared ;
this is of abnormal shortness and appears too high.
The fourth pottery is even more interesting. There has been ne-
crosis and loss of the superior maxilla, which has undergone a retrac-
tion over the inferior. A cicatricial tissue has formed, tight and
inextensible, which leaves the teeth uncovered and obstructs the
entrance of the nostrils. The lower eyelid of the right eye, held by
the cicatricial tissue, leaves uncovered the ocular globe, while that of
the left eye is normal.
The last pottery of this series represents a mother, who holds her
infant in her arms. In her case also there exists a loss of the upper
jaw. But here the nose is destroyed at its root ; the extremity, in-
tact, is turned up. This form of nose has been well described by
Fournier, the syphilographer of France.
Similar potteries are not rare. They exist likewise in the Mu-
seum de la Plata, Argentina, South America. A beautiful collec-
tion of photographs of this last Museum is on exhibition at the
382 » ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES UF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20,
Trocadero. You can see there a subject who has lost his nose in
like manner ; a person whose face is covered with soft tissue, which
is drawn tight, and reminds one of sclerous tissue. The mouth is
puckered and reduced to a very small aperture, the lips have lost
Figure 5. Nose lost at the root.
their apparent elasticity, as if they could neither be opened nor
closed, and the teeth remain uncovered. Certain subjects of lupus
to-day offer this very aspect.
In America, I have for many years made a very minute examina-
tion of all such potteries, mostly derived from Chancan or Chim-
bote, Peru. Some of them were buried with the mummies of
Ancon, the oldest cemetery of Peru, where most of the thermal
springs were located. Here surely would congregate, before death,
the diseased of those. ancient races, and many must have died
there on the very spot. However, it has been impossible to locate
the exact mummy to which each piece of pottery belongs, through
the fault of the explorer.’ I have also examined all the Ancon
mummies in the United States, and caused to be examined by the
eminent anthropologist, Dr. Emile Schmidt, all those of the Leip-
zig Museum, where is to be found the finest collection of American
objects in the whole of Europe. The Leipzig authorities in col-
lecting specimens even A&7l/ed a. Guayaquis Indian in South
America to obtain his skull! Their agent recently paid in Lima
as high as one hundred dollars in gold for one of these little pot-
1903.] ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 3838
teries, which I was myself trying to get possession of. There is not
a pottery with deformed face now in Peru which can be bought.
Leipzig has the market for them cornered. The finest collection
of these pots, however, can never be obtained, as it belongs to a
woman who will not sell. She has a thousand specimens, of which
she has promised me photographs.
I also had Dr. A. Bastian, Director of the Royal Museums of Ber-
lin, go over his collection of mummies and pots in Dr. Edward Seler’s
American Department, for evidence of pre-Columbian diseases.
But in none of all the mummies I examined, or caused to be exam-
ined, was there found even atrace of the disease which M. Virchow
claimed was represented on some of the huacos potteries. M.
Virchow argued against me for five years in the Berlin Anthropo-
logical Society. He believed himself able to recognize on those
potteries signs of leprosy. In these discussions Dr. Leopold
Gliick, of Sarijivo, Bosnia, and Dr. Armauer Hansen, of Bergen,
Norway, stood with me in concluding that they did not represent
leprosy, for the hands and feet were never shown to be diseased, as
would have been the case with lepers. I finally proved to the sat-
isfaction and recorded acceptance of the anthropological world that
those representations were really only what is shown still further by
the evidence of these five Trocadero potteries which I reproduce
here, and that is, that syphilis and lupus occurred together in the
same individual. This opinion has been now concurred in by the
authorities of the Smithsonian, of the Museum de la Plata of South
America and by the Spanish authorities, because on these potteries,
as on the others which have been critically examined, there is
shown the upper lip retracted or destroyed, a character which is
seldom if ever seen in leprosy; the faces, too, of these pots never
present tubercles, tubers or the appearance called leontiasis (Zom-
face), which belongs to tubercular leprosy, and which surely would
have delighted the old Peruvian artists to depict inclay ; but, most
important of all, the hands of all the pottery subjects are always .
represented intact and perfect, while in lepers they are so often mu-
tilated. Those artists of old Peru conscientiously would never have
neglected the horrible appearance of tuberculation of the face or
the clubbed and clawed hands of a leper. It would have pleased
them beyond measure to picture such deformations on the anthro-
pomorphous image supposed to'represent the sou/ of the individual
buried.. Those little gems of human representation were true im-
884 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20,
ages of the departed, and they would not have made them false.
Amputation of hands was never represented on a pot, because arti-
ficial hands were necessary to carry the drinking water to the lips.
On not one single pot anywhere in the whole Museum world{is
there represented a mutilated hand or a tuberculated face. This
in itself is conclusive evidence that leprosy was wo¢ pre-Columbian
in America.
These potteries of the Trocadero offer more perfect signs yet in
favor of syphilis and of lupus representations; those multiple
lesions of the nose are characteristic of syphilis, or of syphilis and
lupus combined.
If there is any doubt of it, it is not in favor of leprosy but off
lupus, as is shown in the subject Fig. 4. Even this subject derived
from the Museum de la Plata, with retraction of the skin of the
face, might equally be afflicted by lupus.
A last argument is furnished us by an examination of the thou-
sands of pre-Columbian bones of American graves. Not one offers
a leprous lesion, as we find them represented in the graves of the
cemeteries of the ‘‘ Madeleines’? of France, where are found the
little bones of leper hands as if me/fed away to a fine thread, but
never so in ancient American graves. Quite a number of the Amer-
ican bones from ancient American graves, undoubtedly pre-Colum-
bian, on the contrary, are syphilitic.
We all must admire the dexterity of those old, Peruvian artists,
who have given us such good representations of the ulcerative
lesions of these diseases.
Besides the evidences of an ‘eating disease’’ on the faces of
these clay vessels of the graves of Old Peru, there are a number
which appear as if the nose and upper lip had been cleanly cut off
with a knife.
Here is a photograph of one such, which Prof. Bastian, of the
Royal Museum of Berlin, kindly sent me (Fig. 6). There are
others with this same exhibit in the Bandelier Collection of the
American Museum of Natural History, New York.
Mr. Wilhelm Von den Steinen, to whom the original of this pot
belongs, says: ‘‘It is from Chimbote. The tip of the nose and the
upper lip are ered the cheeks ‘ flown out’ and furrowed with
wrinkles orscars.’’ I submitted this photograph, after Prof. Bastian
had sent it to me, to Dr. Hansen, of Bergen, Norway (the discoverer.
of the leper-bacillus), and he replied that ‘‘ it did not present signs
7
;
,
q
3
1903.] ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 3885
of leprosy.’’. ‘‘ There are no tubercles on it,’’ he said, ‘and no
phenomena of anesthesia.’’
This photograph has always appeared to me as if the person it
represents might have been mutilated by a surgeon’s knife for
lupus.
Figure 6,
Dr. Ugaz, the best authority in Peru to-day on this last-named
disease, concludes an interesting article, ‘‘ Etiologia topografia y
tratamiento de la Uta (lupus),’’ as follows: ‘‘ Uta (gallico, llaga,
Ilianya, tiacarafia, Qquespo Spondyle) of Peru is bacillary tuber-
culosis, generally localized in the uncovered parts of the skin
(tuberculo-derma), and its ov/y treatment is endermic and surgica/.’’
My own conclusion is that this Uta, gallico, llaga, etc. = pre-
Columbian lupus (with or without complication with syphilis), is
the disease represented on the huacos potteries, for some of those
specimens represent the effects of the surgical treatment of that dis-
ease, the cutting off of nose and upper lip.
It is highly probable that some of the deformations of those
ancient Peruvian figures were intended to represent lupus and
syphilis combined and not leprosy. For, as I said, Ancon, the
pre-Columbian graveyard of Old Peru, was also the place of baths
where the ‘‘ luposos and sarnosos ’’ congregated for curaiive treat-
‘ment.
Had Ancon been a resort for lepers, somewhere in an European
or American Museum we should be able to discover a mummy show-
ing loss of fingers or toes, for most lepers are thus mutilated. But,
386 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20,
quite to the contrary, no such disfigurement of pre-Columbian
remains up to this time has been found in any Museum of the
world. I have searched all over for such and without success.
Moreover, had there been lepers in pre-Columbian Peru, they surely
would have gone to those baths along with the luposos and syphili-
tics. Only the syphilitics could have been cured, while the luposos
and lepers, being incurable without surgery, would have died there.
Thus the absence of leper remains from the graves of Ancon is
double proof that leprosy did not exist in pre-Columbian Peru.
In determining in some of these representations of diseases on
these ancient potteries what disease each one is, it must not be over-
looked that even in the living subject the diagnosis between
leprosy, syphilis and lupus is sometimes most confusing to a physi-
cian and even to a trained leprologist. This is especially true
when the patients belong to degenerate or dying-out races. How
much greater then must the difficulty be to dctermine the identity
of one of these diseases whose representation was carved on the
face of a small clay image by an artist who was not a medical man.
We must observe, moreover, that in the representation of a disease
on the clay figure of a man, intended to record what belonged to
the corpse, and to be forever buried with it as its ‘* double?’ or
soud, the failure to show in that clay figure a mutilation of fingers or
toes or tuberculation of face, the most usual deformities of leprosy,
should indicate to us that the disease which the handicraftsman had
illustrated was not leprosy at all but some other disease.
There is a specimen of ancient Peruvian pottery in the Royal
Museums for Ethnology in Berlin which I have figured in the
American Journal of Cutaneous Diseases. These photographs orig-
inally were given to me by Prof. Bastian, of the Berlin. Museum.
It is the figure of a man, apparently-a dwarf, whose skin is covered
with tuberculous lumps. The question is, What does it represent ?
And, more especially, does it afford any proof of the existence of
either syphilis or leprosy in ancient Peru? It is quite clear that
the artist has copied from some living subject, and we have at any
rate offered for our inspection'a very early delineation of the dis-
ease. This pottery is probably a thousand years old.
Jonathan Hutchinson, F.R.S., of London, to whom I submitted
the photograph, argued with me that there is no reason ‘to consider
the disease leprosy, for the man is scratching very vigorously and.
clearly has no anesthesia of the skin, which would belong: to him
1903.] A>HMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 387
had he leprosy. His head is thrown back. Nor in the tuberose
form of leprosy are the tubercles ever so freely developed on the
trunk as is here shown. Mr. Hutchinson believed that the figure
represented Molluscum fibrosus, a disease of skin which does not
exist in Latin America to-day; and had it existed there in pre-
Columbian time, would it not be found in Peru to-day? Besides
these objections to Mr Hutchinson’s diagnosis there is the upper lip
shown to be eaten away, as is so common in the other Peruvian
potteries. Molluscum is not essentially pruriginous, but scabies or
pediculosis might have been present to account forthe itching. To
my mind, it is another instance of /upus representation.
I have also nine representations of the grave potteries of old Peru.
The first is indentical with a huacos pot in the Field Columbian
Museum, Chicago, a photograph of which was kindly sent me by
Dr. Dorsey, and which I published in my article, ‘‘ No Evidence in
America of Pre-Columbian Leprosy,’’ in the Canadian Medical
and Surgical Journal, March, 1899 The 4th, 7th and gth are
identical with those of the Bandelier Collection of the American
Museum of Natural History, which I published, with permission, in
the Journal of the American Medical Association, in an article en-
titled ‘‘ Pre-Columbian Leprosy,” April, May and June, 1895,
and in the Verhandlungen of the Berlin Leper Conference. The2d,
3d, 5th, 6th and 8th of these images are representants of lupus and
syphilis in their deformations. It should be noticed, as we pro-
ceed, that in every case the fingers are represented normally.
As to the question of pre-Columbian origin of these vases, those
must be regarded as cer¢ain/y pre-Columbian which have been found
with a certain gold ornamentation, the gold brow feather, the
exclusive ornament of the Inca family. I have seen these ‘‘ brow
feathers’’ in the collections in the Ethnological Museum known as
the Bassler, formerly belonging to Herr Kratzer, of Lima, and also in
the new collection of Mr. Kratzer. Besides some of the images
were buried with diseased bones, notably one sent up by Mr.
Bandelier, ‘the explorer, from Lake Titicaca, of Peru, to the
American Museum of New York, which was dug up along with
a pre-Columbian Pachacamac syphilitically diseased skull. I
took a photograph of this skull to accompany my contribution to
the Berlin Leper Conference (article entitled ‘‘ The Question of
Pre-Columbian Leprosy in America, and Photographs of Three Pre-
Columbian Skulls’’), Dr. Patron, of Lima, and Dr. Manuel A.
388 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20,
Muniz, of the same city of Peru, have studied the subject of these
potteries, so far as they relate to leprosy. Dr. Patron says, ‘* Lep-
rosy has remained an unknown thing to the native born of Peru, as
is evidenced by the lack of a word for leprosy in the Kechuan
and Aymaran languages.’’ When leprosy appeared with the invad-
ing Spaniards and negroes, a phrase became necessary to be added
to the language. Bertolini, in his dictionary of Aymara, gives for
leprosy the word ‘‘ Caracha,’’ which means ‘‘itch.’’ And Gonzales
Holguin, in his book on the Ketchua language, defines ‘‘ Liutlasca
Caracha’”’ as ‘‘itch.”’
Dr. Muniz wrote me that ‘the first introduction of African
negroes into Peru was in 1536.” ‘‘ The first negro was with the
thirteen of the Isle of the Cock before the conquest of Peru. There
were maroon negroes in Peru in that same year. The king granted
to Pizarro the privilege of importing negroes.” These Spaniards
and negroes introduced leprosy to Peru. Dr. Patron thinks that
the diseases which can produce mutilations like those seen on the
pottery are syphilis, boils, verruga-Peruana, or Peruvian warts, a
disease with fever and peculiar to Peru (this is described by
Odriozala, Paris, 1898, as Maladie de Carrion, for Dr. Carrion, a
pupil who died from self-inoculation of it to determine its specific
characters), and ‘‘ Uta’’ (lupus). The word ‘‘ Uta’’ means ‘‘ to
eat away,’’ and would naturally be applied to a disease which
destroys the tissues. ‘The disease is called variously in different
localities: Gallico (‘‘ French Disease’’=the Spanish name of
syphilis when it first appeared in Spain) ; llaga, Ilianya, Tiac—
Arafia and Qquespo. All the best authorities attribute this disease
to the sting of insects, or by deposition of their eggs beneath the
skin. Insects are especially attracted to the mouths and noses of
sleeping persons, and those parts especially would be most liable to
be inoculated by such a disease as lupus, which has for its germ the
tubercle-bacillus of Koch, for aviary tuberculosis in Peru existed
long before human tuberculosis was known. The Indians
of the Peruvian Sierras are extraordinarily susceptible to lung
tuberculosis directly they are transferred to the coasts, while in
altitudinal Andes this phase of this pre-Columbian disease does not
appear. Dr. Patron’s great remedy to-day for Peruvian lupus is
cauterization with the Paquelin battery. In other words, all
authorities agree on the cure of it by no other means than the
knife or by burning it out.
