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— 


PROCEEDING 


OF THE 


~ American Philosophical Society 


HELD AT PHILADELPHIA 


FOR 


~ PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE 


4 


VOLUME LVI 
1917 


; PHILADELPHIA 
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


1917 


| THE NEw E 
Sp ece & 


ewe COON LENTS 


PAGE. 

On the Art of Entering Another’s Body: A Hindu Fiction 
Motif. By Maurice BLooMFIELD ...................... I 
Naming American Hybrid Oaks. By Witttam TRELEASE.... 44 
Interrelations of the Fossil Fuels. II. By Joun J. STEVENSON. 53 

The Names Troyan and Boyan in Old Russian. By J. DyNELEy 
IDS EGET: | GINS = oS ag ar een 152 

Symposium on Aéronautics. 

I. Dynamical Aspects. By ArTHUR GorpDON WEBSTER I61 


Ii. Physical Aspects. By GrorcE O. SQUIER ........ 168 
III. Mechanical Aspects. By W. F. DuraNpD ......... 170 
IV. Aérology. By Witiiam R. Brarr .............. 189 

VY. Theory of an Aéroplane Encountering Gusts, 

By Epwin BIDWELL WILSON ................. 212 


VI. Engineering Aspects. By JERomE C. HUNSAKER.. 249 
VII. Remarks on the Compass in Aéronautics. By Louis 


Pe AMM. <M, wa od os vee cep ke ke 255 
Spectral Structure of the Phosphorescence of Certain ian <a 
EIS -INICHIOLS ©... octtiis e's ses. ee tle leet a3 258 
A New Babylonian Account of the Creation of Man. By GrorcE 
IIE Peeing yw RE ss ose we ee tae cbee tes 275 
The South American Indian in his Relation to Geographic En- 
_ vironment. By Witt1am CurTIs FARABEE ............... 281 
Growth and Imbibition. By D. T. MacDoucat and H. A. 
I oars... os a ccele cin enn OWE wo 289 
Spontaneous Generation of Heat in Recently Hardened Steel. 
RUMI PRUE oc su. ck atic cneves cesses 353 
The Effects of Race Intermingling. By CHartes B. Daven- 
ESTEE 2 A ee EPP eG 364 
Medizeval Sermon-books and Stories and Their Study Since 
MN TMM UNIEE 8 cua es ce cue ees ee sees 369 


ee ey Vo MO otrHer, Pu.D.:. 2. occ ee ee ees 403 


ili 


iv CONTENTS. 


PaGE. 
The Trial of Animals and Insects. By Hampton L. Carson.. 410 
The Sex Ratio in the Domestic Fowl. By RayMonp PEaRL .. 416 
Mechanism of Overgrowth in Plants. By Erwin F. SMITH... 437 
Recurrent Tetrahedral Deformations and Intercontinental Tor- 


sions, By BK. EMERSON 6 ios. eee cee ae 445 
Early Man in America. By Epwin Swirt BALCH .......... 473 
A Description of a New Photographic Transit Instrument. By 

PRANK SCHLESINGER 7 fi55050 0 Nooo cs ee ee 484 


Studies of Inheritance in Pisum. By OrLAND E. WHITE .... 487 
Ecology and Physiology of the Red Mangrove. By H. H. M. 


DOW MAI CGN > HS PPhEO Nessa souks ss a ee ee 589 
Eighteen New Species of Fishes from Northwestern South 
America. By Cart :H. E1GENMANN .....55 (2. osetss ge 673 
Descriptions of Sixteen New Species of Pygidiide. By Cari 
a. PAGENMANK O05 yo... a ee 690 
Obituary Notices of Members Deceased: 
sir William Ramsay, K.C.B. 0.0.3. 22 4 ili 
Cleveland “Anbe oo... SOS aa Oe Ge ix 
RRASUOS ok ees acs <a so 0 eae See Ae Hie a 
PN Ree ate PPE Ww ts a ss. lage eh Ghee es xiv 


me? 


PROCEEDINGS 


——— OF THE 


AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


HELD AT PHILADELPHIA 


FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE 


ON THE ART OF ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY: A 
HINDU FICTION MOTIF 


By MAURICE BLOOMFIELD. 
(Read April 13, 1916.) 


The Yoga philosophy teaches, on the way to ultimate salvation, 
many ascetic practices which confer supernormal powers. Thus 
the third book of the prime authority on this philosophy, the ‘‘ Yoga- 
Sittras ” of Patafijali, gives an account of these vibhiitis, or powers.* 
They cover a large part of all imaginable magic arts, or tricks, as 
we should call them: knowledge of the past and the future; knowl- 
edge of the cries of all living beings (animal language) ; knowledge 
of previous births (jatismara, Pali jatissara) ; mind-reading; indis- 
cernibility of the Yogin’s body; knowledge of the time of one’s 


death ; knowledge of the subtle and the concealed and the obscure; 


knowledge of the cosmic spaces; the arrangements and movements 
of the stars; cessation of hunger and thirst; motionlessness; the 
sight of the supernatural Siddhas? roving in the spaces between the 
sky and the earth; discernment of all; knowledge of one’s own 
mind mind-stuff and of self; supernormal sense of hearing, feeling, 
sight, taste, and smell ; penetration of one’s mind-stuff into the body 
of another; non-adherence of water, mud, thorns, etc.; levitation 
(floating in the air) ; subjugation of the elements; perfection of the 
body ; subjugation of the organs; authority over all states of exist- 
1 Also named bhiti, siddhi, dicvarya, yogecvarata, and the like. 


2 Perfected beings that have become quasi-divine. 
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LVI, A, PRINTED APRIL 3, 1917.” 


dior BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


\ 


ence; omniscience; and, finally, as a result of passionlessness or dis- 
regard of all these perfections, the isolation or concentration that 
leads up to final emancipation or salvation. 

In later Yoga scriptures the supernormal powers are systematized 

as the 8 mahasiddhi (great powers): (1) to render one’s self in-— 
finitely small or invisible; (2, 3) assumption of levitation and 
gravitation; (4) power to extend one’s self, so as, e. g., to be able 
to touch the moon with one’s finger tip; (5) irresistible fulfilment 
of wishes; (6) complete control oven the body and the organs; 
‘(7) power to alter the course of nature; (8) power of transfer at 
will. And, in addition to these, other, even more wonderful facul- 
ties are described, such as citing and conversing with the dead; the 
assumption of many bodies at one and the same time; trance and 
burial alive? and finally even the power of creation. There are 
also other systematizations, such as that of the commentator to 
Vacaspatimicra’s “ Samkhya-tattva-kaumudi,” mentioned by Garbe 
in his translation of that work, in the Transactions of the Royal 
Bavarian Academy, Vol. XIX., p. 586. 

From its own point of: view Yoga does not overestimate these 
powers; they are all considered ephemeral or unimportant or even 
contemptible. They are merely a progressive course towards the 
final goal of emancipation. Buddhist writings state repeatedly that 
they do not lead to perfection. The great Jain Divine, Hemacandra, 
once engaged in a Yoga tournament with another Jain Doctor, Deva- 
bodhi. Hemacandra made appear all the ancestors of King Kumiara- 
pala, together with the entire Olympus of the Jainas,* he himself 
in the meanwhile floating in the air. He thus beat Devabodhi, but 
in the end declared that all his stunts as well as Devabodhi’s were 
mere hallucinations.® 

But was there ever such an enhancement of the vulgar practice 
of magic? Philosophy, in dealing with such matters at all, enters 
into partnership with fairy-tale; it sanctions, promotes, and legal- 
izes, so to speak, every fancy, however misty and however ex- 

3 See for this matter Ernst Kuhn’s statement in Garbe, “Samkhya und 
Yoga” (Encyclopaedia of Indo-Aryan Research), p. 47. 


4Cf, Mahabh., 15. 31. 1. 
5 See Buhler, “Uber das Leben des Jaina Ménches Hemacandra,” p. 83. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 3 


travagant. It is easy to foresee that both folk-lore and sophisticated 
narrative would simply jump at such tenets and build on their 
foundation fantastic-structures. Nothing is impossible where the 
canons of time and space and number, and of every sobering em- 
pirical experience have been undermined by such a travesty on 
scientific thought. The fiction texts are fully aware of the support 
they have in Yoga, as when, e. g., Kathas. 45. 79, states distinctly 
that magic art is founded on Samkhya and Yoga, and calls it “the 
supernatural power, and the independence of knowledge, the do- 
minion over matter that is characterized by lightness and other 
mystic properties.” 

What is perhaps more important, though in a different way, no 
narrative of events, even historical events, is immune to this com- 
plete obliteration of the boundary line between fact and fancy. We 
can understand better why all professed Hindu historical texts 
(Caritas or Caritras) deal with alternately on the same plane, and 
present alternately as equally credible, things that may have happened 
and things that may not happen. They have been taught to believe 
all that by a schematic philosophy. 

All narrative texts from the Mahabharata on are full of Yoga 
technique,° and there is scarcely a single item of the Yogin’s fictitious 
powers that has not taken service with fiction. To begin with the 
Yogin, or some undefined ascetic who is, to all intents and purposes, 
omnipotent, is met at every turn of fiction. Asceticism is practised 
for the avowed purpose of obtaining magic power." The Yoga’s 
most extravagant claim,® namely that it enables its adepts to act as 
the almighty Creator, is supported in epic narrative by the statement 
that the Yogin possesses the power of srsti, 7. e., the ability to create 
things like Prajapati.° Division of personality (kaya-vyttha) is 
practised not only by the gods (Sirya in Mahabh. 3. 306. 8; or 
Skanda, ibid., 9. 44. 37), but even by mortals. In Kathas. 45. 342 ff., 
King Siryaprabha, having accumulated at one and the same time 
an unusually large stock of wives, divides his body by his magic 


6 See Hopkins, JAOS. XXII. 333 ff. 
TE. g., Kathas. 107. 81. 

8 Garbe, “ Samkhya,” p. 187. 

8 See Hopkins, |. c., p. 355. 


4 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


science, and lives with all those ladies, but with his real body he 
lived principally with his best beloved Mahallika, the daughter of 
the Asura Prahlada. Disappearance; making one’s self small (“so 
small as to creep into a lotus-stalk”’)*°; floating in or flying through 
the air", with or without a chariot ; remembrance of former births” ; 
doing as one wills are commonplaces of fiction to the point of tire- 
some cliché. They are used to cut the Gordian knot, or as sub- 
stitutes for the deus ex machina, when convenience calls for them 
in the least degree. : 

No doubt many or most of these fairy-tales were known to 
folk-lore before Yoga philosophy systematized them, and many more 
‘are current in fiction which the Yoga does not take note of at all. 
The gods could always do as they pleased, to begin with, Yoga or 
no Yoga. There is an especial class of semi-divine persons, the 
so-called Vidyadharas, or “ Holders of Magic Science,” who need 
no instruction in Yoga and yet possess every imaginable power. 
They are magicians congenitally, habitually fly in the air, and are 
therefore also known by the name of “ Air-goers” (khecara, or 
vihaga). In a vaguer way almost any one at all may own magic 
science in fiction. The fairy-tale is interested more in the indi- 
vidual items of magic as self-existent real properties of its technique 
than in their causes or their motivation. But the influence of the 
Yoga appears in this way: as a rule, each magic trick is dignified 
“art” (“stunt,” as we might 
say). These vidyads are in the first place the property by divine 
right of the above-mentioned Vidyadharas, but they may also be 
acquired, or called into service by mortals. 

Quite frequently the vidyds are personified and cited like famil- 
iar spirits, or good fairies.1* They appear in profusion with 
pedantic descriptive names. Thus there is the Vidya called Pra- 


by the name of vidya, “science” or 


10 Mahabh. 12. 343. 42. 

11 Kathas. 18. 184; 20. 105, 141; 25. 262; 38. 153; 59. 106; Parcvanatha 
Caritra 2. 556; Kathakoca, pp. 49, 58; Prabandhacintamani, pp. 137, 150, 195 
(in Tawney’s Translation). 

12 Mahabh. 13. 29. 11; 18. 4. 23-37, and on every other page of fiction. 
13In Vikrama-Carita the eight siddhis (above, p. 2) are personified as 
virgins; see Weber, Indische Studien, XV. 388. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 5 


jfiapti, “ Prescience,” or “ Foreknowledge,”* Kathas. 51. 45; 111. 
_ 52; Pargvanatha Caritra, 6. 879, 1141; or Prakrit Janavani (San- 
skrit, Jnapani), *Knowledge.”*® In Kathas. 111. 52, a king, 
suspecting that some calamity might have befallen his father, 
thought upon the “Science” named Prajiiapti, who thereupon pre- 
sented herself, and he addressed her: “Tell me how has my father 
fared?” The Science that had presented herself in a bodily form 
said to him: “Hear what has befallen your father, the king of 
Vatsa.” Similarly, in Kathas. 30. 6 ff., Madanavega, a Vidyadhara, 
is worried because he is in love with the mortal maiden Kalingasena. 
He calls to mind the Science named Prajfiapti, which informs him 
that Kaliigasena is an Apsaras, or heavenly nymph, degraded in 
consequence of a curse. Similarly, ibid., 42. 32, Ratnaprabha calls 
up a supernatural Science, called Mayavati, “ Witching,” which tells 
her tidings of her husband. 

The “Science” called Caksusi, “Seeing,” is bestowed by the 
Gandharvas upon Arjuna, Mahabh. i. 171. 6; the “ Science” called 
Pratismrti, “Memory,” is taught by his brother to Arjuna, ibid., 
3. 36. 30. In Bambhadatta, p. 8, 1. 19, there is a “Science,” called 
Samkari (Skt. Camkari), “Safety-bestower”; if this is merely 
remembered: it surrounds one with friends and servants that do 
one’s bidding (see also ibid., p. 15, 1. 2). In Kathas. 46. r10, King 
Candradatta possesses the Science called Mohani, “ Bewildering,” 
and for that reason is hard to conquer; similarly, in Kathakoga, p. 
144, there is the Science called “Invincible” (presumably Apara- 
jita) ; and in Parcanatha Caritra, 3. 938, the Science called Vicva- 
vacikara, “ All-subjecting,” presents herself in person (avirbhavati 
svayam). 

The last-mentioned text, in 8. 60, 158, has the Science called 
Khagamini, “ Flying in the air.” The same Science is called Akaga- 
gamini in Parcvanatha 1. 577, and in Prabhavaka Carita, p. 11, 
cloka 151; Vyomagamini or Gaganagamini in Prabhavaka Carita, 
p. 7, cloka 109, and p. 19, cloka 148; not very different is the 
Science called Adhisthayini, ‘“‘ Floating in the air,” Pargvanatha 1. 

14 See also Kathakoga, pp. 22, 32. A preceptor of these sciences is called 


Prajfiapti-Kaucika in Kathas. 25, 284. 
15 “ Story of Bambhadatta” (Jacobi, “ Maharastri Tales,” p. 8, 1. 26). 


6 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


599. This is, of course, the prime quality of the Vidyadharas 
(khecara) themselves. Frequent mention is made of the Science 
called “ Resuscitation”: Samjivini, Pargvanatha 6. 706; or Jivani, 
Mahabh. 1. 67. 58; or Mrtajivini, Skandapurana, Kacikhanda, 
16. 81. Parevanatha, 2. 201, has the Science called Dhuvana- 
ksobhini, “ Earthquake”; and Pargvanatha 8. 158, and Parigistapar- 
van 2. 173, have the Science called Talodghatini, “Opening of 
locks.” It will be observed that texts of the Jaina religionists 
figure frequently in this matter, this, because of the importance 
which the Jainas attach to ascetic practices. These practices and 
the beliefs connected with them have, in their turn, stimulated the 
Jainas’ great love of fiction. It is rather characteristic that the 
Parcvanatha Caritra 1. 576ff., mentions no less than five of these 
Sciences in one place, to wit: Adrcyikarana, “ Invisibility ;” Akrsti, 
“Compelling the presence of a person;” Ripantarakrti, “ Chang- 
ing one’s shape;” Parakayapraveca, “Entering another’s body ;” 
and Akacagamini, “ Traveling in the air.” 

Conspicuous among these magic “ Arts,” as we may now call 
them, is the “Art of entering another’s body.’?® In the Yoga- 
Siitras iii. 38 it is called para-carira-aveca ; in other Yoga writings, 
and in Merutunga’s Prabandhacintamani, p. 12, para-pura-pra- 
veca;?7 in Kathas. 45. 78, 79, dehantara-Aaveca, or anya-deha- 
pravecako yogah; in the Jainist Parcvanatha Caritra I. 576; 3. 
119; in the Metrical Version of the Vikrama Carita, story 21, lines 
Iog-110; in the Bihler manuscript of the Paficatantra, and in 
Meghavijaya’s version of the same text, para-kaya-praveca (see 
WZKM. XIX, p. 64; ZDMG. LII, p. 649). The same designa- 
tion is used in the Vikrama story in a manuscript of the Vetalapafi- 
cavincati, edited by Uhle in ZDMG. XXIII, pp. 443 ff. The Vi- 
krama Carita defines this Art (with others) as ancillary to the eight 
mahasiddhis, to wit, parakayapravecgadya yac ca katy api siddhayah, 
etadastamahasiddhipada paikajasevikah, “the Arts Entering an- 


16 In Hemacandra’s Yogacastra this is preceded by the “Art of sepa- 
rating one’s self from one’s body,” called vedhavidhi; see Biihler, “ Ueber das 
Leben des Jaina Ménches Hemacandra,” p. 251. 

17 EF. g., Aniruddha to Samkhyas. p. 129. The Sanskrit Lexicons either 
omit or misunderstood this word; see Béhtlingk, VII, p. 356, col. 1. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 7 


other’s body and some others are subservient to the foot-lotuses of 
the these mahasiddhis (the great Arts).” For all that the parakaya- 
praveca is an art destined to make a brilliant career in fiction. It 
is applied in two rather distinctive ways, one more philosophical, 
the other plainly folk-lore. In its philosophical aspect “the mind- 
stuff penetrates into the body of another.” Patafijali’s Commen- 
tator (Yoga-Bhasya of Veda-Vyasa) remarks that the Yogin, as 
the result of concentration reduces his karma, becomes conscious 
of the procedure of his mind-stuff, and then is able to withdraw 
the mind-stuff from his own body and to deposit it in another body. 
The organs also fly after the mind-stuff thus deposited.1* In its 
folk-lore aspect the art consists of abandoning one’s body and enter- 
ing another body, dead or in some other way bereft of its soul. The 
second form is naturally more popular in fiction. 

There is but one elaborate instance of the art of pervading 
another’s body with one’s mind-stuff, Mahabharata, 13. goff. A 
noble sage, named Devacarman, had a wife, Ruci by name, the like 
of whom there was not upon the earth. Gods, Gandharvas, and 
Demons were intoxicated by her charms, but none so much so as 
the God Indra, the slayer of Vrtra, the punisher of Paka. Indra 
is of old a good deal of a wiveur and man about town. In remote 
antiquity he established for himself his dubious reputation by 
violating Ahalya, the beautiful wife of the great Sage Gautama; 
therefore he is known ever after as the “ Paramour of Ahalya” 
(ahalyayai jarah).1° Now Devagarman, the great Sage, under- 
stood the nature of women, therefore guarded that wife with every 
device and endeavor. Also, he was aware that Indra, seeker of 
intrigues with the wives of others, was the most likely source of 
danger: hence he yet more strenuously guarded his wife. Being 
minded to perform a sacrifice he pondered the means of protecting 
his spouse during his absence. He called to him his disciple Vipula, 
and said: “I am going to perform a sacrifice; since Indra constantly 


18 Wood, The Yoga-System of Patafijali, HOS. Vol. XVII. p. 266. Cf. 
the kamavasayitva of the commentator to Vacaspatimicra’s “ Samkhya-tattva- 
kaumudi,” 1. c. 

19 From Catapatha Brahmana, 3. 3. 4. 18,on to Kathasaritsagara 17. 137 f; 
see my Vedic Concordance under ahalyayai. 


8 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


lusts after Ruci, do thou guard her with all thy might. Unceasingly 
must thou be on thy guard against him, for he puts on many dis- 
guises!” Then Vipula, ascetic and chaste, clean like the sheen of 
fire’s flame, knowing the moral law and truthful, consented to take 
charge. 

As the Master was about to start Vipula asked him: “ What are 
the shapes that Indra contrives, when he comes? What sort of 
beauty and majesty does he assume, pray tell me that, O Sage?” 
Then the Master recounted to him Indra’s wiles in detail: “ He ap- 
pears with a diadem, carrying his war-bolt, with jewels in his ears; 
the next moment like a Paria in appearance; as an ascetic with a 
tuft on his head, clothed in rags; of body great, or of body small. 
He changes his complexion from red to pale, and again to black, 
his form from stalwart youth to decrepit old age. He appears in the 
guise of Brahman, Ksatriya, Vaicya, Cidra, indifferently of high 
or low caste; may show himself beautiful in white robe; disguised 
as swan or koil-bird; as lion, tiger, or elephant; in the guise of god, 
or demon, or king; fat or lean; as a bird, or stupid animal of many 
a form, even as a gnat or fly. He may vanish, so as to be visible 
only to the eye of knowledge; turn to thin air.” 

The Sage in due time starts on his journey, leaving his fiduciary 
pupil in charge of the wife. Indra, as forecast, appears upon the 
scene, and Vipula finds that Ruci is wayward. Then, by his Yoga, 
he invades her mind (cittasya paracariravecah) and restrains her. 
He abides in her “limb by limb,” like a shadow, like a person 
stopping in an empty house which he finds on his way, soiling her 
as little as a drop of water soils a lotus-leaf, standing in her like a 
reflection in a mirror. 

Ruci is unconscious of the influence, but the operator’s eye is 
fixed, for his spirit is far away. When Indra enters she wishes to 
say politely to the guest, “ Who are thou?” but, stiffened and re- 
strained by the magic presence in her soul, she is unable to move. 
Indra says: “Compelled by the bodiless God of Love I come for 
thy sake, O sweetly smiling woman,” but she is still unable to rise 
and speak, because the virtuous pupil restrains her by the bonds of 
Yoga. Vipula finally returns to his own body, and Indra, shamed 
by his reproaches, slinks off. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. g 


Twice more in the Mahabharata the motif takes the form of 
pervading another with one’s self. In 12. 290. 12 the Sage Ucanas, 
_ perfect in Yoga, projects himself into Kubera, the god of wealth, 
and controls him so as to be able to take his wealth and decamp. 
In 15. 26. 26-29 the ascetic Vidura, as he dies, rests his body against 
a tree, and enters the body of Yudhisthira who is thus dowered with 
Vidura’s many virtues. The Sage, having left with Yudhisthira 
his powers, obtains the Samtanika’s worlds. But, as a rule, the art 
is to enter the empty body of a dead person, or of a person who has 
himself decamped from his own body. That is the permanent type. 
Thus, in Kathakoga, p. 38 ff., Prince Amaracandra enters another’s 
body in order to feign death, and-thus test the faith of his wife 
Jayacri who had but just married him by svayamvara. When she 
is about to join him on the funeral pyre he recovers his body by 

his magic. 

The intricate story of Yogananda, or the Brahman disciple Indra- 
datta, who became king Nanda by entering his dead body by Yoga, 
is told, Kathas. 4. 92ff.; and in the fifth chapter of Merutunga’s 
Prabandhacintamani, p. 271. In the version of the Kathisaritsa- 
gara the celebrated Hindu Grammarian Vararuci, together with his 
two pupils Vyadi and Indradatta, wishes to learn from Varsa a new 
grammar that had been revealed to him by the god K@arttikeya. 
Now Varsa asks a million gold pieces for the lesson. The price is 
rather stiff, and they know no way except to rely on the liberality 
of king Nanda of Oudh. When they arrive in Oudh Nanda has 
just died. They devise that Indradatta shall enter for a short time 
Nanda’s body, and that he shall again withdraw therefrom as soon 
.as he has granted the million. Indradatta then enters Nanda’s 
body ; Vyadi watches over Indradatta’s empty shell; Vararuci makes 
the request for the money. But the wise minister of the defunct 
king, Cakatala by name, reflects that Nanda’s son is still a boy, that 
the kingdom is surrounded by enemies, and decides to retain the 
magic Nanda (Yogananda) upon the throne. He therefore orders 
all corpses to be burned,”® including Indradatta’s, and the latter’s 
soul, to its horror, is thus compelled to reside in the body of Nanda, 
a Cidra, whereas it is, in truth, that of a Brahman. 


20 For this feature, namely, the burning of temporarily abandoned bodies, 
see Benfey, Pajicatantra, I. 253; II. 147. 


10 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


In the Prabandhacintamani king Nanda of Patalipura dies, 
and a certain Brahman enters his body. A” second Brahman by 
connivance comes to the renovated king’s door, recites the Veda, 
and obtains as reward a crore of gold-pieces. The prime minister** 
considered that formerly Nanda was parsimonious, whereas he now 
displayed generosity. So he arrested that Brahman, and made 
search everywhere for a foreigner that knew the art of entering 
another body. Hearing, moreover, that a corpse was being guarded 
somewhere by a certain person he reduced the corpse to ashes, by 
placing it on the funeral pyre, and so contrived to carry on Nanda 
as monarch in his mighty kingdom as before. Benfey, Das 
Paficatantra, I. 123, quotes Turnour, Mahavanso, Introduction, p. 
XLII, to the effect that Buddhist sources report of Candragupta, 
the founder of the Maurya dynasty, the same story. Candragupta’s 
body was occupied after his death by a Yaksa, named Devagarbha. 

In the Vampire-story in Civadasa’s recension of the Vetala- 
paficavincati, 23 ; Kathasaritsagara, 97 ; Oesterley’s ‘‘ Baital Pachisi,” 
22; “ Vedala Cadai,” 22,22 the Vampire relates how an old and 
decrepit Pagupata ascetic abandons his own shriveled body and 
enters that of a young Brahman who has just died, and later on 
throws his own body into a ravine. In the Hindi version of the 
Vampire stories (“ Baital Pachisi,” 24), but not in the classical ver-. 
sions, there occurs an unimportant variant of the same story. 

In Kathas. 45. 47, 113, the Asura Maya tells Candraprabha that 
he was, in a former birth, a Danava, Sunitha by name, and that 
his body, after death in a battle between the Devas and the Asuras, 
had been preserved by embalming. The Asura Maya proposes to 
teach Candraprabha a charm by which he may return to his own. 
former body, and so become superior in spirit and strength. 

In the Hindustani “ Bhaktimal”?? there is a merry story about 
Camkaracarya, who has entered into a learned disputation with a 
Doctor named Mandan Misr. The latter’s wife had crowned the 

21 Cakatala (or Cakadala) is his name in the same text, p. 306, and in 
another Jain text, Paricistaparvan 8. 50. 


22 Babington in “ Miscellaneous Translations from Oriental Languages,” 
Vol. I. Part IV, p. 84. 


23 See Garcin de Tassy, “ Histoire de la Litérature Hindoui et Hindou- 
stani,” IT. 44. 


. 
‘ 


- ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 11 


heads of the two disputants with wreaths; Mandan Mistr’s wreath . 
faded first, and Camkara declares that he has conquered, and that 
Mandan Misr must become his disciple. But the wife remonstrates, 
on the plea that her husband is only half, she herself being the other 
half: he must conquer her also. She enters into a disputation with 
him particularly on the Art of Love (Ras-Schaster), in which he, 
a Brahmacdrin, is quite inexperienced. In order not to have an 
undue advantage she gives him a month’s time for preparation. 
Camkara enters the body of a king who has just died, committing 
his body to the care of his disciples. In the time of a single month 
Camkara gathers a fund of experience in the art sufficient to down 
the woman in her own domain. 

A Buddhist novice kills a serpent in order to enter its body, ac- 
cording to Burnouf, “Introduction a Vhistoire du Buddhisme,” I. 
331, and Stan. Iulien, “ Mémoires,” I. 48; see Benfey, Das Pafi- 
catantra, I. 124. 

F. W. Bain, “A Digit of the Moon,” pp. 84 ff., tells the follow- 
ing, presumably spurious, story, based upon sundry echoes from 
Hindu fiction: A king’s domestic chaplain (purohita) is smitten with 
an evil passion for another man’s wife. He gets the husband 
interested in the art of entering another’s body, takes him one 
night to the cemetery, and there each by the power of Yoga aban- 
dons his body. The Purohita enters the body of the husband, who 
in turn is obliged to put up with the Purohita’s body that is left. 
By chance he returns not to his own home, but to the house of the 
Purohita. 

His wife’s illicit love for the Purohita has in the meantime 
driven her to his house, and as a result, she now showers unac- 
customed endearments upon her own husband in the guise of the 
Purohita. The Purohita, in the meantime, has gone to the house 
of this dissolute woman, where he passes the night, cursing his 
fate because of her absence. In the morning the Purohita leaves 
the house before the woman’s return, and arrives at his own house 
where he finds the husband asleep in his own bed. After mutual 
recriminations they return to the cemetery and change back their 
bodies. Then the husband realizes the import of what has hap- 
pened and brings both the Purohita and, his own wife before the 


12 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


_king’s officers. But the Purohita says: “I have not touched your 
wife.” And the wife says: “ Was it not yourself that I embraced?” 
And the situation, in the manner of the Vampire-stories, remains a 
puzzle. 

The most important aspect of our theme is that which tells how 
a certain king, either Mukunda or Vikrama, was tricked out of his 
body by a wily companion. In both versions figure a parrot, and a 
devoted and observant queen; and in both stories the king finally — 
regains his own body. Nevertheless, the two types of story show 
very individual physiognomies. The Vikrama story, in an essen- 
tially Hindu form, has been accessible since a very early date (1817) 
in “M. le Baron Lescallier,’” Le Trone Enchanté, New-York, de 
limprimerie de J. Desnoues, No. 7, Murray-Street, 1817. This, as 
the translator explicitly states, is a translation from the Persian 
‘“‘ Senguehassen Batissi,” which in its turn is a version of the Hindu 
cycle of stories best known (though not exclusively so) under the 
names of “ Sinhdsanadvatrincika,” or, ‘The 32 Stories of the 
Throne Statues”; or ‘ Vikrama Carita, the History of King Vik- 
rama.’’** Benfey traces the Vikrama version, or echoes from it, 
through five Western story collections, all of which are certainly 
based upon Hindu models, because they contain the feature of the 
parrot, or, in the case of the Bahar Danush, of the sharok bird (the 
maina, Skt. carika*®). But, as far as Hindu literature is concerned, 
Benfey knew only a Greek rendering of the Mukunda story in 
Galanos’ translation of the Hitopadeca. 

The Mukunda version was made accessible to Europeans con- 
siderably later than Lescallier’s Vikrama version. Galanos, ‘‘Xuro- 
radacoa 7) Wavroa Tavrpa,” pp. 20 ff., rendered it into Greek in 1851 
(see Benfey, I. c., p. 4), and Benfey translated it from Galanos in 
Paficatantra, Vol. II., pp. 124ff. Since then Hertel found the 
original of Galanos in the Biihler manuscript of the Paficatantra ; 


24 See A. Loisseleur Deslongchamps, “Essai sur les Fables Indiennes,” p. 
175, note 5 (who draws attention to “1001 Nights,” LVII-LIX); Benfey, 
Das Pajicatantra, p. 123. The Hindu classical versions of the Sinhdsana do 
not, as far as I have been able to find out, contain the story; see especially 
their summary, as made by Weber, “ Indische Studien,” XV, pp. 447 ff. 


26 See my paper, “On Talking-Birds in Hindu Fiction,” Festschrift an 
Ernst Windisch, pp. 349 ff. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 13 


see WZKM. XIX. 63ff. He also brought to light two briefer 
versions of the-same story, one in Meghavijaya’s recension of the 
Paficatantra, ZDMG. LH, pp. 649ff.; the other in the Southern 
textus simplicior of the Pajicatantra, ZDMG. LXI, p. 27. The 
story pivots about a proverbial (niti) stanza, to wit: 


“That which belongs to six ears is betrayed.” 
“Not if the hunchback is present.” 
“The hunchback became a king, 

The king a beggar and vagabond.”?® 


King Mukunda of Lilavati, returning from a pleasure grove to 
his city, saw a hunchback clown performing his tricks before a 
crowd. He took him with him in order to make merry over him, 
and constantly kept him by his side. The king’s Minister desiring 
to consult with the king, saw the hunchback and recited part of the 
metrical adage: : 

“That which belongs (is known to) to six ears is betrayed.” 

- But the king continued the stanza: 


“Not if the hunchback is present.” 


On a certain day a Yogin turned up; the king received him 
under four eyes, and learned from him the art of entering into a 
dead body. The king kept rehearsing to himself the charm in the 
presence of the hunchback who, in this way, learned it also. It 
happened that the king and the hunchback went out to hunt; the 
king discovered in a thicket a Brahman who had died of thirst. 
Eager to test his power, he muttered the charm he had learned and 
transported his soul into the body of the Brahman. The hunch- 
back immediately entered the body of the king, mounted his horse, 


26 The original of this verse as given by Hertel, WZKM. XIX. 64, is: 
satkarno bhidyate mantrah kubjake naiva bhidyate, kubjako jayate raja raja 
bhavati bhiksukah. Very similar is the verse quoted from Subhasitarnava, 
150, by Bohtlingk, “Indische Spriiche,” 6601: satkarno bhidyate mantra¢ 
catuskarno na bhidyate, kubjako jayate raja raja bhavati bhiksukah. Hertel 
cites yet another version from the southern textus simplicior of the Pafica- 
tantra, ZDMG. LXI, p. 27, note 2, to wit: satkarnam bhidyate mantram 
tava karyam ca bhidyate, kubjo bhavati rajendro raja bhavati bhiksukah. Cf. 
also Bohtlingk’s “ Spriiche,” 6602 and 6603 (from various sources) ; they do 
not mention the kubjaka, “ hunchback.” 


14 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


and said to the king: “ Now shall I exercise royalty; do you go 
wherever on earth it pleases you.” And the king, realizing his help- 
lessness, turned away from his city. 

Because the trick king spoke irrelevantly in the presence of the 
queen, she suspected him and consulted the aged Minister. He 
began to distribute food among needy strangers, and, as he himself 
washed their feet, he recited: 


“That which belongs to six ears is betrayed.” 
“Not if the hunchback is present,” 


and asked each mendicant to recite the other half of the stanza.?? 
The true king heard of this ; recognized in it the action of the queen, 
returned as a mendicant, and, when the Minister recited as above, 
he finished the stanza: 


“The hunchback became a king, 
The king beggar and vagabond.” 


The minister was satisfied with this evidence, and returned to the 
queen whom he found wailing over a dead pet-parrot. He advised 
her to call the false king and to say: “Is there in this city a magi- 
cian who can make this parrot utter even a single word?” The 
fake king, proud of his newly won art, abandoned the royal body, 
entered that of the parrot, and the true king recovered his own. 
Then the Minister killed the parrot which had been reanimated by 
the hunchback. 

Meghavijaya’s version (ZDMG. LII. 649) is a straight ab-. 
breviation of this story. Yet briefer and somewhat tangled is the 
version reported by Hertel from the South-Indian textus simplicior 
of the Paficatantra; see ZDMG. LXI. 27ff. This version is 
clearly secondary to that of Galanos; the names are all changed, 
and the hunchback figures as an attendant of the king, being called 


27 On divided stanzas as a means of recognition see the story of Bambha- 
datta, p. 18, lines 30 ff. (Jacobi, “ Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen in Maharastri”), 
and cf. my essay on Miladeva, Proceedings of the American Philosophical 
Society, LII. (1913), 644. On the completion of fragmentary stanzas see 
Tawney’s translation of Prabandhacintamani, pp. 6, 60; Hertel in ZDMG. LXI, 
p. 22; and, in general, Zachariae in “Gurupijakaumudi,” pp. 38 ff. ; Charpentier, 
“ Paccekabuddhageschichten,” p. 35. Cloka as deus ex machina in Pareva- 
natha Caritra 2. 660 ff, 


- ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 15 


 Kubja, “ Hunchback;” 7. ¢., the word has become a proper name 
without relevance of any sort. The story is, moreover, dashed 
_ with motifs that had nothing to do with it originally: The king 

learns the art from-a sorcerer. Kubja overhears the charm. The 


_ king sees a female hansa-bird in distress, because her mate has been 


shot by a hunter. The king, out of pity, enters the male hansa’s 
‘body ; Kubja enters the king’s body, usurps the kingdom, but is 
flouted by the queen. The king abandons the body of the hansa, 
enters that of a beggar, and consults with the sorcerer. The latter 
tells the story to the king’s minister. The minister advises the 
queen to kill her parrot, and to tell the fake king that she will 
receive him, if he reanimates the parrot. The false king enters into 
the parrot and is slain. 

All versions of the story with King Vikrama in the center are 
clearly marked off from the Mukunda story. They supplant the 
hunchback by a magician (Yogin) and do not pivot about the 
stanza, “ That which belongs to six ears is betrayed.” As far as I 
know there are four versions of this story, to wit: Lescallier’s, 
alluded to above; a version which appears in a manuscript of the 
Vetalapaficavincati, edited and translated by Uhle in ZDMG. 
XXIII. 443 ff.; a very brief summary in Merutunga’s Prabandha- 
cintamani, p. 12; and a full and brilliant version in Parcvanatha 
Caritra, 3. 105-324.2° Moreover this tale has great vogue in Hindu 
folk-lore, where it is usually blended with other parrot stories 
and with other Vikrama stories: see Frere, “Old Deccan Days,” 
pp. 102 ff. (Vicram Maharajah Parrot) ; J. H. Knowles, “ Dictionary 
of Kashmiri Proverbs,” p. 98 (§§ 4 and 5); Anaryan (pseudonym 
of F. Arbuthnot) in “Early Ideas, Hindoo Stories,” pp. 131 ff., 
where the story is ascribed to the Prakrit poet Hurridas (Hari- 
dasa) ;*° Butterworth, “Zig-Zag Journeys in India,” p. 167: “‘ The 
_ parrot with the soul of a Rajah.” 


28 For this trait of the story see Ramayana I. 2. 9 ff. 

29 Deslongchamps, I. c., states that the story occurs, “avec d’autres détails, 
dans le recueil sanscrit qui a pour titre Vrhat-Katha” (voyez le Quarterly 
Oriental Magazine de Calcutta, mars 1824). Vrhat-Katha is doubtless in- 
tended for “ Kathasaritsagara,” but the story is not there. The Quarterly 
Oriental Magazine is not accessible. 

30 That the story did exist in some Prakrit version seems to be likely, 


16 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


Lescallier’s version of the story, a little uncertain as to its make- 
up, differs not only from the Mukunda story, but also from the 
three remaining versions of which we have the Sanskrit text. Since 
the book is very rare, the following digest may be acceptable: A 
Yogin (Djogui) named Jéhabel (Jabala or Jabali?) starts out with 
the avowed purpose of tricking Vikramaditya (Békermadjiet) out 
of his body, so that he may rule in his stead. He takes with him a 
dead parrot. He obtains an audience with the king, and after 
effusively praising him, says that he has heard that Vikrama pos- 
sesses fourteen arts (vidyas), one of which is the capacity to 
transplant his soul into a dead body, and thus to revive it. He 
begs for an ocular demonstration of this art: Vikrama is to pass 
his soul for a moment into the body of the dead parrot. - After 
some remonstrance Vikrama consents, and they go to a room whose 
every opening the Yogin carefully shuts, on the plea that complete 
secrecy is desirable. Vikrama enters the body of the parrot which 
immediately shows every sign of life; the Yogin occupies Vikrama’s 
body. Then he attempts to seize the parrot in order to slay him. 
Vikrama, unable to escape from the closed room, resorts to the 
supreme being, making what the Buddhists call the saccakiriya, or 
“truth-act,” or satya-cravana, or “truth-declaration”:3* “O al- 
mighty God, as king I have done good to all men, I have treated 
generously and benevolently all who have resorted to me, I have 
solaced the unfortunate, and none, not even animals, have suffered 
exactions or injustice at my hands. Being without reproach, I do 
not comprehend for what fault I am thus punished!” No sooner 
has he uttered this prayer than a violent gust of wind throws open 
every aperture of the room. The parrot escapes, and settles upon 
a Samboul (Calmali) tree in the great garden of Noulkéha,3? where 
he becomes king of the parrots. 
because a stanza which occurs at the end of several manuscripts of the 
Vikrama Carita states that formerly the Vikrama collection existed in the 
Maharastri language; see Weber, Indische Studien, XV, pp. 187 ff. 

81 Pargvanatha Caritra, 3. 267. This motif of Hindu fiction, best known 
by its Buddhist name of saccakiriya, is one of the most constant. Many illus- 
trations of it are in my hands (including the trick-saccakiriya), but the theme 
is in the competent hands of Dr. E. W. Burlingame, who hopes soon to pub- 


lish an essay on the subject. 
32 Also printed Noutkéha. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 17 


The Yogin embalms his own body, buries it secretly, and then 
proceeds to impersonate Vikrama. One day the parrot reconnoitres 
es palace, and flutters about the head of the trick king, who is 
_afraid that he will peck out his eyes. He therefore issues a procla- 
~ mation to the hunters of his domains that he will pay a gold mohur 
each for parrots, in the hope that he will in this way get rid of the 
parrot inhabited by Vikrama. As many as are brought to him he 
ag orders to be roasted. Now a certain hunter, Kalia by 
mame, spreads a net under the tree inhabited by the royal parrot. 
e latter deliberately flies into the net, and is followed by all his 
«tribe of parrots. Then he asks Kalia to release them all, on the 
_ plea that he will manage to obtain a thousand mohurs as his own 
price. The hunter is impressed with the royal parrot’s accomplish- 

_ ments, and enters upon his scheme. 

In the meantime the queens of the palace show repugnance to 
the usurper, and refuse him the proper marital attentions, so that 
he is led to cast his eyes upon the daughter of his treasurer Ounian, 
who is, of course, flattered by this distinction, and promises him his 
daughter in marriage. One day the maiden with her attendants 
goes to bathe in a certain bathing tank, passing and repassing on 
the way the house of the hunter Kaliah. The parrot, hanging in 
his cage outside, enchants her by his sayings and songs, so that she 
finally buys him at the exorbitant price of a thousand mohurs—the 
price which the parrot had set upon himself. When she takes him 
to her own apartments he notices there the signs of festal doings. 
He asks her what is the occasion, and she tells him that she is to be 
married to the king in four days. The parrot breaks out into 
hilarious laughter, believing that he sees a way to revenge himself 
on the Yogin. When the treasurer’s daughter asks him to explain 
his hilarity, he tells her that she is making a mistake in marrying 
the king, since as his wife she would share his affection with a thou- 
sand others. She asks what she is to do, and he tells her as 
follows: “Buy a young deer, small and weakly. On the marriage 
day, when you are conducted to the palace, take him with you and 
tie him to the foot of your bed. When the king comes, tell him that 
you love the deer as a brother, and that marital intimacies must 
therefore not take place in his presence. The king, angry because 

PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, B, APRIL 3, IQI7. 


18 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


you repel his advances, will kick the deer and kill him. You will 
then break out in lamentations over the death of the deer, your 
brother, and insist that you cannot endure caresses unless your eyes 
behold the deer alive, if only for a moment.” 

In due time all happens as prearranged. The amorous trick 
king, to please his new queen, enters the body of the dead deer, 
and immediately the parrot, who manages to be present, reoccupies 
his own body. Vikrama then mercifully enables the wicked Yogin 
to reenter his own body. Shamed and contrite he is allowed to go 
his way. 

The story in this form is unquestionably less well motivated 
than that of the Vetdlapaficaviricati, or Pargvanatha Caritra, below. 
Especially, the manner in which, in the latter account, the Yogin is 
tempted by circumstances to enter upon his perfidious career is 
important and primary; the relation of the parrot king to his own 
queen is worked out much more artistically than in the Persian 
version.®* : 

The remaining three versions are strikingly unitarian as to plot, 
but differ each from the other in some details, in style, and in extent. 
Merutunga’s version is little more than a table of contents of the 
little Epic as told in Pargvanatha Caritra (both are Jain texts), 

although the wording differs a good deal. Merutunga (Bombay, 
1880) is presumably not very accessible ; I give here the brief text of 
the original : . 
atha kasming cid avasare parapurapravecgavidyaya nirakrtah 
sarva api viphala kala iti nicamya tadadhigamaya criparvate bhdaira- 
vanandayoginah samipe crivikramas tarn ciram araradha, tat pirva- 
prasevakena kenapi dvijatina rajfio ’gre iti kathitam, yat tvaya mam 
vihaya parapurapravecavidya guror nadeya, ity uparuddho nrpo 
vidyadanodyatam gurum vijflapayamasa, yat prathamam asmai dvi-. 
jaya vidyam dehi pagcin mahyam, he rajan ayarh vidyayah sar- 
vathanarha iti gurunodite bhityo-bhiiyas tava paccat tapo bhavis- 
yatity upadicya nrpoparodhat tena vipraya vidya pradatta, tatah 
88 A story similar to that of Lescallier, but differing in many particulars, 


is told in “Les Mille et Un Jours” (Petis de la Crois), Vol. IL, p. 281 
(jour 57). 


1 
+ 


) 
7 


a ee ee 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 19 


pratyavrtau dvav apy ujjayinim prapya pattahastivipattivisannarh 
rajalokam avalokya parapurapravecavidyanubhavanimittam ca raja 
nijagajacarira 4tmanam-nyavecayat, tad yatha, 

bhiipah praharike dvije nijagajasyange ’vicad vidyaya, 

vipro bhiipavapur viveca nrpatih kridacuko ’bhit tatah. 

palligatranivecitatmanam nrpe vyamrcya devya mrtim, 

viprah kiram ajivayan nijatanum cri(vi) kramo labdhavan. 
ittham vikramarkasya parapurapravecavidya siddha. 

Tawney’s translation, “The Prabandhacintamani, or Wishing- 
stone of Narratives,’ pp. 9, 10, reads: Then, having heard on a 
certain occasion, that all accomplishments are useless in comparison 
with the art of entering the bodies of other creatures,** King Vik- 


“fama repaired to the Yogin Bhairavananda, and propitiated him 


for a long time on the mountain of Cri: But a former servant of 
his, a certain Brahman, said to the king, “ You ought not to receive 
from the teacher the art of entering other bodies, unless it is given 
to me at the same time.” Having been thus entreated, the king 
made this request to the teacher, when he was desirous of bestow- 
ing on him the science, “ First bestow the science on this Brahman, 


_ then on me.” The teacher said, “King, this man is altogether un- 


worthy of the science.” Then he gave him this warning, ‘“ You 
will again and again repent of this request.” After the teacher had 
given this warning, at the earnest entreaty of the king, he bestowed 
the science on the Brahman. Then both returned to Ujjayini. 
When the king reached it, seeing that his courtiers were depressed 
on account of the death of the state elephant, and also in order 
to test the science of entering another body, he transferred his soul 
into the body of his own elephant. 
The occurrence is thus described: 


The king, while the Brahman kept guard, entered by his science 
the body of his elephant ; 

The Brahman entered the body of the king; then the king became 
a pet parrot; 

The king transferred himself into the body of a lizard; then con- 
sidering that the queen was likely to die, 


84 For the tradition that Vikrama became an adept in all sorts of magic, 
see Jiilg, “ Mongolische Marchen,” p. 217. 


20 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


The Brahman restored to life the parrot, and the great Vikrama 
recovered his own body. 


In this way Vikramaditya acquired the art of entering another 
body. 

It requires no sharp attention to note that this brief account reads 
like a digest of some such story as either of the following two. 
Especially the unmotivated passage of the king from parrot to 
lizard, and the still less clear mention of “the queen, likely to die” 
point to a fuller narrative. As against this the change in some 
proper nouns is of no significance, since it is a constant factor in the 
repetition of stories. One verse of the final summary, a sort of 
versus memorialis of the main points of the story, is repeated 
almost verbatim at the end of the Vetalapaficavincati version, to wit: 


vipre praharake nrpo nijagajasyange ’vigad vidyaya, 
vipro bhipovapir vicesa®* nrpatih kridacuko *bhit tatah. 


Uhle’s prose version, edited and translated excellently from a 
single manuscript in ZDMG. XXIII. 443 ff., is again, a drier hand- 
ling of some such version as that of the Parcvanatha. The events 
of the two stories are alike step by step, but they are narrated 
here succinctly and with avoidance of all rhetoric. Though the 
Parcvanatha introduces episodes, secondary moralizing, and much 
ornamentation, it represents a closer approach to the prime form 
than Uhle’s version which, again, is not very much more than 
a table of contents. Inasmuch as Uhle’s version is reflected step 
by step that of Parevanatha it need not be summarized, especially 
as the publication is readily accessible. In one or two points 
Uhle’s version is readily improved in the light of Pargvanatha’s. 
Thus the passage, p. 446, 1. 15, avameva asmai datavya, which Uhle 
very doubtingly renders, “Give him only the lowest (Science) !” 
must mean, ‘‘ Give him (namely the Brahman) the (Science) first!” 
In the immediate sequel the Science is, in fact, bestowed upon the 
Brahman first : tada igvarena brahmandya rajiie ca parakaya-pravega- 
vidya datta; cf. Pargvanatha 3. 140, 141. Read in Uhle’s text 

85 Uhle’s manuscript has the word in this form; he makes out of it and 


the next word the compound vicesa-nrpatih. Merutufga’s vipro bhipavapur 
viveca is the true reading. 


esi al 


oye, gh ie Oe 


a eS 


i 
4 


ete ee bathe al 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 21 


prathamaiva for avameva.—Read in Uhle’s text, p. 448, 1. 10, with 
the peemacript, ayam mamopari catisyati, “he will hang down on 
the top of me ;’ ’ in Parevanatha 3. 183, the same idea is expressed, 
ma mamiastu tadarohe papasyopari cilika, “he shall not mount 


as a tuft upon wretched me!”—On p. 448, 1. 4, read manavati 


for ’manavati. This contrasts the word with amanavatinam in 1. 1: 


All the women of the seraglio are without pride, hence consort with 
the king; Queen Surasundari alone is manavati “ self-respecting ” 
(cf. pativrata in 1. 18)—On p. 450, 1. 18 the word mrnmayam is 
brachylogy for mrnmayam iva: the false king, seeing the distress 
of Surasundari, realizes that he can never really enjoy his royalty; 
his royal body, therefore, seems to him no better than clay. Note 
the phrase niskamalam rajyam in the parallel passage, Parcvanitha 
= 300."° 

The most important version of the Vikrama story, as indeed of 
all stories that deal with our theme as a whole, is that told in 
Parevanatha Caritra (3. 105-324), edited by Shravak Pandit Har- 
govindas and Shravak Pandit Bechardas (cravakapandita-hara- 
govindadasa-becaradasabhyam samcodhitam). Benares, ‘‘ Virasam- 
vat,” 2348 (A. D. 1912.) 

The Parevanatha’s account of Vikrama’s adventures as a parrot 
is one of the best specimens of cloka-fiction. It is in modern Kavya 
style and a worthy, if not the best link of the Vikrama epopee. It 
does not seem to have belonged to the ‘‘ Vikrama-Carita” (Sin- 
hasana), as it does not occur in any recension of that work. The 
Persian version which we know from Lescallier’s “Le Trone En- 
chanté” (above), may be a loan from the Vikrama tradition at 
large. The story is likely to have been very popular among the 
Jains: one wonders whether it occurs in the Trisasticalakapurusa 
Carita. I should, in any case, hardly think that it is original here.*” 


86 Uhle prints several times parakaydpraveca for parakaydapravega, follow- 
ing, I presume, his manuscript. 

.87 The blatant Prakritism vidhydyati, Sanskrit back-formation from 
vijjhayati, “ become extinguished,” in 3. 297, is hardly sufficient to suggest a 
Prakrit original. The Pargvanatha familiarly employs forms of this verb: I 
480; 3. 207, 361, 803; 6. 609, 858, 1322; 8. 243, 385. See Johanssen, IF. III. 
220, note; Zachariae, KZ. XX XIII. 446 ff. In 8. 243, correct vidhyayapati to 
vidhyapayati. 


22 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


In Parevanatha it is, rather curiously, not made to illustrate 4udarya, 
the standard moral quality of Vikrama, but rather his vinaya, or 
tactful conduct, which furnishes part of the text of a very long 
preachment (with excellent stories) in behalf of the four ‘ worldly ” 
virtues (laukiké gunah): vinaya, “tact;” viveka, “ discretion ;”** 
susathga, “keeping good company ;” and susattvata, “noble endur- 
ance,” from 3. 97 to the end of the chapter. 
The following is a translation in full of this version of 


VIKRAMA’S ADVENTURES IN THE Bopy oF A PARROT. 
Vikrama and His Queen Kamalavati (105-108). 


There is in India, in the land of Avanti, a city named Avanti, 
resplendent with men and jewels gathered there from sundry strange 
lands. In that city there governed Vikrama, a ruler of the earth, 
of noble form, and he, though his own power was unrivaled (ad- 
vaitavikrama),*° kept extoling the accomplishments of Visnu (Trivi- 
krama). That king, though lavish with his wealth, was free from 
haughtiness ; though endowed with might, was tolerant; and, though 
he himself was instrumental in exalting noble men, yet he was 
sincerely modest before them that deserved honor.*® His was a 
beloved Queen, Kamalavati*t by name, fashioned, as it were, by a 
skilful poet. She had many noble qualities: strength (of char- 
acter), graciousness, sweetness, loveliness, and more. 


Vikrama Extols the Glories of His Kingdom, and is Acclaimed by 
a Visitor (109-118). 

One day that monarch, beholding his court that was like the 

palace of Indra, rejoiced exceedingly and asked those who were 


88 Vinaya, together with viveka, often, e. g., Calibhadra Carita 1. 21. A 
person having such virtues is called mahapurusa, according to a pair of clokas 
cited in a foot-note to the same text, 2. 2: udaras tattvavit sattvasampannah 
sukrtacgayah, sarvasattvahitah satyacali vicadasadgunah, vicvopakari sampir- 
nacandranistandrayvrttabhih, vinitatma viveki yah sa mahapurusah smrtah. 

89 Advaita, “unrivaled,’ is punningly the name of Visnu. The second 
meaning is: “ And he, having power equal to Visnu’s, nevertheless kept prais- 
ing Visnu.” The passage puns also thrice on the name of Vikrama. 

40 Note the play upon 4unnatyam and vinatah. 

41 “ Like a lotus.” 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 23 


_ Present in his hall of audience: “Ah, tell me! Is there anywhere 
any accomplishment, science, wealth, or intelligence so marvelous 
as not to be found in any kingdom? 7742 


TR tinicn « out with joy, saw his opportunity, and elite aloud: 
“Long have I roamed the treasure-laden earth, but I have not 
beheld a union of the rivers of glory and knowledge like unto thee. 
In Patala (Hades) rules Vasuki,** O king ; in heaven Cakra (Indra). 
Both these, invisible as they are, are realized by the mind through 
thy majesty, O Ruler of the Earth! Wise men say, O Lord, that 
heaven is the goal of noble men. But even there is but one moon; 
in thy kingdom they are counted by the thousand!** No wealth is 
that wealth, worthless is that accomplishment,** ignorance is that 

understanding which does not inhere in thee! Fragrant with the 
fulness of thy worth, controlling by thy might the surface of the 
earth,** thou doest now stand at the head of kings, as does the sylla- 
ble om at the head of the syllables. Thou art wise with the mind 
of Vacaspati ;** at thy behest the people enjoy life; gladly to thee 
bow the chief rulers of the circles of the earth. The warriors of 
thy enemies cannot endure thy scent any more than that of an 
elephant in rut. This thy host of dear wives is lovely with their 
bodies bent with the burden of the God of Love.’’** 


42For this sort of boastful inquiry cf., e. g., Jacobi, “ Ausgewahlte 
Erzahlungen aus dem Mahiristri,” p. 39; Leumann, “Die Avacyaka- 
Erzahlungen,” II., 8. 3 (p. 15). 
43 The beautiful king of the serpents. 
44The pun of the original cannot be reproduced perfectly: kalavan, 
“moon,” literally “having phases,” means also “having accomplishments ” 
| the implied plural kalavantas means “having accomplishments,” and at the 
____ same time punningly “moons.” Sanskrit poets rarely neglect the opportunity 
of this double entente; see, e. g., Kathas. 34. 163; 35. 114; the present text, 
1. 373; Calibhadra Carita, 1. 100. 
45 Sanskrit pun: niskala, lit. “ without accomplishment” (kala). 
46 Sanskrit pun: vikramakrantabhitalah, “ with Vikrama astride over the 
: surface of the earth.” 
. 47 The Lord of Speech or Wisdom. 
7 48 I suspect that anafigabhara, “carrying the God of Love,” is a kenning 
for “breasts,” to wit, “ with their bodies bent by the weight of their breasts.” 


; 
: 
3 
4 
: 


a — ~« 


24 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


The Visitor Points Out Vikrama’s Single Shortcoming, Namely, 
Lack of the “ Art of Entering Another's Body,’ and 
Vikrama Starts Out to Obtain It (119-124). 


“You have here, my lord, that which exceeds magic,*® wonderful 
in its mystery. Only one art, namely the ‘ Art of entering another’s 
body,’ is not found here.” The king eagerly said: “ Where is this 
found? tell me quickly!” And he replied: “On the mountain of 
Cri, your Majesty, in the keep of a man, Siddhecvara.”** The king 
dismissed the assembly, put his minister in charge of the affairs of 
the kingdom, and, eager to obtain this science, went out from the 
city by night. Putting aside such pleasures of royalty as were his; 
not recking the hardships of the road; thirsting after new experi- 
ence ; courage his sole companion, he went rejoicing. For low men 
strive for gratification of the body; average persons for increase of 
wealth. Superior men, on the other hand, strive for some wonder- 
ful end.** 

And as he thus steadily proceeded on his way, as if drawn by 
the reins of his persevering spirit, the mountain of Cri soon hove in 
sight.*? 


Vikrama Finds the Master of the Art, Obtains His Favor, and 
Meets a Rial (125-133). 


There, in a certain place, the king perceived the Master of 
magic, of tranquil countenance, Siddhecvara by name. Joyfully he 
made obeisance, and then spake: “Through the mere sight of thy 
person I have attained my purpose, O Lord of Sages! The moon 
unasked is sure without stint to delight the world. Therefore I 
shall worship thy two lotus feet, union with which was difficult to 
obtain. Permit it!” And when he was not forbidden he did as 
he had said. 

Now a certain Brahman had been on the spot a long time ahead 

49 The rather despised indrajala. 

50 Lord of Magic. 

51 The same text, 1. 421, with a different turn: tundasya bharane nicas 
tustah sviyasya madhyamah, uttama bhuvanasyapi satam svaparata na hi. 
Similarly also 7. 121. 

52In the third pada read perhaps tasya for yasya. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 25 


of him in order to acquire the Science, but the very devotion he 
showed became a plague because of his constant importunity. As 
____ seed sown in a clear field comes up quite by itself, thus®* also other 
good deeds prosper; covetousness alone results in misery. The 
Master was delighted with the king’s pleasing and disinterested* 
services, such as preparing his couch, or washing his feet. Even 
‘stone idols, to whom devotion is paid with intent mind, straightway 
show delight.°* How much more so do sentient beings! So the 
_ Master said: “ Noble Sir! From your tactful conduct I know you 
a _ to be some ornament of men, interested in foreign lands. I am 
delighted with your good breeding, so accept from me the ‘ Art of 
entering another’s body,’ in order that I may feel that I have dis- 
charged my debt for your devotion.” 


Vikrama Induces the Master Against the Latter’s Inclination to 
Bestow the Art upon the Brahman, after That Receives 
. it Himself (134-144). 

Upon hearing this Vikrama, indifferent to his own interests, per- 
ceiving the disappointment of the Brahman who had come long 
4 before him, reflected with rising compassion: “ How can I go away, 
carrying with me the Art, as long as this Brahman Guru who has 
been here a long time is, poor man, without hope? Hence I will 
make the teacher bestow the Art on him.” And he said: “‘ Reverend 
Sir, show me thy favor by bestowing the Art upon him who has 
long served thee zealously.” Sadly the Guru replied: “ Do not give 
a serpent milk to drink. He is unworthy, and with an unworthy 
person the art works great mischief. Think how, once upon a 
_ time, a Master of magic, seeing the bones of a lion, made the body 
3 of the lion whole and undertook to give him life; how, warned by 
his people, he nevertheless in his madness gave him life ; then the lion 
slew him.”** In spite of this reminder the king, intent upon an- 
other’s interest, fervently embraced the Master’s feet, and prevailed 
upon him to bestow the art upon that Brahman. Out of respect for 


en ee We 


53 Read tatha for yatha. 

54 Yaiicdrahitaih, literally “ free from importunities.” 

55 Thus in 7. 642, a stone idol of a Yaksa, when implored, gives sweet- 
meats to a hungry boy. 

56 This refers to a familiar fable: see Benfey, Paficatantra, I. 489; II. 332. 


26 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


the command of the master the king himself also accepted the art, 
and the Magician expounded to him plainly the rules for its ap- 
plication. 

The Brahman, though he had not been dismissed by the Master, 
was anxious to depart. Not so the king, even though he was given 
permission, because he was burdened with his affection for the 
Master. For noble men, after they have been laden with a pack*’ 
of accomplishments, do not turn their backs upon their benefactor, 
like peacocks upon a pool. But the Master dismissed the king, 
reluctant though he was, saying: “ You have your affairs to regard, 
whereas I must devote myself to pondering on the Law (dharma).” 


Vikrama and the Brahman Return Together to Avanti (145-149). 

The king, having prepared himself for the execution of the 
Magic Art, and having taught the Brahman to do the same, arrived, 
perfect in the art, at his own city, accompanied by the Brahman. 
Out of friendly feeling he told the Brahman his own history: the 
ocean, though deep, because it is clear, displays its jewels. He 
passed the day in hiding, but at night, leaving the Brahman outside, 
he entered the city alone, in order to observe the state of his king- 
dom. Delightedly he noted that the people of the city everywhere 
were engaged in their usual pleasing occupations, such as celebrating 
in the temples of the gods, with song, festival, and drama, and if 
anyone happened to be worried by evil omens, such as sneezing®® or 
stumbling, he propitiated the omen by exclaiming, “Long live 
Vikrama!” 


Vikrama Enters the Body of the State Elephant that Has Just Died, 
and the Brahman Basely Usurps His Body and 
Kingdom (150-160). 

Then the king observed that the people within the palace were 
upset because the state elephant had died. He returned to where 


57It is not possible to reproduce the double meaning of kalapa, which 
means both “bundle” and “ peacock’s tail”; noble men do not turn the knowl- 
edge which has been given them so as to show it as a tail to their benefactor; 
peacocks do turn their tails towards the pool which has refreshed them. It 
is rhetorical vakrokti. 

58 On various aspects of the sneeze as an omen see Henry C. Warren’s 
paper in PAOS. XIII, pp. xvii ff.; and Tawney, “ Translation of Kathakoga,” 
pp. xx, xxii, and 75. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 27 


the Brahman was, and said to him: “Friend, look here, I have a 


Pe : mind to disport myself by means of my Art: I shall enter into the 
z : elephant so as to see-something of what is going on within the 
i. palace. Do you here act as guardian beside my body, so that, with 
___ your help, I shall clearly recognize it.” Thus he spoke, there left 


his own body, and entered into the carcass of the elephant. Then 


the prince of elephants as formerly disported himself blithely. Not 
only was his own elephant thus revived by the king, but also the 


entire royal court which had collapsed at its death was given life 
anew. Many jubilant festivals were set afoot for the prince of 


_ elephants, and these performances gave pleasure to the king even 
_ though he was occupying a strange body. 


‘Then that base-souled man who had been set to watch the king’s 


body, violator of faith, betrayer of friend, reflected: “Of what use 


to me is my own wretched body, plagued by racking poverty: I will 


enter Vikrama’s body and serenely rule the kingdom!” Thus he 


did. The false king entered the palace quivering like an animal 
of the forest, because he did not know where to go. Holding on to 
the arm of the minister who met him in a flurry, he sat’ down on 
the throne in the assembly hall; the king’s retinue bowed before 
him. The assembled multitude cried: “ Fate has restored to life the 
king of elephants, and the king of men has returned again. This is 
indeed sugar falling into milk.’’*® 


The False King’s Bahavior and First Encounter with the 
Queen (I6I-173). 
But the false king did nothing for those who craved his custom-— 


ary conversation and favors, because he did not know their names, 


business, or other circumstances. The Queen’s favorites came on 
rejoicing, but they did not find him, conditioned as he was, in the 
mood for sport, dalliance, or coquetry. The minister who had 
conserved the mighty kingdom obtained no audience; neither did the 
chief vassals, nor yet the citizens receive their meed of honor. 


When they saw the king in this condition they wondered: “ Has 


some god or demon in the guise of the king taken possession of 


59 The same figure of speech, carkaradugdhasamyogah, in Pargvanatha 
6. 1349. 


28 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


the vacant throne? Yet this does not tally, because his feet touch 
the ground and his eyes wink.® The king’s mind must be wander- 
ing for some reason.” The minister then concluded that, if the 
king’s mind, inflamed by separation, was to be assuaged, that task 
could only be accomplished by the nectar of Kamala’s speech, and 
ordered a female attendant to conduct him thence. The false king 
then reflected: “ Ah, what pleasant lot is mine, that has brought me 
to this station, hard to attain even in imagination!” 

The Queen arose in confusion, and along with other ministra- 
tions, prepared for him the throne. But when she looked at the 
king again she fell to the ground as if in a faint. Her attendants 
raised her and asked: “ What does this mean, your Majesty, tell 
us?” And the king also said: “ How is it, your Majesty, that you 
~ are struck in a faint at my arrival?” On hearing his voice she was 
greatly pained and thought: “ He looks like my beloved, yet afflicts 
me as an enemy!” Artfully she answered: “ Your Majesty! At 
the time when you started upon your journey I uttered a fond prayer 
to Candi for your happy return: ‘O Goddess, only after paying 
honor to thee, shall I look with my eye upon my beloved!’ Now, 
having failed to do so before seeing you, Candi felled me to the 
ground. Therefore I shall let you know myself, O king, the time 
suitable for paying devotion to the goddess.” Then the king, thus 
answered by the queen, went out of the palace. 


Vikrama in the Body of the Elephant Escapes from Avanti 
(174-187). 

At this time the Minister was adorning the state elephant™ for 
the royal entry,®* so that the people should see their sovereign at 
length returned. Also, that the king, seeing his city full of jubilant 
citizens, should become himself again, and commune with all as of 
old. Now the menials who were painting the ornamental marks on 

60 Similar personal characteristics of the god are frequently alluded to; 
they belong to the regular apparatus of fiction. See Nala 5. 23 = Kathas. 
56. 272; also Kathas. 32. 31; 33. 178. See Tawney’s “ Translation of Kathasa- 
ritsagara,” Vol. I, p. 561, note. 

61 Now inhabited by Vikrama. 

62So we must translate raja-patydi: the word is not quoted in the © 
Lexicons. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 29 


a the elephant kept saying one to the other: “ Too bad, our Lord has 

_ become as one distracted by his journey to a strange land!” Then 

that prince of the-elephiants, hearing this, reflected in great perturba- 

» tion: “Alas! What is this, woe me! The Brahman is certainly 
disporting himself as king in my body. Because, though warned 
by the Master, I yet induced him to bestow the Art upon this vilest 
of Brahmans, therefore this consummation has speedily come about. 
Because I forgot the precept taught me from childhood on, not to 
be too confiding, I nevertheless reposed trust in this man, therefore 
some trick of fate has surely taken place. The lowly may be raised 
up by fate; the lofty may be made insignificant—this very experi- 
ence has brought him fortune, and robbed me of the same. All 
possessions on earth, elephants, dependents and the like, follow the 
body: since my body is gone all that is mine has come to belong to 
another. Just as eye-witnesses observe in this world even so it 
goes with a man in the next world. Therefore wise men arrange 
for good deeds to go with them as their true companion karma. In 
any case I shall now watch for an opportunity to make my escape: 
he shall not mount as a tuft upon wretched me!” 

Having arrived at this decision the elephant raised up his ears, 
curved his trunk, and began to run swiftly, so that a great tumult 
arose. He was pursued by foot-soldiers, horsemen, and others by 
the thousand, but, as he ran more and more swiftly, they gave up 
the chase in disgust. Tired out he reached a distant forest and 
reflected dejectedly : ‘Compare now my former state of royal rule 
by a mere contraction of my eyebrow with this flight of mine! How- 
ever, this plight is not a bit too sore for a fool who has taken up 

_ with a rogue!” Engaged in such reflections the king was assailed 

by the pangs of hunger, thirst, and the ocean of his regrets. 


Vikrama Meets a Parrot-hunter, Enters the Body of a Dead Parrot, 
and Induces the Hunter to Take Him to Avanti to Be 
Sold as a Parrot of Price (188-195). 


He reached the shade of a banyan-tree, which appeared to him 
like an only friend, and, when in time he had become composed, he 
Saw a man standing there among the trunks of the banyan tree, 


30 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


engaged in killing parrots with a sling-shot.** The king, worried by 
his great body, hard to sate and unwieldy, considered: “ What use 
is this body to me? Surely scope of action is more advantageous 
to success! Therefore I shall enter into the body of a parrot!” 
And thus he did. 

Then the parrot said to the hunter: “ Friend, what do you want 
to be killing so many parrots for? Take me to Avanti, and you 
surely will get a thousand tanka-coins for me; you must, however, 
give me assurance of personal safety.” The hunter on hearing this 
gladly promised the parrot security and then took him in his hand. 
Next he fed him on meal and water, put him at his ease, and 
then went to Avanti, where he took stand on the king’s highway. 
When the people asked the parrot’s price, the hunter said it was a 
thousand ; he recites whatever Castras people ask for. Then they 
offered even more than the price asked, but the hunter, at the 
bidding of the parrot, refused to accept. Finally he demanded an 
exorbitant price. 


Queen Kamalavati Buys the Parrot, Engages Him in Brilliant Con- 
versation, and Makes Dispositions for His Comfort 
(196-209). 

At this juncture some attendant maids belonging to Queen 
Kamalavati arrived. The parrot who knew well their dispositions, 
when accosted by one of them, recited in a sweet voice: “ Pierced 
by the arrow of thine eyes, O graceful lady, one deems one’s self — 
happy and lives; not pierced one dies: here is a marvelous Science 
of Archery! Now do thou in turn recite something, that I may 
repeat it after thee in the manner of a pupil.” But she retorted: | 
“Thou art thyself a veritable Guru. Of whom shouldst thou be 
the pupil?” 

Then the maid, delighted, went and reported to the Queen: “O 
Mistress! never before have I seen or heard a parrot so highly 
cultivated.” The queen, enchanted by her report, concluded that 
Fate had furnished the parrot as a means by which she might divert 

63 Dhanurgolika: the word recurs in the same text, I. 317, in the form 


~dhanurgulika. This compound is not in the Lexicons. - 
64 Ciirni for ciirna; so also this text, 1. 386; 7. 351. 


oS a 
a a 
= 
= 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 31 


herself with the art of poetry. Eagerly she addressed her: 
“Woman, go with speedy feet, pay the man his price, and bring 
hither the parrot prince!” Thus the servant did, and the hunter, 
contented, went to his home. She put the parrot into the lotus of 
her hand, and brought him into the presence of the queen. 

When he saw Kamalavati joyfully coming to meet him the 
parrot extended his right wing, and chanted sweetly: “O Queen, 
in order to uphold thy weight, as thou restest on his left arm, 
Vikrama holds the earth as a counter-balance on his right arm.’’® 
The queen replied smiling: “O parrot! what you say amounts to 
this, that one cannot, unless he rules the earth, drag the load of 
a woman. Very pointedly have you stated that we impose a great 


burden: what wise person would not be pleased with a statement of 


the truth?” When she had thus out of modesty deprecated the 
parrot’s flattery in description of herself, she put him in a golden 
cage furnished with agreeable resting places. She herself kept his 
abode sweet by washing and fumigating, and fed him on choice rose- 
apples, pomegranate seeds, and myrobalans. And whatever other 
things he desired to eat or drink she brought to him, and she con- 
stantly regaled herself with the nectar flow of his conversation. 


Kamalavati and the Parrot Engage in a Contest of Riddles and 
; Charades (210-227). 
1. A Charade on the Mystic Formula om namah siddham utta- 


_ram.—The queen bid him recite some riddles, and without further 


ado the parrot, for mental diversion, recited: “On what do ascetics 
in contemplation ponder, and what is ever performed for a Teacher? 
What manner of thing do lofty men obtain, and what do pupils first 
recite?” 

When the queen, thus asked, puzzled long, and did not know, 
the parrot gave the answer :—om namah siddham uttaram.*° 

2. Riddle on the Rounding of the Lips in Pronouncing Labials.— 


65 His right wing symbolizes Vikrama’s right arm in the following passage. 
It is a common conceit that! the king bears the burden of the earth; e. g., 
Prabandhacintamani (Tawney’s Translation), p. 107. 

66 The formula is, of course, treated analytically: in the fourth question 
the adjective uttaram which in the formula qualifies siddham is taken as a 
noun in the sense of “answer.” The other three are: (1) The sacred sylla- 
ble om; (2) namah, “obeisance”; (3) mystic perfection. 


32 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


The parrot next propounded the following riddle: “It does not 
inhere (lag) in naga and naringa; on the other hand it does inhere 
in nimba and tumba.®* When one says, ‘inhere’ (laga) it does not 
inhere; when one says, ‘do not, do not inhere’ (ma ma, sc. laga) 
it inheres mightily.°* What then is the answer?” When the queen 
had thus been questioned by the parrot, she reflected a moment and 
said: “ Ah, I know; it is the rounding of the lips (in the pronuncia- 
tion of labials).” 

3. Riddle of the Painter's Brush._—“ By it® serpents are rendered 
poisonless, gods are bereft of might, lions are rendered motionless ; 
yet children carry it in their hand—what is it?” asked the queen. 
The parrot at once knew and answered: “Hear, your Majesty, I 
know it :—A painter’s brush.” 

4. Riddle of the Fly and the Spider—A hero that slays ele- 
phants,”° mounts lions, plagues soldiers, him, your Majesty, I have 
beheld bound in the house of a weaver.”’* When she had heard 
this riddle, propounded by the parrot, she guessed and laughingly 
exclaimed: “I have it, this hero is plainly the fly!” 

5. A giidhacaturthaka, or Trick of Supplying the Fourth Verse 
of a Stanza.” —‘ A host of serpents to look like lotus-roots; black 


67 It is quite impossible to reproduce the ingenious trickery of this state- 
ment: na laged naga-niringe has two distinct values: the first as above; the 
second meaning is “the sound na inheres in naga and narifga.” When taken 
in that sense the second pada becomes yet more tricky: “again it inheres in 
nimba and tumba,” which is precisely the reverse of the truth, because na does 
not inhere in these two words. That is part of the catch: the labials mb is 
what inheres in the two words. 

68 The rounding of the lips in pronouncing m in the word ma. 

69 The text reads yatha, which must be corrected to yaya. 

70 Alluding perhaps to the familiar fable in which a fly helps slay an ele- 
phant, Benfey, Paficatantra I. 241; II. 95. 

71 Text, kolikagrhe = kaulikagrha. Cf. kolikagardabha in Divyavadana, 
12. The weaver here is, of course, the spider. 

72 The text prints this and the next charade as follows: 


mrnalabhath ahivyiham afijanam ksirasannibham | 
nabhah karpirasamkacam rajfiya gidhacaturthake || 219 || 
iti prste cukah praha karoti yacasa mahan | 
doso ’pi gunatam yati visam apy amrtayate || 220 || 
{“ mitrani gatravo ’pi syuh” iti cukena gidhacaturthake prste rajfii 
caturthapadam praha—anukile vidhau nrnam ”] 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 33 


: — collyrium to resemble milk ;7* a cloud to look like camphor ”—when 
a - the parrot was asked by the queen to supply the missing fourth 
verse, he answered—* a great man through his influence contrives 


to make.” 
6. Another giidhacaturthaka.—* Even sin assumes the nature of 
virtue; even poison acts as nectar; even enemies may become 


friends”—when the parrot thus asked the queen to supply the 


missing fourth verse she answerd—“ when destiny is favorable to 


~ men.”74 


7. Riddle on the letter a—“ Even a beggar (krpana) is fit to be 
honored by a king (by lengthening the interior a of krpana to @ so 
as to make it krpana, ‘sword’); even the noble (udira) is beset 
with greed (by shortening the @ of udara to a, so as to make it 
udara, ‘ belly’) ; by whose presence or absence even he who is ad- 
dressed by name (akhyata) is not known (akhyata).” When the 
parrot was thus questioned he answered :—“ The letter 4 (4karah).” 

&. Riddle on the Syllable dhi(k), or dhikkara, Treated as dhi- 
kkara.— With (the prefixed syllable) 4 it expresses sorrow (adhi) ; 

It should be printed as follows: 

mrnalabham ahivyiham afijanam ksirasannibham | 

_nabhah karpirasamkacam—rajfiya gidhacaturthake 

iti prste cukah praha—karoti yacasa mahan || 219 || 

doso ’pi gunatam yati visam apy amrtayate | 

mitrani ¢atravo ’pi syuh— 
iti cukena giidhacaturthake prste rajfii caturthapadam praha— 

anukile vidhau nrnam || 220 || 

For this kind of entertainment see Zachariae in “ Gurupijakaumudi,” 
pp. 38 ff. 

73 See Bohtlingk’s “Indische Spriiche,” 7568: nafijanam cuklatam yati, 
and cf. ibid., 2146. 

74“ When destiny is favorable to men” = anukile vidhau nrnam. The 


sentiment of this speech is expressed from the opposite point of view in 


Parcvanatha, 2. 792-3: 


pratikile vidhau kimva sudhapi hi visayate, 
rajjuh sarpibhaved akhubilath patalatam vrajet. 
tamayate prakaco ’pi gospadarn sagarayate, 
satyam kitadyate mitrarn catrutvena nivartate. 

“When fate is adverse nectar turns to poison, a rope turns serpent, a 
mole-hole leads to inferno. Light turns darkness, a puddle in the footstep 
of a cow turns ocean; truth becomes guile, and friendship vanishes’ in hos- 
tility.” Cf. Bohtlingk, “ Indische Spriiche,” nr. 4226. 

PROC. AMER, PHIL. SOC., VOL LVI, C, MAY 21, 1917. 


34 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


with (the prefixed syllable) vi it is pondered by pious men (vidhi, 
‘religion’) ; with (the prefixed syllable) ni it is desired by people 
(nidhi, ‘treasure’) ; by itself it makes no sense (dhi, which is no 
word).”?> When the queen was thus asked by the parrot she an- 
swered :—“ The syllable dhik (dhikkarah).”7® 

9. Riddle on the Syllable na— That which is at the beginning 
of night (first syllable of naktam, ‘night’), at the end of day (last 
syllable of dina, ‘ day’), and different from evening ;* though it is 
in the interior of the mind (manasa, which has the syllable na in the 
middle) it is somehow not*® perceived.” When the parrot had 
been thus questioned by the queen he answered :—“ The syllable na 
(nakarah).” 

10. Riddle on the Compound thalamkarasamgatam, “a Combina- 
tion of Effort and Rhetoric.”—The next needs to be before the eye, 
to wit: 


laksmi-kheda-nisedhartha-brahma-cakranga-carmanam, 
ke cabdah vacakah khantam brithi kim nantarh ichasi. 
arthinam ka sada citte™® ka dagdha kapina pura, 
iksuyasteh kim ichanti kith ca hansasya sundaram. 
sukavinam vacah kidrg cukena visame krte, 

iti pragne yada rajfi navadad miidhamanasa. 
ekadvisarvavarnanam paripatikramena sah, 

cuka evottaram cakre ihalamkarasamgatam. 


The trick of this riddle is (1) To divide ithalamkarasamgatam 
into single syllables each of which furnishes a word, disregarding 
vocalic fusion; (2) to divide it into pairs of syllables, each pair 
being a word; (3) to allude to the word as a whole: (1) “ What 


75 The last passage, kevalas tu nirarthakah, seems to hold a second 
meaning, to wit: “by itself it has an unmeaning letter ka.” 

76 Merutufiga’s Prabandhacintamani, p. 156, has a similar charade, in 
which the prepositions 4, vi, and sam are prefixed to the word hara. 

77 The trick here appears to be as follows: pradoso, “ evening,” does not 
contain the syllable na; therefore it is different from na. Yet evening should 
be at the beginning of night and end of day. Hence the catch: “ That which 
is at the beginning of night, the end of day, and yet something else than 
evening.” 

78 Again a catch: laksyate na katharhcana, with second meaning, “na is 
somehow perceived.” 

79 Text, erroneously, cite. 


PT oe a ee a 7 
i, PS eee = $ 1 Geta fan ~ ee 
‘ Tt « Fi Hind i ee oat re, 


ie to 2 


Se 
n> ee 


ee ee ee car eee ee ee ee 


en 


Bel Sa Nag be 


“Ut Boat 


Ss 


ie ae 


Pan 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 35 


words express the goddess Laksmi (i) ; distress (ha) ; forbidding 
(alam) ; Brahma (ka) ; part of a wagon (ara, ‘ spoke’) ; protection 
_ (sam) ; next tell the letter which follows the letter kha (in the 
kavarga of the Hindu alphabet, namely ga) ; do you wish also the 
letter which follows the letter na (in the ta-varga of the Hindu 
alphabet, namely ta). All this makes up the theme i+ ha + alam + 
ka + ara + sam + ga + tam.=—ihalarhkarasammgatam.” (2) “ What 
is ever in the mind of those who desire?” (Answer: iha “ effort”) ; 
what city was burned by the monkey? (Answer: Lanka, in Ceylon) ; 
what do people desire of sugar-cane? (Answer: rasam ‘ juice’) ; 
and what is beautiful in the hansa-bird? (Answer: gatam, “its 
gait”).®° This again makes up the theme: tha + larhka + rasathn + 
gatam. (3) “ What sort of a word of skilled poets is this?’ Thus 
the parrot had put this tangled riddle, and when the Queen, her 
mind bewildered, did not answer, the parrot with successive arrange- 
ment of the word into single syllables, two syllables, and all its 
syllables gave the answer: ihalarnkarasamgatam (“‘a compound of 
_ effort and rhetoric”). 


Salutary Instruction (Hitopadeca) by the Parrot (228-233). 


Then the queen asked the parrot: “Recite some well-spoken 
words devoted to salutary instruction!” The parrot, thus requested 
by the queen, then replied: “Listen! A deed that is done after care- 
ful deliberation; speech that is well-weighed; passions completely 
under control never work mischief. Thought charged with recti- 
tude; speech adorned with sweetness; and a body inclined with 
courtesy do not belong to ignoble men. Wrath of noble men en- 
_ dures but one moment; their vow for as long as it is set. But their 
responsibilities in the world last as long as life itself. Self-praise 
and abuse of others; envy of the good qualities of noble men; and 
inconsequent chatter drag one down low. Speech without malice 
towards others; serene dignity of countenance; and a mind discreet 
about what it has heard, these qualities lead a man aloft.” 


80 The gait of the hansa is considered beautiful. A graceful woman is 
hatsagamini, Manu, 3. 10. In 7. 603 of the present text five animals are said 
to be conspicuous for their graceful gait: hansa, elephant, bull, kraufica-bird, 
and crane. Cf. Béhtlingk, “ Indische Spriiche,” 7360. 


36 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


Discretion Illustrated by the Simile of the Three Skulls ~ 
(234-238) © } 

“Thus a certain king of yore caused his wise men to make 
the test of three skulls®? that had been brought by a stranger from 
another land. On that occasion a thread put into the ear of one 
of the skulls came out of its mouth: the price of that skull was a 
farthing (kaparda), because it would blab what it had heard. 
Again, a thread put into the ear of the second skull came out at the 
other ear: the price of that skull was a lakh, because it forgot what 
it had heard. But the thread inserted into the ear of the third skull 
went straight down the throat: that skull was priceless, because 
what it heard remained in its heart. Conforming with this, O 
Queen, who that has ears and hears reference to another’s guilt 
does not become discreet in mind?” 


Kamalavati, the Parrot Protesting, Adopts Him as Her Husband 
(239-245). 

Now Kamala’s soul was so delighted by this discourse of the 
parrot, that she made the following promise: “I shall certainly live 
and die together with thee, O parrot!” But the wise parrot an- 
swered her: “Say not so, beloved wife of a king! Of what ac- 
count am I, a wee animal, beside thee, beloved of Lord Vikrama? 
Moreover, O Queen, thy husband, out of love for thee will come 
and go; how canst thou avoid fond intercourse with him?” Upon 
hearing this Kamala, sighing deeply, exclaimed: “O paragon of 
parrots, my eye tells me that my beloved has returned from abroad, 
but my mind says not. Disturbed by this, I shall devise some 
answer and dismiss the king. But you, as a husband, shall afford 
me delight, that do I here declare!” Then the king-parrot, filled 
with a great joy, reflected: “ The Art called Entering another’s body 
has been of profit to me, for how else could I have tested the heart 

81 Cf. R. S. Mukharji, Indian Folklore, p. 36; S. Devi, The Oriental Pearls, 
p. 115; E. J. Robinson, Tales and Poems of South India, p. 328. A mere allu- 
sion to the test of the three skulls, which is not entirely explained in the story, 
may be found in the Kathaprakaica; see Eggeling in “ Gurupijjakaumudi,” p. 
120 ff. Cf. also the Prakrit verse quoted from the Vikrama Carita (126) by 


Weber, Ind. Stud. xv. 345. 
. 82 Trikapalipariksanam ; not in the Lexicons. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 37 


of the queen? Moreover, judging from this show of feeling other 


ia 


delights shall be mine.!” 


_ The Parrot-at-Kamalavati’s Request Preaches the Law (246-252). 
f+” The queen again addressed the parrot: “I am vastly pleased 
with thy nectar-sprinkling speech ; do thou then tell something of the 
_ Essence of the Law.” Then the parrot said: “Listen, O Queen, 
I have heard from the mouth of the Master that it is meritorious to 
benefit others, sinful to oppress others. No moral obligation com- 
pares with abstention from doing injury, no vow with content. 
_ Nothing makes for purity as does truth; no ornament is there the 
“Tike of virtue. And it has been well said: Truth is purity; ascetic 
practice is purity; control of the senses is purity; pity of all living 
things is purity. Purification by water holds but the fifth place. 
To cast away filth of mind, that is a bath indeed ; to bestow security 
from injury, that is a gift indeed; to know truth’s essence, that is 
knowledge indeed; to extricate the mind from the senses, that is 
contemplation indeed. Even the householder®* who constantly eats 
food in faith may through purity of mind attain to the law; without 
it, even ascetic practice is in vain. For it has been said: The mind 
of man alone is the instrument of bondage or release ;** in bondage 
it clings to the senses, but in release it casts them away.” 


RE er al a i Ne ea a gs ay a Bi Sie 
ra bia ee se 4 _; i pea ot let a: Cae “= f Seiad A 


Episode, Illustrating the Superiority of Soul-purification over 
Meritorious Deeds (253-286). 

? “Thus once upon a time a wise king heard that his brother, 
a Sage, had arrived at a part outside of the city; then he went 
_ there followed by his retainers. The king, adorned with the 
bloom of his hair that bristled from joyous emotion,® paid his 
‘respects to the Sage, listened to the law from his mouth, then 
returned to his palace. The chief queen, longing in turn to greet 
' her brother-in-law, the Sage, took leave of the king in the even- 
ing, and made the following vow: ‘I must in the morning, sur- 

83 In Jain religion the lay householder (grhin, grha-vasin, cravaka, etc.) is 
distinguished from the professional ascetic (yati). The religious obligations 
of the former class are less stringent than those of the latter. 

84 Bondage in sarhsara; release in nirvana. 


80 Horripilation with the Hindus is a symptom of joy as well as of fear. 
In literature it is almost always connected with joy. 


38 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


rounded by my retinue, salute this Sage, Soma by name, and not 
take food before he has been feasted.’ Now on the road between 
the city and the park there was a river. When she arrived there by 
night the river was flooded, and flowed too deep for crossing. At 
that the queen was perplexed in her mind, and in the morning asked 
her husband how then she might obtain her heart’s desire. The 
king replied: ‘Queen, let not such a thing worry you, because it is 
easily managed. Go cheerfully with your retinue! On the hither 
bank of the river remember first to call upon the River Goddess, join 
your hands in supplication, and with pure mind recite: “O Goddess 
River, if my husband has practised chastity since the day on which 
he paid his devotions to my brother-in-law, then promptly give me 
passage!” 8° Upon hearing this the queen reflected in surprise: 
‘Why now does the king, fifth Protector of the World, say such an 
absurd thing? Since the day of his devotion to his brother I have 
become pregnant by him with a son; that wifely state of mine he 
knows full well. But why be in doubt when the test is at hand, 
particularly since devoted wives should entertain no doubt about a 
husband’s statement. Because a good wife that doubts the instruc- 
tion of her spouse, a soldier that of his king, a pupil that of his 
teacher, a son that of his father break their vow.’ Thus the queen 
reflected, and went with her equipment and train to the bank of the 
river, where the face of the earth was crowded with the assembled 
people. There she called upon the River Goddess, paid honor to her 
with a pure mind, and openly made the truth-declaration,®* as told 
her by her husband. At once the river banked its waters to the right 
and to the left, became shallow, gave passage, and the queen crossed 
to the other side. 

“ She thought herself favored, and then paid proper respect to the 
Sage. And when she had received his blessing the Sage asked the 
devoted wife in what manner she had crossed the river. She told 
the whole story, and then asked the Lord of Sages how her husband’s 
inconceivable chastity was valid. He then said: ‘Hear Lady! 
When I took vow, from that time on the king also, intently eager for 
holiness, became in his soul indifferent to earthly matters. But as 

86 The notion that rivers may be induced by prayer to furnish passage is 


a very old one in India; see Rig-Veda 3. 33. 9; 4. 19. 6. 
87 Satyacravana = the Buddhist saccakiriya; see above, p. 16, note. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 39 


4 there was no one available to bear the burden of royalty, he kept per- 
_ forming his. royal acts in deed but not in thought. Thus it has been 
__ said: A woman devoted to-another man follows her husband ;** thus 


a also an ascetic devoted to the truth follows the sarnsara.’*® There- 


a fore, though he is in this wise leading the life of a householder, the 
__ king’s chastity is valid, because his mind is unspotted, even as a lotus 
that stands in the mud.’ 

“The queen then paid reverence to the Sage, and having attained 
to supreme joy went to some spot in the forest and pitched her camp. 
She had a rasavati-pudding®® prepared for herself and train, ordered 
the Sage to be supplied with the same, and thus fulfilling her vow, 


ate of it herself. She then went to bid adieu to the Sage, and asked 


him how now she was to recross the river. The Sage replied with 
tranquil voice: ‘ You must say to the River Goddess: “If that Sage 
since taking his vow has steadily lived in fast, then make passage for 
me!”” The queen in renewed surprise went to the bank of the 
river, recited the words of the Sage, crossed the river, and arrived 
home. She narrated everything to the king, and asked: ‘ How could 
the Sage be in fast, since I myself entertained him with food?’ The 
king replied: ‘ You are simple, O Queen, you do not grasp the spirit 
of the law: the lofty-minded Sage is indifferent to both eating or 
non-eating. Even though the Sage in the interest of the law eats 
pure food that he did not prepare or order to be prepared, neverthe- 
less that is said to bear the fuit of an unbroken fast. Mind is the 
root, speech the crown, deed the branch-expansion of the tree of the 
law: from the firm root of that tree everything springs forth.’ 

“When the queen had comprehended this lofty-mindedness of 
her husband and brother-in-law, in full sympathy® she purified her 
own mind also.” The parrot then said: “This essence of the law 
which. I, the parrot, have proclaimed to you illustrating it by story, 
that verily is illumination®? by light. The mind even of noble 

88 See the story in Benfey, Paficatantra, II. 258, in which this idea is em- 
ployed to trick a confiding husband; cf. ibid., I. 371. 

89 These rather loose parallels are intended to illustrate the paradoxical 
contrast between the king’s action and state of soul. 

% According to Béhtlingk’s Lexicon rasavati is curdled milk with sugar 
and spices; see Tawney’s Translation of Prabandhacintamani, pp. 156, 157, 196. 


%1 Anumodana, fem., not in the Lexicons. 
92 Dhavalana, abstract noun from dhavalaya, not in the Lexicons. 


40 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


women, as long as it derives knowledge from natural disposition 
alone, is quite sure to go astray like a conceited Pandit.” 


Kamalavati Divines that the Parrot is Vikrama, Whereupon the 
Latter Abandons His Body and Enters into the Body of a 
House-lizard (287-209). 

When the queen had heard this clear and substantial speech®* of 
the parrot, she thought that there was no one quite like him in 
fulness of knowledge: “ My faltering mind was under delusion: this 
is the king, here speaks his voice!” While the queen was thus 
rejoicing sleep descended upon her. Then the king in the guise of 
a parrot, noticing there a dead house-lizard,** entered into it, that 
he might test whether the queen would virtuously keep her word. 
Soon the queen, waking of herself, and seeing the parrot-prince lie 
soundless, began to rouse him with hundreds of tender endearments : 
“Speak, O parrot! why dost thou not to-day pour nectar into my 
ears? Thou who hast awakened® me, shall I in turn awaken thee? 
Abandon sleep, arise, recite the morning prayer! Wherefore this 
darkness of sleep on the part of noble beings that make shine the 
torch of their knowledge? Why dost thou to-day not give answer, 
how didst thou wax wroth with me? Since thou preservest thine 
own form shall I not forsooth suspect deception even in thy sleep?” 

When the parrot, urged by such and other words did not wake 
up she arose in distress, and touched him with her hand. Even so 
he did not breathe; then the queen fell in a faint. Soon coming to 
herself she wailed and exclaimed: “‘ Woe me, O parrot, why has this 
wretched fate® overtaken thee? O evil destiny, tell me why he, who 
is like a sandal-tree,*’ has been consumed by thy fire? Even a 

98 The original here contains an untranslatable metaphor: suvivaram 


sagarbham ca vacah. Her utterance is compared to a womb wide open 
(suvivara) and containing an embryo (sagarbha); cf. sagarbhavacana in 
this text, 7. 204. 

94 Grhagodhaka, not in the Lexicons. 

95 The double meaning of the original, which means both “awaken” and 
“ enlight,” must be left to the guess of the reader of a translation. 

96 Daivakam. 

97 Sandal-wood is the emblem and quintessence of coolness; its consump- 
tion by fire marks an extreme. See Kathas. 31. 23; “ Indische Spriiche,” 340, 
663, 1763, 2215, 5278, 7360. 


4 
: 


NE Ee et Me Le Ce: ae ee eS ee ee J s ide ® 
w x Ne eo Ee PR Oe A Ge Ee te ae 
j 7 - boa =f 


and ON ee. ie = 
i 


2° Os ial 
wey. |S = 
eel 
‘iat ae 3 
‘i> ~ 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 41 


forest-fire is quenched® by constant streams of water, but thou wert 
not deterred by the hundredfold flow of the nectar of the parrot’s 


speech. Ah me! O king of birds, slain am I, to whom the stream of 


thy words had-given life! Alas! I spoke falsely for a moment in 


order to delay thy death.’”*® Thus speaking she, with resolution 


caused by the parrot’s death, bathed and anointed his body, and 


_ endeavored to perform the other duties suitable to the occasion. 


The False King, Stricken with Remorse at Kamalavati’s Despair, 
Enters the Body of the Parrot, Whereupon Vikrama Returns 
to His Own Body (300-305). 


The false king, upon learning all this from the queen’s attendants, 


exclaimed in consternation: “ Alas, alas, this entire kingdom, without 


Kamala,* will be profitless to me: I must go and restore her to 
life!” He did as decided, but when she would not at all be restored, 
he once more asked: “O Queen, if I assure you that the parrot is 
alive, will you then also live?” And when she had assented he 
thought his desire fulfilled: he determined to endow the parrot with 
life, carry him to some other place, release him, and, thus having 
kept his promise to the queen, reénter his own body. After decid- 
ing upon his course he abandoned his body in a retired spot, entered 


‘ the parrot and disported himself.' The king, in turn left the body of 


the house-lizard, and entered his own body. And when he had taken 
on his body, resplendent like a mighty mass of cloud, Vikrama, the 
king, quickly went into the presence of the queen. 


Kamalavati Excuses Her Failure to Fully Recognize Vikrama in the 
Parrot (306-313). 

At sight of him Kamalavati grew radiant as a garland of 

lotuses,?°* and was adorned with loveliness. And the completely 


98 Vidhyayati, Sanskrit back-formation from Prakrit vijjhayati; see p. 
21, note. 

99 She blames herself for speaking to the parrot as though he were alive 
at a time when she had no good reason to doubt his death, and to act accord- 
ingly, as she now proceeds to do. 

100 Niskamalam: pun upon Kamala, the pet (hypocoristic) name of the 
queen, and some meaning of kamala; either “without lotus,” or “ without 
wealth.” The play of words cannot be reproduced in a translation. 

101 The original for “garland of lotuses,” kamalamila, puns on the name 
of the queen. 


42 BLOOMFIELD—ON THE ART OF 


faithful wife was embodied in the queen who had been distracted 
by the arrival of a strange man, but promptly became herself again 
at the arrival of her own husband. When she perceived that his 
speech, his gait, his habit, and his regard were just as before, she 
fell crying at his feet and then quickly rose and clung to him. Then 
she exclaimed: “Life, my Lord, became one grief when you were 
absent in a strange land, and yet another grief when you appeared ~ 
in a delusive form. Wretched woman that I am, how I was de- 
ceived by a false story, and what sort of test could I apply through 
my knowledge of strange countries ?*°? What, under such circum- 
stances, I did accomplish, being a mere woman, is wholly due to your 
favor, born of the graciousness of your feet. Now do you, first of 
all, explain to me without omission each of the shapes you assumed.” 
The king replied: “ Your dearly beloved parrot yonder shall narrate 
to you.” The queen then said: “ Your majesty! what purpose is 
there in an affair that death has taken in charge? The parrot whom 
I have just now looked upon has become violently repulsive to me.” 


Vikrama Generously Forgives the Treacherous Brahman, and is 
Reunited with Kamalavati (313-324). 


The king took the parrot in his hand and said: “ What have we 
here, O Brahman?” The parrot replied: “That which befits them 
that deceive their teacher, their king, and their friend. My king 
art thou, because thou rulest men; my teacher, because thou hadst 
the Science bestowed on me; my friend, because thou didst put confi- 
dence in me: all that has been cut off by me as if by excision.1°* The 
king answered : “ Look here, Brahman, why do you speak thus beside 
the mark? Your conpanionship’** has enabled me to pass the 
troublous experience of the Science.” The Brahman replied: “ Full 
well thou knowest, O King, what sort of companionship was mine. 


102 She means to say that she had no means of quizzing the fake king 
. about his experiences during his absence. 

103 Luptam lopavad maya, seemingly a grammatical pun: “has been 
elided by me as if by elision.” 

104 T alitanga forgives the injuries done him by the wicked Sajjana for 
the same reason, namely, former companionship, Parcvanatha, 1. 293. See 
the same trait in the story of Miladeva, Proceedings of this Society, Vol. 
LIL, p. 643. 


ENTERING ANOTHER’S BODY. 43 


) thou great ocean of propriety and virtue! Me that has strayed 
rom my own house and body, the tricker of friend, sovereign, and 
teacher, it does not, O Protector, befit thee to see and to touch! 
There is no noble wife like unto Kamala, no great man like unto 
thee, and no base-souled creature like unto myself. Do thou then 
rule thy kingdom a long time; as for me, seize me by the left foot 
and cast me somewhere that I may devote myself to a better life.1% 
_ All this shall serve-thee as a lesson in the wickedness of men!” 

_ The king heard him, his heart was softened by pity, he forgot 
7 the evil deed, and said: “See here, ours is the same Science; how 
then can I seize you by the foot? Go whither you desire, enjoy 
___ wealth somewhere while doing good to others in deep devotion to the 
law!” After he had thus dismissed him, Vikrama ruled his kingdom 
__ in Kamala’s society, happy in heart, devoted to the performance of 
the law. Thus the Science obtained by him through tactful conduct 
_ led to a happy issue, but the very same Science imposed great misery 
upon the Brahman who was wanting in that same virtue. 


105Karma seve. 


NAMING AMERICAN HYBRID OAKS. 


By WILLIAM TRELEASE. 
Prates I-III. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 


Two methods of designating hybrids are sanctioned by the In- 
ternational Botanical Congresses of Vienna and Brussels—employ- 
ment of a compound trivial name composed of the names of the two 
parent species, separated by the conventional X sign, or use of a 
new trivial name in a binomial preceded by the same conventional 
symbol. Taking a now well-known oak hybrid as illustration, the 
first method would cause it to be referred to as either Quercus alba » 
x Prinus or QO. Prinus X alba, and the second as & Q. Saulit. 

Various qualifications of the first procedure have been proposed 
or put in practice now and then to show which is the male and which 
is the female parent species, or to indicate by use of the symbol > 
or < which parent is more closely resembled by the hybrid. The 
first of these is possible only when hybridization has been effected 
artificially or when the mother plant is known, so that uniformity 
in its use and therefore general comparability is impossible. As a 
fact no effort has been made to indicate the resemblance to either 
parent in the majority of cases; nor is it likely that different ob- 
servers would reach identical conclusions in this respect for many 
specimens of hybrids because, among other things, no agreement 
exists as to which of several non-concordant characters is to form 
the basis of judgment. Amplification of this composite name 
method permits the similar designation of secondary and tertiary or 
higher hybrids, but in an increasingly cumbersome way, so that the 
polynomial indication of such forms becomes very quickly a con- 
fused symbolically abbreviated description rather than a name. 
Even in the simple case of such a first cross as has been taken for 
illustration, every rectification of error in the names applied to 

44 


TRELEASE—NAMING AMERICAN HYBRID OAKS. 45 


either parent species entails a change in each of the hybrid designa- 
tions. For instance, if Professor Sargent’s conclusion is to be ac- 
3 cepted? that the specific name Prinus must be applied to the cow 
oak, and-not to the rock chestnut oak, so that the name montana 
is to be restored for the latter, the permissible designations of this 
hybrid at once change to Q. alba X montana and Q. montana X 
_ alba. This sort of double correction must be applied every time 
that the name of either parent is dragged into the lamentable whirl- 
ee pool of nomenclatorial debate, which in this particular branch can 
___ be made hopelessly confused and voluminous by even a fraction of 
_ the permutations that are likely to be made. 

___ Binomial designation of each hybrid—simple, secondary or of a 
higher order—offers escape from some of the difficulties attending 
the multiple-name method. A binomial applied to a hybrid at once 
falls under the procedure customary with ordinary specific bi- 
nomials, and no matter what changes the trivial names of the parent 
species may undergo its own applicability rests solely on the basis 
of priority. In case of a change of generic names it is merely 
dragged about with the species it is derived from, and in the rare 
instances of what are or may come to be considered bigeneric 
hybrids it does not itself suffer change in the new connection and 
may cease to be dragged about, even, so soon as such hybrid genera 
are given uniformly definite names of their own, such, for instance, 
as Lelio-Cattleya, applied to the hybrid between the orchid genera 
Lelia and Cattleya. Its position is even more stable than that of 
varietal or subspecific trivial names, the treatment of which pre- 
Be: scribed by international conventions is not followed uniformly in 
different countries or by different writers. 

One inherent defect in such binomial designation of hybrids re- 
quires serious consideration. The scientific name of a species or 
Variety stands for an assemblage of individuals no two of which 
may be alike but which possess characters of agreement by which 
they differ from other assemblages of individuals to which they 
are related in the genus they represent as species or in the species 
they represent as varieties: it stands clearly for a morphological 
concept. In contrast with this, the binomial applied to a hybrid ap- 


1 Rhodora. 17: 40, 1915. 


46 TRELEASE—NAMING AMERICAN HYBRID OAKS. 


pears to be an expression of parentage, which may be supported by 
morphological characters when its individual representatives meet 
this test of mutual resemblance and difference from other named 
assemblages, but which falls to the ground when they differ so 
much among themselves as to make a diagnostic description impos- 
sible. This is the case frequently, and the now commonly known 
Mendelian laws of segregation prepare one for the expectation that 
in some cases, at least, purely dominant and recessive seedlings of a 
known hybrid will be no longer other than reversions to one or 
other parent’ form if raised from self-fertilized seeds. 

Obviously the application of binomials to hybrids is in a different 
category from the use of such names for species or varieties: it is 
not a matter of taxonomy, the stability of which is generally recog- 
nized as dependent upon a morphological basis: but a phase of 
nomenclature, a means to the end of convenient reference to the — 
various kinds of things. There is so much to be said in its favor 
that botanists are coming to employ it generally. A special diffi- 
culty and source of confusion inherent in the designation of hybrids 
under any method lies in the fact that their parentage is more com- 
monly assumed from their characters or inferred from circum- 
stantial evidence than actually known. Whatever the method, 
synonymy must grow with every mistake made in this respect: but 
the remedy for this lies with those who are responsible for report- 
ing the parentage of supposed hybrids, as, elsewhere, it lies with 
those who are responsible for segregating species or other formal 
groups. 

Such a case as that of Bartram’s oak, & Quercus heterophylla, 
presents an interesting aspect of the question. This was named by 
Michaux as though it were an ordinary species. Subsequent 
botanists have regarded it as a cross between Q. Phellos and OQ. 
velutina. ‘The behavior of seedlings from trees taken to be repre- 
sentative of heterophylla has led to the conclusion that these were a 
cross between Q. Phelios and Q. rubra. On this evidence, they 
have been given by Schneider the binomial &« Q. Hollickii. If the 
purpose were to name the idea of a possible cross, this would obvi- 
ously be necessary, since the idea of the cross between Q. Phellos 
and Q. velutina would have been called & Q. heterophylla. As a 


TRELEASE—NAMING AMERICAN HYBRID OAKS. 47 


matter of fact, the name was given to a definite plant form, and 
follows that form whatever changes of theory or knowledge its 
parentage may undergo. For this reason, X Q. Hollickii passes 
into synonymy as _a-mere equivalent of the earlier name X Q. 
heterophylla; and the latter does not in any way affect the naming, 
on its own merits, of a hybrid between Phellos and velutina when- 
ever that is brought to light. Such a plant is believed to be that 
which is here called & Q. dubia, though some doubt attaches to its 
parentage. If an error has been made, < Q. dubia in its turn will 
still stand for this form if it can be identified, which is less certain 
than for heterophylla; and a real hybrid between Phellos and 
velutina, if ever found, will finally be given a definite name quite 
irrespective of these efforts. A somewhat comparable case is 
afforded by X Q. runcinata. 

In my study of the American oaks, briefly summarized recently,’ 
I have had to account for a considerable number of hybrids, some 
of which have been described or even figured, occasionally as species 
in the ordinary use of the term, and some of which have been made 
known by reference to specimens more or less generally distributed 
by their collectors. No collective treatment of these forms has ever 
been made: they are not to be found severally assembled in any 
herbarium that I have seen, being inserted sometimes under one 
parent, sometimes under the other—now under one name, now 
under another for the parental species—and exceptionally under 
binomials of their own. The following table accounts for every- 
thing of this description that I have encountered either in herbaria 
or in publications on Quercus; it is published partly to call atten- 
_ tion to the general desirability, as I see it, of designating hybrids by 
‘binomials, and partly to facilitate a workable assemblage of oak 
materials in herbaria. 

Lest misapprehension arise, it should be stated that what is here 
called QO. rubra is the common red oak of the eastern United States ; 
though, following Professor Sargent’s suggestion of a current mis- 
identification, Mr. Ashe proposes replacing this name by Q. maxima, 
and using rubra for what is here called Q. cuneata—the digitata or 
falcata of many writers. 


2 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 2: 626. 1916. 


48 TRELEASE—NAMING AMERICAN HYBRID OAKS. 


Quercus alba X bicolor =X Q. Jackiana 
< macrocarpa= X Q. Bebbiana 
x montana= X Q. Saulii 
< Muehlenbergii= xX Q. Deami 
x prinoides = X Q. Faxoni 
x Prinus = X Q. Beadlei 
< stellata= X Q. Fernowi 
Q. arizonica X grisea = X Q. organensis 
x Q. Ashei n. nom. {Q. Catesbei X cinerea) 
x Q. Beadlei n. nom. (Q. alba & Prinus) 
>< Q. Bepprana Schneider (Q. alba X macrocarpa) 
< Q. BenveEr! Baenitz* (Q. coccinea & rubra) 
Q. bicolor X alba= X Q. Jackiana 
x macrocarpa= X Q. Schuettei 
< Q. blufftonensis n. nom. (Q. Catesbei X cuneata) 
< Q. Brittoni Davis ( Q. ilicifolia X marilandica) 
x Q. caduca n. nom. (Q. cinerea X mgra) 
< Q. carolinensis n. nom. (Q. cinerea X marilandica) 
Q. Catesb@i X cinerea = X Q. Ashei 
x cuneata= X Q. blufftonensis 
x nigrat = X Q. Walteriana 
Q. cinerea X Catesbei= X Q. Ashei 
xX cuneata= X Q. subintegra 
 laurifolia—= X Q. sublaurifolia 
< marilandica = X Q. carolinensis 
X nigra= X Q. caduca 
x ? velutina= X Q. podophylla 
Q. coccinea X ilicifoha= X Q. Robbinsii 
x palustris = Q. ellipsoidalis f.,—not a hybrid. 
xX rubra= X Q. Benderi 


3 Resemblance to either parent is here indicated by use of the trinomials 
x Q. Benderi coccinoides and Q. Benderi rubroides, and one of the many 
forms possible of the former is indicated in the name X Q. Benderi coc- 


cinoides £. volvato-annulata. 


4Q. sinuata Walter, usually taken to have designated this hybrid, is held 
to apply properly to what Small has called Q. austrina—Ashe, Proc, Soc. 


Amer. Foresters. 11: 89. 1916. 


TRELEASE—NAMING AMERICAN HYBRID OAKS. _—49 


aX Catesbei= X Q. blufftonensis 
X cinerea= X Q. subintegra 
X Phellos= .subfalcata 
velutina = X Q. Sudworthi 
lin. nom. (Q. alba X Muehlenbergit) 
it X Garryana 


of these appears to show evidence of Q. Emoryi as a parent. 
nanni X dumosa (See Q. dumosa) ; 
acta n. nom. (Q. imbricaria X. palustris) 


win. nom. (Q. alba xX stellata) 
aX Douglasii 


i " X arizonica= X Q. organensis 
_ X Emoryi (see note under Q. Emory) 
. HETEROPHYLLA Michaux (Q. Phellos rubra) 


X marilandica = X Q. Brittoni 
< Phellos—= X Q. Giffordi 
bats X velutina= X Q. Rehderi 
imbricaria X marilandica = X x Q. tridentata 
x palustris—= xX Q. exacta 
X rubra= X Q. runcinata 
x velutina—= X Q. Leana 


50 TRELEASE—NAMING AMERICAN HYBRID OAKS. 


Q. Kelloggii X Wislizeni = XK Q. moreha 
x Q. Jacxrana Schneider (Q. alba X bicolor) 
Q. laurifolia X Catesbei = X Q. Mellichampi 
xX cinerea= X Q. sublaurifolia 

< Q. Leana Nuttall (Q. imbricaria X velutina) 
X Q. LupovicIANA Sargent (Q. Pagoda X Phellos) 
Q. macrocarpa X alba= xX Q. Bebbiana 

x bicolor= X Q. Schuettei 

< Muehlenbergii= X Q. Hillii 
Q. marilandica X cinerea= X Q. carolinensis 

x georgiana = X Q. Smallii 

x ilicifolia= X Q. Brittoni 

X imbricaria = X Q. tridentata 

X nigra= X Q. sterilis 

X Phellos = X Q. Rudkini 
< Q. Mellichampi n. nom. (Q. Catesbei X laurifolia) 
Q. montana® XK alba= X Q. Saulii 
< Q. morEHA Kellogg® (Q. Kelloggii * Wislizent) 
Q. Muehlenbergiu X alba= X Q. Deami 

xX macrocarpa= X Q. Hillii 
Q. nigra X Catesbei= X Q. Walteriana 
X cinerea = X Q. caduca 
xX marilandica= X Q. sterilis 

< Q. organensis n. nom. (Q. arizonica X grisea) 
Q. Pagoda X& Phellos = X Q. ludoviciana 
X Q. paleolithicola n. hybr. (Q. ellipsoidalis X celestial 


A form in foliage resembling Q. coccinea, or the coccinea-like ellip- 
soidalis, with fruit of the larger ellipsoidalis or coccinea type, but buds large 
and hairy as in velutina—The type from Winnebago County Illinois (Bebb). 


Q. palustris X coccinea = Q. ellipsoidalis f.,—not a hybrid. 
X imbricaria= X Q. exacta 
x rubra= X Q. Richteri 


5 The rock chestnut oak, commonly called Q. Prinus. 

6 Commonly written Q. Morehus, but evidently an adjective name based 
on Moreh—the Scriptural “land of Moriah,” and consequently to be brought 
into agreement of gender with the feminine tree name Quercus. 

7 Though pagodefolia, applied by Ashe to this species, has priority in 
varietal use, it gives way under the international rules to Rafinesque’s spe- 
cific name Pagoda. 


_ ‘TRELEASE NAMING AMERICAN HYBRID OAKS. 51 


0. Phellos x cuneata= X Q. subfalcata 

X ilicifolia= X Q. Giffordi 

X< marilandica= X Q. Rudkini 

x Pago “xX Q. ludoviciana 
XX rubra= X Q. heterophylla 

X ? velutina= X Q. dubia 
x Q podophylla n. nom. (Q. cinerea X ? velutina) 
This is Q. petiolaris Ashe, a preoccupied name. 
_ XQ. Porteri n. nom. (Q. rubra? X velutina) 
 Q. prinoides X alba = X Q. Faxoni 

_ Q. Prinus® X alba = X Q. Beadlei 
Q. pungens X Emoryi (See note under Q. Emoryr) 
& Q. Rehderi n. nom. (0. ilicifolia < velutina) 
a x Q. RicuTerti Baenitz (Q. palustris & rubra) 
. 2 X Q. Robbinsii n. nom. (Q. coccinea X ilicifolia) 
QO. rubra X coccinea= X Q. Benderi 

Bi - X imbricaria= X Q. runcinata 

x palustris = X Q. Richteri 

X Phellos= X Q. heterophylla 
3 x ? velutina= X Q. Porteri 
, _ & Q. Rupxint Britton (Q. marilandica X Phellos) 
& Q. ruNciINATA Engelmann (Q. imbricaria X rubra) 
The current idea that this is a cross of Q. cuneata with Q. rubra seems 

less probable than the parentage here indicated; and cuneata does not occur 

where the type material was collected. 
_ X Q. Sautm Schneider (Q. alba X montana) 

X Q. Schuettei n. hybr. (Q. bicolor < macrocarpa) 
A form with twigs of Q. macrocarpa and sometimes corky-winged, foliage 
variously intermediate but prevailingly suggestive of bicolor, and subsessile 
fruit of the bicolor type but with the cups sometimes short-fringed and 


then resembling small-fruited forms of macrocarpa—Cf. Proc. Amer. Philos. 
‘Soc. 54. pl. 1—The type from Fort Howard, Wisconsin (Schuette, September 


1893). 

 Q. Smallii n. nom. (Q. georgiana X marilandica) 
i; stellata X alba = X Q. Fernowi 

XX Q. sterilis n. nom. (Q. marilandica X nigra) 


8 The cow oak, commonly known as Q. Michauxit. 


52 TRELEASE—NAMING AMERICAN HYBRID OAKS. 


X Q. subfalcata n. nom. (Q. cuneata & Phellos) 
This is Q. falcata Ashe, a preoccupied name. 
x Q. subintegra n. nom. (Q. cinerea X cuneata) 
X Q. sublaurifolia n. nom. (Q. cinerea X laurifolia) 
X Q. Sudworthi n. nom. (Q. cuneata X velutina) 
X Q. TRIDENTATA Engelmann (Q. imbricaria & marilandica) 
Q.velutina X cinerea= X Q. podophylla 
x cuneata= X Q. Sudworthi 
X ellipsoidalis = X Q. paleolithicola 
< ilicifola—= X Q. Rehderi 
X imbricaria= X Q. Leana 
x Phellos= xX Q. dubia 
x rubra= X Q. Porteri 
x Q. Wattertana Ashe (Q. Catesbei X nigra) 
OQ. Wishizeni X Kelloggii= x Q. moreha 


From the foregoing list, I have omitted Q. hemispherica Will- 
denow and Q. hybrida Small, as I am frankly in doubt as to their 
status. The latter (Q. laurifolia hybrida Michaux), supposedly a 
cross between Jaurifolia and migra, seems rather to be a toothed form 
of Q. laurifolia. The former, comprising a great array of inter- 
mediates between Phellos and nigra as well as other forms not other- 
wise placeable, and in its extremes not distinguishable from these 
species, though I do not recall that it has been held for a hybrid 
seems more likely to include some hybrids in its complex than is 
true of Q. hybrida. 


THE UNIvERSITY OF ILLINOIS, 
Marc8 I, I917. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


Puatel. XX Quercus paleolithicola. Type material in the Field Museum. 
The upper figure about one third natural size; the lower of natural size. 

Pruate Il. X Quercus Schuettei, about one third natural size. The upper 
sheet, in the United States National Herbarium, with foliage approaching 
that of Q. bicolor; the lower, in the Field Museum, with foliage and fruit 
more as in Q. macrocarpa. 

Prate III. X& Quercus Schuettei. The upper figure a representation of 
the type sheet, in the Field Museum, about one third natural size; the lower 
a fragment of this specimen, of natural size. 


PLATE | 


4 
: 
; 
i 
q 
4 
rn 
a] 
‘4 


= oy 


Or JERCUS PALAZOLITHICOLA 


i eae 


& 


‘4 


A 


PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc. VOL. LVI. PLATE Il 


Pr ae : a 


Aeesiow 
“ 


QUERCUS SCHUETTEI 


PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LVI. PLATE si 


QUERCUS SCHUETTEI 


RRELATIONS OF THE FOSSIL FUELS* 
IL. 
By JOHN J. STEVENSON. 


(Read April 14, 1917.) 
THE CRETACEOUS COALS. 


Cretaceous age occurs more or less abundantly in many 
The original areas in which it was formed vary from 
es to thousands, even hundreds of thousands of square 
t these greater areas have been broken by erosion into 
Di or better into isolated fields, sometimes widely sepa- 

he coal seams are not confined to a a single horizon but are 


sted. The several regions have so many features in common 
so many in contrast that a detailed description of ‘some 
, though tedious, is ne essary for proper understanding 


EUROPE. 


in local importance. 
in thin seams has been observed at some places in England 
: quantity is significant. The Wealden of the Dorsetshire 


Kk Point on the Dorset coast, a a Sh ledge in bane 
1 encloses trunks and large branches of trees, mostly petri- 
Vebster, at an earlier date, had seen these stems, of which 
had been converted into a jetlike substance. Mantell, observ- 


: 3. A. Mantell, “Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight,” 3d 
ndon, 1854, pp. 203-206, 238, 239, 242. 


>. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, E, MAY 23, 1917. 


54 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


ing that all the stems are prostrate, thought them a fossil raft, re- 
mains of an ancient pine forest, transported by a river and buried in 
the delta sands and muds, as is the case with rafts of the Mis- 
sissippi River. But the description of conditions leads one to hesi- 
tate before accepting the reference to rafts. The Mississippi rafts, 
as described in European works of Mantell’s day, were not the rafts 
as they were. It is not probable that the rafts of the Atchafalaya 
and Red River would produce deposits such as those under con- 
sideration. The features? are more like those observed along the 
Athabasca and some other North American rivers, where great 
masses of driftwood occur, the interstices being filled with silt and 
sand. Mantell emphasizes the presence of ripple markings in the 
Wealden ; slabs of sandstone, clay and limestone on the Isle of Wight 
are often covered with them. Imprints of annelid and molluscan 
trails, of crustacean claws, of pectoral fins of fish as well as of feet 
of reptiles have been obtained. The formation is of essentially 
fresh-water origin. Lyell, in describing the Lower Wealden or 
Hastings sand, remarks that one finds at different heights in the 
section strongly rippled slabs of sandstone. Some of the clay beds 
had been exposed, for sun cracks are abundant. A red sandstone, 
near Horsham, contains innumerable traces of a plant, apparently 
Sphenopteris, with stems and branches disposed as if they are stand- 
ing erect on the place of growth, the sand having been deposited 
gently around them. Similar conditions have been observed else- 
where in this formation. ; 

Some coal has been found in the Wealden of France, but it is 
of little importance. The lignites of Simerols* suffice as illustra- 
tion. The area is small, with radius of about 25 kilometers. The 
section at one locality shows (1) clay, 0.90; (2) lignite, 2.50, at 
times without partings, but at others divided into two or three 
benches; (3) shale, 0.70; (4) lignite, friable, not mined, 1.50; (5) 
carbonaceous shale, 0.80; (6) lignite, compact, I to 1.50; total, 7.90 
meters. This deposit, at times only 4.60 meters thick, underlies 


2See “Formation of Coal Beds, II.,” Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. L., 


I9II, pp. 548-551. 
3 C. Lyell, “Elements of Geology,” 6th ed., New York, 1866, pp. 350, 351. 
4 Arnauld, “Des argiles lignitiferes des Sarladais,” Bull. Soc. Geol. France, 


II., Vol. 23, 1866, pp. 50-63; Meugy, the same, pp. 89-06. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 55 


“marine Cretaceous, but is of fresh-water origin, the animal remains 
__ being indeterminate bones with shells of fresh-water mollusks. 
Plant remains-and ‘silicified stems are in the clays. The lignite is 
described as compact, blackish brown and lusterless. 

The Wealden of Hanover, that portion equivalent to the Hast- 
ings sand of England, has coal seams, which in many places have 
economical importance. The region® has been studied by several 
geologists, each having in view the study of some special features. 
The area has extreme length from east to west of about 160 miles 
‘and an extreme width of about 120 miles from north to south. 
Exposures are not continuous, for erosion has removed the Wealden 
from extensive spaces, while in others the surface rocks belong to 
later formations. According to Credner, it reaches from the Harz 
- Mountains westward to the Holland border, where it passes under a 
thick cover of diluvium. The exposed areas are isolated and at 
times are so widely separated that sections have little resemblance. 
The Wealden consists of clays, marls, sandstones and coal beds ; the 
colors are from white to gray, with rare bands colored by oxide of 
iron. Dunker states that the coal usually resembles the older black 
coals, the plant materials have undergone much greater change than 
in brown coal, and distinct woody structure is rarely recognizable. 
Some mines yield a coal comparable to the best in England ; a sample, 
analyzed by Regnault, gave carbon, 89.50; hydrogen, 4.83; oxygen 
and nitrogen, 4.67; ash, 1. This type is dense, brilliant, with uneven 
to conchoidal fracture and in appearance resembles anthracite. It 
is closely jointed and usually has a blackish brown streak. But 
_ there is lignite in the Wealden, with woody structure and reddish 
brown streak. A sample from Helmstadt, analyzed by Varrentrapp, 
yielded carbon, 68.57; hydrogen, 4.84; oxygen and nitrogen, 19.87; 
[ash, 6.72]. Dunker thinks this brown coal derived from conifers, 
_cycads, lycopods and ferns. 

In the Osterwalde, a very different type, the Blatterkohle, is 

5 W. Dunker, “Monographie der Norddeutschen Wealdenbildung,” Braun- 
schweig, 1846, pp. xi—xxviii, 2, 21; Heinrich Credner, “ Ueber die Gliederung 
der oberen Juraformation und der Wealden-Bildung im nordwestlichen 
Deutschland,” Prag, 1863, pp. ix, 47-54, 132, 138, 133, 138-141; C. Struckmann, 


“Die Wealden-Bildungen der Umgegend von Hannover,” Hannover, 1880, pp. 
14-28, 30-36. 


56 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


found in the same section with other coals, some of them belonging 
to the “black coal” type. This Blatterkohle consists chiefly of 
Abies linki and Pterophyllum lyellianum, whose densely packed 
leaves and twigs, mostly brown and transparent, become flexible, 
when soaked in water ; coalification is extremely imperfect. Dunker 
thinks that lycopods and ferns are the chief constituents of the black 
coals, as no remains of other plants have been discovered. It may 
be noted in passing that the Blatterkohle bears great resemblance - 
to the conifer peat of the Fichtelgebirge,® as described by Reinsch, 
and to the ‘‘coarse” coal of the Carboniferous; in the latter the 
conversion is complete. It must not be forgotten that David dis- 
covered equally flexible remains of plants in the Permo-carbonif- 
erous of New South Wales. 

The coals vary in quality; partings thicken and at times the 
whole seam becomes carbonaceous shale; occasionally masses of 
silicious matter, limestone or pyrite become so abundant as to render 
the deposit worthless. In some mines, a waxy substance, clear or 
dark yellow, occurs, which Dunker thinks may be hatchettin. 

Near Biickeburg and Schaumburg, the Wealden sandstone is 
120 to 150 feet thick and contains 4 coal seams, of which two are 
workable. On the Osterwalde, the thickness is not far from 450 
feet and 18 seams were seen, mostly thin or too poor in quality to 
justify mining, the greatest total thickness of coal being 9 feet., 
Well-marked coal seams, in nearly every case, have a black clay 
roof and floor, the latter occasionally passing into Brandschiefer or 
cannel shale. The roof clay, at times, contains abundance of plant 
impressions and even becomes coaly—a true faux-toit. In the upper 
part of the section there are two seams consisting mostly of the 
black coal, but this, in part, is continucus with brown coal, contain- 
ing pieces of wood-like anthracite. . 

The plants enumerated by Dunker include 2 species of Equi- 
setum, 26 of ferns, 10 of cycads, 5 of conifers and one palm, Endo- 
gamites, now taken to be Sedgwickia. One species of Equisetum 
occurs abundantly in a sandstone, where the stems are more or less 
nearly vertical. Stems of trees were observed at many localities ; 


6 See “Interrelations of the Fossil Fuels, I.,” Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. 
LV., 1916, p. 54. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 57 


___ those replaced with sandstone or oxide of iron show no trace of 
structure, but those from the coal resemble Pinus. He believes that 

_ much of the coal is derived from conifers. 
A Credner reports that the sandstone is 540 to 550 feet thick on the 
Pe south slope of the Diester range, 8 to 12 miles south from Hannover, 
ow _ where it consists of alternating clay shales, marly shales, sandstones 
3 and stone coal; the chief mass is a yellow, fine-grained sandstone 
___ with little cementing material. The section shows 16 coal seams, 
‘gt of which 11 are less than 10 inches thick and have “bad coal.” 
_ Three beds, 2 feet, 1 foot 6 inches and 1 foot respectively, are of 
“workable” thickness and yield good coal. Clearly, the periods 
when coal accumulation was possible, were of brief duration and the 
general conditions were not such as to encourage formation of good 
coal; the total thickness is little more than 15 feet, of which less 
than one third is good. The fauna is fresh-water, Unio, Paludina, 
- Cypris, Lepidotus and Spherodus being the prevailing forms; 
____Cyrena is not rare. The flora consists of ferns, cycads, conifers 

and palms. 

The Osterwalde area is farther west; its resources had been de- 
veloped after Dunker’s examinations were made. The Wealden 
sandstone is approximately 500 feet, but the conditions are not the 
same as in the Diester area. The “workable” coal seam, one foot 
thick and 28 feet above the base at Diester, is here in the same posi- 
tion, but only 8 inches thick. Within 72 feet above it are 3 seams, 
the thickest being 6 feet 9 inches, all absent from the Diester section. 
Near Minden, 7 miles farther west, the coal is thicker. Meanwhile 
the character of sediments has been changing, for the sandstone, 
predominating at Diester, is insignificant here. The change con- 
-tinues westward: at Bentheim and Ochtrup, on the Holland border, 
_ one finds only clays and limestones about 800 feet thick; the lime- 
stones yield Melania and Cyrena. According to Credner’s descrip- 
_ tions, it is evident that the coal decreases in the direction of finer 
sediments. The thick coals of Minden are associated with the one 
noteworthy sandstone of that area. Both Dunker and Credner note 
abundance of sphzrosiderite in the rocks associated with coal seams. 
Studies by Dunker and Credner were mostly in the region west 
_ from Hannover; Struckmann gave information respecting other 


a. 
A 


58  STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


areas and added to that respecting the western. The coal-bearing 
deposits equivalent to the Hastings sand are his Middle Wealden; 
his Lower Wealden is equivalent to the Purbeck beds of England, 
now placed in the Jurassic. The whole Wealden of Struckmann is 
only 15 meters thick under the city of Hannover; the Hastings sand 
is thin but contains an unimportant seam of coal. At Neustadt, 1o 
miles farther northwest, the sand is still present, though very thin, 
and holds thin coal, which has been utilized. At 24 miles west- 
northwest, the sand is insignificant, almost wholly replaced by a 
thick, often bituminous clay and marly shale, shale, rich in pyrite, 
but holding some coal. de 

The Hastings sand increases southwardly. At 10 miles west 
from Hannover, thick beds of sandstone appear; on the Diester, 
south from that city, as well as on the Siintel ridge at the southwest, 
sandstone prevails; but at Osterwalde, sandy and clayey shales are 
abundant, though there are prominent beds of sandstone. Struck- 
mann compares several sections, I., on the Diester by Credner; IL., 
farther west by himself; III., on Osterwalde by Credner; IV., at 
Rehburg, northwest from Hannover, by himself: 


Z: II.. III. ry 
DAMGSUONE Gein) aiuie Shes vo ak Cate 118.63 124.33 47.00 6 to 7 
Clays, marls, sandy shale, soft sandstone} 40.00 37.62 II0.00 II4.00 
Og APOE ERMA rr os ar od cae LNs lore 2.06 0.87 3.00 0.00 
SOAS, ROR MELE gue go bicis boven bao Paibe I.31 0.84 2.50 0.23 
POUAL MIEECTSS vo de as bbe san heey Me 162.00 163.66 162.50 120.00 


In I., there are 12 worthless seams and three workable; in IL., 3 
worthless and one workable; in III., 6 worthless and 5 workable; 
in IV., one workable.” In III., sandy shales or very slightly con- 
solidated sandstones, but in IV. clays and marls make the greater 
part. These observations by Struckmann show that the source of 
sediment was south from Hannover and that the sand flats de- 
creased toward the west and north, giving place to less coarse 
materials. The coal seams are irregular and it is evident that many 
of them are of insignificant lateral extent. Sphzrosiderite is abun- 


7It would appear that in these calculations any seam yielding good coal 
and more than ten inches thick is thick enough to be mined. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 59 


dant. The fauna is fresh-water. The flora at Osterwalde consists 
of ferns, cycads and conifers, but two forms, an Anomozamites 
: and a Spirangium, are wanting there, though they are extraordinarily 
abundant on the Diester. 
; Hosius® discovered plant remains and fragments of coal in the 
__ + Wealden sandstone near Vreden in Westphalia about 35 miles west- 
northwest from Munster. 

The Upper Cretaceous is almost wholly marine in England, 
France and western Germany, so that coal occurs rarely and in small 
quantity ; but farther east, in Saxony, Bohemia, Silesia and Moravia, 
the limestones and marls are replaced with sandstones at several 
horizons and coal deposits are present, which in some areas have 
‘much economic importance. 

The Lowenberg basin in southern Silesia is at about 25 miles 
from the border of Saxony and Bohemia. According to Scupin,® 
the coal of this basin has been regarded as either stone or Pech coal; 
it is deep black, lustrous and has conchoidal fracture, but gives a 
very dark color to solution of caustic potash. It is of merely local 
importance, as the greatest thickness is little more than a half meter, 
yet at one time the annual output was 60,000 Centner. Near Klitts- 
dorf, a sandy brown coal contains remains of wood; near Lowen- 
berg, coal, 6 inches thick, is exposed and lower down in the section 
is a mass of coal and sand, containing 6 inches of good coal, but in 
greatest part is mixture of coal and sand in about equal proportion ; 
at another exposure the composition is clay and fragmentary coal. 
Scupin thinks that this confused mass must be allochthonous and 
suggests that it may represent a washed out swamp. Two lower 
beds, 10 and 3 inches thick, were pierced in a boring and a notable 
quantity of sphzrosiderite was found in the intervening rocks. 

The Cenomanian coal of Bohemia is usually unimportant. Nau- 
mann says that the Lower Quadersandstein occasionally contains 
layers of clay shale rich in conifer and dicotyledonous remains, with 
nests and layers of mostly unworkable coal. v. Andrian gives the 
section obtained near Chrudim, about 60 miles east-southeast from 
Prag: (1) Coarse sandstone, with fossils, 24 feet; (2) dark clay 

8 Hosius, Zeitsch. d. d. Geol. Gesell., Vol. 12, 1860, p. 61. 


9H. Scupin, “Die Entstehung der Niederschlesischer Senon-Kohlen,” 
Zeitsch. f. pr. Geologie, 1910, pp. 254-257. 


60 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


shale, with plant remains and coaled stems, 4 to 5 feet; (3) moder- 
ately coarse sandstone, 2 to 3 feet; (4) coarse conglomerate, 2 to 
4 feet. The dark shale of this region section contains near Skutsch, 
12 miles farther west, a bed of worthless Pechkohle, which is rich 
in Bernstein. Reuss, in a letter to Beyrich, stated that a mass of 
Bernstein, several inches long and of brownish yellow color had been 
obtained as Skutsch, which is very near the Moravian border.?® 

In Moravia, according to Reuss, the coaly substance, to which 
the Lower Quader beds owe their color, is sometimes collected into 
nests or even into beds of workable thickness. At a mine, west 
from Mahrens-Trubau and about 50 miles southwest from Chrudim, 
he saw a seam of thinly laminated Moorkohle [a peat-like brown 
coal] 4 feet thick, brownish-black and containing laminz of bright 
black Pechkohle. It slacks readily on exposure and is high in ash. 
Grains of honey-yellow Bernstein, some as large as a pea, are scat- 
tered through it. The roof and floor are blackish-gray shale. In 
older mines near Utigsdorf, farther south, Reuss saw two coal 
seams, I foot 6 inches and 3 to 4 feet thick. Coal of the upper bed 
is brown-black, with shaly structure, rather bright fracture and ° 
contains much resin. The coal of the lower bed is black, rather 
crumbling, contains numerous layers of Faserkohle as well as many 
lumps and half-inch layérs of Pechkohle. Bernstein is less abun- 
dant than in the upper bed. Roof and floor of both beds are dark, 
more or less sandy. 

Coal has been mined for many years in Lower Austria, near 
Griinbach, at a score of miles south from Vienna and near the border 
of Hungary. The deposits are in the Gosau formation, which is 

taken to be of Turonian or Senonian age. Czjzek’? states that the . 
~ seams are all thin south from Griinbach, but become thicker north 
from that city. The Alois tunnel, 1,200 feet long, intersects 21 
seams of which only 3 are workable, the others being from 2 to 10 
inches thick. The workable beds, all within vertical distance of 

10 Reuss, Zeitsch. d. d. Geol. Gesell., Band III., 1851, p. 13; F. v. Andrian, 
Jahrb. k. k. Geol. Reichsanst., Vol. XIII., 1863, p. 207. 

11 A, E. Reuss, “ Beitrage zur geognostichen Kenntniss Mahrens,” Jahrb. 
k. k. Geol. Reichsanst., Vol. V., 1851, pp. 727-731. 


12 J. Czjzek, “ Die Kohle in den Kreideablagerungen bei Griinbach,” Jahrb. 
k. k. Geol. Reichsanst., Vol. I., Pt. 1, p. 144, Pt. 2, pp. 107 et seq. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 61 


60 feet, are the Caroli, 2 to 3 feet, very irregular in thickness, but 
its coal is much prized, as it is low in ash and clean, the bed being 
without ; a parting. Jodahofer, 3 to 4 feet, is usually quite regular, 
but at times the intervening rocks disappear and this unites with the 
Caroli, the thickness increasing greatly and occasionally reaching 10 
feet. Antoni, 2 to 2 feet 6 inches, is in 3 benches with clay partings, 
each 2 inches. The coal is soft in top and bottom, but in the middle 
bench it is hard. The roof is black slate, 1 foot, which burns well. 
As described by Czjzek, it is a cannel-shale, a mud very rich in 
organic matter. 

The coal is pitch-black, with bright luster and black-brown 
streak. No woody structure is visible to the unaided eye. Occa- 
‘sionally one finds pieces which retain the form of branches, but all 
trace of fiber has disappeared. Analyzed by Schrotter, the composi- 
tion is: Carbon, 74.84; hydrogen, 4.60; oxygen [and nitrogen], 
20.56; water at 100° C., 6.57; ash, 6.92. Reasoning from this 
analysis, Czjzek concludes that the character of a coal has some rela- 
tion to its age. The Tertiary coal at Brennberg has only 60 to 70 
per cent. of carbon, while that from the Lias at Fiinfkirchen has 85 
to 86 of carbon and only 8 to 9 per cent. of oxygen. 

_ Passing over into Hungary, one finds, according to Hantken,* 
important development of Cretaceous coals in the province of 
Bakony and, in the western mountains. The areas are insignificant 
in comparison with those of the Lias, but the beds*are little dis- 
turbed, mining is simple and the output is large. The important 
minés are near Ajka in Bakony, where the Cretaceous consists of 
two marine formations separated by a fresh-water formation with 
coal seams. The fauna contains some brackish-water forms but 
fresh-water types predominate. There are at least 25 seams of coal, 
of which one near the top and another near the bottom are work- 
able. The upper or Bernstein Flotz is always divided into several 
benches and the coal is inferior. In one part of a mine this bed is 
2.93 meters thick with 4 benches of coal aggregating 1.70 of coal, 
while in another part it is 2.43 meters thick and in 6 benches, but 
the thickness of coal is practically the same, 1.72 meters. The lower 


18 M. Hantken, “Die Kohlenflétze und der Kohlenbergbau in der Landern 
der ungarischen* Krone,” Budapest, 1878, pp. 174, 176-179, 197, 108. 


62 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


bed averages about 2 meters. Sometimes it is without partings but 
at others it is broken by two, 20 to 50 centimeters thick. Occasion- 
ally, one of the other beds is thick enough for mining, but in all 
cases the thickness shows much variation. The coal is of very fair 
quality ; in the Barod area, moisture is from 8.2 to 10.4 per cent. and 
the ash is from 7.1 to 15.7 per cent. 

In the Lower as well as in the Upper Cretaceous, coal seams 
accumulated on border areas, where the sediments show proximity 
to land. The character of the deposits, the lens-shaped coal seams 
and the fresh-water fauna associated with them seem to justify the 
suggestion that the coal was formed in swamps on great irregular 
river plains. For the most part, these had a comparatively brief 
existence and were subject to frequent floods carrying muddy water. 


AUSTRALASIA. 


Molengraaff* reports that he saw thin seams of coal at various 
horizons in the Cretaceous along several rivers in central Borneo. 
These are without economic importance. The associated sandstones 
frequently contain grains of coal. 

Coal is present in the Cretaceous of eastern Australia, though 
very rarely in economic quantity. As the conditions appear to be 
much the same throughout, it suffices to consider the phenomena in 
Queensland as described by Jack.t* Cretaceous deposits cover a 
great part of that province, where they are divided into the Upper 
or Desert Sandstone and the Lower or Rolling Downs formation. 

The Desert Sandstone formation, now remaining in barely one 
twentieth of its original area, consists mostly of thin flags, whose 
surfaces are covered with a network of raised lines, crossing each 
other at all angles, which clearly represent filled sun cracks. The 
same sands show tracks and burrows as well as indeterminate re- 
mains of plants. Cross-bedding is quite characteristic of the thicker 
layers. Pebbly deposits occur occasionally and, at one locality, 
Gibb saw an angular quartzose grit which passed into brecciated 

14G, A. F. Molengraaff, “Geological Explorations in Central Borneo,” 
Eng. ed., Leyden, 1902, pp. 202, 217, 241, 250, 277, 318. 

15R. L. Jack and R. E. Etheridge, Jr., “ Geology and Paleontology of 
Queensland,” Brisbane, 1892, pp. 397-403, 511-536, 551, 558. 


i a i i ee = - 
4 : i Ep. aie ee ons 
a ne ee 
. ‘ Bs a oo 4 
tra yf. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 63 


conglomerate. Silicified stems of trees and of bamboo-like plants 


were observed in many beds. On top of a small table-land in 


being 4 feet and the usual height is 4 feet 6 inches. Many of the 
stumps are hollow and fragments lie in all directions. “The matrix 
having been denuded, they stand as evidence of how trees have 
degenerated in size in this part of the country since Cretaceous 
times.” 

The features of this formation throughout are those of a vast 
flood plain, subject to frequent overflow and to frequent changes 
in direction of drainage. As one should expect, the coal deposits 
of the Desert Sandstone are lenses of moderate extent and com- 
mercially unimportant. Within the Cooktown region, seams were 
seen 6 and 15 inches thick ; the bottom of the latter is crowded with 
quartz granules. The coal is worthless; four samples from the 
Cooktown region gave 9.65, 19.02, 30.20 and 36.53 per cent. of 
ash. The coals vary from semi-bituminous to high-grade bitumi- 
nous, though in the description of this region, no reason for this dif- 
ference appears. Pellets of coal were seen frequently in rocks 
associated with the coal. 

The Rolling Downs formation is mostly marine, with inter- 
calated deposits, which may be of fresh-water origin. The higher 
rocks on the Upper Flinders River contain bands of ferruginous 
sandstone with markings which are suggestive of reptilian foot- 
prints. Farther up the river are thick-bedded sandstones, with grits, 
pebbly grits and conglomerates. These hold coal seams, one of 
which is in five benches with 22 inches of coal and a total thickness 
of 4 feet 9 inches. Other but thinner seams were seen in this 
neighborhood. The coal is very good and cakes. Near Winton, 
borings have passed through some seams of coal, but all are thin, 
none exceeding 2 feet, and the coal in the several seams varies, the 
ash being from 4.58 to 20.34 per cent. Some seams, 3 feet thick, 
have been observed elsewhere in Queensland, but they are merely 
lenses, marking sites of swamps occupying depressions in sandy 
river plains. 

Identifiable remains of plants are rare in the Queensland Cre- 


64 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


taceous, only two forms having been recognized. One of them be- 
longs to Glossopteris and was found in the Desert Sandstone. Ethe- 
ridge cannot distinguish it from G. browniana and G. ampla, which 
abound in the Permo-carboniferous of Queensland and New South 
Wales. The important coal deposits of New Zealand, in the lower 
part of the Cretaceo-Tertiary, occupy some extensive areas in the 
South Island and a less important area in the North Island. The 
South Island was studied in detail long ago by Hector*® and his 
associates. Hector examined Nelson district, the northern part of 
the island. The coal-bearing rocks at the Collingwood mine, in the 
extreme north, rest on 105 feet of conglomerate and are 250 feet 
thick. They are mostly thick-bedded clayey sandstones with inter- 
bedded carbonaceous shales, which have 6 coal seams, from I to 4 
feet thick. But the coal is broken badly by partings. On the 
Ngakawau River there is a seam, 16 feet thick and yielding good 
caking coal, which burns freely with a sooty flame. In the lower 
canyon of Buller River, he saw a bed of compact brown coal, at 
least 16 feet thick, underlying brown micaceous sandstone and over- 
lying a conglomerate or breccia of great thickness, which has a few 
thin seams of coal. The thick seam, which has much fossil resin, 
varies in composition; samples from different parts of the bed have 
from 33.45 to 46.85 per cent. of volatile combustible matter in the 
‘pure coal. The ash in raw coal is about 7 per cent. A seam, 20 
feet thick, is mined on a branch of Buller River; its. ash is remark- 
ably low, varying from 0.98 to 1.19 per cent. The coal in some 
parts of the seam is compact, with bright luster and splintery frac- 
ture, but in others it is dull, with fracture like that of brown coal, 
and resembles jet. 

In the Grey River area, the southwest corner. of the district, the 
basal rocks are conglomerate and breccia, succeeded by 200 to 800 
feet of sandstones, grits and shales with beds of anhydrous caking 
coal. Above these is a non-persistent conglomerate. Where this 
last is absent, the sandstones pass gradually into sandy clays with 
marine fossils and nodular clay iron-stone. Immediately below 
these marine beds and resting on the conglomerate or, in its absence, 


16 J, Hector, “Geological Survey of New Zealand,” 1872, pp. 129-141, 
158-165. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 65 


on the sandstones, is a seam of inferior coal, the “ upper bed,” which 
_is a pitch coal, containing much resin and little constitutional water. 
The thick bed on Grey River, 16 feet, contains 64 to 68 per cent. of 
fixed carbon, while another seam, on the coast, has but 38.55 per 
‘cent. Hector described the latter as a very superior pitch coal, but 
‘its chemical composition suggests cannel; and it was recognized as 
such by Campbell,** who notes its variations in thickness. Within 
its small area, he saw it 4, 6, 16, 4, and 2 feet. At the border, it 
thins away to nothing. Cannel is the prevailing type in this bed. 
Another bed, resembling splint, contains pebbles of sandstone. 

A more detailed study of the Buller Coal Field was made by 
Cox and Denniston.** At Coalbrookdale in Waimangawa Basin, 
‘Cox saw two coal seams, 5 and 18 feet thick, separated by 34 feet of 
sandstone; but at a short distance away they become 6 inches and 
11 feet 6 inches. The upper bed quickly disappears but the lower 
one thickens northwardly until it becomes 40 feet, beyond which it 
decreases. Still farther north, beginning at Mount Frederick in the 
Ngakawau Basin, this lower seam is 5, 25, 37, 40 and, at center of 
the basin, 53 feet; thence it thins away in all directions, the last 
measurement being 6 inches. Other beds show similar variations. 
Southwardly from the Waimangawa Basin, the conditions are the 
same. Descending a stream from Mount Williams, Cox saw an 
outcrop of shale; at a little distance beyond, this became a coal 
seam, 3 feet thick, but worthless because of numerous shale bands. 
Followed southwestwardly, this, the lower coal seam of other basins, 
became 3, 8, 20, 40, 20, 20, and 25 feet. But southward from the 
last measurement the seam thinned away until no trace of it could 
be found. 

Denniston’s descriptions and his numerous sections show the lens 
form of the coal seams, thickest at center and thinning away to dis- 
appearance toward the margins of the basins. He notes that coal 
of the lower seam is not the same throughout a basin. In one area 
the upper portion is tender but the lower is hard; in another, the 
prevailing type is splint or cannel, hard, compact, jetlike, burning 

17 W. D. Campbell, New Zealand Geol. Survey, Reps. for 1876-7, pp. 31-40. 


18S. H. Cox, N. Z. Geol. Survey, Reps. for 1874-6, pp. 17-29, 106-119; 
R. Denniston, the same, pp. 121-171. 


66 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


with a candlelike flame and showing little tendency to cake. The 
descriptions by Cox and Denniston make clear that the basins were 
contemporaneous but not connected. 

The district of Canterbury, embracing the middle eastern part 
of the island, was examined by Haast.1® The Malvern Hills area, 
about 30 miles west from Christchurch and embracing not far from 
180 square miles, exhibits his Great Brown Coal Formation, which, 
in the Table of Formations of 1879, is placed at base of the Cre- 
taceo-Tertiary. The coal seams are numerous, usually thin and 
. always variable. Occasionally, nodules of retinite are numerous. 
The intervening rocks show great irregularity in structure. Sand- 
stones have abundance of tree trunks, whose thick bark has been 
replaced with clay ironstone, while the interior tissue has been re- 
placed with “ woodstone” or filled with black shaly material. 

The extensive district of Otago, embracing the southern part of 
the island, was examined by Haast, McKay and Hutton.?? In 
Haast’s area the lower part of the column has near the base a mass 
composed of subangular fragments of schists and containing irregu- 
lar seams of coal, 6 to 15 inches thick. Higher up, the rock be- 
comes a conglomerate with well-rounded pebbles of quartz. The 
thin-bedded sandstones and shales following this conglomerate have 
only thin seams, but in the upper part of the column there are beds 
of conglomerate separated by thinner shales and sandstones, which 
hold important coal seams. 

Coals are mined on Green Island. Near one of the shafts, 
McKay saw a bed of fossilized roots “sticking in an old soil, just 
as they grew.” At another locality, a workable coal seam under- 
lies beds containing Belemnitella. 

According to Hutton, the area of Cretaceous coals is small in 
Otago. The most important field is near Shag River, where there 
are at least 6 workable seams, yielding the best of brown coal. The 
seams are thin in the Mount Hamilton field, rarely exceeding 10 
inches, but the coal is bituminous. The highest sandstone there con- 
tains at base an angular block of sandstone, 8 by 3 feet, resting on 

19 J, Haast, N. Z. Geol. Reps. for 1871-2, pp. 1-88. 


20 J. Haast, Reps. for 1871-2, pp. 148-153; A. McKay, Reps. for 1873-4, 
pp. 59, 60; F. Hutton, “ Geology of Otago,” Dunedin, 1875, pp. 44, 100-103. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 67 


a thin seam of coal. He conceived that it had been floated in, 
attached to the roots of a tree, “ wherefore the coal beds are formed 
partly from driftwood.” 

_ The coals of ~ New Zealand for the most apse are lignitic or sub- 
bituminous, but no woody structure is mentioned by any observer. 


GREENLAND. 


The existence of coal in the Cretaceous of western Greenland 
was made certain by the work of White and Schuchert** during 
1897. Their observations were made chiefly on the Nugsuak Penin- 
sula. The Komé or lower division, as exposed near Kook, con- 
sists of shaly or laminated sandstones with thin beds of dark shale 
’ containing much carbonaceous matter, so abundant at times as to 
make the shale combustible, but not enough to justify one in calling 
it coal or lignite. The whole succession is so irregular that sections 
are not comparable. The plants are conifers, cycads and ferns with 
some indeterminate leaves of dicotyledons. Near Ugarartorsuak, 
all divisions of the Cretaceous were examined. The Komé, in a 
section of 270 feet, has 20 feet of “thin coals with shaly partings 
and 2 bands of carbonaceous shale.” Another section of about 305 
feet, belonging to the Atane or middle division, has several beds of 
coaly shale, a coal seam, 1 foot 6 inches and a mass of “thin sand- 
stones and coals,” 10 feet. The flora differs from that of the Komé 
as, besides cycads, conifers and ferns, it has 8 species of dicotyle- 
dons. A third flora, in still higher beds, is related to the second 
and both seem to be related to the Upper Cretaceous. Dark beds 
with huge ferruginous concretions, have fossils of types character- 
izing the Montana of western United States. 

A dark shale, 75 feet thick, seen near Ata on the southerly shore 
of the peninsula, has leaves and large fragments of tree trunks with 
an invertebrate fauna, which Stanton takes to be the same with 
that of the highest beds on the north shore and equivalent to Ceno- 
manian. The highest division of the Cretaceous, Patoot of Heer, 
is exposed near Patoot, where the lowest beds are at 470 feet above 
the sea. The fossils are of Senonian age and some of the plants are 


21D. White and C. Schuchert, “ Cretaceous Series of the West Coast of 
Greenland,” Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 9, 1808, pp. 343-368. 


68 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


allied to Laramie forms. The authors suggest that, at least in part, 
the Patoot may be a transition formation; no unconformity was ob- 
served between Cretaceous and Tertiary ; all conditions indicate that 
sedimentation was continuous. Near Patoot, at 1,170 feet above the 
base of this division, there are occasional bands, ferruginous, con- 
taining ferns, conifers, and dicotyledons, with erect stumps and 
abundance of silicified wood. 


NortH AMERICA. 


Cretaceous deposits are present on the Atlantic and the northern 
Gulf coasts of the United States, but they contain no coal and the 
occurrences of lignite have interest only for the paleobotanist. The 
important area is in the west-central region, where the deposits 
originally extended from the 95th meridian westward for not far 
from 1,000 miles, and from Lat. 25° in Mexico northward for not 
less than 2,100 miles, in all not less than 2,000,000 square miles. 
These figures are merely approximations and the area of greatest 
extent may have been considerably larger. The continuity of these 
deposits was destroyed by post-Cretaceous erosion, following the 
Rocky-Mountain revolution. 

_ Belief that Cretaceous deposits were practically continuous 
throughout this vast area is of comparatively recent data. The 
prevalent conception until within little more than 20 years, was that 
the Rocky Mountains had existed during Cretaceous time. There 
seems to be little room for doubting the general accuracy of conclu- 
sions that those mountains mark lines of successive foldings but proof 
of their existence as elevated areas is wanting. Willis? thought that 
the earliest Cretaceous deposits of his district were laid down on a 
surface of Carboniferous and Algonkian rocks, which was a plane, 
primarily a peneplain and afterwards a surface of marine planation. 
The first period of compression may not have begun until after 
close of the Cretaceous. Incidental reference to the conditions 
indicates similar conception on the part of some later observers; 
but the first clear analysis of the evidence, known to the writer, is 
that by Lee,?* who has discussed the phenomena observed by him- 


22B. Willis, “ Stratigraphy and Structure, Lewis and Livingston Ranges, 
Montana,” Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 13, 1902, pp. 338, 330. 
23 W. T. Lee, U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper, 95-C, 1915, pp. 56-58. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 69 


: 4 _ self and others in New Mexico and Colorado. He recognizes pene- 


_ planation i in the southern Rocky-Mountain region prior to the begin- 


. ning of the Upper Cretaceous. The evidence all indicates that the 
a interior continental sea extended from Utah and Arizona eastward 


over the present site of the Rocky Mountains. 
_ The source of sediments was at the south and west, as appears 


from discussions by Lee, Stone and Calvert and Stebinger,2* as 


well as from sections by many other observers. The coarser ma- 
terials are in the southern and western parts of the area, while, 
toward the east, land and border-land conditions disappear, so that 
the rocks become shales with more or less of limestone. But toward 
the close of the Cretaceous, land and shore deposits extended far 
east, indicating perhaps a long period of comparative stability prior 
to the great mountain-making period of the Tertiary. The vast 
area, reaching in some places almost to the Mississippi, was ap- 
parently at first almost a peneplain, over which the early Cretaceous 
sea advanced to the western border. 

During and after the Rocky-Mountain revolution, erosion was 
so energetic that, in New Mexico, Arizona, Utah and Colorado, the 
Cretaceous was broken into isolated “fields” or “basins,” separated 
in many cases by ranges showing Archean rocks at thousands of 
-feet above the general altitude of the region. But this greatly dis- 
turbed area becomes narrower toward the north, so that, in much of 
Wyoming, the continuity is broken only by comparatively short 
ridges around which the Cretaceous rocks outcrop. Still farther 
north, the undulations in by far the greater part of the area are 
gentle and sedimentation appears to have been continuous into the 
Tertiary ; the greatly disturbed region on the western side trends 
toward the northwest and becomes very narrow. During the Cre- 
taceous, deposition was practically continuous, there being only local 


- unconformities, so small vertically and horizontally as to be sur- 


prising, in view of the vast area under consideration. There are, 
however, great variations in thickness which seem to be due to differ- 
ential subsidence. The conditions favoring accumulation of coal 
were repeated many times in the region of coarser sediments and 

24W. T. Lee, Prof. Paper, 95-C; R. W. Stone and W. R. Calvert, Econ. 


Geol., Vol. V., 1910; E. Stebinger, Prof. Paper, 90-G, 1914. 
PROC, AMER, PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, F, MAY 23, 1917. 


70 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


the formation of offshore deposits was marked by an assemblage of 


fossils which survived the changing conditions and reappeared at 
several horizons. 

It was to be expected that during the period of reconnaissance 
surveys, coal groups belonging near the base of the Upper Cre- 
taceous should be correlated with others elsewhere, which are in 
highest formations of the series. One familiar with the facts, as 
now understood, is not astonished by the contradictions, when he 
considers the conditions under which the earlier work was done. 
During recent years, detailed studies by geologists of the National 
surveys of the United States and Canada have done so much toward 
removal of uncertainties, that it is possible to present a comparative 
table of formations, which, as a generalization, is near enough to the 
truth for purposes of this study.”® 

The first systematic classification of the western Cretaceous 
was presented by Hall and Meek.*® Hall had financed an expedi- 
tion to make collections between the Missouri River and the Mau- 
vaises Terres, Meek being in charge. The succession, based chiefly 
on Meek’s observations, is 


Eocene, Tertiary Formation, clays and sandstone, etc., containing 
remains of mammalia, 250 feet. 
Cretaceous Formation, 
5. Arenaceous clay, passing into argillaceous sandstone, 80 feet. 
4. Plastic clay, with calcareous concretions containing numerous 
fossils. This is the principal fossiliferous bed of the Cre- 
taceous on the upper Missouri, 250 to 300 feet. 
3. Calcareous marl, containing Ostrea congesta, scales of fish, 
etc., 100 to 150 feet. 


25 The writer would not neglect acknowledgment of his great indebted- 
ness to the writings of W. T. Lee, T. W. Stanton, N. H. Darton, F. H. Knowl- 
ton, E. Stebinger, R. W. Stone and W. R. Calvert, of the United States 
Geological Survey and to those by D. B. Dowling, of the Geological Survey 
of Canada. Several of these students have been unreserved in communi- 
cating unpublished material; but they must not be held responsible for con- 
clusions offered by the writer, some of which may appear to them far from 
correct. 

26 James Hall and F. B. Meek, “ Descriptions of New Species of Fossils, 
from the Cretaceous Formation of Nebraska,” Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts and 
Sci., 1856, p. 405. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 71 


2. Clay containing few fossils, 80 feet. 

1. Sandstone and clay, 9o feet. 
_ _ The thicknesses were purely tentative, as the party, owing to 
a ‘unexpected—complications, were compelled to make a remarkably 
_ fapid reconnaissance. Several years later, Meek and Hayden pub- 

_ lished an amplified section, based on examinations and collections 
made by Hayden while associated with the Raynolds expedition.?* 
In this memoir, geographical names were applied to the several 
x _ formations, Fox Hills beds, No. 5; Fort Pierre group, No. 4; Nio- 

_brara division, No. 3; Fort Benton group, No. 2; Dakota group, 

4 No.1 
a _ The Fort Union or Great Lignite Group, which overlies the Fox 
» Hills, was placed in the Tertiary. This grouping was based on the 
fossil remains, not on the lithological features and it was applicable 
ety throughout the eastern part of the Cretaceous region. 
_ In the early 70’s discussion arose respecting the relations of some 
cal deposits which had been referred to the Fort Union; the term 
“Laramie” was introduced for the deposits in dispute, to be em- 
_ ployed without committing the writer to either Tertiary or Cre- 
taceous age. Studies in more recent years made necessary a change 
_ at the base of the column. Darton’s examination of the Black Hills 
in northeastern Wyoming showed that the Dakota is complex, that 
_ the middle and lower portions carry Lower Cretaceous forms, while 
the upper portion belongs to the Upper Cretaceous. Some years 
_ afterward, the same author, and later Lee and Stanton, discovered 
fossils with similar relation in the same beds within New Mexico. 
_ These lower beds were correlated with the Kootenai of Canada. 
_ When, however, an attempt was made to apply the Missouri 
River section to the country west from the 106th meridian, serious 
_ difficulty was encountered. The character of the deposits was 
_ wholly different. The matter was complicated -by the fact that the 
earlier explorers did not recognize that the great erosion was due to 
_ Post-Cretaceous elevation of the mountains and by the other fact 
that they did not know that a grouping of fossils, resembling that 
of the Fox Hills, occurs in that region low down in the column. In 


4 _- 27 F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1861, 
____ Citations from pp. 419, 432. 


72 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


the later work, exigencies made necessary the study of economically 
important districts and the temporary ignoring of intervening dis- 
tricts. The column was divided for descriptive purposes, largely 
on the basis of lithology and local names were introduced, which 
were utilized in other districts, but not always in the same sense. 
At an early date, the difficulty in determining boundaries of forma- 
tions at the west was recognized ; the Fox Hills and the Pierre were 
combined as the Montana and the Niobrara and Fort Benton as the | 
Colorado. In this study, the Meek and Hayden classification is 
employed as it is based on palzontological ground and enables one 
to recognize changes in physical geography. As modified by later 
studies it is . 
Laramie 
Montana | ae ites 
Pierre 
Colorado | elec 
Benton 
Dakota 


Kootenai. 


Each of the several formations is coal-bearing in areas of greater 
or less extent, but barren or nearly so in others of greater extent. 
They will be described in the order of age. Literature dealing with 
the coals of the western Cretaceous is voluminous, but it consists 
largely of preliminary studies with land classification as the object. 
Much of the region is very sparsely settled, as it is agriculturally 
arid, and systematic mining is confined to narrow strips along the 
railways. For the most part, explorers must depend on natural 
exposures, which are indefinite. At the same time, one cannot re- 
frain from grateful acknowledgment of the skill exhibited by not a 
few of the observers, for the mass of information is so great as to 
prove an embarrassment in preparation of this review. 


The Laramie, Lance, Edmonton. 


- The post-Cretaceous erosion spared only scattered areas of 
Laramie in the southern districts, but farther north, where the region 
of orogenic disturbance was restricted more and more to the far 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 73 


western border and deposition was apparently continuous in the 
plains, Laramie covers or underlies great spaces. 
In the present state of knowledge, one may not assert or deny 
the existence of Laramie beds in the important Trinidad-Raton field 
of Colorado and New Mexico. Lee’s discovery of an unconformity 
by erosion in the mass, formerly regarded as Laramie, has made 
the relations of the Raton formation, that above the unconformity, 
somewhat uncertain. The plant remains appear to have Tertiary 
_ affinities. The report by Lee and Knowlton on this field is still 
_ unpublished. It would appear that the Laramie is present in the 
: isolated coal field on the Arkansas River, near Canyon City, Colorado. 
_ Stevenson” in his first report referred all the coals of this field to 
__ the Laramie; but at a later date, he restricted that formation to the 
__ upper part, 880 feet, which is in accord with the later measurement 
by Washburne. This later observer obtained plant remains which 
_ show that the rocks are equivalent to a part, at least, of the Laramie 
as recognized farther north in the Denver Basin. The coal seams 
____ are irregular in occurrence and appear to be mere lenses. The sand- 
stones and shales are so variable that vertical sections, less than 100 
- yards apart, are wholly dissimilar. 
s _ The Denver Basin extends along the eastern foot of the Front 
Ranges almost to the northern boundary of Colorado. The Mesozoic 
_ deposits were studied by Eldridge.*® The Laramie, 600 to 1,200 
| feet thick, consists mostly of sandstones in the lower, but of clays in 
_the upper part. Coal seams in the higher beds are thinner and 
much more irregular than those in the lower division, which is about 
200 feet thick. Ostrea glabra, according to Eldridge, occurs in the 
lower division, so that in the writer’s opinion this sandstone is closely 
allied to the Fox Hills, to which it is lithologically similar. Sections 
throughout show great variation in the rocks as well as in the coal 
_ seams, so that in any district, strict correlation of coals in different 
_ mines is possible only where the workings are continuous. The coal 
seams of the lower division are from 3 to 14 feet thick. A seam, 


o 28 J. J. Stevenson, U. S. Expl. W. of rooth Mer., Vol. III., 1875, pp. 393- 
«307; Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. XTX., 1881, pp. 505-521; C. W. Washburne, 


2 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 381, 1910, pp. 341-378. 
oh 29S. F. Emmons, W. Cross, G. H. Eldridge, U. S. Geol. Survey, Monog. 


27, 1896, pp. 51-74, 323-360. 


74 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


mined in the Lafayette district, is 14 feet thick at the outcrop; but 
within 500 feet a parting appears, which increases northwardly to 
10 and at length to 25 feet. The splits remain good in this direc- 
tion, but southwardly, as the parting increases, the lower split is 
broken more and more by slates until it becomes worthless. The 
coal in some seams is not the same throughout; one bench may be 
hard, another soft. In one bed, the upper bench yields softer coal 
than the lower, which is complex, consisting of: Bright coal with 
conchoidal fracture, 6 inches; crushed coal, 6 inches; fibrous coal, 
36 inches. The coal of the Denver Basin often has woody struc- 
ture and contains silicified tree trunks, knots and branches. It is 
resinous at many places. 

D. White® states that, while the coals of this Basin are relatively 
persistent, they vary greatly in thickness. The topography of the 
floor reveals shallow “swales” or ponds, occasionally extending a 
mile or more, in which the coal is thicker. The floor at Lafayette is 
a bluish sandy underclay, containing numerous roots in place, prob- 
ably an old swamp soil; resting on this is a bed, 8 to 30 inches thick, 
of dark carbonaceous clay, or lignitic mud, filled with flattened stems, 
lying in all directions, some of them very large and many are much 
compressed. The roof is sandstone with no transition from the 
coal. 

In general, the coal is essentially xyloid, there being apparently 
more wood than in the lignite of Hoyt and Rockdale in Texas, 
though less than in that of Wilton and Lehigh in South Dakota— 
all of them Eocene. The quantity of jetified wood is large but the 
branches and limbs are compressed to thin lenses. Mineral charcoal 
is abundant, often in large fragments. A log was seen, 14 by 5 
inches in section, jetified in the interior, while the outer portion had 
become mineral charcoal ; but another specimen was hollow, contain- 
ing mineral charcoal in the interior, while the outer portion was 
jetified. Irregular lumps of yellow resin are numerous and at times 
this material has been squeezed into the joints. 

The coal at Marshall, 10 miles from Lafayette, is at the same 
horizon, being regarded as one of the splits of the main Lafayette 
seam. Silicified wood is abundant and well-preserved, showing 


30 D, White, “The Origin of Coal,” Bur. of Mines, Bull. 38, 1913, pp. 20-23. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 75 


"grain and rings distinctly. The lower part of the bed is more con- 
choidal, less xyloid and has higher percentage of fixed carbon than 
the upper, suggesting, as White says, that it represents a more ma- 
a tured peat.— He could obtain no data respecting the floor of this bed, 
_ but roots were found under two coal seams in a railway cut, the 
__ sandy floor of one being undoubtedly an old soil. 

zl Thiessen’s** microscopic study of the Lafayette and Marshall 
3 coals proved that, generally speaking, the type of vegetation and the 
_ conditions during accumulation must have been very similar to those 
during the Eocene in Montana and Dakota, though the proportion 
____0£ woody materials is somewhat less and the compression is greater. 
x _ The resin is darker than that of the Dakota lignite. The débris con- 
___ tains the reticulated bodies observed in the pith of certain fossil wood 
and present in all Tertiary and Cretaceous coals which Thiessen has 
examined. Fungal hyphe and spores are abundant, the former 
especially in material of herbaceous origin. Spores and pollen 
exines compose not more than 5 to 10 per cent. of the mass. 

__ A notable area of Laramie has escaped erosion in the northern 
part of the San Juan Basin within New Mexico and Colorado. On 
the eastern outcrop, according to Gardner, coal seams are very 
thin or are wanting; but on the western outcrop, Shaler saw along 
the Rio Chaco several coal seams which occasionally become work- 
able, with a maximum thickness of 3 to 6 feet. Farther north, on 
the San Juan and Plata Rivers, he saw the Carbonero seam with 
maximum thickness of 50 feet; but it is variable, for at one locality 
it is little more than 6 feet and is broken by three partings. Beyond” 
a "I the Colorado line, near Carbon Junction, the thickness increases to 
or. about 100 feet ; the partings are very numerous, but there are some 
Bae, bands of clean coal, 4 to 5 feet thick. The bed divides toward the 
sr west; at 3 miles southeast from Durango, Shaler saw three seams, 
7, 30 and 15 feet, in a vertical space of less than 200 feet, which he 
believes to be splits of the Carbonero. 

Apparently no part of the Laramie has escaped erosion in the 
great Uinta Basin of northwestern Colorado; or, at least, if any 
still remain, its rocks are so similar to those of the Pierre that no 

81 R. Thiessen, Bur. of Mines, Bull. 38, 1913, pp. 241-243. 

82 J. H. Gardner, Bull. 341, 1909, p. 388; M. K. Shaler, Bull. 316, Pt. 2, 
1907, pp. 385, 386, 395, 396, 400, 404. 


76 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


separation can be made. The coal deposits of this region were re- 
ferred to the Laramie by the earlier observers; the later observers 
have proved that they in the Pierre.. 

Laramie coals are important in the Green River Basin of south- 
western Wyoming. The Cretaceous section in the outlying coal field 
of Coalville in northeastern Utah has on top 2,500 feet of mostly 
sandy beds, with leaves and fresh-water shells, but no coal. This 
rests on 1,650 feet of sandy beds with marine fossils.** At about 
30 miles northeast, one reaches the Laramie area of Uinta County, 
Wyoming, where the Laramie, according to Knight and Veatch,* is 
-more than 5,000 feet thick in the southern part of the county. 
There, as in the Coalville field, one is near the western border of 
deposition and the formations are thick. Schultz found only 2,800 
feet remaining in the northern part of the county. The lower por- 
tion of the column for several hundred feet contains marine fossils 
and it must be referred to the Fox Hills; but Laramie leaves are 
abundant in the higher deposits. The Tertiary coals of Evanston 
overlie the Laramie uncomformably. Coal seams are numerous in 
the Laramie and at times they are workable, but the thicker seams 
of the Tertiary render them unimportant. 

The Rock Springs coal field in Sweetwater County is about 50 
miles farther east, only Tertiary deposits being at the surface in 
the intervening space. Schultz*® gives the thickness of Laramie as 
3,900 to 1,500 feet, the variation being due to extent of erosion. 
The lower part of the section is clearly Fox Hills; the Laramie beds 
“are sands and clays with little coal. The marine sandy beds persist 
eastwardly and the Laramie rocks retain their features, finer in 
grain, more argillaceous and without important coal beds. In 
southern Carbon County, Ball and Stebinger** find an extreme thick- 
ness of 4,000 feet, but the formation thins away ‘southward. The 
lower part of the column for about 400 feet must be assigned to the 

33 C. H. Wegemann, Bull. 581-E, rors, p. 161. 

34. W. C. Knight, “Southern Uinta County, Wyoming,” Bull. Geol. Soc. 
Amer., Vol. 13, 1902, pp. 542-544; A. C. Veatch, Bull. 285, 1906, p. 333; A. R. 
Schultz, Bull. 316, 1907, p. 217. 

35 A. R. Schultz, Bull. 341, 19090, p. 259; Bull. 381, 1910, pp. 223, 227. 

86M. W. Ball and E. Stebinger, Bull. 341, 246, 253; Bull. 381, pp. 190, 
193, 204. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 77 


$ _ Fox Hills. The coal seams are irregular except in the northern part 

of the district, where beds were seen, 8, 6 and 4 feet thick. Whether 
: 3 these belong to Fox Hills or to Laramie cannot be determined from 
= the sections. In t the southern portion of the basin, within Colorado, 
_ the Laramie is 900 feet thick according to Fenneman*® and Gale, 
Se crning of alternating sandstones and shales, with indications of 
20 lignite seams distributed irregularly in the upper two thirds. 
7 - The writer regards the lower third as belonging to Fox Hills and 
; 4 thinks that the thick coal seam near Craig, 8 feet, is in that formation. 
_ Northward from the Green River Basin, areas of Laramie are 
‘comparatively unimportant. On the west side of the Bighorn 
basin, lenticular coal beds were seen by Woodruff at many places 
in the lower part of the formation. Washburne found 150 to 
_ 700 feet between the Eocene and the Pierre formation, massive 
sandstones and shales; in this, taken to be Laramie, there are thin 
and variable coal beds. The only workable seam is near Garland 
__ where 4 feet of clean coal had been worked; but the seam quickly 
_ breaks up in all directions and becomes worthless. The Buffalo 
coal field, east from Bighorn Mountains, shows great irregularity 
in deposition during the Laramie, but the coal seams, though vary- 
ing in thickness and quality, can be traced for considerable distances. 
In the Sussex coal field, 30 miles farther south, Wegemann found 
es the Lance formation, 3,200 feet thick and resting on the Fox Hills. 
The coals are unimportant except in two localities, where seams oc- 
__casionally become workable. Wegemann’s descriptions seem to 
make clear that the coals are mere lenses and the better coal is in the 
middle portion of the lens. Winchester measured about 2,450 feet 
of Lance beds in the Lost Spring coal field, which is on the western 
border of the great Tertiary lignite area. There are traces of the 
_ coals seen farther west, but only-carbonaceous shale was found. 
The Fox Hills, Lance and Fort Union appear to be conformable 
_ inthis region. The highest rocks in the Black Hills area of north- 
_ eastern Wyoming are sandstones, shales and lignites, in all about 
4 2,500 feet, as determined by Darton. That student hesitated to 
_ identify these beds as Laramie, because it was not possible to deter- 
mine whether or not they are conformable to the underlying Fox 


87 N. M. Fenneman and H. S. Gale, Bull. 285, 1906, p. 288. 


78 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS.. 


Hills. The relations of the Lance. formation have been subject for 
much discussion; the testimony of plant and animal remains is con- 
tradictory. In no inconsiderable area, the Lance is conformable to 
the Fox Hills. Winchester in a recent note, summarizing results 
obtained by himself and his assistants, in eastern Wyoming, states 
that Lance overlies Fox Hills. It is subdivided into three members ; 
a lower undifferentiated portion, 425 feet thick; a middle, lignite- 
bearing portion, the Ludlow, at least 350 feet; and an upper marine 
member, the Cannonball, 225 feet. The marine fauna of the Can- 
nonball is very similar to but not identical with that of the Fox Hills, 
while flora of the Ludlow cannot be differentiated from that of the 
Tertiary Fort Union.** 

The eastern half of Montana is a rolling plain covered with Ter- 
tiary and later deposits, the mountains of states at the south having 
disappeared. Anticlinals have brought up the highest members of 
the Cretaceous. The Lance, taken by the writer as the eastern ex- 
tension of the Laramie, has at base the Colgate sandstone, which is 
go to 175 feet thick and contains no coal except at one locality, 
where Hance saw a lens only a few hundred yards long. The 
upper part of the Lance, about 500 feet, has variable seams of lig- 
' nitic coal, but all are lenticular. Some observers note great irregu- 
larity in the deposits, which appear to be fresh-water throughout.®? 

West from the 109th meridian, one approaches the mountain re- 
gion and finds the whole Cretaceous exposed. In northern Fergus 
County, the Lance appears to be present, but the relations of the 
beds are not altogether clear. Near the Crazy Mountains in 
Meagher County, Stone found 1,200 to 2,800 feet of shales and 
sandstones, which he places in the Laramie; but the Lennep sand- 
stone, at the base, 200 to 400 feet thick, is known now to be Fox 
Hills. Lenses of coal, a few inches thick and of insignificant hori- 
zontal extent, are present in the Laramie. Not far westward from 
this district shore conditions prevail and a continuous formation, 

38 E. G. Woodruff, Bull. 341, 1900, pp. 202, 205; Bull. 381, p. 173; C. W. 
Washburne, Bull. 341, pp. 167, 160, 181; C. H. Wegemann, Bull. 471-F, 1912, 
pp. 26, 30; D. E. Winchester, Bull. 471-F, p. 58; Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. 


VIL, 1917, p. 36; N. H. Darton, Prof. Paper 65, 19009, p. 58. 
89 W. R. Calvert, C. F. Bowen, F. A. Herald, J. H. Hance, Bull. wed: 


1912, pp. 13, 21, 48, 49, 91. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 79 


the Livingston, occupies the whole interval from near the base of 
‘the Pierre to the lower portion of the Fort Union.*® 
: In Teton County, on the Canadian border and near the western 
is boundary of the-Cretaceous, Stebinger saw 980 feet of clay, clay 
____ Shales soft gray to greenish gray cross-bedded and rippled sand- 
: stones with coal seams and some lenticular limestones. Apparently, 
_____the succession from Lower Cretaceous to the top of the Eocene is 
_ conformable throughout. This mass, placed by Stebinger at top of 
_ the Cretaceous column, is shown by tracing to be the St. Mary for- 
‘mation of Dawson in Alberta. Its sandstones contain fossil wood. 
_ Coal seams occur at top and near the bottom, but they are too thin 
and uncertain to be of economic importance. The persistence of a 
coal horizon near the base proved, as Stebinger observes, the exist- 
ence of widespread though transient coal-forming conditions soon 
after deposition of the great Horsethief (Fox Hills) sandstone. 
The coal seams improve near the Canadian border.*! 
_ Passing over into Canada, Dawson in southeastern Alberta 
placed a great mass of deposits in the Laramie, but later studies have 
made evident that only the lower division should be referred to that 
formation. This, the St. Mary beds, is, at least in part, the same 
with the Edmonton of Dowling and with the Lance in Wyoming 
and Montana. The formation, about 2,800 feet thick, is of fresh- 
water origin except at the base and in its upper portion has sand- 
stones which are cross-bedded, rippled and with worm borings.** 
Dowling** measured about 3,000 feet on Oldman River, mostly 
sandstone with sandy shales and some thin coals at the base. In 
the Sheep River district, two seams were seen near the Foothills, 
but farther east on Sheep River there is only one. Tyrrell** studied 
large area in eastern Alberta between the Red Deer and North 
Saskatchewan Rivers. At the south near Red Deer River, he saw 
two important coal seams near the top of the formation, each about 


= 40R.- W. Stone, Bull. 341, pp. 82, 84; R. W. Stone and W. R. Calvert, 
_ Econ. Geol., Vol. V., 1910, pp. 551-557, 652-669, 741-764. 
41 FE. Stebinger, Bull. 621-K, 1916, pp. 124,.127, 128, 145. 
ae 42G. M. Dawson, Geol. Survey of Canada, Reps. Prog. 1882-83-84, Part 
at C; pp. 36-72. 

48D. B. Dowling, Summ. Reps. for 1903, pp. 142-149; the same, for 
1914, DP. 47. 
44]. B. Tyrrell, Rep. Prog. for 1886, Part E, pp. 56, 60-63, 132. 


80 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


10 feet thick; but he did not find them persistent. In the North 
Saskatchewan portion of the area, the important coal is also near 
the top of the formation. The chief seam was seen first near Win- 
tering Hills as a bed of carbonaceous shale; but farther north it 
becomes coal and increases steadily until it becomes 25 feet thick. 
Several seams were seen in the lower portion of the formation, but 
the most persistent horizon is about 160 feet above the Pierre. 
Cross-bedded sandstone was observed at many localities. 

About twenty-five years later, when the region had been opened 
up, Dowling** reported upon the Edmonton District, a portion of the 
area studied by Tyrrell. There he found about 700 feet of Laramie 
(Edmonton, St. Mary), a succession of shales and sands, too often 
merely clays and sands, a brackish-water formation between the 
marine Pierre and the fresh-water Pashkapoo of the Tertiary. It 
is rich in coal seams, which increase from south to north. The im- 
portant coal horizon is near the top of the formation and it has been 
followed from the Red Deer to the Pembina River, becoming thicker 
toward the north and northwest. Three seams were seen on the 
Pembina, of which the highest is 26 feet thick; on the north Sas- 
katchewan, a seam, belonging to the same coal group in the upper 
part of the formation, is 25 feet. Below the middle of the forma- 
tion, Dowling saw another coal group; some of its seams are lenses 
of moderate extent, while others have been traced by borings under 
a considerable area; but they vary greatly in thickness and may be 
lenses. Dowling is evidently far from certain that the main seam 
of the region is persistent. 

McConnell*® states that the Laramie in northern Alberta has nu- 
merous seams of inferior lignite and ironstone. Rose reporting on 
the Lance of southwestern Saskatchewan, refers to the formation 
as a transition from the marine Fox Hills to the fresh-water Fort 
Union. The rocks are slightly consolidated and the seams of lignite 
are unimportant. 

45D. B. Dowling, Memoir 8-£, 1910, pp. 13, 16, 18, 27, 28. 


46 R. G. McConnell, Ann. Reps., Vol. VI.-D, 1893, p. 53; B. Rose, Summ. 
Reps. for 1914, pp. 64-67. NY 


ow 
7 ir 


= 


NE me ey. ae 


oP 


ae) 
aoe 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 81 


The Fox Hills, Lennep Sandstone, Horsethief Sandstone. 


In this study the transition beds from the marine Pierre to the 
fresh-water Laramie are taken to be the Fox Hills. At very many 
localities, where the higher members of the Cretaceous have escaped 


erosion, this transition formation is a shore or offshore deposit of 


more or less coarse materials, with fossils, mostly marine but ac- 
companied at times by brackish-water forms. Within some basins, 
coal seams of great economic importance are present, while in others, 


_ coal is wanting or in such small quantity as to possess only geological 


interest. . 

Reports on the San Juan Basin to which the writer has access, 
give no details sufficing to determine whether or not the Fox Hills 
is present in any considerable part of the Basin; but a section by 
J. H. Gardner, cited and discussed by Lee,**? shows that it exists in 
the northern part. The Pictured Cliffs sandstone, 394 feet thick, 
mostly gray sandstone, contains marine fossils to the top. It un- 
derlies 79 feet of brackish to fresh-water beds, in which coal seams, 
4 and 12 feet thick were seen at 4 and 57 feet from the base. Lee 


includes these in the “ Laramie,” as there appears to be uncertainty 


respecting the relations of some parts of the column. No coal has 
been reported from the Pictured Cliffs sandstone. 

The existence of Fox Hills is equally uncertain in the Uinta 
Basin of western Colorado. Fox Hills conditions recurred at vari- 
ous horizons in the Pierre of this basin, as they did in central New 
Mexico, so that the earlier observers recognized both Fox Hills and 
Laramie in the Pierre beds. But there is no room for doubt that 


_ the formation exists in the southeast prong of the Colorado portion 


of the Green River Basin; for there Gale*® found the basal sand- 


_ stone of the “ Laramie,” resting on the Pierre, with a marine fauna. 
‘The thick coal bed at Craig apparently belongs in the Fox Hills. 


About 50 feet of this formation has escaped erosion in North Park, 


; _ Colorado, where it rests on the great mass of Pierre shale. There 


Beekly obtained marine shells and the fucoid Halymenites major 


from this sandstone; but no coal is present.*® 


47 W. T. Lee, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 23, 1912, pp. 587-591. 
48H. S. Gale, Bull. 341, pp. 287, 295. 
49A. L. Beekly, Bull. 506, 1915, p. 46. 


82 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


The relations are sufficiently clear in the main portion of the 
Green River Basin with Wyoming. In Uinta County, the basal 
200 feet of “Laramie” with alternating marine and land deposits 
includes among others the great Adaville-Lazeart coal seam, 10 to 
84 feet thick; Veatch’s brief summary of the coals gives no details 
respecting the accompanying rocks. Schultz found in the Rock 
Springs field of Sweetwater County a yellowish white sandstone at 
base of the “ Laramie,” overlain by sandstones, clays and coal beds; 
in some places fossils abound. The basal sandstone rests on the 
upper member of the Pierre. The coal of this Fox Hills is in- 
ferior and is no longer mined. Smith reports that in northeastern 
Carbon County, marine fossils are present up to 500 feet from the 
base of the “ Laramie,” which, he says, is a common condition in 
southern Wyoming and northern Colorado. Here as in other parts 
of the basin, a great sandstone is at the base. Coal is present in 
the Fox Hills, but the beds are unimportant, the thickest being only 
18 inches. Veatch®® separates the beds with marine fossils in east 
central Carbon from the Laramie and places the great white sand- 
stone with its overlying beds in the Pierre. No occurrence of coal 
is noted. Ball and Stebinger in southern Carbon place the sand- 
stone and the overlying beds in the Laramie, but state that marine 
fossils have been up to 400 feet above the sandstone. They give 
no details respecting the character of the beds and apparently they 
saw no coal. 

The Raton-Trinidad coal field of New Mexico and Colorado is 
at the eastern foot of the Front Ranges. The earlier students re- 
garded the coal-bearing rocks as conformable throughout and placed 
them in the Laramie. The numerous unconformities observed were 
thought to be merely local variations, characterizing deposits on 
the rudely level strand area. Lee, however, has proved that the 
irregularities are far greater than imagined by his predecessors and 
that a great unconformity by erosion separates the column into the 
Raton and Vermejo formations, the former most probably of Ter- 
tiary age. The Vermejo, resting on the Trinidad sandstone, is 
taken by the writer to be Fox Hills but Lee is inclined to regard it 

50 A. C. Veatch, Bull. 285, 1906, p. 333; Bull. 316, 1907, pp. 246, 248; E. E. 


Smith, Bull. 341, pp. 225, 228, 229; M. W. Ball and E. Stebinger, Bull. 341, pp. 
246, 247; Bull. 381, 1910, p. 193. 


S. 
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STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 83 


_as somewhat older. At the same time, in view of conditions farther 
_ north along the eastern foot of the Front Ranges, the writer feels 


compelled to abide-by his opinion expressed 35 years ago, that in 
large part, at least, the rocks belong to the Fox Hills. The basal 
sandstone known now as the Trinidad sandstone (Halymenites sand- 


‘stone of Stevenson), contains’ some marine fossils with great abun- 


dance of the fucoid, Halymenites major; the overlying beds, with 
extreme thickness of about 500 feet, are prevailingly sandstone with 
interbedded shales and coal seams. The rocks have fossil leaves, 
which are older than Laramie and a few marine fossils have been 
seen. The coal seams are numerous but are indefinite, varying so 
greatly in thickness and relative position that correlation, especially 
of the higher ones, is not possible. All are excessively variable in 
the New Mexico portion of the field, but some of them attain im- 
portance in modest areas and are mined extensively. In the 
northern or Colorado part of the field there are from one to 8 seams 
in the 250-feet above the Trinidad sandstone. This group is per- 
sistent and consists of lenses, which frequently are workable. Near 
Sopris, the seams “thicken and thin out characteristically,” they are 
broken by partings and the coal is dirty. Near Trinidad, the coal 
is sometimes without a parting. The accompanying rocks are as 
variable as the coals. Near Pictou, 3 seams are mined. At the out- 
crop, the intervals are 15 and 30 feet; but at 2,500 feet in the mine, 
the upper and middle beds have united and the interval to the lower 
one is but 20 feet. The coal seams are not persistent and resin is 
found in the northern part of the field. 


I. Il. III. IV. TR: 

RD ois 's orcs 4ft. oin. oft. 8in. o ft. roin. 4 ft. o in. 4ft. oin. 
Bone or shale.| oft. #in. 7 ft. oin. | 2rft.1oin. | 24 ft. o in. 7 ft. oin. 
ERG 3 ft. 4in. 1 ft. 8in. 3 ft. oin. 5 ft. o in. oft. 8in. 
Parting...... thin oft. 2in. | 14 ft. oin. | 13 ft.oin. | 25 ft. oin. 
Coal ...... eps et Ate: 7 i, 5 ft. oin. 6 ft. oin. 9 ft. o in. oft. 3in. 
Clay or shale.| 1 ft. qin. oft. 4in. 8 ft. oin. | 12ft.oin. | 22 ft. 5 in. 
Coal Svahae,ai0' o ft. ro in. 2ft. oin. 1 ft. oin. 1 ft. o in. blossom 

moml:..... Irft. 7in. | 16 ft. roin. | 54 ft. 8in. | 68ft.oin. | 58 ft. rr in. 


Total of coal} ro ft. oin. oft. gin. | roft.roin. | 19 ft. oin. 4ft.1rin. 


On the northern side of the Raton plateau, a sandstone at 70 feet 
above the Trinidad coal bed, contains many weather-beaten tree 


84 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


trunks along with worm borings and impression-like Halymemtes. 
The extreme instability of conditions on the sandy flats, where coal 
accumulated, is shown by variations in the Trinidad coal bed, mined 
at Engle and Starkville. Stevenson’s measurements are given in 
the preceding table. 

These measurements are all within 3 miles from the first and the 
position to the Trinidad sandstone precludes all probability of error 
in correlation. The Trinidad sandstone is practically without coal.** 

Fox Hills conditions are distinct farther north on the Arkansas 
River in the Canyon City coal field. Stevenson visited this field in 
1873, but the movements of the party, to which he was attached, 
were so rapid as to give opportunity only for errors. He visited it 
again in 1881 and Washburne examined it in detail during 1908. 
These observers recognized the Trinidad sandstone, from which 
Stevenson, in both visits, obtained Halymenites. The Vermejo for- 
mation is about 500 feet thick, including the basal sandstone and 
its uppermost member is a massive sandstone, 145 feet, containing 
abundant Halymenites. According to Washburne, this member, 
nearer the mountains, loses its marine fossils, is less massive, is 
cross-bedded and has all the characteristics of a fluviatile deposit. 

The coal seams are numerous and some are important. One, 
resting on the Trinidad sandstone, is 3 ft. 4 inches thick with at 
times shale, at others, sandstone as the roof, the less thickness be- 
ing under the sandstone. The shale is 0 to 7 feet thick, showing 
that the erosion followed deposition of the shale. Sandstone 
“rolls”? were seen by Washburne in a bed about 275 feet above the 
Trinidad sandstone. These extend for long distances and the sand- 
stone passes through the roof clay, often through the coal to the 
floor. These “rolls” have rounded bottom, curved sides and the 
trend is toward northeast throughout the mine. The current bed- 
ding in the “rolls” indicates a northeast flow for the streams. 
Resin occurs in the lowest coal seam. 

Fox Hills has been recognized in the Denver Basin by Eldridge 

51 J. J. Stevenson, U. S. Geog. Expl. W. of tooth Mer., Vol. IIL., sppl., 
1881, pp. 102 ff.; G. B. Richardson, Bull. 381, 1910, pp. 385, 386, 395, 411; W. T. 


Lee, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 23, 1912, p. 611. It is unfortunate that Lee’s 
elaborate report on the Raton coalfield is still unpublished. 


e¥ 
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STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 85 


and by Fenneman,™ who assign to it a thickness of 800 to 1,200 


feet. These observers recognized no coal in the Fox Hills, as they 
' took the important coal.seams of the basin to be Laramie. But 


Stevenson®* saw coal in rocks of Fox Hills age at 5 miles southeast 
from Evans, about 40 miles north from Denver. From a sand- 


“stone overlying coal he obtained Ammonites lobatus, Cardium 


speciosum, Mactra alta, Mactra warreniana, Lunatia moreauensis 


and Anchura. The Halymenites is abundant. 


_ The deposits in western Wyoming, which earlier observers 
termed Fox Hills, are known now to belong to the Pierre, but the 
formation is present in some areas. The “Laramie” in the north- 


eastern part of the Bighorn Basin, 150 to 700 feet thick, is appar- 


ently Fox Hills. It is mostly a massive sandstone but contains 
some seams of coal, occasionally workable though of quality in- 
ferior to that from older formations. East from Bighorn Moun- 
tains, the Fox Hills was recognized in the Lost Spring field by 
Winchester, in the Sussex field by Wegemann and in the Black 
Hills by Darton, but no coal is reported from any locality, except 
one, where Wegemann saw a deposit of “unusual variability in 
thickness and quality.’”’** 

The Fox Hills is known in northwestern Montana as the Horse- 
thief sandstone described by Stebinger, as the Lennep sandstone of 
Stone and Calvert in the central part of the state. Stebinger traced 
the Horsethief sandstone across the Canadian boundary and proved 
its continuity with the Fox Hills of Dawson. He describes the 
sandstone as 360 feet thick, buff, coarse, massive and much cross- 
bedded in the upper half, but becoming slabby and more or less 
shaly toward the base. Usually the fauna is brackish, Ostrea, Cor- 


bicula, Corbula, and Anomia, but-at some horizons it is marine of the 


litoral type, Tancredia, Cardium and Mactra. In his paper of 1914, 
he shows that the Horsethief sandstone was at one time continuous 
from the Teton district at eastern foot of the Rocky Mountains to 


52G. H. Eldridge, Mon. 27, 1896, pp. 69, 72, 73; N. H. Fenneman, Bull. 
265, 1905, p. 33. 

53 J. J. Stevenson, Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. XVIL., 1879, pp. 369-372. 

54C. W. Washburne, Bull. 341, p. 169; D. E. Winchester, Bull. 471-F, 
1912, p. 58; C. H. Wegemann, the same, pp. 25, 32; N. H. Darton, Prof. Paper 
65, 1909, P. 57. 

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, G, MAY 23, I917. 


86 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


the Black Hills on the Wyoming border. No coal, aside from some 
insignificant lenses, has been seen in this northern extension of the 
Fox Hills; and the conditions are the same in Alberta.® 


The Pierre Formation. 


Thus far the tracing has been comparatively simple. The Lara- 
mie and Fox Hills mark the closing portion of the Cretaceous and 
conditions appear to have been much the same in each throughout 
the whole region. But during the Pierre, conditions near the source 
of sediments were wholly different from those in the great area 
beyond. On the eastern side, the rocks are almost wholly shale and 
without coal, while on the western and southern sides there are 
great deposits of sandstone and sandy shale with, in some areas, 
important coal seams at several horizons. At the east, the fossils 
are marine but at the west and south there are marine and brackish 
as well as fresh-water horizons. The offshore and strand conditions, 
marking strife between advancing land and the sea, are evident from 
the recurrence of a fauna allied to that of the Fox Hills as well as of 
sections showing a succession like that of Fox Hills and Laramie, 
a gradual transition from marine to continental deposits. In the 
description of widely separated areas, local terms based on litholog- 
ical features became necessary, but the resulting confusion has been 
removed by the labors of ithe students listed on an earlier page and 
the relations are now well understood, though in some areas there 
still remains uncertainty as to the planes of separation. 

In Alberta, Montana and northern Wyoming the Pierre is di- 
vided into Lewis or Bearpaw shale, Judith River formation, Clag- 
gett shale and Eagle sandstone: the last, overlying shale. This 
order, descending, is distinct from the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming 
northward into Alberta, but, at a short distance westward, where one 
approaches the western limit of Cretaceous deposition, some modifi- 
cations in nomenclature and grouping become necessary. Farther 
south in Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico, the succession is 
given as Lewis shale, Mesaverde formation and Mancos shale. The 
term, Mesaverde, is indefinite; it is the sandstone member of the 
Pierre and is more or less coal-bearing. In some extensive areas it 


55 E, Stebinger, Bull. 621-K, 1916, p. 125; Prof. Paper 90-G, p. 62. 


a 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 87 


embraces practically the whole of the Pierre, while in others it but 
the middle portion. Mancos is another lithological term, designat- 
‘ing the mass of shale u underlying the Mesaverde, so that in many 
districts it-include: és the Lower Pierre as well as the Niobrara and 
Benton. The significance of the several terms will appear in de- 
_ scription of the districts. 

a _ The Pierre in the Parks of Colorado and east from the meridian 
of the Front Ranges of Colorado consists mostly of shales, becom- 
Ss ing sandy toward the top, with irregular lenses of limestone and, in 
the upper portion, huge calcareous and ferruginous concretions. 
Sandstone is wholly unimportant except in the Boulder district of 
the Denver Basin, where Fenneman saw,** at one third way from 
‘ the base, the Hygiene sandstone, which is several hundred feet thick 
west from Berthoud, but only 250 feet at the north end of the dis- 
trict. The thickness of Pierre in this region is not fully determined ; 

a > Eldridge gives 7,700 to 7,900 feet in the Denver Basin, but Fenne- 
man gives only 5,000 in the Boulder district of that basin. Near 
a Canyon City on the Arkansas River, oil-borings found 4,500 feet, 
a while farther south on the eastern border of the Raton-Trinidad 
coal field, the thickness appears to be considerably less. 