1903. ASHMEAD—HUACO3S POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 389
Mr. Bandelier, of the American Museum, in reply to my ques-
tion whether the Peruvian images labeled Chancan and Chimbote,
which he had sent up, were to be considered pre- or post-Columbian,
said that some of them were and some were not.
The question of the pre-Columbianism of these pots, which
arose when I brought them to the attention of the Berlin Leper
Conference, was afterwards thoroughly discussed in the Berliner
Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte (see
Zeitschrift, 1897, 1898 and 1899), by eminent Americanists, such
as Polakowsky, of Berlin; A. Stiibel, of Dresden; Reiss, of Ber-
lin; Dr. E. W. Middendorf, Dr. Edward Seler, of Berlin; Dr.
Marcus Jiminez de la Espada, of Madrid; Dr. A. Bastian, the
Director of the Royal Museums of Berlin; Prof. Virchow, Presi-
dent of the Society; Dr. Carrasquilla, of Bogota; Dr. Lenz and
Dr. Lehman-Nitsche, of La Plata Museum, and Von den Steinen,
etc. I brought before these eminent and learned gentlemen all the
evidence furnished me by Mr. Bandelier and the anthropologists of
America. Mr. Bandelier had written me that all his ‘‘ finds ’’’ were
op Wl
ma
u mn
UN:
Figure 7.
pre-Columbian, and especially described a huacos pot represent-
ing a human amputated foot, which I had described in my original
paper. The fact that it was a diseased foot would indicate that it
had not been amputated as a punishment ‘‘ for crime,” as Dr.
090 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20,
Carrasquilla, of Colombia, South America, had thought. That it
is a disease representation is shown by the toes of the clay figure
being elevated from the ground, as if the sole of the foot was
greatly swollen. This Pachacamac foot-pot was dug up from a
grave twelve feet deep; not a bead nora piece of glass or copper was
ever found in that pre-Columbian burial-ground. This is an indica-
tion of pre-Columbianism. Moreover, this pot, which I reproduce
here, shows the bone protruding and the flesh cut away, just as
would appear on a foot that had been amputated, for the flesh flaps
must be thus provided to cover the stump of the leg. Mr. Bande-
lier wrote me as follows of this peculiarity of the figure: ‘‘I think
that the figures represented without feet ought to be considered as
amputated, so that they have nothing to do with the question of
leprosy or syphilis.’’
Certainly a people that could trephine a skull as admirably as
these same Incas, as is shown by one photographic specimen sent
me from Peru (which I here reproduce for purpose of illustration),
could just as well amputate with the stone knife a foot properly (see
«Pre-Columbian Surgery,’’ Ashmead, Univ. Med. Mag., 1896).
Wi 4 ,
Figure 8, Trepanation of the Incan Epoch (Squier’s skull),
This Fig. 8 shows a trepanation of the Incan epoch: A cranium
of Yucay. Nelaton and Broca determined that it belonged to the
1903. ASHMEAD—-HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 391
indigenous race and that it was ante-mortem. Broca concluded that
such an operation was performed for extravasation of blood in the
cranium from a number of causes~—wounds, punctured fracture,
violent inflammation, suppuration, delirium, coma, etc.—just as is
done by our surgeons to-day.
I have also pictures of ten huacos potteries of La Plata Museum,
Argentina, which Dr. Lehman-Nitsche submitted to me. As will
be seen also by a reference to those of the Bandelier Collection of
the American Museum, New York, while amputation of the feet is
often represented, in not one single pot is there a hand amputated.
Dr. Polakowsky raised the point that if these amputations were due to
disease there should be representations of amputated hands as well
as feet. But he overlooked the important fact that then the soul
of the departed could not reach out his hand for the wine or water-
bottles which are necessary for his future life in the grave or for his
four days of journey to Paradise. The whole intent of putting
these little bottles in the grave with the corpse is to keep death
from becoming definite. A fand/ess soul representation would
destroy their religious belief. Therefore, even if the hand of the
corpse was amputated, they would put on the image they buried
with that corpse, good hands to help the individual in the other
world.
* Dr. Carrasquilla was of opinion that these amputation represen-
tations do not treat of disease at all, but of punished criminals ;
that for little faults they cut off the nose and upper lip, and when
they punished ‘‘relapsers’’ they amputated also the feet, for the
purpose of hindering them from committing new crimes or to keep
them from running away.
Dr. Carrasquilla promised to send documentary proofs of this
belief of his, but they were found to be totally insufficient to prove
his point. Dr. William Von den Steinen has consulted all the lit-
erature of South America, like, for example, the works of Cieza
de Leon, of Garcilaso de le Vega, and he has zof been able to find
indications of mutilations that prove that the representations on the
clay figures have been produced by punishments which had been
applied to the individuals. He believes that they refer to the rep-
resentations of a disease. Mr. Sttibel participated in the same
belief. Mr. Bastian and Mr. Middendorf thought that they treated
simply of punishments applied to criminals. Mr. Seler believed
that leprosy had existed in pre-Columbian d/exico, because of the
'‘
392 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Noyv. 20,
well-known word ‘‘ teococolitzli,’’ which was applied to leprosy and
to skin diseases generally! Mr. Jiminez de la Espada gave the
question a new turn, that he did not believe that leprosy nor ele-
phantiasis (its variety) had been of pre-Spanish origin in Peru;
there were no documentary proofs known to him which supported
such opinion, and he was not in accord with the opinion of Carras-
quilla, Bastian and Middendorf, who thought they treated of
criminals and beggars. He claimed that they did not apply muti-
lations of the body as punishment, unless death was intended to
follow them, and that there were no beggars at all among the
Incans, due to their social order so perfect. According to his
judgment, these vessels, or better said these votive figures, repre-
sented a disease special to Peru, an endemic variety of tuberculo-
sis (‘‘ llaga’’ or ‘‘ hutta—uta’’). Mr. Espada knew only one note
in the old literature which refers to mutilations of the lips and the
nose. ‘‘ The reyezuelos 6 caracas of the Isle of Puna mutilated
in this way their eunuchs, for the purpose of making them unattrac-
tive to the concubines.’’ Zarate relates it (Wistorre de la decou-
verte et de la Conguete du Perou, translated from the Spanish of
Augustin de Zarate by S. D. C.; first Vol., Paris, by the Com-
pagnée des Libraries, M.D.CC.XLII, with the privilege of the
King, page 25): ‘‘Le Seigneur de cette isle (de Puna) était fort
crainte et fort respecte par ses sujets, et si jaloux que tous ceux qui
étoient commis a la garde de ses femmes, et méme tous les domes-
tiques de sa maison, étoient eunuques; et on coupoit non seule-
ment les parties qui servent a la generation mais pour les defigurer
on leur coupoit aussi le nez.”’ Oviedo says that the lips also were
sometimes amputated. Herrera mentions no mutilation. Nor do
Rivero and Tschudi (Antigiiedades peruanas, Vienna, 1851). Bas-
tian (Die Culturlinde des Altes America, Berlin, 1878, Tom. 1,
P- 593) says the same as Oviedo, that ‘‘ they also amputated the
nose and lips, so that they would not present a seductive appear-
ance.’’
Prof. Virchow formulated his judgment, saying that he neither
believed that they treated of punished criminals, because it was not
related in the literature. Besides there exists statues of wood’ of
prisoners, derived from the Isla Chincha (Guana isles); two are
well preserved, one great and the other small. The great one
is on foot, the little one is represented as a truncated body. On
V (See Virchow, Verhandlungen, 1873.)
1903.] ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. : 3898
both figures the arms are held arranged behind, like a person who
listens tranquilly. The large idol has a cord round the neck, which
is tied in front by a coarse knot. One of the ends of the cord goes
down to the stomach. The nose in both takes the form of an
eagle’s beak. David Forbes says these wooden idols represent
prisoners holding a cord or a serpent to the neck. Forbes
and H. B. Frank suppose that they have thus symbolized syphilis,
a disease original to the mountains of Peru and characteristic of
the alpaca or llama, an animal which transmitted it to man by
unnatural vice. Neither of these idols nor those described by
Weiner represent mutilated nose and lips. ‘Therefore a// prisoners
were not punished by amputation of nose and lips. (See rich col-
lection in La Plata Museum.)
Polakowsky divides all these vessels into groups: 1. Clay figures
representing mutilation of nose, of pathologic origin; 2. Those
where it is doubtful whether they treat of disease or of surgical
operation. |
Polakowsky does not think they treat of punished criminals, be-
cause he has searched for data in the literature and failed to find
such. He lived twenty-five years in South America. Von den
Steinen found in the Royal Museum of Berlin representant vases of
heads and entire bodies, one of them stretched on his belly, the
other on the knees or with the legs crossed. All had mutilations
of the point of the nose and the greater part of the upper lip. In
four of the pieces the feet were lacking, on the others the lower
part of the body was covered with a cloth which enveloped it from
the hips, in a manner which made one think they also had lost the
feet.
Now in ceramics too: First, we have types undoubtedly of pris-
oners, representing a person on foot with hands behind and bound
with a cord, but no other indication to show that it treats of a pris-
oner. Secondly, aprisoner on his knees, halting, or sitting with the
feet crossed. Moreover, he has a cord tied around his neck. A
third represents the serpent eating a certain part of his body (penis),
while his hands are tied behind hisback. But in zome of these clay
figures which represent undoubtedly prisoners, was there mutilation
of any part of the face or of the body.. The testimony of the
huacos potteries, therefore, is to the effect that the Old Incans did not
mutilate their prisoners by amputation of the feet. Moreover, in
PROC. AMER. PHILOS, 80C. XLII. 174. AA. PRINTED JAN. 30, 1904.
394 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Noy. 20,
these ceramics whenever amputation of feet is represented (for the
flaps are shown) there is evidence of disease in the face.
Does there exist such a disease of the face, which would also
affect the feet to require amputation of them and both equally?
Yes! I believe that the amputated feet of the huacos potteries
have relation with the mutilations represented on the face.
Mr. Ambrosetti (Vota de Arquelogia Calchagit Instituto Geogra-
phico-Argentina, tomo xvii) thinks that the stumps are due to the
imperfect work of the artist, like in Calchaque idols, whose feet are
are not moulded in form at all. But then there are images
shown stretched on the belly, apparently intended to be shown in
a helpless condition! I have seen one representing a person who
was dressing his stump with a cup of medicine, the stump thrown |
across the opposite leg; and besides there are the flaps shown and
also that foot specimen itself, like a foot that had been cut off.
Some of these amputated figures are represented with the hand ex-
tended for alms ; some hold a stick to creep or hobble with on their
knees, with their feet cut off.
In the images of the La Plata Museum, shown among the ten
which I print in this article, it can be seen by the originals (for
all the kneeling figures are without feet, the ends of their limbs show-
ing flap-stumps as if amputated, which cannot be seen by a front
view) that in no case is amputation represented without the image
showing a diseased face. Now the ancient Incans cut off the hands
and ears of prisoners, but not the feet. Yet this mutilation of
hands and ears is not shown by a single specimen of pottery that
I have seen, and besides I believe that they never buried a c/ay soud-.
figure with such a criminal. TZhey wanted him to die. ‘The pot
buried with him would keep him alive.
In a report of the Viceroy, Dr. Martin Henriquez, of the year
1582, which mentions the manner of government of Peru, the cus-
toms and usages of the Incas, and where it is said in a general way
that amputation of limbs was a punishment of criminals, he goes
on to say: ‘‘ But in my opinion such amputations were no simple
bodily punishment which left the sufferer alive, but a kind of capi-
tal execution like hanging, or other like.” The text, which is here
translated literally, says: ‘‘ Executions were public and very crude.
Some were precipitated from rocks (of Andean precipices), others
had their limbs amputated, etc.’’
Von den Steinen says: ‘‘As to the mutilations of the legs, whether
‘
1903.) ASHMEAD—-HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 395
it be amputation or disease we have no case made out. In all
Peruvian vases where feet are represented they are easy to be recog-
nized as such. ‘The accuracy in the rendering goes even so far
that in some representations of persons with tucked-under legs the
form of the feet is expressed on the bottom of the vase. That
the Old Peruvians liked to find in their vessels the forms of persons
affected with remarkable manifestations of disease is shown also in
the Berlin collection, by the large number of them blind, one-
eyed, with lop-sided jaws, etc. As to the finding places of these
vases, they are unfortunately not safely established, the greatest part
has the indication of Chimbote, and besides there is Trujillo and
Chancay.”’
I point out, in conclusion, here that the influence of cold of the
Andean heights might have had to do with the necessity of ampu-
tation of feet. There was a great deal of barefoot walking in
Incan climates, while the hands would be better clad. We must
renounce, however, the giving of a positive judgment as to the
mutilations of the feet of Old Peruvians. So far no other explana-
tion has been found but a pathological one.
Prof. Bandelier wrote me from Lake Titicaca, where he was
engaged in explorations for the American Museum: ‘‘ All the
Pachacamac remains, a few specimens perhaps excepted, which I
cannot now remember, belong to the so-called Yunca (hot country)
or coast Indian type of artifacts, and they are certainly anterior in
date to 1532. Ido not wish to be understood to say that all the
Pachacamac finds to be made, or made previously, are not post-
Columbian ; but the site where I caused the excavations to be made
and the depth at which the objects were taken out, point to the
conclusion that my finds are indeed pre-Columbian, or at least with
very few exceptions only. The human foot alone and in appear-
ance amputated is not rare among coast pottery, and the Museum
must have another one sent by me from Lambayeque, with its
sandal perfectly normal as well as handsomely ornamented. I
remember having ‘seen other specimens of the same description.
But none of them were deformed as the Pachacamac foot is.
‘¢ The deformed faces on the pottery are generally regarded as
representations of syphilis, and I never heard leprosy mentioned in
connection with them.”
This is what I read of the ancient languages of Old Peruvians as
written in their graves: There was never a migration of these dis-
396 MINUTES. [Dec. 18,
eases from Asia, nor did their religious beliefs about the soul emanate’
from Asia. The surgery of ancient America was not of Asiatic deri-
vation. The civilization or culture-growth of ancient Peruvians
was purely an American institution which had developed from
preéxisting savages on ‘this hemisphere.
New YorK, 333 W. 23d St.
Stated M eeting, December 18, 1903.
President SmirH in the Chair.
The list of donations to the Library was laid on the table, _
and thanks were ordered for them.