_ But the change is startling between the southern termination of 
the Raton field and Cerillos, a distance of about 100 miles in west 
of south direction. At Cerillos, one is on the same meridian with 
the Park area of Colorado, where the Pierre is almost wholly shale, 
_ whereas here it is largely sandstone. Some small isolated coal 
fields. remain farther south. The Engle, unimportant from the 
" economic standpoint, has coal-bearing rocks, which as Lee*’ has 
sl , rest on deposits of Benton age. Wegemann found similar 
sonditions in the Sierra Blanca field about 80 miles west-northwest 
om the last. Both authors are inclined to refer the coals and asso- 
ated rocks to the Mesaverde, because the general conditions re- 
mble those observed farther north in the Cerillos field. In the 
sence of conclusive information, the writer is inclined to suggest 
iat the coals may be of Benton age. The Sierra Blanca area is 
t far from 120 miles south from the Cerillos field and by so much 


_ 56N. M. Fenneman, Bull. 265, 1905, pp. 31, 32. 
57 W. T. Lee, Bull. 285, 1905, p. 240; C. H. Wegemann, Bull. 541-J, p. 10. 


88 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


nearer the source of sediment. One should expect to find in that 
direction the same conditions as appear on the western border, where 
important coals occur in the Benton. 

The Cerillos coal field, a few miles south from Santa Fe, New 
Mexico, has been examined by several geologists whose conclusions 
are not in agreement.®* Stevenson thought that the coal-bearing 
group belongs to the Laramie; Johnson referred it to the Fox Hills; 
but Lee recognized the true relations and determined that it is 
Mesaverde, the Middle Pierre in this field. The coal group is 
about 1,200 feet thick and rests on Mancos shale, of which the top 
150 feet carries Pierre fossils. The basal rock of the coal group 
is a sandstone, 300 feet thick and without coal. It has an assem- 
blage of fossils which suggests Fox Hills conditions. The coal 
seams are numerous but variable. The sections of one bed at four 
openings, as given by Stevenson, are 


MNES ccccie Wang ¢ 1 ft. 2in. Thin Streaks Absent 
ee es slink. I ft. 3 in. 6 ft. Oin. 12 ft. oin. 8-10 ft. 
0 IED AR aie 2 ft. 3 in. 2 ft. 5 in. 4 ft. 7 in. 3 ft. 10 in. 
Coaly shale .... 3 ft. 5 in. Absent Absent I ft. 


In one mine the coal has been replaced with sandstone in a space 
75 feet wide and several hundred feet long, a case of contemporane- 
ous erosion. Gardner®® saw an apparently similar replacement in 
the Omera field, east from Cerillos. At 500 feet from the outcrop 
in a mine, the roof descended and cut out the coal. In 1879, 
Stevenson noted a ripple-marked sandstone and an underclay with 
roots. 

The only information available for present purposes, respecting 
coal fields between Cerillos and the great San Juan Basin at the 
west, is contained in Lee’s publications.®° The Hagan field directly 
west from the Cerillos differs notably from the latter. The most 
striking difference is due to increase of Mesaverde at expense of the 

58 J. J. Stevenson, U. S. Geog. Expl. W. of tooth Mer., Vol. IIL, Suppl. 
pp. 147 ff.; N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XV., 1806, pp. 105 ff.; D. W. Johnson, Sch. 
Mines Quart., Vols. XXIV., XXV., 1903; W. T. Lee, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 
Vol. 23, pp. 642, 658; Bull. 531-J, 1913; Prof. Paper 95-C, 1915, p. 41. 

59 J. H. Gardner, Bull. 381, 1910, p. 448. 


60 W. T. Lee, Bull. 389, 1909, pp. 5-40; Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 23, 
pp. 622-642. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 89 


underlying Mancos. The lower portion of Mesaverde in Cerillos 
_ is the great sandstone, 300 feet thick ; but in Hagan it is about goo 
em » feet, mostly sandstone,-without coal and with Pierre fossils at sev- 
— eral horizons. The coal group immediately overlying it is 180 feet 
- thick with 5 coal seams, of which one has local importance. This 
_ averages about 3 feet in a small area and underlies a massive coarse 
sandstone, cross-bedded and containing petrified wood. Thin 
pac streaks of coal were seen in higher parts of the column. The whole 
| - thickness i is about 1,850 feet and the upper half has no marine fos- 
eg The Tijeras coal field, at 25 miles southwest, gives clearer 
is evidence of land conditions. The lower portion of the Mesaverde 
is only 700 feet thick, but it contains 3 coal beds, 2 inches to 3 
feet thick, proof that the broad sand flats were free from sea-inva- 
_ sion long enough to permit accumulation of peat in the hollows of 
_ their irregular surface. The lithology changes above the upper- 
_ most marine sandstone. Exposures are such as to make measure- 
ments indefinite, but the presence of what the writer takes to be the 
Cerillos coal group is distinct, for two coal seams, 3 feet and 1 foot 
_  Ginches, were seen. This upper portion contains no marine forms. 
a _ The basal deposit is a massive sandstone, 115 feet thick. 

_ The Rio Puerco field, beyond the Rio Grande, is about 25 miles 
__ west from Hagan and Tijeras. Lee gives 1,700 feet as the thick- 
ness of Mesaverde, but thinks that the upper part has been removed 
A _ by erosion. The Mancos (Colorado) shales are but 1,113 feet, 
‘Se _ whereas they are 2,350 feet at Cerillos. The Mesaverde has many 
E ~ horizons of marine fossils even to the top; but, at about 300 feet 
* irom the top as here exposed, it has a coal group, 185 feet, with 16 
0: seams, all very thin; and another, about 100 feet thick, with 
of the beds 6 feet thick, at 450 lower. Some of the sandstones 
' contain fossil leaves in abundance. At the base is a massive marine 
; sandstone, the Punta de la Mesa sandstone of Herrick and John- 
son » which is 77 feet thick. The former existence of another coal- 
x bearing group is shown at the top of the column, where Lee found 
SS at some localities a shale with thin coal. At the same time it seems 
} ble that the upper coal group represents that at Cerillos. Lee’s 
suggestion that the 300 feet of marine sandstone and sandy shale at 


By ; 61 C. L. Herrick and D. W. Johnson, Bull. Univ. New Mex., Vol. IL, p. 6. 


90 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


the top of the section may represent the Lewis shale is very far 
from improbable: there appears to be good reason for believing 
that the Mesaverde of Rio Puerco includes the whole of the Pierre, 
whereas at Cerillos, Mesaverde is Middle Pierre. 

Pierre deposits are exposed on the borders of the great San 
Juan Basin. Information is lacking for the southern prong of this 


basin but is fairly abundant for the main part, northward from 


Lat. 35° 30’, though comparatively few details have been published. 
Gilbert,*? during the reconnaissance in 1873, measured a long sec- 
tion of Cretaceous at Stinking Spring, 12 miles west from Fort 
Wingate in New Mexico. This shows about 700 feet of yellow 
shales, yellow sandstones with coal beds, resting on 1,050 feet of 
sandstones and mostly sandy shales. Of the 7 coal seams, 3 reach 
workable thickness ; one of them is triple, the benches being 4, 5 and 
2 feet, separated by 5 feet and one foot of shale. There is no coal 
in the basal 200 feet. The Cretaceous in this region is one litho- 
logically ; “characterized by sands, by coal, by rapid alternations, 
by ripplemarks and by oysters, it is evidently an off-shore deposit.” 
But fossils offer basis for subdivision; they are abundant in the 
lower 850 feet, which may be taken here as representing the shore 
facies of Colorado or lower portion of the Mancos, as that appears 
in the type locality. 

Thirty years later, Schrader®* made a reconnaissance of the 
eastern side of the basin, from Gallup, near Fort Wingate, to the 
northern border in Colorado. The section is longer than at Stinking 
Spring and during the 30 years interval the coal bed had become 
important. He found shales and sandstones, 2,000 to 3,000 feet 
thick, with the Upper Coal Group in the lower part; shales and 
sandstones, 500 to 800 feet, with the Middle Coal Group near the 
top; and 500 to.1,000 feet of Colorado shale, with the Lower Coal 
Group near the top. The Upper Coal Group is about 100 feet thick 
and contains 6 workable coal seams, 5 of which have fireclay floors. 
The Middle Coal Group appears to be the same with that of Gil- 
bert’s section. The coal seams throughout appear to be irregular. 


62 G. K. Gilbert, U. S. Geog. Explor. W. of tooth Mer., Vol. III., 1875, pp. 


544, 549, 550. 
63 F. C, Schrader, Bull. 285, 1906, pp. 242, 254, 255. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 91 


Gardner afterwards examined this line more in detail. Here 
he regarded the upper and middle groups of Schrader as Mesaverde 
(here evidently in part Lower Pierre), to which he assigns a thick- 
ness Of about 1,000 feet east from Gallup. The coal seams are 
numerous but variable; “ within a few miles, thin beds undoubtedly 
_ thicken to valuable properties and thicker beds thin to mere traces.” 

Farther north between San Mateo and Cuba, the Mesaverde, 
1,200 feet thick, is coal-bearing throughout. Near the top is the 
first appearance of the Lewis shale, which contains much sandstone 
and sandy shale. There, one is little more than 40 miles north- 
west from the Rio Puerco locality, where Lee found marine fossils 
at top of the Mesaverde and thought that the deposits might be the 
- equivalent of Lewis shale. No trace of that shale is reported from 
any locality farther south in the San Juan Basin. Along this por- 
tion of the outcrop, the Mesaverde coal seams are in two groups, 
separated by 300 feet of barren measures; the seams are all lenticu- 
lar and in several instances have bony coal at top or bottom or both. 
Gardner’s observations north and west from Cuba are important. 
At a little north from Gallina, 14 miles north from Cuba, the Lewis 
is 2,000 feet while westward it becomes only 250 near Raton Spring. 
Gardner thinks this westward change due to replacement with sand- 
stone, which has been regarded as Mesaverde. The condition south- 
east from Cuba confirms the suggestion, for there the Mesaverde is 
but 719 feet, with no coal in the basal 300 feet and only coaly shale 
_ or thin coals at widely separated horizons in the upper part.. The 
thinning is more notable beyond Gallina, where the Mesaverde is 
but 214 feet and contains 14 coal seams, of which only one is of 
workable thickness. The coal is subbituminous, occasionally resin- 
ous and the seams are variable to the last degree. The Mesaverde 
is limited, top and bottom, by massive sandstones which persist 
although the section is decreased. Lee states that Gardner’s col- 
lections from Lewis shale and from Mesaverde south and southeast 
from Cuba, are marine. He saw great numbers of petrified stumps 
and logs in the lower part of the Mesaverde near Cabezon, where 


a the upper part of the Mancos has Pierre fossils. 


64 J. H. Gardner, Bull. 341, 1909, pp. 339, 343, 345, 366, 372, 377; Bull. 381, 


_ 1910, pp. 463, 470. 
65 W. T. Lee, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 23, pp. 619-621. 


92 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


It would appear from the observations by Lee and Gardner that, 
in this portion of the basin, the Mesaverde is again Middle Pierre. 
The sea area extended as a gulf southward as far as Cabezon’s 
latitude and the sandy member of the Pierre must have disappeared 
at only a little way east from Gallina. 

Shaler*® examined the western outcrop in the Sain Juan Basin. 
He reports that Lewis shale, only 250 feet thick where first recog- 
nized at the south, becomes 2,000 feet farther north but diminishes 
to 1,600 feet at the northern outcrop. The Mesaverde, massive 
sandstone and thin interbedded shales and sandstones with coal 
seams at the south, shows the triple succession at the north, where 
the thickness is from 750 to 1,450 feet. He observed “ horsebacks ” 
and “rolls” in a Mesaverde seam near Gallup. Along the northern 
outcrop in Colorado, Cross and Spencer®’ found the highest member 
of the Pierre, named by them the Lewis shale, well defined. The 
Mesaverde, named by W. H. Holmes, is triple, the two great escarp- 

-ment sandstones with between them a coal group of sandstones, 
marls and coal seams. The whole thickness in the La Plata quad- 
rangle is barely 1,000 feet, that of the coal group being 600. The 
coal seams are variable and the authors look upon them as a series 
of lenses. The Mancos shale named by Cross, has Pierre fossils 
in the upper “several hundred feet,” so that here also, one has the 
condition observed on the opposite side of the area, at Cerillos, where 
Mesaverde is the Middle Pierre. In the southern part of the San 
Juan Basin, it would appear that Mesaverde and Pierre are prac- 
tically synonymous terms. Gardner’s® observations are of interest 
in this connection. He traced the Mesaverde around the northern 
border from Durango, Colorado, to Monero, New Mexico. It is 
about 1,000 feet thick near Durango but decreases eastwardly, so 
that it is only 400 feet at the Piedra River, 60 miles from Durango. 
This is in accord with Schrader’s observations and with those of 
Gardner in the Gallina area. One seems to be justified in suggest- 
ing that the Mesaverde disappears at a short distance east from the 
San Juan basin, giving place to the shales, which are present in 

66 M. K. Shaler, Bull. 316, Part 2, 1907, pp. 378, 414. 

67 W. Cross, “ Telluride Folio, No. 57,” 1899; W. Cross and A. C. Spencer, 


“La Plata Folio, No. 60,” 1899. 
68 J. H. Gardner, Bull. 341, p. 353. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 93 


Colorado on both sides of the Front Ranges. Near Durango, three 
workable coal seams are present within a vertical distance of 110 
feet, midway-in-the Mesaverde; these become insignificant toward 
—< east and no workable seam was seen along the outcrop for more 
than 60 miles. But at Monero in New Mexico, three seams of 
Pmorkable thickness are present in a vertical distance of 100 feet 
above the basal sandstone. 

_ The Uinta Basin extends from the westerly foot of the Wasatch 
Mountains in Utah into northwestern Colorado and has an area of 
not far from 10,000 square miles, being a little larger than the San 
Juan Basin. The Utah prong, known as Castle Valley, was ex- 
amined by Taff and by Lupton, while Gilbert has given the section 
_ in the Henry Mountains about 50 miles southeast.°® The highest 
_ Cretaceous beds in the Henry Mountains are the Masuk sandstone 
: and Masuk shale of Gilbert, the former containing coal seams; it is 
x thought by Lupton to be most probably Mesaverde. Lupton made 
no detailed study of the Mesaverde in Castle Valley, but estimated 
the thickness as not far from 1,200 feet and notes that it contains 
several important coal beds in a section of 500 feet, beginning at 
200 to 300 feet from the base. Taff notes the triple structure of the 
_ Mesaverde, the two sandstones separated by the coal group. The 
a coals are numerous but are important only in the lower 250 feet of 
the group. The coal is massive, bright, clean, bituminous and con- 
_ tains much resin. Partings are usually insignificant, but Taff saw 
one in a thick coal seam, which increased from nothing to 16 feet 
a within 2,000 feet. The roof and floor of the coal seams are often 
_ sandstone. : 
Richardson examined the southern side of the basin between 
Sunnyside, Utah, and Grand River, Colorado, known as the Book 
Cliffs coal field.”° The thickness of the Mesaverde is given as 1,200 
to 2,200 feet, the variation being due to erosion. The underlying 
Mancos shale contains Pierre fossils in the upper 250 feet and is 
nonfossiliferous for a great thickness below; so that the Mesaverde 
Bs is not lower than Middle Pierre. The sandstones of the formation 
meeG K. Gilbert, “Geology of the Henry Mountains,” U. S. Geog. and 


a - Geol. Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, 1877, pp. 4-10; J. A. Taff, Bull. 


- 285, 1906, pp. 292-204, 298; C. T. Lupton, Bull. 628, 1916, p. 34. 
ce 70 G. B. Richardson, Bull. 371, 1909, pp. 7-39. 


94 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


are lenses and are the marked features of the Book Cliffs; the lower 
members contain Halymenites major and brackish-water forms are 
present at many horizons. The coal seams of economic importance 
are confined to the lower 700 feet but Richardson’s section makes 
clear that the importance in each case is confined to a small area 
and that the seams must be lenses. Near Thompson, Utah, at the 
southern point of the field, there are 5 seams, beginning at 490 feet 
from the base; near Price canyon farther north, are 7 beds, begin- 
ning at 340 feet, while near the Colorado line 6 seams were seen in 
the basal 275 feet, the lowest being only 95 feet from the bottom. 
On the Grand River the section shows 10 seams in the lower 519 
feet. No coal seam has been traced for more than a few miles; one, 
21 feet 6 inches thick, where mined, proved to be a mere lens, which 
disapeared quickly toward the west. Seams important at the east 
disappear toward the west. There are coal horizons, not continuous 
beds. 

The Grand Mesa coal field and smaller fields farther east have 
been discussed by Lee,‘ who has made the relations clear for the 
region east from Grand River. The Upper Mancos is rich in Pierre 
fossils and the Mesaverde is 600 to 2,500 feet thick, the variation 
being due to erosion preceding deposition of newer formations. The 
upper part or undifferentiated Mesaverde, about 2,000 feet thick, is 
of fresh-water origin, mostly sandstone and contains little coal. It 
rests on the Paonia shale, closely allied to it lithologically, and about 
400 feet thick. This has plant remains, fresh-water mollusks and 
important coal beds. Underlying this and separated from it in a 
considerable area by an unconformity, are the Bowie shales, 0 to 425 
feet thick, with important coal seams and brackish-water as well as 
marine invertebrates. The basal deposit is the Rollins sandstone, 
usually about 100 feet thick, white, massive, with Halymenites major 
and marine invertebrates—evidently the basal white sandstone ob- 
served by Richardson in the Book Cliffs field. 

Lee recognized a distinct unconformity below the Paonia; ordi- 
narily, that formation rests on the Bowie, but for a considerable 
space in one portion of the region it overlies the Rollins. This leads 


71. W. T. Lee, Bull. 510, 1912, pp. 19, 37, 45, 81, 82, 86, 92, 95, 98, 106-100, 
182, 188, 


— 


2 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 95 


him to suspect that the unconformity may indicate a time interval 
and that possibly the Paonia and overlying rocks may not be older 
than Laramie.—The unconformity is distinct, for the Bowie de- 
creases from 425 feet on Grand River to nothing in the Rollins 
district ; and it seems to be suggested on Grand River by the irregular 
contact between Paonia and Bowie at Palisades. It may be in- 
judicious, it may savor of temerity for one who has not visited the 
localities to controvert the opinion of one who has examined the 
area in detail, especially when the latter is a model of accuracy in 
observation and caution in conclusion, but the writer feels compelled 
to believe another explanation not improbable. The vast area of 
Cretaceous deposition was subsiding until certainly toward the close 


of the Cretaceous as was the Appalachian Basin during Coal 


Measures time: but there were local crumplings as there were in the 
Appalachian. In the latter, these have left their records in deep 
stream valleys, filled with later deposits. Similar conditions have 
been observed in the British coal fields. It would be strange if evi- 
dences of local elevations or depressions were wanting in the vast 
subsiding Cretaceous region. The irregular contact on Grand River 
seems to indicate change in direction of drainage on the broad plain. 

A serious argument in favor of assigning Laramie age to the 


‘Paonia and overlying deposits is the presence of a flora, which is 


described as containing Montana Laramie and even Post-Laramie 
forms, the Montana forms being few. The origin of a flora is a 
perplexing problem, but there seems to be no reason to suppose that 
it sprang into existence full-formed and without local forerunners, 


probably at many places. But, be that as it may, the Bowie-and the 


Paonia appear to be continuous in the eastern part of the region 
described by Lee and no plane of separation has been determined. 
Farther north, just beyond the existing limits of the Uinta Basin, 
the Lewis shale has been recognized. It seems not unreasonable to 
suggest that in the southern part of this basin as in the southern part 
of the San Juan Basin, fresh-water sandstones may hold the place 
of the Lewis. The doubts must be dispelled by stratigraphy. The 
“ Fox Hills” and “ Laramie” of the earlier students have been placed 
in the Pierre, in spite of the remarkable resemblance to the later 


96 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


formations. If the deposits under consideration underlie the Lewis, 
they belong to the Pierre. 

The undifferentiated Mesaverde on the western border of Lee’s 
area consists chiefly of massive cliff-making sandstones, about 1,500 
feet thick, containing deciduous and conifer leaves as well as 
Spherium, Physa and Goniobasis. Within 22 miles eastward, of 
about 1,000 feet exposed, 700 feet are shales; it may be described 
as shale with thick partings of sandstone, while near Bowie in the 
Somerset district the shale feature becomes much more marked; 
but in Crested Butte district, the southeastern part of the basin, it 
consists of sandstones separated by layers of shale. ‘The coal seams 
throughout are thin. 

The Paonia shales, at several horizons, are rich in fossil leaves 
and fresh-water mollusks. ._The lowest coal seam, Cameo of 
Richardson, is at 4 to 10 feet above the great sandstone at top of 
the Bowie; in the western part of the area studied by Lee, this coal 
horizon seems to persist throughout the whole region. This coal is 
double at Rollins, 3 and 11 feet with parting of 2 feet. Thin seams 
are at 80,123 and 219 feet higher at Cameo on Grand River; but in 
the Rollins district 3 workable seams were seen in 108 feet above 
the base. Similar irregularity was observed in the easterly districts, 
_so that one must look upon the coal seams as lenses. The quality is 
as variable as the quantity of coal. In one mine on the lowest seam, 
irregular masses of white sandstone descend from the roof and 
occasionally extend across the bed. Cross-bedded sandstone was 
seen midway in the section at several localities. 

The Bowie shale, 420 feet thick on Grand River, has a sandstone, 
100 feet, on top, cross-bedded, with worm tubes and Halymenites. 
Only one coal seam is there, about 430 feet below the Cameo bed; 
this is unimportant and thins away toward the south. There is no 
Bowie in the Rollins district, but it reappears farther east in the 
Somerset district, where, near Bowie, it is 405 feet and has the 
great top sandstone. The coal seams are numerous and at least 7 of 
them are “relatively thick,” aggregating 38 to 43 feet in this district. 
The thickness of other seams has not been determined. The coals 
are exceedingly variable and they may be only extensive lenses ; 
but some of them attain notable thickness. The Juanita bed is 12 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 97 


_ Johnson prospect, on Minnesota creek, east from Paonia, 9 coal 
seams, 2 to 8 feet thick and with total thickness of 43 feet, were 
_ seen in the lower 300 feet of the Bowie. At the Simonton prospect, 
- about 4 miles toward the south, the exposure shows this section, 
___ beginning at 37 feet above the Rollins sandstone: coal, 2 feet, 10 
= inches; shale, 10 inches; coal, 1 foot, 2 inches; shale, 5 incheS'{ coal, 
‘13 feet, 1 inch; shale, 6 feet; coal, 16 feet; bony coal, 2 feet; coal, 
ee SF feet, 2 inches; in all 49 feet, 6 inches. 
The presence of this great mass is perplexing. One cannot trace 
___ the section from the Johnson prospect and Lee concludes that the 
i: _ Simonton seam is due to the coalescence of 7 seams of the Johnson 
section, or that it is a merely local deposit. The Bowie becomes 
irregular in districts farther east, sometimes present, sometimes 
; absent, and the coals are extremely variable in thickness and quality. 
a Lee’s notes show that mineral charcoal is present in most of the 
a coals. Toward the Elk Mountains, the region is greatly disturbed 
by plication and by eruptive rocks; the coal is from subbituminous 
to hard dry anthracite. The seams are thicker on anticlines than in 
synclines. In some localities, the stream channels, due to con- 
____ temporaneous erosion, have been filled with white sandstone. 
, On the northwestern side of the Uinta Basin, there is a mass of 
deposits, 0 to 3,300 feet thick, which Lupton” places in the Mesa- 
verde—the variation in thickness being due to erosion prior to dep- 
osition of the Wasatch beds. The lower half in this Blacktail 
_ Mountain coal field is marine, without coal and is mostly sandstone 
‘with sandy shale and some limestones. The upper half, apparently 
fresh-water, has coal with sandstones, thin-bedded and cross-bedded, 
as well as much sandy shale. This upper division has 21 coal seams 
in 1,300 feet, 7 inches to 15 feet thick. One seam has a maximum 
_ thickness of 21 feet with only a single parting, 2 inches. The coal 
2 _ is resinous at some places. 
in Gale™* has given some notes respecting the northern outcrop. 
__He reports the Lewis shale as about 1,000 feet thick and without 


* 72C. T. Lupton, Bull. 471-/, 1912, pp. 27, 32, 33, 39, 41- 
; 73 H. S. Gale, Bull. 341, 1909, pp. 287, 280, 290, 299; Bull. 316, 1907, p. 273. 


98 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


sandstone. The Mesaverde, 5,000 feet at the east, where erosion 
was less energetic, has three coal groups. The lowest is in the 
basal part of the formation and underlies a conspicuous white sand- 
stone, which contains marine fossils. Gale’s description suggests 
that this sandstone may be equivalent to the Rollins of Lee and that 
the lowest coal group may be in the Lower Pierre, included farther 
south in the Mancos shale. The coal seams are usually thin and 
where thick are worthless. The middle coal group, above the white 
sandstone, is unimportant west from the Utah line, but the seams 
become thicker toward the east, though they are irregular and at 
times are broken badly by partings of shale or bone. They become 
inwortant in the eastern part of the basin; at Newcastle, there are 
105 to 108 feet of coal in 7 seams, the thicknesses being 5, 8, 20, 5, 
45-48, 18 and 4 feet respectively. One seam at Newcastle has a 
parting of soft coal at 4 to 6 feet from the floor and is troubled by 
“sandstone dikes.” A seam at 40 miles south from Glenwood 
Springs has 7 to 10 feet of coking coal as the upper bench, but the 
lower bench is non-coking. The upper coal group is near the top of 
the Mesaverde; its coals are unimportant. 

The Green River Basin, north from the Uinta Mountains, is 
mostly in Wyoming but the southeastern prong extends into Colorado 
and an outlier remains in Utah at the west. 

The relations of the upper part of the long section in the Coal- 
ville coal field in Utah appear somewhat uncertain. The area was 
studied by Taff and later by Wegemann, the paleontological deter- 
minations being made by Stanton.* The boundaries of the several 
formations are still indefinite, but it is sufficiently clear that the 
region was near the source of sediment, for sandstone and sandy 
shale predominate in the upper 7,000 feet of the section. The upper 
2,500 feet, prevailingly sandy, has yielded leaves and fresh-water 
shells. The succeeding 1,650 feet contains marine shells and rests 
. on a white sandstone, 200 feet; below that is a coal seam. This, at 
4,450 feet below the top of the Cretaceous, is irregular in occur- 
rence as well as in its relations to the thick sandstones above and 
below it. It is double or triple at many localities, while at others 


74T, W. Stanton, Bull. 106, 1893; J. A. Taff, Bull. 285, 1906, pp. 285-288; 
C. H. Wegemann, Bull. 581-E, 1915, pp. 163, 182. 


‘ 


IA ee Pe ee ee of 


Ss hd 
ak 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 99 


it could not be found. At one locality, a seam belonging at or near 
to this Dry Hollow horizon underlies a bed of oyster shells, 20 feet 
is too variable, so that no mines of any importance were in opera- 
tion at the time of Wegemann’s examinations. 

No coal of. economic importance has been reported from the 
Pierre of Uinta County in Wyoming, but in southern Sweetwater 
County, where Gale*® recognized Lewis, Mesaverde and Mancos, he 
Saw in one exposure two seams, 8 and Io feet thick, separated by 
only 25 feet. The coal is not persistent and, within a short distance, 
it becomes black shale with coaly streaks. The lower seam is sepa- 
tated by one foot of bone from a thick white sandstone. Farther 
north in the same county is the Rock Springs coal field, intersected 
by the Union Pacific Railroad. There Schultz’* recognized the 
Lewis shale, without coal, and the Mesaverde, consisting very largely 
of sandstone with important coal seams. The “Laramie” of 
Schultz is not everywhere conformable to the underlying Pierre. 
The unconformity is especially marked on the south and west sides 
of the Rock Springs Dome, where the “‘ Laramie” rests on the Rock 
Springs coal group, a hiatus of fully 2,500 feet; but the succession 
is complete and conformable throughout on the west side of the 
Dome. Elsewhere there appears to be no unconformity. 

The important coal seams are in the Almond and Rock Springs 
groups, separated by 800 to 1,000 feet of mostly massive sandstone, 
more or less conglomerate in the upper third with pebbles of gray 
and black quartz. The Almond coal group, 700 to goo feet thick, 


a _ contains many seams of coal and of carbonaceous shale. The seams 
_ are variable, though less so than are those in the Rock Springs 


group, but the coal is comparatively :poor and no works were in 


operation at the time of Schultz’s examination. 


The coals of the lower or Rock Springs group are black, with 
distinct bedding planes and do not slack on exposure. The coal- 
bearing portion is about 1,275 feet with 37 seams containing in all 
somewhat more than 110 feet of coal. Five seams have been opened 


75H. S. Gale, Bull. 341, pp. 310-314. 
76 AR. Schultz, Bull. 341, pp. 256-382; Bull. 381, pp. 214-281. 


100 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


near Rock Springs, but most of the coal has been taken from 
numbers 1 and 7, at 481 and 743 feet from the top of the group. 

Number 1 has many “ rock-slips” or “horsebacks,” long, slim 
wedges of white sandstone, protruding usually from the floor. 
They are smooth on one side, rough on the other and the coal is 
unchanged even at the contact. The roof and floor are brownish to 
white sandstone. The coal, at times, is 10 feet thick, but changes 
are abrupt. Partings thicken and the coal becomes worthless. In 
one mine the coal is 11 feet thick and clean, but in another, ad- 
joining, the coal suddenly became worthless and, at a little distance 
beyond, it pinched out. Seam 3 shows similar complications. A 
band of shale appeared in one mine at 2 feet from the floor; within 
a short distance it thickened upward until the top bench became too 
thin for working; but within 200 feet the foreign matter almost 
disappeared and the upper bench was again more than 5 feet thick. 
Schultz’s description shows that here is a channel originating during 
growth of the swamp and filled up before the growth ceased, so that 
the swamp covered it. Seam 7 is less inconstant than the others 
but it is far from free from troubles. The roof and floor are 
shale, the former black. One important mine was abandoned be- 
cause the good coal was replaced with worthless stuff in an area of 
evidently great extent. The Rock Springs coal seams become unim- 
portant southwardly and none has been discovered in the extreme 
southern portion of the field. 

Tertiary deposits conceal the Cretaceous from the Rock Springs 
field to near Rawlins in Carbon County, where Smith” recognized 
the Lewis, Mesaverde and the shales of Lower Pierre. The Mesa- 
verde, consisting of sandstones, shales and coal seams, is still dis- 
tinct but is much thinner than in fields farther west. It consists of 
two massive sandstones separated by a mass of soft brown sand- 
stones and white to gray shale. The Almond and Rock Springs 
coal groups have become insignificant. The coal seams in this area 
are on top and at base of the upper sandstone and just above the 
lower sandstone: four or more seams were seen in the upper zone, 
few were observed in the middle and 4 to 6 in the lower zone. The 


77E, E. Smith, Bull. 341, pp. 220-242. 


—a 7 US ee.) 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 101 


coal throughout is inferior and the seams, for the most part, are too 


_ thin to be mined. 


Beyond Rawlins and still north from the Union Pacific Railroad, 
Veatch’* studied the coal field of east-central Carbon County, where 
the Pierre consists of Lewis, Mesaverde and Lower Pierre, with a 


total thickness of almost 8,000 feet, not far from that given by 


Smith; but in both districts the thickness decreases greatly toward 


the north. According to Veatch, some important coal seams are 


present in the lower part of the Lewis, evidently those belonging to 
the highest zone of Smith. Seams in the middle zone of the Mesa- 
verde occasionally become thick enough for mining, but they are 
irregular and not persistent. The southern part of Carbon County, 
where the subdivisions of the Pierre are as in the northern part of 
the county, was studied by Ball and Stebinger.*® The thickness of 
Lewis and Mesaverde decreases eastwardly, becoming 1,600 and 
2,000 feet. The Lewis has no coal. The Mesaverde still has the 
two limiting sandstones with the middle shale and sandstone mem- 
ber. The basal sandstone is white gray and brown, cross-bedded 
and, in the eastern part of the district, contains a limestone, 25 feet 
thick. The top sandstone is less distinctly cross-bedded and the 
layers are thinner. No workable coal seams were seen in the sand- 
stone members, at the north, but the number and thickness of those 
in the upper sandstone increase toward the south. Some important 
seams are in the middle member near Rawlins, but they disappear 
toward the northeast. The coal is hard and bituminous. The sand- 
stones of this member are irregular and the coal seams appear to be 


overlapping lenses. 


The Yampa coal field, in Routt County of Colorado, is the ex- 
treme southeast part of the basin. One can recognize in the sec- 
tion by Fennemann and Gale,®° Lewis, Mesaverde and the lower 
shales, Mesaverde being Middle Pierre; the relations are more 
allied to those of the western than to those of the northern part of 
the basin. There are three coal groups, which in some portions of 
the field are in a vertical space of 2,000 feet, the lowest being about 

78 A. C. Veatch, Bull. 316, 1907, pp. 244-366. 

79M. W. Ball and E. Stebinger, Bull. 341, pp. 243-355; Bull. 381, pp. 
186-213. 

80 N. M. Fenneman and H. S. Gale, Bull. 285, 1906, pp. 226-230. 

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, H, MAY 23, 1917. 


102 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


1,200 feet from the base. Each coal group has 2 to 3 workable 
coal seams, but the number and thickness of the seams vary from 
place to place. At the time when this field was examined, the popu- 
lation was sparse and none but insignificant mines had been opened. 
In the eastern part, coal seams, 4 to 10 feet thick, were exposed 
in both the middle and the lower group; but the upper group is ill- 
exposed. Farther west, seams of greater thickness were seen, one 
near Lay being 20 feet, with a parting of 15 inches midway. There, 
the three coal groups are in a vertical space of not more than 800 
feet. Many seams have shale roof and floor and one is clearly be- 
tween sandstones. A faux-toit was seen in many openings and 
either bone or dirty coal is the usual parting. A faux-mur is re- 
corded in but one instance. 

The irregularity in thickness of the Mesaverde in the Yampa 
field may be due to the eastward disappearance of shore conditions. 
At 25 miles east from the boundary of the Yampa field, Beekly’s** 
sections on the west side of North Park show no evidence of Mesa- 
verde, while at 25 miles farther east in the same Park, the Pierre 
is represented by about 4,500 feet of shale, wholly like that beyond 
the Front Ranges in Colorado and New Mexico. It is sandy on 
top and passes into a marine sandstone, shown on east side of the 
Park—apparently the Fox Hills. Some thin sandstones were seen 
in the lower part of the formation but no trace of coal is reported by 
' Beekly. 

Northward in Wyoming and east from the Medicine Bow Moun- 
tains about 60 miles east of north from the exposures in North 
Park, the section by C. E. Siebenthal, cited by Darton,’* shows 
about 5,500 feet of Montana rocks, divided at about 1,300 feet from 
the top by the Pine Ridge sandstone, 60 to 80 feet thick. The mass is 
practically shale throughout, there being in all only 127 feet of sand- 
stone in the upper 1,332 feet and 35 feet in the underlying 4,150 
feet. The formation contains marine fossils at many horizons, the 
highest being within 140 feet from the top. It is difficult to deter- 
mine a positive plane of separation between Pierre and Fox Hills 
in this region so that authors frequently employ “ Montana” or 


81 A. L. Beekly, Bull. 596, 1915, pp. 20, 43, 45. 
82 N. H. Darton, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 19, 1908, 459, 460. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 103 


7 “ Pierre-Fox Hills” to designate the whole mass. Just above the 
= one persistent sandstone,-Pine Ridge of Siebenthal, is a coal bed and 
ers unimportan nt, are in the succeeding 560 feet of black shale; 
but in the overlying beds no coal was found. It may be that the 
upper part of the section, including the Pine Ridge sandstone, is 
: equivalent to Mesaverde, Lewis and Fox Hills, the coal being in the 
- Mesaverde. 
_ Farther west in Fremont County, north from Sweetwater, the 
lower shales are 2,250 to 3,000 feet, increasing eastwardly, while 
the upper division, of which erosion has spared 550 feet, has at base 
a sandstone, 200 to 250 feet thick. Overlying this is a bed of car- 
_ bonaceous shale, which occasionally contains a seam of coal. Here 
4 the Mesaverde conditions are distinct for the overlying mass con- 
_ sists of “sandstones, with intercalated gray shales, sandy shales and 
coal beds.” The lowest coal is 8 feet thick at 10 miles east from 
Lander. 
' The Pierre is without coal** in the Black Hills and is wholly 
shale. The Sussex field at 100 miles southwest from the Black 
Hills has, according to Wegemann, 4,650 feet of Montana rocks, of 
__ which he refers the upper 700 feet to the Fox Hills. The Pierre 
a has a sandstone, 175 feet thick, at about 1,000 feet from the base 
_ and, at 2,300 feet, another sandstone, the Parkman of Darton’s Big- 
4 horn section, 350 feet. This sandstone contains masses of petri- 
_ fied wood with shells of turtles and bones of Trachodon. In the 
_shaly portions near the base, it has thin seams of low-grade bitumi- 
nous coal, high in ash. Thin seams are associated in the southern 
of the field with another sandstone, about 300 feet above the 
Parkman. The Pierre rocks are predominatingly shale. The fauna 
eo the Parkman sandstone, according to T. W. Stanton, is similar to 
_ that of the Mesaverde in Colorado and of the Claggett in Montana. 
_ The Bighorn Basin of north central Wyoming lies west from 
e¢ Bighorn Mountains, occupying parts of several counties and ex- 
_ tending into Montana. It was examined by Washburne and Wood- 
tuff and in part by Darton.** The indefinite relations of the upper 
88 N. H. Darton, Folios 127, 128, 1905. 
84N. H. Darton, Prof. Paper 51, 1906, pp. 13, 58, 50; E. G. Woodruff, 


a 341, pp. 204, 208-210, 215; Bull. 381, pp. 173-175, 178; C. W. Washburne, 
«Bull 341, pp. 168, 172-179, 187, 195. 


a 
"a 
a: 
c 


104 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


part of the column near Bighorn Mountains are shown by the fact 
that Darton embraces the whole above his Parkman sandstone in a 
single formation, the Piney. Woodruff in the southeastern part 
of the basin found indefiniteness throughout, but the succession is 
suggestive of the section as recognized in Montana and northward, 
there being at base shales with Pierre fossils succeeded by two sand- 
stone and shale members which he referred provisionally to the 
Eagle sandstone and Claggett shale of Montana, while he terms the 
higher beds merely Undifferentiated Montana. All become more 
shaly toward the east. Coal seams were seen in the upper division, 
but they are lenticular and unimportant: the quantity decreases to- 
ward the north. In the western portion, Woodruff recognized the 
Eagle sandstone of the Montana section, but none of the higher 
divisions could be identified. Coal seams in the Eagle are lenticular, 
but occasionally they are important. One near Gebo is 11 feet 
thick; in Grass Valley, a seam, 7 to 8 feet, is mined, but within a 
fourth of a mile toward the west it is too thin to be worked, while, 
at an equal distance toward the south, it becomes much thinner and 
so broken by partings as to be worthless. Similar variations in the 
Eagle coals were observed elsewhere within this portion of the field. 
Farther south in the Buffalo Basin no coal has been found in the 
Eagle. The Undifferentiated Montana has some coal seams but 
they are wholly unimportant. 

In the northeastern part of the basin, extending into Montana, 
Washburne was able to recognize all members of the Pierre as they 
had been determined in Montana—Bearpaw shale, Judith River For- 
mation, Claggett shale, Eagle River sandstone, the last resting on 
Colorado shale. The Bearpaw, evidently the Lewis of localities 
farther south, is marine, 150 feet thick and without coal; the Judith 
River variegated clays and sandstone, 300 to 400 feet, has abundance 
of leaves and bones but seems to be without coal; the Claggett, 400 
to 500 feet, consists of massive gray to yellow sandstone with inter- 
bedded shales and has marine fossils in many portions; the Eagle, 
150 to 225 feet, has two or three massive sandstones. The upper 
part of the Colorado shale, for 1,000 feet, is without fossils, but it 
differs lithologically from the shales below and it may be taken as, 
at least in part, representing the lower shales of the Pierre as in the 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 105 * 


i _ southern portion of the Bighorn Basin. Coal is present in the Clag- 
_ _ gett andthe Eagle. The Claggett seams are very thin, nowhere ex- 
___ ceeding 21 inches, and in all cases the coal is so dirty as to be worth- 
_ less. The Eagle seams are of capricious distribution. There are 
_ workable beds in the southeastern corner of the basin, but they dis- 
: oer northwardly before Bighorn County is reached and are re- 
a with yellow sandy shales. Black shales appear north from 
_ the city of Basin and these rear Garland contain very thin seams of 
coal. Elsewhere in that neighborhood, these coal horizons are 
e. marked only by black shale with coaly streaks. An anticline near 
, __ Silvertop, close to the Wyoming-Montana line, brings up the Eagle. 
a There is but one workable seam in that formation on the Wyoming 
_ side, but there are two beyond the line in Montana. The Bridger 
A coal field is west from the anticline and extends along the Chicago, 
Burlington and Quincy railroad to beyond Bridger in Montana. 
* _ Some important coal deposits are in the Montana portion, but none 
in Wyoming, and all trace of coal disappears at a short distance 
west from the railroad. The Eagle coals are all well-jointed and 
show no woody structure. They illustrate well the irregularity of 
pral deposits in an extended area. 
a _ The eastern part of Montana is a rolling plain, the mountains of. 
___ Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico having become insignificant, 
as the disturbed area is confined to the western border; but moun- 
_ tain-making was energetic there, west from the 109th meridian, and 
_ the whole section of Cretaceous is shown at many localities. In this 
disturbed area, one is west from the Bighorn Basin, as well as the 
western boundary of Colorado and New Mexico, so that conditions 
_ should bear resemblance to those observed in Arizona, Utah and 
western Wyoming. 
The most southerly coal field is that near Electric, in Park 
County, about 100 miles west from Bridger. There as well as in 
some petty areas at the north, Calvert** was unable to recognize the 
subdivisions of the Pierre and grouped the section, about 1,000 feet, 
as Montana. The upper portion, about 330 feet, consists of sand- 
stone and shales with some carbonaceous shale but no coal; the 
middle portion, about 230 feet, is largely sandstone and sandy shale 


85 W. R. Calvert, Bull. 471-E, 1912, pp. 28-66. 


. 


a. 


ios 


106 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


with several beds of dark shale and some seams of coal; the lower 
portion, about 370 feet, and without coal, is sandstone except 78 feet 
of sandy shale at the top. Four coal seams were seen in one sec- 
tion, three of them thick enough to be mined; but the coal is very 
dirty ; that from the best contains 20 to 24 per cent. of ash and the 
washed coal, utilized in making coke, retains 21.71 per cent. This 
Montana of Calvert rests on a mass of shale and sandstone con- 
taining Colorado fossils throughout; which makes probable that 
basal member of the section may be equivalent to the shales of the 
Lower Pierre and that the coal-bearing member may be at the Eagle 
or Mesaverde horizon, there being Mesaverde fossils throughout. 
The “ Montana” beds underlie conformably the Livingston forma- 
tion, a mass of andesitic material. Calvert found similar conditions 
in the Livingston coal field farther north in the same county, except 
that his Montana beds are thinner. There are not less than 3 seams 
of coal, 2 to 20 feet thick ; but they vary rather abruptly in thickness 
and the coal is of uncertain quality. Two samples from one mine 
gave 8.77 and 17.5 per cent. of ash; analyses of samples from other 
mines yielded 8.44, 10.92, 10.99, 14.9, 27.53 and 31.51 per cent. in 
air-dried coal. Cross-bedded sandstones were noted by Calvert in 
both fields. 

Newberry*® noticed that coal near Bozeman, in the Livingston 
field, contains a large quantity of yellow, translucent, almost amber- 
like resin, Weed*? examined the same fields at an earlier date and 
called especial attention to the uneven floor of the coal seams. This 
as well as the occasional disappearance of the coal led him to believe 
that the coal seams had been formed in depressions of the surface. 
He found Unio in beds associated with the coal seams of the Electric 
coal field. 

In Meagher County, north from Park, Stone recognized. the 
four formations. The Bearpaw shale, marine throughout, has no 
coal; the Judith River, brackish and fresh water, has some lenses 
of coal, usually very thin and of short lateral extent ; when of work- 
able thickness, their coal is apt to be dirty. The Claggett, marine 
and brackish, appears to be without coal. The Eagle has coal, but 


86 J. S. Newberry, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. 3, 1884, p. 245. 
87 W. H. Weed, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 2, 1891, pp. 349-364. 


me STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 107 


it is uncertain both as to quantity and quality ; when a seam becomes 
thick it has much foreign matter and is in great part worthless. 
Stone could not determine whether or not the Eagle coals are 
lenses; -but the quality is inferior with from 17 to 37 percent. of 
ash. Here, as in districts farther south, the rocks are mostly sand- 
_ stone and sandy shale. 
. The Lewistown coal field in Fergus County is about 60 miles 
north-northeast from the Meagher area and its western limit is near 
the 110th meridian. Calvert** found no rocks newer than the Clag- 
gett, which like the underlying Eagle, consists of sandstone and 
sandy shale; cross-bedded sandstones are characteristic. The only 
coal seam is in the Eagle, at 10 feet from the base. It is merely 
a coaly layer. Bowen*® examined the Cleveland field, about 80 
t miles east of north, and the Big Sandy field at an equal distance 
west of north from Lewistown. In both fields the Judith River 

_ and the Eagle are characterized by irregularity of the deposits and 
__ the sandstones are often cross-bedded, occasionally ripple-marked. 
=. The Eagle becomes shaly in the eastern field. Thin seams of im- 
__ pure coal were seen in the Judith River within both fields; the 
Eagle has similar streaks in the southern part of Big Sandy but no 
coal was seen in the northern part of that field nor in the Cleveland 
field. The Eagle coal is usually bony. 

The Milk River coal field is north from the Cleveland and ex- 
tends to the Saskatchewan line. Pepperberg®® states that the Judith 
_ River coals, all near top of the formation, are lenses, which become 
_ thinner and poorer toward the east. The variation in thickness is 
- abrupt; a lens, 9 feet thick, decreased to a fraction of an inch 
within a short distance along the outcrop. The quantity of bone 
$ a serious drawback in many mines, so that the product is inferior, 
‘because of high ash. The coal is subbituminous and contains min- 
eral charcoal as well as resins. All deposits in the Judith River 
are lenticular and the sandstones are locally cross-bedded. Some 
_ streaks of coal were seen in the upper part of the Eagle, but they 
are insignificant. The sandstones of both formations have be- 
~ come much less prominent. 


88 W. R. Calvert, Bull. 341, p. 110; Bull. 390, pp. 32, 34. 
89 C. F. Bowen, Bull. 541-H, 1914, pp. 45-47, 60-65, 77-80. 
90L. J. Pepperberg, Bull. 381, pp. 85, 86, 94. 


108 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


Teton County is very near the western boundary of Cretaceous 
deposition in Montana. It reaches the border of Alberta and the 
coal-bearing area is between meridians 112° 30’ and 113°. Steb- 
inger’s®! report on this area and his general discussion of the Mon- 
tana Cretaceous have done much to solve serious problems in cor- 
relation. The succession in the Teton coal field is St. Mary River 
formation, correlated with the Laramie; Horsethief sandstone, 225 
to 275 feet, which Stebinger has shown to be same as the Lennep 
sandstone and the Fox Hills; Bearpaw shale, with characteristic 
features of the formation, 490 feet ; Two-Medicine formation, 1,950 
feet, gray to greenish gray and whitish clay shales, with some sand- 
stones, which are important in the basal 250 feet; Judith River 
leaves, mollusks and bones of reptiles are present; it is apparently 
continental in origin, there being evidence of only one marine inva- 
sion, and that is at about 200 feet from the base. The formation 
includes Judith River, Claggett and the upper or coal-bearing por- 
tion of the Eagle. The marine deposit near the base contains the 
Claggett-Fox Hills fauna, indicating deposition in a retreating sea. 
Within the disturbed region on the western side of the county, one - 
finds it difficult to distinguish this formation from the St. Mary; 
the conditions during deposition must have been very similar in 
both. Virgelle sandstone, 220 feet, the basal sandstone of the 
Eagle, is gray to buff, coarse, cross-bedded sandstone, becoming 
slabby to shaly in the lower half. 

Two-Medicine and Virgelle, traced northward into Alberta, prove 
to be the Belly River formation, described by G. M. Dawson. The 
Two-Medicine is characterized by extreme irregularity of the beds; 
sections only a few hundred feet apart are wholly dissimilar. Fos- 
sil wood is distributed throughout the formation, knots and entire 
sections of compressed trunks of trees are of common occurrence. 
The continental deposits, except the Fox Hills, become thinner to- 
ward the east, so that in the Black Hills of northeastern Wyoming 
the Pierre is represented only by marine shales. 

No coal aside from petty lenses was seen in the Virgelle; the 
Two-Medicine has three coal zones, one at the base, another at 250 


91 E,. Stebinger, Bull. 621-K, 1916, pp. 126, 127, 131, 140, 144; Prof. Paper 
90-G, 1914, pp. 61-68. ; 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 109 


feet higher and a third at the top, but coaly material is present in 
_ other portions as carbonaceous shale. The highest coal is found in 
" 3 the northern part of the county, but it disappears south from Valier, 
about 50 miles from the International Boundary and no trace of it 
a has been found farther south in a distance of not less than 50 miles. 
It is thin in Teton County but increases toward the north beyond 
_ the boundary and is 6 feet thick at Lethbridge, where the coal is 

good. The seams of the middle zone are thin and yield only im- 

pure coal, while the lower zone has two seams which are persistent 
_ in the Valier district on the easterly side of the county. The upper 
_ one is 2 feet 6 inches, with 2 feet of coal, while the lower one, with 
-_ extreme thickness of 5 feet 8 inches, contains only 8 inches of clean 
coal. These seams vary much in thickness, but the upper one is 
mined. Samples of clean coal gave 14.07, 13.9, 14.5 and 28.6 per 
cent. of ash. 

Dowling,® in his synopsis of conditions in the western states of 
Canada, says that the depressions, in which Mesozoic rocks were 
deposited, appeared in the Rocky Mountain area, where Triassic 
and Jurassic beds are found. The Jurassic sea invaded a narrow 
depression, now elevated as. the Rocky Mountains and the Foothills. 
Land conditions prevailed during part of the Lower Cretaceous, 
____ but occasional submergences extended to a short distance toward 
- _ the east, whereas in the United States they extended as far east as 
the Black Hills of Wyoming. More general submergence east- 
__wardly came in the Upper Cretaceous, while on the western side 
there is evidence of shallowing during the earlier periods. Marked 
a ie __ proof of shallowing on that side is evident during the Montana, for 
2 ~ land conditions are shown by the coal seams and by the type of 
a _ sediments, but marine conditions prevailed at the east. Submerg- 
_ ence followed and the sands at the west were covered with marine 
_ shale. The closing part of Cretaceous time was characterized by 
emergence, with brief periods of submergence, as shown by land 
and shallow water conditions, giving an abundant flora and a 
a : brackish-water fauna: this closing stage is the Edmonton-St. Mary 
formation. The vast accumulations unsettled the equilibrium of 
the area whence they had been derived and, toward the close of the 


82D. B. Dowling, Geol. Survey of Canada, Mem. 53, 1914, PP. 32, 33- 


- 110 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


Eocene, crustal movements followed, which formed the Rocky 
Mountains. But the energy was expended in a narrow area so 
that at the east, even in the Foothills, one finds nothing exposed 
below the Middle Cretaceous. 

The conditions noted by Dowling are very distinct in southern 
Alberta. McEvoy, in the mountain portion of the Crowsnest coal 
field, found the Upper ‘Cretaceous merely a mass of sandstone and 
conglomerate, 7,000 to 8,000 feet thick and without coal. In another 
part of the Rocky Mountain area, near the International Boundary, 
McConnell saw no coal in the upper part of the section, which con- 
tains great beds of conglomerate, some of them 150 feet thick. It 
seems to be impossible to differentiate the formations in this area; 
but McLearn, at a short distance eastward in the Foothills, recog- 
nized the Bearpaw and the Belly River, the latter being the equiva- 
lent of Judith River, Claggett and Eagle.®*' The sea-invasion during 
Claggett did not reach much of southern Alberta and did not extend 
so far westward as did that during the Bearpaw. No coal was seen 
in the basal sandstone of the Belly River formation, but 4 thin seams 
were seen in the overlying 50 feet of clay and shale. The higher 
deposits are sandstones and shales, alternations of “sand bottoms 
and clay bottoms ” with Unio and gastropods in the sands and gastro- 
pods in the clays. The faunules are fresh-water. Mackenzie 
saw no coal in the Allison (Belly River) formation on Oldman 
River, where it is 2,000 feet thick and consists chiefly of sandstones, 
massive to shaly and often cross-bedded. 

Dawson® examined an extensive area within southeastern 
Alberta, mainly along the Bow and Belly Rivers, but reaching into 
the Milk River region near the International Boundary. He offered 
tentative names for the formations. The Pierre shales, 750 feet 
thick, contain intercalated beds of sandstone, which increase toward 
the mountains. A coal zone was seen at the top on Bow River and 
another at the base on Belly River; the latter was seen also at several 

93 J. McEvoy, Ann. Reps. Geol. Survey Canada, Vol. XIII., 1900, Part A, 
pp. 84-88; R. G. McConnell, the same, 1886, Part D, pp. 16,17; F. H. McLearn, 
Summary Report, 1914, pp. 62, 63. 

94]. D. Mackenzie, Summary Report for 1912, pp. 235-246. 


5G. M. Dawson, Geol. Survey of Canada, Reps. Prog. for 1882-83-84, 
Part C, pp. 36, 52, 62, 60, 71. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 111 


_ places on St. Mary River. At the mouth of the latter river, in a 
section by R. G. McConnell the lower zone has 3 coal seams in a 
vertical distance of 132 feet, the thickest being from 3 feet to 3 feet 
_ Ginches. This zone is persistent and its coal is mined on Belly River. 
_ The Belly River formation has few thick coal seams; its sandstones 
are gray to yellow, hard and the surfaces often show ripple marks 
_ and worm trails. In one case, the ripples indicate movement toward 
_$. 36° W. The “Lower Dark Shales” of Dawson were seen on 
Rocky Ridge in the Milk River region. Dowling®® has shown that 
| the Pierre shale is the Bearpaw, the Belly River of southeastern 
_ Alberta is the Judith River and the lower dark shales of Rocky 
_ Ridge are the Claggett. Evidently he places the coal of Dawson’s 
_ Pierre in the upper or fresh-water part of the Belly River. The 
area within Alberta, in which the Belly River with its important 
coal seams is exposed, is not less than 24,000 square miles ; its pres- 
ence has been proved by borings in a great area, where it is deeply 
buried under later formations. In a report on the Sheep River Oil 
and Gas field, Dowling has emphasized the increasing thickness of 
Bearpaw toward the east; in the Foothills, it is 650 feet, on Red 
Deer River, east from Calgary, 750, on the Cypress Hills, 900 and 
on Sheep River, about 1,200 feet. 

The coal seams of the Pierre formations become unimportant 
north from the latitude of Edmonton. They are few and thin, some- 
___ times wholly wanting, as appears from observations by G. M. Daw- 
" _ son,*? Dowling, Tyrrell and McConnell. Dawson found no seam 
___ thicker than 6 inches on Pine River. The associated rocks are sand- 
stone and sandy shale, the former cross-bedded and ripple-marked. 
On Smoky River he saw a soft massive sandstone, with abundant 
fragments of plants, which in one place are “ distinctly representing 
the base and roots of a tree, and evidencing a terrestrial surface. 
_ Overlying this is a thin carbonaceous film which, at a short distance 
_ up the river, becomes a seam of lignitic coal, two and a half inches 
| = in thickness.” The Dunvegan sandstone of Peace River, regarded 

a as the Belly River formation, has no coal.** It disappears toward 
_ the east and is not present on Athabasca River. 


oe 


eee Be ne eee Pate Me 


6D. B. Dowling, Mem. 53, 1914, pp. 28-31, 51, 53- 
97 G. M. Dawson, Rep. for 1879-80, Part B, pp. 117, 118. 
98R. G. McConnell, Reps., Vol. VI-D, 1893, p. 53. 


112 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


The Colorado Group. 


The Niobrara and Benton are sufficiently distinct in the region 
of the Front Ranges and eastward as far north as Wyoming. The 
Niobrara consists of black shales and limestones weathering to chalky 
whiteness ; while Benton is mostly shale, but with bands of sand- 
stone and more or less persistent limestones. Farther west, how- 
ever, the deposits answering to the Niobrara-Benton time interval 
lose the limestones and the mass becomes practically continuous as 
shale, though varying much at different horizons. The term Colo- 
rado Shales finds application in those areas, where Niobrara cannot 
be recognized and where Benton conditions, as shown at some places 
by the continuing fauna, remained comparatively unchanged. The 
term Mancos was introduced in southwestern Colorado, to designate 
the shale mass between the Mesaverde (Middle Pierre) and the 
Dakota. It is a lithological term for use in the field and includes 
Lower Pierre as well as Niobrara and Benton. 

The Colorado interval is represented by marine deposits in by 
far the greater part of the Cretaceous area, but in New Mexico the 
isolated coal fields give abundant evidence that the mainland was 
not far distant, as coarse deposits make their appearance, while 
farther west in the same state as well as in Arizona and Utah one 
finds conditions such as characterized the Middle Pierre, marking 
the strife between land and sea, sandstones and coal beds being the 
especial features. 

The relations of deposits in the southernmost fields of New 
Mexico are somewhat obscure, the areas being very small and 
isolated. But there is little room for doubt farther north in the 
Cerillos and other fields southeast from the San Juan Basin. Lee”? 
obtained a detailed section of the Mancos in the Cerillos field. The 
upper portion is distinctly Pierre and the lower portion, about 2,200 
feet, is certainly Colorado in the lower 1,200 feet. One finds here 
the several subdivisions of the Benton, as recognized east from the 
Front Ranges, but the limestones of the Niobrara interval have dis- 
appeared. A sandstone, Tres Hermanos of Herrick and Johnson,?”° 

99W. T. Lee, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 23, 1912, pp. 623, 631, 658, 


651-654. 
100 C, L. Herrick and D. W. Johnson, Bull. Univ. New Me-., Vol. IL., p. 13. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 113 


20 feet thick and about 82 feet from the base, is hard, quartzose, 


cross-bedded and in thin irregular layers, which have rippled surfaces 
with worm-—borings and indefinite markings. Of especial interest 


are impressions very similar to Halymenites major, associated with 


an offshore fauna, At the base of the Benton are conglomerate, 5 
feet and carbonaceous shale, 5 feet, with a few inches of coal at the 
top. 

__. The Tres Hermanos sandstone is 90 feet above the base and only 
_ 5 feet thick in the Hagan field, west from Cerillos ; though so much 
thinner, it has the same features. The thin coal bed and its over- 
lying conglomerate, seen in Cerillos, appear to be wanting. A 
Benton fauna is present in the lower 670 feet of the section. Con- 
ditions are practically the same in the Tijeras field. In the Puerco 
field no coal was seen at base of the Benton, but a conglomerate, 5 
feet thick, with pebbles of quartz and chert, recalls that overlying 
the coal in Cerillos. 

In the southwest corner of the San Juan Basin, as Gilbert? has 
shown, the Colorado is represented by mostly sandstones for 180 
feet at the base, containing 3 coal seams about midway, while above 
are 380 feet of carbonaceous and clay shale underlying sandstones 
and sandy shales. The whole thickness is not far from 850 feet. 
The coals are not persistent and they were seen in only one section. 
Elsewhere they are replaced with carbonaceous shale. Winchester*®? 
says that in the Zuni Mountain region, a few miles south from the 
locality of Gilbert’s section, the Mancos is 60 per cent. sandstone. 
This sandstone decreases northwardly as do also the coal seams, 
_ which disappear in the northern part of the area examined by him. 

The Mancos shale is thin in the main portion of the San Juan 
Basin, the whole thickness, according to Gardner,’** being not more 
than 800 feet. Coal seams occur in the upper 500 feet, where the 
rocks are sandy; there are no coals in the lower part, where clayey 
beds prevail. The coal seams are usually thin, though occasionally 
reaching 3 feet, are double or triple and often contain much bone. 

One seam at times becomes workable, with 3 to 5 feet of sub- 
101 G. K. Gilbert, U. S. Geog. Explorations, etc., Vol. III., 1875, pp. 550, 551. 


102 —D, E. Winchester, Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. IV., 1914, p. 300. 
103 J. H. Gardner, Bull. 341, pp. 366, 360, 373, 375; Bull. No. 381, p. 462. 


114 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


bituminous coal which contains much resin. Eastwardly along this 
southern border no workable seams occur, while farther north along 
the eastern outcrop only traces of coal were seen. The sandstone 
decreases in that direction. Lee appears to have found no coal in 
the Colorado beds along the northeastern border of the basin, but he 
was able to recognize the Tres Hermanos sandstone. 

In Arizona the near approach to the source of sediments is mani- 
fest. The most southerly fragment of Cretaceous is the Deer Creek 
coal field,*°* about 150 miles southwest from the southern termina- 
tion of the San Juan Basin, near the junction of the Gila and San 
Pedro Rivers. In the lower or southern part of the field, according 
to Campbell, 400 to 500 feet of coarse greenish gray sandstone with 
some shale rest on the Carboniferous limestone. The fossils are 
imperfect and suffice only to prove Cretaceous age. Three coal 
seams, much broken and thin, were found in a shaft within the 
basal 60 feet. The coal is poor; the best has 34.78 per cent. of ash. 
The Pinedale coal field is about 100 miles north from the Deer 
Creek area. There Veatch*® found about 500 feet of deposits con- 
taining Benton fossils as determined by T. W. Stanton. The two 
coal seams are near the base, 10 to 15 feet apart, and are only 25 
feet above rocks of Pennsylvanian or Permian age. The seams are 
12 and 3 feet thick, but coal from the upper one is very bad, having 
54 per cent. of ash. The lower one has some good coal with only 
10 per cent. A much more extensive field is that of the Black 
Mesa? in the northeastern corner of the state. The Cretaceous is 
about 700 feet thick and coal seams were found near the base as 
well as above the middle. The lower group is within the basal 55 
feet and its seams are 7 and 15 feet thick. The upper bed yields a 
fairly good coal, bituminous and with about 14 per cent. of ash. 
The lower seam is a worthless mass of shale and coal. The higher 
beds show numerous seams 2 to 12 feet thick; the coal is evidently 
inferior, but in default of better material it is used as fuel. 

Benton deposits are present in isolated areas within Utah as far 
west as the 113th meridian along the Arizona border. Almost 45 

104 M, R. Campbell, Bull. 225, 1904, pp. 241-258. 


105 A, C. Veatch, Bull. 431, 1911, pp. 239-241. 
106 M. R. Campbell and H. E. Gregory, Bull. 431, pp. 229-238. 


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STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 115 


years ago, Gilbert discovered in Washington County a mass of shale 
about 635 feet thick, including at base a coal group, somewhat more 


than 130 feet thick, with 5 seams, 4 inches to 4 feet thick. Howell, 
in Park County, next east, found two coal groups, separated by 


500 feet of barren measures, containing Benton fossils. The lower 
coal group is capped by an oyster bed 1 to 5 feet thick. Thirty- 
five years later, Richardson examined some small fields in Washing- 
ton, Kane and Iron Counties." The coal seams are from 50 to 500 
feet above the assumed base of the Cretaceous and they are lenses. 
Ordinarily only one workable bed appears in a section but in some 
cases there are as many as six. In the Harmony field, only 600 
feet of Cretaceous remain, containing 6 seams of coal and shale, 7, 
I1, 6, 11, 17 and 6 feet respectively, with 4, 5, 4, 7 and 4 feet of 
coal. At best this coal is very poor, two air-dried samples having 
22.89 and 33.96 per cent. of ash. The seams are similarly lenticular 
in the Colob field. In this field on the North Fork of Virgin River, 
Richardson saw, at about 100 feet above the basal conglomerate, a 
coal seam with this structure: carbonaceous shale with fossils; 
bituminous coal, 2 feet 5 inches; cannel, 5 feet 6 inches. This seam 
disappeared quickly toward the north, east and southeast; but a 
similar seam was found at 10 or 12 miles toward the southeast. The 
cannel at these localities is brownish black with dull greasy luster. 
The violatile is very high and the hydrogen in dried coal is prac- 
tically twice as much as that in the ordinary coals. D. White ex- 
amined it under the microscope. and ascertained that its structure 
and composition are essentially those of high-grade cannel. The 
Colob coals are better than those of the Harmony field and have 
from 10 to 15 per cent. of ash. They vary from low grade bitumi- 
nous to subbituminous. In many cases a coal seam overlies or 
underlies fossiliferous limestone. 

Lee examined a small field in Iron County, north from Washing- 
ton, where he measured a section of 1,200 feet in which sandstone 
predominates. The coal seams are in a group of shales and thin 
limestones, about 150 feet thick, beginning at nearly 800 feet from 
the basal conglomerate. The fossils are of Benton age. One coal 


107 G, K. Gilbert, U. S. Geog. Explor., etc., Vol. III., pp. 158, 159; E. E. 
Howell, the same, p. 271; G. B. Richardson, Bull. 341, pp. 379-400. 


116 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


bed is divided by bands of limestone containing brackish-water 
mollusks. Another has marine limestone roof and floor, with marine 
fossils, but one of its partings has Physa, Planorbis and other fresh- 
water forms, related to those of ponds and streams. Several of the 
sandstones are cross-bedded.?* 

Lupton examined the Emory coal field in in the southern part of 
Castle Valley, about 40 miles northwest from the Henry Mountains, 
which had been studied by Gilbert.1°° At approximately 600 feet 
from the base is the Ferron sandstone, regarded by Lupton as equiva- 
lent to Gilbert’s Blue Gate sandstone. It is 800 feet thick at the 
southwest but becomes thinner toward the northeast until at north 
end of the valley it is but 75 feet. This sandstone holds all the 
Benton coal seams, but these are confined to the southern part of 
the valley, disappearing toward the north as the sandstone de- 
creases in thickness. Local unconformities which one must accept 
as evidence of contemporaneous erosion, occur within this sand- 
stone. The coal-bearing area is a narrow strip about 33 miles long. 
Fourteen coal horizons were recognized but the deposits are lentic- 
ular and correlations are uncertain. The variations are abrupt; in 
one case, from one to 20 feet within a very short distance. Many 
of the seams are injured seriously by partings. The coal is low 
grade bituminous of very fair quality, with color and streak black, 
and contains resin. In portions it is thinly laminated, but at times 
the dull layers are several inches thick and resemble cannel. 

The most easterly locality in the southern part of the Uinta 
Basin,’?° at which the Benton coals have been recognized, seems to 
be that on the Gunnison River about 60 miles east from the Utah- 
Colorado line. There Lee found at base of the Benton a succession 
of sandstone and shale with maximum thickness of about 80 feet. 
The lenses of coal, a few. inches to 3 feet thick, occur in the shales. 
Near the junction of Gunnison and Grand Riyers, 5 deposits of coal, 
one to 3 feet thick, were seen, but these lenses are too indefinite in 
extent and contain too much carbonaceous shale to justify mining. — 
‘The ash in air-dried coal varies from 6 to 34.5 per cent. The sand- 

108 W. T. Lee, Bull. 316, 1907, citations from pp. 361-373. 

109G K. Gilbert, “ Geology of the Henry Mountains,” 1877, pp. 4-10; 


C. T. Lupton, Bull. 628, pp. 30, 31, 47-74, 78. 
110 W. T. Lee, Bull. 510, 1912, pp. 24, 25, 68. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 117 


stones are more or less flinty, are cross-bedded, ripple-marked and 
locally conglomerate. These coals have been placed in the Dakota 
by several students, but the presence of fossils confirms Lee’s refer- 
. ence to the Benton. The Ferron sandstone cannot be recognized 
in this part ofthe basin and the coals of Castle Valley are wanting. 

No observer has noted the existence of Benton coals on the 
northern side of the Uinta Basin within Colorado, but they have 
been recognized in two outlying fields along the northwestern border 
in Utah, which have been described by Lupton.*** The western or 
Blacktail Mountain coal field is almost due north from the Emery 
field. The Mancos formation is about 2,650 feet thick. The upper 
part, 1,450, consists of shale; the middle, about 250 feet, is chiefly 
sandstone and has coal seams ; the lower part is sandstone and shale. 
The shales increase and the sandstone decreases toward the east; 
the upper shale is but 800 feet thick in the western part of this field. 
Four coal seams were seen, 3 to 11 feet thick, but extremely vari- 
able. The coal is very similar to that from the Mesaverde, though 
3,500 feet lower in the column; some of it is very good, with but 
3 per cent. of ash and ro per cent. of water in the air-dried coal. 
In the Vernal coal field, 30 miles farther east, the Mancos is not far 
from 2,500 feet thick, but the upper or shale division is 2,100 feet 
and the lower or sandy division is about 400 feet, with some coals 
near the top. It is quite possible, as suggested by Lee, that these 
coals are at same horizon with those of the Ferron sandstone. They 
are irregular but in some cases yield a good coal. 

The Coalville coal field, about 30 miles northeast from Salt. Lake 
City, Utah, was examined by Wegemann.'** There, at. somewhat 
more than 1,600 feet from the base of the Cretaceous section at 
Coalville, is the important coal seam known as the Wasatch. The 
roof is sandstone, locally conglomeratic, with sometimes a thin 
shale intervening. It appears to be quite regular. The floor is 
shale or sandstone and is irregular, there being “rolls” which oc- 
casionally cut out as much as 5 feet of the coal. The coal seam is 
from-5 to 14 feet thick but as a rule, the variations are not abrupt. 
The coal as mined at Coalville is of excellent quality. It is stated 


111C. T. Lupton, Bull. 471-/, 1912, pp. 13, 35, 44. 
112 C. H. Wegemann, Bull. 581-E, 1915, pp. 161-184. 
PROC. AMER. PHIL, SOC., VOL. LVI, I, MAY 24, 1917. 


118 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


that work was abandoned in one mine because the bed thinned ab- 
ruptly, the coal being cut out by a “sand roll” or deposit of coarse 
sand and gravel in the roof of the bed. At about 850 feet below 
the Wasatch seam, thin coals were seen, which are known as the 
Spring Canyon beds. The coal is impure and worthless; it is pos- 
sible that these belong at a Bear River horizon. 

The Coalville field is an outlier of the Green River Basin, which 
is reached in Uinta County of Wyoming near the 111th meridian 
or nearly 100 miles west from the Utah-Colorado line and probably 
25 miles east from the meridian passing through Emory in Castle 
Valley field of Utah. The relations of the lower part of the sec- 
tion were a source of- much perplexity, as the fresh-water fauna had 
led to the belief that it belonged to the Laramie or possibly even to 
the Tertiary. Its place in the column was determined by Stanton*® 
who showed that it intervened between coarse sandstones and con- 
glomerates below and well-defined Colorado above. Knight** rec- 
ognized an important coal-bearing formation in the southern part 
of the county, which he named the Frontier. It consists of thick 
sandstones with coal beds and it may be practically equivalent to 
the deposits containing the Wasatch seam at Coalville. At a later 
date Veatch reported upon the southern and Schultz*® upon the 
northern part of the county. The thickness of deposits in this 
area is enormous; Veatch assigns not less than 2,000 feet to the 
Niobrara, 4,200 to the Benton and o to 2,400 to the Bear River. 
The Frontier sandstone formation, the upper part of the Benton, 
is about 2,400 feet thick, consists of alternating sandstones and 
clays, with numerous coal seams. The important coals are the Kem- 
merer group near the top, consisting of 3 seams within a vertical 
distance of 90 feet; the highest bed has an extreme thickness of 5 
feet, the main Kemmerer is from 5 to 20 feet thick in the mines, 
but along the outcrop, the variability is much greater, for at some 
localities between the mines it is very thin, at times absent. At 550 
feet below the.main Kemmerer is the Wilson bed which is not 

113 T. W. Stanton, “ The Stratigraphic Position of the Bear River Forma- 
tion,” Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLIII., 1892, pp. 98-115. 

114 W. C. Knight, “Coalfields of Southern Uinta County, Utah,” Bull. 


Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 13, 1902, pp. 542-544. 
115 A.C. Veatch, Bull. 285, pp. 333, 337, 340; A. R. Schultz, Bull. 316, p. 215. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 119 


a present in the southern part of the field, but is 5 feet 8 inches at 
a _ Kemmerer, where it yields a coking coal. The Carter bed is 1,300 
__~ feet below the Kemmerer and the Spring Valley, 1,475. The last, 
_ 5 to 6 feet-thick, is apt to be dirty. 
E _ The Bear River coals are occasionally thick, as much as 6 feet, 
but the coal is so dirty as to be worthless. This formation, 2,400 
_ feet on the western side of the county, is only roo feet at the east 
- side. The Frontier coals are bituminous, of high grade, with low 
Ea, and water content; the Coalville coal is subbituminous. 
: 4 _ The Frontier sandstone does not outcrop in the Rock Springs 
_ field; in northern Carbon County Smith saw it with all the litho- 
a logical features observed in Uinta County, but without coal. It is 
& goo feet thick in the southern part but only 500 in the northern part 
i. ‘of his district ; showing a great decrease toward the east. The Bear 
_ River is only 30 feet thick, but this has some thin and worthless 
streaks of coal. Veatch*® in the eastern part of the same county 
- found 400 to 800 feet of Frontier, but no coal, while the coaly 
streaks in shales overlying the Dakota are thin and worthless. 
Woodruff saw thin streaks of coal, 6 to 8 inches, below the middle 
of the Colorado, in Park County of Wyoming, almost due north 
_ from the Rock Springs coal field. No observer has reported the 
q - occurrence of coal at the Frontier horizons at any locality in Mon- 
a tana or in Alberta or anywhere east from the Irogth meridian in 
_ Wyoming or the ro8th in Colorado, but the lowest coal horizon, that 
_ resting on the Dakota, reaches to the ro5th in Carbon County of 
_ Wyoming and, in northern New Mexico, along the southern. bor- 
der, it is present occasionally to near the same meridian. In New 
M exico it extends northwardly for only a short distance. 


4 


> 
i 


The Dakota. 


_ The Dakota or basal member of the Upper Cretaceous i is a sand- 
Stone, more or less massive and locally conglomerate in the eastern 
or Rocky Mountain region. It is often cross-bedded and some- 
times ripple-marked. At some localities farther west it contains 


conglomerate. The thickness rarely exceeds 200 feet. Land 


_ U6E. E. Smith, Bull. 341, p. 226; A. C. Veatch, Bull. 316, p. 247; E. G. 
Woodruff, Bull. 341, p. 203. 


120 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


conditions existed at few localities and in by far the greatest part 
of the region no coal occurs. The thin lenses, referred by some 
writers to this formation, belong rather to the Benton, 


The Kootenai. 


The Dakota, as described by the earlier students in the Front 
Range region of Colorado and New Mexico, consists of two sand- 
stones separated by shale of variable thickness. Darton’s collections 
in the Black Hills of northeastern Wyoming proved that the Da- 
kota of that region is complex, that only the upper sandstone is 
Upper Cretaceous, the other deposits belonging to the Lower Cre- 
taceous. He was convinced that a new name was necessary and 
offered Cloverly formation as substitute for Dakota. At a some- 
what later time Darton, Lee and Stanton discovered somewhat simi- 
lar conditions in Colorado and New Mexico. In Montana, this for- 
mation proved to be practically equivalent to the Kootenai forma- 
tion of G. M. Dawson, which is important in the Rocky Mountains 
region within Alberta and British Columbia. This earlier name 
has been accepted throughout; but in some localities it appears to 
include the upper sandstone or Dakota. The Kootenai has not been 
recognized in Colorado and New Mexico west from the Front — 
Ranges except in the Park area of Colorado, where it was seen by 
Beekly. Elsewhere the “Dakota” sandstone rests on a mass of 
clays containing some sandstones, the Morrison formation, of which 
the relations are not wholly clear, though in recent years the pale- 
ontologists have shown increasing inclination to regard it as Lower 
Cretaceous. It has no coal. 

The Kootenai is recorded as coal bearing nowhere south from 
the Black Hills, where Darton gives the succession, as Dakota sand- 
stone, 10 to 100 feet; Fuson shale, 10 to 100 feet; Lakota sand- 
stone, 25 to 300 feet; forming the Cloverly formation of his earlier 
publications.1*7 The Lakota, mainly sandstone, contains the coal. 
The sandstones are mostly hard, massive, coarse and cross-bedded ; 
but in many places they are slabby, ripple-marked and locally they 
are conglomeratic. Lenses of coal occur near the base and at times 


117.N. H. Darton, Folios 127, 128, 1905; Prof. Paper 51, 1906, pp. 50-53; 
Bull. 260, 1904, pp. 420-433; Prof. Paper 65, 1909, pp. 12, 40-48. 


Oe, 


Ve ee ey Oe ee ee 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 121 


attain commercial importance. Two are near Aladdin, one of them, 


' 2 feet to 3 feet 6 inches, the other, 10 feet above, being thinner. 


The extreme thickness is at a little way north from Aladdin where 
the lower lens becomes 8 to 9 feet; but both thin away, being re- 


placed with impure coal, before disappearance. The coal at Aladdin 


is soft and bituminous, -as it is also at Sundance. In the Cambria 
district, on southwest side of the region, there is an oval space of 
about 10 square miles, in which the coal averages 5 feet, but, in the 
surrounding area, the thickness decreases, the coal becomes impure 
and carbonaceous shale replaces it. On the southern slope of the 
Black Hills, a coal bed, 5 feet thick near Edgemont, is distinctly 


local; it quickly disappears toward the southeast, giving place to 


sandstone; while toward the northwest, it becomes merely a coaly 
shale. There is little coal on the easterly side of the Black Hills, 
only thin lenses of coal and coaly shale were seen, and these are con- 
fined to the northerly portion. The thick bed near Aladdin has a 
bone parting somewhat more than one foot thick, which, in appear- 
ance, closely resembles cannel; it has 38.69 per cent. of ash. The 
upper part of the Lakota holds much petrified wood; cycad stems 
are numerous at several localities. 

Darton recognized his Cloverly formation on both sides of the 
Bighorn Mountains in north central Wyoming, where, in much of 
the region, the Dakota sandstone appears to be wanting. Streaks 
of coal were seen occasionally in the Lakota, but they offer no 
promise of economical importance. Fisher'?® saw Lakota coal in 
the drainage area of No Wood creek at the westerly base of Big- 
horn Mountain. It is less than 50 feet above the Morrison forma- 
tion and is found within a considerable area. One opening was 
in a bed divided by a parting of 2 inches into benches, each 4 feet; 
but the coal is a lens and thins away rapidly on all sides. The 


coal is dark with dull earthy luster, conchoidal fracture and re- 


sembles carbonaceous shale; but it is bituminous coal with not more 
than 11 percent. of ash. Fisher suggested that the formation might 
be Dawson’s Kootenai. No coal was seen by Woodruff within the 
southwestern part of the Bighorn Basin and the formation appears, 
according to Darton, to be barren in central western Wyoming, but 


118 C. A. Fisher, Bull. 225, 1904, pp. 355, 362. 


122 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


coal, too thin to be worked, was found by Washburne in the north- 
east part of the Bighorn Basin near the Montana line.*?® . 

Calvert reports that, in the Electric coal field, Park County, 
Montana, the Kootenai is 577 feet thick and with same general 
structure as that of the Cloverly. The Fuson, 230 feet, consists of 
variegated shales, limestones and thin sandstones; the Lakota, 249 
feet, has a coal bed, one foot thick and underlying a conglomerate 
sandstone; but it seems to be local. In the Livingston coal field of 
the same county, the Kootenai is 540 feet thick and apparently has 
no coal. In the Crazy Mountains coal field of Meagher County, 
north from Park, Stone found the Kootenai only 235 feet thick with © 
variegated sandstones in the upper half and variegated shales in the 
lower half. The lowest of the sandstones is coarse and has layers 
of conglomerate ; it overlies one foot of black shale; no coal is re- 
ported.*?° 

Calvert’?! found 512 feet of Kootenai in the Lewistown coal 
field of Fergus County, where the upper part is variegated shale 
with two massive, cross-bedded sandstones, 8 and 25 feet thick; 
the lower part, 147 feet, is coarse sandstone, locally conglomerate, 
with sandy shale. The workable coals of the Kootenai in this field 
are in the lower portion at 60 to 90 feet above the base and under- 
lie a massive cross-bedded sandstone. In some districts only one 
seam is present but in others there are several. The seams are 
distinctly lenses, separated by unproductive spaces. The thickness 
seldom exceeds 5 feet and ordinarily the coal is divided into benches 
by partings of shale or bone. The roof is shale or sandstone and 
the floor is shale or clay; in many cases a bench-bone is at top or 
bottom of the coal. A dull, lusterless coal, resembling cannel, was 
seen at several places but especially in the Mace mine, where it 
occurs as lenses within the coal, the largest being 200 feet long. 
The coal is accepted as bituminous, but the percentage of ash varies 
greatly. 

The Great Falls coal field in northern Cascade County, west 

119 EF, G. Woodruff, Bull. 341, p. 203; C. W. Washburne, the same, p. 170; 
N. H. Darton, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 19, pp. 447-449. 

120 W. R. Calvert, Bull. 471-E, pp. 34, 53, 58; R. W. Stone, Bull. 341, p. 80. 


121 W. R. Calvert, Bull. 341, pp. 110, 113, 117, 119; Bull. 390, pp. 56, 61, 
72, 74. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 123 


from Fergus and north from Meagher, was examined by Weed and 
afterward by Fisher.***~The Kootenai, 400 to 500 feet, according 
to Fisher but about 750 according to Weed, was formerly regarded 
as Dakota; but J. S. Newberry in 1887, cited by Weed, determined 


‘that it is Kootenai. The Dakota was not recognized. The indi- 
_ vidual deposits are inconstant, sandstones and shales alike being 


lenses. The coal horizon is about 60 feet from the base and the 
seams are clearly lenses. Weed has described the coals in detail. 
The great coal seam, with extreme thickness of 12 feet in Sand 
Coulée district, splits toward the west into two beds, which, where 


_ last seen, were separated by 25 feet of shale. The seams are usually 
divided and the benches often differ in quality of the coal, coking 


and non-coking being found within the same bed. Picked samples 
from one bed had barely 10 per cent. of ash, but one from the 
middle part of the bed had 27 per cent. Official samples, collected 
by Fisher, give from 16 to 23 per cent. of ash. As in sampling of 
the coal, nothing is taken which ought to be removed in mining, it is 
certain that this fuel, as it reaches the consumer, must be decidedly 
inferior in quality. 

- Stebinger*** gives about 2,000 feet as the thickness of Kootenai 
in the Teton coal field, which, like the Great Falls field, is near the 
western boundary of Cretaceous deposition in Montana. The for- 
mation is practically without coal, there being only some black shale 
with 6 or 8 inches of coal. 

The Kootenai shows great variation in thickness within Alberta. 


Ee: Dowling,’** summarizing observations made by himself and others 
_ in various parts of the province, states that the maximum deposition 


was near the axis of the Rocky Mountains, where the base is a 


_ great bed of sandstone, succeeded by sandstones and shales with 
‘many seams of coal. In the Elk River escarpment, it is 3,600 feet, 
' but at Blairmore, toward the east, it is but 750; northward, near 


Banff, it is 3,900 feet, but in Moose Mountain, east from the main 
range, it is only 375 feet. Farther east, the formation is unim- 


222W. H. Weed, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 3, 1892, pp. 302, 303, 313- 


321; C. A. Fisher, Bull. 356, 1909, pp. 22, 50, 51, 52, 77, 78. 
123 FE. Stebinger, Bull. 621-K, 1916, p. 124. 
124D. B. Dowling, Geol. Survey Memoir, 53, 1914, p. 27. 


124. STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


portant owing to thinning of the beds; it has not been recognized in 
Manitoba. 

In Alberta, the Kootenai is fully exposed only in the more dis- 
turbed portion of the Rocky Mountains area and the more im- 
portant coal deposits, for the most part, are west from the Moun- 

tains in British Columbia. Mackenzie!?® measured about 700 feet of 
- Kootenai on Oldman river in southern Alberta, in the Foothills 
region. The rocks mostly arenaceous. An overlying sandstone 
formation was assigned to the Dakota. A Coal Measures group, 
about 200 feet thick, is in the upper part of the Kootenai, where the 
sandstones increase in coarseness. Near Blairmore, five coal seams 
were examined; the total is about 40 feet, but two of the beds are 
poor and shaly; elsewhere the quantity of coal is less. | 

The Crowsnest coal field*?* is farther west, in and beyond the 
Mountains, and the greater part is in British Columbia. In Crows- 
nest pass, within Alberta, McEvoy gives a section of 4,736 feet, 
which he regarded as wholly Kootenai. The coal bearing portion 
begins at 1,170 feet from the base and is 1,847 feet. The coal is 
198 feet, somewhat less than in the main field farther west. Mc- 
Learn’ states that the lower part of the Kootenai in this region 
contains abundant remains of plants and erect stems of trees. 

Dowling??* examined a small area of Kootenai on the North Sas- 
katchewan river, about the 55th degree and near the 118th meridian. 
There, behind the Brazeau Hills, he saw 5 coal seams within a ver- 
tical distance of 631 feet. The lowest and highest, with somewhat 
more than 12 feet thickness, yield worthless coal, but the second 
and third, with about 23 feet of coal, are good, though the ash is 
rather high, being from 12 to 15 per cent.: the grade is semi- 
bituminous. 

Malloch?*”® reported upon an extensive district farther west, on 
the headwaters of the Saskatchewan, Bighorn and Brazeau Rivers, 
and within the outlying ridges of the Rocky Mountains. The thick- 
ness of Kootenai is 3,658 feet, which is unexpectedly great, as 

125 J. D. Mackenzie, Summ. Rep. Geol. Survey, Canada, pp. 239, 243, 244. 

126 J, McEvoy, Ann. Rep., Vol. XIII., 1900, Pt. A, pp. 84-88. 

127 RF. H. McLearn, Summ, Rep., 1915, p. 111. 


128 PD. B. Dowling, Summ. Rep. for 1913, pp. 150, 151. 
129G, S. Malloch, Memoir 9-2, 1911, pp. 25, 31-33, 52, 53, 59, 60. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 125 


$,° 
s 


farther south in the foothills the formation is thin. In the basal 
700 feet, there is a ripple-marked sandstone as well as shales and 
' sandstones with impressions of rain drops. Sandstones and shales 
are irregtilar throughout and clear evidence of contemporaneous 
erosion was observed at several localities. Some thin beds of con- 
| ‘glomerate were seen but they are indefinite and are clearly local. 

Twenty-one coal seams were seen in a section of 2,760 feet, from 
2 inches to 9 feet thick ; in another section of about 1,100 feet in the 
upper part of the formation, 7 seams were seen, with total thick- 
3 ness of about 26 feet, while in a third of nearly 1,300 feet, there 
___ are 8 seams with total thickness of more than 52 feet, besides other 
seams less than 3 feet thick. Comparison of the sections make clear 
that the seams are lenticular. The coal throughout is bituminous 
and, with rare exceptions, is coking. The quality is excellent, ash 
and sulphur being low. 

Malloch thinks that the shales, sandstones and conglomerates 
are of fluviatile origin. Absence of roots in the floor of coal seams 
leads him to suggest that these may have developed in bogs within 
choked oxbows or on coastal plains. The quantity of coal decreases 
__ tapidly eastward from the mountains. 


SoME CHEMICAL FEATURES OF CRETACEOUS COALS. 


No substance resembling the pyropissite of Sachsen has been 
__ mentioned by any observer, the only allied material being that seen 
a _ ‘by Dunker in the Hannover region, which he thought might be 
_  hatchettin. Resin of one sort or another occurs commonly; it is 
_ termed Bernstein, retinite, walchovite or simply resin by various 

authors. It is in grains or in lumps several inches long in the Lower 
a Quader coals of Bohemia and Moravia; at one locality in Hungary 
2 it is so abundant as to give the local name to « coal seam; there is 
i much in New Zealand; in North America, resins are characteristic 
features of coals in the Laramie, the Fox Hills and the Pierre as 
well as in those of the Benton. The color is from honey yellow 
to dark yellow and according to Thiessen is rather darker in the 
Fox Hills coals of northern Colorado than in the Eocene coals of 
the Dakotas. Resins appear to be wanting in bituminous coals of 


126 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


high grade; at least, no note is made anywhere respecting their 
existence in such coals. 

Cannel has been reported from numerous places. Often it evi- 
dently is little more than highly carbonaceous mud, forming a faux- 
toit, faux-mur, or a thick parting, which may be regarded as roof 
and floor to the benches which it separates; but typical cannel is by 
no means rare. A great cannel lens was seen by Hector and by 
Campbell in one portion of the Buller coal field in New Zealand and 
Denniston has referred to what are clearly localized cannel deposits 
in coal beds. Hector has given the proximate analysis of the lens as 
water, 6.20; ash, 3.60; volatile matter, 61.41; fixed carbon, 38.58. 
Within the United States and western Canada, cannel has been de- 
scribed from Laramie, Benton and Kootenai horizons. 

Cannel was discovered in the Benton of the Colob field, Utah, 
by Richardson, whose description shows that it is the lower bench 
of at least two lenses occurring at the same horizon. The material 
was studied microscopically by D. White, who recognized it as a 
typical cannel. At a later date it was studied in detail by Thies- 
sen,**° who reported that it has the appearance and characteristics 
of cannel. Under medium enlargement, the coal is a dark, homo- 
geneous mass, in which are embedded resinous particles, dark and 
light, with some large spore exines and cuticles, this embedded ma- 
terial comprising about one half of the whole. Under higher power, 
the enclosing material is shown to be like the “groundmass” of 
other coals, being in largest part a mass of closely packed very thin 
flattened particles, most of which are spore and pollen exines, with 
small fragments of cuticles. In great proportion, these are frag- 
mentary and many are so macerated that they are unrecognizable; 
but even in this condition, the color and optical action are the same 
as in the recognized cuticles and exines. As all intergradations are 
present, he thinks it reasonable to conclude that the origin is the 
same. With this is the amorphous substance or binding material 
as in the débris of lignite. The darker resinous substances are 
the more abundant and, in color as well as in appearance, they re- 
semble those of lignite. Many are cylindrical, having retained the 
shape of resin cells in the wood. Smaller particles enter into the 


130 R. Thiessen, “ Origin of Coal,” 1914, pp. 244, 245. 


ee 


Pe Se Se ew St eee eee OL bal 
x i OT Ae ee ne 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 197 


groundmass. The darker resins are deep brown in color and in 


_ general are opaquely glassy. The lighter resins are in striking con- 


trast and tend-to-be more irregular in form. Besides charred cell 
fragments, few other bodies are present and none of them is in rec- 
ognizable condition. In variety of constituents, this coal is very 
simple and thus approaches Paleozoic cannel very closely. It is so 


brittle that proper sections cannot be prepared. The analysis 


showed 67.61 of volatile matter and 32.39 per cent. of fixed carbon 
in the pure coal. The cannel is overlain by a thin bituminous bench, 
which has 60 per cent. of volatile to 40 of fixed carbon, making 
probable that the upper bench contains much spore material. 

Cannel is said to be present in the Lakota sandstone of the 
Black Hills, at a Kootenai horizon, where it is in two benches, each 
about a foot and a half thick and overlain by bituminous coal. 
The proximate analysis suggests that this is more probably a bony 
coal, as the volatile is but 38.64 and the fixed carbon 61.46 per cent. 
in the pure coal ; the ash is 24.16. Cannel is present in the Kootenai 
of the Elk River district of Alberta, the composition being 65.55 of 
volatile and 34.45 of fixed carbon; the ash is only 9.86 per cent.** 
' That coals of very different types may occur in the same vertical 
section is evident from conditions in the Wealden of Hannover. 
Dunker** states that in many localities the coal resembles the older 
black coals, there being no trace of woody structure and the streak 
is blackish brown. This type of coal was analyzed by Regnault ; 
but lignite is present also, which preserves the woody structure 
and has reddish brown streak. A sample from Helmstadt was 
analyzed by Varrentrapp. The results are: 


c. H. O and N, 
I Sher ch Gra o> “avais's: sa | 89.50 4.83 4.67 
INR TS ass occa vss ke « 73-50 5.18 21.30 


Beside these there is the Blatterkohle, composed of leaves and twigs 
of conifers and cycads, which is so little changed that the leaves 
become flexible when soaked in water. This type occurs in the same 

131U. S. Bureau of Mines, Bull. 22, 1913, p. 194; D. B. Dowling, Geol. 


Survey of Canada, Memoir 53, 1914, p. 74. 
182 W. Dunker, “ Monographie,” etc., p. xiii. 


128 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


‘vertical section with other coals, some of which are of the “black” 
type. No analysis of the Blatterkohle is given. Dunker conceives 
that the black coal was formed from lycopods and ferns, as no re- 
mains of other plants have been found in it; the lignite, however, 
seems to him to be composed of conifers, cycads, lycopods and ferns. 
The ash of the Wealden coals in Hannover, according to analyses 
made by Saurwein and published by Zincken,*** appears to average 
high, for in most cases the percentage exceeds 13. 

Czjzek"** has described the black coal with black brown streak 
mined near Griinbach in Lower Austria, which occasionally contains 
fragments of branches, retaining their form but showing no trace of 
fiber. This, belonging to the Upper Cretaceous, is a lignitic coal, 
for, as analyzed by Schrotter, it has carbon, 74.84; hydrogen, 4.60; 
oxygen, 20.56. The water and ash are very low. The important 
coals of Hungarian Cretaceous are in the middle or fresh-water 
formation consisting of marls and coal beds. Hantken presents no 
detailed analyses ; the water and ash, for the most part, are less than 
IO per cent. 

The Cretaceous coals of Queensland are rarely thick enough to 
be workable; they occur as lenses scattered over a great area. The 
analyses reported by Jack’®® are all proximate ; reduced to pure coal 
for fixed carbon and volatile they show: | 


Water. Ash, Volatile, Fixed Carbon. 
Teaco cares 7.16 36.53 37.22 62.77 
DE oe ae ee 8.25 19.02 41.82 58.17 
Re eas es 0.33 30.20 43-37 56.62 — 
1B sea aie gle este 2.32 9.65 17.26 82.73 
Me ane Ancine 8.30 2.80 42.26 57-73 


The coal of No. V., belonging in the Lower Cretaceous, cokes well. 
The stratigraphic relations give no explanation for the low volatile 
of No. IV. There is no relation between ash and volatile, for the 
ash of III. is almost ten times that of V., but the volatile is almost 
the same in both coals. 

133C, Zincken, “Erganzungen zu der Physiographie der Braunkohle,” 
Halle, 1871, pp. 4, 5. 


134 Jahrb. k. k. Reichsanst., Vol. I1., Part 1, p. 144. 
135 R. L. Jack, “ Geology of Queensland,” pp. 398, 532, 537. 


has 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 129 


The analyses of New Zealand coals are proximate. Hector has 
published those of re taken from different parts of two im- 
: portant seams: 


Water. Ash, Volatile. Fixed Carbon. 
atari aie" « 13.93 7.16 46.85 53-15 
MR eae aka G50 s 16.46 7.20 SF ABS i 66.54 
BOE ets ts acces 4.98 I.19 41.89 58.10 
ae 10.38 0.98 38.36 61.63 


The difference in volatile of I. and II., from the same bed, is un- 
usually great. Cox has given the results of numerous analyses of 
coals from the Buller field; the coal is bituminous and that from 
some mines is caking. The water content is very low, seldom ex- 
_ ceeding 7 per cent. The ash is amazingly small, there being less 
than one per cent. in 9 of the 14 samples and only 4 exceed two per 
cent. Analyses of coals from Otago, as reported by Hutton, have in 
most cases very little ash. One cannot resist the suggestion that the 
samples may have been selected “average” lumps.1*¢ 

Many thousands of analyses of coals have been made by the 
United States Bureau of Mines and a great number have been made 
for the Geological Survey of Canada. The samples consist of cuts 
across the whole bed, omitting such partings or benches as should be 
removed before shipment of fuel from the mine. For the most 
part, the samples have been taken from mines in successful opera- 
tion or, if the region be undeveloped, from such seams as gave 
promise. The purpose of the sampling is to determine the com- 
mercial value of the property and the method is beyond doubt the 
best yet devised. But the student of geological relations should read 
the descriptive portion of Bulletin 22 in order to learn how far the 
_ analyses concern matters occupying his attention. 

The Laramie coals. The Laramie formation, as defined in pre- 
ceding pages, contains at most localities only thin seams of coal; 
but in the northern part of the San Juan Basin of New Mexico 
and Colorado as well as in the Edmonton region of Alberta, the 

186 J. Hector, New Zealand Reps. for 1871-2, pp. 132, 134; J. H. Cox, the 


same, for 1874-6, p. 25; F. W. Hutton, “ Geology of Otago,” 1875, Pp. 101, 
105, I10. 


130 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


seams become thick and of economic importance. Two analyses of 
the great Carbonero seam have been published, I. near Fruitland, 
where the seam consists of bone, shale and coal, 12 feet, and at base 
5 feet of coal, which was sampled; II. near Pendleton, where the 
thickness is 48 feet, but only 7 feet were included in the sample. 


Water. Ash. Volatile. Fixed-Carbon. | . Sulphur. 
Re hits a truce ots 9.89 10.19 48.10 51.90 0.80 
“0 Re SUE eae 8.30 8.25 42.61 57.39 0.80 


The Edmonton coals are subbituminous and break up on exposure ; 
but this disintegration is much less rapid if the fuel be stored under 
cover. Dowling has reported the results of numerous analyses, 
which show no serious variation in composition of the pure coal; it 
suffices to cite three from the upper group, which includes the great 
seam on Pembina River, and one from the Clover Bar group several 
hundred feet lower in the section. 


Water. | Ash. _ Volatile. Fixed Carbon, 
| I one ee 12.93 10.00 41.46 58.52 
ates ce eek 13.78 6.86 40.33 59.66 
jE Cae eee 11.78 3-31 : 45.58 54.42 
PV ees eee atiaree 17.28 | 7.30 47.30 52.70 


Coals of the Clover Bar group appear to be less advanced in con- 
version than those of the higher group; three samples from different 
mines yielded 43, 45 and 47 per cent. of volatile. The ash rarely 
exceeds 8 per cent.1%7 | 

The Fox Hills coals. The coals taken by the writer to be of 
Fox Hills age are irregular but they are bétter than those of the 
Laramie, within the United States ; and in some extensive areas they 
are of great economic importance. Along the eastern base of the 
Front ranges, these coals are mined on large scale in several fields 
from New Mexico almost to the Colorado-Wyoming line; in much 
of the region the seams are broken more or less by bony partings, but 
these are separated readily and they have not been included in the 
samples taken for analysis. Of the analyses, Numbers I. to V. are 


137U. S. Bureau of Mines, Bull. 22, p. 141; D. B. Dowling, Memoir 53, 
pp. 11, 18, 21, 47. a4 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 181 
d from the Raton-Trinidad field; VI. and VII. are from the Canyon 
_ City field ; VIII. and IX. from the Boulder District ; and X. is from 
Platteville, about 40 miles. north from Denver. 


“ ee el 


i Fixed 
Water. | Ash. | Volatile. | xed Ss. |. ¢. | H. On} me 
T. 3204...| 2.72 | 14.57 | 38.51 61.49 | 0.83 | 84.58| 5.54 | 7.64] 1.41 
II. 3205...| 3-45 | 16.67 | 40.14 59.86 | 0.91 | 83.62| 5.77 | 9.06| 1.55 
Ill. 6505...) 2.45 | 17-40 | 34.36 65.64 | 0.06 | 85.32| 5.67 | 6.93] 1.12 


IV. 115D..| 2.25 | 20.44 | 38.15 61.85 | 0.82 | 84.08} 5.61 8.02 | 1.47 
Wivgr00...| 3.88 | 13.73.| 33-18 66.82 0.57 | 84.56| 5.34 7.97 | 1.56 
VI. 6254...| 9.89| 6.21 | 42.05 57-95 | 0.52 | 76.30! 4.77 | 17.33} 1.08 
VII. 6376...) 5.44 | 12.10 | 46.12 52.88 | 0.87 | 77.67! 5.96 | 14.18| 1.32 
VIII. 1523...) 18.68 | 5.99 | 46.30 53-70 | 0.73 | 76.28] 5.30 | 16.16| 1.53 
IX. 6836...) 17.32} 4.64] 41.06 58.04 | 0.39 | 74.07| 5.18 | 18.00] 1.46 
X. 6408...| 28.90! 5.02) 43.63 56.37 | 0.70 | 73.19! 5.19 | 19.51 | 1.41 


The ash is high at the south, but the seams in the lower part of the 
Vermejo group yield a fuel so good for steaming purposes that the 
high ash becomes unimportant; the ash decreases northwardly and 
in the Boulder District it is about that of an ordinary good coal. 
But in the same direction the type of coal changes; in the Raton- 
Trinidad field, one finds usually a high-grade bituminous coal, that 
from some extensive mines yielding a strong coke; in the Canyon 
City field, the coal is still bituminous, but it does not cake and the 
oxygen is about double that in the Trinidad coals; in the Boulder 
District, the coal is distinctly subbituminous, is xyloid in appearance 
and disintegrates on exposure. There are no such violent con- 
trasts between proximate and ultimate composition, such as have 
been recognized in some of the newer coals. 

- The Fox Hills as a coal-bearing formation is important in south- 
western Wyoming; the Adaville seam of Uinta County has maxi- 
mum thickness of 84 feet; at least a part of the Black Buttes coal 
group in Sweetwater County belongs here; the coal assigned to the 
Lewis in Carbon County is taken by the writer to be at a Fox Hills 
horizon. The seams become thin and unimportant eastwardly. The 

_ Adaville seam yields coal of almost the same composition at two 
widely separated mines, which differs little from that of the Boulder 
District in Colorado. The volatile in the coals of Uinta and Sweet- 
water Counties varies from 38 to almost 49 per cent., though in the 
coals compared the carbon is almost the same throughout The 


1382 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


lowest percentage of carbon in either county is barely 73; usually it 
is somewhat more than 76 per cent. These coals are high in water 
but not in ash. They are classed as subbituminous and are not held 
in high esteem as better fuel from the Pierre is readily accessible.1* 

The Pierre coals. These attain great importance in the San 
Juan, Uinta and Green River Basins as well as in portions of 
Alberta in Canada. There are few localities whence coal, positively 
recognized as Lower Pierre, has been taken for official analysis. 
Probably the Hagan coal of Sandoval County in New Mexico be- 
longs here, but the only available analysis is proximate. The Upper 
Pierre or the Lewis and the Bearpaw shales have no coal deserving 
consideration. The Middle Pierre or Mesaverde, as originally de- 
fined, is the productive formation.. Its coals are mined in the Cerillos 
coal field, where all grades from bituminous to anthracite are ob- 
tained ; and in various parts of the San Juan Basin. Of the analyses 
given here, I. and II. are from the Cerillos field, III. and IV. are 
from the southern part of the San Juan Basin, V., VI. and VII. are 
from the northern part. 


Water.| Ash. | Volatile. ae .: o H, Oo. N. 
‘arbon, : 

PLOTS Se ise 5.70 | 5.99 2.47| 97-53| 0.78 | 93.84] 1.900] 1.96] 1.34 
TIC-GISA eee 3.76 | 4.89 | 37.67] 62.83] 0.62 | 82.49] 5.78 | 9.86 | 1.25 
SITE ESOT. os 10.79 | 18.66 | 47.94] 52.06] 1.79 | 78.06] 5.70 | 13.10 | 1.35 
IV. 1278....4...| 12.29 | 6.99 | 42.84/°57.16| 0.78 | 78.43 5.5r | 14.00 } 1.28 . 
Wie SHOE Gai yates 1.71 | 6.92 | 39.68] 60.32] 0.71 | 82.50] 5.50] 9-58 | 1.71 
VAG AUPE Cosats, 3.04 | 9.66 | 44.70] 55.30| 4.03 | 81.01 | 5.00 | 7.27 | 1.70 
Wilds SSI icine 1.24 | 16.12 | 38.30! 61.70| 0.66 | 84.64| 5.56 | 7.49 ! 1.65 


The sample ITI. consisted of slack and VII. represented the run-of- 
mine. II. and VII. yield a high grade coke. The anthracite of 


Cerillos is believed to be due to a sheet of andesite overlying the 


seam. 

The Mesaverde coals of the Uinta Basin are in two groups, sepa- 
rated by a thick sandstone. The upper group, the Paonia shales, 
has many coal beds of which one or more may be workable at a given 
locality ; the lower group, Bowie shale, contains important seams. 
In the southeastern part of this basin, the Paonia and Bowie cannot 


188 Bull. 22, pp. 137, 138, 60, 58, 50, 54, 55, 82 for Colorado-New Mexico; 
pp. 310, 319 for Wyoming. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 183 


be distinguished ; yet in the western part the coals differ altogether. 


The Paonia coals are subbituminous, with 15 to about 20 per cent. 
of water, almost 17 of oxygen and less than 76 of carbon; whereas 
the Bowie coals have less than 4 per cent. of water, 9 to 12 per cent. 
of oxygen and from 79 to 83 per cent. of carbon. The Paonia coals 
are at times rather high in ash, but the coal mined from the Bowie 
is uniformly clean, the ash rarely exceeding 6 per cent. 

The Mesaverde coals are important in Sweetwater County of 
Wyoming, within the Green River Basin. There, as in the Grand 
Mesa area within the Uinta Basin, the coals are in two groups, 
Almond and Rock Springs, which are separated by a greater interval 
than the Paonia and the Bowie. The Almond coals are lower in 
water than are those of the Paonia, but the oxygen is higher while 
the carbon is from 72 to 76 per cent. The Rock Springs coals have 
about 5 per cent. less of oxygen and the carbon varies little from 
79 per cent. Farther north in Wyoming, within the Bighorn Basin, 
a coal is mined near Cody which has 21 per cent. of oxygen and only 
71 of carbon.'*® 

In Montana, the coal seams are more irregular than in southern 
areas, the lenses, for the most, are of less extent and the coal is apt to 
be dirty. The Judith River seams, or approximately the Upper 
Mesaverde, are of subbituminous coal with water from I0 to 25 
per cent., 16 to 20 per cent. of oxygen and 72, 73 to 76 per cent. of 
carbon. But the coals of the Eagle sandstone are bituminous with 
12 to 16 of oxygen and 76 to 80 per cent. of carbon. The ash 


usually is high, 13 to more than 16 per cent. 


Dowling has published many analyses of Belly Rivers coals from 
Alberta. They are proximate but they represent a great number of 
localities The water rarely exceeds 5 per cent. in the Foothills 
region but in the Lethbridge-Medicine Hat region it increases east- 
wardly and, near Medicine Hat, it is about 20 per cent. The ash in 


beds of workable thickness is low, seldom exceeding 8 per cent. Ac- 


_ cording to two analyses of Lethbridge coal, published by Steb- 


 —& eb 


inger,*° that fuel is on the borderland between subbituminous and 


189 J. S. Bureau of Mines, Bull. 22, pp. 67, 140, 141. for San Juan Basin; 
pp. 55, 56 for Uinta Basin; pp. 313, 315, 316 for Green River Basin. 
140 FE. Stebinger, Bull. 621-K, 1914, p. 138. 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, J, MAY 24, I9Q17. 


134 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


bituminous, but it is of better quality in respect of ash than the 
Montana coals at the same horizon. 

The Benton Coals—The published reports contain no reference 
to occurrence of coal in deposits representing the Niobrara time 
interval ; the coal seams are associated with rocks containing Benton 
fossils. These coals are confined to the western part of the Cre- 
taceous area within Arizona and Utah, though extending eastwardly 
for a short distance into New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming. The 
coal in Arizona and New Mexico is rather high in ash, about 14 to 
16 per cent., and the sulphur seems to be not far from 2 per cent., 
so that it is an inferior fuel. Analyses I., IJ. and III. are from 
Iron County, Utah, where the coal seams are often closely associated 
with marine limestones; IV. is from Emery County, where the coal 
is mined extensively; V. and VI. are from Uinta County, on the 
northwest side of the Uinta Basin. 


Water,| Ash, | Volatile. Fixed Ss: Cc. H. oO. N. 
Carbon. 
I. 5494....| 4.93] 13.04] 45.40 54.60 8.19 | 76.82] 5.56 8.29] 1.14 


II. 5304....| 10.35 | 9.82] 45.39 54.61 7.27 | 76.52] 4.907 | 10.05] 1.19 
III. 5305....| 14.19 | 9.92] 44.00 56.00 7.10 | 72.83| 4.77 | 14.18| 1.12 


RVs T2087 | 4.00.) 5:031 45-4 54.6 0.44 | 81.01] 5.64 | 11.52] 1.39 
Vier 5520s, 501 (50152 | 65251 543.20 56.90 1.95 | 76.67] 5.58 | 14.52] 1.19 
Wie SEER. ch nOce2 12.90: | A287 57.13 2.20 | 76.28| 5.60 | 14.70] 1.22 


The carbon is highest at the west in Iron County, being more than 
83 per cent. in the pure coal of I.; it is 78 in the pure coal of IIL., 
81 in that of II. and 81 in the best coal from the Emery coal field. 
The sulphur in Iron County is so abundant as to suggest contribu- 
tion by animals. V. and VI. are the upper and lower benches of a 
single bed and show improved conditions during formation of the 
upper bench. Lee has given analyses of the upper and lower benches 
of a bed in Delta County of Colorado; the upper bench has 6 per 
cent. and the lower bench 22 per cent. of ash. There, as in the 
Uinta County seam, the lower bench, though richer in ash, is poorer 
in volatile. The Frontier coals in Uinta County of Wyoming, in 
the Green River Basin, have excellent fuel in several of the seams. 
They are bituminous, low in ash and sulphur and have from 77 to 
almost 81 per cent. of carbon.1* 


141 Bureau of Mines, Bull. 22, pp. 47, 139; for Utah, pp. 80, 193, 194; C. 
T. Lupton, Bull. 628, p. 80; W. T. Lee, Bull. 510, p. 201. 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 135 


The coals of Dakota age are insignificant. The only ultimate 
_ analysis shows that in one case, at least, the coal is high-grade 
bituminous but-with notable percentage of ash. 

The Kootenai is without coal south from the northern border of 


g Wyoming and there as well as in Montana the coal is not of high 


grade. In the Black Hills of Wyoming one finds extensive mines 
at or near Aladdin. In one of those the water is from 14 to 18, the 
ash from about 5 to 16 and the sulphur from 5 to 7 per cent., all in 
freshly mined coal. Within Montana, the Kootenai coals become 
important locally and are mined at many places in Cascade and 
Fergus Counties. In the former county, the water is but 3.5 to 7.5 
per cent. but the ash is from 14 to 21. Sulphur is less than 3 per 
cent. The coal is bituminous, the carbon in pure coal being about 
80 and the oxygen, barely 15 per cent. In Fergus County, the ash 
within several districts is from 10 to 17 per cent. of the air-dried 
coal; but only 3 out of 10 samples gave more than 10; the sulphur, 
however, is much greater than in Cascade, being 5 per cent. and up- 
ward. The percentage of carbon in pure coal is from 80 to 85 and 
that of oxygen 9 to 15. But one analysis shows only 75 of carbon 
with 19 of oxygen.’* 

The analyses published by Dowling*** show regional variation in 
the coals of Alberta. The ash is highest in areas near the moun- 
tains, where three districts have 13 to 22, 10 to 20 and 8 to 17 per 
cent. In all other areas, it rarely exceeds 8 and is usually about 5. 
The water is about 3 per cent. Sulphur is in small quantity, there 


: __ being one extensive region with barely a half per cent. The coal is 
bituminous and often is caking. Anthracite is obtained in disturbed 
districts. 


.. In reading the results of analysis as given above, one is in danger 
_ of concluding that “clean” coal is the rule and “dirty” coal the 
_ exception. Emphasis must be laid on the fact that samples for 
analysis have been cut, for the most part, from mines in successful 


operation or from promising exposures. Lenses yield the best coal 


a in the central portions ; toward the borders, their coal becomes dirty 
and usually passes into carbonaceous shale. In many vertical sec- 


142 Bull. 22, pp. 305, 126, 127, 130-133. 
48D. B. Dowling, Memoir 53, pp. 74-79. 


1386 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


tions, one observes that a large proportion of the seams are “ dirty,” 
and in reading descriptive notes of seams from which samples were 
‘ taken, he finds that only in rare instances is a seam, upwards of 
3 feet thick, clean throughout, while of thicker seams, a half or more 
must be rejected in sampling. Even in thinner seams, selection of 


samples requires no little skill. The testimony of observers, cited _ 


in preceding pages, proves that a very great part of the Cretaceous 
coal was formed amid conditions unfavorable to accumulation of 
clean coal. Generally speaking, foreign materials are in partings, 
but occasionally the mineral matter is distributed throughout so that 
it cannot be removed by washing. 


SUMMARY. 


The facts recorded in preceding pages may be grouped to make 
clear their bearing upon the matters at issue. 

1. The Distribution of Coal—One who reads reports covering 
an extensive area is liable to believe that caprice has determined 
the distribution of coal. The presence of coal at one locality gives 
no assurance that it will be found at the same horizon in others, for 
great barren spaces exist between productive areas, so that indi- 
vidual seams appear to have small areal extent ; apparently, the total 
area on which coal was accumulating at any time was a compara- 
tively insignificant part of the whole. There is, however, an evi- 


dent relation between occurrence of coal seams and the prevailing 


character of the sediments, which would justify the assertion that 
in one locality coal may be present, and that in another it is almost 
certain to. be absent. The descriptions seem to prove that coal 
seams accumulate only under conditions such as mark great river 
or coastal plains, where intervals of relatively rapid subsidence were 
followed by others, during which subsidence was slow; finer ma- 
terials were deposited upon the coarser and coal accumulation be- 
gan. But where the deposits are fine, such as those laid down at 
a notable distance from the source of materials and under a prac- 
tically constant cover of water, coal is not present. 

The relations are sufficiently clear in the Upper Cretaceous of 
Europe. Coal is of rare occurrence in England, France and west- 
ern Germany, where the deposits, almost without exception, are 


j 
é 
4 
4 


ee 
oat " . ' e 


rN ee ee eee a ee ee a a, 
ta : on i nb 
* + . _ 
* 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 137 


marine and largely calcareous; but in a part of France, the closing 


stages are characterized by thick fresh-water deposits and thin 


seams of lignitie coal have been observed. Land deposits abound 
in eastern Germany and there coals are found, which at times attain 
economic*** importance. The Hastings Sand of England, at base 
of the Wealden, is thought to be a delta deposit; if so, the areas re- 
maining may mark, in greatest part, the submerged portions, as 
they contain no coal and the sand holds much driftwood. This 
formation has been recognized in France, where within small areas, 
some coal seams exist which have been mined. The Wealden is 
exposed within a large space in Hannover, reaching westward from 
the Harz Mountains to the Holland border, where it underruns 
newer formations. At this western limit, the deposits are fine 


_ clays or marls with important limestones, but no coal. Coarse de- 


posits are reached farther east and with them the coal. The seams 
are usually thin and irregular, but occasionally one is more than 5 
feet thick. In a section, toward the west, where shale, more or less 
argillaceous, predominates, a workable seam occurs, but it is asso- 
ciated with the principal sandstone of the section. The coals of 
New Zealand and Queensland either rest on sandstone or are sep- 
arated from it by thin clay or shale. 

The immense area of Cretaceous in the United States and Can- 
ada affords ample opportunity for comparisons. Each formation, 
with possible exception of the Niobrara, is coal-bearing. The 
chief source of detritus was at the west, though important contribu- 
tions were received from the southern border, which probably lay 
in northern Mexico, not far from the international boundary. 

‘The Laramie marks the closing stages of the Cretaceous and, 
where the succession is complete, deposition appears to have been 
continuous into the Eocene. Except in a portion of Alberta, where 
a brackish-water fauna is found, the rocks are of continental type; 
leaves abound in many beds and the animal remains are of river or 
pond forms. The conditions recall those observed on the great 

144 It should be noted that this term, “ economic importance,” has not the 
same signification everywhere: in the United States, a coal seam, less than 
thirty inches thick, is not thought to be workable, except in localities without 


railway communication. On the continent of Europe seams very much thinner 
have been worked. 


138 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


plains of China. The drainage appears to have been irregular and 
shifting, the deposits are variable in form and composition, and 
except in a few localities, widely separated, the coal seams are thin. 
The periods, during which coal accumulation was possible in any 
locality, were usually brief ; but in the northern part of. the San Juan 
Basin, one seam attains the thickness of 100 feet and in the Edmon- 
ton district of Alberta the seams are not only thick but, unlike the 
seam in the San Juan, they yield coal of excellent quality. 

The Fox Hills, underlying the fresh-water Laramie, is recogniz- 
able as a persistent sandstone with intercalated shales and coal 
seams. It resembles a low-lying strand of vast extent, frequently 
invaded for considerable periods by the sea, so that it has an off- 


shore fauna, which is of strangely persistent type. This is passage. 


from the continental conditions of the Laramie to the marine ,con- 
ditions of the Pierre. The coal seams, yielding better fuel than that 
from the Laramie seams, are thin and variable at most localities, 
but at times in considerable areas, some of them become thick and 
of great economic importance. Merely insignificant seams occur in 
the San Juan Basin except at the north, where two, 4 and 12 feet 
thick, are present in the shales immediately overlying the Pictured 
Cliffs sandstone. In the Green River Basin, the Adaville seam has 
a maximum thickness of 84 feet, but the seams become thin east- 
wardly and there are great spaces in which the formation seems to 
be barren. In central and eastern Wyoming as well as in Montana 
and Alberta, only occasional exposures of coal have been reported 
and those are unimportant. In the basins along the eastern foot of 
the Front Ranges in New Mexico, the seams are numerous and 
some horizons are extremely productive along this line of more 
than 300 miles; but the individual seams are variable to the last de- 
gree in thickness and quality, there being many spaces where the 
coal is either wanting or worthless. 

The Pierre at the west and southwest is, for the most part, a 
mass of sandstone and sandy shale; toward the east, it becomes 
shale at top and bottom, while Middle Pierre or Mesaverde persists 
as a wedge of sandstone and shale thinning eastwardly until it be- 
comes replaced wholly with fine shales and irregular limestones. 
This wedge thins away unbroken in Colorado and New Mexico but 


S 
F 
’ 


Se ee ae ee 


ee Ee ee eee ey eee etn 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 139 


‘in Montana it is divided by shales into subordinate wedges, and 
_ these “fingers” disappear toward the east, giving place to marine 


shales. Coal seams are confined to the areas of sandstone and 
shale, there being none in the fine-grained marine shales, which 
extend from the longitude of central Colorado to the eastern border 


of the Cretaceous, except in the sandy strip along the southern 


border in New Mexico. In the sandstone wedges, land and marine 
conditions alternated, the former continuing for long periods at 
many localities, long enough to permit accumulation of thick coal 
seams. At the same time, the distribution of coal is indefinite. 
In the southern basin within New Mexico, the coal seams are im- 


_ portant locally, but they are irregular and there are broad spaces, 
which are altogether barren. The story is similar in the Uinta 


Basin ; coal seams are very numerous in the Mesaverde, but they are 
not persistent ; portions of the column showing workable seams in one 
district are apparently without trace of coal in others. The fea- 
tures are the same in the Green River Basin; an extensive coal field 
in Sweetwater County of Wyoming has many lenses yielding coal 
of excellent quality, but at the same horizons in other counties there 
is either no coal or the seams are mere streaks. Farther east, the 
sandstones thin away and all traces of coal disappear. Elsewhere 
in Wyoming the distribution of coal is certainly capricious; here 
and there one finds a seam thick enough to be digged for local 
supply, but such exposures are separated by intervals of many 
miles. In Montana, coal occurs only in scattered spots, while the 
intervening spaces seem to be barren. Seams of workable coal are 
more numerous in Alberta and the lenses are larger; conditions 
favorable to coal accumulation existed in a large area. But there, 
as in the United States, the sandy coal-bearing formation thinned 
away toward the east and was replaced with shale, in which no coal 
is known. 

The sandy deposits, containing Benton coals, reach only to the 
rogth meridian, aside from an isolated deposit in Colorado near the 
108th. The most westerly localities at which coal has been found 
are in southwestern Utah, where the conditions are not in accord 
with the assertion that coal is present only in association with pre- 
vailingly coarse materials. In those fragmentary fields, the rocks 


140 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


are, in very large part, clays, clay shales and limestones, the last 
serving occasionally as roof or floor to coal seams. The area must 
have embraced not less than 2,000 square miles and its surface must 
have been a broad mud flat during formation of the coal seams. It 
was little above the sea-level. At 50 miles farther east, the condi- 
tions are wholly different, for there the coals are associated with 
sandy deposits, as they are farther north. The relations appear to 
give support to Gilbert’s suggestion, offered more than 40 years ago, 
that the Wasatch Mountains were the source whence the sediments 
were derived. In that case, the conditions would be normal, for 
the sluggish streams, carrying only fine materials, would build up 
merely a mud flood plain, such as one sees at localities along the 
Atlantic coast, on which peat deposits are accumulating. The de- 
posits are largely sandstone in northeastern Arizona, where they 
contain 3 coal seams near the base. Benton rocks in the southern 
part of the San Juan Basin have about 66 per cent. of sandstone 
and have 3 coal seams ; but the sandstone decreases northwardly and 
the coal disappears. The condition is similar in the northern or 
main portion of the basin. 

The Ferron sandstone of Castle Valley, Utah, at eastern base of 
the Wasatch Mountains, contains many and irregular coal seams, of 
which some are locally important; but these are confined to the 
southern part of the valley, where the sandstone is several hundred 
feet thick ; no trace of them remains in the northern portion, where 
the sandstone has become thin. The Frontier sandstone contains 
several seams, yielding excellent coal, in Uinta County of Wyo- 
ming, but farther east the sandstone becomes thin and the coal disap- 
pears. The Bear River formation, of fresh-water origin, has nu- 
merous coal seams but it thins away rapidly toward the east. 

The Kootenai has no coal in the southern portions, the first ap- 
pearance being in the Black Hills region of northeastern Wyoming ; 
there and in the Bighorn Basin of the same state the rocks are 
chiefly sandstone and contain patches of coal, which are sources 
for local supply; but they are far apart in Wyoming as well as in 
Montana, there being coal in only an insignificant part of the ex- 
posed area. In Alberta and the adjacent portion of British Colum- 
bia, the individual seams cover greater areas than in any part of the 


are a es ee 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 141 


United States and the quantity of coal in some fields is enormous, 
_there being 198 feet in the Alberta section of the Crowsnest field. 
But the formation thins eastwardly and it has not been recognized 
in Manitoba. 

_ The distribution of coal in the several formations of the Cretace- 
ous is wholly. similar to that of peat deposits on coastal plains. 

2. Structure and Other Characteristics of the Accompanying 
Rocks—tInformation respecting these topics is lacking for many 
districts but details given by observers in many others are all in ac- 
cord and are sufficient. 

The Wealden sandstones of England contain driftwood and 
often have rippled surfaces; the shales have sun cracks, while lime- 
stone slabs, in many cases, are rippled and are marked by trails. 
Stems of trees, replaced with silica or oxide of iron, abound in the 
rocks between coal seams. Grains of coal are in Wealden sand- 
stones of Westphalia. The Upper Cretaceous of Borneo and 


__ Queensland has grains of coal in the sandstones. In Queensland, 


sun cracks, worm burrows and trails are notable features of the 


_ sandstones, which are cross-bedded at many places. Fragments of 


tree stems, usually Silicified, characterize the sandstones of Queens- 
land, New Zealand and Greenland. 

Many observers report that the Laramie deposits in Colorado 
and Wyoming are extremely irregular, sandstones and shales being 
lenses. In Montana, the sandstones assigned to this formation are 
often cross-bedded, rippled and contain fossil wood. The Fox Hills 
sandstones are much cross-bedded in parts of Colorado and Mon- 
tana. Fossil wood is reported from one locality in southern: Colo- 
rado, where cross-bedding is not uncommon. 

_ The Pierre sandstones show cross-bedded layers in the Cerillos’ 
field, where some of the beds are locally conglomeratic. Cross- 
bedded and rippled sandstones are in the southwestern part of the 
San Juan Basin, and petrified stumps and logs abound at at least 
one locality on the eastern border of the basin. In the Grand Mesa 
portion of the Uinta Basin, the sandstones and shales are so irreg- 
ular in distribution that many times sections, separated by only a 
short interval, are unlike ; cross-bedding in sandstones was observed 
frequently. Within Montana, the sandstones of Electric and Liv- 


142 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


ingston fields are much cross-bedded, while ia Cleveland and Big 
Sandy fields, rippled surfaces were observed and the shales aud 
sandstones are in rude lenses. So also in the Milk River field 
where all deposits are lens-like and the sandstones are cross-bedded. 
In Teton County, the Two-Medicine formation is characterized by 
great irregularity of the deposits and fossil wood abounds ; the Vir- 
gelle (Lower Eagle) sandstone is coarse and cross-bedded. The 
conditions in Alberta are similar; the Belly River sandstones have 
been described as cross-bedded, rippled and marked by trails; the 
same features were observed farther north on Pine River. 

The Benton in New Mexico, has, near the base, the Tres Her- 
manos sandstone, cross-bedded, rippled and locally conglomeratic, 
which persists to the northeastern corner of the San Juan Basin. 
Similar features are recorded in the southwestern part of that basin 
as well as from localities in the Uinta Basin. The Dakota is usually 
more or less cross-bedded and holds local conglomerates. The 
Kootenai of New Mexico is cross-bedded and locally conglomeratic ; 


it is rippled, cross-bedded, locally conglomeratic in the Black Hills, | 


where petrified wood, chiefly cycads, is abundant. The conditions 
are similar in Montana, while in Alberta the same features were 
observed at many localities. 

These features, characterizing the rocks of the several forma- 
tions, indicate deposition in, at most, shallow water, as well as sub- 
sequent exposure to subaérial conditions. The rippling and cross- 
bedding were due to water movements in probably most cases, but 
it is possible that there has been too great readiness to accept this 
mode of origin as almost universally applicable. The writer has 
observed the ripple marks in rocks of several formations and has 
compared them with wind ripples seen by him in the sandy areas in 
the western states and in Russia and Prussia, as well as on broad 
river benches. The resemblance to fossil ripples, seen in many beds, 
is so great that the mode of origin must be the same for both. It 
may be also that some of the “cross-bedding” was due to wind 
action. The complex structure shown in many diagrams is precisely 
that of the zolian limestone of Bermuda and observable more. or 
less distinctly in many dunes; the “current bedding” is clearly due 
to stream action. The presence of tree stumps and logs is evidence 


byte 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 143 


of shallow water and suggests the action of floods, which dropped 
their load on the broad surface, which was exposed during the in- 


tervals between floods. ~~ 


3. The Form of Coal Deposits—Cretaceous coal seams are 
lenses. No statement to this effect occurs in any of the older works, 
as nearly all students, prior to less than 25 years ago, held in a some- 
what hazy way, that coal seams are continuous deposits. Compari- 


son of sections in all fields proves that this conception was errone- 


ous. The Wealden coals of Hannover are local, present in one sec- 
tion, absent in others, and in all cases they have small areal extent. 
There is a rather persistent coal horizon at the base, which seems to 
be made up of overlapping lenses. The Lower Quader has only 
nests of coal, which occasionally become workable; the Hungarian 
coals are well-defined lenses as are those of Queensland; and the 


detailed studies in New Zealand have proved lens form in the great 


The condition in North America is so marked that it has been 
noted by the great majority of observers during later years. Occa- 
sionally, a seam has an area so extensive that the describer is un- 
willing to commit himself as to the form. But it must be remem- 
bered that, even though the lenses have an area of hundreds or thou- 
sands of square miles, the general features are the same with those 
of smaller lenses, united by transgression to form the large one. 

The Laramie coals are in lenses, usually small and thin within 
the United States; the great bed of the Saskatchewan in Alberta 
becomes only a thin deposit of carbonaceous shale in its southern 
extension. The Fox Hills seams are lenses, usually thin or impure, 
but locally important and workable in considerable areas. This 


a feature is noteworthy in all districts along the eastern base of the 
Front Ranges in New Mexico, as well as the southern tier of coun- 


ties of Wyoming. The Middle Pierre (Mesaverde) is probably the 


most productive formation with usually one or more workable 


seams ; but its seams are like those of the newer formations. They 
are variable and uncertain in New Mexico; in the Uinta Basin, west 
from Grand River, portions of the section, containing workable 
coals in one district, are wholly barren in others; east from that 
river the coals are local, important here, unimportant or absent else- 


144 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


where; the Mesaverde coals of Green River Basin attain commer- 
cial importance in only one county; in Montana the lenses are 
usually small and thin; in Alberta, the coals are present in a great 
area, and often workable, but available details merely suggest, they 
do not prove that the seams are lenses. 

Benton coals are present in only a small part of the Cretaceous 
area, but, wherever they have been studied, the lens form is charac- 
teristic. In southwestern Utah, in Castle Valley of that state, in» 
Gunnison Valley of Colorado and in Uinta County of Wyoming, 
they are distinctly lenticular. The Dakota coals are merely insig- 
nificant lenses. The Kootenai is without coal south from northern 
Wyoming. There, within the Black Hills districts, coal lenses of 
typical form are present but they are all small, nowhere embracing 
more than a score of square miles. An occasional lens has been 
found in the Bighorn Basin. The lenses are few and unimportant 
in southwestern Montana; they become numerous and some attain 
workable thickness in Lewistown and Great Falls fields; but in 
Teton County, on the northern border, there are only insignificant 
nests. In Alberta, on the contrary, as well as in the adjacent part 
of British Columbia, the seams are numerous and the quantity of 
coal is enormous. Comparison of sections leaves no room for doubt 
respecting the lenticular form of the seams. 

The lenses ordinarily show increase of foreign matters toward 
the borders, the coal is broken by fine partings and very often it be- 
comes at last merely carbonaceous shale with laminz of coal. Some- 
times the lenses are connected by a stretch of black shale, but com- 
monly no such bond exists and a barren space intervenes. These 
lenses, great and small, are similar to peat deposits on broad river 
plains and even more strikingly to those on coastal plains; at times, 
these are separated by broad spaces, forested; at others they are 
united by carbonaceous muds, while at still others, the peat of sev- 
eral lenses has become continuous by transgression. 

4. Contemporaneous Erosion.—The effects of contemporaneous 
erosion are conspicuous. The curious intermingling of coal and 
débris, observed at one locality in the Loewenberg area of Silesia, 
seems to be explicable only by the supposition that it represents a | 
washed out swamp. The presence of coal grains in sandstone may 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 145 


signify that a coal seam in process of formation was exposed. Local 


_ conglomerates in many sandstones occupy the channelways of rapid 


streams; local-unconformities between sandstone and shale suggest 
changes in direction of drainage. The coal seams themselves ap- 
_ pear to have been subjected to subaérial erosion and to have been 
_ traversed by streams as in modern swamps. “Horsebacks” or 
“rolls” of the roof have been found wherever extensive mining 
operations have been carried on. They mark channel ways of 
varying width and depth, now filled with material like that of an 
overlying deposit; sometimes the material is the same with that 
forming the immediate roof, in which case the stream was probably 
contemporaneous with the bog; but not infrequently the channel- 
Way was excavated after the roof had been deposited. The condi- 
tions are commonplaces in modern deposits. 

5. Soils of Vegetation—Reports on areas of Cretaceous coal in 
North America give few instances where soils of vegetation have 
been observed in the rocks between coal seams. One must not for- 
get, in this connection, that, generally speaking, observers have been 

compelled to depend on natural exposures, which are imperfect, and 

that the work has been done at cost of much personal discomfort. 
But the few illustrations available show that the condition is less 
rare than the record shows. A dense growth of Sphenopteris, in 
place, has been reported from the Wealden of England and a similar 
growth of Equisetum from that of Hannover. A grove of large 
trees exists in the Upper Cretaceous of Queensland, clearly in place 
of growth, where they were buried by drifting sand; an ancient 
soil in New Zealand contains roots in place. The Upper Cretaceous 
of Greenland has bands with ferns, conifers, dicotyledons, erect 
stumps and silicified wood. An old soil was seen on Pine River 
of Alberta in the Lower Kootenai, which contains erect stems, evi- 
dently in the place of growth. 

6. The Roof of Coal Beds—Coal seams may have shale, clay, 
sandstone jor limestone as the roof. In parts of some mines one 
finds shale as roof in one part, but sandstone in others; the varia- 
tion being due, apparently, to local removal of the shale during or 
prior to deposition of the sandstone. It may be marine limestone or 
a detrital deposit containing marine fossils. Occasionally, a parting 


146 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


of marine limestone serves as roof to one bench and as floor to the 
other. These limestones are thin but they are proof of submerg- 
ence, due perhaps to change in course of drainage or to the breaking 
away of a barrier, which protected the swamp from sea-invasion, a 
by no means rare phenomenon on the New England coast. The 
roof is apt to be irregular. 

7. The Coal Seams.—Where succession is undisturbed and depo- 
sition appears to have been continuous, the roof material ordinarily 
becomes more,and more carbonaceous at the base and passes gradu- 
ally into bone or into impure coal, with normal structure, a faux- 
toit. But the transition is abrupt in many cases where no evidence 
of disturbance by erosion is apparent; a condition which leads to 
the suggestion that a suddenly increased influx of mud or fine sand 
ended the bog’s existence. In such cases the contact between coal 
and roof is irregular, defining the bog surface. 

Accumulation of vegetable material was rarely continuous during 
long periods, though there are seams several feet thick, which are 
said to be unbroken by partings of any sort. Commonly, however; 
coal seams are divided into benches by partings of mineral charcoal, 
clay, sand or limestone, which indicate longer or shorter periods of 
interruption. In many cases, this interruption was not complete and 
the parting consists of bone or bony coal, at times closely resembling 
cannel; but when the parting consists of inorganic matter, it is 
proof of at least local cessation. The thickness of partings usually 
varies within narrow limits, but in some cases it is so great as to 
attract the attention of even a casual observer. Czjzek notes the 
thinning away of a considerable interval and the consequent union 
of two important seams, with increased thickness of coal. In the 
Denver Basin, one parting increases from a mere film to 25 feet 
within a few miles; the partings in the Carbonero seam of the San° 
Juan Basin thicken in one direction, so that the great bed, 100 feet 
thick, becomes three, with thicknesses of 7, 30 and 15 feet respec- 
tively, in a vertical space of 200 feet. Taff describes a parting, which 
increases from zero to 16 feet within 2,000 feet, the exposures being 
complete in one mine. The Trinidad seam, 11 feet thick near 
Trinidad, Colorado, becomes 58 feet within 3 miles by thickening 
of the partings. Lee has given details making almost certain that 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 147 


7 coal seams, wholly distinct and separated by thick intervals, unite 
within 4 miles into one, 42 feet thick. Partings contain fossils; 
in southwestern Utah, Lee saw a limestone parting with brackish- 
water forms; at another locality a seam with marine limestone as 
roof and floor has a parting with fresh-water fossils. Clay partings 
frequently have remains of plants. 

Benches of coal beds seams often differ so much as to make cer- 
tain that conditions were not the same during the several periods of 
accumulation. One bench may yield caking, and another may con- 
sist of non-caking coal; in one, the ash may be unimportant while 
another may be so dirty as to be worthless; one may thin away to 
disappearance while others overlap it. Details respecting the 
benches are given only for districts where mining operations are 
on large scale, but enough is known to justify the old method of 
regarding benches as separate coal seams. 

In a general way, Cretaceous coals vary from massive to lami- 
nated, the latter with alternating bright and dull laminz—and these 
types are found throughout the whole section. Ordinarily, woody 
structure is not apparent to the naked eye, but it is distinct in many 
places. The Upper Cretaceous coal of Silesia is xyloid; a seam of 
Moorkohle is near Mahrens-Trubau ; the coal of the Boulder District 
is almost as xyloid as the Eocene coals of the Dakotas; it contains 
logs, carbonized, jetified or silicified. Most of the Wealden coal in 
Hannover is black and apparently without woody structure, but in 
the same section with the black coal one finds lignitic brown coal and 
even Blatterkohle, the latter being an accumulation of leaves and not 
related to the Blatterkohle of the lower Rhine region. . 

Few notes are available respecting microscopic structure of Cre- 
taceous coals. v. Giimbel’** studied only jet from Raschwitz in 
Silesia and coal from the Wealden of Hannover. Woody structure 
is well-preserved in the former; the latter contains numerous 
remains of leaves with clumps of wood cells and bark parenchyma, 
all easily recognized. Thiessen**® examined coal from the Denver 
Basin, probably Fox Hills. So close is the resemblance to that 


145 C. W. v. Giimbel, Sitzb. bay. Akad. Wiss., 1883, Math.-Phys. Kl. L, 


‘PP. 157, 160. 
146 R. Thiessen, “ The Origin of Coal,” pp. 241-245. 


148 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS, 


from the Eocene of Montana and Dakota that he believes the general 
conditions during accumulation were similar. Woody parts are 


more compressed in the older coal, but the canals of wood fibers are. 


well shown and appear to be filled with resin. Resins form a large 
part of the mass, while spores and pollen exines compose not more 
than 5 to 10 per cent.; the “fundamental matrix” or binding ma- 
terial is derived, as in lignite, from cellulosic substances ; all grada- 
tions are present from fibers to a homogeneous mass. The fibers 
are mostly xylum elements of plants, but whether of trees, shrubs or 
herbs is not always determinable. 

8. The Floor of Coal Seams——The floor may be clay, sandy or 
clayey shale, sandstone or limestone. Occasionally the transition 
from coal to floor seems to be abrupt, but in most cases there is a 
faux-mur. Even where this seems to be wanting, the basal part of 
the coal is, in most cases, higher in ash than that above; frequently 
the faux-mur is bone and occasionally it resembles the “ coarse coal” 
of the Carboniferous. Limestone floors have been reported only 
from southwestern Utah, where they contain marine fossils. Bulg- 
ing floors have been reported from many localities. They are due 
in some instances to irregularity of the surface on which the coal 
accumulated ; in the Boulder District, petty swales were numerous, 
in which accumulation began and afterward crossed the low divides— 
after the manner so familiar in recent peat deposits. But “rolls” 
in the floor often mark the courses of streams crossing the swamp 
in its earlier stages. 3 

American reports contain few references to the presence of roots 
in the floor; two notes have been given for the Trinidad-Raton area 
and D. White recognized characteristic underclays with roots in the 
Boulder District. But the scantiness of references in detailed 


reports indicates merely that the reporter did not look for the roots; . 


Lesquereux,'*? long ago, asserted that most of the underclays are 
full of roots or rootlets: He visited exposures in the Raton Moun- 
tains, Canyon City, Golden, Marshall in Colorado and Black Buttes 
in Wyoming; at most localities, he found the shale containing such 
abundance of roots that these seemed to be a compact mass. 


1477, Lesquereux, “On Formation of the Lignite Beds of the Rocky 
Mountains,” Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. VIL, 1874, p. 30. 


=i 
7 ¥ 
> ee ol 


STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 149 


The presence of roots in the floor is apparently the ordinary 
condition in much of Europe. Rzehak*® says that the Wealden 
coals of Hannover are-distinctly autochthonous, there being root- 
stocks in most of the underclays. Grand’ Eury?* states that he 
had found roots in the floor of Cretaceous coal at many places. At 
la Liguisse and les Gardies in the Causses there dre many roots in 
place under the seam mined there. The Middle Cretaceous at St. 
Paulet shows roots in the marly mur of some coal seams; these he 
Says are in place for some of them cross leaves of dicotyledons lying 
flat in the rock. In his later paper, he reports that, at Sarladais, 
roots in the mur give rise to stems. Similar conditions were seen 
in the Upper Cretaceous at Valdonne. 

9. The Fauna.—Fresh-water forms predominate in the Laramie, 
the Judith River, the Bear River and occur occasionally in other 
formations; but for the most part the Cretaceous fauna is marine. 
Discussion of the faunas as such has no place here, but reference 
to some features is necessary. 

The Lower Colorado fauna is characteristic throughout the whole 
region from western Utah to the eastern border; it is present in the 

_ limestone roof and floor of coal seams as well as in the occompany- 
ing shales and in the coal-bearing sandstones of Utah. The Pierre 
fauna abounds in the fine shales and occasional limestones, but it 
abounds equally in the Middle Pierre (Mesaverde) sandstones of 
New Mexico, where it is found in profusion at several horizons. 
The fauna is practically the same, be the rock sandstone or shale. 
The depth of water in western Utah was not great, for coal beds are 
numerous, one of them having a parting with fresh-water mollusks, 
though the roof and floor are marine limestone. The character of 
the rock and the numerous coal seams make the condition equally 
clear for the Mesaverde of New Mexico. The marine faunas give 
no support to the opinion that deep-sea conditions existed anywhere, 
but they make probable that the body of water, covering at times 
the greatest part of the Cretaceous area, was a very shallow sea. 
Fineness of sediments, in general, may be taken as indicating dis- 
tance from the source of supply. 

148 A. Rzehak, Zeitsch. f. pr. Geologie, Vol. XXII., 1914, p. 8. 


149C. Grand’ Eury, Autun, 1902, p. 127; C. R., t. CXXXVIII., 1904, 
660, 741. 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, K, MAY 20, I917. 


150 STEVENSON—INTERRELATIONS OF FOSSIL FUELS. 


10. The Flora—tThe Cretaceous coals are usually so far ad- 
vanced in conversion as to give little information respecting the 
plants by which they were formed. Knowledge of the flora of the 
period is derived from fragmentary material found in the rocks; 
that has been transported, it represents mostly the upland vegeta- 
tion and tells nothing about the swamp plants. In the United States 
and Canada, the coals are often rich in resins, indicating that coni- 
fers entered largely into their composition; such wood as has been 
recognized seems to confirm this conclusion. Cycads were abundant 
locally during the Kootenai but conifers and dicotyledons were pre- 
dominant during the Upper Cretaceous, when ferns and lycopods 
appear to have been subordinate. Memoirs on European coals, 
consulted by the writer, usually contain little information upon the 
subject. Wood, fully recognizable, is present in the Upper Cre- 
taceous coal of the Loewenberg region, but in the Grtinbach coal, no 
structure is shown, though the stems and branches retain their form. 
The Wealden of Hannover contains abundance of conifers, cycads, 
lycopods and ferns; the plant remains in coal must be distinct there. 
Dunker thinks that the “ black coal” of that region was derived from 
lycopods and ferns, because they are the only forms found in it; the 
lignitic brown coal is largely of conifer origin, as the stems occur- 
ring in it resemble Pinus. | 

11. Chemical Relations—Discussion of the chemical relations 
of Cretaceous coals must be deferred until the older coals have been 
studied ; but it may be well to call attention to some matters. 

Like the Tertiary coals and some peats, these coals are resinous 
in many districts. Cannel is present at several horizons, with all 
features which mark the sapropels or Lebertorfs of later times. The 
carbon content is higher than that of Tertiary coals, but progressive 
enrichment with increasing age is less marked. In the Fox Hills 
the extremes of carbon are 73 and 84; in the Pierre, 71 and 84; in 
the Benton, 77 and 83, and in the Kootenai, 75 and 85. No note 
has been taken here of metamorphosed coals; anthracite is present 
at several horizons. No ultimate analyses of the Laramie coal are 
available and there are very few of the Kootenai. The variations 
are small compared with those in the Tertiary. In the Cretaceous 
as in the Tertiary, not all accumulations of vegetable materials had 


151 


of Sepicienentt before burial ; the minimum 
below 73, but there are seams with only 
is well marked in Hannover, where the 
s 89 per t. of carbon, the brown coal, 73, while the 
almost ‘unchanged—the several types occurring in 


THE NAMES TROYAN AND BOYAN IN OLD RUSSIAN. 


By J. DYNELEY PRINCE. 
(Read April 14, 1917.) 


The famous old Russian epic “ The Tale of the Armament of Igor” 
(1185 A.D.), relating in striking form the exploits of the hosts of the 
ancient Russian Prince Igor Svyatoslavi¢, has been ably edited and 
translated by Leonard A. Magnus, LL.B. (Oxford University Press, 
1915). The majority of the allusions in this poem are more or less 
clear historically, but the obscure references to Troyan and Boyan 
have been a matter of scientific discussion for over a century. The 
following brief exposition. of this question may perhaps throw 
some additional light on the problem. 

There are four references in the Igor-text to Troyan (cited by 
Magnus, p. xlix) : . 

1. In the invocation to Boyan (lines 59 ff.), stating how Boyan 
might have sung on the subject treated by the author of the 
Igor epic: 


O Béyane soloviju starogo vremeni1 O Boyan, nightingale of ancient times, 


aby ty sia polki uséekotal had’st thou but warbled these hosts, 
skaéa slaviyu po myslenu drevu leaping, O nightingale, through the 
letaya umom pod oblaki tree of thought, 

svivaya slavy oba flying in mind beneath the clouds, 
poly sego vrement interweaving the glories of both 
risca v tropu Troyanyu halves of this time, 

éres pola naé gory rushing on the path of Troyan 


through the plains to the hills! 


2. A reference to past events in connection with Troyan, lines 


209 ff.: 


Byli véci (or séci) Tréyani There have been the ages (or bat- 
minula létéd Yardslavlya tles) of Troyan; 
byli polct OP govy | past are the years of Yaroslav; 


there have been the armies of Oleg. 


1 The system of transliteration herein adopted is based on the Croatian 
method, save that the Old Russian hard sign is indicated by ‘, and the soft 
sign by ’. 


152 


i yer war OS ee 


PRINCE—TROYAN AND BOYAN IN OLD RUSSIAN. 153 


3. Reference to the land of Troyan, lines 288 ff.: 


Vzstala obida Arose scandal 

v silach Daz"boga vnuka~ in the forces of Dazbog’s offspring; 
vstupila dévoyu stepped like a maiden 

na zémlyu Tréyanyu on the land of Troyan. 


4. Allusion to the period of Troyan, lines 569 ff.: 


Na sed’mém vécé Tréyant In the seventh age of Troyan, 
vrze Vseslév srebii Vseslav cast lot 
o dévicyu sebé lyubu for a maiden dear to him. 


It seems clear from the above four allusions that “Troyan” 
was used as the name of a country, thus: (1) the path of T.—the 
historical course of T.; (2—4) the “ages,” probably not “ battles” 
of T.; (3) land of T.; which settles the geographical sense. It is 
impossible to imagine that Troyan was a person from the above 
allusions.” 

That the atithor of the Igor-Slovo* meant his own country 
“Russia” by “Troyan” seems quite evident, and this view has 
been advanced by many authorities, among them Magnus himself 
(op. cit., p. xlix), who notes, in connection with allusion No. 4 (see 
above), that there were just seven generations between the Scan- 
dinavian Rurik (Hr6rekr), the founder of the first Russian dy- 
nasty, and the prince Vseslav herein mentioned. Such a deduc- 
tion is comparatively easy, so far as the historical application of 
the term “ Troyan” is concerned, but the problem as to the actual 
meaning of the term, apart from its application in the Slovo, is much 
more involved. Magnus (op. cit., pp. L-liii) cites five of the most 
generally held views, viz., (1) Troyan indicates some district out- 
side of Russia; a view held only by few scholars; (2) Weltmann’s 
opinion that “Troyan” should be read Krayan “borderland;” 
(3) “Troyan” is derived from the Roman emperor’s name Trajan; 

2 The idea that Troyan was a divine person seems to have prevailed only 
in some of the later Slavonic myths (Louis Leger, “ Mythologie Slave,” p. 
125), but this is probably an association with the Emperor Trajan, and not 
with the evidently geographical Troyan of the Slovo. 

8 The full title is: Slovo o p'lku Igorevé, Igorya Svyat‘slavlica vnuka, 


“Narrative of the Expedition of Igor, of Igor son of Svyatoslav,” grandson 
of Oleg. 


154 PRINCE—TROYAN AND BOYAN IN OLD RUSSIAN, 


(4) Troyan= Trojan, embodying the Russian tradition of Homer; 
and (5) Troyan was the transferred name of an ancient Slavonic 
pagan deity.” : 

Discussing these theories briefly, it should be noted that there is 
no evidence that the Troyan of our Slovo was other than a poetical 
name for Russia in its application by the poet. The fact that there 
is to-day a place called Troyan in Bulgaria and a Troyan near 
Smolensk, etc., is no proof that these localities are named from the 
same-stem as the Troyan of the Slovo, which distinctly includes all 
the Russia of that day. Furthermore, the change of text, sug- 
gested by Weltmann, may be summarily dismissed as being too arbi- . 
trary (thus, also Magnus, p. 1). 

It is highly likely that we have in the name “Troyan” a mix- 
ture of philological traditions, 7. e., that it is a combination-reproduc- 
tion of the Roman “Trajan” and the Greek “ Trojan,” both which 
opinions are indicated above. In this supposed compound tradi- 
tion, the Greek element must be regarded as predominating. Mag- 
nus cites (p. 1, from Sederholm) a bylina* of the reign of Cath- 
erine II., in which there is a direct allusion to the road of the em- 
peror Trajan (na dorége na Traydnovoi), containing the a vowel 
(cf. also Magnus, loc. cit. on the miracle of Pope Clement), but the 
forms Troyan tsar’ Yermalanskii (—rimlyanskii “ Roman”) occur 
in south Russian documents, and, moreover, there are other evi- 
dences of the Trajan tradition in northern and eastern Slavonic 
lore. This fact, in itself, is not sufficient, however, to account for 
the evident use of “Troyan,” to indicate ancient Russia. Magnus 
holds (p. 1) that “Troyan” is derived from the numeral three 
(tréye), referring to the three Scandinavian brothers Rurik, Sineus 
and Truvor,> who founded Russia (Nestor 6370). Such an idea 
seems rather far-fetched, as Troyan is often used as a nickname for 
the third son, similarly to Latin Tertius, Decimus, etc. But there is 

4 The term bylina indicates the Russian folk-tale, of which thousands are 
still in existence, usually in rude meter. These productions are nearly always 
intoned in chant-form (Rimsky-Korsakov, “ Chants Nationaux Russes,” Part 
I, 1876). 

4 A names Rurik and Truvor are Slavonianisms, respectively, from Old 


Norse Hroérekr and Thorvardr (guardian of the gate). Many Old Russian 
names are pure Scandinavian (cf. Magnus, p. viii). 


‘ewer ey Bon] 


PRINCE—TROYAN AND BOYAN IN OLD RUSSIAN. 155 


no historical evidence that Rurik was the third brother of the triad. 
In fact, in the legend, he always occupies the first place.® 

It is much more probable that we have in the “ Troyan” of the 
Slovo no distinctive Slavonic legend at all, but rather, as already in- 
dicated, the mixed tradition of the Roman “ Trajan” and the Hel- 
lenic Homer. To this Magnus objects that the “landlocked state 
of medizval Russia” could hardly have imported very much of this 
(Greek) tradition, as the road to Constantinople was blocked by 
Polovtsi and Bulgars, and the Catholic powers of the northwest 
were all hostile. Magnus forgets, however, that the inherent tradi- 
tion of the early Russian church was essentially Greek. Early 
metropolitans of Kiev, down to the period of the Mongol invasion, 
were usually Greeks who had been consecrated at Constantinople. 
The first important Russian metropolitan, who established the es- 
sentially Russian character of the church and nations, was St. Peter 
(1308-1328) of Vladimir. It is highly interesting in this connec- 
tion to note that, in the first half of the twelfth century, a Russian 
writer excused himself before his sovereign for not having studied 
Homer, when he was young! The Chronicler of Volhynia (1232) 
cites a verse attributed to Homer, which has not been retained in 
our current version. Literate Russians of this period were evi- 
dently familiar with the tale of the Trojan war through the works of 
Tryphiodore, Kolouthos, etc. (Rambaud, “La Russie Epique,” p. 
408). 

It is well known from Russian records that the father of Mono- 
makh, Vsévolod, who had never been in foreign lands, knew no less 
than five languages. In the Slovo itself (lines 353-4) we read: tu 


greci i mordva poyit slavu Svyatéslawlyu “here the Greeks and 
-Moravians sing the glory of Svyatoslav,” showing that the author 
_ knew something about the Greeks. 


In connection with the work of the Columbia University Slavonic 
Department, Dr. Clarence A. Manning has collected a number of 
possible Homeric and other Greek parallels with the Slovo, which 
show a very decided Hellenic influence on the formation of this poem; 


® Note that in the year 862, Rurik as leader of the Variags ( Varangians) 
was invited to defend the northern Russian princes. 


156 PRINCE—TROYAN AND BOYAN IN OLD RUSSIAN. 


they are incorporated herewith together with Dr. Manning’s com- 
ments, as throwing an interesting light on the problem. 

Slovo, 11: “as a gray wolf” ==II., x, 334: aodds ddxos. Slovo 
12: “as a dusky eagle” —I1L., xxi, 252: alerod-uéXavos. 

Manning compares also the passage already cited above of the 
invocation of the poet Boyan, with Euripides, Helena, 1107 ff.; 
“thee who hast a tuneful seat in the leafy halls, thee I invoke, thee, 
most musical bird, mournful nightingale, come, O associate of my 
laments, trilling through thy tawny throat,” etc. The resemblance 
between this passage and the Igor-lines is very striking, although, 
as Manning points out, it is doubtful whether Euripides was actually 
invoking Homer. 

Slovo, 74: “offspring of Veles” (the ancient Slavonic cattle 
god) ; Theocritus, xxiv, 105, states that Linus, a mythical poet, was 
the son of Apollo. Slovo, 84: “swift horses” =II., viii, 88; @oal 
LT7TrOl. ; 

Slovo, 175: “the winds, scions of Stribog ” == Odyss., x, 1 ff.: 
“the winds, the sons of ALolus.” 

Slovo, 186-189: “the mad children blocked the fields with their 
shouting, but the brave Russians barred them with their crimsoned 
shields.” With this, cf. Slovo, 435: “for these without shields 
with hunting-knives conquer the hosts by their shouting,” and con- 
trast Il., iii, 2-9: “The Trojans went with a shout and cry like 
birds, tte the cry of cranes against the sky.” 

Slovo, 224: “To the Judgment Seat” (na sud) ; prebidls of 
Christian origin. 

Slovo, 238: “ (Russia) the scion of Dazbog’’? seems to point to 
the Russians being a chosen people; an idea probably of Biblical 
origin, through the Biblical Greek. 

Slovo, 374: “in my golden-roofed hall;” clearly a translation 
of the Byzantine xpycoxépapos. 


Slovo, 479: “On thy gold forged throne ;” cf. Euripides, Phoen., — 


220: xpucdrevkTos. 


7 Dazbog, the rain or storm god, was probably the Russian equivalent of 
the Scandinavian Thor, who was the patron of the warlike Scandinavian 
founders of Russia (see above, note 5). 

8 The meaning of these lines is very obscure. 


\ 


TR a 


PRINCE—TROYAN AND BOYAN IN OLD RUSSIAN. 157 


Slovo, 546-548: “the birds, O Prince, have been covering thy 
host with their wings and the wild beasts have been licking at their 
blood ;” cf. Il, I.,-4=5: “they made them a spoil for the dogs, a 
feast for the birds of prey.” 

In the Greek legend, Achilles was early associated with the 
Euxine and especially with the island of Leuke at the mouth of the 
Danube. Here he lived after death with Helen as his consort, 
along with other heroes. Leonymos of Croton was the first to sail 
thither to be cured of his wound by Ajax, and Helen told him to 
go to Stesichoros and say that she was angry at him for making 
her, in his poetry, elope with Paris (Pausanias, III., 19, 11-13) ; cf. 
Eurip. Andr., 1260 ff. Further east at the mouth of the Borysthenes 
(Dniepr), there was another island sacred to Achilles (Axcd)qios 
Spduos) mentioned by Herod, iv, 53; Strabo, vii, 307. Achilles 
also had a temple at Olbia (Dio. Chrys., xxxvi, 439 ff.). Further- 
more, in the Crimea, there was a temple in which Iphigenia, daugh- 
ter of Agamemnon, was placed by Artemis as priestess with the 
duty of sacrificing strangers (Her., iv, 103; Pausanias, I., 43, 1). 
' This may have been connected with the account of the Scythian 
snake goddess (Her., iv, 9). We should-note also that the maiden 
was one of the most important deities in the Chersonese (Minus, 
Greeks and Scythians, p. 543). She is probably identical with the 
Dévica, Slovo, 571. Helen is the symbol of discord also in the 
systems of St. Irenzeus and the Gnostics (Rambaud, op. cit., p. 413). 

There is every probability that Obida “discord” and Devica 
“the maiden” of the Slovo represent the legend of Helen, child 
of the swan. Such legends could easily have been carried in a 
Byzantine form to the Russians by the ecclesiastics, in spite of their 
“landlocked” state in this early period, for the church was already 
there, as amply demonstrated in the Slovo. The objection that 
some aspects of this legend may have been inherent among the 
Slavonic tribes on the north shore of the Black Sea, and that the 
Greeks themselves may have borrowed some of their material, does 
not carry much weight, as the Slovo indications are too markedly 
Hellenic to admit of such a view. 

The question remains to be solved, as to why the early Russians 


158 PRINCE—TROYAN AND BOYAN IN OLD RUSSIAN. 


applied the term “ Trojan” ==“ Troyan” to their own country and 
people. This use must have been suggested by the similarly sound- 
ing name Boyan, the legendary Slavonic poet, whose name appears 
only in the Igor-Slovo and there only six times (cf. Magnus, op. cit., 
xlvi). The allusions are as follows: 


(1) Line 6: “according to the invention of 
po zamyslenivu Béoyanyu Boyan.” i 

(2) Lines 8 ff.: chotyase pésn’ tvoriti, etc. 
Boyan bo véséii asée komu Boyan, the seer, when for anyone 


he wished to make a song, etc. 


(3) Lines 59-66: See above under the allusions to Troyan (1), where 
Boyan is described as “ rushing on the path of Troyan.” 


(4) Line 74: O Wizard Boyan, scion of Veles! 
Veséeit Béoyane Vélesov vnuce 

(5) Lines 605-611: To him, O seer Boyan, 
Tomu véscei (Béyane) the first refrain ; 
i pervoe pripévku with thought thou didst speak: 
smysleny rece: neither the crafty one, nor the ex- 
ni pticyu ni gub’cyus perienced, 
ni pticyu ni gub’cyus nor a bird, nor a minstrel(?) 
suda Bodziya ne minuti can escape God’s judgment. 

(6) Lines 745-747: Boyan has told of the raids 
Reée Boyan i chody of Svyatoslav against the Kogan: 
Svyattslavy na Kogana: the songmaker am I of olden time. 


pésnotvor’c az starago vremeni 


Magnus (pp. xlvi ff.) gives the chief opinions regarding Boyan; 
viz., (1) that Boyan is a common Bulgarian name, citing the quota- 
tion by Paucker of tales of a Tsarévich Boyan Simenovich. That 
our Boyan is connected with this legendary being is extremely un- 
likely, as there is no evidence that this Bulgarian Boyan was a 
noted poet. In fact, the Bulgarian name is probably an echo of our 
Boyan. (2) Boyan has been found in some of the later lists of 
pagan Slavonic deities. This use of Boyan is probably a mere 
deification of the poet mentioned in the Slovo. (3) Dubenski 
mentions a hymn of Boyan of Bus, in which the instructor of Boyan 
gives his name as a descendant of the Slovenes, the son of Zlogor, 


PRINCE—TROYAN AND BOYAN IN OLD RUSSIAN. 159 


_ the long-lived minstrel of ancient tales. This hymn, as Dubenski 
points out, is of untrustworthy character, but in my opinion it em- 
bodies the-tradition of the poet Boyan of the Slovo. (4) Magnus 
follows Weltmann’s view, that Boyan is a contraction of some such 
phrase as rece bo Yan “then Yan spake,” referring to the Yan men- 
tioned by Nestor, as an aged man of ninety years, from whom the 
chronicler learned many legends. It is highly unlikely that so per- 
sistent a name as Boyan could be the result of such a contraction, 
as the nature of the particle bo was perfectly well known to chron- 
iclers and copyists and it is improbable that it could have appeared in 
a fortuitous contraction without the knowledge even of an unintelli- 
gent copyist or recorder. Magnus seeks to show that the Yan al- 
luded to by Nestor was born in the reign of Vladimir I. (1015 A. D.) 
and that he was a writer and took an active part in all the events of 
his day. In this way, he thinks, this Yan might well be described 
as “rushing on the path of Troyan”—“ Russia.” But surely no 
person, even in a life-time, no matter how long, could earn the 
right to be mentioned as covering the entire history of a nation. 
And yet this is how our Boyan of the Slovo is treated. Further- 
more, there is no evidence that this Yan, although he was a writer, 
was a bard of such distinction as our Boyan is claimed to be in the 
above allusions to him in the Slovo, whose writer evidently regards 
Boyan as the one great poet of the world. 

The most characteristic point about Boyan is the statement that 
he was a seer and, above all, a poet-singer, which naturally suggests 
the derivation of the name from bayat’ “ speak, relate” (from which 
we also have basn’ fable). This is the opinion of Vyazemski and, 
_ I believe, the most reasonable theory in view of the apparent im- 
possibility of other derivations of the name.. Boyan has been vari- 
ously derived from boiti—vesti boi “fight; carry on a fight”; and 
boydt’sya “to fear,” neither of which roots seem to agree with the 
character of Boyan. It is highly probable that the name Boyan 
was a term deliberately applied to the function of this legendary 
person rather than a proper name of arbitrary meaning which hap- 
pened to be the name of a poet. We may assume this to be the case, 
owing to the undoubted Hellenic influence seen in the Slovo and 


160 PRINCE—TROYAN AND BOYAN IN OLD RUSSIAN. 


discussed above under Troyan. The ancient Slavonic world 
abounded in singers similar to the Celtic bards and the Scandinavian 
skalds, and, granted a word Boyan-Bayan =“ singer, poet, sayer,” 
already existing in the popular language, the author of the Slovo 
probably introduced the Troyan-epithet, to indicate Russia by as- 
sonance with Boyan. Boyan was for the author of the Slovo the 
poet par excellence, who had given the ancient norm of Russian 
song, the traditions regarding whom are unknown to the modern 
world. It is highly likely, therefore, that Troyan—having in itself 
a basis of “Trojan” with a possible superimposition of the later 
“Trajan” influence—was used for the country, of which the then 
known Boyan sang, 7. e., of Russia. Even if it be supposed that 
Boyan was Magnus’s somewhat dubious Yan, the principle of asso- 
ciation remains the same; viz., it was necessary to have behind the 


Slavonianized Hellenic influence of the Slovo poem some poet- 


name—and a name in assonance with Troyan would naturally 
suggest itselfi—so that, in a sense, our Boyan is really an echo of 
Homer himself, although perhaps not consciously Homer in the 
mind of the author of the Slovo. Vyazemski held that Boyan was 
unequivocally Homer, but it is not necessary to imagine that the 
ancient author of the Slovo had so direct a tradition, in order to 
account for the divine Boyan, who is especially made the descendant 
of the essentially Slavonic Veles, the god of cattle. 


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SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 
(Read April 14, 1917.) 
I 


DYNAMICAL ASPECTS 
By ARTHUR GORDON WEBSTER. 


In opening this symposium I can undertake to do no more 
_ than explain, in a most elementary way, the dynamical principles 
upon which artificial flight depends. It is difficult to do this with- 
out the use of differential equations, which would be out of place 
in a popular discussion, so that my treatment must confine itself 
to the merest outline. We must distinguish at the outset between 
aeronautics properly so-called, in which we have to do with airships, 
that is apparatus possessing natural sustentation through the buoy- 
ancy of the air displaced, which is at least as heavy as the airship, ~ 
and aviation, which is the operation of apparatus that has no nat- 
ural sustentation or buoyancy, being heavier than the displaced air, 
and, like a bird, possessing sustentation only when in motion. Un- 
fortunately we have no generic term for the latter apparatus, cor- 
responding to the recently coined French word “ avion,” and we are 
obliged to make use of the word aéroplane, although the term plane 
is not always accurate. While the principle of Archimedes, namely 
that a body is buoyed up with a force equal to the weight of the 
displaced fluid, this force acting at a point coincident with the center 
of mass of the fluid displaced, is sufficient for the study of the equi- 
_ librium of the airship, totally different principles are involved in 
_ connection with the aéroplane. 
The first principle that we shall use is that of relative motion 
_ of the aéroplane and the air. It will be admitted that the forces 
_ involved are the same whether, as in the case of the kite, the ob- 
a ject is at rest and the air in motion, or as in the case of the aéro- 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, L, JUNE I5, 1917. 


162 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


plane the air is at rest and the object in motion in the direction 
opposite to that of the preceding case. We also notice that in both 
cases three forces are involved, first, the weight of the object, second, 
the action of the wind on the plane, and third, the pull of the kite- 
string or the thrust of the propeller. I may also say that it makes 
no difference whether the propeller pushes from behind, as in the 
first aéroplanes, or pulls from in front, as is now usually the case. 

Since the time of Newton it has been known that the force of 
the wind on the plane is proportional to the square of the relative 
velocity, since it is proportional to the momentum destroyed in a 
given time, and this is proportional, for a given mass, to its velocity, 
while the mass arriving is again proportional to the velocity, so 
that the square is accounted for. Finally the influence of the angle 
made by the wind with the surface of the plane, the so-called angle 
of attack, must be known. We may assume that wind blowing 
tangent to a surface will slide along without exerting any force on 
it, although the action of the wind in supporting a flag shows that 
this is not so. But the wing of an aeroplane is made so smooth that 
for practical purposes we may neglect the tangential drag, and as- 
sume that the force is at right angles or normal to the plane. Ac- 
cording to Newton, who treated the air like a stream of particles 
impinging on the plane, the force would have been proportional to 


the square of the sine of the angle of attack, but we now know 
through the many series of experiments that have been made by 
Langley and others, that this law is not correct, and that it is much 
more nearly proportional to- the first power of the sine. The dif- 
ference is made apparent in Fig. 1, in which the vertical height of 
a point denotes the force, the horizontal distance the angle of at- 


tack of the plane, for both laws. We see that for small angles the 


WEBSTER—DYNAMICAL ASPECTS. 163 


iw gives a much more rapid increase of force than the sine- 
, Which is a very important point in practice. 
ide the force at right angles to the plane the current tends 
the plane abou srtain axis, as we see if we drop a card 
ts-tong dir ension horizontal. In falling it turns over and 
nif started with its surface horizontal. This turning 
ay be explained if we draw the stream-lines, which show 
h point the direction of flow of the air. It is a proposition 
rnoulli, that where the flow is fast the pressure is small, 


: ‘ it is slow the pressure is great. In Fig. 2 where the 


d by a single force R applied at a point P called the center 
not at the center of the plane, the position of P wee 
y to the angle of attack. 

ch Ncittiensatical skill has been expended to determine the 


er of pressure. Curiously enough if the air acts like a per- 
, and does not form vortices, it can be shown that there 


there are surfaces where the motion is discontinuous, on 
g which we pass from fluid that is moving to fluid that is at 
noving less rapidly, the forces can be accounted for. Kirch- 
y years ago treated such motions, and Sir George Green- 


164 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


hill has followed him in working out a great number of cases with 
great skill. In Fig. 3 we see the flow past a cambered wing, with 
stream-lines continuous in Fig. a, causing no pressure, and in Fig. b 
with the stream splitting along the dotted line, part going up and 


Fic. 3a. 


part down, with discontinuity along the lines AB, CD, between 
which the fluid is comparatively at rest. From this assumption of 
the flow it is possible to calculate the thrust and the turning. But 
even this assumption about the flow is not true in practice, but 
the air forms vortices, which cause a calculation to be still more 


Fic. 3b. 


difficult. Accordingly it becomes necessary to determine the laws 
of pressure by actual experiments on small scale models in wind 
tunnels, such as those of M. Eiffel in Paris, Professor Prandtl in 
Gottingen, Professor Joukowsky in Moscow, or that at the Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology used by Mr. Hunsaker in his ex- 
periments. In all these cases a steady stream of air is caused to 
flow through the tunnel by means of a blower, and the model is 
hung in the wind upon balances. which enable the forces, their 
points of application and direction to be carefully measured for all 
angles of attack. We may expect in the next few years to see many 
such wind-tunnels constructed in this country, and large increases 
made in our experimental knowledge. 


a 


WEBSTER—DYNAMICAL ASPECTS. 165 


_ Suppose we now know the law of the force exerted by the air 


Be eattent on the plane, and the position of the center of pressure. 
4 We have now to apply an elementary principle of equilibrium of 
_ figid bodies.—If a body is submitted to the action of three forces 
_ the lines of action of these forces must pass through a common 
point. Thus if we consider a single plane supporting a machine, 
_ with the resultant pressure R, Fig. 4, with weight W concentrated 
_ at the center of gravity of the whole machine G, the thrust of the 
_ propeller D, which is nearly horizontal, must pass through the in- 
_ tersection of R and W. The second principle is that if we draw 
lines representing by their length and direction the three forces in 


Fic. 4. Fic. 5. 


question, these lines must form a closed triangle, Fig. 5. Thus 
knowing the weight W, we may find D, the thrust required from 
the motor, as well as R, the force required, and a the angle of 
attack. 

I shall illustrate the preceding principles by a very simple ex- 
periment, which I think well shows all the leading ideas involved 


ee in the dynamics of the aéroplane. I have here a heavy card fastened 
bya hook at the middle of one side to this rubber cord. I now need 
_ a very brave assistant, whom I request to hold the end of the rub- 
_ ber cord at the height of his shoulder. I strongly stretch the 


cord, holding the card in my hand, both card and string being hori- 


_ zontal. We are thus in a position to perform the Wilhelm Tell 
_ €xperiment, with the apparent probability that, since there are ab- 
_ Solutely no upward forces present, the card will cut Walther’s head 
_ off. On releasing the card you see that no such thing happens, 


but the card soars several feet above my assistant’s head, although 


the cord is actually pulling down all the time. The reason is that 


166 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


on release the card immediately tips downward behind, and as it. 
goes ahead with great velocity receives more than enough upthrust, 
for its own sustentation, and is actually able to rise, although pulled 
down by the string. . 

I come now to perhaps the most important dynamical aspect of 
aviation, that is the question of stability of flight. Stability of equi- 
librium is a familiar notion, and exists when a system, if displaced, 
tends to return to its former position, generally performing small 
oscillations about it which die away, leaving it in its equilibrium 
position. Thus a pea at the bottom of a bowl is in stable equi- 
librium, but on top of a sphere, though in equilibrium, is unstable, 


Fic. 6. Fic. 6a. 


because if slightly displaced it will not return, but will roll off. 
Stability of motion may be similarly defined. If an aéroplane is in 
flight, and is slightly displaced in position or direction, will it tend 
to resume its position or will it tend to leave it more and more? 
Consider what happens when it tips forward and downward. If 
the center of pressure moves forward when the angle of attack is 
less it will tend to turn: the plane backward, so as to resume its 
former position. So far then the motion is stable. As it tips 
forward the angle of attack becomes smaller, the sustaining force 
becomes less, and the aéroplane sinks, but when tipped back again 
it rises once more. Thus the path oscillates about a horizontal line. 
But a rigid body has six ways of moving: forward and back, side- 
wise right and left, and vertically up and down, making three, to- 
gether with three ways of turning, rolling about an axis fore and 
aft, pitching about a transverse axis, and yawing, or turning about 
the vertical. If any of these six motions are disturbed, how will ~— 
the motion be affected? It is easily shown that a change in any of 


WEBSTER—DYNAMICAL ASPECTS. 167 


_ these six motions affects all the others, as already shown for pitch- 
_ ing and rising. In treating this problem we use differential equa- 
tions invented by Euler for problems in which we have to do with 
__- rotating axes of coordinates, and we are thus able to find the mutual 
hee ‘connection of the different sorts of motion. Now if the disturb- 
ances are small, we are able to use the method introduced by La- 
hues grange in his famous “ Mécanique Analytique” for the treatment of 
_ small oscillations, which leads to the introduction of an algebraic 
Riss - equation of degree twice as great as the number of degrees of free- 
2 dom of the system, in our case six, so that the equation would be 
__ of the twelfth degree. On account of symmetry, however, our 
: equation reduces to degree eight, and falls apart into two equations 
EOE degree four. It is useless to undertake the general solution of 
these, but when we have the constants of a given apparatus, as 
determined by experiment, it is possible to solve the equations arith- 
‘metically with any desired degree of approximation. This is what 
has been done-by various investigators, like Bryan and Bairstow 
in England, and Professor E. B. Wilson here. In fact when this 
work has proceeded to a certain extent, it is no longer necessary to 
have recourse to learned mathematicians, but it may be farmed out 


—_— es” ee ae se ol 
el ae oe « ii 
“ 5 ee 


Fic. 7. 


4 #3 0 computers, so as to be greatly expedited, and thus the design of 
at machines may be greatly improved. I may say that machines gen~ 
_ erally gain more stability with greater speed, and that too great 
__ Stability is not desirable, as it would lead to difficulty in steering or 
Tising. At any rate the theory has now arrived at such a stage that 
a “we may hope to avoid such accidents as formerly occurred in great 
_ numbers owing to improper design. 

_ __ I will conclude with a simple experiment showing the intrinsic 
_ stability possessed by a very simple aéroplane such as I learned to 
_ make when a schoolboy, which I am able to fold from a piece of 
paper before your eyes and to throw with a good deal of accuracy. 


II 


PHYSICAL ASPECTS. 
THE AIR. 
By GEORGE O. SQUIER. 


Everyone knows of course that if there were no atmosphere 
there could be no life, but probably very few fully realize its immense 
importance in almost every thing we do. In one condition it is 
invigorating and gives us a zest for hard work whether mental or 
physical, in another it leaves us depressed and incapacitated for effi- 
cient labor of any kind. Numerous manufacturing processes are 
radically affected by the amount of moisture in the air, and many 
others ‘by its temperature. Power is transmitted by it; we com- 
municate our thoughts one to another by vibrations of the air; and 
by its aid we have recently acquired our swiftest mode of travel. 
Obviously then a knowledge of the composition and physical proper- 
ties of the air is of such vital importance as to justify most pains- 
taking study and investigation. : 

In the past few years, for instance, several elements, helium, 
argon, neon, krypton, xenon, have been found in the atmosphere 
that previously were unknown and even unsuspected, for they were 
not required by the Mendeleeff table of the elements as then under- 
stood. One of these, argon, amounts to nearly one part in a hun- 
dred of the whole atmosphere, and yet through decade after decade 
of chemical investigations involving countless thousands of air 
analyses, it, and all its family of gases, remained undiscovered! 


Recently, too, means have been found for drawing directly on 


the atmosphere for an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen compounds 


used in the production of powerful explosives, fertilizers and many | 


other things of great value. 
Not long ago even the most profound scientists believed that with 
168 


ea ee 


SQUIER—PHYSICAL ASPECTS. 169 


a increase of elevation the temperature of the air decreased more or 
less uniformly from whatever it was at the surface of the earth to 
‘absolute zero at an elevation of perhaps 30 to 40 kilometers. Now 


we know-that this is not true, that at an elevation of only 10 to 12 
kilometers at this latitude the temperature becomes substantially 
constant with respect to increase of altitude, and, what is of even 
greater intellectual interest, we can explain why it must be so. Only 
a little while ago no one could say why the clouds never rose higher 
than certain levels that were far below the known heights of the 
atmosphere. Now we do know why this is true, as we also know 


_ why clouds are more abundant at certain levels and less abundant 


at others. 

_ We recently have learned how the velocity of the wind generally 
increases with altitude, and why it so increases. At last, and that 
quite recently, we have found a logical and experimentally supported 
theory of the electrification that gives the lightning flash, and with 
it we have acquired a clearer understanding of the mechanism of 
the thunderstorm. 

These are only some of the comparatively recent discoveries in 
connection with the phenomena of the atmosphere, and opportunity 
lies near and inviting for many more. 

The genesis of the ordinary cyclonic storm still needs much study 
and discussion. The relation of topography, nature of the surface, 
sunshine, etc., to air movements, both horizontal and vertical, need 
to be intensively studied because of their importance to the art of 
aviation, especially aviation as a means of commercial travel and 
as a sport. Through this investigation we may reasonably hope to 
acquire the art of soaring, and thereby realize the gentlest of all 
modes of travel. 

The immediate problems of the atmosphere calling for solution 


’ are numerous, but I shall mention only one more. On the whole the 


earth is negatively charged. What then is the origin of this negative 
charge and how is it perpetually maintained ? 


War DEPARTMENT. 
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER, 
Wasurncrton, April, 1917. 


III 
MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF AERONAUTICS. 
By W. F. DURAND, Pu.D. 


Scope OF PAPER. 


The present paper deals with heavier-than-air machines only. 
No attempt will be made to describe the present situation in compre- 
hensive detail. The achievements of the past and the present condi- 
tion of the art of aéroplane design, construction and operation must, 
for the most part, be assumed. The purpose of the paper will be 


rather to point out the more important problems pressing for solu- ” 


tion, the elements in the broad problem of aéronautics which we may 
reasonably hope to improve, and so far as the author is able, to indi- 
cate the directions in which improvement may be sought. 
The subject will be considered under the following general 
heads: ; 
Structure of Aéroplane. 
Power Plant. 
Propulsion. 


STRUCTURE OF AEROPLANE. 


As a problem in engineering design the aéroplane presents the 
following features. 

Required a structure coherent as a whole, provided with large 
flat or gently curved surfaces for realizing the necessary support, 
with suitable accommodation for the personnel, and with suitable 
structures for supporting a prime mover and for receiving the thrust 
of a propeller, fitted also with suitable auxiliary guiding surfaces for 
control in the air, and with suitable strength in all its parts to resist 
with a reasonable margin of safety the stresses to which it will be 
subject in the accidents of aérial navigation. 

170 


= ees eee”. 
- 


My, aie a ama ie ca aac 


4 


DURAND—MECHANICAL ASPECTS. 171 


In its essence, fismades, the aéroplane is a wing or a combination 


pee of wings fitted with one or more engines and propellers. 
_ The chief structural problems are therefore concerned with 


(1) The design and construction of the wing. 
(2) The design and construction of the members necessary and 
sufficient to join the wings together into a coherent structure suited 


_ to the purposes in view. 


The wing again presents two problems. The surface and the 
framework necessary to give form and strength to the whole. 

The amount of surface to be provided is dependent, according 

to well known laws, on the weight to be supported and on the speed 

at which support is to be realized. In the outlook ahead the insistent 


demand will be for the largest practicable size. We may there- 
fore put the question bluntly, what is the largest attainable size, 


what elements tend to limit size and how may we hope to remove, 
in some measure, the effect of these limitations. 
lf we consider a series or family of aéroplane structures, homol- 
ogous in all dimensions and differing only in size, we shall evi- 
dently find a ratio of surface to weight decreasing with increasing 
dimensions. The weights will increase as the cube of the linear 
dimension, the surfaces as the square, and hence the ratio of surface 
to weight will vary as the inverse ratio of increasing dimension. It 
follows that for such a series of structures the weight of the struc- 
ture itself will tend to absorb an increasing part of the total weight 
which the surface should sustain at any given speed, and with cor- 
responding reduction in the surplus lifting capacity available for 
power plant, crew, armament, express freight, etc. 
Let x denote any linear dimension of the plane. 
A the area. 
W, the weight of the plane and auxiliary structures. 
Then for a family of structures such as are here considered we 
shall have 


A = B34, 
mes", 


where B and C are two coefficients connecting respectively area 
with the square of x and weight with the cube. 


172 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


At any given speed let the relation of total lifting capacity to area 
be expressed by the ratio m. Then if W==total lifting capacity 
we have 


W = mA = mB x". 
Denote the net lifting capacity by y. Then we shall have 
y= W — W, = mBx? — Cx, 
oe 2mBx — 3Cx* = 0, 


dx I 


and 


2 


For such a series of structures therefore the maximum net lift- 
ing capacity will be given by a size determined by the value of # in 
equation (1) and the actual maximum net weight will be as in 
equation (2). For larger sizes of structure the weight required 
in the structure itself will increase more rapidly than the carrying 
capacity depending on area, and hence the net lifting power will 
decrease. It results furthermore that for such a family of structures 
there will be some size for which, all at a given uniform speed, the 
net carrying capacity will be zero, a size for which the total lifting 
capacity at the stated speed will be only just able to carry the weight 
of the structure itself. 

We may now ask two important questions. 

(1) What measures must be taken, in such a series of struc- 
tures, to increase the maximum net carrying capacity? 

(2) To what extent do these conclusions apply to a series of 
actual aéroplanes of continuously increasing wing surface? 

Regarding question (1) the form of the expression for Vm shows 
that it varies directly with m*, directly with B® and inversely with 
C2. We must therefore seek to increase m and B and decrease C. 
We cannot hope to affect the value of B, the relation of area to 
linear dimension: We may, however, increase m by increasing the 
speed and decrease C by improved design or by developing ma- 
terials stronger for a given weight than those now employed. 


Pedy. 


DURAND—MECHANICAL ASPECTS. 173 


a _ Regarding question (2) we may state the problem thus. For a 
_ series of aéroplanes of increasing area, how closely will the increase 


| 2: in weight vary with the %4 power of the rate of area increase? 


Broadly speaking the relation seems to hold within a significant 
degree of approximation. The weight of skin covering itself will 
increase as the surface. All structures subjected to cross breaking 
and in general all elements which tend to constitute the structure as 
_ a whole into a truss or girder will, except as the character of the de- 
sign may change increase in their own linear dimension nearly with 
the overall increase in linear dimension, and hence in weight 
nearly as the cube of the linéar dimension or with the 34 power of 
the surface. Time does not permit any detailed analysis of this im- 
portant problem, but broadly speaking we may expect that in a 
series of aéroplanes of the increasing area the weight will increase 
somewhat more rapidly than the area but somewhat less rapidly than 
the 34 power of the area. 

The practical question is this. To what degree of approximation 
in a series of aéroplane structures will the structural weight vary 
with the *%4 power of the area of wing? We know that for a given 
speed, wing area and gross weight vary nearly in direct linear ratio. 
Hence if the structural weight increases more rapidly than the area 
but somewhat more slowly than with the % power, it is obvious that 
for any given speed there will be some area which will insure the 
maximum net lifting capacity and beyond this area the next lifting 
capacity will decrease. 

Actual experience seems to indicate an increase in weight re- 
lated to wing area according to an index lying between 1 and % and 
varying somewhat irregularly according to the changing type of 

construction with increasing size. Hence we may conclude that for 
a given speed continued increase in size of wing alone will not insure 
indefinite increase in the net carrying capacity, but that instead 
there will be some area for which the net carrying capacity may be 
expected to reach a maximum, after which further increase in size 
at the same speed will involve a loss in carrying capacity. 

It follows again that in order to increase carrying capacity the 
following steps are indicated. 


174 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. | 


1. Improvement in the elements of design and in the-materials 
of construction. | 

2. The selection of such a size of wing as shall insure for the 
type of design and for such wing as an element in the structure as a 
whole, the maximum net carrying capacity. 

_ 3. Increase in speed to the upper limit practically attainable. 

4. Increase in number of planes. , 

Recent experimental work with three, four and five planes seems 
to point to the multiple plane as perhaps the most immediate means 
of increasing carrying capacity. Or in other words, given the limita- 
tions imposed by structural materials and the upper limit of speed 
considered practicable and expedient, multiple planes seem to be 
the immediately remaining recourse for further advance in net car- 
rying capacity. . 

Passing now briefly to the actual materials available, we may 
make a classification as follows. 

Surface material (cotton or linen duck fabric). 

Wing skeleton or structure—wood (spruce and mahogany), steel. 

Struts and braces connecting wings in multiple—wood (spruce and 
mahogany ), steel or special alloys. 

Body or boat material: Framing: wood or steel. Covering: wood 
veneer or sheet metal. 

Ties for serving as tension members in connecting wings to body or 
in multiple: steel wire, single or laid up in cable. 

Fastenings: drop forgings, sheet steel, bronze. 

The two fundamental problems are: 

1. The development of materials furnishing more strength for 
the same weight. 

2. The better disposition of the materials which we now have. 

Passing the above classes of materials briefly in review, we may 
note as follows. There does not seem to be anything immediately in 
- sight better than the materials now used for surfaces. With suit- 
able treatment (usually coatings of celluloid dissolved in acetone 
with varnish finish) the material stretches tight, takes a smooth 
surface and has sufficient strength to support itself between the 
supporting ribs. 


DURAND—MECHANICAL ASPECTS. 175 


The surface does not form a large fraction of the total weight 


- and saving here is not relatively as important as in the framework. 


ah 


The substitution of metal for wood in the framing has long 
since attracted the serious attention of aéronautic engineers, and in 
certain recent designs the problem has been worked out with ap- 
parently a high degree of success. These results indicate the prob- 
ability of an increasing use of steel for parts which have hitherto 
usually been made of wood. The peculiar qualities of stiffness and 
resilience combined with readiness of shaping and forming have 
combined to make wood broadly speaking the standard material for 
the skeleton or framing of the wings and body. It seems, however, 
a foregone conclusion that some parts now made of wood might 
with advantage be made of the best modern alloys combining strength 
with light weight. The extent to which this can be wisely done can 
only be determined by trial, but it seems probable that perhaps im- 
portant savings in weight may be made by a judicious substitution 
of metal in certain elements of the structure. 

The outlook for the future calls for new and improved metal 
alloys with certain of the physical characteristics of wood, as nearly 
as may be realized, and with proper form and proportion securing 
the development of the same strength with saving in weight. 

The use of steel wire and cable for ties is standard and prac- 
tically universal. These elements form a relatively small part of 
the total structural weight. It seems hard to imagine material 
superior to the best modern alloy steel wire, but there seems no 
reason for assuming that such material represents the last word in 
the wire-makers’ art and if we may anticipate new and improved 
steel or bronze alloys, such material will provide the necessary 
tension elements with some slight saving in weight. 

Fastenings have been made the subject of much study, experi- 
mental and otherwise, and the field is still open for further im- 
provement. Here again the total weight is relatively small, but 
there may well be a chance to save something in weight and at the 
same time add to the security and integrity of the design as a whole. 

Broadly speaking, there seems small ground for anticipating any 
profound change in the near future in the schedule of materials 
best available for the designer of aéroplane structures. Gradual - 


176 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


advance there will be, and with it the designer of such structures 
must be quick to seize such advantage as he may. 

Regarding a better disposition of the materials we now have, it 
may be assumed that there is a more promising field. It is pecu- 
liarly a field which must be worked in an experimental way, and 
while much has already been accomplished there is still room for 
further saving in weight through a better disposition of the elements 
of structure employed. 

The problem is broadly ; given an aéroplane structure exposed to 
the hazards of flight and involving baffling head winds, gusts, forced 
severe banking, diving, quick turning about various axes of motion 
and all in various combination, required a structure which shall 
present a substantially uniform factor of safety relative to the 
extreme stress, in any and all directions, to which it may be sub- 
jected, 

This is obviously not a problem to be solved by theoretical 
methods or over the drawing board alone or even chiefly. It is 
distinctively a problem to be worked out primarily by experience 
supplemented by experiment, which is, after all, only experience 
realized under control conditions. 

One of the future developments which should not be lost sight 
of lies this way and should comprise comprehensive studies of the 
combinations of structural elements available, always with the view 
of realizing more efficient results; that is, a more equable distribu- 
tion of the strength realized with a corresponding saving in weight. 

The problem of weight economy is vital in the science and art 
of aéronautics, and the possibilities of advance through a well- 
ordered program of experimental investigation on full sized forms 
should not be lost sight of. 


PoweErR PLANT. 


We pass next to the subject of the aeroplane power plant. We 
here meet the following principal problems. 
1. The problem of fuel. < 
2. The problem of carburetion or preparation for combustion. 
3. The thermodynamic problem of the transformation of the heat 
energy into mechanical work. 


i. Neal 


DURAND—MECHANICAL ASPECTS. 177 


an The problem of auxiliaries. 


;; ; 5. The problem of construction. 


a] 


Gasoline stands preéminent as the standard fuel for aeroplane 
service. -The chief objection is its high price. This will operate to 
produce a serious limitation in the economic application of the 
aéroplane and one of the most important problems with special 


reference to an extension of economic use is the development of 
_ prime movers capable of using cheaper grades of fuel. It will not 
_ be without interest, at this point, to note the fuel cost per ton mile 


for aéroplane service as compared with the same item for railroad 
and for marine transport. If we take an aéroplane with say’ 130 
h.p. carrying 300 pounds of cargo at a speed of 60 m.h. we shall 
find with gasoline at 20 cents per gallon a fuel cost of about 30 cents 


per ton mile. This will compare with about 4 cent in the case of 
_ a heavy freight train and with about %4 cent in the case of say a 
10,000 ton steamer. The fuel cost for merely carrying dead weight 


may therefore readily be from 300 to 1200 times as great as for 
railroad or marine carriage. This unfavorable relation between the 
economics of the fuel cost for aérial and for marine transport 
arises from certain relations which develop in the two cases between 
net cargo weight and gross weight, and between horsepower and 
gross weight. 

_ Thus for the ship the net cargo weight may be, for moderate 
speeds, as high as 50 per cent. of the gross weight, while for the 
aéroplane as noted, it would be about 12 per cent. Again the ship 
requires for a speed of say 15 miles per hour, a horsepower of 5,000 
or less, or not exceeding 1 h.p. for 4,500 pounds gross weight while 


_ the aéroplane requires something of the order of 1 h.p. for 15 to 


20 Ibs. gross weight. Again the fuel for the aéroplane engine 
costs from 5 to 8 times as much per horsepower hour developed as 
for the ship prime mover. 

While the fuel represents by no means the whole cost it is an 
important item and it is clear that so long as the aéronautic engineer 
is limited to gasoline fuel the economic uses of the aéroplane must be 
seriously handicapped. 

’ There are other fuels cheaper in character and developed to a 
point where they are satisfactorily employed in certain grades of 

PROC. AMER. PHIL. $OC., VOL. LVI, M, JUNE 20, 1917. 


178 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


internal combustion service, notably kerosene and distillate, and 
cheapest of all, crude oil which is used in engines of the Diesel 
type. The demands of aéronautic service are, however, insistent in 
regard to the holding of engine and machinery weights to the 
minimum and any attempt to use fuels other than gasoline must 
reckon with the possibility of increased weight. This limitation 
will apparently, at least under existing design conditions, rule out 
the Diesel engine from consideration. 

With existing conditions of design and operation there seems 
to be nothing in sight as an immediate substitute for gasoline, and 
we cannot well see in what direction to turn for the ultimate solu- 
tion of this problem. It is, however, none the less real and the eco- 
nomic extension of the aéroplane will depend in large measure upon 
the success or failure of efforts directed toward the development of 
a cheaper fuel. 

Passing now to the problem of the carburetor only the briefest 
reference can be made to the principal details of this problem. 

The primary function of the carburetor may be defined as the 
mixing of the gasoline in a finely divided state with the air necessary 
for combustion. Following this, on its way to the cylinder and on 
entering the cylinder, the liquid fuel becomes rapidly vaporized and 
ready for compression and ignition. The fundamental require- 
ments are the following: 

I. Fine subdivision of the liquid fuel. 
2. A uniform or nearly uniform mixture by proportion of gasoline 
to air at varying motor speeds. 

For aéroplane service, there should be, in addition, some adjust- 
ment, either automatic or manual, with reference to altitude and the 
consequent varying density of the air. 

The function of the carburetor may be viewed under two heads. 

1. Reliability. 
2. Economy. 

For aéroplane service a carburetor giving a nearly uniform 
mixture over a wide range of operating conditions is of special 
importance from the standpoint of reliability. When the life of the 
aéronaut may well depend on the degree of reliability with which the 
carburetor furnishes a nearly uniform mixture suited for ready igni- 


DURAND—MECHANICAL ASPECTS. 179 


F Son, the importance of this phase of the problem i is apparent with- 
out further emphasis. 


i 


_ The best of present carburetors realize these conditions in high 
degree. The principal points still open for improvement are perhaps 


the following: 


~ 1. Improved means for atomizing the'liquid fuel, looking espe- 


cially toward the finest attainable degree of subdivision. This will 
aid both economy and reliability. 


2. Improved means for covering a wide range of atmospheric 
conditions as regards density, temperature and humidity, and with 
a wide range of power developed under any combination of these 


. conditions. 


_ 3. Improved means for atomizing the gasoline with the minimum 
drop in pressure through the carburetor. This will aid in decreas- 
ing the back pressure and will increase the net power developed per 
cycle. 

Improvement in the carburetor is primarily dependant on experi- 
ence. The interaction of the various controlling factors is so com- 
plex in character that cut and try methods based on the intelligent 
application of underlying principles seem to promise the most 
fruitful results in the improvement of this element of the internal 
combustion prime mover. The field is open and we may look con- 
fidently to the future to provide a standard form of carburetor 
which will secure the highest practicable results over the widest 
range of operating conditions. 

We turn next to the thermodynamic aspect of the problem. 

Under this head I shall only refer briefly to the character of 
thermodynamic cycle employed. As well known, the cycle at present 
universally employed is that based on the constant volume—adia- 
batic ideal. There remain open the constant pressure-adiabatic 
cycle and the constant temperature-adiabatic or Carnot cycle, or 
some combination of these. 

The Diesel engine uses a cycle more or less intermediate between 
the latter two. 

The constant pressure-adiabatic cycle has long been the ideal 
of engineers with special reference to sustained crank effort and 
the elimination of the explosive shock characteristic of the constant 


180 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


volume-adiabatic cycle. Thus far, however, structural and o 
tive difficulties in various details of the process have prevented 
wide use of this cycle. It is, however, just now the subjec 
special investigation at the hands of engineers of insight and 
source and it may well be that the near future will open up to 
-9€ronautic engineer this cycle for practical use in engines for 
plane service. If engines operating on this cycle can be ma 
success in the operative sense while at the same time keeping 
weights down to the limits reached with the type now employed 
may anticipate a wide field of usefulness for this cycle. 

Under the head of auxiliaries the chief functions are igni 
cooling and lubrication. To these we may perhaps add, as rapidly 
approaching the status of common acceptance, some form of start- 
ing motor or device with wireless outfit, especially for military pur- 
poses. 

Under ignition the insistent requirement is reliability, commonly 
assured, so far as auxiliary equipment is concerned, by magneto 
installation in duplicate. 

Cooling is normally by water, oie in the rotating type of 
engine, where air cooling prevails. The principal problems here 
relate to methods of circulating and cooling the water, security of 
joints and connections, minimizing loss of water by boiling and 
assurance of adequate supply for long life in air without going to 
needless excess weight in water carried. 

The principal problems presented by lubrication are reliability 
and simplicity of means employed, usually some form of pressure 
or positive supply system. 

Further references to problems presented by auxiliary equip- 
ment are more conveniently made under the next following head. 

Under the general head of construction, time will only permit of — 
brief reference to the following topics: 

Materials. 
Design. 
Fabrication. 

The materials employed are chiefly cast and wrought steel, cast 
iron for some few parts, aluminum and bronze. In order to reduce 
weights to a minimum forged steel is used for the cylinders or 


DURAND—MECHANICAL ASPECTS. 181 


cylinder liners and generally for all parts receiving or carrying the 

direct load. Further progress here will wait on the skill of the 

metallurgist in furnishing steels of higher physical properties than 
those now available. Broadly speaking, the present aéronautic 
engine, in the most refined designs, exhibits a very near approach 
to the practicable limit with the materials at present available and 
further saving in weight must depend chiefly on the work of the 
metallurgist in developing new and improved materials for use. 

The chief outstanding problems in the design of aéronautic 
engines are those dealing with the most effective disposition of the 
available materials of construction, and with the forms, proportions, 
arrangements and assemblage of the elements in such manner as 
shall secure the highest practicable degree of reliability of operation. 

In the disposition of the materials with reference to the strength 
and stiffness required, the fundamental and insistent demand is the 
saving of weight. This problem is one to be studied partly by the 
application of mechanics and general engineering principles, and 
partly by experience. In any given engine there is no question but 
that there is a certain amount of redundant weight. The problem 
is to locate it. While, as already noted, the best of modern designs 
represent apparently a close approach to the ultimate attainable 
with existing materials, nevertheless the field of design with refer- 
ence to further refinement is still open and will doubtless well repay 
further study. This road marks clearly one of the ways whereby 
future progress and improvement must come. 