The decease of the following members was announced: G
Rev. Henry Clay Trumbull, D.D., at Philadelphia, on
December 8, xt. 73. |
Dr. Gustave Schlegel, at Leyden.
Mr. Rosengarten presented a communication on “The —
Earl of Crawford’s MS. Gakic) in the Library of the Ameri- _
can Philosophical Society.’’ : a
Dr. Leonard Pearson was introduced by the President, and |
presented a paper on ‘‘The Animal Industries of the United .
States.’’
The President delivered his ‘‘ Annual Address.’’
1903.) ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. 397
THE EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY IN THE
LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN PHILO-
SOPHICAL SOCIETY.
BY JOSEPH G. ROSENGARTEN.
(Read December 18, 1903.)
In the Library of the American Philosophical Society there are
four folio MS. volumes, in old binding with clasps, but with noth-
ing on the Library records to show how they ever got there.
The 1st volume is labeled ‘‘ Account of Some Campaigns of the
British Army from 1689 to 1712, and Journal of a Campaign under
Prince Eugene on the Upper Rhine, and Miscellaneous Papers.’’
The 2d and 3d volumes, ‘‘ Journal of a Voyage from the Thames
to Russia, and of Campaigning with the Russian Army, 1738-9.”’
The 4th volume, ‘‘ Journal of a Campaign with the Russian
Army against Turkey, 1739.”’
They are all in admirable condition, in uniform clerkly clear
thandwriting, and with a large number of fine maps, executed by
Henry Képp by order of the Earl of Crawford, and inscribed to
the King of England, Lord Loudoun and other noted persons high
in command in the British army.
The 1st volume contains:
“ast. ‘*A Short Treatise of Fortification and Geometry,”’’ pp. ‘33.
2d. “A Method of Discipline proposed for the Behaviour of a
Regiment of Foot upon action,’’ pp. 29.
3d. ‘*An Account of the most remarkable Transactions which
happened in the Campaigns I made from the Year 1689 to the Con-
clusion of the Peace of Ryswick in 1697.’’ It begins as follows:
‘‘The Regiment I served in is very well known by the Title it
bears of the Royal Regiment of Foot in Ireland, from which Regt.
I may without Vanity say our British Infantry had the Ground-
work of their present Discipline.’’ It describes Schomberg’s Irish
campaign of 1689, pp. 12; then the campaigns of 1694-5-6-7,
pp- 14.
Then, 4th, The Campaigns of 1702-12, pp. 63.
Then, 5th, comes ‘‘ A Journal and Remarkable Observations dur-
ing Three Campaigns made by a friend to the Trade of War, in
Three Volumes. Vol. First: Journal of a Campaign made with the
Imperial Army under the Command of Prince Eugene of Savoy on
898 ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. [Dec. 18,
the Upper Rhine in the Year 1735.’’ It beginsin London, May 24,
1735, pp- 87, and closes: ‘‘I shall conclude this Campaign with
the inserting a few usefull Papers I collected during the Operations
of it, and of the following (I dare venture to say) exact Plan of
the Country we march’d over.’’ Then follow twelve well-executed
maps or plans giving the successive positions of the armies, the last
an elephant folio map of the Rhine from Coblenz to Carlsruhe.
6th. ‘‘ The following March Root [szc] ordered by Prince Eugene
. . . . Tinsert asa Model... . of a very difficult part of Duty
in the Trade of War,’’ pp. 5.
7th. ‘‘ Un detail exact et bien calculée [szc] de ce que coutoit par
mois en 1681 la plus florissante marine que la France aie ene,’’ pp. 8.
8th. ‘ Un Traittes Touchant Les Conquétes qu’on pourroit faire
en Amerique sur la Maison de Bourbon au cas que la Guerre
devienne generale et qui seuls peuvent retablir 1’Equilibre de
l’Europe,’’ pp. 6.
gth. ‘‘ Tabulated Lists of the French Army in 1735.”’
roth. ‘‘ Reflexions sur les Evenemens de la Mosellé,’”’ pp. 2
[imperfect ].
11th. ‘‘ Treaty and Cartell made and Concluded between His Im-
perial and Catholick Majesty on the one part, and his most Chris-
tian Majesty on the other, concerning their Prisoners of War in
their Armies on the Rhine, 1735,’’ pp. 16.
t2th. ‘The Troops in the Black Forest, Friburg and Brisac—
Specifications of the Imperial Regiments 1735. A List of the Im-
perial Regiments both Horse and Foot, the Names of the Comis-
sioned Officers, Comanders and Agents, together with the Num-
bers of men in each Compleat Regt.,; and the places where they are
now,’’ pp. 24. On the fly leaves are a tailor’s bill in German and
some heads of letters, etc.
The 2d and 3d volumes are labeled ‘‘ Journal of a Voyage from
the Thames to Russia and of Campaigning with the Russian Army.”
It begins at Gravesend, April 13, 1738, and contains personal
expenses, phrases in English, German and Russian, maps, drawings
of scenes, camps, etc., and.a sermon on Peter the Great. The 2d
vol. pp. 287, the 3d vol. pp. 398. There are eighteen maps of
sieges, operations, defences of Belgrade, etc., etc. One of the
maps is dedicated to George the Second.
The 4th volume opens with
ist. ‘©A Tabular List of the Imperial Troops in 1737,’’ followed
by (in French)
za
a
«
1903.) ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. 399
2d. ‘‘ Journal of the Hungarian Campaign of 1737,” with General
Orders, Maps, etc.
3d. ‘‘ Relation des Operations de la Campagne 1738,’’ by Cheva-
lier de Forrestier, Captain of the Regiment of the King’s Infantry.
4th. ‘‘A Diary of the Army under the Duke of Lothringen,
1738-9 ’’ (in German).
The bills for personal expenses are made out to the Earl of Craw-
ford, and this is the only identification. These volumes were no
doubt prepared by his secretary, under his direction, as material for
establishing the record of his services for preservation in the family
archives, and for use in a posthumous biography.
The author and owner of these MS. volumes was John Lindsay,
' twentieth Earl of Crawford. The ational Dictionary of Biogra-
phy gives, in Vol. 38, p. 305, etc., the following sketch of his life:
1702-1749. ‘‘ After attending the Universities of Glasgow and Ed-
inburgh, he was sent in 1721 to the Military Academy of Vau-
dreuil, Paris. In 1726 he was appointed to a company in one of
the additional troops of the Scotch Greys. He early acquired a
reputation for resolution and daring, and while not neglecting intel-
lectual accomplishments, attained exceptional proficiency in athletic -
exercises, especially in shooting, fencing, riding and dancing. On
the disbandment of the additional troops of Scots Greys in 1730,
he .. . . devoted his more serious attention to military studies
and his leisure to boating and hunting. On January 3, 1732, he
obtained command of a troop of the 7th Queen’s own regiment of
dragoons, .. . . in February, 1734, he obtained a captain lieu.
tenancy in the rst regiment of foot-guards, and in October a cap-
taincy in the 3d regiment of foot-guards, but being desirous of
acquiring practical acquaintance with the art of war, he got permis-
sion, in 1735, to join the Imperial army under Prince Eugene. He
specially distinguished himself at the battle of Claussen on October
17. In April, 1738, he sailed from Gravesend to St. Petersburg,
and having received from the Czarina Anna the command of a
regiment of horse, with the rank of general, he, after a perilous
journey of one thousand miles, joined the army of Marshal Munich,
then engaged in a war against the Turks. He soon acquired great
proficiency in the mode of warfare practiced by the Russians. . . . .
After the retreat of Munich to Kiow, Crawford left him and joined
the Imperialists near Belgrade. When the army went into winter
;
400 ROSENGARTEN—-EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. [Dee. 18,
quarters, he accompanied Prince Eugene’s regiment to Comorn,
and thence proceeded to Vienna, still occupying his leisure princi-
pally in military studies. In April he rejoined the Imperialists at
Peterwardein under Marshal Wallis. ... . He left in August,
1741, and returned to England. In July, 1731, he had been made
colonel of horse and adjutant-general ; in October, Colonel of the
42d Highlanders, and in December, Colonel of the Grenadier
Gard. 2. aye In May, 1743, he joined the army under the Earl
~of Stair at Hochstet, when he was made colonel of the Scotch
troop of horse guard and adjutant-general. At the battle of Det-
tingen, on June 16, he commanded the brigade of life-guards,
. with the rank of brigadier-general. He joined the allied
army near Brussels in the following May, and at the battle of Fon-
tenoy, April 30, 1745, he succeeded ... . in so covering the
retreat that it was effected in perfect order. On 30th May follow-
ing he was made a major-general. On the outbreak of the rebellion
in Scotland in 1745, he was appointed by the government to the
command of six thousand Hessians, with whom he secured the
towns of Perth and Sterling and the passes into the lowlands. ... .
He rejoined the army in the Netherlands. On the day of the battle
of Roncroux, October 5, 1746, he was surprised while reconnoitring,
but coolly assuming the character of a French general, ... .
was permitted to pass unmolested... .. In December he was
appointed to the command of the 25th foot .... on May 20,
1747, to that of the Scots Greys, and on September 20 was made a
lieutentant-general. .... Crawford joined the Duke of Cumber-
land in the campaign of 1748. .... Returning after the peace to
London, he died there September 20, 1749.”
The Dictionary of National Biography refers to ‘‘ Memoirs of
the Life of the Right Hon. John Lindsay, Earl of Crawford and
Lindsay, by Richard H[should be RJolt, London, 1753, 4to,’’
reprinted in 1769, under the title ‘‘ Memoirs of the Life of the
late Rt. Hon. John Earl of Crawford, describing many of the high-
est achievements of the late wars,’’ and ‘‘ Lord Lindsay’s Lives of
the Lindsays, London, 1849, 3 volumes, 8vo.’’ In Vol. 2, p. 235,
etc., there is a sketch of his life, and on p. 237 a note says: ‘‘ The
diary of this journal [¢.e¢., from Petersburg to General Munich’s
quarters |, dictated by Lord Crawford and corrected by his own
hand, a large folio, is now in my possession, with various other
journals and military MS., the bequest of my kind relative, Lady
193] ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. 401
Mary Lindsay Crawford, sister of the last Earl of Crawford of the
Byres line.’’
The full title of Rolt’s book is ‘‘ Memoirs of the Life of the late
Right Honorable John Lindesay, Earl of Craufurd and Lindesay,
Lord Lindesay of Glenesk and Lord Lindesay of the Byers, one of
the sixteen Peers of Scotland, Lieutenant General of his Majesty’s
Forces, and Colonel of the Royal North British Grey Dragoons,
by Richard Rolt, author of The True History of the Late War.
London, Printed for Henry Képp; and sold by Mr. Newberry,
in St. Paul’s Church Yard ; Mr. Owen, at Temple Bar; and Mr.
Paterson, in the Strand. 1753, 4to, pp. 432, with appendix.”
Much of this book is a reprint of the principal parts of the four
MSS. yolumes inthe Library of the American Philosophical
Society, viz. :
. Chapter 2. An account of the rise of the war between the
Emperor and France in 1733 to the campaign on the Rhine in
1735, when the Earl of Craufurd served as a volunteer under
Prince Eugene and Count Seckendorff; the action at Claussen ;
and the end of the war.
Chapter 3. The rise of the war between the Russians and the
Turks in 1736, wherein the Imperialists were auxiliary to the
former; the state of those empires, with a short account of the
campaigns in Tartary and Hungary in the years 1736-7.
Chapter 4. An account of the Earl of Craufurd’s preparations
for the Russian campaign of 1738; his voyage to St. Petersburg; |
his reception at that Court, and his journey from thence to the
Russian army in Bessarabia. His reception by Feldt-marshal
Munich; an account of the Tartars; as also of the campaign in
Turkey, and the Earl of Craufurd’s journey to the Imperial army
in Hungary. His reception by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, an
account of the campaign in Hungary, and his lordship’s journey to
Vienna.
Book III, Chap. 1. The campaigns of 1739, containing the
journal of the campaign in Hungary, together with a general plan
of the whole, which was generally printed for this work by his
Royal Highness Prince Charles of Lorraine ; as also an account of
the same campaign written by the Earl of Craufurd, with a descrip-
tion of the battles of Krotza and Panscora; to which is added a
short detail of the Russian campaign, with his lordship’s observa-
402 ROSENGARTEN—EARE OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. [Dec. 18,
tions on the whole and several plans drawn under the direction of
his lordship.
No. 1. The journal of all the motions made by the Imperial and
Turkish armies, from the opening of the campaign in 1739 until
the peace of Belgrade; together with a plan of operations. ... .
No. 2. A description of the battle of Krotzka, .... with
observations . . . . by the late Earl of Craufurd.
Chapter 2. A short introduction to the siege of Belgrade; a
journal of the siege, wrote under the direction of the Earl of Crau- -
furd.
Chapter 3. . . . A journal of his voyage up the Danube from
Belgrade to Vienna... ..
Book IV, Chapter 1. His journey to Milan and Genoa in 1743,
when he joined the Austrian army commanded by Marshal Traun
. his campaign of 1743 in Germany and the battle of Det-
Chapter 2... . The campaign in Flanders in 1744... . his
opinion at a council of war. ....
Chapter 3. His remarks on the opening of the campaign in
1745, and his account of the battle of Fontenoy.
Chapter 4. His conduct toward suppressing the rebellion in
Scotland. The campaign of 1746 in the Netherlands, with a par-
ticular instance of the respect shown to his lordship by Marshal
Saxe... . his remarks on the battle of Roticoux. A short account
of the campaign of 1747 in the Netherlands, and of that of 1748.
The author of the maps, both in this Life and in the MS. volumes,
is Henry Képp, for whom the Life was printed. He was secretary
and draughtsman for Lord Crawford, although Rolt says in his Life
of Crawford, on p. 87, that ‘‘the Earl’s greatest amusement (in his
periods of inactivity) was in revising his journal . . . . making
observations of what he had seen, and in embellishing the plans of
the marches and encampments of which he had been a spectator.’’
Rolt says (p. 116, etc.) that he sent eleven horses to Vienna,
following (on the advice of Prince Cantemir, the Russian Ambassa-
dor to England) five months later, with three servants and as many
horses and three friends, who were desirous of acting as volunteers.
. One of the maps, that of the operations on the Danube in
tee campaign of 1739, is dedicated to General Oglethorpe by
Henry Képp; three others printed in the Life, and identical with
those in the MS. volumes, are dedicated to the Earl of Loudoun:
ita Det ee
ae el ie i le
1903.] ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. 403
‘* A View of the Imperial and Turkish Armies . . . . at Winscha’”’;
but even more curious is the ‘‘ Plan designated by the Earl to shew
the disposition in w™ his lordship conceived the Imperial Army
might have been formed, on its Junction with Count Neuperg’s
Corps, during the night between between the 22nd and 23rd of
July 1739; in w™ situation... . it would have been more eligi-
ble to have renewed the Battle against the Turks, on the 23d, than
for the Imperialists to retreat as they did in the night time of the
a3d.””