The principal problems dealing with improved reliability and 
with length of operative life may be enumerated as follows: 

1. Oiling system and lubrication generally. 

2. Means for securing all pipes and conduits, whether for oil, water 
or electric wiring, in such manner that jar and vibration 
cannot cause their rupture or separation at joints. 

3. The reduction of vibration to a minimum by the careful balanc- 
ing of rotating and reciprocating parts so far as practicable. 

4. Adequate bearing surfaces especially for all principal parts, so 
that with a reasonable supply of lubricant there need never 
be danger of cutting or abrasion. 

5. Adequate crank shaft size and adequate crank shaft bearings, 


182 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS 


both in surface and in number, so that the shaft may be 
shielded from alternating flexure, a condition certain to result 
in early rupture. 

6. Simplicity and directness of operation the valve gear. 

7, Simplicity and directness of drive for all auxiliary machinery 
such as magneto, water and oil’ pumps. 

In connection with the general problem of lubrication, one of 
the great problems, perhaps the one most important problem in 
connection with the aéroplane prime mover, relates to the possibility 
of developing metals of such physical properties or relations that 
they will operate in sliding relation without serious abrasion and 
without the need of constant lubrication, at least in terms of the 
practice found necessary with the materials now employed. 
Whether any such metals in pairs can be developed or whether the 
surfaces of metals will admit of treatment in any way which will 
reduce in marked degree the amount of lubrication required, is of 
course an open question ; but the march of scientific and engineering 
progress is marked with many discoveries and developments seem- 
ingly far more remote from possibility than is this. In any event 
it is a field well worthy the most careful investigation, not alone for 
its importance in connection with aéronautic prime movers but also 
for the far-reaching influence which it would have throughout the 
whole field of engineering design. It represents moreover a serious 
need in the case of the aéronautic prime mover with reference to in- 
creased safety, simplicity and decreased cost of operation. 

These problems, and others allied, all offer inviting fields for the 
research engineer, the designer and the inventor. It is, further- 
more, difficult to overestimate their importance. Thus the rupture 
of a small oil pipe, perhaps 4% inch diameter, due to vibration result- 
ing in a crystallization of the metal at a point of attachment, might 
result in the failure of lubricant to reach some important element 
of the engine, as a consequence of which the bearing heats, abrades, 
perhaps seizes, the engine stops and possibly disaster comes swiftly 
as a consequence. When safety of life may depend on continuous 
operation of the engine, no item or element bearing on reliability is 
too small to receive the most serious and earnest efforts on the part 


DURAND—MECHANICAL ASPECTS. 183 


of those responsible for the design and construction of the prime 
_ mover. 

ne Gs seems appropriate to note at this point, that until the margin 
of uncertainty or of unreliability is reduced far below where it now 
stands, the navigation ef the air will be closed to the great mass of 
people who will prefer the safer if somewhat less thrilling mode by 
way of the solid earth or the water-borne boat. 


PROPULSION. 


The screw propeller has been universally adopted as the means 
for transforming the work developed by the prime mover into 
propulsive work. 

In spite of its simple form the operation of the propeller depends 
on an astonishingly large number of variables, interrelated in com- 
plex and baffling ways, and thus far transcending all effort to bring 
them into practicable expression through the application of aéro- 
dynamic theory. The chief variables or conditions thus entering 
into the operation of a propeller may be listed as follows: 

(a) Characteristics of the propeller as a geometrical body. 

(1) The diameter or general determining dimension. 

(2) The pitch of the helicoidal surface employed for the driv- 
ing face. This may have two different modes of 
specification, viz.: 

(a) The single value of the pitch if uniform, or the mean 
value if variable. 
(b) The distribution of values if variable. 

(3) The form of the contour bounding the blade or helicoidal 
surface employed. : 

(4) The area of the blade on the driving face. 

(5) The cross section or thickness of the blade. This may 

have two mode of specification, viz. : 
(a) Areas of cross sections and their distribution radially. . 
(b) Forms of cross sections. 

(6) The character and finish of the blade surfaces. 

(7) The form and dimensions of the hub or central body 
carrying the blades. 


184 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


(b) The characteristics of the adjacent structures such as parts of 
the aeroplane. These will influence the flow of air to and 
from the propeller and will thus affect the force reactions 
resulting from its operation under any stated set of condi- 
tions. These may be primarily specified by 

(1) Dimension and form. 
(2) Location with regard to propeller. 
(c) The characteristics of the medium. 
(1) Density. 
(2) Viscosity. 
(3) Character and extent of turbulence or departure from 
homogeneous conditions. 

(d) The characteristics of operation. 

(1) Speed of translation or speed of advance. 
(2) Speed of rotation. 

We have thus, without going too far into detail, some 14 vari- 
ables or conditions, any one of which may exercise an important 
influence on the results realized from the propeller. 

For many purposes and by way of approximate working 
formule, the operation of the propeller is related through empirical 
coefficients to the three most important of the above listed set of 
conditions; namely, diameter, pitch and the slip, which is directly 
expressible in terms of the relation between the speed of advance 
and the speed of rotation. 

Aside from such approximate formule, in which the values of 
the coefficients drawn from experience must be so selected as to care 
for all variables other than the four directly represented, there 
seems to be no recourse save either in direct full size experimental 
investigation, or in model investigation. The limitations of full size 
experimental investigation are evident, and aéronautic engineers, 
following the lead of the naval architect, have turned to model ex- 
periments as furnishing the most hopeful means of dealing with the 
problem of the screw propeller. 

The use of models presupposes the application of a law or prin- 
ciple of kinematic similitude, and regarding which it is unnecessary 
to speak in detail on this occasion. It will aid, however, in clarify- 
ing our present view to state the underlying assumption as follows. 


. 


DURAND—MECHANICAL ASPECTS. 185 


The existence of a law of kinematic similitude assumes that for 
any given set of operating conditions for the full-sized body there 
will correspond_a-determinable set of conditions for the model and 
that the results realized for the model may be transformed into 
- the results to be anticipated from the full-sized body by the applica- 
tion of determinable ratios which will be some known function of 
the relation between the two sets of conditions. 

It should be noted further that this relation assumes that all of 
the conditions which may affect the result in question admit of 
definite expression in terms of mechanics and of definite numerical 
measurement in specific cases. This is not always possible espe- 
cially with such factors as surface roughness or degree of turbulence. 

Again the special conditions which are required for the model 
may be inconvenient or even impracticable as regards experimental 
realization. 

These various conditions prevail in the case of air propellers. It 
is well known that we are only able to realize a practicable applica- 
tion of the law by neglecting the influence of the viscosity of the 
medium. This of itself, with the air propeller working in an in-. 
definite medium and under loads and speeds which would permit the 
neglect of the influence due to the compressibility of the air and of 
the distortion due to thrust and centrifugal force, would make all 
speeds corresponding. This is equivalent to a reduction of the 
equation for the thrust of a propeller to the form 


T=KD?v’*. 


Hence with such a relation the model may be run at any speed 
with the same percentage slip as for the full-sized propeller, and 
from the observed value of the thrust we may derive the factor K. 
The constant thus determined should then serve for any diameter so 
long as the shape and slip remain the same as for the experimental 
conditions. 

If, however, allowance is to be made for compressibility and for 
distortion due to force loading, theory indicates, as is well known, 
that the tip speeds of both model and full-sized propeller should be 
the same. 

The form of corresponding speed relation usually adopted for air 


186 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


propellers is in accordance with these indications. There remains, 
however, a margin of uncertainty regarding the influence due to the 
neglected viscosity and also a query as to the amount of error which 
would be introduced by using lower tip speeds for the sales than 
for the full-sized propellers. 

These two queries therefore stand out, representing two problems 
which press for solution and which lie at the foundation of the 
investigation of air propeller operation through the use of reduced 
size models. 

We must therefore admit that the application of the law of 
kinematic similitude, in the form commonly employed, to experi- 
mental research on air propellers by means of reduced models, lacks 
full authority in rational theory, and as a result the real justification 
must come from experience. This means that the tests on models 
and their interpretation in terms of full-sized propellers must rest 
ultimately on carefully determined results given by the corespond- 
ing full-sized propeller. This does not imply, however, that all 
model measurements need to be checked by corresponding experi- 
ments on full-sized propellers, for if so there would be no object in 
the model experiments; but rather, that a selected number of 
experiments should be carried out, here and there over the field of 
propeller forms and proportions, thus establishing the presumptive 
degree of accuracy in model experimental work. With such margin 
of error known, model experiments could be used freely, with suit- 
able corrections if necessary, and the results would then have all the 
accuracy which can attach to model experimental work corrected 
by reference to direct experiment on full-sized forms. 

‘ So much for the propeller itself. It must be remembered, how- 
ever, that the propeller is but the connecting link between the prime 
mover and the aéroplane, and that no matter how excellent the pro- 
peller in itself, it must be adapted to the prime mover and to the 
aéroplane in order to secure a harmonious and efficient combination, 
or rather all three must be adapted each to the other, and it is in this 
lack of adaptation that much of the trouble with and inefficiency of 
the screw propeller in actual use arises. Thus no matter how effi- 
cient the propeller itself at a suitable value of the slip, if it is too 
small for the aéroplane, the slip will become excessive with corre- 


DURAND—MECHANICAL ASPECTS. 187 


sponding loss in efficiency. Again if too large or if the relation 
between speed of advance, slip and torque are unsuitable, the pro- 
peller will perhaps hold down the motor to a rotative speed entirely 
too low and thus render impossible the development of the desired 
power. These and other relations are of course well known and 
are only mentioned here in order to emphasize the importance of the 
most careful inter-adaptation between the aéroplane, the motor and 
the propeller. 

In this field there is still important work to be done in a more 
complete study of the characteristics of the aéroplane and propeller 
separately and when combined in their normal relation, all with a 
_ view of insuring a more perfect adaptation of the one to the other 
and of the prime mover to both. 

The air propeller has thus far been normally made of wood and 
of the two-bladed form. Outstanding problems which are awaiting 
investigation relate to the best modes mechanically of making three 
and four blade propellers with the consequent saving of diameter 
for the same thrust, revolutions and slip; also to the practicability 
of propellers of light metal alloys instead of wood. Some work has 
been done along these lines and some hopeful indications have 
appeared. 

A further problem, structually, relates to the thickness neces- 
sary for strength under the complex stress due to centrifugal force 
and air pressure, and also the distortion of the blade under these 
loads and the extent to which such distortion may modify the geo- 
metrical characteristics of the propeller itself. 

Concluding we may in resumé sum up for the aéroplane as a 
whole, the insistent demands on the realization of which future 
progress must depend. These are: 

1. Minimum weight of structure in relation to area of support- 
ing surfaces and of power plant per unit of power developed. This 
will secure increased carrying capacity for fuel and supplies and for 
useful weight such as passengers, mail, etc., and this will serve as a 
factor in either long life in the air or heavy carrying capacity for 
short distance. On the other hand such extra weight carrying 
capacity may be put into additional power plant, engine and fuel, 
for correspondingly increased speed over shorter distances. 


188 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


2. Maximum economy of prime mover and in applying its power 
for propulsive purposes. This will insure minimum consumption 
of fuel and supplies per unit of time or distance, and hence will 
serve as a factor in long life in the air or in large weight carrying 
capacity, or in added capacity of prime mover with corresponding 
increase of speed for shorter distances. 

3. Reliability of operation. This embodies improved methods 
of control and navigation, and greater reliability in each of the many 
individual: elements on which overall reliability in operation de- 
pends. These improvements are of special significance in the 
problem of lengthening the effective life in the air and broadly in 
the extension of the usefulness of the aéroplane especially in the 
arts of peace. 


email IV 
AEROLOGY. 
By WILLIAM R. BLAIR. 


The treatment of this subject in one paper must necessarily be 
general. An attempt will therefore be made to cover the ground 
and indicate points of contact between aérological observation and 
aéronautics, leaving argument and details of methods to a fuller ~ 
treatment of the subject which, it is hoped, may appear in the near 
future. 


PERCENTAGE OF WINDS FROM EACH 
OF EIGHT DIRECTIONS FORTHE YEAR ~ 
AT SELECTED STATIONS, 


SCALE 
sk PERCENTAGE OF WIND DIRECTION 


ESTE ET oceps sag eo 5 
u. nm 10 a, wo 7 eo pene WH > ic} 


Fic. 1. Percentage of winds from each of eight directions for the year at 
selected stations. 


Means of observations already reduced and compiled will be 
used in the discussion, not with the idea that these means will fully 
serve the aéronauts’ purpose, but that they indicate standard condi- 
tions which to some extent show what may be expected at any time 
and place and should be in mind for comparison with the individual 

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, N, JUNE 18, 1917. 


189 


190 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


. 


observations in the region navigated. These observations on the 
spot are of fundamental importance and in practice cannot be safely 
set aside for forecasts or the indications of means as to the upper 
air conditions. 


Soe 
VABILENE, 


Se 
S. 


MEAN VELOCITY OF WINDS FROM EACH - nN 
OF EIGHT DIRECTIONS FOR THE YEAR NS a 
AT SELECTED STATIONS, 


WIND VELOCITY m-p.s. 
les oO 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 3G 


ro ns no 105 
eet — 


. Fic. 2. Mean velocity of winds from each of eight directions for the year 
at selected stations. 


Charts of means are in a sense the aéronauts’ charts of the . 
medium he navigates, but it must be kept in mind that these charts, 
in which results of observations are usually shown with reference 
to surface pressure distribution, are to be used with the current 
weather map. 

Observations are made by means of kites, captive balloons and 
free balloons. Kites and captive balloons carry automatically re- 
cording instruments which record continuously temperature, pres- 
sure, humidity and speed of movement of the air. The free balloons 
used are of two sorts, sounding balloons and pilot balloons. The 
former carry an instrument which automatically records tempera- 
ture, pressure and humidity of the air. Observations of air move- 
ment are obtained by means of continuous theodolite observations 
upon the balloons. In the case of sounding balloons, heights may be 
computed from the pressure record, and observations with one theo- 


BLAIR—AEROLOGY. 191 


dolite used with these heights to determine horizontal distance from 
the starting point. When pilot balloons are used, the rate of ascent 
can be fairly well determined by means of one of several formule, 
based upon the weight of the balloon, its resistance to the air and 
its ascensional force. It any case the position of a free balloon can 


km, 


30 
25 
20 
ay 1s 
a a 10 
Ap egies 4 2 
wo 8 ° 


3 
Yj ; —— —— LIMIT OF OBSERVATIONS 
/ ° 1 TRADE WINDS 
2 ANTITRADE WINDS 
/ 3 DIFFERENTLY DIRECTED WINDS 

4 ANTICYCLONIC WINDS 
Ils SUPPER TRADE WINDS 
: 5 6 LIGHT VARIABLE WINDS AND CALMS 
/ 7 7 UPPER WESTERLY WINDS 

8 LIGHT VARIABLE WINDS AND CALMS 


I/| HI If ®ve skis Semis 


i ggeero 
Fic. 3. Meridional section of the atmosphere. 


a be determined independently of the barometric pressure or of the 
_ ascensional rate of the balloon if a pair of theodolites, one at either 
end of a measured base line, is used. By means of any of these 
methods the observer is able to plot a horizontal projection of the 
balloon’s path. From this plot may be read the wind speed and 
_ direction at any time during the ascension. 

One of the first cares of the aéronaut is to put down suitable 
stations at which aircraft may be housed and repaired. It is im- 


192 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


portant that these stations and their buildings be easily accessible 
to aircraft. A knowledge of the prevailing meteorological condi- 
tions is therefore of prime importance in the location of any station 
and in the orientation of its buildings. Among the climatic condi- 


Level, 1907-1912. . 


tions that need consideration in this connection are cloudiness, rain, 
(including thunderstorm frequency), fog, humidity, temperature, 
_ pressure and wind. Of all these wind is the most important. It is 
an advantage to a station if the wind has a decidedly prevailing 


direction. Buildings housing aircraft can then be so oriented as to | 


be easily accessible most of the time. 
The Weather Bureau records can supply such information as 
that shown in Figs. 1 and 2 for many other stations than are here 


BLAIR—AEROLOGY. 193 


included. In addition to surface conditions it is well if a knowledge 
of free air conditions to heights well above neighboring trees, build- 
ings, hills or mountains can be known before deciding on the location 
of a station. 


= 
eee 


4G 
ay oe a Re i a 
Hy 
we 


aS 
as 
BLD 
CY 


SS 
ee. 


xX 


Fic. 5. Mean of Wind Observations in “Lows” at 526 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. 


The course to be pursued by a pilot flying between two stations 
should be governed by the structure of the atmosphere at the time 
and places in question. A knowledge of the relations that have been 
found to exist between surface and upper air conditions will be of 
value to the pilot, but cannot in general take the place of direct ob- 
servations. By means of the observations, results of which could 
be available at the starting point of the course within half an hour 
after the observations were started, it would be decided whether 


194 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


Fic. 6. Mean of Wind Observations in “Highs” at 1000 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. 


a direct course at the usual height or some deviation, lateral or 
vertical, from such a course should be made. Data sufficient for 
“laying” the course and determining beforehand the time required 
to travel it would be furnished by the observations. The pilot would 
to a great extent, if not altogether, be independent of having to see 
the earth’s surface in order to know his direction and position at 
any time. 

The different convective systems or circulatory systems of the 
atmosphere, together with the temperature distribution character- 
izing each, are of especial interest to aéronauts. 

Fig. 3 shows a meridional section of the atmosphere, so far as it 
can be determined from observations now at hand. For the purpose 


BLAIR—AEROLOGY. 195 


Fic. 7. Mean of Wind Observation in “Lows” at 1000 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. 


of this illustration the depth of the atmosphere shown is greatly 
exaggerated. The units of this general or planetary circulatory 
system in which the arrows point south are east winds having in 
the average a north component. Those units in which arrows point 
north are in general west winds having in the average a south 
component. 
Especial attention is called to the fact that the air in west winds 
exerts a greater downward pressure than does the air in east 
winds. Aside from the fact that a gram mass moving from west to 


_ east exerts a greater downward pressure than does a gram mass 


moving from east to west, it is found that the air in west winds is 
in general dense for the level it occupies, while the air in east winds 


196 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


is light for its level. That air is heavy or light for the level it 
occupies depends upon its humidity and its temperature and on the 
fact that descending air heats at the adiabatic rate while condensa- 
tion of the moisture in ascending air offsets to a greater or less 
degree the adiabatic cooling that accompanies the ascent. It is also 
true that, compared with moist air, dry air absorbs but little radiated 


Fic. 8. Mean of Wind Observations in “ Highs” at! 2000 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. ~ 


heat. This difference in adiabatic rates of cooling and heating 
effectively prevents the mixing of the airs in question. The west 
winds in general follow the irregularities of the bottoms, solid earth, 
water, or aérial, over which they flow and are in consequence gusty 
winds. East winds are not likely to be thrown into gusts by irregu- 


BLAIR—AEROLOGY. 197 


larities of surfaces below them. They are in general less gusty than 
are west winds. 

Closely related to-this arrangement of light and heavy airs is the 
fact that the two regions of traveling storms, the tropical hurricanes 
and the high and low pressure areas of middle latitudes, are found 
where air relatively dense for the level it occupies is flowing over 


Fic. 9. Mean of Wind Observations in “Lows” at 2000 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. 


moister and, for its level, relatively light air. These storms are 
surface stratum phenomena, forming on the boundaries of warm, 
moist and cold, dry air masses and have approximately the speed and 
direction of the wind in the stratum immediately above them. The 
tropical hurricanes have the speed and direction of the antitrade 


198 - SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


winds where the latter flow over the trades, while cyclones and 
anticyclones have the speed and direction of the upper westerlies. 
The data seem to show that cyclonic disturbances form on the left 
side of oppositely directed, passing currents of air in the surface 
stratum, while anticyclonic disturbances form on the right side. The 
airs in these two sorts of currents are differently tempered and of 
different moisture content, the extent of these differences having 
to do with the intensity of the disturbances. These irregularities 
in pressure distribution behave toward the upper westerly wind, or, 
in the case of tropical hurricanes, toward the antitrades, as varia- 
tions in the level of the surface over which they flow. The dis- 
turbances are thus communicated directly to the upper winds which 


Fic. 10. Mean of Wind Observations in “ Highs” at 3000 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. 


BLAIR—AEROLOGY. 199 


thus become gusty, just as do winds flowing over irregularities in 
the earth’s surface. These gusts are accompanied by appropriate 
changes-in pressure and temperature, and progress in the direction 
and with the speed of the wind in which they occur. They carry 


with them the self-sustaining disturbances of the lower or surface 


stratum which would otherwise be practically stationary phenomena. 

Figs. 4 to 15 inclusive show the direction of the winds about 
centers of high and low pressure at the earth’s surface and at 
levels above these centers. All winds, whatever their direction at 
the earth’s surface, change direction with altitude in such a way as 
to become westerly by the time the four kilometer level has been 
reached. This tendency is shown by a comparison of surface winds 


Fic. 11. Mean of Wind Observations in “Lows” at 3000 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. 


200 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


Fic. 12. Mean of Wind Observations in “ Highs” at 4000 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. 


TABLE I. 


TURNING OF WIND wiTtH HEIGHT. 


Direerlon gb. Zarth’s Surtace, bieenae oe ripe a sa ten Po Celik 
IN. CORI ice eau sa una a1 45 a5 20 
I) COs BSB. sane oe ake 50 76 I2 I2 
SE.to. SWiei he ee ea 474 94 2 4 
WS 2 5 oie octane ela ena 46 76 7 17 
NV ig. ox cs Sega eta renee lamers 109 51 I2 37 
IWIN Wiis Soe ia peste meee 298 AI 29 30 
NW neh keen ae one 337 29 40 31 
INN Wo 58 555 3k a dae 34 35 38 27 


with those at the one kilometer level. 


By the time the three kilo- 


meter level has been reached, it is probable that isobars are no longer 


BLAIR—AEROLOGY. 201 


Fic. 13. Mean of Wind Observations in “ Lows” at 4000 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. 


closed. The change in direction of the wind with height may be 
shown in a general way by Table I., based upon data obtained at 
the Mount Weather Observatory. 

Tables II. and III. show frequency and speed, respectively, of 
winds at different levels above Mount Weather. Table II. indicates 
the decided increase in frequency of west and westerly winds with 
height. The increase in wind speed with height is rapid for the 
first 500 to 700 meters above the earth’s surface, less rapid at 
higher levels. 

In the study of any convective system the temperature distribu- 
tion in the system is of prime consideration. The vertical distribu- 
tion of temperature is of interest to the a€ronaut, not only in connec- 


202 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


tion with the filling and ascensional rates to be expected of balloons 
but also as the best available index of the condition of the atmos- 
phere with respect to stability. 


Fic. 14. Mean of Wind Observations in “ Highs” at 5000 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. 


Fig. 16 shows the temperature distribution throughout the year 
up to the five-kilometer level. It is based on 5 years of observation 
at Mount Weather. The isotherms are farther apart vertically in 
the winter than in the summer months, indicating less stable atmos- 
pheric conditions in the summer months. The decrease in the am- 
_ plitude of the annual variation of temperature with height is ap- 
parent; also, the difference in rates of rise and fall of temperature 
before and after the annual maximum. 


BLAIR—AEROLOGY. 203 


Fig. 17 shows the vertical distribution of temperature to be ex- 
pected in the different quadrants of the high-pressure area, based 
on five years of observation at Mount Weather, while Fig. 18 con- 


Fic. 15. Mean of Wind Observations in “Lows” at 5000 Meters above Sea 
Level, 1907-1912. 


tains similar information for low-pressure areas. The temperature- 
altitude relation for a condition of neutral equilibrium in the atmos- 
phere would be represented on one. of these charts by a line drawn 
at an angle of 45° to the axes. Such a gradient is more nearly ap- 
proached by average conditions in the high-pressure areas of the 
summer months than elsewhere, but the height to which it extends 
does not often exceed 1,500 meters in these latitudes. 

Other convective systems than the planetary are in independent 


204 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


TABLE II. 


RELATIVE FREQUENCY (PER CENT.) OF WINDS FROM THE DIFFERENT 
DirEcTIONS OBSERVED AT EacH LEVEL, 


Altitude of Each Level (Meters). 

Wind Direction. |—— 

526. | 750. | 1,000. 1,250.| 1,500. 2,000. | 2,500.| 3,000.| 3,500.) 4,000.) 4,500.| 5,000 
BNE eS teats so ei cati 0:2:| 2.5). 232 a Bor] 258). 2.2.1 2:0 | 08 ee ae 
INNES 2a scguies tapes Me -maara nea A | WEY 14 (Pet sy (Dae eo eM Pe Bh me wo WR ee RIAD 
ONE alec a. craic kaon Od | OA OT ay ob re at 
PEIN eS ee 0.4: | 0.2) O.2]) Ora at peas 
| PE See iets ga 325) 2.6:) O95) 0.8: Oise s 
[DAS OM aera ieee a 2.6 |)2.0)) B21 EO) On eM ete ei ate 
vend SRE AS Der ee Sa LAT) /3.2°]\- Qdt SB; | a eae 1s 
esi: EAB retteg SO ee 9:6'| T0264 O21 Be eee Oey east ong. s 
STA ARR coe 765 | L2.4 |eES4" 0 OO GyaLy eee 0.8 Oey ee cal aes 
Chk | ATO IN 0.7. | O25 | \7.6 |: BE5.) LO) S85 5.7-8"| 5:0} 3.6) tO ee eee 
SWioi re ceae, 2.1 | -3.4| 5.61) 8.0 | 20,0) 22-5 |. 24.1] 13.0:| 13:6)| 0.4 tones 
WS ee ase 3-5 123-4) 4.9) |-"5.6)] “6.8 7.6) 7.8| 13.0 | 15.4) £6.04 ao ee 
AWN Peers wear eeu 8.9| 7.4] 7,6] 8.7] 10.2| 18.1 | 23.0 | 22.7 | 21.9 | 28.3 | 36.2 | 50.0 
VIS a 26.4 | 20.1 | 19.5 | 18.8 | 19.0] 19.7 | 18.8 | 21.3 | 25.4 | 31.1 | 29.3 | 12.5 
DAM ER co gteco ke sath 17.0] 19.4 | 19.3 |19.5|19.2|17.8|18.3|14.5|13.6] 8.5|12.1] 8.3 
ININW acceso eee 3.31. 7-21 7.6) FSa Ost O04) 5.3 |) 5.0) 3:0: gee ee 


operation. They are set up locally because of peculiarity of topog- 
raphy of the earth’s surface or in its nature so far as ability to ab- 
sorb and radiate heat is concerned. The variation in the intensity 
of insolation during the twenty-four-hour period also gives rise to 
a convective system which is of especial interest to the aéronaut. 
Figs. 19 and 20 show the temperature distribution up to the three- — 
kilometer level accompanying the diurnal convective system, as it 
has been observed at Mount Weather on clear days. Fig. 19 is 
based on data for the summer half of the year and Fig. 20 for the 
winter half. The horizontal circulation that obtains in this convec- 
tive system is not often in direct evidence. It usually manifests 
itself as a modification in the direction and speed of the wind pre- 
vailing at the time and need not now be further considered. The 
height to which turbulence in the air, caused by the heating of the 
earth’s surface during the day, extends and the time of greatest ac- 
tivity in this stratum are shown to be, on the average, between 1.5 
and 2 kilometers above sea level in the summer months, between 
I and 1.5 kilometers in the winter months. The height of the ob- 
serving station on the Blue Ridge was 526 meters above sea level, 


205 


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4 


206 - SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


LW] JANUARY FE! ‘MARCH  _—s APRIL AY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER 


ERE NEST 
PO NNN 
RAE OAL eRe 


J 

« 
. 
ue 
S 
SN 


| 


j 

S 

\ 

ae 
Le , 
DEIEeD 


‘aneameer o 


SS 
. 
2s 
as 
Nl 
os 
ye 
4 
: 
x 
"4 Fi 
x 
ee J 
= ae 
aes 
eat 
E % 


ae 
. 


Sy 
RRR 
eos = 
NN 
SSNS 
lif 
eal 
fe 7 
Bees 
mes: 
SE 
oe 
es 

“8 


Cr ee Pw eee 2 Cy Ema SS SS 


Fic. 16. Mean free air temperatures above Mount Weather, Va. 


the station being 300 meters higher than the floors of the valleys 
on either side of the Ridge. Aérial navigation in this turbulent 
region is considerably more difficult than it would be outside the 
limits of the region. 


i 


oS Ni \ wore: 
ay \ IN x. * hs 


‘ x x \ : \ N HN 
WENN SAA 
ANGE Go 

A { 


Sh at NBG 
eis att iy 4 (oe a en 2 , 
May. \ «fave \ sr HOW ¥es] 7 May we Abe a ul | #6 \j 20 . 


<7. 


Fic. 17. Temperature distribution in highs observed at Mount Weather. 


BLAIR—AEROLOGY. 207 


t iL i : i 
aN ; ii Bae i 
Sy 4 Tearenaruae cesta 
Shey | 
/3 oj —— TEMP am \ : \ Bs \ ad 
ait \ \ \ ) . 
\ a8 \ Ft 
\ x \ * ; : ~ ‘ 
IN AINA : Me Bebe hb 
HAE UN 
BSE Ren I 2B Oe ad 


Fic. 18. Temperature distribution in lows observed at Mount Weather. 


The gustiness of the wind is also a source of some difficulty to 
the aéronaut. This is especially true of surface winds because here 
the gusts follow each other at shorter and less regular intervals than 
do those occurring in winds at the higher levels. Each gust con- 


I ! ! 
VELOCITY MILES PER HOUR 


en ie ia } 


| Mt a oh HT 
a) 
all | 


10 tt i le nt 
| ta 


NOON 1 2 3 4 


Fic. 22. Record of wind speed and force by pressure tube anemometer. 


208 | SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


A, M. P. M, 
12°-102-3..4) B26 7 8. Oo 42.4 2 8 eS 8 ee ee Oy toutes 
TEMP TEMP 
% °c 
30po|m. 
Wy ML Be 
== NL LY ‘ 
25bo0|M, 
7 ioe N 
7 ie 7 
om BM 
5 
2000|M, ‘ 
mT eT ON 
we 9 
NT NLT 
13 = 8 
in NS 
is Fa PN 
= N 
1500|M, \ 
11PS —<—— 4 17 
Bs NT ATTN 
V4 16 
3 15 
V4 
10(00|M LA oe ae 
— ra N 
| ss ~~ 
21 4 VA \ 13 
20 
19 
N 
/ NI 
18 \ 
sere \ 
N Ps 
16 
\ / 
i” ae Bee 
V 7 
war 
14 
O's. 


Fic. 19. Diurnal distribution of temperature for the summer half of the 
year at different levels above Mount Weather. 


BLAIR—AEROLOGY. 
A. M, ah P.M. 

12 2 ee Oe Lee sO ee SSE 2. 84 BEF eS. 8 46.8 12 
TEMP. TEMP. 
% + a °C 

SE ae ee ad 
=) 
3000 M. 
ava 
a IN 
\ J 
2500 M : 
-2 7 a N Ae eel JY 6 
A 
al \ 
— 
sy \ ea 
V4 
20p0|M \ LS) 
ge => 1 
> 
NU ak 
N\ / 
VA 3 
Pa 
‘ i 
1500|M LT ON a Oe 
-1,4 ae 
' ™ 
~ 
2 ee tT a"4 : 
oF nn a Bg 
a \ 2 
/ \ | 
a 1000] M, ; ea ~ ‘ 
/ 
~ 
: toot ; / \ 
\ 
6 / N 
; / 
/ 
4 / N 
; ; 
| | |PsecneF \ 
~~ ee 
1 = Y 
t) 
oa 


209. 


Fic. 20. Diurnal distribution of temperature for the winter half of the year 


at different levels above Mount Weather. 


210 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


mb. 8a.m. Pressure 9a.m. 
1033.8 


1033.6 7 7 MY 
1033.4 |— f Oo 
1033.2 w, 
1033.0 
| Speed | 
Vel. — Dynes 
m.p.s. Force cme 
3 r °° 
2 i | 29 


I 


 Z 


eT ea le 
si Ww 


B 


Fic. 21. Relation between speed, force, pressure and direction in wind gusts. 


sidered separately is a complete convective unit in which occur ap- 
propriate changes in air pressure, temperature and in speed and di- 
rection of movement. Fig. 21 illustrates a series of changes in wind 
speed with accompanying changes in wind direction and air pressure. 
Fig. 22 (see page 207) is a part of a record made by a pressure 
tube anemometer showing frequency and amplitude of gusts as they 
occur in the average westerly wind. The acceleration in the hori- 


BLAIR—AEROLOGY. 211 


a zontal component of the wind speed shown is about 7.5 centimeters 
per second. It would require a horizontal acceleration of 17 to 20 


times this amount to sustain a bird or a well-constructed glider in 
soaring flight, but together with the changes in direction in the 
5 ; horizonal plane recorded by our instruments, vertical changes in 
7 direction occur in these gusts which are really only a series of ex- 


_ pansions and contractions in the moving air. 


When the air expands and contracts with sufficient rapidity, the 
vibrations become.audible. The use of these vibrations and pos- 
sibly of aérial vibrations of still higher frequency in detecting the 
presence of aircraft or as a means of communication between air- 


craft or to receiving stations is outside the scope of this paper. 


4 The subject of atmospheric electricity and possibly closely con- 
nected with it the loading of aircraft with liquid or solid H,O are 
also matters of interest to the aéronaut. So far not much has been 
done toward the solution of the problems arising from these atmos- 
pheric conditions. It is likely that the solid formations, both crys- 
talline and amorphous, occur more sigs if not altogether, on 
electrically charged surfaces. 


U. S. WeaTHER Bureau, 
WasuIncron, D. C. 


V 


THEORY OF AN AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING 
GUSTS, IL 


By EDWIN BIDWELL WILSON. 


1. This discussion is an immediate continuation of my previous 
treatment of the subject published in the First Annual Report of 
the National Advisory Committee for Aéronautics, Washington, 
IQI5, pp. 52-75 (Senate Document, 268, 64th Congress, Ist Session, 
reference to which will be by pages). The notations of that work 
will be continued without change except as hereafter noted. 


PERIODIC LONGITUDINAL GUSTS. 


2. That there is a certain degree of periodicity in gusts is obvious 
from casual observation, from the records of scientific observatories 
like Blue Hill, and from the familiar fact that all such phenomena 
in nature reveal a general tendency toward periodicity. Needless to 
say the periodicity is not mathematically exact in its regularity nor 
indefinite in continuance. 

The object, however, of an investigation of the effect of periodic 
gusts on an aéroplane can for practical purposes be no other than 
to reveal any exceptional effects that periodic, as compared with 
single, gusts may have upon the flight of the machine; and these 
exceptional effects will probably be indicated with sufficient practical 
completeness by an analysis built on the assumption of strict 
periodicity, long continued in operation—the phenomenon most to be 
feared being resonance. 

3. The longitudinal gusts are in, 1°, head-on velocity u,; 2°, 
vertical velocity w,; 3°, rotary velocity q,. Very little is known as 
to the nature of rotary gusts (p. 65) and hence 3° may be left aside. 
It is not easy to see how vertical gusts can have any pronounced 
periodicity ; the disturbance of the aéroplane’s motion by vertical 


212 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 213 


gusts is (p. 64), except for very sharp gusts, essentially a convection 
of the machine with and by the gust; for both these reasons 2° may 
be discarded. This-leaves only 1°—periodicity in the head-on 
gustiness—as likely to be of interest. 

The gust may be assumed in the form 


“,= J sin pt. or - #,=—Je*. i (1) 
The differential equations are (p. 59) 
f(D) u =— (0.128D? + 1.160D? + 3.385D + 0.917) 4,, 
f(D) w=— D*(0.557D + 2.458) u,, (2) 
f(D) 6=—0.02851Du,, 


with f(D) =D*+8.49D* + 24.5D? + 3.385D + 0.917 


= (D? + 8.359D + 23.37) (D? + 0.1308D + 0.03924). 

4. In the previous investigation it was found that the short- 
period heavily damped oscillation was not of much significance 
except in the case of a sharp up-gust (pp. 62-69), and that its 
significance in that case was not revealed in the major motion of the 
machine but in the initial acceleration (or stress) upon it. It may 
therefore be expected that for periodic head-on gusts the short- 
period motion will be negligible in its effects. It is consequently 
desirable to carry out the numerical analysis in such a way as to 
separate, so far as may be, the short and long natural periods of 
the machine. 

Let us separate into partial fractions the operator 


I 


I 
f(D) (D* + 8.359D + 23.37)(D? + 0.1308D + 0.03924) ’ 
or 


I 0.016D + 0.089 — 0.01601D + 0.04263 
f(D) ~ D? + 8.359D + 23.37 ' D? + 0.1308D + 0.03924 @) 
The first fraction has to do with the short, the second with the long 
oscillation. The two operators are to be applied to certain ex- 
pressions derived from (1) by substitution in (2). 
5. If D=ip, the numerators of (3) have the respective magni- 
tudes 


(0.089? + 0.01672)'/2, and (0.0426? + 0.0162p°)!/2. 


214 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


For p=o, the second is about half the first; for p=, the two 
are equal; the numerators therefore do not differ greatly in magni- 
tude for any value of p. 

The ratio of the denominators is 


of | (.03924 — p*)? + ase | 
“3:37 — PP + 8.g20 Te" 

and is very small when p is less than 1. For larger values of p, we 
have approximately 


1/R? = 1 + 23.2/p* + 545/p*. 


Hence the short oscillations may be neglected when p <1 without 
introducing much error; but as p increases beyond the value 1, the 
importance of the short oscillation grows rapidly. 

6. Consider first the case p < 1, neglecting the short oscillation. 
The particular solutions for u, w, and @, that is, Iu, Iw, Ig, are ob- - 
tained from the imaginary parts of 


ce tea .O1601 p21 + .04263 BS ee : 
7 egos ouees (.128p%2 + 1.16p? — 3.385p7 

ne .Q17)e'?!, , 
ete Mines .O1601p1 + .04263 a sala (4) 
J ~ = # + 13080% + .03024 (.557P4 + 2.458p")e'?!, | 
Be he 01601 pi + .04263 m aes 
J — p+ .1308pi + age oli dei 


To estimate the value of » corresponding to the maximum dis- 
turbance we may examine the amplitude of 6/J, which is 


t) (.04263)? + (.016p)? ]!” 

retin ee (.03924p°)? + eo S 

The calculation gives p?—= 0.0394 or p==0.1985. The value of the 

amplitude is then about 0.0095/ radians or 0.54J degrees. If J 

should be 20 ft./sec., the forced oscillation would have an amplitude 
of about 10°. 

7. As the use of p= 0.1985 in calculating is somewhat more 
complicated than the use of p==0.2, and as the change from 0.1985 
to 0.2 does not materially alter the amplitude of the forced oscilla- 
tion (and probably does not exceed the error of observations), we 


La a eee Se a ee here r+ 


ee eee. a ee ee ee 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 215 


may use p=0.2 in calculating the effect of a periodic gust of 
maximum resonance on the aéroplane. We shall first note that 
for p==0.2 the ratio of the amplitudes of the two fractions in (3) 
is of the order 400 to 1, and the first fraction is therefore entirely 
negligible in determining the particular integrals. 

For the second fraction we have the complex value 

4.263 — .32¢ (4.275, —4-3:) _ (4-275 ‘ 

2.6161 —.076 (2.617, 91.6°) (3225, quae . 
where the parentheses contain the polar coordinates of the complex 
numbers. The expressions into which this is multiplied to determine 
the coefficients of e*?* are for u/J, w/J, 0/J respectively 


— 0.922 — 0.6761 = (1.144, 216.24°), 
0.0983 ++ 0.004561 = (.0984, 2.67°), 
— 0.00571= (.0057, —90°). 
Hence the values of u/J, w/J, @/J are 
u/J = (— .965 + 1.6517) (cos .2#-++-7 sin .2t), 
w/J = (— .00918 — .1647) (cos. .2t +i sin .2t), 
6/J = (— .00948 + .000987) (cos .2¢-++7 sin .2¢), 
and J,—J(1.65 cos .2t—.965 sin .2t), 
Iw=J(— .164 cos 2t— .0092 sin .2t). 
I,=J(.00098 cos .2#— .00948 sin .2¢), 
I,’ =J(—.0019 cos .2t—.0002 sin .2t), 
Tuo =1.65J,  Iwo—=—.164J, I,9==.00098J, I's —=—.oo19/. 
8. On substituting these values to find the constants of integra- 
tion (p. 61), it is found that A and C, corresponding to the short 


oscillation in u, are negligible. Also B==—1.65J, D=.726/. 
Hence 


u = J e~-°4t(— 1.65 cos .187¢ + .726 sin .187¢) 
+J(1.65 cos .2t—.965 sin .2t). 


In like manner (p. 62), A’ and C’ are small and B’=.176J, D’ 
=— .051/. . 


216 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


w= Je~°%4t(.176 cos .187f — .051 sin .187t) 
—J(.164 cos .2t-+ .009 sin .2t) — .o12Je-*18* cos 2.43¢. 
(The last term is added as a check on the initial condition wo.) 
Finally (p. 62), A” =.00007J, B” =.o0104J, D” =.o109J, and 
6 = Je~-°%4t (— c0104 cos .187¢ + .o109 sin .187t) 
-+ J(.00098 cos .2#— .00948 sin .2t) + .oo007Je-*18! cos 2.43¢. 


9g. Now to find the rise of the machine when the gust strikes it 
(p. 64). 


w + 115.50== Je~-°4t(.056 cos .187¢ + 1.208 sin .187¢) 
—J(.051 cos .2t-++ 1.064 sin .2f). 
The cosine terms may be omitted. The integration then gives 
2= 5.32) cos .2t-+ 0.44] —Je~-*#(2 sin .187¢-+-5.76 cos .187¢). 
A table of values of g may be computed as: 
ts Sate 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 14, 
z/J=0, 0, —.I5, —.54, —1.16, —1.90, —2.60, —2.97. 


This shows the rise or drop, according as J is negative or posi- 
tive, during the first quarter minute. The values of z now fall off, 
pass through o, and only become large as ¢ nears 35. The natural 
oscillation is then becoming less effective relative to the forced 
oscillation which has a double amplitude of about 10.6/, or 202 ft. 
if J=20 ft./sec. 

As the existence of a regular periodic gust for any long time is 
almost unbelievable, the only real interest in the calculation is in 
showing that during the first 15 seconds the effect of resonance fails 
to become so far established that the motion differs appreciably from 
that due to the simple head-on gust previously studied (p. 74). 

10. In the case of the machine constrained to remain horizontal 
during flight (by some automatic steering device), the corresponding 
equations (p. 69) are for u,—=Je‘?* 


wor 128pi + .598 pint 
J 598 — #7 +. 4.078p1’ 
we , 557 pt nat 
J 598 — p? + 4.078pi 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 217 


As the natural motion is no longer periodic, there can hardly be 
any such thing as resonance, in the usual acceptation of that term. 
We can, however, ask what value of Pp will make w/J a maximum 
and hence induce the maximum oscillation in the vertical motion. 
To maximize 

P I 
(598 — 2°)? + 4.078% 4.078" + (b — .598/p) 
take p?=0.598 or p==0.774. The value of w/J is then 


w/J ==— 0.136e?*, 


and the amplitude of w is 0.136J. The amplitude of the oscillation 
corresponding to the particular solution I» is 0.175J/. 

Thus again it is seen that the steering device makes the motion 
far easier than when the machine is free (p. 70). There seems to 
be no need of carrying out the details of the integration. 


NoTE ON RESONANCE. 


11. In defining, by implication, a state of resonance in the calcula- 
tions above, I have assumed that it was the angle 6 which was to be 
maximized by the proper choice of the frequency p of the applied 
periodic force. It may be well to take up the theory of resonance in 
a little greater detail, for there are complications in the kind of 
system we have here to consider. 

A. G. Webster, in his “Dynamics of Particles, etc.,” Teubner, 
1904, p. 175, gives general formulas for resonance and shows that 
if the damping coefficients are small and if the frequency of the im- 
pressed force nearly coincides with that of the natural oscillation, 
the amplitude of the forced vibration will be relatively large. 

This is not enough. For in the first place, the damping coeffi- 
cients in the case of the aéroplane can hardly be regarded as small 
(they sometimes exceed the frequencies ) ; in the second place, we are 
not even certain that the motion of the system is wholly oscillatory 
(some of the roots may be real, and even positive if the machine has 
a certain amount of dynamical instability) ; and in the third place, 
under such conditions, the amplitude of the forced oscillation may be 
considerably greater when the frequency of the applied force is 


218 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


materially different from that of the system (supposed oscillatory) 
than when the system and the force are nearly synchronous. 
12. The ordinary theory of simple resonance depends on the 
equation ; 
(D?+kD+n)*=J sin pt. 


The particular solution 


I, = 


J 
Di+eD tn 


is the imaginary part of the expression 

Je'rt 
n—pt+kpi- 
The amplitude of J, is the same as the modulus of the complex 
value x. The modulus of e‘?* is 1; that of x is 

La 

[m= pe)? + PPP 

13. To make the denominator a minimum we have merely to 
minimize 


x= 


amp. J, = 


(n—q)?+kq, q=p?>o. 
We find q==n— $k?, necessitating » > 43k. If, then, n> k?, the 
maximum amplitude of J, is 


Bf 
max. amp. I, = ne Vn 1B’ 


where the positive or negative sign must be taken according as k is 
positive or negative. If ~<4k?, the maximum amplitude for J, 
occurs when p=0 and is J/n. 

The amplitude is large when k or (n—4k?)} is small ; it is very 
large when both conditions are satisfied. The largest possible value 
occurs when == 4k? and is /2J/k?. In this case the applied force 
has an indefinitely small frequency where the natural oscillation has 
the frequency k/\/2. The theory of the system here considered is 
given by Webster (op. cit., p. 155). 

14. The case which corresponds to that in which we are in- 
terested is where the system starts from rest at the position of 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 219 


equilibrium. The motion is then defined by the equation 


_ IVn — 3k eae 
Fond © cos Vn = Fit — cos vn — FB) 
J Vn — ik? 
et Suet i 
goes sin Vn — Yet — sin Vn — n= Her). 


Under normal conditions this quantity remains tolerably small 
until the natural motion is nearly damped out or until that motion 
has time to increase greatly (k > 0). Even if n=tk?+ &k?, the 
equation becomes 

x = “2 (e—*** cos $kt — cos ekt) + 3 (ce—*** sin 3kt — sin ek?), 
and the conclusion still holds. 

For the simple system ordinarily treated for resonance the state- 
ment that the motion must be only slightly damped and the frequen- 
cies of the natural and forced vibrations must be reasonably near 
together, is therefore amply justified. The result holds even when 
n < $k?, in which case the maximum amplitude for J, (resonance) 
occurs when p—o0 and is J/n. 

15. The next simplest case is like that which arises in treating 
the constrained longitudinal motion (@=0) of the aéroplane (p. 69) : 


(D+a)u+ bw=—au,—bw,, a=.128, b=—.162, 
cut (D+ d)w=—cu,—dw,, c=.557, d=3.95. 
The natural motion is given by 
A’=D?+ (a+d)D-+ (ad—bc) =0, 


and in this case by D?-+4.078D + .598=—o0. Here the roots are. 
both real, viz., — 3.93 and —o.15. So far as the equation in D is 
concerned we have the case where F is large and m is small. The 
equations for the forced motion are 


A’u==— (aD + -n)u, —bDw,, 
A’w=— (dD + n)w,—cu,. 


The question now arises: What is it that is to be a maximum? 


220 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


For some purposes it might be the variables u or w—for example, 
the whole theory of gusts here given depends on the gust being 
small and producing small effects, and if by an applied force, the 
values of u or w should become too large, the theory would become 
worthless. Again, if the question had to do with the strain on the 
machine, the derivatives du/dt and dw/dt would be the essential 
objects of interest, and should be maximized. Finally it might be 
the values += fudt and z= /{wdt—the actual displacements of the 
machine—which we desired to examine. Let us therefore consider 
several problems seriatim. 
16. Case 1—To maximize u with a head-on gust u, = e???, 


ae aip+n vane 1287p + .598 ink 
A’ 598 — p? + 4.0981p 
The maximum value of 
1282p? + .598? _ _ .1287(p? + 21.83) 


(.598 — p*)? + 4.0986? p! + 15.50" + .3576 
occurs when p? is o, that is, “resonance” occurs for p==o, the 
amplitude of the force and the oscillation being the same. 
Case 2.—To maximize w with a head gust. 
This was treated above ($10). The ratio .136 was found; the 
required value of p was .776. 
Case 3—To maximize u with an up-gust w,. 


162pi : 
“= . 
598 — p? + 4.098p1 


The condition is p==.776 as is Case 2; the ratio is .04. 
Case 4.—To maximize w with an up-gust. 


aes SOP : 
598 — p? + 4.098p7 
The maximum value of 
3-95°P? + 598? _—_—3-95°(H" + .0228) 
(.598 — p°)? + 4.098°p? =p + 15.59p” + .3576 
occurs when p?==.022 and p==.15, and the amplitude ratio is 
about 1. 


ipt 


ipt 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 221 


We note the very different values of p thus found, namely, 0, 0.15, 
0.776, according to the choice of case. If in Case 1, we had taken 
p~=.15, the amplitude ratio would have been about .7 instead of 1; 
if p—=-776 had been assumed, the ratio would have been .37 instead 
of I. 


Case 5.—lf we desired to maximize z we should have had to 
treat 


_1__3.95¢+ -598/P sn, 
: 4.598 — p? + 4.098p1’ 
which would have given an infinite amplitude ratio for po. 
17. Now if we turn to the free machine and try to maximize 
[@dt instead of 0, we have to maximize 


.042637 + .0167p" 
(.03924* — p?)? + .1308°p” 

instead of (5, §6). The value of p? is about .0307 and of p about 
175 instead of .2 as before. The amplitude ratio is then only 
slightly in excess (about 4 per cent.) of that previously found—in 
other words the numerical values are such that resonance for 6 and 
for f@dt, which is the preponderating term in the expression for g, 
occurs for considerably different values of , but the effect is about 
the same. This may be regarded as validating our procedure (§ 6) 
in maximizing @ instead of /@dt. 

18. To sum up this discussion of resonance as applied to the 
aéroplane we may say that the frequencies which produce “ reso- 
nance” depend largely upon the quantity in which the effect of reso- 
nance is to be sought and that the frequency which makes for a 
strong resonant effect in one quantity may make on another an effect 
much weaker than the maximum—or it may not. 

19. There remains to discuss the question whether the effect of 
resonance is practically serious, 7, e., whether as in the case of the 
motion of the machine, above treated, the effect fails to make itself 
felt until after so long a time that the pilot would be entirely able to 
deal with it or the wind would really have in all probability ceased 
to be periodic with the period required. 

Now in order to insure that resonance is effective both of itself 


222 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


and as against the natural motion, we should reasonably expect to 
require, 1°, that the resonant frequency p be large (for if it be small 
the pilot will have ample time to take care of it), and that, 2°, it be 
reasonably different from any natural frequency which is only 
slightly damped (for in the latter case the initial conditions will 
probably be such as to cause the natural and forced effects to clash 
for a considerable interval of time). 

This problem in its generality is so complicated that I have as yet 
been unable to determine whether there may be practically serious 
effects due to resonance, but from the cases I have here treated, from 
the general considerations which I have advanced, with due regard 
to the restrictions on p which appear to be reasonable, and from cases 
which I have examined without mentioning them here, I should 
judge that resonance is not a practically serious matter in longi- 
tudinal motion, and that we may safely confine our attention to gusts 
of the form J(1—e**). 

20. One type of resonance which deserves consideration is that 
of the damped harmonic gust Je-"* sin pt.. It would be conjectured 
that if — + pi were nearly equal to a pair of roots of Ao, there 
might arise a considerable disturbance. It is not likely that a gust 
of this type would exist in reality, but the commencement of any 
gust might resemble very closely the commencement of such a gust 
and if the effect of this type were very marked as compared to that 
of the types already considered, it would be necessary, for the sake 
of foreseeing the worst that could happen, to discuss this type. . 

I have not time to take the matter up here. Moreover, I imagine 
that it would be found that the constants of integration turned out 
to have such values that the gust, though tuned in damping and in 
frequency to the natural motion of the machine, did not have very 
large effects except in cases where m and p were small enough to 
allow the pilot easily to correct for the disturbance. 

The damped periodic gust has been treated by Brodetsky,? who 
finds the amplitude of the particular solution is a maximum (for the 
machine I am dealing with) when t= 16 sec. and is then a tolerably 
large quantity,—but the pilot has a quarter of a minute in which to 
react to his environment. It is, however, by no means certain that 


1 Aéronautical Journal, London, 20, 1916, p. 154. 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 223 


the pilot would have to react so quickly—the constants of integra- 
tion might turn out, as I-have just suggested, such that the motion 
during the first quarter minute was not far different from that in 
the case of the simple gust. This was what was found to happen in 
the case of the periodic gust above treated ($9). The amplitude of 
‘the vertical motion so far as the particular solution was concerned 
turned out to be about 5.3/, but the constants of integration were 
such as to postpone the major effect of the particular solution until 
30 or 40 seconds had elapsed. If we have a damped harmonic gust 
and such a postponement were operative, the damping would become 
effective and the gust might turn out to have at no time an effect 
much in excess of the maximum effect of a single gust of the form 
J(1—e**). 
| INFINITELY SHARP Gusts. 


21. In my previous paper I discussed gusts J(1—e**) rising 
from zero to J with various degrees of sharpness depending on the 
value of r—the larger r, the sharper the gust. An infinitely sharp 
gust would be one for which r was indefinitely large. Such a gust 
would represent an absolute discontinuity in the velocity of the wind. 
This is impossible, though it represents a state of aérial motion 
which may be nearly approached. Moreover, the infinitely sharp 
gust could not strike the machine all over at once, and hence the 
theoretical effect of such a gust on the assumption that the machine 
is instantaneously immersed must differ from the actual effect upon 
a machine running into a discontinuity in the wind velocity. 

For this reason one may well limit his considerations to finite 
gusts with a value of r not greater than 5, say, as I did. Neverthe- 
less if the calculation of the effect of an infinitely sharp gust is 
simpler than for a finite gust and if the limiting motion derived for 
such a gust is not appreciably different from that for a sharp gust 
of reasonable sharpness, the discussion of the limiting case will be 
justified. 

22. Consider first the longitudinal motion and a head-on gust 
u,—=J(1—e*t), r enormously large. According to the symbolic 
method D==—r must be substituted to find the particular solution 
for et. As, however, A is of the fourth degree in D and all the 


224 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


polynomials upon the right hand are of degree 3 or less, the result 
of the substitution is easy to find. 
For example, when u,—=J(1—e-"*), 


I,/J =— 1— ett (.128/r), Iy=— J, 
Iw/J =— e**(.557/r), I 99 =O; 
I,/J =— et (.02851/r*) =0, + Egg =o, 
I',/J=e7t(.02851/r)=0,  — I"p==0. 


The equations of motion are 
u/J = e-*8t(,0009 cos 2.43¢ + .0032 sin 2.43f) 
+ e7-°854t( ggg1 cos .187t— .3577 sin .187¢) —1—e**(.128/r), 
w/J = e-*8t (1066 cos 2.43f — .0435 sin 2.43t) 
+ e~-°854t( 1066 cos .187¢ + .0352 sin .187t) —e*(.557/r), 
1000/J = e-*18t (— .0402 cos 2.43t— .0278 sin 2.43) 
+ e--°854t( 9402 cos .187t — .6683 sin .187t). 


The calculation of the constants of integration is much simplified. 
The terms e-"'/r are retained because the stresses (forces) due to. 
the gust are calculated from du/dt and dw/dt to which these terms 
make an initial contribution—there is an instantaneous initial stress. 
When to, 


du/dt = (.128 — .004 — .008 — .085 — .067) J =— .o16J, 
dw/dt = (.557 — .446— .106 + .007 + .006) J = .o18/. 


These are the initial accelerations and should vanish because the 
gust though infinitely sharp begins at zero. That they do not 
vanish is due to an accumulation of errors. 

23. Immediately after the initial instant, however, the first terms, 
viz., .128 and .557, being multiplied by e-"' vanish. The other terms, 
however, being multiplied by comparatively slow changing func- 
tions are not altered. Hence immediately after the first instant 
- there are accelerations — .128/ and —.557/ along the x and g axes 
respectively. 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 225 


To put it another way, there is a discontinuity in the stress at the 
initial instant—as might be expected. The amounts of the discon- 
tinuities are also just what might be expected, viz., X,J and Z,J. 
In like manner for an up-gust the initial discontinuities in accelera- 
tion are XJ and Z,J along the x and zg axes. These results could 
have been foreseen from the differential equations themselves as 
well as from “common sense.” The path in space is not materially 
different for an infinitely sharp gust from what it is for a reason- 
ably sharp gust. 

It may therefore be said that a tolerably good idea of what 
happens for sharp gusts may be had from the consideration of 
infinitely sharp gusts. 

24. It has just been stated that the conclusions concerning the 
initial accelerations may be foreseen from the differential equations. 
This may be proved as follows: We have 


(D — X,)u— Xy~w— Xq— gO= Xu, = X wW, + Xo41, 


—Zu-+ (D—Zy)w— (Z,+ U)q= Zw, + Zww, + 291; 
(6) 
—M,u— Mw + (ke D—Myq=Mwa,+ Muw, + Maa, 
Dé—q=0, 


where the equations have been reduced to four involving only the 
first derivatives of the four variables u, w, g, 0, with the initial condi- 
tions “= w= gq=6=—0, by the device of choosing g==D@ as an 
independent variable so as to eliminate the second derivatives. 

These equations determine the first derivatives at the initial 
instant or at any instant in terms of the values of the variables at 
that instant, namely, 


Du= Xu + Xyw + Xqq + gb + Xu, + Xuw, + XG, 


Dw=Zyu + Zww+ Zqq + Ug + Zut, + Zu, + 204;, 


(7) 
k,Dq=M,u+ M,w+Mq + Mu, + Myw, + M4, 


Dé=q. 


At the initial instant u, 2, g, @ vanish. 


PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, P, JUNE 21, I917. 


226 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


With an infinitely sharp gust u,, w,, g, may be considered as not 
vanishing but as starting at finite values, Ju, Jw, Jg. The derivatives 
are then at the initial instant 


Du=XwutXvdJwtXdJy 


Dw=ZiutZwJwtZJa 
(8) 
kDq=Misu 4M wl w + Mga, 

Déd=0. 


The first two equations give the X and Z accelerations of the ma- 
chine which determine the stresses as the accelerations times the 
mass. 

We have, for numerical values, 


Du=— .128Jy + .162] y + OJ g, if Xoo 
Dw=— .557Ju— 3.95 w + , it Zoe 
34Dq = OJ u + 1.74] w — 150J g, if M,==6, 


The last equation determines the couple tending to break the ma- 
chine, by bending in the -z-plane, on multiplication by the mass m. 

25. That which I have called an infinitely sharp gust is not an_ 
impulsive gust. The implusive gust is both infinitely sharp and 
infinitely intense, but endures for only an infinitesimal time. The 
effect of an impulsive gust is to produce instantaneous changes in 
U, W, Q. Such an impulse, like the impulses of ordinary mechanics, 
puts an infinite strain on the machine for an infinitesimal time, and 
the only way to tell whether the machine will stand the strain is to 
take the yielding of the framework into account—it is a problem 
in elasticity. For the purpose of calculating the stresses produced 
by gusts on the machine I therefore prefer the sharp gust to the 
impulsive gust. 

For the purpose of treating the motion of the machine after the 
gust strikes it—the gust being now a sudden fierce squall in other- 
wise still air—we have merely to determine the constants of integra- ~ 
tion from the initial condition “,, w , J), and =o, where uy, Wo, Jo 
are the impulsively generated velocities. These equations are 
(p..61): y 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 227 
u=A+B, 


_Wy=—74.04A 4 34. 5C — .1058D + .002587D, 
(9) 
O==— .132A — .0946C + .002478B + .0057990D, 
J) = .703A + .205C — .001246D + .o00084D. 


' Analytically the effect of the impulsive gust upon the equations 
for determining the constants of integration is merely to replace the 
initial values of the particular solutions Iu,, Iw, Io, I’o, obtained 
on the hypothesis of finite gusts, by the respective values —u,, 
—W,, 0, —gq). The effect of the disturbance may therefore be 
calculated at once from my equations (23), (24), (25), (26), as 
soon as the values m,, wz), g, have been determined. 

26. In the calculation of “,, w,, g, the same doubt arises as in 
the theory of any very sharp gust, namely, the effect of the partial 
immersion of the machine. Is the effect of a blow traveling along a 
mechanism the same as that of the blow applied instantaneously at 
all points of the mechanism? The possibility of a difference be- 
tween the instantaneous immersion and the immersion distributed in 
time would arise only if, 1°, the machine had time enough to change 
its orientation appreciably or, 2°, the acquired velocities were suffi- 
cient to change the relative wind and thus affect considerably the 
impulsive pressure. 

Even if we assume that no material difference in effect is to be 
expected, it is difficult to make the proper assumptions to lead to 
reasonably satisfactory values for u), w), g, for any actual machine 
whose characteristics are expressed in terms of the mechanical 
coefficients m, k,,?, U, and the aérodynamical coefficients Xu, Xv, Xq, 
Zu, Zw, Zq, Mu, Mw, Mg. It is by no means certain that for a con- 
siderable aérial disturbance the finite instantaneous changes in u, w, 
q can be calculated from the equations (8) by replacing D by the 
sign A for the increment and taking Jy, Jw, Jq as the intensities of 
the impulsive gusts; for the nine coefficients Xy, etc., vary with the 
intensity of the relative wind. 

It is for this reason that I have used finite gusts of various 
degrees of sharpness instead of impulsive gusts. Moreover, it is 


228 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


not certain but the finite gust represents more nearly actual condi- 
tions in the air when flying is at all possible. 

An article by Brodetsky, with an introduction by Bryan, has re- 
cently reached this country,” in which impulsive gusts are considered, 
relative to Bryan’s skeleton aéroplane consisting of a forward main 
plane and rear tail plane. The discussion is both interesting and 
important as is everything to which Bryan, the great pioneer in this 
subject, sets his name, but it does not seem to help me, so far as I 
have yet.been able to examine it, in regard to the effect of an im- 
pulsive gust upon a machine whose properties are actually de- 
- termined in the wind tunnel. I have therefore decided to let stand 
the brief general considerations above. 


THE ACTION OF THE AIR SCREW. 


27. In the work to this point, I have made for the discussion of 
gusts the same assumption concerning the action of the propeller 
that Hunsaker, Bairstow, and others have made for discussions of 
stability, namely, that under varying conditions the motor speeds up 
or slows down so as to deliver a constant thrust along the #-axis. 

It would be equally reasonable, from some points of view more 
reasonable, to assume that under changing conditions of relative air. 
velocity a motor speeds up or slows down so as to deliver the same 
effective horsepower. We should then have the power P equal to 
the thrust H (taken positive) multiplied by the velocity —U: 


P=—HU=-—(H+dH)(U+ x), 
UdH + uH = 0, 
u u 
ca dicestiys “AT Amps yA (10) 
This is an additional force which is directed along the X-axis if 
the propeller shaft is horizontal for the velocity of flight —U. If 


in the standard condition the shaft is not horizontal there would be 


components 
“ue. 
— P=cosa, + Pp, sin a 


2 Aéronautical Journal, London, 20, 1916, 139-156. 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 229 


along the x and 2 axes, qa being the angle from the horizontal up to 
the direction of the shaft. Furthermore if the shaft did not pass 
through the center of gravity there would be a pitching moment 
—Phu/U? if h is the distance of the line of the shaft above the 
center of gravity. 

28. The equations for the natural longitudinal motion would 
then be 


Pg 


(p-x.+ 28 )u— xww — (KD +09 =0, (rr) 


the other two equations remaining unchanged, if we assume for 
simplicity that a—=h=—o. The effect of the varying thrust is to 
change X, to X,—Pg/mU?. We have the value X,——.128 for 
this machine. If the effective propeller horsepower were 87 for 
U=—115.5, the value Pg/mU? is 


Pg _87X550X32 _ 
mU2 1800 X 13350 


The modification of the equations of motion on replacing X, 

=— 128 by X,—=—.191 would make an appreciable, though not 
very serious change. 

__ _ The determinant A would become 


34D* + 290.8D* wy 850.9D? + 165.1D + 31.18 
= 34(D* + 8.553D* + 25.03D? + 4.856D + .917) 

as compared with 

34(D* + 8.490D* + 24.50D? + 3.385D + .917). 
The rapidly damped oscillation would, as a first approximation, be 

— 4.276 + 2.596% instead of — 4.245 + 2.5451. 
The first approximation for the small root would be 

— .097 ++ .I1771 instead of — .069 + .1811. 


_ The damping would be more pronounced and the oscillation a trifle 
faster. 
29. It may be concluded that whether the screw is supposed to 


230 ‘ SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


deliver a constant thrust or a constant power is not very important 
to the theory either of stability or of gusts. It is not unlikely that 
the actual behavior of the screw lies within the limits set by these 
two assumptions or sufficiently near to one of the limits to icant oc: 
the use of either hypothesis. 

The Aéronautical Journal, London, 20, 1916, p. 142, quotes 
Bairstow and Fage as giving the formula 


dH =—.o11Hdr, -V in miles per hour, 
which is) dH=—.0o073HdV, Vin feet per second 
With U=115.5 numerically we would have for constant power 
dH=—.00866HdVY, V in feet. per second; 


and, if I understand correctly the use of the signs + and — in the 
quotation, the results are in as good agreement as could be expected 
in view of the fact that I have no knowledge of the value of U 
for which the data quoted are given. (If the motor and screw were 
exactly designed to give a maximum efficiency at a standard speed 
U, we could not expect the efficiency to be the same at relative air 
speeds either higher or lower, and this would slightly influence the 
result. ) 
EQUATIONS FOR LATERAL MOTION. 


30. The differential equations for the lateral motion of a machine 
in a gust may be written as (p. 54): 


dv/dt + gt + Ur—Y,vu— Y,p — Vir =Yyv, + Yop, + Yor, 
A/m. dp/dt —Lyu—Lpp —Lrr=Lyv, + Lp, +L, (12) 
C/m. dr/dt —N,vu— Nop —N,-r=N,v, + Nop, + Nor, 


- where the terms involving the small unknown product of inertia E 
have been neglected and gusts of the type v,, p,, 7, have been 
allowed. 

The gust v, corresponds to a side wind. A change in the direc- 
tion of the wind by a small angle would produce such a gust even 
in absence of any change in the wind velocity. The gust p, is a 
rotary gust tending to produce a bank; as a disturbance in the air 
it would correspond to a horizontal roller run into end-on (axially). 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 231 


The gust r, corresponds to a column of air rotating about a vertical 
line. Ne DEN z 

This last is a common type of aérial disturbance, easily observed 
on a warm day, often of very small diameter compared with the 
spread of the wings of an aéroplane, and accompanied by a strong 
rising current of air. Such a vertical vortex, if small, might strike 
one wing of the machine alone, and, due to the rising current, heel 
it over suddenly. It is, however, not this small local disturbance 
* which we can consider by our methods here, but the larger and more 
gentle rotation in the air which might immerse the whole machine 
many times over and which produces a yawing motion in the 
machine rather than (primarily) a roll or bank. 

31. Place D=—d/dt. Then the equations are 


(D—Y,)v+ (g—YpD) $+ (U—Yr)r=Yov, + Yop, + Yon, 
—L,v+ (k,?D—Ly) b¢—Lr=Lwv, +L op, +h; (13) 
—N,v—N,D¢+ (hk? D—N, )1=Nw, +N op. +Non; 


where k ,?=A/m and k,2==C/m. The determinant whose vanish- 
ing determines the patina motion is 


D-Y, g—Y,D U—Y, 
A=| -—L, k,?D?—L,D —L, 
—-N, —N,D k?ZD—N, 
Let the cofactors of A be 
_ |k4?D? — L,D —L; Pf . 
bu = ~ N,D ktD — N,|~ 2592D' + 23140D* + 8478D, 
—L, —L, 
biz nian k2D ae N, Fas N, eft 59.55D neat 26.55; 
Sioin k{D*—L,D| _ : 
a=] N, _ N,D = — 32.84D* — 280.7D, 
Seow N,D Re r 
de) = SSG ae ae ala 2270D — 868.8, 
D-Y, U —Y, 
= _ 2 
522 Ny Ae — WN, 70.6D* + 44.5D + 109.9, 
—N, —N,D 
503 = mai SYD = 28.76, 


232 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


g—Y,D U -—Y, 


— = 2 jae 
O31 boy OED ok, 4243D? + 36270D — 1776, 


U A ¥y D he Y, 
se on tele 2 Pe pe 55.2D + 111.2, 
D Ler v me D 
533 = f Bett = 36.7D® + 323.1D?+ 77.88D+27.15, 


—L, k,?D?—L,D 

where the numerical values are those arising from the data de- 
termined for the Curtiss Tractor (which is the machine under in- 
vestigation) by Dr. J. C. Hunsaker as given on page 78 of his paper, 
“Dynamical Stability of Aéroplanes,’ Smithsonian Misc. Collect., 
Washington, Vol. 62, No. 5, pp. 1-78, 1916, namely, 


Y,=— 0.248, ¥,==0; YY -=6;, 

Ly» =+ 0.844, Lp=— 314, Lr=-+ 55.2, 

N»=— 0.894, No=0, N,=— 27.0, 
k,?=36.7-+, k2?=70.6—, ==— 116.5). g== 38a, 


The value of A is then (D— Y,)8,, +.98,, + U8,, or 
A= 2592D‘ + 23780D* + 18000D? +- 34610D — 854. 


This result checks with Hunsaker’s (loc. cit., p. 78) as well as prob- 
able. The equation Ao may be written as 


D* + 9.172D* + 6.943D? + 13.35D — 0.32950. 


32. From the last two terms, one root is indicated as D 
= 0.02468 ; and the correction can readily be found, giving 


D= 0.02436. 
There is another root near D==—8.5, the exact value being 
D=— 8.542. 


The other factor of the biquadratic equation is 
D? +- 0.6537D + 1.583 =0, 
of which the roots are 


D=— 0.3268 + 1.215%. 


—_— = | eC 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 233 


The complementary functions for v, ¢, and r are therefore of the 
form ee 


y= Cet 1 C,,e-8542t 1 6--82081(C. cos L.2I5¢ 

+C,, sin 1.215), 
eee 56 °74008 1 Ce 88486 + e--82088(C,, COS 1.215¢ 

+C,, sin 1.215¢), - 
7—C,,€-°7486t + C,.e-8- 5428 1 @--82688(C, cos 1.215¢ 

+C,, sin 1.215¢), 


The particular integrals for any gust may be represented as /,, 
I ,,J,, and their initial values as Izy, 149, Iro, the derivative of J, being 
I’, with the corresponding initial values 1’,,. 

33. If as before (p. 59) we restrict the possible gusts to those of 
which the functional form is different from any of the four func- 
tions entering into the complementary functions, the particular solu- 
tions must, on substitution, annihilate the right-hand members of 
the differential equations, and the relations between the constants 
Ci; of integration may be determined from the two equations 


(D + 0.248) v + 32.176 — 115.57 =0, 
0.894v + 0¢ + (70.6D + 27.0)r=o. 


Hence 
-2724C, + 32.17C2,—I 15.5C3;=0, 
894C,, +0C,, + 28.72€ 31 30, 
and 
C,,=— 8.326C,,, C3, == .2591Co:. 
Further 
— 8.294Cy2 + 32.17C op — 115.5C 32 == 0, 
.894C3. + OC 52 wie 575-8C ze = 0, 
and 
Cis =< 3-797C oo» Cs. Te .005897C 50. 
Finally 


— .0788C,, + 1.215C,, + 32.17C., — 115.5C;, = 090, 
— 1.215C,,; — .0788C,, + 32.17C 24 — 115.5C 34 = 0, 


234 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


894C13 + 3.92C33 + 85.74C,,=0, 


894C 14 —85.74C 33 + 3-92C 34 =0, 
and 


C13 = 1041C,, +1564.8C),, Cs3 = — 6.371€ 23 + 10.56C 24, 
Cis accent) 564.8C 2; ++ 1041 Coss Cos Spiceneth 10.5602; fae 6.371 Cos. 


The solutions therefore, so far as concerns the complementary 
function, are 


b= C,,6-°7488t 1 C,e-8-542t 1 9~.8268t(C, cos I.215¢ 


+C,, sin. 1.215¢), 
v= — BFA 4 ch eeetet a 9.7076 eon 
+ 2-987 (1041C 23 + 564.8C,,) cos 1.215¢ 
+ (— 564.8C,, + 1041C,,) sin 1.215¢], 
Y= 0.2571 CLgrtaet a 0.005897C,,e78:547# 
+ e--8268t | (— 6.371C,, + 10.56C,,) cos 1.215¢ 
— (10.56C€,, + 6.371) sin 1.215¢]. 

34. These equations determine the relative magnitudes of the 
various sorts of natural motion. 

The first term is the slowly amplifying divergence, this machine 
being slightly unstable laterally. If a side gust is such as to induce 
a lateral velocity of —8.326C,,, it induces a bank of C,,, an eighth 
as much in radians or seven times as much in degrees. It is 
therefore clear that only very small values of C,, are admissible for 
safety. The second term, corresponding to the rapidly damped 
motion, shows such rapid damping that it can hardly be of impor- 
tance, except for possible strains on the mechanism, unless C,, is 
so large that the whole work is inapplicable because of the failure 
of the motions to be small. 

The trigonometric terms show that the oscillation in wv will be of 
great amplitude compared with that in ¢, the factor being about 
1200 when ¢ is in radians or 20 when ¢ is in degrees; even the 


oscillation in r will be over 12 times as great as in ¢. In other 
words, the machine may have a large oscillatory side-slip or angular 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 235 


velocity of yaw without much bank, but for the divergent motion the 
bank is a serious matter for even moderate side-slip. 
35. The initial conditions ¢—=p—=v—=r=0 give 


O=C2, + Co. + Crs +1 40; 
O= .02436C,, — 8.542C.. — .3268C,, + 1.215C,, up $c? 
Oo=— 8.326C,, + 3.797C.,. + 1041C23 + 564.8C,, + Ir, 
O= .2571C,, + .005897C... — 6.371C 2, + 10.56C,, + Ir. 
These equations must be solved for the four constants C. 
Co =— .98391 40 — -1148I' 49 + .000740] ny) — .027971 +9, 
C.2—=— .000149] 49 + «1 1701’ 4o>— .0000342/,, — .O1163/ +5, 
C3 = — 015951 49 — 0021531’ 49 — 0007061 u) + .03961 ro, 
C.,= .014681 , ) + .0014661’ ,, — .0004537/ v9 — .07201I ry. 
36. The equations from which the particular solutions are ob- 
tained are (since Yor Noon Y, 250): 
Av= (D8,,—A) v, + Ly8.,P1 + (£782, + N1833) 11, 
Ad= D8,.0, + Ly822p1 + (Lrdo. + N 1832) 11; (14) 


Ar = D8,3V, + Lydosh) + (Lrd23 + N1833) 115 
or 


Av = (— 640D* — 9522D* — 34610D + 854)v, + (7134D 
+ 2732) p, — (112560D? + 1104700D )r,, 
Ag = (— 59.55D — 26.55) Dv, + (— 22150D* — 13970D 
— 34510) p, + (3895D* + 970D + 3062)r,, 
Ar = (—32.84D — 280.7) D*v, + (—9030) p; 


+ (—992D* —8724D? — 2103D + 854)r,, 
with 
A= 2592D* + 23780D® + 18000D? + 34610D — 854. 


MoTION IN LATERAL GUSTS. 


37. We shall take as before the type J(1—e**) for that of a 
single gust. 


236 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


Case 1.—Side-gust—sharp. v,=J(1—e-5*). 


Iy=J(—1 + .01473¢**), Toy = — .98527J, 


I ,=J(— .001028) e-*¢, I 4. =— .001028J, 
I’, =J(.00514) e**, I’ so== .00514J, 
I,==J (.002706) e-*#, I+) .002706J, 


Cz4==— .000384J, Cy. .0005364/, 


C.,== .000809/, C,,==.0002445J. 
The equations of motion are 


1000¢/J = — Sede AFNET - ‘S308 er = 1.028¢75# 
+ e--8268t( 809 cos 1.215¢-+ .2445 sin 1.215¢). 


This is all negligibly small. For the same reason certain terms may 
be neglected in v and r. 


v/J = .003¢:°7486t 1. oo2e-®-542t 1 +. .01473¢e75# 
+ e--8768t (98 cos 1.215¢— .2022 sin 1.215¢), 
1007 /J = — .o1e-7486t 4. a7z¢-5t — ¢--8268t( 207 cos 1.215¢ 
+ 1.009 sin 1.215¢). 
The effect of the sharp side-gust is to carry the machine side- 


ways with it, but not very powerfully at first—much of the air blows . 
through the machine—the dominating term at first being | 


V=— .2Je~9788t sin 1.215¢; 


after a few seconds the dominating term is v-=—J, with the very 
slowly growing divergent term effective only after a considerable 
time. There is a slight yawing oscillation, but the extreme angle 
of yaw is only about o.o1/ radians or J/2 degrees—the angle being 
computed as 


t 
100y/J = ‘ roor/J-dt = .4(1 — e-™4854) + .054(1 —e**) — 8316 
+ e~-3268(.8316 cos 1.215¢ + .o122 sin 1.215¢). 


The actual sidewise velocity is compounded of wv and the amount 
— 115.5¥ due to the yaw. Hence 


y= f (v — 115.5y)dt. 


eee 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 237 


For this calculation v and y may be simplified to 
v—=— J + Je~**8t (cos 1.215¢—.2 sin 1.215¢), 


ooy—=— .378] — .4Je-°2486t 4 Je--8268t( 83> cos 1.215t) ; 
and 


y= —.56Jt + 18.5/ (607486 — 1) — 146] 
+ Je~888t(.146 cos 1.215¢ + .066 sin 1.215¢). 


From this it will be seen that the oscillatory motion is, so far as 
concerns the lateral displacement, of very small amplitude. The 
first two terms which are progressive, are the ones which count. 
Moreover, the displacement is of the same sign as J although the 
side-slip v is of the opposite sign. This apparent contradiction is 
due to the change in orientation y— the machine moves away from 
the gust owing to the lateral excess wind-pressure, but turns into the 
gust owing to the moment of the pressures, and by virtue of the 
great forward velocity, this turning more than makes up, in the dis- 
placement, for the side-slipping. 


38. Case 2—Side-gust—mild. v,—J(1—e**). 


I,=J(—1+ 1.0205e~7*), Tog = .0205J, 
I, =J(.0004043e~**), I 40= .0004043J, 

= J (—..0000809e--7"), I’ 55-==— .0000809J, 
I,==J(—.001514e-**), I-95 ==— .001514/, 


C,,=— .000331J, C,,==.00000738J, C,;==— .0000807/, 
VEN S = O60res si. 


It is again seen that there is practically no rolling motion pro- 
duced by the side-gust. For v and 7, 


v/J = .0027¢-°7486t — 1 +- 1.0205¢e-7# 
+ e~-9268t (9244 cos 1.215¢-+ .1554 sin 1.215¢t), 

toor/J == — .0085¢-°?#8°? — .1514¢e~7# 
+ e--8268t (1628 cos 1.215¢-+ .0672 sin 1.215¢t). 


(The check v=o, ro, when to, shows that the accuracy has 
been reduced so that the third place is not sure.) The effects of 


238 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


the gust are qualitatively as before. The oscillatory motion is not 
pronounced; the ultimate side-slip velocity is —J; the ultimate dis- 
placement has the same sign as J because the divergent term in 
vU—I115.5y is positive. . 

39. Case 3.—Side-gust—oscillatory. When one examines the 
records made or making at such an observatory as Blue Hill for 
gustiness in the air, no phenomenon is perhaps more striking than 
the reasonably periodic side-switching of a reasonably steady wind. 
A south wind, for example, may whip back and forth between 
S.S.E. and S.S.W. for hours at a stretch, as Prof. Alexander 
McAdie has been kind enough to show me on some of his records. 
In the absence of rotary motion, concerning which I am unable to 
find satisfactory data, the simplest way to figure this change in direc- 
tion is as a periodic side-gust. A machine going south in such a 
wind would experience an alternating side-gust. (The oscillations 
in the head-on velocity of the wind would be relatively very small 
except for actual changes in head-on velocity superimposed upon the 
changes in direction.) It is therefore especially interesting to dis- 
cuss a periodic side-gust—this being the only periodic gust of which 
we can reasonably be said to know anything at all definite. 

Let v,—=Je'?t. We may assume, from our work above that the 
rolling motion will be small and that the side-slip velocity v will not 
be of as much importance in determining the path as the angle y 
coupled with the large forward velocity. The complex value of r is 


me (280.7 — 32.84p1) p> Je" 
"~ 2592p! — 18000p — 854 + i(34610p — 23780p%) 

_ If at any one place the period of the complete oscillation is 2x/n 
with the wind velocity VY, the distance traveled by the wind during 
the time of an oscillation in direction is 2x /n, and this is the dis- 
tance between the nodes of the motion. The time required for this 
machine (U==—115.5) to pass over the distance 27V/n is 
2nV/115.5n. The periodicity of the gust as it appears to the 
operator of the machine will therefore correspond to the value p 
=115.5"/V. For instance, if V=20 and the time of an oscilla- 
tion at one spot were Io secs. so that ==0.63, the value of p would 
be about p= 3.6, and the oscillations would appear to the pilot as 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 239 


taking place about every 1? seconds. A slower oscillation, i. ¢., a 
longer periodic time, would diminish » and p,—an oscillation at one 
spot every half minute corresponds to a value p—1.2 on the basis 
of the assumptions made above. 

In considering the values of p which make the amplitude of r 
large, the only hope is to make the term 34610p — 23780? tolerably 
small. This means p? must. be about 1.5. For this value, the 
modulus of r is about .03/ and the modulus of the yawing oscillation 
corresponding will be about .o25J. If a wind of 20 ft./sec. “is 
whipping through an angle of 45°, the side-gust will be only of 
about 7 ft./sec. semi-amplitude and the angle of yaw will be in the . 
neighborhood of .175 radians or 10°. There is nothing to indicate 
that this would be fatal, though it would surely be a nuisance. 

Owing to the fact that the coefficients of 7 in both numerator and 
denominator are relatively small, the angular velocity J, would be 
about in phase with the gust v,, and hence the angle J, would be 
about quartered in phase. If there were periodically an angle of 
10° or 12° between the direction of flight and the relative wind, we 
should find that we were getting into a region where considerable 
rolling and pitching might be induced—for as Hunsaker has shown 
(loc. cit., p. 62) the lateral and longitudinal motions are not strictly 
independent ; but as the machine makes the major part of the rela- 
tive wind, the directions of flight and of the relative wind never 
differ greatly—only some three degrees at most in the case under 
consideration. 

It seems hardly necessary at this time to go into the calculation 
of the actual motion; enough has perhaps been accomplished in 
showing that the oscillation of the direction of the wind induces at 
most a moderate yawing of the machine. The semi-amplitude of 
115.5 would be, if J/=7 ft./sec., about 20 ft.; the center of gravity 
of the machine would sway back and forth across the line of flight 
with a total amplitude of 4o ft., until the divergent term became 
effective. 

40. Case 4.—Rolling gust. ~,—J(1—e-*). If there were no 
interaction between v, p, 7, the effect on rolling of a rolling gust 
would be figured from the equation 


240 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


36.7Dp + 3146 = — 314J(1 — e*4), 
ft 
oJ = —- 8.o55e tu e8-055t(¢ — ert) dt, 


8.055 8.055 
a sak —8.065¢ ..- YY nrg eee 

us inks T 8055 —f 8.055 — r © ‘ 
This means that for any ordinary sharp gust p rapidly acquires the 
value —J, and ¢ the value —Jt (radians). It must therefore be 
expected that unless J is very small indeed, the motion will be much 
disturbed. There will be developed a component of the weight in- 
ducing side-slipping, and yawing will rapidly develop—the machine 
apparently goes off on a spiral dive. 

We may make the calculations in detail when r—1. Here 


I,/J =— 3.14—.114e*, _ Ty) =— 3.25J, 


I ,/J=40.4—1.1e*, I 50= 39.3J, 
VY /}mat.re-*, . Sh) gga Tats, 
I,/J = 10.58 — .234e7+, Leg 10.36), 


Co. =— 39.1J, Cy.==.0027J, C,,==—.219J, C,,=—.163J. 
The equations of motion become 
/J = — 39.16°07485t + o03e-8 54? + 40.4 —I1.1e* 
+ e~-8268t(___ 219 cos 1.215¢—.163 sin I.215¢), 
v/J = 324e:°7486t 4. o1o03e=%-542? — 3.14 — .114e7* 
-L e7-8268t (__ 320 cos 1.215¢ -+ 49.2 sin 1.215¢), 
r/J =— 10¢°°7486t +. 10.58 — .234e* 
+. ¢-8268t(__._ 32, cos 1.215¢ + 3.35 sin 1.215¢). 
In the equation for ¢ the effective terms are 
$/J =— 39( e486! — 1) ==— #¢ (nearly), 


and there is a steady divergence in ¢ to the approximate amount 
—Jt as foreseen. The side-ways velocity v develops more slowly, 
perhaps, but after one second amounts to something like 300/. It 
is clear that J must be very small or the motion becomes disastrous. 
It would be of especial interest to know what sorts of magnitudes 


ee ee ae a ee ee 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 241 


for J are likely to arise in flight under normal conditions. In so far 
as experience shows that machines are not liable to roll and side- 
slip, itis pretty good evidence that aérial rotary motion with axis 
parallel to the earth is rare and small. 

41. Case 5—Yawing gust. r,—J(1—e*). 


S/F = 25.076", Tog = 25.67], 
I ,/J =— .0792 + .154e-*, L 4o= .075J, 
I’, /J=— 1546, I = —.154J, 
I,/J =— 1 — .1235¢ +, I->==—.1.12J, 


C.,=— .006J, C.,—=—.006J, Cz;——.0634J, C.,—=.0702/. 
In this case the motion is 
$/J =— .006e-°?48*t — oo6e*-54## — .0792 + .154e% 
+ e~-3268t (___ 9634 cos 1.215t-+.0701 sin 1.2I5¢), 
v/J = -+ .o5e-7486t — o23¢e*-542t 1 25.67% 
+ ¢-8268t(__ 26.35 cos 1.215¢-+ 108.9 sin 1.2I15¢), 


r/J =— 1 — .1235¢e* + e-8*8t( 1.145 cos 1.215¢-+.222 sin 1.215f). 


For moderate values of J, there is nothing serious indicated. The 
coefficients of the divergent terms are small. There cannot be much 
roll. The most noteworthy phenomenon is the large amount of 
side-slip which is fairly rapidly damped out. 

42. This leaves the rolling gust as the only dangerous type of 
lateral gust. 

The infinitely sharp side-gust would produce an initial accelera- 
tion Y,J. 

CONSTRAINED AEROPLANES. 

43. Suppose now that by some automatic steering device the aéro- 
plane were constrained to remain pointing in the same direction, 
i. e., so that ro identically. The equations of motion become 


(D—Y.)u+ (9g—YVpD)o=Yov, + Yop, + Yor, 
—Lyw + (k2D—Ly)Dé=Li,+Lopy+ Lin, (15) 
—N,v—N,Do=N.w, +Nop, +Nr,+F, 
where Fm is the moment necessary to maintain the constraint. The 
last equation may be regarded as determining F. 


PROC, AMER, PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, Q, JUNE 20, I9I7. 


242 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


The natural motion of the constrained machine is found from the 
determinant 


A’ =58,, = 36.7D® + 323.1D? + 77.88D + 27.15 =0. 

This is a cubic equation which has no positive root. 

The negative root is —8.54. The quadratic factor remaining 
after division by D + 8.54 is 

30.7D? + 8.746D + 3.18=0, 
of which the roots are 
D=—0.119 + 0.2691. 

The real part is negative and hence the motion is dynamically stable. 

The introduction of the automatic device has removed the in- 
stability in the lateral motion. As compared with the complex roots 
in the free motion, these roots indicate a much slower period and a 
considerably smaller damping. 

44. On the other hand suppose that the constraint had been such 


as to keep the machine level, 7. e., 6==o identically. The equations 
_would have been 


(D— Y,)v+ (U—Y,)r=YV,v, + Yop, + Yr, 
— Liv — L,r=Lyv, + Lop, + Lr, + F, (16) 
—Nyw + (ko2D—Np)r=Nw, + Nob +N. 
The natural motion would have been determined by 
, A” =8,, = 70.6D? + 44.5D + 109.90, 
The roots are 
D==— 0.315 + 0.2371. 


The machine is again stable. . 
45. It follows that at high spéed this Curtiss Tractor, which is 
laterally unstable when free, becomes quite stable when constrained 
either to remain on its course or to fly on even keel. 
If stabilizers against rolling and turning were provided, the 
motion would reduce to 


(D—Y,)v=Y,v, + Yop, + Yrr,, (17) 
and would be stable, D—= Y,—=— 0.248. 


—— Oe eT ee 


oy, 


Og ae eS Se a ere. ee eee 


em 


i J 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 243 


46. It would be a relatively easy matter to discuss the effect of 
gusts of various types om the aéroplane constrained in various ways; 
two equations are much easier to handle than three. Until some 
definite problem is proposed as important, until some particular con- 
straining device is indicated as likely to be adopted, it may be as wel! 
not to go into the calculations, which are quite straightforward. 

That a constraint against rolling might be worth while, and 
would indeed be very valuable if rolling gusts were a common thing, 
is suggested by the work done on the free machine (§ 42) where 
gustiness was seen not to be very serious except for the rolling gust. 


DIscuSSION OF METHOD. 


47. I pointed out in my earlier paper that there were several 
outs about my method of treating gusts. First the gusts must be 
small. If they are not tolerably small, flying would be too difficult— 
so that assumption is not wholly unjustifiable. Second, the calcula- 
tions for determining the individual equations of motion and for 
determining formulas for the constants of integration are very 
tedious. Third, the numbers are of such various magnitudes that 
the arithmetical operations which must be carried out cut down the 
accuracy of the work a good deal and indeed, unless great care is 
taken, will lead to illusory or incorrect results. This does not ap- 
pear to be due to any very rapid variation of the true results cal- 
culated from varying data, but to the mode of computing. 

To offset these inconveniences we have the satisfactory result 


that once the preliminary calculations are made, many and varied 


types of gusts may easily be treated, and the further valuable result 
that the actual motion for each case is known so that not only the 
initial motion is determined, but the whole extent of the motion. 
This last is necessary for any just appreciation of the effects of 
periodic gusts and resonance, as has been shown. 

48. For another method of treating gusts reference may be made 
to a recent paper by Brodetsky and Bryan, “ The Longitudinal Initial 
Motion and Forced Oscillations of a Disturbed Aéroplane,” Aéro- 
nautical Journal, London, 20, 1916, 139-156, which has already 
been cited in the text. 


244 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


Much may be said for their method of expansion in series—for 
some problems the work is decidedly simpler than with my method. 
It has been my experience, however, that the application of series 
to the motion of any aéroplane has its own difficulties and com- 
plicated calculations when the motion is to be followed for any 
reasonable length of time and especially if the machine is defined, 
as I have always preferred to regard it as defined, by the actual 
coefficients determined by wind tunnel experiments rather than as 
Bryan’s skeleton plane consisting of a main front plane plus tail 
plane,—even though the results obtained from such a skeleton may 
be extended to more complicated machines by Bryan’s invariant 
method (see his “ Stability in Aviation,” Chap. VI.). 

49. The question therefore arises whether there may not be 
some way of abridging the calculations leading to the actual motion 
of the machine. Since finishing my work above, I have received the 
Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 15, 1917, Pt. 6, 
in which there is an article on “ Normal Codrdinates in Dynamical 
Systems,” by T. J. A. Bromwich in which he develops a method 
of treating the motions of dynamical systems by means of the theory 
of functions of a complex variable. I wish, in closing, to describe 
the application of Bromwich’s work to the problem in hand. 

We have to solve for the longitudinal motion equations of the 
type 

(D—Xy)u—Xyw— (XD + 9)6=P,e**, 


Zyu + (D—Zw)w—(Z,4+ U)DbO=P,e*t (18) 
—M,u—M,wt+ (Rk ?D? — MqD )0= Pye", 


where p» is a real or complex number, the values we have used being 
0, —7r, + pi. We substitute 


I 
“= + etdn, 
271 Jo 


oa 
w= ak ndx, (19) 


Pe She Be 
ons fe ¢dy, 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 245 


where the integrals are loop integrals in the complex plane and 
€, n, € are any-functions of A. The results are 


=a [A — Xu)E — Xun — (XgA + g)gle“dn = Pye", 


af [—- Zuk a (A — Zw)n re (Zy +, U)dg Jedd Fe Pre™’, (20) 


al [— Mut — Mun + (2,20? — M,)ile“dd = Pye". 
We next set 
A= X)E- Xun — (XA+ OE = Pil — w), ) 
ager Lut + (A ay Zw)n Ba? (Z, + U)r si P2/(d rae K); (21) 


ei M,é Poe Mwn + (kz? ¥E M.r)¢ as P;/(s =s BM); 
and solve for , », ¢, finding 


ba P36, + Pode: + P3631 
A(A — p) : 
P3612 a P boo a P3632 
1= Ko) ; (22) 
ae P3612 + Pob03 + P3633 
A(A — 2) ‘ 


A= 34(A* + 8.49d° + 24.5d? + 3.385A-++ .917). 


Bromwich shows that, if with these values of é, y, £ we take the 
loop integrals (19) around a very large circle, the results for u, w, 
@ will be the solutions for the motion disturbed from rest at the 
position of equilibrium by the impressed forces P. As he points 
out, this integration is equivalent to the sum of the integrals around 
infinitesimal circles about A=» and about each of the roots A of 
A=0, that is, the integral is equal to the sum of the residues of 
Ee*#, ne*', fe**. There 1s no need to calculate any constants of in- 
tegration. Moreover any of the quantities u, w, @ can be obtained 
without the others. The numerators in , y, £ are already calculated 
in (20 a, b, c) of p. 59. 


246 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


We have, for example, for a head gust u,, 


.128)? + 1.167 + 3.385 + .917 | 

~ (X— (+ 4.18 & 2.434) (A + .0654 + .1871) “” (23) 
where the double sign stands for two factors, and u,==J(1—e*), 
to take a particular case. The residues at each point are merely 
the values of the fraction when one of the factors, the one which 
vanishes at that point, is thrown out of the denominator. In the 
first case for 1 e°* we have as residue of ée** =: 
at A= p=—0, 


‘O17 
~ (+ 4.18 + 2.437) (.0654 + 1871) 
at A= — 4.18 — 2.43}, 
S .128)3 + 1.16\7 + 3.385 + .917 . 
(— 4.18 + 2.437)(— 4.867)(— 4.12 — 2.437 + .1872)’ 


at A==— 4.18 + 2.431, the conjugate imaginary expression. And 
so on. To treat e* we should have: 
at A=p=—I, 


— .128 + 1.16 — 3.385 + .917 | 
"(3.18 + 2.434) (.9346 + .187%) ’ 


and so on. 

As the calculation with imaginaries involving squares, cubes, 
products, and quotients is by no means simple, it is clear that to get 
the solution for u will be reasonably hard work—much harder than 
to find the particular solutions which for the simple gust involved 
only real numbers. It may be admitted that to work any one gust 
the labor will probably be much less than by my method of determin- 
ing formulas for the constants of integration in terms of the initial 
values of the particular integrals. But as far as I can see, Brom- 
wich’s method is of no particular advantage if we desire to calculate 
the effects of a large number of gusts J/(1—e-"') of various degrees 
of sharpness both head-on, up, and rotary. When we came to cal- 
culate a periodic gust we found that we were involved in powers and 
products and quotients of complex numbers, and it is probable that 
the work we did in finding the particular integrals was comparable 
with that required for the present analysis. 


ed tee i i ae 


WILSON—AEROPLANE ENCOUNTERING GUSTS. 247 


SUMMARY. 


In continuation of my previous work in gusts as affecting the 
Curtiss Tractor JN2, I have discussed : 

1. Periodic Longitudinal Gusts—It was found that, even in the 
case of best resonance with the slow natural oscillation, the motion 
was not much different from that produced by a simple head-on 
gust until after a considerable time (over 14 sec.) had elapsed. The 
amplitude of the forced oscillation (in up and down motion) which 
ultimately became effective was about 5 times the amplitude of the 
gust. This was not regarded as serious because true periodicity can 
rarely be maintained in a head gust and because no pilot would 
wait to let its effect reach such a magnitude. Periodic up gusts and 
rotary gusts were considered as not likely to arise. 

2. General Theory of Resonance——It was shown that for aéro- 
plane problems resonance meant different things for different prob- 
lems. It was inferred that resonance was unlikely to be particularly 
serious because in all probability its effect would either be small 
or would take so long to become established that the pilot would 
check it. 

3. Infinitely Sharp Gusts—It was seen that the shock to a ma- 
chine was mX,J and mZ,J for a head gust, and mX,J and mZ,J 
for an up gust. The serious case is mZ,,J, the vertical shock in an 
up gust which was about 4//g times the weight, more than twice that 
found for the sharpest gust previously treated. It would be still 
more serious in a machine where Z, was greater than in the JN2. 
The Moral: Keep Z,» small, clashes with Hunsaker’s conclusion® 
that lateral stability is incompatible with high wing loading—but 
such an antithesis is common.* Reference was made to impulsive 
gusts. 

4. The Effect of the Propeller—The assumption that a constant 
power instead of a constant thrust was delivered did not very ma- 
terially alter conditions of flight. 

5. Lateral Gusts—The general equations were set up and 
integrated. 

3“ Dynamical Stability of Aéroplanes,” Washington, Smithsonian Misc. 
Collect., 62, 1916, p. 77. 


4“The production of a laterally stable aéroplane is attentant with many 
compromises,” Hunsaker, p. 74. 


248 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


(a) Single side-gusts were shown to produce modern side- 
slipping, insignificant roll, and moderate yaw. It was seen that the 
yaw was into the relative wind so that the displacement of the ma- 
chine in space was toward the gust despite the side-slipping. 

(b) Oscillatory side-gusts were shown to be a common condi- 
tion of flight, to produce moderate side-slipping and yawing, but 
insignificant rolling. The path of the center of gravity proved 
to be sinusoidal, so far as the forced oscillation was concerned, and 
of amplitude about 2 or 3 times the amplitude of the gust. 

(c) Yawing gusts were found to induce a good deal of side- 
slipping, but did not appear to be serious. The roll was very small. 

(d) Rolling gusts were seen to put the machine into a spiral 
dive, and thus to cause a real danger unless the motion were checked 
promptly by the pilot. 

6. Constrained Machines.—A device to keep the aéroplane on its 
course or to prevent rolling made the previously unstable machine 
stable. Such a device might be important to reduce the liability 
to the spiral dive in rolling gusts provided such gusts were common 
_ phenomena in flying weather. | 

7. Other Methods of Treatment.——The Bryan-Bordetsky method 
of initial motions and Bromwich’s new method of finding the solu- ~ 
tion for a disturbed state without calculating the constants of integra- 
tion were briefly compared with my system of analysis. 


MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 
CAMBRIDGE, Mass. 


VI 
ENGINEERING ASPECTS, 
By JEROME C. HUNSAKER, Enc.D. 


1. It is of especial significance that the American Philosophical 


Society devotes an afternoon to aéronautics and of especial signifi- 


cance to the Navy that the problems of aéronautics have been so 
clearly stated to you here today. For these problems are unfortu- 
nately not only perplexing but pressing, and engineering progress 
cannot wait for a satisfactory solution. Just now we are forced to 


-adopt rather daring assumptions and to extrapolate to a truly alarm- 


ing extent our experimental data. 

2. I was sorry to arrive too late to hear Professor Webster’s 
treatment of the dynamical aspects of the subject, but I shall have, 
of course, the opportunity for a more leisurely study of his paper 
when it appears in printed form. 

3. Professor Durand’s estimate of the economical size of aéro- 
planes is especially timely as we are building all sizes now in search 
of the most useful, and it is indeed encouraging to have Professor 
Durand as authority for making haste slowing in expanding the 
dimensions of the existing types. If I understand him correctly, 
the weight of the structure of aéroplane wings may be assumed to 
increase more rapidly than their carrying power so that there must be 
a limiting size for any given system of construction beyond which 
it is uneconomical to go. I believe this conclusion to be entirely true 
provided, as Professor Durand carefully states, the same system of 
construction be used for a family of similar structures. However, 
I would consider that it would not be good engineering to use the 
samé material or even the same system of distributing material, for 
large and for small structures. For example, it is not economical to 
apply the materials and methods of construction used in small boats 
to large ships. Where we would use solid spruce beams for small 
wings, larger wings would have hollow spruce beams, and perhaps 


249 


250 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


still larger wings, beams of aluminum alloy or steel, In the great 
aeroplanes of the future, we may have an opportunity to use a lattice 
construction combining a great moment of inertia with a minimum 
of material. The smaller the structure the less favorably can we 
employ the material. In many cases to give sufficient security against 
local injury and deterioration we make parts several times stronger 
than would be indicated by a strength calculation alone. For ex- 
ample, no matter how small the aéroplane, we would use no less than 
a certain minimum rib thickness and cover with a fabric of sufficient 
weight and strength to stand exposure. Consequently, in the small- 
aeroplanes, we build relatively heavier than necessary, 

4. The exploration of the upper air has now become of pressing 
concern to those who expect to navigate in it and, in a general way, 
to designers of aircraft. Dr. Blair’s soundings are most illuminating 
and it is especially gratifying to note the progress which our own 
Weather Bureau is making in this work. For the airship and 
balloon, especially, a knowledge of the pressure, temperature, and 
wind at different altitudes is of first importance and it is to be hoped 
that forecasts can be supplied the aéronant before his ascent, which 
will acquaint him with the probable conditions he will encounter 
aloft. Dr. Blair’s data, I assume, show typical conditions or rather © 
- average conditions. It would be valuable if his explorations of the 
upper air could be extended to show in addition the possible and 
typical deviations from average values. The aviator is less con- 
cerned with the average velocity of the wind than with its internal 
structure ; the frequency and intensity of its gusts and their nature. 

5. The importance of a study of gusts is clearly brought out by 
Professor Wilson’s analysis of the effect of lateral gusts on an 
aeroplane in flight. Professor Wilson has assumed gusts of given 
intensity and direction and computed the effect upon a typical aéro- 
plane. There is abundant testimony of a qualitative nature as to the 
violence of these effects in practice. Aviators speak of “air -holes” 
in explanation of uncontrolled diving and turning experienced. It 
is of course evident that there are no holes in the air, and Professor 
Wilson shows that gusts produce effects of the sort observed. Now 
it is possible in the design of aéroplanes to so arrange surfaces that 
the effect of particular kinds of gusts is minimized. What we need 


en eT 


an Th eee. St ee 


ee Se ee a eee ee ee ee 


HUNSAKER—ENGINEERING ASPECTS. 251 


to know now is what kinds of gusts are to be expected. For 
example, if _sudden~-horizontal shifts in the direction of the wind 
are the usual state of affairs, we should not put a great preponderance 
of vertical fin surface on the tails of our aeroplanes. An excessive 
“ weather-cock ” propensity will make a machine head into the rela- 
tive wind and if the wind direction shifts constantly it will be diffi- 
cult to maintain a straight course. The “ weather-cock” stability 
is of course provided to make steering easier. 

6. Also Professor Wilson shows that a roller in the air is cer- 
tain to bring disaster to an aeroplane. We have evidence of rotation 
in the eddy formed in the lee of a hill or other obstruction, but there 
is little information as to the extent and intensity of the disturbance. 


“What aviators call “bad air” may be eddies in the wind. 


7. I would appreciate the opportunity to outline in a general way 
some of the problems of lighter-than-air craft, airships and balloons, 
in ordet to make the symposium more complete. 

8. In the design of airships we are confronted with indeterminate 
structural features, mysteries of the upper air, atmospheric elec- 
trical phenomena, and in addition to these difficulties we must work 
with fabrics and membranes of unfamiliar and indefinite physical 
properties. 

g. The theory of hydrogen-filled balloons was developed in a 
very elaborate and complete form by the pioneers of the French 
Army Engineering Corps. Their theoretical considerations are of 
the greatest practical utility but depend upon an assumed stable con- 
dition of the atmosphere. Unfortunately a balloon and to a less 
degree a dirigible or airship is extremely sensitive to changes of 
equilibrium. For example, a balloon floating at its zone of equi- 
librium has exactly the weight of the air displaced. A wet cloud 
may condense a little water on its surface, the balloon will sink into 
regions of more dense air which will compress its volume and cause 
continued descent until ballast is released or the ground reached. 

1o. An airship is also handicapped by changes of weight in the 
air due to picking up loads of condensed water, snow, or sleet. The 
balloon fabric should be proofed in some manner to prevent such 
accumulations. 

11. At the same time, though weight may not change, tempera- 


252 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


ture variations cause expansion and contraction of gas and con- 
sequent changes in buoyancy. We may expect the air to grow at 
least 0.5° colder for each 100 meters rise, but this is rather an average 
than a normal condition. 

12. Only at night is the gas at the same temperature as the air, 
for the sun’s heat on the balloon keeps the gas inside 10 to 20 degrees 
warmer. A cloud which cuts off this radiation will cause a con- 
traction of the gas enough to cause a descent. It is of great im- 
portance to check temperature changes in the gas. Airships have 
been given metallic flake paints, and light colors in an effort to re- 
duce heating. The most effective means would appear to be a double 
wall- with air space as in the Zeppelin type. Aluminum paint was 
found to reflect fourteen times as much radiant heat as unprotected 
rubber. 

13. Rubberized fabric has been the envelope material for nearly 
all dirigibles except Zeppelins. Such fabric can be obtained in 
quantity and of uniform quality. Unfortunately the chemical action 
of light causes the rubber to deteriorate. Protective coatings of 
chrome yellow have been used with fair success. More recently 
carbon black has been found to protect the rubber better. But a 
dark envelope exaggerates the disturbances of equilibrium due to 
heating. 

14. The hydrogen leakage through good rubberized fabric should 
be about 9 liters-per square meter per day. Goldbeater’s skin, which 
is animal intestine, tanned, shows a leakage of but a quarter of a 
liter. Such a membrane is immensely superior as a hydrogen con- 
tainer and does not oxidize. However, gold-beater’s skin rots if 
wet, is difficult to work and to obtain in quantity. It is to be hoped 
that a hydrogen-tight material can be developed equal to gold- 
beater’s skin but without these disadvantages. 

15. The envelope of a dirigible is a nonconductor of electricity, 
but presumably picks up the electro-static potential of the air. Ex- 
periments with kites have shown a potential difference gf 20,000 
volts at 1,000 meters. It is likely that an airship takes up the 
potential of the air in less than a second and cannot reach the ground 
even after a rapid descent with any very considerable charge. The 
potential gradient may be 50 volts per meter and a dirigible of 20 


a sas ee —— sO ee 
Rit Se Oe TE ae 


HUNSAKER—ENGINEERING ASPECTS. 253 


meters height may have different charges above and below which 
may cause sparks and consequent explosion of the leaking hydrogen. 
There have been-explosions for which no explanation is adequate. 
Should high metal parts such as valves have a wire to the car as a 
ground, or should we use a valve cord of non-conducting material ? 

16. The addition of radio on an airship for signaling introduces 
another complication. The radio uses the car as a counterpoise and 
has a trailing wire as antenna. It is possible that sparking between 
car and envelope may be induced when sending unless precautions 
are taken. The nature of the necessary precautions is at present not 
clearly understood. 

17. The structural strength of the envelope of a nonrigid dirigible 
is not yet a definite engineering problem. As you know a torpedo- 
shaped elongated envelope inflated with hydrogen carries by means 
of a set of cables a car containing passengers and power plant. 
The buoyancy of the envelope is distributed from end to end of the 
envelope, but the weight is largely concentrated in the short car. 
Hence there are serious bending moments impressed on the envelope 


' which is held stiff only by its pressure of inflation. The well-known 


theory of an elastic membrane can be used to compute the stress in 
the envelope at any point due to the inflation pressure. However, 
the stresses due to these bending moments must also be considered, 
and at a high velocity the suction of the stream line motion of the 
external air tends to augment the effective inflation pressure at points 
near the maximum cross section. 

18. In addition to stresses due to inflation pressure, bending 
moments and external pressures and suctions, we have our problem 
confused from an engineer’s point of view by having to deal with 
balloon fabric of indefinite elasticity and strength. 

19. The strength of the fabric in warp and filler may be 
measured, but when we use a doubled fabric in which the threads 
cross at, 45° the strength becomes more difficult to estimate. 
Furthermore, the envelope under load deforms and parts severely 
stressed may shirk their load. The exact calculation of the stress 
in an envelope is not attempted. 

20. There is, however, a simple experimental method of study- 
ing the problem. A model of the envelope filled with water is 


254 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


suspended below a model of the car by a suspension of cords. The 
ratio of densities of hydrogen and water in air is about goo and it 
can be shown that if the scale of a model be %» and that if the model 
is made of the same material, the stresses at corresponding points 
are equal and the model as it deforms under load remains similar to 
the full size envelope as it would deform under corresponding 
loads. 

21. Finally we have to consider the dynamical problem of driv- 
ing the dirigible through the air at high speeds. As is well known 
to students of hydrodynamics, an elongated body tends to place itself 
broadside to the stream. Dirigibles of good form are essentially 
unstable and it is necessary to fit fins at the tail end. It is not prac- 
ticable or necessary to fit very large horizontal fins since the center 
of gravity is usually below the center of buoyancy and hence 
affords a statical righting couple against pitching. This statical 
righting moment is supposed to overcome the tendency of the en- 
velope to deviate from the trajectory. However, as speed is in- 
creased the upsetting moment increases as the square of the speed, 
while the statical righting moment of weight remains constant. Con- 
sequently, there is some critical speed at which the dirigible becomes 
unstable or even unmanageable. 


ey ae. er 


nD Jee 


— 


Vil 
REMARKS ON THE COMPASS IN AERONAUTICS. 
By LOUIS A. BAUER. 


The few remarks which I am able to contribute to the discussion 
of the papers we have just had the pleasure of listening to, relate to 


the use of the compass in aérial navigation. 


The recent great progress in aéronautical art and in the construc- 
tion of ships to navigate the air, have called renewed attention to 
the importance of perfecting the magnetic compass used in steering 
the craft, and to the need of studying the “vagaries of the fickle 
needle.” Just as in ocean navigation, it has become necessary in 
aérial navigation, though not yet to the same degree of refinement 
as in ocean work, to determine the effects on the compass of the 
magnetic materials used in the construction and in the equipment of 
the aircraft. The airship-compass must, accordingly, be compen- 
sated, and allowance for any outstanding errors must be made in 
steering a course with it. 

The satisfactory solutions of the various problems are sscaraily 
difficult for the heavier-than-air type of airship. One of the chief 
points of difference between the aéroplane-compass and the ocean- 
ship-compass consists in the form of damping device (horse-hair 
packing, for example) which must be used to overcome, as well as 
possible, the very excessive vibration caused by the engine driving 
the aéroplane. 

Besides the so-called “magnetic-deviation errors” of the com- 
pass, arising from the magnetic materials in the vicinity of the com- 
pass, there are other errors which make themselves seriously felt 
only, however, while the aéroplane is turning. The latter are called 
“ dynamic-deviation errors”; their magnitude depends upon the tilt 
of the aéroplane, the magnetic dip, and the heading or course of 
the airship. 

When the aéroplane is turning, it is tilted towards the center of 

255 


256 SYMPOSIUM ON AERONAUTICS. 


the circle described by it, the tilt becoming greater, of course, with 
the speed of turning or with the decrease of radius of the circle. 
Everything movable which was at rest in the aéroplane during 
straight-line uniform flight under the action of gravity alone is still 
at rest relative to the aéroplane as it tilts on the turn, but now, 
everything is at rest under the action of the resultant of gravity 
and centrifugal accelerations. The compass card, which was hori- 
zontal during rectilinear flight, is now tilted with the aéroplane and, 
consequently, partly turned in the terrestrial magnetic field. The 
vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field, which was normal 
to the card in its level position in rectilinear flight and which, con- 
sequently, had then no directive effect, now has a component in the" 
plane of the card and normal to the magnetic axis which tends to 
produce the “dynamic deviation.” The horizontal component of 
the earth’s magnetic field also plays a part in this kind of deviation. 
According to some recent investigations in England by S. G. 
‘ Starling,) when the angle of tilt of the aéroplane approaches the 
complement of the magnetic dip, which for Philadelphia would mean 
a tilt of about 19°, the dynamic deviations of the compass, if, for 
example, the course steered be an easterly one, may increase to 
nearly 90°. And if the tilt of the aeroplane exceeded 19° the direc- 
tion of the compass on the course stated would even be reversed. 
While the dynamic deviations may be large during turns of the 
aeroplane, yet they disappear, practically, when straight flight is re- 
sumed. We, therefore, question the desirability of adopting the 
movable compensating devices, suggested by Starling, which while 
effective during aéroplane-turns, might introduce magnetic devia- 
tions of a more permanent character during the more usual straight 
flights. If his devices are used, they will require careful control. 
In connection with the use of the compass in aérial navigation, 
an interesting scientific question comes up as to the change of the 
earth’s magnetic field, or of the magnetic elements with altitude 
above the surface. Magnetic experiments of this nature were made 
in balloons by Gay Lussac and Biot in 1804 which were repeated, 
with more success, a half century later by Glaisher. The available 


1“ The Equilibrium of the Magnetic Compass in Aéroplanes,” Phil. Mag., 
London, Vol. 32, November, 1916 (461-476). 


BAUER—THE COMPASS IN AERONAUTICS. 257 


observations to date do not possess, however, the requisite refine- 
ment, and it is hoped-‘that some day a non-magnetic airship and the 
necessary instrumental appliances will be available for conducting 
a magnetic survey of the aérial regions in the same manner as that 
employed in the ocean-magnetic survey of the non-magnetic ship, 
the Carnegie. 

Referring to the possible scientific work for airships, it will be of 
interest to recall that the first scientific aérological observations in a 
balloon were made in 1784 by an American physician, Dr. John 
Jeffries, a graduate of Harvard College, residing at the time in 
London. Dr. Jeffries presented a printed copy of the extremely in- 
teresting narrative on his two aérial voyages? to Benjamin Franklin, 
as also a manuscript copy; both are now in the possession of the 


- American Philosophical Society. Other aéronautical papers and 


letters of historical interest will be found among the magnificent col- 
lection of “ Frankliniana,” belonging to the Society. 


2In the second of these voyages, made on January 7, 1785, the English’ 
Channel was successfully crossed for the first time by aérial flight. 


PROC, AMER, PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, R, JUNE 21, 1917. 


SPECTRAL STRUCTURE OF THE PHOSPHORESCENCE 
OF CERTAIN SULPHIDES. 


DiscussING MEASUREMENTS By Drs. H. E. Howe, H. L. Howes 
AND Percy Hopce. 


By EDWARD L. NICHOLS. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 


Ph. Lenard, to whom we owe extended studies of the class of 
highly phosphorescent substances known as the Lenard and Klatt? 
sulphides, .describes* the spectrum of the emitted light as consisting 
of a single broad band in the visible spectrum. This band which 
appears single, in most cases, as viewed with the spectroscope does 
‘not however conform to the recognized criteria. The marked dif- 
ference between the color of fluorescence and that of phosphores- 
cence and the changes of color during decay, suggest overlapping 
bands. FE. Becquerel* in 1861 showed in his pioneer work on phos- 
phorescence, that the color of the emitted light varies with the wave- 
length of the exciting light. His observations apply, it is true, to 
sulphides of barium, calcium and strontium not identical in make-up 
with the sulphides of Lenard and Klatt but obviously belonging to 
the same class. In a recent paper® the present writer gave more 
direct evidence of the existence of more than one band in the spectra 
of these substances. In that investigation which dealt primarily 
with the phenomena of color as seen in the phosphorescence, it was 
shown that with the aid of a special form of phosphoroscope® which 
permitted of the observation of phosphorescence during the first few 

1 An investigation carried out in part with apparatus purchased by aid 
of a grant from the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 

2 Lenard and Klatt, Ann. der Physik., XV., p. 225, 1804. 

3 Lenard, Ann. der Physik., XXXI., p. 641, 1910. 

4E. Becquerel, La Lumiere, Vol. I., 1861. 

5 Nichols, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., 55, p. 494, 1916. 


6 Nichols, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc., I1., p. 328, 1916; also Nichols and Howes, 
Science, N. S., XLIIL., p. 937, 1916. 


258 


———eE=— 


NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 259 


thousandths of a second after the cessation of excitation as well as 
later, various marked changes of color during decay not previously 
noted could-be detected. These changes were readily explained by 
the assumption of overlapping bands, one of which decays with 
great rapidity and vanishes in a few thousandths of a second, while 
the other persists. The actual existence of these two components 
was readily verified: 

1. By observing the spectrum of the light as viewed through the 
openings of the phosphoroscope. One end of the band could be 
seen to collapse immediately after the cessation of excitation, 1. e., 
the end towards the violet in the case of the luminous barium 
sulphides and the end towards the red when the sulphides of calcium 
or strontium were under observation. 

2. By exciting the substance at the temperature of liquid air. 
Under these conditions the persistent band was completely destroyed 
leaving only the band of short duration visible in the phosphoro- 
scope; with consequent change of color. 


LENARD. 
. an 
gt 
af ‘ 
cad Uae > Sn 
B 
.3)35 
-TiY--~ 
pet eae HOWE. 
VY 
° .3/00 .4)0 5/00 -6|00 
FG. y- 


It should be noted in this connection that in their original paper? 
Lenard and Klatt depicted these spectra as complex, while in his 
latest paper, already cited, Lenard prefers to regard them as single. 
This later view may be most briefly and conveniently indicated by 
the upper part of Fig. 1, which is a typical diagram reproduced from 
Lenard’s plate. Here the shaded area represents the location of the 
band of emission, indicated as a single broad band and the two 


Lenard and Klatt, Ann. der Physik, (4), XV., p. 225, 1904. 


, 


260 NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 


enclosed areas BB in the ultra-violet show the regions capable of 
exciting phosphorescence. These two crests or so-called bands of 
excitation (Erregungsbande) have fixed positions as to wave-length, 
for each sulphide. 


SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BANDS OF EXCITATION. 


It seemed to the writer probable that these regions of maximum 
excitation, the positions and appearance of which had long since 
been beautifully depicted by Becquerel in the work already cited, 
were due to the presence of absorption bands. Dr. H. E. Howe 
who was employed during the past summer in the study of the ultra- 
violet absorption spectra of certain fluorescent solutions, was kind 
enough to test this hypothesis. Following the method developed by 
Stokes and by Becquerel and subsequently used by Lenard and ~ 
Klatt, the phosphorescent substance was exposed to the dispersed 
rays of a large quartz spectrograph. The source of light was the 
powerful submerged aluminum spark described by Henri® and sub- 
sequently employed by Howe® in his study of absorption spectra. 
This affords a continuous spectrum of great intensity extending to 
about .2. A considerable portion of the ultra-violet spectrum was 
found capable of exciting fluorescence. In the case of a barium 
sulphide with lead with a flux of sodium sulphate this broad band 
of excitation, corresponding to Lenard’s “ Momentanband,” extended 
from .42y to about .23p. It is indicated by the dotted line in the 
lower diagram in Fig. 1. Upon this were gradually developed two 
narrow crests or maxima which glowed for sometime after the close 
of excitation, the “‘ Dauerbande” of Lenard. The wave-lengths of 
these crests were estimated as .380 and .335, Lenard gives for a 
sulphide of similar composition .377 and .332q respectively, as 
shown in the upper diagram. 

To obtain the absorption spectrum of these sulphides by trans- 
mission is impracticable on account of their great opacity, but the 
following procedure was in some instances successful. A thin layer 
of the substance was pressed between quartz plates, and mounted in 
front of the slit in such a position that rays from the spark would 


8V. Henri, Physikalische Zeitschrift, 14, p. 516, 1913. 
9H. E. Howe, Physical Review, 2, VIII., December, 1916. 


a a ee On wll 


ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 
o J ies - 7 ae 


NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 261 


be diffusely reflected into the collimator of the spectrograph. Photo- 
graphs which exhibited the selective absorption of the substance were 
thus obtained. The barium sulphide under investigation showed two 
narrow absorption bands, indicated below the base line in Fig. 1, and 
a region of general absorption beyond .34. The two narrow bands 
whose crests as determined from the photographs were at .375 4 
and .332, obviously correspond with the bands of excitation and 
sufficiently explain the existence of the latter. 

Similar coincidences between selective absorption and selective 
excitation were established in the case of the compound SrPbNaF 
at .355 (Lenard’s band .358) and of SrZuF at .360p and .2974 
(Lenard’s bands .360y and .297). The relation is therefore prob- 
ably a general one, corresponding to that already demonstrated in 
the case of the selective action of infra-red rays upon phosphores- 
cence of zinc sulphide, where the maximum effect was found in 
regions of maximum absorption.” 


SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS. 


A detailed spectrophotometric study reveals widely varying de- 
grees of complexity in the spectra of the different sulphides. Dr. 
H. L. Howes kindly made for the writer very careful measurements 
of three characteristic compounds, which may be regarded as pre- 
liminary to a more extended investigation. 

‘His method, briefly stated, was as follows: The substance was 
mounted behind the disk of the synchrono-phosphoroscope and was 
illuminated by means of the radiation of the zinc spark; the disk 
being adjusted so as to afford observation of the phosphorescence in 
its earliest stages, 1. ¢., after a few ten thousandths of a second from 
the close of excitation. In place of the photometer used in taking 
curves of decay a spectrophotometer with two collimators, Lummer- 
Brodhun cube (L) and constant deviation prism was mounted as 
shown in Fig. 2. One collimator was directed towards the phos- 
phorescent surface P, the other towards the comparison light A. 
The latter consisted of an acetylene flame properly screened. The 
two slits S, S of the spectrophotometer were of equal width and 


10 Nichols and Merritt, “ Studies in Luminescence,” Publications of the 
Carnegie Institution, No. 152, p. 84. 


262 NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 


measurements were made by moving the flame along a photometer 
bar B, B in the prolonged axis of the collimator. Settings were 
made at intervals of 50 Angstrém units throughout the spectrum. 
On account of the very great range of intensities within the phos- 
phorescence spectrum it was necessary to increase the effective range 
of the photometer bar by the interposition of screens for which the 
reduction factors had been carefully determined. 


XN 


+7 —Is 


Fic. 2. 


The first substance studied in this manner was a strontium sul- 
phide, with bismuth as the active metal, designated as L. and K. No. 
13. The spectrum curve obtained by Dr. Howes, using the method 
described above, is shown in Fig. 3. The complexity of the band 
is very obvious, there being subordinate crests on either side of the 
principal maximum. 

The curve suggests at once a group of overlapping bands, so 
nearly merged that to the eye it would appear as a single simple 
band. There is moreover a distinct suggestion of a systematic 
relation. 


NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 263 


Taking the relative frequencies, 7. e., reciprocals of the approxi- 
mate wave-lengths (1/p X 10°), of the crests as estimated from the 
curve, it is found that the intervals are either very nearly 58 or 
twice that number. If a series having 58 as its constant interval 
be formed with one member located at the principal crest (A= 4800) 


I L.& K. NO.13. SR. BI.NA,SO, . 
—80 
—60 
40 
20 
J J | 
44 5K 6% 
Fic. 3. 


other members of this series will coincide with the subordinate crests 
of the curve. The short vertical lines in Fig. 3 indicate the posi- 
tions of those members of such a series as coincide with the crests 
and of two further members which fall on a slight and not very 
well defined maxima at .5562, and .592I p. 


264 NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 


The agreement is sufficiently good throughout to warrant the 
statement that: 

The band consists of a complex the overlapping components of 
which, so far as visible, are members of a series having a constant 
interval, 

The following table gives the appproximate frequencies and 
wave-lengths. ; 


TABLE I. 


APPROXIMATE FREQUENCIES AND WAVE-LENGTHS OF VISIBLE CRESTS IN SPEC- 
TRUM OF THE PHOSPHORESCENT SULPHIDE L. AnD K. No. 13 (Sr. Bi, Na,SQ,). 


Visible Crests. Series. 

Be 1/m X 108 Intervals. 
.4430 2257 58 
4547 2199 58 
.4670 - 2141 58 
.4801 2083 58 
.4938 2025 
— 1967 2x58 
5238 1909 
eae 1851 2X58 
5562 1793 
— — 1735 2x58 
5921 1677 


The three members of the above series not designated in the table 
as corresponding to visible crests have wave-lengths at .5084y, 
.5402 » and .5764 and these fall upon less definite maxima on the 
curve than those which have been called visible crests. 

Another substance investigated with the spectroscope was a cal- 
cium sulphide with bismuth as the active metal (L. and K. No. 3) 
which is notable for its intense blue phosphorescence. 

The spectrum, as will be seen from Fig. 4, appears as a single 
crested band with a well-defined maximum of unusual brightness 
at about .447p. It is of the well-known typical form, steeper 
towards the violet and shows no visible evidence of complexity ; but 
the phosphorescent light extends throughout the visible spectrum 
although of relatively very small intensity in the longer wave- 
lengths. Plotted to this scale no details of this weaker region can 
be seen but if the ordinates be increased one hundred fold, as in 
curve BB, various maxima and minima appear ; indicating a second 


— 


Foe ee Se Oye eS i 


NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 265 


complex band, or overlapping group of bands which merge into the 
brilliant blue band at their more refrangible end. 

This is in agreement with the fact recorded in a recent paper™ 
that when this substance is excited to phosphorescence at the temper- 


3 L.& K. NO.3. presen y 
CA.F, NA_B,0_ 
| 40 | 
—30 
— 20 
—10 
B 
| ie 
Au Ss 6 


Fic. 4. 


ature of liquid air its color is blue-green instead of blue-violet on 
account of the suppression of the band of shorter wave-length which 
is dominant at ordinary temperatures. 

The crests shown in the curve BB also belong to a series of con- 


11 Nichols, Proc. oF THE AMERICAN Puutos. Society, Vol. LV., p. 496, 1916. 


266 NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 


stant frequency interval, the approximate interval being 39. The 
location of the members of this series which coincide with maxima 
are indicated by vertical lines. Frequencies (1/z XX 10%) and wave- 
lengths are given in Table II. 


TABLE II. 
SERIES OF VISIBLE CRESTS IN THE SPECTRUM OF L. AND K. SuLPHIDE No. 3 
(CaB,’ ). 
Visible Crests. Series. Interval 
be r/m X 108 from Series. 

-5300 1887 39 
5411 1848 39 
5528 1809 39 
.5650 1770 39 
5781 1731 39 
.5910 1692 39 
6049 1653. 39 
.6200 1614 


Here every member of the series is represented by a recognizable, 
although in some cases somewhat indefinite maximum in the curve, 
as far as .5300m. If we extend the series further towards the violet 
we find that the ninth member beyond .5300 p lies at .4468y (fre- 
quency 2238) and this coincides with the main crest well within the | 
errors of observation. There are other barely discernible indications 
of submerged crests on either side of the principal crest. 

The most striking example investigated in this preliminary study 
is that presented by L. and K. No. 33, a barium sulphide with copper. 

Here we have obviously two overlapping complexes of bands 
(see Fig. '5), at least 14 crests of which are indicated more or less 
definitely by the irregularities in the spectrum curve. 

In this case the bands fall into two groups. From wave-length 
.5p» towards the violet the frequency intervals between neighboring 
crests are all multiples of 70. Towards the red the interval is 26.6 
for all but one band. This band at .5376y falls however into the 
series having the constant interval of 70. — 

To indicate the closeness of the agreement vertical lines have 
been drawn on the diagram in Fig. 5, as in the previous cases, at 
wave-lengths corresponding to those members of the two series of 
constant interval which coincide with observable crests. Solid lines 


NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 267 


belong to the group with an interval 70, dotted lines to the 26.6 
interval. Wave-lengths, reciprocals and intervals are given in 
Table ITI. : 

The designation of these series as of constant interval, upon the 
basis of the curves in Figs. 3, 4 and 5, can be tentative and approxi- 


L.&K. NO.33. BA.CU.NA,B,0, 


[ ! | 
4 Su 6 
Fic. 5. 


mate only ; but no systematic departure large enough to be detected 
appears to exist. The wave-lengths given in the tables are those of 
the vertical lines and therefore of the members of the constant inter- 
val series which coincide with the various crests. No independent 


268 NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 


estimates of the wave-lengths would seem to be significant. The 
curves however were plotted directly from the spectrophotometric 


readings without reference to any possibly symmetrical arrangement 
of the crests. 


TABLE IIL. 


APPROXIMATE FREQUENCIES AND WAVE-LENGTHS OF VISIBLE CRESTS IN THE 
SPECTRUM OF THE PHOSPHORESCENT SULPHIDE L. anv K. No. 33. 


Visible crests with interval = 7o. 


Wave-Lengths, Frequencies 1/A X 10%. Intervals. 
4255 2350 70 
4386 2280 
—_—_ 702 
4673 2140 70 
4831 2070 . 70 
5000 2000 
ae 70 X2 
5376 1860 


Visible crests with interval = 26.6. 


Wave-Lengths, Frequencies. Intervals, 
5000 & 2000.0 26.6 XK 2 
5136 1946.8 26.6 K 2 
5283 1892.6 26.6 X 7° 
5861 1706.4 26.6 X 2 
6049 . 1653.2 26.6 K 2 
6250 1600.0 26.6 XK 2 
6465 1546.8 
6578 1520.2 26.6 
6695 1493.6 26.6 


Whether the spectra under consideration are to be regarded as 
consisting of a single band or of more than one band is not a ques- 
tion of complexity of structure. Any system, however complex, 
which behaves as a unit under varying conditions of temperature, 
mode of excitation, etc., all the components being affected in like 
manner, may be considered as a single band in the sense ‘in which 
that term has been used by Lenard. We have a striking example 


NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 269 


indeed of such bands or systems of great complexity of structure in 
the case of the uranyl salts. . 

_ The evidence that, in general, the spectra of the phosphorescent 
sulphides contain more than one band or complex has already been 
mentioned, e. g., the marked changes of the color of phosphorescence 


‘with temperature and during the process of decay, the change of 


color with the mode of excitation as described by Becquerel, etc. 

In the three sulphides the spectra of which have just been dis- 
cussed it was thought probable that in spite of the overlapping of 
the components something might be learned by observing the decay 
of phosphorescence of different regions of the spectra separately 
and for this purpose Drs. Howes and Hodge made the following 
determinations. 


Tue DeEcAY OF PHOSPHORESCENCE IN DIFFERENT PORTIONS OF 
THE SPECTRUM. 


To obtain the curve of decay for a restricted region of the 
spectrum the spectrophotometer was used in combination with the 
synchrono-phosphoroscope and photometer bar as described in a pre- 
vious paragraph (see Fig. 2). The collimator slits which, to secure 
the greatest possible detail in the spectrophotometric measurements 
had been very narrow, were opened to a width of 2.0 mm. so that 
the brightness of the contrast field would be sufficient to allow the 
observer to follow the rapidly fading phosphorescence even in the 
weaker portions of the spectrum. 

The spectrophotometer was set for a selected region and the 
curve of decay was obtained in the usual manner by observing the 
position of the comparison lamp upon the photometer bar which 
gave equality in the contrast field for increasing times after the close 
of excitation. The range of the readings was from .oo1 sec. to .03 
sec. according to the position of the sectored disk upon the shaft of 
the phosphoroscope. 

In this way a set of curves corresponding to several nearly equi- 
distant regions within the phosphorescence spectrum was obtained 
for each of the three sulphides under consideration. 


270 NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 


Three such curves for the Ca, Bi sulphide No. 3, plotted with 
I-% as ordinates, are shown in Fig. 6; four for the Sr, Pb sulphide 
No. 13 in Fig. 7 and three for the Ba, Cu sulphide No. 33 in Fig. 8. 
A notable feature of all these curves is the existence of two so-called 
linear processes the first .of steeper slope and therefore indicative of 
a more rapid decay of phosphorescence than the second. This form 


r-i L.&K. NO.3. 


— 40 


»* 


v2 * 
I 2 I l 
-01 .02 03 Sec. 


Fie. 6. 


of curve, as is well known, is characteristic of phosphorescent sub- 
stances in general, the only well established exceptions being those 
occurring in the case of the uranyl salts.** As regards the relation 
of the two processes recorded in these diagrams to what appear as 
the first and second processes in the usual study of the long time 
phosphorescence of such sulphides, it is clear that the second process 


12 Nichols, Proc. Nat. Academy of Sciences, II., p. 328, 1916. 


oe i ie 


1 ge Ea 


NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 271 


in our curves is not identical with the first process as observed by 
the usual long time methods. 

Assuming the second process to continue; the intensity after 1 
second would be about 1/1,000 of that at .o1 sec. or roughly 
1/20,000 of its initial brightness; whereas as is well known these 
substances retain an easily visible phosphorescence after many 
seconds. 


“Pa 

rI-= L.&K NO. 13. 
6200: 5900 

L_-40 

30 


| J | 
Ot 02 03 SEC. 


Fic. 7. 


4 


_ This can only be accounted for by supposing that one or more 
later processes of successively slower decay follow one another; 
making up a more complicated curve of decay than has generally 
been assumed. Carl Zeller,1* the only previous investigator to 
determine the earlier stage of this type of phosphorescence, has 


18 Zeller, Physical Review, (1), 31, p. 367; also Carnegie Publications, 
No. 152, p. 124. 


272 | NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 


published a diagram which overlaps the range of the present experi- 
ments. Three of his curves are for a Sr, Bi; Ca, Bi and Ba, Cu 
sulphide respectively; corresponding to and possibly identical with 
our 13, 3 and 33. These show a linear process which he regards 
as the first process in the decay and which, as he points out, has, 


I-? 


| Jj | ] 
01 02 03 SEC. 
Fie. 8. 


in each case, a much steeper slope than the first process, so called, 
obtained by observations covering the range from a second or more 
onwards. The slope of his lines considering the range from .oI* to 
.03° and remembering that Zeller did not determine the decay for 
various regions of the spectrum separately are fairly comparable 
with the second process (beyond the knee) in Figs. 6 and 7 if we 
select the regions including the principal crest. We may therefore 
regard Zeller’s process which extends as far as .o6 second as the 
same as our second process. 


. 


~ ae ee ing nl 
eae a) , f 


mete a I ie deal 


NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 273 


The change of slope between this process and the first process 
so called in the curves of-decay for these sulphides as observed dur- 
ing the-interval from two seconds onward is very great. In a rep- 
resentative curve obtained by Mr. Carleton E. Power** for example 
his first process extends for nearly 50 seconds. The slope if com- 
puted for a time scale such as that used in our measurements where 
1/100 sec. may be taken as a convenient unit, is scarcely perceptible. 
The increase in the ordinate (J-“%) in passing from time .o1 sec. to 
02 sec. in our second process or in Zeller’s process is of the order 

oa 
Bamrer’ s first process ‘ats give a ratio of the order of 1.008. 

In other words during the first few hundredths of a second 
after the close of excitation the intensity of phosphorescence falls 
in each 1/100 of a second from unity to about .70 while after sev- 
eral seconds, it falls in 1/100 second only from unity to .g9. 

It seems probable, assuming continuity in the progress of the 
decay, that if we had a complete curve of decay for one of these 
sulphides, the knee between our second process and the first process 
of the long-time curves would be found to lie somewhere between 
0.10 second and 1.0 second. If it occurs much earlier than 0.10 
second, Zeller would have discovered it; if much beyond 1.0 second 
it should appear in the long-time measurements. In fact many 
curves for the decay of phosphorescence by the latter process do 
show a downward trend and Lenard, among others, has disputed the 
linear character of the curve as we approach the origin of time. 
The existence of at least four linear processes each of longer dura- 
tion and lesser slope than the preceding may well account for the 
difference of opinion. An observer determining the law of decay 
as a whole by a method not taking cognizance of time intervals of 
less than say 1/10 second, would describe as a curve what under 
much more detailed study might be revealed as a succession of linear 
processes. 

Owing to the overlapping of the components in the spectra under 
consideration it is difficult to determine whether the group of equi- 
distant bands are to be regarded as a unit, as in the case of the 


14 Power, C. E., Manuscript Thesis in the Library of Cornell University. 
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, S, JUNE 21, 1917. 


274 NICHOLS—PHOSPHORESCENCE OF SULPHIDES. 


uranyl salts, or indeed whether they constitute the whole of the 
phosphorescence spectrum. To that end some method permitting 
of. more complete resolution must be devised. The pronounced 
changes in the color of the phosphorescent light would make it seem 
probable that we have to do in these observations chiefly with com- 
ponents of the phosphorescence that are of rapid decay and which, 
after a few hundredths of a second, disappear leaving behind other 
components which constitute the phosphorescence of long duration. 
These, which are probably of relatively insignificant initial bright- 
ness, doubtless overlap the phosphorescence of short duration but 
occupy, as a whole, a somewhat different portion of the spectrum. 

In that case since one has to do with a different group of bands 
in observing the initial and the later phases of phosphorescence there 
would be an actual discontinuity between the processes discussed 
above and the great change of slope is readily explained. 


SUMMARY. 


1. The regions of selective excitation (the bands of excitation 
for the Lenard and Klatt sulphides, are ‘shown to coincide in position 
and extent with absorption bands in the transmission spectrum. 

2. The spectrum of the phosphorescent light, during the first few 
thousandths of a second after the close of excitation, contains one or 
more groups of overlapping bands, the crests of each group forming 
a spectral series having a constant frequency interval. 

3. The decay of phosphorescence during the first three hun- 
dredths of a second after the close of excitation may be described 
as consisting of two processes each showing a linear relation between 
I-% and time. The first and more rapid process lasts for less than 
.or second for the three sulphides studied under the intensity of 
excitation employed. The second process probably persists for .06 
second or more. 

4. The phosphorescence of, long duration of the sulphides under 
consideration is probably due to another group of bands of com- 
paratively feeble initial brightness which come under observation 


only after the phosphorescence of short duration has vanished. 
CoRNELL UNIVERSITY, 
DEPARTMENT OF PHysICcS, 
March, 1917. 


A NEW BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION 
OF MAN. 


By GEORGE A. BARTON. 


The Babylonians were particularly fond of stories of the crea- 
tion, of the world and the beginnings of civilization. The best 
known of these is the “ Epic of Creation” in seven tablets or cantos, ~ 
parts of which were discovered by George Smith in the British 
Museum more than forty years ago. Still another was found in 
1882 at Abu Habba by Rassam and brought to the British Museum. 
It was later published by Dr. Pinches. The same museum contains 
fragments of a third story of the creation which was written in As- 
syria. 

The University Museum in Philadelphia is particularly rich in 
texts of this kind. In 1914 Dr. Poebel published one which com- 
bined accounts of the creation and the flood, in 1915 Dr. Langdon 
published one which contains a most interesting account of the be- 
ginnings of agriculture,? and to these the writer is now able to add 
another that he came upon among some uncatalogued tablets some 
months ago.* This last text was excavated at Nippur and is one 
of the many tablets that lay unpacked for years in the basement of 
the Museum. As the subjoined translation will show, the text deals 
with the creation of man, the origin of Babylonian pastoral life and 
the exigencies which led to the construction of cities. Some of its 
phrases remind us of expressions in the early chapters of the Book 
of Genesis. The text is as follows: 


1. The mountain of heaven and earth 
2. The assembly of heaven, the great gods, entered. Afterwards 
3. Because Ashnan* had not come forth, they conversed together. 


1A. Poebel, “ Historical Texts,” Philadelphia, 1914, 9 ff., also G. A. Bar- 
ton, “ Archeology and the Bible,” Philadelphia, 1916, 278-282. 

2S. Langdon, “Sumerian Epic of Paradise, the Flood, and the Fall of 
Man,” Philadelphia, 1915; also Barton, op. cit., 283-289. 

3 The tablet has since been catalogued as No. 14005. 


275 


276 BARTON—NEW BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT 


4. The land Tikku5 had not created; 

5. For Tikku a temple platform had not been filled in; 

6. A lofty dwelling had not been built. 

7. The arable land was without any seed; 

8. A well or a canal(?) had not been dug; 

9. Horses and cattle had not been brought forth, 

o. So that Ashnan could shepherd a corral; 

11. The Anunua, the great gods, had made no plan; 

12. There was no Ses-grain of thirty fold; 

13. There was no Ses-grain of fifty fold; 

14. Small grain, mountain grain, and great asal-grain there was not; 
15. A possession and house there was not; 

16. Tikku had neither entered a gate nor gone out; 

17. Together with Nintu,—the lord had not brought forth men. 
18. The god Ug as leader came; as leader he came forth to plan; 
19. Mankind he planned; many men were brought forth. 

20. Food and sleep he planned for them; . 

21. Clothing and dwellings he did not plan for them. 

22. The people with rushes and rope came, 

23. By making a dwelling a kindred was formed. 

24. To the gardens . . . they brought irrigation; 

25. On that day their [gardens sprouted(?)]. 

26. Trees ... mountain and country. ... 


1. gar-sag-an-ki-bi-da-ge 
2. erim-an-ni dingir-dingir a-nun-na_ im-tur-ne-es a-ba 
3. mu tezinu nu-in-da-ma-da ub-se-da-an-dug-ga 
4. kalam-mu “tik-ku nu-in-da-an-dim-ma-as 
5. *tik-ku-ra temen nu-mu-na-sig-ga-as 
6. tus-up-pi-a ra*-ub-Sar-ra 
- 7, ar-nu-me-d-am numun Sar-ra 
8. pu-e-x7-a-bi nu-in-tu-ud 
9. anse-ra® bir-es-bi nu-in-tu-ud 
10. mu 4ezinu utul-umuna-bi apin 
11. 4a-nun-na dingir gal-gal e-ne nu-mu-un-su-ta-am 
12, §e-Ses erim-usu-am nu-gdl-la-am 
13. Se-Ses erim-eninnu-am nu-gal-la-am 
14. Se-tur-tur Se-kur-ra Se-d-sal-gal-la nu-gdl-la-am 
15. Su-gar tus-tus-bi nu-gdl-la-am 
16. 4tik-ku nu-se-tur ka nu-il 


4A god of vegetation; Brunnow’s “ List,” 7484. 

5 Tikku is a river-bank personified. 
6ra=la, “not”; cf. “Origin of Babylonian Writing,” 287. It is often 
employed in the Stele of Vultures in this sense; see, e. g., Col. XXI., 2, 3, 
na-ru-a-bi.ba-ra-ad-du, “ this stele one shall not break.” 

7 The sign x is 606 in the “Origin of Babylonian Writing.” Its values 
are undetermined. 

8 anSe-ra, for anSe-kur-ra. kur was omitted by the scribe. 


OF THE CREATION OF MAN. 277 


17. en “nin-tu en kal-kal nu-in-tu-ud 
18. 4ug® mas tum-ma mas dii-da é 

19. nam-lu un-zu erim-nun-a ga-e-ne 
20. gar-ki=-Sa-bi mu-un-zu-us-am - 
21. tug-gi-tus-tus-bi nu-mu-un-zu-us-am 
22. uku gis gi-a-na-dur-bi mu-é 

23. tus-gim-ka ba-ni-in-ib usbar 

24. a-Sar-Sar-ra .. . im-gii-gi-ne 

25. ud-ba-ki dar- ...rja-e-n[e... 
26. gis-bi dul... bi-kur-gar... 
meeemer...,.@ule...b... 


eomemer Enlii(?) ........-. 
aces ‘a 6 Standing @rain( 7) . 2... ce 
oa ny WAMMICINC ore oS cao ue ca 
BUEN ie <3 création of Ente i... 6606s es 
1) ee i ee 
6. Duazagga, the way of the gods........ 
7. Duazagga, the brilliant, for my god I guard(?) .... 
meme ana rill to Duazagga. .. 2 6 6s ee ee 
9. A dwelling for Ashnan from out of Duazagga I will [make(?) for thee]. 
10. Two thirds of the fold perished(?) ; 
11. His plants for food he created for them; 
12. Ashnan rained on the field for them; 
13. The*moist(?) wind and the fiery storm-cloud he created for them. 
14. Two thirds of the fold stood; 
15. For the shepherd of the fold joy was disturbed. 
16. The house of rushes did not stand; 
17. From Duazagga joy departed. 
18. From his dwelling, a lofty height, his boat 
19. Descended ; from heaven he came 
20. To the dwelling of Ashnan; the scepter he brought forth to them; 
ai. His brilliant city he raised up, he appointed for them; 
22. The reed-country he planted; he appointed for them; 
23. The falling rain the hollows caught for them; 
24. A dwelling-place was their land; food made men multiply ; 
25. Prosperity entered the land; it caused them to become a multitude. 
26. He brought to the hand of man the scepter of command. 
27. The lord caused them to be and they came into existence. 
28. Companions calling them, with a man his wife he made them dwell. 
29. At night?‘ as fitting companions they are together. 
30. (Sixty lines). 


OS Ge a a ee 


®In Semitic, Shamash, the sun-god. 


278 BARTON—NEW BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT 


3. MAMNHTN<DE. 856s a5 est cic aoe WN ye 
Sat ba en~tu-ge. . ose ss as ; 
Be SAFE ey gS Sone aur same hea 
6. du-azag-ga Sid-da dingir...... Lasse iat 4k Se Hm 
7. du-azag-ga lag-ga-a ditgiunhdete ab-u[ru..... in 
8. 4en-tu en-lil-bi du-azag-ga-ra ne. ........ 
9. du 4ezinu-bi du-azag-ta im-ma-da-r[a-ri. ... 
0. Sanabi-e amas-a im-ma-ab-gab-...... 
11. u-bi e-gar-ra-ra mu-un-a-ba-e-ne 
12. 4ezinu gan-e mu-un-imi-am-ne 
13. lil-ap in uras-lag-bi mu-un-a-ba-e-ne 
14. Sanabi amas-a-na gub-ba-ni 
15. sib-amas-a gi-li d-di-a 
16. gi-li-es nam-na-gub-ba-ni 
17. du-el'-azag-ga’® gi-li-il sub-am 
18. ga-ni-ta sag-gi-il ma-nt 
19. tb-gdl an-na-ta tum-tum-a-ne 
20. du *ezinu-bi gat-tu Si-se-e-e§ 
21. uru-azag-na tb-gél mu-da-an-gal-li-e§ 
22. kalam-ma-gi-sag11-gél mu-gub an-gal-li-es§ “ 
23. Seq-es e-ka-sig im-sd-sd-e-ne 
24. gisgal-ma kalam-ma-ne gar mu-ni-ab-rug-rug kal-mé 
25. x12 kalam-ma ne-gig mu-un-ne-gal mes 
26. ab-a-tum-ra da-ki us-ir a-gat-mé 
27. u-mu-un mu-ne-es-ib-gdl mu-da-an-gal-li-e§ 
28. man-na gu-ne za18-ki dam-ne ne-ba-an-gub-es-a 
29. gig-bi-ir1* bar-a-gar dag-me-es 
30. lx Su-su lx. 


The tablet on which this text is written is five inches long and 
2 and 5 inches wide. The script is of the mixed cursive variety that 
was often employed in the time of the first dynasty of Babylon 
(2210-1924 B. C.) and the Cassite dynasty (1775-1150B.C.). Itis 
impossible from the palzography to date the tablet definitely. It is 
certainly older than 1200 B. C. and may have been written before 
the year 2000 B. C. 


10 du-el-azag-ga is doubtless a variant spelling of du-azag-ga, The sign 
el introduces an additional word for brightness, thus emphasizing azag. ; 

11 kalam-ma-gi-sag-gal, literally, “the land reeds are in the midst,” a very 
appropriate name for Babylonia. 

12 The sign transcribed x is 241 in the “ Origin of Babylonian Writing.” 
It has the meaning “ favor.” I have rendered it somewhat freely “ prosperity.” 

18 za = amélu, “Origin of Babylonian Writing,” 523 and Delitzsch, Sumer- 
isches Glossar, p. 218. 

14 gig-bi-ir, literally “in their night.” 


OF THE CREATION OF MAN. 279 


The tablet is rather carelessly written. The scribe made a num- 
ber of mistakes which he was compelled to correct by erasures. One 
-would infer that the writing was that of a scribal apprentice rather 
than that of a skilled scribe. 

The god Ashnan of this text is a god of vegetation. His name is 
written with the sign for grain plus the sign for forest. The prom- 
-inent role which Ashnan plays in the text is proof that the agri- 
cultural interest was uppermost in the minds of the writers of the 
myth. The god Tikku is a personified river-bank. The statement 
made néar the beginning, that he had not created the land, takes the 
reader back to the beginning of Babylonian civilization before the 
overflow of the rivers had been circumscribed by dykes. 

__ The myth moves in the same circle of ideas as a portion of the 
text discovered by Dr. Langdon. According to my understanding of 
that text, irrigation of the earth was made possible by a marital union 
of the sun-god with the goddess Nintu.*® The tablet now discov- 
ered represents men generated by the lord and Nintu after they 
had been planned by Ug, the sun-god. This text presupposes the 
natural generation of men front a union of gods, as the other text 
does the natural generation of irrigation. 
Our new text recognizes that food and sleep are provided by 
god but clothing and houses men had to invent. The description of 
the construction of a reed hut in line 22 of the obverse is true to the 
form of reed huts that may still be seen in the Babylonian marshes. 

The lines on the reverse of the tablet are at the bginning broken. 
Apparently some god was addressing Enlil, because all had not gone 
well with men. Duazagga was the celestial abyss, the great abyss 
of the sky-vault. Here it is described as “the way of the gods,” 
perhaps an allusion to the milky way, along which the gods were 
supposed to dwell. That men might have more direct help, a dwell- 
ing for Ashnan was made on the earth. "Thereupon Ashnan created 
- plants for food, and sent over the earth the various kinds of rain- 
clouds. This mitigated human misfortune only in part. Two thirds 
of the fold had perished before, but one third still perished. A god, 
possibly Eulil, accordingly came down and founded cities. These 
led to the formation of clans or kindreds ; misfortune vanished, and 


15 See the writer’s “ Archeology and the Bible,” Philadelphia, 1916, p. 284. 


280 BARTON—ACCOUNT OF CREATION OF MAN. 


men multiplied. This secure life led to dominion on the part of 
man, and to settled marriage. 

The text discovered by Dr. Langdon described, according to 
my understanding of it, the beginnings of irrigation, agriculture, 
and the knowledge of medicinal plants ; the new text has to do with 
the origin of man, the beginnings of agriculture, of city life, and 
of settled marriage. 

Some of the statements in this text remind us, sometimes by 
their form, sometimes by their substance, of passages in the early 
chapters of Genesis. Thus: “ The lord caused them to be and they 
came into existence” recalls Gen. 1:3: “ And God said, Let there be 
light and there was light.” The statement: “He brought to the 
hand of man the scepter of command,” reminds the reader of the 
way in Gen. 1:28 God is said to have given man dominion over all 
other forms of animate life. ‘Companions calling them, a man 
with his wife he made them dwell,” brings to mind the statement of 
Gen. 2:18 that it is not good for man to be alone, and of Gen. 2:24: 
“ Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother and shall 
cleave unto his wife.” The last line of the new tablet: “At night 
as fitting companions they are together” is the Babylonian equiva- 
lent of the last clause of Gen. 2:24: “ And they shall be one flesh.” 

The text will be published with full grammatical commentary in 
a volume that the writer is preparing for the University Museum. 
which will be entitled ‘ Miscellaneous Religious Texts.” 


Bryn Mawr, Pa., 
April, 1917. 


THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN IN HIS RELATION 
TO GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT. 


By WILLIAM CURTIS FARABEE. 
(Read April 14, 1917.) 


Man, of whatever race, as we know him to-day is to such an 
extent a product of his environment that we can have very little 
idea of what he was in his primitive state. We sometimes speak of 
primitive men but we mean men in a low stage of culture without 
any reference whatever to time or age. There are no primitive 
men, neither is there primitive culture. Both have been so modified 
by their environment that they give us very little idea of what the 
first men and their culture were like. From the beginning both have 
developed in complete agreement with their environment. 

It is said that man differs from the other animals in that he is 
able to overcome his natural environment. Man has been able to 
profit by his knowledge of nature’s laws, but he has not overcome 
them. He must depend upon natural products for sustenance and 
hence is limited in migration and habitat. In the cold climates 
of high altitudes and high latitudes he is limited by his food supply 
. to the line fixed by nature for the growth of plants and animals. 
In the hot, moist climate of the tropics he is deprived of energy 
and ambition and degenerates. He has not yet overcome nature 
but he has succeeded better than his fellows in adapting himself to 
nature’s requirements. His individual handicap at the beginning 
of life makes for the greater development of his race. His pro- 

longed period of growth allows the persistent forces of environ- 
“ment to act upon his developing body and fit it for its habitat. If 
his migrations do not take place too rapidly or do not extend over 
too wide a range of geographic conditions these body changes 
become habitual and the race survives. The new characters 
developed are retained. There is some question as to whether or 
not the characters acquired by the ancestors are inherited, but it is 


281 


282 FARABEE—THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN. 


certain that the habitat with all the geographic factors which have 
produced those characters is inherited. If the effect of environ- 
ment is upon the individual and does not become permanently fixed 
in the race and if it acts only as an inhibitor in the development of 
characteristics it has the force of an inheritance because it never 
ceases to operate. Hence the race develops true~to the environ- 
ment. Primitive man must have originated in a tropical but not a 
jungle country where the environment made little demand upon his 
growing intellect. The search for food probably took him tem- 
porarily outside of his first habitat. After a time the pressure of 
numbers would prevent his return. His customs and habits would 
change to meet the new conditions. So, no doubt, he has slowly 
moved through the long period of his history, from one stage to 
another, from one environment to another, and from one develop- 
ment to another. These developments were not necessarily from a 
lower to a higher plane. He had little choice; the quest for food 
or the pressure from numbers either called or drove him onward 
from the old to newer fields. He followed the animals and may 
have learned from them to build his shelter and to store his food 
against a future need. Necessity developed forethought and made 
him an inventor. The forces of nature were first feared and then 
followed. He became as mobile as the wind and the water by whose 
aid he traveled. After he had thus occupied the habitable globe 
each section continued to develop a culture, peculiar to its own 
environment. Every geographical factor had its influence in this * 
development. Sea and bay, lake and river, mountain and valley, 
forest and desert, temperature and humidity, wind and rain, sun- 
shine and cloud, each and all had their effect in isolating or uniting, 
separating or deflecting, expanding or confining, the migrating 
peoples and in determining their physical development, their forms 
of culture, their economic and political organization. Man has fol- 
lowed no plan, has had no standards. Whatever advancement he 
has made has been by chance rather than by choice, by accident 
rather than by conscious direction. 

In the migration of man from his original home probably in 
southern Asia, by way of Behring Strait and North America to the 
tropics again he completed the cycle of climatic conditions. His 


FARABEE—THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN. 283 


long and varied experience had made him wise. Yet he was con- 
tinually on the march. Crowded into the neck of the Isthmus of 
Panama he pushed on through and found another continent which, 
like the one he was leaving, lent itself to a north-south migration 
with the routes well marked. The Orinoco, the great branches of 
the Amazon and the La Plata together with the Andes and the coast 
all offered direct lines of travel, but they all led to hard conditions. 
The mountains were too high, the forests too dense, the south too 
cold and the tropics too hot to make a strong appeal. But there 
was no possibility of retreat until the farthest corner had been 
reached and turned. By the time of tthe Discovery he had overrun 
the whole continent and a return migration was in progress across 
the isthmus and through the West Indies. 

When the first migration entered the continent the people were 
deflected by the mountains to the two coasts. Those who continued 
down the west coast, forced to compete with the rank jungle growth 
for supremacy in a humid debilitating climate, were unable to estab- 
lish themselves and develop a high culture. So they moved on to 
the interior plateaus where they found more congenial conditions 
and where they left evidence of an advanced culture. 

Those who made their way to the coast south of the equator 
must have been surprised to step out of the jungle into an immense 
desert country, the most arid in the world, stretching away for 
nearly 2,000 miles as a narrow fringe along the sea. Here they 
found fertile valleys, watered.by the innumerable small rivers and 
streams which, fed by the melting of the perpetual snows of the 
mountain tops, made their way to the sea or lost themselves in the 
desert. These valleys separated by trackless sands offered both 
food and security. The sea made no call. There were few pro- 
tected harbors along the great stretch of coast; no outlying islands 
to be inhabited and no timber for canoes. They became an agri- 
cultural people living in villages and using the rivers for irrigating 
purposes. Irrigation guaranteed regular crops and hence a constant 
food supply. It also developed inventiveness and codperation. 
Their common dependence upon the same water supply developed 
social organization and a strong government. As these different 
valleys had the same products there was very little commerce 


284 FARABEE—THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN. 


between them and each was allowed to develop its own culture. 
The archzological remains show the results of this development 
from independent centers. 

Near the southern end of the continent climatic and topographic 
conditions are reversed. The coast and western slopes of the 
mountains are forested, while the interior is a semi-desert. The 
deeply embayed coast has a chain of outlying islands. The steep 
mountains come down to the sea leaving little arable land. The 
forests furnish an abundance of suitable timber for canoes. All 
these elements of environment unite to force the unfortunate tribes 
who have been pushed along into this region to become a maritime 
people. The inhospitable snowclad mountains prevent contact with 
the interior tribes. They were shut off also from the people of the 
northern coast by rough seas and steep harborless shores. They 
were thus limited to the islands and the channels between. Their 
isolation and their hard conditions of life with an uncertain food 
supply has prevented them from developing a high culture. They 
have had no leisure. All their energies have been taxed to the utter- 
most to secure their daily bread. 

The nearest neighbors of these canoe people are living under 
worse conditions even because they were an interior people who 
have been forced down across the straits into the last point of land 
on the continent, from which there is no possible escape. With hard 
conditions and scant food supply they lead a precarious life. ‘They 
must live in small separate groups in order to make the most of 
their wild foods. These small units have developed a rugged inde- 
pendence which will permit of no control. There is no necessity nor 
opportunity for community effort and hence there are no chiefs and 
no organized government. Left behind and held at bay in a most. 
rigorous climate they have done well to maintain themselves even 
in their present culture. Their simple life reveals their origin. The 
absence of the canoe proves them to belong to the mainland east 
of the mountains where there are no navigable rivers and a harbor- 
less cliff coast for a thousand miles. The inhabitants of this plain 
have always been hunters and not fishermen. 

Farther north on the same coast the narrow fringe of lowland 
is fertile and contains a number of deep bays. Here the people 


FARABEE—THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN. 285 


became agriculturists but added to their food supply shellfish from 
the sea. Many large refuse heaps mark the centers of occupation. 
The steep coast range of mountains prevented them from passing 
into the interior where other cultures are found. 

Along the north coast from the Amazon to the isthmus repre- 
sentatives of the same people occupy the savannahs and the forested 
interior. Here the savannah coast tribes with their broader view 
and easy communication in every instance have developed the higher 
culture. 

While the coast peoples have had every variety of climatic condi- 
tion due to the change of latitude from the equator to the most 
southern inhabited point in the world those of the mountains have 
had much the same variety due to change in elevation from a 
tropical sea level to the highest habitat of man. The mountains on 
account of their great height, hard conditions and lack of arable land 
served at first only as a barrier to deflect and to separate the migrat- 
ing peoples. After a time the pressure of the populations in the 
lowland valleys on the west forced the people up the slopes and into 
the high valleys and plateaus between the Cordilleras. Here they 
found the Quinua, the oca, and the potato, the hardiest and most 
useful food plants for cold climates. On the high plateaus they 
‘found among other animals the Llama, one of the most useful 
animals known to man. It offered its flesh for food, its coat for 
clothing, its hide for harness, and its back for burdens. The high 

valley dwellers became agriculturists and traders while their neigh- 
bors were first hunters, then herdsmen. The cold, raw winds sweep- 
ing across the broad open plateaus drove the people to the leeward 
of the mountains for protection where they formed small communi- 
ties, each herdsman having his separate corral. These people while 
living in these remote places were in trade relations with the agri- 
culturists in the valleys. They had a constant food supply in their 
herds and while conditions of life were somewhat severe they were 
secure, contented and happy. The broad horizon and invigorating 
climate stimulated thought. Their occupations gave them leisure for 
contemplation. So here among the shepherds music and myth 
reached their highest development. 

In the center of this high plateau area is located a very large 


286 FARABEE—THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN. 


lake with no outlet to the sea. The valleys all led to the lake. 
There was no passageway to a more congenial climate. There were 
no forests whose timber could be used for buildings and canoes but 
there was abundance of stone in the mountains and turf in the 
fields for houses and reeds in the swamps about the lake for balsas 
or rafts. Great towns developed on the shores of the lake which 
could be reached either by water or by land. The lake exerted a 
unifying influence for either commerce or war. Magic gave place 
to a highly developed form of sun worship with a priestly class 
headed by a great chief who assumed autocratic power. There was 
soon a desire to extend the functions of this centralized government. 
Following the command of the spirit they moved their center of 
dominion northward across the divide to the head of a fertile valley 
and established a city. With the advantage of organization and 
location they easily overcame one group after another of the valley 
peoples who were unable to unite for common defence on account 
of their natural boundaries. Thus the city became the center of a 
great empire with a stable government and a state religion. The 
arts and industries were encouraged, schools and churches estab- 
lished and a high state of civilization secured. 

The large number of tribes inhabiting the interior of the conti- © 
nent have had a very different history. The great plains of the 
southeast have few natural boundaries to confine the people, ye) 
from the beginning they have dissipated their energies in spreading 
far and wide over the whole area without developing one single 
great center. They have exhausted themselves in the running and — 
have left nothing of importance behind. 

In the eastern highlands of Brazil away from all migration 
routes and cut off from the coast are found a number of tribes 
belonging to the same stock. As a whole they are the most backward 
people of the continent. They may be a remnant of the first tribes 
to inhabit the plateau region who have been pushed aside into the 
out-of-the-way corners. by stronger more advanced tribes who came 
to the plateau in later times. They occupy the only mountains east 
of the Andes which are high enough to form a barrier or undesir- 
able enough to serve as place of retreat. 

The rivers and valleys north and south and the low divide on the 


FARABEE—THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN. 287 


west all lead to the savannah plateau west of these highlands. This 
became a meeting place for the migrations from all these directions 
and also a place of dispersion. The routes of forward or backward 
migration of three great stocks may be traced to this center, by tribes 
scattered along the way. Representatives of one stock apparently 
descended the La Plata River to the sea and passed along the coast 
three thousand miles into the Amazon valley; another followed 
down the southeastern branches of the Amazon, down the main 
river and around the coast to the West Indies; while a third occu- 
pied the higher branches of the Amazon and crossed the watershed 
to the north coast. 

The Amazon Valley, an area nearly as large as the United 
States, was occupied by hundreds of tribes belonging to several 
different linguistic stocks and all in very much the same stage of, 
cultural development. The whole area is well within the tropics 
and shut off from the high cultures of the west by impassable moun- 
tains. It is a humid tropical forest jungle with a most monotonous 
debilitating climate. Nature here is overpowering, because she 
makes life so easy there is no necessity for effort. There is no 
struggle of intelligence against the forces of nature, because she 
provides the necessities of life ready made. The bounties of nature 
gratify the enfeebled ambition without labor. The daily needs have 
daily satisfactions. The climate is so mild that little or no clothing 
is required nor any habitations except the simplest shelters which 
may be built in a few hours when needed. There is no necessity 
for exercise of forethought, invention, or ingenuity. There is 
leisure but no energy. The law of social gravitation does not 
operate because there is no necessity for cooperation. The people 
live in small isolated groups ‘because they require space for hunting 
and fishing. Hence there can be no central government. The 
sluggish rivers offered easy transportation. As there were no 
natural boundaries to confine the people and no central authority 
the different groups moved about at will coming into contact with 
other groups of different stocks and mingling cultures. There was 
no commerce because there was no variety of natural products in 
any one area not common to every other. There is little relief of 
land, change of climate, or variety of soil. The culture is as uni- 


288 FARABEE—THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN. 


form as the environment. A characterless country is producing a 
- characterless people. The Amazon Valley was the last great region 
to be occupied by man. There is no evidence of great antiquity 
either in archeological remains or in present cultures. The lan- 
guages spoken show a close relationship with outside groups. The 
cultures, always first to reveal the effects of a change of environ- 
ment, show certain similarities, but are decadent in form. 

All the evidence at hand tends to show that the culture of the 
South American Indian has developed in perfect harmony with his 
geographic environment. 


UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, 
April 14, 1917. 


<4 


——-~GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 
By D. T. MACDOUGAL, Px.D., LL.D.,, ann H. A. SPOEHR, Pu.D. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 


GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 


The chief purpose of the studies described in the present paper 
has been to correlate some of the more striking features of growth 
in plants with the action of contributory factors, and to resolve this 
complex process into its constituent reactions so far as might be 
possible. 

New viewpoints have been sought by the reduction and analyses 
of continuous series of measurements of the entire course of 
enlargement of single organs or members. Experimental species 
were chosen concerning which much was known as to their respira- 
tion, transpiration, imbibition capacity and chemical composition. 
The daily, seasonal and developmental variations in such matters as 
carbohydrate content, acidity and swelling capacity of some of the 
plants had already been the subject of various investigations at the 
Desert Laboratory, and additional determinations were made in the 
course of the work. The final or actual increase which is measur- 
able as growth, by weight or dimensions is predominantly a hydra- 
tion or imbibition process as the increment to any growing cell or 
embryonic region is at least 99 per cent. water. There is immediate 
necessity therefore for a study of factors influencing imbibition. 
Whatever theory of colloidal structure may be adopted, there is no 
reason for supposing that the interpolation or absorption of water in 
a complex mixture of such substances is different in the plant cell 
from what it might be in similar material in the laboratory. The 
protoplast and its envelopes are undoubtedly a complicated mixture 
of colloids in a state of more or less constant change. 

A successful search was instituted for mixtures which would 
show the same general imbibition phenomena as the living plant. 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, T, JULY 30, IQI7. 


289 


290 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


Gelatine alone has been found to furnish valuable analogies in the 
study of the action of animal tissues. It is not adequate for the 
vegetable protoplast however. Mixtures consisting largely of the 
amorphous condensed carbohydrates such as agar to which is added 
a small proportion of albumen or amino-acid are found to respond 
to the action of acids, alkalies and salts in a manner similar to that 
of the plant. 

Some new conceptions of the general nature of respiration and 
its correlation with growth have been made possible. The origin 
and fate of the sugars, particularly the pentosans, have been made 
the object of extended experimentation, and the results obtained are 
not the least important of those presented herewith. Most of the 
attempts which have been made to ascertain the essential nature of 
growth have been made on the assumption that it is a single, simple 
or unified process. Thus for example, much attention has been 
concentrated upon fixing the lower and upper limits of growth with 
regard to temperature, and recently much has been written concern- 
ing the temperature coefficient. A number of authors concur in the 
assertion that within a certain range, generally between 15° C. and 
30° C., the rate of acceleration is one which follows the van’t Hof 
law of doubling or tripling for every rise of 10° C., it being agreed 
that no such conformity is shown in the extreme upper and lower 
ranges of temperature. This partial or accidental agreement of 
smoothed curves of growth with those depicting the course of simple 
reactions has diverted attention more than once from the funda- 
mental fact that growth depends primarily on respiration, imbibition 
and osmosis. Respiration is essentially a complicated swirl of sugar 
disintegration processes which may be influenced in any one of its 
parts by the oxidation potential, by the dearth of material or over- 
accumulation of products in any part of the complex. The con- 
centration of the various reaction products may exert their own 
direct effect on imbibition and consequent enlargement. In addi- 
tion to, and partly dependent upon the imbibition phenomena, 
elongation may be modified by such factors as water-loss. Thus 
for instance, growth upon a rising temperature may reach a point 
where, as a result of temperature, the water-loss would temporarily 
be greater than the supply, with the result that a cessation, slacken- 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 291 


___ing or shortening — ensue until an adequate supply reached the 
___ expanding region. ~ 
eS: The proposal of Rahn? to explain the relation of growth to tem- 
perature upon the basis of a direct integration of enzymatic action 
and enzyme destruction does not seem adequate. It is true that 
among the reactions upon which the growth of plants depends are 
syntheses or renewals of thermo-labile material, and upon metab- 
olism possibly including oxidation of carbohydrates. Each of the 
separate ._processes or reactions, enzymatic or otherwise, goes on at 
a rate determined by the temperature, and by the concentration of 
its products, and to an extent limited by the amount of material 
brought into its reactions. The extent to which, for example, the 
sugars are oxidized determines the degree of acidity or alkalinity of 
the cell thus affecting its water relations in a very serious manner. 
Also as will be shown later, the swelling of colloids, and presum- 
ably the growth capacity of a cell, may be modified by proteins, 
while its volume or measurable variation in volume is at all times 
a function of the balance between water-accession and water-loss. 

The cell itself may be considered as a mass of colloidal material 
variously altered from the globular by pressure and contacts. The 
outermost layer being of greater density or compactness is usually 
designated as a membrane, and much has been written during the 
past few years concerning the permeability and the modifiable semi- 
permeability of such structures. The meristematic or embryonic cell 
with the action of which we are chiefly concerned in growth, is in 
its earlier stages dense and shows none of the cavities or clear 
spaces which form such a large part of the volume of a mature cell, 
while the relatively large nucleus shows even greater density. 

The enlargement of this mass consists to an extent as great as 
98 or 99 per cent. in swelling by the imbibition of water. The rate, 
extent and total amount of such swelling will be determined by the 
character of the colloidal mixture, by salts, acidity or alkalinity 
of the solutions present, and only to a very slight extent by osmosis: 
as this process takes place in colloids. Hence turgidity may play a 
very minor part in the earlier stages. ; 


1Rahn, O., “Der Einfluss der Temperatur und der Gifte auf Enzym- 
wirkung, Garung, und Wachstum,” Biochem. Ztschrft., 27: 351, 1916. 


292 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


With increase in size vacuoles begin to appear. The active cell 
is usually conceived as a sac with irregular strands of cytoplasm 
extending from the peripheral layers of protoplasm, the nucleus 
being variously placed in this irregular mass. The vacuoles or 
spaces appéaring colorless in living cells and clear in preparations 
are taken to be sacs containing electrolytes or other dissolved mate- 
rial. The capacity of these dissolved substances to absorb water 
osmotically tends to increase their volume and cause distension 
resulting in turgidity or swelling of the cell and in rigidity of the 
organ when whole tracts or layers act in this manner. Turgidity has 
hitherto been held to account for the entire expansion of growth as 
noted above. It is now apparent, however, that we are in a posi- 
tion to draw a slightly different picture of the mechanical features 
-of the cell in what may be termed the second stage. In addition to 
the denser colloids of the wall, the lining layer of protoplasm, and 
the nuclear structures, it is known that even in the clear regions of 
the cell there are emulsions and that the entire cell is a mass of gels 
of different composition and varying degrees of dispersion. The 
cell may take water into the vacuoles by the osmotic action of the 
electrolytes, but the entire mass tends to swell as would a mixture 
of protein, cellulose, agar, gum arabic, starch and other substances, 
and such masses may be modified by transpiration or direct loss 
of water. 

The first recognition of the differential action of acidity and 
alkalinity appears to have been expressed by Spoehr and Estill 
who say :? 

It has become evident that the total swelling of plants like Opuntia 
blakeana and O. discata in dilute solutions of acids, alkalis, and salts repre- 
sents the summation of independent reactions of various material to these 
reagents. Thus, solutions of acids, alkalies and salts influence the swelling 
and growth of these plants by affecting: (1) the hydratation of the proto- 
plasts; (2) the material that goes to make up the cell-wall and fibro-vascular 
system; (3) the permeability and osmotic properties of the plasma-membrane. 
It has been found that these three factors can act independently and even in 
opposite directions. Great differences were found in these respects in dif- 
ferent portions of the same cactus joint and between young and mature ones; 


the colloidal material of the former showed much greater swelling than the 
latter in all solutions, and the excess of swelling in acid media above that in 


2 Report Dept. Bot. Res. Carnegie Inst. of Wash. for 1915, p. 66: 


— —_—a ee, 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 293 


alkaline media or distilled water was much greater in the young joints. Of 
interest is the observation that the colloidal material from mature joints 
which have been-freed as much as possible from the fibro-vascular strands 


5 showed a diminution in volume in weak alkaline solution. 


Mr. E. R. Long also working at the Desert Laboratory made 
some tests of this matter and found that the swelling capacity of 
sections of Opuntia discata as determined by weighing, was less in 
acidified than in neutral solutions and that the swelling was some- 
times less in alkaline solutions than in distilled water.* These results 
suggested that it would not longer be profitable to consider the 
plant as a protein gel and that some comprehensive tests would 
be necessary to establish the general colloidal character of growing 
parts. ; 

This mistake had been made by Borowikow* who assumed that 
plant cells would grow in an acid condition like a mass of gelatine, 
showing the greatest imbibition of water in acids. 

The action of plant tissues having been determined, it was 
attempted to make up mixtures of colloids similar to those occur- 
ring in the plant which might show parallel reactions. The tech- 
nique and results of measurements of the swelling of plant tissues 
and of plates of colloidal mixtures will be given in a separate section 
of this paper. It may be said in this place that some highly profit- 
able comparisons are made possible by the data obtained. 

The effort to compound colloidal mixtures which might simulate 
living material was extended to include additions of other proteins 
beside gelatine, such as egg-albumin, bean-albumin and of amino- 
acids, together with complex condensed carbohydrates as agar. 
This was rewarded by results which show that small proportions of 


soluble proteins or. albumens added to gelatine-agar mixtures 


decrease the water-absorbing capacity of these physical analogues 
of the protoplasts in the presence of electrolytes, and suggest the 
highly interesting possibility that the growth-enlargement of the 
cell might be definitely checked or terminated by the passage of such 
albuminous emulsions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. The 

3“ Growth and Colloid Hydratation in Cacti,” Botan. Gazette, 59: 491, 


1914. 
4 Biochem. Ztschrft., 48: 230-246 and 50: 119-128, 1913. 


294 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


actual quantities necessary to produce the action described in a later 
section of this paper would be small and in some cases lie beyond 
detection by ordinary microchemical or cytological methods. 

Some of the earlier results obtained by a study of the growth 
of opuntias have already been described by the senior author.® 

The comparison of the action of Opuntia with that of roots and 
stems of peas, beans, wheat, corn and oats, etc., led to the inference 
that many of the accepted conclusions concerning growth rested 
upon data obtained from material representing a specialized or 
narrow range of physiological action. An inspection of the records 
of measurement shows that no distinction is usually made as to 
whether the elongation is due to the action of one embryonic tract 
as in the case of roots or hypocotyls, or of many as in the case 
of stems and leaves. It is also to be noted that even in the simpli- 
fied action of roots the elongation is a different expression from 
that of such an organ as a sporangiophore. Measurements of 
growth of the tip of a root include the imbibitional swelling of 
younger cells, the combined swelling and turgidity effects of older 
protoplasts, with all of the modifications due to salinity, acidity, 
alkalinity, character of the respiration, permeability of the mem- 
branes and albumen condition. 

The elongation of a stem may include the total action of several 
internodes representing various stages of the grand period of 
growth, while it may be assumed that in some cases the records of 
leaves represent the variations in length of these organs and of 
one or more internodes. 

The experimental material used in the investigation described 
in the present paper included the conventional subjects, Zea and 
Triticum, which were tested for purposes of orientation. Chief 
attention however was given to succulents which have long been 
known to present a type of respiration different from that of the 
leafy and slender-bodied plants. FFuthermore, the massive bodies 
of the succulents presented characteristic body-temperature condi- 
tions which could be readily measured. 

The flattened shoots of Opuntia present a single growing region 


5 See MacDougal, “ Mechanism and Conditions of Growth,” Mem. N. Y. 
Bot. Garden, 6: 5-26, 1916. 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 295 


of great volume which is active through a long period. Such plants 
are amenable to chemical analyses, and have mechanical qualities 
which make it possible to place the apex in bearing upon an auxo- 
graph lever and secure a continuous record of its activity during 
the entire period of enlargement, as well as of the subsequent varia- 
tions in length. Detailed studies of the course of transpiration and 
respiration of these plants have been made at the Desert Labora- 
tory, and the available information on these subjects was of great 
usefulness in interpreting growth and other changes in volume. A 
cylindropuntia was also tested in order to ascertain possible differ- 
ences due to mechanical form. Both kinds have a type of respiration 
in which a notable accumulation of acids occur at temperatures in 
the lower part of the tonic range and in darkness. The leaves of 
Mesembryanthemum presented different morphological features, 
but a similar type of respiration. The massive globose and cylin- 
drical stems of Echinocactus and Carnegiea were also used as their 
metabolism is of a character which does not result in any notable 
accumulation of residual acids in any part of the respiratory mesh. 
The meristem region in both is entirely terminal, and some detailed 
studies of the fate of the carbohydrates and of the non-auxetic 
variations in thickness and length as well as of transpiration had 
been previously made. 


GROWTH OF OPUNTIA. 


These preliminary studies brought out the fact that the flattened 
joints of the opuntias undergo most rapid growth during the day- 
light period, coincident with decreasing acidity and lessened trans- 
piration, and that actual shrinkage occurs in maturing joints as the 
result of reactions which are masked during the period of most 
active growth. The entire development of about forty flattened 
joints has been followed from bud to maturity, and the changes in 
volume of members in an adult condition have been noted for long 
periods under varying conditions. The swelling of hundreds of 
specimens from growing and mature joints were measured, and an 
extended series of records of the action of gelatine, agar, albumen 
and cactus mucilage in acids, alkalies and salt solutions made. 

Unless otherwise stated, all of the growth records included in 


296 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


the present paper were made by an improved form of the auxograph 
described by the senior author in 1916. The changes in the instru- 
ment were for the purpose of securing greater delicacy and accu- 
racy. Twelve of these instruments as described on page 330 of the 
present paper were available. 

The joints of Opuntia occupy the better part of a month in 
developing from a length of 15 mm. with a volume of a few cu. cm. 
to a length of 200 mm. with a volume of perhaps 150-200 cu. cm. 
The entire mass of this member remains in an embryonic or elon- 
gating condition until nearly mature, the development of woody or 
permanent tissue being very light during the first 20-25 days. It 
may be conceived therefore as a thick plate of protoplasts in all 
stages of development from the earliest when enlargement is a result 
of imbibition alone, to a state approaching maturity where the 
osmotic action of the electrolytes in the vacuoles maintains a turgid- 
ity indicated by the fact that expressed juice shows a possible pressure 
of 5 to 8 atmospheres. Temperatures were established or taken by 
thermometers with thin bulbs thrust into similar members in close 
proximity, and as has been mentioned elsewhere in this paper, the 
temperatures cited are those of the plant instead of the air as is the 
case in many of the papers dealing with growth (Fig. 1). 

A feature prominently emphasized by our studies is the interde- 
pendence of effects. The influence of any one environic agency is of 
course affected by the intensity of action of other agencies influenc- 
ing the plant. This is well illustrated by the behavior of O. discata 
No. 14, with respect to temperature. A young joint in the form of 
a flattened naked bud of this plant was followed from Feb. 28, 1916, 
to maturity, about April 30, 1916, and then its further alterations 
in volume until June 7, 1916, at which time disks were taken and the 
swelling capacity of the tissues determined. Measurements of 
growth for every moment of 62 days, of reversible alterations 38 
days and of final hydration capacity are available together with body 
and air-temperatures. 

The plant stood on a cement bench near the glass of the ssutiinias 
end of a greenhouse and exposed to normal illumination as modified 
by the glass. It was kept in bearing with a precision auxograph 
in such manner as to reduce errors to a minimum. The following 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 297 


he oe mee 


entries are cited from the notes accompanying the auxographic 
tracings: oe 
Elongating at 12° C. and below on March 2, with the air at about 


| nn 


Fic. 1. Joints of Opuntia Sp. The youngest stage at which growth 
measurements were begun is illustrated by the small figure at the bottom. 
Successive stages are denoted by size. The largest figure is that of a mature 
joint bearing flower buds. Longitudinal section of joint on the right. Growth . 
throughout the entire joint during its development is denoted by the increas- 
ing distances between the nodes denoted by the clusters of spines. About 
one third actual size. 


the same temperature: Elongation began on March 23, after a 
night of shortening, at a temperature of 18° C., and under similar 
conditions, but with air temperature falling to 9° C. growth began 


298 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


at 14° or 15° C. on the 24th. Growth began at 14° C. on March 
25 and at some point between 15.5° C. and 17.5° C. on the 26th. 
Growth began at 17° C. after a night of shortening, at 19° C. on 
the 31st after a night of shortening, at 15° C. on April 1, at 18° C. 
on the 2d and 3d, at 14° C. on the 4th and 5th, at 18° C. on the 
6th, 16° C. on the 7th, at 18° C. on the goth, 19° C. on the 11th, 
18° C. on the 12th, at 13° C. on the 13th, at 17° C, on the 14th, 
22° C. on the 18th, 17° C. on the 19th, above 20° C. on the 19th, 
and 21° C. on the 2oth. 

Similar experiences with many other growing joints are in our 
records. Thus we have the entry that on March 31 all growing 
joints under observation began elongation at temperatures ranging 
from 15° to 19° C. This single growing member began elongation 
in temperatures rising from 9° to 10° C. early in its development 
to 12° to 22° C. in its more advanced stages. Another joint, No. 
2, began its daily growth at temperatures as follows: 


March'34, 10200 Ai Mick ies Ok chao ks canteen en ee a1.s5° C. 
2B," Bs SO er ee eee 4 ee ee aa” Se, 
BO” BEM reac arene cbs uw oe kak ees eee ys gees 
Si, ORME eh aa iw tdeces pees 2 ee 19° *<. 
Agril< 3, Ota" acrieule ieee dasaeanee aot) 
2, 02005. 7 Mus benltens Wiser wae eae euaeee igh We 
§, B60: ce leet aha coek Ronee ee a ee 
4. B98 AN ew ea ee case eaeuen 21.6" 4. 
Blan Fad aed ba ces ae 2.5" ¢ 
GBs ag eS cartel Ne tikienis Wo ek tastteee 29° Sa 
y Des TAK: Pia megeapeereres. § 8S Cia Se ARR aN Fe Ps We 
65° B30 ee ak pea eas eke 24.5° C 
10, Blan." a ee eee ban eewv eerie eras 25° aS 
£3, BS 6 Fe a ica eee gas beatae 17s 
Te, Bs ap ca eee iveNsaceteed 17° 
33, TN 290 eens ck pate nen patois keene 16° 
$8,301 90 PO aes cunts va tev baste 16.5° C 


The temperatures of the body at which growth ceased likewise 
showed great variation as illustrated by the behavior of No. 14. 
Thus on March 28, 1916, elongation ceased abruptly when it reached 
40° C., and the temperature of the air was 26° C. Growth stopped 
at 35° C, at 1:30 P.M. on the 25th; at 28° C. at 2:30 P.M. on March 
30, the temperature having been above that point since 10 A.M.; at 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 299 


39° C. at 1 P.M. March 29; at 35° C. at 1:30 P.M. April 4; at 
32° C. at 3 P.M.-April 5; at 36° C. at 1:30 P.M April 6; 37° C. 
at 2 P.M. April 7. The upper temperature limit is given in other 
records included in the present paper, the extreme highest recorded 
being 51.5° C. 

A second series of cultures for observation of growth and 
temperature were arranged at the Coastal Laboratory, Carmel, Cali- 
fornia, in the summer of 1916. Preparations consisting of an old 
joint with roots were placed in a dark chamber in which tempera- 
ture could be controlled. The basal joints from which the buds 
arose held a supply of reserve material quite adequate for the de- 
velopment of the etiolated shoots. Some of the latter were grow- 
ing vigorously six months after the close of the tests described. 

These tests were made under conditions different from those en- 
countered by the plants in the open in two important essentials, viz. : 
the temperature did -not rise to a daily maximum and fall to a 
nightly minimum, but was maintained at fixed levels or varied as 
described and the action of light was excluded except for brief 
intervals when observations were being made. The effect of such 
conditions would be to exclude the disintegrating action of light on 
the acids resulting from respiration, and also to make photosynthesis 
impossible. Both of these features coritribute to the daily variation 
in growth of plants in the open. Growth of shoots in darkness 
may be taken to be normal otherwise, so far as respiration and im- 
bibition are concerned. 

An etiolated shoot of Opuntia discata which had arisen in the 
dark chamber in which it had been placed in May, 1916, having a 
length of 65 mm. and a width of 15 mm., was chosen for the first 
test, which was duplicated by later ones. The container in which 
the plant stood was fastened firmly in place and an auxograph was 
brought into contact with it adjusted to record alterations in length 
magnified twenty times. A small thermometer with thin bulb of 
the “clinical” type was inserted in the old joint near the base of the 
young shoot and its readings taken to be those of the growing organ. 
The difference between the two could be only very slight. The 
amount of growth displayed by the shoot on five successive days 
was 1.2, I, .I, I and 1.1 mm. at temperatures of 17°-18° C., July 


300 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


21-25, 1916. Current was now turned on an electric heater, July 
25, 10 A.M., and the Opuntia reached 25° C. about 6 P.M. 

July 27, 1916: 4:30 P.M.—A growth of nearly 3 mm. had oc- 
curred in the previous 24 hours at a temperature of 24° C. and 
as° © 

28, 11:00 A.M. Growth during the previous 18.5 hours was at 
rate of 3.6 mm. per day, 25° C. 3:00 P.M. Growth for previous 
4 hours was at rate of 3.9 mm. per day, 25° C. 

Current off and plant cooled to 18° C. at midnight—in 9 hours. 

29, 8:00 A.M. Growth during previous 8 hours was at rate of 
3.3 mm. per day at 18° C. 10:00 A.M. Growth of .2 mm. in 2 
hours was at rate of 2.4 mm. per day, 18-17° C., which was double 
the rate displayed at the same temperature before being heated. 
4:00 P.M. Growth at rate of 2 mm. daily during previous 6 hours 
at:19° 'C. 

30, 7:00 A:M. Growth during previous ten hours was at rate 
of 2.4 mm. daily at 19° C. 

31, 7:00 A.M. Growth of 2.4 mm. during previous 24 hours at 
a 

Aug. 1, 6:30 A.M. Growth in previous 19 hours was at rate - 
of 2.6 mm. daily, at 18-19° C. 

The plant failing to return to the initial rate of about I mm. 
daily, the heater was again put in action and the plant had a 
temperature of 28° C. at 11 A.M. Growth during this rise of 
9° C. in 4.5 hours was I mm. or at rate of about 5.4 mm. daily. 

_ The temperature was held constant to within a degree but the 
rate was 6 mm, daily during the first 6 hours, then 7.2 mm. per day 
during the next 3.5 hours. 

2,8:00 A.M. Growth at rate of 8.04 mm. per day during previ- 
ous 11.5 hours at 28° C. 2:00 P.M. Rate during previous 5 hours 
10.8 mm. daily at 27-28° C. 4:00 P.M. Rate during previous 2 
hours 12 mm. daily at 28° C. 9:00 P.M. Rate 9 mm. daily during 
previous 5 hours. 

Heat was now.cut off and the temperature fell to 16° C. in 4 
hours. 

3, 8:00 A.M. Rate of 2.9 mm. daily during previous 7 hours at 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 301 


16° C 2:00 P.M. Rate 2.4 mm. daily during previous 6 hours 
meaeo CU 

Heat was again turned on, and the control set at 25° C. This 
point was reached in 2 hours. The rate during this time was 4.8 
mm. daily. 9:00 P.M. Rate 2.7 mm. daily during previous 3 hours 
a 25°C. 

4, 8:00 A.M. Rate 6.6. mm. daily during previous 9 hours at 
25.5° C. 11:00 A.M. Rate 5.6 mm. daily during previous 3 hours 
m 25°C. 

Control reset and temperatures of 32° C. were reached by 3 P.M., 
the rate during this period of 4 hours being 6 mm. daily. The 
temperature rose from 32° C. to 36° C. during the next 3 hours. 

5, 12 Noon. Rate 9.6 mm. daily during previous 4.5 hours at 
34-35° C. 3:15 P.M. Rate 9.9 mm. during previous 3.25 hours. 

Current was now cut to reduce temperature as follows: 3:45 P.M. 
Temperature 26° C. 5:30 P.M. Rate .5 mm. in 1.25 hours at 
29° C. at rate of 9.5 mm. daily. 8:00 P.M. Rate 8.1 mm. daily 
during previous 2.5 hours at 27° C. 

6,8:00 A.M. Rate 7.2 mm. per day during previous 12 hours at 
ae C. 

Earthquake disarranged record. Current cut off. 7:15 P.M. 
Temperature 19° C. 

7, 8:00 A.M. Rate of 3.2 mm. per day in previous 12 hours at 
~ 18° C., which fell to 2.8 mm. per day during spaieiii 2 hours at 
San, (. 

The shoot was now 12.2 cm. in length. Record was discon- 
tinued until August 14, during which time the plant stood at 16- 
18° C. and gained 18 mm. in length, or about 3 mm. per day. 

17. Current on heater at 2 P.M. resulted in a temperature of 
23° C. at 9:15 P.M. 

18, 8:00 A.M. Rate of 2.1 mm. during previous 10 hours at 
23° C. 

19, 8:00 A.M. Rate of 3.3 mm. daily during previous 15.5 hours 
ae as C. 

23,8:00 A.M. Plant had stood at 25° C. for 4 days. Rate dur- 
ing previous 16 hours was 5.7 mm. per day at 25° C. 12 Noon. 
Rate 7.8 mm. per day during previous 4 hours at 25° C: 


302. MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


Watered and record disturbed for 2 hours. 5:00 P.M. Rate 
7.8 mm. per day at 25° C. 

24, 8:00 A.M. Rate 5.7 mm. per day for previous 15 hours at 
} ae Be 

25, 8:00 A.M. Rate 6 mm. daily, 25° C. 

Control reset and as temperature of the body rose the rate cal- 
culated in 2 hour intervals increased from 8.4 mm. at 27° C. to 
9.6 mm. at 29° C. and 10.8 mm. at 29.5° C. 

26, 10:00 A.M. Rate was substantially maintained at 29° C., 
being 9.6 mm, for the forenoon. 2:00 P.M. Rate 11.4 mm. daily, 
31.5° C. 4:00 P.M. Rate 11.4 mm. daily, 32° C. 

27, 8:00 A.M. Rate 3.9 mm. daily at 17° C. 11:00 A.M. 
Rate 5.8 mm. daily at 18° C. 10:00 P.M. Rate 3.8 mm. daily at 
2 ae We 

28, 8:00 A.M. Current on for higher temperature. 9:15 A.M. 
Temperature of 32° C. was reached and 39° C. at 11:30 A.M. One 
hour later at 12:30 midday, the rate was 7.2 mm. per day at 39° C. 
1:30 P.M. Rate 4.8 mm. per day at 40° C. 2:30 P.M. Rate 3.6 
mm. per day at 4o° C. 3:30 P.M. Rate 4.8 mm. per day at 40° C. 
5:30 P.M. Rate 1.8 mm. per day at 41.5° C. 7:30 P.M. No 
growth had taken place in the previous 2 hours. 9:30 P.M. Rate 
of 3.6 mm. daily, the temperature having fallen to 36° C. 

Another shoot of the plant used in making the preceding record 
being available, an auxograph was put in bearing with it when a 
length of about 150 mm. had been reached on August 29, 1916. 
The rate varied from about 15.6 mm. to 20.4 mm, daily at 35° C. 
to 37° C. The temperature was raised from 36° C. to 47° C. in an 
hour and a half on the third day, elongation stopping when this 
point was reached. During the second hour and a half the tempera- 
ture was allowed to fall to 43° C., growth being resumed above 43° 
C. and continued at a rate varying from 10.8 mm. daily in the first 
hour, 6.6 mm, daily during the following four hours, to 8.4 mm. 
daily during the sixth hour. The temperature being raised to 46° 
C. in twenty minutes, growth stopped at that point. Shortening 
took place during the following hour and a half at temperatures of 
46° C. to 48.5° C., but ceased as the temperature was brought back 
to 44° C. at some point above that temperature. The shoot ap- 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 303 


peared to be slightly limp, suggesting that elongation and shorten- 


_, ing might be a matter of the balance between water accession and 


loss. ———— 
The shoot was now subjected to a temperature above 43° C. con- 
tinuously for two days, the maximum being 52° C. Its body 


Cp 
oF 
rn 


Le 8) 


Fic. 2. Auxographic tracing of variations in length of shoots of Opuntia 
at high temperatures in dark room at Carmel, September 1, 1916. The sheet 
is ruled into two-hour periods by arcs and the 10 mm. horizontal lines of the 
millimeter sheets are reproduced. The variation in length is magnified 26 
times. (a) Downward movement of pen 7:30 A.M. to 9:40 A.M. denoting © 
growth at temperatures of the stem of 45° to 49° C. (b) Growth checked 
for 20 minutes at 49° C. (c) Growth resumed at temperature of 49° C. (d) 
Shortening at 48.5° to 52° C. (e) Stationary at 505° C. (f) Growing at 
temperatures of 48° to 49° C. (g) Shortening at 49° C. (4) Growing at 38° 
to 41° C. (1%) Shortening at 49° C. 


304 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


temperature was then brought down to 25° C. and after twelve hours 
‘at this point it showed rates of 5.4 mm., 6.6 mm., 6.6 mm. and 5.4 
mm. daily for two days as measured at two hour intervals. The 
temperature was now raised to 35° C. at which the rate was 16.4 
mm. to 16.8 mm. daily for an entire day. This rate was fairly 
duplicated on a second day, but with a somewhat wider variation, 
the rate ranging from 15.6 mm. daily to 22.2 mm. daily (Fig. 2). 
The etiolated shoot of a second Opuntia elongated as follows: 


Rate of 1 mm. daily at 19° 
Rate of 1.3 mm. daily at 19° 
Rate of .7 mm. daily at 1g 
Rate of .93 mm. daily at 15-18° 
Rate of 1.08 mm. daily at 17-18° 
Rate of 1.44 mm. daily at 18-19.5° C. 


anaana 


Rates of I, 2, 1.2, 1.15, .85 and 1 mm. per day at 16-18° C. 
The preparation was moved into control chamber and the follow- 
ing results were obtained: 


Rates of 2.9, 3, 3, and 3 mm. daily at 26° C. 

‘Rates of 3.2 and 3.44 mm. daily at 26° C. 

Rate of 4.2 mm. daily at 29° C. 

Rates of 3.6, 6.7 and 9.6 mm. daily at 30° C. 

Rates of 11.4, 11.4, 8.4, 9.2, and 11.4 mm, daily at 31.5-32° C. 

The heat was now cut off and rates of 4 mm. daily at 17° C. were 
displayed. 

Rate of 5.7 mm. daily at 185° C. 

Rate of 5.3 mm. daily at 19° C. 


The temperature being raised again from 18° C. at 8 A.M. to 
39° C. at 12:30 midday, a rate of 8.4 mm. daily was displayed during 
the first hour. 