There are, however, many original maps in the MSS. volumes,
not reproduced in the Life, no doubt owing to the expense. At p.
430 of the Life, Rolt says Lord Craufurd ‘‘ designed and drew
plans with such great accuracy, that he beautifully represented all
the heights, and the hollows; every small break, every ditch,
hedge, bush, and other obstruction, which could in the least, in-
commode an army forming in the line of battle, in its movements ;
whereby any person, a little acquainted with drawing, could easily
perceive which of the armies had the advantage of the ground, and
which of them had improved it the most for their own security.”
Further, ‘‘ He was of the opinion that it would be a great advantage
. to introduce archery into our armies . . . . each battalion
should have from twenty to four or five score able bodied men, who
had been trained to shoot at butts, from their youth... . to en-
courage young men to train themselves to the use and exercise of
these weapons .... to... . be detached a little before the
front of the first line to throw their arrows among the enemy’s
cavalry, after which they should lay aside their bows and quivers,
and fall in with their small arms, with their battalions.’’ He also
advised the use of heavy firearms ‘‘ such as were used by the Span-
iards under the Duke of Alva, which they levelled upon the rest of
a fork fixed to the piece by a swivel, for these arms carried a very
heavy shot and did execution at a great distance.”’
How did these MSS. volumes come to this country and to the
Library of the American Philosophical Society? Were they used
by Rolt in preparing his Life of Lord Crawford, or had Lord
Crawford a number of copies of his MSS., all enriched by maps
and plans, and bound under lock and key? These curious volumes
ought to be in the Library of the United States Military Academy
at West Point, or in that of the General Staff College, soon to be
opened in Washington, for they constitute a contemporary docu-
o
1 RE EE eR Se ae | en: 3 on i) aa :
, bya ts
404 ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF peteoees MS. HISTORY. (Dee. 18,
ment of value to students of military history. The Philosophical
Society would no doubt be glad to exchange them for books bet
suited to its peaceful scientific pursuits and to its legend, prescrib
by its great founder, Franklin, ‘‘ For promoting useful knowledge.””
Pr yy
OBITUARY NOTICES OF MEMBERS DECEASED.
JOSEPH MILLER WILSON, A.M.,C.E.
(Read May 1, 1903.)
To meet Joseph M. Wilson in ordinary intercourse afforded an
opportunity to learn of the good, true and beautiful in human
nature; to know him better, in relation to the sciences and arts,
was a privilege fraught with instruction, aid and a constant pro-
gression onward and upward toward greater knowledge of things
as they are ; to know him spiritually, to recognize the Holy Spirit
of Truth within him dominating all else, was to feel the influence
of that more profound, ennobling, holier enlightenment, based
upon sincerity and Divine purpose, which ‘‘ shines reflected in the
human face.’’
To adequately appreciate the strength and force of character
which lay back of his admirable work, it is important to recall some
of the conditions which brought it about, for, from the varied stand-
points of heredity, individual endowment, education and oppor-
tunity, Mr. Wilson was favored above many, and the excellent use he
made of what he possessed appeals to the very best that philosophy
can recognize.
Joseph M. Wilson was a worthy member of a long line of men
eminent in professional walks of life, notably as experts in the engi-
neering profession, each of whom had made his mark in public
service by ability founded upon integrity, and inspired by a pro-
gressive spirit which, while ignoring nothing in nature, conserving
the best from the past, ever led onward toward the further better-
ment of men and things.
His earliest American ancestor was Robert Gibbes (1644-1715),
who came from his native place, Barbadoes, to the Province of
South Carolina; was Chief Justice of that Province (1708) and
Governor (1710-1712). His great-great-grandfather was James
Wilson, an engineer and architect of Stirling,’ Scotland, whose son
John Wilson (1755-1798) was Lieutenant in the Seventy-first Brit-
ish Foot (Highlanders), and served throughout the American Revo-
lutionary War as an engineer under Major Moncrief, of the Royal
il : OBITUARY NOTICES.
Engineers ; was wounded at the siege of Charleston ; later on mar-
ried there a daughter of Dr. Robert Wilson, a prominent physician
of that place, and eventually returned to Scotland.
In the next generation, John Wilson (1789, Scotland—1833,
‘America), the grandfather of the subject of this sketch, having
completed his education at the University of Edinburgh, returned
(1807) to his mother’s native land, and entered upon the profession
of engineer and surveyor in Charleston. His professional thor-
oughness and accuracy are matters of record to this day. A map
of South Carolina made by him for the State Government is yet
considered the standard authority for all but subsequent improve-
ments. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States at
an early period, and during the war with Great Britain (1812)
served as engineer for the construction of the works of defense of
the city of Charleston; held office of State Civil and Military
Engineer for South Carolina under Board of Public Works (1818—
1822), and in, 1826 removed to Philadelphia, from which time
Major John Wilson became identified, as Chief Engineer, with
that extensive system of improvements for the State of Pennsyl-
vania which during his life materialized in the Philadelphia &
Columbia Railroad. Of his son, William Hasell Wilson (1811-
1902), who followed directly in his father’s footsteps, the important
and enduring work performed by him is still fresh in the memory
of many yet living. He was closely identified with the onward
march and development of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company’s
system from its very infancy, when with his father’s corps in 1826 ;
through the formative period of the organization, when the standard
was set for high achievement which has since obtained; through
the Civil.War period, when, as Chief Engineer of the Pennsylvania
Railroad, his Department of Maintenance and Construction was
called upon to preserve intact the highway itself for the transporta-
tion of armies and munitions of war as well as the general public
and freight traffic; through to the end of a professional career,
embracing many positions of trust and responsibility, of excep-
tional usefulness and duration (actual service, seventy-six years).
William Hasell Wilson was finally looked upon as the Nestor of his
profession, respected, honored, followed, served by many a younger
man _of-his-own corps who..can. to-day rise up and -call his name
blessed.: Such were some of the anUEEBEEA? which cr “pas
+ the subject of this sketch.
JOSEPH MILLER WILSON, ili
Joseph M. Wilson possessed by heredity those inestimable privi-
leges and advantages which come from things of good repute in
‘professional life and practice. He was keenly sensitive in uphold-
ing the high standard and family traditions thus bequeathed unto
him, and he did so with a constancy and fidelity unto himself
quite above the control of policies and politics, either secular or
religious, which he did not approve.
Born at Phoenixville, Pa. (June 20, 1838); passed a portion of
his youth upon his father’s farm, Chester county, Pa.; attended
private schools, and entered the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
Troy, N. Y. (September, 1854). After graduation, with degree of
C. E. (1858), took a special course of two years in Analytical
Chemistry with Prof. F. A. Genth, at Philadelphia, and in March,
1860, entered the service of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company
as Assistant Engineer.
His services with that company covered the important period
when the introduction of cast and wrought iron, and later on steel,
in lieu of the previous wood-construction for bridges and buildings,
involved much original research and experiments more or less novel
to the profession. Mr. Wilson was among the early investigators
to apply such -in actual practice, and became a valued source of
information and experience in each of the three departments of
this development, viz., mathematical investigation involving the
theory of strains, the development of designs, and work executed.
His technical papers, published then and later on, form part of the
history and literature of the profession in the United States. He
held various positions in the service of the company in line of pro-
motion, and as Engineer of Bridges and Buildings embraced oppor-
tunities involving increased responsibility by the embodiment of
new ideas in construction.
He continued in that service until 1886, during which time he
constructed, among many works, the original Broad Street Station,
Philadelphia, which for purity indesign was eminently character-
istic of him.
As early as 1873, when the National Congress and citizens at
large became interested in the approaching international celebration
of the first centennial of the nation, Mr. Wilson at once took an
active part, both as citizen and professionally....Later on, after -the
adoption of the design for the Main Building, which was finally
erected in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, he became associated with
lV OBITUARY NOTICES.
the writer of this sketch in the building thereof. The Machinery
Hall, the first of such dimensions and pretensions in the history of
the country, was subsequently designed and erected under similar
auspices, Mr. Wilson taking the leading part.
The execution of works having international significance and
relations in any field of effort is apt to produce a desire, an impetus
to greater comprehensive effort, embodying collateral information
and more extended professional skill and practice. Mr. Wilson
embodied this progressive spirit in a pre-eminent degree, his quali-
fications for such progress being excellent, his standard of the
highest, his spirit confident. His success which followed is asso-
ciated with that of his brothers, under the firm-name of Wilson
Bros. & Co. (organized 1876), of which he was for many years the
senior member. The scope of his work in this relation embraced
a field exceptionally large, under auspices much varied, and in loca-
tions far distant in other countries; the variety of information
necessary to attainment not confined to technical matters, but in-
volving special studies of diverse character, not a few of which
resulted in published papers giving much specific data for reference
as well as professional opinion. Some of these papers were pre-
pared to aid philanthropy in general, and not only those engaged
in the actual construction of buildings. The scope of his work
thus became in time very extensive.
Whether in the designing and erection of hospitals or of banking
buildings, of comprehensive systems of shops for railroad corpora-
tions or structures for industrial enterprises ; whether buildings for
administrative purposes or Union Depots; whether as engineer or
architect, in consultation or for expert testimony, in reference to
elevated railways in cities, the water-supply of cities, or the mam-
moth suspension bridges connecting adjacent centres of population ;
whether as engineer of subways under municipal control, or as
trustee for carrying out of bequests to institutes for the education
of future generations; whether as President of the Franklin Insti-
tute for ten years, or as member of learned societies, both at home
or abroad ; whether as author of technical papers for the British
Institution of Civil Engineers, London, or as an American author
bringing home from France and England his study of trade-schools
to improve their construction and administration here—in all these
Joseph M. Wilson took part.
His constant desire was for a more comprehensive and advanced
wie
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JOSEPH MILLER WILSON. Vi
knowledge of actual facts and powers in nature, ever with a view to
their direct application in new phases of work, and this kept him
in touch with investigation in many fields.
He was never visionary ; imagination was not his strong point,
not even in his moments of relaxation, when music (the organ in
particular), painting or photography were cultivated because of the
fine-art appreciation which they called for. Yet few recognized
more than he what scientific research contains, potentially, for
further advancement by co-operation toward the revelation of truth
in unity.
From his point of view this was the highest ideal as to material
things, fer se, demanding constant touch with the progress of the
age, and treatment both subjective and objective in life-work.
To study, control and utilize the forces of nature was his busi-
ness in life, and he did so according to the most approved methods.
If this were all, this tribute to his memory might well close at this
point with one phrase: a man of high cultivation and refined feel-
ing, an eminent engineer, whose works do follow him. With him,
however, this was not all. It was not all of life to live and work—
not by any means, neither in science nor religion.
To those who knew him best his personality was most sympa-
thetic, responsive and pure in communication. He was never idle,
but constantly seeking in the domain of fine art and kindred fields
to gratify a refined taste and keen appreciation of the beautiful as
well as the good and true, thus producing impressions which ap-
pealed through their spiritual import. These traits characterized
his moral nature as forcibly as the more exact sciences and arts
appealed to his intellect. His numerous descriptive manuscripts
of travel, containing sketches and illustrations drawn on the spot
from nature, are as a mine of wealth to those left behind. These
studies of nature in its refined aspects—the optimism in nature—
touched a chord which vibrated with still higher harmonies. With
him the progressive spirit was not only onward but upward toward
the eminent domain of theologic aspect—theology the queen of all
sciences.
No one realized his own limitations better than himself, but the
ideal he ever held before him was fundamentally not subject to limi-
tations, being neither more nor less than the Divine Personality who
had said unto him, ‘‘I am the way, the truth and the life. Follow
me.’’ This dictum was to Joseph M. Wilson the most profound
vil OBITUARY NOTICES.
yet comprehensive, from any point of view, ever uttered to hu-
manity. He endeavored to lead the life thereby called for, and his .
works certainly do follow him, as he followed that ideal. He was
kindness and love itself, even unto self-sacrifice—constant and
enduring in good effort.
In one word, the life and career of Joseph M. Wilson manifested
in well-balanced harmony the two conditions, material and spirit-
ual, which call forth the best within a man as the wisdom of this
age now perceives the truth in things as they are—viz., a sound,
reasonable basis (scientific) for physical needs and intellectual life
in all he studied, designed, advocated and executed—this being an
up-to-date application of truth as natural science now recognizes it ;
also, a marked spiritual discernment of truth progressiveas manifested
in and through the religious consciousness of humanity under the
ever-active ministry of the Holy Spirit of Truth in man himself—
an inner life of good thoughts, giving utterance in good words,
good deeds—an example of one who did follow in sincerity on-
ward and upward toward the brightest and best.
Mr. Wilson married (1869) Sarah Dale Pettit, daughter of Judge
Thomas McKean Pettit; great-granddaughter of Col. Charles
Pettit and of Commodore Richard Dale, of Revolutionary memory,
and of Chief Justice and Governor Thomas McKean, signer. He
left one daughter, Mrs. John T. Gibson, of New York.
His domestic virtues were as beautiful, steadfast and altruistic as
his professional life was admirable, sincere and progressive. He
passed away in full belief of that higher existence in which there is
“activity for all our powers, and power for all our activities.”’
March 23, 190}. HEnry PETTIT.
OBITUARY NOTICES. vil
EXTRACT FROM THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.
BY EDGAR F. SMITH.
(Read December 18, 1903.)
Amid the activities of the year, while we all have been busy in
our several vocations, word has been passed from time to time that
the grim Messenger had appeared in our circle and summoned to
the silent majority not a few of our fellow-members. This roll
included—
Dr. CHARLES SCHAFFER, who was born in this city sixty-six years
ago. He graduated from the Medical Department of the Univer-
_ sity of Pennsylvania at the age of twenty-one. His poor health
prevented him from devoting himself wholly to his chosen profes-
sion. He was deeply interested in the natural sciences and their
applications. He took an active part in the affairs of the Academy
of Natural Sciences, the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, the
Franklin Institute, the Photographic Society of Philadelphia, the
American Association of Mining Engineers, and was particularly
well known in the scientific world for his work in the field of bot-
any. His knowledge of the local species of plants and shrubs was
profound. He made a special study of the mountain flora of Brit-
ish Columbia. He died November 23, 1903.
Dr. THomas G. Morton was born in this city on August 8, 1835.
After preparation in the city schools and the College of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania he entered the Medical Department, from
which he graduated in 1856.
He devoted himself chiefly to general surgery and was a resident
physician in the Pennsylvania Hospital for some time. He was one
of the founders of the Polyclinic Hospital and the Orthopedic Hos-
pital. His many services to the State on various boards and com-
missions included the erection of the State Hospital for the Insane
for the Southern District of Pennsylvania.
In 1880 he was chosen President of the Pennsylvania Society for
the Restriction of Vivisection and Vice-President of the Society to
Protect Children from Cruelty. Dr. Morton had great success as a
surgeon. His clinical lectures at the Pennsylvania Hospital were
attended by thousands of students from all parts of the world. He
was a member of various foreign and American professional bodies,
Vill OBITUARY NOTICES.
and a frequent contributor to journals of medicine. His own books
are Zhe Transfusion of Blood and The Surgery of the Pennsylvania
Hospita/, together with a history of the latter institution. He was
actively engaged in public school work in this city, and for many
years was a member of the Board’s most important committees.
He was a member of the Academy of Natural Sciences and of the
Union League. He died May 20, 1903, at Cape May.
Rev. Henry CLay TRUMBULL was born in Connecticut, June 8,
1830. He received his education in Williston Seminary.
In 1858 he became a missionary for the State Sunday School
Association, which had its headquarters in Hartford. He was a
chaplain in the Tenth Regiment in the Civil War. In 1863 he was
taken prisoner before Fort Wagner and sent to the Charleston jail,
later to Libbey Prison, where he was held for several months.
Five of his books treat of his army experiences. They were
Some Army Soldiers, The Knightly Soldier, A Biography of Major
Lenry Ward Camp, The Captured Scout of the Army of the James
and War Memoirs of an Army Chaplain.
At the end of the war he returned to Sunday School work. In
1866 he received the degree of M.A. from Yale, and in 188r the
degree of D.D. from Lafayette College, and the same degree from
the University of New York in 1882. In 1875 he took charge of
the Sunday School Times of this city, and during his editorial career
wrote a number of books of a devotional character. He traveled in
Egypt, Arabia and Syria, where he studied the track of the Exodus
and identified the site of Kadash-Barnia. Following this sojourn
abroad he prepared a number of volumes, some of which bear these
titles, Zhe Zen Commandments as a Covenant of Love, Light on the :
Story of Jonah, Subjects in Oriental Social Life, The Threshold
Covenant, The Covenant of Saul, etc., etc. He died in this city on
‘December 8th.
Pror. RopeERT H. THURSTON was born in Providence, R. I. In
1859 he graduated from Brown University with the degree of Civil
Engineer. He served throughout the Civil War, beginning in 1861,
being finally promoted to the position of chief engineer of one of
the monitors. For six years he was an instructor in the United
States Naval Academy at Annapolis. In 1871 he became Professor
of Mechanical Engineering in the Stevens Institute of Technology.
OBITUARY NOTICES. 1x
This position he held until 1885, when he was called to the direc-
torship of the Sibley College of Mechanic Arts at Cornell Univer.
sity. His work in both of these institutions of learning was most
successful. It was characterized by great energy and executive
ability. In 1873 Dr. Thurston was United States Commissioner to
the Vienna Exposition. In 1875 he was appointed a member of the
United States Board to Test Metals. In connection with this work
he devised a machine for torsional tests, and made numerous inves-
tigations in the Mechanics of Materials.
In 1883 he published a work in three volumes, bearing the title
The Materials of Engineering. Other books by him, such as the
Handbook of Engines and Boiler Trials, Stationary Steam Engines
and Boiler Explosions, have had a wide circulation. His JZanual
of the Steam Engine, in three volumes, was translated into French.
Some of his other publications are Friction and Lubrication, Fric-
tion and Lost Work, The Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor,
and Zhe Life of Robert Fulton.
His contributions to scientific and engineering periodicals ran up
into the hundreds.
He was a member of many scientific societies at home and abroad.
He was one of the founders of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, and its first President. He was a Vice-President of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1877,
1878 and in 1884.
The scientific and engineering work of Professor Thurston was of
great benefit to mankind, for he made engineers better scientists,
promoted engineering education, helped to put engineering upon a
higher plane, and was constantly watching to dispel the fogs of pre-
judice by help of the truths of science.
He was the recipient of the honorary degree of LL.D. from his
alma mater, and of the degree of Doctor of Engineering from Ste-
vens Institute.
‘Tn all his relations to general University problems he exhibited
the spirit of the scholar and the wisdom of the man of affairs.
Serene in temper, sound in judgment, swift and certain in action,
he justly exercised a weighty influence.
‘As a colleague he exhibited an interest in all good learning and
bespoke a good scholar and a general fellow-worker. As a friend
and companion, he manifested a cordial sympathy that attracted all
who knew him and held them in the bonds of an increasing affec-
x OBITUARY NOTICES.
tion. In all the relations of life he moved upon the highest levels
and showed forth the better qualities of our nature.’’
His loss falls heavily upon all—his colleagues, his friends and his
University—but most heavily upon his family, with whom we deeply
sympathize.
WILLIAM VancentT McKean was born in Philadelphia, October
15, 1820, and died March 23, 1903. He was associate editor of
the Pennsylvania with John W. Forney in 1852; chief clerk of the
House of Representatives from 1853 to 1855 ; examiner of the Uni-
ted States Patent Office ; private secretary to James Buchanan ; an
editorial writer for the Philadelphia Inquirer and Public Ledger.
He edited the Wational Almanac Record for 1864, and wrote a
report favoring the money order system for the United States in
1858, What the Navy Has Done During the War in 1864, General
Mc Clellan’s Campaign in 1864, and delivered an address in Inde-
pendence Hall on July 2, 1876, entitled ‘‘ The Centennial of Amer-
‘ican Independence.”’
THEODORE D. Ranp was born in Philadelphia, September 16,
1836, and graduated from the Episcopal Academy and the Poly-
technic College. In 1858 he was admitted to the Bar and practiced
Law for a time. He was chiefly known for his scientific work in
connection with Mineralogy and Geology, having published a num-
ber of papers on these branches and lectured very frequently before
scientific bodies. He was a member of the Mineralogical section
of the Academy of Natural Sciences, also the Franklin Institute and
the American Institute of Mining Engineers. He died on April
24, aged sixty-seven years.
Epwarp Ruoaps. It was only last spring that this young scien-
tist was received into our membership. No one at that time
dreamed that he would not be with us now in the full vigor of man-
hood. His history is briefly as follows:
Dr. Rhoads graduated with honors from Haverford College in
1893. He studied from 1896-1898 at Johns Hopkins University,
from which institution he received the degree of Doctor of Philos-
ophy. Immediately thereafter he became instructor in physics in
the Worcester Polytechnic Institute. Leaving here in 1901 he was
OBITUARY NOTICES. xi
appointed to a similar position in Haverford College. Among his
publications we find the following titles:
“‘The Effect of the Fibrous Structure of Sheet Iron on the
Changes in Length Accompanying Magnetizations.’’
‘* Experiments on the Change in Dimensions Caused by Magneti-
zation in Iron.”’
‘‘ Relations Between the Changes in Thermo-Electric Power
Caused in Magnetization.’”’
Dr. Rhoads was unmarried and resided with his mother in Ger-
mantown. He was a member of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science.
CHARLES GODFREY LELAND was born in Philadelphia in 1824, and
received his education at Princeton and the Universities of Heidel-
berg, Munich and Paris. He was very active in the Revolution of
1848 and was one of the American delegates to congratulate the
Provisional Government.
He studied and practiced Law in Philadelphia for four years, be-
ginning with 1849, and then devoted himself to Journalism and the
writing of books. In 1869 he removed to Europe, living chiefly in
London, and was occupied with literature. On his return to Amer-
ica in 1880 he devoted much time in introducing the minor arts as
a branch of instruction in public schools. Since 1886 he has been
residing in Florence. He has been a frequent contributor to the
Oriental, Social Science and Folklore Societies.
He published Poe/ry and Mystery of Dreams in 1850, Hans
Breitman’s Ballads in 1858, English Gypsies in 1852, English
Gypsy Ballads in 1873, Life of Abraham Lincoln in 1881, The
Minor Aris in 1881, Gypsy Sorcery in 1891, Etruscan Roman Forms
in 1892, and numerous other books. His specialty seems to have
been the study of tradition and folklore. He passed away on March
20, 1903, in Florence, Italy.
JAMEs GLAISHER, F.R.S., an honored foreign member, attained
the grand age of ninety-four years. ° When but twenty years old he
was made an assistant on the principal triangulation of the Ordnance
Survey of Ireland. His chief work during his life was the investi-
gation of subjects on practical Meteorology. His contributions in
this field and in Astronomy are exceedingly numerous and valuable.
His hygrometrical tables, first published in 1847, passed through
xii OBITUARY NOTICES.
eight editions, and with his Zravels in the Air, Diurnal Range
Tables, Report on the Meteorology of India and Meteorology of Pat-
estine, are among his chief writings. In the interests of meteorol-
ogy he made twenty-nine balloon ascensions in four years. In the
one of September 5, 1862, he and his companion attained the high-
est distance from the earth (37,000 feet) ever reached. He was a
pioneer in the systematic organization of meteorological observa-
tions. In 1850 he was one of the founders of the Royal Meteoro-
logical Society, being its original Secretary, ‘‘ who nursed it through
its infancy and youth, and left it to other hands only when it was
-old enough and strong enough to walk alone.’’ He passed away
February 7, 1903.
Pror. WILLIAM HarkKNEss was born in Scotland on December 17,
4839. He died at Jersey City, N. J., U.S. A., February 28, 1903.
From Science we learn that he graduated in 1858 as an A.B. from
“Syracuse University, from which institution he also received the de-
-grees of A.M. (1861) and LL.D. (1874). In 1862 he received the
-degree of M.D. from a New York school, and in August of that year
became aid to the U. S. Naval Observatory. In August, 1863, he
was commissioned Professor of Mathematics in the Navy with the
rank of lieutenant-commander. From October, 1865, to June,
1866, he served on the U. S. Monitor Monadnock, making obser-
vations on the behavior of her compasses under the influence of the
heavy iron armor of the ship. This was the most elaborate discus-
sion of the behavior of compasses on armed ships that has ever been
made. His report was published by the Smithsonian Institution in
a volume of 225 quarto pages. On his return to Washington he
was attached to the Hydrographic Office for one year, and thereafter
for seven years to the Naval Observatory, during which period he
observed the total solar eclipse at Des Moines, Iowa, and discovered
the famous coronal line KX 1474, also the total solar eclipse of De-
cember 22, 1870, at Syracuse, Sicily, and in 1871 was appointed
one of the original members of the U.S. Transit of Venus Com-
mission to arrange for the observation of the transits of that planet
in 1874 and in 1882. He devised most of the instruments for the
purpose and fitted out the various expeditions in this country. His
own station was at Hobart, Tasmania.
In 1875 he studied the observations of the U. S. parties from
a series of wet collodion photographs on glass plates. He suc-
OBITUARY NOTICES. xill
ceeded where others failed, and in the course of his study in 1877
invented the spherometer caliper. In 1879 he discovered the theory
of the focal curve of achromatic telescopes. In 1876 he set up the
Government astronomical exhibit at the Centennial Exposition in
Philadelphia, Pa. In 1878 he observed the transit of Mercury at
Austin, Texas, and the total solar eclipse at Creston, Wyoming, in
July of that year, 1878. He carried on extensive experiments in
astronomical photography, and in 188r to 1883 was engaged in re-
ducing the zones of stars observed by Capt. Gillin at Santiago,
Chile, in 1849 to 1852. In 1888-9 and 1890 he gave much time to
the preparation of his work on Zhe Solar Parallax and Its Related
Constants. From 1891-1899 he was chiefly occupied in following
the erection of the new Naval Observatory, in devising and mount-
ing its instruments, etc., etc. In 1894 he became astronomical
director of the Naval Observatory, with complete control of all its
astronomical work. He also became director of the Vautical Al-
manac in June, 1897. These offices he held until his retirement for
age, December 17, 1899, with the rank of rear-admirgl. He was
the author of many scientific papers and member of numerous sci-
entific societies, President of the Washington Philosophical Society
in 1887, and President of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science in 1893.
Pror. J. PETER LESLEY. There are those in this audience who
can speak more fully of this departed friend than the speaker.
These halls knew the great geologist well. The interests of this
Society were his. Many hours did he bestow upon its affairs, and
about us there are many eviderces of his unselfish labors. My
knowledge of him was very slight. I saw him frequently in the
halls and the museum of the University of Pennsylvania, but be-
yond the formal bow it was not my privilege to know him. In the
September issue of the American Geologist for 1903 Our associate,
Dr. Persifor Frazer, has recorded a picture of this successful teacher
and investigator, from which we abstract the following facts. This
city was Lesley’s birthplace. The natal day was September 17, 1819.
His training was received here and in the University, where he
completed his studies in 1838. At Princeton he studied Theology
from 1841 to 1843, and in 1844 obtained his ministerial license,
The year of 1844-45 he spent in study at the University of Heidel-
berg. For five years (1846-1851) he officiated as pastor of the
X1V OBITUARY NOTICES.
Congregational Church in Milton, Mass. At the expiration of that
period he left the ministry and devoted his whole time to geological
pursuits. In 1872 he became Professor of Geology and Mining in
the University of Pennsylvania, as well as the Dean of its Faculty
of Science. In 1874 he was entrusted with the directorship of the
second geological survey of this State.
‘¢The hundred volumes and thousands of maps and sections of
this survey will be his most enduring monument.”’
He threw great light upon the rock oil problem. He was one of
the original members of the National Academy of Sciences; Presi-
dent of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
in 1884, and author of Man, His Origin and Destiny, from the Plat-
form of the Sciences; Coal and Lis Topography, etc.
“¢ Lesley’s character was wholly noble. He was generous to pro-
digality towards others while careless of his own ease and comfort.
Plain living and high thinking was the motto which moulded his
life.’
Surrounded in his closing years by a loving wife and devoted
daughters, he peacefully passed away on June 1, 1903, at Milton,
Mass,
Sir GEORGE GABRIEL STOKES was born August 13, 181g, at
Skreen, County Sligo, of which parish his father was rector. He
entered Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1837, graduated in 1841,
became Fellow of the College in the same year, and in 1849 was
elected Lucasian Professor of Mathematics.
Professor Tate writes, ‘‘To us, who were mere undergraduates
when he was elected to the Lucasian Professorship, but who had
with mysterious awe speculated on the relative merits of the man of
European fame whom we expected to find competing for so high
an honor, the election of a young and (to ws) an unknown candi-
date was a very startling phenomenon, but we were still more
startled a few months afterwards when the new Professor gave pub-
lic notice that he considered it part of the duties of his office to
assist any member of the University in difficulties he might encoun-
ter in his mathematical subjects. Here was, we thought, a single
knight fighting against the whole melee of the tournament, but we
soon discovered our mistake, and felt that the undertaking was the
effect of an earnest sense of duty on the conscience of a singularly
modest but exceptionally able and learned man, and so it has
OBITUARY NOTICES. xV
proved.’’ Stokes may justly be looked upon as in a sense one of
the intellectual parents of the school of Natural Philosophy which
Cambridge has nurtured, the school which numbers in its ranks Sir
William Thompson and Sir William Maxwell.