The continuation of similar temperatures during two days was 
attended by sustained rate of 18.6 to 19.2 mm. daily (37-38° C). 
After three days at this temperature it was raised from 37° C. to 
45° C. in 1.5 hours during which time the elongation was at the rate 
of 13.2 mm. daily, and growth stopped entirely at 45° C. Some 
shortening now ensued, but at the end of an hour and a half elonga- 
tion began again at 46° C., and was maintained at the rate of 25 
mm, per day for an hour, and the total for the four succeeding hours 
at 46° C. was a rate of about 20 mm. daily, which was not exceeded 
by any rate at lower temperatures. The rate during the sixth hour 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 305 


rose to 20.4 mm. daily at 45° C. The temperature being raised to 
49° C. during the next hour, elongation ensued at the rate of 18.7 mm. 
daily until it was checked at 48.5° C. The period of checking was 
not measured accurately, but after an hour with the temperature still 
between 48° C. to 46° C. the rate was 19.2 mm. daily. It is thus 
to be seen that the maximum is maintained up to very near the point 
of actual cessation of growth, an experience duplicated scores of 
times with green plants in the glass house at Tucson. It was noted 
that the air temperature was 40° C. and 41° C. when the plant was 
at its maximum of 48° C. and 49° C. Similar differences have 
probably gone unnoted in the observations made by many workers. 

After the experiences described above the plant remained at 
45° C. and 46° C. over night without calibration. Measurements 
begun at 7:30 A.M. at 45° C. Elongation during the hour and a 
half in which the temperature rose a degree and a half (to 47.5° C.) 
amounted to .95 mm. at a rate of about 15 mm. daily. Continued 
rise of temperature was accompanied by lessened growth which 
did not cease altogether until 49° C. was reached. Elongation was 
resumed at this temperature however after 20 minutes, but was 
checked again. The temperature was now raised to 52° C. for a 
half hour with an air temperature of 43° C. Reducing the tempera- 
ture to 49° C, with an air temperature of 41° C. resulted in a growth 
of .4 mm. at a rate of 9.6 mm. daily. Similar changes resulted in 
starting and checking growth in much the same manner. At the end 
of the day the chamber was allowed to cool to give the plant a con- 
stant temperature of 25° C. and after standing at this temperature 
for 12 hours measurements were made to determine the rate at this 
point. 

The rate at 25° C. on the following day varied from 9.6 mm. 
daily in the morning to 12.6 mm. at 26.5° C., then to 8.8 mm. daily 
at the close of the day at 26° C. No measurements were made at 
_ night but during the two hours beginning at 8 A.M. the rate was 13.2 
mm. daily at 25° C., after which the temperature was raised to get 
values for the next ten degree interval. A rate of 17.9 mm. daily 
was found between 5 P.M. and 10:30 P.M. at temperatures of 
34-37° C. 

The plant now stood over night at 34-37° C., at a rate of 27 mm. 


PROC. AMER, PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, U, JULY 30, I9I7. 


306 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


daily, which decreased to 21.6 mm. daily at a temperature kept 
within a narrow range at 35° C. This now being gradually raised 
to 40° C. in a six hour interval the rate at first fell to 19.2 mm. daily, 
then rose to 29 mm. daily, the maximum when measured at two 
hour intervals. Almost any rise in temperature up to about 46° C. 
seemed to be followed by a temporary acceleration in rate. | 

Two younger shoots had arisen from the second Opuntia during 
these tests and had attained a length of about 30 mm. during the 
previous ten days. These were designated as “A” and “B.” 

The temperature of these young shoots was between 25-45° C. 
during most of this time, and for a few hours rose to 52° C. as 
described in connection ‘with the tests with other shoots. Separate 
auxographs were put in bearing with the two shoots and ther- 
mometers were arranged to take the temperature of the basal joint 
from which they arose and of one of the other growing shoots 
near by. 

The interest attached to the detail of the growth of these two 
shoots warrants the transcription of the complete record, 


Sept. 5, 1916, continued: As soon as the instruments were adjusted, the tem- 
peratures which were standing at 30° C. were raised by 
the use of an additional heater giving the following records: 


A B 
8:00 A.M. Both growing. aC. 
9:00 “ Both growing. 32 
10: 00°: Both growing. 37-40 
16340; .\” Both growing. 41-42 
t1:00: * Both growing. 43 
12:30 P.M. Both growing. 46-47 
Growth stopped in both. 
192-465.25° Growth starting. 43 
iw Both growing. 46.5 
2:60°1.2 Both growing. 47 
ES 5 ee ey Both growing. 50 
4300 3" Stopped. 
4:35 > A little growth in both. 46.5 
Gig Some growth. 49+ 
6:30" Some growth. 49+ 
Be poet Some growth. 49+ 
G3 90.5 Stationary. 48+ 
6, 7:30 A.M. Shortening but had grown until four hours 


before. Lk Sa cd 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 307 


8:00 A.M 
8:30 “ 
—g:00 “ 
10:00 “ 
07 .“ 

12:00 M. 
1:00 P.M. 
<240. “ 
5:00 “ 
ooo.“ 
7:30 “ 
7, 7:30 AM 
8:00 “ 
8:45 “ 
9:00 “ 
9:20 “ 
oso. * 
10:30 “ 
oo, 
12:30 P.M. 
S60 >." 
Ce ed 
3:00 “ 
3:50 “ 
5:00 “ 
8 7:30 AM 
10:00 “ 
750° :* 
4:00 P.M 
9:00 “ 
9, 7:30 A.M 
a 
1:30 P.M 
9:30 “ 
10, 8:00 A.M 
12:15 P.M 
5:00 “ 
9:15 “ 
i, 7:30 AM 
10:00 “ 
j-00 = ™ 


Stationary. 


_ Stationary. 
_ Just beginning to grow. 


Shortening. 
Stationary. 
Stationary. 
Stationary. 
Stationary. 
Shortening. 
Shortening. 
Shortening. 


at 53°C. 


No action. 

No action. 

No action. 

No action. 

No action. 

No action. 

No action. 

No action. 

No action. 

No action. 
Growth beginning. 
Growth checked. 


5.8 mm. daily. 6.8 mm. 
3.8 mm. daily. 3.3 mm. 
Shortening. 

2.4 mm. daily. 5.2 mm. 
3.0 mm. daily. 3.6 mm. 
4.3 mm. daily. 5.0 mm. 
1.9 mm. daily. 5.3 mm. 

Reset. 
1.9 mm. daily. 2.9 mm. 
2.4 mm. daily. 4.8 mm. 
1.9 mm. daily. 4.0 mm. 
1.7 mm. daily. 4.8 mm. 


(For 10.5 hours.) (For 10.5 hours.) 
Temperature raised to 39° at noon. 


.. Plants had shortened until pen was above 
sheet and the temperature now stood 


daily. 
daily. 


daily. 
daily. 
daily. 
daily. 


daily. 
daily. 
daily. 
daily. 


Checking. 6.0 mm. daily. 
Stopped. 8.0 mm. daily. 
Stopped. 7.9 mm. daily. 
Stopped. 8.4 mm. 
(During entire night.) 
Stopped. 7.2 mm. daily. 


Stopped. 12.0 mm. daily. 


48 
45-46 
46.5-47 
46-48 
45-46.5 
47 

48 

47.5 
49-50 
48.5-49 
49 


308 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


2:00 P.M. Stopped. 10.8 mm. daily. 41 
a:3060 °° Stopped. . 8.0 mm. daily. 38 
7:30 “  .Stopped. 8.1 mm. daily. 3? 
12, 8:00 A.M. Stopped. 8.6 mm. 37 
(All night.) 
1:00.“ Stopped. — 13.6 mm. daily. 36.5 
1:30 P.M. Stopped. 12.3 mm. daily. 37 
a 600" Stopped. 9.0 mm. daily. 39 
S00." Stopped. 12.8 mm. daily. 38 
6:00 “ Stopped. 10.8 mm. daily. 38 
a, ea Stopped. 13.6 mm. daily. 38 
O720°°5 Stopped. 15.0 mm. daily. 38 


The behavior of green opuntias in daylight was tested in March, 
1917, at Tucson. Preparations consisting of a rooted joint from 
which a flower bud was arising were placed in the south end of a 
glass house in an equatorial position. The temperature of the body 
rose to 40° C. and 43° C. by the heat of the sun after 1 P.M. Addi- 
tional heat was supplied by tungsten incandescent lights so that 
the temperature was raised to 49° C. in an hour at which point 
elongation ceased. The temperature following same rising curve 
reached 51.5° C. a half hour later at which elongation was resumed, 
and was maintained at temperatures of 51° C. to 51.5° €. for an 
hour and a half when it ceased. This behavior is in accordance 
with that of etiolated shoots illustrated in Fig. 2. On the follow- 
ing day the temperature near midday, which was above 40° C. by 
the sun’s heat, was raised to 48° C. and 49° C. for a half hour 
by additional heat from a tungsten incandescent light bulb. Growth 
continued at a rate near the maximum. In an additional prepara- 
tion a bulb for heating not regulated properly raised the tempera- 
ture of a portion of the joint 75° C. for a few minutes, resulting 
in the death of a sector within the next two days. The young shoot 
arising from the margin of the injured area probably reached a 
temperature of 65° C. or 70° C. as some of the outer leaves were 
blackened. Growth was checked at once but was resumed eighteen 
hours later and continued for two days with the customary mid- 
afternoon shortening. 

The gas interchange and variation in the concentration of the 
residual acids has been worked out in detail in Opuntia versicolor. 
Some available data show that the platyopuntia used so extensively 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 309 


in this work present an identical type of respiration. That the 
course of growth was similar in its general features was evidenced 
by the records of the two plants which were under observation for 
some time. Elongation begins with full daylight and assumes its 
highest rate near midday and then checks abruptly about 1 P.M. 
Shrinkage continues from this time until daylight of the following 
morning. The end of the growing period is marked by a decrease 
of the midday elongation and by increased shrinkage which equal- 


Se ee ee ee 


| S228 Se ee ee ae 


Saas Rs anal waneee 
re Ss re x Py / =~ 
wy err 

\_ \er | | = s 
bo iN \ xf \ \ \ \ \ \ \ 


Fic. 3. Auxographic records of growth of joint of Opuntia versicolor. 

A. Record April 10 to April 15, 1916, rapid midday elongation of joint 
near the maximum of its grand period. The first occurrence of shorten- 
ing at S. 

B. Record from April 18 to April 22, 1916. Slight diminution of daily 
growth and accentuated contraction at night. The temperature record applies 
to this period. 

C. Record from April 25 to April 29, 1916. Increasing reversible varia- 
tion in length with cessation of growth. 


ize each other while allowing a great total variation in length (see 
Fig. 3). | 

The general facts as to alterations in volume of Opuntia by 
growth and other changes, including shrinkage, are in accordance 
with those previously described. Elongation takes place chiefly in 
the first half of the day both in mature and growing joints. Shrink- 
age, slackening or stoppage of growth ensues after midday and 
continues for a varying period which may extend until the follow- 
ing morning. The type of respiration of these plants is one in 


6 MacDougal, D. T., “ Mechanism and Conditions of Growth,” Mem. N. 
Y. Bot. Garden, 6: 5-26, 1916. 


310 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


which residual acids accumulate at low temperatures and in dark- 
ness. Acidosis decreases imbibition. Growth beginning with sun- 
rise shows an acceleration parallel to the disintegration of the clogging 
acids and the rising capacity for imbibition, till midday only. The 
‘retardation after this may not be ascribed to lessened power of imbi- 
bition or to increased transpiration as water-loss is not greater during 
this time and the capacity of the plant continues to increase until 
near the end of the daylight period. The cause of the retardation 
cannot be identified with the direct action of light, nor does it seem 
warranted to assume that the “ supply of building material” becomes 
exhausted, as was previously suggested by the senior author. The 
nature of the stoppage suggests the inhibiting action of respiratory 
products or the destruction of an enzyme. Respiration in Opuntia 
is profoundly affected by light as has been shown by its effect on 
acid-accumulation and destruction. Yet no immediate effects were 
secured by exposure of growing members to the action of mercury 
vapor quartz lamps with an intensity equivalent to normal sunlight ~ 
at 2 meters distance, for periods of one to three hours. It is note- 
worthy that the characteristic retardation or stoppage does not take 
place in the first few days of the development of the bud, and that — 
the leaves of Mesembryanthemum exhibit a similar behavior. The. 
young shoots of Opuntia in this stage are not more than 8 to [2 mm. 
in length, I to 2 mm. in thickness and are all but hidden by the 
slender conical leaves. The joint as well as the leaves are in a state 
of extreme imbibition. The character of the respiration under such 
conditions is in all probability such that acids do not accumulate and 
other by-products are modified with the result that the daily decrease 
in imbibition capacity is not experienced. A similar behavior attends 
the development of the flower buds. That retardation and stoppage 
‘as observed in hundreds of instances could not be ascribed primarily 
to temperature seemed to be established by the great variation in the 
point at which growth might begin or cease. 

Growth began on rising temperatures at 9° C. to 25° C. in the 
same green plants on different days at Tucson and was noted at 
50° C. in flower buds. The continued rise of the temperature 
resulted in a stoppage of elongation at temperatures between 26° C. 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 311 


and 43° C., in the plant which has been cited, with a final limit of 
temperatures of the body of 51.5° C. in some other extreme cases. 

_Growth-of-etiolated shoots of a nearly related species in a dark 
room was I mm. or less per day in members at body temperatures 
of 15° C. or 16° C. Rates of 2 to 2.6 mm. daily at 16° C. to 18° C. 
were followed by 8 to 12 mm. daily at 27° C. and 28° C. yielding 
values of 3 to 4 mm. for a rise of 10° C. Rates of 5.6 to 7.8 mm. 
daily at 24° C. and 25° C. being compared with 8.4 to 10.2 mm. daily 
at 29° C. to 32° C. show a similar coefficient at 29° C. to 31.5° C. - 
The meager records at 35° C. and 36° C. yield rates of 10.2 to 13.2 
mm. daily. Observed rates at temperatures above 32° C. or 33° C. 
in the shoot showing such rates were not readily to be integrated 
with these results, and growth ceased at 41.5° C. in the shoot yield- 
ing them. 

The second shoot of the same plant showed rates of .85 to 1.2 
mm, daily at 16° C. to 18° C.; 2.9 to 3.4 mm. at 26° C., and 13.2 
mm. daily at 35° C.; 20.4 mm. daily at 46° C., and 18.5 mm. daily 
eras.5” C. 

The highest observed rates, both in green plants and in etiolated 
shoots, were those immediately preceding cessation of growth; a 
daily occurrence in plants exposed to normal sunlight. 

Accepted conclusions as to growth include an optimum at which 
growth proceeds continuously at a high rate, and above which the 
rate is higher for a brief period then falls off. Some of the records 
are conformable to such ideas and others are not. The two shoots 
of the same plant subjected to the same treatment did not agree in 
this matter, as may be seen in the preceding pages. It is conceded 
that our experiments were not arranged to bear critically on this 
point. It is to be noted that growing shoots in the open may cease 
to elongate at temperatures as low as 26° C. which would be below 
any optimum hitherto suggested. Hundreds of observations of 
such cessations under external conditions supposedly favorable to 
continuous growth are available. The facts in question seem to 
lessen the importance and the usefulness of the term optimum tem- 


perature. 
The results of measurements of growth of the apical part of the 


312 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


globular Echinocactus and of the cylindrical Carnegiea afford some 
interesting comparisons, since both are massive succulents, but pre- 
sent a type of respiration something different from that of Opuntia." 

The spines of Echinocactus arise from special meristem tracts 
lateral to the growing point, and as the growth is wholly basal the 
rigid tips afford an excellent bearing for an auxograph arm. A 
preparation was kept under observation at a point some distance 
from the walls of a greenhouse late in April, 1916. Temperatures 
of the body near the surface were taken by a thermometer with a 
thin bulb left in place during the course of the observation. Growth 
began at 22° C. to 24° C., about 8 A.M., continuing during the warm 
daylight period and until nearly 8 P.M. Nothing higher than 37° C. 
was shown by the body. The daily rate varied from zero to .o5 mm. 
per hour and no retractions were discernible. The length remained 
fairly constant when growth ceased. The temperature of the body 
of this plant did not fall below about 14° C. during any part of the 
period. 

The same plant was available for experimental purposes in 


RE Os EY AP, ANON ADEA) ESI STS SS 
Cit Ao 
Ci] Se 
i rk asia Se : Bi = a 
Haut { { \ { Cont yee 


Fic. 4. Auxographic record of variations in length of spine of Echino- 
cactus, March 13 to March 17, 1917. Shortening from 8 P.M. to 8 A.M. due. 
to low temperature. > IO. 


March, 1916. The cluster of spines, the tips of which had emerged 
for a length of 4 to 6 mm. in 1916, began to show freshly colored 
sections at their bases indicative of elongation and one of these was 
brought into bearing in the cup-shaped end of the vertical arm of 


7 MacDougal, “ The End-results of Desiccation and Starvation of Succu- 
lent Plants,” Physiological Researches, Vol. 1, No. 7, 1915. 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 313 


an auxograph. The preparation was placed near the south end of 
an unheated glass house with the result that the temperature of the 
body fell as low as 4° C. at 7 A.M., and reached a point at which 
growth ceased at about 8 P.M. The steadily decreasing temperature 
was accompanied by a shrinkage—due in all probability to lessened 
imbibition capacity as a result of low temperature. Resumption of 
growth took place in the forenoon at temperatures about identical 
with those of the previous year. The total daily growth amounted 
to aS much as 1.25 mm. to 1.5 mm. daily all of which was made 
between 9 A.M. and 8 P.M. (Fig. 4). 

The record of growth of Carnegiea included measurements of 
the variations in the length of the spine as well as of coincident 
readings of the swelling of the apical region of the stem near the 
base of the spine. 3 

Elongation of the spine on daily rising temperatures began at tem- 
peratures of 24° C., 18° C., 18° C., 15° C., 13° C. and 13° C. on sepa- 


A a A a a a 

{> ee ee 

poy | ser KS 
= 6 mae Bp fo f NY 
io 4 4 ee 
it | \ it \ \ \ \ 

6 Kn Mt No Mt No Mt No Mt 
| a i [ [ f | [ [ 
PR Gea Bd Bs BE 

A gem j a L ot a 
<< | CRY 4 rf STF 
ta. ee 


\ i \ \ \ \ \ 


Fic. 5. Auxographic record of elongation of spine of Carnegiea April 
3 to April 10, 1916, showing nocturnal cessation of growth. Dotted line shows 
maxima, minima and course of air temperature (upper half of cut). Record 
of growth of spine of Carnegiea, April 12 to April 16, 1916. _Continuous 
growth with only slight variation in rate. Dotted line shows maxima, minima 
and course of air temperature (lower half of cut). 


814 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


rate days and was very active at 32° C. A period of continuous 

elongation of the spine was comprised between April 10 to 17, 
| 1916, during which time the air temperature ranged between 14° C. 
and 28° C. The temperature of the body coincided with the lower 
night temperature of the air and did not rise above 32° C. (Fig. 5). 

The maximum enlargement of the spine was at rate of .075 mm. 
per hour, while that of the neighboring apical tract was not more 
than a third of this rate. After the spine had reached nearly mature 
length the apical tissue accelerated showing a rate as .o88 mm. per 
hour. Growth began on rising temperatures of 15° C. and above 
and was observed at 40° C. of the body. The main part of the 
growth took place in the daytime and no action directly attributable 
to light effects could be detected. 

Echinocactus and Carnegiea are active during the period in 
which the temperature is within the tonic range, as taken from — 
thermometers inserted in the tissues. This implies that such plants 
grow during the daylight period in the open and as far into the 
night as the temperature permits, the maximum rate being attained 
during midday. Numerous tests show but little variation in the 
acidity of Echinocactus and Carnegiea, and it is to be inferred that 
the respiration of the sugars is of a kind in which the disintegration — 
is carried through to its final limits. 

A number of records of growth of the succulent leaves of 
Mesembryanthemum inequilaterale were obtained for comparison 
with Opuntia, Carnegiea and Echinocactus. Determinations of the 
acidity of the sap show that while the total range is not as great as 
that found in Opuntia versicolor by Richards,’ yet the daily course 
of variation is marked, as may be seen from the following measure- 
ments of Mesembryanthemum. 


Acipity 1n Cupic CENTIMETERS OF N/100 NaOH. 


December 7. December 8, 


: Total Acidity Total Acidity Total Acidity Total Acidit 
pe peg per Gm. Dry per Gm. Fresh abot poy per Gm. Dry per Gm, Fresh 


Material, Material. Material. Material. 
8:00 A.M.... .0280 1.584 .0356 0273 1.072 .029 
72°00) Ms... .0279 1.509 0351 0225 1.091 0241 
4:30 P.M.... .0232 1.191 .0264 0205 1.056 0275 


8“ Acidity and Gas Interchange in Cacti,” Publ. No. 209, Carnegie Inst. 
of Washington, 1915. 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 315 


The leaves are triangular in cross section and as the pairs emerge 
from the sheathing bases of the antecedent pair the inner or upper 
faces are appressed. The upright position implied is held until a 
half or a third of their length is attained. The tips of a pair were 
harnessed together and ‘being turgid and firm were arranged to press 
upward on the bearing lever of the auxograph. 

The general features of the daily behavior of this plant were 
- quite similar to those of Opuntia in that elongation accelerated in 
mid-forenoon, about 9 to 11 A.M., and continued until 1 to 3 P.M., 
when it was checked and a shrinkage ensued which generally ended 
at 5 or 6 P.M. or sunset. After this time temperature being favor- 
able a low rate of growth continued through the night and until the 
daily acceleration occurred a few hours after sunrise. 

The daily course of transpiration has not been determined, but 
it is allowable to assume that the imbibition capacity of the growing 
regions is lessened by acidity as it is in Opuntia. 


GrowTH oF WHEAT (Triticum) AND Corn (Zea). 


A great amount of data obtained by the measurement of the 
elongation of Triticum is available. The figures have been obtained 
chiefly by the measurement of numbers of organs for a brief period. 
The so-called critical temperature points have ‘been obtained by 
taking averages of the performance of several plants. The facts 
of importance in connection with the present paper are those which 
have been obtained by analyses of the march of growth from day to 
day. Similar methods were used with corn (Zea). 

Varieties of these two plants cultivated in the region of the 
Desert Laboratory were selected, and grains were germinated in an 
unheated glass house. The temperatures given were obtained by 
shaded mercurial thermometers and are Fahrenheit scale. 

The bases of the plantlets were fixed in place by layers of plaster 
poured on the surface of the soil. The tips of leaves which had 
emerged to a length of 10 to 15 mm. were brought into the field of 
a horizontal microscope and the variation in length measured at 
half hour intervals so far as it was possible to do so. The leaves 
were maintained in a vertical position by a requisite number of 
horizontal glass rods with a minimum of shading effect. 


816 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


The increments measured are of course inclusive of the elonga- 
tion of the base of the leaf and of the internode from which it 
arises, as well as of any residual action of internodes below, con- 
sequently a figure illustrative of the grand period of growth of a 


single member could not be plotted from the data given. 


(Meas- 


urements showing a beginning of decreasing rate are given in bold- 


faced type.) 


VaRIATIONS IN LencTH oF LeaF or “ ALTAR Corn” (Zea). 


1914 
Date. 
April 8 II 
12 
I 
I 
2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
April 9 
(18 hours) II: 
12: 
ta 
a 
tr 
2: 
3} 
ve 
K 
4: 
pe 
a3 
6: 
6: 
April 10 
(13 hours) 9: 
10: 


ONN 


Hour. 


: 30 
: 30 
: 00 
: 30 
00°. 
: 30 
: 00 
: 30 
: 00 
: 30 
: 30 


A.M. 
P.M. 


A.M. 
Noon 
P.M. 


Reset at 


A.M. 


Scale 
Reading, 
Oo 


2.6 
3-7 
4.9 


Air © Rate 
Temperature, Per Hour. 
85° F. o mm. 
87 2.6 
90 2.2 
90 2.4 
gl 2.4 
gl | 
92 1.8 
90 1.8 
90 1.6 
89 1.4 
85 1.2 
86.5 1.8 
88 3.2 
88 3 
90 3.2 
90 2.4 
89 3.0 
87 3.0 
86 3.2 
85 2.6 
83 2.0 
83 58 
82 1.8 
80 2.6 
78 2.4 
0.0 
77 2.4 
76 1.8 
75 2.0 
74 1.9 
76 2.4 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 317 


VARIATIONS IN LeNcTH oF LEAF oF “Attar Corn” (Zea).—Continued. 


Date _ Hour. ectegs Nidapentaie. Per Hour. 
10: 30 35.6 80 28 
II: 00 ayB! 82 3.0 
II: 30 38.6 83 3.0 
12:00 Noon 40.3 85 3.4 
12:30 P.M. 418 . 87 3.0 
1: 00 43.4 87 3.2 
I: 30 44.8 88 2.8 
2°00 46.2 89 28 
cos 47-5 89 2.6 
3:00 48.8 88 2.6 
3: 30 50.1 88 2.6 
4: 30 52.5 87 2.4 
5:00 53.4 85 1.8 
5:30 54.9 84 3.0 
April 11 11:30 A.M 
Reset at 0.2 84 soe 
12:00 Noon 2.3 84 4.2 
12;30 P.M 4.3 86 4.0 
1:00 6.3 86 4.0 
I: 30 7.9 86 3-2 
2:00 9.6 87.5 3.4 
4:00 16.4 88 3-2 
4; 30 17.7 87 2.6 
5:00 189, 85 2.4 
April 12 
(15 hours) 8:00 A.M. 53.2 63 2.3 
Reset at 0.2 
9:00 1.8 74 1.6 
10: 30 6.0 83 3.4 
Ir: 00 8.0 85 4.0 
2:30 P.M 18.5 90 3-5 
3:30 21.0 9o 3-5 
5:30 25.3 91.5 2.2 
8.40 32.0 80.0 2.7 
April 13 
(13.5 hours) 9:30 A.M. 56.0 78.0 1.8 
Reset at 0.8 78 —_— 
10: 00 AOS 81 1.8 
10: 30 28 84 2.2 
II: 00 3.7 86 1.8 
11:30 (watered) 4.9 88 2.4 
12:00 Noon 7.3 90 48 
12:30 P.M. 10.8 92 7.0 
1:00 13.5 92 5-4 


1:30 16.2 93 5-4 


818 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


VARIATIONS IN LENGTH OF Lear or “ ALTAR Corn” (Zea).—Continued. 


Scale Air Rate 
Date. Hour, Reading. Temperature. Per Hour 

2:00 18.4 04 4.4 
2:30 20.4 95 4-0 
3:00 22.2 95 3.6 
3: 30 23.7 94 3-0 
4:00 25.5 94.5 3.6 
4: 30 26.9 03.5 2.8 
5:00 28.2 92 2.6 
5: 30 20.7 oI 3.0 

April 14 
(16 hours) 9:30 A.M. 74.0 81 2.8 
Reset at 0.0 81 a= 
10: 00 pe 4 83 3.4 
10: 30 5.3 85.5 3.4 
II: 00 7.4 88 4.2 
II: 30 9.6 90 4.4 
12:00 Noon 11.5 gI 3-8 
12:30 P.M. 13.6 93 4.2 
I: 00 15.5 95.5 3-8 
1:30 17.3 97 3.6 
-~ 2:00 19.1 08 3.6 
2: 30 08 3-0 
3:00 21.9 08.5 2.6 
3: 30 23.6 97 3-4 
4:00 24.7 97 a9 

April 15 

(17.5 hours) 9:30 A.M. 63.0 a 2.2 
Reset at 1.4 83 a 
10:00 3.2 86 3.6 
10: 30 4.9 80.5 3-4 
II: 00 6.7 92 3.6 
II: 30 8.5 04 3.6 
12:00 Noon 10.4 05.5 ‘ 3.8 
12:30 P.M. 12.0 97 3-2 
1:00 13.3 98 2.6 
1:30 14.4 99 2.2 
2:00 15.6 99.5 2.4 
3:00 17.8 99 2.2 
3: 30 18.7 07 1.8 
Reset 0.6 07 — 

April 16 
(19 hours) 10:30 A.M. 37.8 86 1.5 
II: 00 39.2 88 2.8 
II: 30 40.4 89 2.4 
12:00 Noon 41.4 90 2.0 
12:30 P.M. 42.5 91.5 2.2 


——s 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 319 


VaRIATIONS IN LeNcTH oF Lear or “ ALTAR Corn” (Zea).—Continued. 


Scale Air Rate 
Date. Hour. Reading. Temperature. Per Hour. 
Se So ae 43.5 93 2.0 
nee 1:30 44.4 93 18 
2:00 45.1 03 1.4 
3:00 46.8 93 L7 
4:00 48.1 92 1.3 
5:00 49.1 90 1.0 
6: 00 50.7 89 1.6 
Reset 15.4 76 = 
April 17 
9:00 A.M. 30.4 72 1.0 
10:00 31.4 76 1.0 
II>00 32.4 79-5 1.0 
(watered) 
1:00 P.M. 34.6 84 1.1 
2:15 36.0 85 1.1 
3:15 38.8 85 2.0 
4:30 37.6 82 _ 
5:30 38.4 80 8 
Reset 23.1 — — 
April 18 
(16 hours) 9:30 A.M. 30.3 78 45 
10: 30 30.9 81 6 
II: 30 31.6 84.5 7 
12:30 P.M. 32.5 8 ae 
1:30 32.9 Q1.5 wif 
2:30 33-4 92 4 
3:30 34.0 gI 5 
4:30 34-4 90 4 
5:30 34.9 85 5 
April 19 
(16.5 hours) 10:00 A.M. 41.9 - 83 4 
II: 00 42.3 88 4 
12:00 Noon 42.8 90 4 
3:30 P.M. 43-4 95 2 
, 4:45 43-7 95 2 
April 20 9:30 A.M. 48.0 81.5 25 
II: 00 48.0 90 00 
2:00 P.M 48.0 98 00 
5:30 48.0 93 00 
April 21 
(16 hours) 9:30 A.M. 52.6 77 BT 
2:00 P.M 54.1 78 3+ 
April 22 
(19.25 hours) 11:15 A.M. 58.8 74 .24 


April 23 1:00 P.M. 69.2 83 4 


320 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. | 


GrowtH oF “TurKEY Rep” WueEat (Triticum), MARCH, 1914. 


Date. 
March 19 


’ March 20 
(5.5 hours) 


March 21 
(13.5 hours) 


Scale Air 
Hour. Reading. Temperature, 
:o00 A.M. 0.0 70° F. 
: 30 8 70 
:00 Noon 1.3 66 
:30 P.M. 1.5 65 
: 00 1.8 64 
: 30 2.1 63 
: 30 2.4 63 
: 00 2.5 62 
: 30 2.6 62 
: 30 2.6 62 
: 30 2.6 60 
Reset at 0.0 -~ 
:00 A.M. Q.1 54 
: 30 9.6 56.5 
: 00 10.6 59 
: 30 11.4 61 
: 00 12.1 63 
: 30 12.8 64 
oo Noon 13.6 65 
30 P.M. 14.5 65 
00 15.4 65.5 
: 30 16.1 60.5 
: 00 17.2 70 
: 30 18.2 690 
: 00 18.9 70 
: 30 20.0 70 
00 21.1 70.5 
: 30 22.1 60.5 
: 00 23.0 68.5 
: 30 23.9 68.5 
:00 A.M. 42.7 62 
(Total length of leaf-blade 49 mm.) 
:30 43.3 65 
: 00 44.1 68 
: 30 45.4 71 
: 00 46.6 73.5 
: 30 48.3 76.5 
:00 Noon 49.6 78 
30 P.M. 51.0 80 
00 52.4 82 
30 53.7 82 
00 54.6 81.5 
30 55.7 82 
00 56.9 82.5 
30 58.2 82 


Rate 
Per Hour. 


— mm. 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION.. 321. 


GrowTH oF “ TurKEY Rep” WHEAT (Triticum) —Continued. 


Date. 


March 22 9: 


(16.25 hours) 


I2 


ounbp RWW HD DN FH 


March 23 
(16.25 hours) 


oe A coe oe OE oe oe | 
Te Oe >) 


March 24 
(17 hours) 


a ee | 
x OO 


ie © ie 


OR WW HN DD HH 


PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, V, JULY 30, 1917. 


Scale Air 
Hour. Reading. Temperature, 
> 00 59.3 82 
> 30 ~~ 60.4 80 
: 00 70.2 78 
Reset at 0.0 jae 
15 A.M. 23.2 68 
(Total length 91.5 mm.) 
> 45 24.5 70 
215 26.2 72 
> 45 27.8 75 
715 28.6 76.5 
* 45 29.7 79 
215.P.M. 31.2 81 
245. °° 32.8 82 
:45 Reset 35.4 82 
:15 36.8 84 
745 38.4 84.5 
15 39.9 84 
45 42.2 84 
215 43-5 84 
245. 45.1 84 
215 46.2 82 
245 47.2 82 
£35 48.3 81 
:30 A.M. 70.0 72 
(Total length 147 mm.) 
Reset 0.0 Ba 
: 00 2.2 74 
> 30 3.9 76 
: 00 5.2 78 
: 30 6.3 81 
:00 Noon 7.8 82 
:30 P.M. 9.3 83.5 
: 00, 10.6 86 
: 30 12.0 86.5 
: 00 13.5 87 
: 30 14.6 83.5 
: 00 15.8 84 
: 30 17.2 84 
:00 18.6 81.5 
:30 A.M. 7.0 70 
(Total length 194.5 mm.) 
: 00 78 72 
: 30 9.4 74 
: 00 10.6 75 
30 12.2 81 


Rate 
Per Hour, 


2.2 
2.2 
1.6 


822 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


GrowTH oF “TurKEy Rep” Wueat (Triticum).—Continued. 


Scale Air Rate 
Date. Hour. Reading. Temperature. Per Hour, 
12:00 Noon 13.5 82 2.6 
12:30 P.M, 15.0 80 3.0 
1:00 16.4 81.5 2.8 
1:30 18.0 83 3.2 
2:00 19.2 84 2.4 
2:30 20.8 83 3.2 
3:00 22.2 83 2.8 
3:30 23.4 83 5 TE 
4:00 24.7 82 2.6 
4:30 26.0 82 2.6 
8:00 34.4 77 2.4 
March 25 9:30 A.M. 0.3 72.5 — 
: (Total length 244.5 mm.) 
10:00 1.4 74 2.2 
10: 30 2.9 76 3.0 
11:00 4.4 7 Ss 
II: 30 5.6 78 2.4 
12:00 Noon 7.3 81 3.4 
12:30 P.M. 8.6 83 2.6 
1:00 10.0 85 2.8 
1:30 11.3 85 2.6 
2:00 12.6 85 2.6 
3:00 16.6 86 4.0 
4:00 17.9 85 1.3 
4: 30 10.4 84 3.0 
5:00 20.7 83 2.6 
5:30 21.9 81 Ie | 
March 26 9:30 A.M. 40.4 74 1.1 
(16 hours) (Total length 295.5 mm.) 
10:00 41.5 75 2.2 
10: 30 42.7 72 2.4 
11:00 44.0 73 2.6 
II: 30 45.4 75 2.8 
12:00 Noon 46.7 75 2.6 
12:30 P.M. 48.8 76 2.2 
1:00 49.1 77 -6 
T2350 50.7 78.5 3.2 
2:00 51.8 80 24 
2: 30 53.3 82 3.0 
3:00 54.4 82 2.2 
3:30 55.7 82 2.6 
4:00 57.1 80 28 
4:30 58.1 80 2.0 
March 27 9:00 AM. 0.7 64 


(16 hours) (Total length 334.5 mm.) 


oa Say Scale Air Rate 
-_ Reading. Temperature. Per Hour. 
~ 9:30 —4.6 64 1.8 
10: 00 2.2 67 1.2 
3:30 P.M. 13.2 88.5 2.0 
4:00 14.2 - 87 2.0 
4:30 15.2 SE; 2.0 
5:00 16.0 80 0 ae 
5:30 16.9 79 18 
g:00 A.M. 35.2 Sine, 1.2 
(Total length 369 mm.) : 
9: 30 36.1 69 18 
10: 00 372 68.5 ees 
1os40: = 38.2 68.5 2.0 
11: 00 39.1 72 1.8 
II: 30 rs ee 74 2.4— 
12:00 Noon 41.6 74 26 
12:30 P.M. 42.7 74 22 
1:30 AAT < 70 40 
2:00 46.0 7i a 
2:30 47.1 69 2-2 
gi ge 48.7 65 16 
5:00 50.9 65 1.5 
5:30 51.6 64.5 7 
6:00 52.3 63 7 
6:30 52.9 61 6 
7200 535 _ 60 OF fe 
7330 53.9 ae 4 
9:00 55-5 56 a 
kM O82: BF la 
(Total length 400 mm.) 
ay Jeo 0.7 53 3 
7:30 1.0 53. 3. 
8:00 1.8 54 8 
8: 30 2.5 55 7 
9:00 3.2 56 7 
9:30 3.9 59 lb 
10: 00 Ph 62 8. 
3:00 P.M. 14.4 66 a 
3230 15.2 68 ae 
4100 16.1 70.5 Logted i 
4:30 L725 70 LO ee 
5:00 Be wy 69.5 ei 
5:30 18.6 69.5 egies 
9:30 AM. 37-9 65 pate 
10: 00 38.9 65 20. oe 
10: 30 39.5 64 Ba 


324 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


GrowTH or “Turkey Rep” Wueat (Triticum).—Concluded.. 


Scale Air Rate 
’ Date. Hour, Reading. _Temperature, Per Hour. 

II: 00 40.2 67.5 1.4 

II: 30 41.5 71 2.6 

12:00 Noon 42.4 th ae a 

12:30 P.M. 43.5 72.5 2.2 

1:00 44.4 72 1.8 

I: 30 45.5 72.5 2.2 

2:00 47.4 76 1.8 

2: 30 47.4 hy 2.0 

3: 00 48:35 2 73 1.8 

3:30 48.9 75 1.2 

4:00 49.9 76 2.0 

4:30 50.8 76 1.8 

5:00 51.6 75 1.6 

5:30 52.4 75 1.6 

March 31 9:45 A.M. 12.6 70 os 

(16.25 hours) (Total length 467 mm.) 

10:15 13.0 72 ; 8 

10: 45 13.5 74 1.0 

II:15 13.0 75.5 8 

II: 45 14.3 77 8 

12:15 P.M. 14.6 80 -6 

1:00 15.3 81.5 9 

2:00 15.7 84 +4 

4:00 16.3 . 83 3 

6: 00 16.5 75 es 

April 1 9:30 A.M. (15.5 hours—growth .1 mm.; stopped). 


Total length 470 mm. 


Retardation of growth of Zea and Triticum occurs at more than 
one place in the temperature scale and at different times of the day, 
as may be seen from the inspection of the bold-faced figures on the 
preceding pages. An uneven rate of elongation was particularly 
noticeable in Triticum, although displayed by Zea as well. It was 
thought that the irregularity might be due to a sagging of the leaf 
blade which would cause its tip to move with a varying rate across 
the field. Similar leaves attached to the bearing arm of an auxo- 
graph under a stretching tension traced an undulating line indicative 
of similar irregularities (Fig. 6). Cessation of growth, especially 
in some of the instances in Zea, may be reasonably attributed to a 
direct temperature effect, especially in the cases in which the ther- 
mometer stood at 30° C. to 35° C. for extended periods. In the 


te 
3 Ly 
+" 
i4 
= 
. 
: 
2 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 325 


greater number of instances particularly in Triticum, no such ex- 


planation could be deemed adequate, and the matter is referred to 
varying imbibition capacity coincident with alternations of acidity, 
alkalinity and neutralization (see page 309). 

The highest rate that was maintained for some time by Zea was 
found to lie between 27° C. and 30° C. The elongation of the leaf 


rine 


8 lm 2 3 


__. Fic. 6. Auxographic.record of growth of leaf of wheat (Triticum) for 
six hours showing sudden alterations in rate of elongation. The pen moves 
downward with elongation. Actual variation in length. 15. 


of Triticum was erratic and retardations were numerous and occur- 
ring at all temperatures between 15° C. and 30° C. It is not pos- 
sible to fix upon any limits of temperature within which growth 
might be continuous in this plant. It is obvious that “ secondary ” 
maxima might readily be derived from data of this character. 

No retardations occurred except after 11 A.M. in either Zea or 


Triticum and while Zea showed an acceleration late in the day after 


retardation at high temperatures, Triticum did not. The tonic range 
of the two plants is of course not identical. Wheat grows at a 
lower range than corn and probably reaches its upper limit near 
the figures given. 

There are but three allowable causes in the present state of our 
knowledge, to which might be attributed the slackening or inhibition 
of growth or actual shrinkage of growing joints after midday and 
continuing until the following morning. The retardations in ques- 
tion are relatively least in the earlier stages of development when 
the joints are not more than one fourth or one fifth adult size and 


326 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


have the effect of a flattening of the curve that is of slowing down 
growth. The action becomes more pronounced until a stage is 
reached when more and more of the elongation of the forenoon is 
retracted in the afternoon (see Fig. 3). . 

Such negative action might be due to the reduction of an enzyme 
concerned in the renewal of the constructive material below the 
effective amount, or to the clogging action of accumulated products, 
or as has been previously suggested, to transpiration counterbalanc- 
ing imbibition and accretion of suspended material. Cessation of 
growth at 26° C. to 30° C. would be difficult to reconcile with the 
assumption that it might be due to a destruction of an enzyme, since 
all known bodies of this kind do not begin to show a rapid rate of 
disintegration until a much higher temperature is reached. An 
accumulation of the products in some part of the chain of reactions 
might well take place, however. Similar retardations in photo- 
synthesis are known to occur when translocation of the carbohy- 
drates is prevented. 

As to the third suggestion it is to be said that the stoppage or 
slackened growth of green plants in the open in the hours imme- 
diately preceding daylight coincides with a condition of lessened 
' imbibition capacity due to high acidity and accompanied by the most 
rapid transpiration displayed ‘by the plant. The low temperatures 
at this time might also cause a decreased absorption. The rate of 
absorption of green plants would be greatest in the afternoon, and 
as water-loss at this time has been found to be actually less than in 
early morning, it is to be seen that the decreased growth character- 
istic of this part of the day may not be attributed to excessive trans- 
piration. Acidity is near the minimum at this time and the imbibi- 
tion capacity of the growing joint is greatest. That transpiration 
may actually check or neutralize growth has ‘been demonstrated in 
Eriogonum by Lloyd :°® 

The daily march of growth is as follows: During the early daylight hours 
until about 8, there is usually a slight rise in growth rate. After that hour 
the rate falls to a low value, or, much more frequently there ensues an actual 
shrinkage. This is the period during which the loss of water by transpiration 


is rapidly increasing, reaching its maximum at about noon. Coincidentally 
with the checking of transpiration, the growth rates rapidly increase in value. 


® Report Dept. Bot. Research, Carnegie Inst. of Washington for 1916. 


i a al Re TSS aaa 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 327 


the maximum rate being attained by 1 or 2 P.M. and thereafter maintained, 


with fluctuations, until 6 P.M., when the rates again fall to the night values. 


The afternoon rates are great enough to more than make up for the negative 
behavior of the morning, except, as above stated, under unusual conditions. 
That light cannot be held to account for the retardation of growth during 


the morning hours as above indicated has been shown to be an untenable view, 


since it was found possible experimentally to alter the rates both positively 
and negatively quite independently of the constancy, increase or decrease of 
illumination, even when this has been increased with respect to the growing 
part by insolation from three directions. There seems indeed to be no maxi- 
mum insolation normally occurring in the field at this locality which can cause 
any cessation or inhibition of growth when conditions which insure water 
supply to the growing part obtain. Thus, when a cessation of growth is 
apparent, it can be checked, and high rates instituted, by the removal of leaves 
(which divert the water supply), by increasing the vapor tension in the 
vicinity of the growing part, or by merely increasing the temperature when 


the volume of the growing part is small (as when the internode under obser- 


vation is young). These positive changes may occur coincidentally with in- 


‘crease of illumination from the blue or red portions of the spectrum to full 


insolation. 


A similar action may occur in the inactivity of green opuntias 
in the open, but certainly does not apply to the daylight retardation. 
On the other hand the checking of growth or shrinkage of etiolated 
members in darkness and of green shoots at high temperatures may 
well be due to transpiration or modification of imbibition capacity. 


WATER-ABSORBING CAPACITY OF PLANT TISSUES. 


Growth is essentially the irreversible enlargement of embryonic 
cells, by the appropriation of material of which 98 or 99 per cent. is 
water. The process depends upon the availability of the building 
material which enters into the structure of the protoplast, its inclu- 
sions and its envelopes, and upon the continuance of reactions, such 
as enzymosis and respiration, which maintain an unsatisfied absorp- 
tive capacity. 

' The incorporation of the solutions in the colloids of the proto- 
plast is essentially a hydration process which is usually designated 
as imbibition. A’ stable colloid takes up a fixed solution at a rate 


expressible by a regular curve. The protoplast is a complex mixture 


of both emulsoids and suspensoids in which there is almost unceas- 


ing change. Its structure may be modified ‘by the uneven action of 
the metabolic plexus which may also result in the accumulation of 


828 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


products such as acids, the presence of which may cause accelera- 
tion, retardation or cessation of growth by modifying imbibition or 
capacity for absorption of water. 

It is obvious that a determination of the water-absorbing capac- 
ity or swelling coefficient of a growing organ would be an index of 
its capacity for enlargement at that moment, and by the use of dif- 
ferential solutions the influence of acidity or alkalinity on the process 
may also be ascertained. The catabolic and synthetic processes 
which accompany growth are in the main continued in mature 
organs, especially if these contain tracts of open meristem as do the 
joints of Opuntia. It was thought highly important therefore to 
make extensive tests of the swelling capacity of Opuntia with 
analyses of the carbohydrate content of the joints. These tests 
yield some data of great interest when considered in connection with 
the growth records given in the preceding section of this paper. 

The flattened joints of Opuntia sp. which formed the prin- 
cipal experimental material are elongated oval in outline, the basal 
part being usually about 20-24 mm. in thickness and the apical 
part half or less than half of this diameter. After some extensive 
comparisons of sections from all parts of the joint it was found that | 
the apical third of the member furnished the best material for com- 
parative purposes. Sections or disks about 12 to 14 mm. across 
were cut from this region with a cork borer, avoiding the inclusion 
of nodes bearing the spines and spicules. Such sections consisted of 
the indurated epidermal layers between which was a cylindrical 
mass of parenchymatous cells, the outer ones being chlorophyllous 
and some of the inner ones being mucilaginous. An anastomosed 
network of thin fibrovascular strands was included in the paren- 
chymatous mass and this mechanical tissue probably checked expan- 
sion in some cases, especially those in which disks were taken too 
close to the nodes. More care was exercised in this matter in 1917 
than in the preceding tests, a fact that may be taken to explain in 
‘part at least the decreasing number of anomalies as the work pro- 
gressed.. Three of such disks about 12 mm. across the epidermal 
surfaces and from 6 to II mm. in thickness were arranged in a tri- 
angle in the bottom of a stender dish and a triangle of thin sheet 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 329 


___ glass arranged to rest its apices on the three disks. The vertical 
i: swinging arm of an auxograph was now adjusted to a shallow socket 
in the center of the glass triangle while the pen was set at zero on 
the recording sheet. Water or a solution being poured into the dish, 
the course of the swelling was traced, the record showing the aver- 

_ aged result of the action of the trio of specimens (see Fig. 7). That 

* -the amount of imbibition depended upon the presence of certain 
recognizable substances was demonstrated by the fact that dried 


a ee eS Se ss. ae | 


BT He 


aan / 
VY 


rn 


: th 
Wu Hh i il 


Fic. 7, Auxograph arranged for recording changes in thickness of trio 
_ of cylindrical sections of Opuntia. The vertical arm, which is set in position 
on horizontal arm to give a magnification of twenty, rests on a triangle of 
glass laid on top of the sections. The dish containing the sections rests on 
an iron cylinder to secure stability and a weight is placed on the T base of 
the instrument. The record sheet is ruled to millimeters (not shown) with 
heavier horizontal lines 1 cm. apart. The heavy curved lines shown repre- 
sent four hour intervals. The space is ruled to fifteen minute intervals (not 
shown). Height of clock and lever supports adjustable. 


PE ge Cymemmeaes + ed sa 


one ges eof een | 


, 
4 


and dead disks gave proportionate differences equivalent to those 
shown by freshly cut and living material. 


830 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


The auxograph used in making the measurements represents an 
modified form of an apparatus originally designed by the senior 
author in 1901. The improved instrument consists of a compound 
lever, the components of which are suspended in adjustable bearings 
held in the arms of a metal support of “ Y” form with the arms of 
unequal length. One free arm of the bearing lever is forked, the 
upper segment carrying a counterpoise which may be moved to give. | 
any desired pressure on the bearing contact with an object the 
swelling of which is to be measured. The lower segment of the 
free part of the bearing lever has a sleeve with a short socket 
hinged to its lower side. A thin glass rod set in this socket extends 
downward to a length of a few centimeters and rests in a concavity 
in the center of a glass plate laid on the trio of sections in a suitable 
small glass dish. The sleeve may be moved along the lever to give 
a magnification between ten and fifty to a pen carried by the other 
free lever arm. The two small levers are connected by a short 
length of jewelers’ chain in such manner as to minimize friction and 
other sources of error. The pen is arranged to bear on a slip of 
paper 8 cm. wide ruled to millimeters and it is carried by a cylin- 
drical clock which gives it a movement of 28 cm. in 24 hours. The — 
compound lever was supported by a rack and pinion column which 
made it adjustable through a range of 12 cm. in height. 

The clock may be moved vertically on its support and fastened 
at any height by a set screw. The delicacy of this apparatus was 
such that it could not be operated on a wooden table in an ordinary 
room. Cement, stone or brick piers with a slab of slate, wood or 
stone furnished the necessary steadiness. The dishes in which the 
sections were immersed in swelling solutions were placed on top 
of iron cylinders 15 cm. high and about 8 cm. in thickness and the 
dishes were held in place by clay luting. A weight of about 4 or 5 
kg. placed on the “ T” base of the instrument completed an arrange- 
ment by which it was possible to secure undisturbed records of 
swelling of sections of cactus, of plates of colloids, and also of 
growth of joints of this and other plants. 

The following measurements of the swelling capacity of sec- 
tions from the terminal joints were secured in 1916 and 1917. One 


Pe eee Be ee r- ie a, * 
“aan a ere ae i plata 


i 


a: 
4 
2 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 331 


set was made from joints which had been formed during the pre- 
vious _year.Their development as buds began in March and April 
‘and was nearly complete by June Ist. Some enlargement may 
ensue later in the season, or in the following season, as has already 
been described.*° 
é SWELLING—Opuntia Sp. 
Mature Joints. 
~ (See Fig. 8.) 
(Joints of 1915s.) 


Water HCIN;100 NaOH N/r100 

Percentage. Percentage. Percentage, 
cy vi iw on cc cccacsvecccs 50.0 43,3 70.0 
esc eo acces ccccceseccerce 40.0 36.6 52.1 
EE Sd ee 72.2 35.3 72.6 
oe ge cil os cece cccccusien 23.9 53.6 55.1 
es ic 8G bok c sou csvccsecver 51.7 35-7 57.6 
eg ois ioe ae becvceeeccve 65.0 62.0 54.2 
ee Os hs oy we'v bo'a reed co's 47.6 50.0 35-5 
I Ns. oct ceve uci sapess 37.6 34.3 36.0 
oon ia bcs oct pcescecceces 12.3 9.1 10.3 
ee fcc re ccdassnce 14.7 19.9 19.1 
oa, oy. ae cbs eessesccnce II.0 10.9 II.0 


Swelling of Other Joints Three Years Old. 


Water. HCI N/100. NaOH N/roo. 
r Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent, 
A eee - 54.4 40.4 58.5 
Dried disks of percentage of original diam. ... 41.3 31.6 42.4 


The swelling capacity of sections appears to increase with 
development and rising temperatures to June at which high values 
were shown by both young and mature joints. A decrease during 


midsummer is followed by a maximum reached in November. 


The average swelling of young joints was 31.2 per cent. in water, 
28.9 per cent. in acid and 29.5 per cent in alkali for the season. 

The variations in swelling capacity during the second year are 
indefinite but an average of the available records (seven tests) 
shows 50.5 per cent. in distilled water, 45.2 per cent. in hundredth 
normal hydrochloric acid and 56.7 per cent. in hundredth normal 


eg MacDougal, “ Mechanism and Conditions of Growth,” Mem. N. Y. 
Bot. Garden, 6: 5, 1916. 


332 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. ' 


Swelling of Joints Formed in 1916. 


(See Fig. 8.) 
Water. HCl N/z00. NaOH N/roo. 
: Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. 

May 18, 1916 scsi ais oe a ees 24.3 30.0 40.0 
TUNE BOT aN wae tae E RWC ue ae kee 23.6 16.4 22.9 
DV, As he) eS EN ee es Smee eae, yi 70.1 41.5 49.1 
Aug. 3, “ (swelled at Carmel) ........... 16.6 14.0 14.3 
“3, +“ (grown and swelled at Carmel). 18.2 9.3 15.7 
PRON, OC OP, Fa ao dn Fe ee ASE pe eee hse 8 20.5 21.0 22.2 
edge. cra, ar OSM by aN) a-ak SET ay ee a 14.6 21.3 19.5 

Po NMG PA CAT RR a: «SE PANS aR STL me eSNG ok 28.0 28.0 28.3 
Main Va Mar Coates og hd ties ciate nents iene ae ala a eg 5. 27.9 26.0 24.7 
Pig AN ASE pala Sis s Leet aN eS hle's a's vos 20.8 18.4 17.1 
BYE Wh ee dele acu Ek EOS SA NOT EER bos 49 27.9 26.0 24.7 
pid a x ae teee COM eNOS Sipe © IER ea Pn 44.0 53.5 46.0 
SR «SNE Wage are Bs Pun Un Cece oa a a 34.4 34.9 35.3 
Do OT eae ey ONT ky bie a Mes ee 49.3 47.9 47.0 
Sc ot ks CRONE MER EN EE SRCET TADS Kony s e's 48.0 45.4 35-3 
Jan. 29-28, 1017, (IZ SECHONS) Hios Gok ces 25.7 27.9 25.0 
Pe eg LENSE Gai Die atau vs 10.7 $B | 10.8 
Mat. 2936. 89-06" Pees Pe esa h ais 0.4 12.0 10.9 
April 24 oo ecce cece cst cece cee e cece ee eeeatenen 21.8 20.4 13.9 
20.4 21.8 33.8 


sodium hydrate. Inspection of the data obtained by the chemical 
analyses fails to bring to light any connection between the amount 
of imbibition and the proportion of any carbohydrate or salt present. 
The diverging variations suggest combinations of substances to 
which the swelling may be due. It is to be noted that the propor- 
tionate swelling of the sections would be lowered by the thickness 
of the sections which are fifty to seventy times the diameter of the 
colloid sections used in other experiments. Furthermore, the amount 
of swelling is in all probability lessened by. the presence of mechan- 
ically resistant fibrovascular tissue. 


IMBIBITION AND CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM. 


In the foregoing pages special attention has been directed to the 
conditions affecting imbibition and the water-absorbing capacity of 
the growing plant cell. It is evident that the metabolic activity of 
the cell itself affects imbibition very greatly ; an accumulation of the 
intermediate or end products of respiration may thus cause an in- 


, a 
PUI =i 


ed 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 333 


F 7 f 7 f =: S 7 F 4 + 
dine ae | i | t t 


t 
—d 
a 
a 
nt 
Kt | 
ee 
pel 
Lent 
Lat 


“> 


no 
——— 
Sipe 
on 
: 1 
— vi 
Pd 
PL. 
ae 
PL, 
TJ 
— 
PK, 


Kos 
AN EA EGRET if 
SRR ae i . —t SP 
* | eo Bs eae iN { Z t T * 


Fic. 8. Auxographic tracings of swelling of cylindrical sections of 
Opuntia Sp—joints formed in 1915. A compound lever set to magnify 
swelling 20 times carries a pen downward from the zero line on a sheet 80 
millimeters in width, carried past the pen in 24 hours. The right hand or 
upper line a was traced by a trio of sections of an average diameter of 13 mm. 
which showed a swelling of 50/20=2.5 mm. in hundredth-normal sodium 
hydrate, which was 19.2 per cent. of the original. The lower line c was traced 
by a trio of sections of an average diameter of 13.8 mm. in hundredth-normal 
hydrochloric acid which showed a swelling of 2.55 mm. or 18.5 per cent. The 
middle line was traced by a trio of sections of an average diameter of 12 mm. 
which swelling 2.55 mm. or 21.3 per cent. Feb. 22, ‘ee (Upper half of 
figure.) Reduced %. 

_ Auxographic tracings of old joint of Opuntia pinks The upper right 
Bcd line a was traced by swelling of trio of sections of an average diameter 


of 10 mm. in hundredth-normal sodium hydrate. The increase was 3.6 mm. 


or 36 per cent. The middle line b was traced by the swelling of a trio of 
sections of an average diameter of 11 mm. in distilled water. The swelling 
was 3.6 mm. or 32 per cent. The lower line c was traced by the swelling ofa 
trio of sections with an average diameter of 10 mm. in distilled water. The 
swelling was 3.5 mm. or 35 per cent. of the original. A notable difference 
between the rates of swelling in the three solutions is exhibited in contrast 
with those of the series of joints of 1915. (Lower half of figure.) Reduced 4. 


crease or decrease in the water-absorbing capacity of the colloidal 
substratum of the cell. At the same time the degree of imbibition 
and of swelling plays an exceedingly important part in metabolism 
and hence in the formation of plastic material necessary for growth 


834 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


and in the liberation of energy. Although these two activities, 
imbibition and metabolism, are so closely interrelated in the growth 
processes they are nevertheless of such a widely different nature that 
it cannot be assumed, as will be shown, that they are equally in- 
fluenced by external conditions, as for instance, temperature; the 
conditions under which one affects the other depending, in turn, 
upon several other factors. 

In general, chemical inversion, or the transformation of the 
highly condensed to the simpler molecules capable of oxidation and 
translocation, takes place only under conditions of ample water 
supply. However, these reversible enzymatic reactions never run 
entirely in one direction. Only differences between the two are 
observable. We are dealing with a delicate compound dynamic 
equilibrium, involving probably dozens of steps and many more 
substances. The very interesting investigations of Lobry de Bruyn 
and Van Ekenstein’! and of Nef on the rearrangements of the 
hexose molecule demonstrate the extreme complexity of such equi- 
libria. Thus Nef’? has shown that when the relatively simple 
hexose sugar, dextrose, is dissolved in a weak alkaline solution there 
are formed no less than 93 different substances which constitute a 
system in dynamic equilibrium. Any number of these can react. 
selectively and shift the equilibrium, by oxidation, condensation 
or the like, the course of the reaction depending upon the condition 
of solution as to concentration, temperature, etc. How much more 
complex must the condition be in the living cell with the numerous 
delicate enzymatic equilibria each with its own temperature and con- 
centration coefficient ? 

The following results (which are a portion of an extensive in- 
vestigation of the carbohydrate economy of cacti now in progress) 
throw some light on the relation of carbohydrate metabolism to 
growth. | 

The carbohydrates predominate in the general food economy of 
the cacti. There is no reason for believing that the metabolic 
processes concerned in the growth of such plants consist chiefly of 

11 Lobry de Bruyn and Van Ekenstein, Rec. trav. chim. de Pays-Bas, 14, 


158, 203; 15, 92; 16, 257. 
12 Nef, J. U., Annalen der Chemie, Liebig, 403, 204-383, 1913. 


-MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 335 


protein synthesis and catabolism as is probably the case in animals. 
In fact these pasts: behave largely like masses of gel of carbohydrate 
ol 

~ Roughly the fresh material of the growing and mature joints is 
Ee iisosed of about: 


MU cna. c.s.....- OL CE eagle ga as nea a 95 75 

oon fc circ civ cacss case dod cucSvicee's 0.5 1.0 
Carbohydrates hydrolyzable with 1.6 per cent. HCl ..... 5.0 10.0 
es ches bs anp ole sacccsscececeacaecass 1.0 3.0 
Sie yi ona oc ese esi cence sce vests 0.25 0.5 
Gags co cv incense ccdccscscctescwcctvcis 1.0 3.5 


_ The total carbohydrate content and of food supply in general . 
is oe little significance or value in studying the various functions of 
an organism such as the cactus. It is rather the nature of the 


_ sugars, or the degree of general chemical inversion, that determines 


the supply of building material necessary for growth. The records 
show many instances of large food supply, and all known external 
conditions favorable for growth, and still no such action taking 
place. The question of rest period undoubtedly is largely one of 
adjustment of chemical inversion and reversion, and in general the 
conditions favoring the awakening of buds are those in which in- 
version has attained a lead over reversion, permitting a sufficient 
accumulation of plastic material; while on the other hand, an ac- 
cumulation in the protoplasmic medium of the products of rever- 
sion affects the inhibiting of growth. It seems therefore that in 
order for growth to occur there must be a sufficient supply of the 
simpler sugars necessary for respiration as well as for the synthesis 
of new substances, that synthesis can overbalance the break-down 
with the accumulation of new material, the latter being the product 
of an irreversible reaction. In the study of the relation of carbo- 
hydrates to growth it is therefore a question of the carbohydrate 
balance, the ratio of the simple to the condensed sugars that is of 
prime importance. 

The problem of determining the different sugars in a growing 
organism is one of great difficulty because, as has been indicated, of 
the large number of sugars belonging to the same group and of the 
similarity of their chemical properties. It must therefore suffice to 


336 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—-GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


determine together groups of sugars of the same general physio- 
logical significance. It has been found preferable for the present to 
make a large number of analyses with as great accuracy as possible, - 
rather than attempt to isolate and determine each of the sugars in 
a few .cases, especially as individual cases show considerable varia- 
tion. For the present purpose a discussion of the methods of 
analysis'* employed does not seem essential. 

The following experiment will illustrate the effect of water on 
the carbohydrate balance of Opuntia discata. A number of joints 
of the same age were taken from one plant and divided into three 
lots each of six joints. The first (1) was analyzed immediately, 
the second (2) was suspended in battery jars without water, and 
the third (3) was placed in the same manner in battery jars so that 
the base of the joints were immersed as in a water-culture. (2) 
and (3) were kept in a dark constant temperature room at 28° for 
thirty days, when they were analyzed. The joints in water had 
developed roots 5 to 10 cm. in length. 


Immediate (1). Dry (2). Water (3). 

Fresh. | Dry. | Fresh. | Dry. || Fresh. | Dry. 
DWV LURE rs aia ta hae sein he wh ad wa LI SSW avon aly. ere, Ea 80.34 77.20 82.30 
“LOE MURR a ao bi STR AS Rees by & 's18 cae aac 4.30 | 20.49| 4.29/ 18.84| 3.60] 18.58 
Total polysaccharides. ............004: 3.50] 17.80| 3.60} 18.01 | 2.80] 17.54 
Hexose-polysaccharides ............... 1.65] 8.40] 1.81} 8.83| 1.25| 7.85 
Disaccharides and hexoses............. 0.10] 0.49] 0.13 | 0.56] 0.14] 0.83 
TBA COIETIOR rissa scala ck Sv 56 0 6 aN seca 0.04] 0.20] 0.07{ 0.30] 0.06] 0.38 
FIGKOSEO)SPemiakt see atnists wie Na vies a’ 0.06} 0.29]. 0.06] 0.26] 0.08} 0.45 
PESUOGAIY Fi ais sha 5 Vie Cw slate sw she ees ole 1.741 8,86]: 2.781 “O.58 >) gee aes 


_ The joints without water (2) lost 3.14 per cent. in water con- 
tent, while those in water (3) gained 1.96 per cent. In total poly- 
saccharides and hexose-polysaccharides (3) is considerably lower 
than (2), while in hexoses (3) shows a gain over (1) and (2). 

The difference in the carbohydrate balance between plants grow- 
ing in the desert and in Carmel, California, is illustrated in the 
following analyses of Opuntia sp. during September. The values 
are per cent. of fresh weight: 


18 Full particulars thereof will appear in a later publication on the “ Car- 
bohydrate Economy of Cacti.” 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 337 


rene” Carmel. Tucson. 
Beweater ...... LoS See QI.15 80.34 
ME SUID OTS 6046.5... 0 ees See ees 2.61 4.30 
Total polysaccharides ............... 1.94 3.50 
Hexose polysaccharides ............. .09 1.65 
ee .07 0.04 
ESE A a a aaa 52 0.06 
RI atte ee oo. 22k hoe 14 0.05 
id aoa ar ie ct vs osc a koe oS 1.70 1.74 


Under natural condition similar relations exist. The following 
table gives typical results of a large number of analyses of Opuntia 
Sp. made during each month: 


eg March! April| April| May | June | July 


July | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. 
7- *, 18, 5. 9- 3 31. | 20. | 26. =. — 
Dry weight......... 15.25|18.20 18.90/21.30/26.74 30.32116.45 19.66) 20.3 123.05 30.1 
Total sugars........ 3-49} 4.11) 5.58) 4.81) 6.52! 5.07) 2.42] 4.30] 4.24) 4.80) 5.70 
Polysaccharides. .... +20 3-13} 4.70} 4.55] 6.31) 4.92) 2.26) 4.24) 4.06) 4.40) 5.25 
Monosaccharides. ...| 0.69! 0.98) 0.88) 0.26) 0.21! 0.15! 0.16] 0.11) 0.18) 0.40 0.45 


Naturally conditions are somewhat more complicated than those 
_in the tests described on p. 336. At the time the new shoots begin 
to grow, during the end of March and early April, after the winter 
rains, the parent joints have a high monosaccharide content. As the 
dry summer advances the amount of these sugars diminishes, 
although the total sugars increase. With the advent of the summer 
rains, at the end of July, the decrease in monosaccharides is checked 
though the high temperatures and resulting high rate of respiration 
does not permit an accumulation. Another factor entering here is 
the effect of the temperature on the enzymatic equilibrium. Sepa-’ 
rate experiments have shown that at the temperatures which prevail 
in the cacti at this time (during the day as high as 55° C.) there is 
a distinct shifting in favor of the polysaccharides. During the dry 
months of September and October the monosaccharides drop to a 
minimum, in spite of the temperature being considerably lower. 
With the winter rains there is again an accumulation which is main- 
tained during the winter until spring, when the favorable tempera- 
tures again permit growth. The formation of new shoots does not 
take place in spring when an accumulation of monosaccharides has 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, W, JULY 30, I9QI7. 


338 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


been prevented, for instance, by means of keeping the joints at a 
raised temperature in the light during the winter time. However, 
it need hardly be emphasized that the supply of simple sugars 
can not be regarded as a single determining factor for growth or 
the awakening of buds. Such material is essential for the con- 
struction of new cells, but as yet no definite conclusions can be 
drawn as to the exact physiological rdle of the various hexoses and 
pentoses. When the joints are subjected to starvation, 1. e., are 
placed in the dark for periods of from one to nine months, these 
simple sugars are used up more rapidly than they are formed from 
the relatively large store of polysaccharides. With the decrease of 
the supply of monosaccharides the accumulated organic acids, in- — 
termediate products of the normal respiration, are drawn into the 
process and the total acidity of the organism is thus reduced. Re- 
duced acidity is accompanied by an increased imbibition of the 
cactus in water. It is also highly probable that other intermediate 
and end products of metabolism that. accumulate in the colloidal 
substratum of the cell, and affect imbibition as will be shown in 
the next chapter of this paper, are also removed, resulting in the 
same effect on the water-absorbing capacity as the removal of the 
organic acids. Thus cactus joints with a swelling capacity of 20 
per cent. in water after being starved four months were neutral to 
litmus indicator and showed a swelling of 100 per cent. During 
this period the dry weight of the cactus remained the same. 

It is as yet impossible to determine definitely the carbohydrates 
which make up the colloidal substratum of the cactus cells. Theo- 
retical considerations would require that these be substances of rela- 
tively slight physiological reactivity, i. e., substances which are not 
utilized in the course of metabolism as sources of energy, and are 
little susceptible to enzymatic disintegration. Of special importance 
in this connection are the unfermentable sugars which have been 
found to be present in relatively large amounts, mostly in the con- 
densed form as pentosans, 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 339 


_ Tue BEHAVIOR OF CARBOHYDRATES AND PROTEINS IN GELS USEFUL 
EN THE INTERPRETATION OF THE ACTION OF PLANTS. 


— 


The amorphous carbohydrates constitute a very important part 
of the colloids of the protoplast, the remainder of which consists 
largely of nitrogenous material, in the form of albumen or albumen 
derivatives with an unknown amount of lipin. The search for 
material which might simulate the imbibitional behavior of growing 
tracts in plants begun by the senior author resulted in finding that 
mixtures of agar with gelatine in which the last-named substance 
was present in the smaller proportion showed an enhanced capacity 
for imbibition in distilled water and a reduced swelling in weak acid 
and alkali as measured in very thin plates by the auxograph."* 

The swelling of gelatine in percentages of the original thickness 
of thin dried layers or plates (.1 to .3 mm. in thickness) in water, 
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydrate, may be illustrated by the 
following data which represent averages of measurement at the 


pap oh 
SSS aaa 


J 


I i: 

Fic. 9. Auxographic tracing of swelling of agar sections .2 mm. in thick- 
ness in NaOH N/100, A = 400 per cent., in HCl N/roo, B=650 per cent., 
and in distilled water, C—=775 per cent. X I0. 


sn tm er =a » aa é =“ ee ent ¢ 
nieces eal =“ 
— nist Se ee 


end of sixteen hours (see p. 343 for further discussion of swelling 
determinations by use of thin plates). 
Water. HCI N/x00. NaO N/rzoo. 
471.5 per cent. 1012.3 per cent. 587.5 per cent. 


Similar plates of agar gave swellings as follows (Fig. Q): 


Water. HCI N/100. NaO N/roo. 
462.5 per cent. 725 per cent. 937.5 per cent. 


14 MacDougal, “ Imbibitional Swelling of Plants and Colloidal Mixtures,” 
Science, N. S., Vol. 44, No. 1136, pp. 502-505, October 6, 1916. See also Ann, 
Report, Dept. Bot. Res., Carnegie Institution of Washington for 1916, pp. 61-64. 


340 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


As the plant did not show water relations which might be in- 
terpreted as a direct combination of the separate action of gelatine 
or agar, it was next proposed to test the reactions of a mixture in 
which these substances would be blended, which was done in July, 
1916. The first test mass was one consisting of about equal parts 
of agar and gelatine, though the quantities were not weighed. Both 
were soaked and melted separately and the gelatine was poured into 
the hot agar which was kept at a temperature of about go° C. for a 
half hour. The mass was then poured onto a glass slab for cooling. 
Two days later it was stripped off as a fairly clear and transparent 
sheet slightly clouded, the average thickness of. which-was 0.2 mm. 
Strips about 5 X 7 mm. were placed under the apices of sheet glass 
triangles in glass dishes after the manner in which plant sections 
had been tested, and auxographs were arranged to record the action 
of acids, alkalies, and distilled water. This mixture gave swellings 
as follows: 


Water. HCI N/100. NaO N/roo. 
762.5 per cent. 687.5 per cent. 800 per cent. 


The mixture of these two substances having been found to 
swell more in water and in alkaline solutions than in acid, a series — 
of varying proportions of the two constituents were made up. The 
mixtures were poured into moulds on glass plates and dried sheets 
from .I mm. to .6 mm. in thickness were obtained. The measure- 
ments given below include the averages of tests under varied condi- 
tions not only of thickness of the samples, but also of temperature, 
length of period of swelling, tension of instruments, etc. The prin- 
cipal results obtained were-as follows: 


Gelatine 100o—Agar 1. 
Water. HCl N/roo, NaOH N/roo, 
750 per cent. I100 per cent. 520 per cent. 


Gelatine 100—Agar 5. 


329 850 | 685.5 
Gelatine 80—Agar 20. 
431.6 780.3 760.7 


Gelatine 50—Agar 50. 
799.0 366.6 580.9 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 341 


Water. HCl N/xoo. NaOH N/roo. 
_— Gelatine 25—Agar 75. 
———_ 427.3 510.7 
Gelatine 20—Agar 8o. 
1144.5 572.1 526.0 
Gelatine 10—Agar go. 
1000.0 401.0 300.0 


Gelatine 1—Agar 99. 
1825.0 475.0 425.0 


The data indicate that as the proportion of agar in the mixture 

is increased, the relative amplitude of swelling in water may be 
increased, and the relative amount of imbibition in acid is decreased. 
This superior imbibition capacity in water as compared to effects 
of acid and alkali is a fair parallel to the behavior of sections of 
young, mature and old parts of Opuntia. 
_, The second parallel of importance is the one in which the 
swelling in alkaline solutions is in some cases less and in others 
greater than in acidified solutions in mixtures containing as much as 
a third or more of agar. 

The mucilaginous material which may be obtained by macerating _ 
joints of cacti in distilled water is fairly similar to agar. Some of 
this was used in mixtures in place of agar. The averages of a series 
of swellings of a mixture of go parts of gelatine and Io parts of 
such mucilage, reckoned by dry weight, were as follows: 


2 


Water, HCI N/zoo. NaOH N/100. 
428.1 per cent. 770.4 per cent. 557.8 per cent. 


These data are of interest when compared with the swellings of 
mixtures of 100 parts gelatine to 5 parts agar, and of mixtures of 
80 parts of gelatine to 20 parts of agar (see p. 340). The mucilage 
from joints of Opuntia affects the swelling of gelatine in much the 
same manner as does agar in equivalent proportions. The watery 
extract of course contains the soluble salines of the plant, and some: 
of the effect might be attributed to their presence. 

A few simple tests were arranged to show the effects of a salt 
on the colloids used, the results of which are as follows: 


342 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


GELATINE. 
Swelling. 
HCI+NaCl 
Water. HCl N/r00. ~"Nises > 
450.0 per cent. 1200.0 per cent. 1116.7 per cent. 
516.7 1066.7 1400.0 
ae ste 1250.0 
Averages: 483.4 1133.4 1255.6 
Gelatine. 
Water, HCI N/r00. HCI N/100-+4+-NaCl N/roo. 
616.7 per cent. 1016.7 per cent. 833.3 per cent. 
466.7 1083.3 1083.3 
— 1133.3 883.3 
NSLS oneness 866.7 
— seas 833.3 
Averages: 483.3 1077.8 899.9 


The superior swelling of gelatine in acidified solutions is illus- 
trated and a lower average of swelling in hundredth normal hydro- 
chloric acid in the presence of a salt solution of the same concen- 
‘tration was demonstrated. The admixture of hundredth normal 
_ :acid and of hundredth normal salt solution gives a solution of two 
‘hundredths normal concentration. Gelatine shows a lesser swelling © 
in this weaker acid, and furthermore the presence of the salt appears 
to increase imbibition. 

Sugars are an important constituent of living tissues and it is 
highly probable that in addition to pentose, sucrose and dextrose 
are also in the colloidal suspensions of the protoplast. It was im- 
portant to determine whether or not they exerted any direct effect 
in the concentrations in which they might occur in the cell. A series 
of tests of the effects of these substances was carried out by Mr. E. 
E. Free at the Coastal Laboratory in September, 1916. Gelatine 
and agar were mixed in various proportions, dried to thin sheets 
and then swelled at temperatures of 16 to 21° C. 

Sugar solutions of a concentration less than 25 per cent. did not 
differ appreciably in its effects from distilled water. Sucrose con- 
centrations of a 50 per cent. concentration produced a markedly 
lessened concentration of all gels. Dextrose of the same strength 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 343 


had a similar effect on the mixtures low in gelatine in which it was 
tried. Its effect on mixtures containing a large proportion of gela- 
tine was not determined. The appreciable effects are probably due 
to the tying up of molecules of water analogous to the osmotic action 
of such solutions. 

Sugar solutions of a concentration of 25 per cent. or higher are 
not characteristic of growing regions and probably occur only in 
storage tracts, seeds or cotyledons. While the effect would be to 
lessen imbibition by the colloidal mass of the protoplast it is to be 
recalled that a vacuolar fluid of such concentrations would have 
high osmotic properties and the expansion by turgidity might mask 
or exceed that due to imbibitional swelling. If sugars contribute 
directly to the growth expansion of the cell it would therefore be in 
the later stages of development and by osmotic action. 

_ A duplicate series of tests of the behavior of an admixture of 
starch with agar gave the following results: 


SWELLING. 


Agar 90—Starch Io. 
Water. HCI N/rzoo. NaOH N/roo. 
1275 per cent. 541.6 per cent. 496.6 per cent. 


The complication of the carbohydrate gel by the addition of starch 
made no essential departure from the behavior of agar alone in 
water, acidified and alkaline solutions. 

The combination of agar and gelatine gave a gel in which two 
of the three main groups of constituents of living matter were 
represented. 

It is not certain, however, that the combination of amino-acids 
in gelatine is duplicated in the plant and it was deemed important 
to test the effects of simpler amino-acid compounds and of the 
more complex albumens on the swelling of agar, as representing the 
basically important carbohydrates. Solutions of the various mix- 
tures were poured on glass plates in layers about a centimeter thick 
and 3 by 5 cm. in area. Desiccation resulted in a reduction of the 
length and width to about half of the original. The thickness how- 
ever was reduced to one-tenth or even as much as to one-thirtieth of 
the original, and having a thickness of .I mm. to .3 mm. in most 


‘844 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


‘cases. The principal axis of deposition of material was in the ver- 
-tical and the swelling in this direction would of course be corre- 
spondingly in excess of that in the plane of the sections. It is 
extremely unlikely that any of the colloidal masses of the cell are 
iso-radial as to deposition or structure and the use of thin plates 
seemed a feature which might increase the similarity of behavior 
with that of the plant. The strands, sheets or masses of material 
in the cell are of course mostly thinner than the plates used in the 
‘experiments, which however would affect speed of imbibition more 
than final proportion. 

Trios of sections of sheets of the dried colloids 2 to 4 mm. by 
3 to 6 mm. were placed in the bottom of stender dishes or of heavy 
watch glasses securely seated on iron cylinders. Triangles of glass 
were placed on the sections, and the vertical arms of auxographs 
were rested in a socket in the center of the triangles. Any change 
in thickness of the sections would be registered immediately. The 
use of six instruments gave duplicate results of the effects of water, 
‘acid and alkali, and each record was an integration or average of 
the swelling of three sections. | 

The only albumen available when this plan was put into opera- 
tion was a commercial egg-albumen, and this was first tested in 
mixtures with large proportions of gelatine. The results of the 
swellings are as follows: 


Water. HC! N/roo. NaOH N/r100, 
Gelatine. 


(Average of 3 tests.) 
313.8 per cent. 825.5 per cent. 558.3 per cent. 


Gelatine 100—Albumen 5. 
(Average of 5 tests.) 
283.4 611.7 482.2 


Gelatine 85—Albumen 15. 
(Average of 5 tests.) 
408.6 ae Be 673.0 


Gelatine 75—Albumen 25. 
(Average of 3 tests.) 
378.3 569.7 508.7 


be a Me a 


ee ee ey eC 
‘ 


-MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 345 


The albumen did not exert any important influence on the swell- 


ing of the mixture 4antil it was present in proportions as great as 25 
per cent. The action is not marked even in this high proportion. 


Neither this nor any other combination in which gelatine formed the 
greater part displayed water relations at all similar to those of 


the plant. 


Next egg-albumen was added to agar and agar-gelatine mixtures 
with results as below, a further illustrative test being made of agar- 


gelatine : 


Water. HCI N/1oo. NaOH N/1o0. 
Agar 75—Gelatine ‘25. 
; (Average of 4 tests.) 
378.5 per cent. 427.3 per cent. 515.7 per cent. 


Agar 90—Albumen ro. 
(Average of 3 tests.) 


| 1516.6 270.0 333-3 
(Average of 6 tests.) 
1477.1 309.8 297.9 
Agar 70—Gelatine 20—Albumen to. 
595.0 - 216.6 298.6 


The addition of ten per cent. of albumen to agar notably reduced 
the capacity of agar for swelling in acid and alkali, and appeared to 
increase the amplitude of swelling in distilled water, although the 
last matter is not entirely clear. The albumen reduced the swelling 
of a mixture containing twenty-five per cent. of gelatine slightly 
in acid and in alkali, but the swelling in water was not markedly 
greater. This preliminary test yielded results which made their 
extension highly desirable. Chemical analyses of the egg-albumen 
were not available, and as nothing was known as to the salts or other 
substances which might be included, it was desirable to secure 
material of known origin and composition. Arrangements were 
made with Dr. Isaac F. Harris, of Squibb and Sons Laboratory, 
New Brunswick, New Jersey, to prepare some albumen from beans 
(Phaseolus) and from oats (Avena) to be used in the mixtures. 
The preparations from Phaseolus were available in February, 1917, 
and the first tests were made with the “ protein” extract which con- 
tained the water soluble salts of the bean and the proteins which 
were soluble in water containing these salts. 


846 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION., 


Agar and gelatine were dissolved in the usual way and the tem- 
perature of the suspension allowed to fall to a point below 40° C. 
before the protein was stirred into it. In the course of the cooling 
and drying, cloudy masses became visible which were taken to be 
the globulin component of the protein. The dried sheets came down 
to a thickness of .3 to.4 mm. Calibrated samples were tested in trios 
under the auxograph in the usual manner. Two complete series of 


4 


Mr 


Sy SS eae 


J 
— 


| 


. 
[ 
L 
[ 
1 
i 


Fic, 10. Auxographic record of swelling of agar 90—protein 10, sections 
.25 mm, in thickness, in NaOH N/100, A = 220 per cent., in HCl N/t1oo, 
B = 360 per cent., and in distilled water, C = 800 per cent. 


all mixtures were made and an additional measurement of the action 
of water and alkali was obtained. The swellings were as follows 


(Fig. 10): 


Water. 


585.7 per cent. 


486.0 
386.0 


Averages: 485.9 


696.9 
500.0 
Averages: 5098.5 


800.0 
800.0 


Averages: 800.0 


1080.0 
800.0 


Averages: 940.0 


Gelatine 90—Protein 


HCI N/roo, 


10 (Phaseolus). 


1401.0 per cent. 
1200.0 704.3 
a 800.0 
1300.5 817.7 
Gelatine 75—Protein 25 (Phaseolus). 
818.1 621.2 
1060.6 848.4 
939.4 734.8 
Agar 90—Protein 10 (Phaseolus). 
50.0 150.0 
75.0 150.0 
62.5 150.0 
Agar 99—Protein r (Phaseolus). 
300.0 220.0 
360.0 240.0 
330.0 230.0 


NaOH N/r100. 


942.8 per cent. 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 347 


The protein extract from the bean was thus shown to exert an 
influence | on the swelling of agar similar to that of egg-albumen in 
reducing the amount of swelling in acid and alkali, and increasing 
it in distilled water. 

_ The next step of importance was to ascertain the effect of some 
of the simpler amino-acids which might be derived from the albumens 
in the plant. Tyrosin and cystin were available. As an example 
of the method the first preparation of tyrosin was one in which one 
part of this substance in solution was stirred to a liquefied mass of 
ten parts of agar at a temperature of 32° C. This was poured on 
a glass slab, and as desiccation was carried out the tyrosin began to 
collect as a flour-like efflorescence on the surface, and apparently a 
large part of the substance came out in this way, so that the actual 


a is : © 7 2 
: et i i  Sooemaees ni 
Saal | | il I 


Po a 
oad 


Fic. 11. Auxographic record of swelling of sections of agar 90—tyrosin 
10, .I5 mm. in thickness, in NaOH N/100, A = 133 per cent., in HCl N/to0, 
B= 233 per cent., and in distilled water, C— 1600 per cent. xX 6. 


proportion of the amino-acid in the dried plate was probably not 
more than a fourth of the amount originally used. 

The dried plate of material came down to a thickness of .15 mm. 
and gave the following results (Fig. 11): 


SWELLING. 


Agar 90—Tyrosin 10 (less by efflorescence). 
Water. HCI N/roo. NaOH N/roo, 


1600.0 per cent. 133.3 per cent. 133.3 per cent. 
1200.0 233-3 100.0 
Averages: 1400.0 183.3 116.6 


A similar preparation of agar and cystin gave the following as 
an average of three tests: 


Agar 90—Cystin 10. 
Water. HCI N/roo. NaOH N/roo. 
2333-3 per cent. 583.1 per cent. 328.6 per cent. 


‘ 


848 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


A similar mixture of agar and urea (agar 90 parts, urea 10 
parts) gave the following: 


SWELLING. 
Water. HCl N/1o0. NaOH N/roo. 
2173.0 per cent. 716.6 per cent. 560.2 per cent. 


Urea, the amino-acids, gelatine, albumen, and the saline soluble 
proteins of the bean dissolved with agar and dried into thin plates 
produced a greatly enhanced imbibition in water, an imbibition in 
hundredth normal hydrochloric acid not more than a third of that in 
water, while it was invariably less in alkaline than in acidified solu- 
tions. The interest in swelling which begins with a neutral 
desiccated section is however much less than that which attaches to 
the behavior of such material under changing conditions of alkalinity 
and acidity which are taken to occur in the living plant. 

Dried plates of agar-protein, agar-tyrosin and agar-cystin .12 
to .25 mm. in thickness and 3 by 4 or 5 mm. were placed in trios 
on the bottoms of stender dishes. Triangular pieces of glass were 
placed to cover the sections of colloid in each dish and an auxograph 
was arranged to give a bearing contact of the swinging arm on a 
‘socket in the center of the triangular plate. So long as the prepara- 
tion remained in this condition the pen of the instrument traced a 
horizontal line on the sheet carried by the drum. Dried sections 
of the colloids have a very limited capacity for imbibition of acid 
and alkaline solutions, and hence it was desirable to start swelling 
or “growth” by an initial immersion of an hour in distilled water, 
which was poured in the dishes. After enlargement had begun 
hundredth-normal acid or alkaline solutions were used in alternation 
at intervals of one to three hours, as many as four changes being 
made in some cases before the total swelling capacity was reached. 
The results met all expectations based on theoretical considerations 
and the auxographic tracings might easily be mistaken for records 
of the variations of the length.of a joint of Opuntia, for example. 

Sections of plates 90 parts agar to “ 10” of tyrosin gave a tracing 
traversing 12 mm. vertically on the record paper during the first 
hour immersed in distilled water, remained stationary making a 
horizontal line during the second hour, the water having been 


ees SL 


ip a Snes 
Sree 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 349 


replaced with hundredth-normal hydrochloric acid, traversed 11 mm. 
of the scale-in-the third hour during which it was immersed in 
hundredth-normal sodium hydrate, then shrank 5 mm. in an hour 
in acid, then enlarged 9 mm. in three and a half hours in alkali, 
after which it shrank 3 mm. between 8:30 P.M. and 7 A.M. in 
acid. A change to alkali gave an enlargement of 6 mm. in two hours 
(Fig. 12). The auxograph was set to multiply so that the actual 


ak i } 


— ; - 
PT [ [ / I 
sesiag | 

| 


fs IK L [ 1 r 
aaa i l | i 
a TE RENE ea ee 


l : | f 


Fic. 12. Auxographic record of changes in section of agar 90—tyrosin 
10, .14 mm. in thickness. Immersed in water at A, alkali at B, acid at C, 
alkali at.D, acid at E, alkaliat F,andacidatG. (Upperhalfoffigure.)  X 10. 

Auxographic record of changes in section of agar 90—tyrosin I0, .14 mm. 
in thickness. A in distilled water, B acid, C alkali, D acid, E alkali, F acid, 
and G alkali. (Lower half of figure.)  X Io. 


enlargement in the periods noted was one twentieth of the distance 
traversed by the pen. The change from acidity to alkalinity is fol- 
lowed by the most marked effects when the colloid has taken up a 
fourth or a third of the possible total amount of water. Perhaps 


‘the most striking feature is the response of the colloid to acidifica- 


tion under the alternating conditions. Desiccated sections give a 
greater total swelling in acid than in alkali, but when a certain 
amount of swelling has already taken place under neutral or alkaline 
conditions no further increase in acid solutions and actual shrink- 
age ensues. A change to alkalinity is always followed by increased 
imbibition. Sections of plates containing 90 parts agar and 10 
parts of gelatine gave results similar to those of the tyrosin mix- 
ture. No determinations of the minimum proportion of nitrog- 


850 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


enous matter necessary to cause an agar mixture to behave in this 
manner were made. Ordinary agar contains some nitrogen and 
salts,1° and it is possible that the varying amounts might cause some - 
disagreement of results obtained by the use of different lots of this. 
substance. 

The series of experimental trials with colloids which might dis- 
play some of the fundamental physical properties of protoplasm of 
plants has resulted in finding that a mixture of substances of two 
of the three more important groups of constituents, carbohydrates 
and proteins, shows the imbibitional behavior of tissues and tracts 
of protoplasts of the plant. The differential action of such colloidal 
masses in distilled water, acid and alkaline solutions yields many 
striking parallels with growth. The changes from acidity to alka- 
linity have, so far as this type of experiment has been repeated, been 
made abruptly to avoid instrumental errors. Some acid or some 
alkali remained in the dishes when the change was made, and a cer- 
tain amount of acid or alkali fixed or absorbed in the colloidal sec- 


Fic. 13. Auxographic tracing of changes in length of shoot of Opuntia 
showing elongation and shortening (for comparison with Fig. 12). 


tion, and neutralization, acidification or the reverse took place slowly 
with some formation of salts as might likewise occur in the plant 
(see Fig. 13). 

It is through the relations indicated that metabolism or respira- 
tion may affect growth by the modification of imbibition capacity. 
Thus the accumulating surplus of acid in Opuntia begins to lessen 
by disintegration at daybreak and the decrease continues until about 


16 See Noyes, H. A., “Agar for Bacteriological Use,” Science, Vol. 44, 
No. 1144, P. 797, 106. 


MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 351 


4 P.M. Whether complete neutralization or alkaline conditions’ 
ever occur naturally in this plant is doubtful. 
‘The—notable augmentation of imbibition which accompanies 


- complete destruction of the balance of acid in the shoot of Opuntia 


under experimental conditions has already been described on p. 295. 
It has also been found that the mid-afternoon checking of growth 
characteristic of shoots of Opuntia which have accomplished a 
fourth or a third of their development, did not appear in the single 
bud, the development of which from a starved joint has been fol- 
lowed since the section of this paper dealing with growth was 


_ written. 


_ The almost rhythmic undulations of the auxographic tracing of 
the elongation of a wheat leaf corroborated by measurements with 
the horizontal microscope suggest that growth in this organ may be 
accompanied by metabolic processes by which the balance of acidity 
and alkalinity falls now on this and then on that side, there being 
of course periods in which the growing protoplasts or some of them 
were in a neutralized state. During this time of course imbibition 
might be four to eight times as great as in either acid or alkaline 
conditions. 

The change from any one of these conditions is of course accom- 
panied by variations in imbibition. The character of the change is 
readily recognizable in the swelling of colloids, and it is believed 
that similar interpretations of the auxographic record of growing 
organs will be possible. The colloidal sections used for experimenta- 
tion have a general identity with cell-masses except as to the lipin 
constituents. The part which these substances might play in the 
mechanics of growth can not as yet be made the subject of profitable 
conjecture. The analogies as to the action of the salts to be found 
in plants are also yet to be determined, and probably involve some 
of the phenomena studied as “ antagonisms.” 

The striking similarities in behavior between the pseudo-proto- 
plastic material and cell-masses makes possible some new correla- 
tions in metabolism, imbibition and growth. It is hardly necessary 
to add in conclusion that whatever measure be given the contribu- 
tions embodied in the present paper, the results presented do not 


852 MACDOUGAL AND SPOEHR—GROWTH AND IMBIBITION. 


lead to any simplification of the major processes under discussion. 

The advance is in a diametrically opposite direction. Newly 
determined features of carbohydrate metabolism included in respi- 
ration and necessary for growth and functionation have been found 
to be extremely complex. Imbibition in the plant is not that of a 
single colloid, and swelling is not the simple resultant of the action 
of two or more substances. The interaction between two emulsoids 
presents many possibilities. The proteins viewed physiologically 
appear to act as “sensitizers” to the carbohydrate gels which make 
up the greater part of the bulk of the protoplast, and to produce in 
them highly specialized effects with acids, alkalies and neutral solu- 
tions. The general character of respiration, and the nature and 
amount of its by-products acting upon a “sensitized” protoplastic 
gel may be taken to determine the general aspect, rate, course and 
amount of growth in plants. ’ 


SPONTANEOUS GENERATION OF HEAT IN RECENTLY 


HARDENED STEEL. III. 


By CHARLES F. BRUSH. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 


The present paper is the third of a series under this title. In the 
first paper* it was shown that a specimen of carbon tool steel, and 
also a specimen of “high-speed” tungsten-chromium steel after 
hardening by water quenching at a high temperature, spontaneously 
generated heat in appreciable quantity for at least several weeks, 
the rate of generation steadily diminishing. It was also shown that 
the carbon steel, after hardening, shrank progressively when tem- 
pered to “straw” color, to “light blue” and finally annealed. It was 
further shown that another specimen of high-carbon steel, after 
hardening, spontaneously shrank in measurable amount for many 
days, the rate of shrinking steadily diminishing. The plotted curve 
of spontaneous shrinkage was strikingly similar to a curve (not 
plotted) of total heat spontaneously generated in the other speci- 
men of carbon steel, showing an apparent relationship between the 
two phenomena. But it was pointed out that spontaneous shrinking 
could not possibly be the prime cause of the spontaneous generation 
of heat observed because it was wholly inadequate in amount. This 
conclusion was afterward confirmed (second paper) in the cases of 
two specimens of nickel-chromium steel which, after quenching 
just above the temperature of decalescence, spontaneously generated 
heat freely but did not shrink at all. 

The second paper,? after reviewing the first, treated principally 
of two specimens of nickel-chromium steel furnished for this investi- 
gation by Sir Robert Hadfield. Each specimen consisted of twelve 

1 Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. LIV., No. 217, May-July, 1915. 


2 Physical Review, N. S., Vol. IX., No. 3, March, 1917. Proc. Royal Soc., 
Series A, Vol. 93, No. A649, April2, 1917. Joint paper with Sir R. A. Hadfield. 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, X, JULY 31, 1917. 


353 


354 BRUSH—GENERATION OF HEAT IN STEEL. 


half-inch round bars five inches long, like in size and number those 
of each of the steels of the first paper, so that results obtained were 
quantitatively comparable with the earlier ones. Each specimen was 
first hardened by quenching at a temperature just above that of 
decalescence as indicated by almost complete loss of magnetic sus- 
ceptibility. 

For observing the magnetic behavior of the steel while being 
heated or cooled in the gas furnace employed, the bundle of bars 
was surrounded by a single turn of asbestos-insulated platinum 
wire, the ends of which were connected with a ballistic galvanometer 
having the usual mirror and scale. The furnace was surrounded 
by a large coil of heavy copper wire through which a direct electric 
current could be established and broken at will by means of a 
switch and storage battery. Before the steel bars were placed within 
the platinum loop inside the furnace, closure of the outer copper 
coil circuit caused a brief electric pulse in the loop and a “kick” in 
the galvanometer, giving a definite minimum deflection easily 
observed with considerable precision. With the steel bars inside the 
platinum loop the galvanometer deflection was, of course, many 
times greater until, with rising temperature, the decalescent point 
was approached; then the deflection fell rapidly to the minimum 
value as above, or very near it. This simple induction apparatus 
was found entirely reliable and satisfactory. 

_ Each of the nickel-chromium steels exhibited good generation of 
heat after hardening as above. 

They were again heated, to a temperature considerably above 
decalescence, and quenched as before. This second hardening 
induced a greater generation of heat than the first hardening, 
especially in the case of specimen B. 

Specimen B was slowly heated a third time, somewhat above the 
temperature of complete loss of magnetic susceptibility, and allowed 
to cool very slowly in the furnace until complete recovery of mag- 
netic susceptibility was attained; then it was immediately quenched. 
A very fair generation of heat followed this treatment. This was 
quite unexpected because it was thought that true hardening of the 
steel could not have taken place. In the absence of suitable appa- 


“ Qa a a ee le i 


a 


BRUSH—GENERATION OF HEAT IN STEEL. 355° 


- ratus no test of hardness was at that time made. The twelve bars 


(specimen B) “were next annealed by slowly heating to full decales- 


_ cence and then allowing to cool very slowly in the furnace. As 


expected, no trace of heat generation followed this treatment which 


was made for checking purposes. 


Before commencing the experiments with specimens A and B, a 


test bar of each lot was prepared for accurate length measurements 


which followed each treatment. The very interesting results of 
these measurements, differing materially in the two specimens, were 


tabulated and compared. 


The present (third) paper deals with some later experiments 
prompted by the anomalous behavior of specimen B of the Hadfield 


_nickel-chromium steel after its third quenching described above. 


In conducting these experiments an electric furnace was em- 
ployed for heating, instead of the less convenient gas furnace for- 
merly used, and the latest form of “sclerescope” for testing hard- 
ness was installed; also, a most modern industrial thermo-electric 
pyrometer. The latter was used as it came from the maker, without 
further calibration; hence the temperatures recorded in this paper 
may be several degrees in error, though they are thought to be rela- 
tively consistent. 

‘The apparatus employed in detecting, measuring and following 
the progress of heat generation in the steels under treatment was 
fully described and illustrated in each of the former papers, and it is 
thought best to omit another description here. 

It will be recalled that “specimen B” was left in the annealed 
condition. In this condition it was subsequently found to have a 
scleroscope hardness of 31. This is the mean of many consistent 
measurements. Each scleroscope hardness cited in this paper is the 
mean of at least ten consistent measurements, each measurement 
made on a fresh spot of surface carefully made smooth and flat. 

In order to ascertain the critical temperatures of decalescence 
and recalescence of “specimen B,” three of the twelve bars were 
very gradually heated until almost complete loss of magnetic 
susceptibility was reached. This occurred rather abruptly at about 


356 BRUSH—GENERATION OF HEAT IN STEEL. 


777° C. One of the bars was quenched at this temperature, and its 
scleroscope hardness was found to be 74. This may be taken as the 
hardness of “specimen B” after the first quenching described in 
connection with the second paper. 

The remaining two bars were allowed to cool very slowly in the 
furnace until complete recovery of magnetic susceptibility took place 
at about 660°. Recovery was abrupt in temperature. One of these 
bars was quenched at this temperature, and its hardness was found 
to be only 37, which is not much above annealed hardness (31). 
This seems to me conclusive evidence that true hardening did not 
take place in “ specimen B” on its third quenching already described. 


sae Specimen B Analysis of Steel 
Q 140 AB — 0.008 
A af ee 
“E r00f NON Manganese 0.13 
i See \ \ A Carbon 0.54 
80 A KAS x Chromium 3.32 
60} Ss Ka WN Se Nickel 2.23 
FE ms ie SANA be 
3 20} RAS 
== 


above, although good spontaneous generation of heat followed the 
quenching. 

The three bars were again heated to complete decalescence and 
annealed in the furnace so as to leave all twelve bars of “ specimen 
B” in annealed condition. 

Fig. 1 is the curve sheet of “specimen B.” “Galvanometer de- 
flection” measures temperature difference, indicated thermo- 
electrically, between the steel under examination and a thermally 
equivalent quantity of water, contained separately in silvered Dewar 


7 


BRUSH—GENERATION OF HEAT IN STEEL. 357 


vacuum jars. Both the steel and the water were usually brought 
to the same room temperature before being placed in the calorimeter. 
Fifty-five scale divisions indicate a temperature difference of 1° C. 

The curve of normal cooling runs out of the figure at the upper 
left hand corner, and is easily distinguished from the others. This 
curve was obtained from a quantity of untreated steel equal in 
weight to “specimen B,” and warmed a few degrees above room 
temperature before being placed in the calorimeter. It shows the 
normal loss of heat due to imperfect thermal insulation alone, and 
is the basis of comparison for all the other curves. Obviously this 
curve may be plotted further to the right or left without impairing 
its validity ; and it may be plotted to intersect any of the other curves 
at any desired point, to facilitate study of the other curve at and 
near the intersection. For my own convenience I have constructed 
a metal template of the normal cooling curve, and find it most use- 
ful. Of course it is necessary that the base of the template be always 


_kept coincident with the base line of the curve sheet. 


The curve of “first hardening” shows the spontaneous genera- 
tion of heat which followed the first quenching at about 777°, the 
temperature of complete loss of magnetic susceptibility, after which 
the scleroscope hardness must have been about 74. 

The curve of second hardening, indicated by “2h,” shows con- 
siderably greater generation of heat. Quenching temperature and 
hardness were not observed; but it is known that the quenching 
temperature was much higher than 777°. 

The three curves thus far discussed were shown in the “second 
paper” already referred to, and the other curves here shown were 
subsequently plotted on the original curve sheet. 

The third curve showing spontaneous generation of heat is indi- 
cated by “ 3g,” meaning third quenching (not hardening). To make 
it clear that heat was generated in this case I have drawn the curve 
of normal cooling in a position for easy comparison (the upper ~ 
dotted line). The “3q” curve was described in the second paper, 
but not plotted. The quenching temperature in this case must have 
been slightly below 660°, and hardness only about 37. 

“Specimen B,” left in the annealed condition at the close of 


358 BRUSH—GENERATION OF HEAT IN STEEL. 


former experiments, with a hardness of 31, was next gradually 
heated to 554°, allowed to cool slowly to 532° and quenched. It 
was then purposely brought to a temperature slightly above room 
temperature and placed in the calorimeter. The progress of cooling 
is plotted in the curve “4q” (fourth quenching). For easy com- 
parison the normal cooling curve is drawn as a dotted line through 
the first station of the 4q curve. Beyond this point the 4q curve lies 
everywhere below the normal cooling curve, showing conclusively 
that the steel cooled abnormally fast. In other words, there was 
spontaneous disappearance or absorption of heat in the steel, most 
notable during the first few hours after quenching. Hardness was 
35-5. ? : 
The result of this experiment is remarkable, and was quite un- 
looked for. I had expected to find a. small generation of heat, if 
anything. 

The steel was next heated to 562° and quenched. The result of 
this treatment is shown in the curve “ 5g,” with its own dotted normal 
cooling curve. Absorption of heat is again indicated, even greater 
than in 4q but somewhat differently distributed. Hardness was 
now 34.5. 

Again the steel was heated, this time to 594°, and quenched. 
Again there was marked absorption of heat. The curve, 6g, was 
almost identical with 4q, and is not plotted, to avoid confusion of 
lines. Hardness was again 34.5. 

The seventh heating was carried to 667° for quenching. This 
- was a much larger temperature advance than in either of the pre- 
ceding experiments, and was above the temperature of the third 
quenching, which was followed by very considerable generation of 
heat. But now there was very considerable absorption of heat, as 
shown in curve “7g.” Hardness was now 34. 

It should be noted that the quenchings which were followed by 
absorption of heat were made at rising temperatures which had not 
been exceeded (except slightly in the case of 4q) since the steel was 
annealed. But in the case of third quenching the quenching tem- 
perature was a falling one, reached by cooling from the much higher 
temperature of decalescence. I can think of no other cause than 


- BRUSH—GENERATION OF HEAT IN STEEL. 359 


this for the radically different results of the third and seventh 
quenchings, which were made at substantially the same temperature. 
The temperature difference between complete loss and complete re- 
covery of magnetic susceptibility, 117°, was unusually large; but 
while this temperature drop brought about almost annealed softness, 
and full restoration of magnetic qualities, it did not very greatly 
affect that quality of the steel, whatever it is, which is responsible 
for the spontaneous generation of heat. Seemingly, one or more 
of the several unstable compounds or mixtures of the constituents 
of the steel which were formed at the upper critical temperature did 
not have time to wholly revert to normal annealed condition while 
the metal was cooling to and passing through recalescence. The 
time of this cooling was about half an hour. 

To confirm the curious result of the third quenching, 7. e., gen- 
eration of heat without hardening, the bars were quenched the eighth 
time as follows: Slowly heated (nearly two hours) to 819°, slowly 
cooled (nearly one hour) to 680° and quenched. During the heat- 
ing complete loss of magnetic susceptibility occurred at 779°, which 
was an excellent confirmation of the former finding (777°). But 
in cooling, full recovery of magnetic susceptibility came at 680°, 
which is 20° higher than before. The five intermediate treatments 


RéEsuME oF SPECIMEN B. 


Temperature of complete loss of magnetic susceptibility, 777° C. 
Temperature of complete recovery of magnetic susceptibility, 660/680. 


Quenching Temp. Hardness. Remarks. 

First hardening... .| About 777°C. 714 Good generation of heat 
Second “* .-| Much higher temp. — Much larger generation of heat 
Third quenching . . About 780°/660° 37 Fairly good ss x 

Bod aes 5 6s 31 ; 
Fourth eens: 554°/532° 35-5 | Good absorption of heat 
Fifth a 562 34-5 c se oe ca 
Sixth eI 594 34-5 se ae oe ae 
Seventh es 667 34 Se Ss 
Eighth . 819°/680° 47 “generation 


may, perhaps, account for this. 


And this higher quenching tem- 
perature may account for the somewhat greater hardness produced, 
which was later found to be 47, as against 37 for the third quench- 
ing (74 for true hardening above decalescent temperature). 


360 BRUSH—GENERATION OF HEAT IN STEEL. 


Following the eighth quenching there was good generation of 
heat, better than after third quenching, but differently distributed in 
time—not so rapid at first, but much better sustained (curve not 
plotted). This appears to confirm the third experiment. 

I cannot, thus far, offer any promising explanation of the absorp- 
tion of heat in the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh experiments. 

It may be seen that absorption was rapid during the first few 
hours, and nearly (not quite) ceased at the end of 50 or 60 hours; 
while generation was well marked up to 150 hours. In earlier ex- 
periments generation of heat was easily detected at the end of a 
month. 

As it seemed desirable to learn whether plain carbon steel would 
show, like the nickel-chromium steel, generation of heat without 
hardening, or absorption of heat when quenched at rising tempera- 


2. 

.§ 160 

& wh 

r \ Analysis of Steel 
~ Phosphorus 0.012 

ay \ x Sulphur —_0.016 

gy TOO on we 

Ss K 5% Silicon 0.21 

é 80 << 4N NS Manganese 0.31 

a . a S ae Carbon 1.14 

8 SAL 

g 20 ; eo DJ el Rego eee 

ree Cae Was ae Be: en 2 Sa weal OS iter meee SE Be 

10 20 30 40 50 70 80 100 120 140 
Hours After Hardening 


tures below the lower critical temperature, after annealing, the fol- 
lowing experiments were made with the carbon steel used for the 
first experiment described in the first paper of the series. The 
normal cooling curve and upper curve of heat generation shown in 
Fig. 2 are taken from that paper. 

Following is a résumé of the early and recent experiments with 
the carbon steel: 


CSS Se 


sig RPS SS 


eae 


BRUSH—GENERATION OF HEAT IN STEEL. 361 


First (Original) Hardening —Quenched at very high tempera- 
ture. Temperature and hardness not then observed. Large gen- 
eration of heat, as shown in upper curve of Fig. 2. Scleroscope 
hardness, recently observed, 79. 

_ Second (Recent) Hardening—Quenched at 802°, considerably 
above decalescence, but much lower than in first hardening. Com- 
plete loss of magnetic susceptibility occurred at 765°. Good gen- 
eration of heat, but very much less than in first, as shown by the 
lower curve of Fig. 2. For convenient comparison with this curve 
the normal cooling curve is shown as a dotted line appropriately 


located. Hardness was now 73. 


Third Quenching.—Heated to 815°, somewhat above preceding 
quenching temperature, allowed to cool slowly to 720° and quenched. 
This was a little below the temperature of complete recovery of 
magnetic susceptibility, which had occurred at 729°. Hardness was 
now only 28.5, and there was no generation of heat. (The nickel- 
chromium steel had shown good generation of heat under similar 
circumstances.) Note the small temperature difference, 36°, be- 
tween complete loss and complete recovery of magnetic susceptibility. 
Annealed by heating to 822°, to obliterate previous quenching 
effects, and cooling slowly in furnace. Hardness was now 25.5. 

Fourth Quenching —Heated slowly, from annealed condition, to 
633° (considerably below the lower critical temperature) and 
quenched. Hardness was again 28.5, and there was no trace of 
absorption of heat. (The nickel-chromium steel had shown good 
absorption of heat under similar circumstances. ) 

Fifth Quenching—Heated slowly to 732°, just above the tem- 
perature of complete recovery of magnetic susceptibility, and 
quenched. No generation or absorption of heat, nor change in 
hardness (28.5). 

Clearly, the carbon steel showed none of the excentricities of the 
nickel-chromium steel when quenched below the hardening tempera- 
ture. But when quenched a little above, as well as far beyond this 
temperature, they behaved very much alike. 

While considering plain carbon steel, I thought it worth while to 
observe heat generation in some steel (or white cast iron) very 
high in combined carbon, and very pure otherwise, which I happened 


362 BRUSH—GENERATION OF HEAT IN STEEL. 


to have in my laboratory. Fig. 3 shows the composition of this 
metal, which is hard and very brittle. The carbon is all combined, 
and remains so after heating and quenching. 
An induction experiment with a large lump of the metal showed: 
Temperature of complete loss of magnetic susceptibility 757°. 


\ 

§ 100\yos 

wy Analysis of Stee 
a 80 X Phosphorus 0.006 
“ho \ Sulphur — 0.010 
& a Silicon 0.000 
5 40 nt a Manganese 0.000 
B 20 el ei Carbon  — 3.480 

|/—— 
ee ee 
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 
Hours After Hardening 
Fic. 3. 


Temperature of complete recovery of magnetic susceptibility 
704°: | 
Slowly heated many fragments, aggregating in weight that of the 
usual twelve bars of steel, to 906° and quenched. 

Very moderate generation of heat followed the quenching, as 
shown in Fig. 3, and it was much less persistent than usual, as indi- 
cated by its small value at the end of 150 hours. Hardness was 76. 

The behavior of this specimen of steel, or white cast iron, was not 
thought sufficiently encouraging to warrant further experiments 
with it. 

For a general check on the performance of the apparatus, twelve 
half inch round bars of Swedish charcoal iron, of the aggregate 
weight of the steel usually employed, were slowly heated to 960° 
and quenched. Complete loss of magnetic susceptibility had oc- 
curred at 801°. The bars were warmed about three degrees just 
before being placed in the calorimeter. 

There was no trace of heat generation following the quenching. 
Indeed, the curve of cooling followed the normal cooling curve with 
such fidelity that nowhere did they differ as much as the width of 


BRUSH—GENERATION OF HEAT IN STEEL. 363 


line. This was very gratifying in view of the fact that 
for the normal cooling curve were made more than 
\rs-ago, and checked only once since that time. 

rdness was 18.5. 

in heated above decalescence and annealed by cooling in 


ss remained 18.5, showing that the previous heating and 
Mad no effect whatever on the hardness of be pre- 


generation and absorption of heat in recently 
nickel-chromium steel, would be a better descriptive title 
esent paper ; but the subject matter is so intimately related 
the former papers, that it is thought best to retain the 


hes ¢ interesting ; phenomena. ‘ 


THE EFFECTS OF RACE INTERMINGLING. 


By C. B. DAVENPORT. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 


‘The problem of the effects of race intermingling may well inter- 
est us of America, when a single state, like New York, of 
9,000,000 inhabitants contains 840,000 Russians and Finns, 720,000 
Italians, 1,000,000 Germans, 880,000 Irish, 470,000 Austro-Hun- 
garians, 310,000 of Great Britain, 125,000 Canadians (largely 
French), and 90,000 Scandinavians. All figures include those born 
abroad or born of two foreign-born parents. Nearly two thirds 
of the population of New York State is foreign-born or of foreign 
or mixed parentage. Even in a state like Connecticut it is doubtful 
if 2 per cent. of the population are of pure Anglo-Saxon stock for 
six generations of ancestors in all lines. Clearly a mixture of 
European races is going on in America on a colossal scale. 

Before proceeding further let us inquire into the meaning of 
“race.” The modern geneticists’ definition differs from that of the 
systematist or old fashioned breeder. A race is a more or less pure 
bred “group” of individuals that differs from other groups by at 
least one character, or, strictly, a genetically connected group whose 
germ plasm is characterized by a difference, in one or more genes, 
from other groups. Thus a blue-eyed Scotchman belongs to a dif- 
ferent race from some of the dark Scotch. Strictly, as the term is 
employed by geneticists they may be said to belong to different 
elementary species. 

Defining race in this sense of elementary species we have to con- 
sider our problem: What are the results of race intermingling, or 
miscegenation? To this question no general answer can be given. 
A specific answer can, however, be given to questions involving 
specific characters. For example, if the question be framed: what 
are the results of hybridization between a blue-eyed race (say 

364 


DAVENPORT—EFFECTS OF RACE INTERMINGLING. 365 


Swede) and a brown-eyed race (say South Italian)? The answer 
is that, since-brown eye is dominant over blue eye, all the children 
will have brown eyes; and if two such children inter-marry brown 
and blue eyes will appear among their children in the ratio of 3 to I. 

Again, if one parent be white and the other a full-blooded negro 
then the skin color of the children will be about half as dark as that 
of the darker parent; and the progeny of two such mulattoes will be 
white, 4, 1, 34 and full black in the ratio of 1:4:6:4:1. 

Again, if one parent belong to a tall race—like the Scotch or some 
Irish—and the other to a short race, like the South Italians, then all 
the progeny will tend to be intermediate in stature. If two such 
intermediates intermarry then very short, short, medium, ‘tall and 
very tall offspring may result in proportions that can not be pre- 
cisely given, but about which one can say that the mediums are the 
commonest and the more extreme classes are less frequented, the 
more they depart from mediocrity. In this case of stature we do 
not have to do with merely one factor as in eye color, or two as in 
negro skin color, but probably many. That is why all statures seem 
to form a continuous curve of frequency with only one modal point, 
that of the median class. 

What is true of physical traits is no less true of mental. The 
offspring of an intellectually well developed man of good stock 
and a mentally somewhat inferior woman will tend to show a fair 
to good mentality; but the progeny of the intermarriage of two 
such will be normal and feeble-minded in the proportion of about 
3to1. If one parent be of a strain that is highly excitable and liable 
to outbursts of temper while the other is calm then probably all the 
children will be excitable, or half of them, if the excitable parent is 
not of pure excitable stock. Thus, in the intellectual and emotional 
spheres the traits are no less “ inherited” than in the physical sphere. 

But I am aware that I have not yet considered the main problem 
of the consequence of race intermixture, considering races as dif- 
fering by a number of characters. First, I have to say that this 
subject has not been sufficiently investigated ; but we may, by infer- 
ence from studies that have been made, draw certain conclusions. 
Any well-established abundant race is probably well adjusted to its 
conditions and its parts and functions are harmoniously adjusted. 


866 DAVENPORT—EFFECTS OF RACE INTERMINGLING. 


Take the case of the Leghorn hen. Its function is to lay eggs all 
the year through and never to waste time in becoming broody. The 
brooding instinct is, indeed, absent; and for egg farms and those in 
which incubators are used such birds are the best type. The Brahma 
fowl, on the other hand, is only a fair layer; it becomes broody two 
or three times a year and makes an excellent mother. It is well 
adapted for farms which have no incubators or artificial brooders. . 
Now I have crossed these two races; the progeny were intermediate 
in size. The hens laid fairly well for a time and then became 
broody and in time hatched some chicks. For a day or two they 
mothered the chicks, and then began to roost at night in the trees 
and in a few days began to lay again, while the chicks perished at 
night of cold and neglect. The hybrid was a failure both as egg. 
layer and as a brooder of chicks. The instincts and functions of the 
hybrids were not harmoniously adjusted to each other. 

Turning to man, we have races of large tall men, like the Scotch, 
which are long-lived and whose internal organs are well adapted to 
care for the large frames. In the South Italians, on the other hand, 
we have small short bodies, but these, too, have well adjusted’ 
viscera. But the hybrids of these or similar two races may be 
expected to yield, in the second generation, besides the parental types 
also children with large frame and inadequate viscera—children of 
whom it is said every inch over 5’ 10” is an inch of danger; chil- 
dren of insufficient circulation. On the other hand, there may 
appear children of short stature with too large circulatory appa- 
ratus. Despite the great capacity that the body has for self adjust- 
ment it fails to overcome the bad hereditary combinations. 

Again it seems probable, as dentists with whom I have spoken on 
the subject agree, that many cases of overcrowding or wide separa- 
tion of teeth are due to a lack of harmony between size of jaw and 
size of teeth—probably due to a union of a large-jawed, large- 
toothed race and a small-jawed, small-toothed race. Nothing is 
more striking than the regular dental arcades commonly seen in the 
skulls of inbred native races and the irregular dentations of many 
children of the tremendously hybridized American. 

Not only physical but also mental and temperamental incompati- 
bilities may be a consequence of hybridization. For example, one 


oe ete 
am ri of ogi 
“¥ iw. 
= . 


DAVENPORT—EFFECTS OF RACE INTERMINGLING. 367 


often sees in mulattoes an ambition and push combined with intel- 


lectual inadequacy which makes the unhappy hybrid dissatisfied 
with his lot and a nuisance to others. 

To sum up, then, miscegenation commonly spells disharmony— 
disharmony of physical, mental and temperamental qualities and 
this means also disharmony with environment. A hybridized people 
are a badly put together people and a dissatisfied, restless, ineffective 
people. One wonders how much of the exceptionally high death rate 
in middle life in this country is due to such bodily maladjustments ; 
and how much of our crime and insanity is due to mental and tem- 
peramental friction. 

This country is in for hybridization on the greatest scale that the 
world has ever seen. . 

May we predict its consequences? At least we may hazard a 
prediction and suggest a way of diminishing the evil. Professor 
Flinders-Petrie in his essay on “ Revolutions of Civilization” sug- 
gests that the rise and fall of nations is to be accounted for in this 
fashion. He observes that the countries that developed the highest 
type of civilization occur on peninsulas—Egypt surrounded on two 
sides by water and on two sides by the desert and by tropical heat, 
Greece, and Rome on the Italian peninsula. It is conceded that such 
peninsulas are centers of inbreeding. Flinders-Petrie concluded 
that a period of prolonged inbreeding leads to social stratification. 
In such a period a social harmony is developed, the arts and sciences 
flourish but certain consequences of inbreeding follow, particularly, 
the spread of feeble-mindedness, epilepsy, melancholia and sterility. 
These weaken the nation, which then succumbs to the pressure of 
stronger, but less civilized, neighbors. Foreign hordes sweep in; 
miscegenation takes place, disharmonies appear, the arts and sci- 
ences languish, physical and mental vigor are increased in one part 
of the population and diminished in another part and finally after 
selection has done its beneficent work a hardier, more vigorous 
people results. In them social stratification in time follows and a 
high culture reappears; and so on in cycles. The suggestion is an 
interesting one and there is no evident biological objection to it. 
Indeed the result of hybridization after two or three generations is 
great variability. This means that some new combinations will be 


3868 DAVENPORT—EFFECTS OF RACE INTERMINGLING. 


formed that are better than the old ones; also others that are worse. 
If selective annihilation is permitted to do its beneficent work, then 
the worse combinations will tend to die off early. If now new inter- 
mixing is stopped and eugenical mating ensues, consciously or un- 
consciously, especially in the presence of inbreeding, strains may 
arise that are superior to any that existed in the unhybridized races. 
This, then, is the hope for our country ; if immigration is restricted, 
if selective elimination is permitted, if the principle of the inequality 
of generating strains be accepted and if eugenical ideals prevail in 
mating, then strains with new and better combinations of traits 
may arise and our nation take front rank in culture among the 
nations of ancient and modern times. 


Cotp Sprinc Harzor, N. Y., 
April 13, 1917. 


a 


MEDILA/AVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES AND 
THEIR STUDY SINCE 1883. 


By T. F. CRANE. 


(Read April 12, 1917.) 
“*. 


“Just thirty-four years ago (March 16, 1883) I had the honor of 


_ presenting~to the American Philosophical Society a paper *on 


“ Medizval Sermon-Books and Stories.” The hospitable reception 
of this paper determined the subsequent scholarly career of the 
writer, and opened up a new field of investigation to the student of 
medizval culture. It has seemed to me not inappropriate at this 
time to express to the Society my grateful appreciation of its en- 
couragement, and to trace as briefly as possible the progress of 
studies in this field since the presentation of the paper in question. 
That the influence of this paper Was so much greater in Europe 
than in this country may be explained by the difficulty of obtaining 
materials for such studies in American libraries. The incunabula 
used by me in the preparation of my paper were collected in an 
unusually short time, and I did not make use of European libraries 
until after 1883.1 


1The paper was reviewed at length in the following scientific journals: 
Literarisches Centralblatt, 1883, No. 12 (E. Stengel) ; Zeitschrift fiir deutsches 
Alterthum, N. F. (1884), XVI., 286.(P. Strauch); Giornale storico della 
litteratura italiana, IV. (1884), p. 269; Romania, XII. (1883), p. 416; 
Mélusine, Il. (1885), No. 23 (H. Gaidoz). I mentioned my predecefiiis 
in the field, Thomas Wright and Karl Goedeke, and should have given greater 
credit to Hermann Oesterley, who in his editions of Pauli’s “Schimpf und 
Ernst,” 1866, Kirchhof’s “ Wendunmuth,” 1869, and “Gesta Romanorum,” 
1872, showed himself a master of this field of study. But, unfortunately, his 
erudition is confined to the comparative notes and not displayed in any gen- 
eral work. His innumerable references to medieval sermon-books and stories 
were of great use to me in all my studies. The impetus to my work was 
given by Goedeke’s article, “ Asinus vulgi” in Benfey’s “Orient und Occi- 
dent,” 1861, and Thomas Wright’s mention of the subject in the introduction 
to “A Selection of Latin Stories,” Percy Society, Vol. VIII., 1842. I do not 
know how I overlooked this writer’s essay “On the History and Transmission 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, Y, JULY 13, 1917. 


3870 CRANE—MEDIZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


The history of the study of this field is an interesting one and 
goes back a little over a century. In 1812, Jacob and Wilhelm 
Grimm, then obscure officials of the royal library at Cassel, pub- 
lished the first volume of their immortal “Kinder- und Haus- 
marchen,” which was completed three years later. Fairy tales had 
been collected much earlier in Italy and France, but the Grimms’ 
collection was the first one made by scholars for a scientific pur- 
pose. The editors were especially interested in finding that their 
stories contained features in common with the Northern mythology. 
As their investigations broadened, however, they discovered that 


of Popular Stories” in the second volume, pp. 51-81, of “ Essays on Subjects 
connected with the Literature, Popular Superstitions, and History of England 
in the Middle Ages,” London, 1846. The use of illustrative stories in ser- 
mons, and collections of these stories for the use of preachers, are mentioned 
at some length. The “ Promptuarium Exemplorum,” and John of Bromyard 
are named among others. It was not until recently that my attention was 
called to what is probably the earliest mention of Jacques de Vitry and the 
use of exempla. It occurs in F. W. V. Schmidt’s edition of the “ Disciplina 
clericalis,” Berlin, 1827. In speaking of the story of Aristotle and Alexander’s 
wife, Schmidt says, p. 106, “ Zuerst aber brachte ihn Jacobus de Vitriaco zu 
Anfange des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts aus dem Morgenlande. Als Bischof 
von Ptolemais war er besonders geeignet zum Vermittler des Orients und 
Occidents, indem er seine letzten Tage in Rome verlebte.” The story in ques- . 
tion Schmidt quotes from Discipulus (Herolt), “Promptuarium Exemplorum,” 
“ut dicit magister Jacobus de Vitriaco.” This story is not in the “ Sermones 
vulgares,” but is in the “Sermones communes” recently edited by Frenken 
and Greven. Schmidt cites the “ Speculum Exemplorum” several times and 
frequently mentions Herolt, saying of his “ Promptuarium,” “Eine uner- 
schopfliche Schatzkammer von geistlichen und moralischen Historien und 
Marchen. Wahrscheinlich bestimmt als Anweisung fiir Kindererzieher zu 
einer belehrenden Unterhaltung.” After Wright and Goedeke there was no 
general reference to the subject until the histories of French and German 
preaching by Lecoy de la Marche, 1868, and Cruel (1879). The latter was 
especially useful on account of its detailed description of the materials em- 
ployed by German preachers. No conspectus of the entire field appeared 
until 1890, when the writer’s “ Jacques de Vitry” was published at London 
for the Folk-Lore Society. The introduction to this work may be considered 
an enlargement of the paper presented to the American Philosophical Society. 
My own library had grown extensively in the seven years which had elapsed 
between 1883 and 1890, and I had been able to consult European libraries on 
several occasions. Subsequent works in this field have modified slightly 
some of my statements in the introduction to “ Jacques de Vitry,” but I am 
not aware that I overlooked any important materials accessible before 1890, 
with the exception of a few works which I shall examine in the course of this 
supplementary paper. 


CRANE—MEDI4EVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 371 


these features were contained in the popular tales of the other na- 
tions of Europe. The Grimms were essentially philologists and ap- 
plied to their marchen the methods of comparative philology which 
had grown out of the revival of Sanscrit studies by Sir William 
Jones, Franz Bopp and Theodor Benfey. 

‘The theory that the popular tales of Europe were related as 
were the languages in which they were narrated, both going back 
to a period in which the Aryan peoples were supposed to have had 
a common language and mythology, broke down, so far as the popu- 
lar tales were concerned, when they were found to be essentially the 
same as those of non-Aryan peoples, and the favorite theory of dif- 
fusion from India in historic times was weakened by the discovery 
of popular tales in the tombs of ancient Egypt. 

The question of the origin of popular tales has from the first 
been connected with that of mythology, and the further question of 
their diffusion has depended largely upon the view of their origin. 
If the popular tales were part of the mythology of the Aryan na- 
tions, then their diffusion could be explained by the dispersion of 
those nations into the different parts of Europe. 

If, on the other hand, popular tales were merely a branch of 
entertaining literature, largely of Oriental origin, then in order to 
explain their extraordinary diffusion in Europe and elsewhere, it 
was necessary to discover the channels of transmission, literary or 

oral, which conveyed these tales over such an amazing expanse of 
territory. 

The theory of the origin of popular tales in India and their trans- 
mission, largely through literary works, in historic times, has always 
been a favorite one in Germany, owing chiefly to the epoch-making 
translation of the “ Pantschatantra” by Theodor Benfey, the intro- 
duction to which connected the tales of India with those of Europe. 

In England, at a later date, the theory of the origin of popular 
tales has been connected with the anthropological studies of Tylor, 
Frazer and Lang, and again become a part of the mythology of 
primitive races. Before, however, this latter explanation came into 
vogue, the interest in the subject was almost wholly confined to the 
question of the means of transmission. These means, it was 
claimed, were largely literary and consisted of collections of Indian 


872 CRANE—MEDIZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


stories translated into the various languages of Europe where they 
enjoyed extraordinary popularity during the middle ages. It was 
admitted that these tales were also introduced into Europe by oral 
transmission on the part of travellers, and later by those engaged in 
the Crusades. . 

The earliest mention of a peculiar means of oral transmission, 
that of preachers in their sermons, was made by Thomas Wright 
(1810-1877), the distinguished English antiquarian, in the introduc- 
tion to his “ Selection of Latin Stories from Manuscripts of the Thir- 
teenth and Fourteenth Centuries,” Percy Society, Vol. VIII., London, 
1842. The collection contains 149 tales from various MSS. in the 
British Museum. Of these the editor says in his Introduction, p. vi, 
“No manuscripts are of more frequent occurrence than collections of 
tales like those printed in the present volume; and we owe their 
preservation in this form to a custom which drew upon the monks 
the ridicule of the early reformers. The preachers of the thirteenth, 
fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries attempted to illustrate their texts, 
and to inculcate their docrines, by fables and stories, which they 
moralized generally by attaching to them mystical significations. 
These illustrations they collected from-every source which presented 
itself, the more popular the better, because they more easily attracted | 
the attention of people accustomed to hear them. Sometimes they 
moralized the jests and satirical anecdotes current among the people 
—sometimes they adopted the fabliaux and metrical pieces of the 
jongleurs, or minstrels—and not infrequently they abridged the 
plots of more extensive romances. Each preacher made collections 
for his own use—he set down in Latin the stories which he gath- 
ered from the mouths of his acquaintance, selected from the collec- 
tions which had already been made by others, or turned into Latin, 
tales which he found in a different dress. . . . I am inclined to 
think that the period at which these collections began to be made 
was the earlier part of the thirteenth century, and that to that cen- 
tury we owe the compilation in Latin of most of these tales, though 
the greater number of manuscripts may be ascribed to the four- 
teenth.” 

Wright mentions John of Bromyard and the “ Promptuarium 
Exemplorum” and dwells on the importance of these tales for the 


CRANE—MEDIZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 373 


light they throw on the private life and domestic manners of “ our 
forefathers.’ Thirty-six of Wright’s stories are from the Harley 
MS. 463 (fourteenth century), the source of which is not indicated, 
_ but which really is an extensive collection of the exempla of Jacques 
de Vitry. Wright was unaware of the source of these stories and 
mentions the name of the famous preacher but once, in a note to 
story Ixxxiii, “ Promptuarium Exemplorum (quoted from Jacobus 
de Vitriaco).” 

A few years later Wright returned to the subject in an essay 
“On the History and Transmission of Popular Stories” in “ Essays 
on Subjects Connected with the Literature, Popular Superstitions, 
and History of England in the Middle Ages,” London, 1846, Vol. 
IL. pp. 51-81, Essay xii. The writer dwells on the introduction 
into Europe of eastern stories by the jongleurs (citing as illustra- 
tions the stories of the “ Hunchback,” “ Weeping Dog,” etc.). He 
mentions the great Oriental story-books and says, p. 61, “ Their 
popularity was increased by another circumstance which has tended, 
more than anything else, to preserve a class of the medieval stories, 
which were less popular as fabliaux, down to the present time. In 
the twelfth century there arose in the church a school of theologians, 
who discovered in everything a meaning symbolical of the moral 
duties of man, or of the deeper mysteries of religion. . . . In the 
thirteenth century these stories with moralizations were already 
used extensively by the monks in their sermons, and each preacher 
made collections in writing for his own private use. . . . The mass 
of these stories are of the kind we have described above, and are 
evidently of Eastern origin ; but there are also some which are mere 
medizval applications of classic stories and abridged romances, while 
others are anecdotes taken from history, and stories founded on the 
superstitions and manners of the people of western Europe. Not 
only were these private collections of tales with moralizations, as 
we have just observed, very common in the fourteenth century, but 
several industrious writers undertook to compile and publish larger 
and more carefully arranged works for the use of preachers, who 
might not. be so capable of making selections for themselves. 
Among these the most remarkable are the * Promptuarium Exem- 


374 CRANE—MEDIZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


plorum,’ the ‘Summa Predecantium’ of John of Bromyard, the 
_ ‘Repertorium Morale’ of Peter Berchorius, and some others.” 

The subject received no further attention until 1861, when an 
important article by Karl Goedeke (1814-1887), the famous his- 
torian of German literature, was published in Benfey’s periodical, 
Orient und Occident, Vol. I. (Gottingen, 1861), pp. 531-560. The 
article in question, “ Asinus vulgi,” is a study of the origin and 
diffusion of the well-known fable of the father and son who ride 
their ass alternately without satisfying the critical public (La Fon- 
taine, III. 1, “ Le meunier, son fils et l’€ane”). This fable is found 
in the “Scala Celi” of Johannes Junior (Gobius), Ulm, 1480, fol. 
135, where it is introduced by the words: “Refert Jacobus de 
Vitriaco.” It is a curious fact that this particular fable, which led 
Goedeke to speak of Jacques de Vitry, is not found in the two col- 
lections of sermons belonging to that prelate, but is one of the many 
stories in circulation attributed to him on what authority we do not 
know. In the article in question Goedeke emphasizes the impor- 
tance of Bromyard’s work: “ Kaum irgend ein andres Werk des 
Mittelalters ist so reich an Fabeln und Geschichten als das seinige, 
und kaum ein anderes von dieser Bedeutung so wenig gekannt.” A 
little later he says: “ Die Exempla, auf die sich Bromyard beruft, 
sind kein aufs geratewohl gebrauchter Ausdruck, sondern ein wirk- 
lich vorhandenes fiir die Verbreitung der orientalischen Fabeln und 
Geschichten ins Abendland sehr wichtiges Werk, das Speculum 
Exemplorum des Jacobus de Vitriaco.” He calls Jacques de Vitry: 
“einen der Hauptcanale, durch welche orientalische Sagen nach 
Europa kamen.” Goedeke then gives some twenty-five exrempla 
from the Harley MS. 463, used by Wright in his “Latin Stories,” 
which by comparison with the stories in the “ Scala Celi” is shown 
to contain many exempla by Jacques de Vitry. He thus shows the 
importance of the mysterious “ Speculum Exemplorum” of Jacques 
de Vitry, a veritable “ Verlorene Handschrift,” for which he had 
sought in vain. It is strange that it did not occur to Goedeke to 
examine the sermons of Jacques de Vitry, the existence of which at 
Paris and elsewhere he knew. 

In his later book, ‘‘ Every-Man, Homulus und Hekastus,” Hann- 
over, 1865, he returns to the subject and says: “ Einen der Haupt- 


CRANE—MEDIZ:VAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 375 


kanale, durch welche die Sagen des Orients nach Europa flossen, hat 
die Forschung bisher-fast unbeachtet gelassen. Es sind die kirch- 
lichen Schriftsteller des Mittelalters, zum Theil auch die dlteren 
Patres, die fiir die Kirchen- und Dogmengeschichte nicht vorzugs- 
weise von Wichtigkeit erschienen.” He does not have occasion to 
mention Jacques de Vitry, but cites a large number of medieval 
writers containing exempla, and displays a wide knowledge of indi- 
vidual authors, but nowhere gives any general view of the subject. 

In 1868 appeared A. Lecoy de la Marche’s “ La chaire francaise 
au moyen age” (second edition corrected and enlarged, Paris, 
1886), in which was given for the first time an adequate account of 
the use of exempla in French sermons of the thirteenth century, 
and of the importance of Jacques de Vitry’s “ Sermones vulgares ” 
for this field of study. A similar work dealing with the twelfth 
century, “La chaire francaise au XIle siécle d’aprés les manuscrits,” 
was published by the Abbé L. Bourgoin in 1879. This period is not 
so interesting for the study of erempla as the succeeding century, 
when the systematic use of exempla in sermons began to prevail. 
In the same year appeared R. Cruel’s “Geschichte der deutschen 
Predigt im Mittelalter,’” Detmold, 1879. This admirable work, to 
which I was greatly indebted in my paper on “ Medieval Sermon- 
Books and Stories,” is especially full in its treatment of homiletic 
treatises.” 

Although the use of illustrative stories in sermons was treated 
at some length in the three works just mentioned, the first collection 
of such stories to be published was not taken from sermons, but 
from a homiletic treatise for the use of preachers, the “ Tractatus 
de diversis materiis predicabilibus ordinatis et distinctis in septem 
partes, secundum septem dona Spiritus sancti,” by Etienne de Bour- 
bon, a Dominican who died at Lyons about 1261.3 The extracts 

2 A few years earlier than Cruel’s work appeared Wilhelm Wackernagel’s 
“ Altdeutsche Predigten und Gebete aus Handschriften,” Basel, 1876. He 
mentions Honorius of Autun’s “Speculum Ecclesiz,” but not the exempla 
contained in it. He alludes also to symbolism and “ Predigtmarlein,” although 
very briefly, and names Herolt and Bromyard alone in their class of writings. 
Another German work in this field appeared in the same year as my paper: 
“Kulturgeschichtliches aus deutschen Predigten des Mittelalters,” by Dr. H. 


Rinn, Hamburg, 1883. He mentions “ Predigtmarlein” very briefly. 
8 This statement that Lecoy de la Marche’s edition of Etienne de Bourbon 


376 CRANE—MEDIZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


from this work published by A. Lecoy de la Marche in 1877 for the 
Société de l’Histoire de France under the title: “ Anecdotes his- 
toriques, légendes et apologues, tirés du recueil inédit d’Etienne de 
Bourbon, dominicain du XIIle siécle,” gave a great impulse to the 
study of exempla. The connection of the author with Jacques de 
Vitry, many of whose exempla he has preserved in his treatise, and 
the interesting character of the stories themselves, combined to 
make the book attractive and to increase the interest in the subject.* 

The only other collection of erempla published before 1890 was 
the “ Recull de eximplis. Biblioteca catalana,” Barcelona, 1881-88. 
I was able to use the first volume only for my paper on “ Medizval 
Sermon-Books and Stories,” but in my introduction to Jacques de 
Vitry I had the second volume also and was fortunate enough to 
discover the original of the collection, which was the “ Alphabetum 
narrationum,” formerly ascribed to Etienne de Besancon, but prob- 
ably by Arnold of Liége.® 

Such was the condition of studies in this field when my edition 
of the exempla of Jacques de Vitry was published for the Folk- 
Lore Society at London in 1890. It is the purpose of this paper to 


is the first collection of exempla to be published in modern times should be 
modified somewhat in view of Thomas Wright’s “ Latin Stories,” 1842, which 
were taken from “ Jacques de Vitry” (although Wright did not know this), 
and from the homiletic treatises and collections of Bromyard, Herolt, etc. 
The collection of “ Predigtmarlein,” by Pfeiffer, published in 1858 in the 
Germania, III., 407-436, and the extracts, one hundred in number, from 
the German “ Seelentrost,” published by K. Frommann in “ Die deutschen 
Mundarten,” Nurnberg, 1854, and, finally, the complete Old-Swedish transla- 
tion of this work, edited by G. E. Klemming, Stockholm, 1871-73, are all 
anterior to Lecoy de la Marche’s “ Etienne de Bourbon.” These works, how- 
ever, with the exception of Wright’s were little known, and were overlooked 
by me in my paper of 1883, and even in my later introduction to “ Jacques 
de Vitry.” 

4In 1889 Lecoy de la Marche published a popular work, “ L’Esprit de nos 
aieux. Anecdotes et bons mots tirés des manuscrits du XIII* siécle,” con- 
taining one hundred and fifty stories translated from the exempla of “Jacques - 
de Vitry” (41), “ Etienne de Bourbon” (73), and others. 

5 See Herbert, “ Catalogue of Romances,” p. 423, and an article by the 
same writer, “The Authorship of the Alphabetum Narrationum” in The 
Library, N. S., VI. (1905), pp. 94-101. An early English translation of this 
famous collection was published by Mrs. M. M. Banks for the Early English 
Text Society, Original Series, 126-7, 1904-5, “An Alphabet of Tales.” The 
third volume of notes, etc., has not yet appeared. 


CRANE—MEDIZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 377 


consider briefly the works produced since that date and to estimate 
the results of study in this field.* I shall divide my materials into 
treatises on exempla in particular localities, collections of exempla, 
and works containing selections of exempla (anthologies). All 
these I shall consider so far as possible in chronological order.? 
The unity of the Church and its official language produced 
throughout the Middle Ages a cosmopolitanism which has never pre- 
vailed again since the Reformation. The preachers in all the coun- 
tries of Europe used the same homiletic treatises and drew their 
illustrative stories from the same sources. It is true that the sys- 
tematic use of exempla arose in France and that the influence of 
' Jacques de Vitry and Etienne de Bourbon was very great; but 


6T have already indicated some of the material which I overlooked in my 
paper of 1883 and my introduction to “Jacques de Vitry’s” exempla, 1890. 
It may be well to recapitulate here these omissions and to correct some errors. 
Of collections of exempla accessible before 1883, I overlooked the German 
“Selentrost” (in “ Die deutschen Mundarten,” 1854, and Geffcken’s “ Bilder- 
catechismus des funfzehnten Jahrhunderts,” 1855), as well as the Old-Swedish 

version edited by G. E. Klemming and printed at Stockholm, 1871-73. I was 
wrong in ‘supposing that the work of Arnoldus cited by Herolt referred to 
the “Gnotosolitos sive Speculum conscientie” by Arnoldus Geilhoven of 
Rotterdam. Mr. Herbert in his “ Catalogue of Romances,” p. 437, points out 
my mistake and shows that the work in question was a treatise on canon law, 
and that the Arnoldus cited by Herolt was probably the author of the “ Alpha- 
betum narrationum,” long ascribed to Etienne de Besangon. 

Frenken in his “ Jacques de Vitry,” to be mentioned further on, mentions 
my omission of two famous German preachers, Geiler von Kaisersberg and 
Abraham a Sancta Clara, who by their extensive use of exempla contributed 
greatly to the diffusion of these stories. Some of the statements in my intro- 
duction require modification in view of materials discovered and printed sub- 
sequently, and I shall consider these in the course of this paper. 

7 As I must necessarily be brief in this paper, I would refer for more 
lengthy reviews of certain of the works about to be mentioned to articles by 
me in the following journals: Modern Philology, Vol. IX., No. 2, IQII, pp. 225- 
237, “Medizval Story-Books,” review of Herbert’s “ Catalogue of Romances,” 
ibid., Vol. X., No. 3, 1913, pp. 301-316, “ New Analogues of Old Tales,” review 
of J. Klapper’s “Exempla aus Handschriften des Mittelalters,” Romanic 
Review, Vol. VI., No. 2, 1915, pp. 219-236, “ Recent Collections of Exempla,” 
review of A. Hilka’s “Neue Beitrige zur Erzahlungsliteratur des Mittelal- 
ters,” J. Th. Welter’s “ Speculum Laicorum,” and J. Greven’s and G. Frenken’s 
“Die Exempla des Jakob von Vitry ”. and Vol. XXXII. No. 1, 1917, pp. 
26-40, review of J. Klapper’s “ Erzahlungen des Mittelalters,” ibid., Modern 
Language Notes, Vol. XXVII., No. 7, 1912, pp. 213-216, “ The Exemplum in 
England,” review of J. A. Mosher’s book. 


878 CRANE—MEDIZZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


Caesarius of Heisterbach belongs to Germany and Odo of Cheriton 
was an Englishman. The use of exempla by French and German 
preachers has been fully treated by Lecoy de la Marche and R. Cruel 
in the works mentioned above. The history of exempla in the Neth- 
erlands during the Middle Ages is the subject of a book by Dr. C. 
G. N. De Vooys: “ Middelnederlandsche Legenden en Exempelen. . 
Bijdrage tot de Kennis van de Prozalitteratoor en het Volksgeloof 
der Middeleeuwen,” S-Gravenhage, 1900, 8vo, pp. xi, 362. The 
plan of Dr. De Vooys’s book is as follows: The first chapter is de- 
voted to the principal sources of exempla: the “ Vite Patrum,” Greg- 
ory’s “ Dialogues,” the “ Exordiuum magnum ordinis Cisterciensis,” 
Cesarius’s “‘ Dialogus miraculorum,” Thomas Cantimpratensis’s 
“Bonum universale de apibus,” Vincent of Beauvais’s “ Speculum 
historiale,” and Voragine’s “ Legenda aurea.” The second chapter 
treats of the rise, development and spread of exempla, and discusses 
briefly the use of exempla in sermons and their collection in homi- 
letic treatises. The following nine chapters treat of exempla classi- 
fied according to personages, etc.: the Virgin, Jesus, the Devil, the 
Jews, the Sacrament, Prayer and Confession, and the “ Quotuor 
novissima” (Death, the Judgment, Hell, and Heaven). The last 
three chapters are devoted to the allegorical element in exrempla, 
the influence of mysticism in erempla, and moralizing exempla. 

Dr. De Vooys’s book is a convenient résumé of the whole sub- 
ject, indeed, almost the only one thus far, and he cites a large number 
of Dutch works, printed and manuscript. The most important of 
these are certain fifteenth-century treatises containing erempla 
sporadically. They are interesting only as showing the persistence 
of the genre and its wide diffusion. 

To trace the history of “ The Exemplum in the Early Religious 
and Didactic Literature of England” (New York: The Columbia 
University Press, 1911, 8vo, pp. xi, 150) is the task which Mr. J. H. 
Mosher has undertaken. The exemplum began its course in Eng- 
land in the early translations of Gregory’s “ Dialogues” and the in- 
fluence of his “‘ Homilies.” Later, some of the most important col- 
lections of exempla were made by Englishmen, such as Odo of 
Cheriton, Holkot, Bromyard, the uncertain author of the “ Speculum 
Laicorum,” etc. The other classes of exempla literature are equally 


CRANE—MEDIZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 379 


well represented, and Nicole de Bozon’s “‘ Contes moralizés,” William 
of Wadington’s “ Manuel des Pechiez” and its translation by Robert 
of Brunne, “ Handlyng Synne,” are among the most important works 
of their kind. Two of the works treated rather inadequately by Mr. 
Mosher have been published since my “ Jacques de Vitry,” and I may 
consider them here very briefly out of their chronological order. 
They are: “Jacob’s Well” (ed. Brandeis, Early English Text So- 
ciety, No. 115, 1900) and John Mirk’s “ Festial” (ed. Erbe, E. E. 
T. Soc. Extra Series, No. 96, 1905). The latter, which is earlier in 
date, was written by a member of the Augustinian canonry of 
Lilleshul in Shropshire before 1415.8 The work consists of seventy- 
four sermons for the festivals of the ecclesiastical year, with copious 
use of illustrative stories, many of which (26) are, as would be 
expected, from the “Legenda Aurea,” three only are from the 
“Vite Patrum,” usually more freely drawn upon. ‘‘ The sermons,” 
as Professor Wells says, op. cit., p. 302, “are all intended to provide 
material for delivery by ill-equipped priests, of whom, says the 
Preefatio, ‘mony excuson ham by defaute of bokus and sympulnys 
of lettrure.’ . . . But especially notable is the extensive use of nar- 
rative, not merely in the main line of the discourse, but in the hun- 
dred or more illustrative narrationes. Clearly, unlike Wycliffe and 
his followers, Mirk approved heartily of employment of tales in 
preaching, indeed, he directly defends the practice. But he shows 
control and judgment in use of them. The narrationes, sometimes, 
as many as five in a sermon, are always closely connected with the 
theme; they are introduced with the declared purpose of enforcing 
the issue through conviction or stimulation; and, the story ended, 
the hearers are usually brought back to the point illustrated. The 
tales vary much in kind; some are over-marvelous, some have local 
flavor. -It is not at all wonderful that these simple pieces of prose 
full of narrative, caught the popular taste, and that, when the other 
native collections and cycles were on the wane, these were copied 
into many MSS., and (unlike any of the other groups), as soon as 
the press was available, were printed in edition after edition.” 

8 See G. H. Gerould’s “ Saints’ Legends,” Boston and New York, 1916, 


pp. 184, 363, and J. E. Wells’s “ A Manual of the Writings in Middle English, 
1050-1400,” New Haven, 1916, pp. 301, 807. 


880 CRANE—MEDIZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


The other work mentioned above, “ Jacob’s Well,” written by an 
unknown author in the first quarter of the fifteenth century, accord- 
_ing to the editor, belongs to the class of allegorical treatises, although 
it is really a collection of sermons, which seem to have been de- 
livered day by day within the short space of “pis hool tweyne 
monythys and more,” as the author says in the beginning of his 
last chapter. Mr. Mosher thus describes the work: “A Biblical 
figure (John iv, 6, Erat autem ibi fons Jacob) is expanded into a 
truly marvellous allegory of the elaborate penitential scheme. A 
pit of oozy water and mire, representing man’s body beset with sins, 
is to be made into a wholesome well wherein may flow the clear 
water of Divine Grace. The dirty water, or Great Curse, must first 
be removed; then the mire, 7. e., the seven deadly sins. Next the 
five water gates, the five senses, must be stopped up. After this the 
digging must continue until the seven pure springs, the gifts of the 
Holy Ghost, are reached. Then follows the walling process in which 
stones, sand, mortar, even the windlass, rope and bucket, are, need- 
less to say, the customary virtues. 

“At regular and frequent intervals ‘ Jacob’s Well’ has a pair of 
exempla taken mainly from the ‘ Vite Patrum,’ ‘ Jacques de Vitry,’ 
‘Cesarius,’ ‘Legenda Aurea,’ and legends of the Virgin. The tales 
are therefore hackneyed, but they are frequently forged into a new 
glow by the striking diction of the zealous redactor. . . . Of course 
the stories are uneven; some vivid, others dull; some brief, others 
elaborate. Though not so numerous, they are generally slightly 
longer than those in Mirk’s ‘ Festial.’? ... With ‘Jacob’s Well’ 
the exemplum appears to have reached its maximum employment 
in the religious treatise, just as it did in sermon literature with the 
contemporary ‘ Festial’ of Mirk.”® 


9 Of the eighty-two stories in the fifty chapters published twenty-two are 
from “Caesarius,” four from the “Legenda aurea,” five from “Etienne de 
Bourbon,” ten from the “ Vite Patrum,” and twelve from “ Jacques de Vitry.” 
The statement on p. 138, “Local color then became occasionally noticeable, 
though distinctive English characteristics were here, as elsewhere among the 
floating body of universal tales, sparse,” would have been modified if the 
author had been able to consult the collections analyzed in Herbert’s “ Cata- 
logue,” which will be mentioned in a moment. ’ He would have seen that there 
are many specifically English stories in the “Speculum Laicorum,” etc. A 
certain number are in the “ Liber Exemplorum,” edited by Little (see later in 
this paper), with which Mr. Mosher was acquainted. 


—— Se 


st 


Re ad palit shat ate 


ee de 


ae we 


CRANE—MEDIAVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 381 


One of the most important, certainly the most useful, of the 
works published in the field of medizval tales since 1883 is Mr. J. A. 
Herbert’s “Catalogue of Romances in the Department of Manu- 
scripts in the British Museum,” Vol. III., London, rg10, crown 8vo, © 
pp. xii, 720..° How extensive the field is with which this volume 
deals may be judged by the fact that it contains an analysis of one 
hundred and nine manuscripts and refers to over eight thousand 
stories, many of which are, of course, frequently repeated. Too 
much praise cannot be given to the analyses in this and the preced- 
ing volumes of the “Catalogue.” “In general,” as I have said in 
my review of Mr. Herbert’s work in Modern Philology, “the stories 
are without literary form, often they seem mere memoranda for the 
preacher to expand as he wishes. The scholar who is comparing 
collections or tracing a particular exemplum wishes to know the sub- 
stance of the story in a concise form, if possible, with references to 
other manuscripts or printed works. The analyses by the late Mr. 
Ward and Mr. Herbert are beyond all praise. Especially in the 
volume before us Mr. Herbert has shown himself profoundly ac- 


‘quainted with the vast and intricate subject of medizval tales. His 


references are exact and copious and will save the student an 
enormous amount of labor.” A considerable number of the manu- 
scripts described in this volume have already been printed, wholly 
or in part (one of the most important, to be mentioned presently, 
since the “ Catalogue” was issued), and are thus fairly well known 
and accessible to students. A great number of collections, how- 
ever, were quite unknown, and their contents are now for the first 
time revealed to scholars, and have widely extended the already 

10 The first and second volumes, edited by the late H. L. D. Ward, were 
published in 1883 and 1893, and deal, Vol. I., with Classical Romances (Cycle 
of Troy, Cycle of Alexander, etc.) ; British and English Traditions (Cycle 
of Arthur, etc.) ; French Traditions (Cycle of Charlemagne, etc.) ; Miscel- 
laneous Romances, and Allegorical and Didactic Romances ; Vol. II., with 


Northern Legends and Tales; Eastern Legends and Tales; ZEsopic Fables; 
Reynard the Fox; Visions of Heaven and Hell; Les Trois Pélerinages; and 


- Miracles of the Virgin. The last division, filling pp. 586-691, is of particular 


value for the study of exempla and is intimately associated with the subjects 
treated by Mr. Herbert in Vol. III. The same may be said to a lesser degree 
in regard to the class of Visions of Heaven and Hell, some of which, the 
Theophilus legend, for instance, recur so constantly in collections of exempla. 


382 CRANE—MEDIAZ:-VAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


enormous field. I shall have occasion to refer frequently to this in- 
valuable work in the remainder of this paper. 

The use of exempla or illustrative stories is as old as religious 
instruction itself; but the systematic use of such stories in sermons 
(to which their great vogue is due) is of comparatively recent date. 
The influence of Gregory the Great was profound in this direction. 
In his homilies (before 604), and especially in his dialogues, he em- 
ployed a large number of legends, and the popularity of the latter 
work, translated into the various languages of Europe, exercised a 
powerful influence on later collectors of legends. It was not, how- 
ever, until the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth 
century that the use of exempla in sermons became common, owing 
to the rise of the preaching orders. In my paper of 1883 and in my 
introduction to “ Jacques de Vitry” I ascribed to that distinguished 
prelate the first systematic use of exempla in sermons. I should 
have modified somewhat this statement if I had seen some works 
which appeared after my articles, still, even in the light of recent 
researches I was not far from the truth.* In giving the priority to 


11 My statement, p. xix of my introduction to “ Jacques de Vitry,” that it 
was not until the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth century 
that the practice of using exempla became common, owing to the rise of the 
preaching orders, was questioned by the late Anton Schénbach in his “ Studien 
zur Erzahlungsliteratur des Mittelalters,” Erster Theil, p. 2. He contents 
himself by stating that my conclusion so far as French preaching in the 
twelfth century is concerned is in contradiction with the facts, and refers to 
Bourgain’s “La chaire francaise au XII® siécle,” pp. 258 et seq. Bourgain 
nowhere mentions the systematic use of exempla; indeed, he never, I believe, 
uses the word in its technical meaning. He does cite Guibert de Nogent, 
without place, as to the use of illustrative material. I said in my introduc- 
tion, p. xix, note, that I could find no reference to exempla in Guibert de 
Nogent’s “ Liber quo ordine sermo fieri debeat”; here is the passage quoted 
by Bourgain; and another I may add. The first is Migne, CLVL., col. 25: 
“Placere etiam nonnullis comperimus simplices historias, et veterum gesta 
sermoni inducere, et his omnibus quasi ex diversis picturam coloribus ador- 
nare.” The second passage is in col. 29: “et per considerationem nature 
illius rei de qua agitur, aliquid allegorie vel moralitati conveniens invenitur, 
sicut de lapidibus gemmariis, de avibus, de bestiis, de quibus quidquid figurate 
dicitur, non nisi propter significantiam profertur.” 

Schénbach also cites Honorius of Autun, Werner von Ellerbach, and the 
collections of German sermons edited by himself and Hoffmann. In Sch6n- 
bach’s collection, Graz, 1886-1891, there are sixteen stories in the first volume, 
most of them from the “ Vite Patrum” and Gregory’s “Homilies”; in the 


Tee 


CRANE—MEDI#VAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 383 


Jacques de Vitry I did not take into consideration, however, two 
other contemporary writers with whose works I subsequently became 
acquainted. I refer to the sermons of Odo of Cheriton and the 
homilies of Czsarius of Heisterbach. 

The fables of the former had long been known, but the author to 


_ whom they were attributed was, until recently, a mysterious person- 


age, confused with another Kentish ecclesiastical writer, Odo of 
Canterbury. It is now definitely settled that the Odo of the fables 
and sermons with which I am now concerned was from Cheriton 
and died in 1247, seven years after Jacques de Vitry. Some of 
Odo’s fables were published as early as 1834 by Jacob Grimm in 
his edition of “ Reinhart Fuchs,” and thirteen were printed by Mone 
in the following year, while Wright used seventeen in his “ Latin 
Stories.” Other German scholars published a considerable number, 
but the fables were first adequately edited by L. Hervieux in the 
first edition (1884) of his monumental work, “ Les fabulistes latins.” 
In the second edition (1896), both fables and parabole from the 
sermons (of which there is only one edition printed at Paris in 1520) 
were published in a separate, fourth, volume, with an exhaustive 
examination of the birthplace and life of the author. I am in- 
terested at present only in the exempla contained in the sermons.” 


second volume there is one story from Gregory’s “ Dialogues,” and in the 
third volume there are no stories. In Hoffmann’s “ Fundgruben,” Vol. L, 
there are only half-a dozen stories. In Werner’s “Libri Deflorationum,” 
Migne, Vol. CLVII., I do not find exempla of any kind, unless the occasional 
references to animals, birds, fishes and plants moralized in the usual way 
may be considered exempla. On the other hand there are many exempla in 
the “Speculum Ecclesiz” of Honorius of Autun (who died, it is supposed, 
shortly after 1152), and I should not have overlooked Cruel’s reference on 
p. 137 of his “Geschichte der deutschen Predigt”: “ Ausserdem treten die 
nach Gregor’s Beispiel einzeln auch in deutschen Predigten vorkommenden 
Exempel bei Honorius massenhaft als stehender Schlusstheil auf.” Still it 
is evident that Honorius was an exception; and the statement that the use of 
exempla systematically in sermons was not common until the end of the 
twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth century is, I still think, correct. 
There are, of course, many exempla to be found sporadically in homiletic 
treatises and similar works of the second half of the twelfth century, such as 
Petrus Cantor’s “ Verbum abbreviatum ” (Migne, CCV.), etc. 

12 Hervieux’s edition, printed from’ MS. 16506 of the National Library 
of Paris, contains 195 exempla; the manuscript (Arundel 231) analyzed by 
Herbert in his “Catalogue,” pp. 58-78, contains 201, of which 43 are not in 


384 CRANE—MEDIAZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


Their sources are infrequently mentioned: “ Vite Patrum,” four 
times, Gregory’s “Dialogue” three, the “Book of Kings” and 
“Saint Bernard” once each. As a matter of fact, however, a very 
large number of the exempla are taken from the “ Vite Patrum.” 
The name of Jacques de Vitry is not mentioned ; but many of Odo’s 
parabole occur in the sermons of the former, and Frenken is in- 
clined to think that Odo borrowed them directly or indirectly from 
him. The value of Odo’s parabole consists largely in the fact that 
they are a popular channel through which many stories have entered 
into circulation, for although there is only one printed edition of the 
sermons and that of the sixteenth century, there are many manu- 
scripts left to attest their popularity. 
In my introduction to “ Jacques de Vitry ” I did not include among 
the preachers using exempla Czsarius of Heisterbach, the most 
delightful perhaps of all the medizval story-tellers. I was not at 
that time acquainted with his homilies, of which there is only one 
edition, a very rare book, by J. A. Coppenstein, printed at Cologne 
in 1615.1% As the “ Homilies” were. composed between 1222 and 


Hervieux. In the sermon for Sexagesima Odo defines the word he uses as 
follows: “ Parabola dicitur a para, quod est! juxta, et bole, quod est sententia, 
quasi juxta sententiam. Parabola enim est similitudo quae ponitur ad sen- 
tentiam rei comprobandam.” Hervieux, p. 111, endeavors to establish a dif- 
ference between apologues, paraboles and exemples; he says: “En effet, il 
ne faut pas dans les sermons d’Eudes confondre les apologues ou paraboles 
avec les exemples; ou, si l’on veut qualifier d’exemples les paraboles, il faut 
admettre deux sortes d’exemples: ceux qui, contenant le récit d’un fait imagi- 
naire, offrent les caractéres de la fable et sont appelés paraboles, et ceux qui 
se bornent, sans application 4 aucun cas spécial, 4 faire mention des habitudes 
d'une catégorie d’étres quelconques.” He finally ends, p. 112, by confessing 
that it is safer to consider the exemples as true paraboles and print them all. 
Frenken in his edition of the exempla in the “Sermones communes” of 
“Jacques de Vitry,” to be mentioned later at length, has a chapter on “ Die ° 
Geschichte des Begriffes ‘exemplum,’” in which he connects the word with 
its use in classical rhetoric, and remarks, p. 14, “Dass man zunachst nach’ 
anderen Ausdriicken wie parabola, narratio, historia, suchte, lag wohl nur 
daran, dass man nicht recht wusste, dass das, was man so in der Predigt 
erzahlte, auch das war, was die Grammatiker exemplum nannten. Die kurzen 
Erklarungen der Tropen in den Grammatiken. wurden mit denselben Bei- , 
spielen Jahrhunderte lang auswendig gelernt, aber mam dachte sich nicht viel 
dabei.” 

18] still know this work only through A. Schénbach’s masterly “ Studien 
zur Erzahlungsliteratur des Mittelalters,” V., VII. VIII., Vienna, 1902, 1908, 


Ss Te ae 


* CRANE—MEDIZ:VAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 385 


1225, as Schonbach thinks, and Jacques de Vitry’s sermons after his 
residence in Palestine until his death, that is 1227 to 1240, Cesarius 
is contemporaneous with Odo of Cheriton and a little earlier than 
Jacques de Vitry. 

I used the “Dialogus Miraculorum” of Cesarius frequently in 
my notes, but I did not give any space to this interesting personage 
in my Introduction, although I might have considered the “ Dia- 
logus” as a homiletic treatise, so constantly are they quoted in 
subsequent sermons and collections of exempla made for the use of 
preachers. The author was born probably a few years before 1180 
and educated at St. Andrew’s School at Cologne. He entered the 
Cistercian abbey of Heisterbach, where he became master of the 
novices and prior, dying about 1240.14 Besides the “ Homilies” 
mentioned above, Czsarius was the author of many theological 
works, some of which have perished and all have been forgotten 
except the “ Dialogus Miraculorum.” This popular and interesting 
work was composed about 1222 (Schénbach dates it 1223-1224, 
Herbert says it was completed in or very soon after 1222). It is 
fortunately accessible in a good modern edition by J. Strange, two 
volumes, Cologne, 1851, and consists of twelve books or distinc- 
1909, originally published in the Sitzungsberichte der kais. Akad. der Wissen- 
schaften in Wien, Philosophisch-historisch Classe, Bd. CXLIV., CLIX., 
CLXIII. Of the 746 stories in the “ Dialogus Miraculorum,” 84 are found 
in the “Homilies,” and there are 58 in the “Homilies” not found in the 
“Dialogus,” see Schénbach, I., pp. 69-092; III, pp. 4 et seq. Consequently 
there are now 142 stories contained in the “ Homilies” accessible to students. 
Cesarius says in regard to his use of exempla (Schonbach, LI, p. 20) : 
“Quzdam (exemp!a) inserui aliquantulum subtilius ad exercitium legentium, 
quedam de Vitis Patrum propter utilitatem simplicium. Nonnulla etiam, 
quz nostris temporibus sunt gesta et a viris religiosis mihi recitata. Hoc 
pene in omnibus homiliis observare studui, et, quod probare poteram ex 
divine scripture sententiis, hoc etiam firmarem exemplis.” This use of 
exempla displeased some even at that early date and he omitted them in his 
later homilies, saying (Schénbach, op. cit., p. 33): “ Secrete quidam ea scripsi 
et secrete legi volui, ipsam expositionem ita ordinans, ut conversis, quibus 
singulis diebus dominicis aliquid de divinis scripturis, et maxime de evangeliis, 
exponi solet, congrueret. Illa enim necessitas occasio precipua fuit scribendi. 


Propter quod miracula et visiones ipsis expositionibus inserere studui. Et 
quia hoc quibusdam minus placuit, in homiliis de solemnitatibus sanctorum 


hoc ipsum cavi.” ; 
14 See Schénbach, op. cit.; A. Kaufmann, “Caesarius von Heisterbach, 


Cologne, 1862; and Herbert, “Catalogue,” p. 348. 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, Z, JULY 13, I917- 


386 CRANE—MEDIZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


tiones, the subjects of which are: Conversion, Contrition, Confession, 
Temptation, Demons, Simple-mindedness, the Virgin Mary, the 
Body of Christ, Divers Visions, Miracles, the Dying, and Rewards 
of the Dead. The large number of stories, 746, purport to have 
been told, and probably were, by the master (“ monachus”) to the 
novice. The stories are connected by a thread of dialogue between 
the master and pupil. The name of the author is not mentioned, 
but the reader is told it can be learned from the first letters of the 
distinctiones (“Cesarii Munus”). “ Many things,” he says, “have 
I introduced which happened outside of the order, because they were 
edifying and told me, like the rest, by religious men (7. e., members 
of an order). God is my witness that I have not invented (finwxisse) 
a single chapter in this Dialogue. If perchance things have happened 
differently from what I have written, this should be imputed to those 
who related them to me.” 

As Herbert remarks, p. 349, “ Ceesarius professes to have learnt 
most of the miracles at first or second hand, and a large proportion 
of them are connected with Heisterbach, Himmerode, and Cologne, 
and places in the neighborhood. But in many cases he has merely 
drawn on the common stock; e. g., in Dist. VIII., Cap. 21 he tells 
the story of the merciful knight to whom the crucifix bowed, as a» 
miracle which occurred “temporibus nostris in provincia nostra, 
sicut audivi”; but it has been pointed out in this “ Catalogue” (Vol. 
II., p. 665) that the story occurs, as early as the eleventh century, 
in the Life of the Italian St. John Gualbertus.”*® 

15 The sources of the stories in the “‘ Dialogus” have never been sys- 
tematically investigated, but a brief enumeration of the principal ones may 
be found in Meister’s work, to be mentioned presently. “We know,” he 
says, p. xxxii, “that he was acquainted with the ‘Life of Bernard of Clair- 
vaux,’ Bernard’s ‘ Life of St. Malachiz,’ the ‘Book of Visions of St. Aczelina,’ 
Herbert’s ‘Exordium miraculorum’ and ‘Liber miraculorum,’ and that he 
used the ‘Life of St. David ’—all these writings of the Cistercian order. He 
also drew on the ‘Historia Damiatina’ and ‘Historia regum terre sancte’ 
of Oliver Scholasticus, the ‘ Dialogues’ of Gregory the Great were his model 
and the ‘ Vite Patrum’ were known to him. Most of his stories, however, 
he owed to oral communication, but all are not! new on that account; an old 
germ lies oftener at bottom. Many of his stories have wandered far before 
they reached the half hidden cloister of Heisterbach. On this long journey 


they have worn out their garments and must be clothed anew, so that in their 
changed exterior it is hard to recognize their weather-beaten figure. Some- 


CRANE—MEDIZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 387 


The popularity of the “Dialogus miraculorum,” as I have re- 
marked above,was enormous. Its stories were used with or with- 
out credit in all subsequent treatises and collections. In the “ Al- 
_ phabet of Tales,” which I shall mention again presently, 151 of the 
801 stories are from Czsarius, and some of his tales have found 
curious enough resting places, one (VIII., 59, see also X., 2) has 
been shown by P. Rajna in Romania, VI., 359, to be the probable 
source of Boccaccio’s fine story of Messer Torello and Saladin 
(“ Decameron,” X., 9). 

In the list of his writings made by Czsarius himself (Schén- 
bach, I., pp. 4-69; Meister, pp. xx—xxviii), he mentions under No. 
27, “Item scripsi volumen diversarum visionum seu miraculorum 
libros 8.” This work was supposed to have been lost until Pro- 
fessor Marx published in 1856 a fragment of the work containing 
twenty-three miracles, afterwards reprinted by A. Kaufmann in an 
appendix to his book on Cesarius. Later Dr. Aloys Meister dis- 
covered two other fragments and published all three under the title 
“Die Fragmente der Libri VIII Miraculorum des Czsarius von 
Heisterbach” (in Rémische Quartalschrift fiir christliche Alter- 
thums-Kunde und fiir Kirchen-Geschichte. Dreizehntes Supple- 
mentheft. Rom, 1901). The fragments contain 191 miracles or 
stories relating to the Sacrament and to the Virgin. They are of 
time the paths that Czsarius’s stories have trodden will have to be pointed 
out. Of course one will not go so far as to confine the substance of a story 
in the straight-jacket of a genealogy and try to trace the exact pedigree of 
derivation and relation. A story grows and changes mostly through oral 
tradition, the fixed written forms are often only chance resting stages in the 
development; many connecting links of oral transformation have frequently 
been lost between one fixed form and another. For these changes are not 
logically necessary, but depend upon chances, it may be, that a locality or a 
half forgotten historical fact caused assimilation, it may be, that a particular 
object was connected with the transformation or merely the poetic impulse 
to remolding brought about the change.” This is also the conclusion of 
Schénbach in his paper, “Die Legende vom Engel und Waldbruder . in 
' Sitzungsberichte der kais. Akad., CXLIII., p. 62. The same writer in his 
“Studien zur Erzahlungsliteratur, Achter Theil, Uber Caesarius von Heister- 
bach,” III., undertakes an interesting investigation of the changes which 
stories undergo in passing from one author to another. He compares the 
stories which are similar in Caesarius’s “ Dialogus” and “ Homilies sf and 
the stories common to “Jacques de Vitry” and “ Etienne de Bourbon,” and 
endeavors to formulate some general principles of transmission. 


388 CRANE—MEDIZ:VAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


the same nature as those already published in the “ Dialogus,” a few 
are found in both works. There is the same tendency to localize 
well-known stories, and the same absence of mention of literary 
sources. The “ Vite Patrum, Historia ecclesiastica,” etc., are oc- — 
casionally cited, generally the name of the narrator is carefully 
stated and the locality is exactly described. 

Of all the medieval story-tellers Czsarius is perhaps the most 
interesting, partly from his gift of narration, and partly from the 
diversified character of his stories. In most of the great exempla- 
collections which I shall soon examine, the stories are told in a dry, 
condensed form, and seem more like memoranda to be expanded at 
the preacher’s will than like independent tales. Czesarius is a happy 
exception and his book is one of the most valuable sources for the 
history of medizval culture. 

While engaged in the study of Jacques de Vitry I learned of the 
existence in Belgian libraries of a collection of sermones communes 
vel quotidiani by him, but made no effort to trace these, for the 
author had said in the prowmium to the sermones dominicales (Ant- 
werp, 1575) that his work was to consist of six divisions, the first 
four being represented by the sermones dominicales, the fifth by 
the sermones de sanctis, and the sixth by the sermones vulgares. 
As it was supposed that all the existing collections of sermons by 
Jacques de Vitry were written late in life, I did not think that after 
the sermones vulgares which, in his own words, were to complete 
his work, he would have added anything. It now seems that I was 
mistaken and that the sermones communes vel quotidian also con- 
tain a considerable number of exempla, two editions of which, by a 
strange coincidence, appeared simultaneously three years ago.'® 

16 Greven, Joseph, “ Die Exempla aus den Sermones feriales et communes 
des Jakob von Vitry,” Heidelberg, 1914, 8vo, pp. xviii, 68 (Sammlung mittel- 
lateinischer Texte herausgegeben,” von Alfons Hilka, 9) ; Frenken, Goswin, 
“Die Exempla des Jakob von Vitry,” Munich, 1914, Lex. 8vo, pp. iv, 152 
(“ Quellen und Untersuchungen zur mittellateinischen Philologie des Mittelal- 
ters,” V. 1). As I have reviewed these two editions recently at length in 
the Romanic Review, Vol. VI. (1915), pp. 223 et seq., I shall not enter into 
details here. I may, however, remark that Greven’s edition is part of Hilka’s 
“Sammlung” and is, like the other text's in that collection, edited in the most 


concise form, with brief introduction, and briefer annotation. Frenken’s edi- 
tion, on the other hand, contains not only a biography of “ Jacques de Vitry,” 


> eo ee 


Se 


¢ 


CRANE—MEDIZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 389 


_ The new exempla (three only are found in the sermones vulgares, 


“Crane, Nos. 30, 31, 160) are 107 in number (Frenken has 104, clas- 


sifying two as anecdotes, and omitting one as not properly an 
exemplum). ‘Three are from the “Vite Patrum” and two from 
Petrus Alfonsus. The great majority are apparently original with 
Jacques de Vitry, and did not subsequently enter into wide circu- 


lation. The new collection is, therefore, of little interest for the 


question of the diffusion of popular tales, and its value depends on 
the light it throws on the manners and customs of the times. 
Among the exempla which are found in subsequent collections are 
some of the most famous of medieval stories, e. g., Frenken, No. 15, 
“ Aristotle and Alexander’s wife;” No. 195, “ Monk in Paradise ;” 
No. 68, man unhappily married wants shoot of tree on which an- 
other man’s two wives have hanged themselves; No. 99, ape on 
shipboard throws into the sea the ill-gotten gains of a passenger who 
had cheated pilgrims with false measures and frothy wine; etc. A 
certain number of stories are taken from natural history, and a few 
are fables, the best known of the latter being the one of the treaty 
between the wolf and the sheep, by which the sheep give up their 
dogs as hostages (also in the sermones vulgares, Crane, No. 45). 
Of the stories peculiar to Jacques de Vitry some are connected 
with his experiences in the East, as Frenken, No. 71, a certain Count 
Josselin married the daughter of an Armenian on condition of let- 
ting ‘his beard grow in accordance with the custom of the country. 
The Count contracts debts which he does not know how to pay. At 
last he tells his father-in-law that he has pledged his beard for a 
thousand marks, and if the debt is not paid his beard will have to 
be cut off. His father-in-law gives him the money rather than have 
the Count incur the shame of losing his beard; No. 72, Jacques de 
Vitry knew a certain knight in Acre that had offended a minstrel, 
who took his revenge by passing off on the knight an ointment 
which removes the beard instead of preserving the face in good con- 
dition; No. 75, Jacques de Vitry heard that a certain Saracen, over 
sixty years of age, had never been outside of Damascus. The Sul- 
but most valuable dissertations on the history of exempla, the sources of 


“Jacques de Vitry’s” exempla, and their penetration into later secular litera- 
ture. I cannot praise too highly Frenken’s admirable editorial work. 


390 CRANE—MEDIZZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


tan summoned him and commanded him to remain in the city in the 
future. As soon as he was forbidden to leave it he longed to go, 
and gave the Sultan money to permit him to do so; No. 96, a woman 
of Acre knew excellent remedies for the eyes, so that even Saracens 
came to her. One day she was in a hurry to hear mass and left the 
case of a Saracen to her maid, telling her to put such and such 
medicine in his eyes. The Christian maid determined to blind the 
Saracen, so she put quicklime in his eye and told him not to open it 
in three days. A week later, after great pain and copious tears, 
he was cured, and returned with fee and gifts, greatly to the maid’s 
wonder. 

There is another group of stories, the scene of which is laid in 
Paris in the time of Jacques de Vitry. Some of the most interest- 
ing are these: Frenken, No. 80, while Jacques de Vitry was at Paris 
three youths from Flanders came there and on their way told their 
purposes: one wanted to be a Parisian theologian (magister), the 
second a Cistercian, the third an “organizator, hystrio et joculator.” 
J. de V. saw later with his own eyes the realization of their desires; 
No. 82, I remember, he says, while at Paris that a certain scholar, 
religious and abstinent, went on a Friday to visit friends near Paris 
and ate wherever he stopped. His famulus at last whispers to him 
that it is Friday and that he has eaten twice already. His master 
replies that he had forgotten it. J. de V. remarks that some eat so 
much that they cannot forget it, but have to say: “ Ventrem meum 
doleo.” There are several stories of an ignorant Parisian priest 
named Maugrinus. In one, Frenken, No. ror, he is called to hear 
the confession of a certain scholar who speaks in Latin. Maugrinus 
does not understand him, and calls the servants and tells them that 
their master is in a frenzy and must be bound. When the scholar 
recovers he complains to the bishop, who pretends to be ill and sends 
for Maugrinus to confess him. He, too, speaks Latin, and at every 
word he utters Maugrinus says, “ May the Lord forgive you.” At 
last the bishop cannot restrain his laughter and says, “ May the Lord 
never forgive me, nor will I forgive you,” and made him pay a hun- 
dred livres or lose his parish. In another story, No. 103, Mau- 
grinus’s bishop is in pecuniary straits and feigning to have sore 
eyes, asks Maugrinus to read certain letters. Maugrinus, who can- 


; 
7 
5 
: 
, 
a 


CRANE—MEDIZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 391 


not read, opens the letters and looking them over says that they con- 
tain news that the-bishop is in need and that Maugrinus will lend 
him ten marks. 


Among the usual monastic diatribes on the other sex is the fol- 


_ lowing story, Frenken, No. 61: J. de V. once passed through a cer- 


tain city in France, where a ham was hung up in the public square 
to be given to the one who swore that after a year of married life he 
did not repent of his bargain. The ham had hung there unclaimed 
for ten years. 

It is now time to pass to the collections of exrempla which have 
been published since 1883. Before that date the only collections of 
exempla accessible in modern editions were, as we have seen above, 
the selections from Etienne de Bourbon made by Lecoy de la 
Marche, and the Catalan translation of the “ Alphabetum narra- 
tionum.” It was not until ten years later, in 1893, that there ap- 
peared a collection of Latin stories composed in Bologna in 1326, 
and contained in a manuscript in the library of Wolfenbiittel.** 
The sixty-nine stories are accompanied in some cases by moraliza- 
tions, and contain many classical anecdotes. In these two respects 
the collection resembles the “ Gesta Romanorum,” and Oesterley in 
his edition of that work, p. 257, was inclined to regard the “ Trac- 
tatus”” as a peculiar version of the “Gesta,” or at least as an off- 
shoot. This opinion is hardly correct in view of the great differ- 
ences between the “Tractatus” and the many versions of the 
“Gesta.” It is likely that the former is an independent collection 
made in Italy in-the fourteenth century, and shows the growing 
fondness for secular elements in works of this kind. Valerius 
Maximus is the source most frequently cited, but other historians 
of classical and Christian times are also quoted, as well as Seneca, 
Augustine, “ Vite Patrum,” Petrus Alfonsus, etc. The compilation 
has no independent value, and but little interest for the question of 
the diffusion of popular tales. 

I must now, in conclusion, consider as briefly as possible the 

17“ Tractatus de diversis historiis romanorum et quibusdam aliis. Ver- 
fasst in Bologna i. J. 1326. Nach einer Handschrift in Wolfenbiittel,” heraus- 
gegeben von Salomon Herzstein. Erlangen, 1893. In “Erlanger Beitrage 


zur Englischen Philologie und vergleichenden Litteraturgeschichte,” heraus- 
gegeben von Hermann Varnhagen. XIV. Heft. 


392 CRANE—MEDIZZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


recent editions of collections of exrempla, beginning with A. G. 
Little’s “Liber Exemplorum ad usum Predicantium,’ Aberdeen, 
1908 (British Society of Franciscan Studies, Vol. I.). The manu- 
script, in the Library of Durham Cathedral, contains two hundred 
and thirteen chapters or stories, and belongs to the class of treatises 
for the use of preachers. It is divided into two parts: the first 
treats “of things above,” and the subjects are arranged in the order 
of precedence—Christ, the Blessed Virgin, Angels and St. James. 
The second part treats “of things below,” and here the subjects 
are in alphabetical order: De accidia, de advocatis, de avaritia, and 
so on to de mortis memoria, where the MS. breaks off. The author 
does not mention his name in the part of the MS. which has been 
preserved, although he gives us considerable information about him- 
self, from which we infer that he was an Englishman by birth, prob- 
ably of Warwickshire; he probably entered the order of the Friars 
Minor, and, after study in Paris, spent many years of his life in 
Ireland. Mr. Little, whom I follow in these details, concludes 
that the work was written probably between 1275 and 1279. The 
compiler, who nearly always mentions his sources, draws largely 
from Giraldus Cambrensis, “Gemma Ecclesiastica” (29 times) ; 
“Vite Patrum” (38) ; Gregory’s “ Dialogues” (15) ; “ Miracles of 
the Virgin” (4) ; Peraldus, “Summa Virtutum ac Vitiorum ” (10) ; 
“Life of Johannes Eleemosynarius” (9) ; “‘ Barlaam and Josaphat” 
(2); etc. Many of the stories are familiar to us from other collec- 
tions. “Some are,” as the editor says, “ of a more individual char- 
acter and are the result of the writer’s experience in Ireland.” 
Among these (I use the editor’s analyses) are: No. 95, the story 
of the bailiff of Turvey, who while going along a lonely road one 
night saw a horrible beast coming towards him. Knowing that it 
was the devil, he made with his axe a circle of crosses, and at once 
hastened to confess his sins to God. Forthwith there began to rise 
around him a wall which grew with every sin confessed. Against 
this wall the devil threw himself in vain, and could only terrify the 
poor sinner by showing his face over the top. 

The duty of paying tithes is enforced by the story (No. 105) of 
the woman of Balrothery, “in our times,” who had twenty lambs. 
' To avoid giving two to the Church, she hid ten under a covering 


“ec 


CRANE—MEDIAZ:VAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 393 


and gave the Church only one. “But behold the delightful (incun- 
dissimum) judgment of Him who seeth all things!” On removing 
the covering the woman found nine of the lambs dead and only the 
Church’s tenth still alive. Another story (No. 166) shows the 
efficacy of indulgences. A man follows two friars on a preaching 
tour in Ulster and buys all the indulgences he can afford. He after- . 
wards sells these to the host with whom he has passed the night, for 

what he paid and a pot of beer in addition. The purchaser applies 

the indulgences to the relief of his dead son, who appears in a vision 

to his father and tells him that he has freed him from punishment. 

The foolish seller hearing of this tries in vain to get back his effica- 

cious indulgences by refunding the money he had received for them. 

A very interesting story (No. 142) of superstition in times of epi- 

demics is told by the Bishop of Clonmacnois. “When I was a 

preacher in the order (O. M.), I once came on a preaching tour to 

Connaught, and found a dreadful pestilence raging in the bishopric’ 
of Clonfort. For when men went ploughing or otherwise in the 
fields, or walking in the woods, they used to see armies of devils 

passing by, and sometimes fighting among themselves. All who saw 

these devils fell sick and most of them died. So I got together a 

great meeting, and said to the people: ‘Do you know why these devils 

have this power over you? Simply because you are afraid of them. 

If you had faith in God and were convinced that He would protect 

you, they would have no power over you at all. You know that we 

—we friars—do more against the devils, and say more things about 

them than any one else in the world. Here am I standing here 

and abusing them as much as I know how. Do they harm me? 

Let the devils come, let them all come! Where are they? Why 
don’t they come?’ From that hour the devils disappeared and the 
pestilence with them.” 

Two other stories from this collection must receive brief notice. 
One (No. 112) tells the story of a rich widow with many suitors. 
She preferred a certain one but tells him frankly that his pov- 
erty stands in the way of his acceptance. He goes out, into the 
highway and robs and murders a rich merchant. When he again 
claims the lady’s hand she demands an account of his wealth, 
and after hearing his confession of its source, commands him to 


394 CRANE—MEDIZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


pass a night at the spot where the murdered man lies. There he 
beholds the dead man stretch his hands to heaven and implore jus- 
tice. A voice declares that he shall be revenged in thirty years. 
The lady thinking that the murderer will certainly repent before 
that time marries him. He and his family flourish and penance is 
postponed. The fated day comes at last and a great feast is given 
_to which are invited all whom he has no cause to fear. A minstrel 
is admitted, but a wag rubs the strings of his fiddle with grease 
and the minstrel withdraws in confusion. When he has gone some 
distance he finds that he has left his glove. He returns and dis- 
covers that the castle has disappeared, and where it once stood is a 
fountain and near it his glove. This story aas told by Friar Hugo 
de Succone in a sermon preached in foreign parts. He said he 
told it as he had heard it, without vouching for it. One of his 
hearers said: “ Brother, you can tell this story with assurance, for 
‘I know the place where it happened.” Mr. Little cites two curious 
Welsh parallels in Rhys, “Celtic Folklore,” pp. 73, and 403. 

The second story (No. 192) occurs in the chapter “ De ludis in- 
ordinatis,” and refers to a curious custom in Dacia, related by a cer- 
tain friar Peter, who was from that country. When women are in 
childbed their neighbors come to assist them with dancing and sing- 
ing. Sometimes in carrying out their jokes they make a straw man 
and put on it a hood and girdle, calling it “bovi” and dragging it 
between two women. At times they cry out to it, “ gestu lascivo,” 
“Canta bovi, canta bovi, quid faceret?” (sic, 1. facis? or taces?). 
Once the devil answered from the image with such a terrible voice, 
“T shall sing,” that some of the women fell down dead. Mr. Little 
remarks that “there is no reason to doubt the English friar’s report. 
The story agrees with the ‘Konebarsel’ or ‘ Kvindegilde’ custom: 
a party of women gathering in a ‘house after a birth. The women 
drink themselves merry, then they dance, then they go in a rout and 
break into houses and revel along the street, and make every man 
dance with them, and take the breeches off him, or in more recent 
times more frequently the hat.” The various elements of our story 
are well known in Danish folklore, but the straw man at the lying- 
in-revels is elsewhere unknown. 

In many respects the most important of recent publications of 


CRANE—MEDIZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 395 


exempla-collections is another work also of English origin, which I 
shall _mention-slightly out of its chronological order because, like 
the one just described above, it is a treatise for the use of preachers, 
arranged in an alphabetical order. In 1886 while collecting ma- 
terial for the history of the use of exempla in medizval sermons 
which serves as an introduction to my “ Jacques de Vitry,” Mr. Ward 
of the British Museum called my attention to MS. Additional 11284, 
formerly in the possession of the well-known antiquary Mr. W. J. 
Thoms, containing an extensive collection of stories arranged al- 
phabetically according to topics. I later (“ Jacques de Vitry,” p. lxxii) 
called attention to the importance of this collection in the hope that 
it might soon find an editor. It was not, however, until the publi- 
cation in 1910 of the third volume of the “ Catalogue of Romances 
in the Department of Manuscripts in the British Museum,” by Mr. 
Herbert, that the rich contents of the MS. were made adequately 
known to students of medizval literature, and it was reserved for a 
French scholar, Mr. J. Th. Welter, to publish the MS. im extenso.** 

The attribution of the “Speculum Laicorum” to John of 
Hoveden, the chaplain of Queen Eleanor and the author of “ Philo- 
mela,” first made by Bale in his “Catalogus,” 1548, rests on no 
adequate ground, while the denial of his authorship, because the 
work contains mention of the reign of Henry IV. (Hoveden having 

18Tt is true that in my edition of “Jacques de Vitry” I cited several 
MSS. in the British Museum containing the “ Speculum Laicorum” without 
suspecting its true title. My excuse must be that the principal MS. (Addi- 
tional 11284), which formerly belonged to Mr. Thoms, contains no indication 
of the true title (nor does it appear in the official catalogue), and the same 
is true of the other MSS. which I used. Neither Mr. Thoms nor Mr. Thomas 
Wright, who printed stories from this MS., was aware of the true title of the 
collection from which they were taken. The title of Mr. Welter’s edition is: 
“Thesaurus Exemplorum. Fascicule V: Le Speculum Laicorum. Edition 
d’une collection d’exempla composée en Angleterre a la fin du XIII* siécle,” 
Paris, 1914. The first four fascicules have not yet appeared, but the author 
has informed me that they are composed as follows: Fasc. I., Inventory of 
the three thousand anecdotes of “Etienne de Bourbon” from the MS. Lat. 
15970 of the Bib. Nat., with indication of sources (Complement to A. Lecoy 
de la Marche, “ Anecdotes historiques, légendes et apologues, tirés du recueil 
inédit d’Etienne de Bourbon,” Paris, 1877) ; Fasc. II., Inventory of the “ Liber 
de dono timoris” of Humbert de Romans, and of the “ Promptuarium exem- 


plorum” of Martinus Polonus; Fasc. III., “Liber exemplorum secundum 
ordinem Alphabeti”; Fasc. IV., MS. Royal 7 D. i, of the British Museum. 


396 CRANE—MEDIZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


died in 1272 or 1275), is based on the mistake of a scribe who 
wrote Henry IV. for Henry III. Mr. Welter shows conclusively 
that the work must have been written between 1279 and 1292. 
The author purposely conceals his identity, “nomina siquidem 
nostra subticere me compulit malorum ipsa mater invidia,” a state- 
ment that would hardly apply to so well-known a writer as John of 
Hoveden. From the character of his compilation the anonymous 
author may with reason be supposed to have been a member of the 
Mendicant Orders, probably an English Franciscan. 
The “Speculum Laicorum” is, in reality, a theological treatise 
for the use of preachers, arranged alphabetically according to topics 
and containing a great number of illustrative stories. In Welter’s 
edition there are ninety topics or chapters, and five hundred and 
seventy-nine stories, besides thirty others found in various MSS. 
of the work in the British Museum and elsewhere. The composi- 
tion of the collection does not differ from that of the host of similar 


works, both manuscript and printed, found in European libraries. Two. 


hundred and fifteen stories are taken from: Gregory’s “ Dialogues ” 
(25), “ Vitee Patrum ” (101), “ Cassiodorus,” “ Hist. Tripart.” (24), 
Bede (6), Petrus Alfonsus (5), William of Malmsbury (5), Petrus 
Cluniacensis (11), Cesarius Heisterbacensis (5), “ Physiologus” 
(8), “ Miracles de N. D.” (24), while the various tales are found 
seven hundred and fifty-eight times in: Jacques de Vitry (47), Odo 
of Cheriton (75), Arundel MS. 3244 (59), Etienne de Bourbon 
(273), “ Liber de Dono Timoris” (72), “ Liber Exemplorum secun- 
dum ordinem Alphabeti” (42), MS. Royal 7 D. i (85), and “ Le- 
genda Aurea” (58). In addition to these a great number of lives 
of the saints have been used, as well as many medizval works of 
an historical character. ; . 

If the collection contained merely stories taken from well-known 
popular sources, it would be interesting as affording evidence of the 
extensive diffusion of stories through the medium of preachers; but 
the collector has added, as he says in the Prologue, ‘‘ temporumque 
preteritorum ac modernorum quibusdam eventis.” It is true, as the 
editor-remarks, that the compiler, contrary to the custom of Jacques 
de Vitry or Etienne de Bourbon, has drawn few stories from his 
personal experience. He introduces the exemplum, sometimes by 


tog 


RS ee rt 


CRANE—MEDI#VAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 397 


“fertur” or “legitur,” sometimes without any preamble, localizing 
it in time and-space, 7. e., in the thirteenth century and in the east 
of England, exceptionally in a foreign land. Still, as the editor 
Says, the compiler has transmitted to us certain new features relating 
to great personages and others, and permits us to form a condensed 
sketch of the manners of the day, “qui se reflétent plus ou moins 


fidelement dans ce miroir des laics.” 


The enormous extent of exempla-literature may be estimated 
from the hundred and nine manuscript collections in the British 
Museum alone (so admirably analyzed by Mr. Herbert in his “ Cata- 
logue”), which contain something like eight thousand stories. A 
few of the typical collections, as, for example, the “ Alphabetum 
Narrationum,” were frequently copied, and are found in many of 
the continental libraries. But, in the main, no two collections are 
alike, and each represents the individual fancy of the compiler. 
Very few of these collections have been published, but some have 
long attracted the attention of scholars. Among these the most 
interesting is a collection contained in a MS. in the Library of Tours, 
of which an incomplete version is in the University Library of Bonn. 
Both MSS. are of the fifteenth century, but the collection itself goes 
back to the second half of the thirteenth century, and was probably 
made by a Dominican monk well acquainted with the French 
provinces of Touraine, Maine and Anjou. Dr. Hilka, the able editor 
of the “Sammlung mittellateinischer Texte,” communicated a con- 
siderable number of the exempla in the Tours MS. to the Schlesische 
Gesellschaft fiir vaterlandische Cultur, in whose ninetieth annual 
report they were printed (1912). The exempla collections are in 
a comparatively few instances arranged alphabetically ; sometimes 
they assume the character of treatises of theology and are disposed 
according to subjects. In the Tours MS. alone, I believe, the stories 
are arranged in nine groups, under the heads of classes and pro- 
fessions. The number of exempla is very large; there are four 
hundred and ten in the eighth group, which deals with secular and 
civil society. The exempla themselves are of great value for the 
question of the diffusion of popular tales as they contain a‘large 
number of stories which belong to the most widely circulated class. 
The stories are sometimes told at great length, contrary to the usual 


898 CRANE—MEDIZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


abbreviated form of the exemplum, and some deal with themes not 
hitherto represented in sermon-book literature; one, No. XL., p. 13, 
belongs to the cycle of the “ Maiden with her hands cut off,” of 
which a version is found in the “ Scala Celi,” fol. 27 vo., “ Castitas,” 
and another has been published by Klapper in a work to be men- 
tioned presently ; another, No. XII., a.b., pp. 14, 15, contains ver- 
sions of the theme of the “ False Bride”; in the first version the 
wife substitutes in her place a maiden, whose finger the faithless 
bailiff cuts off; in the second, the wife kills the seneschal to whose 
care she has been entrusted, substitutes for herself a maidservant 
whom she subsequently kills, and is miraculously saved from the 
denunciation of wicked confessor. : 

The last collections of exempla recently published which I shall 
mention are two works containing extensive selections from manu- 
scripts in German libraries, more particularly those in the Royal and 
University Library of Breslau. Both are edited by Dr. Joseph 
Klapper of the city just mentioned, and were published, the first in 
Hilka’s “Sammlung mittellateinischer Texte,” No. 2 (“ Exempla 
aus Handschriften des Mittelalters”), Heidelberg, 1911 ; the second 
in “Wort und Brauch. Volkskundliche Arbeiten namens der 
Schlesischen Gesellschaft fiir Volkskunde,” in zwanglosen Heften 
herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. Theodor Siebs und Prof. Dr. Max 
Hippe, 12 Heft (“Erzahlungen des Mittelalters in deutscher Uber- 
setzung und lateinischen Urtext”), Breslau, 1914. 

These works contain respectively 115 and 211 exempla, in all 
326 stories, the largest contribution to the subject yet made by 
any one editor, and one of the most interesting. The many manu- 
scripts from which the editor has drawn range from the end of 
the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century. The editor thus 
states the principle of selection in his first work: “ Only those stories 
were admitted which are found in the manuscripts without any men- 
tion of their sources, or the sources of which are no longer known 
to us.” There are exceptions, however, as p. 76, No. 76, “ Legitur 
exemplum in libro de dono timoris.” The editor concedes that the 
investigator can easily discover the sources of some of the exempla, 
and analogues for others. He gives a few himself, but in general 
limits his remarks to the age and origin of the MSS. in which the 


CRANE—MEDIZ#VAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 399 


exempla are contained. Finally, he admits that certain stories, 
properly speaking, are not exempla, as they are taken from chron- 
icles, but claims that they belong to this selection since they contain 
materials encountered in exempla, e.g., No. 7, “ Amicus et Amelius.” 
_ Dr. Klapper’s second collection is taken largely (164 stories) 
from a single manuscript and may be dated about the end of the 
thirteenth century. The group of stories just mentioned was evi- 
dently made for the use of preachers, but are not arranged in any 
systematic manner, alphabetical or topical. The editor thinks that 
traces of the use of such systematic collections may be found in the 
manuscript from which the majority of stories are taken. There 
are small groups of stories devoted to the miracles of the Virgin, 
penance, confession, temptation, liberality, justice, avarice, and 
drunkenness. What collections were used it is impossible to say, 
_ but the miracles of the Virgin resemble closely those in a MS. of the 
British Museum, Additional 18929 (Ward’s “ Catalogue,” Vol. II., 
p. 656), which came from the monastery of St. Peter at Erfurt. Dr. 
Klapper thinks we must assume the existence at that spot, at the end _ 
of the thirteenth century, of a collection of miracles of the Virgin 
used by Middle German Dominicans and probably put together 
by them, from which the London collection and most of the miracles 
in the collection before us are derived. 