He was really a great discoverer in Mathematics and Physics.
Stokes fully apprehended the physical basis of spectral analysis and
pointed out how it could be applied to the detection of the con-
stituents of the atmosphere of the sun and stars. In some of his
earlier papers he has laid down the scientific distinction between
rotational and differentially irrotational motion, which forms the
basis of Helmholtz’s magnificent investigations about vortex mo-
tion. His papers on the (long) spectrum of the electric light, and
particularly those on the absorbent spectrum of the blood, are of
very great value.
Sir William Thompson says that Stokes roamed over the whole
domain of Natural Philosophy in his work and thought, Electricity
being the single field which he looked upon from the outside. He
even enriched pure Mathematics of a highly transcendental kind.
Mathematics with Stokes was the servant and assistant, not the
master. In science his guiding star was Natural Philosophy. In
1843 he published his Zheory of the Viscosity of Fluids and a little
later his Zheory of Oscillatory Waves. ‘*The Dynamical Theory
of Diffraction’’ was one of his most important contributions on the
subject of light. In his paper on ‘‘ The Change of Refrangibility
of Light’’ he described his now well-known discovery of Fluor-
escence, according to which a fluorescent substance emits in all
directions from the course through it of a beam of homogeneous
light.
Stokes’ scientific work and scientific thought are but partially
represented by his public writings. He gave generously and freely
of his treasures to all who were fortunate enough to have the oppor-
tunity of receiving from him.
Sir William Thompson says ‘‘that his teaching me the principles
of solar and stellar Astronomy while we were walking about among
the Colleges, sometime prior to 1852, is but one example of his gen-
erosity.”
The funeral of this great man took place last February at Cam-
bridge, England. The most distinguished representatives of many
branches of learning were present. The University church was
crowded in every part. The assembly constituted a living witness
Xvi OBITUARY NOTICES.
of the esteem in which the memory of Sir George Stokes is held in
the intellectual world. The coffin containing the late Master’s
body was first carried around the court of Pembroke College, in
accordance with an ancient custom reserved for Masters, the pro-
cession being formed of the choir and officiating clergy, the Fel-
lows of the College, former Fellows, Masters of Arts, Bachelors of
Arts and undergraduates. The interment took place at Mill Road
Cemetery.
In the words of Lord Kelvin, ‘‘ The world is poorer through his
death, and we who knew him feel the sorrow of bereavement.’’
Pror. Jostan WILLARD Gipps. From the American Journal of
Science for September, 1903, we glean that he was born February
11, 1839, in New Haven, where his father was professor of Sacred
Literature in the Yale Divinity School. He entered Yale College
in 1854 and graduated in 1858. During his academic course he
received several prizes in Latin and Mathematics. In 1863 he won
the Ph.D. degree and was appointed to a tutorship in the College.
The winter of 1866-67 he spent in Paris, and the year following
went to Berlin, where he heard Magnus and others in physics and
mathematics. In 1868 he listened to Kirchhoff and Helmholtz at
Heidelberg. In 1871 he became Professor of Mathematical Physics
at Yale; this position he held until the time of his death. It was
not until he was thirty-four years old that he gave to the world, by
publication, evidence of his extraordinary powers as an investigator
in Mathematical Physics. In 1876 and 1878 appeared two parts of
his great paper ‘‘ On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances.”’
The third overshadowed these somewhat. This is his most impor-
tant contribution to physical science. It is one of the greatest and
most enduring monuments of the wonderful scientific activity of the
nineteenth century.
The publication of this work was universally regarded an event
of the first importance in the history of Chemistry. It founded a
new department of chemical science. Yet years elapsed before its
value was generally recognized. It was translated into German in
1891 by Ostwald, and into French in 1899 by LeChatelier.
In 1881 and 1884 he printed for private use a concise account of
vector analysis. This he applied to some of the problems of astron-
omy. In 1888 to 1889 he contributed five papers on points in the
electro-magnetic theory of light and its relations to the various elas-
OBITUARY NOTICES. "xvii
tic theories. His last work was upon Z/ementary Principles in Sta-
“istical Mechanics.
The value of Williard Gibbs’ work to science has been formally
recognized by many learned societies and universities at home and
abroad. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences,
the Royal Institute of Great Britain, the Royal Society of London,
etc., etc., and the recipient of honorary degrees from Williams Col-
lege and from the Universities of Erlangen, Princeton and Chris-
tiana. In 1881 he received the Rumford medal from the American ~
Academy of Boston, and in 1901 the Copley medal of the Royal
Society of London.
His life was uneventful. He made but one visit to Europe. He
lived in New Haven, in the same home which his father built, a few
rods from the school where he prepared for College and from the
University, in the service of which his life was spent. He never
married. He was retiring in disposition, went little into society and
was known to few outside the University. His modesty in regard
to his work was proverbial. ‘‘ Unassuming in manner, genial and
kindly in his intercourse with his fellow-men, devoid of personal
_ambition of the baser sort, or of the slightest desire to exalt him-
self, he went far toward realizing the ideal of the unselfish Christian
gentleman.’’ He died April 28, 1903.
They are gone. The world and we shall miss them. May the
good they have accomplished serve as further incentives to us to
press forward—each in his own specialty—without ceasing, in quest
of the all-satisfying, all-enlightening truth.
INDEX TO VOLUME XLII.
Page
OGTCSS OF LHe) PTeSiGeNt: ATUL. oes ew waists at eine” wr. ch aol Sie eRe Pete € “a O90
Arch roOOcy, ang Mineralopy, Haupt; Pauly is.) Si. wo ecct. sis oti ekiel tesa ehiet ee atoeae 6
AU MOIA PHONE, Phil, “sia, losev he nate toe. a) syne w len ate he!) laueelretrayeap iets) Cora 352
Alpuabet. Development of the Pnelish’.. Sosa 6 aie ed sien elles ee tel tereaine 6
Amercan Philosophical Society, Brief History of - 3) i 6c diss ss wee ee 7
Animal Industries of the United States, Pearson .....-.......+0-2 -o har aan:
Arthropoda, Hints on the Classification of the ..... ...... een ti ea U7
Ashmead, Testimony of the Huacos (Mummy-grave) Potteries of Old Pera oe B02, at8
Assemblages, Theory of, and Integration of Discontinuous Functions ........- 8
Bailey, The Forward Movement in Plant-Breeding. ........+4-e+.s-ess86-. 6, 54
Eee NCTA ASK HrOUMGLET 6 Tseng Sah [o1\d) Bly ap ete ta! (aN Sea Ua = Relea Alef ASU 352
ESRC AIO" ACULVILY: to .ca/tsi vas aloe. seis) secw-e’ seen ot Sunk tee aewemeay et Lt aie lca c:oe Srmenrataes 266
Brooks, Mechanical Construction and Use of Logarithms. .............. 8
Brooks, New Genus of Hydroid Jelly-Fishes: .. oJitis Wits 6 deelieaivc ois 0) a's ens ace dil
Brow, Amos ©:, Geological Tour to labrador <.. .<.. -.:)i (ewes) =) Leet o) ey 352
Brown, E. W., Degree of Accuracy of the Newtonian Law of Grayitation. ...... 8
Carnegie Institution during the First Year of its Development. ........... 7
Chandler, Electro-Chemical Industries at Niagara Falls ... ...........- 345
Channels, Deeper Navigable... .. 2... 5-2 26 ee eee ee «cin ee eel ee
COMMEMCES: StanGin eo; LOM OOS, va laitel le loll + 03 Ub aw ee, we ne) ae renee
Gonklin’ Earliest) Differentiation of the Egg... Ws. .c. Se Sel ee ee) wheter ate 10
WOM eA VOLO ANG: HUI CNESIS) <c) «7. lev eels) Gi es eb as ue awe) si = ot a ieite ype ices 274
MON OmA DELETION ti lcy acne Apes che, stra Note Mel. 2. eh ete. We Peakghica el} tcoaraees
Corn Grain, The Structure of the, and its Relation to Popping ........ ‘. 6
Crawford, Earl of, MS. History in the Library of the American Philosophical Sadteen 397
Crookes Tube, Properties of the Field Surroundinga......... Cees PEA 96, 266
SeRUN iis Ar tC EVO UCHIOL OL. a tcc) oy ws) sec ey & wh ieuclti =) atey abe sitertel ee 219, 267
Crystals, Inclusion and Occlusion of Solvent ins « 2.0.03 § 6. se) =e 8 eile ees 28
Renu eTaA DNIG! ELOPOLUGs eas yl tf ic) ors) ubiohte, «Gh a) ac st lalit yal Bey fae helo serene see
Gee SL eOUEIA: TILT LIVES te fata 5,05), tur ss sols! sw ehra ta wens ped sie dae tae chs hewets Aare hee eee
Dependence of What Apparently Takes Place in Nature, Upon What Actually
Occurs in the Universe of Real Existences ...........22.+.-4-- Pye will
Doolittle, C. L., Constant of Aberration. ....... A gah ele bina Site tceiteaute kent th cae 8
Hoolitile: Eric, Orbit of the Double Star 5 518 2... ee wee Pera sw ks)
Pambe STATES vos, OLOIU Ol. a tecst <, 4 ssa, so) cl oo Sic) aba leh petene ass rr spall
MGGHOMIEs HUT iNet: GLASSIfGALION OL airs) «sc ‘asis » .ckenep + ob st once = le gps ah Ste ll
Egg, Earliest Differentiation ofthe ............. PACA tbe es a
AGO MO CETS c ATID oy 6308.5 se AS Yop lh all 6) oe bal, circa bet lemet kere Mg ite benag ogee
Electro-Chemical Industries at Niagara Falls... 2... 0... ee ee ee eee 345
MipiientsvRecently DISCOVELG sore. Ges. jew spate s Uae nica Gel wre, el teplal Nal oats 265
PETALS Ere SLCHI SELLE DLN Gace reg oe) ei the! merece, eA) leet slates cl aie olen 7, 68
HPIGeNeris EVOMLON ANG. 6.7. 6 Be NS ew ee nl el ew aye les 274, 275
BIVEILIR ICO SEPISCOESIS ce) oc) is cet cbt ena) cr eelroneqget ee. yt ektiuis sles cdustletae dae 274
Faunule, Fresh-Water Molluscan, from the Cretaceous of Montara ae Bare) a et eae 10, 188
Flosculariide, Anatomy ofthe ..........- Pe ees cee PTA ee Par aime ase) el!
reise OCHLCHII IGT 5 fos oxi, ate fic. hc Cette tc, erwthalat-elne ate) /s lint else halle: (eRenes 8,9
Franklin Papers in the Library of the American Philosophical Society. .... . 8, 165
Gibbs, Josiah Willard, Obituary of. .......... sit at ch ay setae einai Rea ee |
Gilman, Carnegie Institution during the First Year of its Development. ....... 7
CanIR Ie Fates ODILUAMY OL cert etre veliv.n of uso lei erga. Teper <a sv u/s) sallua tte tay er tala eke etegialiiy xi
Goldschmidt, Thermite Process for Producing Heat. .............e.6--. 345
xX INDEX.