As I have already said the literary form of the exemplum differs 
considerably in the various collections. Sometimes the story is ar 
independent tale of some length, sometimes it is (notably in the 
systematic treatises for the use of preachers) the merest sketch, to 
be expanded and adorned at the will of the preacher. Both of 
Klapper’s collections (although the exempla were undoubtedly in- 
tended originally for use in sermons) contain almost exclusively 
stories of the former class. It is only necessary to compare these 
exempla with those in the “Speculum Laicorum” to see the great 
difference between the two classes. Dr. Klapper’s first collection as 
we have just seen contained only such stories as were quoted without 
specification of source, or the source of which is no longer known 
to us at the present time. The second collection, now under con- 
sideration, is taken, as has been said, largely from one manuscript, 
and the stories are given just as they occur in it. Curiously 


400 CRANE—MEDIZZEVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


enough, they are generally without indication of source. About 
twenty-seven stories contain mention of source, not always cor- 
rectly. The “ Vite Patrum” is cited seven times (once incorrectly), 
but in fact twenty-two exempla are from that famous work. There 


are fifty-one stories or miracles of the Virgin, with one citation of . 


source: “Legitur in miraculis beate Marie.” St. Gregory’s “ Dia- 
logues”’ are mentioned once, and a few “chronicles” and “his- 
tories” have been used. It is easy to find sources and analogues 
for many of the stories, and I have done so in my review of the 
work in Modern Language Notes, January, 1917. I need not re- 
peat here what I have said at length there, but I cannot refrain 
from again calling attention to the unusually interesting character 
of this collection. It contains many of the best-known medieval 
tales, such as: Longfellow’s “‘ King Robert of Sicily,” “ Beatrice the 
Nun who saw the World,” ‘“‘ Theophilus,” “The Angel and Hermit,” 
“ Amis and Amiles,” “ Fridolin,’” Chaucer’s “ Pardoner’s Tale,” etc. 
Among the stories rarely found in exempla literature is a version 
of the “Don Juan” legend, in which a drunkard passing through 
a cemetery invites a skull to sup with him. It comes with its body 
in terrible shape, and in turn invites the host to sup with him in 
a week in the place where he was found. The guest goes there 
and is carried by a whirlwind to a deserted castle, and given a seat 
in a gloomy corner at a wretchedly, served table. The host tells his 
story, how he was a judge neglectful of his office and bibulous. He 
urges his guest to return home and do good works. One of the most 
beautiful of the stories is that of the daughter of a heathen king 
who saw a fair flower in the garden and began to reflect how much 
_ more beautiful must be the creator of all flowers. She is betrothed 
to a youth and on her wedding day asks permission to go into the 
garden and worship the god of flowers. An angel appears to her and 
carries her away to a convent in a Christian land, where she spends 
the rest of her life as a nun. I do not know of any parallel among 
medizval exempla, although the theme “ Marienbrautigam” is widely 
spread and was used by Mérimée in his story “La Vénus d’llle.” 
The story was early known in Germany, and a Volkslied on the 
subject was in circulation as early as 1658. 

I have kept for the conclusion of my paper two works of popu- 


ee 


CRANE—MEDIZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 401 


larization. The first is by the late Dr. Jacob Ulrich, professor in 
the university_of Zurich, “Proben der lateinischen Novellistik des 
Mittelalters,” Leipzig, 1906. The editor’s object is to give the 
_ student a selection from medizval fiction, embracing fables, transla- 
tions of the Oriental story-books, and a considerable number of 
exempla from the “Gesta Romanorum,” Jacques de Vitry, Etienne 
de Bourbon and the collection of Tours as cited by Lecoy de la 
Marche in his “ Etienne de Bourbon.” Ulrich has given brief refer- 
ences to the individual stories, and furnished a work of value to the 
student beginning his researches in this fascinating field. I am 
surprised that the book is not better known. 

The second work to which I have referred is by Albert Wesselski, 
“Monchslatein, Erzahlungen aus geistlichen Schriften des XIII. 
Jahrhunderts,” Leipzig, 1909. The unfortunate title gives no idea 
of the contents of this handsome volume. It really contains a Ger- 
man translation of one hundred and fifty-four exempla, of which 
ten are from Wright’s “Latin Stories,” eight from Bromyard’s 
“Summa Predicantium,” twenty-six from Cesarius, eighteen from 
Etienne de Bourbon, seven from the “ Gesta Romanorum,” six from 
Herolt’s “Sermones” and “Promptuarium,” thirty-six from 
“Jacques de Vitry,” twenty-two from the “Mensa Philosophica,” 
and the rest from Odo of Cheriton, Vincent of Beauvais, Nicolaus 
Pergamenus, Thomas Cantipratensis, etc. There is an introduc- 
tion of no original value, and the individual exempla are accom- 
panied by extensive notes, which constitute the most important 
feature of the work. The contents are more varied than is the case 
with Klapper’s second collection, and greater stress is laid on anec- 
dotes and jests. 

I have not space to refer in detail to the extensive use of 
exempla during the last thirty-four years in tracing the diffusion of 
popular tales. The articles in which exempla are so employed must 
be sought in the periodicals devoted to popular literature or in the 
collected writings of Benfey, Kohler, W. Hertz, and others. 

It is perhaps too soon to be able to speak with authority upon 
the value of exempla for “ Kulturgeschichte” (history, superstitions, 
etc.), and comparative storyology. Much yet remains to be edited, 
and what is accessible has not yet been closely examined from the 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI. AA, JULY 17, I917- 


402 CRANE—MEDIZVAL SERMON-BOOKS AND STORIES. 


above points of view. Many important questions have not yet been 
settled, such as, why references to fairy tales are so infrequent, etc. 
Enough has been said, however, to show the general interest and 
importance of the subject, and it is to be hoped that American 
scholars may find in it an additional field for their labor.*® 


IrHaca, N. Y., 
March, 1917. 


19 A good illustration of the value of the Sermon-Books for general med- 
izeval history may be found in the admirable article by Professor Charles H. 
Haskins of Harvard University on “ The University of Paris in the Sermons 
of the Thirteenth Century” in The American Historical Review, vol. X 
(1905), pp. I-27. In the course of his paper Professor Haskins calls atten- 
tion to the interesting fact that Harvard University Library possesses a 
manuscript of Jacques de Vitry’s Sermones vulgares which was once the 
property of the monastery of St. Jacques at Liége (MS. Riant 35). 


*; ie i aie 


ee er SE Let 


NEBUL. 
By V. M. SLIPHER, Pux.D. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 


In addition to the planets and comets of our solar system and 


_ the countless stars of our stellar system there appear on the sky 


many cloud-like masses—the nebule. These for a long time have 
been generally regarded as presenting an early stage in the evolu- 
tion of the stars and of our solar system, and they have been care- 
fully studied and something like 10,000 of them catalogued. 
Keeler’s classical investigation of the nebule with the Crossley 
reflector by photographic means revealed unknown nebulz in great 
numbers. He estimated that such plates as his if they were made 


_to cover the whole sky would contain at least 120,000 nebule, an 


estimate which later observations show to be considerably too small. 
He made also the surprising discovery that more than half of all 
nebule are spiral in form; and he expressed the opinion that the 
spiral nebulz might prove to be of particular interest in questions 
concerning cosmogony. 

I wish to give at this time a brief account of a spectrographic 
investigation of the spiral nebulz which I have been conducting at 
the Lowell Observatory since 1912. Observations had been previ- 
ously made, notably by Fath at the Lick and Mount Wilson Observ- 


‘ # atories, which yielded valuable information on the character. of 


the spectra of the spiral nebule. These objects have since been 


= found to be possessed of extraordinary motions and it is the obser- 


vation of these that will be discussed here. . 

In their general features nebular spectra may for convenience 
be placed under two types characterized as (1.) bright-line and 
(1I.) dark-line. The gaseous nebule, which include the planetary 
and some of the irregular nebule, are of the first type; while the 
much more numerous family of spiral nebulz are, in the main, of 
the second type. But the two are not mutually exclusive and in the 

403 


404 SLIPHER—NEBULZ. 


spirals are sometimes found both types of spectra. This is true of 
the nebule numbered 598, 1068 and 5236 of the “ New General 
Catalogue” of nebule. 

Some of the gaseous nebule are relatively bright and their 
spectra are especially so since their light is all concentrated in a 


few bright spectral lines. These have been successfully observed 


_ for a long time. Keeler in his well-known determination of the 
velocities of thirteen gaseous nebule was able to employ visually 
more than twenty times the dispersion usable on the spiral nebule. 

Spiral nebule are intrinsically very faint. The amount of their 
light admitted by the narrow slit of the spectrograph is only a small 
fraction of the whole and when it is dispersed by the prism it 
forms a continuous spectrum of extreme weakness. The faintness 
of these spectra has discouraged their investigation until recent 
years. It will be only emphasizing the fact that their faintness still 
imposes a very serious obstacle to their spectrographic study when 
it is pointed out, for example, that an excellent spectrogram of the 
Virgo spiral N.G.C.. 4594 secured with the great Mount Wilson re- 
flector by Pease was exposed eighty hours. 

A large telescope has some advantages in this work, but un- 
fortunately no choice of telescope either of aperture or focal-length 
will increase the brightness of the nebular surface. It is chiefly 
influenced by the spectrograph whose camera alone practically de- 
termines the efficiency of the whole equipment. The camera of the 
Lowell spectrograph has a lens working at a speed ratio of about 
1:2.5. The dispersion piece of the spectrograph has generally been 
a 64° prism of dense glass, but for two of the nebulz a dispersion 
of two 64° prisms was used. The spectrograph was attached to 
the 24-inch refractor. | 

With this equipment I have secured between forty and fifty 
spectrograms of 25 spiral nebula. The exposures are long—gen- 
erally from twenty to forty hours. It is usual to continue the ex- 
posure through several nights but occasionally it may run into weeks 
owing to unfavorable weather or the telescope’s use in other work. 
Besides the exposures cannot be continued in the presence of bright 
moonlight and this seriously retards the accumulation of observa- 
tions. 


— i ee 


SLIPHER—NEBUL2. 405 


The iron-vanadium spark comparison spectrum is exposed a 
number. of times « during the nebular exposure in order to insure that 
the comparison lines are subjected to the same influences as the 
nebular lines. The spectrograph is electrically maintained at a con- 
stant temperature which avoids the ill effects of the usual fall of 
the night temperature. 

The equivalent slit-width is usually about .o6 mm. 

The linear dispersion of the spectra is about 140 tenth-meters 
per millimeter in the violet of the spectrum which is sufficient to 
detect and measure the velocities of the spiral nebule. As the 
objects yet to be observed are fainter than those already observed 
the prospects of increasing the accuracy by employing greater 
dispersion are not now promising. 

The plates are measured under the Hartmann spectrocomparator 
in which one optically superposes the nebular plate of unknown 
velocity upon one of a like dark-line spectrum of known velocity, 
used as standard. A micrometer screw, which shifts one plate 


relatively to the other, is read when the dark lines of the nebula and 


the standard spectrum coincide; and again when the comparison 
lines of the two plates coincide. The difference of the two screw 
readings with the known dispersion of the spectrum gives the veloc- 
ity of the nebula. By this method weak lines and groups of lines 
can be utilized that otherwise would not be available because of 
faintness or uncertainty of wave-length. 


TABLE I. 
RapraL VELOCITIES OF TWENTY-FIVE SPIRAL NEBULZ. 
Nebula. Vel. Nebula. Vel. 
eae. 221 — 300 km. N.G.C. 4526 + 580 km. 

224 — 300 4565 +1100 
598 — 260 4594 +1100 
1023 + 300 4649 +1090 
1068 +1100 4736 + 290 
2683 -+ 400 4826 + 150 
3031 = 30 5005 + 900 
3115 + 600 5055 + 450 
3379 + 780 5194 + 270 
3521 + 730 5236 + 500 
3623 + 800 5866 a it ee 
3627 + 650 7331 + 500 
4258 + 500 


406 SLIPHER—NEBULZ. 


In Table I. are given the velocities for the twenty-five spiral 
nebulz thus far observed. In the first column is the New General 
Catalogue number of the nebula and in the second the velocity. 
The plus sign denotes the nebula is receding, the minus sign that it~ 
is approaching. . 

Generally the value of the velocity depends upon a single plate 
which, in many instances, was underexposed and some of the values 
for these reasons may be in error by as much as 100 kilometers. 
This however is not so discreditable as at first it might seem to be. 
The arithmetic mean of the velocities is 570 km. and 100 km. is 
hence scarcely 20 per cent. of the quantity observed. With stars 
the average velocity is about 20 km. and two observers with dif- 
ferent instruments and a single observation each of an average star 
might differ in its velocity by 20 per cent. of the quantity meas- 
ured. Thus owing to the very high magnitude of the velocity of 
the spiral nebulz the percentage error in its observation is compar- 
able with that of star velocity measures. 

Since the earlier publication of my preliminary velocities for a 
part of this list of spiral nebulz, observations have been made 
elsewhere of four objects with results in fair agreement with mine, 
as shown in Table II. 


TABLE II. 
VELociTIEs OF NEBUL BY DIFFERENT OBSERVERS. 
Nebulz. Velocity. Observers. 
N.G.C. 224 — 300km. Slipher, mean from several plates. 
Great Andromeda — 304 Wright, Lick Observatory, one plate. 
Nebula. - — 320 Pease, Mt. Wilson Observatory, one 
— 300to 400 km. plate. 


Wolf, Heidelberg, one plate approx. 


N.G.C. 508 — 278 Pease, Mt. Wilson, from bright lines. 
Great Spiral of — 263 Slipher, from bright lines. 
Triangulum. 
N.G.C. 1068 + 1100 Slipher, from dark and bright lines. 
+ 765 Pease, from two bright lines. 
+ 910 - Moore, Lick Observatory, from three 


bright lines. 


N'G.C. 4504 + 1100 Slipher. 
+ 1180 km. Pease, Mt. Wilson Observatory. — 


Ws 570 km. is about thirty times the average velocity of the stars. 


SLI oo ee 407 


_ Referring to the table of velocities again: the average velocity 
And 
it is so much greater than that known of any other class of celestial 
bodies as to set the spiral nebule aside in a class to themselves. 
_ Their distribution over the sky likewise shows them to be unique— 
they shun the Milky Way and cluster about its poles. 

The mean of the velocities with regard to sign is positive, imply- 
ing the nebule are receding with a velocity of nearly 500 km. 
This might suggest that the spiral nebule are scattering but their 
distribution on the sky is not in accord with this since they are in- 
clined to cluster. A little later a tentative explanation of the 
preponderance of positive velocities will be suggested. 

Grouping the nebulz as in Table III., there appears to be some 
evidence that spiral nebule move edge forward. 


TABLE III. 
VELOCITIES OF SPIRAL NEBULZ GROUPED. 
Face View Spirals. Inclined Spirals. Edge View Spirals. 
N.G.C. Vel. N.G.C. Vel. N.G.C. Vel. 

5908 — 260 km. 224 — 300 km. 2683 + 400 km. 
4736 +290 3623 + 800 3115 + 600 
5194 +270 3627 +650 4565 + 1100 
5236 + 500 4826 +300 4594 + 1100 

5005 +920 5866 + 600 
5955 +450 
7331 + 500 

Mean..... SPR SCT lg. gored 3. 9 oe = S60 kIRS NS oa. eee 760 km. 


The form of the spiral nebule strongly suggests rotational mo- 
tion. In the spring of 1913 I obtained spectrograms of the spiral 
nebule N.G.C. 4594 the lines of which were inclined after the 
manner of those in the spectrum of Jupiter, and, later, spectro- 
grams which showed rotation or internal motion in the Great Andro- 
meda Nebula and in the two in Leo N.G.C. 3623 and 3627 and in 
nebule N.G.C. 5005 and 2683—less well in the last three. The mo- 
tion in’ the Andromeda nebula and in 3623 is possibly more like 
that in the system of Saturn. It is greatest in nebula N.G.C. 4594. 
The rotation in this nebula has been verified at the Mt. Wilson 
Observatory. 


408 SLIPHER—NEBUL#. 


Because of its bearing on the evolution of spiral nebulz it is de- 
sirable to know the direction of rotation relative to the arms of the 
spirals. But this requires us to know which edge of the nebula is 
the nearer us, and we have not as yet by direct means succeeded in 
determining even the distance of the spiral nebule. However, in- 
direct means, I believe, may here help us. It is well known that 
spiral nebule presenting their edge to us are commonly crossed by 
a dark band. This coincides with the equatorial plane and must 
belong to the nebula itself. It doubtless has its origin in dark or 
deficiently illuminated matter on our edge of the nebula, which ab- 
sorbs (or occults) the light of the more brightly illumined inner 
part of the nebula. If now we imagine we view such a nebula 
from a point somewhat outside its plane the dark band would shift 
to the side and render the nebula unsymmetrical—the deficient edge 
being of course the one nearer us. This appears to be borne out by 
the nebule themselves for the inclined ones commonly show this 
typical dissymmetry. Thus we may infer their deficient side to be 
the one toward us. 

When the result of this reasoning was applied to the above cases 
of rotation it turned out that the direction of rotation relative to 
the spiral arms was the same for all. (The nebula N.G.C. 4594 
is unfortunately not useful in this as it is not inclined enough to 
show clearly the arms.) Thecentral part—which is all of the nebule 
the spectrograms record—turns into the spiral arms as a spring turns 
in winding up. This agreement in direction of rotation furnishes a 
favorable check on the conclusion as to the nearer edge of the 
nebule, for of course we should expect that dynamically all spiral 
nebulz rotate in the same direction with reference to the spiral arms. 
The character and rapidity of the rotation of the Virgo nebula 
N.G.C. 4594 suggests the possibility that it is expanding instead of 
contracting under the influence of gravitation, as we have been 
wont to think. 

As noted before the majority of the nebulz here discussed have 
positive velocities, and they are located in the region of sky near 
right ascension twelve hours which is rich in spiral nebule. In the 
opposite point of the sky some of the spiral nebule have negative 
velocities, 7. ¢., are approaching us; and it is to be expected that 


SLIPHER—NEBUL2. 409 


when more are observed there, still others will be found to have 
approaching motion. It is unfortunate that the twenty-five ob- 
served objects are not more uniformly distributed over the sky as 
then the case could be better dealt with. It calls to mind the 
_ radial velocities of the stars which, in the sky about Orion, are 
receding and in the opposite part of the sky are approaching. This 
arrangement of the star velocities is due to the motion of the solar 
system relative to the stars. Professor Campbell at the Lick Ob- 
servatory has accumulated a vast store of star velocities and has 
determined the motion of our sun with reference to those stars. 

We may in like manner determine our motion relative to the 
spiral nebulz, when sufficient material becomes available. A pre- 
liminary solution of the material at present available indicates. that 
we are moving in the direction of right-ascension 22 hours and 
declination — 22° with a velocity of about 700 km. While the 
number of nebule is small and their distribution poor this result 
may still be considered as indicating that we have some such 
drift through space. For us to have such motion and the stars 
not show it means that our whole stellar system moves and 
carries us with it. It has for a long time been suggested that the 
spiral nebulz are stellar systems seen at great distances. This is the 
so-called “island universe” theory, which regards our stellar sys- 
tem and the Milky Way as a great spiral nebula which we see from 
within. This theory, it seems to me, gains favor in the present 
observations. 

It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss the different 
theories of the spiral nebule in the face of these and other observed 
facts. However, it seems that, if our solar system evolved from a 
nebula as we have long believed, that nebula was probably not one 
of the class of spirals here dealt with. : 

Our lamented Dr. Lowell was deeply interested in this investi- 
gation as he was in all matters touching upon the evolution of our 
solar system and I am indebted to him for his constant encourage- 
ment. 


LoweLL OBSERVATORY, 
April, 1917. 


THE TRIAL OF ANIMALS AND INSECTS. 
A LittLeE KNown CHAPTER OF MEDIZVAL JURISPRUDENCE. 


By HAMPTON L. CARSON. 
(Read April 12, 1917.) 


In the open square of the old Norman city of Falaise, in the 
year 1386, a vast and motley crowd had gathered to witness the 
execution of a criminal convicted of the crime of murder. Noble- 
men in armour, proud dames in velvet and feathers, priests in 
cassock and cowl, falconers with hawks upon their wrists, huntsmen 
with hounds in leash, aged men with their staves, withered hags with 
their baskets or reticules, children of all ages and even babes in 
arms were among the spectators. The prisoner was dressed in a 
new suit of man’s clothes, and was attended by armed men on horse- 
back, while the hangman before mounting the scaffold had provided 
himself with new gloves and a new rope. As the prisoner had 
caused the death of a child by mutilating the face and arms to 
such an extent as to cause a fatal hemorrhage, the town tribunal, or 
local court, had decreed that the head and legs of the prisoner 
should be mangled with a knife before the hanging. This was a 
medizval application of the lex talionis, or “an eye for an eye and 
a tooth for a tooth.” To impress a recollection of the scene upon 
the memories of the bystanders an artist was employed to paint a 
frescoe on the west wall of the transept of the Church of the Holy 
Trinity in Falaise, and’ for more than four hundred years. that 
picture could be seen and studied until destroyed in 1820 by the 
carelessness of a white washer. The criminal was not a human 
being, but a sow, which had indulged in the evil propensity of eating 
infants on the street. 

Within the first ten years of the sixteenth century, Bartholomew 


410 


A ee ee Ne ee ee Ra eee ORES a el, ae i eS a tk eS Oe 
Re ~ ae ey ti bor ae r 


CARSON—THE TRIAL OF ANIMALS AND INSECTS. 411 


-Chassenée, then a young French avocat, who became a distinguished 


jurist, and president of the Parlement de Provence, a position cor- 
responding to chief justice, won his spurs at the bar by his ingenuity 
in defending the Rats of the province of Autun, who were charged 
with the crime of having eaten the barley crop. He urged that his 
clients, like other defendants, were entitled to notice before con- 


demnation. When they failed to appear in court in obedience to the 


proclamation published from the pulpits of all the parishes, he 


‘argued that their non appearance was due to the vigilance of their 


mortal enemies, the cats, and that if a person be cited to appear at a 
place to which he could not come in safety the law would excuse 
his apparent contumacy. Years later, at the height of his fame, in 
1540, he insisted upon the same principle, in defending the persecuted 


_ Waldenses who were prosecuted for heresy, contending that as it 


had been established in the Rat case that even animals should not 
be adjudged and sentenced without a hearing, all of the safeguards 
of justice should be thrown around the accused. 

I have cited these cases of the Sow and the Rats, not as isolated 
and extraordinary instances of medieval trials, such as the cele- 
brated Cock at Basel in 1474, but as fair examples of what was 
common to Continental jurisprudence from the ninth to the eight- 
eenth century. Indeed as late as 1864 in Pleternica in Slavonia, a 
pig was tried and executed for having maliciously bitten off the ears 
of an infant one year old, and we are told by Professor Karl von 
Amira, who reports the case, that while the flesh of the animal was 
thrown to the dogs, the owner of the pig was put under a bond to 


‘provide a dowry for the mutilated girl, so that the loss of her ears 


might not prove an obstacle to her marriage. Of the extent to 
which the Trial of Animals formed a substantial part of Medizval 
Jurisprudence, the most convincing proof is found in the Report and 


Researches of Barriat-Saint-Prix,2 who gives numerous extracts 


from the original records of such proceedings, and also a list of the 

kinds of animals tried and condemned. He gives ninety-three 

cases from the beginning of the twelfth to the middle of the eigh- 
1“ Thierstrafen and Thierprocesse,” p. 578, Innsbruck, 1891. 

2 Memoires of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of France (Paris, 1829, 

Tome VIII., pp. 403-50). 


412 CARSON—THE TRIAL OF ANIMALS AND INSECTS. 


teenth century. Carlo D’Addosio,? a Neapolitan writer of recent 
times, enlarges the list to one hundred and forty-four prosecutions, 
resulting in the execution or excommunication of the accused, and 
extends the time from the year 824 to 1845; while our fellow 
countryman, Mr. E. P. Evans, in an exhaustive “ Chronological List 
of the Prosecution of Animals from the Ninth to the Twentieth 
Century,” begins with the case of moles in the valley of Aosta in 
824, and closes with that of a fierce dog who aided murderers in 
‘their crime in Switzerland and was tried as an accomplice as late 
as 1906.* 

An analysis of Mr. Evans’ list gives these results. Out of one 
hundred and ninety-six cases he assigns, 3 to the ninth, 3 to the 
twelfth, 2 to the thirteenth, 12 to the fourteenth, 36 to the fifteenth, 
57 to the sixteenth, 56 to the seventeenth, 12 to the eighteenth, 9 to 
the nineteenth and 1 to the twentieth centuries. The scenes were 
laid in Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Rus- 
sia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, England, Scotland, Canada and 
Connecticut, the last named being in the days of Cotton Mather. 
This wide distribution of time and territory shows how persistent 
and prevalent the practice was, and corrects any notion of its being 
due to local passion or territorial superstition. The most numerous 
cases were in France, but this is due to a more careful study of an- 
cient records by French antiquarians than by those of other nations. 
The two English cases were those of a dog and a cock, the Scotch 
case, that of a dog, the Canadian case, that of turtle-doves, and the 
Connecticut cases those of a cow, two heifers, three sheep and two 
sOWS. 

As early as 1486, in a curious book, printed by Anthony Neyret, 
there is a classification of beasts or animals into those which are 
sweet beasts (bestes doulces) such as the hart and hind, and stenchy 
beasts (bestes puantes) such as pigs, foxes, wolves and goats, to 
which in time were added of domestic animals, such as asses, bulls, 
cows, dogs, horses and sheep, those of a ferocious and vicious dis- 
position. These all fell under the jurisdiction of the civil and crim- 

3“ Bestie Delinquenti,” Napoli, 1892. 

#“The Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals,” N. 


Y., 1906. 


CARSON—THE TRIAL OF ANIMALS AND INSECTS. 413 


inal courts, and after trial and condemnation were executed either 
by hanging, or burning at the stake. Vermin such as field mice, 
rats, moles-and weasels and pestiferous creatures, such as bugs, 
beetles, blooksuckers, caterpillars, cockchafers, eels, leeches, ‘flies, 
grasshoppers, frogs, locusts, serpents, slugs, snails, termites, weevils 
and worms were disciplined by the ecclesiastical tribunals and in due 
time excommunicated. 

This sharp distinction between the jurisdiction of the secular 
and ecclesiastical tribunals is explained by Professor von Amira, 
‘who says that animals, such as pigs, cows, horses and dogs, which 
were in the service of man and who committed crimes against man- 
kind, could be arrested, tried, convicted and executed like any other 
members of his household, but rodents and insects were not the sub- 
ject of human control, and could not be seized and imprisoned by 
the civil authorities. Hence, it was necessary to appeal to the inter- 
vention of the Church, and implore her to exercise her super- 
natural functions for the purpose of compelling them to desist from 
devastation of those fields and places devoted to the production of 
human food. 

The explanation of the mental and moral attitude of the tribunals 
in those days in relation to the subject is to be traced to the belief 
of.the ancient Greeks, who held that a murder, whether committed 
by a man, a beast, or an inanimate object, such as a deadly weapon, 
a spear, a knife, or a hammer, unless properly expiated, would 
arouse the furies and bring pestilence upon the land. The medieval 
Church taught the same doctrine, but substituted the demons of 

_ Christian theology for the furies of classical mythology. Eminent 
authorities, as Mr. Evans has shown, maintained that all beasts and 
birds, as well as creeping things were devils in disguise, and that 
homicide committed by them, if it were permitted to go unpunished, 
would furnish an opportunity for the intervention of devils to take 
possession of persons and places. The cock at Basel, suspected 
of laying an egg in violation of his sex, was feared as an abnormal, 
inauspicious and therefore diabolic creature: the fatal cockatrice 
might thus be hatched. While as to swine, they were peculiarly 
attractive to devils, and hence peculiarly liable to diabolical posses- 


414 CARSON—THE TRIAL OF ANIMALS AND INSECTS. 


sion as proved by the legend by which devils left the lunatic and 


entered the herd of swine which pitched itself into the sea. Beel- 


zebub was incarnate in all night beasts, especially if they happened 
to be black. If Pythagoras was right in teaching, “that souls of 
animals infuse themselves into the trunks of men,’ what wonder 
was it that Gratiano exclaimed to Shylock: 


“ Thy currish spirit 
Govern’d a wolf, who, hanged for human slaughter, ‘ 
Even from the gallows did his fell soul fleet, 
And, whilst thou lay’st in thy unhallowed dam, 
Infused itself in thee; for thy desires 
Are wolfish, bloody, sterved and ravenous.” 


In explanation of the judicial proceedings so solemnly resorted 
to in the trial, conviction and punishment of animals, a Swiss jurist, 
Edward Osenbriiggen, in 1868, advanced and maintained the thesis, 
that they can only be understood on the theory of the personifica- 
tion of animals: that as only a human being can commit crime and 
thus render himself liable to punishment, it is only by an act of 
personification that the brute can be placed in the same category as 
man and become subject to the same penalties; and he regarded 
the Basel cock as a personified heretic, and therefore properly 
burned at the stake. b , 

Mr. Evans regards this as purely fanciful, and concludes that 
“the judicial prosecution of animals, resulting in their excommuni- 
cation by the Church or their execution by the hangman, had its 
origin in the common superstition of the age, which has left such a 
tragical record of itself in the incredibly absurd and atrocious an- 


ea 
ante 14 


nals of witchcraft. The same ancient code that condemned a homi- — 


cidal ox to be stoned, declared that a witch should not be suffered to 
live, and although the Jewish law giver may have regarded the for- 
mer enactment chiefly as a police regulation designed to protect per- 
sons against unruly cattle, it was, like the decree of death against 
witches, genetically connected with the Hebrew cult and had there- 
fore an essentially religious character. It was these two paragraphs 
of the Mosaic law that Christian tribunals in the Middle Ages were 


hee 


as. their authority for prosecuting and punishing 


Bes Hedée the realms of Night 
an Dire Demon hence! 

_ Thy chain of adamant can bind in 
That little world, the human mind, : ia 
And sink its noblest powers : 
- To impotence.” _ 


THE SEX RATIO IN THE DOMESTIC FOWL.?* 
By RAYMOND PEARL. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 
I. INTRODUCTION, 


One of the most notable biological discoveries of recent years is 
that which has demonstrated the cytological mechanism of sex de- 
termination. As a result of the work of McClung, Wilson, Stevens, 
Montgomery, Morgan, and many other investigators, we have a 
tolerably clear understanding of the cellular mechanism by which it 
is determined, in a wide variety of forms, that particular individuals 
are males while others are females. At first sight it would appear 
that the discoveries referred to had made superfluous further studies 
of sex ratios. The whole history of the statistical investigation of 
sex ratios, viewed from the standpoint of present knowledge of the 
mechanism of sex determination, seems a rather futile and blind 
groping after something which very successfully eluded that form 
of pursuit. 

But there are still reasons, as it seems to the writer, why it is 
desirable to carry on certain sorts of statistical investigations of sex 
ratios. The most important of these is that there is a considerable 
body of evidence in the literature, which would seem to show, if 


1 Papers from the Biological Laboratory of the Maine Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station. No. 119. This paper constitutes No. VIII. of a series 
of “Sex Studies” by the present writer. 

It was originally intended that this should be a much more extended 
paper than it now is. When it was presented before the Society a number of 
matters were discussed which do not appear here at all. This condition of 
affairs arises from the fact that in the midst of the preparation of the final 
manuscript for the printer the writer was called to war work which made 
impossible the completion of the paper in the form originally contemplated. 
In view of the impossibility of foretelling when the writing could be com- 
pleted it! seemed desirable to publish the portion already done rather than to 
leave the whole till the somewhat uncertain time of the end of the war. 


416 


PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 417 


taken at its face value; that sex ratios may, in some cases at least, 
be experimentally modified and in some degree controlled. The 
critical value of all of this evidence is not equal. In some instances 
it appears certain, and in more cases probable, that the data pre- 
_ sented do not warrant the conclusion that the sex ratio has been 
either modified or controlled. There is, of course, no theoretical 
impossibility in modifying the sex ratio in an organism where the 
chromosomal mechanism of sex determination is a definite and con- 
stant one. We know of no hereditary character which may not, 
upon occasion, be modified; and in the case of sex the brilliant re- 
searches of Goldschmidt? make it clear that not only the somatic 
manifestation of the chromosomal sex mechanism may vary and 
be experimentally modified, but presumably also the mechanism it- 
self. But just because of the usual and normal stability of ger- 
minal mechanisms it becomes the more important to be sure, on the 
one hand, that evidence alleged to demonstrate that sex ratios may 
be modified or controlled is sound and adequate when subjected to 
the scrutiny of modern statistical science, and, on the other hand, 
to learn more than we now know about the normal variability of 
sex ratios. As a contribution in this direction it seems important 
where possible to present and critically analyze statistical data, of 
adequate amount, regarding the normal sex ratio of forms frequently 
used in experimental work. 

It is the purpose of this paper to present and analyze such data 
for the domestic fowl. The statistics here used cover eight years in 
point of time, and represent over 22,000 individual chicks. 

The specific topics which will be discussed are these: 

1. The normal, average sex ratio in the domestic fowl. 
2. The variation in the sex ratio. 
3. The influence of prenatal mortality on the sex ratio. 


II. MarerrAt AND METHops. 
Before undertaking the presentation and discussion of the sta- 
tistics it is desirable to say a word in regard to their collection and 
analysis. The data are those which have arisen in the writer’s ex- 


2 Goldschmidt, R., Amer. Nat., 1916, and other papers. 
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, BB, JULY 17, 1917. 


418 PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 


perimental breeding operations with poultry at the Maine Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station during the breeding seasons of 1908 
to 1915 inclusive. The 1916 matings are not included except for 
the discussion of certain special problems because. the origina) 
record-taking on that year’s birds is not completed at the time of 
writing. During the period covered by the statistics the sex of 
every chick which hatched was determined if it was physically 
possible to make such determination. Failure to determine the sex 
in individual cases resulted from one or another of the following 
kinds of causes: (a) The loss of the bird from predaceous enemies, 
thieves, or straying; (0) the bird’s total destruction by fire; (c) the 
loss of its identifying leg band, which rendered its assignment to. 
the proper mating impossible. In the case of birds which died be- 
fore reaching an age where the development of secondary sex char- 
acters made it possible to distinguish the sexes externally, dissec- 
tion and examination of the gonads was resorted to for the deter- 
mination. 

The number of cases of birds not sexed at all, for the reasons 
above stated, was not proportionately large. I have elsewhere® given 
detailed figures on the point for one year. Other years presented 
much the same sort of facts. The important feature is that these 
irremediable losses, so far as all the evidence indicates, have been 
random samples of the population in respect of sex. Further on 
in the paper detailed evidence in support of this statement will be 
presented. 

In the statistical treatment of the data the mating or family has 
been made the unit, wherever such treatment is possible. While 
not novel, this method of dealing with sex ratio statistics is unusual. 
It has certain marked advantages, from a methodological viewpoint, 
over the more usual procedure of considering a whole population 
as the unit in studying the sex ratio. These advantages will be ap- 
parent as we proceed. 

Throughout this paper the sex ratio is presented as the percentage 
of the males in the total of the group or population. Or, in other 
words, we express the sex ratio as 


3 Pearl, R., Amer. Nat., Vol. XLV., pp. 107-117. 1911. 


_PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 419 


== eal 100d’ ol! 
ees FT FP + AS 


—— 


io for any mating, group or population. To convert any such sex 
_ fatio into the form where the proportion of the sexes is expressed 


as number of males per 100 females one has only to divide the 


given R by 100—R , and the answer, multiplied by 100, will be 
the result sought. 


III. Tue Normat Sex Ratio IN THE Fowt. 


In dealing with sex ratios with the single mating or family as 
the unit it is evident that the absolute size of the family from each 
mating is a factor which must be considered. In a family of 2 the 
only possible values for R , are 0, 5u, and 100 per cent. Again, a 
single family of 2 is a very small sample of the gametic population 
of the parents. The larger the family, obviously, the better the 
sampling. Now in the usual method of dealing statistically with 
sex ratios, where one simply counts all the males and all the females 
in the population, no account whatever is taken nor can be, of the 
badness of the gametic sampling in case of very small families. A 
male in a family of 1 counts as significantly toward the final result 
as a male in a family of 30. Yet it is quite sure that if we deter- 
mined the sex ratio of the population on the basis of families of 1 
only, the result would be less worthy of confidence (1. e., of a larger 
“probable” error) than if it were based on large families only. 

Tables I. to III. inclusive give the distribution to the sex ratios 
for all fertile matings of the domestic fowl made by the writer in 
the eight years from 1908 to 1915 inclusive. Sterile matings are, 
of course, not included. The data are divided between the three 
tables on the basis of size of family. Table I. includes only families 
in which ro or more chicks were produced. Table II. includes fami- 
lies of from 4 to 9 chicks, and Table III. covers the very small fami- 
lies of 1, 2, or 3 chicks only. In order that there may be no mis- 
understanding it will be well to state clearly just the significance 
of these tables. To take an example: The entry 2 in the first row 
of Table I. means that in the year 1908 there were produced 2 fami- 
lies, each containing 10 or more chicks, in each of which families 


PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 


TABLE I. 


FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE SEX RATIO IN THE FowL. VaArtous BREEDS. 
FAMILIES OF I0 AND OVER. 


Sex Ratio Ros 
Year 
0-9.9. | 100- 20.0— | 30.0- | 40.0- 50,0- | 60.0- 70.0- | 80.0- | 90.0- 
19.9. 29.9. 39.9. 49.9. 59.9. 69.9. 799+ 89.9. | 100.0. 
XOOS. 3 3. (0) 2 nae) 22 22 18 II 7 ie) I 
1909: Gon fo) 4 9 17 38 46 29 2 xe) oO 
TOL ihe are fo) 3 I4 17 36 52 24 II 3 I 
FORD ess I 3 x2 34 43 37 18 II 2 I 
TQIB wis (9) 3 6 19 4-36 41 22 8 2 ° 
POTS ates (9) I 6 16 23 33 17 6 fe) fe) 
TOTAG sees ce) 2 2 17 35 48 *27 I Os, hod 
EGES ies. as fe) I 4 16 27 19 I2 I oO fe) 
Totals. . I 19 60 158 260 294 160 47 7 3 


TABLE II. 


FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE SEX RATIO IN THE Fowit. Various BREEDS. 
FAMILIES OF 4 TO 9 INCLUSIVE. 


Sex Ratio. FR oe 
Year, ; 
0-9.9. | 1%0- 20.0- 30.0- 40.0- | 50.0- | 60.0- 70.0- 80.0- | 90.0- 
19.9. 29.9. 39-9. 49.9. 59.9- 69.9. 79-9» 89.9 100.0. 
T9008. 505% 5 4 I2 7 9 17 13 6 I is 
SOOO! 0's is) 2 9 6 3 14 iy 2 2 2 
TOTO use 3 2 7 2 I 6 4 2 re) 7 
LOTS 5S stony 9 I 3 8 5 I2 8 5 3 Bas. 
TOU 2 Visnre I I 3 5 5 8 5 8 7 2 
1913 ‘ fe) 2 4 3 6 I2 Bae) 5 I 2 
1634 oe%- 2 (9) 6 6 3 5 4 3 4 9 
TOTS S355; 2 I 2 2 q 13 5 4 3 I 
Totals..| 22 13 46 39 39 87. 56 35 17 23 


TABLE III. 


FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE SEX RATIO IN THE Fowt. Various BREEDS. 
FAMILIES OF I TO 3 INCLUSIVE. 


Sex Ratio. Ry 
Year 
09.9. 10.0- 20.0- 30.0- 40.0- 50.0- 60.0- 70.0- 80.0- 90.0- 
19.9. 29.9 39-9 49-9. 59.9. 69.9. 79-9. 89.9. | 100.0, 
LOOK ba ais 8 fe) te) I ce) 6 4 oO oO II 
TOOO 5.2% 6 te) fe) 2 oO 2 4 oO te) 4 
TOTO 253 ts 5 oO oO O- fe) 2 2 te) o 2 
TORT se Io fe) oO fe) fe) 6 I fe) fo) II 
TOl2 Ves 2 fe) fe) 2 ° 5 2 te) As) 8 
OTS Siriaas 2 (9) oO 2 oO 6 4 0 oO 9 
TOT4. +0 6 o cy) I ° 2 0 ° o ose 
TOTS) ae 4 fe) fe) 3 te) 2 I O'. te) 3 
Totals..| 43 oO fe) tz te) 32 18 fe) oO 57 


PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 421 


the percentage of J to total number of chicks was somewhere be- 
tween I0 per cent. and-19.9 per cent. Other entries are to be cor- 
respondingly read. 

The first thing which strikes one’s attention in examining these 
tables is that extreme values of the sex ratio (below 20 and above 
80 say) occur relatively frequently only in small families. If the 
‘families are very small (Table III.) extreme values of the sex ratio 

_ become actually more frequent than medium values. The greater 
frequency of extreme sex ratios in small families is obviously what 
would be expected on merely arithmetic grounds. Thus to take the 
data of Table III. We find from the original records that there 
were 54 families of 1, 53 of 2, and 54 of 3 each contributing to this 
table. Suppose males and females were equally likely to occur (i. 
@., R ,=50); then according to the laws of chance, the totals of 
Table IlI. would be expected to be as shown in Table IV. These 

“are compared with the actually observed totals. 


TABLE IV. 


Comparinc Torats or Taste III., wirh CHance DIstrIBuTION oF SAME 
NUMBER OF FAMILIES, ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT R7,=50. 


; Sex Ratio. 
Distribution. 
3 Iu.o- | 20.0- 30.0- 40.0- | 50.0- | 60.0- 7o.0o- | 80.0- | go.0o- 
{: r9-9 |! 29.9; 29.9. 39.9. 49-9. 59-9- | 69.9. 79-9 89.9. | 100.0 
Actual....] 43 | fe) | fe) II fe) 32 18 fe) | re) 57 
. Chance....| 47 o o 20.25 o 26.50 | 20.25 o re) 47 


While this is by no means a perfect fit of the observations by 
_ the chance distribution, the latter is close enough to the former to 
indicate clearly the essentially chance determined character of the 
observed distribution. The resemblance would be still closer if we 
_ took a value of R , for the computation more nearly in accord with 
_ the actual fact than is 50, the value actually used. 
: There is no need to pursue this point further, as it will be evi- 
dent to anyone who will examine Tables I., II. and IIL., in the light 
_ of the points just made, that we cannot draw any conclusions of 
' critical value regarding the normal variation of the sex ratio in the 
' fowl, at least, except on the basis of families containing at least 10 
individuals each. 


422 PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 

We may next consider the mean sex ratio, dealing separately 
with each of the three groups. In calculating these means, and the 
other variation constants, it was not assumed, as is ordinarily done, 
that each class centered at the mid-point of the strip of base on 
which its frequency stands. To have done so would have involved 
a considerable error. Instead the actual centering point for each 
class was determined from the individual records. The results are 
shown in Table V., and from this table one can see how large the 
error involved in the usual statistical assumption would have been. 
The reason for the error is, of course, purely arithmetical, and 
arises from the fact that in small groups, such as the families here 
dealt with, only certain percentage values are possible. 

Using the values of Table V., we get, by ordinary methods, the 


TABLE V. 


SHOWING THE ACTUAL CENTERING PoINTs OF THE SEVERAL CLASSES IN TABLES 
IL, IL, anp III. 


Centering Point. 
Cass. Families Families Families 
zo and Over, 4-9 Inclusive. 1-3 Inclusive.- 
Oe Di a Pais calene oe aban eae (a) oO 0) 
EQ0— 20066 6s soca new eaeee 15.46 15.68 -—— 
BOO AO: 55. ¥ va lececws oop Minette 24.87 24.15 —_— 
BOO 30:0 o's: 55 o setae’ 0 Manetoaieaem 35.01 33.70 33.33 
BOi0> A030 eos et ee ee 43.97 41.73 —— 
500 “SOO a sks ob dlecly a oeserers 53-57 51.76 50.00 
60.0 OQ 5.6 b-vis ices ko eee EE 63.65 63.51 66.67 
7030= FOG 6s vg sw. ge 73.090 74.58 — 
£O:0~, B00) ois4. 6 o05 > See 84.64 81.92 oo 
00.0—-100.0 vis heise ase ate ee 100.00 100.00 100.00 


mean sex ratios exhibited in Table VI. We shall deal at this point 
only with the total distribution of Tables I., II., and III. 


TABLE VI. 
MeANn Sex RAtTio oF THE Domestic Fowrt. Various BREEDs, 
; oo per 
Group. Rye 1,000 i" 
Families of 10 and over (Total Table I.) ......... 48.57 + 0.28 044 
Families of 4 to 9 inclusive (Total Table II.) ...... 49.390 + .84 976 
Families of 1 to 3 inclusive (Total Table III.) ..... 55.07 + 2.11 1226 
Families of 4 and over (Tables I. and II. combined) 4880+ .33 053 


Families of all sizes (Tables I.,II.,and III.combined) 49.45 978 


PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 423 


These figures show that if we take all of the 22,791 chicks on 
which this-table is based, into account together we get a mean sex 
fatio of 49.45, or approximately one half of one per cent. fewer 
males than females. This, however, cannot be regarded as the 
normal sex ratio for the strains of poultry and the environmental 
complex here dealt with, because (a) the table shows an obvious 
influence of size of family on the sex ratio, a point to which we 
shall return for detailed discussion later in the paper, and (b) fami- 
lies under 10 cannot be considered as representative of the normal 
fertility of the domestic fowl. The value for families of 10 and 
over, namely FR ,— 48.58 + .28 (944), is certainly to be regarded as 
_ much nearer the true biological norm for the sex ratio of this group 
of poultry under the environmental conditions prevailing at the 


Maine Station. 
Taking this value as the normal one, how does it compare with 


other values for other strains of poultry, and for other birds do- 
mestic and wild? Unfortunately there are very few data available 
for comparison. Curiously enough, this lack is most pronounced 
where it would be least expected —namely in the case of poultry. 
Table VII. contains all the data, involving numbers large enough 
to be statistically of any significance, with which the writer is ac- 


TABLE VII. 
Sex Ratio Statistics For Various Birps. 

Bird. Total No. Rz. o'o! per 1,000 99. Authority. 
Pigeon......... 136 53-68 1,159 Cuénot 4 
Pigeon......... 1,648 51.27 1,052 Cole and Kirkpatrick*® 
anergy .,>..... 200 43-52 770 Heape® 
Repery 5 68 77.94 3,533 Heape® 
OS I,001 48.64 947 Darwin? 
See 2,105 44.63 806 Field® — ce 
A ee 20,037 48.57 944 Pearl, this paper. Families 

of 10 and over. 


4Cuénot, L., Bulletin Sci. France et Belg., T. 32 (5th Ser. T. 1), pp. 
462-535, 1899. 

5 Cole, L. J., and Kirkpatrick, W. F., Rhode Island Agric. Expt. Stat. 
Bulletin, 162, pp. 463-512. 10915. 

6 Heape, W., Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., Vol. XIV., pp. 201-205, 1907. 

7 Darwin, C., “The Descent of Man,” Vol. I. 

8 Field, G. W., Biol. Bulletin, Vol. I1., pp. 360-361, 190!. 


424 PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 


quainted. If, as may well be the case, he has overlooked some ex- 
tensive tabulations of sex ratios in birds, he will be very grateful for 
the pertinent references. | 

It is evident enough from these figures that the sex ratio varies 
in domestic birds quite as extensively as it does among domestic 
mammals. In general there would appear to be a tendency toward 
the production of a slight excess of males among two of the sorts of 
birds here dealt with. This seems certainly true for pigeons. The 
canary results are not very clear either way. Heape gives data on 
the sexes from two canary breeders. The results are widely dif- 
ferent. This difference in sex ratios Heape attributes to differences 
in the mode of managing the breeding birds. Here it suffices 
merely to point out that in any case, the numbers on which the 
canary ratios are based are statistically very small. It may well be 
doubted whether the deviations exhibited in Heape’s material are in 
reality significant. 

In the fowl the case appears to be different, all available statistics 
agreeing in showing a normal excess of females. It is, however, the 
opinion of many poultrymen of long experience, that the usual condi- 
tion is practical equality of the sexes, with a small but steady pre- 
ponderance of males—a sort of sex ratio similar to that which man 
exhibits. The practical equality of the production of the sexes in 
poultry has been noted by various writers.° 

But all of the actual statistics which I have been able to find 
show the slight preponderance to be of females and not of males. 
The agreement between Darwin’s figures and those of the present 
investigation is nearly perfect. General experience of poultrymen 
would indicate that the very low sex ratio got by Field could not be 
considered as normally representative of fowls in general. The 
close agreement of my figures with Darwin’s, collected rather more 
than a decade later than Field’s, would seem definitely to negative 
the suggestion of the latter that the normal proportion of the sexes 
in poultry has actually changed since Darwin’s time “as a result of 
the breeders’ desire to produce a larger proportion of females.” 


9E. g., Beeck, A., “ Die Federviehzucht,” Bd. I., Berlin, 1908, p. 563. 
Lewis, H. R., “ Productive Poultry Husbandry,” Philadelphia, 1913, p. 250. 


PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 425 


It is to be regretted that more of those who have used poultry as 
experimental-material have not kept and published accurate and 
complete figures of sex production. 

In any case the immediate problem before us is clearly to at- 
tempt by analysis of the figures to learn what influence various 
factors may have in the production of the excess of females plainly 
shown in the extensive statistics of the present paper. The chromo- 
somal mechanism of sex determination in the individual case would 
lead us to expect an equality of the sexes in statistically large num- 
bers. But it is plain that, even with very large numbers, no such 

equality is attained. There must be reasons, scientifically ascertain- 
_ able, for this deviation. It is our problem to find what these reasons 
are. 

In undertaking such analysis let us first see whether the excess 
production of females is a secularly regular phenomenon in this 
stock and under our conditions. 

The mean sex ratios for each year for families of 10 and over 
are set forth in Table VIII. 


TABLE VIII. 
SHOWING THE YEARLY CHANGES IN MEAN SEx Ratio. FAMILIES OF I0 AND 
OVER. 

Year. Mean R oe 

eh on a dcig aw ave dese gewe wees 46.16 + 1.07 
Merk Kae Gouicla be chdsmeresior es 48.33 + .60 
RS aE CL a kG hacker de vahsees ose soe 49.96 + .78 
DUS Cede ie cee bc eico te vedebenbouccess 47.08 + .79 
MU GR gece i debwcsc ep scescseccceecssen 49.59 + .77 
MMM edly gsc exe's 5 BAe eee as a NS 49.999 + .81 
Ne Ce icie's ks ves vhs en ers ceeves seve 49.83 + .62 
MM Sine vlad cows God nighcac's as dpcces ee 46.46 + .86 


The data of this table are shown graphically in Fig. 1. 

From the table and diagram it is evident that the excess of fe- 
males is not a sporadic, but rather a regular phenomenon in our 
stock and conditions. While at times the ratio comes very close 
to 50 (e. g., in 1913) it never quite reaches that value. The fluctua- 
tions of the ratio in successive years appear to be entirely tandom. 


426 PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 


a ete in a 
ee > 
40 
e) 
a 
2 
30 
* 
YQ 
n 
20 
10 
708 "09-710 "11 "12 "13 "14 "15 
YEAR 


Fic. 1. Showing the mean ¢ sex ratio in consecutive years. 


Ill. Ture NorMAL VARIATION OF THE SEX RATIO, 


So far we have considered only mean values. Let us now exam- 
ine the dispersion or variation constants. From the totals of Tables 
I., II., and III. we deduce the standard deviations set forth in Table 
IX, by the ordinary method. 


TABLE IX. 
STANDARD DEVIATION OF THE SEx RATIO oF THE Domestic FowL. VARIOUS 
BREEDS. 
Group. ‘Ro: 
Families of 20: aNd OVEE Gbn cose ctsds vee s cad benas 13.37 — 120 
Families of 4 to 9 inclusive ......... SneeN sav we ek ee 24.18 + .59 » 
Families of 1 °t0..3 UNCHISIVE. civic ss aw ove ood sees cane 39.72 + 1.49 


Families of 4 ahd OVGE ici. vibes sce ees cakes ren veebks 18.30 + .23 


PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 427 


The striking fact which this table brings out is the great reduc- 
tion in the variation of the sex ratio from mating to mating as the 
progeny from the individual mating becomes more numerous. 

Even with the large families, however, the amount of variation 
in the sex ratio is large, absolutely and relatively. Taking families 
of 10 the percentage of the standard deviation in the mean is 
27.53. 

This is of roughly the same order of magnitude as the coeffi- 
cients of variation of such physiological characters as fecundity,° 
etc. There can be no question that the sex ratio is relatively a much 
more variable character than stature, skull form, and most other 
morphological characters of animals. In view of this fact, there 
would seem to be need of vastly more caution than is commonly 
exercised by writers on the sex ratio in drawing far-reaching con- 
clusions from very small numbers. 

The values for the standard deviation of the sex-ratio here ob- 
tained for poultry are of the same general order of magnitude as 
those of Heron for man and horse, and of Weldon’ for mice. 

The form of the normal sex-ratio variation curve is of interest. 
In order to deal with this adequately, we must resort to the ana- 
lytical methods of Pearson.** 

The case presents some difficulties from the standpoint of graph- 
ical representation, because of the fact pointed out above, that we 
have dealt with the actual centers of gravity of each piece of area 
standing over a unit on the abscissal axis, and have not assumed as 
is usually done, that the center of gravity of each strip was at its 
mid-point. The conventional histogram does not give any repre- 
sentation of this distorted concentration, and hence the correct fitted 
curve does not seem to give so true a representation of the facts as 
an incorrect one, as will presently appear. 

10 Cf. Pearl, R., Science, Vol. 37, p. 228, 1913. 

11 Heron, D., Biometrika, Vol. V., pp. 79-85; 1906. 

12 “On Heredity in Mice from the Records of the Late W. F. R. Weldon. 


Part I. On the Inheritance of the Sex-ratio and of the Size of Litter,” Bio- 


metrika, Vol. V., pp. 437-449, 1907. as 
18 Pearson, K., Phil. Trans., Vol. 86 A, pp. 343-414, 10 pls.,, 1895, ibid., 


Vol. 197 A, pp. 443-459, 1901. 


300 F 


iN) 
> 
S 


FREQUENCY 


MODE 


100 F 


10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 


SEX RATIO 
Fic. 2. Histogram and fitted curves for variation in the sex ratio (Rs). Frequencies supposed concentrated at centers of gravity of 
class areas. 


300 


200 


FREQUENCY 


MODE 


L00 


‘ 


10 20 30 40 50 60 


SEX RATIO 


Fic. 3. Histogram and fitted curve for variation in the sex ratio (R gs Frequencies 


Sr 


70 


90 100 


supposed concentrated at mid-points of class areas. 


ee ee 


eee ee eee 


430 PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 


In Table X. are given the true analytical constants of the curve, 
and, in another column, the analytical constants on the assumption 
of concentration of the frequencies at the mid-points of the classes. 


TABLE X. 


ANALYTICAL CONSTANTS FOR VARIATION IN THE SEX RATE IN PouLtRy, 
Various Breeps. FAMILIES OF I0 AND OVER. 


Frequencies Supposed Concen- Frequencies Supposed Concen- 
trated at Centers of Gravity trated at Mid-points of 
Constant. of Class Areas. Class Areas. 

/ Saas RENEE ol is SG 1009 1009 

CM sc u's wis wists os 48.574 49.549 

Me uae cy ip 08s wie ens 1.7887 1.8197 

eg) eS Ca ae ae eRe Ke — .0003 — .2622 

Pe see aah s tae bab vanes 11.0082 10.2718 

yc iitavedes tase eee .OOOOT5 114 

MUSTO and Sores mae rege ae 3.4407 3.1019 

Rees cetae belek gintniaeh ics + 8814 + .1696 
PM anais acd alc bap oielere Gin 4 + .000013 + .0506 

PDO Garbnd ined ee VII. IV. 

BEOGE tea Ge es ea ye v's 48.574 50.231 
Skewness «...c.c00sss — .0015 + .0264 — .0506 + .0027 
Das tilate wie mitaine cele’ «6 ok 315.25 42.740 


The equations to these curves are as follows: 


True curve: 
x2 —9.3072 
yossas(rtarae) 


Mid-point curve: 


77170718 tan-1 (#/11.2271) 


¥ = 42.740 © 37.9784 ° 
= Othe 


126.0478 


The fitted curves and the histograms are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. 

From the data and the diagrams, the following points are to be 
noted: 

1. The distribution of the sex ratio about the mean value is ap- 
proximately symmetrical, and, if sufficiently large families are used, 
leads to high contact of the curves at both ends of the range. 

2. The distribution is apparently more skew than it actually is 
because of the fact that this graphical representation makes no ac- 


PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 431 


count of the concentration ofthe frequency at other than the mid- 
points ofthe class areas. 

3. The fitted curve makes it possible to make some rather definite 
statements as to the probability of the occurrence, as a result of 
chance merely, of distinctly aberrant sex ratios. Poultry papers 
very frequently, and scientific journals rather more often than would 
seem compatible with any clear grasp of the theory of chance, con- 
tain statements about marvelous deviations from the normal sex 
ratio in particular families or small groups of families. Usually 
such widely divergent sex ratios are most uncritically taken to 
prove either the inheritance of a special sex tendency in a particular 
line of breeding, or the influence of some external environmental 
agent upon sex determination. If, for example, a poultry breeder 
finds that out of twenty chickens from one pair of parents, fifteen 
are pullets, he is distinctly apt to regard this as a wonderful phe- 
nomenon, worthy of his best exegetic powers. But our present sta- 
tistics show that, if we deal with families of twenty chickens for 
example, it is to be expected on the basis of chance alone, the fol- 
lowing relations will hold. 


15 or more chicks will be pullets in 56 out of every 1,000 families of 20 
16 or more chicks will be pullets in 26 out of every 1,000 families of 20 
17 or more chicks will be pullets in 12 out of every 1,000 families of 20 
18 or more chicks will be pullets in 5 out of every 1,000 families of 20 
19 or more chicks will be pullets in 2 out of every 1,000 families of 20 
20 or more chicks will be pullets in 1 out of every 1,000 families of 20 


It needs no particular emphasis on these figures to indicate that 
before aberrant sex ratios can be considered indicative either of 
environmental or hereditary effects, it will be necessary to show 
that they occur with such frequency as to exceed considerably that 
expected on the basis of chance alone. 


IV. PreNATAL MorrTaALity AND THE SEX RATIO. 


The first suggestion which comes into one’s mind in attempting 
any analysis of the causes of a deviation of the sex ratio from equal- 
ity, is that the prenatal mortality has been differential in respect to 
sex. It is commonly held by statistical writers that this is true of 


432 PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 


some portion, at least, of the prenatal mortality in man. In still 
births there is a greater excess of males over females than in living 
births. The reviews which prevail among statistical writers regarding 
this matter are well put by Nichols** (p. 269) in the following 
passage: 


“Obviously the main cause of the great preponderance of male stillbirths 
resolves itself into the question of the comparative mortality or death rate of 
the male and female sexes during the intrauterine period of existence. Vital 
statistics have shown clearly that there are material differences in the mor- 
tality of the two sexes, the death rates among males being, in general, higher 
than among females throughout nearly the entire period of life, and the aver- 
age duration of life of females being greater than of males. During the 
adult and later periods of life this difference is largely or partly explainable 
on the ground of the greater stress and strain and liability to injury imposed 
by the greater responsibilities, more laborious occupations, and greater expo- 
sure of men, and their greater indulgence in vicious and morbific habits ; these 
factors scarcely being offset by the perils incurred by women during the child- 
bearing period. But the same greater mortality of males occurs, and in the 
most marked degree, even in the intrauterine period of existence and in the 
early years of life before the factors mentioned begin to be operative; it is 
therefore obvious that the male constitution is intrinsically weaker, less hardy, 
and more susceptible to morbific and mortific influences, and has less vitality 
and resisting power against disease, than the female. The cause of this innate 
disparity of vitality between the two sexes we do not know; but the fact it 
exists, that the antenatal mortality and death rate of males much exceeds that 
of female fetuses, accounts for the great excess of male over female still- 
births.” 


The demographic objects, in the study of sex ratios, are some- 
what different than the purely biological. In the present instance, 
and generally in purely biological studies on the proportion of the 
sexes, what we really wish to know is the true proportions in which 
zygotes of the two sexes are initially produced. This can not be di- 
rectly observed in higher vertebrates, owing to the occurrence of pre- 
natal mortality at all stages between the fertilization of the egg and 
the birth of the young. The earliest easily observable datum plane 
which one has upon which to base a conclusion as to the sex pro- 
portions in the zygotes at the moment of their production, is the sex 
ratio at birth. Obviously the prenatal mortality may have influenced 


14 Nichols, J. B., Mem. Amer. Anthropol. Assoc., Vol. I., Part 4, pp. 249- 
300, 1907. 


a 


PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 433 


this ratio, and caused a deviation from the initial zygotic ratio. 


But it is equally obvious that the post-natal mortality, whether dif- 
ferential in respect of sex or not, can give us no direct aid in esti- 
mating the initial zygotic ratio from the observed ratio at birth. 
Hence the post-natal mortality has no special interest in connection 
with sex studies to the biologist, though it does have to the demog- 
rapher, who is concerned, among other things, with the sex distri- 
bution of populations throughout life. 

In poultry, the hatched chicks show a certain fairly definite 
ratio of males to females as we have seen. Does this observed 
ratio at birth differ from the initial zygotic sex ratio? To answer 
this question, it is only necessary to determine whether the sex ratio 
of the zygotes which die before hatching is, or is not, different from 
the sex ratio of those which hatch. Theoretically this should be 
simple. Practically it is not wholly so. The difficulty is that the 
sex of the zygote is not distinguishable by any practical means until 
the embryo reaches a certain more or less advanced stage of develop- 
ment. If zygotes die before that stage of development is reached, 
as some do, then it becomes impossible practically to determine 
whether that particular moiety of the mortality was or was not dif- 
ferential in respect to sex. Theoretically, of course, one should be 
able to sex every zygote by means of a cytological examination of 
its chromosomes. Practically, however, this is not to be seriously 
considered. 

The result is that in the chick it is practically impossible to say 
absolutely whether the mortality between the fertilization of the egg 
and about the tenth day of development of the embryo is or is not 
differential. We can, however, determine, with great precision, the 
facts regarding the mortality from the tenth day to the end of in- 
cubation. This has been done by the writer, during the past two 
years. Every egg in which the embryo developed to the tenth day 
or beyond, and died before hatching, has been opened, the embryo 
removed and dissected, and its sex and certain other characteristics 
recorded. This is distinctly tedious and unpleasant work, but there 
appears to be no alternative method of getting certain sorts of in- 
formation very essential in the analysis of many problems. 


434 PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 


The figures for the sex ratio of the dead embryos for the years 
1916. and 1917, the only ones for which complete records are at 
hand, are given in Table XI. 


TABLE XI. 


Sex Ratio oF Emspryos Dyinc BETWEEN THE TENTH Day oF INCUBATION 
AND HatcHING. Various BREEDs. 


Year. ae. 29. Rg. 

TORG io oases ia ate 325 343 48.7 = 1.30 

Ne BOs frameless ge PERRET phat ON 602 651 48.0 = .95 
OtAle oan sles suns oeieae 927 994 48.3 + .77 


These numbers are large enough so that the results are clearly 
reliable. And it is equally clear that this portion of the prenatal 
mortality is not differential in respect to sex. For the season of 
1916 the sex ratio of the living chicks at hatching was 


R = 48.3 + 0.89, 


a value not significantly different from that for the prenatal mor- 
tality given in Table XI. The sex-ratio figures for the living 
hatched in 1917 are not available at the time of writing, but it is 
evident enough, if we compare the figures of Table XI. with those 
of Table VI. (p. 422), that there is no differentiation in respect of 
sex of the mortality of the last eleven days of the prenatal life of 
the zygote. 

Cole and Kirkpatrick’s® data for pigeons appear to indicate that 
probably the prenatal mortality in that form is not differential. It 
must be said, however, that they take account of only a small amount 
of the total prenatal mortality, those dying at the very end of incu- 
bation, then group this with the post-natal mortality of the first five 
days after hatching. The general impression given by this data, 
however, is that the prenatal mortality is probably not differential 
in the pigeon. 

It is evident from the data of Table XI., that the explanation 
for the preponderance of females in poultry is not to be found in 
the greater frequency of deaths of males during the last eleven 


PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 435 


days of incubation. But there remains a certain mortality during 
the first ten days. We are in position to say, on the basis of evi- 
dence already given, that in the Maine Station flock male and female 
zygotes are present in the proportion indicated by R ; = 48.5 at the 
time when the zygotes are 10 days old. Were they initially present 
in equal numbers and did enough more males than females die dur- 
ing the period to the tenth day of incubation to produce the R ,—= 
48.5 status? Here we would call attention only to two points. 
The first is that in the flocks which have furnished the statistics here 
dealt with, the rate of prenatal mortality before the tenth day of in- 
cubation has always been low—so low that if differential mortality 
within this period is to be adduced as the explanation of the ob- 
served sex ratio, it would be necessary to assume that practically 
every embryo which died within these first ten days was male. A 
theory can only be regarded as highly improbable which demands 
that during any pertod of life all naturally occurring deaths are 
of individuals of the same sex, when it is known to be the fact 
that in all other periods of life the individuals of the two sexes die 
'in numbers roughly proportional to the numbers living of each sex. 

In the second place, it is in the highest degree improbable that 
there is an abrupt change in the mode of incidence of the mortality 
with respect to sex at exactly the tenth day of incubation. Yet 
such an abrupt change would be demanded by any theory which 
makes differential mortality the explanation of the observed sex 
ratio in the fowl. From the time when the embryo has developed 
sufficiently to make it possible certainly to distinguish the sexes in — 
poultry by macroscopic examination of the gonods, we know that 
the mortality is either not differential at all with respect to sex (pre- 
natal mortality), or is at most only slightly so (possibly so in post- 
natal mortality though the point has not been fully investigated yet). 
In the absence of any evidence favorable to such a view, it could 
only be regarded as a highly improbable speculation to say that in 
the very earliest stages of embryonic development all deaths are 
males. 

We are justified, I think, in concluding that in the flocks of 
poultry here dealt with, and probably in the fowl generally, that 


436 PEARL—SEX RATIO IN DOMESTIC FOWL. 


prenatal mortality is not differential in respect to sex, and that in 
consequence the observed sex ratio at birth is substantially the same 
as the initial zygotic sex ratio. 


V. CONCLUSION. 


The purpose of this paper is to present data regarding the normal 
sex ratio in the domestic fowl. The data involves something over 
22,000 chicks. The normal variability in sex ratio is discussed. It 
is hoped in a later paper to present a further analysis of the sub- 
ject dealing with the influence of various internal and external fac- 
tors upon the sex ratio. It was expected to include such discus- 
sion in the present paper but for reasons explained at the beginning 
of the paper this is not now possible. 


MECHANISM OF OVERGROWTH IN PLANTS. 
By ERWIN F. SMITH. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 


I. INTRODUCTORY. 


For 12 years I have been an eager student of overgrowths in 
plants, partly on account of agricultural phases of the problem 
which are of economic importance but chiefly because they have 
seemed to me to offer a clue which might lead to the solution of 
‘the greater and very obscure problem of the origin of malignant 
human and animal tumors. 

For a long time I have believed that the direct cause of these 
plant tumors (of all malignant tumors for that matter) must be 
chemical substances liberated in the tissues by parasites. It is not 
a far cry to such a view, especially where parasites are known to 
cause the overgrowth, and no doubt many other persons have held 
the same view and have stated it more or less definitely. I ex- 
pressed it clearly in 1911 in our first crown gall bulletin (U. S. 
Dept. of Agric., B. P. L., Bul. 213, p. 175). 

The difficulty has been to determine the nature of these chemical 
substances. This is still unsolved so far as relates to the products 
of gall-forming larve of all kinds, and apparently must so remain 
until they can be grown in quantity in pure culture so as to give to 
_ the chemist an abundance of material for his studies. The chemist 
is very greedy of material and without a great abundance he can 
seldom accomplish much. Various gall-forming fungi and bacteria 
offer easier problems because they can be cultivated in flasks on 
simple culture media in any desired quantity and their products 
' determined with a minimum of labor. 

This, rather than the analysis of tumors, is, I am satisfied, the 
proper method of procedure, because the cells of a tumor are only 
the cells of a plant or animal grown under an abnormal stimulus, 

437 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, CC, AUGUST 3, 1917. 


438 SMITH—MECHANISM OF OVERGROWTH IN PLANTS. 


which stimulus, it is very likely, is not only very minute in quantity 
but also used up during the growth of the tumor cells, that is, 
converted into something quite different and entirely inoffensive. 
For this reason analyses of tumor tissue should give only about the 
same kind and quantity of products as normal tissues in which 
there is an equally rapid movement of food-stuffs, and in which 
there is an equally rapid growth, and this is about what tumor 
analyses thus far have shown. In flask cultures, on the contrary, 
the products of parasitic growth accumulate and can be locked up 
for future study. 

What I have done, in addition to speculating, is to grow 
various strains of Bacterium tumefaciens, the crown-gall organism, 
in pure culture in quantity in cotton-plugged Jena glass flasks for 
chemical examination. Being a member of the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, the greatest cooperative research institu- 
tion in the world, it has been easy to come into touch with expert 
organic chemists and through them to have determined for me the 
various substances produced by the crown-gall organism out of 
river water, peptone and grape sugar, 7. e., substances correspond- 
ing to or approximating those which occur naturally in the cells 
of the plant. These flasks were inoculated with great care and 
watched as to their behavior. Before turning them over to the 
chemist, Petri-dish agar plates were poured from each one to de- 
termine whether they were still pure cultures. The analyses were 
then made pari passu with inoculations into susceptible plants to 
determine whether the cultures were still pathogenic. In this way 
various flasks were tested and worked up separately, with, in the 
main, concordant results. The inoculated flasks behaved properly, 
the agar-poured plates yielded uniform normal-looking colonies, and 
subcultures from colonies derived from each flask were subsequently 
inoculated into plants with the production of crown galls in every 
case except that of the isolation from poplar, which was known to 
be no longer pathogenic when the experiment was begun. All of 
the flasks had remained pure cultures and were in good condition 
for the chemist, who worked them over quickly. These cultures 
originated from single colonies selected from agar-poured plates 
made from tumors on hop, Paris daisy, rose and poplar, and repre- 
sent at least two strains of the crown-gall organism. 


SMITH—MECHANISM OF OVERGROWTH IN PLANTS. 439 


II. Cuemicat FInpINncs. 


Slide No. 1 (fable I.) shows the chemical findings. On this 
slide I have starred the substances with which I have now pro- 
duced overgrowths in plants and have italicized those which Dr. 
Jacques had previously found in his experiments on animal eggs to 
be most effective in causing unfertilized eggs to begin to grow.1 
That there should be so many of these egg-starting substances ex- 
creted by a tumor-producing parasite is not only astonishing but 
extremely suggestive. All of them are substances which pass read- 
ily through protoplasmic membranes. 


TABLE I. 


SHowING Propucts or Bacterium tumefaciens. 


* Ammonia Acetone 

* Amines * Acetic Acid 

* Aldehyd * Formic Acid 
Alcohol Carbonic Acid (?) 


I have added carbonic acid of my own accord, since I did not 
ask the chemists to search for it: (1) because the crown-gall 
schizomycete must be very unlike other organisms if it does not 
produce some carbonic acid as the result of its growth, although 
certainly not enough is developed to appear in fermentation tubes 
as the gas CO,; (2) because the excess of leaf-green (chlorophyll 
bodies, which assimilate CO,) in the deeper tissue of galls on Paris 
daisy suggests presence of carbonic acid in excess of these tissues ; 
and (3) because carbonic acid also is one of those substances found 
by Loeb to stimulate the development of unfertilized eggs. My 
experiments are still under way, none of them are really completed, 
and today I will only call your attention to a few of my results, some 
of which have already been published,? while others are here men- 
tioned for the first time. I would call attention especially to the 
substances the names of which I have starred as compounds with. 
which to experiment singly and combined, and in a great variety 


‘of dilutions. With each one of these substances, in the absence of 


bacteria, I have obtained on suitable plants decided overgrowths, 


1 Loeb, “ Artificial Parthenogenesis and Fertilization,” 1913. 
2 Jour. Agric. Research, January 29, 1917. 


440 SMITH—MECHANISM OF OVERGROWTH IN PLANTS. 


growths which I think I am warranted in designating as incipient 
crown galls. The overgrowths I have obtained are small, as was 
to be expected from the application of a single slight stimulus. 
They do not continue to grow because they are the response to an 
abnormal outside influence of very limited duration, or to put it in 
another way, because there is no parasitic organism back of the 
growth, as in the case of the natural crown gall, to continually 
‘stimulate it by means of its excretions. In this particular, that is 
in the continuous slow introduction of these substances into the 
tissues after the manner of the parasite, I have not yet found it 
possible to imitate nature, but in view of the overgrowths I have 
obtained by a single slight stimulus it can no longer be doubted that 
even in the absence of the bacteria the slow continual oozing into 
growing tissues of the dilute acids, alkalies and other substances 
named would produce a crown gall of any size desired. So long 
as the stimulus is applied, and in nature it will be applied as long 
as the bacteria are present in the tissues and continue to grow, so 
long the growing tissues must respond. 

Before passing I wish once more to call attention to the italicized 
names, and to urge all students of overgrowths to read Dr. Loeb’s 
book, since these tumor-producing substances, as I have said, are 
those Dr. Loeb has found most active in starting the development 
of animals out of unfertilized eggs. 

We will now pass to slides showing results obtained with 
ammonia, dimethylamine, formaldehyde, acetic acid, and formic 
acid (slides exhibited). 


Ill. THe MEcHANISM OF OVERGROWTHS. 


We now come to the inquiry embodied in the title of this paper 
—what is the mechanism of these overgrowths? Is it a chemical 
or physical action? It is plain that the response is due to soluble 
substances poured out, as a result of their metabolism, by parasites 
present in the tissues, but given off in such small quantities that 
they act not as a poison but as a growth-stimulus. That many 
poisons when applied in minute doses do act as stimulants of one 
kind or another is already well known, both in medicine and in 
agriculture. That suspension colloids would be precipitated, pro- 


SMITH—MECHANISM OF OVERGROWTH IN PLANTS. 441 


teins ‘split, and very marked osmotic disturbances set up within 
the mechanism of the delicately balanced colloids of the cell upon 
introduction of these dilute, non-plasmolyzing bacterial acids, alkalis 
and other products, must be apparent to anyone who is at all familiar 
with the colloidal chemistry of the cell; and later, by means of phys- 

* ical chemistry, we ought to be able to determine at least some of the 
physical-chemical steps in the process of the abnormal cell division 
brought about by these disturbing substances. 

For the present I interpret the growth in crown gall as due 
primarily to a physical cause, viz., to an increase in the osmotic 
pressure due to the heaping up locally of various soluble substances 
excreted by the bacteria as a result of their metabolism. This 
would lead to a movement of equalization. Water containing dis- 
solved food stuffs would move toward the tumor and the stimulating 
acids and alkalies would move outward so that theoretically the 
strongest tendency to overgrowth should occur in the periphery of 
the tumor where, as a matter of fact, it does occur. Also in malig- 
nant human tumors the growth is peripheral. Why is it peripheral? 

’ If this hypothesis is correct we ought to be able to detect at least 
a slight difference between the concentration of salts in fluids on the 
periphery of a tumor and in the normal tissues just beyond it. This, 
I believe, could be determined best electrically, although. if the 
difference is considerable, the coarser method of extraction of 
the juice of tumors and of adjacent sound tissues and determina- 
tion whether there is any depression of the freezing point in the 
former might yield interesting results. One test made for me by 
Mr. Rodney B. Harvey indicated that there is a concentration of 
substances in the juice of daisy tumors, i. ¢., there was a lowering of 
the freezing point, but no thorough study has been made. This I 
contemplate taking up in conjunction with physicists of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

The reason I have for thinking the phenomena of plant over- 
growth is primarily physical is the fact that it can be obtained by a . 
great variety of substances not the products of parasites, anything 
in fact, which disturbs tissue equilibriums without destroying cells, 
seems to be capable of causing overgrowths, which cease, of course, 


442 -SMITH—MECHANISM OF OVERGROWTH IN PLANTS. 


as soon as the stimulus is exhausted. (See Mechanism of Tumor 
Growth in Crown Gall, in Jour. Agric. Research, Jan. 29, 1917.) 

I have been asked in what way these overgrowths differ from the 
ordinary healing of wounds. The growth while excessive is prob- 
ably not fundamentally different from a wound reaction, but then, 
for that matter, we may regard all tumors as so many efforts at” 
healing which come to naught because they are continually modified 
and frustrated by the presence of a parasite, or in animal cancers, 
let us say, since we do not know their cause, by an abnormal and 
oft repeated stimulus of some sort, most easily explained in the 
absence of exact data by the hypothesis of a parasite, especially 
since the same phenomenon in plants can now be referred to a 
definite microorganism. 


IV. Tue Kinp oF TumMor DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF CELLS 
STIMULATED. 


The first crown galls I studied seemed to me to be overgrowths 
of the conjunctive tissues and most of our many inoculations up 
to the end of 1915 produced that type of tumor which corresponds, 
I believe, to overgrowths of the connective tissue of animals and 
which I have called plant sarcomas. . 

We had found indeed, as early as 1908-9, and had produced 
by bacterial inoculation, plant tumors bearing roots, but the full 
meaning of this discovery, as related to cancer, did not occur to me 
until early in 1916, when I found crown-gall tumors bearing leafy 
shoots on some of our inoculated hothouse geraniums. Beginning 
with this discovery I made numerous inoculations in the leaf axils 
of various plants which resulted in the production of leafy tumors, 
and subsequently I produced them freely on leaves and on cut 
internodes where no buds occur normally. Tumors bearing roots 
have also been produced by us on the top of plants, and in one cut 
internode of tobacco I succeeded in producing a tumor which bore 
flower buds. These perishable root-bearing and shoot-bearing 
tumors I regard as plant embryomas and have so described them.® 

These experiments render it probable that every growing organ 


8 Journ. Cancer Research, April, 1916, p. 241. 


SMITH—MECHANISM OF OVERGROWTH IN PLANTS. 443 


normally contains multipotent or totipotent cells which usually 
remain dormant;-but which under a strong stimulus are capable of 
developing into either the whole organism or into some considerable 
part of it, what is developed out of them depending on the degree 
of differentiation of the cells at the time they are stimulated. We 
may regard these leafy shoots (produced sometimes in great num- 
bers where no buds occur normally) either as going to show that 
potentially there is no difference between germ-cells and young 
somatic cells, or else that dormant “germ-cells” are widely and 
abundantly distributed among the somatic cells, ready to develop 
into the whole or a considerable part of the organism whenever a 
sufficient stimulus is applied. Those who wish further details re- 
specting these recently produced and peculiar crown galls contain- 
ing fragments of the embryo plant are referred to a special paper 
on the subject in the “ Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital” for 
_ September, 1917. 


V. BEARINGS OF THESE DISCOVERIES. 


That these discoveries have many interesting bearings goes with- 
‘out argument. Some of these bearings may be mentioned: 

(a) On the origin of insect, nematode and fungous galls ; 

(b) On the formation of thyloses in vessels ; 

(c) On the origin, through absorbed poisons, of certain plant 
diseases whose etiology is very obscure, such as peach yellows, 
peach rosette, and the various mosaic diseases ; 

(d) On the origin, in the same way, of various plant and animal 
monstrosities ; 

(e) On various problems of modification by slight changes in 
environment ; 

(f) On possibility of normal wide distribution of dormant 
germ-cells among somatic cells; 

(g) And, finally, on the etiology of various human and animal 
tumors. 


VI. EartreR Work AND Reasons Wuy iT REMAINED STERILE. 


I must here refer to some earlier work which remained sterile 
so far as any influence on tumor etiology is concerned (a) because 


444 SMITH—MECHANISM OF OVERGROWTH IN PLANTS. 


done under the idea that tumors are due to the existence of specific 
overgrowth stimuli; (b) because done with substances which could 
‘by no possibility be conceived to be the product of parasites; and - 
still more (c) because the experiments fell on stony ground, that 
is into the unreceptive minds of a generation of pathologists pre- 
occupied ‘with quite other ideas and generalizations respecting tumor 
growth. 

I refer more particularly to Dr. Hermann von Schrenk’s papers 
(1903 and 1905) on intumescences in cauliflower plants due to 
copper salts, and to Dr. Bernhard Fischer’s paper on overgrowths 
of epithelium due to the injection of scarlet red and indophenol into 
rabbit’s ears.° 

Fischer’s paper in particular pointed the way clearly toward 
the solution of the cancer problem, but it was received very coldly 
and he became discouraged, and no one else took up the suggested 
clue. 

What Fischer obtained was downgrowths of epithelium into 
the connective tissue, strikingly suggestive of epithelioma, but, be- 
cause these invading epithelial cells subsequently ceased to grow, 
with disappearance of the stimulus, and were finally absorbed, 
as one might reasonably have predicted would be the case, they 
were held to throw no light on the cancer problem; but if spec- 
ialists had then assumed that quite other substances than scarlet 
red and indophenol can cause overgrowths, as we now know, and 
that some of the substances may be the products of the tumor-pro- 
ducing parasites, as also we now know, how suddenly luminous the 
whole subject would have become and what an incentive it would 
have given, and still gives, to further research! 


4 See especially Report of Missouri Botanical Garden, 1905, p. 125. 
5 Muenchner med. Wochenschrift, 1906, p. 2041. 


RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS AND 
INTERCONTINENTAL TORSIONS. 


By B. K. EMERSON. 
(Received May 5, 1917.) 


Starting a long time ago to write a review of a very interesting 
and remarkable book I have woven so much of my own musings with 
the text that I may not well put upon the author the responsibility 


_ therefor. 


The book in question is “ Die Entwickelung der Kontinente und 
There Lebewelt. Ein Beitrag zur Vergleichenden Erdgeschichte; 
von Dr. Theodor Arldt, Oberlehrer an der Realschule in Radeberg, 
mit 17 Figuren und 23 Karten.” Leipzig. Wilhelm Engelmann. 
1907. 729 pp., large 8°. It is a ponderous volume comparable to 

Walther’s “Einleitung” or Suess’ “Antlitz der Erde,” but more 
systematized, and condensed to the limit; so that an exceedingly 
great amount of painstaking and acute research, covering many 
diverse fields, is brought into remarkably small compass. 

Just two thirds of the book is devoted to a biogeography of the 
past and the present. After chapters on method comes a general 
survey of the distribution of plants and animals in the present and 
_ Cenozoic, in the Mesozoic and in the Paleozoic, with discussions of 
their evolution and many “Stammbaume” to summarize this evo- 
lution. 

The principal purpose of the study is to get all the light which 
the distribution and probable migrations of the different classes of 
animals and plants can throw upon the evolution of the continents. 
A first chapter takes a position adverse to the so-called “ permanence 
of the continents.” Only certain large portions of the great ocean 
seem to have been permanent. 

This section is illustrated by a full and clear chart of the bio- 
logical provinces and regions and five charts which show the migra- 
tions of the families of the vertebrates, and ends with two valuable 

445 


446 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


paleontological chapters which give the first appearance and duration 
of each of the large groups of plants and animals. In these tables 
the part of the earth’s history before the beginning of life is assumed 
to be to the part since as 5 to 3. 

The second or geological section of the book begins with a con- 
densed systematic discussion of the geological data for the deter- 
mination of the outlines of the former continents and a comparison 
of these data with those derived from the distribution of animals. 

‘These sections take up the larger part of the volume and then 
four short chapters on Ice periods ; times of volcanic activity ; moun- 
tain formation, and transgressions prepare for the central idea of 
the book, viz.: the statement in tabular form of the cycles of the 
evolution of the earth as given below and the explanation of the 
same as due to a succession of tetrahedral deformations, producing 
broad elevated continents and small oceans ; and spherical recoveries, 
causing broad transgressions of the ocean with low lands. 

To his table of the geological cycles here presented I have added 
the statements regarding the changing carbonic acid content in the 
air, and the changes in climate and evolution, drawn largely from 
the papers of Chamberlin which are cited below. 

The author accepts the tetrahedral deformation of the earth as 
the basis of the explanation of these cycles. 

The law of least action, he explains, demands that the somewhat 
rigid crustal portion of the earth keep in contact with the lessening 
interior with the least possible readjustment of its surface. As a 
tube collapses into a triangular prism a shrinking sphere tends by 
the law of least action to collapse into a tetrahedron, or a tetra- 
hedroid, a sphere marked by four equal and equidistant triangular 
projections ; and the earth with its three about equal and equidistant 
double continental masses triangular southward with three intervening 
depressed oceans triangular northward, its northern ocean and south- 
ern continent, with land everywhere antipodal to water, realizes the 
tetrahedroid status remarkably. When repeatedly in former geo- 
logical ages ocean waters separated Europe and Asia, the agreement 
with hypothesis was still more marked. Gravity observations and 
geodetic measurements agree therewith, even giving for Asia a 
larger tetrahedroid surface than for Europe, and many other geo- 
logical homologies point in the same direction. 


EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 447 


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448 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


The axis of figure of the forming tetrahedroid chanced not to 
coincide with the axis of rotation and the latter gradually shifted 
from near Behring Straits to its present position, which is one of 
stable rotational equilibrium. This happened in pre-cambrian time. 

At this point comes -the interesting novelty in the tetrahedral 
theory. The development of the tetrahedral form from shrinkage 
would proceed but a little way when rotation would tend to repro- 
duce the spheroidal form. The tetrahedroid shape would be pushed 
beyond the strength of the material and collapse would ensue, with - 
reassumption of a more spherical form. In a long period of rest 
the crust would be recemented and strengthened and the continued 
escape of heat would then tend to develop the tetrahedroid again 
and rotation would again restore the spheroid. 

This is brought into connection with the six great geologic cycles 
as follows: The solidified crust becomes by interior shrinking slightly 
tetrahedral. This involves elevation with glacial conditions, large 
continents, inner crustal tensions, foldings, fissuring, mountain- 
making and outpouring of lava. Through this fissuring the crust 
becomes weakened, the tangential force of rotation becomes pre- 
dominant, restoring the spheroid ; great transgressions of the oceans 
then intervene while mountain-making and volcanic activity approach 
a minimum. In the relatively long time of submergence and quiet 
the faults and fissures are sealed up by the circulating waters and 
the earth becomes again rigid enough to permit the oncoming of a 
second period of tetrahedral deformation. The oceans are deepened 
and contracted, the continents elevated and enlarged with mountain- 
making and this becomes again the cause of a glacial period and vol- 
canic activity. This cycle is several times repeated. 

We are now in a period of deformation, as is shown by the 
marked tetrahedral features of the earth, the sinking of the Pacific 
coral region, the abundant volcanic and earthquake activity and the 
just passed glacial period. 

The author assumes the nebular hypothesis and Arrhenius’s 
theory of the condensed-gaseous condition .of the earth’s interior, 
and noting the unimportance of the present equator for the structure 
of the earth, and the great importance of the band going through 
the three Mediterraneans; that is, THE Mediterranean and the East 


_ EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 449 


and West Indian Seas, he assumes that the equator once went 
parallel with this band and about 10° south of it, with the north pole 
at Behring’s Straits and the axis at right angles to the ecliptic. Then 
a band on either side of this equator including “the zone of the 
intercontinental seas ” or of the above three Mediterraneans, because 
of the powerful tidal influence in the early ages, would. be a zone of 
distortion and rupturing during the crust-forming period and of 
weakness since. This is Lowthian Green’s twinning plane.t The 
author follows Green also in assuming that in addition to this 
equatorial flood-tidal fracture zone and at right angles to it would 
run a meridional ebb-tidal fracture zone, which would pass through 
the two points where the old and new equators bisect each other and 
would be the meridian bordering the Pacific and including Australia 
and Antarctica. 

This equatorial fracture zone he takes to explain the Mediter- 
ranean zone and the transverse fracture zone to explain the per- 
manence of the Pacific. 

For the establishment of this position he cites that part of the 
_reviewer’s article on the tetrahedral earth? where Green’s theory is 
explained at length but not accepted. The later postulate of the 
author that the earth has many times taken the tetrahedral form, 
collapsed, and become again so rigid that it could again suffer tetra- 
hedral deformation would seem to militate against a continuous in- 
heritance of weakness in this region. 

The zone of fissuring remained a plane of weakness and the 
greater elevation of the northward parts of the three triangular land 
masses or coigns, or “shields” bringing them to move in a longer 
circle and so to lag behind, caused a westward torsional motion of 
these three portions of the coigns as compared with the parts south 
of the aforesaid zone. 

The author accepts the suggestion first made by the reviewer* 
that the depressed ocean bottoms brought by sinking to move along 
shorter radii must exert pressure against the west sides of the con- 

1T. Lothian Green, “ Vestiges of a Molten Globe,” Honolulu, 1875, Pt. 
“ aie Tetrahedral Earth and the Zone on the Intercontinental Seas.” 


Pres. Add., Bul. Geo. Soc. of Am., Vol. IL., 1900. 
3 Loc. cit., p. 65. 


450 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


tinents, and makes it the basis of his classification of mountains and 
of his explanation of the chains around the Pacific. 

He follows Reyer and Suess in explaining the chains of southern 
Asia as “ Abflussbogen,” outflow chains due to flowage down a 
slope from the elevated coign or shield of “ Angara land” or Man- 
churia. The festoon chains along the east of Asia are “ Zerrungs- 
bogen,” dragged chains due to the separation of ocean bottom and 
land because of the eastward drag caused by the depression of the 
ocean bottom and its differential eastward motion. These terms are 
discussed later in this paper. 

Andes and Cordillera are “ Stauungsbogen,” heaped up chains ” 
caused by eastward pressure of the sunken Pacific ocean bottom and 
this pressure is transferred eastward to cause the eastward curving 
Antilles and the submerged South Georgean eastward curve south 
of South America. 

The sinking of the Caribbean is an accessory cause of the An- 
tilles and the sinking of the Mediterranean the sole cause of the 
chains from Alps to Caucasus. 

It is very interesting that the hypothesis of a tetrahedral earth 
can be thus utilized in the fundamental explanations of the past 
conditions of the.earth and this may be said to add to the arguments 
in favor of the hypothesis. 

Wholly novel is the suggestion that tetrahedroid may have alter- 
nated repeatedly with the spheroid. The earth is thus a composite 
photograph of several tetrahedra, as indicated in the title of this 


paper. 


In the following the reviewer presents (1) a different explana- 
tion of the chains in the Mediterranean zone as due to northward . 
flow (rather than to thrust from the sinking of the Mediterranean), 
an explanation which was advanced in his presidential address, and 
(2) a new exposition of the torsional movements which differs from 
the book here reviewed as well as from the above-cited article of 
the reviewer. 

THE TorsionAL MovEeMENTs. 


The very lucid map of the book showing the tetrahedral de- 
formation is here reproduced (Fig. 1) and the reviewer has added 


EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 451 


arrows at equidistant points on the map, in order to make clear the 
following explanation. 

Under the first arrow, Europe-Africa has not suffered torsion 
and remains, as Green’s map shows, closely occupying the place of 
the original tetrahedral elevation. There has been no torsional 
motion between Europe and Africa, because of the small size of the 
former and the large size of the latter and the parallel relations of the 


J 
4 t 
=e ns nas x 4 
fi gf. ; =f Arktleche Flach asl + 4 
/ ap | oa I. fof 
aa me Af 
{ = 2 > Tia 
7 


Lah do Mies Dk Vex. Wilsle: Emcelen tlle Dr Th Aridi Kontinente Karte @ 


Fic. 1. Map showing the tetrahedral deformation. 


old and new equators. Underneath the second arrow is Australia 
and since the whole of western Australia is unfolded Archzan this 
meridian may represent the original and symmetrical position of the 
second tetrahedral elevation, and its north part (Asia) being ab- 
normally large has lagged westwardly, until in its last position it 
coalesces with Europe. The map shows by a dotted line the de- 
pressed area north of the Caspian—the former northward extension 
of the Indian Ocean. 

The next arrow shows that North America is in or near its true 
tetrahedral position, while South America has drifted eastward, due 
to its lesser elevation and the excessive eastward thrust of the excep- 
tionally broad South Pacific sea bottom, which was an abnormally 
large depression from the beginning. Thus the largest elevated land 


452 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


mass has made the only lag, the antipodal largest depressed area has 


made the only advance. This lessens by one third the amount of 
torsional movement heretofore assumed in the hypothesis and locates 
it differently. 

Africa is thus the torpid center of the earth in this sense and not 
in the more adventurous dream of Sacco,* that it is the inert center 
from which the continents have drifted away in great floes as a 
recoil when the Moon was torn from the bed of the Pacific, an event 
probably never seen by any “ glimpse through the corridors of time.” 

I will not suppress the fanciful suggestion that if Angara land— 
the Asian nucleus, or Manchurian shield—was formed (with Aus- 
tralia as its southern apex) and then drifted westward, in a later 
deformation Angara land in its new position may have grown south- 
ward, producing the triangular peninsula of India, which is a dwarf 
Africa, in shape a true south apex of a tetrahedral coign. 

The reviewer has elsewhere suggested that the westward move- 
ment of these old lands, to wit, Asia, and in lesser degree North 
America, may have been not wholly a slipping on some deep plastic 
layer but rather in part an advance by the crumbling down of 
eastern parts of these shields and upfolding of western parts. 

This may explain why Angara land lies on the eastern part of 
Asia and the Canadian shield on the eastern part of America and 
connect with the disappearance of an old land east of our Atlantic 
coast-line. This westward advance of the Asiatic mass may explain 
the great westward faulting around Angara land, especially along 
its western border. 

An inspection of the map shows broad bands of land submerged 
slightly, which extend on curved lines southeasterly from the three 
south apices to the Antarctic continent. This suggests a westward 
torsion of the three coigns as wholes on the Antarctic continent in- 
dependent of the differential movements of the parts among them- 
selves, but dependent on their varying size and distance from the 
space. As favored by Reyer and Suess the abnormal elevation of 
Angara Land might furnish a low slope down which a superficial 
layer could slide, the shear being lessened by internal heat or the 
moisture of strata newly risen from the sea, and aided by tidal 


#“Les Lois fondamentales de l’orogenie de la Terre.” 


ee 


E 
: é 


EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 453 


strains and earthquakes, thus forming the festoon of outward- 
curving chains along the east coast of Asia. Their curved out- 
spreading fronts greatly resemble the curving frontal lobes of a 
continental glacier. In several of these curves the rearland sunken 
blocks are wanting and this rearland sinking can best be explained, 
when it occurs, as a subsequent result of the stretching and not as 
a cause of the mountain building. 

Angara Land by its great and elevated mass developed these 
eastward-curving chains along its east border, aided by the deep 
sinking and the eastward tendency of the Pacific bottom, and by 
its westward lagging motion it brought its south border opposite the 
deep Indian ocean bottom and made this the slope for the south- 
ward-curving south Asian chains, and left the north border of 
Australia facing the deep Pacific, thus making the northward slope 
for the great northward curves of Oceanica. At the junction of 
these three bands is the great virgation of southern Asia emphasized ° 
by the three strange four-toed fault-bordered® islands, Borneo, Cele- 
bes, and Gilolo. 

It is the home of the tornado, the earthquake and of the great 
lines of volcanoes like Krakatoa and Tomboro. It is the “ Knoten 
Punkt” of the earth for all natural phenomena, where plant and 
animal life reach their most remarkable culmination and face each 
other in the most remarkable contrasts across Wallace’s line. 

In the same way the eastward movement of South America 
enabled it to present its north shore to the deepest Atlantic and 


formed the slope for the northward movement of the northward 
curving Antilles while the compression of the great Pacific and the 


small size of North America was sufficient to prevent the formation 
of southward-moving curves in North America like the Himalayas 
in Asia. 


Tue NortTHwarpD Flow oF THE SouTH EuROPEAN CHAINS ~ 
The south Asian chains flow south as long as the Indian Ocean 
depression is before them and Angara Land behind them, but long 
before they come near the influence of the Mediterranean all the 
great chains between the Caucasus and the Pyrenees turn and flow 


5 Hans v. Staff, Zeit. Deutsch. Ger. Gesell., 1911, p. 180. 
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, DD, AUGUST 3, I917. 


454 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


north away from the great mass of Arabia-Africa. Later sinking 
has occurred in part of the rearland and that these sinkings were 
later is shown because they have often included parts of the chains 
themselves as in the Crimea. These sinkings could not then be the 
cause of the chains. Indeed, in the A“gean also they are known to 
be much more recent than the chains. The land moved northward 
in many divaricating folds, with enormous overthrusts far beyond 
the competency of the sinking Mediterranean even in the most 
favorable sections. The abnormally small size of the European 
nucleus aided in this formation of the slope on which these wrinkles 
could form and move northwardly in great overlaps which have 
been the special study of Swiss and French geologists for many 
years. 

While the depression of the Pacific by combining extensive 
wedge action and eastward momentum from the sinking seems to be 
‘a vera causa for the Andes and Cordillera, this is not possible for 
the sinking of the Mediterranean where the force acting north- 
wardly, the rotational effect of the earth is wanting, and so there is 
no momentum, and being much smaller the wedge effect would be 
insufficient to make the enormous overthrusting of the Alps. More- 
over the chains go west across Spain and east across Asia Minor, 
extending in great loops northward far beyond the influence of the 
sunken blocks of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. The great 
virgation of the Alps and the sigmoid curves of Spain, the Car- 
pathians and Balkans suggest a movement far north into narrowing 
latitudes which crumpled the curves, while the Asian chains moving 
in the opposite direction in an expanding area deploy flow-like, as 
does a glacier moving out on a plain. These chains from Spain to 
the Caucasus lie along the crest and northern slope of the old équa- 
torial protuberance and when the equator was transferred south to 
its present position this projection was unsupported and sunk, flow- 
ing down northwardly in great convex loops. The slow southward 
transfer of the equatorial protuberance dependent on the movement 
of the pole prevented corresponding southward-moving chains, ex- 
cept perhaps in the case of the Atlas range, or perhaps here the 
sinking of the Mediterranean may have been effective. If the 
transfer of the equator be found indefensible the mass of Africa 


EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 455 


itself may have been raised abnormally like Angara Land to form 
the similar slope down which the northward sliding occurred. 

- The three intercontinental seas are not all alike, but the true 
Mediterranean is contrasted with the Caribbean and East Indian 
areas. 

The two latter are placed on the borders of the Pacific at the 
points where the old and new equators intersect near the Galapagos 
Islands and Sumatra (see the map), and the former where the 
equators are most widely separated. In the two the east-west tor- 
sions have moved the continental segments most apart, so that moun- 
tain curves could flow north toward the equatorial depths to form 
their curved mountain boundaries, and their three deep depressions. 

The classical Mediterranean has mountain chains which have 
moved not toward oceanic depths but toward the continental center, 
and it is placed directly opposite to the center of the Pacific, while 
the other two are where both equators intersect the volcanic border 
of the Pacific. By an unexplained coincidence it has three deeps 
like the others. 

The Mediterranean has been the center of civilization. The 
other two have been rather the opposite, more centers of seismic and 
of cyclone activity and the United States has unfortunately acquired 
foothold in both. 

The Mediterranean zone has always been a more continuous 
ocean (the Tethys of Suess) in transgression periods than in tetra- 
hedral periods, therefore it has been many times built up and de- 
stroyed. Therefore its being maintained as equator till the Tertiary 
has made these cycles possible. 


Tue MIGRATION OF THE POLES 


__ This transfer of the pole and equator to the new position, in 
_ whole or in part, in the late Tertiary agrees with the independent 
suggestions of many botanists and zoologists in explanation of the 
Tertiary and modern distribution of plants and animals. 

Arldt rejects this Tertiary deformation and places the transfer 
of the pole in the Archzean, because it would, he believes, have been 
_ attended by more enormous mass movements even than those of the 
_ Tertiary. He is discussing the matter from the standpoint of the 


456 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


Kant-Laplace hypothesis; and the hypothesis of Arrhenius (which 


was independently deduced by Arldt) of an interior of highly com- 
primated and heated gas essentially a solid of great density and 
elasticity, and yet the stupendous movements of the Mediterranean 
zone and of the Pacific zone of fire in the Miocene seem sufficiently 
great to meet the demand even of this radical hypothesis. 

With the evidence at hand interpreted in accord with the plani- 
tesimal hypothesis it is hard to estimate the relative importance of 
the three great revolutions, the pre-Cambrian, the Permian, and the 
Pleistocene. It seems probable that they increased in intensity. 
Would not the tetrahedroid be realized in larger and larger degree 
as the mass increased and solidified, and be antagonized less quickly 
and efficiently bythe spheroidal tendency as rotation became slower? 
Are we not now passing slowly out of an intense glacial period? 

Again would the present equator be so unimportant geologically 
if it had been with all its tidal strain where it is now, since the early 
Archeean ? 

The geological map of the earth shows many contrasts and har- 
monies dependent on this mode of origin. 

Africa is the torpid continent with no border folded mountain 
chains because it met the average tetrahedral conditions with the 
minimum of resistance. 

South America and Australia are balanced in relation to the two 
similar Mediterraneans, each with a large unfolded Archean area 
facing Africa and one folded mountain chain farthest from Africa. 
These chains are, however, of unlike origin and character, the Aus- 
tralian an outflow chain of the Asian festoon type; the South Amer- 
ican a compression chain of the Cordilleran type. This is because 
the broad abnormally depressed Pacific is the predominant factor 
acting with compression against South America and with tension 
from Australia. | 

North America is the normal continent, with two bordering 
mountain chains. In the Permian upfolding the Appalachians 
flowed west from an elevation east of the present coast, of which 
there is evidence in the strata, as the beds mainly grow coarser 


toward the east. The beds flowed west down a virtual slope crum- . 


pling and curving (stauend) where they met an old land in the 


-” 


EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 457 


Adirondacks, and dying out in faint waves against the flat unfolded 
forelands to the southwest. The Atlantic is specially bordered by 
Rias Coasts, indicating sinking. The Cordillera on the west were 
caused by the tangential thrust of the sunken broad Pacific. 

Europe is a dwarf continent. It began with the formation of 
the Urals in the east like the Appalachian, but stands in relation to 
the unique Mediterranean, and is abnormally overthrust from the 
south with a minimum addition to its area. 

Asia is a giant continent in size and shows a maximum of motion 
and of outflowing mountain chains. 

India is a dwarf counterpart of Africa. They both have the con- 


- tinental notch on the west, and a big island off to the southeast, but 


the volcanic area is on the west in India, while it is on the east in 
Africa. 

Attention is called to the consideration that the tetrahedral hy- 
pothesis does not stand or fall with the hypothesis of the suggested 
movement of the poles. The flattening at the poles and bulging in 
the lower latitudes is favorable to such movement, and if this tetra- 
hedral configuration has been repeated the movement of the pole 
may be cumulative. It is recognized that the amount 22° is beyond 
the maximum motion of 15° suggested by G. H. Darwin as possible, 
and yet the argument of Green does not seem to me to have been 
completely met and the “ zone of the intercontinental seas ” seems to 
plead strongly for such a movement. 

Darwin’s paper has been quoted recently as proving mathe- 
matically that migrations of the pole sufficiently great to be of 
geological importance have not occurred. What Darwin really said 
is this: “ We have thus clearly a state of things in which the pole 
may wander indefinitely from its original position.” By a succession 
of considerable changes it might migrate in a devious way some I0° 
or 15° from its geographical position at consolidation. He then 
goes on to make the supposition by way of illustration and as if it 
were a possible case that in the glacial period the north pole stood 
where Greenland now stands. He goes on to say: “ This would re- 
quire extensive and numerous deformations and if the continents 
are assumed to be permanent would it not be almost necessary to 
give up any hypothesis which involved a very wide excursion of the 


458 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


poles?” This would rule out pendulations of the north pole into 
the present southern hemisphere and back again, but need not be 
called a mathematical proof that the pole may not have moved in 
several stages 15°-20° from a point north of Behring’s Straits to 
its present position. But even this is not absolutely necessary be- 
cause we may make the assumption that the Pleistocene tetrahedral 
deformation was so irregular that the southern half of one lobe 
(Africa) was so abnormally raised that the Alpine chains flowed 
north to partly submerge Europe and when the collapse came the 
sinkings caused the three-lobed Mediterranean and the Black Sea, 
as the China seas were formed. 


In accordance with the idea of multiple working hypotheses we 
may examine and compare the other current theories concerning the 
genesis of continents, and see if any reason exists why the tetra- 
hedral tendency may not coéxist with all other agencies of defor- 
mation and sometimes partially control the result. 


See postulates a thrust from the suboceanic area against or be- 
neath the continental areas, getting the force from oceanic leakage 


by which abundant sea water penetrating the subcrusted lava froths | 


it so that, expanding, it is thrust beneath the coastal border and 
raises it in mountain chains. It is difficult to understand why, if 
the sea bottom cracks, and water penetrates to the deep-seated lavas, 
the expansive force should not relieve itself through the fissured 
area whence the waters come, rather than propagate itself many 
hundred miles beneath coastal areas and form inland mountain 
chains. 


From the deflection of the pendulum at the various stations of 
observation in the United States Heyford concludes that “isostatic 
compensation” exists in a superficial earth shell about seventy-one 
miles thick, so that a short suboceanic vertical section is of equal 
weight with a long continental one of the same base. If unloading 
by erosion takes place, the unloaded area will expand because de- 
crease of pressure favors those chemical and solution changes which 
increase bulk, and vice versa the loaded area will contract because 
increase of pressure will tend to favor those chemical and solution 


ee ese; 


De cl tlie 


—Te 


ens 


a pea a 


' EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 459 


changes which decrease bulk and increase density. Thus equilibrium 
will be destroyed without producing a common level, and a slow 
surface creep of the lighter and higher land areas toward the sea 
will ensue, and as a result beneath this surface creep a great slow 
undertow from the ocean areas toward the continents. The under- 
tow being attached continuously to the surface strata, and the two 
moving in opposite directions, there must be shearing between them 
or crumpling of the surface layers, which are free to relieve part of 
the tension by folding. Therefore the mountain chains are a short 
distance inside the continental borders and parallel to them. 

Willis accepts essentially the conclusions of Heyford, but utilizes’ 
exclusively the lower layer underthrust from the oceanic areas. He 
speaks of a “ suboceanic spread,” i. e., “the expansion of suboceanic 
masses within the upper hundred miles of the crust in consequence 
of the efficiency of stresses due to greater density to direct move- 
ments occasioned primarily by molecular or mass changes under 
varying temperature and pressure.” 

Much is made of the idea of great areas of habitual elevation 
and depression. These must be subordinate to the great persistent 
continental elevations and oceanic depressions. 

The rhythmicality is explained by the unproved consensus in the 
rhythm of several causes none of which are shown to be rhythmical.® 

The special tendency to collapse when the centers of the coigns 
rise too high would explain the central seas on the three shields, as 
the Baltic and Hudson’s Bay. It is interesting in this connection that 
Heyford declares’ the earth to be a failing body. He reconciles this 
inward thrust with Suess’s idea that the Asian chains flowed sea- 
ward by saying that the thrust of the ocean bed beneath the coastal 
parts of the continents would produce the same effect as an outward 
superficial motion of the land. 

“Gondwana land,” he says, “has been carried north with the - 
deep underflow ’’® which passed beneath and wrinkled up the Hima- 
laya. But Gondwana land is a rising and thus a lighter area against 
which the flow should have impinged and formed mountains on its 

6“ Asia.” II, 130. 

7 Heyford, “Geodetic Evidence of Isostacy,” Proc. Wash. Acad., VIIL., 


36-39, 1906. 
8 Loc. cit., p. 133. 


460 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


south, or if Gondwana land is carried north with the deep underflow 
Angara land should be carried forward also by the larger Pacific 
~ flow. | 

This underthrust would hardly produce the glacier-like lobing of 
the Asian chains so characteristic of the outflow of ice, and would 
not explain the northward overthrust of the mountains across 
Europe from the Pamir to the Pyrenees, where the oceanic area is 
wanting and the thrust must have come from Arabia and Africa. 
It does not explain the contrast between the festooned Asian chains 
and the straight American coasts, nor all the complexity of the zone 
‘of the intercontinental seas. 

Such a band thrust far under the continental mass must have had 
behind it an enormous force to overcome the resistance to shear 
(which may have approached the breaking strength of the rocks) 
over all its broad upper and under surfaces and have surplus force 
to upfold the many festooned mountain chains of Asia. Indeed this 
suboceanic spread occupying the greater portion of the hundred 
miles in depth would have caused vertical elevation of the sea bottom, 
instead of being transmitted so far inland beneath so small a load. 
We may contrast with this the superficial movement down a slope 
having shear only on an under surface softened by an internal heat. 
This sliding might be carried down a very low slope, solicited as it 
were, by the constant stresses of the earth tides and occasional earth- 
quake vibrations, especially in soft and water-soaked strata recently 
emerged from the sea. 

The hypothesis as presented by Heyford can, however, coéxist 
with the tetrahedral hypothesis, since an elevation of the central con- 
tinental mass would favor the superficial flow and hinder the deep- 
seated one. 

It would seem, however, that for the formation of the earth’s 
- largest features much deeper portions of the earth would be con- 
cerned than are involved in the compensations of isostacy.® 

Heyward bases his theory upon the observed fact of isostacy but 
this fact itself is still sub judice. 

Because of the heatgradient we may assume the centrosphere 
to now consist of gas above the critical point, by compression made 


9 See Chamberlin and Salisbury, “ Geology,” p. 556, 1904. 


EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 461 


heavier than iron, and from its way of conducting earthquake waves, 


_ more rigid than steel, and with rigidity increasing centerward. 


We may accept it as highly probable that a condition of ap- 
proximate isostacy exists over the area of the United States, with 
compensation of the lighter land and deeper adjacent sea areas 
within perhaps one hundred miles of the surface.*° It, however, 
remains to be proved whether this is true of other continents or a 
constant condition of any continent. This must be reconciled with 
the existence of long periods of peneplanation when the base-leveled 
surface is not raised as the load is removed but often submerged 
beneath the waters of a transgressing sea. 

The theory of isostacy must also meet the fact that the lavas of 
midoceanic regions are nowhere ultrabasic, but rather intermediate 
between basic and subacid. They range from rare nepheline basalts 
(SiO, 39, sp. gr. 2.9) to rhyolite (SiO, 76, sp. gr. 2.4). The average 
is basalt and andesite (SiO, 53, FeO= 20, su. gr. 27-2.95). While 
all the masses of terrestrial metallic iron, the diamontiferous olivine 
rocks (sp. gr. 3.2-3.5), the greatest accumulations of magnetite, the 
greatest areas of heavy “norites with titanic iron borders” are 
found in the old highlands. 

The diamond-bearing rocks would seem to have come from great 
depths which could furnish great pressures, unless the Ovifak irons 
and the diamond-bearing Vaalite are planetesimals. 


The postulates of the planetesimal hypothesis are distinctly 
favorable to the tetrahedral hypothesis. The possible considerable 
irregularity in the accumulation of the matter would supply a needed 
condition for any such deformation and especially for a deformation 
into a somewhat irregular and one-sided tetrahedroid. 

The storage of outgoing heat in an outer shell which should pro- 
mote the formation of a plastic stratum along which flow could take 
place would be an additional favorable condition.**- 

It is quite possible that the planetesimal hypothesis may be found 
to supplement rather than supplant the nebular hypothesis. 

The impact hypothesis, suggested by the great multitude of 


10 J. F. Heyford, “Figure of Earth and Isostacy,” Coast Survey, 1909. 
11 Chamberlin, “Geology,” p. 539. 


462 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


spiral nebulz comes as a welcome antecedent to either hypothesis, 
and permits a great latitude in the amount of heat and volatilization 
which may be assumed as the result of a given collision. 

At one extreme the conditions postulated by the usual plane 
tesimal hypothesis may prevail; at the other with a maximum of 
volatilization conditions approaching the older theory may be pres- 
ent, a momentum derived from nebular contraction adding itself to 
and modifying that caused by impact, so that in most favorable cases 
even rings either temporary or permanent might be formed. We 
can perhaps follow a satellite formed by the condensation of such 
incandescent matter mixed with solid fragments in greater or less 
quantity through to the present probable condition of the earth or 
other planets, more easily than one made up of a cold and heteroge- 
neous mass of discrete planetesimals; and equally well or better 
imagine it to assume in some degree the tetrahedral form. 

Chamberlin presents the calculation that shrinkage stresses of 
the whole globe would support domed elevations on the earth only 
eight miles high, but this is on the assumption that the earth material 
s “firm crystalline rock.”’* But the crushing strength of the deep- 
seated earth material should be taken as that of the steel dies of the 
crushing machine rather than that of brittle rock (or indeed twice 
that of steel as deduced from the rapidity of earthquake transmis- 
sion), which would give a value for this elevation of the proper 
order for even more than the continental protuberances. Indeed 
Chamberlin in the same page seems almost to have contemplated 
the very rhythmical mechanism we have assumed when he says: 
“Tt is as if the shrinkage stresses accumulated to the full strength 
of the stress-resisting power of the whole sphere and then col- 
lapsed.” 

There are good grounds to believe with Chamberlin’® that the 
greater earth movements affect all quarters of the globe together, 
that they are periodic and that the “ocean basins become pro- 
gressively deeper and more capacious, while the protuberances be- 
come more protuberant,” that “in the process of periodic adjustment 
of the earth to its internal stresses, portions of the crust are thrust 

12 “ Geology,” I., 556. 


13“ Diastrophism as the Ultimate Law of Correlation,” Jour. Geo., XVIL., 
685, 1909. 


EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 463 


up to heights notably above the plane of isostatic equilibrium, and 
that these portions gradually settle back toward equilibrium.” 
That-“the conditions prerequisite to baselevelling involve a high 
degree of stability through a long period of time.” The great base- 
levellings and the great sea transgressions which are little more than 
alternative expressions for the same thing have as their fundamental 
assumption a sufficient stability of the surface to permit baselevelling 
to accomplish its ends. 

Chamberlin states these stages as (1)- That of climacteric base- 
levelling and sea transgression favoring the expansional evolution 
of shallow water life and wide migrations and comminglings leading 
to cosmopolitan faunas. 

(2) The stages of retreat which are the first stages of diastrophic 
movement after the quiescent period marked by abundant erosion 
and deposition of deep soil mantles, limited life area, and lessened 
migration. 

(3) The stages of climacteric diastrophism and greatest sea re- 
_ treat marked by restrictional evolution of shallow water faunas, in- 
creased land deposits, broadest continents, diversity of land surfaces 
and climatic extremes. 

_(4) The stages of progressive degradation and sea advance, 
marked by the reéxpansion of the narrowly provincial shallow water 
faunas formed in isolated areas in the previous period. 

The tetrahedral hypothesis thus presents itself as a welcome in- 
troduction or preliminary to Chamberlin’s suggestion of diastrophism 
as the foundation of correlation, since it gives a cause for a rhyth- 
_ mical recurrence of short periods of diastrophism with long inter- 
vening periods of quiescence. In harmony with this hypothesis is 
the remarkable generalization of White and Knowlton,” that a uni- 
form warm humid climate extending beyond the polar circles has 
been the rule from early paleozoic, interrupted by relatively short 
periods of climatic extremes when great glacial areas coéxist with a 
torrid zone.*® 

14 Putnam and Gilbert’s. pendulum studies indicate that the part of our 


continent uplifted in late Tertiary is still above the level of equilibrium. 


15 Science, XXXI., 760. i 
16 Variations of the sun’s heat have been adduced as cause of varying 


climate and even the passage of the solar system through cold areas in space. 


' 


464 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


The remarkably interesting new book by Professor Chamberlin‘? 
gives what I had suggested above as desirable and feasible, to wit, a 
more nebular trend to the planetesimal hypothesis. It makes clear 
the reality of the forward rotations of a satellite by the interaction of 
elliptical rather than circular orbits, and builds up with convincing 
clearness such a simple spiral nebula as would evolve into our solar 
system. He lets the approaching star exert its disrupting agency 
on our sun, then larger by the mass of the planets, as a tidal at- 
traction which sets free the enormous expansive energy of the sun 
itself so that great masses of incandescent matter—exaggerated 
protuberances—were thrown off, and thrown off in rotation because 
of the unequal character of the expelling force. Such masses form 
the knots on the arms of the spiral nebula and by contraction on 
cooling initiate the planets. By exaggerating—which he does not 
do—the size of these knots in relation to the final planet’s we get all 
the advantages without many of the disadvantages of the old nebula 
theory. 

He then goes on to develop the thesis that the major influence 
in producing the larger inequalities of the earth’s surface has been 
the variation in the rate of rotation of the earth; thus proposing a 
supplement or substitute for the tetrahedral hypothesis. 

Starting with the idea that rotation must have had alternate in- 
creases; when the equatorial band would bulge and the polar areas 
flatten; and decreases when the equatorial band would flatten and 
the polar areas bulge, there would be a secular seesaw motion be- 
tween the rising and sinking areas along circular fulcrum lines at 
30° N. latitude and 30° S. latitude.. The tensile stresses during 
elevation in the polar areas would be relieved (on the law of least 
action) by three fissures radiating from the north pole at 120° from 
each other and ending at the fulcrum line. The tensions produced 
during the following equatorial expansion would be relieved by 6 
fissures divaricating 2 and 2 from the three ends of the set of fissures 
above defined, and meeting 2 and 2 at the opposite fulcrum line and. 
Indeed a certain parson is reported by Lockyer to have claimed that there 
might be areas in space in which miracles were possible and that the earth 


may have passed through such an area at the beginning of our era. 
17“ The Origin of the Earth,” 1916. 


ee es lf 


EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 465 


at the three ends of the corresponding set of fissures from the south 


pole, dividing the equatorial band into six about equilateral triangles, 
set saw-tooth-wise. Three alternating ones would be placed base to 


_ base with the three north polar triangles above defined. The three 


intervening ones would be placed base to base with the three tri- 
angles formed around the other pole by three lines similar to those 
first mentioned and drawn to the south pole from where the zigzag 
line touched the southern fulcrum line. The six quadrilaterals made 
each of two triangles base to base on the fulcrum lines; three touch- 
ing the north and three the south pole, and interlocking saw-tooth- 
wise across the equator would by their see-saw motion on the ful- 


_ crum lines relieve the stresses rising from the variations in the rota- 


tion. It is further assumed that all other stresses, as shrinkage, 
tides, erosion effects, would be localized as elevations along these 
lines and reach a maximum with special protuberances at their inter- 
section. These lines become then of great width and are the nuclei 
of the continents and are called yield tracts rather than fissure lines. 

The formation of basaltic columns and especially the ball and 
socket structure, with protuberances rising at the points where three 
cracks meet, and connected by lower ridges along the cracks, is taken 
as an instructive illustration of how the rising in ridges along these 
fissure tracts would occur and the especially marked protuberances 
at their junction would be formed, and is considered almost a proof 
that the process has really taken place. There seems, however, only 
partial resemblance between the two cases. The tensile strains are 
here alternating; in the basalt coincident and continuous. The trap 
column furnishes an analogy only for the action at the poles and 
only for the first half of the cycle, and it is not exact there. As ex- 
pansion proceeds tension is relieved by three fissures radiating from 
the pole but this tension and fissuring are not equal along the three 
lines to the next angles as in the trap but decrease outwardly to zero. 
When the second half of the cycle begins it may first close up the 
fissures and then bring the polar regions into a state of compression 
with maximum at the pole, a state of things not occurring in the 
trap, where there is no compression and so no elevation. This com- 
pression might relieve itself by folding or mashing along lines of 
weakness with little regard to the 120° law or to the former fissure ~ 


466 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


lines, which might be sometimes cemented so as to be lines of great- 
est strength. It would not need to fold at the same places in suc- 
cessive compression periods. The other points where three lines 
join on the fulcrum line are wholly unlike the corresponding points 
ona trap column. They are indeed points where three almost non- 
existent lines meet, since tension and motion die out as the fulcrum 
line is reached. During the subsequent compression period also 
these points are places of minimum compression and so of minimum 
elevation, but they are the points where the greatest protuberances— 
the continental shields—must be. 

It is, moreover, hard to see how the three polar fissures can 
exert any influence across this dead space to locate the corresponding 
fissures which stretch across the equator, since the maximum ten- 
sion by which these fissures are formed is at the far distant equator 
where it would be more probably relieved by fission along three lines 
at 120° (after the manner of trap), radiating from centers on the 
equator and at convenient distances apart, rather than by lines or 
bands slanting across the equator 8,000 miles apart. 

I have seen where the triassic sandstone has been stripped off 
the trap and found no elevation at the junction edges of the surface 
of the columns or depressions at their centers and the same is true 
of mud cracks. There is rather a slight depression where the col- 
umns join. The ball and socket structure is a deep-seated one, and 
the ridges along the edges of adjacent columns and the elevations at 
the corners are not upthrusts in any sense. The six-sided column 
has first formed by shrinkage and rupture, and no further action 
takes place across the ruptured surfaces, then later shrinking and 
consequent fissuring inside each column separately have produced a 
“spheroidal parting” inside each individual column and it is this 
curved parting which forms the apparent hollow when the column 


falls in pieces, or when several columns have been eroded to a com- 


mon level forms the adjacent hollows bounded by the intervening 
ridges and corner projections. There is no trace of a longitudinal 
motion of the central part of the basalt column up or down or side- 


wise. Indeed the blocks into which the column breaks will be con- 


cave upward for a while and then be followed by a double concave 
block and then will be convex upward for a time and then be fol- 


| 
q 


EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 467 


lowed by an exfoliating spherical mass as large as the cross-section 
of the column. There are samples of all these shapes in the col- 
lection at Amherst. 

Thus no support can be drawn from analogy of the ball and 
socket structure of trap for the explanation of the large earth fea- 
tures as a result of variations in rotation.’® 

It is further difficult to see how this oscillation on unknown but 
very long period and of unknown but very slight amplitude can 
“attract” the other deforming agencies and form bands of fissuring 
and elevation radiating at 120° and culminating where the move- 
ments pass through the zero point. The amplitude and period and 
total duration of these oscillations are left wholly indeterminate and 
as we exaggerate the nebular character of the original knot and 
minimize the mass and period of falling and variation of falling of 
the planetesimals, which is the cause of variation in rate, we may 
have conditions where the whole effect would be small or even neg- 
ligible. It is further interesting to note that when a line of tension 
is drawn from the south pole to the fulcrum line at the south point 
of Australia, it is then continued northwest with the full width of 
Australia across the East Indies, bending north in Asia with the full 
width from Afghanistan to eastern China, and there is no corre- 
sponding northeast line to divide the Pacific. In the same way the 
line drawn from the south pole to South America goes northwest 
with the full width of South America and bends north in North 
America with a width from southern California to Georgia and 
there is no northeast line to divide the Atlantic. In the case of 
Africa the treatment is different, and the line from the south pole is 
made to branch, although at much too small an angle at the south 
point of Africa, and the branches to run up the two coasts to Af- 
ghanistan and the Atlas mountains and then converges to the north 
pole and a hypothetical ocean is made to occupy the area from 
Arabia to Scandinavia. It is more consistent and consonant with 
the other arrangements to have made Africa a “yield tract ” exactly 
analogous to South America and Australia. The line along the east 
border of the continent, closely parallel to the corresponding line 


18 Polished cross-sections of trap columns show a wholly homogeneous 
texture. R. B. Sosman, “Types of Prismatic Structure in Igneous Rocks,” 
Jour. Geol., XXIV., 228, 1916. 


468 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


along the east border of the other continents, would be the base line 
of this yield tract as far as Somaliland and the tract would run 
northwest to meet the fulcrum between the Atlas Mountains and 
Asia Minor and its northern meridional part would include Europe 
and have on its right a diminished ocean in the depressed Aralo- 
Caspian Basin, and unlike the others, a northeast band across Arabia 
naturally separating this small ocean from the Indian Ocean. In 
this case each “yield tract” has a Mediterranean in its center and 
Italy in the center of the one trends closely parallel with Cuba and 
Sumatra in the center of the others. 

We may further notice that the elevated fissure tracts that are 
thus built up are coincident with the tetrahedral elements of the 
earth’s framework. We may welcome any new light on this dark 
subject and feel sure that the rotational and tetrahedral theories are 
supplementary and not antagonistic, the latter would seem however 
to be the preponderant and precedent influence since it would tend 
to make the two poles as unlike as possible, as is the case: while 
the rotational hypothesis acting on a reasonably homogeneous earth 
would make the poles essentially similar and symmetrical, as is not 
the case. The tetrahedral hypothesis would demand continents 
widening to a maximum where they surround the polar ocean, as 
-is the case. The rotational theory would demand three northern 
continents tapering northwardly into points directed toward the 
corners of an arctic continent at the north pole, which is not the 
case. The tetrahedral hypothesis centers on the common explanation 
of the 4 great coigns. The other has two explanations for them: 
one for the south polar continent, another for the other three, placing 
them where the supposed causative forces are at their zero point. 
The drawing of six circular oceans leaves much to be desired and 
one superfluous ocean surrounds the north pole. 

A great elliptical ocean is drawn covering quite closely the pres- 
ent seat of war and with a major axis on the Berlin-Bagdad Rail- 
road. An ultra-pacifist would readily see the desirableness of sub- 
merging this region, at least temporarily. 

We may go further and say that if the five great depressions 
were originally made in part at least by the tetrahedral deformation 
they would have located the five great gyrals or “ permanent highs ” 


_ EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 469 


_ as they are assumed to have been located by the rotation process, 
and would have gained the advantage of any sorting action of the air 
and water currents in concentrating the heavier matter over the 
sea bottoms and the lighter over the land. This would tend to in- 
crease the tetrahedral depressions and promote the breaking down 
of the elevations and the spherical recovery. 

The chapter is introduced by a diagram from Darwin showing 
that the tidal stresses are eight times as great in the central as in the 
equatorial regions. This dynamical basis for the theory is largely 
non-existent, since as shown by Barrell?® the citation is from an 
earlier and erroneous calculation later corrected by Darwin, who 
‘shows that the central stresses are only two and two thirds greater 
than the equatorial. 

Barrell says further concerning the theory: 


“Tt is not clear that earth strains due to the causes invoked could initiate 
such a primary segmentation, in fact calculations on the stresses which the 
reviewer has made to test this sub-hypothesis pointed to quite a different 
method of yielding. The distribution of continents and oceans does not 
accord very closely with it, and the evidence of isostacy does not indicate 
that the density differences between continents and ocean basins reach below 
the outer fiftieth of the earth’s radius. This hypothesis of juvenile shaping 
should therefore be accepted with much reserve and does not appear to be 
as well supported as are the conclusions of the previous chapters.” 


The remarkable paper by Professor Lane” fits all the crevices 
of the tetrahedral theory. There is a surface layer for orogenic 
purposes, a deeper plastic (asthenospheric) layer to facilitate flow- 
age, a deeper layer for epeirogenic purposes, indeed, for tetrahedral 
purposes and provision for periodic collapses. A nut with its acute 
distal point and its obtuse proximal end is a suggestive model of the 
tetrahedral earth; a triangular beechnut would have been simply 
perfect. 


Two tables have been published giving the periods of elevation 
and depression of the North American continent. The table of 
Shimer is based largely on the geological maps of Chamberlin and 


19 Science, XLIV., p. 244, 1916. 
20A. C. Lane, “On Certain Resemblances between the Earth and a 


Butternut,” Scientific Monthly, 1915, p. 132. 
_ PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI. EE, AUGUST 3, I917. 


470 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


Salisbury”! and that of Schuchert?* averaging the results of his ex- 


tensive and valuable work on the paleogeography and paleometeor- 
ology of North America. The two tables are in substantial agree- 
ment with the table of Arldt (see p. 447). The larger disturbances 
given by Schuchert agree with Arldt’s cycles except that the Grand 
Canyon revolution is local and the Caledonian cycle is less marked 
in North America than the others. He brings out very clearly ‘the 
brevity of the elevation and the great length of the intervening times 
of depression. 

“Granting all this,” says Schuchert?® (after reviewing all the 
theories to explain the “climates of geological time” except the 


tetrahedral hypothesis), “there still seems to be back of all these 


theories a greater question connected with the major changes in 
paleometeorology. This is: What is it that forces the earth’s topog- 
raphy to change with varying intensity at irregularly rhythmic in- 
tervals? . . . Are we not forced to conclude that the earth’s shape 
changes periodically in response to gravitative forces that alter the 
body form.” The tetrahedral hypothesis is certainly trying to force 
this same conclusion. 


The idea of a spherical recovery and extensive transgression and 
exceptionally equable climate far poleward would take away largely 
the need from the biological side of many assumed continental con- 
nections across the deep oceans as bridges for migrations. Their 
migrations could take place during equable climates by long cir- 
cuitous land connections extending far poleward, and would remove 
many apparent conflicts with the supposed tetrahedral configuration 
of the earth, which appear in many restorations of early geological 
periods. This was written in 1913 and the important and authorita- 
tive article by Mathew on “Climate and Evolution,’** brought so 
full confirmation of this suggestion and so strong condemnation of 
the indiscriminating bridge building which has been customary for 

21H. W. Shimer, “ Broader Features of the Geological History of North 
America,” Technology Quarterly, Vol. XX., p. 287, 1907. 

22“ Textbook of Geology,” Pt. 2, p. 980, 1915. 

23“ Climates of Geologic Time,” Pub. Carnegie Inst., No. 192, p. 280. 


24W. D. Mathews, “ Climate and Evolution,” An. N. Y. Acad. Sc., Vol. 
24, pp. 171-318. : 


ee 


EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 471 


fear, as Colman says, “some stray marsupial might get his feet wet 
in migrating toa néw habitat,” that I copy here his thesis and con- 
clusions. 

“ THEsIs, 


“1. Secular climatic change has been an important factor in the evolu- 
“tion of land vertebrates and the principal known cause of their present dis- 
tribution. 

“2. The principal lines of migration in later geological epochs have been 
radial from Holarctic centers of dispersal. 

“3. The geographic changes required to explain the present distribution 
oi land vertebrates are not extensive and for the most part do not affect the 
permanence of the oceans as defined by the continental shelf. 

“4. The theories of alternations of moist and uniform with arid and 
zonal climates, as elaborated by Chamberlin, are in exact accord with the 
course of evolution of land vertebrates, when interpreted with due allow- 
ance for the probable gaps in the record. 

“5. The numerous hypothetical land bridges in temperate, tropical and 
southern regions, connecting continents now separated by deep oceans, which 
have been advocated by various authors, are improbable and unnecessary 
to explain geographic distribution. On the contrary, the known facts point 
distinctly to a general permanency of continental outlines during the later 
epochs of geologic time, provided that due allowance be made for the known 
or probable gaps in our knowledge. 


“ SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE. 


“ The geologic evidence for the general permanency of the abyssal oceans 
is overwhelmingly strong. The continental and oceanic areas are now main- 
tained at their different levels chiefly through isostatic balance, and it is 
difficult to believe that they could formerly have been reversed to any ex- 
tensive degree. The floor of the ocean differs notably in its relief from the 
surfaces of the continents, and only in a few limited areas is the relief 
suggestive of former elevation above sea-level. The continental shelf is so 
marked, obvious and universal a feature of the earth’s surface that it affords 
the strongest kind of evidence of the antiquity of the ocean basins and the 
limits beyond which the continents have not extended. The supposed evi- 
dence for greater elevation in the erosion channels across its margin have 
been shown to be better interpreted as due to ‘continental creep.’ The 
‘marine formations now found in continental areas have all been deposited 
in shallow seas. No abyssal deposits have ever been certainly recognized 
among the geologic formations of the continental platform.” 


It would thus seem possible that with the continuous escape of 
heat and volatile bodies a slight constant tendency of the earth 
toward tetrahedral deformation might combine with the other more 


472 EMERSON—RECURRENT TETRAHEDRAL DEFORMATIONS. 


active forces and like the action of rotation in deflecting rivers prove 
effective when the other forces are balanced against each other.* 

The continuous escape of juvenile waters suggested by Suess 
may have promoted shrinking and have thus aided in regularly in- 
creasing the depth of the ocean basins. 

And only part of this juvenile water may have been absorbed in 
the hydration of minerals so that the amount of the ocean waters 
may have increased. We may also accept the conclusions of Walther 
that the earlier oceans were shallow and that the great and in- 
creasing deepening of the great permanent ocean bodies which the 
tetrahedral theory demands began with the Triassic, since all pale- 
ozoic survivals were shallow water forms. 

Indeed the slow process by which the agglomeration of plane- 
tesimals condensed into a globe of double the rigidity of steel would 
permit the postulated repeated recurrence of periods of tetrahedral 
deformation and spheroidal collapse, at first barely discernible 
among the other deforming agencies but gradually becoming rela- 
tively more important until at last in the grand Tertiary cycle the 
deformation should be so great as to cause the final stage of the 
movement of the pole to its present place and impress the strong 
tetrahedral features on the face of the present earth. 

Finally one might say there is a certain three-fold hierarchy in 
earth movements—orogenic or mountain making; epeirogenic or 
plateau making; tetrahedrogenic or continent making. 

25Tt should be distinctly borne in mind that the tetrahedral deformation 
is not a crystalline action any more than is the formation of hexagonal trap 
columns. Indeed the tetrahedral deformation of a spherical mass is exactly 
like the hexagonal deformation of an extended mass. Both are governed by 
the law of least action in a very similar way. There are isometric tetrahedral | 
crystals and there are six-sided hexagonal crystals. They are often perfect 
and perfectly embody a physical law. The other cases represent a tendency 
and act only when the remaining agencies are balanced and should be judged 
by their best results. One should no more overlook the tetrahedral tendency 


because it is often imperfectly realized than the hexagonal tendency in all 
shrinking bodies. 


EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 
By EDWIN SWIFT BALCH. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 


One hundred years ago, only one man—one may say without. 
exaggeration—knew that there had once been a stone age in Europe. 
This was John Frere, who as far back as 1797, collected many flint 


_ spear heads near Hoxne in southern England and recognized their 


antiquity and their human origin. It was not until the first half of 
the nineteenth century that two or three other men realized that cer- 
tain stones which they found in digging had been man-handled and 
used as weapons or tools. One of these men was Dr. Schmerling 
of Liége, who in 1833 published a paper describing his investigations 
in the cave of Engis, where he found worked flint implements, 


- weapons and ornaments of ivory and bone, and fossils of extinct 


animals together with a fossil human skull and other fragments of 
the skeleton. Another man, the Rev. J. MacEnery, between 1824 
and 1841, obtained from that most interesting cavern Kent’s Hole 
near Torquay in southern England, numerous artifacts associated 
with the bones of extinct animals. The scientific world of those 
days, however, was unable to appreciate that the human race could 
possibly date back to the time indicated by the extinct animal fos- 
sils found in the same strata as the flint artifacts, so Frere’s, Schmer- 
ling’s and MacEnery’s discoveries were rejected and temporarily 


_ forgotten. 


In the early part of the nineteenth century also, however, there 
lived near Amiens a Frenchman, Boucher de Perthes, who was 
molded out of most combative clay. He started digging in the 
gravels of the Somme Valley and in 1832 he noticed in the gravel 
pits some curiously shaped stones which he finally recognized must 
have been shaped by man. And in the year 1847, he said so in a 
big volume the very title of which, “ Antiquités Celtiques et Antédi- 
luviennes,” shows how hesitatingly he was groping ata subject at 

473 


474 BALCH—EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 


that time almost under the ban of religion as well as of science. 
For this he was told, to put it in the words with which we now greet 
discoverers, that he had handed a gold brick to the public. But 
this did not upset Boucher de Perthes’s equanimity one iota. He 
was not only combative, but he was pertinacious and tenacious. He 
continued his researches and ten years later he brought out another 
big volume. Thereupon a few other scientists woke up and took 
notice and went to the Somme Valley to dig. And they also found 
flint artifacts in situ and in very short order it was seen that 
Boucher de Perthes was right in his contentions. And now Boucher 
de Perthes is universally recognized as the man who forced recog- 
nition of Paleolithic man in Europe on a recalcitrant world. 

One hundred years ago, everybody in America—one may say 
without much exaggeration—knew that there was even then an 
American stone age. And some doubtless had this knowledge 
drilled into them by finding a stone-headed arrow sticking in their 
_ ribs. And they therefore were sure that stones were fashioned 
into weapons and that they were used by our so-called Indians and 
were not prehistoric. But history repeats itself. Just as Dr. 
Schmerling had discovered a fossilized man in Belgium, so did Dr. 
Lund, a Dane, report finding in 1844 in a cavern in the province 
of Minas Gereas, Brazil, some fossilized human bones together with 
bones of extinct animals. He concluded that South American man 
extended “far back into historic times, and probably even beyond 
these into geologic times.”* The evidence presented by Dr. Lund, 
however, was not so absolutely convincing that the human bones 
were cotemporaneous with those of the extinct animals for the 
scientific world of that day, any more than in the cases of Frere, 
Schmerling and MacEnery, to be willing to accept the possibility of 
such antiquity for the human race, so Dr. Lund’s discovery also was 
temporarily relegated to the limbo of oblivion. 

But there was a man in North America who had the same char- 
acteristics as Boucher de Perthes: the faculty of observation, the 
ability to reason from his observations and the pertinacity to stick 
to them in the face of any and all opposition. This was Dr. Charles 


1 Ales Hrdlicka, “ Early Man in South America,” p. 165. 


4 
: 


s 


BALCH—EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 475 


Conrad Abbott, who lived on his family homestead near Trenton, 
New Jersey.— More than fifty years ago he began to collect the 
relics of the past in the neighborhood. He noticed that some of the 
stone artifacts were much rougher than others and he reasoned 
from this that therefore they were older. And in a paper “The 
Stone Age in New Jersey,” published in 1872,? he announced his be- 
lief that these ruder artifacts were paleolithic. He says of them 
either that there were execrable workmen among the tool-makers 
or else that the age of the crude specimens far exceeds that of the 
finely wrought relics. He discovered also that in every class of 
relics there is always a gradation from poor or primitive to good or 
elaborate, indicating a lapse of years from ancient to modern times, 
from a paleolithic to a neolithic age. He further surmised that the 
earlier implements were so rude that the people who fashioned them 
may well have been too primitive to wander from another continent, 
and therefore that the first inhabitants along our Atlantic coast 


and inland may have been autochthones. And thereupon Abbott 


was promptly told that he also had handed a gold brick to the public. 

But Abbott, like Boucher de Perthes, weathered the storm and 
continued his researches and nine years later, in 1881, he published 
a book “ Primitive Industry,” based on his rambles over fields and 
along the banks of the Delaware and on his patient observations in 
railroad cuttings and canal excavations. And in this book he was 
able to announce® that there are three stages of stone culture in the 
Delaware Valley. Taking these downwards or backwards they are 
as follows: (1) In the surface soil there is a polished stone neo- 
lithic stage with jasper and quartz implements of the historic Indian 
and a few rough argillite implements ; (2) some distance below this, 
in alluvial deposits, generally of yellow sand, there is a stage of 
rough argillite implements ; (3) a good distance below this again, in 
the Trenton gravels, there is a stage where there are a few very 
rough argillite paleolithic implements. 

Now the difficulty of seeing these facts in the field at Trenton 
is enormous. I have visited Abbott many times at Trenton, and 
have rambled over his ancestral acres and along the banks of the 


2 American Naturalist, 1872, Vol. 6, p. 146. 
3 Page 517. 


476 BALCH—EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 


Delaware with him and have thus had the advantage of having him 
point out to me himself the three horizons. I have picked up nu- 
merous Indian implements on the surface soil, perhaps the best of 
which was a large arrowhead or spearhead which I detected in Ab- 
bott’s asparagus bed. And I have dug also into the second stratum, 
the Yellow Sand Drift, and found a couple of rough argillite flakes 
myself. An implement in the lower gravel horizon, however, I was 
never lucky enough to find in situ, for these are exceedingly rare 
and only reward a searcher after many long days. But I cannot 
but marvel how anyone ever traced single-handed these three 
archeological horizons. The two lower ones are so modest, so re- 
tiring, that even when pointed out to you, it is hard to believe they 
are there. And how Dr. Abbott, to whom they were not pointed 
out, ever was able to recognize their existence and point them out 
to others, seems to me the most wonderful discovery in the realm of 
American archeology. 

The state of knowledge, it will be noticed, was precisely the op- 
posite in Europe at the time of the discovery of paleolithic stone im- 
plements there, from what it was in America at the time of the 
discovery of paleolithic stone implements here. In Europe nobody 
knew anything of a European stone age. In historic times, the — 
Greeks, the Romans, the Gauls, the Brits, had all used bronze or iron 
weapons, but not stone weapons and implements. And the result 
was that as soon as Boucher de Perthes had been proved correct in 
his assertions that the flints he found were weapons and imple- 
ments, everyone knew definitely that they were prehistoric: they 
could not be anything else. In America on the contrary, everyone 
knew that there was an American stone age, and that they were 
still in it. And the result was that most archeologists in America 
asserted for years after Abbott’s discovery, that all the stone im- 
plements found here are neolithic and historic. Nevertheless Ab- 
bott was correct in his assertions and it may be truly said of him 
that he is the Boucher de Perthes of America, the man who has 
forced on science the recognition that there is a Paleolithic Amer- 
ican man, 

Some years after Dr. Abbott’s discovery a new worker appeared 
in the Trenton district. This was Mr. Ernest Volk. He had come 


BALCH—EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 477 


over as a young man from Germany and settled at Trenton. He 
became interested_in Abbott’s discoveries and started in to verify 
them for himself. In 1889, he began to work under the general 
direction of Mr. F. W. Putnam for the Peabody Museum of Har- 
vard University and he has kept up his researches to the present 
time. And his patient, persevering labors for so many years have 
absolutely confirmed all of Abbott’s contentions. Working in the 
fields, and watching excavations in the Delaware River channel, in 
the sewers of Trenton and other places, Volk has independently 
_ proved that there are three stages of culture at Trenton: on top a 
historic Indian stage with many jasper and some argillite imple- 
ments, and some of these implements polished and so placing the 
upper horizon in the Neolithic period; a middle horizon in the 
Yellow Sand Drift with only some chipped argillite implements, thus 
placing this stage in a paleolithic stage of culture; and a much 
lower horizon connected with the Glacial gravel and bearing a few. 
chipped argillite implements and some rough quartzite ones, the 
latter especially showing an early paleolithic stage of culture.‘ 

Until recently Abbott’s and Volk’s results were accepted by the 
minority and were rejected by the majority of American archeolo- 
gists. Now the position taken by so many leading American 
archeologists is, however, perhaps not extraordinary. In the first 
place they started from the preconceived notion that all the early 
inhabitants of this country were historic Indians. And it is hard to 
throw off a belief which is justified by the most apparent facts en- 
dorsing it unless overwhelming evidence is produced against it. In 
the next place, none of these archeologists took the only means pos- 
sible of verifying for oneself the evidence presented at Trenton, 
namely a long investigation, patiently carried out for weeks and 
months on the spot. They flitted in and out, something like, as you 
will remember, the guests did who tried to pull out the sword from 
the tree in Richard Wagner’s Walkiire. “Gaste kamen und gaste 
gingen” but the sword remained in the tree just the same. 

Another cause also influenced strongly American archeologists 

4Ernest Volk, “The Archeology of the Delaware Valley,” Papers of the 
Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, Harvard Univer- 
sity, IQII. 


478 BALCH—EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 


from accepting Abbott’s and Volk’s results. And this was the 
human remains found in various parts of North and South Amer- 
ica in Pleistocene deposits, which human remains always seemed to 
be historic Indian. Besides the one find made by Dr. Lund in 
eastern Brazil several discoveries of the same kind were made in 
North America. One, for instance, was made in 1846 at Natchez, 
Mississippi, by Dr. Dickeson and was turned down by Sir Charles 
Lyell. Another was made in 1902 at Lansing, Kansas. A third 
was made in’ 1906 at Long Hill near Omaha, Nebraska. Now all 
these bones and especially the skulls showed almost exactly the 
characteristics of historic Indian remains. And it was argued from 
this that since these remains showed no evolution in the type there- 
fore they could not be really old. For it must be remembered that 
the persistence of type has only been accepted recently. It was 
indeed believed for a number of years that the modern European 
had probably evolved directly from the much lower type of Mous- 
térien Neanderthal man. Now, however, from numerous discov- 
eries at Moulin Quignon, at Galley Hill, at the Olmo, at Ipswich, 
and other places, it is known that the modern European type dates 
back to the Chelléen and Acheuléen horizons of the early Paleo- — 
lithic, while the Neanderthal man’s ancestor has been traced in an 
earlier, perhaps Eolithic, horizon at Heidelberg. But since the 
reasons formerly influencing anthropologists to reject as genuine 
the finds of human remains in the American Pleistocene can no 
longer be held to be valid, it can now be affirmed that it is not only 
possible but nearly certain that the type of the historic Indian comes 
down in America through tens of thousands of years, possibly 
through the entire Pleistocene epoch. 

For many years the status of Early Man in America remained 
thus im statu quo, Abbott and Volk standing squarely by their guns 
and occasionally firing the hot shot of facts at other archeologists, 
the minority of whom accepted the facts, while the majority de- 
nied them. And it was only about five years ago that confirmation 
came to Abbott and Volk, and it came first from an unexpected 
quarter, namely Kansas. 

About the beginning of the twentieth century, Mr. J. V. Brower 


BALCH—EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 479 


‘made a large collection of artifacts in Kansas immediately south of 
the Kansas glacial moraine. Mr. Brower discerned that some of 
these artifacts were unusual in character, but he did not follow up 
the matter and died soon after. Then his collection was placed in 
the Minnesota Historical Society at St. Paul, Minnesota, and for- 
tunately it attracted the attenion of the late Dr. H. N. Winchell, 
who devoted the last years of his life to its study. He established 
an important point in regard to the paleoliths of Kansas, namely 
that some of them closely resemble the Chelléen implements of 
Europe, possibly even some of the pre-Chelléen implements. With- 
out being identical, these implements show that man went through a 
Chelléen stage of culture in Kansas at an early time, perhaps even 
before the Kansas Glacial period. 

This is a notable and important fact. For the European Chel- 
léen dates to far back, quite probably to a hundred and fifty or two 
hundred thousand years ago. And the Chelléen implements are 
about the earliest in which man shows a distinct sense of form. 
This sense of form and the technic of chipping stone, man com- 
bined for the first time in the next stage of culture, and taking 
certain curiously shaped natural flints, Acheuléen man chipped them 
into a semblance of the form of certain animals. Such stones, 
found first by Boucher de Perthes in the Valley of the Somme, 
have been found also within a few years by Mr. W. N. Newton in 
the valley of the Thames. And considering that the Acheuléen 
horizon is almost surely more than a hundred thousand years old, 
these stones carry back the beginnings of art to that time. The 
wonderful drawings and carvings of the later Paleolithic are clearly 
the continuation of these Acheuléen attempts at embryo fine art, 
and they also are truly the combination of the technic of chipping 
flints into implements and of an acute sense of form. But it is 
possibly not far out of the way, to date the birth of the fine arts at 
about 125,000 years B. C. 

But Winchell’s greatest contribution to our knowledge of stone 
implements is unquestionably his study of their patination, and in 
this respect he made an advance even over any European archeolo- 
gist. He found that implements varied in their patination or weather- 
ing, that some were more patinated than others, and as he went deeper 


480 BALCH—EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 


into their study, he found that some implements offered two or 
even three sorts of patination. And he finally concluded that some 
implements had been chipped and then perhaps left lying lost for 
thousands of years until they were found by some later Early man 
and rechipped into a better form and then lost again to be picked up 
finally for one of our museums. And by his study of patination 
principally, Winchell was led to the conclusion that there were at 
least four successive peoples responsible for the artifacts of Kansas, 
and he divided the cultures backward into a Neolithic, an early Neo- 
lithic, a Paleolithic and an early Paleolithic, and toward the end of 
his work he even suggests it may be necessary to divide these cul- 
tures still further.® 

Then came a confirmation of Abbott’s and Volk’s results at 
Trenton in regard to the Paleolithic man of the Yellow Drift horizon. 
Three years ago the American Museum of Natural History sent a 
commission of several of their staff, Dr. Wissler, Dr. Spiers and 
others to Trenton. Dr. Abbott gave them the privilege of digging 
on his estate. And having unlimited resources they dug an im- 
mense, most educational, trench across the fields and every shovel 
full of dirt was passed through a sieve. And their results showed 


that Abbott was perfectly right in his contentions. On top they 


found the remains of the Leni Lenape Indians in abundance: 
pottery, bone, shell and copper implements, polished and engraved 
stone objects, notched and grooved sinkers, pitted and pitless 
hammerstones, some large chipped blades and many different forms 
of arrow points. Inthe Yellow Sand horizon, on the contrary, there 


were but few forms of artifacts, some pitless hammerstones, some 


implements of a large blade type, and only a few forms of chipped 
stone arrow points. In other words there is a complex culture pre- 
ceded by a simple culture. And this simple culture is homogeneous 
and cannot be confused with any other.® 

Finally within the last two years there was made a discovery of 

5H. N. Winchell, “The Weathering of Aboriginal Stone Artifacts,” the 
Minnesota Historical Society, 1913. 

6 Leslie Spier, “New Data on the Trenton Argillite Culture,” American 
Anthropologist, April-June, 1916. 

Clark Wissler, “ The Application of Statistical Methods to the Data on 
the Trenton Argillite Culture,” American Anthropologist, April-June, 1916. 


aie a a 


BALCH—EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. : 481 


the utmost importance at Vero, Florida. Under the direction of 
Mr. E. H. Sellards, State Geologist of Florida, the excavation of a 
new canal was carefully watched, and in a Pleistocene horizon con- 
taining bones of numerous extinct Pleistocene mammals, mastodon, 
Elephas columbi, Equus leidyi, Megalonyx and others, there were 
also found in several places human bones in the same state of 
fossilization as the bones of the extinct animals. For two reasons 
therefore, association in the same horizon and fossilization to the 
same degree, it is impossible to deny that a Pleistocene man existed 
in Florida. And he was also certainly a Paleolithic man, for some 
chipped flint flakes were found with the human bones. Most notable 
of all, however, a bone was found on which there were some en- 
graved marks which suggest vaguely the marks of the Azilien 
horizon in southern France and on which also there was a small 
crude drawing, the first apparently from Pleistocene times found in 
America. This drawing, it seems to me, is one of the most im- 
portant archeological finds ever made in the history of man and 
the history of art.’ 

This drawing seems to be an attempt to delineate a human head 
and bust. What is specially interesting about it is that, in the first 
place, it is decidedly rectilinear and not curvilinear. That is also 
the character of historic Indian art and slight as this drawing is, it 


certainly suggests that it was done by some one with historic 


American Indian characteristics, which points to the draughtsman 
being an ancestor of our present Indians. And if this drawing is 


_ genuinely Pleistocene, and if it is, as it seems to be, rudimentary 


American Indian art, there is almost a certainty that we shall never 
find on the American continent any art like that of the later Euro- 
pean Paleolithic. In regard to the age of this drawing one may 
perhaps theorize somewhat as follows. The fossils found in the 
same horizon as this drawing are certainly Pleistocene. Now 
although we have figure-stone flints, that is embryo sculpture from 
the Acheuléen, the earliest drawings so far known to us are from 
the Aurignacien. The probability therefore is that this drawing 

7E. H. Sellards, “ Human Remains and Associated Fossils from the Pleis- 


tocene of Florida,” Eighth Annual Report of the Florida State Geological 
Survey, 1916. 


482 BALCH—EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 


does not antedate the Aurignacien and may coincide with the Solu- 
tréen or Magdalénéen, a supposition which may also be considered 
to hold good of the surrounding fossils. But although this drawing 
is only a tiny relic, yet if it is genuinely Pleistocene, it opens up 
vistas hitherto hermetically sealed, for one must logically conclude 
that drawing may have begun as early in America as in Europe. 

The discoveries in Kansas and in Florida coming on top of the 
discoveries in New Jersey, prove beyond all cavil that there are 
several horizons of culture in America. There are certainly three 
horizons at Trenton, there are certainly two at Vero, there are prob- 
ably four stages, if not horizons, of culture in Kansas. Now comes 
an important question, do these horizons coincide? The upper or 
historic Indian neolithic stage is undoubtedly the same everywhere. 
But does the lower horizon at Vero coincide with the lower horizon 
at Trenton and are they synchronous with the Chelléen culture of 
Kansas ? 

The progress of prehistoric archeology in Europe has been largely 
due to recognizing the sequence of one horizon after another. 
These horizons, identified by their fossils and their stone imple- 
ments, are, in all cases, found in their proper order of position 
above or below each other. There may be many or few of these 
horizons together but in every case the later horizons are above the 
earlier ones. If one designates the horizons in Europe by numbers, 
and numbers them from the top downwards, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 
9, ete., horizon 3 is always above horizon 5, horizon 5 is always 
above horizon 7 and so forth. 

In America we know positively that there are three horizons 
at Trenton. If we take these as the starting point and number them 
downwards 1, 2, 3, we can safely say that horizon 1, that of the 
Neolithic historic Indian, extends, with local variations of culture, 
throughout the whole of North America and perhaps, although this 
is less certain, of South America. But of horizon 2 and horizon 
3 we do not yet know whether they coincide with any of the lower 
horizons or stages of culture in other places in America whose 
existence is equally definitely established. We cannot say that the 
lower horizon at Trenton coincides with the lower horizon at Vero, 
nor can we say that either of them coincide with the Chelléen stage 


BALCH—EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 483 


of Kansas. May be they do, but may be they antedate or postdate 
one another. Instead of three horizons, it may be that there are 
five horizons already discovered in America. And, it seems to me, 
this straightening out of the sequence and relative time of the 
horizons is the most immediate problem to attend to in connection 
with early man in America. 

My own beliefs and opinions about the present status of knowl- 
edge about early man in America may now be summed up as 
follows. Early man was here. He lived during at least a part of 
the Pleistocene period for tens of thousands of years south of the 
Glacial moraines. He probably went throughan Eolithic period and 
certainly through a Chelléen period in some places and therefore 
was truly a Paleolithic man. He may have made rudimentary fine 
art. Paleolithic American man was the ancestor of the Neolithic 
historic Indian and although less advanced in culture much like his 
descendant in anthropological characteristics. Whether he was an 
autochthone in America or whether he came from some other place 
and if so when, we do not as yet know positively, although his 
affiliations seem to be to the west. And it is to four men above all 
others that we owe our knowledge: Abbott, the discoverer of paleo- 
lithic implements and horizons, Volk, the corroborator, Lund, the 
first finder of probably Paleolithic bones, and Winchell, the in- 
vestigator of patination. These four men will always remain stars 
in American archeology and especially so Dr. Abbott, who, by fol- 
lowing Voltaire’s famous dictum “Il faut cultiver son jardin,” will 
go down to history as an immortal. 


# 
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, FF, DECEMBER 8, 1917. 


A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW PHOTOGRAPHIC TRANSIT 
INSTRUMENT. 


By FRANK SCHLESINGER. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 


A camera lens of wide field is mounted at one end of a rigid tube 
built up of small angle irons. At the other end is the plate carrier. 
Adjustments for collimation, base and focus are provided. On the 
under side of the tube not far from the objective is a ball which fits 
into a socket mounted on a pier, and these form the polar axis of the 
instrument. The lower end of the tube rolls on a glass plate attached 
to the same pier, the latter pointing to the intersection of the celes- 
tial equator with the meridian. To the camera is attached a driving 
clock regulated to the sidereal rate. The glass plate is adjusted to 
the celestial equator and in this way round star images are obtained 
on the photographic plate. Near the lower end of the camera is 


attached an electric contact which operates on a hinge without lost 


motion. As the driving clock moves the camera across the meridian 
this contact falls by its own weight into a number of slots in succes- 
sion, cut into a brass rod that forms the other terminal of an electric 
circuit. In this way we obtain upon a chronographic sheet eight 
sharp and short signals every minute. The same circuit contains a 
sidereal clock and thus we have the means of finding at what times 
the camera passed the slots in the brass rod. 

The method of observation is as follows: two or three minutes 
before a certain group of equatorial stars comes to the meridian, the 
driving clock is started and the lens is uncovered just before the 
contact falls into the first slot. The exposure lasts say five minutes, 
the camera being covered just after the contact has passed over the 
last slot. Without disturbing the plate in any way the camera is 
moved back to its original position so as to point again a few minutes 
east of the meridinan. Some time later the process is repeated on 

484 


me 


SCHLESINGER—NEW PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENT. 485 


another group of equatorial stars, and the plate is then taken out of 
the camera and developed. It is clear that the two sets of chrono- 
: graphic records, together with the measurement in right ascension 
of the two exposures, will give us the right ascension of one group 
if that of the other is known; similarly for the declinations, except 
of course that the clock is not involved. 

The method is liable to several sources of error: (1) accidental 
errors in the measurement of the plates and of the chronographic 
records. (2) Errors in the assumed rate of the clock. (3) Errors 
due to the movement of the pier in the interval between the two 
exposures. It is certain that the first of these is smaller than in the 
best work that is possible by visual methods, and in addition we are 
freed from personal equation in all its forms. This observatory 
possesses an excellent Riefler clock whose rate for ten hours (the 
longest interval between exposures that it is feasible to employ), 
we should be able to determine with a probable error not exceeding 
0.005 second of time. Several years ago we set up a stationary 
camera upon a pier pointed at the polar regions and secured expos- 
ures every few minutes on a number of stars. The measurement and 
preliminary discussion of these plates proved that the pier is liable to 
very small movements during the course of a single night, and the 
error from this source is not greatly to be feared. 

We have constructed such an instrument as this in the observa- 
tory shops from such material as we happened to have at hand. A 
trial of it has encouraged us to reconstruct it in more permanent 
form, and in particular we are having made for it an accurate driv- 
ing sector and worm. It is proposed to put the method and instru- 
ment to a very severe test by extending the observations through an 
entire year, coming back to the group that forms our starting point 
by means of six steps. 

The camera is being tried in the equator only because this simpli- 
fies the construction. A slight and obvious modification will make 
it applicable to any declination whatever. In this more general form 
the device, if successful, will enable us to ascertain the right ascen- 
sion and the declination of stars in any portion of the sky providing 
that we know beforehand the positions of any other stars in about 


486 SCHLESINGER—NEW PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENT. 


the same declinations. The instrument is intended for codperation 
with the meridian circle in the determination of the positions of 
several hundred comparison stars in a narrow zone, upon which in 
turn can be based the compilation, by photographic observations, 
of zone catalogues of many thousands of stars. 


ALLEGHENY OBSERVATORY OF THE 
UNIVERSITY oF PITTSBURGH. 


STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Il. THE Present STATE oF KNOWLEDGE oF HEREDITY AND 
VARIATION IN PEas,? 


By ORLAND E. WHITE. 
(Read October 5, 1917.) 


PART I. 


INTRODUCTION.? 


Since the publication of Lock’s summary of the genetic work on 
Pisum in 1908, numerous new studies by Tschermak, Hoshino, Pel- 
lew and others have very much increased our knowledge of hered- 
ity and variation in this genus. 

The object of the present review is to summarize this new 
knowledge and correlate it so far as is practicable with the older 
knowledge, so that those who are interested may know just how 
much progress has been made and on what basis of fact the Men- 
delian analysis of Pisum rests. 


Tue MATERIALS. 


The genus Pisum, according to the Index Kewensis, consists of 
seven species, possibly only five of which are markedly distinct. 
The species with their geographical ranges are: 


P. arvense Linn., Sp. Pl., 727——Europe, Asia. 

P. elatius Bieb., F1. Taur. Cauc., II., 151—Reg. Mediterr.; Oriens. 

P. formosum Alef., in Bonplandia, IX. (1861), 237—Reg. Cauca- 
sus, Persia, Asia Minor, Syria. 

1 Brooklyn Botanic Garden Contributions, No. 19. 

These studies on peas are being carried on in collaboration with the Office 
of Forage Crop Investigations and the Office of Horticultural and Pomo- 
logical Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

2 The writer will welcome corrections and especially desires to have his 
attention called to any genetic work on peas that has been overlooked, 


487 


488 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


P. fulvum Sibth.—Asia Minor, Syria. 
P. humile Boiss.—Syria, Palestine. 
P. Jomardi Schrank.—Egypt. 

P. sativum Linn.—Europe, Asia. 


P. arvense, P. elatius, and P. Jomardi, as grown from seed ob- 
tained through the Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction division of 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, from various botanic gardens, 
seedsmen and other sources, are very similar, all having colored — 
flowers, colored seed coats and a similar habit of growth. All three 
species when crossed produce fertile hybrids. Many students con- 
sider the differences between P. sativum and P. arvense not marked ~ 
enough to warrant calling them by distinct specific names. Such 
students regard P. arvense as a sub-species of P. sativum. The 
purple-seeded Abyssinian pea is a very distinct form of P. sativum 
or P. sat. arvense, differing strikingly in seed and leaf characters 
from all other forms of this species. P. formosum is a perennial 
alpine form, lacking tendrils and very distinct as regards general 
habit and seed characters. P. fuluvum has rusty cream-colored flow- 
ers and seeds with black seed coats. P. humile, though resembling 
small-leaved forms of P. arvense, gives partly sterile hybrids in 
crosses with the latter. Experimental work embraced by this re-_ 
view deals largely with forms of P. arvense, P. sativum and P. 
elatius, of which there are at least some five hundred varieties 
known. 

About 250 of these varieties have been grown for three years 
in the experimental breeding plots of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 
' where many of the experiments described in succeeding pages have 
been repeated and confirmed. Most of the descriptions of Pisum 
characters in the following pages are based on notes on these varie- 
ties. For help in bringing together this collection, which includes 
forms from all over the world, I am indebted especially to the Offi- 
ces of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction and Forage Crop In- 
vestigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Arthur Sutton 
of Sutton & Sons, P. de Vilmorin, Haage & Schmidt, W. Bateson, 
C. Pellew, A. D. Darbishire and various botanic gardens of Europe 
and Asia. : 

As a whole, the differential characters of these species are sur- 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 489 


prisingly large in number, though each variety by itself differs from 
all other varieties, as a rule, in comparatively few of them. In de- 
scribing these characters and the experiments in connection with 
them in Part Il., they have been arranged in four groups—seed, 
plant, floral and pod characters. In each of these groups, striking 
hereditary differences are common. 

Thus, the seeds vary from 2 mm. to I cm. in diameter, with a 
seed-coat color range from colorless through various shades of 
green, reddish orange, brown, gray to deep purple. These colors 
are further varied by color patterns of three types—marbling, 
striping and stippling. In plant characters, still more striking varia- 
tions are apparent, such as differences in disease-resistance, in 
height (38-300 cm.), in productiveness (3-4 small pods to varieties 
with 50-150 pods), in stem color and shape, in leaf shape and color, 
in number of pinnz per leaf, in the presence and absence of tendrils, 
in internode length and number and in time of flowering. The 
flowers differ in size, color, shape, number per peduncle, in position 
on the flowering axis and in time of pollen maturity. Three colors 
of pods are known. Differences in pod length and breadth range 
from about Io by 1.7 cm. to 3 by 0.8 cm. (dry pods) with all de- 
grees of intermediates between. Differences in shape, texture, 
thickness, toughness, time of maturity for market (45 to 125 days 
from time of planting) and in number of ovules per pod are striking. 

A large number of these variations, as the data presented under 
Part II. disclose, yet remain to be experimentally studied. 


THE RELATION OF ENVIRONMENT TO THE MATERIAL. 


It is axiomatic that all organisms live in an environment of some 
sort. Since the general acceptance of the Mendelian and genotype 
conceptions of heredity, what part of the organism’s characteristics 
are due to environment and what part are due to heredity have be- 
come very important questions for study and experimentation. The © 
Mendelian and genotypical conception that organisms are the ex- 
pression of fixed and immutable factors or genes, which always 
(barring mutations) give rise to the same character, provided the 
environmental conditions remain constant, has led to a new concep- 
tion of what constitutes a character. A character from this new 


490 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


view point is a joint expression of factors or of a group of factors 
and a particular environment. Characters are not inherited, since 
they cease to exist when unexpressed. Latency, semi-latency, and 
patency of characters are terms that should be scrupulously avoided 
in the interests of clear thinking. The older school of biologists and 
systematists in particular have always regarded all character ex- 
pressions of a particular kind, such as the white color of flowers in 
different plant species, the character of stems—whether fasciated 
or round, the number of floral parts, etc., wherever found, as iden- 
tical. For example, fasciation, according to de Vries, is a very 
ancient character, which has been transmitted to many of the higher 
forms of plant life in a latent condition. In a publication now in 
press in Germany (98.5) the writer believes he has set forth suffi- 
cient evidence to show that fasciations in plants from a genetic 
standpoint are of many kinds, some of which are hereditary under 
almost any normal plant environment, while other types only appear 
as a response to special environments, such as very rich soil, over- 
watering, or the stimuli derived from insect depredations. Further, 
these two or more kinds of genetically distinct fasciations, though 
morphologically indistinguishable, maybe present at the same time 
in a group of plants such as peas. Further discussion of this case © 
will be given in the part devoted to the genetics of Piswm stem char- 
acters. Morgan and his students (61) evidently look upon a char- 
acter in this same fashion. They regard the recessive and dominant 
white color characters of certain breeds of silkworms and poultry 
as two different kinds of white due to two different genetic factors. 
White in both races is indistinguishable except in breeding tests. 
They cite numerous other cases among which is one from Baur 
illustrating the part environment instead of hybridization may play 
in showing up this difference. The red primrose (Primula sinensis 
rubra) reared in shade and moisture at a temperature of 30°-35° C. 
has pure white flowers, while the same plants grown at 15°—20° C. 
have red flowers. White and red flowers will occur on the same - 
plant if the plants are first allowed to bloom in the cooler tempera- 
ture and later to continue their blooming under the higher tempera- 
ture. Another race of primrose (Primula sinensis alba) always has 
white flowers, even at 20° C. The white flower color character of 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 491 


both races, our systematists and comparative morphologists would 
say, was the-same character (in the absence of the experiments 
cited above), but many geneticists would look upon them as two 
genetically distinct characters, one of which is altered by a change 
in environment. Acceptance of the conception of a character as 
advanced above may mean a very radical change in the weight which 
has been placed in the past on comparative morphology and taxo- 
nomy as methods for studying the evolutionary history of plants 
and animals. 
THE CATEGORIES OF VARIATION. 


Adopting the conception of a character as given above and as- 
suming that plants and animals are made up of hereditary units or 
factors, variations or character changes in organisms may occur in 
three ways: 


1. Variations due to changes of environment. 

2. Variations due to “gain” or “loss” of factors or character de- 
terminers through crossing. 

3. Variations due to mutation. 


1. Variations due to changes in environment are perhaps most 
clearly illustrated by the change from white flowers to red flowers 
in Primula sinensis rubra following the change in temperature. So 
far as experimental work goes, change of the same material from 
one environment to another may take place repeatedly and each 
time the materials react to the new condition in the same way. 
Pink-flowered hydrangeas have blue flowers when placed in a soil 
containing sufficient alum salts. The unbranched varieties of peas 
are said to branch profusely under the climatic conditions of the 
Pacific coast region of the United States. Cabbage refuses to head 
in the tropics. Lock (54) found that seeds of certain pea varieties 
sown in Ceylon in January and constantly watered produced re- 
markably stunted plants, which flowered at half the usual height 
(of seeds sown in November in Ceylon) and bore almost no seed. 
Examples showing the direct influence of a changed environment 
could be given by the hundred, did space permit. 

2. Changes due to crossing will be illustrated at length in the 
part devoted to the genetics of Pisum. 


492 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


3. Changes in pea varieties due to mutation will also be dis- 
cussed under the heading of mutation. Mutations, in the sense 
used in this paper, are relatively sudden, abrupt variations in a 
strain of plants which has bred true for more than two generations 
in the same environment. These variations remain comparatively 
constant in succeeding generations and form the basis of a new 
strain or variety. Such characters in peas as white flower color, 
lack of parchment in the pod, yellow foliage, and absence of ten- 
drils have, so far as we now know, resulted from mutation. Muta- 
tions are comparatively common in some organisms and rare in 
others. Morgan and his students (61) have records of over 200 
character changes in the fly, Drosophila, resulting from mutation. 
In peas, this phenomenon, judging by the records, is comparatively 
rare. Any type of character may be altered or replaced by muta- 
tion, the change occurring either as a small or as a large variation. 


THE MATERIAL AND THE TECHNIQUE. 


“The value and utility of any experiment,” says Mendel, “are 
determined by the fitness of the material to the purpose for which 
it is used.” Mendel (60), Correns (15), and Lock (53) have each 
expressed themselves strongly regarding the exceptional value of 
peas as material for the experimental study of heredity. The fact 
that they possess easily recognized constant differentiating charac- 
ters, flowers which ordinarily are self-fertilized, and are capable 
of giving perfectly fertile F, hybrids was the chief reason that 
Mendel chose them. Mendel’s reasons coupled with certain other 
facts, such as the direct economic value of the results, and the quick 
maturity of the plants, have led to their choice for the present series 
of studies. 

Planting.—Peas are easily grown, and mature as many as three 
generations a year if both greenhouse and field plots are used. 
They are sown the Ist of April in this latitude, or earlier if prac- 
ticable because the late varieties mature poorly under our summer ~ 
conditions. Wrinkled seeded varieties rot before germination more 
easily than round seeded varieties. The peas are sown in rows, 
from 10 to 15 cm. apart in the row, the rows being 1.2 meters or 
more apart. Only undiseased plump seed are planted, unless there 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 493 


are special reasons for planting all the seed. The seed are all 
counted,so that any distortion of ratios from this source can be 
checked up. Wire netting may be used to keep the tall varieties off 
the ground. Peas should not be planted on the same ground two 
successive years, mainly on account of increased liability to pea 
diseases the second year. Darbishire (21) planted his pea plots to 
vetch for two years before using them again. Peas may be grown 
successfully in four-inch (10 cm.) pots or in benches in the green- 
house during the winter months. A bamboo stick or string should 
be provided for each greenhouse-grown plant. The greenhouse 
temperature should not be higher than 45°-55° F. Higher tempera- 
tures promote trouble with red spider and with various pea diseases. 
Crossing—Crossing in peas is easily accomplished by the re- 
moval of the stamens from a half-grown bud and the immediate 
application of the foreign pollen to the stigma. Pollen may retain 
its viability in a dry Petri dish for a week or more. Tschermak 
(81) made successful crosses with 14-21 days’ old pollen of 
Allerfritheste Mai. Varieties such as Dwarf Gray Sugar and other 
early-blooming sorts discharge their pollen while the bud is still 
greenish, while in many of the late-flowering sorts, the flowers are 
nearly mature before self-pollination takes place (78). Mutilation 
of the flower rarely causes the flower to fall, and if the crossing is 
done during sunny weather, most of the crosses will be successful. 
Under greenhouse conditions, peas have scattering flowers even 
after the first crop of pods are ripe. These scattering flowers may 
be utilized to furnish pollen for crosses with late-flowering forms. 
In field plots, crossed flowers should be protected by square-bottom 
paper bags. In greenhouse cultures, this precaution is generally 
unnecessary, especially in winter. Diluted grain alcohol is used to 
‘kill stray pollen on hands and the instruments after each cross. 
Usually the pollen to be applied is carried on the stigma and this 
foreign stigma brushed across that of the flower to be crossed. In’ 
labeling the cross, each plant of a variety is given an individual num- 
ber, and care is taken so that each plant used in crossing also bears 
several uncrossed pods. The maternal parent is designated first. 
Self-fertilization—Because peas are naturally self-fertilizing, 
protection of the flowers of both pure strains and hybrid generations 


494 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


is ordinarily unnecessary. The few recorded changes of chance 
crossing are probably due to the pea weevil (Bruchus pisi) (60, 78) 
or to thrips (3, 78). In case the pollen of a flower is ineffective, the 
stigma may extend itself beyond the keel and chance crossing come 
about in this way. No cases of the latter type are recorded and the 
possibility of error from this source is rare (60). 


The source of error from chance crossing in a locality may be - 


tested out by growing several hundred plants of a variety with 
green cotyledons side by side with a row of a pure yellow cotyledon 
strain. When the seed of the green cotyledon strain are mature, the 
per cent. of crossing can be calculated from the number of yellow 
seeds found on the green-seeded plants. In an examination of 
over 10,000 seeds of several green-seeded varieties at the Brooklyn 
Botanic Garden, not a single case of cross fertilization came to light. 
Bateson and his students (5), Messrs. Sutton (5), Tschermak (81) 
and Mendel (60) each record a few cases, the per cent. in each case 
being much less than % per cent. The few non-conformables in 
Lock’s experiments (54) on cotyledon color are attributed by him 
to errors in labeling, planting and to improper maturing. © 

Because peas are naturally self-fertilizing, pure lines may be 
selected from almost any of the commercial varieties with the as- 
surance that they will be constant as regards visible characteristics 
and relatively free from heterozygosis almost at once. Most of the 
varieties at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden have given constant strains 
after at most two years of selection, while the great majority were 
constant from the start. In judging constancy, only characters such 
as flower color, seed shape and color, foliage color and shape of 
pod, which are but slightly influenced by small environmental 
changes, were used. Tschermak (78), Macoun (57.5), Hurst (42), 
Sherwood (72), Knight (50), Darwin (22) and many other experi- 
menters have often remarked upon the exceptional constancy of 
pea varieties. It should be noted that pea varieties commonly grown 
for forage purposes have generally become very much mixed 
mechanically with each other as well as with various vetches through 
carelessness in handling and harvesting. Often it is possible to 
select ten or more constant varieties from a handful of such seed. 

Labeling and Recording.—tThe system of labeling used in the 


eae Eee 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 495 


work carried on at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden consists in giving 
the commercial stock of a variety as received a number such as 
Pisum 12; the plants grown from seed of P12 are numbered Pr2-1, 
Pi2-2, P12-3, etc. The next generation of P12-1 being recorded 
as P12-1-1, etc. Crosses are designated thus: P12-1 & P14-1, the 
F, progeny as (P12-1 X P14-1)-1, -2, -3, etc. In F, and subse- 
quent generations all seeds planted are counted, and plot sketches 
kept of the arrangement of the plantings. A printed description 
blank covering all the common characters of peas is used for records 
of individual plants, and less detailed blanks for cultures studied 
for special characters. 

Harvesting —In studying seed characters extreme care should be 
taken to allow proper conditions for maturity. Harvesting imma- 
ture peas may lead to considerable errors in studies on cotyledon 
and seed-coat color. Pea vines may be allowed to mature until no 
green remains and they are dry and brittle. This insures maturity. 
In order to avoid breaking such brittle material, the vines should be 
thoroughly wetted with a hose before handling. Each plant should 
be labeled with a tag label as gathered. Green cotyledon varieties 
tend to fade to yellow if left exposed to light for a considerable 
time (54) and damp wet weather at harvest time may bring about 
the same result much sooner (1, 60, 21). 

Environment.—No factor is of more importance in a detailed 
genetic study of the characters of a group of plants such as Pisum, 
than environment. Environment, being the co-partner of heredity 
in the make-up of a character, should have just as precise a descrip- 
tion as the characters themselves, or else be eliminated altogether 
by growing the material under as near as possible the same condi- 
tions. If environment were as easy a proposition to handle as in 
the case of chemical experiments, one could define it in the case of 
each experiment with such exactness that it could be easily repro- 
duced. Unfortunately this is not practicable, because of the many 
factors which compose it. Under greenhouse conditions, it is more 
practicable than in field cultures. However, even here, aside from 
the temperature, watering, etc., factors such as soil and light vary 
so over an area when large cultures are grown, that it is largely a 
figure of speech to speak of absolute uniform environment for the 
whole area. 


496 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


In order to secure the greatest uniformity practicable in en- 
vironmental conditions, all cultures which are studied from a com- 
parative standpoint are planted in the same batch of soil, at the 
same time, and given the same cultural care. A few characters of 
Pisum such as flower color, presence of parchment and presence of 
tendrils are very little affected by environmental fluctuations. The 
majority of Piswm characters, however, react to environmental 
fluctuations so as to give rise to error in any intense study, unless 
the fluctuations are known well enough to be taken into account. 
By growing a large series of cultures, both hybrid and pure line, 
under approximately the same set of conditions by the method men- 
tioned above, and securing as near as practicable the same condi- 
tions for several years, one may become so familiar with the factors 
composing such an environment and the reactions of the plants to 
such an external set of conditions, that the environment itself may 
be used as a standard by which the modifications of the same plants 
grown under other environments may be described. Such an en- 
vironment may be called a standard environment, as it is the cri- 
terion by which the effect of all other conditions on characters is 
decided. Whether such a standard can be made precise enough to 
be of much value in genetic work remains to be seen. If one de- 
scribes character changes by revolving round a circle, one gets 
nowhere, and without a standard starting place, one simply re- 
volves. The older biologists used the term normal to designate in 
a vague way what I mean by standard. Normal environment, how- 
ever, may mean almost any common environment in experimental 
work. Thus there is no gain in preciseness through its use. 


PART II. 
THE GENETICS OF Pisum. 


Genetic studies on the genus Pisum may be divided into two 
groups—those made before and those made since the rediscovery 
of Mendel’s law in 1900. The pre-Mendelian studies resulted in a 
great deal of practical good, but were of slight scientific value, 
since no laws of heredity were discovered. The post-Mendelian 
work is as yet too young to have given great practical results. Laws 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 497 


have been discovered however, which ultimately may lead to un- 
dreamed practical possibilities. 


HEREDITY STUDIES ON Piswm PRIoR TO 1900. 


According to Darwin (22), as early as 1729, white- (yellow 
cotyledons) and blue- (green cotyledons) seeded varieties of peas 
had been observed (probably through insect crossing) to give rise 
to pods containing both blue (green) and white (yellow) peas. In 
1787 Andrew Knight (50) had crossed various races of peas and 
originated many new varieties, some of which, e. g., Knight’s Tall 
Wrinkled Marrow, are said (42, 72) to have persisted in a prac- 
tically unmodified form, but under different names (British Queen), 
down to the present day, representing, if true, a striking illustration 
of the constancy of an old variety, through a hundred years or 
more of inbreeding. Knight, in many ways, was a forerunner of 
Mendel, as he had observed the dominance of tallness in peas over 
dwarfness, purple flower color over white flower color, gray brown 
seed coats over uncolored seed coats and the breeding true of re- 
cessives and part of the dominants. But he was unaware of the 
significance of these facts and of the importance of determining the 
ratios of the various kinds in the second and third hybrid genera- 
tions. He is credited, however, by Sherwood (72) with having 
given us the start in wrinkled seeded varieties of peas, as before 
his time wrinkled peas appear to have been unknown. 

Goss in 1822 (36, 21) also anticipated Mendel by his observa- 
tions on the cotyledon colors of peas, 7. ¢., the dominance of yellow 
over green cotyledons in the first hybrid generation and the occur- 
rence of green and yellow peas in the same pods in the second 
hybrid generation, as well as the subsequent breeding true of part 
of the yellow seeds and all of the green seeds in later generations. 
Appended to Goss’s description of his results is an editorial com- 
ment giving the results of crossing green and white (yellow) peas 
by one, Mr. Seton. Seton used the green-seeded Dwarf Imperial 
as the maternal parent in a cross with a (white) yellow-seeded va- 
riety. Four peas were obtained, which, though subsequently proven 
to be true hybrids, did not differ in appearance from the uncrossed 
seeds borne by the Dwarf Imperial plant. Thus even at that early 


498 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


stage in the history of genetics, complication and confusion appeared 
on the scene. Bateson (21, p. 198) has since shown such varieties 
as the Imperials to have opaque green seed coats and yellow coty- 
ledons. Seton’s observations were on seed coat color, while Goss 
dealt with cotyledon color. Like Knight, however, Goss did not 
see the significance of his results nor did he determine the numerical 
proportions of the two colors of seed in the F, generation. 

Gaertner (35) also made pea crosses, as well as crosses of many 
other plants. He interpreted the dominance of yellow cotyledon 
color over green as due to xenia (the direct and immediate effect of 
the male parent on the maternal tissues), not apparently aware that 
the characters yellow and green seed color were those of the.embryo 
of a new generation. 

Darwin (22) grew and crossed peas and noted the extreme vigor 
of F, hybrids as compared to the parent forms growing beside them, 
and studied variation and inheritance in several characters of peas. 
He had, however, never heard of Mendel’s work. 

Laxton (22) and others had noticed the rather remarkable con- 
stancy of pea varieties, a number of which were known to be twenty 
or more years old. Laxton (the ancestor of the present well-known ~ 
family of pea and fruit breeders) also furnished Darwin with data 
on the relation of environment to the production of double flowers 
in peas, as well as data on the inheritance of such characters as 
purple pod and seed color. 

Masters (59) wrote letters to the Gardner's Chronicle against 
the practice (unfortunately still quite common) of changing the 
names of old varieties, so as to increase their sales. Judging by the 
printed replies, his accusations were very much resented by the 
seedsmen. Masters introduces one of his communications by this 
quaint reference to his own qualifications as a pea specialist, “ And 
first let me give you my pretensions to pass an opinion upon the 
matter, that, with your readers (to whom I am unknown), I may 
stand in a fair position. Be it known, then, that forty years ago, 
my father, of good memory, employed my then young eyes to detect 
the differences of the peas he intended for seed, and many a patient 
hour was devoted to this most necessary of operations under his 
guidance” (1850). Masters also claims (22) to have raised four 
distinct sub-varieties from one plant— 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 499 


Plants bearing blue and round seeds, 
_- Plants bearing blue and wrinkled seeds, 

Plants bearing white and wrinkled seeds, 

Plants bearing white and round seeds. 
The remarkable part of Master’s claim, however, is that though he 
_ grew the four varieties separately for several successive years, each 
kind always produced all four kinds mixed together. In other words, 
not one of these varieties bred true as regards the four characters 
mentioned, while according to most of the recent studies, wrinkled- 
ness and green cotyledon color (blue) should be constant. White 
(98) has recently secured results which possibly may throw some 
light upon Masters’s claim as far as the inheritance of cotyledon 
_ color is concerned. 

Though facts were apparently plentiful (such as they were), re- 
garding the effects of environment and the heredity of characters 
in peas and other plants, efforts to formulate them into a law of 
heredity that would stand the test of experimental inquiry were, 
prior to the studies of Mendel, apparently futile. Heredity, says 
an old writer, is a collection of facts without laws, while Balzac 
wrote “heredity is a maze in which science loses itself.” 

Mendel’s own results on the inheritnace of characters in peas were 
published in an obscure Austrian natural history society’s proceed- 
ings, and except for a few lines in Focke’s book (28) on hybrids, 
and a bibliographical reference in Bailey’s “Plant Breeding,” they 
remained lost until 1900, when the three botanists—Correns (14), 
Tschermak (78), and de Vries (23.5)—rediscovered the law and 
resurrected Mendel’s paper from oblivion. The subsequent impetus 
this rediscovery and resurrection gave to the scientific study of plant 
breeding is abundantly exemplified by the thousands of papers and 
books published since 1900 containing results of experiments on 
hundreds of varieties of plants and breeds of animals. In corn 
alone, the inheritance of over thirty characters has been studied and 
found to be consistent with Mendelian principles. In tobacco, cotton, 
sweet peas, corn, wheat, oats, and poultry results of considerable 
practical value have been obtained by the use of Mendelian methods. 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, GG, DECEMBER 10, 1917. 


500 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


MENDEL’s Law. 


The fundamental principle of Mendelism is very simple and rests 
upon the assumption that animals and plants are made up of units 
(called factors, genes, determiners, etc.), and that these units may 
separate in the formation of the “germ-cells” (pollen and eggs) of 
the hybrid offspring without having had any permanent influence 
upon each other. The assumption that such units or factors exist 
is based upon experimental data derived from crossing two plants 
or animals from true breeding strains differing in two or more char- 
acters and the growing of at least three subsequent hybrid genera- 
tions under approximately the same environment as the original two 
ancestors of the cross. For example, when two strains of peas, one 
constant for purple flowers and green cotyledons and one constant 
for white flowers and yellow cotyledons, are crossed, the first or F, 
generation is uniformly all purple-flowered with yellow cotyledons. 
Self-fertilized seed from any of these F, plants, if sown in sufficient 
numbers, will produce approximately 9PA.YC:3Pf.GC:3WA.YC: 
1Wfl.GC plants, showing that the determiner for green cotyledons 
in addition to separating from its F, associate—the determiner for 
yellow cotyledons—also is inherited independently of its ancestral 
associate—purple flower color. Mendel himself regarded purple 
and white flowers in peas as a pair of characters, one of which com- 
pletely dominated the other. Geneticists now largely hold to the 
presence and absence hypothesis, by which the purple is regarded as 
due to the presence of a factor or determiner for purple in the one 
strain and the white-flower character as due to the absence of this 
determiner or factor for purple color. Data from genetic experi- 
ments, most geneticists believe, are more simply éxpressed by the 
presence and absence concept. 

Since the promulgation of Johannsen’s genotype hypothesis, 
many geneticists believe these Mendelian factors to be unmodifiable — 
by selection and selection itself to be but a process of sorting out or ‘sl 
freeing hybrid or mixed populations from heterozygosis. . B 


MENDELIAN STUDIES OF PEAS. 


Sixteen years have elapsed since the study of heredity assumed 
the dignity of a separate science under the name of genetics. Dur- 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 501 


ing these sixteen years much has been accomplished through experi- 
mental studies on peas-and other organisms. Many complications 
in the application of Mendel’s law to data from these studies have 
arisen, most of which have served to place the Mendelian concep- 
tion of heredity on a still firmer foundation [see (61) ]. 

Among peas, over thirty-two different types of characters have 
been experimentally studied, amounting in all to over 75 single char- 
acteristics of Pisum. In about half the cases, the knowledge gained 
is somewhat fragmentary. In the other half, owing to the pains- 


‘taking work of Mendel, Bateson, Vilmorin, Darbishire, Lock, Cor- 


rens, Gregory, von Tschermak and others, the characters have been 
put upon a factorial basis. In the list of characters studied which 
follows, the factors are designated according to the presence and ab- 
sence conception, small letters standing for absences. Where the 
use of the letters for the factors given by the investigator of the 
character concerned, is practicable, they have been retained. In 
cases where this is inconsistent with the scheme of a complete anal- 
ysis of the genus Pisum upon a factorial basis, new letters have been 
substituted. In many cases these refer to adjectives descriptive of 
the part they play in the formation of the character. 

In the case of some of the factors given in Tables I. and II., the 
data hardly justify their consideration. However, since the data 
upon which each factor determination is based are to be given in 
the following pages, the writer justifies putting them in the tables 
in the belief that further research concerning them will be more 
quickly inspired. 

For the cause which this paper represents, it probably would be 
better if all the crosses thus far made were given under each char- 
acter description. Space at present, however, forbids this. So that 
in the following pages, under the character description, will be given 
the varieties studied, the results of the crosses in terms of dominance 
and ratios, the factorial interpretation, the effect of the environ- 
ment, if any, on the factorial expressions, and any remarks or ad- 
verse criticisms. 

Reciprocal crosses in plants give the same results in all but a few 
cases, and these few cases in Pisum are described. Otherwise the 
reciprocal of a cross, although often made, is not specifically consid- 


502 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


TABLE I. 


CHARACTERS IN Pisum UPON WHICH EXPERIMENTAL StTupIES Have BEEN 
ExTENDED ENnouGcH (1N Most Cases) To Form THE Basis ror GENETIC Factor 
REPRESENTATION, 


No. 


Type of Character, 


haeeeriete and their Corresponding 
Factors. 


Reference to Bibliography. 


12. 


13. 
4. 
15. 
16. 


17. 
18. 


Seed characters 
Seed coat color... 


Seed coat color 
pattern 
Purple spots 


se eee 


Violet eye 
Black eye 
Mapling so 4.52". 


Seed coat surface 
Seed shape 


see wee 


Seed size... 
Cotyledon color. 


Cotyledon starch 


Starch modifier.. 
Starch water con- 


tent 

Cotyledon starch 
content 

Wet, cold weather 
germinating abil- 
ity 


Plant characters 


see ween eee 


Inflorescence.... 


Stem thickness... 
Internode length. 
Time of flowering 


Gejh (brown to yellowish green, 


gray), gcJ (colorless), U (purple), 
light orange brown (GsiH), dark 
brown (GcJ) 


EF (purple spots), Ef, eF, ef (no 
purple spots) 


N (violet eye), n (absence) 

Pl (black eye), pl (absence) 

M (mapling), m (absence) 

LiLe (indent), Lyle, liLe (smooth) 


R (round), r (angular, wrinkled) 
(smooth) 


.....|Not sufficiently studied 
.|YGI, Ygi (yellow), YGi (green) 


R (simple oval), r (compound, 
round) 


.|Very slightly studied 


R (low), r (high) 


R (high), r (low) (high sugar con- 
tent 
R (excellent), r (low) 


Tle (tall), tle (dwarf), tle, Tle, 
(half dwarf or talls?) 


....{CD (colored axil), cd, Cd (no axil 


color) 
Fa (non-fasciated), fa (fasciated) 


.|Fa (axillary), fa (umbellate) 


T (robust), t (slender) 

Le (long), le (short) 

Very complicated, not sufficiently 
studied 


(1, 2, 3, 14; @Es 9a. 
50, 54, 55, 60, 78, 
81, 83, 86, 90) 


43, 
79, 


(1, 2,3. 2%, Seam 
51, 54, 55, 60, 79, 
83, 86, 89) 

(86) 

(14, 56, 57-5, 90) 

(1, 3, 21, 43, 54, 55, 60, 
86) 

Gi, A 43, 54, 55, 81, 83, 


(1, 2, 3, 14, 19, 21, 23, 33, 
37, 42, 43, 48, 54, 56, 
59, 64, 72, 79, 80, 81, 
83) 

(1, 57.5, 86, 89, 90, 96) 

(x, 25 3. 76 Shp eee aes aes 
35» 36, 38, 42, 43, 52, 
53, 54, 56, 59, 60, 78, 
80, 81, 83, 90, 96, 98) 

(Same as No. 4) 


(48) 
(3, 19, 21, 23, 39, 48) 


(Same as Nos. 4 and 9) 


(Various seedsmen) 


(1, 2, 3-7) Beds ee 
43, 49, 50, 52, 54, 56, 
60, 79, 80, 81, 83, 85, 
90) 

(3, 16, 43, 54, 55, 56, 60, 
74, 81, 86 

(1, 3, 8.5, 21, 25, 56, 60, 
74 

(1, 3, 8.5, 21, 25, 56, 60, 
14 

(49, 54) 

(1, 49, 54, 78) 

(3,9, 39, 40-5, 43, 49, 54, 
60, 66, 81, 83, 84, 85) 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


TABLE I.—Continued. 


—- 


503 


No “Type of Character. Characters See ee Eeepeaing Reference to Bibliography. 
Plant characters 
19. | Flowers per single|En (one flower or 1-2 flowers), fn/|(90) 
; peduncle (two-three flowers per peduncle) 
20.| Leaf terminals. . . |TI (tendrils), t] (no tendrils, Acacia)|(64, 88, 89, 90) 
Bae) went Size. ....... Not sufficiently studied (48, 54) 
22. oe and stem/O (green), o (yellow) (3, 21, 43, 60) 
color 
weer eeoOm........;. BIW (glaucous), blw, Blw, bIW/|(86, 90, 92) 
(glabrous) = 
24.| Productivity..... nee eo not sufficiently|(39, 44. 54, 66, 68-70, 
: studi 6-77, 93; 
oo ar 76-77, 93, 94-95) 
25.| Flower color..... AB (purple), Ab (rose or pink),|(1, 2, 3, 16, 21, 33, 40.5, 
aB, ab (white) 43, 53-56, 60, 78, 81, 
82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 90 
Pod characters saya « = 
mer Olor...5.5...-.. P,P: (purple), Gp (green), gp.|(3, 14, 21, 22, 34, 43, 56, 
Pipe, piP2 (yellow) ~ | 60, 83, 86, 90) 
mie) Apices.......... Bt (blunt), bt (acute) (x, $: 5, 42, 54, 56, 80, 
, 81 
REUEG. 5. wes PV (round, smooth, inflated), pv,|(z, 2, 3, 21, 22, 43, 54, 
Pv, pV (constricted) 56, 60, 80, 81, 86, 90, 
99 
ae. t «6 Chenille”... ... S (free), s (chenille) - (92) 
30.| Pod texture....../PV (parchment), pv, Pv, pV (non-|(Same as No. 28) 
parchmented) 
ween atiNe 2... ..... PV (non-edible), Pv, pv, pV|(Sameas No. 28) 
(edible) 
32.| Curved or straight|Not sufficiently studied (5) 
33-| Broad or narrow.| “ a Se (43, 54, 56, 80, 81, 90) 
34.| Ripening........ ” . (43. 77) 


ered. Where the expressions constant or breeding true are used 
in regard to inheritance of characters, mutation phenomena are 
always excepted. 
TABLE II. 
List oF Pisum Factors, ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED, AND THEIR 
CoRRESPONDING CHARACTER EXPRESSIONS. 


Factor. Expression. 

r- A Salmon pink or rose flower color. With CD gives. 
reddish leaf axils. 

2. B Purpling factor + A gives purple flowers. With CD 
+ A gives purplish leaf axils. 

3. Bl Glaucous foliage, stems and pods (with W). 

4. Bt Pods with blunt apex. 


504 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


5. C (A) With D gives leaf axil color, 

a With C gives leaf axil color. 

7. E (A) With F gives purple dotting on seed coats. 

ee 3 Modifies the expression of Lf toward earlier flower- 
oe ing. at 

Oe With E gives purple dotting on seed coats. 

10. Fa Axillary flowers, round stems. 

i. Fn One-two flowers per peduncle. 


12. Gc (A) Yellowish green to grayish brown seedcoat color 
(weak chromogen factor), brown hilum. 


aos cts Green cotyledon pigment. 

14. Gp Green pod color. 

15. H Brightener or inhibitor of expression of Ge. 

16; I Factor which causes green cotyledon color to fade. 
i os | With Ge gives dark brown seed coat color. 


18. K(?) Partial inhibitor for R (starch). 
19. L, (A) With L, gives indent peas. 


a0. * tun With L, (A) gives indent or dimpled peas. 

gto Le Long internodes ; with T gives tall plants. 

22. Lf Primarily responsible for late flowering. 

22. M Brown or maple mottling on seed coat; or “ ghost 


mottling” in absence of A. 


24. N Violet eye on seeds. 

25. ©) Green foliage, stems, and pods. 

Oe. Inflated, parchmented, non-edible pods with V. 

7 ele With P, gives purple pods. 

2B: 3? , With P, gives purple pods. 

29. Pl Black eyed peas. 

30. R Round, smooth seeds with simple, oval starch grains, 
low water content. 

Sra SS Pods with seeds separated or free. 

ce Pas Tall, robust plants ; large number of internodes (over 
20). 

Maes Leaves with tendrils. 

34. U Dark self-colored purple seed coat. 

a5 With P, parchmented, smooth pods. 

36. W With Bl gives glaucous foliage, pods, etc. 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 505 


Factors A, C, E, Ge and L,, so far as our present knowledge is 
concerned, appear absolutely coupled and it is much simpler to regard 
them all as one factor (i. e., A) with many separate expressions. 


I. SEED CoaT Cotors. 


The seed coat characters include the various testa colors and 
patterns. Testa color and pattern are so closely associated that they 
are described together. Unlike similar patterns in seeds of other 
plants, such as beans, the colors do not appear to be independent of 
the pattern, except possibly in the case of the eye or hilum pattern 
color. One never finds purple marbling or maple-brown stippling 
among the seed coat colors of Pisum. The stipple pattern is always 
purple and the marbling pattern is always brown. The seedcoat 
colors of the varieties of peas thus far genetically studied are five in 
number—colorless to greenish white, deep to pale green, dull green 
or gray to brick red or grayish brown, dark brown, orange brown 
and violet or dark purple. 

Colorless seed coats are always associated with white flowers, un- 
colored leaf axils. When such seed coats are separated from the 
rest of the seed, they are somewhat transparent with traces of 
yellow and green present. This is the common seed coat color of 
white-flowered varieties. 

Green seed coats genetically are at least of two different kinds, 
one common to white-flowered varieties, such as the Imperials (21), 
Fillbasket and Telephone (1); the other present in a variety with 
colored flowers and received under the erroneous name of P. Jomardt. 
In the first case, the green testas may bleach on ripening, especially 
in piebald cotyledon sorts such as Telephone (1). Fillbasket testas 
(1) rarely bleach. Nothing is known concerning the genetic be- 
havior of the P. Jomardi ? type. Telephone green is soluble in 
alcohol. 

Gray seed coat color is always associated with colored flowers. 
The color varies from dull green through gray to brick red to dull 
brown, the variation resulting from environment. The redness 
and brownness are due to exposure to the sun or moisture when 
ripening (1). In dull years, Bateson says scarcely any turn red. 
Peas grown in the greenhouse and harvested in winter very rarely, 


506 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


in my experience, turn brown or red. The red can be eliminated by 
boiling, which will leave the seeds thus treated gray (1). Gray 
chemically (55) is determined by a greenish pigment contained in 
all or almost all the seed coat cells. With but three or four possible 
exceptions, all colored flowered varieties have seeds with gray pig- 
ment. 

Orange brown or light yellow orange seed coat color is charac- 
teristic of several varieties of field peas with colored flowers de- 
scribed by Tschermak (86) as P. arvense nos. VI., IX. and X. With 
age and exposure, they turn browner. 

Dark brown seed coat is a dark chocolate brown typical of the 
red-flowered Kneifel pea with purple pods experimented with by 
Tschermak (86) and Haage and Schmidt’s Kapuziner. 

Violet or dark purple seed coats are of two different kinds, one 
apparently what Emerson (27.5) would call a recurring mutation, 
which results from an extreme variation of the purple spot pattern 
to a self-purple and the subsequent breeding true of them (34). 
The other type of purple seed coat is a constant characteristic of sev- 
eral varieties of field peas, particularly of No. 24894 (29), the “ black 
Abyssinian” pea of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The 
genetics of the first type is taken up under the seed coat color pat- 


terns of Pisum. That of the latter type is only mentioned, so far 


as I am aware, in Vilmorin’s list (90) where it is recorded as a 
dominant to various other seed coat colors. 

The seed coat patterns of Pisum are three in number—a purple 
stippling or dotting, a brown marbling, and an eye pattern. 

Purple dotting or stippling is only found in association with races 
with colored flowers and gray seed coats, although many colored- 
flowered varieties do not have seeds with purple dots. The dots 
themselves often transgress the limits of dots, resulting in splotches 
and, in extreme cases, wholly self-colored peas (1, 22, 34, 81, 


_ 86). In the seeds with gray seed coats which have turned red or — q 


brownish, the purple dots are often obliterated (1). The purple 
color according to Lock (55, 56) is a cell-sap pigment, confined 
to certain large cells of the sub-epidermal layer. This fact accounts 
for its diffusion into blotches and traces and its complete oblitera- 


tion when the seeds are left exposed to damp, sunshiny weather 


= aos 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 507 


conditions. Fruwirth (34), however, describes this pattern in the 
Blauhilsige variety as due to brownish, weak violet pigment 
granules-in the palisade cells. Lock says this pigment is easily sol- 
uble in boiling water. 

Brown marbling or the maple pattern, as the English call it, is 
associated only with colored flowers as far as the color is concerned. 
Lock, however (54, 55), finds the pattern itself (“ ghost mapling ”’) 


- without coloring, may be associated with white-flowered plants. The 


brown pigment of the maple pattern is largely confined to the cell 
walls of the outermost layer of I-shaped testa cells (55). The 
pattern color deepens with age and is insoluble in boiling water. 

The “eye” color pattern is characteristic of both colored and 
white-flowered pea races. The color is present as a deep black at 
the point of attachment, with a dark sooty tint usually present over 
the seed as a whole. Some varieties have brown coloring (81) in 
place of the black while other varieties are without color at this spot. 
The brown hilum color according to Tschermak is always associated 
with colored flowers and colored seed coats, so it may be consid- 
ered as simply another of the numerous expressions of factor A. 

_ Violet eye is due to a violet hilum pigment, characteristic par- 
ticularly of a race of Victoria peas with which Tschermak experi- 
mented. : 

Brown marbling, purple dotting or stippling and black eye may 
all be associated in the same pea seed coat. In fact, a couple of 
wild species obtained direct from Asia have seeds characterized by 
all three of these color patterns. 


VARIETIES STUDIED. 


Varieties with colorless or almost colorless seed coats as de- 
scribed under colorless: Griinbleibende Folger, Désirat, Auvergne, 
Yellow-podded Sugar Pea, Express, Emerald, Victoria, Svalof Small 
Green-seeded Pisum, Prince of Wales (Tschermak, 81, 86) ; Grin 
Spate Erfurter Folger (Correns, 14) ; Laxton’s Alpha, Veitch’s Per- 
fection, Sunrise, British Queen, Victoria Marrow, Trés nain de 
Bretagne, Earliest Blue, Ceylon Native No. 1, Satisfaction, Ring- 
leader (Lock, 54, 55, 56); Serpette, British Queen, Victoria Mar- 
row, Ringleader, Nain de Bretagne (Bateson, et al., 1), White-flow- 
ered Munimy (Macoun, 57.5). 


508 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Green seed coat varieties: Telegraph, Telephone, Fillbasket 
(Lock, Bateson and Kilby, 1, 54). 

Gray seed coat, violet stippling: Graue Riesen, Svalof P. arv., 
IV. (Tschermak, 81, 86) ; Sutton’s French Sugar Pea (Lock, 53) ; 
Blauhilsige (Fruwirth, 34). 

Gray seed coat, maple marbling: P. arv., [X., P. arv., X. (Tscher- 
mak, 81, 86) ; Irish Mummy (Bateson, 1). 

Gray seed coat, violet stippling, maple marbling: Ceylon Native 
Pea No, 2 (Lock, 54). 

Gray green, bright orange tint: Svalof P. arv., VI., P. arv. No. 
VIL., P. arv., IX. ?, P. arv., X. (Tschermak, 81-86) ; Pahlerbse with 
purplish pods, Purpurviolettschottigen Kneifelerbse (Correns, 14). 

Dark brown seed coat: Red-flowered Kneifelerbse with purple 
pods—Tschermak, 86. 

Brown hilum: P. arv., V1., P. arv., VI1., P. arv., VIII, P. arv., 
X.—Tschermak, 81, 86. 

Violet eye: P. arv. No. IX., violet-eye Victoria—Tschermak, 

81, 86. ; 
Black eye: In most cases varieties not given. Black-eyed Mar- 
rowfat—Macoun, 57.5; Haage & Schmidt’s Kapuziner, Bohnenerbse 
(H. & S.), Lyngby Fall Pea (U. S. Dept. of Agr.), Benton (U. S. 
Dept.), Prince (S. P. I. 22046, U. S. Dept.) —White (unpublished 
data). 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Colorless X colorless seed coat always gives colorless or trans- 
parent seed coats (1). 

Colorless X green or white (opaque) gives various results, but 
never fully opaque seed coats. In some cases the F, hybrids are 
colorless, in others intermediate as regards opaqueness and the 
presence of pigment. 

Opaque X opaque (1) always gives F, progeny with opaque seed 
coats. 

Colorless X gray brown seed coat always gave all gray browns 
in F,. In the F, generation, the following results have been ob- 
tained : 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 509 


Investigator. Gray Brown. Colorless, Total. Ratio. 
Mendel....... neeesseees+| 705 224 929 3-15 :1 
ee 87 24 III 3.62:1 
Bateson and Lock......... 50 19 69 2.63 :1 

842 267 I,109 3515 3% 
MNS ae Oca acs ake 231 85 316 2.7131 


F, generation grown by Lock but actual figures not recorded. 


In addition to the figures given above are those from crosses 
made by Correns, Tschermak and others. These data are omitted 
here because either the exact figures are not given in the original 
papers or that these figures are scattered through so many papers 
and so often repeated as to make their accurate collection imprac- 
ticable. 

In F;, a certain proportion of the F, segregates with colored 
seed coats breed true, another portion break up, giving again the 
3:1 ratio, while the F, segregates with colorless seed coats breed 
true. 

In certain crosses made by Tschermak (86) between colorless 
and gray brown (whitish brown) seed coat varieties, F, progeny 
with dark brown seed coats were obtained, which in F, gave dark 
browns, grays and colorless seed coat segregates, approximating the 
proportion 9:3:4. 

Colorless X gray seed coat with purple dots gives in the next 
(F,) generation, all gray purple dotted seed coats. In F,, the fol- 


lowing results have been obtained: 


Investigator. Gray and Purple Dots. Gray. | White. Total. Ratio. 
—2e 
meee (53,54)....... a i ae III 9:5-7 
Tschermak (86) .... qI 46 117 9:5.8 
F, heterozygotes in F, gave: 
Investigator. Gray and Purple Dots. Gray. White. Total. Ratio. 
an 178 53 85 | 316 | 936.9 


In F,, Lock (55) tested out the genetic nature of non-purple 
dotted colorless seed coat F, segregates which had bred true in F, 


510 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


by crossing them with various F, segregates breeding true to gray 
seed coat color. 
In F;, from 60 crosses of colorless F, X gray F,, 

Q crosses gave 21 gray purple dotted:23 gray, 

23 crosses gave only gray purple dotted, 

28 crosses gave only grays without purple dots. 

Tschermak. (86) has made numerous crosses between pure varie- 

ties and extracted F,, F, and F; segregates with and without the 
character purple dotting. In these crosses, colorless X gray without 
purple dotting in some cases gave all purple dot progeny in F, 
(agreeing with the results of Lock’s crosses above). In other cases, 
using different varieties, Tschermak always secured only non-purple- 
dotted progeny both in F, and in F,, except in certain very excep- 
tional cases. In these exceptional cases purple dotting appeared 
sporadically on the seed coats of gray segregates which had bred 
true to a self gray for several generations, while on the other hand 
there were cases in which purple dotting was expected, but failed 
to appear when certain crosses were made (86, S. 160). Varieties 
(86) practically breeding true to the absence of purple dotting also 
occasionally have a few seeds with purple dots, and these appear 


on plants the majority of the seed of which is without the purple 


dots. 

Colorless X orange-brown or greenish orange tinted (e. g., P. 
arv. Sval6f No. VI.) gave in F,, in Tschermak’s experiments (86) 
progeny with dark brown seed coats with purple dots. In F,, 4 
classes appeared—dark brown with purplish reddish dots, dark 
brown with no dots, whitish brown (gray) with no dots, colorless. 
The numbers were small, hence the ratios are not of much im- 
portance, except in showing that the dark browns were in greater 
number than the other two classes. The gray segregates were con- 
stant and in back-crosses with the colorless seed coat parent gave 
only dark browns, grays and colorless seed coat segregates, with or 
without purple dots, as in Lock’s crosses of F, colorless and F, 
gray seed coat segregates given above. If large enough numbers 
had been obtained Tschermak (86, S. 161) believes the orange- 
tinted grandparental type would have appeared again. 

Correns (14) crossed a colorless seed coat variety with two 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 511 


varieties having orange-red seed coats and obtained in F, progeny 
with seed coats varying from almost colorless ? to intense orange- 
red—the variation in coloring often occurring in the peas of the 


same pod. All were more or less purple spotted. These gave, in 


F,, 3 classes, the two grandparental types and the F, type. The 
statement regarding the presence of purple dotting on these F, © 
segregates is rather obscure. 

Lock (53, p. 326) does not consider orange-brown testa color as 
a separate character from gray-colored testa, and Bateson thinks 
Corren’s exceptional results in F, of the cross just described may 
be due to environment. The writer has distinctly orange-red seed 
coat peas with white flowers in his collection from Chile and he 
hardly believes that present data justify Lock’s contention, because 
these peas do not mature as gray under the conditions in which ordi- 
nary gray seed coat varieties have gray seeds. 

Colorless X dark brown seed coat varieties should according to 
Tschermak’s formula for at least one such variety [redfl. Kneifel- 
erbse, S. 181 (86)] give all dark brown seed coat progeny in F, 
with or without purple dots, depending on the colorless variety used. 
I have not, however, been able to find the published record of the 
data upon which this formula is based. True breeding (86) dark 
brown seed coat segregates crossed with colorless give dark brown 
in F,. 

Colorless X gray with maple pattern gives in F, maple pattern 
either with or without purple dots. The presence of the purple 
dots in F, of such a cross as this is altogether dependent on the kind 
of colorless seed coat variety used, as the genetic evidence from 
Bateson (1), Tschermak (86) and others shows that a gray maple 
pattern seed coat variety may be crossed with colorless and give 
maple and purple dots. The same maple variety may again be 


crossed with a colorless, but this time a different one and give only 


maple. Bateson (1) found British Queen to be a colorless seed 
coat variety of the first type and Victoria one of the second type. 
Tschermak [see Bateson (1)] secured 2 cases where Victoria X 
unspotted varieties gave purple spots in F,, while reciprocals of the 


_ same cross gave unspotted seed coats. ‘ In Tschermak’s latest pub- 


lication (86) on the subject, two varieties of Victoria are recognized, 


512 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


one of which will give purple dots in F, as above and one of which 
would only give maple as found by Bateson. 

Tschermak (86) secured in F, from maple X colorless, brown 
maple seed coat without purple specks. These F,’s gave in F,, 

52 maples:17 dark brown selfs: 1 ghost maple: 6 colorless. 

In F,, 

F, maples gave in one case all 4 classes; in another case only 2 
classes—maples and colorless. 

F, dark browns gave 6 brown:1 colorless in one case; in another 
7 browns:1 colorless. 

F, ghost maple gave 9 ghost maple: 3 colorless. Ghost maples are 
hard to distinguish from whites, so Tschermak believes the 
F, classes above approximate the ratio 9 maple: 3 brown: 3 
ghost maple: 1 colorless. 

F, ghost maple segregates X a pure colorless P. sativum race gave 
in F,, 4 ghost maples: 2 colorless. 

In F,, one of these ghost maples gave ghost maples which bred 
true in F, and F,, while another one (“spur” ghost maple) gave 2 
like itself and 7 without mapling. One of the colorless F, indi- 
viduals gave 2 ghost maples and 6 colorless. In a similar cross, only 


spurious (“spur”) maples and colorless were obtained in F,, the © 


“spur” ghost maples giving 2 “spur” maples:7 colorless in F,,. 
Tschermak believes these “spur” maples are due to the inactivity 
of the determiner for mapling. Fruwirth and Tschermak both have 
observed exceptional cases where mapling has appeared in the 
descendants of non-mapled peas. 

In back-crosses of segregates from mapled ancestors, 


Brown X colorless never gave maple, 
Brown X brown never gave maple. 


Certain peculiar ghost maples on plants with rose or pink flowers 
X white-flowered ghost maples gave in F, and F, no maples. 

In reciprocal crosses between segregates of P. arv. X P. sat. in- 
volving the maple pattern, F, brown X ghost maple and reciprocal 
[Table 22 (86)] gave in F,, except in one case, always browns, the 
exception giving 5 maple: 4 purple dotted non-maple. In F,, in 


some cases, the browns bred true, in others only brown and colorless __ 


7. one SP 


ah Bi ally oe sii i 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 513 


resulted; while still others gave maples, browns, ghost maples and 
colorless. One of the last type gave 20 maple:6 brown:5 ghost 
maple:5 non-mapled. Non-maple X non-maple segregates involv- 
ing maple or ghost maple ancestry [Table 23 (86)] gave no maples 
in F,. 
Lock’s (55) results are in general accord with Tschermak. 
Maple X colorless gave in F,, maple. In F,, 38 maple: 12 gray: 
19 colorless were obtained, approximating a 9:3:4 ratio. 2 of the 
19 colorless had ghost maple seeds, but there should have been a 
large proportion of these ghost maples. Lock says ghost maple is 
for some reason almost unexpressed in this particular cross (maple 
> Victoria Marrow). 
Crosses of F, offspring of all 19 colorless with either pure strains 
of gray or gray with purple dots (no maple) resulted in 
7 colorless producing 17 maples:15 non-mapled. 
22 colorless producing all maples (over 50), 
7 colorless producing all non-maple (over 26). 


Colorless X gray, maple, purple spots gives in F, always gray 
with both mapling and purple spotting. In F,, Lock (55) obtained 
II gmp:2 gm:6 gp:2 g:4 white or colorless (one of which was 
ghost mapled). 

In F,, 467 offspring of these various classes were grown, none 
of which gave results in opposition to the interpretation of the 
genetics of seed coat colors given at the end of this review. 

3 gmp F, plants gave: 

82 gmp:20 gm:2I gp:9 g:37 colorless 
Ratio, 27 hag ARS 29°. 36 
Expected, 71.3 ia38 725.8 27.9: 2422 
4 gmp F, plants gave: 
75 gmp: 24 gm: 48 colorless 
Ratio, 9 22 ar 

_ Expected, 81 527. : 36 
F, whites derived from F, segregates of the cross just described 

were crossed with F, grays derived from the same source. 


514 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


In F;, 6 such crosses gave: 9 maples: 14 non-mapled, 
28 such crosses gave all maples (over 75), 
27 such crosses gave all non-maples (over 75). 


Colorless X purple is only mentioned by Vilmorin (90), in which 
purple is said to be dominant. 

Gray X gray, according to the data of Tschermak and Lock, may 
give only gray in F,, F, and succeeding generations. 

Gray X gray with purple dots, excluding exceptional cases such 
as are mentioned under colorless X gray with purple dots, always 
gives gray with purple dots in F, and grays with and without purple 
dots in F, in an approximate ratio of 3:1. The purple-dot pattern 
in the F, of both these crosses and those of colorless X gray with 
purple dots is much intensified, and in both cases the stippling pat- 
tern may vary so as to produce peas with wholly purple seed coats. 
These are found sometimes in pods containing some purple and 
some purple-specked seeds. In other cases a whole pod of a plant 
may contain all purple seed coat peas. Occasionally a seed may be 
half purple and half gray or maple. F, plants from seeds with 
purple seed coats do not give results differing from the purple 
stipple seeds. Bateson (1) thinks such purples are not present in 
_ pure stocks of purple-specked seed coat races, and that crossing in 
some manner promotes their appearance (see Darwin, Bateson, 
Lock, Tschermak, Fruwirth for further data on this subject). 
Fruwirth (34) experimented with the variety Blauhiilsige, a purple- 
podded race of peas, which had in respect to seed coat color, four 
types of peas on the same plant, often mixed together in the same 
pod. These were either pure yellowish green, yellowish green with 
purple flecks or dots, purple with small greenish yellow flecks, and 
self purples, in respect to seed coat color. These are evidently de- 
grees of variation of the same character. As they occur in a pure 
variety, Bateson’s belief as to the effect of crossing as a stimulus 
to such extreme variation is not supported. Observed also by Lock 
on both pure and cross-bred strains (56). 

Gray X gray with maple marbling gives in F, maple marbling, 
which in F, in simple crosses gives 3 maples:1 gray. However, 
such simple crosses are rarely to be had and the crosses usually in- 
volve the purple-dotted pattern. 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 515 


Gray with purple dots X gray with maple marbling gives in F, 
gtay, purple-dotted, mapled seed coats. In F,, Tschermak obtained 
13 gpm:13 gp:12gm:2g. From segregates similar in genetic com- 
position to the F,, Tschermak (86) secured 


in F,—29 gpm:9 gp:16 gm:6 g, 
in F,—20 gpm:9 gp:12 gm:1 g, 


making in all three generations from F, plants or segregates of the 
same composition, . : 

ee 62 gpm:3I gp:40 gm:9 g 
Expected, 79.8 gpm: 26.4 gp:26.4 gm:88 ¢g 
Ratio, Oo epmi 4: gp: 3° git: ¢ 
Approximation, 6.9 gpm: 34 gp: 4.4 gm:1I g 


As maples and maples with purple dots are often hard to sep- 
arate, the disproportion of gpm and gm may be due to this difficulty. 
9 of the F, gpm were tested and in F,: 


I gave all four classes, 

I gave gpm, gm, g (brown self), 

4 gave gpm, gp, gm, 

2 gave gpm, gp, 

I gave gm only, only one plant being grown. 


Bateson (1) crossed gray with purple dots X maple (Irish 
Mummy). F, as given above and F, resulted in 4 classes, no ratios 
or numbers given. The 4 classes are brownish gray with purple 
dots, maple and purple dots, maple, gray and light purple specks. 
The first and last classes are probably the same, the difference re- 
sulting from environment. Great difficulty is experienced in dis- 
criminating between true browns and brown due to weathering. 

Gray with purple dots X self purple gives in F,, self purples 
(34). In F, these gave: 


35 self violet or purple: 11 gray green, violet dots: 3 gray green. 


The maternal parent of this cross had seeds varying on the same 
plant through all these classes. The paternal parent was a self- 
violet variety. 

PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, HH, DECEMBER I0, 1917. 


7 


516 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Vilmorin (90) also notes that self violet is a dominant to the 
various testa colors. 

Brown hilum is always associated with colored flowers and ap- 
parently gives a simple 3:1 ratio in F,, with dominance in F,. 

Black eye pattern, according to Correns (14), is both dominant 
and recessive in F, in crosses involving its presence and absence. 
Black-eyed Marrowfat X white-seeded Mummy (57.5) presumably 
gave only blackeye in F, and three classes of F, segregates—black 
eyed, sooty whites, and whites or colorless. Vilmorin (90) lists 
blackeye as a dominant. Blackeye is associated with both colorless 
and colored flowered and seed coat races. 

Violet eye (86) X non-violet eye gives all violet eye in F,. In 
_F,, Tschermak’s crosses gave 53 violet eye:23 non-violet eye, a 
ratio of 2.3:1, approaching nearest to the 3:1 ratio. In Fs, all F, 
non-violet-eyed segregates tested, bred true. Two F, violet-eyed 
segregates in F, gave 7 violet eyed: 6 non-violet eyed. Non-violet- 
eyed races crossed with non-violet-eyed segregates from violet-eyed 
and non-violet-eyed ancestry gave always non-violet-eyed progeny. 
Non-violet-eyed segregates from crosses involving violet eye always 
gave non-violet-eyed progeny. FF, non-violet-eyed segregates X 
heterozygous F, violet-eyed segregate gave 5 violet-eyed:3 non-_ 
violet-eyed offspring. Total results obtained by adding together all 
progeny of heterozygous plants in Tschermak’s data give 78 violet 
eyed: 38 non-violet, or a ratio of about 2:1. 

Violet eye, as is also presumably true of black eye, is not coupled 
in its inheritance with the substances which determine flower color, 
seed coat color, seed coat pattern and leaf axil color. Sufficient 
proof of this statement is given by Tschermak’s (86) experiments. 

All other seed coat patterns are associated in their inheritance 
in one way or another with the causes which determine the gray- 
brown colors of the seed coats, the color of the leaf axils, and 
flower color. Mapling, although a character inherited independently 
of the characters just enumerated, as shown by Tschermak and 
Lock, is largely dependent upon them for full expression. Purple 
spotting and gray are absolutely associated with these characters. 
Brown hilum color is also coupled with colored seed coats and col- 
ored flowers. Colorless seed coats, on the other hand, are always 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 517 


associated with white flowers. These various associations of the 
characters just mentioned, in their inheritance are, so far as our 
data go, absolutely without exception. 

From the foregoing array of facts one may gather that the 
heredity of seed coat color is somewhat complicated as compared 
with that of other pea characters, but this is largely due to the ease 
with which such characters can be studied and consequently the 
amount of work that has been accomplished on them. 


INTERPRETATION. 


From a Mendelian standpoint, the heredity of seed coat color 
and pattern, as deduced from the foregoing mass of data, is com- 
paratively simple. 

Brownish, grayish green or gray seed coat color may be repre- 
sented by the factor Gc which is absolutely coupled with the factor 
A for colored flowers. In the absence of Gc, seed coats are color- 
less. The factor J acts upon Ge so as to “produce dark chocolate 
_ brown. It is independent of Ge or A and is carried by either 
colored-flowered, gray seed coat varieties or white-flowered, color- 
less seed coat varieties. In the latter, it remains without expression. 
The orange tint or color is regarded by Tschermak (86) as due to 
a factor H, which alters the gray color to orange-red or orange- 
yellow. So far H has not been found in white-flowered races 
though there is reason to suspect its presence there (see p. 511). 
The factor U, which provisionally stands for self purple seed coats, 
is also probably coupled with A, although there are very little data 
_ on the subject. Varieties with colored flowers then, carrying only 
the factor Gc, will have gray seed coats; if J is added, brown seed 
coats ; if both J and H are added still brown seed coats, but if J is 
eliminated and only Gc and H are present, orange seed coats. If 
the factor U for self purple is added to Gc, the seed coat is self 
purple. No data are available as to other combinations of U. 

Purple spotting is represented by Tschermak (86) as due to two 
factors, one coupled absolutely with A and Gc, the other independ- 
ent, hence present in both white-flowered “and colored-flowered 
varieties. Lock (54, 55) represents similar results by one factor 
operating only in the presence of the factor for gray seed coat color. 


518 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Representing purple dotting by one factor simplifies the interpre- 
tation and amounts to the same thing as Tschermak’s two factors 
since he regards one—the factor E—as absolutely coupled with Gc 
and A. The other factor (F) is inherited independently of Ge and 
A, hence may be present in either varieties with colored flowers and 
colored seed coats or in white-flowered varieties with colorless seed 
coats. As it expresses itself only in the presence of Ge, its presence 
in white-flowered races can only be determined by crosses with non- 
purple-dotted gray seed coat races. The exceptional cases noted 
above where purple-dotted seed coat fails to appear when expected, 
are interpreted by Tschermak (86) as due to lack of interaction 
between the factors F and Ge even though both are present. Non- 
purple-dotted seed coat races then may be either Gef (Ef), gcf, 
gcF—the first colored flowered and the two latter with white flow- 
ers. GcF (EF) is, exclusive of the exceptional cases noted, always 
purple < dotted. 

Mapling is represented by one factor (54, 55, 86) M, which 
completely expresses itself only in the presence of Gc, but which 
may give a faint expression (ghost mapling) in gc white-flowered 
races. Exceptional cases similar to those found in connection with 
the inheritance of the purple dot pattern are interpreted by 
Tschermak (86) in the same way, namely the disassociation in the 
same plant of M and Gc. M is inherited independently of Ge, x, 
N and probably Pl. i 

Brown hilum color may be regarded simply as another expres- 
sion of Gc since they are absolutely coupled. 

Black eye and violet eye, so far as present data go, are to be re- 
garded as due to the factors Pl and N, both of which are inherited 
independently of Gc, F, M, and of each other, and able to express 
themselves in either white- or colored-flowered races. The dom- 
inance of black eye over non-black eye in one cross and its recessive- 
ness to non-black eye in another cross involving a different non- 
black-eyed variety is to be regarded as due to the interference of 
another factor or factors not yet delineated. 

Data as to the relation of these various factors to each other in 
inheritance are still much to be desired, especially in the case of Pl, 
U, H and J. While Tschermak has done much toward throwing 


ee er 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 519 


light on seed coat color and pattern inheritance through making all 
sorts of crosses, , back- -crosses, reciprocal crosses and so on, his num- 
bers in most cases have been lamentably small, consequently the 
approximation to the expected ratios on which the factor represen- 
tations are, based has not been close, and such ratios as 2:1 where 
3:1 were expected are comparatively common. 

The above interpretations account for practically all the experi- 
mental data on seed coat color in Pisum. There are no data, so 
far as I am aware, opposed to these interpretations, barring the 
smallness of the numbers by which the poor approximation to ex- 
pected ratios is explained. 


2. COTYLEDON COLOR. 


Varieties and species of Pisum as regards the cotyledon color of 
the ripe seed may be divided roughly into two classes—those with 
green cotyledons and those with yellow cotyledons. Between the 
extremes of these two classes, there are all gradations of cotyledon 
color from the darkest green through light green, yellowish green, 
green piebald with yellow spots, light yellow, bright yellow and dark 
orange yellow. Each of these classes is characteristic of a certain 
group of varieties, each variety possessing and breeding true to one 
of the above colors and to no other. Environment may alter the 
color generally characteristic of a variety so as to place it in another 
class. Some varieties are altered by common environmental changes 
much more than are others. Mendel (60), Hurst (42), Lock (55), 
Bateson (1), Darbishire (21), Tschermak (80, 81) and White (98) 
have all discussed this color variation in cotyledons both in relation 
to environment and to heredity. 

Green Cotyledon.—Green cotyledon color varies from dark green 
in such varieties as Wisconsin Blue and Alaska to light green or 
yellowish green as is characteristic of Telephone, Blue Prussian and 
Duke of Albany. As first noted by Hurst (42) green wrinkled peas 
are always a shade lighter and tend to be more yellowish than the 
green smooth-seeded varieties. Varieties such as Scotch Beauty and 
other smooth-seeded dark greens do not fade to yellow upon ex- 
posure to moisture and light as easily as the wrinkled varieties or 
such smooth varieties as Express. Dark greens give the best results 


520 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


in crosses with yellow cotyledon varieties if demonstration material 
for illustrating Mendel’s law is desired. Lock found that green 
seeds exposed to light in a dry bottle for a length of time faded and 
became yellowish. Mendel and Tschermak both found that injury 
from the pea-weevil would produce yellowish blotches and even 
wholly yellow seeds. Such greens as Laxton’s Alpha will always 
give some piebald and even some yellow seeds if the pods are left 
on the vines till they are all ripe (1). Piebald peas remain green 
if kept in the dark, and a dry place, but fade on the exposed surface 
on exposure to light. Piebald seeds of one pod are all tinged on the 
same surface. Tinged seeds of dark green types or varieties nor- 
mally giving no piebalds are less viable than piebald peas of green- 
seeded varieties (1). Numerous selection experiments were made 
by Bateson (1) but tinged or piebald seeds produced no more seeds 
like themselves than did normal green seeds. . 

Telephone seed of all types retains its series of color gradations. 
Some varieties of peas such as Sutton’s Nonpareil (1) are heterozy- 
gous for cotyledon color and of course these statements do not apply 
to them. 7 

Yellow Cotyledon.—Yellow cotyledon color varies from light 
yellows and yellowish greens to deep orange-yellow, such as is 
characteristic of Spate Gold, and, as in the case of the greens, this 
color shading is a varietal characteristic, some varieties having light 
yellow peas and no other shade, e. g., Goldkonig and P. humile of 
Sutton. The yellow color may remain somewhat greenish if the 
pods are not properly matured and certain varieties are extremely 
particular in this respect. Spate Gold is a dark green pea when 
immature but changes very rapidly to bright deep orange-yellow 
when mature. Even after the pods have the appearance of maturity 
and are dry, the change sometimes has not resulted. Improper 
maturing due to lack of sufficient light and in some cases to an over- 
supply of moisture is the usual cause of ununiform coloring in yellow 
peas. According to Bunyard (21, p. 131) both yellow and green 
cotyledon varieties have yellow and green pigment in their immature 
seeds, but the yellow cotyledon varieties possess an additional 
hereditary substance—an enzyme perhaps, which causes the green 
pigment to fade when the seeds mature. Green when present is 


os 


are 


#2 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 521 


epistatic to yellow and thus masks it. Yellow cotyledon color is 


apparently the ancestral color of all our peas, as all the wild species 
of Pisum have only yellow cotyledons. 


VARIETIES STUDIED. 


No attempt will be made to give a list of all the varieties upon 
which genetic studies of cotyledon color have been made. Suffi- 
cient to say that at least a hundred are involved and these have been 
collected from all over the globe wherever peas are grown. © 


Orange Yellow to Yellow. 


Trés nain de Bretagne, Debarbieux, Sabre, Victoria Marrow, 
British Queen, Early Giant, Purple Sugar Pea—Bateson (1). 


Ceylon Native Pea Nos. 1 and 2, Ringleader, French Sugar Pea 
—all Lock (54). 


Purpurviolettschottigen Kneifelerbse, 
(14). 

Grau Riesen, Désirat, various Svalof P. arv. nos., Victoria, 
Couturier, Auvergne, Buchsbaum, Prince of Wales—Tschermak 
(79, 80, 81, 83). 

Black-eyed Marrowfat, First of All, Spate Gold, Petit Pois, Wachs 
Schwert, Mummy, White Marrowfat, Elephanten, Abyssinian Black, 
P. elatius, Gold von Blécksberg—White (98). 


Bohnenerbse—Correns 


Light Yellow. 


Goldkénig, P. humile ? of Sutton—White (98) ; Satisfaction— 
Lock (54). 


Dark Green to Green. 


Fillbasket, Express, Blue Peter—Bateson (1) ; Nonsuch, Earliest 
Blue, Eclipse—Lock (54) ; Griinen Erfurter Folger—Correns (14) ;. 
Griinbl. Folger, Express, Greenseeded P. ‘sativum. of Svaldf, 
Serpette, Plein le Panier, Blue Peter, Fairbeard’s Champion— 
Tschermak (79, 80, 81, 83). 

Market Split Pea of New York City, Acacia, Velocity, Alaska, 
Scotch Beauty, Express, Nott’s Excelsior, Laxtonian—White (98). 


522 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Piebald Greens. 


Telephone, Telegraph—Lock (54); Telephone—Tschermak ; 
Telephone, William I, American Wonder, Laxton’s Alpha—Bate- 
son (1); Telephone—White (98). 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Yellow X yellow always gives yellow in F, and succeeding 
generations, except in crosses with the light yellow cotyledon va- 
riety Goldkonig in which case a certain proportion of green coty- 
ledon seeds are obtained in F,, yellow being dominant in F,. The 
ratio of yellows to greens in such crosses either approximates 3:1 
or 13:3. The actual results (98) obtained from crosses of Gold- 
kénig with four or five other yellows in F, were: | 


457 distinctly yellow: 23 yellowish green: 86 green. 


Considering the last two groups together, the proportions are 457 
yellow: 109 green or a ratio of 13:3, the theoretically expected 
being 459.2 yellow: 106.2 green. These peas were reclassified after 
mixing several times with the same result. No F; results have been 
obtained as yet. 

Orange yellow X light yellow gives dominance in F, of the for- 
mer (90). 

Yellow X green gives all yellow in F, in all cases except where 
the variety Goldkonig is used. Where Goldkonig is used as a yel- 
low, all F,’s are green. White (98) has tested out five different 
varieties with green cotyledons and always secured F, seeds of a 
distinct green color. Several cases of dominance of green were 
obtained by Lock (54), Tschermak and Bateson (1), but they are 
mostly explained by these experimenters themselves as either errors 
in labeling or in improper maturing. Repetitions of such crosses, 
using the same varieties, did not give these exceptional results. 

In F,, excluding Goldkonig from consideration, yellow X green 
gives yellows and greens again in the proportion 3 yellows:1 green. 
In F,, all the greens breed true and give only green progeny. Of 
the yellows only about one third breed true to yellow, the other two 
thirds giving rise again to yellows and greens in the proportion of 
3:1. The true breeding yellows and greens are believed to continue 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 523 


breeding true, indefinitely, while the impure yellows in each genera- 
tion continue-to-give rise to yellows and greens in’ the ratio of 3:1. 
Darbishire has followed this study through to the F,, or F,, genera- 
tion and finds nothing to controvert this statement. The yellow and 
green seeds that came from such a cross appear to be the same sort 
of colors that the grandparental ancestors had. The tendency of 
yellows to be greenish because of immaturity, and of greens to fade 
is no more marked in the progeny than in their pure forbears. 

_ The actual results from crossing pure yellow and green coty- 
ledon plants are given in the following table :* 


Hybrid Generation. Observer. Yellow. Casi: hry one 
aa ae Na aa a ree: 6,022 - 2,001 24.9 
RCT ot. Cowie a.t4 1,394 453 24.5 
Tschermak......... 3,580 I,190 24.9 
Bateson ......... ae 11,903 3,903 24.9 
IME oe vac eae ees I,310 44505 25-4 
Mela iy a ei ov gS 1,438 514 26.2 
Warpishire. 3.2... t 1,089 354 24.9 
PUMA. o Sic a's Wars eres 1,647 543 24.8 
re NOREEN. wo. 5 sickle obo 1,012 344 25.5 
frechermak.-.<o:2-<:5's 3,000 959 24.2 
Ul aaa del at ge 3,082 1,008 24.6 
Darbishire......... 5,662 1,856 24.7 
nd aaa BOrrenen see oi ass 225 70 23-7 
Boas se re sy ie 2,400 850 26.1 
0 SS eae 58,254 43,764 14,490 24.9 


Mendel (60) tested out 519 F, yellows by growing an F,, the 
result being: 353 seeds gave yellow and green seeds (3:1), 166 
seeds gave only yellow seeds, the ratio of the former to the latter 
being 2.13:1. 

Darbishire (21) tested out in the same manner 140 F, yellows, 
which in F, gave: 98 F, seeds with both yellow and green progeny, 
42 F, seeds with only yellow progeny, the proportions being 2.3: I. 

Back-crosses (56) of F, or of similar heterozygous plants from 
later generations with the yellow parent gave all yellow as follows: 


Mendel, 192 yellow:O green, | 
Tschermak, 126 yellow:o green. 


3 These data are taken from Darbishire (21) and White (98). 


524 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Heterozygous yellows or F,’s X the green-seeded parent gave a 
ratio of I yellow:1 green as follows: . 


Mendel, 104 yellow: 104 green, 
Tschermak, 1o1 yellow: 100 green. 


As regards the F, generation from green X Goldkonig yellow, 
the data are as yet very scant. White (98), however, from an F, 
progeny of 14 crosses found 253 seeds had green cotyledons and 
74 had yellow or yellowish with slight green tinge, the proportions 
approximating 3 green:1 yellow or just the reverse of the common 
result. No F, generation data are as yet available. All green and 
yellow cotyledon varieties used in crosses with Goldkénig crossed 
with each other gave the usual 3 yellow: 1 green ratio. 

In applying Mendel’s law to data such as the above, one must 
always bear in mind, as pointed out recently by Pearl, that Mendel- 
ism is essentially a statistical method and the law a statistical de- 
duction, requiring large numbers and dealing only in averages. The 
danger of drawing conclusions from small numbers is well shown 
in a survey of the extreme variation in F, ratios derived from 
single F, plants. 

For example, the greatest variation in 


Mendel’s records (60) was 32 Y:1 Gand 20 Y:19G, 

Bateson’s records (1) was 60 Y:9 G and 32 Y:20G, 

Corren’s records (14) was 92.3 per cent. Y:7.7 per cent. G and 
55-8 per cent. Y: 44.2 per cent. G, 

Lock’s records (54) was 14 Y:1 Gand 7 Y:8G. 


Bateson (1) conducted experimental inquiries to determine the 
significance of these fluctuations, but found them to be purely 
fortuitous, as did Mendel (60) before him. 


INTERPRETATION. 


In the light of the above data the hereditary differences between 
yellow cotyledon and green cotyledon varieties of peas may be desig- 
nated by G and I. G represents the hereditary determining sub- 
stances or factor for green pigment, while I is a factor or deter- 
miner which causes the green pigment to disappear when the seed 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 525 


is mature. Y stands for yellow pigment and so far as known is 
common to all-varieties of peas, whether green or yellow seeded. 
Green when present masks or covers up yellow pigment, hence is 
epistatic. The factor formulas for all varieties of peas so far genet- 
ically studied then are: 


YYGGII —true breeding yellow cotyledon races, 
YYggii = Goldkonig (on the present data), 
YYGGii —true breeding green cotyledon varieties. 


On the basis of these three formulas and by various combina- 
tions of these three types of varieties, all the various ratios de- 
scribed in preceding pages, as well as others, may be obtained. All 
genetic data, so far as I am aware, accord with this interpretation. 


3. CoTYLEDON Form (SEED Form) AND COMPOSITION 


The seeds of peas as regards shape are either smooth round to 
roundish, or wrinkled and angular. The cotyledons of the seed are 
mainly responsible for these differences. Smooth, roundish peas, 
however, are often pitted or dimpled and this dimpling is of two 
types. One type is largely due to such environmental conditions as 
premature harvesting, while the other type remains pitted under 
practically all common environmental conditions. The latter type 
is designated “ slightly wrinkled” by Tschermak and “ indent” by 
the English geneticists. Indent, while a character which modifies 
the external appearance of the seed and cotyledon, belongs in reality 
to the generation preceding that to which the cotyledon characters— 
wrinkledness, color, etc., belong. Associated in inheritance with 
seed form are certain types of starch and certain germination, sugar 
content and color modifying characters, and because of this asso- 
ciation they will all be considered under this heading. Indent peas 
and smooth peas will be treated separately. 

Smooth round peas without indenting are most eommonly char- 
acteristic of varieties with white flowers and colorless seed coats, 
although many varieties with colored flowers and colored seed coats 
have perfectly smooth seeds. Particularly is this true of most of 
the wild sorts, all of which have colored flowers. The starch grains 
of the smooth-seeded varieties according to Gregory (37), Darbi- 


526 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


shire and others are simple, oval or potato-shaped and of large size 
with well-marked hilum centers and distinct lines of stratification, 
Darbishire (19), and Kappert (48) found small round grains asso- 
ciated with the larger oval ones, and occasionally these are divided 
by a single split or fissure which cannot be increased in. size through 
the action of diastase and ptyalin (48). Kappert (48) ‘also has 
observed these longitudinal fissures with short side splits occasionally 
among the large oval grains. The size of the starch grains vary 
considerably in different cell layers of the same seed, the smallest 
being found in the outer layers, where the protoplasm is most dense. 
Measurements of starch grains, given in the following table, show a 
considerable variation, though the data are too scant to be of much 
weight. : 


' ; No Grains 
Investigator, Variety. | Ave, Length. Ave. Brangel M 4. 
Gregory........ Several varieties .06—.34 mm. 
Darbishire......| Eclipse —.0322 mm. .0213 mm. 232 
Kappett.. (<3 e955 Laxton’s Vorbote —.0363 mm. -0246 mm. 50 


Darbishire divides the length by the breadth  Ioo and secures 


the breadth-length index (in Eclipse 66.14) or the breadth in terms — 


of per cent. of length. The breadth-length index for Laxton’s 
Vorbote is 67.8-69.1 and for Emerald Gem starch grains 74.3 (48), 
indicating that starch grains of some smooth-seeded varieties are 
less oval than others. The long oval starch grains are characteristic 
of the early as well as of the late stages of seed development. 
According to Denaiffe (23), Halsted, Darbishire (19), Kappert 
(48) and others, round smooth peas take up less water upon ger- 
mination than wrinkled peas. Darbishire found the average absorp- 
tive capacity (or the amount of water an immersed dry pea would 
take up in twenty-four hours, expressed as percentage of weight of 
the dry pea) of 12 Eclipse peas to be 86 per cent. Kappert found as 


regards absorptive capacity so much variation in the seeds even 


of the same sort on the same plants that he regards the methods 
used by Denaiffe and Darbishire as extremely inexact. Kappert 
gives the water loss of air dry seeds of smooth-seeded peas in 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 527 


terms of per cent. of green (fresh) seed weight. For the following 
varieties this is: 


Laxton’s Vorbote ......... & seeds: 60... 44-58.21 per cent. loss. 
meeratd Gem ......%...... i pes 44-58.66 per cent. loss. 
Carter’s First Crop ....... See es. ecu 40-54.87 per cent. loss. 


He considers the variation in water loss between seeds of the 
same sort or variety as due in part, at least, to differences in en- 
vironment. Chemical analysis of air dry peas of 2 different varie- 
ties of smooth seeded peas—Carter’s First Crop and Bohnenerbse— 
showed a water content of from Io to 12 per cent. or from 1-2 per 
cent. more water than in similar analyses of wrinkled peas. In 
fresh green seeds the difference in water content amounts to as 
much as 8 per cent. more in wrinkled than in smooth seeds. Chem- 
ical analyses show also that smooth-seeded peas possess a rela- 
tively small amount of water and alcohol soluble material. Dif- 
ference in sugar content between the two types, however, is small 
(.7 to 3.4 per cent.) varying in smooth-seeded peas from 1.96 to 
3.29 per cent. There appears to be about twice as much sugar and 
dextrine in dry wrinkled peas as in dry smooth peas. Smooth 
round seeds appear to always have deeper colored cotyledons than 
wrinkled peas. 

Indent peas are known to differ from smooth round peas only 
in being indented. Both the cotyledon and the seed coat are af- 
fected and the characteristic only appears on peas with colored seed 
coats and colored flowers. The starch grains are indistinguishable 
(37, 1). 

Wrinkled, angular peas differ from indent and smooth round 
peas in at least four characters, viz., the shape and surface of the 
seed, the shape and constitution of the starch grain, the water con- 
tent of the leaves and green immature seeds and the sugar content. 
Seeds of smooth-seeded varieties are sometimes unclassifiable be- 
cause of pitting, but, so far as I am aware, seeds of wrinkled seeded 
varieties never vary toward greater smoothness (barring sports and 
rogues). Wrinkling is always associated with round compound 
starch grains. These-starch grains are made up of from two to eight 


528 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


or more divisions or separate irregularly shaped small particles 
cemented together by a yellowish substance which is not colored 
blue by iodine (19). The most common grains are 4-6-particled. 
Both Kappert (48) and Darbishire (19) occasionally found potato- 
shaped grains similar to those of round-seeded peas among the com- 
pound starch grains. Small round grains are always present. Kap- 
pert (48) found the starch grains of very young peas (2-3 weeks 
old) to be free from splitting, and through observations on later 
stages, he found all gradations from simple round grains to the 
characteristic compound or radially split grain of 2 to 8 particles. 
This led him to conclude that compound starch grains are simply 
radially split simple starch grains and with only one starch for- 
mation center instead of 2 to 8 such centers as is commonly sup- 
posed. The so-called compound grains may be further broken up 
through the action of diastase and this led Kappert to believe the 
starch of wrinkled peas was more soluble than that of smooth- 
seeded peas, a supposition made more plausible through the greater 
amount of sugar and dextrine present. 

Both Gregory (37) and Darbishire (19) found the compound 
starch grains of the wrinkled peas they studied to be smaller than 
the starch grains of smooth-seeded peas. 

The data from measurements of several varieties are given 
below: 


Investigator. | Variety. Diameter. No, Grains Measured, 
Gregory (37)........ Several 6.5.5 ..:.46% .06-.2 mm. rs 
Darbishire (19)...... British Queen..... .0248-.0269 mm. 105 
Kappert (48)........ Goldkénig......... .0245-.0268 mm. 20 


The breadth-length index for starch grains of wrinkled peas of 
course is higher being 92.2 for British Queen and 91.5 for Gold- 
konig. 

Denaiffe (23), Darbishire (19), Kappert (48) and others all 
agree that more water is taken up by dry wrinkled peas than by 
smooth peas. Chemical analyses as given by Kappert show that the 
water content of the air dry smooth and wrinkled peas differs only 
by I or 2 per cent. in favor of the former. However, fresh wrinkled 
peas before they are ripe are said to have possibly as high as 8 per 


ae eee 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 529 


cent. more water than smooth peas, and it is largely because of this 
greater water loss that the wrinkled condition of the cotyledons and 
seed coat is brought about and not because of difference in sugar 
content as contended by Darbishire (19). Difference in sugar con- 
tent from the writer’s knowledge of pea varieties, is probably very 
variable. Correlated with the larger water content of unripe 
wrinkled peas is a larger water content of their leaves as compared 
with leaves of smooth seeded varieties. 

Seed of wrinkled varieties of peas as compared with smooth 
seeded peas, usually lose their power of germination and rot more 
quickly under unfavorable conditions, such as cold, wet weather. 
Wrinkled peas are a shade lighter in cotyledon color than smooth 
peas from the same pod or plant and grown under the same en- 
vironmental conditions. 


VARIETIES STUDIED. 


Because of the large number of genetic experiments on these 
characters, only a partial list of the varieties studied can be given. 


Smooth Round. 


Eclipse, Genoa round, P. arv. hibernicum, Bohnenerbse, Sangster’s 
No. 1 (?)—Darbishire (19). 

Express, Fillbasket, Trés nain de Bretagne, Carter’s Telegraph, Vic- 
toria Marrow, Maple—Gregory (37). 

Express, Trés nain de Bretagne, Victoria Marrow, Blue Peter, Fill- 
basket—Bateson & Kilby (1). 

Ceylon Native No. 1, Ringleader, Ceylon Native No. 2, Sutton’s 
Telegraph (?)—Lock (54). 

Laxton’s Vorbote, Emerald Gem, Carter’s First Crop—Kappert 
(48). 

Harrison’s Early Eclipse—Hurst (42). 

Emerald, Yellow Pod Sugar Pea and numerous others—Tschermak. 

Over 20 varieties (unpublished data)—White. 


Indent. 


Purple fl. Field Pea, Purple Sugar Pea, Sutton’s Purple Podded Pea 
—Gregory (37). 


530 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Purple Sugar Pea, Graue Riesen—Bateson & Kilby (1). 
Graue Riesen, Svaléf P. arv. No. IV., and No. X.—Tschermak (86). 
Irish Mummy, Gray Sugar and others (unpublished data)—White. 


Wrinkled, Angular. 


British Queen, Laxton’s Alpha, Telephone—Darbishire (19). 
William I. ?, Telephone, Laxton’s Alpha, Serpette nain blanc, Dark 
Jubilee, Early Giant, British Queen, Windsor Castle—Gregory 
1 AS 
Laxton’s Alpha, Serpette nain blanc, Telephone, Veitch’s Perfec- 
tion—Bateson & Kilby (1). 
Telephone, Satisfaction, Nonsuch, British Queen—Lock (54). 
William Hurst, Laxton’s Alpha, Goldkénig—Kappert (48).. 
British Queen—Hurst (42). 
Prince of Wales, Telephone and others—Tschermak. 
Goldkonig, Quite Content, Nott’s Excelsior, Laxtonian, and many 
others—(unpublished data) White. 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Round smooth, white flowers X round smooth, white flowers 
always gives round smooth seeds and white flowers in F, and suc- 
ceeding generations. 

Round smooth, white flowers X round smooth, colored flowers 
in F, (of cotyledons) gives round smooth seeds, but in F, of seed 
coats (F, of cotyledons) gives all indent seeds. In F, of seed coats 
(F, of cotyledons) the number of F, plants bearing all indent seeds 
to those with only smooth seeds approximates 9:7. The reciprocal 
of this cross in F, (of cotyledons) as well as in F, of seed coats 
(F, of cotyledons) gives all indent seeds, while in F, the results are 
the same as when the white-flowered smooth-seeded variety is used 
as the maternal parent. 

According to Tschermak (80, 81, 86), Lock (54), Bateson (3) 
and others who have experimented with indent varieties, the indent 
seeds are always borne on plants with colored flowers and there has 
never been an exception to this association recorded. According 
to the same observers, white-flowered plants in such crosses always 
have smooth and never indent seeds. Plants with colored flowers, 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 531 


however, often have smooth seeds and it is to be inferred from 
Tschermak’s data~and formulas (86) that in crosses of round 
smooth, white flowers with round smooth, colored flowers, the F, 
generation consists of three classes—indent, colored flowers; round 
smooth, colored flowers ; round smooth, white flowers. As regards 
the seed characters, only two classes are present—indent and smooth. 
From crosses of four round-seeded, colored-flower varieties with 
five round-seeded, white-flowered varieties, Tschermak (86) se- 
cured in F,: 
181 indent: 96 smooth or 1.89: 1. 


In F; part of the indent and part of the smooth seeds bred true, 
while a part of each class again gave both indent and smooth seeds. 
From this and other data of Tschermak’s one may consider the 
above F, numbers as a very poor approximation to a 9:7 ratio— 
the actual results expected had the approximation been perfect be- 
ing 155.7 indent: 121.1 smooth. 

Round smooth, white flowers X indent, colored flowers in F, (of 
cotyledons) always gives round smooth seeds, while the F, of the 
reciprocal cross, where the maternal parent has colored flowers, con- 
sists of indent seeds (Tschermak 80, 81), [(Correns), Bateson 3]. 
The F, of seed coats (F, of cotyledons) consists entirely of indent 
seeds and colored flowers, while in F, of seed coats (F; of cotyle- 
_ dons) indents and colored flowers to round smooth and white flowers 
occur in a ratio approximating 3 indent:1 round smooth. The 
above description of the facts applies to all but one cross of this type. 
In this exceptional case, the round smooth white-flowered Nain de 
Bretagne was the pollen parent in a cross with an indent variety. 
The F, was indent, as usual, but the F, of seed coats (F, of 
cotyledons), instead of giving all indent seeds, as is commonly the 
case, gave quite definitely indents and rounds in the ratio of 3:1. 
Three such F, plants gave 339 indent, 119 round smooth, and 39 
uncertain or of an intermediate type. Further, one F, plant appar- 
ently grown from the round seeds had only round seeds with colored 
seed coats (F, of seed coats, F, of cotyledons) (Bateson 3, p. 262). 

Round smooth, white flowers X wrinkled, white flowers give in 
F, (of cotyledons), all round smooth seeds, which in F, give ap- 


PROC, AMER. PHIL, SOC., VOL. LVI, Il, DECEMBER IT, 1917. 


532 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


proximately 3 round smooth:1 wrinkled. There is no case of 
coupling known between these two cotyledon characters and flower 
color, so the ratio is 3:1 whether the flowers are white or colored. 
In F, about one third of the round seeds produce only plants having 
round seeds, while two thirds of the round seeds again produce 
plants which have round seeds and wrinkled seeds in the proportion 
of 3:1. The wrinkled seeds always breed true. The results from 
crossing round smooth and wrinkled seeded varieties as obtenaed by 
five well-known geneticists a are: 


be wy Investigator. Round. Wrinkled. of Gennes. 

Mees ks Mendel 3.33). 2s 5,474 1,850 25.2 
Tacherinalke 0.05 sind ose eos 884 288 94:6:--79 
BCOCEON' sc: ce o se eee 10,793 3,542 24.8 
Usb apap artas eka eke 1,335 420 23.9 
LOCK sev ockadacsn eas 620 197 24.1 

Ly ate eemreee ee Techeritak 405. 4-53 2,087 661 24.0 
LOCK.) nite can Sees 769 259 25.2 

Bia cc kcue ee ete wes LOG ia ae hear a weak 2,328 812 . 25.8 

LOLS co ose piie 32,319 24,290 8,029 24.85 


Back-crossing heterozygote F, with pure round smooth parent 
gave: 


Round, Wrinkled, 
Mendel i iays. cesar ea case vapty aes kee eee 
TSCOCTME 0s eis cession tah be beeheaeen 38 — 


Back-crossing heterozygote F, with pure wrinkled seeded parent 
gave round smooth and wrinkleds in the ratio of 1:1 or 


Round. Wrinkled. 
Mendel sie re i eee eae 106 102 
Tacherint «ois aiden coiled s kaos 26 18 
| 132 120 


No coupling or “ correlation” of other common characters such 
as tallness, flower color, cotyledon color, fasciation and pod color 
with wrinkledness have been recorded. Partial coupling between 
wrinkledness and lack of tendrils (“acacia”) has been studied by ~ 
Vilmorin (88, 89), Bateson (88) and Pellew (64). This will be 
discussed in connection with foliage characters. 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 533 


Darbishire (19) regards the shape and constitution of the starch 
grain, the water absorptive capacity of the seed and the shape of 
seed (round, smooth or wrinkled) as four separately inherited 
characters. This deduction is based on a series of observations on 
crosses of round and wrinkled varieties which demonstrated the F, 
nature of the starch grains, as regards shape and constitution, and 
the water absorptive capacity of the seeds to be intermediate be- 
tween the two parents used. Although round smooth, the F, seeds 
had about equal proportions of simple and compound starch grains — 
and the latter instead of having on the average 6 particles per single 
grain as in the wrinkled parent averaged only 3 particles. Five 
seeds each of 48 F, plants were used instead of F, seeds for deter- 
mining segregation phenomena. Sixteen plants were pure round- 
seeded segregates and had starch grains of the ancestral round 
parent type. Twenty plants were heterozygotes and had pure round, 
heterozygote round and wrinkled seeds. Only the round seeds were 
examined. Out of each of the 20 lots of 5 seeds, at least one had 
starch grains similar to the F, and in several cases all were similar 
to the F, seeds as regards shape and degree of compoundness. 
The homozygote rounds were easily distinguished from the other 
rounds. The heterozygote round seeds, while either roundish or 
irregular in shape, varied greatly in the proportion of compound to 
simple grains they possessed. In 2 cases, where countings were 
made, one gave 203 compound and 305 simple, while the other had 
only 28 compound out of 304 counted. The degree of compound- 
ness of the starch grains varied in different seeds, some being many 
particled and some seeds with only few-particled grains. No prog- 
eny test of the correctness of the determination of homozygous and 
heterozygous rounds by observation of their starch was made, but 
the results were checked up by the approximation to the ratio of 2 
heterozygote: 1 homozygote seed. The 12 plants with wrinkled 
seeds had the wrinkled ancestor type of starch grain, except in two 
or three seeds out of 45 examined, in which a few simple grains 
__ were observed. : 
| As regards water absorptive capacity, F, peas with round com- 


If | : pound starch grains and F, peas with long simple grains both had the 
_ same absorptive capacity as the F, pea with both kinds of starch 


534 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


grains. From these facts, Darbishire holds the intermediate nature 
of the F, starch grains is not responsible for the intermediate ab- 
sorptive capacity of the F, seed. High and low absorptive capacity 
is to be regarded as a separate pair of characters. Darbishire has 
not shown, however, that wrinkled F, seeds differ markedly in ab- 
sorptive capacity, which should be the case, unless the character of 
the wrinkled pea completely masks any such difference in absorptive 
capacity. 

Kappert (48), working over the same problems, secured results 
only partially agreeing with those of Darbishire. He agrees with 
Darbishire as to the intermediateness in form and constitution of 
the starch grains and the absorptive capacity of the F, seeds. He 
also finds great variation in absorptive capacity of the F, round seeds, 
but offers a choice between two explanations—differences in en- 
vironmental influences during development owing perhaps to posi- 
tion of seed in the pod, or Darbishire’s interpretation. Kappert 
finds this variation in water absorptive capacity true of round peas 
in the same pod in pure round-seeded varieties as well as in round- 
seed segregates, and this is true when only seeds of same size, weight, 
etc., are considered. Denaiffe, Darbishire and Kappert all agree 
that wrinkled seeds in general have a higher water absorptive 
capacity than round smooth peas, and hence there must be a close 
correlation of some sort between the character of the starch and 
ability to take up water. Both Darbishire and Kappert found the 
water absorptive capacity of F, peas to be nearer that of the round 
smooth parent, while the starch grains should be considered as more 
nearly approaching the wrinkled type, except in Kappert’s crosses 
involving “ Laxton’s Vorbote” (round smooth) and “ Goldkénig ” 
(wrinkled). In these crosses, the F, starch was very similar to 
“Laxton’s Vorbote.” 

Kappert finds no grounds for Darbishire’s statement that both 
simple and compound starch grains are found in about equal propor- 
tions in F, seeds, but thinks the starch grains Darbishire took for 
simple were split on the narrow side, which Darbishire would have 
noted if he had turned them over, as Kappert himself has done re- 
peatedly. Splitting of starch grains, according to Kappert, may — 
take place fortuitously and not necessarily because of an inherent — 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 535 


tendency to split up, and both these influences may be operating in 
the seeds of the same cross. As regards shape and constitution of 
the starch grains in the hybrid seeds, Kappert secured distinctly 
different results depending on the round smooth parent used. Lax- 
ton’s Vorbote and Goldkonig gave starch grains approaching those 
of the round smooth seeded parent, while Emerald Gem (round 
smooth) and Goldkonig gave round, radially split starch grains in 
large numbers, though the splitting was much less than in pure Gold- 
k6nig starch. Further, in F, Kappert was not able through micro- 
scopic examination of the starch grains to separate with certainty the 
homozygous rounds and the heterozygous rounds, Seeds of the same 


pod (all round) gave a continuous series of seeds with clearly inter- 


mediate starch grains to seeds with only simple starch grains. From 
the camera-lucida drawings of F, round seeds from two pods, one 
from each cross as noted above, those having Laxton’s Vorbote as the 
round ancestor differed considerably in extent of split or compound 


- grains from those with Emerald Gem as the round-seeded ancestor, 


leading the writer to believe in genetic differences between the round 
seed varieties. Kappert himself is uncertain as to whether the con- 
tinuous gradation in extent of splitting results from hereditary or 
environmental differences. 

Round smooth, colored flowers X round smooth, colored flowers 
always gives in F, all round smooth and colored flowers and from 
unpublished data of my own, only round smooth are present in 
later generations. Bateson (3, p. 263), citing Tschermak (81, p. 
30, case 9), mentions an exception to this statement. The case cited 
is Tschermak’s cross P. arv., VI. (round) X P. arv., IX. (round) ? 


which gave distinctly dimpled seeds in F, of seed coats (F, of 


cotyledons). Tschermak’s description in the same paper of the 
seeds of P. arv., [X., is “ roundish, rarely few dimpled seeds,” indi- 
cating that there may be some doubt as to whether the P. arv., /X., 
parent used was not indent instead of round. In later publications 
(86, see formula for P. arv., [X.) he describes this variety as defi- 
nitely round-seeded. In another place in the same paper (81) de- 
voted to assembled results, the crossing of two smooth-seeded P. 
arv. varieties is stated to always give smooth-seeded offspring in the 
first seed generation, which I take to be F, of seed coats (F, of 


536 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


cotyledons and of Bateson). Tschermak, so far as the writer can 
discover, makes no mention of the results of this cross as excep- 
tional. 

Round smooth, colored flowers X wrinkled, white flowers in F, 
(of cotyledons) is indent, which in F, of cotyledons (F, of seed 
coat) give approximately 3 dimpled:1 wrinkled (54). According 
to Lock, dimpled and wrinkled seeds are very hard to distinguish, 
as of course true wrinkling occurs in colored seed coats. 

Indent X indent (colored flowers always) gives in F, and later 
generations always indent and colored flowers. 7 

Indent X wrinkled, white flowers in F, gives indent. Reciprocal 
in F, (of cotyledons) gives round smooth seeds. In F, (F, of seed 
coats) of both crosses, indents to wrinkles appear in a ratio of 3:1 
and the plants all have colored flowers. 

The wrinkled seeds when sown give 3 wrinkled with colored 
flowers: 1 wrinkled with white flowers. The indent seeds if sown 
[(F, of seed coats) F, of cotyledons] likewise give rise to 3 colored- 
flowered plants:1 white-flowered plant. The colored-flowered 
plants have either all indent seeds or indent and wrinkled seeds in 
the ratio of 3:1. The white-flowered plants have either all round 
seeds or 3 round: 1 wrinkled. 

Indent X wrinkled, colored flowers. No data. 

Wrinkled, white flowers X wrinkled, white flowers always gives 
wrinkled seeds and white-flowered progeny. 

Wrinkled, colored flowers X itself. No data. 

Back crosses (81) of various combinations involving indent an- 
cestry gave no exceptional results, as viewed from the interpreta- 
tion given for all the crossing data. 


INTERPRETATION, 


The preceding data concern two sets of characters—(1) round 
smooth cotyledons of low water absorptive capacity with simple, 
long starch grains and angular wrinkled cotyledons of high water 
absorptive capacity with radially split (compound), round starch 
grains; (2) indent and non-indent seeds. In the first set, round 
smooth and the characters associated with it are to be regarded as 
the expressions of a factor R, in the absence of which the cotyledons 


| Me Sen ee ee 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 537 


are angular, wrinkled, etc. The partial dominance of shape and 
constitution of the-simple long starch grains in F, is perhaps modi- 
fied by other factors not yet determined or due to the presence of 
R in simplex condition. It is very evident from the diverse results 
of Darbishire and Kappert as regards F, starch characters that 
dominance of the simple or the “ compound ” type is inhibited in one 
case at least. 

_So far as is known, the factor R is inherited independently of 
all other Pisum factors excepting the factor for tendrils (T1) with 


which it is partially coupled. Interpreted as above, round-seeded 
varieties of peas have the formula RR while wrinkled varieties 
have the formula rr. 


Indenting in peas, as interpreted by Tschermak, Bateson, Lock 
and others, is due to two or three (?) pairs of factors, one of which 
is the pigment-producing factor A, which gives rise to pink flowers 
and gray seed coats. Indent peas only occur on plants with colored 
flowers, all of which have the factor A. A may be substituted for 
Tschermak’s factor L, since L, and A are always associated. Taken 
thus the real indenting factor may be designated as L,, in the ab- 
sence of which in plants with colored flowers, the seeds are non- 
indent. When A and L, are both present the flowers and seed coats 
are coloréd and the seeds are indent. When A is absent but L, 
present, the flowers and seed coats are white or colorless and the 
seeds non-indent. 

Thus all varieties of peas so far experimented with, having col- 
ored flowers, colored seed coats and indent seeds, may be represented 
by the formula AAL,L,, those with colored flowers, colored seed 
coats and non-indent seeds by AAI,1, and those with white flowers, 
colorless seed coats and non-indent seeds by aaL,L,, because the 
latter in crosses with colored-flowered, non-indent types give in F, 


(of seed coats) all indent peas. 
Considering the two sets of characters together, the factor A is 


found to mask the factor R or is epistatic, to use Bateson’s term. 


’ The absence of R, i. ¢., r or wrinkledness, on the other hand is epi- 


staticto A. The varieties of peas thus far genetically studied on the 
basis of the interpretation given above, fall into four classes which are 


538 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Round smooth, colored flowers = AAI,1,RR, 
Round smooth, white flowers == aaL,L,RR, 
Indent, colored flowers = AAL LER: 
Wrinkled, white flowers == aalagLur. 


Excepting the two exceptional cases mentioned under crossing 
results, all the data are in conformity with the interpretation and 
the formulas given, and the various results given from crossing 
may all be obtained through combinations of these four genetic 
types of varieties. The two exceptional cases need further con- 
firmation, as one at least is doubtful as to fact. 

Satisfaction is the only wrinkled pea with the aaL,L,rr formula 
so far studied, while the other varieties are numerously represented 
in the studies of Bateson, and Tschermak. Tschermak (86) gives 
the formulas for seven smooth round or indent with colored flowers 
and five smooth round, white flowered varieties with which he ex- 
perimented. In his formulas, A and L, are separate factors, but 
since they appear always to be associated it is simpler to regard 
them as one. 


4. SEED SHAPE. 


Though only slightly studied, except as regards the two or more | 
factors controling cotyledon shape (round smooth, angular wrinkled, 
indent), seed shape is known to be determined in part by still other 
sets of factors, which are not associated with those of cotyledon 
form and indent. Hurst (42) suggests that angularity, square- 
ness, flattened sides (flat peas) and deep dents on the sides (not 
indent) are directly determined by the pressure of the peas of a pod 
against one another and by the constriction of the pod itself. Gen- 
erally speaking, he thinks the roundest peas have plenty of room in 
the pod, while the most wrinkled angular peas are tightly packed 
together. Irregularity in shape may be caused by a struggle for 
growth room among the peas of the same pod, and thus alter their 
hereditary tendency to roundness. Lock (54) in the F, of certain 
crosses between varieties with narrow pods and round seeds and 
varieties with wide pods and flat seeds, found as a rule that flattened 
seeds were associated with wide pods and cubical or spherical seeds 
with narrow pods. In exceptional cases, wide pods had round or 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 539 


cubical seeds and when an F, from them was grown, both wide and 
narrow pods were obtained, thus showing them to be heterozygous 
for pod width. 

_ Observations of my own on over two hundred varieties, and 
crosses between several of them, in general, confirm Lock’s ob- 
servation as to the association of round or cubical peas with 
narrow pods and flat (whether angular wrinkled, or roundish angu- 
lar and smooth) with wide pods. The diameter of the pod, how- 


- ever, is not necessarily to be regarded as a character which modifies 


the expression of the factors for seed shape, since it can well be 
that some of the factors which determine seed shape are coupled or 


partially coupled with those determining pod diameter. In the 


former case the seed and pod characters under discussion would be 
regarded simply as different expressions of the same factor. 
Wrinkled peas are practically always flat or cubical, but smooth 
peas may be cubical with rounded edges (drum-shaped), bean 
shaped, flat and rectangular with rounded corners, conical (if end 
pea in the pod) and spherical. Bean-shaped peas are characteristic 
of one variety (Bohnenerbse of Haage & Schmidt), but occasion- 
ally a single typical bean-shaped seed appears among a crop of 


round seeds. When planted, only round seeds are produced, so 


the variation, in the latter case, is largely due to special environ- 
mental conditions of some sort. 


5. SEED DIMENSION AND WEIGHT. 


These two characters are mutually dependent upon each other. 
Greater size generally means increased weight, though not neces- 
sarily so, especially when the composition of the seed, either chem- 
ical or morphological, is altered. Both round and wrinkled pea 


varieties have large and small seeds. The smallest seeds are found 


in somé of the western Chinese varieties introduced into the United 
States by our Department of Agriculture, though several of the wild 
species have seeds of about the same size. The so-called wild P. 
arvense types of Europe and several forms of P. elatius have com- 
paratively large seeds. Some of the largest seeded pea varieties are 
French Giant Gray Sugar, Champion of England, White-eyed Mar- 
rowfat, and Black-eyed Marrowfat. As compared with the latter, 


540 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


the wild P. elatius seeds are intermediate in size between them and 
the small Chinese peas and such wild peas as P. humile and P. 
quadratum. Size and weight of pea is to some extent associated 
with size of plant and pods, though small dwarf plants such as Lax- 
tonian bear relatively large pods and seeds. Delicate-stemmed plants 
such as Benton, P. quadratum, P. humile, Abysinnian Black, P. 
Jomardi, Velocity, Express and many of the Hindu and Chinese 
varieties do not bear large seeds or large pods. Pods and seeds of 
small, intermediate or of large size may be associated with tall or ° 
large, robust-stemmed plants. 

In crosses, Bateson (1) finds that small and large seeds gen- 
erally give intermediates in F, and F,, although he has seen one 
cross suggesting segregation. Macoun (57.5) crossed two peas of 
about equal size (Black-eyed Marrowfat and White-flowered 
Mummy) and in F, secured the parental types and intermediates as 
well as seeds very much smaller than any of the common culti- 
vated varieties. The latter bred comparatively true in F;. Vil- 
morin (90) states large size of seed to be dominant to small size. 
-Tschermak (81, 86) has gone into the subject with customary Teu- 
tonic thoroughness, but has published his results only in part. In 
general, he finds the F, generation of large X small seed to have 
seeds of intermediate weight, though nearer in weight to the small- 
seeded parent. In F,, a continuous series between the two parents 
was obtained, with a great scarcity of the two grandparental types. 
Repeated experiments with large numbers always gave the same 
results, though in a few cases seeds still smaller than those of the 
small-seeded grandparent appeared. In F;, at least one of the F, 
intermediates remained constant. 

In back-crosses of the F, with the small parent, the F, seeds were 
small to possibly still smaller than the small parent, while the same 
F, back-crossed with the large-seeded. parent gave intermediates, 
occasionally some seeds of which were larger than the F, of (large 
X small) itself. 

As an illustration of his actual results, large P. sat. (ave. wght. 
0.3305 gm.) X small P. arv, (ave. wght. 0.08649) in F, gave inter- 
mediates, ave. wght. 0.1648 gm., which in F, gave a continuous series 
which Tschermak classified in 4 groups—those with seeds averaging 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 541 


in weight that of the small grandparent (I.), of the large grand- 


parent (IV.) and those with seeds weighing on the average either 
more (III.) or less (II.) than the average weight of the F, seeds. 
The F, results from about 12 F, plants were: 


K II. III. EV< Total. 
Io 398 +10? 105 +10? 2 525 
12 205 53 I 271 
22 603 + 10? 158 +10? 3 796 


The F, progenies of the 12 or more F, plants were similar in 


" composition, only those with the largest numbers giving the extreme 


variants. It is not clear as to whether parents, F,’s, and F,’s were 


grown under the same conditions, and in one case at least the F,,’s 


and F,’s appear to have been obtained in different years. In my 
Own experiments, seed size is quite sensitive to environmental dif- 
ferences, peas of the same pure line being almost twice as large 
under certain conditions than under others. The effect of environ- 
mental changes also varies with different varieties. 

In crosses between large- and small-seeded varieties made at 
the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, the F, generation generally has as 
large seeds as the large-seeded parent, while crosses of large seed 
intermediate (true breeding) seed has given in F, intermediates. 


In studies of such a character as seed size or weight, which has so 


many true breeding variations, a marked difference in results from 
crossing of different varieties is to be looked for, and while some 
of these crosses should give simple results, in other cases results 
of the most complex character are to be expected. 


INTERPRETATION. 


Crossing data on this character are too scanty to give much 
time to interpretation. Tschermak (86), while not definitely com- 
mitting himself, is inclined to interpret his results as due to several 
factors, possibly four, though by combining groups I., I. and IIL., 
EV., a ratio varying from 3.5:1 to 4:1 is secured. One of the 
many objections to considering seed weight to be determined by the 
presence or absence of a single factor is the breeding true in F, 


542 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


of some of the F, intermediates. On the four-factor interpretation, 
the extreme scarcity in F, of the large-seeded grandparental type is 
accounted for by regarding its factorial composition as due to all 
four factors in a homozygous condition (AABBCCDD). Combin- 
‘ing the F, classes I., II. and III., the F, ratio of small and interme- 
diate seed weights to large seed weight is 793:3 or 264:1 which is 
somewhat close to the theoretically expected ratio (255:1). Like- 
wise the relation of the small-seeded F,’s to the remainder of the 
F, progeny on a four-factor basis is theoretically 7:248:1, while 
Tschermak’s actual numbers were 22:771:3 or 7.3:257:1. Accord- 
ing to his provisional hypothesis, the 22 small-seeded F,’s repre- 
sent not only those which will breed true (aabbecdd) but also small- 
seeded forms which. will give intermediates (aabbccDd, aabbCedd, 
etc.). Tschermak finds no evidence in his experiments for believing 
that sterility is in any way responsible for the small F, numbers of 
the large-seeded segregates. He also finds no reason for believing 
in a differential relation of the environment which would be so much 
more unfavorable to the large-seeded types. 


6. HEIGHT, STEM DIAMETER, INTERNODE LENGTH AND INTERNODE 
NUMBER. 


As described by Mendel and most geneticists since 1900, the 
heredity of height or length of stem in peas represents a very 
simple problem, the presence and absence of a factor for tallness. 
While Mendel’s description and interpretation of results from cross- 
ing talls and dwarfs accounts for most of the facts derived from 
studying the genetics of two varieties differing in height, it fails to 
account for all the facts when pea varieties in general or as a 
whole are under consideration. Height in peas is generally arbi- 
trarily divided into dwarfs (23-90 cm.), half drawfs (90-150 cm.) 
and talls (150-300 cm.). As pointed out by Lock, Keeble and 
others, height of a given variety in any given year is very much in- 
fluenced by environmental conditions, so that in any detailed study 
of the heredity of height, parents, F, and subsequent generations 
should be grown side by side, as this method insures a minimum 
amount of variation in the environment. The environmental condi- 
tions which modify height are numerous, including defective or 


i 
a 
ss 
b: 
“] 
ig 
4 
oy 
hg 
er, 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 543 


diseased cotyledons, partially successful attacks of strangling fungi, 
temperature and humidity variation, lack of sunlight, variation in 
soil richness, etc. Dwarfing of tall varieties may be brought about 
and the flowering period delayed as much as three weeks (26) by 
cutting off part of the cotyledon in germinating peas. Lock (54) 
found the climate of Perideniya directly modified the height and 
growth habit of various varieties of English peas with ‘which he 
experimented. Further the difference between the height charac- 
ters of the Ceylon-grown English peas and the same varieties grown 


' in England remained constant through five generations. At the 
_ Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Black Abyssinian peas when grown in 


the field plots bloom early and reach a height of never more than 
60 cm. while under greenhouse conditions in the winter time under a 
temperature of 48° F.—55° F. and growing two plants per Io cm. 
pot, they reach a height of over 120 cm. 

Height is best described in terms of internode length and num- 
ber, and stem diameter, as in reality the length of a plant stem is 
due to various combinations of these three elements. Described by 
this method, and only taking into consideration height in peas under 
the general climatic and soil conditions of Long Island, it appears 
best to modify the height ranges assigned to talls, half dwarfs and 


_ dwarfs as given by Bateson (1) and Keeble (49). 


Tall peas (150-360 cm.) have robust stems made up of a large 
number (40-60) of short internodes or a much lesser number (20- 
47) of long internodes. This class also has very long roots (1). 

Half-dwarfs (60-150 cm.) have either robust or delicate stems 
made up of a small number (10-24) of long internodes or a larger 
number (20-40) of short internodes. This class is very unsatisfac- 
tory, as it represents a very large number of diverse intermediate 
types.- . 

Dwarfs (23-60 cm.) have either robust or delicate stems made 
up of a comparatively small number (8-18) of short internodes. 
This group is easily and accurately distinguished from either of 
the above, even in young stages 3 weeks or so old. 


544 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


VARIETIES STUDIED. 
Talls. 
Purple Sugar Pea, Victoria, Laxton’s Alpha and others—Bateson 


(1). 

British Queen—Hurst (42). 

Telegraph, Ceylon Native No. 1, Telephone, French Sugar Pea— 
Lock (54). 

Numerous varieties—Tschermak. 

French Sugar, Market Split Pea, Wachs Schwert, Pisum elatius, 
Mummy and others—White (unpublished data). 


Half Dwarfs. 


Fillbasket and numerous varieties—Bateson (1). 

Ringleader, Ceylon Native No. 2 (?), Satisfaction—Lock (54). 

Express, Serpette, Plein le Panier (Fillbasket), numerous varie- 
ties—Tschermak (81). 

Autocrat, Bountiful—Keeble and Pellew (49). 

Numerous varieties—White (unpublished data). 


Dwarfs. 


Numerous varieties—Bateson (1). 

Eclipse—Hurst (42). 

Ceylon Native No. 2 (?), Earliest Blue and others—Lock (54). 
Couturier, numerous varieties—Tschermak. 

Nott’s Excelsior, Laxtonian and others—White (unpublished data). 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Most of the crosses involving height were not grown with enough 
regard to environmental conditions, so that the data, although plenti- 
ful, are valuable only for making broad generalizations. In crosses 
between talls and dwarfs, the F, is generally even taller than the 
tall parent. 

Talls X talls gives only talls in F, and succeeding generations. 

Talls X half dwarf give talls in F,. In F, Tschermak (81) ob- 
tained 48 talls; 18 half dwarfs or a ratio of 2.3:1. Bateson (1, 3) 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 545 


apparently secured all three classes in some cases in F.,, i. ¢., tall, 
dwarfs and half dwarfs. Lock (54) secured only talls and half 
dwarfs, but the half dwarfs were of two types in some cases—those 
with a relatively small number of long internodes and those with a 
relatively large number of short internodes. The talls were made 
_ up of a large number of long internodes. 

Talls X dwarfs in F, give talls, often considerably taller than the 
tall parent. In F,, talls and dwarfs appear in a ratio approximating 
3:1. Lock (54), Hurst (42), Bateson and others have confirmed 
Mendel’s original results. Mendel obtained in F, from a total of 
1,064 plants, 787 talls and 277 dwarfs or a ratio of 2.84:1. Of 100 
F, talls, 28 bred true in F;, while 72 F, talls gave both tall and 
dwarf offspring, approximating a ratio of 2:1. The dwarfs bred 
true. Two more generations of this cross were grown by Mendel 
without securing exceptional results. 

Half dwarfs X half dwarfs gives in F, in some cases only half 
dwarfs, or talls due to heterozygosis (1, 54) which give rise in F, 
and succeeding generations to half dwarfs. In other cases (49), 
involving a different set of varieties, the F, is extremely tall, while 
the F, generation consists of talls, two types of half dwarfs and 
dwarfs in a ratio approximating 9:3:3:1. Keeble and Pellew 
crossed two half dwarf varieties differing for the most part in only 
three characters—length and number of internodes and in diameter 
of stem. Thick stems, short internodes in large number (I.) X thin 
stems, long internodes in small number (II.) gave in F, plants with 
thick stems, long internodes in large number. In F,, 5 F, plants 

gave rise to 192 progeny of 4 types as follows: 


| Tall. Half Dwarf (I.). | Half Dwarf (II.). | Dwarf. 
a aneeee II4 33 32 13 
aera 108 36 36 12 
| cel in ar 9 3 3 I 


The dwarfs in this particular case all had thin stems and short 
internodes. 

_ Half dwarfs X dwarfs in F, in some cases give intermediates 
(1, 3); in other cases half dwarf height is dominant. In a case of 
the latter type, Tschermak (81) obtained half dwarfs and dwarfs 
in F, and the dwarfs remained constant in F;. 


546 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Dwarfs X dwarfs always gave dwarfs in F, and succeeding 
generations. 
INTERPRETATION. 


The inheritance of height in peas is an extremely important 
subject from a practical standpoint and well worth a most detailed 
and thorough study. In most cases, data now obtainable are ex- 
tremely fragmentary and too general in character. However, so 
far as our present knowledge goes, two factors are involved and 
according to Keeble and Pellew—one (T) determines stem thick- 
ness, while the other (Le) gives rise to long internodes. The com- 
bination of TLe produces talls in F, and F,, while the absence of 
these factors in F, gives dwarfs with thin stems. Many dwarf 
varieties have thick robust stems, though all known to me have 
comparatively short internodes and only few in number. Hence 
it seems to me that T stands not for thickness of stem but as a 
factor for large number of internodes. Interpreted in this manner, 
the formulas for various heights in pea varieties would be: 


Tall, large number of long internodes, TTLeLe, 

Half dwarf, large number of short internodes, TTlele, 
Half dwarf, small number of long internodes, ttLeLe, 
Dwarf, small number of short internodes, ttlele, 


Both the interpretation of Keeble and Pellew as well as the one 

just given fail to account for the usual results from crossing talls 
and dwarfs. If talls are bifactorial in composition, in F,, instead 
of talls and dwarfs being the only classes, half dwarfs should be 
extremely common, while dwarfs would appear not more than once 
in every 16 segregates. However, the classification of F, popula- 
tions involving talls and dwarfs has been based in all probability in 
most cases on the length of the internodes, all segregates with long 
internodes, regardless of number, having been classed as talls, while 
those with short internodes were classed as dwarfs. In this way, 
the usual 3:1 ratio would be obtained, as only the factor Le is in- 
volved. The length of the internodes are shortened by the absence 
of the factor Fa and increased in number. This explains the talls 


with a large number of comparatively short internodes. As pointed — 
out by Bateson (1), the groups designated talls, half dwarfs and — 


ape! eS ee Ee Aled 


~~ ee eS ee ee eee 


oe it lis sl wcll een 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 547 


dwarfs are composed of many pure lines differing in a minor degree 
as to height, number of internodes, etc. 


———— 


7. FASCIATION, UMBELLATE INFLORESCENCE. 
_ Most varieties of peas have either robust or slender, angular 
or roundish stems, which are small at their base and three or four 
times the basal diameter at their top or flowering region. The 


-flowers of such varieties are in ones, twos or threes on axillary 


peduncles along a large stretch of the stem. These are the common 
or “normal” characteristics of peas. 

Fasciation in peas greatly alters the above characters by in- 
creasing the maximum width of the stem at the top from I cm. to 


as much as 4cm. The stem in this region either presents the ap- 


pearance of a flattened, pressed cylinder or of an irregular cylinder, 
with side splits and an opening in the top. Leaves as well as 
branches grow out from this inside tissue region. The leaf arrange- 
ment or phyllotaxy ceases to be regular in the fasciated region of 
such plants, and the flowers instead of being axillary are bunched 
together at the top of the stem in what may be called an irregular 
umbel or bouquet. Not uncommonly in these fasciated plants, growth 
is SO uneven on opposite sides of the stem as to cause a curling up of 
the stem making it resemble one side of an Ionic capital or a ram’s 
horn. Both Lobel and Gerarde mention and picture a fasciated 
variety of pea in their herbals, and according to all observers the 
character is strictly hereditary. In my own experience, seed of a 
fasciated variety obtained from Eckford of Wem, England, has 
always bred true to fasciation under every and all sorts of con- 


- ditions. Fasciation does appear in other plants and in peas, how- 


ever, which is not inherited, but is mainly due to environmental 
conditions. Further this type (8.5) is morphologically indistin- 
guishable from the inherited type. Blodgett (8.5) cites a case in 
which 90 per cent. of the peas of fields grown for canning pur- 
poses were afflicted with this trouble, making the crops worthless 


except for green manure purposes, since fasciated peas bear but 


few pods and only when conditions are just exactly right. I have 
seen this same type of fasciation in greenhouse cultures a couple 


of times. 


PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, JJ, DECEMBER II, 1917. 


548 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


VARIETIES STUDIED. 


Irish Mummy of H. Eckford, Wem, England. This is the com- 
mon fasciated variety, which in the seed catalogues of different 
countries takes different names. In England fasciated varieties are 
called crown peas. I have experimented with several other fasciated 
varieties which were obtained from Russia and Sweden. 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Fasciated stems, umbellate inflorescence X non-fasciated stems, 
axillary inflorescence gives in F, absolutely “normal” stems with 
axillary inflorescences. In F,, Mendel obtained from 858 plants, 
651 with normal stems and axillary inflorescences and 207 with 
fasciated stem and umbellate inflorescences—a ratio of 3.14:1. 
Lock (56) and others have confirmed Mendel’s results, although 
Lock notes there is considerable variation in the degree of fascia- 
tion in the segregates. Bateson and Punnett (3) secured various 
intermediate types in F,. 

Mendel carried his study of this cross through the F, genera- 
tion. In F,;, of 100 “normal” F, plants, 33 bred true to normal- 
ness, while 67 gave both normal and fasciated plants in a 3:1 ratio. 
In F, no exceptional results were obtained. 


INTERPRETATION. 


Considering only genetic results, the hereditary difference be- 
tween “normal” stemmed and fasciated stemmed peas is the pres- 
ence and absence of a single factor Fa. When Fa is present, the 
stems are normal. In its absence, they are fasciated. 


8. Lear Axit Cotor. 


Generally associated with leaf axil color is color at the point of 


attachment of the pinnz, colored margins in the young leaves and . 


color at the base of the stem. The color is either red associated with 
pink flowers, or reddish purple associated with reddish purple 
flowers. Owing to changes in environment, particularly the amount 
of sunlight, the color varies in intensity even among the axils of the 
same plant. Although always associated with colored flowers and 


— Als 
Se 
ae! a y M 
ie c- Tee Se ES, ae ae eee 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 549 


colored seed coats, there are forms of Pisum with colored flowers 
and unpigmented axils. In the absence of pigment, the leaf axils 
and other structures noted above are greenish white or yellowish 
green, with which are associated white flowers and colorless seed 
coats. 

VARIETIES STUDIED. 


Colored Axils, Colored Flowers. 


Purple Sugar Pea, Purple-podded Pea, Irish Mummy. (P. sat. um- 
bellatum or Egyptian Mummy, Crown pea, etc.), Purple-flowered 
Field Pea—Lock (54, 56). 

English Gray Field Pea—Darbishire. 

Graue Riesen (Purple Sugar), Svalof P. arv., Nos. VI., VII., VIIL., 
IX., X.; Red-flowered Kneifelerbse and others—Tschermak (81, 

Non-colored Axils, Colored Flowers. 

Svalof P. arv., No. 1V.—Tschermak (86), Tedin. 

P. humile ?, P. quadratum ?—Sutton (74). 


Non-colored Axils, White Flowers. 


A large number of white-flowered varieties have been used in 

‘studying inheritance of axil color. Among them are, 
Laxton’s Alpha, Veitch’s Perfection, Sunrise, British Queen, Vic- 
- toria Marrow, Trés nain de Bretagne and others—Lock (54, 56). 
Victoria Marrow, Emerald, Yellow-podded Sugar Pea, and others— 
Tschermak (86). 
RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 

Colored axils, colored flowers X non-colored axils, colored 
flowers in F, gave all colored axils, colored flowers. In F,, Tscher- 
mak (86) obtained in such crosses, 

Actual, 132 colored flowers and leaf axils: 49 colored flowers, non- 
colored leaf axils. 


Ratio, mf a 
Expected, 135.75: 45-25 
Ratio, a ee 


Colored axils, colored flowers X the same always breeds true in 
F, and succeeding generations. 


550 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Colored axils, colored flowers X non-colored axils, white flowers 
gives in F, colored axils, colored flowers. In F, the following re- 
sults have been obtained: 


Investigator. | C. Ax., Col. Fl. | Non-C. Ax., White Fl. Ratio. 
Mendel, os ss.556%.5 | 705 | 224 3-15 3% 
ORK cee stu e winiaiee 184 65 2.83 :1 


In F,, Mendel grew the progeny of 100 of the F, colored flower, 
colored axil segregates and found 36 bred true, while 64 again gave 


both the F, classes in similar proportions. In F, Mendel secured — 


no exceptional results, 

Lock’s results (56) from selfing F, colored flower, colored axil 
segregates confirmed Mendel’s results, part of them breeding true 
and a greater proportion giving both classes again. 

Back-crosses of F, X colored flowered, colored axil parent gave 
all progeny with colored flowers and axils. 

F, crossed with a white-flowered, non-colored axil variety gave 
44 progeny with colored flowers and axils and 26 with white flowers. 

F, white-flowered segregates X pure-colored flower, colored axil 
varieties gave all colored flower, colored axil offspring. 

Non-colored axils, colored flowers X the same breeds true. 


Non-colored axils, colored flowers X non-colored axils, white | 


flowers in F, gives all colored flowers and colored axils. In F,, 
Tschermak (86) obtained from a population of 545: 


ites Col. Fl., Col. Ax. Col. dae ese White ade Vi 
Actually obtained............. 336 83 126 
Actilal Fated. i y)es pawasiesaiels 9.8 2.5 3.7 
Theoretically expected......... 306 102 136 
‘aT neoretical tatiocss i si08) co tas 9 3 4 


The proportion of segregates with colored flowers and colored 
axils to those with colored flowers and uncolored axils was 336: 83 
or 4:1, whereas the theoretically expected proportions were 314.25: 
104.75 or 3:1. 

Extracted white-flowered segregates derived from the splitting 
up in later generations of the F, segregates with colored flowers and 


cin arcs ela 


pio 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 551 


non-colored axils, crossed with either colored flower, non-colored 
axil segregates or with the pure ancestral colored flower, non-col- 
ored axil variety always gave progeny with no color in their axils. 

White flowered races crossed with each other never have given 
progeny with colored axils. 


INTERPRETATION. 


All the data so far obtained indicate that color in the leaf axils, 
pinnz, and stem base are explainable on a two factor basis, one of 
the factors (C) being absolutely coupled with the pink pigment 
flower factor (A). The other factor (D) is inherited independently 
of A or of any other factor so far as our present data go. Since 
A and C are absolutely coupled, it is simpler to consider them both 
as one factor (A). Regarded thus, colored axils result from the 
joint activity of A and D. In the absence of D, the plant will have 
no axil color, though the flowers and seed coats may be colored or 
non-colored (white). The factor D may be present in varieties 
with colored flowers or varieties with white flowers. Interpreted 
in this manner, all the above data are simply explained and all the 
various combinations mentioned may be obtained. The formule 
for the various varieties of peas would then be: 

AAbbDD 
AABBDD | 
AAbbdd — 
AABBdd 


aaBBDD 
aaBBdd 


Tschermak (86) has given the formulas for 7 varieties with col- 
ored flowers and 5 varieties with white flowers. All the white- : 
flowered varieties so far experimented with are aaBBDD, the 
aaBBdd class being represented only by Tschermak’s true-breeding 
segregates from crosses of 2 X 3. 


1. Colored flowers, colored axils | 
2. Colored flowers, non-colored axils | 


3. White flowers, non-colored axils | 


9. FLoweER COLor. 


Flower colors in all the cultivated varieties and species of peas 
are easily separated into three sharply defined classes, between which 
there are no intergrades. These color classes are white, salmon 


552 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


pink, and reddish purple. The wild forms of Pisum most closely 
related to our common cultivated forms all have colored flowers of 
the reddish purple class. This last class is the only one in which 
the color varies according to the variety. The degree of variation 
is small and largely confined to a small group of wild or near wild 
Asiatic varieties of which P. humile Boiss. and P. humile ? of Sut- 
ton (74) are wild types. In this group of purple-flowered forms, 
the colors are dull and of about the same shade in both standards 
and other parts of the flower, the common purple-flowered forms 
being bi-colored (i. e., lighter color shades in the standards). Ben- 
ton is the most pronounced in light-colored standards of any of the 
bi-colored purple-flowered sorts. Environmental changes commonly 
met with in pea cultures have very little modifying effect on flower 
color, though wet, cloudy weather causes pink-flowered plants to 
produce white flowers, 


VARIETIES STUDIED. 


A large number of varieties have been studied, many of which are 
designated under the sections devoted to leaf axil and seed coat 
color. Reddish purple and white-flowered varieties are most com- 


monly cultivated. The pink-flowered variety most easily procured 


is “ Irish Mummy,” known also as Mummy, Egyptian Mummy, P. 
sat. umbellatum, etc. Many field peas and “sugar pod” peas have 
colored flowers while the great majority of the garden peas are 
white-flowered. 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Lock (56) and especially Tschermak (84, 86) have given ad- 
mirable summaries of the work on this set of characters, making it 
unnecessary to go into great detail here. 

Purple flower X purple flower gives only purple-flowered off- 
spring in F, and succeeding generations. . 

Purple flower X pink flower in F, gives all purple-flowered off- 
spring, which in F, give both purple- and pink-flowered segregates 
in proportions approximating the 3:1 ratio. In F,, the pinks and 
part of the purples breed true, the remainder again breaking up in 
the expected Mendelian proportions. 


Ne ee ae ee ee es 


ee 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 553 


Purple flower X white flower in F, give all purple-flowered 
progeny. In F,, generally only purple- and white-flowered segre- 
gates in an-approximation to the 3:1 ratio are obtained. Mendel’s 
results from a total of 929 F, were: 


705 purple red: 224 whites or a ratio of 3.15:1. 


In F; the whites tested and approximately one third of the 100 
tested purple reds bred true, while about two thirds (64 F, ind.) 
gave purple reds and whites again. 

In crosses of certain true breeding white segregates with purple- 
flowered races, purples are obtained in F,, while in F,, purples, 
pinks and whites occur in proportions approximating 9:3: 4. 

Pink-flowered varieties crossed with each other generally give 
nothing but pinks in F, and succeeding generations. 

Pink flower X white flower in F, commonly gives all purple-red- 
flowered offspring, which in F, give purples, pinks and whites in a 
ratio of 9:3:4. Lock (56) and Tschermak (86) obtained the fol- 
lowing results: 


Purple. Pink. White. Total. 
Se ee I41 | 43 65 249 
REINER S055 ein soce ose ss 407 104 155 666 
rico cares a saie gs 548 | 147 220 9I5 
ae ae 514.35 171.45 228.6 


In F;, the F, whites and part of the F, purples and pinks breed 
true, but the greater proportion of the latter two classes break up 
again, the purples giving either purples, pinks, whites; purples and 
whites, or purples and pinks, while the heterozygous pinks only 
give pinks and whites in a ratio of 3:1, the actual results obtained 
by Lock (56) being 113 pinks:50 whites. Out of 16 F, pinks 6 
bred true in F, while 10 were heterozygous for pink and white. 

Back-crosses of the F, of this cross with pure white-flowered 
varieties gave 44 purple and 26 white-flowered plants, the theoret- 
ically expected being-35 of each. Back-crosses of this same purple 
F, with the pure pink strain gave 21 purple and 17 pinks, where an 
equal number of each was expected. Back-crosses of F, purples 
and whites with pure white and pure pink varieties gave results 
showing there were two genetic sorts of whites. 


554 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


White flower X white flower always gives white-flowered prog- 
eny. . 

Tschermak has carried out and published (84) the results of a 
very complete series of back-crosses of F,’s, F,’s, F,’s, F,’s and F,’s 
with pure varieties and of the segregates of each type from several 
of these generations with each other. This work of Tschermak’s, 
together with that of Mendel and Lock has put the genetics of flower 
color in Pisum on a very strong basis of fact. 

All these and other studies on Pisum flower color have shown 
colored flowers to be always associated with colored seed coats, 
colored leaf axils, indent seed, etc., while white-flowered races are 
always characterized by their absence. Further, of the two colored 
flower types, purple flowers are always associated with reddish 
purple axil color and purple dots on the seeds, while pink-flowered 
varieties are associated with reddish leaf axils and reddish dots on 
the seed coat. Both purple- and pink-flowered forms are known or 
have been obtained through crossing which lack axil color or dotted . 
seed coats, though all have the gray-brown seed coat for which the 
factor Ge stands. i 

Exceptional Cases.—In several cases both Tschermak and Fru- 
wirth have secured purple flowers in F, from crossing two pink- 
flowered plants, where only pink was expected. Tschermak tenta- 
tively regards these pinks which give rise to purples as individuals 
which were really purples genetically, but for some reason the union 
of the factors A and B failed to produce purples when they were 
expected. Later B became active again. These exceptions are 
still under investigation. 


INTERPRETATION. 


According to Tschermak, flower color in peas is due to the pres- 
ence and absence of two factors—a chromogen factor A and a color 
modifier or blueing factor B. When A only is present the plants 
have salmon-pink flowers, when both A and B are present the pink 
color is modified to a purplish red. When both A and B are absent 
the flowers are white. When A is absent and only B is present the 
flowers are also white, so that B cannot express itself in the absence 
of A. All white-flowered varieties so far tested have shown the 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 555 


presence of B by giving purple flowers in F, in crosses with the pinks. 
Tschermak and Lock, however, have obtained true breeding white- 
flowered segregates lacking this factor. 

When the necessary factors for axil color and dotted seed 
coats are present together with A, these respective regions are red 
_ pigmented, which if B is added, are modified to purple. In the light 
of the present genetic data, then, varieties of peas in respect to flower 
color have the following formulas: 


Purple MOTE ib cce ee cys vcees AABB 
DT POTS occas ss cs cae ve AAbb 
ee EET S oo Ss wk eek aaBB 


White flowers (segregates only) aabb 


10. TIME OF FLOWERING. 


Varieties of peas vary from about 35 to 150 days or more in the 
_ time it takes them to reach the flowering period from the date of 
planting, when all are planted the same day and grown under similar 
conditions. As might be expected, different varieties of peas react 
somewhat differently to changes in environment as regards the 
time it takes them to reach the blooming period. Grown in Io cm. 
pots in the greenhouse in the winter time this period is considerably 
lengthened in several varieties, while with other varieties there is 
practically no change—the same length of time being required as 
in the field cultures. Between the earliest and the latest blooming 
varieties, there is a continuous range of varieties with blooming 
periods at most not more than four days apart, so that in a random 
collection of a hundred varieties, one might record another variety 
in bloom almost every day. Between the individuals of a variety 
such as are many of the dwarfs, the individual variation in time of 
flowering is small, ranging over three to four days. Among the 
so-called “half dwarfs” and tall varieties, individual variation 
within the variety has a much wider range. Dwarfness, although 
generally associated with earliness, is also associated with medium 
late blooming varieties, but tall varieties are but very rarely early 
bloomers. 

Lock (54), Tschermak (85) and Hoshino (40.5) have each 


556 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


noted that white flower color is genetically associated with earliness 
while colored flowers are associated with late flowering. The asso- 
ciation is not of an absolute nature in either case, as some of the 
latest flowering forms such as Spate Gold are white-flowered. None 
of the earliest varieties, however, have colored flowers, but this may 
be a coincidence, since varieties with colored flowers have not been se- 
lected for earliness and early flowering forms may have arisen 
which remained unnoticed. 

Horticulturists and seedsmen divide varieties of peas on the 
basis of time of bloom into early, second early, medium, medium 
late and late. This classification is too general for scientific pur- 
poses, though of much practical value. 


VARIETIES STUDIED. 


Numerous varieties—Tschermak .(85). 

Ceylon Native No. 1, French Gray Sugar Pea—Lock ( a 

Bountiful, Autocrat—Keeble and Pellew (49). 

Victoria Marrow, various Finnish and Russian Field Peas—Re- 
lander (66). | 

“Early White-flowered Dwarf,” “Late French Large-podded,” 
“ Mans ”—Hoshino (40.5). 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Crosses of an earlier flowering variety with a later flowering 
variety generally give an intermediate in F, in this respect. Re- 
lander (66), however, finds that if the flowering periods are very 
close together the F, blooms at or very near the same time as the 
earlier flowering parent, but where the blooming periods are far 
apart, only intermediates are obtained in F,. Keeble and Pellew 
(49) secured intermediate F,’s from crosses of two varieties with 
flowering periods about a month apart. In Tschermak’s (85) 
crosses, the F,’s were either intermediate or near the late flowering 
parent. In one case the F,’s were all as late flowering as the late 
flowering parent. In Hoshino’s crosses, the F, was nearest the late- 
flowered parent. In all studies of F, crosses in respect to flowering 
time, the numbers have been extremely small, Relander and Hoshino 
employing the largest. 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 557 


In F,, the usual result is a complete or almost complete inter- 
grading series with occasional small breaks. The classification of 
such a series into early, intermediate and late is generally arbitrary, 
though often based on the blooming period of the two parents and 
the F, when these are grown under the same or similar conditions. 
With such a method of classification, Tschermak obtained from 
crosses involving seven different varieties, the following results: 


Actual, 60 early:190 intermediate:88 late, 
Expected, 63.3 early: 190 intermediate: 84.4 late, 
Ratio, 3 eee ae 


Keeble and Pellew from crosses involving two varieties obtained 
63 early: 128 intermediate:1 late. Lock (54), classifying them in 
three 5-day frequency classes, obtained 63 early: 186 intermedi- 
ates : 279 late. 

Lock (54), Tschermak and Hoshino (40.5) have noted an F, 
association between colored flowers and lateness on the one hand 
and white flowers and earliness on the other. The modifying rela- 
tion or coupling, whichever it may be, is only partial, as the follow- 
ing F, results show: 


Class. Early. Intermediate. Late. 
Flower color ....... white purple white purple white purple 
ipecmermak ........ 25 22 48 94 4 64 
Meee dees oat: oe tee tt ae 

White flowers: purple flowers 77:180 or 1:2.34. 
0 eee 29 34 79 107 104 175 
See seep & &, y Eee Baa | - . ee 1.68 


Purple flowers: white flowers 383:123 or 3.13:1. 


The expected relation of the purple- to the white-flowered class, 
providing there was no coupling, is of course 3:1 in each of the 
classes—early, intermediate and late. 

Tschermak (85) and Keeble and Pellew (49) have obtained some 
curious results regarding the relation of tallness and dwarfness to 
the time of flowering. In the one case (Fig. 3B) given by 
Tschermak the F, is tall and almost as late flowering as its late- 
flowering parent. In F, 32 talls and 10 dwarfs result. Classifying 


558 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


the talls by their blooming time, the result is 9 early: 15 interme- 
diate:8 late. The 10 dwarfs were 6 intermediate: 4 late, no earlies 
being obtained where most expected. 

Keeble and Pellew found lateness in blooming correlated ih 
short internodes and earliness with long internodes. Classified on 
this basis, their results are: 


Class. Early. Intermediate. Late. 
53L: 10S 93L: 35S oL:1S 
Normally expected ratio..... x ed F See 3:1 


Classified so as to show the relation of both the character of the. 
stem (thin or thick) and the length of internodes to time of bloom, 
the results were: 


63 Early 128 Intermediate I Late 


2211, 92TL — 
2Tl 31Tl —- 
3ItL ItL — 
Stl 4tl Itl 


Providing neither linkage (coupling) nor modifying effects were 
present, i. e., independent both in inheritance and development, the 
theoretically expected ratio in each of these classes is 9:3:3:1. 

In F,, Tschermak found some of the F, earlies and all lates 
remained constant or bred true. Some of the early class gave both 
early and intermediate. The intermediates in some cases bred rela- 
tively true, in other cases giving intermediates and lates and in still 
other cases giving all three classes. 

In several cases in F, and F,, segregates flowering either earlier 
than the early ancestor or later than the late flowering ancestral 
variety, were obtained and these remain constant in later generations. 

The F, getieration results bore out the F, expectation. 

Hoshino’s studies involved 30,000 F,, F,, F,; and F, generation 
plants, and his results are similar to those obtained by Lock and 
Tschermak, as regards flower color and time of flowering, but in a 
cross between an early flowering dwarf variety and a late flowering 
tall one, he found no evidence of coupling between the factors for 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 559 


height and flowering time, as did Keeble and Pellew. An F, popu- 
lation from—such a cross gave 23 ED:89 ET:76 LD:183 LT 
(Table I.). 

INTERPRETATION. 


Tschermak has provisionally interpreted his results as due to 
the presence and absence of two factors, with the possibility of there 
being a third, although he states this character is probably much 
more complicated. 

The two factors are a “ Zug” or pulling factor and a “ Treib” or 
driving factor, there being possibly two of the latter. The “Zug” 
factor produces intermediates with a tendency to be late-flowering, 
while the “ Treib” factor modifies the “Zug” factoral expression 
so as to give early flowering forms. By itself, it cannot alter the 
Status quo. In the absence of both, constant late-flowering forms 
are produced. 

The second “Treib” factor postulated is a positive present in 
all peas, giving constant lates in the absence of the other two factors 
or constant earlies in the presence of the other factors. The various 
varieties experimented with; on the two factor conception, would 
_ be represented by formule as follows: 


ME COINY Sooo eee ence vans AABB, 
Constant intermediate............ AAbb, 
IEEE TACO as iw hc acne do se is aaBB or aabb. 


Combinations of AABB X aabb would give in F, an interme- 
diate AaBb. In F, the expected ratio of early, intermediates and 
lates would be 3:9:4. Further explanation is long and compli- 
cated. In view of the numberless varieties with differences in the 
length of time it takes them to reach the blooming period, it appears 
to the writer that some cases should be of simpler composition than 
others—the early, intermediate and late classes being interpretable 
as combinations of a single pair of factors, which in F, would give 
a 1:2:1 ratio. | 

Hoshino (40.5) also interprets his genetic data on time of flow- © 

~ dt by means of two factors, one of which, Lf (A), determines 
the “proper” time of flowering in the late parent, while Ef (B) 
modifies the expression of Lf toward earlier flowering, and is s hypo- 


560 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


static to Lf. The absence of Lf is epistatic to the absence of Ef, and 
determines the time of flowering of the early parent, while the 
absence of Ef causes the early variety to bloom a few days later. 
Gametic contamination of some sort is believed to be irivolved, but 
the factors are distinctly stated not to be “inconstant” in the sense 
in which Castle (10) uses the term. Lf (“A”) is partially coupled 
with factor A for flower color, the proportion of non-cross-over to 
cross-over gametes approximating 7:1. 


11. NUMBER FLOWERS PER SINGLE PEDUNCLE. 


Flowers in Pisum are borne either singly, in twos or in threes on 
a single axillary peduncle, unless the factor for normal stem is 
absent. P. elatius is an excellent example of the “flowers per 
peduncle 2-3” type, while most of the commonly cultivated varie- 
ties are two-flowered or 1-2-flowered. Such early forms as Veloc- 
ity, First of All, and Black Abyssinian are almost totally single 
flowered. 

According to Hurst (44), the tendency to bear pods (and con- 
sequently flowers) in pairs is inherited. Vilmorin (90) states 
1-flowered and 1-2-flowered peduncles to be dominant to 2-3-flow- 
ered peduncles, these two characters being determined by the pres- 
ence and absence of a single factor. In the table, this is designated 
Fn. Strictly one-flowered types and their relation to the 1-2-flow- 
ered type apparently have not been studied. 


12. .FOLIAGE AND STEM COLOR. 


The foliage and stem color of peas is either green or yellowish 
green, each color generally being associated with unripe pods of the 
same color, although a few purple and yellow podded varieties of 
peas are known with green leaves. Green or purple podded yellow- 
leaved varieties are unknown. Gold von Blocksberg and Goldkénig 
are typical yellow-leaved varieties. : 

The writer obtained from crossing yellow foliage, etc., X green 
foliage, etc., green foliage, green podded F, progeny, which in F, 
gave 681 with green foliage, green pods and 222 with yellow foliage, 
yellow pods, the expectation being 677:226. Of 45 green foliage, 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 561 


green podded F, segregates tested in F;, 14 bred true, while 34 gave 
both yellow_and-green foliage and podded F, progeny, the total 
ratio being 427 GF:146 YF: 15 F, yellow-foliage segregates gave 
all yellow-foliage F, progeny. F, gave no exceptional results. 


INTERPRETATION. 


Varieties with green foliage and green pods differ from those 
with yellow foliage in the form investigated by the presence of the 
factor O. Hence all varieties of peas investigated with green foliage 
are OO, while those with yellow foliage are oo. 


13. TENDRILLED AND Non-TENDRILLED LEAVEs. 


With one exception, all cultivated varieties of peas have leaves 

in which part of the pinne have been replaced by tendrils. This 
one exception—the Acacia variety—has wrinkled seeds and no ten- 
drils, the place of the tendrils being taken by extra pinne. The 
variety breeds true as regards both the characters mentioned. Its 
origin is unknown, though the variety was first studied by Vilmorin 


(89, 90). 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Tendrilled, round seed X Acacia, wrinkled seed gave in F, all 
tendrilled, round-seeded progeny. In some crosses, the F, tendrils 
are slightly strapped-shaped, especially in the youngest tendrilled 
leaves. Otherwise dominance of tendril is complete. 

The F, plants bore F, round and wrinkled seeds in the usual 3:1 
proportions and the F, proportion of tendril and Acacia plants was 
as expected, approximately 3:1. In such a cross, providing these 
two pairs of characters were independently inherited, four classes 
in a ratio of 9:3:3:1 would be expected. When the seed and leaf 
characters were thus considered the four expected classes were 
found, but the proportions were awry, the two middle classes being 
all but absent. In other words, the F, round seeds gave almost ex- 
clusively tendrilled plants, while the F, wrinkled seeds gave practi- 
cally all Acacia or non-tendrilled plans, showing that round and 
tendrils, wrinkled and Acacia were almost completely linked or 
coupled together in their inheritance. 


562 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


In the F, generation, or from heterozygotes of the same com- 
position as F,, the following results have been obtained: 


Round Seeds Gave Wrinkled Seeds Gave 
Investigator, 
Tendril. Acacia. Tendril. Acacia. 
MALOOF eS ie ei eevee TT3 2 5 70 
Vilmorin (case 2).......... 170 I 4 99 
Bateson eG. ee eka aes 210 4 : I 64 
Pellew (64)2 ces esc. 1466 20 I5 564 


The first three series of results are less accurate than that of 
Pellew because the classification of rounds and wrinkleds was not 
made by examining the starch, hence errors occurred—wrinkleds 
being sown for round and vice versa. By the starch examination 
method, there could be no such mistakes, as wrinkleds always have 
“compound” or much split roundish starch grains. 

Tendrilled wrinkled X constant round-seeded Acacia segregates 
(64) gave in F, the usual results, but in F,, the round seeds gave 
502 tendrilled, 270 Acacia, while the wrinkled seeds gave 264 ten- 
drilled, o Acacia. 

Pellew tested out other pairs of characters with tendrils and 
Acacias to see if there was any coupling, but none was found. 
Among these pairs tested were tallness and dwarfness, yellow and 
green cotyledons, purple and white flowers, glaucous and emerald 
foliage and fasciated and normal stems. 


INTERPRETATION. 


The factor (R) for roundness of seed, etc., and its absence (r) 
for wrinkled seed, etc., have already been considered. Tendrilled 
and non-tendrilled plants (Acacia) are due to the respective pres- 
ence and absence of the factor Tl. The peculiar ratios obtained as 
regards both sets of factors show that partial linkage or coupling 
exists between R and Tl on the one hand and r and tl on the other. 
The interpretation of the manner in which this partial coupling is 
brought about is too extended to consider here. Suffice to say that 
Bateson (3.5) and his students explain it by somatic segregation and 
the increased rapidity of growth of the germ cell area which is to 
give rise to the large classes, as compared to that which gives rise to 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 563 


the small classes. This is called the reduplication hypothesis. Mor- 
gan and-his students (61, 62,73) explain the same facts in a wholly 
different manner on the basis of the linear arrangement and “ linkage” 
of groups of factors together in the same chromosome, and the occa- 
sional crossing-over of factors to the opposite or homologous 
chromosome during the maturation divisions. To the writer, the 
latter. appears to be the more simple interpretation and better sup- 
ported by the facts. 
14. BLoom. 


_ With comparatively few exceptions, all varieties of peas have 
a waxy surface covering on their leaves, stems, pods and other plant 
parts. The varieties from which this is absent are known as 
Emeralds and very easily become diseased. Emerald varieties 
studied by Vilmorin (89) are Emereva, Johnson’s British Empire 
and Pois a brochettes. 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Glaucous (waxy) X glaucous gives glaucous. 
_ Glaucous X emerald in F, is always glaucous (89, 86, 92). In 
F,, the following results have been obtained : 


Investigator. Glaucous. Emerald. _ Total. 
Vilmorin eM feo les is SS os ss 138 39 177 
oe asic wo wre’ 35 18 53 
ea 173 57 230 
a Sake lo il Sh brat eae saa 3 I 
Theoretically expected .............:. 172 57 


In F,;, of 15 F, glaucous, 5 gave all glaucous, while 10 gave 133 
glaucous: 32 emeralds. 15 F., emeralds tested in F; gave all or 199 
emeralds. 

Emerald X emerald (89, 92) gave glaucous in F, which in F, 
gave glaucous to emeralds in the ratio of 9:7. Vilmorin crossed 
Emereva (emerald) with two other emeralds noted above with the 
same results. The following results were obtained from 2 F, plants 
in F,: 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LV, KK, DECEMBER II, I917. 


564 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Plant A, 27 : 20 emerald, 
Plant 8). > 23° + 21. emerald, 
Actual, CO) Sat 
Calculated, 51.1: 39.8 
In F, 6 F, glaucous plants gave in one case all glaucous, in 5 
cases both glaucous and emerald. Of 3 F, emeralds tested in F;, 
only emerald progeny resulted. 


INTERPRETATION. 


The above data show that two factors are involved in the inheri- 
tance of bloom; in the absence of either or both, the plant is 
emerald. No emeralds have been obtained as yet in which both 
factors for bloom are absent. Regarded thus, in respect to bloom 
and its absence, varieties of peas with bloom are BIBIWW, while 
emeralds may be either blblww, BIBlww or biblWW. “Emeralds of 
the first type should be obtained as “segregates. 


15. PRODUCTIVENESS. 


Productiveness is to be regarded as a composite character or one 
made up of a very large number of other characters. Length of 
vine, number of internodes, number of pods per single peduncle, 
number of pods per plant, length of pods, number of pea ovules 
per pod, number of peas matured per pod are a few of the heredi- 
tary characters, the combined results of which are called productive- 
ness. In addition to these there are a host of environmental condi- 
tions which either raise or lower the hereditary productivity of a 
variety. For a scientific study of the heredity of productiveness, 
it is necessary ‘to eliminate as nearly as possible variation caused by 
environment, and this is most easily accomplished by growing the 
varieties to be studied and their hybrids under as near as practicable, 
one set of conditions. A study of this character under these condi- 
tions, so far as I am aware, has not yet been published. : 

Varieties of peas, as well known, differ remarkably in the aver- 
age number of pods they bear, and these variations are governed, as 
usually studied, quite as much by environment as by heredity. Such 
early varieties as Morning Star, Excelsior, Velocity and others do 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 565 


well under ordinary-conditions if they average four pods per vine, 
while some of the late varieties with large vines may average 30 to 
50 pods. Variation in the number of pods per single vine is large 
even among the individuals of a pure varietal strain, but in some 
cases this may be regarded as almost entirely environmental. Fur- 
ther the extremes as to few or large number of pods never transcend 
certain limits, and supposedly these limits represent the character 
of the environment, whether most unfavorable or most favorable. 
Olin (63) records a plant grown in the Colorado mountains under 
exceptional conditions which was 3 meters high and bore 650 pods 
averaging 5 peas per pod. On the other hand, some of the wild 
forms average 4 pods per plant. 

Hurst (44) grew I12 varieties under about the same conditions. 
From data on these, the heaviest yielders appeared to be those varie- 
ties with the largest number of pairs of pods, but he states this to 
be more apparent than real. Some varieties generally bear pods 
singly, while other varieties have them in pairs or in threes. Twenty 
plants of Velocity gave Hurst 202 singles and no pairs, while a 
score or more of plants of other varieties gave all the way from 4 
doubles: 471 singles to 142 doubles: 593 singles. 

Shaw (70) from a large series of biometrical studies on sev- 
eral pea varieties came to the conclusion that the number of pods 
per single plant was not a heritable character, but that it was cor- 
related with vine length, which is heritable. Shaw’s experiments 
and treatment of his material, however, were not of such a character 
as to throw much light on this subject. Shaw and others point out 
the probability that each node is potentially capable of producing 
pods. In most modern studies of heredity, however, one considers 
only the physical characteristics of a plant or a variety as they 
actually are under a given set of environmental conditions and not 
the potentialities or possible variations of this plant or variety under 
a thousand and one environments in which it might be grown. 

The productivity of any variety of pea, as is well known, is in- 
creased by harvesting the green marketable pods, instead of allow- 
ing the first crop to mature. 

Relander (66) has begun a careful study of the problem of pro- 
ductivity in peas by growing the parents and crosses in pots of 


566 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


similar size and soil contents under the same environmental condi- 
tions and taking data on the total dry plant, seed and straw weight 
per pot, weight per 1,000 seeds, the average number of pod-carrying 
internodes and pods per plant and the average number of seeds and 
seed “ Anlagen”’ or ovules per pod. In crosses between varieties 
or pure lines differing in these respects, the F, progeny gave various 
results, depending on the varieties crossed and the character consid- 
ered. In all crosses, the individuals of one pure line culture of the 
variety Victoria, were used as one of the parents, the other parents 
being from pure lines of Russian and Finnish field pea varieties. — 
The F, results as given by Relander are in figures with which fig- 
ures from the two parent varieties are given for comparison. Table 
A roughly represents the character of the F, progeny in terms of 
the parent characters. Intermediate means only approximate in- 
termediate condition, Relander’s figures showing that the produc- 
tivity in most of the cases marked intermediate was nearer that of 
the more productive parent. 


TABLE A. 


DIFFERENT F, VARIETAL CROSSES. 


Character, I. II. III. IV. View VI. 


Total weight of dry plant per 


DOG 6 snsssca (eins secant BEB. 4 Pati) Tait. ol BP ee TP 
Total seed weight per pot....| H.E.P. | Int. | Int. | H.P. | H.E.P. | H.E.P 
Total straw weight per pot...| Int. ome. oho RP in? n 


Weight per 1,000 seeds (only 
fully mature, well-developed 


geed used) i's...05:5.3 eakeatnes Int. Int. | Int. | Int. Int. Int. 
Ave. no. of-pod carrying inter- 

nodes per plant ......... .i ss. HP. iP) {| nts Pes das Int. 
Ave. no. pods per plant......| H.P. A Pol SEP are, Int. Int. 
Ave. no. seeds per pod....... Int. EP. Poe] SPs Cas H.E:P; 
Av. no. of ovules or seed ‘‘An-| All intermediate but nearer the high producing 

lagen. per. POds svi heme tol parent. No data on No. VI. 


H.E.P. = Higher than either parent. 
H.P. = Dominance of more productive parent. 
L.P. = Dominance of less productive parent. 
Int. = Intermediate. 


_ Relander interprets the differences in her results as due to dif- 
ferences in factorial composition of the different varieties she used. 
She does not believe that the increased productivity obtained in 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 567 


certain of her crosses is due to heterozygosis in the sense of East 


and Hayes (27). 
16. Pop Cotor. 


- As regards color of unripe pods, varieties of peas may be classi- 
fied into three groups—green-podded, yellow-podded and purple- 
podded. 

Green-podded varieties are the most common and are typical of 
all the wild species. Green pods are never associated with yellow 
foliage. 

Yellow-podded varieties often have bright yellow pods associa- 
ted with yellow flower-bearing axes, green stems and foliage. All 
yellow-foliaged varieties, such as Goldkénig and Gold von Blécks- 
berg, have yellow or yellowish green pods. All yellow-podded 
varieties known to me have yellow cotyledons, although segregates 
have been obtained with yellow pods, yellow foliage and green 
cotyledons. 

Purple-podded varieties such as Nero and Purple-podded Field 
Pea have colored flowers and gray seed coats. Tschermak (86) 
cites Vilmorin as saying that weak purple pigmentation has been 
found in pods on white-flowered plants. Lock (56), Tschermak 
(86) and Fruwirth (34) have found considerable variation among 
different pods of the same plant, some pods being wholly purple, 
while others are purple splashed with green in various degrees. 
Plants with all purple pods are also found. Fruwirth attempted to 
secure by selection a stable pure green-podded race from the green 
and purple-splashed podded plants. Ten generations gave entirely 
negative results. Strains having only purple pods were secured in 
these same experiments by planting seeds of wholly purple pods. 
Fruwirth regards the appearance of these true breeding purple- 
podded strains as bud niutations. 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Green pod X green pod always gives green pod (pure varieties). 
Green pod X yellow pod gives in F, all green-podded progeny. 
In F, Mendel secured approximately 3 green-podded plants:1 yel- 
low-podded. Tschermak’s results involving crosses of yellow pod 


568 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


with 8 very distinct varieties with green pods confirmed Mendel’s 
results. In some of these crosses, Tschermak obtained colored- 
flowered, yellow-podded segregates which remained constant. 
Yellow-pod segregates always bred true, while the green-pod F, 
segregates in F, in some cases were constant, and in others gave 
both green- and yellow-podded plants. 

Green pod X purple pod in F, always gives all purple-podded 
progeny (56, 86, 34, 90). In F,, Lock obtained five different types 
of segregates—segregates with all purple pods, with all green pods, 
and segregates having green pods with various degrees of purple col- 
oring. Some plants were very faintly pigmented. Tschermak obtained 
small F, numbers—1o purple in different degrees: 5 green. In Fy, 
the F, purple-pigmented plants gave 34 purple: 27 green. Fruwirth, 
on the other hand, obtained all green-pod progeny in F, of two 
crosses of green pod X purple or purple-splashed pod varieties, and 
in F, of one of them, 39 green-podded and 10 purple or purple- 
splashed segregates were obtained. According to Fruwirth, purple 
pod color is inherited independently of purple-specked seed coat 
pattern. 

Yellow pod X purple pod gives in F, (86) purple pod, which in 
F, gives purples or purple-splashed: yellow in an approximation 
to a 9:7 ratio. Yellow-podded segregates always breed true. 

No data have been published on crosses of F, yellow and F, 
green-podded segregates from combinations involving purple-podded 
varieties. : 

INTERPRETATION. 


So far as our present data go, all green-pod varieties of peas 
may be regarded as differing from yellow-pod varieties by the pres- 
ence of a factor Gp. The factorial relation of purple-podded varie- 
ties to green- and yellow-pod varieties cannot be cleared up until 
more data are obtained. Tschermak regards purple-pod varieties 
for the present as bifactorial, differing from green- and yellow-pod 
races by the presence of two factors (P, and P,). Through the 
presence of both of these factors purple-pigmented pods would 
result. In the absence of either or both the plant has green or yel- 
low pods. Possibly there is more than a bifactorial difference be- 
tween purple- and yellow-podded varieties, but Tschermak’s num- . 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 569 


bers are too small to throw much light on this possibility. Purple- 
podded-varieties need a much more thorough study before putting 
them on a factorial basis. Green- and yellow-podded varieties may 
be provisionally represented as the presence and absence of Gp. 


17. Pop APICEs. 


Varieties of peas have either blunt (obtuse) or acute pods. 
Most curved varieties such as Black-eyed Marrowfat and Scimitar 
have acute pods, while blunt pods are characteristic of Nott’s Ex- 
celsior, Gold von Blocksberg, French Gray Sugar, Ringleader and 
others. These characters are generally most sharply defined in 
well-filled pods. In many varieties doubtful pods occur on the 
same vine with those easily classified. 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Blunt (stumpy) X acute in F, always gives all blunt-podded 
offspring (81, I, 54, 56). In F,, blunt-podded to acute-podded 
plants occur in approximately 3:1 proportions. 


INTERPRETATION. 


The difference between blunt- and acute-podded varieties may 
be represented by the factor Bt, its presence denoting bluntness, its 
absence acute pods. 


18. PARCHMENTED oR NoON-PARCHMENTED, SMOOTH OR CON- 
STRICTED, NoN-EDIBLE OR EDIBLE Pops. 


The great majority of pea varieties have pods the inner lining 
of which is tough, papery and membranous in both the mature and 
immature state. The ripe or mature pods of these parchmented 
varieties are very tough and generally do not crumple up in drying. 
In the wild species this parchmented character is exceptionally well 
developed while in a few cultivated varieties such as the thin-podded 
Goldkénig, the parchment is comparatively inconspicuous, so that 
the dry pods are slightly crumpled. None of these varieties are re- 
garded as having edible pods. 

Differing conspicuously from these parchmented varieties are 


570 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


the so-called sugar peas. The pods of this group of varieties are 
absolutely non-parchmented, and more tender, sweet and edible 
than string beans. When unripe, the pods have a granular trans- 
lucency and are crumpled and constricted, so that the peas as they 
mature appear to be pushing out that part of the pod with which 
they are in contact. When dry, these pods shrink and become much 
more constricted, and very brittle. As a green vegetable they are 
very popular in continental Europe and in China. So far as known 
no wild forms have this character, though cultivated varieties of it 
are described as far back as our botanical records go. 


VARIETIES STUDIED. 


Parchmented—See Tschermak (81, 86), Darbishire, Bateson 
(1, 3), Lock (54) and others (89, 99). 

Non-parchmented.—Wachs Schwert, French Gray Sugar, Petit 
Pois, Dwarf French Gray Sugar, Giant Sugar (pods up to 11.25 
cm. long). | 

RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Parchmented X parchmented always gives parchmented in F, 
and succeeding generations. 

Parchmented X non-parchmented in most cases gives complete 
dominance of parchment in F, (60, 86, 89, 90). In other cases, dif- 
ferent varieties being used, the F, has been more or less intermedi- 
ate, 7. e., parchmented but not as heavily as in the parchmented 
parent (1, 56). 

In F,, the proportion of plants with either fully parchmented or 
with more or less parchmented pods to those with complete absence 
of parchment in their pods approximate 3:1. The following re- 
sults have been obtained: 


Investigator. Parchmented. Non-parchmented. Ratio. 

Mendel. 5) ey sSieia eae sees 882 299 2.052% 
Techermiale oc .-oce eee ae 45 I5 eae 
BIO Fo ess ae ngs nko He ee 59 25 EB: 6 
‘Totals; $396. uo seem ark 986 339 2.9%. 


-WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 571 


Tschermak, Lock and Bateson have made many crosses involv- 
ing these characters but the actual numbers are given in only a few 
cases. Bateson (1) and Lock (54, 56) both obtained intermediates 
- in some crosses. 

In F;, from seed of 100 parchmented F, plants, Mendel found 
29 that bred true and 71 that had both parchmented and non-parch- 
mented offspring.. The non-parchmented F,’s always bred true. 
In F,, no exceptional results were obtained. 

Mendel, Lock and Tschermak have always found parchmented 
pods to be inflated and non-parchmented to be constricted. 

Non-parchmented X non-parchmented in some cases give only 
non-parchmented in F,. In other cases (Vilmorin 89) in a large 
series of crosses between diverse varieties of non-parchmented peas, 
the F, progeny have been frequently parchmented. In F, these 
parchmented F,’s have produced approximately 9 parchmented: 7 
non-parchmented progeny. 


INTERPRETATION. 


Parchmented varieties of peas may be regarded as differing from 
those having non-parchmented pods by the presence of either one 
or two factors (P and V). No varieties or tested out segregates 
have been recorded representing the absence of both P and V, but 
from Vilmorin’s results one should expect to find them. All parch- 
mented varieties may be regarded as PPVV, while non-parch- 
mented varieties so far investigated are either PPvv or ppVV. 
PPvv X ppVV would give parchmented F,’s and 9 parchmented: 7 
non-parchmented in F,, while either PPvv or ppVV X PPVV 
would give parchmented F,’s and a 3:1 ratio in F,,. 


19. ADHERENCE BETWEEN MATURE PEAS IN THE Pop. 


As well known, all varieties of peas except one have pods in 
which the seeds are entirely free from each other. This one ex- 
ceptional variety known as “Chenille” has pods with free imma- 
ture seeds, which when mature adhere more or less closely to each 
other as though stuck together with glue, and this particular char- 


572 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


acter under favorable environmental conditions is completely hered- 
itary. The variety was sent to Vilmorin from Switzerland in 1906 
by M. Frommel and had emerald leaves. It has been suggested that 
the absence of wax (glaucousness) has been partly responsible for 
its origin, as the young growing peas in contact with each other, free 
from wax, tend to grow together as do grafts. But in other emerald 
varieties the peas do not adhere, so the attempted ape is 
not very satisfactory. 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Free seeds, glaucous foliage, pink flowers X chenille seeds, 
emerald foliage, white flowers gave in F,, glaucous foliage, purple- 
red flowers, and free seeds. In F, a total of 175 progeny gave 144 
with free seeds and 31 with adherent seeds or a ratio of approxi- 
mately 4:1. Considering the combinations of this pair of charac- 
ters with those of flower color and foliage character in F,, the 
results were: 


flowers colored 105 


Plants glaucous (138) | Rivuinra tate 33 


| seeds free 


henille 28 
flowers colored 29 ERE. 


Plants emerald (39) a ill 
flowers white 8{{ eis, 
free 5 


These results show all is in accordance with ordinary Mendelian 
theoretical expectation both as to classes and numerical representa- 
tion of classes, until the chenille and free seed pair of characters 
is considered. Here one notes (1) that glaucous plants have only 
free seeds whereas on a one-factor basis about 35 plants are ex- 
pected to have chenille seeds; (2) that the chenille and free seed 
characters are distributed among the emerald plants in approximately 
3:1 proportions, but just the reverse of what ordinarily would be 
expected, the dominant character in F, in this cross being free 
seeds. 

In F, the F, plants of various kinds tested out gave as follows: 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Character of F; Progeny by Classes. 


Character of |No. of Fg Plants|___ 
F, Parent> | Tested. 


| GCF, | GCA. | GWF. | GWA.| ECF. | ECA. | EWF. | EWA. 


* ae ae 
no chenilles 


574 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


non-parchmented pods makes a decided difference in the number of 
chenille plants that are obtained in crosses. Seeds of purple red 
flower segregates are said to rarely cohere, even though the plants 
are sblw_ (abc). 
It seems to the writer, however, that these results are more 
plausibly and simply interpreted as partial coupling or linkage of the 
- factor S with either Bl or W, it being impossible to tell which until 
further data are obtained. The amount of crossing over is shown . 
by the following grouping of the F, progeny and that of certain 
heterozygote families in F,: 


Linked, 90-97%. | Total. Crossovers, 3.3-10.5%. Total. 
GF, 138 +57 +70 | 265 GA,o+24+4 6 
EA, 31 +21+ 5 57 EF,6+2+4 12 


The percentage of plants with emerald foliage is much lower 
than that expected on a 3:1 ratio, and as chenille seeds and emerald 
foliage are coupled, this also brings down the per cent. of chenilles 
below the theoretical expectancy. Emeralds in the writer’s experi- 
ence as grown from seed kindly sent by P. Vilmorin, succumb much 
more easily to disease than the general run of glaucous varieties and 
perhaps this accounts for the low per cent. of emeralds obtained in 
Vilmorin’s hybrid generations. The relation of flower color to 
free and chenille seeds is not clear on the present scant_data, though 
the evidence does not favor the idea of partial coupling between one 
of the color factors and chenille, so far as the writer can dis- 
cover. The approximation between the obtained frequencies 
(152 RpF:48 RpA:51 WF:6 WA) and those theoretically ex- 
pected (144:48:48:16) indicate either nipatiinusee inheritance or 
at most very loose coupling. 


20. Pop DIAMETER. 


Both pod diameter and pod length in peas present the same com- 
plex mixture of environmental and genetic variations as is found in 
such characters as time of bloom, productivity and height. Several 
of the wild varieties have the smallest and most narrow pods 
(0.8-0.9 cm.) while the sugar peas have the longest and widest 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 575 


(2.0-2.6 cm.) pods. Between these two extremes are numerous 
varieties with pods representing all gradations in size, each variety 
having pods with a definite range of variation characteristic to it, 
when the varieties compared are grown under similar environmental 
conditions. The following list of varieties (by number) with their 
green pod diameter range will give a clearer idea of these differ- 
ences : 


| pee eee 0.8-0.9 cm. sig Peeper 1.51.5 cm. 
SIE 5 56409 I.I-I.I cm. COs oss kas 1.5-1.6 cm. 
TS ee I.2-1.3 cm. Pee Ss ae 1.5-1.6 cm. 
BO os cs a sis's 1.2-1.3 cm. ag) nes 1.5-1.7 cm. 
9 oe ‘2 cm. PSE oo he keSHl.7 CM. 
oy. a ve 1.3-1.5 cm. PR Sos 1.5-1.6 cm. 
re 1.4-1.6 cm. FSR ics cae 1.6-1.8 cm. 
Se 1.4-1.5 cm. POE as eee 2.0-2.5 cm. 

POS Packer 2.0-2.6 cm. 


RESULTS FROM CROSSING. 


Tschermak (81) and Lock (54, 56) crossed narrow-podded 
peas with wide-podded varieties and obtained in F, either interme- 
diates or dominance of the large pod type. 

In F,, segregation was observed but the plants were extremely 
difficult to classify as the pod width per plant distribution gave a 
coritinuous series. For example, Lock crossed 13 mm. X 20 mm. 
and obtained 18 F, plants with pods of the following character: 


Mm. frequency classes ......... f° 33.. (1g 38 16 2S Ie eee 
MUI -OIUMES oo coc ces cece ce 3 6 6 2 I 


In F,, 32 plants were grown, giving the following frequency dis- 
tribution : 


Mm. frequency classes .... 12 19:34 38 16 7 08 45 eee 
No; of planté ............ ROB a eae 


In F,, the narrow pod segregates. did not breed true. Large 
seeds were to some extent correlated with wide pods. 

In another cross (13 mm. X wide-pod Telephone), 14 F, plants 
had pods on the average as wide as those of Telephone. In F,, 78 
plants gave the following distribution. 


576 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


Mm. frequency classes.... I2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 25 
No... of plants: Lick sues sess yeas 2 GRE, Sanam iy epee Mie oe 

In the F, of a reciprocal of this same cross, 42 wide and inter- 
mediate and 13 narrow were obtained. A correlation between nar- 
row pods, small seed and leaves and wide pods, large seeds and 
large leaves is noted. 

In still another cross of the 13 mm. variety X French Sugar 
(over 20 mm.), the F, pods were intermediate. Of 84 F, plants, 19 
were classified as narrow-podded and 65 as wide-podded. 

In F,, seeds of the various F, types gave 


9g F, narrow pod produced only narrow (13-16 mm.), 

4 F, narrow pod produced very narrow and narrow pods, 
9 F, wide pod produced only wide (17 mm. and over), 

22 F, wide pod gave both narrow and wide pods. 


In this cross, as in the others, wide pods in the main were asso- 
ciated with large seeds and narrow with small seeds. 


INTERPRETATION. 


Lock (54) interprets his data as showing segregation in F,, but 
until a much greater mass of data is obtainable, it is useless to 
speculate on the factorial nature of this character. In some cases 
one should expect a simple one factor difference, while in other 
cases the results are probably very complex. 


21. MATURITY OF GREEN Pops FoR MARKET. 


This character is complex and closely associated with the time 
of blooming, etc. Hurst found a variation of 52 days among the 
II2 varieties he grew under similar environmental conditions. 
Tedin (77) crossed varieties of peas breeding true to the same 
ripening period and secured forms with decidedly longer and shorter 
time of maturity periods. 

STERILITY. 


Sterility in peas is almost unknown even in crosses between such 
so-called species as P. arvense, P. Jomardi, P. elatius, P. sativum. 
The only recorded cases of sterility in this group are between a form 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 577 


of P. humile Boiss. (Sutton, 74) and various varieties of P. arvense 
and P. sativum. Sutton made 40 crosses, using in each case P. 
humile as one parent and Io varieties of white-flowered (P. sat.) 
and 7 of colored (P. arv.) as the other parents. The results were 
various, but apparently each combination produced seed. When 
planted some failed to germinate or died immediately after germina- 
tion, others reached the flowering stage but no seed were produced 
and still others produced seed, which failed to germinate. Ina few 
cases, the F, seed germinated, and the plants flowered but no seed 
resulted. In four cases, the F, plants were completely fertile, two 
of the hybrids having white-flowered P. sativum ancestry and 2 
having colored-flowered P. arvense ancestry. 

Incrosses involving this same form (the seed of which Mr. Arthur 
Sutton kindly sent me) and forms of P. elatius, P. sativum and P. 
arvense, the writer obtained plants completely fertile in F,. In the 
crosses, however, great difficulty was experienced in making them 
“stick,” and the majority of cross pollinations resulted in failure. 
Many of the F, generation seed failed to germinate, though only 
plump seed were planted. 

MutTATION. 


As compared with such organisms as the pomace or fruit fly, 
Drosophila mutations are very rare in peas. All horticulturists and 
breeders remark on the extreme constancy of pea varieties, some 
of which have been in existence for at least a quarter of a century 
without showing any striking modifications, and one variety, the 
British Queen, is said by Sherwood to be practically a century old. 
Several of the varieties mentioned by Darwin (22), such as Victoria 
Marrow, Pois géant sans parchemin, Scimitar, Auvergne, Champion 
of England, are still in existence to-day and very little changed, so 
far as one may decide by the descriptions written in his day. Tedin 
(77) who has made detailed studies of a large number of varieties 
at Svalo6f and who is on a special lookout for mutations has found 
them rare and none of them of much practical value. 

Fruwirth (34) in conducting selection experiments on a variety 
of pea with pods and seeds varying in all degrees in the amount of 
purple pigment it possesses, discovered a very curious type of bud 


578 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


mutation. The pods on a single plant generally varied from pure 
purple to purple streaked with green. Plants with all purple pods 
also occurred. The seeds were either pure yellowish green, yellow- 
ish green with. purple flecks, purple with small yellowish green 
flecks, or wholly purple. Seeds of all these colors occur together 
on the same plant or even in the same pod or each type occurred 
pure on single plants. Pedigree cultures for ten generations showed 
that bud mutations or sports arose whereby pure strains. were es- 
tablished with yellowish green seeds. Other bud sports or muta- 
tions gave rise to true breeding purple-podded strains. That these 
were not the result of selection as is ordinarily understood by that 
term is shown by their abrupt origin and their breeding true at once. 
Another. mutation of the same type is the wild vetch-like 
“rogue” which many varieties of cultivated peas throw in varying 
percentages. Bateson and Pellew (5) have investigated the genetics 
of this “ rogue” mutation with the following results: The varieties 
investigated were Ne Plus Ultra, Early Giant and Duke of Albany. 
Thoroughly typical plants of these varieties occasionally throw 
rogues and intermediate forms. The rogues, when fertile (rarely 
sterile), have exclusively “rogue” offspring. The intermediates 
from typical plants give a mixed progeny of a few typical plants 
and many “rogues.” Some varieties and some strains of the same 
variety throw more “rogues” than others. Selected Gradus strains 
throw about one per cent., while some varieties such as Fillbasket 
appear never to throw rogues. Rogues crossed with rogues always 
give rogues. nr 

These two cases of mutation appear to be similar to what Emer- 
son (27.5) calls, in cases investigated by him in corn, “ recurring 
somatic variations,” or what East (26.2, pp. 40-43) refers to as 
recurring mutations, meaning of course that it is impossible to free 
a variety from the recurrence of the mutation (in East’s case, semi- 
starchy seeds in varieties and segregate lines of sweet corn). 

If mutations are so rare in peas as our present knowledge seems 
to indicate, how have all the numerous genetic differences among 
them come about? In the absence of records, so far as can be 
judged from what has been observed in other organisms, it is most 
plausible to believe that most of the so-called factors originated as 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 579 


mutations and were subsequently shuffled among a large number of 
forms, largely through artificial crossing. From the lack of inter- 
mediates and from their Mendelian behavior, it is almost inconceiv- 
able that such characters as non-parchmented pods, lack of tendrils, 
pink flowers and emerald foliage could have originated in any other 
manner. 

SELECTION. 


In the American Cyclopedia of Horticulture, under peas, L. H. 
_ Bailey states that varieties of peas left to themselves soon lose their 
distinctive characteristics, because of their great variability. This 
statement is contrary to all the information I have found in the writ- 
ings of English horticulturists and others on peas (22, 42, 51, 57.5, 
96, 72). In fact, most of our new varieties of peas are obtained 
through crossing, there being so little variability in varieties by 
which one may bring about improvement through selection. 

In the work at the Svaléf Experiment Station, improved varie- 
ties are secured through selection, but in reality this is simply isola- 
tion of pure lines which have either arisen unnoted as mutations, 
or as unselected segregates from crosses far back. Tedin’s (24) 
character basis by which he isolates new forms is the average weight 
of seeds, their number per pod and the total number of pods per 
plant, etc. Upon isolation, these new- forms immediately form 
constant varieties. 

Fruwirth (34) is the only one who has made a modern scien- 
tific study of selection in peas. The Blauhilsige variety, as already 
stated, has either wholly ‘purple pods or purple pods streaked with 
green. Both color types occur on the same plant and some plants 
have only purple pods. The seeds of this variety are pure purple, 
purple flecked with greenish yellow, yellow green flecked with pur- 
ple or wholly greenish yellow. All types occur on the same plant or 
each on separate plants, but the progeny of each type give rise to 
all the other types. After 10 years of pure line selection and 2 
years of mass selection for a pure purple-seeded race, no results 
have been secured. Selection toward a pure constant green-seeded 
race also resulted in failure. Selection for the same length of time 
toward a pure constant green-podded race gave only negative 
results. 

PROC, AMER, PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, LL, JANUARY 8, 1918. 


580 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


* ROGUES.” 


’ 


The term “rogue” is applied by seedsmen to any variation or 
off-type plants in a field of pure-bred plants of a variety. For ex- 
ample, tall peas in a plot sown to dwarf peas, colored-flowered indi- 
viduals in a white-flowered variety, yellow seeds in a green-seeded 
variety, late bloomers in an early-flowering variety are all desig- 
nated as rogues and carefully eliminated. In many cases, these 
rogues are due to careless handling of the seed; in others, to the 
presence of heterozygotes which subsequently produce recessives— 
the heterozygotes having arisen through rare insect crossing or 
through never having been selected out when the variety was first 
placed on the market, e. g., Nonpareil and others with yellow and 
green cotyledons. Again, these “rogues” may come about through 
“recurring mutation” phenomena or through regular mutation. In 
Tschermak’s studies on flower color and maple seed coat, certain 
factors appeared in exceptional cases to be present but inactive. 
Thus among pink-flowered peas, plants with purple red flowers 
might occasionally appear. Still another way in which “rogues” 
could easily occur has its basis in a change in environment and in 
the fact that all factors or factor combinations do not react alike 
to such changes, so that while under one environment a variety 
might breed true, under another, variations would appear, due to 
unsuspected factorial differences. 

Most of these rogues can be eliminated permanently by removing 
the cause, but those that result from recurring mutations can, so 
far as we now know, only be reduced to a’ minimum and kept there 
only by constant watchfulness. 


CoupLiInG (LINKAGE) AND CROoSSING-OVER. 


Varieties of peas so far investigated have seven pairs of chromo- 
somes (Cannon, 11). If the genetic factors of animals and plants 
are located in the chromosomes as believed by Morgan (62) and 
others (61, 62.5, 26.5, 73), all the factors of a single variety 
of peas should be inherited as though linked or coupled together in 
seven groups, each group representing the factor composition of one 
of the seven pairs of chromosomes. This grouping in peas can be 
determined with the least trouble by crossing a variety having seven 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 581 


or more different factors with a variety lacking these factors, mak- 
ing the cross-a sufficient number of times to insure a large F, popu- 
lation (47 or 16,384 individuals at least) or by making all the pos- 
sible combinations of the seven-factor pairs through separate cross- 
ings. In F,, in the former case, if each factor is inherited inde- 
pendently of all the others and large enough numbers of progeny 
are grown, there should be 128 F, combinations which remain con- 
stant in F, and later generations and 2,187 combinations all together 
(60), each of which would be represented in a definite proportion of 
the progeny. Each of the seven factors should be present in ap- 
proximately three fourths and absent in one fourth of the total 
offspring. If 8 factor differences were involved, the various numer- 
ical terms would be proportionally increased. But in the event that 
a cross involving 8 factors did give the theoretical expectation for 
the independent Mendelian segregation of eight pairs of factors, 
the chromosome theory, as at present held, would either be dis- 
proven or modified, for there would be only seven pairs of chromo- 
somes involved in carrying the eight pairs of factors through the 
mazes of the maturation divisions, where segregation is believed 
generally to take place. 

More accurate data on this subject are obtainable by back- 
crossing the F, hybrids with the recessive classes, but back-crossing 
in peas on a large scale is impracticable, as so few seeds are obtained 
from each cross. The large size of pea chromosomes, as compared 
to those of Drosophila, may be assumed to indicate, on present 
theories, a looser linkage of the factors of each group, as compared 
with the close linkage of the Drosophila groups. This loose linkage, 
if it exists, increases the difficulties of classifying the factors in 
groups and in determining their relation to each other within the 
group. . 

Inheritance studies on Pisum so far have disclosed only four 
linked groups of factors (ACEGcL,Lf, RTI, GO, SBI or SW), and 
several other doubtful groups in n which some of the factors are not 
as yet clearly delineated. In the first group, the evidence is com- 
plete enough to show the coupling is absolute except for the factor 
Lf and hence for simplicity’s sake, the first five factors may be 
regarded as one. G and O also appear to be partially coupled, 


582 WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 


although the data are scant. R and Tl as shown by Vilmorin, 
Bateson and Pellew are only partially coupled, there being a small 
per cent. of the combinations rTl and Rtl in F,. These are inter- 
preted by Morgan and his students as cross-overs of combinations, 
due to the simultaneous breaking of the chromosomes with respec- 
tively rtl and RTI at a point between the two kinds of factors and the 
subsequent union of the parts so as to bring r and Tl, R and tl 
together. This breaking occurred in about 1.5 per cent. of the total 
cases as regards the factors R and Tl. S and Bl or W are also in 
all probability partially coupled, similar to the case just described. 
The work of Morgan and his students on Drosophila has shown 
that by assuming that the linked factors of a group are arranged in 
an end-to-end straight-line series, definite places in the chromo- 
some may be assigned to each factor, and their relative distances 
from each other may be given in terms of a standard unit equal to 
I per cent. of crossing-over. When a large number of the factors 
of a single chromosome have been studied the relative frequency 
of the cross-overs of the various factors may be approximately 
calculated and predicted. 

When the relations in inheritance of the various factors to each 
other in such a group as Pisum are worked out, a definite basis for 
predicting correlation between different characters will have been 
found. On this basis, it will be possible to calculate with compara- 
tive ease the somatic characteristics of F, hybrid populations in- 
volving large numbers of factors, because so many of these char- 
acters will be associated together by linkage and may be considered 
as the expression of a single factor. Supposing the inheritance of 
a hundred factors in Pisum is involved in a cross about which it is 
desirable to have forehand knowledge. If each is independent of 
all the others in its inheritance, it is obvious that accurate predie- 
tions in regard to the combinations would be made with great diffi- 
culty, but if these are linked together in large groups, predictions 
can be made with fair accuracy and considerable ease. 

Crossing-over makes predictions regarding F, hybrid popula- 
tions somewhat more difficult than if the factor linkage was abso- 
lute, but at the same time they bring about new combinations in 
predictable proportions which, in a system where the coupling was 
absolute, would not be possible. 


WHITE—STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN PISUM. 583 


Further, on the chromosome-linkage-factor-crossing-over hy- 
pothesis, the amount of variation in a group of similar organisms 
(a species), eliminating that caused by environmental changes, 
would be in proportion (1) to the number of. factor differences 
between the various forms or varieties of the group; (2) to the 
number of pairs of chromosomes; (3) possibly to the relative sizes 
of the chromosomes (small chromosomes making crossing-over much 
more difficult) and (4) to the amount of cross fertilization which 
took place (either natural or artificial). | 

As Morgan points out, the interpretations of the genetic data on 
Drosophila crosses advanced by him and his students hold whether 
the chromosomes are or are not the bearers of the factors. 


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588 


84. 


85. 


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Paris, p. 51. IQII. 


. —. Les plantes potagéres. 
.——. 1911. Etude sur le caractére “adhérence des grains entre eux, 


chez” le pois “ chenille.’ IV° Conf. Internat. de Génétique, Paris, 
pp. 368-372. 


. Vinall, H. N. 1915. The Field Pea as a Forage Crop. U. S. Dept. of 


Agr. Farmer’s Bull., 690, pp. 1-24. 


. Waugh, F. A., and Shaw, J. K. 1909. Plant Breeding Studies in Peas. 


Ann. Rpt. Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1909, Pt. 1, pp. 168-175. 


95. ——. 1908. Variation in Peas. Jbid., 1908, Pt. 2, pp. 167-173. 

96. Weldon, W. F. R. 1901. Mendel’s Laws of Alternative Inheritance in 
Peas. Biometrika, 1, Pt. 2, pp. 228-254. Two plates. 

97. White, Orland E. 1914. Swingle on Variation in F; Citrus Hybrids and 
the Theory of Zygotaxis. Amer. Nat., 48, pp. 185-192. 

98. ——. 1916. Inheritance Studies in Pisum. I. Inheritance of Cotyle- 
don Color. Amer. Nat., 50, pp. 530-547. 

98.5. ——. 1916. Studies of Teratological Phenomena in their Relation to 
Evolution and the Problems of Heredity. II. The Nature, Causes, 
Distribution and Inheritance of Fasciation with Special Reference to 
Its Occurrence in Nicotiana. Zeitschr. f. ind. Abstamm. u. Verer- 
bungs., 15: ——. Figs. 1-28, Tables A—F + 1-26. 

99. Wilson, J. H. 1906. Peas. Rept. 3d Internat. Conf. of Genetics, Lon- 
don, 1906, p. 37. 

100. Zederbauer, E. 1914. Zeitliche Verschiedenwertigkeit der Merkmale 


bei Pisum sativum. Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenzucht., 2, S. 1-26. Figs. 1-6. 


ECOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 


(Piates IV-IX.) 
By H. H. M. BOWMAN. 
(Read April 13, 1917.) 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


When the plan for the pursuit of these studies was considered 
in the winter of 1914, the main idea was to make an effort to learn 
a little about the physiology of these interesting viviparous plants. 
Especially was it the aim to study the transpiration and absorption 
relations of these trees growing in salt water. Accordingly the 
splendid resources of the Carnegie Institution of Washington were 
offered and in June of 1915 the work was begun at the Institution’s 
Marine Laboratory located in the Dry Tortugas. 

During the first summer considerable ecologic observation was 
made during a month’s stay at Key West, Florida, the institution 
_ having furnished the investigator with a launchand two men. Many 
observations were taken on the growth habits of the plants, the 
character of the bottoms on which they grew, the depth relations, 
tidal effects, the flowering and fruiting conditions, growth rates of 
hypocotyls and of aérating roots, water densities, dimensions of 
roots and aérial structures, heights of trees and general distribu- 
tion about Key West and adjacent islands. 

In July, after going to Miami and thence down through the 
Florida Keys on board the institution’s yacht, Anton Dohrn, and 
notes on the mangrove being taken at various keys on the trip, the 
real laboratory work was commenced at the Tortugas. During the 
six weeks’ season of the laboratory, several trips were made up to 
the Florida Keys for suitable plants and also for material on which 
to work during the winter. At this time it was determined to en- 
large the scope of the work and to study some of the anatomical 
and histological features of Rhizophora mangle, and with this end 

589 


590 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


in view material was carefully collected of all parts of the plants 
and preserved for future study. Meanwhile, the transpiration work 
was pursued and some attempt made to correlate the structure of 
special organs with the physiological functions in these plants which 
grow in such peculiar conditions. 

In the winter of 1915-16 the study of these structures was car- 
ried on at the botanical laboratory of the University of Pennsyl- 
vania and again in June, 1916, a full season was spent at the Tor- 
tugas Laboratory on the physiology and also the biochemical relations 
of certain products in the hypocotyls. Short reports of the two sum- 
mers’ work were published in the year books of the Carnegie In- 
stitution.* 

While considerable work has been done on the mangroves of 
the tropics in general, this has been mostly of a purely morpho- 
logical nature, or ecological. The mangroves of our own tropical 
coasts have not been given as much attention as these plants might 
deserve ; while the physiological relations have only in a few notable 
instances been made the subject of detailed study. The most ex- 
tensive work has perhaps been done at the Buitenzorg Botanical 
Garden in Java by Haberlandt, etc. 

In South Florida, although -he climate is not like that of Java, 
the facilities afforded for study of mangroves is fairly good, but 
a great handicap has been found in the pursuit of this research, 
viz., that owing to the character of the soil and other considerations 
there are no mangroves in the Dry Tortugas and all the material 
had to be brought from the Lower Florida Keys with a consequent 
loss of many seedlings. Other studies which would have been 
made, particularly on the embryology of Rhizophora, have been 
deferred for the present until a tropical laboratory can be secured, 
where the plants can be secured conveniently, quickly and in 
abundance. 

During the summer season of 1916 fortune favored the work © 
at Tortugas in as much as seedlings were found in considerable 
quantity on the beaches of the islands composing the group. These 
viviparous seedlings had been drifted westward from the Marquesas 


1 Bowman, H. H. M., Carnegie Institution Year Books, 1915, p. 200; 1916, 
pp. 188-192. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 591 


and other islands by the current during the early spring season of 
higher tides and, on being washed ashore, took root to eke out a 
precarious and mostly fleeting existence. . 

Almost the entire first half of the season of 1916 was devoted 
to the biochemical research mentioned above. This work of testing 
for various chemical substances in the hypocotyl or storage organ 
of the seedling and the attempt at detecting enzymes in the organ 
could most conveniently be pursued at this time. During the in- 
terval which occurred from the time, in the early part of the season, 
when the young plants needed for the transpiration work were gath- 
ered and planted in the culture jars until they became established 
in their laboratory condition, the chemical work was carried on. 
Only after the plants had recovered from the shock of transplant- 
ing and were reacting normally to their changed environment was 
it deemed advisable to begin the transpiration work. 

At the close of the 1916 laboratory season in August, the investi- 
gator accompanied the officers and crew of the yacht on her return ~ 
trip north through the Florida Keys to be placed in winter quarters 
at Miami. On this journey of several days’ duration, many distri- 
bution notes were taken and maps made of the keys and the absence 
of Rhizophora on certain keys carefully marked. 

After the yacht had been moored up to her dock in the Miami 
River and shrouded in canvas for the winter, eight days were spent 
making observations on Biscayne Bay, the Miami River and Arch 
Creek on the admirable newly constructed launch possessed by the 
institution, the Darwin. These observations were made with the 
assistance of the yacht’s chief engineer, Mr. John Mills, whose 
skillful operation of the launch, often in shallow and difficult chan- 
nels, and whose help with the instruments was much appreciated. 
Tests by the hydrometer were made on the density of the water, 
both top and bottom layers, from the open Atlantic, across Biscayne 
Bay and up the Miami River and Arch Creek as far as any man- 
groves extended. Material was gathered for later study of both 
salt and fresh water trees and numerous transpiration records were 
taken on the pneumatophore prop roots of the mangrove under 
conditions and environments difficult for growth. 

In conclusion of this statement the writer wishes to acknowl- 
edge the valuable aid given him by Professor J. W. Harshberger, 


592 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


whose wide experience in plant ecology and helpful guidance in the 
preparation of this paper have been of great assistance, especially 
on the geographic and ecologic aspects of the work. The author’s 
thanks are also due the colleagues of Professor Harshberger in the 
University of Pennsylvania for their very kind help and sugges- 
tions, to Dr. J. Hepburn, of the U. S. Food Research Laboratory, 
for his expert advice in regard to enzymes, to Mr. Robert E. Deng- 
ler, Fellow in Greek, for his assistance in translating the classic and 
Renaissance references, to Mr. W. R. Taylor for aid in making the 
illustrations, to Dr. A. G. Mayer, of the Carnegie Institution of 
Washington, for many helpful suggestions, and to Engineer John 
Mills, and Captain L. M. Wilson, of the Tortugas Laboratory for 
their patience, consideration and excellent practical aid rendered on 
many field excursions in the Gulf. 


HIsTory. 


The historical references to the subject of these studies are 
quite varied and reach far back into antiquity. Just as perhaps all 
science may be traced back to the Greeks, so in this instance we can 
turn to them for some early knowledge of the existence and peculiar 
habits of this plant, the Rhizophora mangle. 

The earliest reference in ancient manuscripts is contained in 
the chronicle of Nearchus (325 B.C.). This old Greek sea-captain 
was the commander of Alexander the Great’s fleet and fragments 
of his observations have come down to the present through the writ- 
ings of Arrian. Nearchus sailed from the Indus Delta on the 21st 
of September, 325 B.C., and arrived in Susa, Persia, February, 324 
B.C., shortly after Alexander himself had reached there by march- 
ing overland. 

On this jounrney Nearchus? describes the habitat of the man- 
groves. Whether these trees are the Avicennia or Rhizophora 
mucronata, both of which grow in the region traversed by Nearchus, 
is not quite certain, but, by the description of the species in Theo- 
phrastus® and in the light of Bretzl’s* recent work, in which the 

2 Nearchus, “ Arr Anab.,” VL, 6, 7. 


8 Theophrastus, “ Historia Plantarum,” IV., 7, 4-7. 
4 Bretzl, H., Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges, 1903. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 593 


present species of the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and the Indus 
Delta have been-compared with those mentioned in the classics as 
noted on Alexander’s March, there is now little doubt that the 
Rhizophora has been accurately described by these early mariners. 

Theophrastus, 305 B.C.,° the pupil and successor of Aristotle, in 
his “Historia Plantarum” quotes Aristobulus as having seen in 
“the desert Gedrosia, trees that are about 30 cubits tall and have a 
flower that looks like a white violet and has a far-reaching odor.” 
Nearchus also noted the relation of the plants to the tides, for he is 
quoted as observing them in Sec. 4, & 8 rais vjoos tats id ris 
aAnpupidsos katadapBavopevais, 7. €., in the islands which are reached 
by the flood tide, and also in Sec. 5 (xaO 6} wAnpurpis yiverar d&8pa 
éoriv) he says: “Wherever the floodtide reaches, there are these 


trees.” 
However, in Sec. 4, 7, Theophrastus gives the fullest description 


of the Rhizophora, “éxew 8 75 Sévdpov PidAXovpev Spovov TH dadvy, avOos de 
Tots tos, etc.,” and the tree has a leaf like a laurel, but a flower like 
a violet both in color and odor, and a fruit the size of an olive, and 
this fruit is also fragrant. It does not cast its leaves, but the flower 
and the fruit both appear in the fall and they drop off the fruit in 
the spring.” Bretzl thinks that the Greeks on account of being with 
Nearchus at the Indus Delta in September and in the Persian Gulf 
in February were in a position to be acquainted with both these 
phenomena. The mention of a violet-like odor is persistent not 
only in these early Greek writings, but also in the works of much 
later botanists, even down to the eighteenth century. 

Theophrastus admirably describes the habit of the mangrove in 
growing out in rather deep water, where he says in Sec. 5: “ These 
trees are all washed by the sea up to their middle,” and in Sec. 4 
“and they are held up by their roots like a polyp, for whenever 
there is an ebb-tide these (the roots) may be seen.” He describes 
the pneumatophore prop roots of the Rhizophora, and again he 
says: “Some have their roots always flooded by the sea as many 
as grow in hollow places whence the water does not flow away and 
nevertheless the tree does not perish at the hand of the sea.” Theo- 
phrastus also reports the ecological relations of the Rhizophora and 


5 Theophrastus, “ Historia Plantarum,” IX., 4, 2. 


594 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


explains its xerophytic structure as due to the physiological dryness 
of its habitat: S»Aot 8 4 orevopvAdid ..., mdvta yap Tadra Enpdryros, 
“it is clear the narrowness of the leaf is due to the dryness.” 

Besides the many fragmentary references in Theophrastus to the 
mangrove, similar to those given above, he gives a very complete 
picture in Sec. 4, 7, 5, where, after mentioning the evergreen ap- 
pearance of the trees and the times of fruiting and flowering, he 
says: “and there are other trees growing in the sea, evergreens, 
and they have fruit like’beans and about the Persian Gulf, in the 
part toward Karmania, as far as the flood tide reaches, there are 
trees of quite some size, with leaves shaped like purslane, and it 
has a fruit much like an almond in color on the outside, but it is 
rolled together as if it were contracted; and these trees are all 
watered up to their middle by the sea and are held up by their roots 
like a polyp. For whenever there is an ebb tide these can be seen 
and the water is not wholly in this place and there are left certain 
channels through which they (the natives) sail, these are of sea 
water from which it is clear as some think, that they (the trees) 
are nourished by it and not by fresh water unless some is drawn 
by the roots from the earth, and that salt water is beneficial for 
them, for the roots go to no great depths.” 

This description might describe the mangrove thickets and 
swamps of the Florida Keys just as accurately as it fits those of the 
Persian Gulf and shows how observant were these early Greeks. 
Not only is it accurate as to general description, but Bretzl has been 
able to locate the actual stations for present species by these descrip- 
tions in Alexander’s march. 

Pliny the Elder (77 A.D.)® in his “ Natural History,” XIL., 
IX.,?° “Gentis supra dictas Persis attinget . . . intus contortis 
' nucleis,” does not contribute anything to the account of the Alex- 
andrine companions and the above passage shows the influence of 
Theophrastus (325 B.C.) even to the very phrases. “ Adjoining 
the countries which we have previously mentioned is Persis, lying 
along the shores of the Red Sea, which, when describing it, we have 
mentioned as the Persian Sea, the tides of which penetrate far into 
the land. The trees in these regions are of a marvelous nature, for, 


6 Pliny, S. C., “ Nat. Hist.,” XII., IX., 20 (37), Bohn trans., III., p. 117. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 595 


corroded by the action of the salt, and bearing a considerable re- 
semblance to vegetable substances that have been thrown up and 
abandoned by the tides, they are seen to embrace the arid sands 
of the seashore with their naked roots just like so many polypi. 
When the tide rises, buffeted by the waves, there they stand, fixed 
and immovable, nay, more, at high water they are completely cov- 
ered, a fact which proves to conviction that they derive their nutri- 
ment from the salt contained in the water. The size of the trees is 
quite marvelous; in appearance they strongly resemble the arbute; 
the fruit which on the outside is very similar to the almond, has a 
spiral kernel within.” 

In 70 A.D. Plutarch’ published his “ Moralia” and under the 
heading of AITIA ®YXIKA, Nature studies, discussed the topic or 
question Aud ti 76 Oaddrriov twp od rpépa ra S&Spa; or “ What is the 
reason that seawater nourishes not trees?” The passage is given in 
full, as the argument is sustained very quaintly throughout the para- 
graph. “Is it not for the same reason that it nourishes not earthly 
animals? For Plato, Anaxagorus and Democritus think plants are 
earthly animals. Nor, though sea water be aliment to marine plants, 
as it is to fishes, will it therefore nourish earthly plants, since it 
can neither penetrate the roots, because of its grossness, nor ascend, 
by reason of its weight, for this among many other things, shows 
sea water to be heavy and terrane, because it more easily bears up 
_ ships and swimmers. Or is it because drought is a great enemy to 
trees? For sea water is of a drying faculty; upon which account 
salt resists putrefaction, and the bodies of such as wash in the sea 
are presently dry and rough. Or is it because oil is destructive to 
earthly plants and kills things anointed with it? But sea water par- 
ticipates of much fatness; for it burns together with it. Where- 
fore, when men would quench fire we forbid them to throw on sea 
water. Or is it because sea water is not fit to drink and bitter (as 
Aristotle says) through a mixture of burnt earth? For a lye is 
made by the falling of ashes into sweet water, and the dissolution 
ejects what was good and potable, as in men, fevers convert humors 
into bile as for what woods and plants, men talk of growing in the 
Red Sea, they bear no fruit but are nourished by rivers casting up 


7 Plutarch, “ Moralia,” 911 D-F, Goodwin trans., III., p. 495. 
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, MM, JANUARY 8, 1918, 


596 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


much mud, therefore they grow not at any great distance from land 
but very near to it.” 

In the paragraph in which he has discussed the qualities of sea 
water and the difficulties of its utilization in the plant economy 
Plutarch almost suggests the theories of absorption and the ioniza- 
tion of solutions. The occurrence of the “woods and plants” in the 
Red Sea is also mentioned at another place in the “ Moralia.”® 
“And the provinces of Gedrosia and Troglodytes, which lie near 
the ocean sea, being by reason of drought barren and without any 
trees, there grow, nevertheless, in the adjacent sea, trees of a won- 
derful height and bigness, and green even to the very bottom, some 
of which they call olive trees, others laurels, and others the hair of 
Isis. And those plants which are named anacampserotes being 
hanged up after they are plucked out of the ground not only live 
but—which is more—bud and put forth green leaves.” 

The influence of Nearchus and Theophrastus is seen in the ref- 
erence to the olive and laurel but the “anacampserotes” are not 
mentioned in the earlier authors. The word meant “bringing back 
love” and the plants were used in making love philters. The plants 
are, from the description, evidently the seedlings of Rhizophora 
which have just been rooted, but whether the ancients really re- 
garded those seedlings as having an aphrodisiacal effect can not be 
accurately determined. 

Arrian, 136 A.D.,®° is the last of the classic writers to mention 
the mangrove. In his “Anabasis” he quotes Aristobulus and 
Nearchus in describing the plants observed on Alexander’s march 
through Asia, but the references are essentially all alike and per- 
haps Theophrastus in his “ Historia Plantarum” summarized all the 
observations on Rhizophora of his day and all the later authors 
copied the accounts as reported by Alexander’s companions. There 
are not any mangrove references then in literature from Arrian’s 
time, 136 A.D., until almost the middle of the thirteenth century. 

In 1230 the Moorish botanist, Abou’l Abbas en-Nebaty,’® after 
exploring Spain, Barbary coasts and Egypt made a long expedition 

8 Plutarch, “ Moralia,” ed. Bernardakis, 5, 455, Goodwin, V., 278. 

9 Arrian, “ Anab.,” VI., 22, 4 f. 


10 Abou’! Abbas en-Nebaty, Introd. to “Ibu el-Beithar” (Leclerq), V. 
Notices des Manuscrit's, T. 23. 


Fg is lee Cie 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 597 


into Arabia, Syria and Irak. On his return to Spain he published 
his work, “Al Rihla,” “The Journey,” and died at Seville in 1239. 
This book, “Al Rihla,” is not extant, but Abou’s disciple, Ibn 
el-Beithar, has preserved citations from the book, as well as other 
Moorish writers, Ibn Hassan and Abou Hanifa. The references 
to the Rhizophora are very clear and it is due to these Moors that 
the mangrove was given the name kendela, which is an Arabic word. 
Both Abou Hanifa and Ibn Hassan describe the plant kendela and 
the former says** that “ The water of the sea is injurious to every 
species of wood except the guorm (Avicennia) and the kendela 
(Rhizophora) ,” and under species “1981 kendala” he says: “It is 
a plant which grows in the country of the Deibol (on the sea of 
Oman) and which spring up in the sea. In that country it is em- 
ployed in the tanning of hides, known under the name of leather 
of Deibol, which is red and thick. It furnishes also a red bark 
which is used as part of medicaments for the mouth and of those 
which are used to stop hemorrhages.” 

The name kendela was later spelled candela or kandila by the 
sixteenth and seventeenth century botanists and applied to the 
mangrove on account of the resemblance of the prolonged hypocotyl, 


as it hangs on the tree, to candles. 


From 1230 to 1526 is another long gap in the literature on the 
mangrove. About this latter year Oviedo** put forth his book deal- 
ing with his travels in the Indies. The observations of this early 
Spanish explorer and those of his successor give us the first glimpse 
of the vegetation of the western hemisphere from a purely botanical 
standpoint. Later botanists quote Oviedo and Clusius** (1584) and 
Peter Martyr** (1577) and several particularly mention Oviedo’s 
experience with the fruit of Rhizophora. “I nevertheless,” he says, 
“from its use (as food) fell into sickness although I am not so 
delicate nor accustomed in time of want to abstain from those foods 
which I see others eat, but neverthless, although there was no 


11 Abou Hanifa, “Ibu el-Beithar,” Leclerg. Notices des Manuscrits, T. 
23, 25, 26. 

12 Oviedo, G. F., “ Primera Parte de la Historia Natural general de las 
Indias,” 1526. 

13 Clusius, Carolus, “ Rariorum Plantarum Historia,” 1601. 

14 Martyr, Peter, “ Edens. History of Travel,” 88, 143, 1577. 


598 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


urgent necessity it did not offend me to taste it, so that I might 
describe it the more accurately, and so for that reason I tasted the 
fruit but it seems that it should be called rather, the food of brute 
animals and wild men of the woods.” From the writings of Clusius 
and Oviedo thus it seems that the natives of the West Indies used 
the hypocotyl as a source of food in famine times, probably on 
account of the starch they contain, but as Piso says they must have 
had a special method of preparing them to eliminate some of the 
tannin. 

In 1648 Piso and Marcgraf noted the mangrove as it occurred 
along the shores of Brazil. Under the chapter heading “ Devariis 
specibus Mangues, sive Mangles et earum qualitatibus,’ Piso de- 
scribes their habitat as ‘‘in swampy places by the sea in the Indies 
and all the tropics.”” He quotes Clusius and also says there are three 
species of mangles. “Prima, Cereiba, que Mangue est alba; 
Secunda Cereibuna, que non radices ex ramis in terram agit, nec 
tam tortuoso plexu luxuriat.” And the third, which is our R. 
mangle, is called Mangue Guaparaiba. It is, according to the ac- 
count, of larger size than the two preceding species and bears use- 
less pods in the summer months, which are filled with bitter pulp. 

In 1650 Bauhin’* in his “ Universal History of Plants” quotes — 
Oviedo and Lobez in giving a description of the tree and says: 
od be (Lobez) mentions a certain tree growing in the province of 
Malay which they call ‘ Mangin,’ bearing roots above, like stems,” 
Clusius questions whether this be our Indian fig but we (Bauhin) 
put the mangin or mangle because of the closeness of the name to 
mangle, with which tree it also seems to correspond, as Ferdinand 
Lobez describes it.” Du Tertre, 1667,17 mentions the mangrove and 
Rochfort, 1681,?8 in the book of travels in the Antilles describes the 
tree, called paratuvier, and its rooting habits, and says: ‘“‘ Wild boars 
and other savage beasts live in them, and they afford places of 
shelter for the inhabitants, who lie in wait to surprise a person ap- 

15 Piso, G., and Marcgraf de Liebstad, “ Hist. Nat. Brasiliz,” pp. 113-114, 
1648. 

: 16 Bauhin, J., “ Hist. Plant. Universalis,” 1650. 


17Du Tertre, J. B., “ Historie generale des Antilles,” Vol. IV., 1667. 


18 Rochfort, F., “ Histoire Naturelle et Morale des Isles Antilles,” p. 100, 
1681. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 599 


proaching along the coast.” Rochfort also gives a very poor illus- 
tration of a tree with a boar at its root. 

Van Rheede, 1678,”® saw the tree in Malabar where it was called 
pee-kandel and grows there with five other species of kandel, now 
all identified as various viviparous trees. The bark was used as a 
cure for diabetes. 

Ray, 1693,”° gives a long and fairly accurate account of the tree 
under the head “ Mangle Pyri foliis, cum siliquis longis, Ficui In- 
dicae affinis. J. B. (Bauhin) Mangues, seu Mangles; tertia species 
Guaparaila dicta, Pison. Paretuvier, Rochfort. Oviedus.” 

“The Mangrove Tree.—This tree is among those which are com- 
monly found in Western India, very much selected for the making 
of buildings and other uses. It grows in marshy places, on the 
shores of the sea, on the salt flats of rivers. .. . The leaves are simi- 
lar to the larger leaves of a pear, but thicker and a little larger, 
opposite to each other, and have a thick mid-rib and many lateral 
veins, light green. It bears many small flowers on oblong calyces. 
The pods are two palms long and more, and these are thick, like 
_ those of cassia, equal to the first and of a rusty color; having a 
pulp like curds or similar to the marrow of bones, which the In- 
dians, on account of a lack of other foods, feed upon. Even though 
it is bitter, they prepare it into a healthful food.” 

Ray then quotes the experience of Oviedo and Clusius in eating 
it, and goes on to say “the fallen fruit is the food of land crabs 
rather than men. But the nature of the tree is wonderful, for sev- 
eral grow at the same time and many branches seem to turn down 
and become roots . . . , which take hold and in turn grow other 
branches and these, in truth, are no less firmly established than the 
original trunk of the tree... . The wood is heavy and solid and has 
a brownish bark which is used for tanning leathers instead of oak, 
- as there is no kind of oak found in these lands.” The writer goes 
on and dilates on the uses of the tree and says: “ The root of the 
tree which is soft and moist is split and peeled and applied warm 
to the poisonous wound of the fish, Niguus. It quiets the pain 
and restores the injured member, but although it may provoke pain 


19 Van Rheede, H., “ Hortus Malabaricus,” 1678. 
20 Ray, John, “Hist. Plant.,” Vol. II., p. 1772, 1693. 


600 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


in the forehead, it is really a splendid remedy first discovered by 
the fishermen and given to us by them.” 

This old chronicler cannot forbear mentioning the honor bestowed 
on him by Bauhin in naming a fig tree for him and says, “ J. Bauhin, 
who otherwise is not accustomed to be sparing in the subdividing 
of species, classifies this tree as similar to that famous Indian fig 
called the Tree of Ray.’”’ Among other observations, Ray mentions 
the yellow tetramerous blossoms as having a honey-like odor and he 
also is the first to mention the efflorescence of salt on the foliage, for 
he says: “When the sun shines the leaves of this tree contain a 
very white salt on their upper surfaces, but when the sky is cloudy, 
or at night the salt is dissolved and clings like dew, but in the day 
time being dry and very white it can be collected with the fingers, 
and from two or three leaves enough can be secured to salt one’s 
broth.” As food for animals, Ray says: “ Doves and other flying 
creatures feed on it when there is a lack of better food and from 
them (the fruits) the flesh of the doves gets so bitter as scarcely 
to be edible.” And in addition to its tanning abilities, the writer 
says—‘‘it is used daily by the fishermen for dying their nets.” 

Plukenet, 1669,” described Rhizophora briefly: “ Mangle arbor 
Pyrifoliis salsis and uliginosis locis in America proveniens; fructu 
oblongo tereti, summis ramis radicola.” He named it the swamp 
mangrove tree and it is in his writings that it is first called the oyster 
tree. He quotes Lobez and says also it is called mangu in the 
Moluccas. 

Dampier, 1697,” and Gomara?* both have noted it in their travels 
and given short descriptions, which are copied by other writers. 

Plumier, 1703,7* mentions it as one of the new genera recently 
found in America and quotes Piso.as the author of the genus. In 
his description Plumier says the pistil ripens into a turbinate fruit, 
which sends out a long fusiform seed with its head buried in the 
fruit. This is the closest observance of the true viviparous nature 
of the seedling in any of the literature noted thus far. Plumier’s 

21 Plukenet, L., “ Almagesta Bot.,” p. 241, 1769. 

22 Dampier, W., “A New Voyage Around the World,” 1697. 


23 Gomara, B. A., cf. Sloan. 
24 Plumier, C., “Nov. Plant. Amer. Gen. Mangles,” p. 13, tab. 15, 1703. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 601 


figure of the plant is very good and shows the parts dissected. The 
lenticels on the hypocotyl are also well illustrated. 

Labat, 1724, a French missionary, mentions three kinds of 
paletuviers and says the English and Spanish call them mangles. 
He says the three kinds are the red, the white and the black; the red 
and the white being called Raisinier, on account of its raisin-like 
edible fruit, and the Mahot, respectively. The black paletuvier is 
evidently the Rhizophora mangle. He mentions its laurel-like leaf 
and states that it grows “5 cens” out in the sea supported on prop 
roots. “The wood makes good fuel and oysters are borne on the 
roots which are small but of a good taste.” 

Sir Hans Sloane, 1725,?* who was a close observer and a good 
botanist, describes the mangrove at great length as he saw it in the 
West Indies. He also mentions almost all the previous voyagers and 
travelers who have seen this curious tree, as well as his contempo- 
raries, Catesby, Plumier, Dampier and Plukenet. His description is 
very clear and to the point in that it evidently applies to the “ Man- 
gle grande” type. “This Tree rises to thirty or forty Foot high 


having a Trunc as big as one’s Body, and a greenish white, smoothe 
; g g g 


Bark, with some white Spots here and there. The Tree has very 
many pendulous Branches swelling towards their Ends, where are 
placed nine or ten Leaves, set on round them by half Inch long 
Footstalk, they are four Inches long and two broad, of a dirty green 
Colour and having one very large eminent Rib running the length 
of the Leaf; the Flowers stand on an inch long Footstalk, are com- 
posed of four thick yellow Petala and as many brown, with some 
yellow Stamina in the Middle being within covered with a yellow 
Farina, to which Pod-like Substances, having a Swelling at their 


- Beginning, otherwise exactly like Bobbins with which Bone-Laces 


are wrought, that Protuberance is rough and a little redish in 
Colour, about an Inch long, having within a Cavity fitted to receive 
the small Ends of the Pod-like Substances, and into which they are 
set, each of them is about six Inches long, beginning slender, swell- 
ing by Degrees to near the end where it is Biggest... . It has a 


25 Labat, Pere, “ Nouveau Voyage aux Isles de l’Amerique,” Vol. II., p. 


136, 1724. 
26 Sloane, Sir Hans, “A Voyage to the Islands Madeira, Barbados, Ja- 


maica, etc.,” 1725. 


602 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


smooth greenish brown Rind, but a Pith and a fungous mealy Sub- 
stance and within no Cavity or Seeds and which never ripens or is 
otherwise than woody.” 

Sloane then goes on and narrates in detail how the “pod-like 
substance”? germinates and produces other trees. His idea is that 
a single seed is planted in this “ substance” and this grows out until 
it reaches the mud and becomes a tree. He quotes Piso, Oviedo, 
Marcgraf, Du Tertre, and says he differs from some of them 
(Oviedo) in regard to the “ Pulp.” He has made a thorough search 
in earlier literature in regard to the “Oyster Tree” and the oc- 
currence of oysters living on the roots and adds his own contribu- 
tion to the story of the “ Oyster Tree.” “In the Isle of Trinidad 
is a Salt River that had Stores of Oysters on the Branches of the 
Trees, which were very salt and well tasted. All their Oysters 
grow upon these Boughs and Spraies and not on the Ground.” 
Sloane also adds some new uses to the already manifold applica- 
tion of the mangrove cited before. Among some of the uses he sug- 
gests that perhaps the dried buds have been mistaken by mariners 
for cloves, thus hinting at food and drug adulteration even at that 
early date. After mentioning the employment of the wood for 
building purposes and fuel, he says: “The Bark tans Leather well 
for Shoe Soal, not for Upper Leathers, or Insides, as it is thus tan’d 
burning the Skin... . The Roots serve for dying of Linens and 
Leaves for Dung. The bark is used by Tanners and Landresses 
for cloaths, mixed with Oyl like Dirt it is good against Weariness, 
and with Milk or fresh Butter, outwardly applyd helps them who 
are diseased in their Livers.” 

Catesby, 1731,?7 is the last in this series preceding Linnzus to 
describe the mangrove in the history of his travels. The type 
Catesby noted is probably only the “ chico mangle,” as he says they 
were only 20 to 30 feet tall. His remarks about the general ap- 
pearance of the tree and flowers is much like Sloane’s, but he de- 
scribes the fruit as being like a “pear at the small end of which 
hangs a single seed about six inches in length in form like a Bobbin.” 
Catesby, however, is the first to mention the seedlings as floating 


27 Catesby, M., “ Nat. Hist. Carolina, Fla. and Bahama Islands,” Vol. IL., 
p. 63, 1731. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 603 


some distance after dropping from the trees. He also describes the 
ecology of a-mangrove swamp in the Bahamas very well. “In shal- 
low salt Water, these impenetrable Woods of Mangroves are fre- 
quented by great Numbers of Alligators, which being too big to 
enter the closest Recesses of these Thickets, the smaller Ones find 
a secure Retreat from the Jaws of their voracious Parents. These 
watery Woods are also plentifully stored with ravenous Fish, Tur- 
tles and other Animals which prey continually one upon the other, 
and the Alligator on them all; so that in no Place have I ever seen 
such remarkable Scenes of Devastation as amongst these Mangroves 
in Andros, one of the Bahama Islands, where the Carcasses of half 
devoured Animals are usually floating in the Water. They grow in 
most parts of the Earth under the Torrid Zone and are found but 
little north or south of the Tropicks.” 

In all the preceding history of the mangrove, the literature 
naturally falls into two divisions. That from Nearchus (325 B.C.) 
and Theophrastus (305 B.C.) to Arrian (136 A.D.) embraces the 
references as found in classical literature, while that from the time 
_ Abu ’1 Abbas en-Nebaty (1230) to Catesby’s (1731) with a few ex- 
ceptions, who were largely compilers of botanical works, the litera- 
ture consists of the narratives of travelers, voyagers and explorers. 
With the stimulus given to systematic studies by the writings of 
Linnzus and the then recent discovery of new plants in all parts 
of the world the works of the latter half of the eighteenth century 
are mostly systematic. 


Taxonomic RELATIONS OF Rhizophora mangle. 


Linnzus?® in his earlier writings (“Systema Nat.,” 1736) had 
a rather vague conception of the limits of the genera Rhizophora. 
He treated it in the “ Systema” and in his “ Philosophia Botanica,” 
1751,2° under a head “ LXII. Candelares” with Nyssa and Mimu- 
sops. These accordingly were later changed and No. 62 was can- 
celled in the “Philosophia.” In the “Species Plantarum,” 1753,°° 
he gathers all the confused and tangled synonyms and descriptions 

28 Linnaeus, C., “ Systema Nat.,” p. 442, 1735. 


29 Linnaeus, C., “ Philosophia Bot. 62 Candelaria,” 1751. 
80 Linnaeus, C., “ Species Plant.,” Vol. I, p. 634, 1753. 


604 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


of the early botanists and arranges them in an orderly manner. 
He recognizes seven species of Rhizophora, which he created as a 
separate genus. These seven species were R. conjugata, R: gym- 
norhiza, R: candel, R. mangle, R. cylindrica, R. cormiculata and R. 
caseolaris, all of which are Oriental except R. mangle. 

For R. mangle, Linneus gives as equivalent the Mangle foltis 
acutis of Jacquin; Mangle segmentes calycum of the Wachend ult. 
90; Mangle aquatica of Plumier; Mangle pyri foliis of Sloane and 
Bauhin; Mangium candelarium of Rumph and Pee-Kandel of 
Rheede. In the “Systema” it is No. 592 of the Dodecandria 
Monogynia and furnished the essential characters of the plant. 

Rumph, 1750,*1 a contemporary of Linnzus, gives a lengthy de- 
scription of his Mangium candelarium or Mangi Mangi as it oc- 
curred in Amboyna of the Moluccas.: He also calls it Mangium 
candelarium et arcuatum on account of the resemblance of the 
hypocotyl to candles and of the prop roots to bows. He also quotes 
Rochfort’s account of this tree or the “ Paretewier Tree” and says 
“Oviedus perceived a great pain in his abdomen from eating the 
fruits,” but mentions a method by which it is prepared for food 
in the East Indies. 

Browne, 1756,°* in his history of Jamaica mentions the tree as 
“mangle,” and Jacquin, 1763,*° describes it as Rhizophora peduncu- 
lis bifidis and faithfully pictures the mangrove thickets of the 
Antilles region. 

Forskahl, 1775,°* in the Red Sea region says: “ Arabes narra- 
rient semen in arbore dehiscere et cotyledones nudos emittere, quod 
vix credibile mihi videtur,” but as he did not actually see this, he 
did not really describe the plant. 

Geertner, 1788,*° uses the name of Linnzus, but mentions all the 
synonyms of preceding authors. Of the embryo he says “ inversus, 
viridus intra semen germinans ejusque integumenta, procresente sua 
radicula rumpens,” showing he realized the significance of vivipary. 

31 Rumph, Geo. E., “ Her. Amboin.,” Vol. IITL., p. 108, 1750. 

32 Browne, Patrick, “ Civil and Nat. Hist. Jam.,” 211, 1756. 

33 Jacquin, N. J., “ Select. Stirp. Americ.,” 1763. 

84 Forskahl, P., “ Flora Aigyptiaca Arabica, Haunice Descrip. Cent.,” IL., 


DP. 37; 1775. 
35 Gaertner, J., “ De Fructibus et Seminibus Plant,” 1788. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 605 


Jussieu, 1789,°* used the system of Tournefort, but modified it 
by adding the new idea of classification which he promulgated by 
basing it on the positions of stamens and pistils. He placed Rhizo- 
phora in class XIII. of his fifteen classes. He also recognized but 
two species—R. mangle and R. gymuorhiza with R. caseolaris as 
doubtful. 

Sarigny, 1796,°* in Lamarck’s Encyclopedia gives a good and 
accurate account of the family of paletuviers, but recognizes the 
Linnzus species. 

Lamarck, 1804,** also recognized the Linnzean species and gives 
five with R. mucronata as a new species. The old R. corniculata 
of Linnzus having now been renamed by Gertner, 4 giceras majus 
and others discarded so that the Linnzan genus has now been to 
this extent reorganized. The five species of Lamarck are R. mangle, 
mucronaia, cylindrica, conjugata and candel. 

St. Hilaire, 1805,*° follows the nomenclature of Linnzus, Jus- 
sieu and Lamarck and for R. mangle gives the range as both the 
Indies. It remained for De Candolle to complete the Natural Sys- 
tem of Classification and in his Theorie Elementaire de la Bo- 
 tanique, 1813,*° laid the basis of our modern system. Rhizophora, 
in his “System,” is put in Order 57 Myrtinez. In the “ Pro- 
dromus,” 1828,*1 for the Rhizophorez he gives four genera, Olisbe, 
Rhizophora, Carallia and Cassipourea, containing in all 14 species. 
He also treats the old East Indian species of other authors and not 
synonyms with R. mangle of the West Indies. 

Velozo, 1827,42 uses the same nomenclature as Linnzus, but 
shows an excellent representation of the plant and especially the 
lenticels on the hypocotyls. The dissection of this organ is also 
admirably figured. 

36 Jussieu, Antoine Lauret, “Gen. Plant.,” p. 213, 1789. 

87 Sarigny, M., “Lam. Dist.,” 4, 696, 1796. 

38 Lamarck, J. B. A., “ Encyclopedie Methodique, Botanique,” Vol. 6, 187, 
wat St. Hilaire, J. H., “ Exposition des Fam. Nat. et la Germination des 
Plants,” 1805. 

40 De Candolle, A. P., “ Theorie Elementaire de la Botanique,” 1813. 


41 De Candolle, A. P., “ Prodromus Syst. Naturalis,” Vol. III., 31-34, 1824. 
42 Velozo, di Miranda J., “ Flore Fluminensis Icones,” 1827. 


606 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


Bartling, 1830,4* devised a system of classification in which the 
Rhizophoree were removed from the Order Myrtineze and put 
under one called Calyciflore, 7. e., on account of its structure it was 
placed with the Vochysiez between the Onagracez and the Combre- 
tacez. 

Endlicher, 1836, used a modified system of Jussieu’s, but the 
changes were largely in the great subdivisions, the genera are still 
those of Bartling more particularly. 

Brongniart, 1843,*° transposes and enlarges the family of Rhizo- 
phoree and places it in an order Cénotherine with Lythracee and 
Myrtacee as a doubtful member. 

Meisner, 1843,*° groups the Melastomacez, Lythraceze, Ona- 
gracee, Combretacezee and Vochysiez with the Rhizophoracee as 
class 16, Calcycanthemoe. 

Lindley, 1845,*7 reorganized the group and under the head Myr- 
tales united ten families, one of which was the Rhizophorez, thus 
recogninzing its affinities with the Myrtales, on account of its “ pluri- 
locular ovary, polypetalous flowers, valvate calyx, indefinite stamens 
and flat cotyledons much shorter than the radicle, which germinates 
before the fruits fall.” He recognizes five genera. 

Grisebach, 1864,*8 mentions only R. mangle as being found in 
the western hemisphere and says that Meyers’s R. racemosa is 
synonymous. ; 

Hemsley, W. B.,*® in his reprint on the “ Voyage of the Chal- 
lenger” regards the R. mangle as the only Rhizophora in the 
Americas. 

Hooker, 1879,°° in the Flora of British India does not include 
R. mangle, but it is known to occur in the Pacific Islands and fol- 
lows there certain lines of dissemination. | 


43 Bartling, Fr., “ Ordines Nat. Plant.,” 1830. 

44 Endlicher, S., “ Gen. Plant. Sec. Ordines Nat. Pis.,” 1836. 

45 Brongniart, Adolphe, “ Enumeration des Genres des Plantes cultives,” 
1843. 

46 Meisner, C. F., “ Plant Vascularium Gen. Secund Ordines, 1843. 

47 Lindley, John, “ Vegetable Kingdom,” p. 726, 1845. 

48 Grisebach, A. H. K., “Flora of British West Indies,” p. 274, 1864. 

49 Hemsley, W. B., “ Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger, Bot. Bermudas,” 
p. 32. 

50 Hooker, D. J., “ Flora of British India,” Vol. II., p. 435, 1878. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 607 


Engler and Prantl, 1898,°* regard the group Rhizophoree as 
having only five genera with Rhizophora composed of three species 
—R. mangle, R. conjugata and R. mucronata. This classification 
is that used in all Floras containing the species. 

Small* in all his manuals** ** mentions only Rhizophora mangle, 
as well as Chapman® and other systematic writers. 

The family Rhizophoracez then belonging in the Myrtales order, 
falls naturally into two subfamilies—Rhizophoridee and the Aniso- 
phylloidez. This is recognized by De Candolle,®* and Van Tieghem*’ 
and all the later writers on the family. Some authors, however, 
divide the family into a triple grouping, with a third head the Leg- 
notidez, and still others as Baillon®*® arrange the family in a different 
grouping. This latter author divides fourteen genera into four 
divisions—I. Rhizophoree, II. the Baraldiez, III. Macarisiez, 
which is equivalent to the group Legonatidez of Bartling and Cassi- 
pouree of Meisner, and IV. the Anisophyllez. The affinities of 
the plants in this family have manifold connections such as the 
Onagracex, Loranthacee, Cornacee, Lythracez, as may be seen by 
the placing of these genera by the earlier authors cited above, and 
before R, Brown’s, 1814,°® arrangement had been placed in the 
Caprifoliacee. All the groupings have been based largely on the 
relative positions of the perianth and the gyneecium, Baillon’s group 
of Rhizophoree having concave receptacles and ovary inferior. 
Style simple and seed exalbuminous, with macropod embryo, ger- 
minating in fruits on the trees, embraces four genera. These are 
the ones mostly given in modern floras of oriental countries and are 
Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Kandelia. They are all repre- 
sentatives of tropical Asia and Africa, except Rhizophora, which 
is cosmopolitan in the tropics. 


51Engler, A., and Prantl, K., “Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien,” Teil 


IIL., abt. 7, p. 42, 1892. 
52 Small, J. K., “Flora of S. E. United States,” p. 834, 1908. 
53 Small, J. K., “ Shrubs of Florida,” p. 89, 1913. 
54 Small, J. K., “ Flora of the Florida Keys,” p. 105, 1913. 
55 Chapman, J., “Flora of Southeastern United States,” p. 152, 1897. 
56 De Candolle, C., “ Prodromus,” III., p. 31. 
57 Van Tieghem, Ph., Ann. Soc. Nat., Ser. 7, T. VII., p. 376, 1888. 
58 Baillon, H., “ Nat. Hist. of Plants,” Vol. VI. p. 287. 
59 Brown, R., “ Flind, Voy.,” IL, p. 549, 1814. 


608 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


Engler and Prantl, however, whose classification is still the au- 
thority perhaps includes under the division of the family Rhizo- 
phoridez-Gynotrochine, five genera, Crossostyles, Gynotroches, 
Rhizophora, Ceriops and Kandelia. 

But though the genera of the Rhizophoracee do not fall very 
naturally into an arrangement, it is now fairly well decided that the 
seven species of the Linnzan genus, Rhizophora, have been condensed 
so that only three species are recognized, viz., R. mangle, R. con- 
jugata and R. mucronata. Of these three species as noted before 
only R. mangle is indigenous in the Americas, although Martius, 
Euler and Urban,®® 1882, in the “Flora Brasiliensis” mentions 
Meyers’s species R. racemosa. This is a synonym or a subspecies 
of R. mangle. Guppy, 1906, “recognizes R. mangle under two dis- 
tinct types—the “Grande” and the “Chico” types. This will be 
discussed in a subsequent paragraph. 

The main features which demarcate R. mangle from its related 
species are the shapes of the leaves, the length of the petioles and 
the number of flowers in the cymes; and the texture of the petals, 
whether they be thick lanate, or thin and glabrous. There has been 
some slight confusion in the nomenclature of these three species, 
although recent floras have straightened out the tangle. Timmens, 
1894,°” in his “‘ Flora of Ceylon,” mentions the two Oriental species, 
and gives as one—R. mucronata Lam. as synonymous with R. candel 
Moon Cat and R. macrorhiza of Griffiths. The other of his two 
species is R. candelaria, which is synonymous with R. conjugata of 
Linnzeus and R. mangle Moon Cat and Linnzus in part. 

Hooker,® in “Flora of British India,” also gives R. mucronata 
as the R. mangle of Linn., but this is not correct. The R. mangle, 
which is the equivalent of R. mucronata Lam., is L. mangle Roxb., 
which is quite different from R. mangle of Linneus. This error of 
nomenclature has been made by Roxburgh and perpetuated in the 
older works. 

60 Martius, Euler and Urban, “ Flora Brasiliensis,” Vol. XII., par. IL., p. 
425, 1882. 

nee Guppy, H. B., “ Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific,” Vol. IL, 
I ° 


62 Timmens, H., “ Flora of Ceylon,” Part IL., p. 151, 1804. 
68 Hooker, D. J., “ Flora of British India,” Vol. II., 435, 1879. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 609 


King* has this point clear in his Malayan Flora, where he says 
R. mucronata—R. mangle Roxb. (not Linn.) and also R. macrorhiza 
Griff. while R. conjugata Lam.—R. candelaria of De Candolle. 

R. mangle Linn. is a purely American species, but has been found 
by Guppy associated with the Oriental species in some of the islands 
in the South Pacific. 


MorpPHoLocy AND HisrTo.uocy. 


The gross morphology of Rhizophora mangle is synopsized in 
any flora or manual of the species of the tropics in which the plants 
are found. But it is well perhaps to set down the chief features of 
their structure here. (See Plate IX.) The red mangrove may be 
a large tree 60 to 80 feet tall, or smaller shrub 6 to 18 feet tall. 
This varies with the region and ‘has given rise to the two types based 
on size, i. e., the “ Mangle chico” and “Mangle grande.’ The 
primary root soon dies out, secondary roots are put out by the 
seedling. Later adventitious prop-roots are put out from the base 
of the stem and from a mass of arched stilts about the tree. The 
branching is opposite and from the lower branches aérating roots 
are let down to the substratum, these also assist the prop-roots 
in anchoring the tree. The twigs are stiff, cicatrized and thick, 
and the wood throughout the tree is very hard and dense. 

The leaves are opposite, clustered on the ends of the twigs and 
furnished with large inter-petiolate and caducous stipules. They 
are decussate, petiolate, elliptic, entire, glabrous thick and coriaceous. 