Page
Goodspeed, Properties of the Field Surrounding a Crookes Tube. ........ 96, 266
Gravitation Newtoniansaw Of Pia ee ee eae, iach ol ell ab ce at acy, Ok Ge 8
Greconio; HTrOneous /SYMOW YOY 40s ch ae Pal erties | he ls ielent ented olin etic ket eae ie 263, 267
Hamites and Semites in the Tenth ChapterofGenesis ........, «.+++.4+s 11
markness, William, (ODIMMaAry OL ys.) /a) etait vena la bicycle (ol artton os tera xii
Hatcher, Attempt to Correlate the Marine with the Non-Marine Jurassic and Creta-
ceous' Formations:o£ the Middle West. +s. 40) 60s soe car ue levies e 10
Haupt; L.M., Deeper Navigable Channels. ) 2. is 3/2 slots ote © ap eee eee 6, 199
Haupt, P., Archeology and Mineralogy. ....... € fn) SAG Rey Bete eens heme
Hay, Dxistine Genera of the Triomychidse: hs. tame) ve) st oe et ene ca ee ara 267, 268
Heilprin, The Activity of Mont Pelée....... map lathe’ No) eho eelai aay teal ee nn 6
iHeilprin; Volcanic Phenomena.in Martinique i. $<). s/s 5 ==) spate ee een 267
Jastrow, Hamites'and Semites in the Tenth Chapter of Genesis. ........... ll
Jelly-Fishes, New Genus of Hydroid. ........... 04. a SO ehre elena 11
Jurassic and Cretaceous Formations of the Middle West, An Atcomipt to Correlate the
Marine with: the Non-Marime:::) 075.005. [leet at sues cereus Tete tens MO
Keasbey, Further Classification of Economies. ..............+.-. sya Lee
eller, Recently, Discovered: Klements -33..45..¢. 0%. Je 9) 5 ee 265
Koenig. Artificial Production of Crystals’ Wis 3). )0 2 ets oe eempeens 219, 267
Kraemer, The Structure of the Corn Grain and its Relation to Popping. ...... AG
Mabrador,Geolozical: POUT TO! oi: ie Veen arise. Felcea heel cfs en) ates ea AN ov, op ranean 352
Lambert, New Applications of Maclaurin’s Series in the Solution of Equations in the
Bxpansionjof Functions.) . 2... 2. we 60a lane oo ar al Se Seg den 8, 85
Panoneares:of New South Wales. /5 3 202 5 PO i avant . . « 249, 266
Languages, Aboriginal, of Queensland and Victoria .............-. oe goad
Leagt Work in Mechanics, Principle of, and Its Possible Use in Investigations
Revarding the Ether of Space... suc) Siete Gh ee de eee eee Pen iC
Melua) Charles;G.,<ODibuUaATy OL s) sis hedele vores Vehicle oieucomen ule. knl Gans one ane xi
Lesley, J. P. , Obituary OB aa? is ie falpislits othe Mea Ue Siayielate yb. bs jhe oye sat eee <a
peau, Mechanical Canstructioniand Useiof... ss 3%. 6 in 2 oh eee 8
Howell’ mune Cantouches oplars. "y(t i 3 cerlel da eihe Ve lcpse. wl ereiiie ie, ue k eaten 352, 353
Mabery, Composition of Petroleum from Different Fields. ............ 11,36
MeKean, WilliamV.., Obituary of a6. 6 so. tee + as elie oe) SR x
Maclaurin’s Series, New Applications of, in the Solution of Equations and in the
Expansion-Of Functions). 42 2) 2.5.) ee ie oo ig Ce SIA eat gh ne 8, 85
Manstieldybeaver, Co: (Pas) Orebids: j.05.< some Ne Spel fe fo dar feet oe che teh eens 3) SG eee
March; Development: of the English Alphabet: |.) .5. < 7.92) chi.) Ss <) e bennen tomes 6
Mars; She Gartouchesior i fx5.05 Med ate Me cwe cles. tei ey eve ey outs opm teiia Ao enna 352, 303
Mathews, Aboriginal Languages of Queensland and Mintoris A cy CMe O10 a <a sah ane 179
Mathews, Languages of New South Wales.......0...-..0+0282+2e08 249, 266
Mechanics: Least W Orkin: seed vete 2c. oc gk! alee tuemalc eh ce et emanate ane 7, 162
Meetings, General. ...... ee 6 wh EMS abd eR Oe ae See tas. ee een 6
Sialea 0-5 Ue wats ee he he eed vod had sce eho 38, 4, 5, 6, 265, 266, 267, 274, 345, 352, 396
MemrbersbiprAcceprediy ss). f(s Pave tsy ples tome laet a ia fh Geel ote eee 5, 263, 266, 267, 274
Members deceased :
CrHZ, Hermano iy 2) so fel ol So san steiner se hibernate oe Raha ore 5
GAPS. dia WEMLATG 2 bi ceuim hse eh salle eb ab Clare kite a) ey aah aha ea Geen ean 265
Ginisher s Jamies). Sia eis RAR Ce es Ae Se oe a etic ole cnn an i a
GTOTE SAN FOALS Na oi Sy5 Stak alicia Wan Sos oo eiy eth te nstiben bbe hwy Oar GRP Reel Ute eC 267
eames VWVa TAINS Vy at sn ert.c Noouent eel abies satay st) net kul aleve Rtaiat sea ce Re:
Leland: Gharles Godeneye sas yee ameter c tears epee esate "heey ae DAU SN Lar aie aa 6
Besley, Js PCter se sites Big Ae aN Se ON esas ra ve cl A aie 267
MEK eas WallidimV brie. chee a. ot clans eee, Sole eal ASI eipeat ia \kel MMe N hs ee Ohtei a eas 265
Morton, ‘Thomas:George 6s oss ce) eka 2 LR pepe te ce uhetelen usc tay es eas a 267
North ys Mawar se pe Seo SR ape ete de be. Urs cette ce as nen alin) Mean 267
Rand Theodores De sid 5) 2) ee Ae cage ics asia eels os eb notice ea pee ta See 266
INDEX. 4 XXI1
Members deceased : Page
Renard: Alphonse vHTanGois)s, ls ke we) Gise\w Sst eh Glee LIEU Tee eae oes one 352
Rhoads, Edward. ..... ahrethelgehios tori tate amubeels A otismmts ree Shea Ma tise sere die Shed a Ne 267
Se baer CHAM ES yes io! oie caus ote enn s aihasltay YorWat nena tao el aley areata Vien nat ect ae one 352
PEON ISEV Ese ey ue Natt aed y oe chy oe Mee tie t tele tee, Peitee WS uaea th on ie ame eae sted 396
tokes! isin Georee Gabriel hs 's)s sway eds one cenen Py mee pecbort fee Np erent)
Thurston, Robert Henry. .. 2... 2.1 Peon icteaaee 2 ae Sieh a ia. ee RN ee 345
frumbulls Henry Clay. .o.c 0 6 a Aichac Fee ki eb ny MB Ab ot 396
Members Elected :
ARO C CUM W ARO Be avr fatiet les tallei ten ‘ethos SBM? ies edilee on! alot Revisens Siar sera ane
ES CUR Clee ORE aie |e flats siya tte av ch rodacive Mcwiel Lnlaticn teen abte EWA SIO RTT RSU AG, Goh lcs 9
JEYOReTSE TERE NS MES SS ae bee ee Ee RE TT er Re DENY cy TLC as “9
MES CLNVALIEAIG WY, lel tec lois iets eis, shut sl deee » PCRS wk ch bb drice eMA. One, 3 10
HORIEBED PE MELLOM ECL eas tat hana) ole, welt Gage ley “o:, Big cole whens. nel Sa eT Santee ee ea 10
aM Craprclssumorematts ij halt'ch (x tei eee eles Fecas Rabkin’ ose re J ay Oem eA Aarne Ome Cte 10
fildersleeyenBasil anneal cs :,solells Mec ict a elector Cee va vent Ieee wie oa 10
caer PH rea NCIS dDANtOR.)! 2s, "sue! leh'e> e\s, lense Wier athe ee CMM AN is ee 10
ER er TC PATIO erecta. te weleyey tal vein’s (teh w cuie uate; verted tate a) SUR TRAE SRD ae oh 10
PEL CCE OM VITULT TITEL ers els tate od fon 2.8 Site cwwavias to. 2) sgtaay be MEDALS ec e alt ce » 0
Howell, William Henry......., at ee seth oo: Ba ld Sd mea he vg ae 10
PENISCSL ETS EWEN oy ici aul seis Le okra) Vous res) het) or)~ AMES ON On han Me. ieee ae 10
MO MC Vena Waite: ahi Vaya s, oes Scere, oo call ohio in i es UL re re 10
MOLSOMEMEMIOMBNG! | cruclisela’ wim. ese cnl i, ioe telei teint a de ' aren ey 1 10
TERK Esed Din hie DiRG thy oe UNO aN ER iets SR ee Se me Sea PAR APE PRIN ry pvr 1h 10
PROSCOC WHEN TY He ore he Satie te lal cys ee ERC CAN MEIC ICS RP OREM ad EG es ec 10
TOT PAE CO mmm ralenietie Peitat Ings iat Frys Pa hie,) ake Reber vel pu iel to Hietr ope cae oe eae 10
EN OWISOM LOSC PU OLIN Pewee a. le Venetia: slea” elpet itm UAC: -SUmBMRL. couch acento is tl ue ty lini 10
PMG GA NC AVVUECDIIRE I Bee re! See hS Rigo | Wen eA. sul Oa cl de SS 10
Tey WARES 18 TSI NS | oe. A A es el Bar eee Rea ty Se Bre RAPT ey eh ae Sl 10
MESA ONS ECS CINIC (Uri R smal er Wis an elt Cie lit Salon te Cah bo) a, tutorenae vel bute eh ebealt ibs Oh apt 265, 266
Merriman, Principle of Least Work in Mechanics and Its Possible Use in Investiga-
MOG er arin sie MENeMOnSDAGe, «Give Neniactd as, 0 ie) =) ey enleelsliel delat elise 7, 162
Montgomery, Anatomy of the Plosculartide, <0). 50) se \ cere se bh eyes ee tw at
SHEE ICO MEA GCLEVLON WG oe o\ ely ah ehhisnere! Vee Uy sp ley oe teh feloysil al Va tial We oe decue utes at laure Gel aghaee 6
MERAH AH OMAN Gr. OMITUANV OL. yes Sc) ars we eave chery cael’ hues Zana “ale
MEARSU END EAU POUR Oath at ane PPT RIN Doh A aig, Vora AN oe Len a EP oly ena thay, oy ah Cogan eee maeieh tee 7
Nirekel Some MaenotiGyPrOperclesiOL: et sy .0). Was. es ues Wier ou jolie’ 2) fe) ulate cpt eete elie 10
(OTRPLETAG IS TREC AS ECCT a Et) Vengo SAP Don EDR ee SEAL AA mE ep SEAS Saadeh oF eos yey ey 7) 6
Osborn, Evolution and Distribution of the Proboscidea. ............+.-. 10
Packard, Hints on the Classification of the Arthropoda. ............ 11, 142
Ie MOS EOCSIN MAGNE VOW OL chic oh al’ sig ieiwal il issscens seme e menial otiety taki 274, 275
HABeISOL eT Nee TODLeM On Une LlUStels tics co) eis! cute! levee le) acai cota ee tee teeta mone vj 3
Pearson, Animal Industries of the United States ............2-+.4-+7- 396
Retrolewum, Composition and Occurrence:Ofs . (ce Fils) elem tee 4 fofe es) Slee 11, 36
Petit, Obiiuary.o1goseph Miller WilsOm << ...5 20.3. .%s Sw eo ee ws we ah 2OGyuT
RLM ee CMOP CHESTS) So '.0u Jape ie: ome estes ve bit lance antl, eUnethlal We inne ie) Malar 274, 275
Pigntbrecdines., Worward MOoOvementin i). seis 6 site, es el tons 6, 54
Potteries, The Testimony of the Huacos (Mummy-grave), of Old Peru. .... 302, 378
President’s Annual Address. SR See sien PA eh ie Me ie tet SN eh, hy 'S 396
Prince, Dying American Speech-Echoes .... ..... a ate CABS eN cl tne 346
Proposciges. Hyolution and Distribution Of the. . 20.05). ee re a we ele nels ene 10
PavchokmavaNOOera, ia DOLatOryzOt.| . \isilc#s c's Wiis! ver are xe) ve} eben teenies wih tenet fella 266
Quantitative Chemical Research, Most Insidious Source of Errorin .... .... Il
EAI EC ENVIUD Oats yd va ry b ral ‘a hrelta\ice task. Sais) almaltm Meme Bad eho ty ee Reva SY 04) RG
Rand, Theodore D., Obituary of. ........ aed iel alent Aehcst ier, ehbalmee Menai yA sl Mao teihe 3.
Ravenel, Warfare Against Tuberculosis. ..... IN EL CIRCE Oar dM ERIE 11, 212
RATION mE OR OEM L on ha2 cp ers pratt oth epee ’n Nideu chy atti o) USES ole pan rsrbicph teres act of Dale ay ed ns x:
Richards, Inclusion and Occlusion of Solvent in Crystals. ...... cea e eats 28
XXi11 INDEX,
Page
Richards, Most Insidious Source of Error in Quantitative Chemical Research .,.. 11
River and Harbor Improvements, Reaction as an Agent in Securing Navigable
Depths in, Haupt, Ls, Meas. a4. cet ee tasad bn ok each ake een o/s. 9 alten
Rosengarten, Earl of Crawford’s MS. History in the Library of the American Philo-
Sophical Societys. cing h inine (chic 1s 1 aye leat to ve, Aa gt Meanie Ue A vs aS red een
Rosengarten, Franklin Papers in ae Library of the Ammeripaat Philosophical Society,
8, 165
panta Cruz Edentates, Scott. Siti) sj. see el ye las apace ait ap ee os, 0 eae
Schaffer, Charles, Obituary Of }o<< 6.5 90/40! ssw ta oe, ene eRe ee oe es Nae
Schelling, Supernatural as Represented in Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays. .... 11
Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir Vaterlandische Cultur, One Hundredth Anniversary . . 345
Schwatt, Theory of Assemblages and the Integration of Discontinuous Functions. . 8
Scott, Santa Cruz Mdentates, 22.5.2 )siy. plies diate aue aah ened alee ee «a ny eee
Smith, Edgar ¥., Brief History of the Society . 2... ~~. 6. +.).0 ss 2st cet ee ee Poe
Speech-Echoes, Dying American. 5 oo: sien dats nora ue Gy oh eae en eae te - . 345, 346
Stanton, Fresh-Water Molluscan Faunule from the Cretaceous of Montana . . . 10, 188
Stokes;'Sir' George, Obituary OF) <0... ese iehct ph oes Ln aug «helene ern ane xiv
Stoney, Dependence of What Apparently Takes rriaes in Nature, Upon What
Actually Occurs in the Universe of Real Existences........... 2 Wy 1S
Supernatural as Represented in Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays. ........ ahevegas
Synonymy, HrroneOus is a; ~ se sso ver 'el opts "2 45 he, lens, ooh ta ems ae eee 263, 267
Thermite Process for Producing Heat. ........ ato. 's tees’ pu ate ee oo) Sa
hurston,.Robert JH. (Obituary Of 2 6.3 4. ese ve ne Reel eA elo ee eee 4 ea
Tower, Appointed to Represent Society at One Hundredth fen of the
Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir Vaterlandische Cultur........ oo Se eee
Trionychide, Existing Genera of the, Hay ...........- 2 4G &! & ise eee
Prumbull; HenryClay Obituary Ol; <<). "os.ue-. ~ see seen keke eles 0d Oke nne
Prusigy The PrOblGmGl the. oe 0 .o 5 se the. is Sn be Sele es nl 4. Piece s&s
Tuberculosis, Warfare Against. ...... fe Hea, ra Son in eee, ly ee es 11, 212
Universe of Real Existences, Dependence of What Apparently Takes Place in
Nature Upon What. Actually Octursanithe =o... SO ela = Se ee 105
Volcanic Phenomena in Martinique cys peta. =~ 8s 3! os oo Uns ee eee iii
Wharton, Some Magnetic Properties of Nickel ..... .........-. ee
Wiley, Investigations of the Bureau of Chemistry on the Composition and ‘Aduibteeas
tion ‘Of FOOdSs, +... +... he fees Be es via he +s Sal fla Hajtee: baa hey Ne Ne) Meaee n, S a)
Wilson, Joseph Miller; Obituaryof ho). so. 2 eS RS 5 A ee i
Witmer, Modern Laboratory of Psychology... ........2...2.6s+-+-- . . 266
Wright, Artificial Production of Crystals .). 2°... .. 2.20... - - 219, 267
Wright, Crystallographic Properties. 72°: 4 2 J.) axe es eee 237
Warts, The' Nernst Lamp »< +s\s,5 <ssse cet Vediew el ae RE os) ae eee 6
teMdr oe, S © Oe) 6 ee Wr eG a Na! bye) ©,
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
_ AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE
% > Vor. XLIT. - JANUARY-APRIL, 1903. No. 172.
Bet ' CONTENTS
ae . PAGE
4 Stated Meeting January 2......... 0... eee cece ee ees eies fas ee 3
+ s REE COLUAG 5 SUMUAP IEA anu ons «cin opine ws Coe nO os sl alvre eee cae 4
ee “Stated Meeting, February 6... 6... 0... e ccc ececccccuccsectecuceles 4
oer — Stated Meeting, PADEUEONY CO se oo. «+ cides hi Roms oa oe cele Utes or oe 5
z es . Stated Meeting, March 6............... Peete ee i 5
é peered Meeting, Mare 20.3. eco. eee Pee dal es a ceed wane 6
ee General Meeting, April 2, 3 and 4... .. 66. 0cc cc cece ce ec ede vceteeeens 6.