The flowers are yellowish or whitish, coriaceous and axillary ; col- 
lected into bi- triparous, rarely simple and more generally ramified 
cymes at the summit of a common peduncle. These flowers are 
usually pedicellate, articulate and have mostly two connate bracteoles 
forming a sort of involucre. The flower is regular with a concave 
obconical receptacle. The sepals are four in number inserted on the 
margin of the receptacle, coriaceous and valvate ; and the petals are 
also four, alternate with the sepals and valvate. The stamens are 
mostly eight, with four larger ones oppositipetalous, and have many 
short filaments or none at all. The anthers are unique. The anther 


64 King, Geo., “ Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula,” Vol. 3, 
p. 313, Calcutta, 1902. 


610 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


furrows are lateral or subintrorse and the pollen sacs are areolate- 
multilocellate. 

The ovary is half inferior, bi-locular and at the vertex produced 
into a cone. Style subulate, sometimes rather short, at the apex 
stigmatose and bidentate. There are two ovules in each cell, placed 
in a collarterally descending position, the micropyle heme extrorsely 
superior. 

The fruit is berry-like, coriaceous and indehiscent, surrounded 
below the middle by the reflexed persistent calyx. Only one ovule 
matures into a seed. The embryo is exalbuminous with fused coty-. 
Jedons. The radicle or hypocotyl perforates the apex of the seed 
and germinates within the fruit; at length pushing out through the 
pericarp, greatly elongates while still on the tree. An absciss layer 
is finally formed at the junction of the cotyledonary sheath and the 
shoulder of the hypocotyl, and the seedling drops from the parent 
tree into the mud or water. 


TueE Roots. 


The roots of the mangrove, even as mentioned by the ancient 
Greeks, are a peculiar feature of the genus, being, as Theophrastus 
says, like “polypi.” The primary root put out by the radicular end 
of the hypocotyl soon stops growth and the root function is given 
over entirely to secondary roots. The cause of cessation of growth 
by the primary roots has been suggested by Warming,” Johow,** 
Schimper,®’ and others, as due to the bites of crabs, snails or other 
mechanical injury. At any rate the primary root does not long 
persist and the plant is soon anchored by a rich mass of secondary 
roots. The structure of the roots is very interesting. There are 
really two types of roots, those prop-roots arising from the base of 
the tree and bending out to form the curved stilts, and the adven- 
titious roots dropped from the lower branches are one kind and are 
known as the aérial or aérating or pneumatophore roots, while those 

65 Warming, Eug., “ Rhizophora Mangle, cia ewer Fragmente,” Engler’s 
Jahrb. fiir Syst., Bd. 4, p. 520. 

66 Johow, Fr., “ Vegetationsbilder aus West Indien und Venezuela, Die 
Mangrove Sdeapis. Kosmos,” Bd. L., pp. 415-426, 1884. 


67 Schimper, A. F. W., “ Indo-Malayische Strandflora,” Bot. Mitheilungen 
aus des Tropen, Heft 3, 1801. 


_ 
¥ 


PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS Soc. VoL. LVI. No. 7 Bree te 


- ahs ae 


>) (7) <a 


aT) 


| 


a 


Ak 


Hyer 18 000) 


Fic. 1. Transverse section of prop-root, showing cortex containing idio- 
blasts, tannin cells and parenchymatic cells. Cork ouside and the endodermis 
: on the inner margin of the cortex. The vascular cylinder and medulla 
; inside. X 106. 
x Fic. 2. Camera lucida drawing of longitudinal section. Cortex cells 
: showing sections of idioblasts and tannin cells. 470. 
Fic. 3. Enlarged transverse section of cortex cells of absorptive root. 
: Large elliptic cells transfusion tissue smaller circular cells, longitudinal cells 
containing starch. > 600. 
Fic. 4. Drawing (cam. luc.) of longitudinal section absorptive root. 
X 96. 
PROC. AMER, PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, NN, JANUARY 8, I9Q18. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 611 


. which are subterranean or submarine, buried in the mud, and which 
have assumed a purely absorptive rdéle, are called the absorptive ° 
roots in this paper. Van Tieghem®* has described and figured the 
root of the Rhizophora, and shows especially the development of 
these secondary roots. He says: “An arch of the pericycle of the 
width of three cells in the external layer and corresponding with a 
wood bundle, increases and cuts off two rows of cells, but espe- 
cially does the external layer increase, and it is this alone, by two 
tangential wall formations, which differentiates the three regions of 
the rootlet from the original cells. The internal row does not go 
beyond the base of the central cylinder. The superimposed arc of 
the endodermis dilates its elements, but not radically, and encloses 
the developing rootlet by an absorptive pouch. In this pouch, which 
is dilated to a great extent, the rootlet elongates rapidly the width 
of the cortex, but remains very narrow. More slowly it then en- 
larges at the summit and the pouch is absorbed laterally, but the 
terminal part is left adhering like a cap as it emerges from the root.” 

This interesting process may be seen on both the hypocotyls of 
seedlings and the origin of the dependent prop-roots from the 
branches. These little root caps adhere for quite a long period, 
especially in the aérating roots. If the tip of one of these pendant 
roots is injured, there will be a division just back of the tip and the 
geotropic growth will’continue as two or three branches. These 
branches usually push out at the lenticel with which these aérating 
' roots are well supplied. The same thing occurs on the hypocotyl 
which also is supplied with lenticels. If the roots at the radicular 
end are destroyed adventitious roots are put out up farther on the 
hypocotyl, perhaps just a few centimeters below the plumule. What 
the stimulus may be is not exactly known in this case, but in as 
much as oxygen has been shown to be stimulating in the production 
of root hairs in plants, it may be presumed that the supply of oxygen 
received through the lenticel acts as a stimulus for the production 
of the rootlet from the pericambial tissue just at the point beneath 
the lenticel. The initial stimulus for the production of these adven- 


68 Van Tieghem, Ph., and Douliot, H., Ann. des Sci. Nat. Botanique, Ser. 
7, Tome 7, p. 212. 


612 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


titious roots is, of course, the injury or removal of the tip of the . 
* root. 

Root hairs are lacking in Rhizophora, as in most all aquatic 
plants, but their function is fulfilled by many tiny roots which grow 
out from the subterranean or submarine absorptive roots. These 
absorptive roots are quite different from the aérial part of the prop- 
roots or those dependent from the branches (see Fig. 4 and 6, Pl. 
VIII.) These roots are mostly rather short and thick, fleshy, and 
whitish or pinkish in color, and of a soft texture. 

The extra thickness of these subterranean absorptive roots is 
due to the greater development of the primary cortex. In the 
absorptive root this is of large loose cells with very large open inter- 
cellular spaces in which idioblasts or trichoblasts are lacking. Ex- 
ternally as Solereder®® has shown, the periderm consists in this 
absorptive root only of cork cells, while the same tissue in the 
aérial portion has both cork and “‘ parenchymatic separation tissue” 
alternating. ; 

The cortex of large round cells has been studied by both Van 
Tieghem and Solereder, and even figured; but it is supposed that the 
material was not fresh and the delicate cells of the cortex were 
shrunken (Pl. IV., Fig. 3). These cells are closely connected with 
the absorption of water, presumably growing as the plants do in salt 
water of a rather high concentration, shrunk on being placed in 
reagents of different densities. At least in the preparation of 
material for this paper such has been the case and only in material 
freshly sectioned and mounted in glycerine water could the true 
idea of the structure of this cortex be gained. The cells compose 
a loose network and have very large open spaces between them. 
Some cells are converted contiguously in strands, others radiate 
about short groups of cells, which are much elongated in the 
direction of the axis of the root (Pl. I., Fig. 4). These elongated 
cells are often quite full of starch grains, while the large roundish 
turgid cells radiating from them contain relatively few starch 
grains and more mucilaginous protoplasm which stains slightly 
with water eosin. These round cells, when slightly shrunken due 


69 Solereder, H., “Systematische Anatomie der Dicotyledonen,” p. 384, 
1889. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 613 


to a partial plasmolysis, show, on focusing at different levels, the 
lower wall and its line of juncture with a cell beneath or on the 
side, this artifact produces a double line of tension or wrinkle on 
the wall which seems like a tube or channel contained within the 
cell. Warming regarded these as thickenings for support within the 
cells which prop the cells apart and assist the soft tissue of the 
root in maintaining its shape and as they do not appear along the 
wall separating an intercellular space this artefact seems to really con- 
firm this view. But since these “verdickungsleisten” are not seen 
in freshly sectioned and water mounted material, Warming’s theory 
of lateral mechanical support for these cells is not tenable. Mate- 
rial carried up in balsam or glycerine jelly does show this peculiar 
irregularly “branched thickening,” but it can only be regarded as 
an artefact. The tissue of this cortex seems to function as a trans- 
fusion tissue. Warming and Solereder also both state that the tri- 
choblasts are lacking in the absorptive and tertiary roots, but on 
close examination some may be found scattered in the xylem ele- 
ments of the vascular bundle. 

In the aérating prop-roots and those dependent from the 
branches which have not yet reached the water the cortical area is 
filled with trichoblasts and large tannin-containing cells (see Figs. 
I and 2, Pl. I1V.). These trichoblasts are frequently branched and 
double or H-shaped, the branches running up in the intercellular 
spaces. The tannin cells are larger than the cortical parenchyma 
cells and on longitudinal section appear as long chains of dense, 
dark, solidly filled cells. 

The endodermis is easily recognized in either transverse or lon- 
gitudinal sections by its loose clear structure, the walls being thin 
and rather more regular than the cells of the cortex, and show the 
slight irregularities in the wall that Warming mentions and calls 
“the Caspar spots.” In the older roots the endodermis is crushed 
by the secondary growth so as not to be recognizable. 

The central vascular cylinder of these a€rating roots shows sev- 
eral interesting peculiarities. If sections are made from regions 
just behind the root cap and then a region several centimeters back 
and finally of an older root, striking differences are noted. In the 
figure given (Fig. 1, Pl. IV.), the section has been cut about three 


614 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


centimeters behind the cap. The conductive bundle cylinder is com- 
posed of about 30 or 40 alternating strands of xylem and phloem 
tissue. As Warming has also shown, however, a most unusual de- 
parture is made from this regular root arrangement in that there are 
often more than one phloém strand between two xylem patches, as 
seen in transverse section. ‘This is supposed to occur by the splitting 
of strands. The phloém strands contain both sieve tubes and phloém 
parenchyma. The xylem in its earliest state, 7. e., protoxylem, has 
very few spiral trachez, just behind this externally is a small group 
of soft bast elements, the trachee being surrounded by a scleren- 
chyma ring or sheath. In this development, the method of growth 
is centrifugal. Beyond this group of phloém elements is the xylem 
strand and this has the peculiar structure of a double bundle, but 
both are enclosed in one sclerenchyma sheath. What causes this 
splitting in the xylem it is not possible to say. Among the xylem © 
elements are scattered large pitted and scalariform vessels. The 
phloém is now very well developed. 

The pith of the root is of large thin-walled cells, typical medul- 
lary tissue with intercellular spaces in which lie many trichoblasts. 
The pith also contains tannin cells. 


THE STEM. 


The twigs and branches of Rhizophora show little that is pecu- 
liar in the general arrangement of the structures. In the wood, 
however, there are prosenchymatic vessels which are pitted and also 
there are some vessels which have ladder-like perforations. These 
appear as holes with transverse bars across which in most instances 
number about four or five. The medullary rays are rather broad 
and where the bundle vessels come in contact with the ray tissue 
the walls of the former are pitted. 

The cork formation, according to Solereder and Moller,” is 
superficial, and of the spongy type. In the pericycle there is a dense 
ring of sclerenchyma, which makes the twigs very difficult to cut. 


70 Moller, J., “ Holzanatomie,” Deutschr. Wiener Akad., p. 103, 1876. 


I) 


PROCEEDINGS Am. PHiLOS. Soc. VoL. LVI. No. 7 


Fic. 1. Idioblasts from macerated leaves. Micro-photograph, x 175. 

Fic. 2. Transverse section hypocotyle stained with copper acetate. 
Tannin cells black. > 18. 

Fic. 3. Micro-photograph of upper epidermis.  X 175. 

Fic. 4. Lower epidermis, showing stomata. Micro-photograph, x 175. 

Fic. 5. Lower epidermis with cells of the hypodermis shown. Dark 
cells stained for tannin, light areas stomata. Micro-photograph, X 175. 


PLATE V 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 615 


THE Lear. 


It is in the leaf that a great many of the adaptations of the man- 
grove to its special environment are seen. The leaves, as mentioned 
before, are opposite and assume somewhat a perpendicular posi- 
tion. Johow™ regards this position as a protection against the light, 
the great intensity of which has, according to him, a destructive 
effect on the chlorophyll. Each pair of leaves is provided with two 
interpetiolar stipules which are twisted in the opposite direction 
from that of the leaf which it encloses. The unfolding of the leaf 
blade from the stipule occurs as in the figs. The stipules are pro- 
vided with glandular hairs, which secrete a resin-like substance that 
Eggers” says covers the plumule in the seedling stage and protects 
it against the action of the water when the seedling floats in the sea. 

Warming” figures a diagram of the cross section of a petiole 
in which there is a ring of vascular tissue and inside this ring are 
several other vascular bundles with the phloém turned in the reverse 
direction. In his opinion these strands arose as splits from the 
bundles on the upper side. . 

The leaf blade is elliptic and has a very prominent midrib, as 
Sloan™* observed in his early description. The epidermis is very 
heavily cutinized, especially on the upper side which entirely lacks 
stomata (Fig. 3, Pl. V.). The stomata are slightly sunken and 
provided with an antechamber (Fig. 4, Pl. V.). According to 
Warming the stomata originate at different times, the younger be- 
tween the older ones, and are scattered in every direction. A most 
striking feature of the leaf tissue is the large, mostly four-celled 
water-storage hypodermis. This is a true hypodermis, as may be 
seen in examining young leaves still rolled in the stipules, which 
even here show a number of layers of these cells. The upper 
layer of the hypodermis or mostly the two uppermost layers are 
filled with tannin (Fig. 5, Pl. V.). The function of these tannin 

71 Johow, Fr., loc. cit., p. 4109. 

72 Eggers, H., “ Rhizophora mangle L., Videnskabelige, Meddelelser,” p. 
180, 1887. 

73 Warming, Eug., “ Rhizophora mangle L., Tropische Fragments,” IL, 


Engler’s Botanische Jahrbucher fiir Systematik, Bd. 4, 1883, p. 319. 
74 Sloan, H., “ A Voyage to the Island Madeira, Barbados, Jamaica, etc.,” 


1725. 


616 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


layers as a light screen will be considered in the physiology. On 
account of the development of the hypodermis, the palisade lies 
deep in the mesophyll, in fact almost in the middle of the leaf. 
There are usually three layers of very narrow elongated palisade 
cells. Interspersed among them are many branched and often much 
twisted trichoblasts. These branches ramify about in intercellular 
spaces and push the cells aside as they grow. The spongy tissue of 
the leaf is rather loose and is composed of cells varying a great deal 
in size. Some are large and contain tannin and others contain only 
a thick mucilaginous protoplasm. Large spherical, many pointed 
crystals of calcium oxalate fill up cells scattered in the spongy tissue, 
as well as the water hypodermis (see Fig. 4, Pl. VII). Warming 
thinks the shining, thick epidermis of the leaves helps to reflect the 
intense light and doubtless this is true and, as will be shown in the 
physiology, this reflection serves an important service. 

On the under surface of the leaves are many small black specks, 
which Warming regarded as the opening of glands located deep 
within the spongy tissue. These were filled with a secretion which 
looked brown in. the material he examined, 7. e., material pickled 
in alcohol. It has now been shown that these tiny specks are not 
glands, or glandular hairs, or disks, but really small bodies of cork 
which are formed from the epidermal cells. 


THE .FLOWER. 


The inflorescence has already been described as usually di- 
or trichzsial cymes, and its relation to the axis and the bracts has 
been well described by other authors. The four stiff woody sepals 
which persist and grow in size as the fruit develops are heavily 
impregnated with stone-cells or trichoblasts. In the lower part of 
the receptacle below the junction of the sepals and the ovary, 7. ¢., - 
just beneath the ovules, there is a large mass of very loose tissue, 
which Griffith” noted in his early papers on the species. This tissue 
has very large intercellular spaces to permit the rapid growth of 
the embryo to take place without unduly crushing the cells of the 
fruit. The four petals placed alternately with the sepals are early 
deciduous. They, as well as the sepals, are valvate and on their 


75 Griffith, W., Trans. of the Med. and Phys. Soc. of Calcutta. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 617 


inner faces are thickly supplied with unicellular hairs. These hairs 
have been-shown in the illustrations of Baillon,” but in most of his 
other diagrams there are great errors, as Warming, who has done 
most excellent work on the species, is careful to point out. In the 
bud the petals are slightly curved down over the tips of the anthers. 
The tissue of the petals does not contain trichoblasts, but the cells 
do contain protoplasmic constituents, which take stains more readily 
than the cells of the other parts of the flower. 

The eight anthers are almost sessile and at the base of the very 
short filaments there is a ring of nectary glands (see Fig. 1, Pl. VI.), 
which secretes abundant nectar that is eagerly collected by insects. 
In sections these nectar glands are seen as dense deeply stained 
masses which have delicate vascular connections with the strand 
which passes up into the anther and also into the petals. The 
anthers, as mentioned before, are multilocular, and this feature has 
been described by many previous botanists. Griffith’’ early gave 
a good description of the method of dehiscence by the pulling away 
of the valves and exposing the core filled with loculi, “ resembling 
Viscum in this circumstance.” Goebel" describes such chambers 
in the anthers of Gaura and Clarkia in the Onagracee and regards 
them as the homologues of the trabeculz of the sporangia in [soetes, 
their function being to nourish the sporogenous tissue. Wight*® 
also gives a very clear description of this form of pollen arrange- 
ment and dehiscence and figures it in another place.*° 

The anther on close examination has two introrse faces and the 
two slight grooves down the length of these faces, where the thin 
exothecial membrane ruptures and then rolls back in ordinary 
anthers. The pollen alveoli are small round cavities embedded in 
the connective tissue, which is much enlarged in these anthers. The 
two delicate channels on the faces of the anthers finally disappear 
with the growth of the tissue in many cases and dehiscence may be 
by a suture at the medial line or at their lateral lines. 

Warming has pointed out the two special features in the forma- 


76 Baillon, H., “ Natural History of Plants,” Vol. VI., Fig. 256. 

77 Griffith, W., loc. cit., Pl. 640, Fig. 11. 

78 Goebel, K., “ Organographie der Pflanzen,” p. 731, 1898. 

79 Wight, Robt., “Illustrations of Indian Botany,” Vol. 1, 207, 1840. 
80 Wight, Robt., “Icones Plant. Indie Orient,” 1, tab. 238-240. 


618 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


tion of the chambers and later of the pollen from the very young 
parenchymatic tissue. These are first that the two pollen sacs fuse in 
the upper part of the anther where there is no bilateral arrangement 
by a median line, but a line of chambers occurs in the middle plane 
of the apex; the second is that not all the cells of the young anther 
parenchyma or endothecium become sporogenous as they do in 
other anthers, but some cells become the alveolar walls. Warming 
further remarks that in his opinion this is not an old phylogenetic 
condition but a recent adaptation and is seen in not only the man- 
groves, Rhizophora, Agiceras, etc., but in other families as the 
Onagracee above mentioned and the Orchidaceze (Phaius and 
Bleteia, etc.), as well as Viscum of the Loranthacez. 

The mechanism of the dehiscence, however, is just as interesting 
as the formation of these peculiar anthers and their pollen. This 
feature was brought out in examination of the cellular structure of 
the bud. As the other workers on the species have shown, the 
anthers in transverse section are triangular, or obovate-triangular 
with the dehiscing faces introrse and the back or outer side of the 
anther is a broad expansion of the connective (Fig. 2, Pl. VI.). 
This connective area, as well as the partitions of the pollen loculi 
contain a peculiar kind of cell. All the previous investigations 
have overlooked these cells. They happened to be brought out in 
sections which had been double-stained in safranin and methyl- 
green to contrast the lignified walls of the idioblasts. While exam- 
ining these sections there was noticed in the outer cells of the con- 
nective area of the anther a layer of cells which contained peculiar 
lignified, transverse ring thickenings inside the cellulose wall (see 
Figs. 3 and 4, Pl. VI.). In these anthers this reinforced area ex- 
tends clear to the tip and the cells composing it are rather elongated. 
According to our interpretation, these cells play an important me- 
chanical part in the dehiscence of the pollen. As the pollen ripens 
in the loculi, the thin exothecium shrinks and while this is taking 
place the strain produced on this thin-walled cell layer, particularly 
along the middle line of the pollen loculi, by the rigidity of the areas 
composed of the reinforced cells, a rupture occurs at the weakest 
places, 7. e., at the middle line where the partitions are thinnest. 
When the split has occurred all along the line the exothecium falls 


0” 
bis 


PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LVI. No. 7 PLaTeE VI 


Fic. 1. Longitudinal section of anther showing area of reinforced cells 
on outer side, vascular tracts, pollen loculi with reinforced cells in the septa, 
and thin exothecium separating off. Pollen grains in loculi and dark cells 
of nectary at base of stamen. (Cam. luc.) X 70. 

Fic. 2. Transverse section of anther showing pollen loculi, vascular 
bundle, and areas of reinforced cells. (Cam. luc.) X 340. 


Fic. 3. Longitudinal section of cells of reinforced area of anther show- 
ing lignified rib thickenings. (Cam. luc.) XX 500. 

Fic. 4. Transverse section of reinforced area of anther, showing lignified 
ribs. (Cam. luc.) > 500. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 619 


away, just as described by previous writers, and exposes the pollen 
in the loculi-to the air and contact of insects. The cells here de- 
scribed with their lignified thickenings are also densely filled with 
dark-staining protoplasm, similar to those of the petals. According 
to Warming the cytological development of the pollen grains does 
not present any unusual feature and the cursory examination of it 
in the preparation of this paper, which is not concerned with cyto- 
logical details, seems to confirm Warming’s statement. 

The pistil is relatively simple and has a two-celled ovary with 
the spongy tissue above mentioned beneath it. In each of these 
two cells there are seen two ovules, one of which becomes a seed. 
The ovary tapers, gradually into the erect and elongated woody style 
which has a bifid stigma at the tip.. The ovary, the ovules, the egg 
and fertilization apparatus have a very special interest in Rhizo- 
phora owing to the plant’s habit of vivipary. The endosperm itself 
has been the subject of investigation and considerable specula- 
tion. Baillon seems to have started the discussion by saying that 
the embryo is destitute of albumen, but is surrounded by a soft mat- 
ter which assumed its rdle. These parts connected with the repro- 
ductive function are best considered under the next heading. 


EMBRYOLOGY. 


The embryology of the red mangrove has been attacked by sev- 
eral botanists with more or less success. The study of its vivipary 
has led up to these detailed studies, which have been made princi- 
pally by three workers, Warming,** 1883, Karsten,*? 1891, and the 
most recent by M. T. Cook,** 1907. The first merely touched inci- 
dentally on the embryology in as far as it was related to the general 
morphology. Karsten’s work, while more detailed, was undertaken 
with a view to its relation to vivipary and the ecology of mangroves 
in the widest sense. Cook’s paper summarizes the work of Karsten 
and while short is very good, but the author himself says that com- 


81 Warming, Eug., loc. cit., p. 528. 
82 Karsten, G., “ Ueber die Mangrove-Vegetation in Malayahn Archipel.,” - 


Bibliotheca Botanica, Heft 22, 1891. 
83 Cook, M. T., “The Embryology of Rhizophora mangle,” Bull. Torr. 


Bot. Club, Vol. 34, No. 6, p. 271, 1917. 


620 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


plete series were lacking in his studies owing to deficiency in ma- 
terial. In this resumé, the rather specialized paper by Haberlandt*™* 
and to some extent the studies of Johow® cannot be overlooked. 
The former was particularly concerned with the nourishment of the 
embryo and the function of the endosperm. 

In this paper the embryology has not been considered as being 
of primary consideration in relation to the studies of the physiology 
' of the species and in view of the investigations already made on 
the embryology the main features will only be reviewed here to 
give a clearer understanding of the morphology. A few photomi- 
crographs are given also by way of illustration. 

The ovules all show a nucellus and in the tip of this, which in 
cross section is slightly irregular in outline, there is the arche- 
sporium. Cook says this is subepidermal and figures it as such. 
This archesporial cell cuts off two tapetal cells, but this number 
does not appear to be definitely known for the genus. However, 
Karsten’s material R. mucronata is figured as having two tapetal 
cells and Cook’s miaterial R. mangle also. In the figure of the longi- 
tudinal section given in this paper the large horseshoe shape section 
of the integument is seen as the only one present. Cook has shown 
that there really are two integuments at the beginning where the 
archeporial cell is still small, but that later the inner one is destroyed. 
The integuments both grow rapidly and soon enclose the nucellus, 
while the archesporium divides into the megaspore cells. Here 
there seems to be a discrepancy in the number for the genus, as 
Karsten found four for R. mucronata, while Cook gets three for 
R. mangle, but as Cook says he only was able to secure one good 
preparation of this stage the constant number cannot positively be 
stated. As the embryo sac enlarges the nucellus completely disap- 
pears, as does also the inner integument with growth of the sac. 

This stage, or one a little later, is shown in the figure where 
the outer integument is seen with a littte of the soft spongy endo- 
sperm inside and the enlarged embryo, with the tiny dark area 
where the plumule is beginning to form. The cells of the endosperm 

84 Haberlandt, G., “ Ueber die Ernahrung der Keimleinge, etc.,” Ann. du 


Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg, Treub, Vol. 12, p. 91, 1895. 
85 Johow, Fr., loc. cit. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 621 


seem to radiate froma more or less definite center of growth in the 
sac, as Cook has mentioned. This feature is seen in the figure of 
a transverse section of the ovules. 

The function of this endosperm has engaged the attention of the 
various botanists mentioned above. The cells themselves are large 
and loose and are easily distinguished from those of the enclosing 
integument and Warming*® says they appear as if empty of con- 
tents and that he never found starch in them, but had noticed 
spherocrystals and it is furthermore remarked by this author that 
its function does not seem to be that of food storage, but its later 
development indicates a quite unusual function. This later de- 
velopment is the pushing out of the endosperm and the cotyledonary 
end of the embryo through the micropylar end of the sac or what 
now remains of it as the outer integument, into the ovarian cavity to 
form an arillar collar or outgrowth. As Warming. and Johow*’ 
both agree, the function of this structure is not for the luring of 
animals for the purpose of seed dissemination, as other arils in 
Myristica, Casearia and Euonymus, but, as Warming says (p. 531), 
“Bei Rhizophora wird das extraovulare albumen wahrscheinlich 
dazu dienen, als Saugorgan dem Keimlinge Nahrung von der Mut- 
terpflanze zuzufiihren.” This peculiar endosperm structure is seen 
not only in the Rhizophoracee but in other viviparous plants, as 
Treub®* has shown for Avicennia, etc. Karsten*® has shown the 
same conditions for R. mucronata, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Agiceras, 
etc., and that these plants all follow the same development as was 
early recorded by Hofmeister® in the origin of the embryo sac from 
the nucellus, etc. Karsten divides the endosperm formation into 
two categories ; first that form in which the embryo is soon anchored 
near the micropyle and only after this does the endosperm, in very 
small amounts, begin to form from unconnected cells of a foamy 
consistency. In the second category to which Rhizophora belongs 


86 Warming, Eug., loc. cit., p. 531. 

87 Johow, Fr., loc. cit., p. 421. 

88 Treub, M., Annales du Jard. Botanique de Buitenzorg, Vol. 3, p. 79, 
1882. 

89 Karsten, G., loc. cit., p. 31. 

90 Hofmeister, W., “Neuere Beobachtungen tiber Embryobildung bei 
Phanerogamen,” Pringsheim’s Jahrb., I., p. 82, 1859. 


622 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


the endosperm completely surrounds the unanchored embryo and 
permits of motion in different places by the growth of the embryo. 
Of both these cases Karsten says (p. 33, 1. c.): “Die Rolle eines 
Reservestoffe speichernden Gewebes kommt aber dem Endosperm 
weder im ersten, noch im zweiten Falle zu.” 

It remained for Haberlandt, however, to do the most intensive 
work on these endosperm cells. The plants which he investigated 
at Buitenzorg were Bruguiera, Aigiceras and R. mucronata. For 
the first two genera he has learned that the endosperm forms many- 
celled haustoria, which grow into the tissue of the integument and 
absorb the food for the embryo (p. 95, 1. c.). However when he 
came to R. mucronata he expected to see the same development 
even to a greater degree, on account of the rapid growth of the very 
long hypocotyl, but a quite different condition was found, different 
even from that found by Warming for our species, R. mangle. 

The inner rounded end of the embryo is connected with the integ- 
ument by a well-developed “Saugorgan” structure consisting of 
cells of several layers, with thin walls and rather elongated in out- 
line, the upper layer of which is supplied with warts and papille, 
which apparently transfer food to the embryo. But the endosperm — 
cells around the cotyledonary collar region have large thin-walled 
watery cells, among which the absorptive papille are more numer- 
ous. Haberlandt shows this in a series of excellent figures (1. c., Pl. 
XI.), but that these papillae merely function as, or are absorptive 
organs, Haberlandt does not concede. His conclusion is that this 
tissue is an enzyme-secreting layer of cells which perhaps secretes 
diastase, and to prove this he placed starch grains on these papille 
and learned that in twenty-four hours the grains on the rounded 
head region were deeply corroded, while those of the collar were 
less so. The large watery cells of the latter region Haberlandt re- 
gards as water reservoirs for the delicate absorptive tissue of the 
“head” region. This he regards as a special adaptation to the 
physiologically dry habitat of the mangrove and a protection against 
transpiration.®* 

In the more recent work of Cook there is also mentioned (I. c., 
p. 273) the fact that the cells of the integument are much denser 


91 Haberlandt, G., loc. cit., p. 105. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 623 


than those of the endosperm and that the union between the two 
layers of cells is very close. Cook further has divided the periods 
of growth of the embryo into three definite periods; first, the first 
growth of the cotyledons, during which they enlarge and are the 
means of storing up the food for the later growth; second, the 
cotyledons almost cease growing, while the hypocotyl elongates and 
the plumule is forming, and the beginnings of vascular elements 
take shape; third, the second growth of the cotyledonary body 
which pushed out the region of union of the cotyledons and the 
hypocotyl so that the cotyledonary body projects like a green collar 
beyond the apex of the fruit. “An absciss layer is then formed at 
the base of the plumule and the hypocotyl drops off. 


POLYEMBRYONY. 


The presence of four ovules in the young condition of the fruit 
and the habitual development of only one of these into a seed 
naturally leads the investigator to look for polyembryony in the 
genus. This condition actually does happen at rare intervals and 
has been noted by a few observers. Warming quotes Piso,*? who 
figures this rare phenomenon of two or more radicles pushing out 
from one fruit. Baron Eggers® is also quoted as estimating from 
his observations on this species in the West Indies that polyem- 
bryony occurs three times in one thousand cases and Du Petit 
Thouars™ is also reported to have observed this. Polyembryony 
may occur according to the wide usage of the term by some botan- 
ists, 7. e., {wo or more embryos may develop within one embryo sac 
by the formation of several embryos, one of which originates from 
the egg and it is this which Warming figures in Pl. VII—VIIL., or 
in the wider sense of two or more ovules germinating from one 
fruit. The difference may easily be seen on cutting away the fruit 
wall; if only one seed is present, it can only be interpreted as true 
polyembryony. In the second case two or more seeds would be 
noticed. 

92 Piso, G., loc. cit. 


93 Eggers, H., loc. cit., p. 180. 
94 Thouars, Albert du Petit, “ Notice sur le Manglier,” Desvaux’s Journal 


de Botanique, t. 3, p. 27, 1813. 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, 00, JANUARY 8, 1918. 


624 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


More recently Guppy has observed cases of polyembryony, but 
all of the cases which he observed seem to be of the second type, 
in which more than one seed germinated. This naturalist counted 
eight hundred fruits on trees of R. mangle in Fiji and found only 
nine cases of polyembryony, eight with two radicles protruding and 
one with three. In particular localities he found as many as two or 
three per cent. of the fruit: showing polyembryony. Perhaps this 
indicates an hereditary factor and tendency in certain trees of a 
region for evolution to a condition of maturing and germinating 
all four of the ovules in a fruit. No cases of polyembryony seem 
to be reported for other species than R. mangle. 


EMBRYONAL DEVELOPMENT. 


The length of time required for the complete development of the 
embryo from the time of fertilization until the fall of the seedling 
has been estimated by some observers and actually recorded ex- 
actly by a few who pollinated the flowers. Even in Jacquin’s time® 
it was recognized that it was a long and slow process, for he re- 
marks that the time is twelve months to the dropping of the seed- 
lings, and that it takes three months for the hypocotyl to appear 
at the top of the fruit. 

While an opportunity was not given to observe this for R. 
mangle by the writer on account of the brevity of the laboratory 
season at Tortugas, some idea was gained of the relative rate of 
growth by marking the hypocotyl of very young seedlings with 
bands of India ink and measuring the distance of the ring from the 
apex of the fruit, as well as the spaces between other rings on the 
length of hypocotyl, after a period of a few weeks, June 11 to July 
15. On the former date about 20 hypocotyls were marked in the 
above described manner with rings one centimeter apart. At the 
end of the time on July 15, during a return trip to Key West and 
Stock Island, where the trees were growing, it was found that 
twelve of the seedlings were still on the trees and had made various 
growths, viz., 5, 3, 5,.3, 6, 5, 3, 6, 5, 4, 5, 3 centimeters, or approxi- 
mately 4.7 centimeters, growth in the thirty-four days which had 
elapsed. . 


% Jacquin, N. J., “ Selectarum Stirpium Americanorum,” 1763, p. 141. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 625 


A great deal of work has been done by Guppy® on plant dis- 
persal and in one work he has devoted several chapters to the 
mangrove and on page 451 of the above book gives the “ history of 
the reproductive process in Rhizophora from the fertilization of the 
ovule to the falling of the plantlet or seedling from the tree.” He 
goes on to say:.“I devoted great attention to this subject in the 
instance of Rhizophora mangle, being desirous of determining two 
points, in the first place as to whether there was any period of rest 
between the maturation and germination of the seed, and in the 
second place as to the period that elapsed between the commence- 
ment of germination and the fall of the seedling.” “The principal 
change in the ovary for the first three or four weeks after fertili- 
zation is shown in its increased breadth. The increase in height is 
but slight during this period ; and in fact after thirty days the ovary 
only added two millimeters to its original height of three millimeters. 
After this the growth of the fruit proceeds until the tip of the 
radicle pierces its summit, the fruit being then about eleven lines 
(2.8 cm.) long. From the date of fertilization to the time the radicle 
pierces the top of the fruit a period of about fifteen weeks elapses. 
(The fruit, it should be here remarked, continues to grow in length 
and breadth after the radicle has protruded, attaining a length of 
thirteen or fourteen lines (3.5 cm.) when the seedling or ‘keim- 
ling’ is ready to fall.) ” 

“Tt will be observed that there is no period of rest in the growth 
of the fruit up to the date of the protrusion of the radicle. It may 
also be shown that there is normally no pause between the epoch of 
the maturation of the seed and the beginning of germination or, 
in other words, that from the time of the fertilization of the ovule 
to the onset of germination there is no cessation in the process of 
growth of the embryo. That period of dormant vitality which al-- 
most all seeds pass through forms no normal feature in the life- 
history of this species of Rhizophora.” 

In Guppy’s more recent work®’ of 1917 in the West Indies and 
the Azores he gives a summary likewise of the period which elapses 


96 Guppy, H. B., “ Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific,” Vol. IL, 


1906. 
97 Guppy, H. B., “ Plants, Seeds and Currents in the West Indies and 


Azores,” London, 1917. 


626 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


between fertilization and the fall of the seedlings of the species in 
the former region and states it to be nine or ten months. ; 
Before leaving this subject of morphology and histology, there © 
are two anatomical features which deserve special mention and 
which occur in nearly every tissue of Rhizophora. These two 
peculiarities are the indioblasts or trichoblasts and the tannin cells. 
The trichoblasts were, according to Warming, perhaps first de- 
scribed by Decaisne,®* who remarked their presence in a “ root.” 
They are perhaps better seen, however, in a hypocotyl, which if 
broken transversely the surface of the fracture is seen to be densely 
bristled with the tips of the thousands of idioblasts embedded in 
the intercellular spaces of the cortex, as well as the medulla and 
even vascular region (Fig. 2, Pl. V.). The most of the idioblasts 
in this organ, as well as those in stem and roots, are composed of 
four elongated and taper pointed branches joined in the middle by 
a short connection, the whole structure appearing as a letter H (Fig. 
2, Pl. IV.). The idioblasts of the leaves, however, are more irregu- 
lar and branched or even stellate in form with the branches rami- 
fying among the cells. Sections of this type are seen in Fig. 1, 
Pl. V. In the older and more lignified tissues, as the stem and also - 
in the hard calyx and ovary, the idioblasts more nearly resemble the 
stone cells of fruit pits and of the leaves of Camellia and Osmanthus, 
having the lumen almost entirely filled up. These structures, as 
Warming remarks, very soon render a razor entirely unfit for use 
in the preparation of histological material. The same author re- 
gards the function of the structures as mechanical in preventing 
shrinking and shriveling of tissues when exposed to the great heat 
of the sun. But as they are frequent also in parts which are not so 
exposed, as for instance the absorptive roots and the interior of the 
fruit and flower, etc., this theory of support against shrinkage due 
to heat is not necessarily true, but it may be conceded that their réle 
is mechanical and they do support the large intercellular spaces found 
in some of the tissues. In discussing fibers and hairs, De Bary®® 
says: “There occur in phanerogams fibers which are freely and 
8 Decaisne, J., Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 2, Series 4, p. 76, 1835. 


°° De Bary, A., “A Comparative Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of 
the Phanerogams and Ferns,” tr. Bower and Scott, pp. 130 and 220, 1884. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 627 


often abundantly branched and of a form which varies according 
to the special place of their occurrence. These usually occur in dis- 
similar lacunar tissue with their branches pushed into its inter- 
stices. In as much as these project like many-branched hairs into 
wide air-containing spaces (as Rhizophora) ... and also occur in 
many tough leathery foliage leaves . . . they appear to serve as a 
strengthening apparatus for the tissue. De Bary further mentions 
their occurrence in the pith and cortex of Rhizophora (p. 220) but 
has overlooked them in other parts. He regards them as being 
closely related to sclerenchyma fibers and only differ from them in 
“shape and distribution. 

: The tannin cells do not seem to have received so much attention 
from histologists as the idioblasts. Most investigators on Rhizo- 
phora have mentioned the occurrence of tannic acid in large quanti- 
ties, but few have remarked on the localization of this substance. 
The large cells of the root-cortex, both of the aérial prop-roots and 
to some extent of the absorptive roots, are filled with large, rather 
polygonal cells, which contain tannin. The tannin in the cells ap- 
pears as tiny brown granular masses, which stain a dense black 
when special preparations are made of tissues stained with copper 
acetate or ferric chloride. The pericycle region of the soft absorp- 
tive roots contains the most in the subterranean roots which perhaps 
have the least of any organ in the plant. In the leaves, as seen in 
Fig. 4, Pl. IV., the large special tannin cells are the first two layers 
of the hypodermis, just beneath the epidermis. The pericarp of 
the fruit and even the young embryo also show notable qualities of 
tannin in specially prepared material. The role played by tannin 
in the economy of Rhizophora will be discussed in the next chapter. 
The largest amount is found in the cortex of the stems and aérial 
roots. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


The physiological relation of Rhizophora to its various media of 
growth is perhaps the main subject of consideration in this paper. 
The idea of work on the physiology, as expressed by transpiration 
and absorption, had its inception in the interest aroused by the ap- 
parent ability of these trees to grow almost equally well in either 


628 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


fresh or salt water. The transpiration as affected by the climate 
was not of paramount interest, as that has received much attention 
by such investigators in warm climates as Haberlandt,*°° Holter- 
mann,’ Giltay,1°? Wiesner,’°? Unger,'°* Stahl? and many others. 
As mentioned before, the Rhizophora trees grow along the shores 
of bays and the mouths of rivers, where the above conditions are 
found, so an attempt was made to study the effect of this environ- 
ment as evidenced by the transpiration rates of plants in similar, 
but controlled conditions. At the same time various soils were ex- 
perimented with. | 

Seedlings of the first or second year’s growth were secured at 
Cayo Agua, one of the lower Florida keys, and brought to the Tor- 
tugas Laboratory on the laboratory yacht, a distance of about ninety 
miles. The seedlings were found in natural beds under the parent 
trees along the shores of this island. During the transit some of 
the seedlings died, but enough were saved to start several hundred 
cultures. These cultures were made in large heavy glass beakers 
about ten inches in diameter. 

These seedlings were placed in a jar, in soil and mud, etc., ac- 
cording to the kind of culture, and the jars filled up with water. 
The water was of a definitely known concentration of sea water or 
pure rain water from the laboratory cisterns. The soils ordinarily 
used were either the native Tortugas sand, a very coarse calcareous 
sand composed of the remains of calcareous algz, corals, echino- 
derms, gastropods, etc., or a reddish soil brought down to the labora- 
tory from the vicinity of Maplewood, N. J. This latter soil ap- 
peared to be composed of a disintegrated, ferruginous sandstone. 

100 Haberlandt, G., “Ueber die Groesse der Transpiration im feuchtem - 
Tropenklima,” Ebenda, Bd. XXXI., 1808. 

101 Holtermann, K., “Die Transpiration der Pflanzen in den Tropen,” 
Sitzb. der kgl. preuss. akad. des Wissen. Berlin, Bd. XXX., 1902. 

102 Giltay, E., “Die Transpiration in den Tropen und in Mitteleuropa,” 
II., Ebenda, Bd. XXXIL., 1808. 

103 Wiesner, J., and Pacher, J., “Ueber die Transpiration entlaubter 
Zweige,” Oesterr. Botan. Zeitschr., Wien, Bd. XXV., 1875, p. 145. 

104 Unger, F., “ Neue Untersuchungen ueber die Transpiration der Pflan- 
zen,” Ebenda, Bd. XLIV., 1862. 


105 Stahl, E., “ Einige Versuche ueber Transpiration und Assimilation,” 
Botan. Zeitung, Bd. LII., 1894, p. 117. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 629 


A few cultures were also potted in a dark, bluish, gray mud taken 
up from the-bottom of the moat at Fort Jefferson on the adjacent 
Garden Key. This mud, which seems very similar to that of typical 
' mangrove swamps, gets its dark color from decaying organic matter 
in it and is also heavily charged with hydrogen sulphide arising 
from the decomposition, just as is the ordinary mangrove swamp 
mud. 

Some of this mud was boiled to drive off the gas and other 
cultures were made of the unboiled mud to learn if there might be 
a difference in the rate of transpiration. 

The water concentrations used in the soil experiments were pure 
salt water and 50 per cent. salt water. 


TECHNIQUE. 


The methods of getting at the rate of transpiration which 
seemed the most feasible considering the available supply of ma- 
terial was that of Stahl. This method, while only a colorimetric 
method and hence not recognized as so exact as are perhaps volu- 
metric methods, gave very interesting results with a few modifica- 
tions to suit the conditions obtaining in the laboratory. A Ganong 
leaf-clasp was used for the transpirometer. The indicators for this 
little instrument are discs of Swedish filter paper saturated in 4 
per cent. cobaltous chloride solution. These disc are inserted in the 
rings inside the thin glass sides of the instrument which is then 
clamped on a rod stand and the apparatus placed beside a culture 
jar. Full-grown leaves of about the same size on plants of the 
same age were used for tests. A small difficulty was encountered 
in the high humidity content of an island and tropical climate 
atmosphere, since the indicator discs-necessarily had to be abso- 
lutely dry. This difficulty was overcome by keeping the discs in a 
calcium chloride desiccator of large size which conveniently held 
the whole instrument with its ball-and-socket adjustable arm. In 
making tests, the paper discs were placed in the clasp and dried 
over an alcohol flame until the characteristic pink color of the paper 
at ordinary atmospheric conditions was replaced by a deep blue of 
absolute dryness. The whole clasp was then quickly placed in the 


630 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


desiccator, which was cooled artificially by an ice chamber about it. 
This was found necessary to expedite the taking of tests, as the heat 
absorbed by the apparatus during the drying had a vitiating effect 
on the transpiration experiment unless cooled, and if allowed to cool 
to the room temperature slowly, too much time was lost between 
tests. After a minute or two, the apparatus, sufficiently cooled and 
dry, was quickly removed from the desiccator and clamped on the 
upright rod support beside the culture jar, the selected leaf placed 
in the clasp and the screws slightly adjusted to press the sides of 
the clasp on the surfaces. By a stop watch the time was then 
noted that was required to change the color of the indicator disc to 
a uniform pink, due to the effect of the moisture transpired through 
the stomata and epidermis of the leaf. As there are no stomata on 
the upper surface the change in color for the disc on the upper 
side of the leaf always lagged in the time interval from 65 to 80 
seconds behind the lower or stomatal side. This interval was con- 
stant for nearly all tests and for this reason only the lower-side 
indicator was used for the records. An error in calculating the 
time interval required to effect the change in the indicator occurs 
in the loss of time required to adjust the instrument on the plant, 
during which the atmosphere has an opportunity, for a few seconds, 
to get in its influence on the instrument, but the transfer from the 
desiccator to the plant becomes routine after a few hundred tests 
and this time error of a few seconds may be disregarded, as it is 
constant for all the tests. 

The successive tests were made at one time on each culture jar, 
separate leaves, one each, of the three plants in the jar being used. 
The time of taking the tests was as far as possible made in the mid- 
dle portion of the day and every effort was made to avoid jarring 
or shocking the plants just before or during a test, on account of 
the accelerating effect of shock on the transpiration rate. The 
records were all marked in notebooks and the average taken for 
the three tests on one culture jar. 

The cultures were kept on large tables holding about thirty jars 
in the laboratory, which was open on all sides and contained venti- 
lator trap doors in the roof which were propped open during the 
day. The plants were thus sheltered from the direct rays of the 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 631 


sun and rain. However, during the long, still, calm days of June 
and-July there is very little atmospheric variation in the Tortugas 
climate. The greater part of these two months is made up of clear, 
sunny days with almost no wind. The average wind velocity for 
the region, according to the U. S. Weather Bureau Records from 
Key West, is 9.6 miles per hour for the year, but most of the gales 
occur in the fall and winter months, September and October being 
called the ‘‘ hurricane months.” 

The average temperature for the year is 76.8° F. with a maxi- 
mum of 88° F. and a minimum of 77° F. during the months in 
which these tests were made, while the average relative — 
for the whole general region is about 73 per cent. 

In both the soil and the water concentration series of experi- 
ments it was found advisable to siphon off the water from each cul- 
ture jar daily. In doing this, two objects were attained—a fresh 
supply of water containing the various gases, etc., in solution was 
furnished the roots of the plants, simulating the tidal action of the 
sea in the natural beds in the mangrove swamps and also by this 
- means the mosquito larva were removed to a large extent, the cul- 
tures of plants in fresh water and the higher dilutions of salt water 
being an ideal place for the breeding of mosquitos if left undis- 
turbed. 

In the water concentration series of cultures several hundred 
seedlings were potted in the jars similar to the above described soil 
experiment cultures. The soil used however to anchor the seed- 
lings was uniform for all the series, that is, only the Tortugas shell 
sand was used. 

The water concentrations employed for the series were as 
follows: 

Series A—100 per cent. fresh water. 
Series B— 75 per cent. fresh water. 
Series C— 50 per cent. fresh water. 
Series D— 20 per cent. fresh water. 
Series E— 10 per cent. fresh water. 
Series F— 5 per cent. fresh water. 
Series G—100 per cent. salt water. 


632 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


In 1915 a series of cultures was made on hyperconcentrated sea 
water of 140 per cent. concentration. The transpiration rate records — 
for the culture showed a very slow rate of transpiration and in fact — 
the whole metabolism of the plants was so retarded that the plants 
slowly yellowed, dropped the leaves and died after a few weeks. 
The rate on the basis of Stahl’s method was 5.66, 1%. e., approxi- 
mately there was required 5.66 minutes to change the indicator of 
the transpirometer. . 

In addition to the cultures in water, there was a series planted in 
shell sand and merely kept moist with salt water, but also kept in the 
laboratory sheltered from the direct rays of the sun, wind and rain. 
Another series, however, was placed in boxes of sand, merely kept 
moist but placed on the landing dock of the laboratory in full glare 
of sun, etc. This situation most nearly approached the living condi- 
tions of Rhizophora seedlings drifted up on the beaches of the Tor- 
tugas Islands. As there are no mangroves in these islands except 
two young trees in a very sheltered position on Garden Key, an 
inquiry into the physiological behavior of these drifted plants was 
attempted to learn why the mangrove does not survive in this group. 
This subject will be discussed in the light of the above experiments 
in the chapter on ecology. However, it suffices to say here that the 
hard conditions of these cultures proved too much for the seedlings 
and one pair of tiny leaves would unfold after another with very 
short internodes and each pair would successively be burned up by 
the intensely hot sun and the glare of the reflection of the white 
sand in which they were planted together with the greatly reduced 
absorption from the merely moist, coarse, porous substratum. After 
a month of this heroic attempt at growth, the seedlings succumbed 
when the reserve food in the hypocotyl was exhausted, no foliage 
being put forth during their brief existence that attained sufficient 
size on which to take transpiration rate records. 

In a previous season at Tortugas a number of cultures was 
made of seedlings planted in jars of the Fort Jefferson moat mud, 
but the water was not siphoned from these cultures daily and a 
fresh supply put on, so that in a short while the water became so 
charged with H,S gas that it produced a toxic effect on the plants, 
from which they soon died. This toxic effect of the hydrogen 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 633 


sulphide gas was of course due to the higher concentration of the 
acid solution, the ionization being H+ and HS—. In cultures of 
which the mud had been previously boiled to drive off the gas, the 
ultimate death of the plant was only postponed as the further de- 
composition of the organic substances in the mud soon produced 
enough H.S to again render the culture toxic. It is presumed that 
the constant action of the waves and the daily tides so dilute the 
gas in the natural mangrove beds that the toxicity is removed. 
Many factors enter into this question, as the precipitation of sul- 
phides by the inter-action of bases in the sea water, action of the 
products of denitrifying basteria in large quantity in the tropical 
waters and other complex chemical phenomena. On account of the 
early death of the plants no records could be made of these cul- 
tures, or at least in sufficient number to warrant any definite con- 
clusions. All the cultures were allowed about three weeks to adjust 
themselves to the changed conditions in the laboratory from those 
of their natural beds, before any records were taken. By this ad- 
justing process time was also given to eliminate any seedlings which 
were not healthy or showed signs of not reacting normally. 

Lastly a series of two hundred young trees was planted on a 
small mound of mud in the moat at Fort Jefferson during the sum- 
mer of 1915. The top of this little mound of debris was only 
moistened at the highest tide and this exposed-part was largely com- 
posed of coarse broken corals and shells, pieces ten to fifteen centi- 
meters in dimension. The little plants about one half meter high 
were set at varying levels on the mound, some on top in the dry 
coarse debris and the lowest almost submerged even at low tide. 
In 1916 on the writer’s return to Tortugas only twelve of these trees 
were alive, the winter storms had so disturbed the mound that many 
were washed away, the remaining ones were growing and apparently 
in good condition. The significance of the experiment will be con- 
sidered under the ecological relations. 


TRANSPIRATION RECORDs. 
The result of about two thousand records made in both seasons 
of the years 1915 and 1916 are now set forth. The intervals be- 
tween the stop-watch registrations were all calculated for each test, 


634 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


in minutes and fractions of minutes, and these intervals then aver- 
aged for each set of three tests on a culture, and then general aver- 
ages made of the series and finally all the sets of records made at 
different times on each series were averaged for each series. These 
final averages, as expressed for each series, are as follows, in the 
Water Concentration Class of experiments. 


Series A—100 per cent. Fresh—1.6 minutes. 
Series B— 75 per cent. Fresh—1.7 minutes. 
Series C— 50 per cent. Fresh—2.4 minutes. 
Series D— 20 per cent. Fresh—2.8 minutes. 
Series E— 10 per cent. Fresh—3.2 minutes. 
Series F— 05 per cent. Fresh—3.9 minutes. 
Series G—100 per cent. Salt —4.1 minutes. 


By arranging the data in curves, a graphic idea may be gained 
of the rates of transpiration of these plants in their various concen- 
tration cultures, and by applying certain mathematical formulz 
definite laws may be deduced for the phenomena. In a preliminary 
report on the work’®* before the data were all tabulated a formula 
was used with almost the same result as that given in the follow- 


ing curve. 
TRAWNSPIRARION CURVE ew SWLT SOLUTIONS 
4 
% eo 
Xo > 
N Fee ee : 
> . Lae? 
> 
KR / liry al Ky atu: — 
Y=ay 
Qe 70 20 so 20 so 40 70 oO 90 oe 
PERCENT SaA.7T SOLUTION 
Graph No. 1. 


But a better formula appears to be the one here given y= ab”. 
In the curve the time intervals in minutes are arranged as ordinates 


106 Bowman, H. H. M., “ Physiological Studies on Rhizophora,’ Proc. 
Nat. Acad. Sciences, Vol. 2, No. 12, Dec., 1916, p. 685-688. , 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 635 


and the concentration percentages as abscisse. That is, the curve 
indicates the period of time required by the plants to transpire equal 
quantities of moisture when planted in varying concentrations of 
water. When growing in fresh water, the plant transpires the unit 
quantity of moisture in 1.6 minutes, when growing in 100 per cent. 
salt water, to transpire the same quantity there is required 4.1 
minutes. The effect then of increasing the salt content is to retard 
the time of equal transpirations of moisture. The physical law 
expressing this progressive increase of time interval, necessitated 
by the increasing concentration, has the mathematical form y—=ab?. 
That is the time, y, for a plant to transpire a unit quantity of mois- 
ture when the percentage of salt solution is 1, is equal to constant 
b (approx.—z) multiplied by a constant, b (approx.—1I.79), 
raised to x power. For the percentage concentrations used in this 
work the rate of transpiration then varies directly with the concen- 
tration. 

The result of these experiments can only in a general way be 
compared with those of other workers on transpiration, because 
there are too many factors which were necessarily quite different in 
the materials and methods. The plants themselves are specially 
adapted to a water environment and protected against an excessive 
transpiration, while the ordinarily high salt concentration of the 
medium of growth makes absorption difficult. The rather high 
humidity of the air tends to reduce transpiration, while the heat 
and intense light of their habitat helps to increase it. The general 
results, however, do correspond with the experiments of Ricome*®* 
on plants of Malcomia maritima and Alyssum maritimum. This 
investigator cultivated the plants in normal soil and salty soil and 
transferred to plain Knop’s nutrient solution and in Knop’s solu- 
tion to which one per cent. of salt (NaCl) was added. While the 
general temperatures and humidity were not the same, the light in- 
tensity was rather diffuse as in the present studies, but the methods 
of measuring the transpiration differed. Ricome found that both 
the absorption and transpiration were less in the plants grown in 

107 Ricome, H., “Influence du Chlorure de Sodium sur la Transpiration et 


YAbsorption de l’Eau chez les Vegetaux,” Comptes Rendus de l’Acad. des 
Sci. Paris, T. CXXXVIL., 1903. 


636 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


salt soil than in the sodium chloride free soil and likewise for the 
Knop solution cultures. He finds that NaCl externally makes ab- 
sorption through the roots difficult and that contained in the plant’s 
tissues lessens transpiration. Other workers have also experimented 
with plants in solutions of different salts, as Burgerstein,*°* who 
grew plants in borax solutions of one to three tenths per cent. con- 
centration and by comparison of the transpiration of similar plants 
in distilled water, he found that those in the borax solution trans- 
pired much less, but an objectionable feature in those experiments 
was the highly toxic effect of boric acid and borates, as Peligot*®® 
has shown, since the plants began to droop and die on the second 
day of the experiments. 

Cuboni*® who experimented with sprinkling branches of various 
trees and shrubs with thin solutions of calcium hydroxide and meas- 
uring the transpiration by photometric methods found that this sub- 
stance had no effect, but as there was no absorption here the results 
cannot be compared. The available water for absorption is natu- 
rally the factor most concerned in transpiration and as the increas- 
ing density of the solutions makes osmosis and absorption more 
difficult the corresponding phenomenon is decreased in amount. 
Not all salts in solution however have this physical effect, if the 
works of Sachs?!? and Senebier’’? may be considered. The effect 
is also partly chemical, and the physical osmotic relations cannot 
be supposed to be due to the density of the solutions alone, thus 
Senebier, who was an earlier investigator on the subject, states that 
aqueous solutions of sodium sulphate, potassium nitrate and potas- 
sium tartrate occasion an-acceleration in the water movement in 
plants, while Sachs claims a retardation for ammonium sulphate and 
sodium chloride. Both the experimenters worked with twigs and 
so the action by root absorption is not considered and the assump- 

108 Burgerstein, A., “ Die Transpiration der Pflanzen,” p. 146, 1904. 

109 Peligot, M., Comptes Rendus de l’ Acad. des Sci. Paris, t. 83. 

110 Cuboni, G., “La Transpirazione e l’Assimilazione nella Foglie trattata 
con Latte di Calci, Malpighia,” Vol. 1, p. 295, 1887. 

111 Sachs, J.,.“ Ueber den Einfluss der chemischen und physikalischen 
Beschaffenheit des Bodens auf die Transpiration der Pflanzen. Landw. Vers- 


Stationen,” Bd. I., 1850, p. 203. 
112 Senebier, J., “ Physiologie Vegetal,” Geneve, 1800. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED-MANGROVE. 637 


tion may be made that the effects were more chemical than physical 
and so-according to Sachs it would seem that sodium chloride has 
‘a retarding chemical effect in addition to the retardation of its 
physiological action in the osmosis of root absorption. However, 
as Burgerstein says (p. 152), neither investigator carried on a large 
series of experiments and Senebier moreover was only concerned 
with the amount of water as indicated by the absorption. 

In connection with measuring transpiration of plants in various 
concentrations of salts as the series in this paper, Burgerstein™* has 
made a series of interesting measurements, partly with woody twigs 
and partly with rooted seedlings in 0.10 to 1.0 per cent. solutions 
of the following nutrient salts: potassium, calcium and ammonium 
litrates, magnesium and ammonium sulphates, potassium phosphate 
and potassium carbonate. In very dilute solution, .05 to 2.5 per 
cent., the transpiration, when compared with that of plants in dis- 
tilled water, is increased, the higher the concentration of the solu- 
tion is increased, until at a definite concentration a maximum is 
reached. For the corn plant (Zea mays) this is about 2.5 per cent. 
A further interesting feature of Burgerstein’s work is that this 
maximum transpiration-concentration is lower for the alkaline salt 
solutions and higher for the acid reacting salts than for the maxi- 
mum point of nutrient salts with a neutral reaction. In solutions 
above this degree of concentration the transpiration steadily de- 
clined, so that a general rule could be deduced that in .3 to .5 per 
cent. solutions the transpiration was already less than that of plants 

_in distilled water. . 

As most of the cultures of the mangroves used in the experi- 
ments described in the present paper were grown in much higher 
concentrations than those of Burgerstein, the optimum concentra- 
tion of very dilute solutions could not have been detected, or its 
climax of transpiration increase observed. However, in the curve 
No. 1 there is seen a slight sag as the percentage increases from fresh 
water toward the 10 per cent. solution. This may be interpreted as 
the slight increase in transpiration (here expressed in time rate) 

113 Burgerstein, A., “Untersuchungen ueber die Beziehungen der Nahr- 


stoffe zur Transpiration der Pflanzen. I. Reihe,” Sitsb. der kais. Akad. der 
Wiss. in Wien, Bd. LXXXIIL., p. 191, 1876. 


638 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


due to the dilute solution, before the optimum concentration is 
reached, after which it showed a steady decrease in transpiration, 
or as here expressed in an increase in the time interval. In addi- 
tion to these results as found by Burgerstein, Sorauer* noticed 
that in cultures kept in solutions of concentrations above this 
optimum or maximum point, not only was the transpiration de- 
creased but the production of dry substance in the plants as well. 
The whole result of the series of experiments may be said to con- 
sist in showing the transpiration relation of the mangroves growing 
in solutions, as plants specially adapted to such halophytic aquatic 
conditions, that for increases of salt concentration in their media of 
growth there is a corresponding definite retardation of the, trans- 
piration rate which may be expressed in a mathematical formula. 


TRANSPIRATION OF SOIL CULTURES. 


The second series of cultures as outlined under the description 
of the methods of handling the material is the series of soil experi- 
ments. The two soils above mentioned were used and two condi- 
tions of soil moisture content employed, i. e., plants in boxes of soil 
merely moistened with water, and plants in jars kept flooded with 
water. The method of taking the records and the laboratory con- 
ditions as to light intensity, atmospheric humidity and temperature 
were the same as for the previous experiments, as was also the 
procedure of siphoning off the water from the jars and renewing 
the water daily to keep down the mosquito larve. 

The factors entering into this series of experiments are really 
much more complex than those in the first set of cultures as that 
involved only the salt concentration of the water, the soil (shell 
sand) used to anchor the plants being in all the cultures the same. 
But with the use of two soils, the one of a complex chemical nature 
(New Jersey soil), and the two sets of soil moisture contents, the 
problem is more complicated. The results of the experiments are 
set forth in Graph No. 2. 

The influences on the transpiration are here due perhaps more 
to the chemical action of elements in the solution than to physiolog- 


114 Sorauer, P., “ Studien ueber Verdunstung, Forsch. an der Gebiet der 
Agrikultur-Physik von Wollny,” Bd. III., 1880, p. 351. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 639 


ical effects of varying concentrations. As will be noticed the above 
graph shows two double curves—No. 1 for the flooded soil and No. 
2 for the soil merely moistened. An interesting feature of the two 
‘curves considered together is that there is illustrated very clearly 
the relation of transpiration to soil moisture content. Stenstrém™5 
expressed this relation in a principle which shows the connection 


ai 
s 


UJ 
Q TRANSPIRATION, CURVE =~ VARY/NG eo 
Ge : SCH CONOIFLONS bd Cyrve en ese" 
NY SF 
= a 
> 7 uw pect . 
3 ae 
Ni = er oil 
NS s Corre es a : 7 
‘ LZ6ENO}- 
ve FT Per ra 
Curve# 24 Mort soil 
o oO 20 Jo 40 FO 60 Fo oo 99 00 
PERCENT SALT SOLUTION 


Graph No. 2. 


between the soil moisture content, the atmospheric humidity and 


: Smee S.M. 2 ; ; 
the transpiration of plants thus. ar =T, in which equation the 


letters stand for the above factors in the order named. Many 
physiologists have shown the relation between available water and 
transpiration and notable among these is Aloi,** whom Burgerstein 
quotes (p. 137, 1. c., Bibl., 107) as showing that with a normal 
moisture content the transpiration was less than that of plants in a 
saturated soil. “ Ueber den Einfluss der Bodenfeuchtigkeit auf die 
Wasserabgabe der Pflanzen stellte auch Aloi viele Versuche an, 
welche lehrten dass die Transpiration bei einer ‘umidita normale’ 


29? 


geringer war als in einem ‘ terreno molto umido. 
115 Stenstrém, K., “ Ueber das Vorkommer derselben Arten in verschied- 
enen Klimaten an verichiedenen Standorten mit besonderer Berucksichtigung 
der Xerophil ausgebildeten Pflanzen,” Flora, Bd. LXXX., p. 117, 1895. 
116 Aloi, A., “Influenza dell’ Umidita del suolo sulla Transpiratione delle 
Piante Terrestri,” Atti dell’ Acad. Gioenia di Science Nat. Catania, Ser. 4, 
Tome VIL., 1894. 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, PP, JANUARY 9, I918. 


640 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


Curve No. 2, showing the moist soil transpiration, is very short 
and unfortunately only about two hundred records were made on 
this series of cultures. The same characteristics are shown for 
both curves and the lines are parallel. The two sets considered to- 
gether show clearly that the rate of transpiration depends upon the 
amount of moisture in the soil available for absorption by the roots. 

Curve No. 1 shows three things—first that mangrove seedlings 
planted in dilutions over 35 per cent. salt transpire more rapidly 
when planted in New Jersey soil than in shell sand. Second, that 
similar seedlings under the same conditions in dilutions of 35 
per cent. salt water transpire at the same rate when planted in either 
soil and third, similar seedlings planted in water less than 35 per 
cent. salt water transpire more rapidly when growing in shell sand. 
These three facts can only be explained by the chemical action of 
constituents of the soils reacting with those of the water. The 
balance of solution for these constituents is evidently reached at 
a concentration of about 35 per cent. salt water in the cultures indi- 
cated by curve No. 1, while the same condition of chemical equi- 
librium is apparently reached at a concentration of 88.5 per cent. 
salt water in the cultures of plants in merely moistened soil. While 
it is not known what the chemical constituents of the soils are, the 
water has been very carefully analyzed by the chemist of the U. 
S. Geological Survey for the Laboratory Director, Dr. A. G. 
Mayer.” 

The explanation of the interaction of the chemical constituents 
of these two soils with the elements of the salt water in the varying 
concentrations used in these experiments is really a complex prob- 
lem to be taken up by the chemist and physicist. However, it may 
be suggested with propriety here in a paper dealing with more purely 
botanical phases that the above interaction of the various elements - 
in the soils and salt water during ionization in the solutions proceeds 
along the general action shown in the addition of chemicals to sea- 
water, discussed in a recent paper by Haas."* In this work by 

117 Mayer, A. G., Annual Report of the Director of the Dept. of Marine 
Biology, Carnegie Inst. of Washington, Year Book for 1910, p. 122. 

118 Haas, A. R., “The Effects of the Addition of Alkali to Sea-Water 


upon the Hydrogen toa Concentration,” Jour. of Biol. Chem., Vol. XXVI., No. 
2, Sept., 1916, p. 515. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 641 


Haas, strong sodium hydroxide solution (2.4813 N) was added to 
sea water-in small amounts and titrated by means of the gas chain 
and the results given in a curve (p. 517) and in explanation of ‘this 
curve, the investigator says: “The titration curve shows that on 
adding alkali to sea water the hydroxyl ion concentration at first 
rises rapidly and then very slowly until the magnesium hydrate has 
all been precipitated. After this further additions of alkali cause 
a more rapid rise in the concentration of the hydroxyl ion, but this 
rise is soon checked by the precipitation of calcium hydroxide. 
After the calcium hydroxide is all precipitated further addition 
of alkali will cause a corresponding increase in the concentration of 
the hydroxyl ion.” 

While we are not in this paper concerned primarily with the con- 
centration of the hydroxyl ion, the formation of the successive 
precipitations proves very interesting and it is phenomena of this 
_ sort which very likely cause the transpiration of the seedlings to 
go on more actively in dilutions over 35 per cent. salt water when 
planted in New Jersey soil and also to accelerate the transpiration 
when planted in Tortugas shell sand in concentration less than 35 
per cent. salt water. This latter group of results may be logically 
explained by the hypothesis that with the atmospheric humidity and 
temperature conditions the same, the transpiration would be ac- 
celerated in the less highly concentrated solution, according to the 
general law of transpiration, since the relatively pure calcium car- 
bonate composition of the shell sand is less soluble than the more 
complex New Jersey soil. It is also less finely comminuted than 
the latter soil and as Reed**® has shown in the transpiration of _ 
wheat seedlings that calcium carbonate added in small amounts to 
water cultures or soil cultures has an accelerating effect, then also 
the dilution of the sea water being less than 35 per cent. there are 
smaller amounts of salt in it, so that on the whole the behavior in 
regard to transpiration of these cultures is normal for the condi- 
tions. 

The acceleration, however, of the rate of transpiration of cul- 
tures in New Jersey soil and concentrations over 35 per cent. salt 


119 Reed, H. S., “ The Effect of Certain Chemical Agents upon the Tran- 
spiration and Growth of Wheat Seedlings,” Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLIX., 1910, p. 81. 


642 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


water must be the manifestation of some such principle demon- 
strated by Haas’s experiments. 


THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE Prop Roots. 


A small series of experiments was made at Miami, Fla., on the 
transpiration through the Jenticels of the pneumatophore or prop 
roots of older Rhizophora trees. Some of these trees were growing 
along the shores of Biscayne Bay and some along the banks of the 
Miami River. The salt concentration of the bay is not as high as 
the ocean outside, due to the effect of the streams which empty 
into it and the river, of course, is approximately fresh water; how- 
ever, the tide produces a noticeable effect in the river and for the 
comparatively short distance up the river that the mangroves ex- 
tend there is perhaps a commingling of the fresh water of the river 
and the salt of the tide; however, the densities of both the bay and 
the river were measured with the hydrometer and the measurements 
will be discussed under the ecology. 

Essentially the same technique was employed in taking these 
prop root transpiration records as that used for the leaf records 
made at Tortugas. The leaf clasp naturally could not be used con- 
veniently for taking records from the roots, which are cylindrical 
in shape and of varying thicknesses. To overcome the difficulty of 
adjusting the transpirometer to this cylindrical surface a modified 
transpirometer was devised by the writer and made for him by a 
firm of instrument makers. This device consists of two curved 
glass sides held in a curved metal frame which is constructed with 
. two grooves along the upper and lower edges respectively. Into 
these grooves the edges of the indicator paper is slipped and held 
in place inside the curved glass surfaces. The two curved glass 
sides are held together on one side by a neat but strong spring, which 
opens the instrument and permits its being clasped about a root 
when the two discs.of hard rubber are pressed together behind the 
spring. The indicator paper was inserted and dried over the flame 
and put into the calcium chloride desiccator. When cool the instru- 
ment was adjusted to the root and the record taken. As no control 
could be had over the concentration of the substratum and water 
concentration in which these old trees were growing, the results here 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 643 


given merely illustrate the fact that these aérating or prop roots 
actually do transpire water vapor and that there is a perceptible 
difference in the rates of transpiration of trees growing in the com- 
paratively fresh water of the river and those in the more highly con- 
centrated salt water of the bay. The average for the series of river 
tests was 2.37 minutes required to change the indicator in the modi- 
fied transpirometer, while the bay tests average was 3.66 minutes. 
These prop roots are really aérating roots as Karsten’?® and 
Schimper*** and others have shown in their experiments on other 
trees of the mangrove habit. In the activity of gas exchange as per- 
formed by aérating roots, there is, of course, considerable moisture 
transpired. This function of aération of roots is well discussed by 
Karsten for the prop roots of Bruguiera eriopetala on experiments 
which he conducted at the Buitenzorg Botanical Garden. These 
experiments were very elaborate and were done in the field, for 
which a cement base had to be constructed in the mud of the swamp 
and bell jars and glass apparatus fitted on the roots im situ. 
Manometers were used to regulate pressure and the amounts of 
CO, exchanged in respiration were measured by precipitating it 
with barium hydroxide as barium carbonate and then back-titrating 
it with oxalic acid and phenolphthalein. These experiments estab- 
lished the fact that the roots do function as respiratory organs for 
definite areas of the plant body and regulate the air supply for these 
trees whose roots are sunk in the poorly oxygenated and water- 
saturated mud and slime of the swamp, and they also help to regu- 
late the fluctuating conditions produced by the tides when part of 
the tree is submerged, and at other times exposed. Similar experi- 
ments and observations by Goebel’??**° on Souneratia acida and 
Avicennia officinalis, and by Schenck*** on Avicennia tomentosa and 


120 Karsten, G., loc. cit., p. 41. 

121 Schimper, A. F. W., “Botanische Mittheilungen aus dem Tropen,” 
Heft 3, Die Indo-malayische Strandflora, 1891, p. 37. 

122 Goebel, K., “ Ueber die Luftwurzelne von Sonneratia,” Ber. der Deut. 
Bot. Gesell., IV., p. 249. 

128 Goebel, K., “Pflanzenbiologische Schilderungen, I. Siidasiatische 
Strandvegetation,” p. 113. 

124 Schenck, H., “ Ueber Luftwurzeln von Avicennia tomentosa und La- 


guncularia racemosa,” Flora, 1889, p. 83. 


644 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


Laguncularia racemosa have broadened the knowledge of these 
organs. 

Before leaving this subject of transpiration, mention may be 
made here of some potometric measurements. At the Tortugas 
Laboratory a few potometer records were taken with shoots of 
Rhizophora to form some actual quantitative estimate of the water 
transpired through the leaves. Shoots of an average weight of 3.2 
grams were used and the same conditions of humidity, light inten- 
sity and temperature were arranged as for the transpiration records © 
above mentioned. It was learned that the average transpiration of 
these shoots was approximately one cubic centimeter in thirteen and 
four tenths minutes. This data, however, has no direct relation to 
the data of the bulk of the experiments performed. 


BIOCHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS AND TESTS. 


As mentioned in the prefatory statement attached to this paper, 
certain biochemical investigations were carried on at the Tortugas 
Laboratory on the cellular contents of the Rhizophora seedlings, the 
two substances being dextrose and tannic acid. The purpose in 
undertaking the investigation was to gain some idea, if possible, of 
the role played by the tannin in the physiology of the mangrove, 
since this occurs in such large amounts in the plant’s tissues. Sev- 
eral authors have suggested the various functions played by tannin 
in the plant’s economy; Wiesner, for instance, believed that tannin 
is an intermediate product in the formation of resin, since it has 
been observed that in Pinus, as the tannin decreases in the spring, 
1. €., during the season that the resin is most abundant, there is a 
corresponding increase in the resin. Basset’*”® has suggested that 
the tannin content of fruits more particularly depends on certain 
enzymes. Buignet,!?* in his work on the banana, argues that from 
the diminution of starch and tannin as the truit ripens, there is 
ground for supposing that tannin assists in the formation of sugar. 
On the other hand, Gerber?®’ in his studies on the relation of the 

125 Basset, B., Ref. Haas and Hill, 131. 


126 Buignet, A., Ann. de chem. et de Phys., III., Ser. I., LXIL., p. 281, 1861. 
127 Gerber, C., Ann. de Sci. Nat., IV., 18907, pp. 1-280. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 645 


same substances in the ripening fruits of the Japanese persimmon 
considers the tannin decrease in the ripening process to be due en- 
tirely to the oxidation of tannin and that it does not at all contribute 
to the formation of carbohydrates. His reason for this conclusion 
is that in the conversion of tannin into carbohydrates more carbon 
dioxide would have to be liberated than oxygen absorbed, whereas 
in fruits the relation is the reverse. 

Moore**® contributes the idea that tannins may play an important 
part in the lignification of cell walls. Drabbel and Winterstein??® 
make the suggestion that their rdle is important in cork formation, 
while Van Wisselingh**® has given the latest suggestion in that they 
help materially in the formation of cellulose in some plants as 
Spirogyra. The bulk of facts known, however, about tannins do 
not lead one to suppose that they are used up in the plant generally 
since they are left in parts discarded by plants, as fallen leaves and 
not translocated, but even this does not assume much significance 
since sugar and starch, etc., are also often found in fallen leaves, 
and as Haas and Hill*** remark, “A consideration of other facts 
does not tend to support the idea of tannin being of the nature of a 
reserve food.” “ Hillhouse,’** for example, found that if a fuchsia 
having an abundant supply of tannin be grown in the dark there is 
no diminution in the substance in question.” 

Notwithstanding the conflicting opinions regarding tannin and 
the role it plays in the plant’s physiology, it was decided to make a 
series of experiments on the tannin of the hypocotyl of young seed- 
lings, since in these storage organs it occurs in such great abundance 
together with starch. With the hypothesis that perhaps the tannin 
of the hypocotyl is broken down to form sugar as the growth of 
the seedling proceeds, by the action of some enzyme as tannase, 
tests were made for such an enzyme and also on the relative reac- 
tion for dextrose and tannic acid. About ninety-five tests were 

128 Moore, A., Journal Linn. Soc., London, Bot. 27, 1891, p. 527. 

129 Drabbel, A., and Winterstein, E., Biochemical Journal, 2, 1906, p. 96. 

130 Van Wisselingh, C., Konen Akad van Wetensch. Amsterdam, 1910, 


p. 685. 
131 Haas, P., and Hill, T. G. “Chemistry of Plant Products,” London, 


1913, p. 219. 
132 Hillhouse, B., Midland Naturalist, 1887-1888. 


646 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


made by such methods as suggested by Abderhalden,*** Euler,’** 
and more particularly Thatcher,'** who endeavored to isolate the 
enzyme, tannase, from several varieties of apples. 


METHOops. 


The fresh green hypocotyls were cut up and weighed in ten- 
gram portions, 7. e., ten grams from each hypocotyl. These por- 
tions were then ground to a consistency of coarse saw dust by 
pounding in a mortar with a little distilled water. Each portion was 
then digested with 50 c.c. distilled water in a beaker on a water 
bath at 40° C. for a half hour and the extract pressed out. The 
semi-dry mass that remained was then further digested with 50 c.c. 
of distilled water, the extract pressed out and added to the first 
extract. This extract of 10 Gm. of hypocotyl was then filtered and 
divided into two equal portions and each one made up to 100 c.c. by 
the addition of distilled water. One flask of the filtrate was boiled 
several minutes, then to each flask of filtrate a tenth gram of 
Merck’s standard tannic acid was added and both placed in an incu- 
bator at 40° C. far twenty-four hours. After allowing this interval 
for the enzyme to effect a change in the tannin content in the un-. 
boiled flasks, both the control flasks and the unboiled ones were 
treated with four drops of concentrated ferric chloride to cause 
precipitation of the tannin and the characteristic change in color. 
In some of the tests the precipitate, bluish black in color, was fil- 
tered off and then carefully washed, desiccated and weighed, but in 
all these tests there was not any evidence to indicate the presence 
of the enzyme tannase in the hypocotyl of these plants. The color 
reactions for the boiled was just as dense as those for the unboiled 
portions, while the weight of the desiccated precipitates likewise 
showed no appreciable difference, so the absence of the enzyme is 
apparently substantiated. 

Simultaneously with the performing of the above experiments 
a complementary series of investigations was made to show ‘the 

188 Abderhalden, E., “Handbuch der Biochemischen Arbeitsmethoden,” 
Berlin, 1910. 


184 Kuler, Hans, “ Allgemeine Chemie der Enzyme,” Wiesbaden, 1910. 
185 Thatcher, R. W., “ Enzymes of Apples,” Jour. Agri. Research, 1910. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 647 


relation between the amounts of dextrose and tannic acid in the 
hypocotyls of different ages. A condensed report of this work was 
given in an earlier paper ;**° however, the methods, slightly more in 
detail, may be appropriately described here. The seedlings, as col- 
lected in the beds, were of assorted sizes, but all presumably of the 
crop of the spring or late winter months of the same year. These 
seedlings were carefully measured in regard to the length of the 
hypocotyl, stem, internodes, size of leaves, etc., and then assorted 
into groups of successively large growths. In making the extracts, 
ten grams of hypocotyl seedlings of uniform size were ground up 
in a morter with a little distilled water, just as in preparing the 
tannase tests. Some extracts were made by boiling and others by 
infusion, but no difference in strength was noted. After pressing 
through cheese cloth each extract was made up to the original fifty 
cubic centimeters with distilled water. The extracts at this stage 
were of a rather thick syrupy consistency and a clear orange red in 
color. To each fifty cubic centimeters then was added five c.c. of a 
saturated solution of lead acetate, a few drops at a time, this pre- 
cipitated the coloring matters, phlobaphenes, etc., in the extracts and 
after standing four hours, each extract was filtered by means of a 
suction filter. The clear straw-colored filtrates were then treated 
with a steady stream of hydrogen sulphide gas for about ten min- 
utes. This precipitated the lead as heavy black lead sulphide. 
After filtering off the lead sulphide and boiling to remove any H,S 
remaining in the extracts, the filtrates were tested, one drop of 
cresol being added to each extract to prevent the growth of moulds. 

As quantitive analyses were not feasible at Tortugas, colori- 
metric methods of testing were resorted to. For the testing for 
dextrose, Huizinga’s Test was used. This is a reduction test, which 
was found to work very well with the Rhizophora extracts. One 
c.c. of the extract was pipetted into each of a series of test tubes and 
diluted with five c.c. of distilled water, then one c.c. of 0.1 KOH 
solution was added and one c.c. of a saturated solution of am- 
monium molybdate was pipetted also into each tube. The tubes 
were then boiled over an alcohol flame for 1.5 minutes and then to 


136 Bowman, H. H. M., Report on Botanical Investigation at Tortugas 
Laboratory, Season 1916, Carnegie Inst. of Wash. Year Book, No. 15, D. 188. 


648 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


each one was quickly added ten drops of concentrated HCl. A deep 
blue color, in varying degrees of intensity dependent on the amount 
present, indicated the dextrose. 

The tannin was tested for by means of Hager’s Test, after ex- 
perimenting with various tests, as Gayard’s, Grigg’s, Oliver’s, | 
Vogel’s, Watson’s and Young’s, the one selected was found to be 
the best for the material in hand, just as Huizinga’s Test for Dex- 
trose seemed to be the best of nine other tests tried. The test for 
tannin consisted in placing one c.c. in each of a series of test tubes 
and diluted with five c.c. of distilled water. To each was then 
added one c.c. of a saturated solution of hydrogen sodium phosphate 
(Na,HPO,) and a single drop of rather strong ferric chloride — 
solution, when a precipitate of a bluish violet color occurred in pro- 
portion to the amount of tannin present in the tubes. 

Why these tests and reagents seemed to be the best for testing 
the substances in question in the mangrove extracts is not known, 
but it probably depends on the peculiar composition of Rhizophora 
tannin, etc. The tannin of the red mangrove, according to the classi- 
fication of Haas and Hill, belongs to the Pyrocatechol Group, but 
as these authors state on account of the incomplete status of knowl- 
edge regarding the tannins as a whole and of the chemistry of this 
group in particular, it is a very difficult matter to classify them prop- 
erly. According to Kraemer’ the tannins of the above group pro- 
duce protocatechuic acid on fusion with potassium hydroxide and 
phlobaphenes on treatment with acids. A very careful analysis of 
the bark extract of Rhizophora was made by Trimble.%** His re- 
sults showed that no gallic acid was present and that in the dry 
total tannic acid occurred to the amount of 23.92 per cent. and 
mucilage 1.72 per cent., glucose .81 per cent., albuminoids 7.02 per 
cent., starch 4.27 per cent. and cellulose 27.49 per cent. Although 
perhaps the reagents were adapted to this group of pyrocatechol 
tannins, the results of the tests signify merely a relative value, for 
the quantities of the substances in question. Thus the comparison 
colorimetrically of the individual tests of ‘each plant with that of a 

187 Kraemer, H., “Applied and Economic Botany,” Philadelphia, 1914, 
p. 204. 


138 Trimble, H., “ Mangrove Tannin,” Univ. of Penna. Bot. Lab. Contri- 
butions, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1892, p. 50. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 649 


tube of standard dextrose solution of known strength is the basis 
5 of these records. The standards are in five grades, each being a 
certain definite percentages of Merck’s standard tannic acid, or Kahl- 
baum’s standard dextrose. The amounts by this comparative 
method of testing were placed in the five arbitrary units, approxi- 
- mating the same color as that for 0.5 per cent. standard dextrose 
solution on the one hand, and a 0.125 per cent. standard tannic acid 
solution on the other, with successive dilutions by half of these 
standard solutions. 


a - 
TANNIN w BEXTROSE CURVE) 


4 
< = 
* a ats 
$ 
92 atl 
: ae 
3 Phys Low: $ 
: i een 
P 7 2 s < = 
UNITS OF DEXTROSE 
Graph No. 3. 


The tests were made in series of twelve, that is a dozen seed- 
lings of progressive increase in size were selected from which to 
make extracts at one time. More could not be handled conveniently 
-at one time, since the length of time required to carry the extracts 
through the various precipitations, filtrations, etc., gave opportunity 
for mould spores to germinate in the flasks, a difficulty very hard 
to control in a warm, moist climate. About two hundred of these 
tests were made and the various series of twelve seedling-extracts 
were averaged to obviate errors in judgment regarding color inten- 
sity, etc. Graph No. 3 illustrates the relation of the two substances 
in question as they occurred in seedlings of progressively larger 
growth according to the above tests. The ratio may also be ex- 
pressed by the equation y—=Kr-+-C, where C approximates 1.05 
and K=%, the ordinates, Y, express units of tannin and the 
abscisse, X, units of dextrose. By this graph then it is seen that the 


650 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


unit increases in tannin for plants of progressively larger growth 
vary as % of the unit increases in dextrose, 7. e., the ratio is con- 
stant and the “curve” is really a straight line. 

The result is rather contrary to the writer’s expectations, since 
on account of the extraordinary amount of tannin in the hypocotyl, 
an agreement with the “reserve food” theory, as put forth by 
Buignet, etc., 7. @., the two substances in inverse ratio, was looked 
for. The results, however, conform to the opposite view as ex- 
pressed by Gerber, that is that tannin does not play a definite part 
in the direct nutrition of the mangrove seedling. 

Before leaving the subject of tannins and physiology in general 
it is interesting to note that in Reed’s experiments,’*® tannic acid and 
pyrogallol when added to cultures of wheat seedlings produced large 
increases in transpiration. Warming’? regards tannin as of some 
importance in water conduction and in another place says it func- 
tions especially as a protection against undue evaporation from 
plants during winter, and also suggests that it may be a means of 
rapidly restoring turgor. Regarding the function of tannin in the 
leaves of Rhizophora, the view is here expressed for the first time, 
so far as the writer knows, that the two layers of tannin cells in the. 
water hypodermis serve as an insulation against light and heat and 
a protection to the water storage cells beneath it. Schimper has 
shown that the strand plants need shade and cloudy skies for their 
best development, since the direct sunlight heats up the interior of 
the leaves and the increased transpiration thus brought to a very 
high degree is injurious to the plants. In conclusion it is here stated 
then that the tannin in the leaves acts as an additional protection 
against transpiration, and also that the tannin of the hypocotyl does 
not contribute directly to the nourishment of the seedling. 


Eco.ocy. 


Practical work on the ecology of the mangrove in southern 
Florida was suggested by the work of Praeger’? as published in the 


139 Reed, H. S., loc. cit., p. 107. 

140 Warming, Eug., loc. cit., p. 530. 

141 Schimper, A. F. W., “ Plant Geography,” 1903, p. 404. 

142 Praeger, R. L., “ Buoyancy of Seeds,” Proc. Scient. Royal Dublin Soc., 
rev. by E. W. Berry, Plant World, Vol. 17, No. 4, p. 131. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 651 


Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society and reviewed for 
Plant World by E. W. Berry. This work deals exhaustively with 
the buoyancy of seeds and his observations on seeds of over 900 
British plants show that the more buoyant forms are inhabitants 
of streams, banks or seashores. The results showed that 85 per 
cent. sunk at once or within a week, 5 per cent. floated 1 to 4 weeks, 
33 per cent. 1 to 6 weeks, 1.9 per cent. 6 to 12 months and 4.4 per 
cent. floated over 12 months. In consideration of these results and 
as the life and dissemination particularly of the viviparous seed- 
lings is dependent on buoyancy it seemed worth while to undertake 
some investigation of this and related phenomena concerned with 
dissemination. Guppy has done such excellent work and made such 
complete observation on the buoyancy of the mangrove seedlings 
that no work on buoyancy was required, that writer’s latest book*** 
giving a summary of observations along this line. Harshberger’s 
works***1#5 on the ecology of South Florida also were of a simu- 
lating effect and a helpful reference in the present work on the 
mangrove of the region, as well as Webber’s notes**® and the jour- 
nals of the Agassizes.**7-*** 

The relations of these mangroves to their environment have 
been a subject of much interest to ecologists and botanists in gen- 
eral from Theophrastus to the present, and many philosophical dis- 
cussions have been given concerning their origin and adaptation to 
their habitats. In these adaptations, however, they only perhaps 
show in more marked degree what all plants of strand floras show, 
viz., strongly developed xerophytic characters, in spite of the fact 
that the environment is aquatic. These characters have been fully 
discussed by such writers as Holtermann**® on the effect of climate 

143 Guppy, H. B., loc. cit., p. 109. : 

144 Harshberger, J. W., “ Vegetation of South Florida,” Trans. Wagner 
Inst. of Sci., VII., 3, 1914, pp. 74-80. 

145 Harshberger, J. W., “ Phytogeography of North America.” 

146 Webber, J. H., “ Strandflora of Florida,” Science (N. S.), VIII., 1898, 
p. 658. 

147 Agassiz, Louis, “ Florida Reefs.” 


148 Agassiz, Alexander, “ Three Cruises of the Blake.” 
149 Holterman, Carl, “ Der Einfluss des Klimas auf den Bau der Pflan- 


zengewebe,” Leipzig, 1907. 


652 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


on plant tissues, and Warming,° Haberlandt,’** Karsten and others 
who have all emphasized some special features of this ecologic 
relation. 

The general impression of a mangrove swamp is very aptly 
described by Warming (loc. cit.) : “ The bottoms of the crowns of 
the trees are usually truncate and stand a small distance above the 
water, and beneath them are seen, where Rhizophora-vegetation 
forms the outermost fringe of vegetation, a tangle of countless 
brown roots more or less clothed with alge. The soil, which in 
places is not covered with water at low tide, is soft, deep black mud, 
full of rotting, stinking organic bodies in which bacteria abound. 
The water between the trees may be covered with dirty film and 
bubbles of gas rising from the bottom burst at the surface.” One 
may also add that the air is usually thickly filled with voracious 
mosquitoes. 

In spite of this rather unpleasant, but truthful description, the 
mangrove formation holds a great many features of interest for the 
ecologist, as Karsten’®? says in describing the mangrove swamps of 
the Malay Archipelago—‘ Es ist ein Vegetationsbild von seltener 
Einformigheit besonders ftir an tropischen Formenreichtum ~ 
gewohnte Augen und doch giebt es wohl wenige Gebiete, die bei 
naherer Bekanntschaft eine solche Fille von interessanten Formen 
und Beziehungen zeigen.”’ This uniformity to which Karsten refers 
in the oriental mangrove consists of nine widely diverse families, 
representing twenty-one species. Our American mangrove swamps, 
however, are much more “uniform” than this. Harshberger has 
summarized the species in the various kinds of mangrove thickets 
(loc. cit., 144, p. 77) as they occur on the Peninsula of Florida for 
the most part with brief notes on the vegetation of the Keys. The 
whole aggregation of species which grow in all the types of man- 
grove formations, whether it be along the rivers, bays or open sea, 
on islands or everglades, embrace about twenty-eight species, in- 
cluding pteridophytes, floating aquatic plants, epiphytic lichens, etc. 
The trees of the typical mangrave habit, that is, those plants which 

150 Warming, Eug., “ Gecology of Plants,” tr. Vahl, Groom and Balfour, 
Oxford, 1909, p. 234. 


151 Haberlandt, G., “ Eine Botanische Tropenreise,” 1893, p. 182. 
182 Karsten, G., loc. cit., p. 3. . 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 653 


by their structural adaptations and, particularly, vivipary, consti- 
tute-““the mangrove” in the sense of the French and German 
botanists, only comprise in the American mangrove thickets of 
Florida, four species. These are the red mangrove, Rhizophora 
mangle L., the black mangrove, Avicennia nitida Jacq., the white 
buttonwood, Conocarpus erectus Jacq., and Laguncularia racemosa 
Gartn. This last species is not contained in Harshberger’s lists and 
perhaps was not seen by him, although it occurs quite abundantly 
in the keys, particularly the more southern ones. Dietrich Brandis, 
writing on its range in Engler and Prantl, says, however, that on 
approaching its northern limit it becomes merely a low shrub, and 
hence easily overlooked. At Ragged Keys, for instance, trees were 
observed three to four meters tall growing on the outer edge of 
the fringe vegetation associated with Rhizophora. Laguncularia 
grows in fairly deep water along shore with the red mangrove, 
while Conocarpus and Avicennia are, for the most part, in shore 
on ground that is only submerged at high tide, or not reached 
by the daily tides at all. On approaching a mangrove island or 
shore this feature is easily seen, the rich olive or bright green of 
the two species growing in deeper water is noticed as a dense wall 
about two meters tall with a line of brown along the water’s surface 
which is composed of the tangle of aérating prop roots of Rhizo- 
phora, and the small knotty pneumatophores of Laguncularia. In 
the background, stretching above these two outer species, appears 
the silvery white and light green of the Avicennia and the Cono- 
carpus. At some places, however, Avicennia grows out in fairly 
deep water and produces its large area of apogeotropic slender 
yellowish-brown aێrating roots also. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF THE ECoLocy. 


The adaptations of mangroves to their environment have been 
grouped by Warming (J. c., p. 236)**° under several heads as fixa- 
tion, respiratory roots, germination and vivipary, means of migra- 
tion, and xerophytic structures. This last heading is best illus- 
trated in the leaves, as being perhaps the most plastic organ and 
hence most easily adaptable. The structure of the leaves of Rhizo- 


654 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


phora has been described in detail in the chapter on morphology, 
but several studies were made on the leaves to learn to what extent 
the adaptation is carried in different habitats, or rather media of 
growth. To this end then, leaves were secured from trees growing 
in fresh water along the Miami River, from trees growing in pure 
salt water off shore in the Atlantic, northeast of Miami, and also 
from trees growing in the rather dry situations in the Marquesas 
atoll in the Gulf of Mexico, in soil only reached by the highest tides 
and in the same atoll, of trees growing off shore in salt water several 
feet deep. Sections were made of these leaves in various prepara- 
tions, free hand, of fresh and pickled material, and also paraffine 
preparations, and comparisons made of the thicknesses of the leaves 
and the relative amounts and positions of the various tissues in the 
leaf. Drawings and microphotographs were made and are here 
given. In each of the two sets of preparations leaves were selected 
of the same dimensions and at about the same node back from 
the bud so that the compared leaves were as nearly alike as could 
be possible. As a rule, however, the leaves on trees in fresh water 
were slightly larger than those for the corresponding node in salt 
water trees. In Fig. 2, Pl. VII., is seen the illustration of the fresh 
water section. It will be noticed that the tannin cells of the hypo- 
dermis are shorter and rounder, the water storage cells are smaller 
and only in two rows, the palisade is thicker and the spongy 
parenchym not so deep and the stomata slightly larger than the 
corresponding features in the salt-water leaf section shown in Fig. 
1, Pl. VII. The greatest difference seems to be in the amount of 
water storage tissue and the lengths of the palisade cells. In the 
salt-water leaf the palisade lies almost in the middle of the leaf, and 
the tannin cells are also rather larger and elongated ; this detail also 
helps to strengthen the writer’s view regarding the function of these 
layers of cells as insulation against the heat and light. The ranker 
growth of the river bank mixed with other trees help to make more 
shade for the trees in this situation. The sections of the inshore 
leaves, and the offshore leaves show much the same relation on a com- 
parison of the sections, but ina less striking degree. The offshore leaf 
(Fig. 4, Pl. VII.) is the thicker, 7. e., showing a typical halophytic 
reaction, while the inshore leaf (Fig. 3, Pl. VII.) is slightly thinner. 


PLaTE VII 


ry 


si 
A eb Re 
at au 

qe 7 


>is 


N\ 


wi 


Fic. 1. Transverse section leaf from salt-water grown tree, showing dis- 
tribution and relative quantities of the leaf tissues. (Cam. luc.) X 133.. 
Dark cells containing tannin, clear cells water storage hypodermis. 


Columnar 
cells of palisade, and beneath them spongy parenchyma containing crystals 


and section of vascular bundle. Below a loose hypodermis. 
Fic. 2. 


Transverse section of leaf from tree growing in fresh water. 
Regions same as Fig. 1. (Cam. luc.) X 133. 


e 


OR. 


“iS 


Fic. 3. Transverse section leaf from tree grown in shore. Regions same 
as Fig. 1. (Cam. luc.) X 133. 


Fic. 4. Transverse section leaf from tree growing off shore. Regions 
same as Fig. 1. (Cam. luc.) X 133. 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI. QQ, JANUARY 9, I918. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 655 


The difference in palisade and tannin cells is not so pronounced 
here as-in-the preceding set of comparisons, the main difference 
being in the amount of water storage tissue. On account of the 
slight quantity of rain water held in the soil, or of the chemical 
action of the soil producing a lessening in concentration of the salt 
water as it seeps inshore, the inshore leaves are thinner and show 
the tendency toward adaptation, as seen in the fresh-water leaves. 

It might be mentioned in connection with these preparations 
that the drawings were made by means of a camera lucida and that 
the actual leaf thicknesses were as follows: Fresh-water leaf, .54 
mm., salt-water leaf, .65 mm., inshore leaf, .42 mm., offshore leaf, 
54mm. The first pair of comparisons must not be based with the 
measurements of the second pair, as the material was collected at 
different times of the year, different regions and were perhaps dif- 
ferent in leaf size or age. 


VIVIPARY AND DISPERSAL. 


Perhaps the most peculiar of all the adaptations of mangrove- 
habit plants is that of vivipary, and this seems to be best developed 
in members of the Rhizophoracee that grow in the deepest water 
and softest mud. This adaptation has a very vital ecological signifi- 
cance in connection with dispersal, as remarked at the beginning 
of this chapter concerning Praeger’s experiments, and the more 
recently published results of Guppy. Vivipary, according to Goe- 
bel’s*** view, is only found in plants which grow under very warm, 
moist conditions and this wet environment which quickly germi- 
nates seeds has produced the habit, that is the habit arose by the 
differences in the readiness to germinate in various seeds. 

The first sign of vivipary then would be the falling to the 
ground of an immature seed, with the embryo still undeveloped, a 
condition somewhat analogous with that of the seeds of certain 
orchids ; next would be the stage when the seeds germinate as soon 
as shed on the ground; third is a type represented by Laguncularia 
in which the seedling just begins to germinate on the tree, then 
fourth, where germination is completed on the tree, but the seed- 
ling immediately falls as in Avicennia and the climax is reached in 


153 Goebel, K., loc. cit., p. 123. 


656 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


Rhizophora, where the germinated seedling stays on the parent 
tree for nearly a year. Guppy? has put forth the unique view that 
in a previous early geological age, under uniform warm, moist 
climatic conditions and a very diffuse light due to constant cloudi- 
ness, the viviparous habit was universal and that vivipary and the 
conditions of the present mangrove swamp are an index both to 
the meteorological conditions and to the forms of a very ancient 
vegetation. The seedlings, being viviparous then, by evolution 
through one of these processes presumably, although the writer 
rather inclines to the former conclusion that the habit arose by small 
beginnings, the dispersal of these depends on the ocean into which 
they fall. ; 

The dispersal of the mangrove seedling has been discussed very 
fully by several authors, at greatest length perhaps by Guppy, as 
observed in the Fiji Islands and the Pacific, and more latterly in the 
middle Atlantic coasts. This author regards the currents as the 
source of dispersal, since in quiet water the seedling may drift for 
months, but when they are buffeted by each other or floating objects 
for any length of time, the plumule is injured and the seedling dies. 
The present writer, nevertheless, has found many drifted seedlings 
in the Tortugas which had been broken either at the plumule end or 
the radicular end and in spite of these mutilations put forth adven- 
titious buds at the lenticels at one end, or roots at the lenticels near 
the radicular region. The nearest mangrove trees in this case were 
those of the Marquesas atoll at a distance of twenty-five miles from 
the Tortugas group. Intimately associated with the buoyancy of 
the seedlings is their position in the water. Guppy noted that they 
float vertically in fresh water and horizontally in salt water, while 
they incline at various angles in dilutions of various densities. A 
fortuitous agreement is seen in this relation between the specific 
gravity of the seedling and the density of the water, for the hori- 
zontal position keeps the plumule moist and uninjured by the fierce 
sunlight. The seedlings have no buoyancy until the hypocotyl has 
emerged from the fruit about six inches in the case of R. mucronata 
and the same has been observed by the writer for young seedlings 


154 Guppy, H. B., “ Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific,” Vol. IL. 
Plant Dispersal, 1906, p. 470. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 657 


of R. mangle. Guppy estimates that 95 per cent. of seedlings that 
fall into-the sea do float, and has further carried out a most interest- 
ing series of experiments in England with seedlings brought from 
the tropics and kept dry for five months. These experiments, which 
show the prolonged vitality of the seedlings, recall the words of 
Plutarch quoted in the first chapter of this paper, where he de- 
scribed the “ anacampserotes” as being plucked out of the sea and 
hung up to dry,-and which bud and put out green leaves presumably 
when placed again in water. : 

The manner in which seedlings come to take roots after having 
journeyed for weeks in the ocean currents is also of interest to an 
ecologist, because it is only on certain shores that the seedlings really 
- ¢an eventually form a mangrove swamp. In the Tortugas and other 
similar shores with wide beaches of coarse sand the essential condi- 
tions are lacking and the seedlings go through a short life cycle 
which the writer has reproduced under similar conditions at the 
laboratory and always with the same result. The plants are dropped 
from the trees in February, March and April in greatest number in 
the thickets of the Marquesas, Boca Grande, or islands even further 
east, these drift twenty-five to seventy-five miles westward with 
the counter Florida current and the high spring tides carry them 
up on the higher beach terraces formed in the coarse shifting sand 
of the Tortugas with masses of Sargassum and the broken leaves 
and rhizomes of Thalassia and Cymodocea which form long wind- 
rows on the beaches. If there is sufficient of this debris to conserve 
moisture during the dry summer months when it acts as sort of a 
mulch for the Rhizophora seedlings, the little plants grow and the 
plumule lengthens and forms several rather short internodes. These 
may last with a desultory growth into late summer and perhaps be 
all swept away from their bed in the shifting sands by the autumn 
storms and hurricanes. As a rule, however, the seedlings are 
buried more or less deeply in the sand-with not sufficient debris, 
since this flotsam is lighter and is flung a little farther back on the. 
beach than the seedlings are. During the summer the plumule ex- 
pands and the leaves put out, but these leaves never get over two 
centimeters long and are soon burned up by the intense heat and 
light of the glaring white beach and killed by the drying wind. 


658 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


These leaves are put out successively with very short internodes 
until the reserve food in the hypocotyl is exhausted andi the seedling 
dies. The same sequence of events happened in the laboratory 
cultures described in a previous chapter in which some young seed- 
lings were set out in boxes of sand about fourteen inches deep and 
watered daily with sea water. The plants eventually died through 
the exhaustion of reserve food and an inability to compensate the 
loss in food by the activities of new synthetic tissues. The plants 
were kept in full sunlight in coarse sand and merely watered with 
salt water, the amount in excess of that held in suspension in the 
soil flowing out of the box below. 

Mangrove seedlings have an equally hard time in getting a 
foothold on rocky shores as described by Crossland.***> He observed 
that the hard coral rock of the Zanzibar Reef formed a plane floor 
with very little mud and many small cracks, but was puzzled to see 
how the Rhizophora became planted in such small holes. While 
Crossland does not mention the density of the water, it seems that 
the water along these reefs must have been largely diluted with 
fresh water since he remarks that the seedlings floated vertically. 
By close observation, he noticed that the eddy and current gave a 
twirling motion to the seedling, which in turn produced a boring 
action.on the shallow bottom until the radicle became lodged in a 
little crack. Success for anchoring on these reefs depended on 
quiet water and gentle ripples and suitable crevices on the bottom. 

In connection with the dispersal and anchorage of seedlings, a 
number of observations were made on the character of the bottom, 
the depths of the water, etc., on the shores of Key West, Stock Island 
and other adjacent keys (Fig. 4, Pl. VIII.). Key West being com- 
posed of hard odlithic rock and mud flats of hard precipitated mud, 
the conditions observed by Crossland at Zanzibar are duplicated 
at some places and seedlings which take hold in the crevices of this 
hard oolite cannot be pulled up, but the root will break off, owing 
to the tenacious hold in the cleft. On these flats both Avicennia and 
Rhizophora seedlings were observed starting growth in 8-37 centi- 
meters of water at high tide. On Stock Island the same conditions 


155 Crossland, C., “ Note on Dispersal of Mangrove Seedlings,” Annals of 
Botany, XVIL., p. 267. 


PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LVI. No. 7 PLATE VIII 


Fic. 1. Stunted mangroves on sand flats in Andros in the Bahamas. 
Photo. by Small. 

Fic. 2. Hurricane damaged swamp at Boca Grande. 

Fic. 3. Tillandsias epiphytic on red mangrove in the Bahamas. Photo. 
by Small. 

Fic. 4. Rhizophora on hard odlite flats on Stock Island at low tide. 

Fic. 5. Mangroves growing in dry coral sand some distance in shore 
at Boca Chica. 

Fic. 6. Rhizophora tree with roots dug out to show absorptive system 
and props, Mangrove Island near Key West. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 659 


obtain as Key West, measurements here of trees which were repre- 
sentative of all the trees about the lower Florida Keys showed the 
average tree to be 3-4 meters, growing on odlite with only 2-5 centi- 
meters of mud covering the absorptive roots (Fig. 6, Pl. VIII). 
These absorptive roots were 20-40 centimeters long and 1-2 centi- 
meters in diameter, while the prop to which they were attached was 
of an average length of 1.8 meters, the shoot of the props being 
about 1.5-2 meters. The hydrometer seedlings for the water here, 
on June 25, was sp. gr. 1.0205 at 34° C. On June 5, at the same 
place where seedlings were grown off shore in 20 cm. of water, the 
seedlings were almost similar; T. 34° C. and sp. gr. 1.021. 

At Boca Chica, the conditions were slightly different, the ob- 
servations made on June 9 at low tide. The trees were growing 
in deep mud almost a meter deep and were about five meters tall, 
the roots being covered, at low tide, with 10-20 cm. of water. 
Hydrometer seedlings here showed a sp. gr. of 1.0235 at 30° C. 
On this island also were seen Rhizophora trees growing five to eight 
meters in shore in apparently dry shell sand, in a healthy condition 
(Fig. 5, Pl. VIII.). 

At Cayo Agua on June 17 and 24 about the same measurements 
were made as at Boca Chica, except that here trees were found full 
of flowers and fruits at all stages as well as pendant seedlings. At 
no other island in the lower keys were flowers noted at this time 
of the year. On the west side of the island a hurricane of a previous 
winter had broken and washed up a considerable area of the swamp, 
and in this close mass of dead and white bleached twigs and 
_ branches, the ideal. situation seemed to be afforded to the young 
seedlings to start growth. The dead twigs overhead provided a 
lattice of the right sort for optimum light intensity, while the decay- 
ing branches in the mud below offered quiet water and debris for 
anchorage. The same thing was seen in the hurricane damaged 
swamp at Marquesas (Fig. 2, Pl. VIII.). 

At Mangrove Island, Crawfish Key and Ragged Keys trees five 
to six meters high were observed growing in deep mud. At the 
last mentioned keys the mangroves were associated with Avicennia, 
Conocarpus and Laguncularia. At Bahia Honda and Duck Island 
only the inner or Gulf side of the islands have a mangrove fringe 


660 BOWMAN~—ECOLOGY AND 


_ on account of the sandy beaches on the outer shore. In rich alluvial 
soil of the river hammock along the Miami River, the Rhizophora 
and other trees form a jungle seven to eight meters tall, while back 
in the Everglades, Rhizophora only in the form of small bushes 
were observed scattered in the saw grass, Mariscus jamaicense 
(Crantz) Britton. This has also been observed by Harshberger 
(144, loc. cit.) and Dr. J. K. Small**® who has published voluminous 
reports and floras of the region, and has kindly furnished some 
photographs, illustrating this peculiar condition of the mangrove 
here and on Andros Island in the Bahamas (Fig. 1, Pl. VIII.). This 
island is interesting to us because it is the place that Catesby de- 
scribed in his early chronicle. At Boca Grande, Rhizophora seed- 
lings were observed starting to fill in a thickly vegetated salt — 
meadow, which became flooded at high tide; this marsh was covered 
largely with Batis maritima, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Borrichia, 
etc., and among them were many thrifty young Rhizophora seed- 
lings. It is supposed that these seedlings were carried into this 
meadow by unusually high tides. 


EXPERIMENTAL DaTA. 


Harshberger’s experiments (loc. cit., 144, p. 79) suggested a line 
of work on the station of Rhizophora in estuaries which have been 
carried out in Biscayne Bay and the Miami River. Since these ex- 
perimeters have been made by the writer, Guppy’s book (loc. cit., 
143) has appeared and this naturalist also has made some study of 
this subject in Fiji and Ecuador. In Fiji, Guppy found that where 
both R. mucronata and R. mangle grew luxuriantly on the coast the 
latter followed up the estuaries and river banks. Despite the fact 
then that R. mangle is a salt swamp plant it apparently can adapt 
itself to practically fresh-water conditions as the transpiration 
cultures in this work show for individual cases. Dr. Small also 
has told the writer that he has observed in the Everglades and the 
Bahamas Rhizophora growing, by the square mile area, miles from 
any salt water. In the face of these cultural experiments on a small 
laboratory scale and the observations of Small, the evidence afforded 


156 Small, J. K., “Exploration in the Everglades and on the Florida 
Keys,” Jour. N. Y. Bot. Garden, 15, 1914, 69-79. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 661 


by the writer’s own ecological notes along the Miami River, and 
Guppy’s observations in the Black River, Jamaica, show the fact 
to remain that salt water is needed for the proper development of 
a typical mangrove vegetation. The trees observed in the Ever- 
glades and on other places in the interior of swamps having a fresh- 
water substratum are of small size and poorly developed. 

To account for their origin and growth, even though poor, in 
such interior swamps, it is logical to suppose that they have been 
carried thither by currents flowing into the estuaries from the sea, 
and for their continued existence we may suppose that the soil is 
still sufficiently salt from previous inundations, or that the cur- 
rents which carry the seedlings in are slightly brackish and so im- 
pregnate the soil with a little salt. It is regretable that no data are 
available on the salinity of the soils of such interior swamps where 
mangroves are growing in this stunted condition. 

To return to the experiments made by the writer in the Miami 

River and Biscayne Bay, it has been long known that in certain 
estuaries there is an up-stream current of salt water which flows on 
_the bottom, while a down-stream current of fresh water flows on the © 
surface. In earlier observations along the Miami River, Arch 
Creek, etc., the writer noted the gradual decrease in stature and 
frequency of occurrence of mangroves as the river was ascended 
until after three or four miles they had disappeared entirely. It 
- was supposed that this feature, which has often been remarked by 
other ecologists, was in some way connected with the salinity of 
the water, accordingly it was determined to make some top and 
bottom hydrometer readings. To do this the launch Darwin was 
employed and the deep-sea water-sampling instrument taken from 
the equipment of the institution’s yacht, Anton Dohrn. This instru- 
ment is a very ingenious device designed by Dr. Mayer and the late 
Mr. Drew in the latter’s work with bacteria in the sea water of the 
Tortugas region. The instrument consists of a glass cylinder en- 
closed in a heavy brass jacket. The top and bottom of the cylinder 
are closed by means of brass plates, which fit tightly and are 
operated by strong springs. The instrument is lowered into the sea 
and on the yacht it is attached to the sounding machine and lowered 
mechanically, and if samples are taken from deep sea water the 


662 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


instrument is filled with alcohol. When the bottom or any desired 
depth is reached a heavy weight is sent down the slender wire cable 
which attaches the instrument to the boat. This weight operates a 
clip which releases the spring and the alcohol is allowed to escape 
and the sea water flows in, another weight is sent down which falls 
on a different clip and the instrument is closed, and the sample 
drawn up in a few seconds. In these experiments, alcohol was not 
needed; as the depths in the river at no place exceeded nine feet, 
and as the launch was used in place of the yacht, the instrument 
was lowered by hand instead of the sounding machine. Samples 
were taken then from both the top and the bottom layers and hy- 
drometer readings made of them. The readings were begun at 
g.15 A.M. on the outer side of the harbor, in the Atlantic, one 
quarter mile off shore, the second made just off shore near the 
mangroves growing on the outer side of the Harbor near the Goy- 
ernment Channel. Then another halfway across the Bay (Bay 
Biscayne) and the next at the mouth of the Miami River, from 
thence every half mile up stream until Rhizophora no longer ap- 
peared. These readings are tabulated below. 

By these readings it is seen that there is a very decided difference 
in the ‘salinity of the top and bottom layers. The distribution of 
the mangroves is also correlated with the comparison of the top 
and bottom readings and we may infer that the salt of the water 
which is carried up by the under-current is the factor in the physio- 
logical relations of the plant which compose the optimum conditions 
for its growth and as this decreases in concentration by dilution with 
the downstream current, the Rhizophora fringe gradually dwindles 
and disappears. 


DIMORPHISM. 


Before leaving this chapter on ecology, a word may be said 
regarding dimorphism in the genus, Rhizophora. Guppy has re- 
corded very obvious dimorphism in R. mucronata in Fiji and in R. 
mangle in Ecuador, the double form in the first consisting of a 
fertile type and a sterile (selala) type in which the pollen is not 
viable. The second species consists in Ecuador of the “mangle 
grande” and the “mangle chico,” a tall and a little mangrove. The 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 663 


yproMEtRIC READINGS IN BiscAyNE Bay AND MIAMI RIveR. 


“~ S August rt to 5 Inclusive. 

(Cantigrede) Gavi. 

Atlantic Ocean, nine-foot depths ....... *28.3° *1.0150 
28.0° 1.0120 

Nee ose aes t eee cases ceccs 28.3° 1.0120 
28.0° 1.0130 

Half way across Biscayne Bay ......... 28.1° I.0105 
28.0° I.0105 

Mouth of Miami River ................ 28.0° 1.0015 
27.6° 1.0080 

Sees mule up stream ...-............... a 0.9975 
27.0° 1.0100 

One mile up stream ................... 27.2° 0.9980 
27.0° 1.0000 

One and one half miles up stream ...... 26.7° 0.9980 
27.0° 1.0000 

wo miles ap stream .................. 26.5° 0.9077 
26.4° 0.9982 _ 

Two and one half miles up stream ..... 26.1° 0.9980 
: 26.1° 0.9985 
Biscayne Bay, seven-foot depths ........ 28.0° 1.0090 
28.0° 1.0110 

os i 28.2° 1.0010 
27.8° 1.0045 

Arch Creek, one mile up stream ........ Dy i ie 1.0000 
28.0° 1.0050 

Arch Creek, two miles up stream ....... 29.5° 0.9975 
29.0° 1.0050 


mode of branching and trunk formation is the chief difference here. 
While the difference in the forms of the two “forms” has not been 
pronounced enough to engage the attention of systematists and 
taxonomists it is a very interesting field for genetical investigation, 
since Guppy suggests that the “selala” type might be a hybrid be- 
tween R. mucronata and R. mangle, or perhaps there is a persistent 
dimorphism in R. mucronata. In conclusion the writer may say 
that only the “ mangle chico” type of FR. mangle is found in Florida 
and the keys, just as Guppy has found it to be the only type present 
in Jamaica and the West Indies. 


*The upper readings of each pair represents that at the surface of the 
river, while the lower readings were those taken on the bottom samples. 


664 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


RELATION TO OTHER ORGANISMS. 


The mangrove swamps of the western hemisphere are somewhat 
different in appearance from the oriental forests according to the 
descriptions given by writers of eastern tropical botany. The main 
difference is seen in the absence in the western mangrove formation 
of a large epiphytic flora, a few Tillandsias being about the only 
plants which live on the branches of the Rhizophora mangle (Fig. 
3, Pl. VIII.), as is seen in the photographs taken in the Bahamas. 

Other plants associated with the mangrove, i. e., terrestrial, have 
been given by Harshberger in the lists of species for the formation, 
a great many of the species given there are rarely found in the 
purer Rhizophora formations of the islands and mangrove keys, 
but occur in the mangrove formation in the river hammocks. 

The animal life of the mangrove swamp is rather limited, also 
several species of cranes, the pelicans and a few other species build — 
their nests among the low trees and thickets. The two forms most 
closely associated with the Rhizophora trees, however, are the crabs, 
of which there are also several species, mostly hermit crabs, and the 
oysters. The oysters, as mentioned in the old narratives of Labat 
and Sloan, have always been found growing on the submerged prop 
roots of the mangroves and their tangle of roots offers an ideal 
place for their development, and an easily accessible means of col- 
lecting them, a fact appreciated by the Seminoles, who use them for 
food in considerable number. 


DISTRIBUTION. 


The geographical distribution of the family, according to ‘ 
Schimper, in Engler and Prantl,’*’ is confined purely to the tropics, 
and in the American tropics there as only two genera, Cassipourea and 
Rhizophora. Of these, the former is indigenous to the West Indies, 
Central and South America, and the latter is represented by only one 
species, R. mangle, although, as remarked in the chapter on ecology, 
there are other plants in the hemisphere which belong to the man- 
grove association. 


157 Engler, A., and Prantl, K., “ Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien,” III. 
Th, 7 and 8 Abt., p. 58. 


Branch, inflorescences and flowers of Rhizophora. 

Fertilized flowers, fruits and emerging seedlings. 

Mature seedlings dropping from the fruits, showing the conical plumule 
on the proximal end of the freed seedling and the cotyledonary sheath or 
collar from which the plumule has just slipped out and seedlings with bud 
expanded, and several internodes of growth made. 


a Se 


atl 


PP ee Se A ie ee eee ee 
a) “ ween . nee 
ee Whale , > es 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 665 


The three species of Rhizophora are distributed over the world 
in the following manner: R. mangle of the American tropics, West 
Africa and the Pacific Islands; R. mucronata in Japan to Australia 
and East Africa, while R. conjugata is found throughout all tropical 
Asia. In Japan, according to T. Ito,1** there are three genera of the 
family present, Kandelia, Bruguiera and Rhizophora with the nor- 
thern limit of range 31° 20’ N. Lat. This is the limit for any of 
the mangroves in Japan, 7. e., the forests in Satsuma, and indeed for 
all Asia, it is of interest when a comparison is made for the northern 
range limit in America, which in Florida is about 28° N. Lat.; 
exception here is made, however, of the Bermudas which support 
an Avicennia-Rhizophora mangrove association. 

__ As mentioned above, Australia and the Malay Archipelago is 
the southern limit of range in the eastern hemisphere. In South 
America the range limits for R. mangle are for the west coast very 
sharply defined. This is nothing but desert beach along the coasts 
of Chili and Peru until the frontier of Ecuador is reached. The 
Rhizophora shores begin at 4° 5’ Lat. and are practically continuous 
to the equator, except.a sterile stretch north of Guyaquil, as noted 
by Guppy. On the eastern coast of South America the mangroves 
extend almost to the tropic of Capricorn. The stations and ranges 
in North America have been carefully worked out by Professor 
Harshberger.*®® Rhizophora occurs in all the shores of the Greater 

Antilles, Cuba and Mexico. In Guatemala there is only a strip occu- 
pied by them along the coast. In Haiti and Santa Domingo, the 
Virgin Islands and the Bahamas they go up into the bays and har- 
bors, while the Florida Keys and the southern part of the Peninsula 
are girdled with a thick mangrove formation. On the west coast of 
the northern continent, the mangroves extend to Lower California, 
the range limit being 24° 38’ N. Lat., a little north of Matzatlan, 
while Hawaii and Tahiti have no mangrove flora at all. Regarding 
the presence of Rhizophora on the west coast of Africa, it is sup- 
posed that R. mangle has reached those shores by migrating from 
America, due to ocean currents. On the other hand, Guppy does 
not regard the presence of R. mangle in the Southern Pacific Islands 


158 Ito, T., “ Rhizophoree in Japan,” Annals of Botany, XIII., 465. 
159 Harshberger, J. W., loc. cit., 145. 


666 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


as indicative of its having come from America, where it is widely 
distributed, but that in the past it occurred as commonly in Asia as 
in America, but now only survives in a few places of the Old World 
Tropics. His reasons for this view are not amplified and it would 
seem curious that R. conjugata and R. mucronata, which require 
the same living conditions and have the same methods of dispersal, 
etc., should have persisted or developed and R. mangle disappeared. 

The distribution in Florida varies slightly on the east and west 
coasts. The northern limit is 27° 15’ N. Lat. on the east coast, 
i. e., at Stuart, and Professor Harshberger has noted their scattered 
occurrence along the St. Lucie River. On the west coast the limit 
is 28° N. Lat., that is about at Elbow Key and Orange Grove a 
little north of Tampa, according to the triangulations of Swick,*® 
made recently along the west coast of Florida. On the west coast 
in the quiet harbors and bays it is slowly encroaching and, according 
to Professor Harshberger, filling up the estuaries. At White Water 
Bay, he states, the trees have completely invaded the area so that 
now there are only small tortuous channels between the mangrove 
islands. This observation brings before our attention the subject 
discussed under the next head. 


GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 


In the first place it may be well to state that there are no fossil 
evidences of mangroves, but this is only to be expected, since the 
conditions of a mangrove swamp are very favorable to decay on 
account of the heat and the very large numbers of bacteria of all 
kinds in the water and swamp-mud. The water here has no pre- 
servative action on woody tissues as has the water of peat forma- 
tions and sphagnum bogs, and so debris in the swamp quickly de- 
composes into mud and soil, not to mention the activity of the hosts 
of tiny crustacez, mollusca, worms and ceelenterates, etc., in the life- 
filléd environment, which all help to disintegrate such organic 
material. 

The effect of the mangroves themselves on their habitat is very 
remarkable, as has been mentioned before in this paper and also has 


160 Swick, Clarence H., “ Triangulation Along the West Coast of Florida,” 
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Sp. Pub. No. 16, 1913. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 667 


been observed by numerous other naturalists. This effect is mainly 
the addition to and the extension of the land areas in the regions in 
which mangroves grow. As remarked in the preceding chapter, 
White Water Bay has been almost filled up by the activity of this 
plant and many islands and keys have been elevated from merely 
submerged coral shoals and reefs to a condition of dry and now even 
habitable land. This growth of the land area may be very well 
studied in Florida and the Keys and several geographers and geol- 
ogists have commented upon the large role played by Rhizophora 
in the geological history of Florida. This history is rather recent, 
as geologists have discovered by borings and other investigations, 
and Britton*® says that all the flora of Florida and the Bahamas 
has developed since Tertiary times. More recently Phillips*®? and 
especially Vaughan’ have added to the knowledge of the forma- 
tion of land in Florida by their observations. Vaughan has spent 
much time in the tropics and the particular region concerned in this 
paper, and so his work may be regarded as of extraordinary value. 
He takes the view that one half to one third of the total area of 
the Florida Keys is occupied by the mangrove and in the work of 
forming islands there are several stages which may be noted. From 
a geologist’s point of view the roots, of course, are the most im- 
portant part of the tree to be considered, since it is in the tangle 
of roots that the debris washed in by the currents is held. 

The three ecological formations are recognized, 1. e., the banks 
of the rivers, margins of keys, whose surfaces are already elevated 
above sea-level, and the pure mangrove islets. In all of these, but 
particularly the two latter ones, seedlings are noted at a distance of 
a few feet to several hundred feet from the shore. This fact is of 
important significance in the formation of land. This process, to 
quote from Dr. Vaughan’s paper at length, is as follows: “ When 
they (the trees) have grown sufficiently for the development of a 
tangle of roots they catch and hold sediment and any floating debris, 
by the successive accumulation of such material ultimately bringing 


161 Britton, N. L., Science, XXI., April, 1905, p. 628. 

162 Phillips, O. P., “How Mangrove Trees Add New Land to Florida,” 
Jour. of Geog., I1., 1-4. 

163 Vaughan, T. W., “The Geologic Work of Mangroves in Southern 
Florida,” Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. LII., Quart. Issue, Vol. V., p. 461, 1910. 


668 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


the level of the land above that of the water. . . . Behind the keys, 
in the regions of slack water, deposition of sediment is taking place, 
forming banks of soft calcareous ooze. After these shoals have 
been built up to within a foot of the water level (at low tide) young 
mangroves begin to catch and grow. . . . The plants become still 
more numerous and ultimately form a mat of interlocking roots and 
branches resulting in keys. ... When the plants become thick they 
catch and retain sediment ocean drift and are a constructive agent 
in the formation of land.” 

“After a time whether it be a newly formed key or the margin 
of a land area, the mangroves, by the accumulation of sediment and 
drift, form land, and this cuts off their roots from the necessary 
supply of salt water causing their own death. The land surface 
then acquires another vegetation, but the marginal fringe of man- 
groves persists to protect the young island from the erosive action 
of the ocean waves, and young mangroves spread seaward to add 
new land to that already formed, thus these plants are among the 
most important constructive geologic agents of southern Florida.” 
The process, as thus described, of course, takes place according to 
geological periods of time and the death of the Rhizophoras as indi- 
cated above by Vaughan, due to the cutting off of the salt-water 
supply does not take place quickly, for the trees may persist for 
years in such a situation without the tides actually bathing the 
roots, as the ecologic observations and the physiologic experiments, 
set forth in preceding chapters, have demonstrated. 


Economic ASPECTs. 


The uses to which the Rhizophora may be put are various, 
though, on a whole, its importance has not been large in its appli- 
cations to man’s needs. The chief use has been as a source of tannic 
acid in the past, although another sphere of usefulness has been 
lately found for the trees which is perhaps destined to become of 
great importance in tropical coastal engineering. By the natives it 
was used for the tannin contained in the bark, as mentioned in the 
ancient chronicles of Abou ’1 Abbas en-Nebaty and Ray, etc. Some 
travellers tell of its being used by natives as food, for the starch 
in the hypocotyls, e. g., Ovieda, Ray, etc., while many have observed 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED.MANGROVE. 669 


its use as a fuel, as Labat and Sloan. But the most general use out- 
side of-its employment in tanning leather was in medicine. Abou 
*| Abbas says that in Arabia it was used in making lotions for sore 
mouth and as styptic, the astringent property of the tannic acid 
being doubtless very effective in its use as a drug. Van Reede gives 
it as a drug indicated in diabetes and Ray says the Indians used it 
as a poultice for a fish bite with good results. Sloan recounts its 
employment as a dye for clothes and the foliage as a green manure 
or fertilizer for soil. He likewise gives two other and rather amus- 
ing remedies, when considered from a pharmacological standpoint, 
for he says that “mixed with Oyle like Dirt it is good against 
Weariness” and with milk or fresh butter “outwardly applyd” 
“helps them who are diseased in their livers.” The most peculiar, 
however, of all these quaint uses of ancient times is that attributed 
by Plutarch to the natives of Arabia, where he says the “ana- 
campserotes”” were used in making love philters and potions, and 
intimates a belief in their having an effect as an aphrodisiac. 

At a much later period Arnott*®* made the observation that the 
natives of the West Indies used the fruits of the mangrove to make 
a light wine. This, however, was only reported to him by travel- 
lers from the West Indies. The same use is mentioned by Le Maut 
and Decaisne*® as prevalent in the West Indies. In the recent 
paper by Crossland (155, Joc. cit.) he notes the fact that the Arabs 
of Zanzibar use the mangrove wood extensively in the building of 
their houses and furniture, since they have learned that it is the 
only wood which is so hard and perhaps contains some unpleasant 
substance, so that the termites will not chew into it. 

Dr. A. G. Mayer has told the writer that he has observed the 
natives of Tahiti and other South Sea Islands using the red extract 
from the cortex regions in making a dye, while Schimper, in Engler 
and Prantl, records the observance of the custom of these same 
natives and those of the Malay Archipelago of using the prop roots 
for making bows. 

Until comparatively recent times there was practised in the 
Florida Keys and to some extent still in Cuba, Porto Rico and other 

164 Arnott, G. A. W., Proc. Linn. Soc., 1869, 101-102. 

165 Le Maut, E., et Decaisne, J., Traite de Botanique General, 1876, p. 419. 

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI. RR, JANUARY ITI, 1918. 


670 BOWMAN—ECOLOGY AND 


West Indian Islands the manufacture of charcoal from mangrove 
wood. On the Marquesas atoll there are now remnants of old char- 
coal burners’ huts. The hard, dense quality of the wood and the 
plentiful supply at hand stimulated the industry in the days when 
charcoal was used more largely as a fuel, mangrove charcoal being 
of a very good quality. 

As noted before the main application of the mangrove to man’s 
wants has been for ages its utilization as a source of tannic acid. 
This is still carried on in a fairly large scale and there are several 
places in Florida in which there are factories for the manufacture 
of tannic acid from mangrove bark. Mr. Mills has told the writer 
of a factory at Charleroi, Fla., which produced large quantities of 
tannic acid from the bark. 

The latest use of the mangrove in a practical way and one of 
which the writer has personal knowledge is the use of these trees 
as ballast retainers. This has been effectively demonstrated by the 
Florida East Coast Railway which has used the peculiar habit of 
the mangrove to advantage in their great feat of engineering, viz., 
the Oversea extension. At certain places these keys are con- 
nected by embankments supporting the road bed or where the bed 
is built high over a low, flat key the mangroves have been planted 
to prevent the erosive action of the sea on the ballast. This has 
been of greatest importance to the railroad and has protected the 
dykes just as the mangroves naturally sown have formed and pro- 
tected young islands. Still more recently the writer has been of some 
small service to a large asphalt company concerning their engineer- 
ing projects in Venezuela in which it is proposed to plant Rhizo- 
phora mangle along the dykes and jetties, etc., as a ballast retainer. 
This, it is hoped, will prove as efficient as the plantings of the 
Florida East Coast Railway have been in aiding the engineer in the 
tropics. 


SUMMARY. 


1. The historical references to the mangroves are well authenti- 
cated and fall into three periods, viz., the classical references from 
Nearchus (325 B.C.) and Theophrastus to Arrian (136 A.D.) ; the 
Middle Age and later references from Abou ’1 Abbas en-Nebaty 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RED MANGROVE. 671 


(1230) to Catesby (1731) and the references in the taxonomic and 
systematie-writers from Linnzus (1736) to the present. The allu- 
sions to mangroves in the writings of the first two periods are 
mainly quaint and interesting descriptions by travellers, explorers 
and voyagers, while those of the last period are largely systematic. 

2. In the morphology of the root, a study of the cortex cells of 
the submerged absorptive roots showed the thickenings or “ ver- 
dickungsleisten ” of Warming to be really an artefact brought about 
by a slight shrinkage of the walls of the delicate transfusion cells, 
which are lightly connected with each other. 

3. The mechanical arrangement for the shedding of the pollen 
from the multilocular anthers consists of two systems of cells in the 
anther, the thin exothecial cells forming outer deciduous flaps, and 
the heavily reinforced cells of the expanded connective area, which 
have hitherto been overlooked. Dehiscence occurs by a rupture 
along a definite line due to the strain on the exothecial cells produced 
by their shrinkage and the resistance offered by the reinforced cells. 

4. A conception of the endosperm is here maintained in agree- 
ment with that of Haberlandt, viz., that it functions as a placental 
organ rather than as reserve material. 

5. By experiment the growth rate of emerging hypocotyls is 
seen to be 4.7 centimeters in 34 days in Florida. 

6. In specially concentrated media a high mortality of seedlings 
is shown to be due to the increased hydrogen ion concentration in 
H.S mud cultures; and in cultures of 140 per cent, hyperconcentrated 
sea water the mortality is due to the difficulty of absorption and 
retarded metabolism. 

7. The transpiration rate records of this work show, first, for 
the moist soil cultures, the rate of transpiration to be delicately 
balanced with the amount of available moisture in the soil; second, 
the concentration-culture rates show that plants in dilutions above 
35 per cent. sea water, growing in New Jersey soil, transpire more 
rapidly than plants in shell sand; that for cultures in 35 per cent. 
concentration of sea water and fresh water the transpiration is of 
equal rate for either soil and finally that cultures in dilutions under 
35 per cent. transpire more rapidly when growing in shell sand. 
The same balance of relations is seen in the moist soil cultures at a 


672 BOWMAN—THE RED MANGROVE. 


concentration of 88.5 per cent. dilution of salt and fresh water. 
An explanation of these phenomena seems to be offered in the ex- 
periments of Haas on the hydrogen ion concentration and the be- 
havior of sea water on the addition of alkali. 

8. The relations of tannic acid and dextrose in the hypocotyl, as 
deduced from the experiments, show that there is no definite de- 
crease in the quantity of tannin with a corresponding increase in the 
amount of dextrose as growth of the seedling progresses. The rela- 
tion is constant and in plants of successively large growth a ratio 
exists between the two substances approximating % to I per unit 
increase. A series of tests for the enzyme, tannase, showed this 
enzyme to be absent, thus tending to confirm the view that the 
tannin in the hypocotyl is not a reserve food. 

10. It is set forth that the red mangrove is facultative in its 
growth, regarding salinity of water and inshore and offshore situa- | 
tions, as shown in a comparative study and measurements of leaf 
sections. 

10. It is set forth that the red mangrove is facultative in its 
physiologic relations to fresh and salt water, but that it needs salt 
water for its optimum development and that there is a correlation 
between the height and abundance of trees and the salinity of the 
water in which they grow. By experimental methods it was de- 
termined that the condition of the trees and their distribution in 
estuaries depends on the presence of top and bottom layers of fresh 
and salt water moving in opposite directions. 

11. Finally, by means of data secured from various sources it 
is shown that the red mangrove may be regarded as a plant of 
economic importance, not only as a source of tannic acid and char- 
coal, but also as a ballast-retaining plant in tropical coastal engi- 
neering work. 


EIGHTEEN NEW SPECIES OF FISHES FROM 
NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA? 


By CARL H. EIGENMANN. 
(Read October 5, 1917.) 


In preparing a monograph on the fresh-water fishes of the 
northwestern corner of South America, the region west of the 
Andes from Peru to Panama, the species described in this paper 
were found to be new. Other preliminary accounts of new species 
from the same region have been described in Indiana University 
Studies, Nos. 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24 and 25, and in articles No. V., . 
V1, VIL, and IX. of the Annals of the Carnegie Museum, Vol. X. 

The specimens were collected by Manuel Gonzales, Charles 
Wilson, Arthur Henn and -myself. 

Manuel Gonzales collected in part under the auspices of Indiana 
University, and in part under the joint auspices of Indiana Uni- 
versity and the Carnegie Museum. He collected for Indiana Uni- 
versity in the lower levels of the Magdalena Basin at and near 
Puerto Berrio and at Apulo. Also, along the route from Bogota 
to Villavicencio and Barrigona, on the Meta River, largely at 
Villavicencio and Barrigona. He collected for Indiana University 
and the Carnegie Museum along the routes from Honda on the 
Magdalena River eastward to Facatativa, from Bogota north to 
Mogotes in the Province of Santander and eastward from Bogota 
along the route to Villavicencio. Along these routes he secured an 
unequalled collection of fishes from the mountain rivulets of the 
eastern Andes, both on the eastern and western slope. 

Messrs. Wilson and Henn collected under the auspices of 
Indiana University chiefly through the generosity of Mr. Hugh 
McK. Landon, of Indianapolis, assisted also by Mr. Carl G. Fisher 
of Indianapolis. 

1 Contribution from the Zodlogical Laboratory of Indiana University, 
No. 160. 

673 


674 EIGENMANN—NEW FISHES FROM 


Mr. Charles Wilson accompanied Mr. Arthur Henn to the 
Patia River of southern Colombia, later ascended the San Juan 
River emptying into the Pacific Ocean just north of Buenaventura, 
crossed over the divide and descended the Atrato River to its mouth. 
Mr. Arthur Henn went with Mr. Wilson to the Patia River; after 
separating from Wilson he collected in the lower San Juan Basin, 
in Colombia, about Puerto Viejo, Ecuador, the lower Guayaquil 
Basin, Ecuador, and along the line from Guayaquil to Quito and 
northward to the upper Patia Basin in Colombia. 

My own collecting was done along the line from Cartagena to 
Bogota, from Bogota to Buenaventura, up the San Juan River to 
Istmina and down the Atrato to its mouth. Detailed accounts of 
these trips will be published with the monograph mentioned above. 

The letter “I.” after the catalogue number indicates that the 
specimens are in the collections of Indiana University, “C.” indi- 
cates the collections of the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburgh. 


ASTROBLEPID2. 
1. Astroblepus latidens spec. nov. 


This species is similar to A. trifasciatus from the Rio Dagua. 
It is, as far as known, found only on the eastern slope of the east- 
ern Andes of Colombia. All the specimens recorded below are 
from along the route between Bogota and Villavicencio and Bar- 
rigona, and were collected by Manuel Gonzales and under his direc- 
tion. This species ranges through the same gamut of color as A. 
trifasciatus, some specimens having conspicuous cross bands, others 
being uniform in color. The adults are readily distinguished from 
A. trifasciatus by the very broad teeth in the outer row of the 
premaxillary, a difference not evident in the young. 


SPECIMENS EXAMINED. 


Catalog Number. Sp i cite Length in Mm, Locality, 
F308 Cs LYDE 544k Ree 1Q 57 Piperel. 
£3677: 1.,:7363-C. ; ee bae) 28-58 Piperel. 
13678 I., 7364 C., ‘paratypes pity 5 48-73 Caqueza. 
13679 I., 6365 C., paratypes ... 18 27-600 Quebrada Hirajara. 
BAGBO- BO ZOO Crete ui eae 33 ° | largest 79 Quebrada Perdizes. 
13681 I., 7367 C. ily eas 12 20-18 Rio Fosco. 


NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA. 675 


Head 3.5; depth 5. Adipose fin consisting of a fleshy spine and 
an insignificant-membrane. Dorsal and pectoral spines produced, 
if at all, by not over a millimeter beyond the rest of the rays; both 
lips very broad ; outer teeth of the premaxillary of the adults chisel- 
shaped, broad tipped, the middle pair or two middle pairs sometimes 
bifid, about seven teeth on each premaxillary; teeth in the young 
much more slender; maxillary barbel usually not extending beyond 
the posterior margin of the lip, sometimes falling considerably short 
of that point, extending beyond the margin only in some of the 
largest specimens from Perdizes and Fosco; nasal flap short, not 
continued as a barbel; pectorals reaching a little beyond origin of 
ventrals ; pectoral spine equal to the length of the head less the por- 
tion in front of the nares; ventrals inserted under the origin of the 
dorsal, extending little if any more than half way to the anal; anus 
usually about half way between tips of ventrals and origin of the 
anal, very rarely reached by the ventrals ; dorsal spine a little shorter 
than pectoral spine, the rays graduate or coterminal; interocular 
space less than the distance from the eyes to the posterior nares, 
4-5 in the length of the head; distance between tip of snout and 
dorsal 2.25-2.5 in the length; anal membranes in the male uniform, 
or the first two membranes a little wider; a light spot covering adi- 
pose spine and its membrane, sometimes a light bar at this point as 
in unifasciatus; body uniform dark or obscurely spotted; base of 
caudal and a distal bar or some distal spots dark, sometimes uni- 
form; dorsal and pectoral sometimes with dark markings. 


2. Astroblepus cyclopus santanderensis var. nov. 


SPECIMENS EXAMINED. 


Catalog Number. | koe seated Length in Mm. Locality. 
eee... ...| I 33 Quebrada de Guapota. 
SE OT | 4 27-32 Quebrada Guadelupe. 
oS ie 2 44-55 Quebrada la Pava. 
ME Sas ce se os 3 21-54 Quebrada Callejona 
OS oS Aer 21 20-63 Quebrada de Suescum. 
Saeed Ja00 C..5 555. ..--- 6 41-76 San Gil. 

TS Or 8 32-75 Rio Mogotes. 

Te kya ee 7 37-62 Quebrada Chavala. 
1 ay er BS 22-41 Quebrada de la Pelada. 
er ene celeb ais 'ss wns | 2 28-36 Quebrada Variri. 


676 EIGENMANN—NEW FISHES FROM 


These specimens were all collected by Manuel Gonzales in 
Santander, Colombia, in tributaries of the Rio Suarez at an eleva- | 
tion of from 1,000-2,000 M. They agree in all essential respects 
with A. unifasciatus. They differ uniformly, but not always greatly 
in having the thin membrane of the adipose oblique from the tip of 
the spine to the most posterior point of its attached base. This is 
characteristic of even the smallest specimens from Suescum, but 
in the three specimens from Callejona the membrane is truncate 
as in A. unifasciatus. In color they approach A. orientalis, there 
being conspicuous, irregular, sometimes confluent spots on a light 
background, usually there is a band across the.body in the region 
of the adipose fin. The ventrals extend to or even beyond the anus 
in the very small individuals but usually fall short of it in the 
larger. 


3. Astroblepus frenatus spec. nov. 


Among many specimens of Astroblepus micrescens from San- 
tander there is one that probably represents another species. 


7380 C., type, a female 43 mm. Quebrada de San Joaquin, San- 
tander. Gonzales. 


Head 3.25; D. I, 6; A. 7; interocular less than distance between 
eye and nostril, 4.5 in the length of the head; nasal flap moderate; 
barbel not extending beyond the posterior margin of the lip; 
pectoral rays extending considerably beyond the base of the ventrals, 
the outer rays to almost its middle; origin of ventrals just in ad- 
vance of the dorsal ray, reaching not quite to the anus, which is .75 
of the distance from the origin of the ventrals to the anal; anal 
obliquely truncate, not reaching the caudal; caudal symmetrically 
lunate, the outer rays slightly produced; adipose fin a very low 
fold, with a minute spiniferous spine, evident externally through 
its spinules, which project beyond the margin of the fin; dorsal 
spine equal to head less region in front of nares, the rays all coter- 
minous when the fin is depressed; distance of dorsal from snout 
about 2.3 in the length; premaxillary with one bicuspid tooth, the 
rest all pointed. A dark streak from eye to base of barbels; sides 
with a few large spots; a light bar down from behind the spine of 
the adipose; base of caudal and two rows of spots dark. 


NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA. 677 


4. Astroblepus grixalvii micrescens var. nov. 


The following specimens came from the western slope of the 
eastern Andes, north of Bogota. They were collected by Manuel 
Gonzales. 


SPECIMENS EXAMINED. 


Number of | Length in ; 
Mm. 


Catalog Number. Specimens. Locality. 
ween, type. ..... Id 69 Quebrada de Agua Larga. 
13686 I., 7373 C.., 
_ Paratypes....... 2 32-64 | Quebrada de Agua Larga. 
13687 I., 7374 C.... 68-76 | Quebrada Densino, Santander. 
NEARS Sens. see. 30-52 | Quebrada de la Pelada, Santander. 


13688 I., 7375 C.... 
13689 I., 7376 C.... 
13690 I., 7377 C.... 
Za008 f., 7378 C.... 
13692 I., 7379 C.... 
wager 1-,.7427 C.... 
13693 I., 7382 C.... 


30-95 | Rio Susa, Santander. 

31-89 | Quebrada de Potrero, Santander. 

41-74 | Quebrada de Siachia, Santander. 

27-89 | Quebrada de San Joaquin, Santander. 
23-80 | Rio de Ducho, Norte. 

37-50 | Riode Pacho, western slope, eastern Andes. 
32-49 | Quebrada de Cabarachi, Santander. 


i i 
RPUWOW AUMUWNMN 


This variety greatly resembles A. unifasciatus and A. orientalis; 
it differs from the former in the nature of the adipose fin, and from 
the latter at least in the length of the pectorals and ventrals. 

Head 3.75-4; D. I, 6; A. 7; interocular 4-4.5 in the head, 
slightly less than the distance between posterior nares and eye; 
nasal flap broad, its outer angle slightly produced or not; barbel 
about reaching the gill-opening, sometimes falling a little short and 
sometimes extending a little beyond ; pectorals broad, the divided rays 
fan-shaped, extending about to the ventrals, the outer ray reaching 
almost to the second third of the ventrals; ventrals lanceolate, their 
origin under the first dorsal ray ; the outer ray reaching nearly to or 
beyond the anus, which is two thirds to three fourths the distance 
from the origin of the ventrals to the anal; anal obliquely truncate, 
the anterior ray always extending beyond the following one in the 
female; the first and second membranes in the male very wide, the 
third, fourth and fifth rays close together and extending beyond the 
first two and the last two, not near reaching the caudal; caudal 
symmetrically emarginate, the outer rays prolonged; adipose fin in 
the young an adnate or subadnate spiniferous spine, with age a 
dermal ridge develops in which the spine disappears or is retained 
as a non-spiniferous stay. (The process does not take place at the 


678 EIGENMANN—NEW FISHES FROM 


same rate in all specimens so that in two specimens of the same size, 
one may have an apparent spine while in the other it may be hidden. 
The smaller ones in which the spine is especially well developed may 
not be distinguishable from A. unifasciatus.) Dorsal spine very 
slightly, if at all, produced, almost two thirds the length of the 
head; distance between snout and dorsal 2.66-2.75 in the length; 
teeth of the premaxillary all single pointed, or one or two pairs. 
bicuspid. Sides variously spotted, a V-shaped light area in front 
of the dorsal, frequently a bar across the sides below the adipose as 
in A. unifasciatus; base of caudal and one or two rows of spots 
parallel with the margin. 

The paratypes differ but little from each other, and the speci- 
mens from the Ducho are very similar to them. 


LoRICARIIDZ. 
5. Hemiancistrus Wilsoni spec. nov. 


For Mr. Charles Wilson who made large collections in the Rio 
Truando, a tributary of the Rio Atrato. 


7570 C.; 13921 I., eight, 90-133 mm. Truando. Wilson. The 
largest the type. Similar to H. holostictus from the San 
Juan. 

Head 3-3.25; depth 4.5-5; D. I, 7; A. I, 4; 27 scutes, six or 
seven between the dorsals, 11-++3 between the anal and caudal; 
depth at.tip of occipital equals snout and half the eye; width above 
base of pectoral almost equal to length of the head; mandible 3-3.6 
in the interorbital ; eye 4.25 in snout, 3 in interorbital, 7 in the head; 
interorbital with 3 minute spines or none. 

Occipital with a high keel, median plate behind it feebly bicari- 
nate, plates of the sides well carinate ; dorsal spine equal to head and. 
two or three scutes behind it, reaching to the adipose spine or the 
plate in front of it, the last ray reaching the spine of the adipose; 
caudal deeply emarginate, the lower lobe considerably longer, 2.2 
in the length; the middle rays about 1.4 in the lower; ventral sur- 
face in a specimen about 115 mm. long mostly naked, in the larger 
ones granulose except in a small area in front of the ventral. 


NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA. 679 


Everywhere covered with round spots, a double row of about 
twelve-on the anterior dorsal membranes, about five series on the 
last, fewer rows in the smaller ; about twelve series of spots on the 
caudal ; in all but one the outer caudal rays spotted. 


6. Pseudancistrus pediculatus spec. nov. 


The following specimens were collected by Manuel Gonzales on 
the eastern slope of the Andes between Bogota and the Rio Meta. 


SPECIMENS EXAMINED. 


Catalog Number. Number of | Tength in Mm. Locality. 
Specimens, 


a re a 2 60 and 118 | Rio Negro, Villavicencio. 
13927 I., 7586 C., paratypes ... 6 largest 95 | Villavicencio. 
13928 and 13663 I., paratypes. .| 10 largest 120 | Quebrada Cramalote, 
Villavicencio. 
Sa0204., paratypes ........... 3 largest 103 | Barrigona, Rio Meta. 
13932 I., 7587 C., paratypes ... 7 | largest 95 | Tengavita. 


Head 2.7-3; depth 6.5-7; D. I, 7 in five, I, 8 in forty-six, I, 9 in 
two; A. I, 4; scutes usually 25, rarely 24 or 26; eye about 6 in 
snout, 10 in head, a little over 3 in the interorbital; ramus of lower 
jaw about equal to the interorbital; interopercle with two principal 
spines, the longer .6 of the head, extending much beyond the head; 
’ sometimes 4 or 5 graduated spines follow each other, besides these 
there is with age, an increasing number of smaller spines about the 
edge or below the hispid portion of the interopercle; snout with 
many bristles in the male, short spines from the eyes forward, 
around the nares and forward along the middle to the snout; dorsal 
spine equal to the snout or shorter, the last ray reaching the adipose 
spine or the second scute in front of it; caudal very obliquely emar- 
ginate, the lower ray 3.33 in the length; pectoral reaching tip or 
middle of ventrals. 

Back and sides with faint spots; dorsal and caudal with numer- 
ous spots on the rays, more rarely uniform; ventrals and pectorals 
more faintly spotted. 


680 EIGENMANN—NEW FISHES FROM 


7. Ancistrus triradiatus spec. nov. 


SPECIMENS EXAMINED, 


Number of ; : 
Catalog Number, Samcalns. Length in Mm. Locality. 


Quebrada Cramalote, 


13035@ Li types os eats Id’ IIz 1 Villavicencio. 
13935b-e I., paratypes....... 4 61-85 Quebrada Cramalote. 
PEOT Cys eee ee 2 780 and 819 | Quebrada Cramalote. 
ERSOSVGL: os) awa aera eeale Io’ 77 Barrigona. 

1390370-6.1..0.5, ois ieee cae 292 43 and 70 Barrigona. 

7578) Co oe ea eae I 52 Villavicencio. 


All the specimens were collected by Manuel Gonzales at the 
base of the Andes east of Bogota. 

Head 2.6-2.75; depth 6.5; D. I, 7; A. I, 3; scutes 24 or 25, 
4-+1 or 2 in front of the adipose, 9-11 -+ 3 between anal and 
caudal; eye 7-9 in head, 3-5 in interorbital, 5 in snout; width of 
head about 1.25 in its length; mandibular ramus 1.8-2.33 in the 
interorbital; interopercle with 15-20 or more spines; tentacles 
profuse, fully developed in a specimen 78 mm. long, consisting in 
the male of a row along the margin of the snout and up the sides 
of the head in front of the preopercle and the usual Y-shaped series 
on the snout; the snout very narrowly naked in the female; dorsal 
reaching plate in front of adipose spine, its base equal to its distance 
from some part of the adipose spine, pectoral spine in the male 
reaching to the second third of the ventrals; depth of caudal 
peduncle about 2.5 in its length. Caudal rounded, more obliquely 
so in young than in adult. . 

Color of the type: body including head and belly, with faint, 
roundish, light spots ; dorsal with about five series of comma-shaped 
black spots in broken series lengthwise of the fin; caudal with simi- 
lar but shorter spots which merge into two continuous bars at the 
base; pectorals and ventrals with similar but larger spots, those of 
successive rays alternating, outer angles of caudal light. In other 
specimens sometimes the tip of the first two dorsal rays, and in the 
young the margin of the caudal light, the markings on the fins con- 
fined to the rays. Ventral surface in the small specimens plain. 


NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA. 681 


8. Chetostomus leucomelas spec. nov. 


13652 I.; 7340 G: three, 116-143 mm., the largest the type. Rio 
Patia, halfway between the Rios vane and Telembi. April 
5 and 6, 1913. Henn. 


Head 3.33-3.5; depth 6-6.5 ; D. I, 8 in two, I, 9 in one; A. I, 5; 
scutes 24-25; eye 2.5 in the interorbital, which is 3 in the head; 
depth of the head 2 in its length, its width about 8 of its length; 
interopercle with 3-5 strong, recurved, graduate spines ; dorsal spine 
about .8 as long as head, base of dorsal equal to its distance from the 
middle of the adipose spine; caudal deeply emarginate, the lower 
lobe longest ; depth of caudal peduncle 3 in its length. 

Back and sides light olive, faintly mottled. All fins but the anal 
with light bands across the rays, the membranes hyaline, margin of 
caudal light. The contrast between light and dark bars strongest 
on dorsal and caudal. No spot on the second membrane of the 
dorsal in one of the specimens; a spot on the base of the second 
membrane of the dorsal in two of the specimens. 


MuGILID2. 
g. Joturus dague spec. nov. 


7458 C., type, 195 mm.; 7459 C.; 13846 I., paratypes, five, 167-225 
mm. Rio Dagua at Caldas, Colombia. Eigenmann. 
Head 4.1; depth 3.5; D. IV-I, 8; A. III, 9; scales 44-46, 13 or 

14 between dorsal and anal; eye 5 in the head; interorbital 2.5; 
snout 3.25-4; snout conical, the maxillary reaching to the anterior 
margin of the eye; teeth of the upper jaw mostly bicuspid, more 
rarely tricuspid or unicuspid, a series of larger pointed teeth from 
an anterior row in some specimens; teeth in the lower jaw mostly 
unicuspid, a few bicuspid; snout conical, length of the mouth about 
1.5 in its width; scales decreasing in size forward on the head but 
without supplemental scales; no accessory scales on the body; pre- 
orbital serrate on its posterior edge and on the posterior part of the 
lower edge; upper lip very broad in front, forming the tip of the 
snout; spinous dorsal naked, a few scales on the base of the mem- 
branes of the soft dorsal, caudal and anterior part of the anal; gill- 


682 EIGENMANN—NEW FISHES FROM 


membranes free from each other to below the posterior margin of 
the eye; pectoral five sevenths to three fourths as long as the head, 
not reaching to the dorsal; first dorsal spine a little over half the 
length of the head, reaching to the tip of the second spine when 
depressed, the third spine not reaching the tip of the second and 
the fourth not to the tip of the third; a dark spot on base of caudal, 
and another on base of the pectoral; an ill-defined lateral band; 
dorsal spines and a streak on the membranes dark; dorsal dusky. 

This species greatly resembles Agonostomus monticola which 
has a narrower and longer snout. 


STOLEPHORIDZ. 
10. Stolephorus branchiomelas spec. nov. 


7491 C., type, 68 mm.; 7492 C.; 13875 I., paratypes, three, largest 
54 mm. Mouth of Rio Dagua. Bigodnaile 
13880 I., ten, largest 83 mm. Tumaco? Henn & Wilson? 

Head 3.33; depth 4; D. 14; A. 29 or 30; eye 3.5 in the head, .5 
in snout; teeth very minute; maxillary not quite reaching gill- 
openings ; gill-rakers about two thirds as long as the eye, 55 on the 
upper, 70 on the lower part of the arch; origin of dorsal equidistant 
from anterior margin of eye and caudal; caudal lobes equal; a sil- 
very band, well defined between dorsal and anal, diffuse in front 
and behind; inner face of mandible dark, darkest near symphysis; 
-inner lining of shoulder girdle black; gill-filaments with black 
chromatophores ; tips of caudal dusky. 


SCLENIDZ. 
11. Stellifer melanocheir spec. nov. 


7520 C., type, 120 mm. Tumaco. Henn & Wilson. 

Head 3.44; depth 3.1; D. XI, 23; A. II, 8; scales from middle 
of back in front of dorsal to lateral line 7, from lateral line to vent 
10; 50 pores to origin of caudal rays ; eye about 4 in the head, inter- 
orbital 2.5, snout 4.5; maxillary-premaxillary border 1.8. 

Mouth oblique, lower jaw included, the premaxillary on a level 
with the lower edge of the pupil; interorbital slightly convex, chin 


"= 7 


NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA. 683 


with a small knob, the pores evident; teeth in two irregular series, 
the outer series of the upper jaw and the inner series of the lower 
jaw enlarged. Gill-rakers 15 or 16 in upper, 25 or 26 in lower arch 
(21 + 27 in S. oscitans), preopercular spines strong, the upper di- 
rected backward, the lower downward and backward; first and sec- 
ond dorsal spines strong, pungent; second dorsal spine nearly half 
the length of the head; tenth dorsal spine shortest, the third to the 
seventh spines weak, flexible, the rest becoming strong pungent, the 
third dorsal spine higher than any of the rays; second anal spine 
1.17 in the length of the head, its tip reaching tip of fourth anal’ 
ray; caudal narrowly rounded, its middle rays equal to the length 
of the head; pectorals reaching to above the first anal spine, the 


- ventrals to the vent; caudal, soft dorsal and anal scaled to near the 


tip; a row of scales along the back of the dorsal spines to near the 
tip. Caudal, soft dorsal and all but part of last three anal rays 
densely punctate ; upper surface of first two ventral rays less densely 
punctate; spinous dorsal and all but lowest rays of the pectorals 
nearly black, much darker than the other fins. Scales of sides and 
back with punctulations forming faint streaks, oblique between the 
lateral line and the spinous dorsal, horizontal elsewhere. 


HZMULID2. 
12. Pomadasys sinuosus spec. nov. 


Type, 13892 I., 161 mm. Patia, between Magui and Telembi. 
Henn. 

Head 3; depth 3.3; D. XIII, 12; A. III, 8; 51 pores in the lateral 
line to the base of the caudal, 12 pores on the caudal; eye 4.4 in the 
head, snout 3.1, bony interorbital 7, interocular 5, preorbital 7.3. 

Profile sinuous, slightly depressed in front of the dorsal and over 
the eye; snout pointed, the maxillary reaching just to the anterior 
margin of the eye; teeth in broad bands, the outer series of both 
jaws a little enlarged; spine at angle of preopercle broad, flat ; gill- 
rakers in both arches 17, the lower four or five rudimentary, the 
upper three rapidly graduate; pectoral short, not near reaching 
vent, 1.7 in the head; fourth dorsal spine highest, 2 in the head, the 


684 EIGENMANN—NEW FISHES FROM 


highest ray .84 of the highest spine, length of the base of soft dorsal 
2.15 in the base of the spinous dorsal; second anal spine 1.4 in the 
head; soft dorsal naked, first two membranes of the soft anal 
naked, the third to the sixth with scales on the basal third. Silvery, 
dorsals dusky. 


GoBIIDz. 
13. Hemieleotris levis spec. nov. 


13865 I., type, 40 mm., paratypes 13866, I.; 7484 C., twenty-three, 
largest 48 mm. Pools in Buenaventura. Henn. 
13867 I., one, 42 mm. Rio Calima. Henn. 


Head 3.5; depth 4.5; D. VII-I, 10; A. 10 or 11; scales 34 or 
35 +11, eye I in the length of the snout, 4 in the length of the head, 
interorbital a little greater than the eye. 

Heavy, little compressed except on the caudal peduncle; head 
broad, mouth oblique, the upper lip on a level with the middle of 
the eye, maxillary reaching just beyond the origin of the eye; teeth 
in narrow bands, those of the outer series of both jaws considerably 
enlarged; gill-rakers 5-++-15, the inner ones of the first arch con- 
siderably heavier, blunt, about one third as long as those along the 
outer edge of the arch; head scaled to in front of the eyes; the 
scales of the head, breast, belly, and those in front of the dorsal 
cycloid, those of the sides with a series of strong marginal spines; 
spinous dorsal rounded, the middle spines longest, some of the 
spines reaching the soft dorsal in some specimens, usually shorter ; 
posterior rays of the soft dorsal sometimes reaching caudal, usually 
shorter, the margin of the fin rounded; caudal rounded, about 3.5 
in the head; anal similar to the soft dorsal; ventrals not reaching 
the vent; sides clouded, with indistinct cross-bands forward, be- 
coming more distinct on the caudal peduncle; a narrow, faint, dark 
lateral line, most conspicuous in the male; sometimes a row of dots 
along a row of scales on the lower part of the sides; a dark spot on 
the shoulder just above the base of the pectoral; dorsal nearly uni- 
form dusky, without markings. 


NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA. 685 


14. Sicydium hildebrandi spec. nov. 


7466 C., type, 137 mm.; 13852, I., paratype, 114 mm. Cisnero, 
_ Rio Dagua. Eigenmann. 

Head 5.25; depth 5.5; D. VI, 11; A. 11; about 70 scales between 
pectoral and caudal, about 20 between dorsal and anal; eye 6 in the 
length of the head, interocular 2.5. 

Head very blunt, body cylindrical, caudal peduncle compressed ; 
scales in the middle line extending to a point a little in advance of 
the upper angle of the gill-opening; belly scaled; pectorals large, a 
little longer than head; all but the first dorsal spines produced, the 
second, third and fourth of nearly equal extent, reaching the fourth 
to the seventh dorsal ray; dorsal rays increasing in height to the 
penultimate which reaches the caudal and is one third longer than 
the head ; anal similar to the dorsal but lower, its origin equidistant 
from eye and caudal; horizontal teeth of the lower jaw entirely con- 
cealed, teeth of the upper jaw truncate. 

Scales of sides gray at margin and with a submarginal dark 
crescent; dorsals dark with numerous light spots, circular near base 
and middle, becoming elongate or vermiform toward the tip; caudal 
and pectoral dusky; anal dusky with a darker border. 

Named for Mr. S. F. Hildebrand, in recognition of his work 
with the fresh-water fishes of Panama, and for his discovery of 
several new genera of Gobiide in Panama. 


15. Gobius (Ctenogobius) dague spec. nov. 


7481 C., type, 90 mm. to base of caudal, about 133 to end of caudal, 
paratypes, 7482 C.; 13863 I., three, 65-103 mm. Mouth of 
Rio Dagua. Eigenmann. 

Allied to Gobius boleosoma and enceomus. 

Head 4—-4.2; depth 5.25-6; D. VI-I, 12; A. I, 12; scales 31-34; 
eye 4 in the head, interocular 6, preorbital very little wider than the 
eye; head as well as body compressed; heaviest at the ventrals, 
tapering regularly to the caudal, snout very blunt, narrow; width 
of the head but little, if any more than half its length; depth of the 
head 1.5 in its length; mouth low, terminal, horizontal; lips very 


PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., VOL. LVI, SS, JANUARY 12, I918. 


686 EIGENMANN—NEW FISHES FROM 


thin; upper jaw with an outer series of fixed teeth and a few teeth 
within these near the symphysis; lower jaw with a similar series of 
slightly smaller teeth and several irregular series behind this near 
the symphysis; scales large, ctenoid on the area behind the tips of 
the pectorals, cycloid, smaller and less regularly arranged above the 
pectoral; nape, region in front of the dorsal, and region above the 
gill-openings naked. Pectorals and ventrals nearly coextensive, a 
little shorter than the head; dorsal spines curved, prolonged in 
filaments, reaching to the base of the fourth ray; the first, second or 
third longest; soft dorsal reaching to or beyond the origin of the 
caudal; caudal very long, pointed, 2-2.5 in the length; anal similar 
and nearly coextensive with the dorsal. 

' A conspicuous black spot on the upper part of the pectoral; sides 
with five to eight dull spots, the alternate ones smaller, the last at 
the base of the caudal; spinous dorsal and lower part of soft dorsal 
with horizontal dark streaks; middle or upper part of caudal with 
faint cross bars; ventrals dusky; pectoral and anal light. 


16. Awaous decemlineatus spec. nov. 


SPECIMENS EXAMINED. 


Number 
Catalog Number. of Spec- inn in Locality Collector. 
imens, m, 
FA78 Co. type. saan sees is Id’ "80 Quibdo. Eigenmann. 
13862 I., 7480a-e, C. .... 21 largest 50/ Puerto del Rio Cienega. | Gonzales. 
13861 I., 7470a-d, C...... 8 largest 51 | Calamar Cienega. Eigenmann. 


Head 3.33; depth 5.25; D. VI-I, 9 or 10; A. I, 10; scales 57-14; 
eye a little over 5 in the head; equal to the interocular; maxillary 
reaching to below middle of the eye; snout nearly 3 in the head; 
mouth wide, its width equals the postorbital part of the head; teeth 
of the lower jaw of the type consisting of a series of small, more 
or less movable ones in an outer row and four strong, recurved, — 
fixed teeth in an inner series, near the symphysis, not parallel with 
the outer series, and one or two similar teeth on the side of the jaw 
remote from the rest of the inner series and opposite the end of the 
outer series; upper jaw with a series of about seven strong, widely 
spaced, recurved teeth (16 in the young) ; fifth dorsal spine reach- 


NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA. 687 


ing the fourth ray; the last rays reaching the caudal; caudal nar- 
towly rounded, equal to the length of the head; tip of anal just 
reaching the caudal. 

Ten narrow cross lines on the body, the posterior ones Y-shaped, 
the upper branches of the Y in contact; a small dark spot at the 
base of the caudal ; two dark lines from the eye forward to the edge 
of the preorbital ; an oblique black band from the first to the second 
dorsal spine in the second or third fourth of their height; dorsal 
faintly barred ; upper three fifths of the caudal conspicuously barred 
by lines that become more wavy and less distinct toward the tip of 
_ the fin ; lower portion of caudal plain. 

Easily -disinguished from the other species of the genus by its 
narrow cross lines. In the smaller specimens the teeth of the lower 
jaw are less differentiated. The outer row of sixteen to twenty 
teeth are slightly larger at the outer edge of the row, the inner row 
consists of ten teeth in a series nearly parallel to the proximal half 
of the outer row. 


CHARACIDE. 
17. Brycon ecuadoriensis Eigenmann & Henn, spec. nov. 


13470 I., type, 245 mm. from tip of snout to end of lower caudal 
lobe, 204 to end of scales on middle of caudal. Rio Barranca 
Alta from Naranjito, Ecuador. Henn. 

Head 3.6; depth 3.3; D. 11; A. ITI, 29.5; scales 9-56-4 to ven- 
trals ; eye about 4.1; base of anal equals length of head. 

Preventral area rounded, postventral area compressed, not 
keeled; predorsal area very bluntly keeled; occipital process about 
8 in the length from its base to the caudal; interorbital moderately 
convex; snout rounded; frontal fontanel about one third as long 
as the parietal; cheeks with an exceedingly narrow naked margin; 
premaxillary with 6 teeth in the outer series of one side, 7 in the 
' other side; five teeth in the inner series; three teeth in a row from 
the second tooth of the outer to the third of the inner series, a tooth 
between the first of the outer and the second of the inner series ; 14 
teeth in the maxillary to near its tip, the anterior ones which form 
a continuous series with the inner series of the premaxillary largest; 


688 EIGENMANN—NEW FISHES FROM 


mandibular teeth slightly graduate in height from the third to the 
first, the second tooth being the widest; the three first teeth of the 
two mandibles forming a compact series in an open crescent; fourth 
tooth slightly recurved, much smaller than the third, the remaining 
two teeth quite small (on the left side there is an abnormal gap 
between the third and fourth teeth) ; the inner series of teeth begins 
just within the last tooth of the outer series and consists of four 
teeth; symphysial tooth small; maximum width between front and 
rear series about 5 mm. 

Gill-rakers 11-+14, the longest 5 mm.; longest gill filament 
II mm. x 

Origin of dorsal 102 mm. from tip of snout, 106 from end of 
scales at base of middle caudal rays; exposed portion of longest 
upper caudal ray 47 mm., of longest lower ray 51 mm. First de- 
veloped anal ray equidistant with last dorsal ray from the end of 
the scales of the middle caudal rays; first rudimentary ray 128 mm. 
from tip of snout; origin of ventrals 93 mm. from tip of snout; 
pectoral just reaching ventrals. 

Scales on the middle of the sides with as many as ten sub- 
parallel radials, more toward the base of the anal. Lateral line 
faint; a large axillary scale. 

Dark on sides and above, with steel blue to brassy lustre; fins 
dusky ; a large, obscure humeral band; a large black spot on caudal 
peduncle, most intense toward its end, fading out forward, con- 
tinued on the membranes of the middle rays to their tip. 


18. Brycon meeki Eigenmann & Hildebrand, spec. nov. 


Many specimens from the Rios San Juan, Dagua, and Patia of. 
western Colombia. 

Head 3.8 to 4.55; depth 3 to 3.25; D. 10 or 11; A. 33 to 35; 
scales 12 or 13-60 to 70-7 or 8. 

Body elongate, compressed; profile slightly concave over eyes, 
elevated at nape; head rather small; snout blunt, 3.5 to 3.85 in head; 
eye 2.75 to 4; interorbital 2.3 to 3.1; mouth moderate; upper jaw 
strongly projecting; maxillary reaching opposite middle of eye, 2.1 
to 2.4 in head; premaxillary teeth laterally in 3 series, anteriorly 


NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA. 689 


in 5 more or less irregular series, the fourth series consisting of 
only 2 teeth, the fifth.or transverse series with 4 teeth; maxillary 
teeth small, about 13 in number; mandibular teeth quite strong, 8 
large ones and abruptly smaller ones at sides in outer series; gill- 
rakers moderate, 15 or 16 on lower limb of first arch; lateral line 
complete, curved downward; scales moderate, regularly placed, 22 
or 23 rows before dorsal; 17 to 19 vertical rows crossing back be- 
tween dorsal and adipose; 4 longitudinal rows between lateral line 
and base of pectoral; dorsal fin in advance of anal, its origin mid- 
way between tip of snout and base of caudal or slightly nearer the 
latter ; caudal fin forked, the lower lobe the longer; anal fin long, 
its base longer than head; ventral fins usually reaching vent, in- 
serted slightly nearer origin of anal than base of pectorals; pectoral 
fins usually not quite reaching base of ventrals, inserted under mar- 
gin of opercle. 

Color dark blue above, silvery below; a conspicuous black 
margin on shoulder girdle; no lateral band; no caudal spot. Some 
specimens with indistinct vertical dark lines. Fins unmarked. 

Named in honor of the late Seth E. Meek. 


DESCRIPTIONS OF SIXTEEN NEW SPECIES OF 
PYGIDIIDA:.2 


By CARL H. EIGENMANN. 
(Read October 5, 1917.) 


The Pygidiide are a family of fishes found from southern 
Panama to Patagonia, and from sea level to the highest Andes. A 
monograph of this family, pretty well illustrated, is all but com- 
pleted but may be delayed in publication. The new species and 
genera are here described in advance of the publication of the mono- 
graph. — 

Ecologically this family is one of the most interesting ones of 
South America. Some of the species attain considerable economic 
importance, especially in the higher altitudes, as on the plains about 
Bogota and in Titicaca and other high Andean lakes of Peru. 
Others are minute and live as parasites in the gill-cavities of other 
fishes. The new genus, Branchioica, belongs to this ecological group. 
Still others attach themselves to other fishes and bathers like leeches, 
making slight abrasions in the skin and swallowing the blood. Still 
others have the evil reputation of entering the urethra of bathers, 
causing severe complications or even death. The new species 
Vandellia sanguinea belongs to this ecological group.. 

The specimens were collected in the region and during the expe- 
ditions mentioned in the preceding article and by Dr. John Hase- 
man, who travelled in South America for the Carnegie Museum 
between 1907 and 1910. A map showing his route was published 
in the Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, Vol. VII., Plate I. Of 
particular interest is the new genus Branchioica, which lives in the 
gill cavities of other fishes. 

The numbers followed by the letter “I.” refer to the catalog 

1Contribution from the Zodlogical Laboratory of Indiana University, 
No. 16. 

690 


EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ. 691 


of the Indiana University, those with the letter “C.” to the catalog 
of the Carnegie Museum. 


SCLERONEMA? gen. nov. 


Type, Scleronema operculatum spec. nov. 

Allied to Pygidium. 

Ventrals nearer snout than caudal, outer pectoral rays shortest, 
without a filament; opercle with a long dermal flap; interopercular 
spines in much more restricted area than in species of Pygidium; 
accessory rays of the caudal inconspicuous; maxillary barbel with 
a large osseous base (maxillary bone). Teeth very narrow incisors ; 
mouth wide, terminal. 


1. Scleronema operculatum spec. nov. 


7077 C., type, 79 mm. 7539 C., paratypes, 3, 65-80 mm. Cacequy, 
Uruguay Basin. Feb. 1, 1909. Haseman. 7 

Head 5.66; D. 12.5; A. 7.5 counting the rudimentary rays; P. 7; 
eye in anterior half of the head; interocular 5 in the length of the 
head; width of the mouth nearly half the length of the head. 

Nasal barbel short, reaching just beyond posterior nares; maxil- 
lary barbel reaching about half-way to the tips of the opercular 
spines, the bony base much longer than the soft filament; a broad, 
free membrane above from near the anterior nares to the tip of the 
osseous base of the barbel, a narrower membrane along the outer 
edge of the base of the barbel; six spines in the main row of the 
interopercle; opercular flap reaching to near base of the last pec- 
toral ray; pectoral about as long as the head; origin of ventrals a 
little nearer to the snout than to the base of the middle caudal rays; 
ventrals reaching beyond the anus, not quite to the anal, equal to 
the portion of the head behind the nasal barbels; origin of anal 
under the antepenultimate dorsal ray, the distance from the base 
of its last ray to the caudal four times in the length; caudal narrow 
and long, equal to the length of the head; its margin slightly ob- 
liquely rounded; origin of dorsal over posterior half of ventrals, 


2¢xdnpos hard; viva, 7d—hard thread, in allusion to the hard base 
of the maxillary barbel. 


692 FIGENMANN-—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ. 


the distance from the first ray to the caudal 1.34 in its distance from 
the snout. 

Middle of sides with a series of faint, large spots, similar but 
smaller spots along the back. 


2. Hatcheria titcombi spec. nov. 


Pygidium areolatum Everman & Kendall (non Cuv. & Val.), Proc. 
U. S. Nat. Mus., XXXI., 1906, p. 86. (Rio Comajo; tributary 
of Lake Traful, tributary to Rio Limay.) 


11110 I., type, 164 mm. Arroyo Comajo. J. W. Titcomb. 


This specimen is one of those mentioned by Everman and Ken- 
dall. It differs from the areolatum as described by Cuvier and 
Valenciennes, whose specimen came from Chile, west of the Andes. 
The origin of the dorsal is further back, and its last ray is beyond 
the last ray of the anal. 

Head 6.33; depth 6.5; D. 17.5 (3+ 14.5); A. 9.5 counting the 
minute imbedded rays in each case; P. 9; front margin of the eye 
in the’ middle of the head; interocular a little over three in the 
length of the head, eye three in the interocular. Teeth very narrow 
chisels; nasal barbel reaching to above first preopercular spines, 
maxillary barbel to middle of opercular spines. Pectoral rounded, 
its first ray not prolonged, nearly two thirds the length of the head; 
origin of the ventrals equidistant from snout and last fifth of the 
middle caudal rays; first anal ray under the sixth dorsal ray, the last 
anal ray under the fourth from the last ray of the dorsal; distance 
between anal and caudal 4.75 in the length; origin of dorsal equi- 
distant from tip of caudal and middle of pectorals, its distance from 
the caudal two in its distance from the snout. 

Sides without distinct markings; faint traces of longitudinal 
lines. 


3. Pygidium heterodontum spec. nov. 
13832 I., type, 83 mm., 9, Rio Mendoza, Palmira, Argentine, ae m. 
Purchased from Rosenberg. 


Palmira is probably the southernmost locality on the eastern 
slope of the Andes from which species of this genus have been 
taken. 


EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ. 693 


Head 6, as long as broad; D..10.5 (4+ 6.5); A. 7.5 (2+ 5.5); 
P. 9; eye in-middle of the head, interocular 3.5 in the head; teeth 
in three series in each jaw, those of the outer row narrow incisors, 
those of the second row much smaller incisors, those of the third 
row conic. Head much depressed, interopercular spines numerous, 
thirteen in the last row. 

Nasal barbel extending to the posterior margin of the eye, 
maxillary barbel to the base of the opercular spines; first pectoral 
ray scarcely produced, equal to the portion of the head behind the 
posterior nares; origin of ventrals midway between opercle and 
caudal, reaching to the vent; origin of anal under posterior part of 
the dorsal, the distance between its last ray and the base of the 
middle caudal ray 4.4 in the length; depth of the caudal peduncle 
2.5 in its length; caudal narrow, emarginate, a little more than five 
in the length; origin of dorsal midway between the tip of the caudal 
and the occiput, over the tip of the ventrals, its distance from the 
caudal 1.75 in its distance from the snout. 

A faint lateral band and obscure spots or marblings. 


4. Pygidium latidens spec. nov. 


13801 I., type, 53 mm. Small creek near the mouth of Rio Calima. 
May 7, 1913. Henn. : 


Head 5.5; D. 9.5; A. 7.5; P. 7; posterior edge of eye in advance 
of the middle of the head; interocular 3.5 in the head. 

Nasal barbel extending beyond the tips of the opercular spines ; 
maxillary barbel extending beyond the axil, longer than the head; 
“pectorals broad, as long as head without snout; pectoral filament 
equal to the distance from the snout to the axil; ventrals not near 
reaching anus, their origin equidistant from the base of the middle 
caudal rays and the interopercle; origin of anal about under middle 
of the dorsal, distance between base of the last ray and the middle 
caudal rays five and one half in the length; caudal rounded, about 
six in the length; accessory rays well developed; origin of dorsal 
over anus, its distance from the middle caudal rays two in its dis- 
tance from the snout; gill-membrane free to below the anterior 


694 EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ, 


spine of the interopercle, without a free membrane across isthmus ; 
both jaws with two series of thin, chisel-shaped teeth. 
Color plain, without spots or stripes. 


5. Pygidium mete spec. nov. 


13770 I., type, 78 mm. Barrigona. March, 1914. Manuel Gon- 
zales. 

Head 6.3 in the length; D. 10.5; A. 9.5 counting the rudimentary 
rays; P. 6; width of head nearly equal to its length; eye entirely in 
the anterior half of the head, snout 2.75 in the head, interocular 3.5. 
Teeth conic. 

Nasal barbels reaching to tip of opercular spines, maxillary 
barbel slightly beyond origin of pectorals; pectorals small, equal to 
the postorbital portion of the head, the first ray with its filament 
equal to the head, origin of ventrals much nearer base of middle 
caudal rays than to tip of pectorals, their tips reaching the anal; 
origin of anal under fourth dorsal ray (second fully developed ray) ; 
the distance between the base of its last ray and the base of the 
middle caudal rays six times in the length; caudal rounded; origin 
of dorsal over tip of ventrals, its distance from the base of the 
middle caudal rays two and two fifths times in its distance from 
the snout. 

Sides and back densely covered with spots about the size of 
the eye. 


6. Pygidium straminium spec. nov. 


All of the specimens examined were collected by Gonzales in 
Santander, Colombia. . 


Catalog Numbers. Se parece ad Length in Mm. Locality. 
71o1 C., type, 13818 I., paratype 2 46 and 50 | Quebrada de! Mango. 
7089 C., paratype ........-+- I 35 Quebrada del Maradat(?). 
7090 C., 13804 I., paratypes ... 7 largest 45 | Quebrada da Densino. 
MLO4 CV E38TO 4, os ccelanne ae I5 largest 60 | Quebrada de Ocamante. 
Br O2 °C. 23826 Te oe awe 4 largest 67 | Quebrada de la Zuarta. 
PE OM MES ei /ace sera ate sie sige VNR ee I 41 Quebrada de la Honda. 


Head 4.5-5.33; D. 10.5; A. 8.5-9.5; P. 9; posterior margin of 


EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ. 695 


eye in the middle of the head; interorbital three in the length of the 
head ; teeth bristle-like in about three series. 

Nasal barbels reaching base of opercular spines or beyond origin 
of pectorals, maxillary barbels to tip of opercular spines or axil; 
pectoral filament a little longer or shorter than the length of the 
head, the rays equal to the length of the head without the snout; 
origin of ventrals equidistant from the base of the middle caudal 
rays and a point between the axil and a little in front of the opercle 
(and the tips of the opercular spines in the type), tips of the ven- 
trals slightly behind the vent; origin of the anal behind the vertical 
from the base of the last dorsal ray or under the posterior half of 
the dorsal, the distance between the base of the last anal ray and 
the middle caudal rays 4.5-5 in the length; accessory caudal rays 
very large and numerous; caudal rounded, six and a half in the 
length; origin of dorsal over the origin of the ventrals or but 
slightly behind this point, always nearer the eye than the tip of the 
caudal, sometimes equidistant from tip of snout and tip of caudal, 
its distance from the base of the middle caudal rays one and a half 
or less in its distance from the snout. 

Uniform straw-colored in alcohol. 


7. Pygidium dorsotriatum spec. nov. 


7093 C.; 13810 I., four, 18-76 mm., the largest the type. Villavi- 
cencio. Manuel Gonzales. 

Distinguished by the eccentric, dark, lateral band. 

Head 5; D. 12.5 (of which 4 minute) ; A. 9.5; P. 9; center of 
eye very little in advance of middle of the head, interocular three in 
the head. Teeth conic. 

Nasal barbels extending to or slightly beyond origin of pectoral ; 
maxillary barbel to the axil, equal to the length of the head; pectoral 
filament equal to the length of the head, the longest ray equal to 
the length of the head behind the nasal filament; origin of ventrals 
equidistant from base of middle caudal rays and tip of the inter- 
opercular spines, ventrals nearly reaching the anal; origin of the 
anal under the last quarter of the dorsal, the distance between the 
base of its last ray and the base of the middle caudal rays about 4.5 


696 EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDA, 


in the length; caudal rounded, six and five tenths to seven times in 
the length; the first rudimentary dorsal ray over the base of the 
ventrals, its distance from the base of the middle caudal ray equal 
to its distance from the tip of the opercular spine, 1.47 in its dis- 
tance from the snout. 

A dark band or row of spots from just above the gill-opening 
to the base of the upper caudal lobe; a few spots below the band 
_in the front half of the body in the larger specimen. 

This description is based on the two larger specimens, 68 and 77 
mm. long. The two smaller specimens, 18 and 21 mm. long, are 
uniform in color. 


8. Pygidium latistriatum spec. nov. 


7450 C.,type,46mm. Quebrada de Pinchote, Santander. Gonzales. 


Head 8 mm., length to base of caudal 39 mm.; width of head 6 
mm., interocular 2.5 mm., eye a little in front of the middle of the 
head; distance from snout to origin of dorsal 23 mm., to its last 
ray 27 mm.; distance between origin of dorsal and base of middle — 
caudal rays 16 mm., distance from snout to origin of ventrals 22 
mm., to origin of anal 28 mm., distance between base of last anal 
ray and base of middle caudal rays 9 mm., maxillary barbel 8 mm., 
nasal barbel 7 mm., length of outer pectoral ray with its filament 8 
and 9 mm., the divided rays 5 mm., D. 8.5; A. 6.5, not counting the 
imbedded rays in either case ; upper caudal rays 8 mm.; lower caudal 
rays about 6.5 mm. Accessory rays numerous. 

A lateral band from above the opercle to the middle of the 
caudal, increasing in width backward; mid-dorsal line dark; a dark 
stripe in front of the dorsal between the lateral stripe and the mid- 
dorsal stripe. 


9. Pygidium regani spec. nov. 
?Pygidium tenia Regan (non Kner & Steindachner), Ann. and 
Mag. Nat. Hist. (8), XII., 1913, p. 469 (R. Sipi and Rio 
Tamana). 


13772 I., type, 55 mm. Tado, Rio San Juan. Purchased from 
Rosenberg. 


EIGENMANN-—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ®. 697 


Head 6; D. 10.5; A. 8.5; P. 8; eye in middle of the head, inter- 
orbital 4 in-the length of the head. 

Nasal barbel as long as the head, reaching beyond axil of 
pectoral; maxillary barbel reaching to near the end of the lower 
pectoral ray, considerably longer than the head; outer pectoral ray 
as long as the head; origin of ventrals equidistant from base of 
middle caudal ray and tip of opercle, not quite reaching to the vent; 
origin of anal under posterior half of dorsal, the distance from the 
base of the last ray to the middle caudal ray contained five and one 
half times in the length; caudal six times in the length; origin of 
dorsal equidistant from tip of caudal and opercular spines, over pos- 
terior third of the ventrals, its distance from the middle caudal ray 
one and four fifths in its distance from the snout. 

A dark streak from opercular spines to middle of caudal; faint 
spots above and below the lateral stripe. 


10. Pygidium iheringi spec. nov. 
Trichomycterus punctulatus (non C. & V.) Ribeiro, Arkiv. for 
Zoologi, IV., No. 19, 1908 (Iporanga). 
Trichomycterus dispar (non Tschudy) Ribeiro, Kosmos, V., 1908, 
and Fauna Brasiliense, IV. (4), 1912, p. 222 (Rio Iporanga, 
Sao Paulo). 


Habitat, Sao Paulo in coastal streams and Parana Basin. 


SPECIMENS EXAMINED. 


oa of acc Length in Mm. Locality. Collector. 
Sig Oe 2 151-160 Sapina, Séo Paulo. | Haseman. 
2) Ot a 4 104-161 the largest | Santos. Von Ihering. 
the type. 


Allied to P. punctatissimum from Araguay. | 

Head 4.5-5 in the length; D. 11.5 or 12.5; A. 7.5 or 8.5 counting 
the two rudimentary rays in each case; P. 8; width of head equal 
to its length behing the nasal barbel; eye in middle of the head, 
interorbital 3.5-4 in the length of the head. Teeth incisors with 
expanded tips, in bands of four or five series. 


698 EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ., 


Nasal barbels reaching about to middle of eye, maxillary barbel 
to above middle of opercle; pectoral rounded, very little longer than 
snout and eye, the first ray not prolonged or with only a trace of a 
projection; distance between origin of ventrals and eye a little 
greater or less than that between origin of ventrals and middle 
caudal rays; the ventrals equal to the snout in the length, not nearly 
reaching vent, nearly half way to anal; origin of anal on or behind. 
the vertical from the base of the last dorsal ray; distance between 
bases of last anal ray and middle caudal rays five or a little over 
five in the length; caudal slightly rounded, seven to seven and a half 
in the length; dorsal low and long, the distance between its origin 
and the base of the middle caudal ray about one and a third in its 
distance from the snout, its first ray over posterior half of the 
ventrals. 

Sides and back with numerous spots, smallest over pectorals, 
largest over anal, rarely coalescent. 


11. Pygidium paolence spec. nov. 


?Trichomycterus proops Ribeiro, Fauna Brasiliense, 1V. (4), 1912, 
p. 221 (Ribeiro de Iguape). 
Habitat, Sao Paulo in the Parana Basin and (?) in coastal 
streams. 


7081 C., type, 68 mm. Alto da Serra, Rio Tieté, Sao Paulo. July 
25, 1909. Haseman. 

7117 C., ten, 25-27 mm. Mogy das Cruces, Rio Tieté. Haseman, 
may belong to this species. 


Head 6; D. 8.5; A. 6.5 not counting hidden rudiments; P. 6; 
head nearly as wide as long; eye in anterior half of the head, 
greater than their distance from the posterior nares; snout 2.33 in 
the length of the head, interocular 3.5; teeth conic; nasal barbel 
reaching base of opercular spines, maxillary barbel reaching tip 
of opercular spines; outer pectoral ray with its filament equal to 
head behind the posterior nares, the filament extending very little 
beyond the other rays; ventrals nearly reaching anal, their origin 
nearer caudal than to tip of pectorals; caudal rounded, six in the 
length; origin of anal under middle of dorsal, distance between the 


EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ. 699 


base of its last ray and the middle caudal ray 5.2 in the length; 
origin of dorsal equidistant from base of middle caudal rays with 
middle of ventrals, its last ray over the middle of the anal, the dis- 
tance between the origin of the dorsal and the base of the middle 
caudal rays two in the distance between dorsal and snout. 

With many faint spots about as large as the eye; a dark streak 
-along the middle of the sides, another along the side of the back, 
and a third along the edge of the belly. 


12. Pygidium reinhardti spec. nov. 


7078 C., type, 65 mm. Burmier on the Rio Itabira, a tributary of 
the Rio das Velhas. May 14, 1908. Haseman. 


Head 6.5; D. 9.5; A. 8.5 counting the minute rudimentary rays in 
both dorsal and anal; P. 6; eye in anterior half of head; interocular 
3 in the head. Teeth conic. 

Nasal barbel nearly as long as the maxillary barbel which reaches 
the edge of the gill-membrane. First pectoral ray with its filament 
equal to the length of the head, much longer than the divided rays; 
ventrals reaching beyond the vent, their origin very little nearer tip 
of pectorals than base of middle caudal rays; origin of anal under 
middle of dorsal; distance between thé base of the last anal ray 
and the middle caudal rays five and a half in the length; caudal 
narrow, a little longer than the head, the accessory rays inconspicu- 
ous; origin of dorsal over middle of ventrals, its distance from the 
middle caudal rays nearly two in its distance from the snout (19 
and 36 mm. respectively). 

A broad, dark stripe with notched edges from opercle to middle 
of caudal, bordered above and below by light bands; an irregular 
series of spots below the lower light band; a series of small spots 
more or less confluent forming a narrow, dark stripe above the 
upper light band; back and fins lightly spotted, a short dark bar in 
front of the opercle, a longer one above the middle of preopercle. 


13. Pygidium vermiculatum spec. nov. 
Pygidium brasiliensis (non Liitken) Ribeiro (part), Fauna Bra- 
siliense, IV. (A), 1912, p. 225 (the specimens from Juiz to 
Fora). 


700 EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ. 


Habitat, Rio Parahyba. 


7074 C., type, 131 mm. Juiz de Fora.. June 9, 1908, presented by 
Dr. Ribeiro. 

In general appearance like Liitken’s figure of brasiliensis, dif- 
fering notably in the position of the ventrals. 

Head 5.4 in the length; D. 8.5; A. 8.5 counting in each case 
the two rudimentary rays; P. 7; width of the head nearly equal to 
its length; eye in middle of the head, interocular three in the length 
of the head. Teeth conic; in bands. Right nasal barbels reaching 
to above base of the opercular spines, maxillary barbels of right side 
nearly as long as head, reaching to the second fourth of the pectoral, 
both shorter on left side; pectoral rather narrow, the outer ray 
much prolonged, as long as head behind the nasal barbel, the fin 
without the filament equal to the part of head behind a point mid- 
way between eye and posterior nares; origin of ventrals under 
origin of dorsal, equidistant between base of middle caudal rays 
and last third of pectorals, ventrals reaching much beyond vent, 
almost to anal, equal to the snout in length; origin of anal under 
penultimate ray of the dorsal, distance between the base of its last 
ray and the base of the middle caudal ray a little more than five in 
the length; caudal rounded; six and one third in the length; dorsal 
short, rounded, the distance between its origin and the base of the 
middle caudal rays one and sixty-seven hundredths in the distance 
between its origin and the snout. © 

Sides and back profusely covered with confluent spots which 
leave the light color as irregular vermiculations. 


14. Pygidium alternatum spec. nov. 


Pygidium brasiliensis Eigenmann & Eigenmann (part), Proc. Cal. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. (2), II, 1889, p. 51; id. €part), Occasional 
Papers Cal. Acad. Sci., I., 1890, p. 332; Ribeiro (part), Fauna 
Brasiliensis, IV. (A), 1912, p. 223. 

Habitat, Rio Doce. 


It is probable that the young speciméns mentioned by E. & E. 
belong to this species. 


7079 C., type and paratypes, 67, largest 81 mm. Rio Doce. May 
25, 1908. Haseman. 


EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ. 701 


Head 5-5.75; D. 10.5-11.5; A. 7.5 or 8.5 counting the rudi- 
mentary rays; P. 7 or 8; eye in middle of the head or slightly fur- 
ther forward; interocular 3—3.33 in the length of the head. Teeth 
conic, in bands. 

Nasal barbel very little shorter than maxillary barbel which 
reaches to the base of the pectoral and is equal to the head in length; 
pectoral rays equal to length of head behind the nasal barbels, the 
first ray with the filament longer than the head; ventrals reaching 
to or just beyond the vent; origin of ventrals equidistant from base 
of middle caudal rays and a point between the posterior nares and 
the area just behind the eyes; origin of anal under posterior part 
of dorsal; distance between base of last anal ray and middle caudal 
rays four and one half to five and one third in the length; caudal 
subtruncate or rounded, very little longer than head ; origin of dorsal 
over posterior half of ventrals; distance between origin of dorsal 
and base of middle caudal rays 1.54 in its distance from the snout. 

Ten to fourteen large spots along the middle of the sides, an 
irregular series of much smaller ones below it. Large spots above 
the median series, frequently alternating with it, sometimes partly 
confluent into a longitudinal series, sometimes forming with a mid- 
dorsal series irregular bars across the back. 


15. Vandellia sanguinea spec. nov. 


7082 C., type, 62 mm. San Antonio de Rio Madeira. Nov. 3, 1909. 
Haseman. 

Head 11.66; depth 12; D. 4+ 8.5; A. 3+7; P. 7; nearly the 
entire eye in the anterior half of the head, a little more than four 
in the length of the head to the tip of the opercular spines. 

Maxillary barbel extending to the tip of the interopercular 
spines, two in the head; the lower barbel minute, only about half 
a millimeter long as compared with the 2.5 mm. of the maxillary 
barbel ; two, flat, recurved teeth on the end of the maxillary con- © 
cealed just in front of the barbel; five premaxillary teeth gradu- 
ated from the long middle one to the minute lateral ones; the 
mandibles widely separated from each other, each with about 
five minute teeth; the teeth concealed by the lip; five spines in the 


702 EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ. 


main row of the interopercle, the middle ones very strong, directed 
backward, about five spines in supplementary rows; five spines in 
the main row of the opercle, about ten in supplementary rows; dis- 
tance between origin of ventrals and base of middle caudal rays 
two in its distance form the snout; origin of anal behind the origin 
of the dorsal, the last dorsal ray over the middle of the anal, dis- 
tance between anal and base of middle caudal rays five and five 
tenths in the length; distance between origin of dorsal and base 
of middle caudal rays two and eight tenths in its distance from the 
snout ; caudal truncate, with numerous accessory rays. Translucent, 
the eyes black. 


Branchioica* gen. nov. 
Type Branchioica Bertoni spec. nov. 


It is quite possible that this genus will, on direct comparison of 
specimens, prove a synonym of Paravandellia. It has the same 
general characters and comes from the lower Paraguay, while 
Paravandellia comes from the upper. The present species was 
taken from a fish, while Paravandellia seems to be free swimming. 
It is quite possible that teeth will be found in Paravandellia at the 
end of the maxillary (premaxillary?) and on the mandibles when 
they are examined minutely; Paravandellia is said to have the 
caudal forked, while Branchiogaeum has it subtruncate. 

No nasal or mental barbels, two barbels at angle of the mouth 
of which the lower is minute ; first pectoral ray not spinous, not pro- 
longed in a filament; gill-openings small, the membrane perfectly 
confluent with the isthmus; mouth inferior; two series of teeth in 
the front of the upper jaw, a single series of much smaller teeth 
laterad of these; maxillary with claw-like teeth at its end, just in 
front of the barbel and entirely concealed; two short series of 
teeth on the ends of the mandibles, opposite the lateral series of 
teeth of the upper jaw; opercular and interopercular patches of 
spines separate from each other ; caudal subtruncate. 


8 Bpdyxwv, 76 = gill, olkos, 6—a place to live in. 


EIGENMANN—SIXTEEN NEW PYGIDIIDZ. 7038 


16. Branchioica Bertoni‘ spec. nov. 


13950 I., type, 24 mm., paratype about the same length over all, 
-mtch curved. Taken from a large Characin. Piaractus 
brachypomus (Cuvier). Asuncion, Paraguay. Collected by 
A. de W. Bertoni. 

Head about 5.5; depth 5.5; D. 10; A. 7; P. 6; eyes superior, 
nearly the entire eye in the anterior half of the head, 3.5 in the 
head, about equal to the length of the snout, considerably larger than 
the interorbital ; maxillary barbel extending to very near the inter- 
opercular spines, the lower barbel very minute; caudal peduncle 
slender, abdomen well rounded; premaxillary with two irregular 
series of slender, pointed teeth, those of the posterior series much 
the larger, about five in number, subequal, both series graduated 
from the larger ones nearer the center outward, laterad of the 
median series (on the premaxillary?), four or five similar but 
smaller teeth, graduated from the larger proximal one; the rami 
of the lower jaw widely separated from each other, each with about 
five, recurved, pointed teeth in two series on its end, in apposition to 
the lateral series of the upper jaw; gill-opening minute, circular, 
gill-membranes perfectly confluent with the isthmus; opercle with a 
bundle of about twelve, subequal, upward directed spines; inter- 
opercle with about eleven curved, downward directed spines, ar- 
ranged in two series ; distance between origin of ventrals and caudal 
1.6 in its distance from the snout, origin of anal behind the origin 
of the dorsal; distance between anal and caudal about 5 in the 
length; pectoral falcate, the outer ray not prolonged as a filament, 
about as long as the head; origin of the dorsal between that of the 
yentrals and anal; twice as far from snout as from caudal; caudal 
narrow, obliquely rounded or subtruncate, with few inconspicuous 
fulcra. 

Translucent, eyes black, chromatophores on the snout, along the 
back, along the base of the anal, on the base of the caudal, along the 
side of the abdominal cavity and a few on the pectoral. . 


4In honor of the discoverer of the species, Mr. A. de W. Bertoni, of 
Asuncion, Paraguay. 


SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY, K.C.B. 
(Read May 4, 1917.) 