2 On a new Genus of Hydroid Jelly-Fishes (with plate). By WILLIAM
oe, ICR Hess ROOKET ete Like Get is). woes swe ebisa cee nana te, apo 11
The Problem of the Trusts. By:C: Stuart PATTERSON =. .!.....45- 15
The Inclusion and Occlusion of Solvent in Crystals. An Insidious
iz = Source of Error in Quantitative Chemical Investigation. By
ERS PHEODORE, WILLIAM RICHARDS... 2.0.2... 0.2 2c cece ee seeaeus 28
A’ Résumé of the Composition and Occurrence of Petroleum. By
; Deepening eM TNIG Ts So saci oe, ce a aie c id a Re aids pele a He LEE 36
oe. ‘The Forward Movement in Plant- -breeding. By L. H. BarLey...... 54
“The Curtis Steam Turbine. By W. L. R. EMMErT Peet Saar eae Aric =! 68
sb: iad ‘Applications of MacLaurin’s Series in the Solution of Equations —
fe -and in the Expansion of Functions. By P. A. LAMBERT..... 85
; ae the. Properties of the Field surrounding a Crookes Tube (with
; Plates). By ARTHUR W. GOODSPEED. .2.......-cececeeseeees 96
PHILADELPHIA :
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
104 South Fifth Street.
1902.
To THE SECRETARIES OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL $0
Members will please communicate to the Sec
inaccuracy in name or address as given on a the wra
number. — . Sat eae a Jee
It is requested that the receipt of this number
_ Proceedings be acknowledged to the Secretaries.
= _ 3 are = s
Members who have not as vet sent th
IAGELLANIC PREMIUM.
“JOHN HYACINTH De MAGELLAN,
OF LONDON.
1903.
= Tue temein Pri P HILOSOPHICAL Society,
_ Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge
ANNOUNCES THAT IN
DECEMBER, 19038,
ae es IT WILL AWARD ITS
MAGELLANIC GOLD MEDAL
: to the uttiog of the best discovery, or most useful invention, relating to Navi-
gation, Astronomy, or Natural Philosophy (mere natural history
~ _ only excepted) under the following conditions :
i 82 1. The candidate shall, on or before November 1, 1903 deliver, free
ak Be postage or other charges, his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President of the American Philosophical Society, No.
104 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia, U.S. A., and shall distinguish his.
Bs performance by some motto, device, or other signature. With his dis-
_ covery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a sealed letter
Be containing the same motto, device, or signature, and subscribed with the
‘Teal name and place of residence of the author.
- 2, Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be
% admitted as candidates for this premium.
3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
remium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
J been publicly rewarded elsewhere.
4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
~ provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.
5. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the
C-Bielety as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate.
- publication, or in the next succeeding volume of their Transactions, or
n both. :
6. The premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold
of the value of ten guineas, suitably inscribed, with the seal of the Society
annexed to the medal by a ribbon.
_ To THE SECRETARIES OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
No. 104 SOUTH FIFTH STREET,
PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.
“TRANSACTIONS ~
OF THE
American Philosophical ss
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, BIRSS
FOR PROMOTING Pee KNOWLEDGE. hee
Vol. XX, New Series. gto, pp. 397) with 9 Plak
Fust Published. .
CONTENTS. >
Art. I.—The History of the Pelycosauria, with a Des 1
tion of the Genus Dimetrodon Cope. of
Baur and E. C, Cass. <S.
Art. II.—The Chronological Distribution Se the Bia
branchs. By O. P. Hay. .
Art, III.—Results of Observation with the Zenith
of the Sayre Observatory from January
to August 19, 1895. By CHARLES ES
Art. IV.—A Study of the Chromosomes of the Gen
of Metazoa. By Reece: H. oe
Ph.D. Nae nis ies
Montana. . By faxes Doucrass.
Art VI. — Results of Observation with the aeaite T
of the Sayre Observatory from “April: I,
December 27, 1893. HG CuaRtes poet
eros
SUBSCRIPTION—FIVE DOLLARS PER VoLu
.SEPARATE PARTS ARE NOT SOLD.
Address THE LIBRARIAN OF THE
No. 404 Sours Sir ereee as
PULLADELPRUA, |
PROCEEDINGS :
~ AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE
mae Vou. XL.) ApRIL-May, 1903. No. 173.
CONTENTS.
Ben the Dependence of What Apparently Takes Place in Nature
~ upon What Actually Occurs in the Universe of Real Ex-
me » istences: By G. JOHNSTONE STONEY... 0... ccce tees ce ces 105
| Hints on the Classification of the Arthropoda; the Group a Poly-
_ phyletic One (with plate)... By Aupueus §. PACKARD....... 142 3
ae ey. 5 ‘The Principle of.Least Work in Mechanics and Its Use in Investi-
y gations Regarding the Ether of Space. By MANsFIELD
ae Arh tn PDEA TENBOARG ten Seas Sls Sos Cojo sides «a sia otis Bee MMOs Ses eat 162
1S The “Franklin Papers”. in the American Philosophical Society.
AN Pee: ere EMME CHA TETIOM 5). in. aa \oy sein cee ea's's olayeeie els rs ees 165
The Orbit of the Double Star ¥ 518. By Extc Dooxrrrue......... 170
3 Some Aboriginal Languages of Queensland and Victoria. By R. H.
iss MATHEWS.. Cy 3.18" od ES EO aE PRO BS OE caine RENE eA A 179
rat A New Fresh- water Molluscan Faunule from the Cretaceous of
A; Montana (with plate). By Timotay W. STANTON. 2/50 hy ¥ 188
zt
ost 4 sf Reaction as an Efficient Agenti in Procuring Deeper Navigable Chan-
EROS Het nels in the Lerma yement of Rivers and Harbors. By Lewis
ps IVa ERPs Sct nai 2's wad Soe algo ahah nga weal tta phocie ONS aD 199 -
‘The Warfare against Tuberculosis. By Mazycxk P. Raveneu, M.D. 212
On Artificial Production of Crystallized Domeykite, Algodonite,
af Argentodomeykite and Stibiodomeykite (with plate), By
Mer SINS MO AE ORDEORE GS oa. O's say thems bo vo. ¥ ny demted gM aae Saye Coe oe 219
- Crystallographic Properties. By Frep. EUGENE WRIGHT....... 237 |
Ke, "Languages of the New England Aborigines, New South Wales.
ae Pie, ay MISHOER Sr 6s eee oe fede ce ple e's 249
pet On. spe: Names (chiefly Linnean) of Animals and Plants Erro-
Pkt i - neously Paired in Synonymy. By MarcuEsE ANTONIO DI
Siege! PGBEGORIO ©. eine ce eee eee ete eee were e eens Bese AC.
_Obittary Notices of Members Deceased:
y Sone Miller Wilson, A.M., C.E. By Henry Ye Chee
; PHILADELPHIA :
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL
104 South Fifth Street.
1903,
PAGE
aes
: ‘number. ;
¥
ee
To THE SECRETARIES OF THE
ee 3 AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL S
Ae) 104 Soura Firm Sieve,
+
tt is Hola that the = top of this numbe
eo. ee
Te
- MAGELLANIC PREMIUM.
FOUNDED IN 1786, BY
JOHN HYACINTH DE MAGELLAN,
OF LONDON.
1903.
Tue American PricosopuicaL Society,
Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge
ANNOUNCES THAT IN
DECEMBER, 1908,
IT WILL AWARD ITS
-MAGELLANIC GOLD MEDAL
to the author of the best discovery, or most useful invention, relating to Navi-
gation, Astronomy, or Natural Philosophy (mere natural history
only excepted) under the following conditions:
1. The candidate shall, on or before November I, 1903 deliver, free
of postage or other charges, his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the ‘President of the American Philosophical Society, No.
104 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia, U.S. A., and shall distinguish his
performance by some motto, device, or other signature. With his dis-
covery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a sealed letter
containing the same motto, device, or signature, and subscribed with the
real name and place of residence of the author.
2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be
~ admitted as candidates for this premium.
3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
“premium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere.
4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.
_5. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the
Society, as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate
publication, or in the next succeeding volume of their Transactions, or.
in both.
6. The premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold
of the value of ten guineas, suitably inscribed, with the seal of the Society
annexed to the medal by a ribbon.
All correspondence in relation hereto should be addressed
TO THE SECRETARIES OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
No. 104 SOUTH FIFTH STREET,
PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
American Philosophical Society,
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA,
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
Vol. XX, New Series. gto, Dp. 397, with 9 Flates.
Fust Published. ,
CONTENTS.
Art. JI.—The History of the Pelycosauria, with a Descrip-
tion of the Genus Dimetrodon Cope. By G.
Baur and E. C. Case.
Art. II.—The Chronological Distribution of the es
branehs.;.By\O. RP) Hayy
Art. III.—Results of Observation with the Zenith Telescope
of the Sayre Observatory from January 19, 1894,
to August 19, 1895. By CHaries L. Doo.iTTLe.
Art. IV.—A Study of the Chromosomes of the Germ Cells
of Metazoa. By THomas H. Monrtcomery, Jr.,
Ph.D.
Art. V.—Fossil Mammalia of the White River Beds of
Montana. By Eart Douc.ass.
Art. VI.—Results of Observation with the Zenith Telescope
of the Sayre Observatory from April 1, 1876, to
December 27, 1893. By Cuartes L. DoouittLe.
SUBSCRIPTION—FIVE DOLLARS PER VOLUME.
SEPARATE PARTS ARE NOT SOLD.
Address THE LIBRARIAN OF THE _,
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
No. 104 SOUTH FIFTH STREET,
PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE
Vou. XLII. May-DrcremMBer, 1903.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Stated Meeting, April 17 ...... RIALS cee mee sei Sunliaucls Graagagt oe 265
MAIC OPAL COULIUTs BLY Le wavere Val mash aspen re Mee, ciaveusea tage tials, Deak Rie Osi eiole b Sreislare 266
PLLC MMLC CLOT HOMILY ID) is eMart ae Ta dN) hal we OM hice MaVOR ohaletar alia lea a Bacay 266
RAUDUC Ur COLLIE 5M ICLOD EI ei clke, Schr stas dens) cmeels Narn ardiacs siaieoe eleva elecaeelecae 267
On the Existing Genera of the Phos y cds. 1 30g 9 FIR) ray 2). aR a 268
Stated Meeting, OQCEOUE TTT eri a hate les bis sales Sle poles Se La 274
A Review of Parthenogenesis. By Everett F. PHILLIPS......... 275
RIODEEEE NC CLUIEN : INODEMLOET 0: cosa wicie'<\ sie tiers n't, « myisi» nis wieleciolwals so sable Sele 345
Dying American Speech-Echoes from Connecticut. By J. DyNELEY
Prince, Pu.D., and FRANK G. SPECK .. 2... 1.00... eee e eee 846
Stated Meeting, November 20....... 02sec seen ence cccncecceeseecees 302
Stated Meeting, December 4....-.....+ 0.00.6 vee e ence cere tense ees 352
The Cartouches of Mars. By PrrctvaAL LOWELL..............++:- 308
Testimony of the Huacos (Mummy-Grave) Potteries of Old Peru.
Eyer Re Ss AST AT AD IME Dori ce ia Gm niers nies wie stele ein hey whee 378
MIREBE Die MC UNIILs EDECLCIIOUCT: LO 'occ\ Nase v)s\ci ate olsts'e/ «a's ‘ele oniapelb aia piste «aye oats 396
The Earl of Crawford’s MS. History in the Library of the American
Philosophical Society. By JoszpH G. RosENGARTEN........ 397
Extract from the President’s Address. By Ep@ar F. SmIrTH...... vii
Men OLUUIE SNE L eet setae hte bal crcliain a | Woeaieuises tain iwrevwieleialofecshste xix
WAIN HCHO INC TBE. coe ictal eee sol eclciaty aiaict ak eho, sjotelareialyiarnie 6! @ wla'ed Gre U XXiii
PHILADELPHIA :
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOOIETY,
104 South Fifth Street.
1903.
4 ae eo key
af oS, Bera: ie 2 Sa
To THE SECRETARIES OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIE
ee SouTtH FiIrtH STREET,
PHILADBLPHIA, u
Pee oh
=
inaccuracy in name or Ey as ; given on ‘the wrappe
number. A ‘
# ¢ ‘
It is requested that the caealgt i this number.
Proceedings be acknowledged to the Secretaries.
ax . = v,
_ MAGELLANIC PREMIUM.
FOUNDED IN 1786, BY:
JOHN HYACINTH DE MAGELLAN,
OF LONDON, |
raaa.
~ Tre American Puivosoprica Sociery,:
Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge
ANNOUNCES THAT IN
DECEMBER, 1904,
IT WILL AWARD ITS
MAGELLANIC GOLD MEDAL
to the author of the best discovery, or most useful invention, relating to Navi-
gation, Astronomy, or Natural Philosophy (mere natural history
only excepted) under the following conditions:
1. The candidate shall, on or before November 1, 1904 deliver, free
of postage or other charges, his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President of the American Philosophical Society, No.
-104 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia, U.S. A., and shall distinguish his
' performance by some motto, device, or other signature. With his dis-
covery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a sealed letter
containing the same motto, device, or signature, and subscribed with the
- real name and place of residence of the author.
2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be
adinitted as candidates for this premium. = _
3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this’
premium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere.
4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.
5. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the
Society, as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate
publication, or in the next succeeding volume of their Transactions, or
in both,
6. The premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold
of the value of ten guineas, suitably inscribed, with the seal of the Society
annexed to the medal by a ribbon.
All correspondence in relation hereto should be addressed
TO THE SECRETARIES OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
No. 104 SOUTH FIFTH STREET,
PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.
Bees oe oo eS
OF THE
HELD AT Palace
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
in XX, New Series. sto, pp. 397, with Oe Plates. :
Fust tlhe aie
CONTENTS. | fis 2
Art. 1.—The History of the Pelycosauria, with a De
. tion of the Genus Dimetrodon Cope. By
Baur and E. C. Cass.
Art. II.—The Chronological ick batiod of fae Elasm
branchs. By O. P. Hay. |
Art. III. —Results of Observation ith the Zenith Telescop | s
to August 19, 1895. By eens aap Doouritt ,
Art. IV.—A Study of the Chromosomes of the Germ Ce
of Metazoa. By Tuomas H. Moutoomeny r
Ph.D.
Art. V.—Fossil Mammalia of the White River Beds Oo!
Montana. By Ear Doverass.
Art. VL —Results of Observation with the Zenith Teles ,
ME ies 27, 1893. seh CHARLES Le Doou
‘SUBSCRIPTION—FIVE DOLLARS PER VOLUME.
SEPARATE PARTS ARENOT SOLD.
Address THE LIBRARIAN OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ,
No. 104 SOUTH FIFTH STREET, Be
iy
a
ay
wii wing
9088 01301 0525
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