In the untimely death of Sir William Ramsay the American 
Philosophical Society has lost one of its most distinguished mem- 
bers, the world of science a leader of rare insight and initiative, 
England one of her most brilliant men, and his intimates a much 
prized friend. He possessed a personality of unusual charm, 
charged with wide interests, keen human affections, and vivid 
enthusiasms. 

The only son of William Ramsay, a well-known civil engineer, 
and Catherine Robertson Ramsay, the child destined later to 
develop into a great chemist was born at Glasgow on the 2d of 
October, 1852. He early turned his attention toward science, and 
believed his talent in this direction to have been inherited from his 
grandparents on both his father’s and his mother’s side—for he 
came of families of physicians and naturalists. After preliminary 
education at the Glasgow Academy, he entered the University of 
Glasgow when only fourteen years old, taking at first a general 
course, and later turning his attention especially toward chemistry. 
In 1870, at the age of eighteen, his chemical studies had progressed 
so far that he was anxious to seek further light in Germany, and in 
the autumn of that year was able, in spite of the Franco-Prussian 
war, to go to Heidelberg in order to study under Bunsen. Shortly 
afterwards he turned toward Tiibingen, where he worked for nearly 
two years under Fittig, and gained his doctor’s degree by virtue 
of a dissertation upon ortho- and meta-toluic acid. 

In the autumn of 1872 the young doctor of philosophy of twenty 
summers returned, full of enthusiasm, to his native city, and became 
assistant in the “ Young” laboratory of technical chemistry there. 
Two years later he was made tutorial assistant in the University 
of Glasgow. In spite of his charge of the elementary class of 
200 students he found time to undertake investigations concerning 


ili 


iv OBITUARY NOTICES. 


many diverse fields of chemistry; for his interest was wide, and 
only as the years advanced did he put most of his energy into the 
swiftly growing branch of physical chemistry, which finally came 
to claim most of his attention. 

His studies on picolin and quinine were partly ready for publica- 
tion in 1876, and in 1879, while still at Glasgow, he published an 
important investigation concerning molecular volumes of liquids at 
their boiling points, a research for which he devised peculiarly in- 
genious apparatus. His interesting preliminary study of the chem- 
istry of the sense of smell dates from about the same time, and, 
taken together with the others, shows the breadth and scope of his 
interest. 

In the next year Ramsay was called to the professorship of 
chemistry in the University of Bristol, where he remained seven 
years, and where he found Sydney Young, an able collaborator, 
with whom he published many papers between 1882 and 1889. 
These papers especially concerned vapor pressure, and dealt not 
only with the vapor pressure of solid and liquid substances, but 
also with the dissociation of ammonia and nitrogen trioxide, as well 
as with the critical point. During the last six of his years at the 
University College, Bristol, Ramsay was principal as well as pro- 
fessor of chemistry. 

In 1887 he resigned both positions in order to accept the chair 
of chemistry in University College on Gower Street in London, this - 
chair having been left vacant by the death of Williamson. Ramsay 
was one of the first to see the far-reaching importance of the new 
theory of solutions brought forward by van’t Hoff and Arrhenius, 
as was shown by the fact that he published in the Philosophical 
Magazine an English translation of van’t Hoff’s epoch-making 
paper. Not only in this way, but also by his own researches 
Ramsay advanced the new doctrines, and his investigations on the 
diminution of the vapor pressure of mercury by the presence of dis- 
solved metals, as well as his interesting and important work on 
surface tension, bore witness to his faith in the new point of view. 

At University College, where he remained until 1913, he carried 
out also the series of brilliant researches which constitute his chief 
title to fame, namely, those concerning the inert gases of the 


SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY. Vv 


atmosphere. Lord Rayleigh, in a research which is a model of 
experimental-acumen and conscientious execution, was the first to 
suspect the existence of such gases; his careful study of the density 
of nitrogen from different sources had proved chemical nitrogen 
(prepared from nitric acid and ammonia) to be distinctly less in 
density than the residue of the atmosphere from which oxygen and 
carbon dioxide had been separated. Lord Rayleigh had shown that 
the difference was not due to any impurity of hydrogen in the 
chemically prepared nitrogen, and that hence it must probably be 
‘due to an unknown impurity in the atmospheric nitrogen. He had 
begun on the task of burning this rather incombustible gas with the 
help of the electric spark, in order to discover the nature of the 
residue, a task which Cavendish long before had crudely attempted, 
and which is now executed on a huge scale commercially. Ramsay, 
stimulated by Lord Rayleigh’s experiments and by the latter’s 
request for air from chemists, suggested another method of fixing 
atmospheric nitrogen by conducting the gas over heated magnesium. 
The two investigators worked in harmony, and in 1894 succeded in 
showing that the residues left after the nitrogen was combined by 
these two different methods were identical; and that this common 
residue consisted primarily of a hitherto unsuspected gas, which 
they named argon, existing to the extent of about 1 per cent. in the 
atmosphere. Sir William once told me that on hearing of Lord 
Rayleigh’s first experiments and turning to the original description 
of Cavendish’s experiments in his own library, le found the pencilled 
annotation, ‘‘ Look into this matter,” placed opposite the line where 
Cavendish states that a small bubble, not over I per cent. of the . 
whole, remained unconsumed by the sparking with oxygen. If 
Ramsay had followed this early suggestion of his own, he, instead 
of Lord Rayleigh, might have been the first to point out that the 
small bubble remaining in Cavendish’s experiment, was probably 
a hitherto unknown gas. As it was, Ramsay’s greatest credit lay 
especially in his later work in this field. Remembering a discovery 
of Hillebrand’s that an inert gas had been found to exist included in 
a certain ore of uranium, Ramsay secured a specimen of this ore in 
order to discover if this gas might not be argon. To his amaze- 
ment he found that the gas possessed a different spectrum, the chief 


5 eae OBITUARY NOTICES. 


yellow line in which was identical with that in the spectrum of the 
sun ascribed to an element, unknown on earth, called helium. 
Before Ramsay’s discovery this substance had indeed been suspected 
in the spectrum of volcanic ejections from Vesuvius, but no one 
had any idea of its nature. The excitement of the discovery was so 
great that Ramsay was obliged to voyage to Iceland for a long rest. 

The existence of two inert gases with atomic weights respectively 
about 4 and 4o suggested to Ramsay the possibility that there might 
also be others fitting in to other corresponding places in the periodic 
system of the elements; and after an eager search, in a brilliant 
investigation, Ramsay announced the discovery of the whole series, 
including neon, crypton and xenon, obtained by fractional distillation 
at very low temperatures of the residues from large amounts of 
liquid air or liquid argon. This work was carried out with the 
help of Travers, using the methods for the liquefaction of the so- 
called permanent gases which had only recently been developed by 
others. It was about this time, between 1895 and 1898. that I 
remember Sir William’s having said to me: “ Nothing in this world 
is too strange to be true if properly substantiated by adequate ex- 
periments.” This feeling animated Ramsay in all his researches, 
and was a good preparation for the yet more astounding things 
which were to come. For during these years the extraordinary 
properties of radium and the revolutionary phenomena of radio- 
activity began to become known to mankind, and Ramsay, with 
eager interest in anything capable of throwing new light upon the 
processes of nature, welcomed to his laboratory Frederick Soddy, 
. who had just come from Montreal, where he had helped Ruther- 
ford in his epoch-making studies concerning this subject. It was 
Ramsay’s admirable technique in dealing with small quantities of 
gases that enabled him, in collaboration with Soddy in 1903, to 
give the first experimental evidence that helium is formed from 
radium—a phenomenon suspected by Rutherford, but not experi- 
mentally proved by him. Soon afterwards, in 1908, with the help 
of Cameron, Ramsay showed that the emanation from radium, 
which had been proved by Ramsay’s earlier work with Gray to be 
a heavy but unstable gas, had, in spite of its instability, a spectrum 
of its own. 


SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY. vil 


It is not surprising that an enthusiast confronted with the de- 
composition of so many substances, which in so many respects ap- 
peared to be classed among the elements, should push the idea too 
far and fall into an almost alchemical state of mind. Ramsay’s 
later experiments, in conjunction with Cameron and Usher, in which 
they thought that radium emanation could decompose copper into 
lithium and thorium into carbon, have not been verified by other 
experimenters. Perhaps it is premature to judge the outcome; but 
if the conclusion was an error, it must be remembered that the 
person who has never made a mistake is one who has never at- 
tempted any serious work. 

More fortunate, as it appears at present, was Ramsay’s later 
research with Gray on the density of the radium emanation, called 
by him “niton.” This important investigation, carried out with 
extraordinarily small quantities of material, proved the transitory 
“niton ” to be the heaviest member of the argon series, and showed 
that it fits satisfactorily into its appointed place in the periodic 
system, as well as into the expected niche in the Soddy-Fajans 
disintegration series. 

The work indicating the true nature of niton appropriately 
crowned Ramsay’s work upon the series of inert gases, the discovery 
of which was so largely due to his insight, enthusiasm and 
perseverance. 

In addition to all his brilliant researches Ramsay found time to 
publish a number of books, the chief of which were: “A System of 
Chemistry ” (1891); “The Gases of the Atmosphere” (1896) ; 
“Modern Chemistry” (1901); “Essays, Biographical and Chem- 
ical” (1908) ; and (as editor) a series of very valuable textbooks 
upon the different subdivisions of physical chemistry. In 1911 he 
was president of the British Association for the Advancement ol 
Science, and his address, which began with a review of the amazing 
discoveries of recent years, ended with an impressive warning as to 
the impending failure of the world’s coal supply, especially that of 
Britain, with its direful consequences; but this warning has fallen 
largely upon deaf ears, and the world continues to squander the 
stored energy of the ages with reckless prodigality. 

As would be expected, honors were showered upon this rare 


Vili OBITUARY NOTICES. 


intellect from all sides. He was created K.C.B. in 1902 and re- 
ceived the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1904, besides having had 
various orders and medals conferred upon him, and having been 
made an honorary member of nearly all the learned academies and 
chemical societies of the world. Many of these distinctions came 
from Germany, where he formerly had warm friends; but on the 
outbreak of the war his patriotism and his sense of justice and honor 
made him a firm and outspoken upholder of the cause of the 
Entente Allies, and even during his lingering and painful illness he 
did all in his power to help his country in her time of need. In 1881 
he married Miss Margaret Buchanan, who survives him, with one 
son, one daughter, and three grandchildren. He died, all too soon, 
on the 23d of July, 1916, in his sixty-fourth year, at his country 
estate at Haslemere in Bucks, England. 

Ramsay, in his own brief autobiographical sketch, has acknowl- 
edged freely the debt which he sometimes owed to others for ideas 
and suggestions, proclaiming his belief that scientific men should 
help one another and seek help whenever they could, and. adding 
that he always endeavored to acknowledge specific cases of indebted- 
ness to others whenever possible. Nevertheless, he was full of 
initiative and originality himself. The study of his work shows 
that the following were among the attributes of his genius: an 
intense curiosity and enthusiasm with regard to everything new, 
an excellent experimental technique in dealing with gases, a great 
fertility of fruitful ideas, a daring scientific imagination, and de- 
voted persistence in any promising line of work. The happy aggre- 
gation of these and other qualifications led Ramsay to successes 
significant enough to put his name high on the roll of the leaders of 
chemistry for all time. To him science owes a priceless debt for 
investigations which, in the short space of a score of years, made 
an unparalleled contribution, in that they revealed to the world a 
whole group of hitherto unknown elements possessing properties 
both unexpected and unique. 

| THEODORE W. RICHARDS. 


CLEVELAND ABBE, 1838-1916. 
(Read May 4, 1917.) 


Cleveland Abbe, astronomer, meteorologist, philosopher, for forty- 
six years an active member of the American Philosophical Society, 
esteemed and honored by his colleagues in science for his achieve- 
ments in the fields of meteorology, and the application of that science 
to the welfare of man, is beloved and mourned by all his friends 
for the gentle kindliness of his spirit and the unfailing aid, en- 
couragement and inspiration flowing from his inexhaustible stores 
of information, suggestion and boundless enthusiasm. 

-More than thirty years ago it was my pleasure to enter upon my 
official life in Washington as a civil service probationer under the 
immediate instruction and supervision of Professor Abbe, who was 
at that time in charge of the so-called Study Room of the Office of 
the Chief Signal Officer. Although independently, I have nevertheless 
worked literally side by side in close association with him through- 
out all the years that have followed our first acquaintance, and to 
my feelings of esteem and respect for the scholar and devotee have 
been added my affection, for the man of gentle and generous ways 
and a spirit refined and purified by his unselfish promotion of the 
pleasure and welfare of all around him. Embracing the Christian 
faith at the age of fifteen, the true spirit of Christ moulded and 
guided his conduct ever thereafter and, although brought up in the 
Baptist church, in his later years he enjoyed with his second wife 
the comfort and inspiration of the beautiful ritual of the Episcopal 
Church. 

Cleveland Abbe was born in the city of New York at the home 
of his parents in Madison Street, December 3, 1838, and died 
October 28, 1916, at his home in Chevy Chase, Md., after a some- 
what protracted affliction of partial paralysis, which though limiting 
his bodily activity, left his spirit and mental faculties wholly unim- 
paired to the last. He was the eldest of a family of seven children, 


ix 


“ OBITUARY NOTICES. 


five sons and two daughters, born to George Waldo and Charlotte 
Colgate Abbe. Three of his brothers and his two sisters still survive 
him. His ancestry on both sides was of pure English stock of 
liberty-loving English and Huguenot emigration. His Colonial an- 
cestor, John Abbe, was born in England about 1613 ‘and settled in 
Salem, Mass., about 1635. Professor Abbe’s father was prominent 
in the mercantile and charitable affairs of New York at a time when 
public schools were rare and the city was primitive enough for Abbe 
and his boyhood companions to gather shells on Battery beach. 
His early education was gained in private schools, later in the David 
B. Scott Grammar School, No. 40, on 20th Street. From this he 
entered the New York Free Academy, now the College of the City 
of New York, in 1851. After making an honorable record in mathe- 
matics and the sciences he graduated in 1857, taking, as he says, 
“the year 1853 over again to my great advantage as a student.” 

Inspired by his parents with a love of nature, his predilections 
for scientific pursuits followed naturally, and after graduation his 
progress toward his life work was rapid and consistent. While 
teaching mathematics in Trinity Latin School and later in Ann 
Arbor, Mich., he further perfected his own education in astronomy, 
spending four years at Cambridge, Mass., in association with Dr. B. 
A. Gould and assisting in the telegraphic longitude work of the 
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The two years, 1865 
and 1866, were spent delightfully at the great Russian observatory 
at Pulkova, then under the illustrious Otto Struve. Here, under 
new laws of the autocratic Russian Empire, a few young men of 
civilian rank, while at liberty to devote their whole time to their 
own studies, were nevertheless permitted to participate if they so 
desired in some of the regular work of the observatory, for which 
a small compensation was allowed. The years of his happy asso- 
ciations and congenial work at this great institution remained there+ 
after a delightful and vivid memory to him, to which he always re- 
ferred with sympathy and feeling. 

A little incident serves to show the warmth of the hospitality 
which greeted him and also goes far to explain the mystic charm 
seeming to surround these impressionable years of his early life. It 
seems his arrival at Pulkova occurred at about Christmas time. 


CLEVELAND ABBE. xi 


Imagine his astonishment when he was shown his name on a hand- 
some samovar-standing among the gifts beside the Christmas tree. 
To further prepare him for the astronomical work in which he would 
be engaged during the long and rigorous winters of northern Russia, 
arrangements had been made for his advantageous purchase of a 
splendid great coat lined with native fur. It is easy to understand 
the deep impression incidents and associations of this kind would 
make upon the gentle and sympathetic nature of Abbe. Unfortu- 
nately the samovar was early stolen from him, but the great coat is 
still serviceable and among his effects. During the winter of 1909- 
1910 he resided at the Weather Bureau station at Mount Weather, 
Va., where the severe atmospheric conditions gave frequent occa- 
sions for the use of the great fur coat. The writer, himself, was 
snow-bound at Mt. Weather on one of these occasions and after the 
storm, during a nine mile drive through the snow drifts to the rail- 
way station, he enjoyed the warmth and protection of the great fur 
coat, which was even then, after the lapse of about thirty-four years, 
in perfect preservation, a tribute to the perfected art of tanning furs 
in Russia, 

Returning to the United States Abbe entered upon work at the 
Naval Observatory at Washington, D. C., in 1867. As early as 
February in 1868, however, he had accepted the position of director 
of the Cincinnati Observatory, to which place he removed in June 
of the same year. A member of Abbe’s family relates to me an 
interesting incident not generally known, concerning his election to 
the directorship of the Cincinnati Observatory and that well illus- 
trates Abbe’s gentle temperament and kindly solicitude for others. 
During the transatlantic passage on his return from Russia he made 
the casual acquaintance of an elderly woman of culture and refine- 
ment. Ocean travel at that time lacked many of the comforts we 
are now accustomed to enjoy and during the prolonged passage 
Abbe found pleasure in telling his sympathetic acquaintance of his 
hopes and ambitions, and his devotion to astronomy. We can well 
imagine the frequent opportunities embraced by Abbe to extend his 
kindly courtesies and contribute to the comfort and welfare of his 
older companion. The journey ended with the customary partings 
and exchange of sentiments and sympathies incident to travel and 


xii OBITUARY NOTICES. 


nothing more was expected to occur. When, however, a year or 
more thereafter Abbe had moved to Cincinnati, he learned with 
pleasure and surprise that his selection for the observatory had been 
suggested and promoted by the flattering representations of his ac- 
quaintance of the transatlantic trip. Abbe, it seems, has recited this 
story chiefly to his own sons, with the admonition that thus they 
may see the benefits resulting from kindness and courtesies shown 
to the elderly. 

Professor Abbe’s wedded life began May 10, 1870, in his mar- — 
riage to Frances Martha Neal, daughter of David Neal, a resident 
of Cincinnati. The children of this union were three sons, all born 
in Washington, D. C., namely: Cleveland Abbe, Jr., born March 25, 
1872, married Frieda Dauer ; Truman Abbe, born November 1, 1873, 
married Ethel W. Brown; William Abbe, born June 27, 1877, 
married Louisa Hart Howson. The mother was a woman of 
strong character and personality with simple home-loving tastes, 
opposed to shams, frivolities and ostentations, always hungry for 
knowledge and intensely proud of her home and children, to whose 
rearing and education she gave her love and assiduous attention. 
In this she enjoyed the complete and earnest support of her devoted 
husband. 

At an early period of his life in Washington he purchased 
an old and historic residence with great rooms and lofty ceilings, 
located at 2017 I Street, N. W. Here for many years with simple 
but sincere and hearty hospitality he entertained visiting scientists 
and others of his acquaintance, always availing himself of such 
opportunities to increase, if possible, his stores of knowledge by 
questions and discussions of scientific topics. A frequent visitor to 
the house in the earlier days when the boys were at home writes in 
a recent letter: “‘I have always had a most delightful impression of 
Prof. Abbe as the head of a family. He was always full of fun and 
delighted in the pleasure of his children and their friends, or of any 
guest who came into his house. J never saw him in any mood 
except one of kindness and cheerfulness. All that I can say is to 
confirm what all his friends already know—that no man of such 
learning and such great scientific activities has shown a gentler dis- 
position and kindlier heart than Professor Cleveland Abbe.” 


CLEVELAND ABBE. xiii 


The extent of his charities can doubtless never be fully known 
but the-cases of record testify to his disposition to single out deserv- 
ing and meritorious instances where the bestowal of aid, necessarily 
limited by his own simple resources, would bear the best fruit. 
Each of these doubtless meant a definite personal sacrifice, signif- - 
icant of the sincerity and unselfishness of his motives. 

The long'years of his official life under the government inevitably 
brought a number of vicissitudes which Abbe’s boundless devotion 
to his beloved science enabled him to bear with patience and tolera- 
tion; whereas they brought a deeper sadness and resentment to the 
declining years of his devoted wife. In the early part of 1900 her 
health began visibly to fail, ending in death in Canton, N. Y., July 
24, 1908. 

At this date his sons were each married and already established 
in a home of his own. The father doubtless perceived and felt 
the loneliness of his situation, in spite of the solicitude and hospital- 
ity extended by his sons., Consequently, although then at the age 
of seventy, it was not’ surprising to those acquainted with the 
affectionate and sympathetic spirit of Abbe to learn of his second 
marriage in Philadelphia, Pa., April 12, 1909, to Miss Margaret 
Augusta Percival of Basseterre, St. Kitts, British West Indies. In 
renewed health, after a severe illness following his constant and 
patient attention to the needs of his first wife in her last illness, 
Abbe entered upon his new happiness with much of the spirit and 
romance of youth but, yet, with the sincerity and seriousness of 
maturity. Each found in the other the great need of all humanity, 
- sacred love, completely satisfied, moulding their separate lives into 
unselfish reciprocal devotion. There was thus fittingly provided in 
the tender care and. solicitude of this capable wife of a stronger 
vigor of life than he, both the affection and the attention that were 
needful when his own bodily strength, which he had so lavishly be- 
stowed in the interests of science and humanity, failed longer to 
fully sustain him. 

The horrors of the European war were a great mental distress 
to Professor Abbe in his last days and added to the pains his bodily 
illness brought upon him. His mind, however, was singularly clear 


xiv OBITUARY NOTICES. 


and cheerful even at the last moments, as I am told by those around 
him. 

I have thus dwelt at some length upon events of Abbe’s early 
career and his family life and last days, as heretofore these have 
been known only to the family and intimate friends, whereas many 
of his labors in the field of meteorology and his achievements in the 
interests of the public welfare have frequently been recorded and 
published. The more notable of these events will now be mentioned 
briefly in review. 

His life and work up to the time he es charge of the 
Cincinnati Observatory must be looked upon as a period of educa- 
tion and preparation. The subsequent years were years of produc- 
tion and harvest. His inaugural address June 30, 1868, at the 
Cincinnati Observatory presents an outline and program of work 
in astronomy, meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, surveying and 
engineering, all characterized by a regard for public welfare that 
could be accomplished in full only with prolonged labor and re- 
sources far beyond those of the observatory itself. This very com- 
prehensiveness, this all inclusiveness of treatment was characteristic 
of Abbe’s view of matters and his method of handling problems he 
attacked. Among the suggestions in his address was his proposal 
for the creation of a system of storm warnings and forecasts by 
means of weather reports collected by electric telegraph. More than 
a year elapsed before Abbe was able to make a practical demonstra- 
tion of his plans for forecasting the weather. How well he suc- 
ceeded in this undertaking is best shown by his own words quoted 
from his annual report to the Board of Control of the Cincinnati 
Observatory, June, 1870: 

“This subject having been brought, by myself, to the attention of the 
Chamber of Commerce of this city, that body, in June last (1869), authorized 
me to organize a system of daily weather reports and storm predictions. Ex- 
perienced observers at! distant points offered their gratuitous codperation. . 
The Western Union Telegraph Company offered the use of their line at a 
nominal price. The Bulletin began to be issued September 1, in manuscript 
form, for the special use of the Chamber of Commerce, and began to be 
printed a week later as an independent publication. 

“This Bulletin was supported for three months, as at first agreed on, by 


the Chamber of Commerce; its conduct then passed entirely into the hands 
of the Observatory, and has thus continued until the past month. The inde- 


CLEVELAND ABBE. xv 


pendent publication of the Bulletin was, however, discontinued, and it has, 
since December 1,-only appeared in the morning papers. The daily compila- 
tion of this Bulletin for the newspapers was undertakerni two weeks ago by 
the Cincinnati Office of the Western Union Telegraph Company, and will so 
continue, thus relieving the Observatory of all further responsibility. 

“In February the manager of the Cincinnati office undertook the publi- 
cation of a daily weather chart, and the favor that this has met with insures 
its continuation in the future. The Daily Weather Bulletin and Chart are, 
therefore, now supported solely by the Western Union Telegraph Company, 
and must be considered as a very important contribution to meteorology. It 
would have been highly to the credit of the Observatory could these publica- 
tions have been maintained in its own name; but this was impossible owing 
to the want of funds and assistants.” 


Writing of this matter to his father in New York, he said 
prophetically “I have started that which the country will not 
willingly let die.” 

Other forces and influences were also at work to perpetuate and 
nurture this embryo Weather Bureau for the benefit of the nation. 
The Executive Documents and the Congressional Globe of the 41st 
Congress, 2d session, show that on December 14, 1869, Hon. Hal- 
bert E.. Paine, Member of Congress from Wisconsin, introduced 
a bill to create a weather warning service under the Secretary of 


- War. The Document accompanying this bill consisted of a Me- 
morial of Prof. Increase A. Lapham of Milwaukee, Wis., entitled 


“Disasters on the Lakes,” and comprised a record of the marine 
disasters on the Lakes for 1869. The legislation finally enacted was 
the passage of a Joint Resolution, also introduced by Mr. Paine, 
which passed the House of Representatives February 2, 1870; the 
Senate on February 4, 1870; and was signed and approved by the 
President February 9, 1870. We may therefore conclude that the 
passage of the legislation establishing meteorological observations 
and reports in the United States was accomplished chiefly by the 
Hon. Halbert E. Paine upon the representations of Prof. I. A. 
Lapham. 

No one has been more scrupulously careful than Abbe biiinbelf: 
as can be shown by documentary evidence, to give Professor Lapham 
the fullest measure of credit for the work done by him which prac- 
tically ended with the enactment of the law which imposed upon the 
Secretary of War the task of organizing meteorological observa- 


Xvi OBITUARY NOTICES. 


tions throughout the United States and the giving of notice on the 
northern Lakes and sea-board of the approach of storms. 

When the Secretary of War sought to put these provisions of 
law into operation he endeavored to enlist the services and council 
of Lapham, Abbe, and others. Lapham declined but Abbe, whose 
work began with his Cincinnati Weather Bulletin, responded heartily 
and was appointed the assistant or meteorologist of General Albert 
J. Myer, chief signal officer of the Army, in charge of this work. 

The following quotations from the Popular Science Monthly 
for January, 1888, cite important features of Abbe’s subsequent 
service while the Weather Bureau was under the War Department: 


“In this position, Professor Abbe, during 1871, organized the methods 
and work of the so-called ‘probability’ or study-room, in making weather 
maps, drawing isobars, ordering storm signals, etc., and dictated the published 
official tri-daily synopses and ‘probabilities’ of the weather. In the same 
year he began and urged the collection of lines of leveling, and in 1872, by 


laborious analysis, deduced the altitudes of the Signal-Service barometers © 


above sea level. He instituted in 1872, and reorganized in 1874, the work of 
publishing a monthly weather review, with its maps and studies of storms. 
He urged the extension of simultaneous observations throughout the world, 
as the only proper method of studying the weather; and, as General Myer 
distinctly avowed, the success of the negotiations of the Vienna Congress of 
1874 was due to following his advice. And he organized, in 1875, the work 
of preparing the material and publishing the ‘ Daily Bulletin of Simultaneous 
International Meteorological Observations.’ Especially is the organization of 
the numerous state weather services of the country due to his advocacy, and 
to the letters sent by his advice by General Hazen to the governors of the 
states.” 

“As chairman of the standard time committee of the American Metro- 
logical Society, and later delegate of the United States to the International 
Meridian and Time Conference, which met at Washington in October, 1884, 
Abbe took an active part in all those conferences, discussions and studies, 
which culminated in the adoption by the railroads of the United States of 
the present system of standard times. 

“Professor Abbe’s unselfish devotion to the pursuit of science for its 
advancement and not for his own has prevented his name from appearing as 
prominently in connection with the work of the Weather Bureau as it 
deserved to do; but there is a general concurrence of testimony that he has 
been its guiding spirit... . He kept well read up on all meteorological mat- 
ters, and had a very high appreciation of much that he read; and, when this 
was the case, he was always very desirous of bringing the matter and the 
author into notice by means of translations and republications. In fact, he 
seemed to me to be more desirous of bringing the works and the claims of 
others into notice than his own. His notes on meteorological subjects, pub- 


=~ 


CLEVELAND ABBE. XVii 


lished in the Smithsonian Reports, sprung from his extensive reading and 
desire to communicate to the public whatever he found of value in the course 
of his reading. . . . When General Hazen was put at the head of the service 
and a more liberal policy toward civilians, and in the encouragement of scien- 
tific work, was adopted, he seemed to wish that all the leading meteorologists 
of the country could have a part in what he considered the great work of 
the country, and he especially interested himself in endeavoring to give a 
chance to promising young men of the country to have a part in this work. 
In pursuance of this idea he secured the appointment of the eminent physi- 
cist, Professor T. C. Mendenhall, and certain steps were taken toward the 
organization of an experimental laboratory in atmospherics. The beginning 
was necessarily a very modest one, although the plan of a great experimental 
laboratory was one that Professor Abbe cherished for many years and let no 
opportunity escape of urging it upon federal officials and university faculties. 
At that date (1885-86) the attitude of departmental officials, not to mention 
members of Congressional committees, was perhaps lukewarm, if not antago- 
nistic to what seemed to be investigations in pure science, and it is not 
surprising that in this unfavorable atmosphere the project of a physical labo- 
tory flourished only very feebly, and in fact terminated with Professor Men- 
denhall’s election to the presidency of Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre 
Haute, Ind. 


“For the good work done by the United States Weather Service, and 
for the high estimation in which it has been held by Europeans generally, the 
country is indebted to Professor Abbe more than to any other one man. .. . On 
all important questions touching the scientific work of the service, his advice 
has been sought by the chief signal officer; most plans for its improvement 
and extension have originated with him, and he has done much to stimulate 
the study of meteorology outside of the service as well as within it. 


“We are informed by Mrs. Hazen, widow of the late chief of the Signal 
Office, that Professor Abbe was always held in high esteem by her husband, 
‘and relied on not only as a very scientific man but as a loyal friend.’ This 
sentence brings out another salient trait in his character—his loyalty to his 
chief. Readers of the Monthly will recollect the tribute which he improved 
the first opportunity after General’s Hazen’s death to pay to his character 
and the worth of his work for science; but they do not know, for that is 
matter of personal confidence, that he was extremely anxious that General 
Hazen should receive full credit for all that he did, all that he helped to do, 
and all that he was in any way the means of having done for science; and 
particularly that he should be vindicated from the unfriendly criticisms which 
the newspapers had cast against him—all of which Professor Abbe believed 
to be unjust and unfounded.” 


General A. W. Greely, chief signal officer in command of the 
signal corps at the time the civilian duties thereof comprising the 
Weather Bureau were segregated and transferred to the Depart- 


XVill OBITUARY NOTICES. 


ment of Agriculture, published in Science (Nov. 17, 1916) a fitting 
tribute to. Professor Abbe from which we may quote as follows: 


“During twenty years of his service I was intimately associated with 
Abbe as his subordinate and pupil, as a co-worker, and as his administrative 
chief. During this term of years there inevitably developed situations which 
were complex, annoying and embarrassing to the scientific force. Yet in all 
such conditions I never knew him to display bad temper, to unduly prolong 
discussions, to advance personal interests, nor to abate his most strenuous 
efforts to carry out such policies as were judged needful for the good of the 
service—even though they had not originally met with his approval.” 

In August, 1893, Professor Abbe was made the responsible 
editor of the Monthly Weather Review, a work he found most con- 
genial. Editorial comments, annotations and original articles there- 
in contribute much of value to the publication and constitute a me 
ing monument to his fame. 

It is quite impossible, in this brief memoir, even to indicate the 
number, scope and character of his literary works. The list is a 
very long one and includes a wide range of scientific subjects. His 
enthusiasm led him to undertake many tasks which the inevitable 
lack of strength and opportunity prevented him from bringing to 
completion. Notably among these must be mentioned a study of 
clouds and atmospheric motions observed by him with a special 
marine nephoscope of his own invention while on a trip to the west 
coast of Africa to witness the solar eclipse of 1889. Similarly the 
scientific papers presented at the International Meteorological Con- 
gress, held in Chicago in August, 1893, were only partly published 
for lack of funds, to Abbe’s lasting regret, and he never ceased to 
urge the fulfillment of the obligation upon American meteorologists 
to complete this work. 

However the genealogy of the Abbe family, the preparation of 
which received his most feeling and sympathetic attention for many 
years, and which was so dear to his heart, fortunately was submitted 
to. the publishers in the very last months of his long life. 

The scientific societies in which he held membership would also 
make up another long list. During the active portion of his life he 
accumulated a very large library dealing with meteorology and re- 
lated sciences, the care of which in the later years of his life became 
so great a responsibility that with commendable foresight for the 


CLEVELAND ABBE. xix 


preservation of such an invaluable collection he arranged’to make it 
an integral part of the library of Johns Hopkins University under 
the designation of “ The Abbe Meteorological Library.” 

The eminence he never sought for himself has been bountifully 
bestowed upon him by others. The University of Michigan, in 
1886, conferred upon him the degree of LL.D., and in 1896 he re- 
_ceived the same degree from the University of Glasgow, the pres- 
entation being made by Lord Kelvin, by whose wish Lady Kelvin 
herself made the Doctor’s hood bestowed on that occasion. Natu- 
rally his modest nature was profoundly touched by this tribute, and 
this symbol of his achievements was worn to his grave. He was 
awarded the medal of the Royal Meteorological Society of England 
in 1912 and in the spring of 1916 the National Academy of Sciences, 
of which he was long an active member, awarded him the Marcellus 
Hartly Medal “for eminence in the application of science to the 
public welfare.” Coming, as this award did, from those he counted 
as his most intimate friends and associates in scientific endeavor and 
at a time when he recognized that his strength and force were almost 
spent, it bore the welcome message: “Well done thou good and 
faithful servant,” and within the year he entered into the joy of his 
Master’s presence. 

CHARLES FREDERICK MARVIN. 


Wasurncron, D. C., 
March 24, 1917. 


MINUTES. 
Stated Meeting, January 5, 1917. 


Wi1aMm W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


Prof. Douglas W. Johnson, of New York, read a paper on 
“The Strategic Geology of the Balkan Campaign.” 

The Judges of the Annual Election held on this day between the 
hours of 2 and 5 in the afternoon, reported that the following named 
members were elected, according to the laws, regulations and ordi- 
nances of the Society, to be the officers for the ensuing year: 


President. 
William W. Keen. 


Vi ce-Presid ents, 


William B. Scott, 
Albert A. Michelson, 
George Ellery Hale. 


Secretaries. 


I. Minis Hays, 
Arthur W. Goodspeed, 
Amos P. Brown, 
Harry F. Keller. 


Curators. 


Charles L. Doolittle, 
William P. Wilson, 
Leslie W. Miller. 


Treasurer. 


Henry La Barre Jayne. 


Vt 


iv MINUTES. 


Councillors. 


(To serve for three years.) 
Henry Fairfield Osborn, 
Elihu Thomson, 
Samuel M. Vauclain, 
Henry B. Fine. 


Stated Meeting, February 2, 1917. 
WILLIAM W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


The decease was announced of Prof. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu in 
December, 1916. 
The following papers were read: 

“On Some Aspects of Costa Rica and its Natural History,” 
by Professor Philip Calvert. (Introduced by Prof. Henry 
Kraemer.) 

“The Geology of Sergipe and Northeastern Bahia, Brail,” by 
Mr. Ralph H. Soper. (Communicated by Prof. John C. 
Branner. ) 


Stated Meeting, March 2, 1917. 
WItuLiAmM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


A communication was received from the Société Imperiale Russe 
de Mineralogie, announcing the centenary of its foundation. 

Dr. Francis G. Benedict read a paper on “ Human Energy and 
Food Requirements.” 


Stated General Meeting, April 12, 13 and 14, 1917. 


Thursday, April 12. 
Opening Session—2 o'clock. 
WitiiAM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


The decease of the following members was announced: 
Prof. Jean Gaston Darboux, at Paris, in February, 1917, zt. 74. 
Ambrose E, Lehman, at Philadelphia, on April 5, 1917, zt. 65. 
Hon. Richard Olney, at Boston, on April 8, 1917, zt. 82. 


MINUTES. ei 


The following papers were read: 
“The Trial of Animals—A Little Known Chapter of Medieval 
_ Jurisprudence,” by Hampton L. Carson, LL.D., of Phila- 
delphia. 

“Medieval Sermon-Books and Stories and their Study since 
1883,” by Thomas Frederick Crane, Ph.D., Litt.D., Professor 
Emeritus of the Romance Languages and Literature, Cornell 
University. 

“Some Recent Acquisitions to the Yale Collection,” by Albert 
T. Clay, LL.D., Professor of Assyriology and Babylonian 
Literature, Yale University. 

“Vision as a Physical Process,” by Herbert E. Ives, of Phila- 
delphia. (Introduced by Dr. A. W. Goodspeed.) 

“The Diagnostic Method of Training Intelligence: an Educa- 
tion for the Fortunate Few (With a Demonstration),” by 
Lightner Witmer, Ph.D., Director of the Laboratory of 
Psychology, University of Pennsylvania. 

“Historical Notes on ‘The Armament of Igor,’” by J. Dyneley 
Prince, Ph.D., Professor of Slavonic Languages, Columbia 
University. 

“A New Translation of the Hebrew Bible,” by Cyrus Adler, 
Ph.D., President of Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate 
Learning, Philadelphia. 


Friday, April 13. 
Executive Session—9.30 o’clock. 
Wiu.1aMmM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 
Dr. Erwin Frink Smith, of Washington, and Dr. Edward Murray 


East, of Forest Hills, Mass., subscribed the Laws and were admitted 


into the Society. 
The Proceedings of the Officers and Council were submitted. 
The following nominees for membership were recommended for 


election this year. 
Residents of the United States. 


William Frederick Durand, Ph.D., Stanford University, Cal. 
Pierre Samuel duPont, Mendenhall, Pa. 


es MINUTES. 


Carl H. Eigenmann, Ph.D., Bloomington, Ind. 

Charles Holmes Herty, Ph.D., New York. 

Herbert E. Ives, Ph.D., Philadelphia. 
Waldemar Lindgren, M.E., Ph.D., Sc.D., Cambridge, Mass. 
Walton Brooks McDaniel, A.B., Ph.D., Philadelphia. 
Winthrop J. V. Osterhout, A.M.; Ph.D., Cambridge, Mass. 
Harold Pender, Ph.D., Philadelphia. 

Frederick Hanley Seares, B.S., Pasadena, Cal. 

‘George Owen Squier, Ph.D., Washington, D. C. 

Charles P. Steinmetz, Ph.D., Schenectady, N. Y. 

Oscar S. Straus, A.M., Litt.D., LL.D., New York City 
Alonzo Englebert Taylor, M.D., Philadelphia. 

Edwin Bidwell Wilson, Ph.D., Cambridge, Mass. 


Foreign Residents. 


Archibald Byron Macallum, M.B., Ph.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., 
Toronto. 
Sir David Prain, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Kew. 


Morning Session—9o.35 o'clock. 


Grorcr Ettery Hate, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Vice-President, 
in the Chair. 


The following papers were read: 

“Lighting in its Relation to the Eye,” by Clarence E. Ferree, 
Ph.D., Professor of Psychology, Bryn Mawr College. (In- 
troduced by Dr. W. W. Keen.) 

“Factors Influencing the Sex Ratio in the Domestic Fowl,” by 
Raymond Pearl, Ph.D., Biologist, Maine Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, Orono, Maine. 

“Significant Results of Scientific Investigations Applied to 
Fishery Problems,” by Hugh M. Smith, M.D., LL.D., Com- 
missioner of Fisheries, Washington, D. C. (Introduced by 
Dr. Clarence E. McClung.) 

“A Description of a New Photographic Transit Instrument,” 
by Frank Schlesinger, Ph.D., Director of the Allegheny 
Observatory, University of Pittsburgh. 


MINUTES. id 


“Probable Masses of Comets,” by Henry Norris Russell, Ph.D., 

Professor of Astronomy, Princeton University. 

“The Relationship of Stellar Motions to Absolute Magni- 
tudes,” by Walter S. Adams, A.M., Sc.D., Assistant Director 
of Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory, Pasadena, Cal., and G. 
Stromberg. 

“Nebulae,” by V. M. Slipher, Ph.D., Director of the Lowell 
Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona. (Introduced by Prof. C. 
L. Doolittle.) 2 

“Early Man in America,’ by Edwin Swift Balch, A.B., of 
Philadelphia. 

_ “The Influence of the Admixture of Present Immigrant Races 
Upon the More Original Stock,” by Charles B. Davenport, 
S.B., Ph.D., Director, Station for Experimental Evolution, 
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. 

“A New Babylonian Account of the Creation of Man,” by 
George A. Barton, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Biblical 
Literature, Bryn Mawr College. 


Afternoon Session—2 o'clock. 


Apert A. MICHELSON, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Vice-President, 
in the Chair. 


Mr. Percy W. Bridgman, of Cambridge, Mass., a recently elected 
member, subscribed the Laws and was admitted into the Society. 
The following papers were read: 

“ Crushing of Crystals,” by Percy W. Bridgman, Assistant Pro- 
fessor of Physics, Harvard University. 

“Structure of the Spectra of the Phosphorescent Sulphides 
(Describing Measurements by Drs. H. E. Howe, H. L. 
Howes and Percy Hodge),” by Edward L. Nichols, Ph.D., 
D.Sc., LL.D., Professor of Physics, Cornell University. 

“The Corbino Effect in Liquid Mercury,” by Edwin Plimpton 
Adams, Ph.D., Professor of Physics, Princeton University. 

“ Spontaneous Generation of Heat in Recently Hardened Steel,” 
by Charles Francis Brush, Ph.D., Se.D., LL.D., of Cleveland. 

I. “ Condensation and Evaporation of Metal Films.” 


vitr 


MINUTES. 


II. “The Minimum Potential for Excitation of the ‘D’ Lines 
of Sodium,” by Robert Williams Wood, A.B., LL.D., Pro- 
fessor of Experimental Physics, Johns Hopkins University. 

“ Growth and Imbibition,” by D. T. MacDougal, Ph.D., LL.D., 
Director of Department of Botanical Research, Carnegie In- 
stitution of Washington, and H. A. Spoehr. 

“The Mechanism of Overgrowth in Plants,” by Erwin F. Smith, 
B.S., Sc.D., of Bureau of Plant Industry, Dept. of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. 

“The Behavior of Self-Sterile Plants,” by Edward M. East, 
Ph.D., Professor of Experimental Plant Morphology, Har- 
vard University. 

“Twin Hybrids from Cnothera lamarckiana and franciscana 
when crossed with Cnothera Pycnocarpa,’ by George F. 
Atkinson, Head of the Department of Botany, Cornell Uni- 
versity. 

“ Naming American Hybrid Oaks,” by William Trelease, Sc.D., 
LL.D., Professor of Botany, University of Illinois, Urbana. 
“The Wild Relatives of our Cultivated Plants and their Pos- 
sible Utilization,” by W. T. Swingle, Ph.D., of U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture. (Introduced by Dr. William P. 

Wilson.) 

“An Annotated Translation of de Schweinitz’s Two Papers on 
the Rusts of North America,” by Joseph C. Arthur, Pro- 
fessor Emeritus of Botany, Purdue University, Lafayette, 
Indiana, and G. R. Bisby. (Introduced by Prof. John M. 
Coulter. ) 

“Ecology and Physiology of the Red Mangrove,” by H. H. 
Bowman, Fellow in Botany, University of Pennsylvania. 
(Introduced by Prof. Harshberger. ) 


Evening Session—8 o'clock. 
George Ellery Hale, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the 


Solar Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, at 


Mt. 


Wilson, California, gave an illustrated lecture on “ The Work 


of the Mt. Wilson Observatory.” 


MINUTES. 


Saturday, April 14. 


Executive Session—g.30 o'clock. 
Wiiiam W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


Dr. William Diller Matthew, of New York, Prof. Edwin Plimp- 
ton Adams, of Princeton, and Prof. William Morton Wheeler, of 
Forest Hills, Mass., recently elected members, subscribed the Laws 


and were admitted into the Society. 


Pending nominations for membership were read. Secretary 
Keller and Dr. L. A. Bauer were appointed Tellers of Election and 


the Society proceeded to ballot for members. 


The Tellers reported that the following nominees had been 


elected to membership: 


Residents of the United States. 


William Frederick Durand, Ph.D., Stanford University, Cal. 
Pierre Samuel duPont, Mendenhall, Pa. 

Carl H. Eigenmann, Ph.D., Bloomington, Ind. 

Charles Holmes Herty, Ph.D., New York. 

Herbert E. Ives, Ph.D., Philadelphia. 

Waldemar Lindgren, M.E., Ph.D., Sc.D., Cambridge, Mass. 
Walton Brooks McDaniel, A.B., Ph.D., Philadelphia. 
Winthrop J. V. Osterhout, A.M., Ph.D., Cambridge, Mass. 
Harold Pender, Ph.D., Philadelphia. 

Frederick Hanley Seares, B.S., Pasadena, Cal. 

George Owen Squier, Ph.D., Washington, D. C. 

Charles P. Steinmetz, Ph.D., Schenectady, N. Y. 

Oscar S. Straus, A.M., Litt.D., LL.D., New York City. 
Alonzo Englebert Taylor, M.D., Philadelphia. 

Edwin Bidwell Wilson, Ph.D., Cambridge, Mass. 


Foreign Residents. 


Archibald Byron Macallum, M.B., Ph.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.. 
Toronto. 


Sir David Prain, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Kew. 


MINUTES. 


Morning Session—1o o'clock. 


Witu1aM B. Scott, Sc.D., LL.D., Vice-President, in the Chair. 
Dr. W. F. Durand, of Leland Stanford University, California. 


and Mr. Herbert E. Ives, of Philadelphia, newly elected members, 
subscribed the Laws and were admitted into the Society. 


The following papers were read: 

“ Biochemical Studies of the Pitcher Liquid of Nepenthes,” by 
Joseph S.. Hepburn, M.S., Ph.D. (Introduced by Prof. 
Harry F. Keller.) 

“The National Research Council and Its Opportunities in the 
Field of Chemistry,” by Marston T. Bogert, Ph.B., LL.D., 
Professor of Organic Chemistry, Columbia University. 

“The South American Indian in His Relation to Geographic 
Environment,” by William Curtis Farabee, A.M., Ph.D., 
Curator of American Section of Museum, University of 
Pennsylvania. (Introduced by Mr. Henry G. Bryant.) 

“ Inter-relations of the Fossil Fuels,” by J. J. Stevenson, Ph.D.., 
LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Geology, New York Uni- 
versity. 

“The Distribution of Land and Water on the Earth,” by Harry 
Fielding Reid, Ph.D., Professor of Dynamic Geology and 
Geography, Johns Hopkins University. 

“Uplifted and Dissected Atolls in Fiji” (Illustrated), by 
William Morris Davis, Ph.D., Emeritus Professor of Geol- 
ogy, Harvard University. 

“The Slides on the Panama Canal,” by George W. Goethals, 
LL.D., Maj.-Gen. U. S. A., Late Chief Engineer, Panama 
Canal. 

“Application of Polarized Light to Study of Ores and Metals,” 
by Frederick E. Wright, Ph.D., of Geophysical Laboratory 
of Carnegie Institution of Washington. 

“ Astrapotheria,” by William B. Scott, Sc.D., LL.D., Professor 
of Geology, Princeton University. 

“Diatryma, a Gigantic Eocene Bird,” by William Diller 
Matthew, A.M., Ph.D., Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology, 
American Museum of Natural History, New York. (Intro- 


MINUTES. at 


duced by Prof. W. B. Scott.) 
“The-Waters of Death,” by Paul Haupt, Professor of Semitic 
Philology, Johns Hopkins University. 


Executive Session—1:45 o’clock. 

Witiiam W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 

The Clerk of the Council certified that the Officers and Council, 
by unanimous vote, had nominated for membership the Rt. Hon. 
Arthur Balfour, LL.D., D.C.L., of London, England, and it was 
ordered, in accordance with the unanimous recommendation of the 
Officers and Council, that a special election for a foreign member 
be held at the next Stated Meeting. 


Afternoon Session—2 o'clock. 
Witiiam W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


A portrait of I. Minis Hays, M.D., Dean of the Wistar Associa- 
tion, was presented by J. G. Rosengarten, LL.D., on behalf of the 
Wistar Association, and in the twenty-first year of Dr. Hays’s Sec- 
retaryship of the Society. 

President Keen, on behalf of the Society, accepted the portrait 
with thanks. 

The following papers were read: 

Symposium on Aéronautics: 

“Dynamical Aspects,” by Arthur Gordon Webster, Ph.D., 
D.Sc., LL.D., Member of Naval Consulting Board. 

“Physical Aspects,” by Brigadier General George O. 
Squier, Ph.D., Chief of Signal Corps, U.S. Army. (In- 
troduced by Dr. Keen.) 

“Mechanical Aspects,” by William Frederick Durand, 
Ph.D., Chairman of National Advisory Committee for 
Aéronautics. (Introduced by Dr. Walcott.) 

“ Aérology in Aid of Aéronautics,” by W. R. Blair, Ph.D., 
assistant, U. S. Weather Bureau. 

Discussion : 

“ Mathematical Aspects,” by Edwin Bidwell Wilson, Ph.D., 
Professor of Mathematics, Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology. (Introduced by Dr. E. W. Brown.) 

“Engineering Aspects,” by Jerome C. Hunsaker, Eng.D., 


Lit MINUTES. 


Assistant Naval Constructor, U. S. Navy. (Introduced 
by Dr. Bauer.) 


' Stated Meeting, May 4, 1917. 


Witii1AM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 

Messrs. Walton Brooks McDaniel and Harold Pender, newly 
elected members, subscribed the Laws and were admitted into the 
Society. 

Letters accepting membership were received from 

William Frederick Durand, Ph.D., Stanford University, Cal. 

Pierre Samuel duPont, Wilmington, Del. 

Carl H. Eigenmann, Ph.D., Bloomington, Ind. 

Charles Holmes Herty, Ph.D., New York. 

Herbert E. Ives, Ph.D., Philadelphia. 

Walton Brooks McDaniel, A.B.. Ph.D., Philadelphia. 

Winthrop J. V. Osterhout, A.M., Ph.D., Cambridge, Mass. 

Harold Pender, Ph.D., Philadelphia. 

Frederick Hanley Seares, B.S., Pasadena, Cal. 

George Owen Squier, Ph.D., Washington, D.C. 

Charles P. Steinmetz, Ph.D., Schenectady, N. Y. 

Oscar S. Straus, A.M., Litt.D., LL.D., New York City. 

Alonzo Engelbert Taylor, M.D., Philadelphia. 

Archibald Byron Macallum, M.B., Ph.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., 

Toronto. 

The decease was announced of Caspar René Gregory, Ph.D., 
D.D., LL.D., at Leipzig, on April 9, 1917, xt. 70. 

Obituary notices of members deceased were read as follows: 

Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., Sc.D., LL.D., by Prof. Theodore 
William Richards. 
Cleveland Abbe, Ph.D., LL.D., by Prof. Charles F. Marvin. 

The following paper was read: 

“The Study of Inheritance in Pisum,” by Orland E. White, of 
Brooklyn (communicated by Prof, E. M. East.) 

Pending nomination for membership No. 1051 was read and, in 
accordance with a resolution unanimously adopted at the Executive 
Session held on April 14 last, the Society proceeded to an election. 

The tellers reported that the Right Hon. Arthur James Balfour, 

~LL.D., D.C.L., was elected to membership by unanimous vote. 


MINUTES. iii 


Stated Meeting, October 5, 1917. 
Wi1am W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


Letters accepting membership were read from Sir David Prain, 
Rt. Hon. Arthur James Balfour and Mr. Waldemar Lindgren. 
The decease was announced of 

James Mason Crafts, B.S., LL.D., on June 20, 1917, zt. 78. 

William Bullock Clark, Ph.D., LL.D., at North Haven, Maine, 
on July 27, 1917, xt. 57. 

Marion D. Learned, Ph.D., Litt.D., at Philadelphia on August 
I, 1917, zt. 60. 

Patterson DuBois, Esq., at Philadelphia on August 8, 1917, 
zt. 60. 

Adolf von Baeyer, Ph.D., M.D., on August —, 1917, zt. 82. 

The following papers were read: 

“Principles of the Treatment of Wounds,” by Dr. Alexis Carrel, 
Member of the Rockefeller Institute and Chief Surgeon of 
Temporary Hospital No. 21, Compiégne, France. 

“The Mathematical Study of the Cicatrization of Wounds,” 
by Capt. Lecomte du Noity, of Temporary Hospital No. 21; 
Compiégne, France. 

“Eighteen New Species of Fishes from Northwestern South 
America” and 

“Description of Sixteen New Scaled of Pygidiide,” by Carl 
H. Eigenmann, Professor of Zodlogy, Indiana University. 


Stated Meeting, November 2, 1917. 
Witi1am W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


The decease was announced of Amos P. Brown, B.S., Ph.D., one 
of the Secretaries of the Society, at Atlantic City, N. J., on October 
9, 1917, et. 53. ; 

The following papers were read: 

“Two Years in the Arctic with the Crocker Land Expedition,” 


xiv MINUTES. 


by Edmund O. Hovey, Curator of Geological Department, 
American Museum of Natural History, New York. 

“The Interrelations of the Fossil Fuels. The Jurassic and 
Triassic Coals,” by J. J. Stevenson, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor 
Emeritus of Geology, New. York University. 


Stated Meeting, December 7, 1917. 
WIxLL1AM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


The decease was announced of Franklin Paine Mall, M.A., Sc.D., 
M.D., LL.D., at Baltimore, on November 17, 1917, et. 55. 

The following papers were read: 

“The Archeological Significance of an Ancient Deon by Dr. 
Charles C. Abbott, M.D. 

“ American Sanitation in the Philippines and its Influence on 
the Orient,” by Victor George Heiser, M.D., Sc.D., which 
was discussed by Doctor Harshberger and Mr. S. Hudson 
Chapman. 

Mr. S. Hudson Chapman, introduced by the President, made 
some remarks on “ Sanitation in Ancient Times as Recorded 
on Coins issued by the City of Selinus in Sicily, from B.C. 
466 to 406.” 

A communication entitled “Lusitanian Boat Tackle” was pre- 
sented for the Magellanic Premium, and referred to the Officers and 
Council for report. 

The annual address of the president was read by Dr. Keen. 

The Minutes of the Meeting of the Officers and Council were 
submitted. 

Dr. Hays, in connection therewith, made the following statement: 

He regretted to be obliged to report to the Society that its Minutes 
for the year 1780 are found to be imperfect. Close examination 
tends to the conviction that the record which has been embodied in 
the Minute Book is a copy, made at some later date, of such loose 
records as were then available and is written in a different hand 
from that of the Minutes of 1779 and of 1781. Moreover, the rec- 
ord of the meeting of the 21st of July, 1780, begins “ At a meeting 
of the Society the 21st of July, 1830,” which slip of the pen leads 


MINUTES. xv 


one to the belief that these Minutes must have been transcribed in 
or after-1830, for this error could scarcely have been made in 1780. 

Owing to the lack of any record of certain meetings which, under 
the Laws, should have been held, and particularly in the absence 
of any record of the election of members who were believed to 
have been elected in that year, Dr. Hays requested Miss Kirkpatrick, 
the Assistant to the Secretaries, to make a search through the files 
of that period of the Pennsylvania Packet, The Pennsylvania Jour- 
nal and The Pennsylvania Gazette for any notices which they might 
contain of the Society’s meetings of that year, so as to supply, as_ 
far as possible, the deficiencies in the Minutes. This she did with 
the following interesting results. 

In the issue of the Packet for September 16, 1779, there appears 
an advertisement of a meeting of the Society, as follows: 


“The American Philosophical Society are to meet at the College 
to-morrow evening at Seven o’clock agreeable to their Laws.” 


In the issue of December 2, 1779, appears the following adver- 
tisement of a meeting to be held on December 3: 


“The Members of the American Philosophical Society, are to 
meet at Six o’clock to-morrow evening agreeable to their rules; and 
are requested to be punctual in their attendance.” 


Further, an advertisement in the Pennsylvania Journal and 
Weekly Advertiser of February 9, 1780, gives notice that 


“the Assembly has granted the Members permission to bring in a 
Bill te incorporate the Society; a draught has been prepared by a 
Committee appointed for that purpose, and the Society stands ad- 
journed until this evening when it is expected there will be a general 
attendance of members, at the University, to consider the same.” 


The Minutes contain no record of these meetings. It is, of 
course, possible, although improbable, that no quorum was present 
and that there were no Minutes to be recorded, but it seems desirable 
at least to preserve the record that these meetings of September 17 
and December 3, 1779, and February 9, 1780, were duly called, and 
possibly the proceedings at them may be discovered later. 

The Minutes of 1779 appear to have been carefully kept, although 


war MINUTES. 


written by another hand and all at the same time, which leads to the 
belief that they, too, were copied at a later date from contempora- 
neous data and incorporated into the Minute Book. 

Miss Kirkpatrick also found in the issue of The Packet for 
Thursday, January 20, the following advertisement: 


“The American Philosophical Society are desired to meet at 
the University next Friday evening, when it is intended to ballot for 
such persons as have been proposed to be admitted as new members 
into the Society, agreeable to their Laws.” 


And in the issue of January 27 appears the following record of 
this meeting : 
PHILADELPHIA, January 27th. 


“At a meeting of the American Philosophical Society, the 21st 
inst. the following Gentlemen were chosen Members, viz. 

“His Excellency George Washington, Esq; General and Com- 
mander in Chief of the Armies of the United States of North 
America. 

“His Excellency the Chevalier de La Loiekines Minister Pleni- 
potentiary of France. 

“Monsieur Marbois, Secretary of the Embassy of France. 

“ His Excellency Thomas Jefferson, Esq; Governor of the State — 
of Virginia. 

“His Excellency John Jay, Esq; Minister of the United States 
at the Court of Madrid. 

“His Excellency Henry Laurens, Esq; late President of Con- 
gress. 

“The Honorable John Adams, Esq; late Member of Congress. 

“The Honorable William Carmichael, Esq; Secretary of the 
Embassy to the Court'of Madrid. 

“ Major General Arthur St. Clair. 

“ Major General Anthony Wayne. 

“Col. William Grayson, of the Board of War. 

“Col. Hamilton, and Col. John Laurens, Aids du Camp to His 
Excellency General Washington: 

“Baron de Steuben, Inspector General of the American Army. 

“Major Vallancey, Second Engineer of Ireland, and Secretary 
to the Society of Antiquarians in Dublin. 

“Timothy Matlack, Esq; Secretary of the Supreme Executive 
Council of the State of Pennsylvania. 

“The Rev. John C. Kuntze [Kunze], Rector of the German 
Lutheran Congregation, Philadelphia. 


MINUTES. xvit 


“The Rev. James Madison, President of William and Mary 
College, Virginia. 

“William Churchill Houston, Esq; Professor of Mathematics 
of Nassau College, and Delegate in Congress for the State of New 
Jersey. 

“Dr. William Brown, of Virginia. 

“Mons. [John] Tournon [Ternaut] Engineer of the Southern 
Army. And 

“Robert Erskine, Esq ; Geographer of the United States.” 


This is a particularly important historical discovery inasmuch 
as the Society’s Minutes show no record of that meeting, or of any 
meeting in that year prior to February 25, and the announcement, 
unquestionably, bears the internal evidence of having been furnished 
to The Packet by some one in authority. 

Moreover, in its printed “ List of Members” of the Society from 
its foundation, eleven members are entered as having been “ elected 
between April 6, 1779, and January 19, 1781?” which covers the 
period during which, apparently, the original records of the meet- 
ings have been lost, but in this record in the Packet we find that 
twenty-two members were elected on January 21, 1780, of whom 
nine are not on the Roll, and four who were either previously or 
subsequently elected are erroneously ascribed to that year, viz., 

Hon. John Jay (who appears to have been again elected to the 
Society on January 19, 1787). 

His Excellency Henry Laurens (who had been previously elected 
on April 17, 1772). 

The Hon. John Adams (who was again elected on January 18, 
1793, when Vice President of the United States). 

Col. Alexander Hamilton (who was again elected on January 
21, 1791, when Secretary of the Treasury). 

And the following nine, none of whom appear in the Society’s 
at: 

Hon. William Carmichael. 
Major General Arthur St. Clair. 
Col. William Grayson. 

Col. John Laurens. 

Baron de Steuben. 

Major Vallancey. 


LVI MINUTES. 


William Churchill Houston. 
Dr. William Brown, of Virginia. 
Robert Erskine, Esq. 


In view of the undoubted accuracy of the Packet’s list of those 
elected on January 21, 1780, the question naturally arises whether 
the names of those elected who do not now appear on the record 
should not be added to it. 

The election a second time of some of the members can readily 
be accounted for by “the unsystematic way in which the records 
were kept at that date. And to have the exact date upon which 
were elected all the members in this part of 1780 for which the 
Minutes are defective certainly is an important addition to our 
records. 

The Packet’s list does not, however, explain the appearance in 
the Society’s List of the Members elected in 1779 and 1780 of the 
names of Colonel Charles Pettit and M. Sue, Professor Royal of 
Anatomy. M. Jean Baptiste Sue’s omission is accounted for by the 
fact that he was not elected until January 21, 1785, as is shown by the 
Minutes of that date. In examining the Minutes for the election 
of Col. Pettit, it was found that those of the meeting of January 
21, 1785, show two very curious errors. There is loosely placed 
between the leaves of the Minutes of that meeting a sheet of four 
pages signed “ Extract from the Minutes. Samuel Magaw, one of 
the Secretaries,” and endorsed in his handwriting “‘ New Members 
of the Philosophical Society, elected January 21, 1785”; the 
twenty-second name in that list is that of Charles Pettit, Esq., of 
Philadelphia. This name, in the transcription into the engrossed 
Minutes, has been accidentally omitted, and this accounts for the 
doubt in our record as to the date on which Mr. Pettit was elected. 
As regards the fact of his election there can be no doubt, as he 
actually subscribed the Laws about that period. 

Secondly, in the list of twenty-eight members then elected, the 
tenth is ‘Dr. William Griffiths, of Philadelphia,” under this entry 
is written in pencil “this name probably ought to be Dr. Samuel 
Powel Griffiths, [signed] F.B.,” which initials are presumably those 
of Dr. Franklin Bache, who was Secretary of the Society from 1825 
to 1842, when he was elected to the Vice-Presidency. This pencil 


MINUTES. xix 


note is almost certainly correct because in the manuscript list of 
members, made in 1792, Dr. Samuel Powel Griffitts is entered as 
having been elected on January 22, 1785. Then, too, the treasurer’s 
books for 1786 show an entry on January 18: “By Dr. Samuel 
Griffiths his deposit and subscription £1,” and Samuel Powel Griffitts 
signed the Laws about that time—all of which seems to definitely 
determine that it was Dr. Samuel Powel Griffitts who was intended 
to be elected in January, 1785, and who actually became a member 
in consequence thereof. Moreover, no such person as Dr. William 
Griffiths is now known to have existed at that time, nor does his name 
appear upon the rolls of the Society at anytime; nor does Dr. Sam- 
uel Powel Griffitts appear by the official Minutes to have been elected 
on any other date. 

I may also incidentally call your attention to the fact that the 
transcribed Minutes incorrectly give the date of the meeting as 
January 22, whereas the loose inset heretofore referred to gives it 
as January 21, which was Friday evening, the regular meeting night 
of the Society. : : 


In accordance with the recommendation of the Officers and 
Council the Society ordered 

1. That in order to make a more complete record of the Proceed- 
ings of the Society the Secretaries be instructed to interleave in the 
Minutes all notices of calls for meetings which have appeared in the 
newspapers issued during the time in which the Society’s Minutes 
do not appear to have been original records, with the name and date 
of the newspapers in which said notices have appeared. 

2. That the Minutes of the meeting of January 21, 1780, be ac- 
cepted as a correct minute of that date and be interleaved in the 
Minutes as the record of that meeting, with the reference to the 
Pennsylvania Packet of January 27, 1780, as authority for the 
same. 

3. That the roll of members be corrected in accordance with the 
data thus obtained. 

4. That the loose sheet signed “Samuel Magaw one of the Sec- 
retaries ” be interleaved in the Minute book under its proper date 
and that Charles Pettit’s name be inserted in the roll of members as 
having been elected on January 21, 1785. 


INDEX. 


A 
Abbe, Cleveland, obituary notice of, 


1, xii 

Adams, E. P., pei effect in liquid 
mercury, vi 

—, W. S.. relationship of stellar 
motions to absolute magnitudes, vit 

Adler, C., new translation of the He- 
brew Bible, v 

Aeronautics, symposium on, +i, 161 

— hybrid oaks, naming, 44, 


‘hadeoals, trial of, v, 410 

Armament of Igor, historical notes 
on, v, 152 

Art of entering another’s body: a 
Hindu fiction motif, 1 

Arthur, annotated translation of de 
Schweinitz’s two papers on the 
rusts of North America, vitt 

Atkinson, twin hybrids from Céno- 

' thera lamarckiana and franciscana 
when crossed with Gnothera pyc- 
nocarpa, Viti 

B 


Babylonian account of the creation 
of man, 275, vit 

Balch, early man in America, vit, 473 

Barton, new Babylonian account of 
the creation of man, vit, 275 

Bauer, remarks on the compass in 
aéronautics, 255 

Blair, aérology in aid of aéronau‘ics 


xi, I 

Bloomfield, art of entering another’s 
body, 1 

Bogert, national research council and 
its opportunities in the field of 
chemistry, + 

Bowman, Dicey and physiology of 
the red mangrove, viit, 589 

Bridgman, crushing of crystals, Vit 

Brush, spontaneous generation of 
heat in recently hardened steel, 
vit, 353 


Calvert, some aspects of Costa Rica 
and its natural history, iv 

Carrel, Alexis, principles of the treat- 
ment of wounds, xiii 

Carson, trial of animals, v, 410 


Clay, some recent acquisitions to the 
Yale collection, v 

Crane, medieval sermon-books and 
stories, v, 369 

Creation of man, new Babylonian ac- 
count of, 275, vit 


D 


Davenport, effects of race intermin- 
gling, vit, 364 
Davis, uplifted and dissected atolls 
in Fiji 
arated " sewipaniiin on. aéronautics : 
mechanical aspects, ri, 170 


E 


East, behavior of self-sterile plants, 
Viit 

Eigenmann, eighteen new species of 
fishes from northwestern South 
America, xiii, 673 

Election of officers, it 

Emerson, recurrent tetrahedral de- 
formations and _ intercontinental 
torsions, 445 


F 


Farabee, South American Indian in 
his relation to geographic environ- 
ment, x, 281 

Ferree, lighting in its relation to the 
eye, vt 

Fishes from northwestern South 
America, eighteen new species of, 


3 
ay 0 sex ratio in the domestic, vi 
41 
Fuels, inter-relations of the fossil, x, 
Xi, 53 
G 


rts yor, slides on the Panama Ca- 
nal, x 
Growth and imbibition, vitt, 289 


H 


Hale, work of the Mt. Wilson Ob- 
servatory, viti 

Haupt, waters of death, xi 

Hays, Minis, portrait of, pre- 
sented, +7 


xxi 


xxi 


Hepburn, biochemical studies of the 
pitcher liquid of nepenthes, + 

Hindu fiction motif, 1 

Hovey, two years in the Arctic with 
the Crocker Land Expedition, xiii 

Hunsaker, symposium on aéronau- 
tics: engineering aspects, +i, 249 


I 


Igor, historical notes on the Arma- 
ment of, v ; 
Indian in his relation to geographic 
environment, South American, 281, + 

Inheritance in Pisum, xii, 487 
Ives, vision as a physical process, v 


M 


MacDougal and Spoehr, growth and 
imbibition, viit, 289 

Man, new Babylonian account of the 
creation of, vii, 275 

— in America, early, vii, 473 

Mangrove, ecology and physiology 
of the red, witi, 589 

Marvin, obituary notice of Prof. 
Cleveland Abbe, i, xii 

Matthew, diatryma, a gigantic eocene 
bird, x 

Mechanism of overgrowth in plants, 
Viit, 437 

Medieval sermon-books and stories, 


v, 369 

Members admitted: 
Adams, Edwin P., ix 
Bridgman, Percy W., vii, 
Durand, W. F., « 
East, Edward M., v 
Ives, Herbert E., x 
McDaniel, W. B., xii 
Matthew, William D., ix 
Pender, Harold, rit 
Smith, Erwin Frink, v 
Wheeler, William M., ix 

—— deceased: 
von Baeyer, Adolf, xiii 
Brown, Amos P., xiii 
Clark, William B., xiii 
Crafts, James Mason, xiii 
Darboux, Jean Gaston, iv 
DuBois, Patterson, siti 
Gregory, Caspar René, rii 
Learned, Marion D., riti 
Lehman, Ambrose E., iv 
Olney, Richard, iv 

—— deceased, obituary notices of, I, 

XII 

—— elected, ix, xii 

Membership accepted, xii, xiii 

Minutes, 7 


INDEX. 


N 


Names of Troyan and Boyan in old 
Russian, 152 , 

Nebule, vii, 403 

Nichols, structure of the spectra of 
the phosphorescent sulphides, vii, 


du Noiiy, Lecomte, mathematical 
study of the  cicatrization of 
wounds, xiii 
0 


Oaks, naming American hybrid, viii, 


44 

Obituary notices, i 

Cnothera lamarckiana and francis- 
cana when crossed with Ginothera 
pycnocarpa, twin hybrids from, 
vit 

Overgrowth in plants, mechanism 
of, viii, 437 


Pearl, factors influencing the sex 
ratio in the domestic fowl, vi, 416 
Phosphorescence of certain  sul- 
phides, spectral structure of, 258 
Photographic transit instrument, de- 

scription of a new, vi, 484 
Pisum, study of inheritance in, rit, 


7 
Plants, behavior of self-sterile, viii 
—— mechanism of overgrowth in, 
UU, 437 
Prince, historical notes on “The 
Armament of Igor,” v, 152 


R 


Race intermingling, effects of, vit, 

Ramsay, obituary notice of Sir Wil- 
liam, xii 

Recurrent tetrahedral deformations 
and intercontinental torsions, 445 

Red mangrove, ecology and physiol- 
ogy of, viit, 589 

Reid, distribution of land and water 
on the earth, x 

Richards, obituary notice of Sir Wil- 
liam Ramsay, sit 

Russell, probable masses of comets, 
vit 


Ss 
Schlesinger, description of a new 
photographic transit instrument, 


vt, 
Scott, astrapotheria, + 
Self-sterile plants, behavior of, vitt 
Sermon-books and stories, medieval, 
v, 369 


INDEX. 


mex f atio_in-the-domestic fowl, vi, 


itpher, nebule, vit, 403 

Smith, ai mechanism of over- 
growth in plants, vitt, 437 

—, H. M., significant results of sci- 
entific investigations applied to 
fishery problems, vi 

Soper, geology of Sergipe and north- 
eastern Bahia, Brazil, iv 

South America, eighteen new species 
of fishes from northwestern, 673 

South American Indian in his rela- 
tion to geographic environment, 


x, 281 

Spoehr, MacDougal and, growth and 
imbibition, viii, 289 

Squier, symposium on aéronautics: 
physical aspects, xi, 168 

Steel, spontaneous generation of 
heat in recently hardened, viii, 353 

Stevenson, inter-relations of the fos- 
sil fuels, x, xitt, 53 

Sulphides, spectral structure of the 
phosphorescence of certain, 258 

Swingle, wild relatives of our culti- 
vated plants, witt 


4 


Tetrahedral deformations and inter- 
continental torsions, recurrent, 445 


LUIit 

Torsions, intercontinental tetrahe- 
dral deformations and, 445 

Transit instrument, description of a 
new photographic, vi, 484 

Trelease, naming ‘American ‘hybrid 
oaks, viti, 44 

Trial of animals, a little known chap- 
ter of medieval jurisprudence, v, 
410 

Troyan and Boyan in old Russian, 
names of, 152 


Vv 
Vision as a physical process, v 


Ww 


Webster, symposium on aéronautics : 
dynamical aspects, +i, 161 

White, study of inheritance in Pi- 
sum, xii, 487 

Wilson, symposium on aéronautics: 
mathematical aspects, xi, 212 

Witmer, diagnostic method of train- 
ing intelligence, v 

Wood, condensation and evaporation 
of metal films! vit 

—— minimum potential for excita- 
tion of the “D” lines of sodium, 
Viti 

Wright, application of polarized light 
to study of ores and metals, x 


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THE LIST 


OF THE 


American Philosophical Society 


HELD AT PHILADELPHIA 


FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE 


(Founded 1727) _ 


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NULLO DISCRIMINE 


August, 1917 


OFFICERS 


1917 


PATRON 


The Governor of Pennsylvania 


PRESIDENT 
William W. Keen, M.D., Sc.D., LL.D. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS | 


William B. Scott, Ph.D., D.Sc., LL.D. Albert A. Michelson, Ph.D., Se.D., LL.D. 
George Ellery Hale, Sc.D., Ph.D., LL.D. 


‘SECRETARIES 


I. Minis Hays, A.M., M.D. Amos P. Brown, B.S., Ph.D. 
Arthur W. Goodspeed, A.B., Ph.D. Harry F. Keller, Nat. Ph.D., Sc.D. 


CURATORS 


Charles L. Doolittle, C.E., Sc.D., LL.D. William P. Wilson, Dr.Sc. 
Leslie W. Miller 


TREASURER 
Henry La Barre Jayne, A.B. 


COUNCILLORS 
Elected in 1915 Elected in 1916 | 
Henry H. Donaldson, Ph.D., D.Sc. Louis A. Bauer, Ph.D., D.Sc. 


Theodore W. Richards, Sc.D., LL.D. Edward P. Cheyney, A.M., LL.D. 
Robert A. Harper, M.A., Ph.D. Russell H. Chittenden, Ph.D., LL.D. 
Edwin G. Conklin, Ph.D., Sc.D. Charles D. Walcott, Sc.D., LL.D. 


Elected in 1917 
Henry Fairfield Osborn, Sc.D., LL.D. 
Elihu Thomson, Ph.D., D.Sc. 
Samuel M, Vauclain, Sc.D. 
Henry B. Fine, Ph.D., LL.D. 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


Date of 
Election 


Abbot, Charles Greeley, M.Sc., D.Sc. Director of Astrophysical Ob- 
servatory, Smithsonian Institution. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. Am. 
Astronom. and Astrophys. Soc., Soc. Astronom. de France, Astro- 
nomical Society of Mexico, Acad. de Ciencias, Mexico, Deut, Me- 
teorol. Gesell. Medals—Draper (Nat. Acad. Sci. 1910) ; Rumford 
(Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 1915). Smithsonian Institution, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 


Abbot, Henry Larcom, LL.D. Major-General U.S.A. Mem. Nat. Acad. 
Sci., Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Corr. Mem. Imp. Roy. Geolog. Instit. 
Austria. 23 Berkeley St., Cambridge, Mass. 


Abbott, Alexander Crever, M.D., Sc.D., Dr. PH. Prof. of Hygiene and 
Bacteriology, Univ. Penna., Chief of Bureau of Health and Presi- 
dent of Board of Health of Philadelphia 1903-09: Mem. Assoc. 
Am. Phys., Am. Physiolog. Soc., Am. Soc. Pathol. and Bacteriol. 
Fell. Coll. Phys., Phila. Laboratory of Hygiene, University of 
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 


Abbott, Charles Conrad, M.D. Asst. Archeologist Peabody Mus., Cam- 
bridge, Mass., 1876-89. Mem. Royal Soc. of Antiquaries of the 
North, Copenhagen; Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist. Linnaean Soc., 
N. Y., N. Y. Acad. of Sci. 907 Radcliffe St., Bristol, Pa. 


Abel, John Jacob, A.M., Sc.D., M.D. Professor of Pharmacology, Johns 
Hopkins University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Assoc. Am. Phys., Am. 
Physiol. Soc., Soc. for Pharmacol. and Exp. Therap. Johns Hop- 
kins Medical School, Baltimore. 


Adams, Edwin Plimpton, M.S., Ph.D. Professor of Physics, Princeton 
University. Princeton, N. J. 


Adams, Walter Sydney, A.M., Sc.D. Astronomer and Assistant Di- 
rector of Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory, Carnegie Institution of 
Washington. Mem. Am. Astronom. Soc., Fell. Roy. Astronom. 
Soc. Observatory Office, Pasadena, Cal. 


Adler, Cyrus, M.A., Ph.D. President of Dropsie Coll. for Hebrew and 
Cognate Learning. Formerly Librarian and Assist. Sec’y Smith- 
sonian Institution, Hon. Assoc. U. S. Nat. Museum, Member Am. 
Jewish Hist. Soc., (President) Am. Anthrop. Assoc., Am. Philol. 
Soc., Am. Oriental Soc., Washington Acad. Sci. 2041 N. Broad 
St., Philadelphia. 

3 


1914 


1862 


1889 


1915 


IQI5 


1915 


1900 


4 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Allen, Joel Asaph, Ph.D. (Hon.). Curator of Department of Mammal- 
ogy and Ornithology, American Museum of Natural History, N. Y. 
Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci, Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Am. Ornith. Union 
(Pres’t, 1883-90) ; Zool. Soc., Lond., Deutsche Orn. Gesell., Berlin. 
Medal—Linn. Soc. Nat. Hist. N. Y., 1916. American Museum of 
Natural History, New York. 


Ames, Joseph Sweetman, A.B., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Physics and 
Director of Physical Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University. Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci, Am. Phys. Soc. Soc. Frang. de Phys., Nat. 
Advisory Comm. for Aeronautics; Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., 
Hon. Mem. Roy. Inst. of Gt. Br. Johns Hopkins University, Bal- 
timore. 


Anderson, George Lucius, AM. Colonel U. S. A. Palo Alto, Cal. 


Appleton, William Hyde, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Formerly Professor of 
Greek and President of Swarthmore College. Mem. Arch. Inst. 
of Am. The Clinton, roth and Clinton Sts., Philadelphia. 


Atkinson, George Francis, Ph.D. Professor of Botany, Cornell Uni- 
versity. Mem. N. Y. Acad. Sci. Bot. Soc. of Am. (Pres’t, 1907). 
Department of Botany, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 


Atterbury, William Wallace, Ph.B., M.A. Vice-President (in charge of 
operation) Pennsylvania R. R. Co.; Pres’t Am. Rwy. Assoc.; Mem. 
Am. Soc. Mechan. Eng., Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Radnor, Pa. 


Bailey, Liberty Hyde, M.S., LL.D. Late Professor of Horticulture and 
Director of N. Y. State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, 
Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Jthaca, N. Y. 


Balch, Edwin Swift, A.B. Mem. Geog. Soc. of Phila. (Pres’t, 1895- 
96). Fell. Am. Geog. Soc., Roy. Geog. Soc., Corr. Mem. Soc. An- 
tonio Alzate, Mexico. 1412 Spruce St., Philadelphia, 


Balch, Thomas Willing, A.B. Mem. Am. Antiq. Soc., Hist. Soc. of 
Penna. (V. P.). Corr. Mem. Colonial Soc. of Mass. r4r2 Spruce 
St., Philadelphia. 


Baldwin, James Mark, M.A., Ph.D., D.Sc., LL.D. Late Professor of 
Psychology, Johns Hopkins Univ., For. Corr. Inst. de France, 
Mem. Am. Psychol. Assoc. (President, 1907-08). Medal—Roy. 
Acad. Denmark. Care of Harris Forbes Co., 56 William St., New 
York. 


Baldwin, Simeon Eben, A.M., LL.D. Justice, Governor of Connecticut. 
Professor of Law in Yale University. Mem. Am. Soc. Sci. Assoc. 
(Past-President), Am. Polit. Sci. Assoc, Am. Hist. Assoc., 
Internat. Law Assoc. (Lond.), Am. Antiq. Soc.; Fell. Am. Acad. 
Arts and Sci., Corr. Mem. Mass. Hist. Soc., Colonial Soc. of Mass., 
l'Institut de Droit Comparée, Brussels. New Haven, Conn. 


1878 


1905 


1886 
1893 


1913 


1916 


1896 


1899 


1901 


1897 


1910 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


5 


Date of 
Election 


Barker, Wharton, M.A. Port Royal Ave., Roxborough, Philadelphia. 
Barnard, Edward Emerson, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. Professor of Practical 


Astronomy, University of Chicago, Astronomer of Yerkes Ob- 
servatory; Fell. A. A. A. S. (V.P., 1898). Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., 
Astron. and Astrophys. Soc., Assoc. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 
Hon. Mem. R. Astron. Soc. of Canada; For. Assoc. Royal Astron. 
Soc., Soc. Astron. de France. Medals—Lelande (Paris <Acad., 
1892) ; Arago (1893); Roy. Astron. Soc. (1897). Janssen Prize 
Soc. Astron. de France, 1906). Yerkes Observatory, Williams 
Bay, Wis. 


Barton, George Aaron, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Biblical Litera- 


ture and Semitic Languages, Bryn Mawr College. Mem. Soc. of 
Biblical Lit. and Exegesis (Pres’t, 1916-17), Am. Oriental Soc., 
Arch. Inst. of Am., Soc. of Biblical Archaeol. (Lond.), Deutsche 
Morgenland. Gesell., Orient-Gesell., Vorderasiat. Gesell., Corr. Mem. 
Soc. Archéol. de France. 237 Roberts Road, Bryn Mawr, Pa. 


Barus, Carl, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Physics, Brown University. 


Formerly Physicist, U. S. Geolog. Surv., and Smithsonian Inst. 
Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Am. Phys. 
Soc. (Pres’t, 1904-06), Hon. Mem. Royal Institution of Gt. Br. 
Medal—Rumford (1900). Brown University, Providence, R. I. 


Bauer, Louis A., C.E., M.S., M.A., Ph.D., D.Sc. Director of Department 


of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Inst. of Washington. Formerly 
Chief of Div. of Terrestrial Magnetism, U. S. Coast & Geodetic 
Survey. Halley Lecturer in Terrestrial Magnetism (Oxford, 
1913). Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Corr. Mem. Soc. d. Wis- 
senschaft. (Géttingen), Acad. das Scien. (Lisbon), Hon. Mem. 
Royal Cornwall Polytech. Soc., Soc. Cient. “ Antonio Alzate,” Mex- 
ico, Mem. Washington Acad. Sci., Philos. Soc. of Wash. (Pres'’t, 
1908), Am. Phys. Soc., Am. Astron. Soc., Assoc. of Am. Geog., 
Mem. Perm. Comm. on Terrestrial Magnetism of Inter. Meteoro- 
logical Conference, and of Inter-Assoc. of Academies. Medal— 
Charles Lagrange Prize, Acad. Roy. Belgique (1909). Georg Neu- 
meyer (Berlin, 1913). 302 The Ontario, Washington, D. C. 


Baugh, Daniel. 1601 Locust St., Philadelphia. 
Becker, George Ferdinand, B.A., Ph.D. (Heidelb.). Geologist in charge 


of U. S. Geol. Survey. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Geol. Soc. of Am. 
- (Pres’t, 1914), Am. Inst. of Mining Engineers. U. S. Geological 
Survey, Washington, D. C. 


Bell, Alexander Graham, LL.D., Ph.D., Sc.D., M.D. Mem. Nat. Acad. 


Sci., Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., Am. Inst. 
Electrical Eng. (Past-Pres’t), Antiq. Soc. of Mass., Wash. Acad. 
Sci., Nat. Geog. Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Roy. Soc. of Arts (Lond.) ; 


1884 
1903 


IQII 


1903 


1909 


1899 
1907 


1882 


6 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Soc. of Telegraph Eng. and Elect. (Lond.); Inst. of Elect. Eng. 
(Lond.), Soc. de Physique (Paris). Medals—Centennial Expos. of 
Phila., for speaking telephone (1876) ; Soc. of Arts of Lond. Roy. 
Albert (1878) ; République Francaise Exposition Universelle, Paris 
(1878) ; awarded by the Government of France the Volta Prize of 
50,000 francs for the electrical transmission of speech (1880). 1331 
Connecticut Ave., Washington, D. C. 


Bell, J. Snowden, LL.D. P. O. Box 629, New York City. 
Bement, Clarence S. 3007 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Benedict, Francis Gano, A.M., Ph.D. (Heidelb.), Sc.D. Director of Nu- 
trition Laboratory of Carnegie Institution of Washington. For- 
merly Professor of Chemistry, Wesleyan Univ. Mem. Nat. Acad. 
Sci., Am. Chem. Soc., Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Nutrition 
Laboratory, Vila St., Boston, Mass. 


Bennett, Charles Edwin, B.A., Litt.D. Professor of Latin, Cornell 
University. Mem. Am. Philol. Assoc. (Pres’t, 1908-09). I Grove 
Place, Ithaca, N. Y. 


deBenneville, James S., A.B. 26 D Bluff, Yokohama, Japan. 
Blair, Andrew A. 406 Locust St., Philadelphia. 


Bloomfield, Maurice, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D., L.H.D. Professor of Sanskrit 
and Comparative Philology, Johns Hopkins University. Mem. 
Am. Orient. Soc. (Pres’t, 1905-11) ; Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 
Medals—Hardy Prize, K. Bayer. Akad. d. Wiss. Johns Hopkins 
University, Baltimore, Md. 


Boas, Franz, Ph.D., LL.D., Sc.D. (Oxon.). Professor of Anthropology, 
Columbia University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci, Am. Antiq. Soc., 
N. Y. Acad. Sci. (Pres’t, 1910), Am. Anthrop. Soc. (Pres’t, 1907- 
08), Hon. Mem. Anthrop. Gesell. Vienna, Hon. Fell, Anthrop. 
Soc. of Gt. Br., Corr. Mem. Anthrop. Societies of Berlin, Brussels, 
Florence, Moscow, Paris, Rome, Stockholm and Washington, and 
of Deut. Anthrop. Gesell., Soc. des Americanistes, Paris, and Soc. 
for Oriental Languages, Frankfort. 230 Franklin St., Grantwood, 
N. J. 


Bocher, Maxime, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Mathematics, Harvard Uni- 
versity. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci, Am. Math. Soc. (Past-Pres’t). 
48 Buckingham St., Cambridge, Mass. 


Bogert, Marston Taylor, Ph.B., LL.D. Professor of Organic Chemistry, 
Columbia University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Soc. Chem. Industry 
(Past-Pres’t), Am. Chem. Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Washington Acad. 
Sci., Nat. Research Council, Chem. Soc., Lond., Deutsche Chem. 
Gesell., Soc. Chim. Ital., Soc. Chim. de France. Columbia Univer- 
sity, New York City. 


1882 
1895 


‘IQ10 


1913 


1897 
1889 
1904 


1903 


1916 


1909 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


7 


Date of 
Election 


Boltwood, Bertram B.,Ph.D. Professor of Radio-Chemistry, Yale Uni- 
versity. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Chem. Soc., Am. Phys. Soc., 
Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. P. O. Box 1038, Yale Station, New 
Haven, Conn. 


Branner, John Casper, B.S., Ph.D., LL.D., D.Sc. President Emeritus 
of Stanford University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Inst. Mining 
Eng., Indiana Acad. Sci. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Soc. Naturalists, 
Washington Acad. Sci., Calif. Acad. Sci., Geological Soc. Am. 
(Past-Pres’t), Calif. Earthquake Comm., Seismological Soc. Am. 
(Past-Pres’t), Soc. Geol. de France, Geol. Soc. Lond., Hon. Mem. 
Acad. Pernambucana de Letras., Inst. Geog. e Hist. da Bahia, Soc. 
Belge de Geol., Inst. Hist. e Geog., Rio, For. Mem. Acad. Brasil. 
Medals—Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1905); Hayden (Acad. 
Nat. Sci. of Phila.). Stanford University, Cal. 


Brashear, John Alfred, LL.D., Sc.D., D.Eng. Mem. Eng. Soc. Western 
Penna. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. (Past-Pres’t), Pitts- 
burg Acad. Science and Arts (Past-Pres’t), Am. Astron. Soc., 
Roy. Astron. Soc., British Astron. Soc., Soc. Astron. de France, 
Soc. Astron. de Belge, Roy. Astron Soc. Canada. Medal—Frank- 
lin Inst. 1954 Perryville Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 


Bridgman, Percy Williams, A.M., Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Physics, 
Harvard University. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Mem. Wash- 
ington Acad. Sci. Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, Mass. 


Bright, James Wilson, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D. Professor of English Lit- 
érature, Johns Hopkins University. 246 W. Lanvale St., Balti- 
more, Md. 


Brown, Amos Peaslee, B.S., E.M., Ph.D. Professor of Mineralogy and 
Geology, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Inst. Mining 
Eng., Fell. Geol. Soc. of Am. 20 E. Penn St., Germantown, Phila- 
delphia. 

Brown, Ernest William, M.A., Sc.D. (Cantab.). Professor of Mathe- 
matics, Yale University. Fell. Roy. Soc., Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., 
Roy. Astron. Soc., Cambridge Philos. Soc., Mem. Lond. Math. 
Soc., Am. Math. Soc., Am. Astron. and Astrophys. Soc. Medals— 
Royal (Royal Soc., 1914) ; Gold (Royal Astron. Soc., 1907) ; Adams 
Prize, Cambridge (1907); De Pontécoulant Prize (Paris 1908). 
116 Everit St., New Haven, Conn. 


Brubaker, Albert P., A.M., M.D., LL.D. Professor of Physiology and 
Medical Jurisprudence, Jefferson Medical Coll., Phila. Mem. Am. 
Physiol. Soc., Fell. Coll. of Phys. of Phila. 3426 Powelton Ave.; 
Philadelphia. 


IQII 


1886 


1902 


1916 


1914 


1901 


1898 


1895 


8 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Brumbaugh, Martin Grove, M.E., D.Sc., A.M., Ph.D., LL.D., D.Litt. Gov- 
ernor of Pennsylvania. Formerly Superintendent of Public Schools, 
Phila. Mem. Nat. Educational Assoc. Executive Dep’t, Harris- 
burg, Pa. 


Brush, Charles Francis, M.E., M.S., Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Mem. Am. Soc. 
of Mech. Eng., Am. Inst. Elec. Eng., Nat. Elec. Light Assoc., Am. 
Chem. Soc., Am. Phys. Soc., Brit. Assoc. of Mech. Eng., Roy. Soc. 
of Arts. Medals—Rumford (1899), Edison (1913). 481 The Ar- 
cade, Cleveland, O. 


Bryant, Henry G., M.A., LL.B. Mem. Geog. Soc. of Phila. (Pres’t), 
Am, Alpine Club (Pres’t), Fell, Roy. Geog. Soc., Corr. Mem. Geog. 
Soc. of Geneva, Anthrop. and Geog. Soc. of Stockholm, Appa- 
lachian Mt. Club, Officier de l’Académie (France). 2013 Walnut 
St., Philadelphia. 


Bumpus, Hermon Carey, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. President of Tufts Col- 
lege. Mem. Am. Morphol. Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Soc. Zool., 
Am. Soc. Naturalists, N. Y. Acad. Sci., Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and 
Sci., K. K. Oest. Fisch. Gesell. (Vienna), Corr. Mem. Senckenberg. 
Naturforsch. Gesell. Tufts College, Mass. 


Cadwalader, John, A.M., LL.D. 263 S. Fourth St., Philadelphia. 


Campbell, Douglas Houghton, Ph.D. Professor of Botany, Stanford 
University. Mem. Am. Botan. Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Nat. Acad. Sci., 
Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., For. Mem. Linnean Soc., Deut. 


Botan. Gesell., Royal Soc. Edin., Internat. Botanical Soc. Leland 


Stanford University, Cal. 


Campbell, William Wallace, M.S., Sc.D., LL.D. Director of Lick Ob- 
servatory, University of California. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., A. A. 
A. S. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Astron. Soc., Astron. Soc. of Pacific, 
Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., For. Assoc. Royal Astron. Soc. 
Lond., For. Mem. Soc. Spettros. Ital., Astron. gesell., Montpellier 
Acad. des Sci., Soc. Roy. des Sci. a Upsal, K. Svenska Vetenskaps 
Akad. (Stockholm), R. Acad. de Cien. Madrid. Medals—Lalande 
(Acad. des Sci. Paris, 1903); Royal Astron. Soc. (1905); Draper 
(Nat. Acad. Sci. 1906) ; Janssen (Acad. de Sci. Paris, 1910) ; Bruce 
(Astron. Soc. of Pacific 1915). Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamil- 
ton, Cal. 


Cannon, Walter Bradford, A.M., M.D. Professor of Physiology, Har- 
vard University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci, Am. Phys. Soc. (Past- 
Pres’t), Soc. for Exper. Biol. and Med., Am. Psych. Assoc., Fell. 
Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass. 


Carnegie, Andrew, Dr. Polit. Sci, LL.D. Mem. Am. Geog. Soc., Am. 
Statist. Assoc., Hon. Mem. Astron. Gesell. at Treptow Sternwarte, 


1908 


1910 


1898 


1909 


1899 


1910 


1903 


1908 


1902 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


9 


Date of 
Election 


Nat. Hist. Soc.;-Glasgow, Philos. Inst., Edin., Roy. Geog. Soc. of 
Australasia, Royal Inst. of Gt.Br. 2 East orst St., New York City. 


Carrell, Alexis, M.D., Sc.D. Mem. Rockefeller Inst. for Med. Research, 
Fell. Am. Surg. Assoc., Nobel Laureate, Medicine (1912). Rocke- 
feller Institute for Medical Research, 66th St. and Avenue A, New 
York City. 


Carson, Hampton Lawrence, M.A., LL.D. Late Attorney-General of 
Pennsylvania, Professor of Law in University of Pennsylvania, 
Chancellor of Law Assoc. of Phila., Mem. Penna. State Bar Assoc. 
(President), Am. Bar Assoc. (V.P.), Historical Soc. of Penna. 
(V.P.), Swedish Colonial Soc. 1524 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 


Castle, William Ernest, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Zoology, Harvard 
University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Fell. 
Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 186 Payson Road, Belmont, Mass. 


Castner, Samuel, Jr. 3729 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 


Cattell, James McKeen, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., N. 
~ Y. Acad. Sci. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Psychol. Assoc. (Past-Pres’t), 
Am. Soc. Naturalists (Past-Pres’t). Garrison-on-Hudson, N. Y. 


Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, A.M., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor and Head 
of Dept. of Geology and Director of the Walker Museum, Univer- 
sity of Chicago. Comm. Illinois Geol. Surv., Consulting Geologist 
U. S. Geol. Surv., Research Assoc. Carnegie Inst. of Wash., Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci., A. A. A. S. (Pres’t, 1908), Chicago Acad. of Sci. 
(Pres’t, 1898-1914), Illinois Acad. Sci. (Pres’t, 1907), Geol. Soc. of 
Am. (Pres’t, 1895). Medals—Paris Expos., 1878, 1893; Helen 
Culver (Chicago Geog. Soc., 1910). Rosenwald Hall, University 
of Chicago, Chicago, III. 


Chance, Henry Martyn, C.E., M.D. Mem. Mining and Metal. Soc. Am. 
(Pres’t, 1913). 837 Drexel Bldg., Philadelphia. 


Chandler, Charles Frederick, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Chemis- 
try, Columbia University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Chem. Soc. 
(Pres’t, 1881-89), Brit. Soc. Chem. Indust. (Pres’t, 1899), Chem. 
Soc. Lond., Deut. Chem. Gesell., Soc. Chim. de France, N. Y. Acad. 
Sci., Am. Inst. Elec. Eng., Am. Soc. Mining Eng. Columbia Uni- 
versity, New York City. 


Cheyney, Edward Potts, AM., LL.D. Professor of European History, 
University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Hist. Assoc. 259 S. 44th 
St., Philadelphia. 


Chittenden, Russell H., Ph.D., LL.D., Sc.D. Professor of Physiological 
Chemistry, Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University. Mem. Nat. 
Acad. Sci., Am. Physiolog. Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Soc. Biolog. 
Chemists (Past-Pres’t), Am. Soc. of Naturalists (Past-Pres’t). 
83 Trumbull St., New Haven, Conn. & 


1909 


1880 


IgIoO 


1887 
1888 


1905 


1880 


1875 


1904 


1904 


10 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


\ 


Date of 
Election 


Clark, William Bullock, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Geology, Johns 
Hopkins University, State Geol. of Maryland, Dir. (Maryland) 
Weather Service, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Geol. Soc. Am., Assoc. 
of State Geologists (Past-Pres’t), Washington Acad: Sci. Am. 
Inst. Mining Eng., Mining and Metallurg. Soc. Am., Fell. Am. 
Acad. Arts and Sci., For. Corr. Geol. Soc. of Lond., Deutsche 
Geolog. Gesell. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 


Clarke, Frank Wigglesworth, S.B., D.Sc., LL.D. Chief chemist U. S. 
Geological Survey, Hon. Curator of Minerals, U. S. Nat. Mus. 
Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Chem. Soc. (Pres’t, 1901), Philos. Soc. 
Wash. (Pres’t, 1896), Washington Acad. Sci. (Pres’t, 1912). Hon. 
V.P. of Internat. Chemical Congresses at Paris, Berlin and N. Y., 
Corr. Mem. Edinburgh Geol. Soc., Geol. Soc. Lond., Hon. Mem. 
Mineralog. Soc. Lond., Chem. Soc. Lond., Manchester. Lit. and 
Philos. Soc., Imp. Soc. Naturalists, Moscow. Medal—Wilde, Man- 
chester (1903). U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 


Clarke, John Mason, M.A., Ph.D., Sc.D, LL.D. Director of Department 
of Science and State Museum, New York. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. 
Geol. Soc. Am. (Pres’t), Palaeontological Soc. (Past-Pres’t). 

_ Medal—Hayden (Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila.) ; Spindiaroff Prize (In- 
ternat. Geol. Cong.). Albany, N. Y. 


Clay, Albert T., A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Assyriology and 
Babylonian Literature and Curator of Babylonian Collection, Yale 
University. Mem. Am. Orient. Soc., Soc. of Biblical Lit. and 
Exegesis, Vorderasiatischen Gesell. zor Humphrey St., New Ha- 
ven, Conn, 


Collitz, Hermann, A.M., Ph.D., L.H.D. Professor of Germanic Philol- 
. ogy, Johns Hopkins University. Mem. Am. Orient. Soc., Am. 
Philol. Soc., Modern Lang. Assoc. of Am., Verein fiir Nieder- 
deutsche Sprach., Deut. Morgenland, Gesell. z027 N. Calvert St., 
Baltimore, Md. 


Comstock, John Henry, B.S. Professor Emeritus of Entomology and 
General Invertebrate Zoology, Cornell University. Fell. Entomo- 
log. Soc. of Am. (Past-Pres’t), Hon. Mem. Calif. Acad. Sci., Ent. 
Soc. of Ont.; Soc. Ent. de Belgique, Mem. Soc. Ent. de France, 
Hon. Fell. Ent. Soc., Lond. 123 Roberts Place, Ithaca, N. Y. 


Conklin, Edwin Grant, Ph.D., Sc.D. Professor of Biology, Princeton 
University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Soc. Nat. (Pres’t, 1912) ; 
Am. Soc. Zool. (Pres’t, 1899), Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 

. Princeton, N. J. 


Coplin, W. M. Late, M.D. Professor of Pathology, Jefferson Medical 
College, Phila. Mem. Assoc. Am. Phys., Assoc. Am. Path. and 
Bact., Am. Assoc. for Prevention of Tuberculosis, Fell. Coll. of 
Phys., Phila. 606 S. 48th St., Philadelphia. 


1902 


1904 


IQII 


1912 


1902 


1913 


1897 


IQII 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


11 


Date of 
Election 


Coulter, John Merle, A.M., Ph.D. Professor and Head of Dept. of Bot- 
any, University of Chicago. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Bot. Soc. 
(Pres’t, 1897-098, 1915-16), Illinois Acad. Sci. (Pres’t, 1910), Chi- 
cago Acad. Sci. (Pres’t, 1915), Assoc. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and 
Sci.,. Corr. Fell. Bot. Soc. of Edin., For. Mem. Linnean Soc., Lond. 
University of Chicago, Chicago, III. 


Crane, Thomas Frederick, A.M., Litt.D. Professor Emeritus of Ro- 
mance Languages and Literature, Cornell University. Mem. Royal 
Acad. Sci. and Arts, Palermo, Italy. Ithaca, N. Y. 


Crile, George W., A.M., M.D., LL.D. Professor of Surgery, Western 
Reserve University. Mem. Am. Surg. Assoc. Am. Assoc. Path. 
and Bact., Soc. Exper. Biol. and Med., Am. Physiol. Soc., Soc. 
Clin. Surg, Hon. F. R. C. S. (England). Medal—Alvarenga 
Prize (Coll. of Phys. of Phila.); Cartwright Prize (Columbia 
Univ.); Senn Prize (Am. Med. Assoc.). r03r Prospect Ave., 
Cleveland, O. 


_ Cross, Whitman, B.S., Ph.D. Geologist U. S. Geological Surv. Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci., Geol. Soc. Washington, Fell. Geol. Soc. Am., For. 
Assoc. Geol. Soc., London. 2138 Bancroft Place, Washington, D.C. 


Culin, Stewart. Curator of Ethnology, Brooklyn Institute Museum. 
Corr. Mem. Real Acad. de la Historia, Royal Italian Anthrop. Soc., 
Svenska Sillskapet fr Antrop. och Geog. Brooklyn Institute Mu- 
seum, Brooklyn, N. Y. 


Cushing, Henry Platt, Ph.D. Professor of Geology, Western Reserve 
University, Cleveland, O. Mem. Geolog. Soc. Am. (V.P., 1915), 
N. Y. Acad. Sci. Western Reserve University, Cleveland, O. 


DaCosta, John Chalmers, M.D. Clinical Professor of Surgery, Jeffer- 
son Medical College, Phila. Fell. Coll. Phys. Phila. Mem. Am. 
Surg. Assoc. 2045 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 


Dall, William Healey, A.M., D.Sc., LL.D. Geologist and Palaeontolo- 
gist U. S. Geological Survey. Hon. Prof. Invert. Palaeont., Wag- 
ner Inst. of Sci., Phila. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Boston Soc. Nat. 
Hist., Chicago Acad. Sci., Philos. Soc. Wash. (Pres’t, 1894), Biolog. 
Soc. Wash. (Pres’t, 1888-89), Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., For. 
Mem. K. K. Zoolog.-Bot. Gesell. in Wien, Corr. Mem. Geog. Gesell. 
Bremen, Gesell. fiir Erdkunde, Berlin, Svenska Sallsk. fiir An- 
throp. och Geog. Stockholm, Soc. Zoolog. de France, Geolog. Soc. 
Lond., Naturforsch. Gesell., Leipzig. Smithsonian Institution, 
Washington, D. C. 

Daly, Reginald Aldworth, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Geology, Harvard 


University. Mem. Geolog. Soc, Am., Seismological Soc., Am., 
Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 23 Hawthorn St., Cambridge, Mass. 


1915 


1877 


IgI2 


IQI5 


1897 


1916 


1904 


1897 


1913 


12 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Dana, Edward S. Professor of Physics, Yale University. Mem. Nat. 
Acad. Sci. Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 


Davenport, Charles Benedict, S.B., Ph.D. Director of Station for Ex- 
perimental Evolution, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold 
Spring Harbor, N. Y. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. Am. Zool. Soc., 
Assoc. of Naturalists (Past-Pres’t), Eugenics Research Assoc. 
(Pres’t), Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. 


Davis, Bradley Moore, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Botany, University of 
Pennsylvania. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Am. Soc. 
Naturalists, Bot. Soc. Am. . Botanical Laboratory, University of 
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 


Davis, William Morris, S.D., Ph.D. Professor Emeritus of Geology, 
Harvard University. Mem. Nat. Acad Sci., Geol. Soc. of Am. 
(Pres’t, 1911), Hon. Mem. Geographical Societies of Berlin, Vienna, 
Madrid, Rome, Budapest, Leipzig, Greifswald, Geneva, Netchatel, 
New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. Corr. Mem. N. Y. Acad. 
of Sci., Acad. de Wissen., Berlin, Acad. des Sciences, Paris, and of 
Geographical Societies of London, Paris, Munich and Petrograd. 
31 Hawthorn St., Cambridge, Mass. 


Day, Arthur L., Ph.D., Sc.D. Director of the Geophysical Laboratory, 
Carnegie Institution of Washington. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and 
Sci., Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Geol. Soc., Am., Am. Phys. Soc., Am. 
Chem. Soc., Washington Acad. Sci. Philos. Soc., Wash. (Pres’t, 
1911), Deut. Physikal. Gesell, Deut. Bunsen Gesell., Hon. Mem. 
Acad. di Sci., Let. ed Arti degli Zelanti (Acireale, Italy). Geo- 
physical Laboratory, Washington, D. C. 


Day, Frank Miles, B.S., M.A. Lecturer on Architecture, University of 
Pennsylvania, and Harvard University, Supervising Architect Yale 
University. Mem. Advisory Board of Archit., Johns Hopkins 
Univ., Fell. Am. Inst. of Archit, (Past-Pres’t), Nat. Inst. of Arts 
and Letters, Corr. Mem, Russian Imp. Inst. of Archit., Hon. Corr. 
Mem. Roy. Inst. of Brit. Archit., Assoc. Nat. Acad. of Design. 
Mt. Airy P. O., Philadelphia. 


Dercum, Francis X., A.M., M.D., Ph.D. Professor of Nervous and 
Mental Diseases, Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. Fell. Coll. 
Phys. Phila., Mem. Phila, Neurol. Soc. (Pres’t), Phila. Psychiatric 
Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Neurol. Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Roy. Medical 
Soc., Budapest, Corr. Mem. Neurol. and Psychiat. Soc., Vienna, 
For. Corr. Mem. Neurolog. Soc., Paris. 1719 Walnut St., Phila- 
delphia. 


Dewey, John, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Philosophy, Columbia Univer- 
sity. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Psych. Assoc. (Past-Pres’t), Am. 
Soc. Naturalists. Columbia University, New York City. 


1896 


1907 


1914 


1899 


1912 


1899 


1892 


IQII 


* 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


13 


Date of 
Election 


Dixon, Samuel G., M.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Commissioner of Health of 
Pennsylvania. Fell. Coll. Phys., Phila, Mem. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Phila. (Pres’t). Bryn Mawr, Pa. 


Dolley, Charles S., M.D. 


Donaldson, Henry Herbert, A.B., Ph.D., D.Sc. Professor of Neurology, 
Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia. Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Psychol. Assoc., Am. Neurol. Assoc., Am. 
Physiol. Soc., Am. Soc. Naturalists, Am. Assoc. Anat. (Past- 
Pres’t). Wistar Institute, 36th St.and Woodland Ave., Philadelphia. 


Doolittle, Charles L., C.E., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor Emeritus of As- 
tronomy, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Astron. Soc., 
Astronom. Gesell. 4523 Pine Street, Philadelphia. 


Doolittle, Eric, C.E. Professor of Astronomy, University of Penn- 
sylvania. Fell. Royal Astron. Soc. University of Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia. 


Dougherty, Thomas Harvey, B.S. West School Lane, Germantown, 
Philadelphia. 


Douglas, James, B.A., LL.D. Mem. Am. Inst. Mining Eng. (Past- 
Pres’t), Canadian Mining Inst., Am. Geog. Soc., Royal Soc. Arts, 
Royal Inst. of Gt. Br., Mining and Metal. Soc. of Gt. Br., Iron and 
Steel Inst., Inst. of Mining and Metal., North of England Inst. 
Mining and Mechan. Eng. Medal—John Fritz (1915). 99 John 
St., New York City. 


Draper, Daniel, Ph.D. Late Director, New York Meteorological Ob- 
servatory, Central Park. Hastings-on-Hudson, N. Y. 


Duane, Russell, A.B., LL.B. Formerly Junior Council for the U. S. 
in Behring Sea Arbitration. 1617 Land Title Bldg., Philadelphia. 


DuBois, Patterson. sor S. goth St., Philadelphia. 


duPont, Hon. Henry Algernon. U. S. Senator (1906-17), Mem. Mili- 
tary Service Inst. Medals—Congressional, for distinguished gal- 
lantry during the battle of Cedar Creek. Winterthur, Delaware. 


duPont, Pierre Samuel, B.S. President of E. I. duPont de Nemours 
& Co. duPont Bldg., Wilmington, Delaware. 


Durand, William Frederick, Ph.D. Professor of Mechanical Engineer- 
ing, Leland Stanford Jr. University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. 
Acad. Eng., Am. Soc. Mechan, Eng., Am. Soc. of Naval Archi- 
tects and Marine Eng., Am. Soc. Naval Eng., Soc. Tech. Maritime, 
Assoc. Mem. Am. Inst. Elect. Eng. Medal—Gold, Am. Soc. Naval 
Eng. Stanford University, California. 


East, Edward Murray, M.S., Ph.D. Professor of Experimental Plant 
Morphology, Harvard University. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., 


9 


1892 


1886 


1906 


1881 


1903 


1899 


1877 


1880 


1906 


1880 


1894 


1917 


IQI7 


1916 


14 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Am. Soc. Naturalists. Bussey Institution, Jamaica Plain, Boston, 
Mass. 


Eckfeldt, Jacob B. Assayer, U.S. Mint. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc. U.S. 
Mint, Philadelphia. 


Eddy, H. Turner, M.A., C.E., Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of Mathe- 
matics and Mechanics, College of Engineering, University of Min- 
nesota. 916 S. E. Sixth St., Minneapolis, Minn. 


Edison, Thomas Alva, Ph.D., D.Sc. Llewellyn Park, Orange, N. J. 


Edmunds, Hon. George Franklin, A.M., LL.D. U. S. Senator 1866-01. 
841 S. Orange Grove Ave., Pasadena, Cal. 

Edsall, David Linn, A.B., M.D., S.D. Professor of Clinical Medicine, 
Harvard University. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Mem. Assoc. 
Am. Phys. 80 Marlborough St., Boston, Mass. 


Eigenmann, Carl H., A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Zoology, Indiana Uni- 
versity. Mem. Ind. Acad. Sci. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Micr. Soe. 


(Past-Pres’t), Am. Soc. Naturalists, Wash. Acad. Sci. Blooming- 


ton, Ind. 


Eisenhart, Luther Pfahler, A.B. Ph.D. Professor of Mathematics, 
Princeton University. Mem. Am. Math. Soc. 22 Alexander St., 
Princeton, N. J. 


Eliot, Charles W., A.M., M.D., Ph.D., LL.D. President Emeritus of 
Harvard University. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Mass. 
Hist. Soc., Corr. Mem. Acad. Moral and Polit. Sci. (Inst. de 
France), British Acad. 17 Fresh Pond Parkway, Cambridge, Mass. 


Emerson, Benjamin Kendall, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Geology and 
Mineralogy, Amherst College. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., 
Mem. Geol. Soc. Am. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Geog. Soc., Wash. Acad. 
Sci., Deut. Geol. Gesell. Amherst, Mass. 


Emmet, William LeRoy, Sc.D. Engineer, General Electric Co. Mem. 
Am. Inst. Elect. Eng., Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., Am. Soc. Naval Eng. 
Medals—St. Louis Expos. for Vertical Shaft Turbine; San Fran- 
cisco Expos. for Electric Ship Propulsion. Care of General Elec- 
tric Co., Schenectady, N. Y. 


Ewell, Marshall Davis, A.M., M.D., LL.D. Mem. Am. Microscop. Soc. 
(Past-Pres’ty, Am. Phys. Soc., Fell. R. Microscop. Soc. (Lond.). 
Room 619, 155 N. Clark St., Chicago, Ill. 


Farlow, William Gilson, A.M., M.D., Ph.D. (Upsala), LL.D. (Harv., 
Glasgow and Wisconsin). Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, Har- 
vard University. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Nat. Acad. 
Sci., A. A. A. S. (Past-Pres’t), Linnean Soc. Lond., Deut. Botan. 
Gesell., Botan. Soc. of Edinburgh. 24 Quincy St., Cambridge, 
Mass. 


© 


1917 


1913 


1871 


1897 


1898 


1905 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


15 


Date of 
Election 


Field, Robert Patterson. The Normandie, 36th and Ghesine: Sts., 
Philadelphia. 


Fine, Henry Burchard, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Mathematics, 
Princeton University. Mem. Am. Math. Soc. (Pres’t, 1911-12). 
Library Place, Princeton, N. J. 


Fisher, Sydney George, B.A., Litt.D., LL.D. 576 Bourse Bidg., Phila- 
delphia. 


Flexner, Simon, M.D., D.Sc., LL.D. Director of Laboratories, Rocke- 
feller Institute for Medical Research, N. Y. Fell. N. Y. Acad. 
Med., Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Assoc. of Am. Phys. (Past-Pres’t), 
Soc. Exper. Biology and Med. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Assoc. of Path. 
and Bact., Corr. Mem. Medico-Chi. Soc. of Bologna, Soc. Path. 
Exotique, Imp. Inst. of Experiment. Therapy (Frankfort a/M). 
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 66th St. and Ave. A, 
New York City. 


Fraley, Joseph Cresson, AMM. Mem. Am. Electrochem. Soc. 1815 Land 
Title Bldg., Philadelphia. 


Francke, Kuno, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D. Professor of the mae of Ger- 
man Culture and Curator of Germanic Museum, Harvard Univer- 
sity. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Cambridge, Mass. 


Franklin, Edward Curtis, B.S., M.S. Ph.D. Professor of Organic 
Chemistry, Leland Stanford Jr. University. Mem. Wash. Acad. 
Sci., Calif. Acad. Sci., Nat. Acad. Sci, Am. Chem. Soc. Stanford 
University, Cal. 


Frazier, Charles Harrison, B.A., M.D., Sc.D. Professor of Clinical Sur- 
gery, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Surg. Assoc., Am. 
Neurolog. Assoc., Soc. Clin. Surg. 1724 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Frost, Edwin Brant, A.M., D.Sc. (Cantab.). Professor of- Astrophysics 
and Director of Yerkes Observatory, University of Chicago. Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci., Astron. Gesell., For. Assoc. R. Astron. Soc., Lond., 

’ For. Mem. Soc. Spettros. Ital., Hon. Mem. R. Astron. Soc. of Can., 
Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, 
Wis. 

Fullerton, George Stuart, M.A., B.D., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Phi- 

’ losophy, Columbia University, New York. Hon. Prof. Univ. 
Vienna, Mem. Am. Psycholog. Assoc. (Past-Pres’t). Leupold- 
strasse 7, Munich, Bavaria. 


Fulton, John. 113 Park Place, Johnstown, Pa. 


Furness, Horace Howard, Jr., A-B., Litt.D. Mem. Am. Inst. Arts and 
Letters. 2034 DeLancey Place, Philadelphia. 


1890 


1897 


1897 


IQOI 


1880 


1904 


IgI2 


1905 


1909 


1890 


1873 
1897 


16 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Furness, William Henry, 3d, A.B., M.D. Fell. R. Geog. Soc., Anthrop. 
Inst. Gt. Br., Mem. Soc. de Geog. de France, Am. Orient. Soc. 
Wallingford, Pa. 


Gates, Merrill Edwards, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D., L.H.D. President of Am- 
herst College, 1890-99. 1309 Rhode Island Ave., Washington, D.C. 


Gies, William J., Ph.D., Sc.D. Professor of Biological Chemistry, 
Columbia University. Mem. Soc. Exper. Biol. and Med., Am. Soc. 
Biol. Chem., Am. Chem. Soc., Am. Physiol. Soc. Deut. Chem. 
Gesell., N. Y. Acad. Sci. Columbia University, New York City. 


Gilbert, Grove Karl, A.M., LL.D. Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, 
Fell. A. A. A. S. (Pres’t, 1901), For. Fell. Lond. Geol. Soc., Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci., Geolog. Soc., Am. (Past-Pres’t), Soc. of Am. 
Naturalists, Wash. Geolog. Soc., Philos. Soc. Wash. Medals— 
Wollaston (1899), Walker Grand Prize (Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.), 
Nat. Geog. Soc., Am. Geog. Soc. 1919 16th St., Washington, D. C. 


Gildersleeve, Basil Lanneau, Ph.D., LL.D., Litt.D. Professor of Greek, 
Johns Hopkins University. Hon. Mem. Cambridge Philol. Soc., 
Philol. Syllogos of Constantinople, Archaeolog. Soc. Athens, Soc. 
for Promotion of Hellenic Studies, Corr. Fell. British Acad., Mem. 
Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 1002 N. Calvert St., Baltimore, Md. 


Goethals, George Washington, LL.D. Major-General U. S. A. (Re- 
tired). 43 Exchange Place, New York City. 


Gooch, Frank Austin, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry and Di- 
rector of the Kent Chemical Laboratory, Yale University. Fell. 
Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Conn. Acad. Arts 
and Sci., N. Y. Acad. Sci. Am. Chem.-Soc. 291 Edwards St., New 
Haven, Conn. 


Goodale, George Lincoln, A.M., M.D., LL.D. Professor Emeritus of 
Botany, Harvard University. Fell. Am. Acad., Arts and Sci., N. 
Y. Acad. Sci, Mem. A. A. A. S. (Past-Pres’t), Nat. Acad. Sci., 
Calif. Acad. Sci., Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. (Past-Pres’t). Cambridge, 
Mass. 


Goodspeed, Arthur Willis, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Physics and Di- 
rector of Physical Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. 
N. H. Antiq. Soc. (Pres’t), Am. Phys. Soc., Am. Roentgen Ray 
Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Soc. of Arts, Lond., Soc. Fran. de Phys. 
Medal—Franklin (Boston, 1880). University of Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia. 


Goodwin, Harold, A.M., LL.B. Mem. Am. Acad. Pol. and Soc. Sci. 
3927 Locust St., Philadelphia. 


Gordon, George Byron, Sc.D. Assistant Professor of Anthropology and 
Director of Museum, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. 


1897 


1889 


1915 


1902 


1903 


1913 


1907 


1893 


1896 


1892 


1910 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


17 


Date of 
Election 


Anthrop,.Assoc. University Museum, 33d and Spruce Sts., Phila- 
delphia. 


Gorgas, William Crawford, M.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Surgeon-General U. S. 
A. Fell. Coll. Phys., Phila., N. Y. Acad. Med., Am. Med. Assoc. 
(Pres’t, 1908-09), Am. Soc. Tropical Med. Medals—Mary Kings- 
ley (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 1907); Gold (Am. 
Museum of Safety, 1914). Surgeon-General’s Office, U. S. A., 
Washington, D. C. 


Gray, Hon. George, A.M., LL.D. U.S. Senator (1885-99). Mem. Paris 
Peace Comm. 1898, Permanent Court of Internat. Arbitration, 
Judge U. S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 1899-1904, American-Mexi- 
can Joint Comm., 1916. Wilmington, Del. 


Greeley, Adolphus Washington. Chief Signal Officer U. S. A. 1887- 
1891. 1914 G St., N. W., Washington, D. C. 


Green, Samuel Abbott, A.M., M.D., LL.D. Mem. Mass. Historical Soc. 
(V.P.). Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, Mass. 


Greene, William Houston, A.M., M.D. 2130 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Greenman, Milton J., Ph.B., M.D., Sc.D. Director of the Wistar Insti- 
tute of Anatomy. Fell. Coll. Phys. Phila., Phila. Neurolog. Soc., 
Am. Assoc. of Anat. 3618 Woodland Ave., Philadelphia. 


Griffith, J. P. Crozer, A.B., M.D., Ph.D. Professor of Pediatrics, Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania. Mem. Assoc. Am. Phys., Am. Pediatric 
Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Corr. Mem. Soc. de Pediatrie de Paris. 1810 
Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Gummere, Francis Barton, A.B., Ph.D., LL.D., Litt.D. Professor of 
English Literature in Haverford College. Mem. Nat. Inst. Arts 
and Letters, Modern Language Assoc. of Am. (Pres’t 1905-06). 
Haverford, Pa. 


Hadley, Arthur Twining, M.A.,Ph.D.,LL.D. President of Yale Univer- 
sity. Trustee Carnegie Fund for Adv. of Teaching, Mem. Inter- 
nat. Inst. of Statistics, Am. Economic Assoc. (Pres’t, 1898-1900), 
Am. Acad. Arts and Letters. Medal—Paris Expos. (1889) for 
Advancement of Knowledge of Railroad Economics. Yale Uni- 
versity, New Haven, Conn. 


Hale, George Ellery, Sc.D., Ph.D., LL.D. Director of Solar Observatory, 
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Mt. Wilson, Cal. Fell. Royal 
Soc., Lond., Mem. Accad. dei Lincei (Rome), Amsterdam Acad. 
Sci., Vienna Acad. Sci., Corr. Mem. Inst. de France, Hon. Mem. 
Vienna Acad. Sci. Royal Soc., Upsala, Accad. Gioena, Catania, 
Soc. degli Spettros. Ital., Royal Inst., Gt. Brit., Physical Soc., Lond., 
For. Assoc. Roy. Astron. Soc., Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. N. Y. Acad. 
of Sci., Astron. and Astrophys. Soc. of Am. Medals—Janssen, 


1913 


1900 


1904 
1893 


1879 
1899 


1907 


1903 


1902 


1902 


18 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Paris Acad. Sci. (1894) ; Rumford (1902); Draper (1903); Gold, 
Roy. Astron, Soc. (1904). Solar Observatory Office, Pasadena, 
Cal. 


Hall, Charles Edward. Calle Glaceres 264, Guadalajara, Mexico. 1875 


Hall, Lyman Beecher, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry, Haverford 1885 
College. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc., Deut. Chem. Gesell. Haverford 
College, Haverford, Pa. 


Harper, Robert A., M.A., Ph.D. Professor of Botany, Columbia Uni- 1909 
versity. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Bot..Soc. Am. (Pres’t), Deut. 
Botan. Gesell., Phytopath. Soc. Am., Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 
Columbia University, New York City. 


Harrison, Charles Custis, A.M., LL.D. Provost of the University of 1895 
Pennsylvania, 1894-1911. 400 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 


Harrison, Ross G., M.A., Ph.D., M.D. Professor of Comparative Anat- 1913 
omy, Yale University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Soc. Naturalists 
(Pres’t, 1912-13), Am. Assoc. Anat. (Pres’t, 1911-13), Am. Soc. 
Zool., Am. Physiol. Soc., Anat. Gesell., Inst. Internat. d’Embryol. 
Medal—Rainer (K. K. Zoolog. Botan. Gesell. of Vienna, 1914). 
Osborne Zoological Laboratory, Yale University, New Haven, 
Conn. 


Harshberger, John W., A.B., B.S., Ph.D. Professor of Botany, Univer- 1906 
sity of Pennsylvania. Fell. Am. Geog. Soc., Mem. Botan. Soc. of 
Am., Ecological Soc. of Am. 4839 Walton Ave., Philadelphia. 


Hastings, Charles S., Ph.D. Professor of Physics, Sheffield Scientific 1906 
School, Yale University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Phys. Soc. 
248 Bradley St., New Haven, Conn. 


Haupt, Lewis M., A.M., Sc.D., LL.D. Mem. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Am. 1878 
Inst. Min. Eng., Soc. de Geog. Medals—Magellanic Premium 
(A. P. S. 1887), Paris Expos. (1900), St. Louis Expos. (1904). 
Cynwyd, Pa. 


Haupt, Paul, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, 1902 
Johns Hopkins University. Mem. Am. Orient. Soc. (Pres’t, 1913- 
14), Soc. of Biblical Lit. and Exegesis. (Pres’t, 1905-06), Soc. 
Biblical Arch. (Lond.), Deut. Morgenland. Gesell., Deut. Orient 
Gesell, Vorderasiatische Gesell. 215 Longwood Road, Roland 
Park, Baltimore, Md. 


Hawk, Philip Bovier, M.S., Ph.D. Professor of Physiological Chem- 1915 
istry and Toxicology, Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. 
Mem. Am. Chem. Soc., Am. Physiol. Soc., Am. Soc. Biol. Chem- 
ists, Soc. for Exp. Biol. and Med., Wash. Acad. Sci. Jefferson 
Medical College, Philadelphia. 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 19 


Date of 
Election 


Hayford, John F., CE. Director of the College of Engineering, North- 1915 
western University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Astron. and Astrophys. 
Soc. of Am., Am. Soc. of Civil Eng., Western Soc. of Eng. Col. 
lege of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IIl. 


Hays, I. Minis, AM., M.D. Mem. Assoc. Am. Phys., Coll. Phys., Phila., 1886 
Hon. Mem. Georgia Med. Soc. 266 S. 21st St., Philadelphia. 


Herty, Charles Holmes, Ph.D., D.Chem. Late Professor of Chemistry, 1917 
University of North Carolina. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc. (Pres’t, 
1915), Chem. Soc., Lond., Soc. Chem. Industry, Am. Electrochem. 

Soc., Soc. Chim. de France, Deut. Chem. Gesell. 35 E. 41st St., 
New York City. 


Hewett, Waterman T., M.A., Ph.D. Professor Emeritus of the German 1893 
Language and Literature, Cornell University. Mem. Am. Philolog. 
Soc., Modern Lang. Assoc. of Am., Soc. of Frisian Hist., Antiq. 
and Philol., Mem. Extr. Soc. of Frisian Lang. and Lit. Cornell 
University, Ithaca, N. Y. 


Hibben, John Grier, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., Litt.D. President of Princeton 1912 
University. Princeton, N. J. 


Hill, David Jayne, A.M., LL.D., Doct. és Lettres. Formerly Ambassa- I910 
dor to Germany. Mem. Am. Hist. Soc., Am. Soc. Internat. Law, 
National Assoc. for Constitutional Govt. (Pres’t). 1745 Rhode 
Island Ave., Washington, D. C. 


Hillebrand, William Francis, Ph.D. Chief Chemist U. S. Bureau of 1906 
Standards. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. Am. Chem. Soc. (Pres’t, 1906), 
Wash. Acad. Sci., Geolog. Soc., Wash., Am. Soc. for Testing Ma- 
terials, Corr. Mem. K. Gesell. der Wissen. Géttingen. 2023 
Newark St., N. W., Washington, D. €. 


Hiller, Hiram M., B.S., M.D. oth and Parker Sts., C hester, Pa. 1897 


Himes, Charles Francis, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor (retired) of 1874 
Physics, Dickinson College, Pa. Mem. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Maryland 
Acad. of Sci. Carlisle, Pa. 


Hirst, Barton C., A.B. M.D., LL.D. Professor of Obstetrics, Univer- 1899 
: sity of Pennsylvania. Fell. Coll. of Phys., Phila. Mem. Am. Gyn. 
Soc., Corr. Mem. Paris Obstet. and Gynecolog. Soc. r82r Spruce 
St., Philadelphia. 


Hitchcock, Charles Henry, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. New Hampshire State 1870 
Geologist 1868-78. Mem. Portland Nat. Hist. Soc., Boston Soc. 
Nat. Hist., N. Y. Acad. Sci., St. Louis Acad. Sci. P. O. Box 632, 
Honolulu, Hawaii. 


Hobbs, William Herbert, D.Sc., AM., Ph.D. Professor of Geology and 1909 
Director of Geological Laboratory, University of Michigan. Mem. 
Mich. Acad. Sci. (Pres’t), Washington Acad. Sci. University of 
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 


20 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Holland, James W., A.M., M.D., Sc.D. Emeritus Professor of Medical 
Chemistry and Toxicology, Jefferson Medical College, Phila. Fell. 
Coll. Phys., Phila. 2006 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 


Holmes, William Henry. Head Curator of Department of Anthro- 
pology, U. S. National Museum. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Anthrop. 
Soc., Wash. (Pres’t, 1900), Am. Folk-lore Soc., Archaeol. Inst. of 
Gt. Brit., Am. Anthrop. Assoc. (Pres’t, 1909). National Museum, 
Washington, D. C. : 


Hopkins, Edward Washburn, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Sanskrit 
and Comparative Philology, Yale University. Mem. Am. Orient. 
Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Philol. Assoc., German Orient. Soc., 
Royal Asiatic Soc., Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 299 Lawrence 
St., New Haven, Conn. 


» 

Howard, Leland Ossian, M.D., Ph.D., LL.D. Chief of Bureau of Ento- 
mology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Curator of Insects U. S. Nat. 
Museum, Consulting Entomologist U. S. Public Health Service. 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 


Howe, Henry Marion, A.M., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor Emeritus of Met- 
allurgy, Columbia University. Fell. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Am. Acad. 
Arts and Sci., Am. Soc. for Testing Materials (Past-Pres’t), Am. 
Inst. Mining Eng. (Past-Pres’t), Internat. Assoc. for Testing Ma- 
terials (Past-Pres’t), Am. Iron and Steel Inst., Hon. Mem. Royal 
Swedish Acad. of Sci., Russian Imp. Tech. Soc., Russian Metal- 
lurg. Soc., Cleveland Inst. Eng. (Eng.), Inst. of Min. and Metal- 
lurg. (England), Soc. d’Encouragement pour I’Industrie Nationale 
(France), Knight of the Order of St. Stanislaus, Russia, Cheva- 
lier of Legion of Honor of France. Medals—Bessemer (Iron and 
Steel Inst. of Gt. Br.), Elliot Cresson (Franklin Inst. of Phila.), 
Gold, Verein zur Befoerderung des Gewerbfl. vases Broad 
Brook Road, Bedford Hills, N. Y. 


Howell, William Henry, A.B., M.D., Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of 
Physiology, Johns Hopkins University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., 
Am. Physiolog. Soc. (Past-Pres’t). Johns Hopkins Medical School, 
Baltimore, Md. 


Huber, G. Carl, M.D. Professor of Anatomy and Director of Anatom- 
ical Laboratory, University of Michigan. Fell. Coll. Phys., Phila., 
Am. Physiol. Soc., Soc. Am, Naturalists, Am. Assoc. Path. and 
Bact., Am. Assoc. Anat. (Pres’t, 1914-15). 1330 Hill St., Ann Ar- 
bor, Mich. 


Hulett, George A., A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Physics and Chemistry, 
Princeton University. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc, Am. Phys. Soc., 
Am. Electrochem. Soc. 44 Washington Road, Princeton, N. J. 


Hutchinson, Emlen, A.B. 308 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 


1886 


1899 


1908 


IQII 


1897 


1903 


1912 


1913 


1898 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


21 


Date of 
Election 


Iddings, Joseph Paxson, Ph.B., Sc.D. Geologist U. S. Geological Sur- 1911 


vey. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Geol. Soc., Am. Hon. Mem. N. Y. 
Acad. Sci. For. Mem. Geol. Soc., Lond., Scientific Soc. Christiania, 
Société de Minéral. Brinklow, Md. 


@Invilliers, Edward Vincent. Mem. Geol. Soc. Am., Mining and 
Metall. Soc. Am., Am. Inst. Mining Eng. 518 Walnut St., Phila- 
delphia. 


Ives, Herbert E., B.S., Ph.D. Physicist, United Gas Improvement Co. 
Mem. Am. Phys. Soc., Illum. Eng. Soc., Am. Inst. Elect. Eng., 
Am. Gas Inst. Medals—Longstreth (Franklin Inst., 1906 and 
1914). 229 E. Meade St., Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia. 


Jackson, A. V. Williams, A.M., L.H.D.,LL.D. Professor of Indo-Iranian 
Languages, Columbia University, N. Y. Mem. Am. Oriental Soc. 
(Pres’t, 1915-16). Columbia University, New York City. 


James, Edmund Janes, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. President of University of 
Illinois. Mem. Am. Econ. Assoc., Am. Acad. Polit. and Soc. Sci. 
(Pres’t, 1889-1901), Fell. Roy. Statist. Soc., Dublin, Soc. d’Econ. 
Polit., Paris. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IIl. 


Jastrow, Morris, Jr.. M.A.. Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Semitic Lan- 
guages, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Orient. Soc. (Pres’t, 
1914-15), Soc. of Biblical Lit. (Pres’t, 1916). 248 S. 23d St., Phila- 
delphia. 


Jayne, Henry LaBarre, A.B. 1035 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Jennings, Herbert S., B.S., AM., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Zoology 
and Director of the Zoological Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Soc. Zool. (Pres’t, 1908), Am. 
Soc. Naturalists (Pres’t, 1909), Fell, Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., 
Hon. Fell. Roy. Micros. Soc., Lond. Johns Hopkins University, 
Baltimore, Md. 


Johnson, Alba B., A.B., LL.D. President of the Baldwin Locomotive 
Works, Phila. Mem. Am. Acad. Polit. and Soc. Sci. Rosemont, 
Pa. 


Johnson, Emory R., Litt.M., Ph.D., Sc.D. Professor of Transportation 
and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Nat. Inst. of 
Social Sci., Assoc. of Am. Geog., Am. Economic Assoc., Am. Polit. 
Sci. Assoc., Am. Acad. Polit. and Soc. Sci. Logan Hall, Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 


Jordan, David Starr, M.S., M.D., Ph.D., LL.D. Chancellor of Stanford 
University. Mem. Calif. Acad. Sci. (Past-Pres’t), A. A. A. S. 
(Pres’t, 1909-10), Biolog. Soc. Wash., Zoolog. Soc., Lond., Acad. 
Sci., Sweden. Medals—Fisheries Congress (Lond., 1883), and for 
Peace work (Tokio, 1911). Stanford University, Cal. 


1893 


1917 


1909 


1884 


1897 


1898 
1907 


IQII 


1915 


1905 


22 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Kane, Elisha Kent. Silverside Kushequa, Pa. 
Keane, Rt. Rev. John James. Archbishop of Dubuque. Dubuque, Ia. 


Keasbey, Lindley Miller, A.M., Ph.D., R.P.D. Professor of Political 
Science, University of Texas. Box K, University Station, Austin, 
Tex. 


Keen, Gregory Bernard, A.M., LL.D. 1300 Locust St., Philadelphia. 


Keen, William W., M.D., Sc.D., Ph.D., LL.D. Emeritus Professor of 
Surgery, Jefferson Medical College. Fell. Coll. Phys., Phila. 
(Past-Pres’t), Am. Surg. Assoc. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Med. Assoc. 
(Past-Pres’t), Hon. Fell. Roy. Coll. Surg. (England and Edin- 

burgh), For. Corr. Mem. Soc. de Chirurgie de Paris, Soc. Belge 
de Chir., Clin. Soc., Lond., Deut. Gesell fiir Chir., Italian Surg. 
Soc. Palermo Surg. Soc., Berlin. Med, Gesell. 1729 Chestnut 
St., Philadelphia. 


Keiser, Edward Harrison, M.S., Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry, Na- 
tional University, St. Louis. Mem. Deut. Chem. Gesell., Soc. 
Chem. Industry, Am. Chem. Soc. 534 Linden Ave., Clayton, 
St. Louis Co., Mo. | 


Keller, Harry F., Nat. Ph.D. (Strassb.), Sc.D. Principal Germantown 
High School, Philas Mem. Am. Chem. Soc. 2373 Green St., 
Philadelphia, 


Kemp, James Furman, A.B., E.M., D.Sc., LL.D. Professor of Geology, 
Columbia University. Fell. Geol. Soc. Am, N. Y. Acad. Sci. 
(Pres’t, 1908 and 1911), Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Inst. Mining 
Eng. (Pres’t, 1912), Mining and Metal. Soc., Am. (Pres’t, 1913), 
Wash. Acad. Sci. Corr. Mem. Geolog. Soc., Stockholm, Acad. Sci., 
Christiania, Soc. Cien. “ Antonio Alzate,’ Mex., Soc. Geologico, 
Mex. Medal—Mining and Metal. Soc., Am. (1916). Schermer- 
horn Hall, Columbia University, New York City. : 


Kennelly, Arthur Edwin, A.M., Sc.D. Director Research Division, 
Electrical Engineering Dep’t, Massachusetts Institute of Technol- 
ogy. Mem. Inst. Electr. Eng, Am. Math. Soc., Am. Phys. Soc., 
Hon. Mem. N. Y. Electr. Soc., Nat. Electr. Light Assoc., Am. 
Electrotherap. Assoc. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 


Kittredge, George Lyman, A.B., Litt.D., LL.D. Professor of English, 
Harvard University. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Mem. Mass. 
Hist. Soc., Am. Antigq. Soc., Am, Philol. Soc., Hon. Fell. Roy. Soc. 
Lit., Corr. Fell. Brit. Acad. 8 Hilliard St., Cambridge, Mass. 


Kraemer, Henry, Ph.D., Ph.M. Professor of Botany and Pharmacog- 
nosy, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. Mem. Internat. Botan. 
Soc., Bot. Soc. of Am., Am. Soc. of Nat. Corr. Mem. Soc. de 
Pharm. de Paris. 424 S. 44th St., Philadelphia. 


1883 
1889 
1899 


1897 
1884 


1898 


1900 


1912 


1896 


1905 


1899 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


23 


Date of 
Election 


Lambert, Preston Albert, M.A. Professor of Mathematics, Lehigh 
University. Mem. Am. Math. Soc., Math. Assoc., Am. 275 S. 
Centre St., Bethlehem, Pa. 


Landreth, Burnet. Hon. Mem. Imp. Agric. Soc., Japan, Roy. Hort. 
Soc., Lond., Soc. des Agric. de France. Bristol, Pa. 


Lanman, Charles R., A.B., Ph.D. LL.D. Professor of Sanskrit, Harvard 
‘University. Fell, Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Am. Philol. Assoc., 
Am. Orient. Soc. (Pres’t, 1907). For. Mem. Roy. Bohem. Soc. of 
Sci. Hon. Mem. Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, Roy. Asiatic Soc., Soc. 
Asiatique, Paris, Deut. Morgenland. Gesell. Corr. Mem. Roy. Soc. 
of Sci., Géttingen, Imp. Acad. Sci., Russia, Acad. des Inscrip. et 
Belles Lettres. 9 Farrar St., Cambridge, Mass. 


Lea, Arthur H., A.B. 960 Drexel Building, Philadelphia. 


LeConte, Robert Grier, A.B., M.D. Fell. Coll. Phys., Phila. Mem. Am. 
Surg. Assoc. (Pres’t, 1916), Am. Coll. Surgeons, Soc. Clin. Surg., 
Int. Soc. of Surg. 1530 Locust St., Philadelphia. 


Lewis, John Frederick, A.M. President of the Pennsylvania Academy 
of the Fine Arts. 1914 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Libbey, William, M.A.,Sc.D. Professor of Physical Geography, Prince- 
ton University. Mem. Am. Geog. Soc., N. Y. Acad. Sci., Boston 
Soc. Nat. Hist., Roy. Geol. Soc., Lond., Geol. Soc. of Am., Soc. of 
Am. Naturalists. Fell. Roy. Geog. Soc. Princeton, N. J. 


Lillie, Frank Rattray, B.A., Ph.D. Chairman, Department of Zoology, 
University of Chicago. Mem. Am. Soc. of Zoologists (Past- 
Pres’t), Am. Soc. Naturalists (Pres’t, 1914), Nat. Acad. Sci. Uni- 
versity of Chicago, Chicago, IIl. 


Lindgren, Waldemar, M.E., D.Sc. Professor of Economic Geology, 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. 
Am. Inst. Mining Eng., Min. and Metallurg. Soc. Am., Wash. 
Acad. Sci. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Corr. Mem. Geol. Soc., 
Sweden, Mineralog. Soc., Russia. Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology, Cambridge, Mass. 


Lingelbach, William E., B.A., Ph.D. Professor of Modern European 
History, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Hist. Assoc., 
Geog. Soc. of Phila. (Pres’t, 1915-1916). 4304 Osage Ave., Phila- 
delphia. 


Loeb, Jacques, M.D., Ph.D., Sc.D. Member of Rockefeller Institute 
for Medical Research, Nat. Acad. Sci., Wash. Acad. Sci., Am. 
Physiol. Soc., Am. Soc. Biol. Chem. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and 
Sci., Corr. Mem. Acad. des Science de Paris, Acad. Sci., Krakau, 
Soc. de Biol., Paris, Senckenberg. Nat. Gesell. Frankfurt a/M., 


1904 


1878 


1906 


1912 


1905 


1909 


1897 


1916 


1917 


1916 


1899 


24 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Physik-Med. Gesell., Erlangen, Med. Gesell., Wien, Med. Gesell. 
Budapest. For. Mem. Linnean Soc., Lond., Acad. Roy. des Sci., 
Brussels. Hon. Mem. Acad. Roy. de Med., Brussels, Soc. Imp. des 
Amis des Sci. Nat., Moscow, Cambridge Philos. Soc., England. 
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 66th St. and Ave. A, 
New Vork City. 


Loeb, Leo, M.D. (Zurich). Professor of Comparative Pathology, Wash- 
ington University, St. Louis. Mem. Am. Physiol. Soc., Am. Soc. 
Exper. Path., Soc. Exper. Biol. and Med., Assoc. Am. Phys., Am. 
Assoc. of Path. and Bact. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Assoc. for Cancer 
Research (Past-Pres’t). Washington University Medical School, 
St. Louis, Mo. 


Lovett, Edgar Odell, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. President of the Rice Insti- 
tute. Fell. Royal Astron. Soc. Mem. Am. Math. Soc. and of 
Math. Societies of France, London and Palermo, Nat. Inst. of 
Social Sciences, Am. Acad. of Polit. Sci. Rice Institute, Houston, 
Tex. : 

Lowell, Abbott Lawrence, A.B., LL.B., LL.D., Ph.D. President of Har- 
vard University. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 


Lyman, Benjamin Smith, A.B., Mem. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Hon. Mem. 
Mining Inst., Japan. 708 Locust St., Philadelphia. 


Mabery, Charles Frederic, Sc.D. Emeritus Professor of Chemistry, 


Case School of Applied Science. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., 


Mem. Am. Chem. Soc. Case School of Applied Science, Cleve- 
land, O. 


McCay, LeRoy Wiley, M.A., D.Sc. Professor of Chemistry, Princeton 
University. Mem. Am. Inst. Mining Eng., Am. Chem. Soc., Chem. 
Soc. of Lond. Princeton, N. J. 


McClung, Clarence E., A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Zoology, University 
of Pennsylvania. Swarthmore, Pa. 


McClure, -Charles Freeman Williams, A.M., D.Sc. Professor of Zool- 
ogy, Princeton University. Mem. Am. Soc. of Naturalists, Am. 
Zool. Soc., Assoc. Am. Anat., Anatom. Gesell. Princeton Univer- 
sity, Princeton, N. J. 


McCrae, Thomas, B.A., M.D. Professor of Medicine, Jefferson Medical 
College, Philadelphia. Fell. Roy. Coll. Phys. Lond., Coll. Phys. 
Phila. Mem. Assoc. Am. Phys., Roy. Coll. Surg. End. 1627 
Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


McCreath, Andrew S. Mem. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Min. and Metal. Soc. 


Am., Iron and Steel Inst. (Gt. Br.). rar Market St., Harrisburg, 
Pa. 


1910 


1904 


1909 


1869 


1897 


1897 


1913 


1897 


1914 


1879 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


25 


Date of 
Election 


McDaniel, Walton Brooks, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Latin, University 
of-Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Philol. Assoc., Classical Assoc. of 
Atlantic States, Arch. Inst. of Am. 264 S. 44th St., Philadelphia. 


MacDougal, Daniel Trembly, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. Director of Depart- 
ment of Botanical Research, Carnegie Institution of Washington. 
Mem. Botan. Soc. of Am., Soc. for Exp. Biol. and Med., Soc. of 
Am. Naturalists (Pres’t, 1910), Hollansche Maatschap. Van Weten- 
schap. (Haarlem). Desert Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona. 


Macfarlane, John Muirhead, B.S., D.Sc. (Edin.). Professor of Botany 
and Director of the Botanic Garden, University of Pennsylvania. 
Fell. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, Corr. Mem. Botan. Soc., Edin., Mem. 
Soc. for Plant Morph. (Pres’t, 1898-99). Botanical Hall, Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 


Maclaurin, Richard Cockburn, M.A., Sc.D., LL.D. President of Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., 
Mem. Am. Phys. Soc., Am. Math. Soc., Lond. Math. Soc., New 
Zealand Philos. Soc. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 


Magie, William Francis, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Physics, 
Princeton University. Mem. Am. Phys. Soc. (Past-Pres’t). Prince- 
ton, N. J. 


Mall, Franklin P., M.A., M.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of Anatomy, 
Johns Hopkins University, Director of Dept. of Embryology, Car- 
negie Institution. Fell, Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Coll. of Phys., 
Phila. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Assoc. Am. Anat. (Pres’t, 1905-07), 
Soc. for Exper. Biology and Med., Am. Soc. Physiol., Am. Soc. 
of Zool., Inst. Nat. de Embryologie. 1514 Bolton St., Baltimore, 
Md. 


Manly, John Matthews, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D., Litt.D. Professor of Eng- 
lish, University of Chicago. Mem. Modern Lang. Assoc. of Am., 
Am. Philol. Soc. 1312 E. 53d St., Chicago, II. 


Mansfield, Ira F. 108 College Ave., Beaver, Pa. 


Mark, Edward Laurens, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Anatomy and 
Director of Zoological Laboratory, Harvard University. Dir. of 
Bermuda Biol. Sta. for Research, Fell. Soc. Biolog. Chem. (Lond.), 
Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Anatom. Gesell, 
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., K. Bohm. Gesell. d. Wissen. (Prag.), Soc. 
Roy. Zool. et Malacol. Belge. 109 Irving St., Cambridge, Mass. 


Marshall, John, M.D., Nat. Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of Chemistry and 
Toxicology, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc., 
Am. Physiolog. Soc., Am. Soc. Biolog. Chem., Fell. Coll. of Phys. 
of Phila. 1718 Pine St., Philadelphia. 


1917 


1916 


1892 


1910 


1896 


1906 


1912 


1878 
1907 


1886 


26 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Marvin, Charles F., M.E. Chief of U. S. Weather Bureau. Mem. 
Philos. Soc. of Wash. (Pres’t, 1903-04), Wash. Acad. Sci., Seis- 
mological Soc. of Am., Am. Phys. Soc. U. S. Weather Bureau, 
Washington, D. C. 


Mason, William Pitt, C.E., Sc.D., M.D., LL.D. Professor of Chemistry, 
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y. Mem. Am. Chem. 
Soc., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Am. Waterworks Assoc. (Past-Pres’t), 
Am. Inst. of Chem. Eng., Roy. Sanitary Inst. (Lond.). Hon. Mem. 
Assoc. Gen. Hygien. Munic. (Paris). Troy, N. Y. 


Matthew, William Diller, A.M., Ph.D. Curator of American Museum 
of Natural History. Fell. N. Y. Acad. Sci. Mem. Geolog. Soc. of 
Am., Palaeontological Soc. American Museum of Natural His- 
tory, 77th St. and Central Park, W., New York City. 


Matthews, Albert, A.B. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Am. 
Antig. Soc., Am. Geog. Soc., Am. Dialect Soc., Am. Hist. Assoc., 
Am. Folk-lore Soc., Colonial Soc. of Mass., Mass. Histor. Soc. 
Corr. Mem. Maine, Virginia and Wisconsin Histor. Societies. 
Hotel Oxford, Boston, Mass. 


Mayer, Alfred Goldsborough, M.E., Sc.D. Director of Department of 
Marine Biology, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Lect. in 
Biology, Princeton Univ. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci.,, Zoolog. Soc. of 
Am., Wash. Acad. Sci., Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 276 Nassau St., 
Princeton, N. J. 


Meigs, William M., A.M., M.D. 460 Drexel Bldg., Philadelphia. 


Meltzer, Samuel James, M.D., LL.D. Head of Department of Physiology 
and Pharmacology, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. 
Mem. German Imp. Acad. Sci., Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Physiol. Soc. 
(Pres’t, 1911-13), Am. Soc. for Pharmacology, Am. Soc. for Exp. 
Path., Assoc. of Am. Phys, (Pres’t, 1915), Soc. for Exp. Biol. and 
Med. (Pres’t, 1904-05), Am. Soc. for Adv. of Clinical Research 
(Pres’t, 1909), Assoc. of Am. Pathol., Am. Soc. of Naturalists. Fell. 
N. Y. Acad. Sci, N. Y. Acad. Med. 13 W. rarst St., New York 
City. 


Mendel, Lafayette B., M.A., Ph.D., Sc.D. Professor of Physiological 
Chemistry, Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University. Mem. Am. 
Chem. Soc., Am. Physiol. Soc., Am. Soc. of Biol. Chem. (Pres’t, 
1911), Am. Soc. of Naturalists, Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci. Nat. 
Acad. Sci. Soc. Exper. Biol. and Med. 18 Trumbull St., New 
Haven, Conn. 


Mendenhall, Thomas Corwin, Ph.D., D.Sc., LL.D. Super’t U. S. Coast 
and Geod. Surv., 1899-1904. Fell. Am. Acad, Arts and Sci., Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci., A. A. A. S. (Pres’t, 1889). Medals—Am. Geog. 
Soc. (1901) ; Nat. Education Soc. of Japan (1911). Ravenna, O. 


1916 


1896 


1914 


1899 


1914 


1901 
1914 


1916 


1899 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


27 


Date of 
Election 


Mercer; Henry Chapman, A.B., Sc.D. Mem. Ecole d’Anthrop., Paris. 
Doylestown, Bucks Co., Pa. 


Merriam, C. Hart, M.D. Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution, 
Washington. z919 16th St., Washington, D. C. 


Merriam, John C., B.S., Ph.D. Professor of Palaeontology and His- 
torical Geology, University of California. Fell. Geol. Soc. of Am., 
Am. Palaeont. Soc., Mem. Palaeont. Gesell., Wash. Acad. Sci. 2401 
Bowditch St., Berkeley, Cal. 


Merriman, Mansfield, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Late Professor of Civil En- 
gineering, Lehigh University. Mem. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Am. 
Soc. ,lesting Materials (Pres’t, 1915-16), Am. Math. Soc. soz 
Madison Ave., New York City. 


Michelson, Albert Abraham, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor and Head 
of Department of Physics, University of Chicago. Fell. Roy. 
Soc., Roy. Astron. Soc., Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Nat. 
Acad. Sci, Am. Phys. Soc. (Pres’t, 1900), Soc. Francaise de 
Physique. For. Mem. R. Acad. dei Lincei, K. Svenska Vetenskaps. 
Akad., Soc. Holland, des Sci. Corr. Mem. Acad. des Sci. de Paris. 
Hon. Mem. Roy. Institution, Cam. Philos. Soc. Medals—Nobel 
Laureate, Physics, 1907; Rumford (1889); Grand Prix (Paris, 
1900) ; Matteucci (Soc. Ital, Rome, 1904); Copley (Roy. Soc., 
Lond., 1907). University of Chicago, Chicago, IIl. 

Miller, John Anthony, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Mathematics and As- 
stronomy, Swarthmore College. Mem. Am. Math. Soc. Am. 


Astron. Soc., Ind. Acad. Sci. Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, 
Pa. 


Miller, Leslie W. Principal of Pennsylvania Museum and School of 
Industrial Art, Philadelphia. 320 S. Broad St., Philadelphia. 


Millikan, Robert Andrews, A.B., Ph.D., Sc.D. Professor of Physics, 
University of Chicago. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Nat. 
Acad. Sci., Am. Phys. Soc. (Pres’t). _Medal—Comstock (National 
Acad., 1913). University of Chicago, Chicago, IIl. 


Moore, Clarence B., A.B. Mem. Anthrop. Inst. of Am., Arch. Inst. of 


Am., Am. Anthrop. Assoc. Corr. Mem. Roy. Acad. of Letters,- 


Hist. and Antiq. (Stockholm) ; Soc. des Americanistes, Paris, Soc. 
Scientif. Argentina, Berlin, Gesell. fiir Anthrop., Eth., and Urgesch. 


Hon. Mem. Anthrop. Soc., Wash., Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc., Soc. of - 


Anthrop. and Geog. (Stockholm). 1321 Locust St., Philadelphia. 


Moore, Eliakim Hastings, A.B., Ph.D., LL.D., Sc.D., Math.D. Professor 
of Mathematics, University of Chicago. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and 
Sci. Mem. Am. Math. Soc. (Pres’t, 1901-03), Nat. Acad. Sci. 
University of Chicago, Chicago, Il. 


1895 


1902 


1914 


1881 


1902 


IQI5 


1905 


28 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Moore, George Thomas, A.M., Ph.D. Director of the Missouri Botan- 
ical Garden. Mem. Wash. Acad. Sci., St. Louis Acad. Sci., Botan. 
Soc. of Am., Soc. of Am. Bacteriologists. Missouri Botanical 
Garden, St. Louis, Mo. 


Moore, John Bassett, LL.D. Professor of International Law and Di- 
plomacy, Columbia University. Mem. of the Permanent Court at 
the Hague, Inst. de droit Internat., Inst. Colon. Nac., Hispanic Soc. 
of Am. 267 W. 73d St., New York City. 


Morgan, Thomas Hunt, B.S., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Experimental 
Zoology, Columbia University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Soc. Am. 
Naturalists, Am. Soc. Zool., N. Y. Acad. Sci., Soc. for Exp. Biol. 
and Med. 4o9 W. 117th St., New York City. ; 


Morley, Edward W., A.M., LL.D. Professor Emeritus of Chemistry, 
Western Reserve University, Cleveland. Hon. Mem. Nat. Acad. 
Sci., A. A. A. S. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Chem. Soc. (Past-Pres’t), 
Roy. Inst. Gt. Br. For. Mem. Chem. Soc., Lond. Fell. Am. Acad. 
Arts and Sci. Medals—Davy (Royal Soc., 1907); Elliot Cresson 
(Franklin Institute, Philada., 1912). West Hartford, Conn. 


Morley, Frank, A.M., Sc.D. Professor of Mathematics, Johns Hopkins 
University. Mem. Am. Math. Soc., Math. Soc., Lond., Circolo 
Matemat. di Palermo. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 


Morris, Harrison Smith. Mem. Nat. Inst. Arts and Letters. Oak Lane 
Post Office, Philadelphia. 


Morris, James Cheston, A.M., M.D. Fell. Coll. of Phys., Phila. r5r4 
Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Morse, Edward S., A.M., Ph.D. Director of Peabody Museum, Salem, 
Mass. Fell. A. A. A. S. (Pres’t, 1885), Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 
Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Soc. Naturalists, Am. Soc. Morph., 
Am. Antiq. Soc., Am. Anthrop. Assoc., Am. Oriental Soc., Boston 
Soc. Nat. Hist. (Past-Pres’t). Corr. Mem. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Soc. 
of Anthrop. and Geog. (Stockholm), Anthrop. Soc. of Berlin, 
Japan Soc. of Lond. Hon. Mem. Tokyo Zoolog. Soc. Salem, Mass. 


Morse, Harmon Northrop, A.B., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Chemistry, 
Johns Hopkins University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. Fell. Am. Acad. 
Arts and Sci. For. Mem. Prov. Utrecht Genootsch. van Kunst. en 
Wetensch. Medal—Avogadro. Homewood Apartments, Baltimore, 
Mad. 


Moulton, Forest Ray, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Astronomy, University 
of Chicago, Research Assoc. Carnegie Institution of Washington. 
Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. Am. Math. Soc. Fell, Roy. Astron. Soc. 
University of Chicago, Chicago, IIl. 


1905 


1907 


1915 


1903 


1897 


1899 
1883 


1895 


1903 


1916 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


29 


Date of 
Election 


Munro, Dana Carlton, A.M., L.H.D. Professor of Medieval History, 
Princeton University. Mem. Am. Hist. Soc., Wis. Acad. Arts and 
Sci. r19 Fits Randolph Road, Princeton, N. J. 


Munroe, Charles Edward, S.B., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Chemistry, 
George Washington University. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc. (Past- 
Pres’t), U. S. Naval Inst., Deut. Chem. Gesell., Soc. of Chem. 


Ind., Am. Inst. Mining Eng. George Washington University, 1325 
H St., N. W., Washington, D. C. 


Murdock, Joseph B. Rear-Admiral U. S. Navy. Danbury, N. H. 


Newbold, William Romaine, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Intellectual and 
Moral Philosophy, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Psychol. 
Assoc. Corr. Mem. Soc. for Psych. Research. College Hall, Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 


Nichols, Edward Leamington, B.S., Ph.D., LL.D., D.Sc. Professor of 
Physics, Cornell University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Physical 
Soc. (Past-Pres’t), A. A. A. S. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Inst. Elec. Eng., 
Ill. Eng. Soc. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 5 South Ave., 
Ithaca, N. Y. 


Nichols, Ernest Fox, M.A., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of Physics, Yale 
. University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Astron. Soc. Fell. Am. 
Acad. Arts and Sci. Medal—Rumford (1905). Sloane Labora- 
tory, New Haven, Conn. 


Nipher, Francis E., B.S., A.M., LL.D. Professor Emeritus of Physics, 
Washington University, St. Louis. Mem. Am. Phys. Soc., Acad. 
of Sci. St. Louis (Past-Pres’t), Soc. Frang. de Physique. Kirk- 
wood, St. Louis Co., Missouri. 


Norris, Isaac, M.D. Fell. Coll. of Phys., Phila. Fair Hill, Bryn Mawr, Pa. 


Noyes, Arthur A., Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Director of the Research Labo- 
ratory of Physical Chemistry and Professor of Theoretical Chem- 
istry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Mem. Nat. Acad. 
Sci. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Medal—Willard Gibbs (Am. 
Chemical Soc., 1915). Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
Cambridge, Mass. 


Noyes, William Albert, A.B., B.S., Ph.D., LL.D. Director of Chemical 
Laboratory, University of Illinois. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. 


Chem. Soc., Deut. Chem. Gesell. Medal—Nichols (1908). 1005 © 


Nevada St., Urbana, IIl. 


Nuttall, Zelia. Hon. Professor of Archaeology, National Museum, 
Mexico. Care of Bank of California, San Francisco, Cal. 


Ortmann, Arnold E., Ph.D., Sc.D. Professor of Physical Geography, 
University of Pittsburgh, Curator Invert. Zool., Carnegie Mus., 


IQOI 


1891 


1886 
1909 


1904 


1906 


1907 


1872 


IQII 


1914 


1895 


1897 


30 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Pittsburgh. Mem. Ecological Soc. of Am., Deut. Zoolog. Gesell., 
K. Leopold.-Carolin. Deut. Acad. der Naturforsch. Carnegie Mu- 
seum, Pittsburgh, Pa. 


Osborn, Henry Fairfield, Sc.D., Ph.D, LL.D. Research Professor of 
Zoology, Columbia University, President Am. Museum Nat. Hist. 
Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Soc. of Naturalists (Past-Pres’t), Am. 
Morpholog. Soc. (Past-Pres’t), N. Y. Acad. Sci., Wash. Acad. 
Sci. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Hon. Mem. Geological, Zoolog- 
ical and Linnean Societies (Lond.), Literary and Philos. Soc. of 
of Manchester, Imp. Soc. of Nat. (Moscow), Roy. Bavar. Acad. 
Sci., Senckenberg. Naturforsch. Gesell. Hon. Fell. Roy. Soc. Edinb., 
Roy. Acad. Sci. (Sweden). Medal—Hayden (Acad. Nat. Sci., 
Phila.). American Museum of Natural History, New York City. 


Osgood, William Fogg, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Mathematics, 
Harvard University. Mem. Am. Math. Soc. (Pres’t, 1904-06), Nat. 
Acad. Sci., Deut. Math.-Verein., Math. Soc., Kharkoff, Calcutta 
Math. Soc., Circolo Mat. di Palermo. 74 Avon Hill St., Cambridge, 
Mass. 


Osterhout, Winthrop John Vanleuden, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Bot- 
any, Harvard University. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. 
Bot. Soc. of Am., Am. Physiol. Soc., Am. Chem. Soc., Soc. of Exp. 
Biol. and Med., Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 60 Buckingham St., Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

Pancoast, Henry Spackman, M.A., L.H.D. Mem. Modern Lang. Assoc. 
of Am., Am. Philol. Assoc., Am. Dialect Soc., English Assoc. (Eng- 
land). Spring Lane, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia. 


Parker, George Howard, S.D. Professor of Zoology, Harvard Univer- 
sity. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. Am. Zool. Soc. (Past-Pres’t), Fell. 
Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 16 Berkeley St., Cambridge, Mass. 


Paton, Stewart, M.A., M.D. Lecturer in Neuro-Biology, Princeton 
University. Mem. Am. Soc. Naturalists, Assoc. Am. Anat., N. Y. 
Acad. Med. Princeton, N. J. 


Patterson, Christopher Stuart, A.M. rooo Walnut St., Philadelphia. 


Patterson, Lamar Gray. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc. P. O. Box 147, Mont- 
gomery, Ala. 


Patton, Francis L., A.M., D.D., LL.D. Formerly President of Princeton 
University. Warwick, Bermuda. 

Paul, John Rodman, A.M. 505 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 

Pearce, Richard Mills, Jr.. M.D., Sc.D. Professor of Research Medi- 


cine, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Assoc. Patholog. 
and Bact. (Pres’t, 1912), Am. Soc. Exper. Path. (Pres’t, 1914), 


1887 


1915 


1917 


IQII 


1914 


1885 


1914 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


31 


Date of 
. Election 


Assoc..Am.-Phys., Am. Physiol. Soc. 2114 DeLancey Place, Phila- 
delphia. 


Pearl, Raymond, A.B., Ph.D. Biologist and Head of Department of 
Biology, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. Mem. Nat. 
Acad. Sci., Am. Soc. Zool. (Pres’t, 1913), Am. Soc. of Naturalists 


(Pres’t, 1916), Soc. of Exper. Biology and Med., Boston Soc. Nat. 
; Hist. Orono, Maine. 


Peckham, Stephen F., AMM. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc., Soc. of Chem. 
Indust., Soc. of Chem. Engin. 1154 Sterling Place, Brooklyn, N.Y. 


Pender, Harold, A.B., Ph.D. Professor in Charge of Electrical Engi- 
neering Department, University of Pennsylvania. Fell. Am. Acad. 
Arts and Sci., Am. Inst. Elect. Eng., Mem. Am. Phys. Soc. Elec- 
trical Engineering Department, University of Pennsylvania, Phila- 
delphia. 


Penniman, Josiah Harmar, A.B., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of English 
Literature and Vice Provost, University of Pennsylvania... Mem. 
Modern Lang. Assoc., Am., Am. Dialect Soc., English Assoc. of 
Gt. Br. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 


Penrose, Charles B., A.M., Ph.D., M.D., LL.D. Professor of Gynecology, 
University of Pennsylvania, 1893-909. President of Zoological So- 
ciety of Philadelphia. 1720 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Penrose, Richard Alexander Fullerton, Jr., A.M., Ph.D. Professor of 
Economic Geology, University of Chicago, 1892-1911. Fell. Roy. 
Geog. Soc., Geolog. Soc. of Am. Mem. Geolog. Soc. Wash., Wash. 
Acad. Sci., Mining and Metal. Soc. Am. 460 Bullitt Bldg., Phila- 
delphia. 


Pepper, George Wharton, B.A., LLD., D.C.L. Formerly Professor of 
Law, University of Pennsylvania. 1438 Land Title Bldg., Phila- 
delphia. 


Pettit, Henry, M.S. 2420 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Phillips, Francis C., Ph.D. Emeritus Professor of Chemistry, Univer- 
sity of Pittsburgh. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc., Am. Inst. of Mining 
Eng. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. 


Pickering, Edward C., AM. S.B., Ph.D., L.H.D., LL.D. Director of 
Harvard College Observatory. Fell. Am. Read: Arts and Sci. 
Royal Soc., Astron. and Astrophys. Soc. of Am: (Pres’t). Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci, A. A. A. S. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Astron. Soc. 
(Pres’t), Roy. Astron. Soc., Soc. Astron. de. France, Soc. degli 
Spettros. Ital., Royal Inst., Accad. dei Lincei, Royal Prussian and 
Royal Irish Societies, Inst. de France, Imp. Acad., St. Petersburg. 
Hon. Mem. Societies at Mexico, Cherbourg, Liverpool, Christiania, 
Upsala, and Lund. Medals—Henry Draper, Rumford (1891) ; 
Bruce (1908) ; Roy. Astron. Soc. (1886, 1901) Knight of German 


1915 


1897 


1917 


IQOI 


1909 


1905 


1897 


1895 
1899 


1896 


32 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Order, pour le Mérite. Harvard College. Observatory, Cambridge, 
Mass. 


Piersol, George Arthur, C.E., M.D., Sc.D. Professor of Anatomy, Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Assoc. of Anat., Am. Soc. 
Zool. Fell. Coll. of Phys., Phila. 4724 Chester Ave., Philadelphia. 


Pilsbry, Henry A., Sc.D. Curator, Academy of Natural Sciences, 
Phila., Hon. Mem. Soc. Roy. Zoolog. et Malacol. de Belge, Conchol. 
Soc. of Gt. Br. For. Corr. Reale Acad. de Ciencias Exactas, Fis. 
y Nat. (Madrid). Academy of Natural Sciences, Logan Square, 
Philadelphia. 


Price, Eli Kirk, A.B., LL.D. Mem. Am. Acad. Polit. and Soc. Sci. 709 
Walnut St., Philadelphia. 


Prince, John Dyneley, B.A., Ph.D. Professor of Slavonic Languages, 


Columbia University. Fell. N. Y. Acad. Sci. Mem. Am. Orient. 
Soc., Soc. Bibl. Lit. and Exegesis, Maatschap. der Nederl. Letter., 
Vorderasiat. Gesell. Sterlington, Rockland Co., N. Y. 


Pritchett, Henry S., A.B., Ph.D, Sc.D., LL.D. President of Carnegie 
Foundation for Advancement of Teaching. Formerly Superin- 
tendent of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Pres’t of Mass. 
Institute of Tech. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 22 E. orst St., 
New York City. 


Pumpelly, Raphael. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Geol. Soc. Am. (Pres’t, 
1905). Newport, R. I. 


_ Pupin, Michael I, Ph.D., Sc.D. Professor of Electro-mechanics, Co- 
lumbia University. Fell. N. Y. Acad. Sci, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., 
Am. Phys. Soc., Am. Math. Soc., Am. Inst. Elec. Eng. The Da- 
kota, 1 W. 72d St., New York City. 


Ravenel, Mazyck P., M.D. Professor of Bacteriology, University of 
Missouri. Fell. Coll. Phys., Philas Mem. Am. Assoc. Path. and 
Bact. University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri. 


Rawle, Francis, A.M., LL.D. Mem. American Bar Association (Pres'’t, 
1902-03). West End Trust Bldg., Philadelphia. 


Raymond, Rossiter Worthington, Ph.D., LL.D. Mem. Am. Inst. Mining 
Eng. (Pres’t, 1872-74). Hon. Mem. Soc. Civil Eng. of France, Iron 
,and Steel Inst., Australian Inst. of Mining Eng. Medal—Inst. 
Mining and Metal. (1910). 29 W. 39th St., New York City. 


Rea, Samuel, Sc.D., LL.D. President of the Pennsylvania R. R. Co., 
Mem. Am. Acad. Polit. and Soc. Sci., Am. Geolog. Soc., Am. Soc. 
Civil Eng., Arch. Inst. Am., Inst. of Civil Eng. (Lond.). Broad 
Street Station, Philadelphia. 


1897 


1916 


1913 


1899 


1874 


1896 


IQOI 


1898 


1875 


1913 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


33 


Date of 
Election 


Reid, Harry Fielding, C.E., A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Dynamic Geology 
and Geography, Johns Hopkins University, Special Expert in 
Charge of Earthquake Records, U. S. Geol. Surv. Mem. Nat. 
Acad. Sci., Seismol. Soc. of Am. (Pres’t, 1913), Am. Phys. Soc., 
Assoc. Am. Geog., Washington Acad. Sci. Fell. Geol. Soc. of Am. 
Hon. Mem. Soc. Helvétique des Sci. Nat. Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity, Baltimore, Md. 


Remington, Joseph Price, Ph.G., Ph.M., Phar.D. Dean of Philadelphia 
College of Pharmacy; Pres’t Am. Pharm. Assoc., Pres’t 7th Int. 
Cong. of Pharmacy, Chairman Comm. of Revision of U.S. Pharma- 
copeia, oth Revis., Fell. Chem. Soc., Lond., Linnean Soc., Lond., 
Roy. Microscop. Soc. Mem. Federation Internat. Pharmaceut. 1832 
Pine St., Philadelphia. 


Remsen, Ira, A.B., M.D., Ph.D. (Gétt.), LL.D., D.C.L. Professor Emeri- 
tus of Chemistry and President Emeritus, Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity. Mem, Nat. Acad. Sci. (Pres’t, 1907-13), A. A. A. S. (Pres’t, 
1903), Am. Chem. Soc. (Pres’t, 1902), Soc. of Chem. Industry 
(Pres’t, 1909-10). For. Mem. Chem. Soc. Lond. Hon. Mem. Chem. 
Soc. of France. Medals—Soc. of Chem. Indust. (1904), Willard 
Gibbs (Am. Chem. Soc., 1913). Johns Hopkins University, Balti- 
more, Md. 


Rhodes, James Ford, LL.D., D.Litt. (Oxford). Mem. Mass. Hist. Soc., 
Am. Hist. Assoc. (Pres’t, 1899), Nat. Inst. Arts and Letters, Am. 
Acad. Arts and Letters. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Corr. Fell. 
Brit. Acad. Medals—Loubat Prize (Berl. Acad. Sci., 1901) ; Nat. 
Inst. Arts and Letters (1910). 392 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 


Richards, Horace Clark, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Mathematical Physics, 
University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Phys. Soc., Soc. Frang. de 
Physique. 4812 Fairmount Ave., Philadelphia. 


Richards, Theodore William, S.B., AM., Ph.D., Sc.D., Chem.D., M.D., 
LL.D. Professor of Chemistry and Director of the Wolcott Gibbs 
Memorial Laboratory, Harvard University. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., 
Am. Chem. Soc. (Pres’t, 1914). Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 
Hon. Mem. Royal Inst. For. Mem. Royal Swedish Acad. Corr. 
Mem. Roy. Pruss. Acad. Sci. Medals—Nobel Laureate, Chem- 
istry, 1914; Davy (Roy. Soc., 1910) ; Faraday (Chem. Soc., 1911) ; 
Willard Gibbs (Am. Chem. Soc., 1912); Franklin (Franklin Inst., 
1916). Wolcott Gibbs Memorial Laboratory, Cambridge, Mass. 


Ricketts, Palmer C., C.E., E.D., LL.D. President and Director of the 
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y. Mem. Am. Soc. Civ. 
Eng., Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Inst. of Civ. Eng., 
(Gt. Br.). Troy, N. Y. 


1910 


1899 


1879 


1910 


1907 


1902 


1914 


84 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Rogers, Robert William, A.B., Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D., S.T.D. Professor 
of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Drew Theological Semi- 
nary. Fell. Roy. Geog. Soc. Mem. Deut. Morgenland. Gesell., 
Deut. Orient. Gesell., Vorderasiat. Gesell. Madison, N. J. 


Rolfe, John Carew, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Latin Language and Lit- 
erature, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Philol. Assoc. 
(Pres’t, 1912). 4014 Pine St., Philadelphia. 


Roosevelt, Theodore, A.B., LL.D., Ph.D. (Berlin), D.C.L. (Oxford). 26th 


President of the United States. Medal—Nobel Laureate, Peace | 


(1906). Oyster Bay, N. Y. 


Root, Elihu, A.M., LL.D., D.C.L. (Oxford). U. S. Senator from N. Y., 
1909-15, Mem. Permanent Court of Arbitration at Hague, Presi- 
dent Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Mem. Am. 
Bar Assoc. (Pres’t, 1915). Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Medal 
—Nobel Laureate, Peace, 1912. 1 E. 8rst St., New York City. 


Rosa, Edward Bennett, Sc.D., Ph.D. Chief Physicist, National Bureau 
of Standards. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Inst. of Elec. Eng., Am. 
Phys. Soc., Illum. Eng. Soc., Soc. Frang. de Phys., Wash. Acad. 
Sci, Wash. Philos. Soc. National Bureau of Standards, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Rosengarten, Joseph George, A.B., LL.D. 1704 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 


Rothrock, Joseph T., B.S.. M.D. Formerly Professor of Botany, Uni- 
versity of Bin aitranth: Commissioner of Forestry, of Pennsyl- 
vania. West Chester, Pa. 

Rowe, Leo S., A.B., B.S., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Political Science, 
University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. Acad. of Polit. and Soc. 
Sci. (Pres’t), Am. Soc. Int. Law, Nat. Inst. of Soc. Sci. Hon. Mem. 
Mexican Geog. Soc., Nat. Hist. Soc. of Argentina. University 
Dormitories, 37th and Spruce Sts., Philadelphia. 


Russell, Henry Norris, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Astronomy and Di- 
rector of Observatory, Princeton University. Mem. Astron. Soc. 
of Am., Internat. Union for Solar Research. For. Assoc. Roy. 
Astron. Soc. of Lond. 79 Alexander St., Princeton, N. J. 


Sachse, Julius F., Litt.D. 4428 Pine St., Philadelphia. 


Sadtler, Samuel P., S.B., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor Emeritus of Chem- 
istry, Phila. College of Pharmacy. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc., Am. 
Electro-Chem. Soc., Soc. Chem. Industry, Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. 
(Past-Pres’t). 210 S. 13th St., Philadelphia. 


Sajous, Charles E. de M., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D. Fell. Coll. Phys., Phila. 
Mem. Am. Laryngol. Soc. 2043 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 


Sampson, Alden. 7 W. 43d St., New York City. 


Sanders, Richard H., M.E. Mem. Am. Inst. Mining Eng., Mining and 
Metallurgical Soc. of Am. 1225 Locust St., Philadelphia. 


1890 


1907 


1906 


1912 


1891 
1877 


IQII 


1913 


1894 
1874 


1888 


1897 
1897 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


35 


Date of 
Election 


Sargent, Charles Sprague, A.B., LL.D. Director of the Arnold Arbore- 
tum and Professor of Arboriculture, Harvard University. Fell. 
Am, Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Mass. Soc. for 
Prom. Agric. (Pres’t). For. Mem. Linn. Soc., Lond., Soc. Nat. 
de Agric. de France. Jamaica Plain, Mass. 


Schelling, Felix E., M.A., Litt.D., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of English 
Literature, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Modern Lang. 
Assoc. of Am. (Pres’t, 1913-14), Am. Inst. Arts and Letters. Col- 
lege Hall, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 


Schlesinger, Frank, B.S., M.A., Ph.D.. Director of Allegheny Observa- 
tory, University of Pittsburgh. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. Astron. 
Soc. For. Assoc. Roy. Astron. Soc., Astron. Gesell. Allegheny 
Observatory, Pittsburgh, Pa. 


Schuchert, Charles, M.A., LL.D. Professor of Palaeontology, Yale Uni- 
versity. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Wash. Acad. Sci., Conn. Acad. 
Sci., Geolog. Soc. of Wash., Biolog. Soc., Wash., Geolog. Soc. of 
Am. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Yale University, New Haven, 
Conn. 


Schurman, Jacob Gould, A.M., Sc.D., LL.D. President of Cornell Uni- 
versity. Ithaca, N. Y. 


deSchweinitz, George E., AM., M.D., LL.D. Professor of Ophthalmol- 
ogy, University of Pennsylvania. Fell. Coll. Phys., Phila. (Pres’t 
1910-13), Mem. Am. Ophthalmol. Soc. (Pres’t 1916). Medal— 
Alvarenga Prize (Coll. Phys., Phila, 1896). 1705 Walnut St., 
Philadelphia, ; 


Scott, Charles Felton, A.B. Professor of Electrical Engineering, Shef- 
field Scientific School, Yale University. Mem. Am. Inst. Elect. 
Eng., Engin. Soc. Western Penna. (Pres’t, 1902). 284 Orange St., 
New Haven, Conn. 


Scott, William Berryman, M.A., Ph.D. (Heidel.), D.Sc. (Harvard and 
Oxford), LL.D.. Professor of Geology, Princeton University. Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci., Geol. Soc. of Am., Paleont. Soc. of Am., Geol. 
Soc., Lond., Zoolog. Soc., Lond., Linnean Soc., Lond. Medals— 
E. K. Kane (Geog. Soc. of Phila.) ; Wollaston (Geol. Soc., Lond., 
1909). 158 Nassau St., Princeton, N. J. 


Seares, Frederick Hanley, B.S. Superintendent, Computing Division, 
Solar Observatory, Carnegie Institution. Mem. Am. Astr. Soc., 
Astr. Soc. of Pacific, Wash. Acad. Sci., Soc. Astron. de France, 
Astron. Gesell. Solar Observatory Office, Pasadena, Cal. 


Sedgwick, William Thompson, Ph.D., Sc.D. Professor of Biology and 
Public Health, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Mem. Soc. 
Am. Bact., Am. Soc. of Naturalists. Fell, Am, Acad. Arts and Sci. 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. 


1882 


1902 


IgI2 


1913 


1912 


1898 


1886 


1917 


IQII 


36 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of _ 


Election 


See, T. J. J.. A.M., M.Sc., Ph.D. (Berlin). Professor of Mathematics, 
U. S. N., in charge of Naval Observatory, Mare Island, Cal. Fell. 
Roy. Astr. Soc. Mem. Astr. Gesell., Lond. Math. Soc., Am. Math. 
Soc., Deut. Math. Verein., Soc. Math. de France, Circolo Math. di 
Palermo, Calcutta Math. Soc., Wash. Acad. Sci., Philos. Soc., 
Wash., Am. Phys. Soc., Soc. Frang. de Phys., Soc. Astr. de France, 
Astron. Soc. of Pacific, Calif. Acad. Sci., Seismolog. Soc. of Am. 
Mare Island, Cal. 


Sellers, Coleman, Jr., M.S. President and Engineer of William Sellers 
& Co., Inc. Mem, Am. Soc. Mechan. Eng. 3301 Baring St., Phila- 
delphia. 


Sharples, Stephen Paschall, M.S. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. 
Am. Inst. Mining Eng., Am. Inst. Chem. Eng., Am. Chem. Soc., 
Soc. of Industrial Chem. 26 Broad St., Boston, Mass. 


Sherwood, Andrew. Corr. Mem. N. Y. Acad. Sci. The Rosemont, 
E. 69th St., N., Portland, Ore. 


’ Sigsbee, Charles Dwight. Rear-Admiral U. S. Navy. U. S. Navy De- 
partment, Washington, D. C. 


Smith, A. Donaldson, A.B., M.D. Medals—Cullum (Am. Geog. Soc.) ; 
Kane (Phila. Geog. Soc.); Patron’s (Roy. Geog. Soc. Lond.). 
Care S. H. Thomas, Esq., 308 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 


Smith, Allen J., A.M., M.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of Pathology. Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania. Fell. Coll. Phys., Philas Mem. Am. Soc. 
of Path. and Bact. Corr. Mem. Roy. Soc. of Hygiene (Madrid). 
Medical School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 


Smith, Edgar Fahs, Ph.D., Chem.D., Sc.D., L.H.D., LL.D. Provost and 
Professor of .Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania. Mem. Nat. 
Acad. Sci., Am. Chem. Soc. (Pres’t, 1898), Deut. Chem. Gesell. 
Medal—Elliott Cresson (Franklin Inst., 1914). University of Penn- 
sylvania, Philadelphia. 


Smith, Erwin Frink, B.S., Sc.D. Pathologist in charge of. Laboratory 
of Plant Pathology, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry. Mem. Soc. 
for Plant Morph. and Physiol. (Past-Pres’t), Soc. of Am. Bac- 
teriologists (Pres’t, 1906), Botan. Soc. of Am., Am. Phytopath. 
Soc., Nat. Acad. Sci. Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 


Smith, Stephen, A.M., M.D., LL.D. Mem. Am. Pub. Health Assoc. 
(Past-Pres’t). 260 W. 76th St., New York City. 


Smith, Theobald, Ph.B., M.D., A.M., LL.D., Sc.D. Director of Depart- 
ment of Animal Pathology, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Re- 
search. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Assoc. of Am. Phys., Assoc. of 
Am. Path. and Bact., Soc. for Exper. Biol. and Med., Fell. Am. 


1897 


1875 
1899 


1897 


1907 


1887 


1916 


1875 


1915 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


37 


Date of 


Acad. Arts and Sci., Hon. Fell. Soc. Trop. Med. and Hygiene, 
Lond. Hon. Mem. Soc. Path. Exotique, Paris. 42 Cleveland 
Lane, Princeton, N. J. 


Smock, John C., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. Former State Geologist of New 
Jersey. Mem. Am. Inst. Mining Eng., Geol. Soc. of Am., Roy. Soc. 
of Arts, Lond. Hudson, N. Y. 


Smyth, Charles Henry, Jr., A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Geology, Prince- 
ton University. Mem. Geol. Soc. of Am., N. Y. Acad. Sci., Wash. 
Acad. Sci. Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. 


Smyth, Herbert Weir, A.B., Ph.D. (Gott.). Professor of Greek Litera- 
ture, Harvard University. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Mem. 
Am. Philol. Assoc. (Pres’t, 1904-05). 15 Elmwood Ave., Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 


Snyder, Monroe B., M.A. Director of Philadelphia Observatory and 
Professor of Astronomy, Central High School, Phila. 2402 N. 
Broad St., Philadelphia. 


Spitzka, Edward Anthony, M.D. Late Professor of Anatomy, Jeffer- 
son Medical College, Phila. Mem. Assoc. Am. Anatomists. 63 E. 
gist St., New York City. 


Squier, George Owen, Ph.D. Brigadier-General and Chief Signal 
Officer, U. S. A. Mem. Am. Inst. Elect. Eng., Inst. of Radio- 
Eng. War Department, Washington, D. C. 


Steinmetz, Charles P.,A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Electro-Physics, Union 
College, Schenectady, Chief Consulting Engineer General Electric 
Co. Mem. Am. Inst. Elect. Eng. (Past-Pres’t), Illum. Eng. Soc., 
Am. Math. Soc., Am. Phys. Soc., Am. Chem. Soc., Soc. of Mech. 
Eng., German and English Elect. Eng. Societies. Medal—Elliott 
Cresson (Franklin Institute). Wendell Ave., Schenectady, N. Y. 


Stengel, Alfred, M.D., Sc.D. Professor of Medicine, University of 
Pennsylvania. Mem. Assoc. of Am. Phys., Assoc. of Pathol. and 
Bact. 1728 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Stephens, Henry Morse, M.A. (Oxon.), Litt.D. (Harv.). Professor of 
History, University of California. Mem. Am. Hist. Assoc (Pres’t, 
1915), Acad. of Pacific Coast Hist, Mass. Hist. Soc. Faculty 
Club, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. 


Stevens, W. LeConte, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Physics, Washington 
and Lee University, Lexington, Va. Mem. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Roy. 
Microscop. Soc. Lexington, Va. 


Stevenson, John James, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor Emeritus of 
Geology, New York University. Mem. Geol. Soc. of Am. (Past- 
Pres’t), N. Y. Acad. Sci. (Past-Pres’t), Corr. Mem. Academies at 
Phila., San Francisco, Moscow, Halle, Padua, Palermo, Breslau, 


Election 


1897 
1908 


1908 


1884 
1908 
IQI7 


1917 


1903 
1897 
1884 


1877 


38 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


and of Geol. Societies of Edinburgh, Liverpool, Brussels, St. Peters- 
burg and Budapest. 215 W. rorst St., New York City. 


Stevenson, Sara Yorke, Sc.D. Off. d’Instruct. Pub. de la République 
Francaise. 237 S. 21st St., Philadelphia. 


Stillwell, Lewis Buckley, Sc.D. Mem. Am. Inst. Elect. Eng. (Past- 
Pres’t), Brit. Inst. Elect. Eng., Am. Soc. Civil Eng. 100 Broadway, 
New York City. 


Stone, Witmer, A.M., Sc.D. Curator, Academy of Natural Sciences, 
Phila. Fell. Am. Ornith Union. For. Mem. Brit. Ornith. Union. 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Logan Square, Philadelphia. 


Stratton, Samuel W., D.Sc. Director of National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington. Mem. Am. Inst. Elect. Eng., Am. Soc. Mechan. 
Eng., Am. Phys. Soc. Medal—Elliott Cresson (Franklin Institute). 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. 


Straus, Oscar S., A.M., LL.D., Litt.D. Member of the Permanent Court 
of Arbitration at the Hague. Formerly Ambassador to Turkey. 
Mem. Am. Soc. Sci. Assoc. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Soc. Internat. Law. 
5 W. 76th St., New York City. 


Sulzberger, Mayer, M.A., LL.D., D.H.L. Formerly President Judge of 
the Court of Common Pleas (No. 2) of Pennsylvania. Mem. Am. 
Orient. Soc., Am. Bar. Assoc., Am. Jewish Hist, Soc. 1303 Girard 
Ave., Philadelphia. 


Taft, William Howard, B.A.,LL.D.,D.C.L. 27th President of the United 
States. Kent Professor of Law, Yale University. Mem. Am. Bar 
Assoc. (Pres’t, 1913). Hotel Taft, New Haven, Conn. 


Taylor, Alonzo Englebert, M.D. Professor of Physiological Chemistry, 
University of Pennsylvania. School of Medicine, University of 
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 


Tesla, Nikola, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc. 8 W. goth St., New York City. 


Thaxter, Roland, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, Har- 
vard University. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Nat. Acad. 
Sci., Bot. Soc. of Am. (Past-Pres’t), Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Am. 
Phytopath. Soc., Deut. Botan. Gesell. Medal—Prix Desmaziéres. 
7 Scott St., Cambridge, Mass. 


Thomson, Elihu, A.M., Ph.D., D.Sc. Consulting Engineer, General Elec- 
tric Co. Fell. Am. Acad. Art's and Sci. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Am. 
Inst. Elect. Eng. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Astron. Soc., Am. Geog. Soc., 
Inst. of Civil Eng. (Gt. Br.), Inst. of Elect. Eng. (Gt. Br.), Soe. 
Int. des Electric. (Paris). Medals—Grand Prix (Paris, 1889, 
1900) ; Rumford (1901) ; John Scott Legacy (Franklin Inst., 1888, 
1901); Edison (1909); Elliott Cresson (Franklin Inst., 1912) ; 
Grand Prize Louisiana Purchase Expos. (St. Louis, 1904), Omaha 
Expos. (1898); John Fritz (1916). 22 Monument Ave., Swamp- 
scott, Mass. ' 


1895 
1898 


1913 


1904 


1917 


1895 


1909 


1917 


1896 


1912 


1876 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


39 


Date of 


Titchener, Edward Bradford, D.Sc. (Oxon), Ph.D. (Leipzig), LL.D., 
Litt.D. Professor of Psychology in. Graduate School, Cornell Uni- 
versity. Fell. Zoolog. Soc., Roy. Soc. of Med., Aristotelian Soc., 
Am. Psychol. Assoc. Cornell Heights, Ithaca, N. Y. 


Tittmann, Otto Hilgard, D.Sc., LL.D. Formerly Superintendent U. S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey. Mem. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Wash. 
Acad. Sci. (Pres’t, 1913), Philos. Soc. of Wash. (Pres’t, 1899), 
Astrophys. Soc. of Am. Hon. Mem. Berlin. Gesell. fiir Erdkunde. 
Leesburg, Va. 


_ Tower, Hon. Charlemagne, A.B., LL.D. (Glasgow, St. Andrews). For- 
merly U. S. Ambassador to Germany. Mem. Hist. Soc. of Penna. 
(Pres’t). Medals—Grand Officer, Legion of Honor of France, 
Grand Cordon, St. Alex. Newski, Russia, Grand Cross of Order 
of Osmanie, Grand Cross of the Order of Merit, Oldenburg. 228 
S. Seventh St., Philadelphia. 


Trelease, William, Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of Botany, University of 
Illinois. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Bot. 
Soc. of Am. (Past-Pres’t), Am. Soc. of Naturalists (Pres’t, 1903), 
Acad. Sci., St. Louis (Pres’t, 1909 and 1911), Acad. Internat. de 
Geog. Bot., Bot. Soc. of Am. (Pres’t, 1896). University of Illinois, 
Urbana, IIl. ; 


Trowbridge, Augustus, A.M. Ph.D. Professor of Physics, Princeton 
University. Fell. Am. Phys. Soc. Princeton University, Prince- 
ton, N. J. 


Trowbridge, John, S.D. Professor Emeritus and (Hon,).Director of 
the Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Harvard University. Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. (Pres’t). Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 


Tucker, Richard Hawley, C.E. Mem. Astron. Gesell., Astron. Soc. of 
the Pacific, Mexican Astron. Soc. Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamil- 
ton, Cal. 


Tyler, Lyon Gardiner, AM., LL.D. President of William and Mary 
College. Mem. Am. Antiq. Soc., Am. Hist. Assoc. Corr. Mem. 
Mass. Hist. Soc. William and Mary College, Williamsburg, Va. 


Tyson, James, A.M., M.D., LL.D. Professor Emeritus of Medicine, 
University of Pennsylvania. Fell. Coll. Phys., Phila. (Pres’t, 1907- 
10), Mem. Assoc. Am. Phys. (Pres’t, 1907-08). 1506 Spruce St., 
Philadelphia. 


Van Hise, Charles Richard, B.M.E., MS., Ph.D. President of the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Wash. Acad. Sci., 
Scientific Soc. of Christiania, Roy. Swedish Acad. Sci., Geolog. 
Soc. Am. (Pres’t, 1907), Geolog. Soc., Lond., Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts 
and Letters (Pres’t, 1893-96), Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., A. Phe, ep 
(Pres’t, 1916). University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 


Election 


1906 


1895 


1903 


IQII 


1896 


1908 


1889 


1887 


1909 


40 - LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 


Vauclain, Samuel M., D.Sc. Mem. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Am. Soc. Min. 
Eng., Am, Soc. Mech. Eng., Soc. Civ. Eng., Lond. 500 N. Broad 
St., Philadelphia. 


Vaughan, Victor Clarence, M.S., Ph.D., M.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of 
Hygiene and Physiological Chemistry, University of Michigan, 
Pres’t Mich. State Board of Health. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Soc. 
Francaise d’Hygiéne, Hungarian Soc. of Hygiene, Assoc. Amer. 
Phys. 221 S. State St., Ann Arbor, Mich. 


Vaux, George, Jr., S.B., LL.B. Gulph Road, Bryn Mawr, Pa. 


Veblen, Oswald, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Mathematics, Princeton Uni- 
versity. Mem. Am. Math. Soc., Circolo Matemat. di Palermo, Soc. 
de Mathémat. de France. Princeton, N. J. 


Venable, Francis P., A.M., Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of Chemistry, 
University of North Carolina. Mem. Amer. Chem. Soc. (Pres’t, 
1905), Lond. Chem. Soc., Deut. Chem. Gesell. Chapel Hill, N. C. 


Wagner, Samuel, A.M. President of Wagner Free Institute of Science. 
209 Franklin Bldg., 133 S. 12th St., Philadelphia. 


Walcott, Charles Doolittle, Sc.D. (Cantab. and Harv.), Ph.D. (Roy. Fred- 
ericks, Christiania), LL.D. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, Director of U. S. Geological Survey, 1894-1907. Mem. Nat. 
Acad. Sci., Geol. Soc. of Am., Wash, Acad. Sci. (Pres’t, 1899-1910), 
Geolog. Soc., Lond., Accad. dei Lincei, Christiania Scient. Soc., 
Imp. Soc. of Nat. of Moscow, Astron. Soc. of Mex. Fell. Am. 
Acad. Arts and Sci. Medals—Hayden (Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila.) ; 
Bigsby (Geolog; Soc., Lond.). Smithsonian Institution, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 


Ware, Lewis S. Mem. Assoc. des Chimistes de Sucrerie (France). 
54 Rue de la Bienfaisance, Paris, France. 


Warfield, Ethelbert D., A.M., LL.D., Litt.D. President of Wilson Col- 
lege. Mem, Am. Hist. Soc. Wilson College, Chambersburg, Pa. 


Webster, Arthur Gordon, A.B., Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of Physics, 
Clark University. Fell. Am, Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Nat. Acad. 
Sci., Am. Phys. Soc. (Pres’t, 1903-05), Am. Math. Soc., Deut. Math. 
Verein., Circolo Matemat. di Palermo. Clark University, Worces- 
ter, Mass, : 


Welch, William Henry, A.B., M.D., LL.D. Professor of Pathology, 
Johns Hopkins University, President State Board of Health, Mary- 
land, Board of Scientific Directors, Rockefeller Inst. for Med. 
Research. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. 
(Past-Pres’t), A. A. A. S. (Past-Pres’t), A. M. A, (Past-Pres’t), 
Cong. of Am, Phys. and Surg. (Past-Pres’t), Assoc. of Am. Phys. 
(Past-Pres’t), Royal Soc. of Med. Lond. Medals—Ritter des 


1899 
1909 
1897 
IgI2 


1905 


1881 
1897 


1906 


1896 


MEMBERS RESIDING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES 


41 


Date of 
Election 


K6nigl. Kronen-Orden 2 ter cl., Order of the Rising Sun, Japan, 
3d cl. 807 St. Paul St., Baltimore, Md. 


Wheeler, William Morton, Ph.D., Sc.D. Professor of Economic Ento- 
mology, Bussey Institution for Applied Biology, Harvard Univer- 
sity. Hon. Cur. of Social Insects, Am. Mus. Nat, Hist. Fell. Am. 
Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci, N. Y. Acad. Sci., 


Havana Acad. Sci. Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Boston, Mass. © 


White, Andrew D., A.B., LL.D., L.H.D., Ph.D. (Jena), D.C.L. (Oxon.). 
President Cornell University, 1865-85. Hon. Mem. Roy. Acad. 
Sci. (Berl.). Mem. Am. Soc. Sci. Assoc. (Past-Pres’t), Mass. Hist. 
Soc., Am. Acad. Arts and Letters. Medal—Gold of Prussia for 
Arts and Sci., Officier Legion d’Honneur. 23 East Ave., Ithaca, 
ae 


White, Israel C., A.M., Ph.D. State Geologist of West Virginia. Mem. 
Geolog. Soc. of Am., Am. Geog. Soc., Am. Inst. Mining Eng. 147 
Willey St., Morgantown, West Virginia. 


Whitfield, J. Edward, Ph.D. 406 Locust St., Philadelphia. 


Wilder, Burt G., B.S., M.D. Professor Emeritus of Neurology and 
Vertebrate Zoology, Cornell University. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. 
Hist. Am. Neurol. Assoc. (Pres’t, 1885), Assoc. Amer. Anat. 
(Pres’t, 1808). 93 Waban Hill Road, Chestnut Hill, Mass. 


Wiley, Harvey W., AM. S.B., M.D., Ph.D., D.Sc., LL.D. President 
U. S. Pharmacopoeial Convention. Mem. Am. Chem. Soc. (Past- 
Pres’t). Medals—Elliott Cresson (Franklin Inst.) ; Chevalier du 
Mérite Agricole; Chev. de Legion d’Honneur. Cosmos Club, 
Washington, D.C. 


Willcox, Joseph. The Gladstone, Philadelphia. 


Williams, Edward Higginson, Jr., B.A., B.S., E.M., Sc.D., LL.D. Mem. 
Am. Inst. Mining Eng., Geolog. Soc. of Am. Westerdale, Wood- 
stock, Vt. 


Williams, Talcott, A.B., L.H.D., LL.D. Director of School of Journal- 
ism, Columbia University. Mem. Am. Orient. Soc, Am. Acad. 
Polit. and Soc. Sci. School of Journalism, Columbia University, 
New York. 

Willis, Bailey, E.M., Ph.D. (Berl.). Geologist, U. S. Geological Sur- 


vey. Professor of Geology, Stanford University. Medal—Soc. 
Géog. de France. Stanford University, California. 


Willis, Henry, A.M. Professor of History, Central High School, Phila. 
Mem. Am. Hist. Assoc. 4036 Baring St., Philadelphia. 


Wilson, Edwin Bidwell, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Mathematics, Mas- 
sachusetts Institute of Technology. Mem. Am. Math. Soc., Soc. 


1916 


1869 


1878 


1905 
1878 


1904 


1895 


1897 


1888 


1905 


1890 


1917 


42 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of — 
Election 


de Mathémat. de France, Deut. Math. Verein., Circolo Matemat. di 
Palermo, Lond. Math. Soc., Am. Phys. Soc., Soc. Frang. de Phys. 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. 


Wilson, Harold Albert, M.A. (Cantab.), D.Sc. Professor of Physics, 1914 
Rice Institute, Fell. Royal Soc. Mem. Cambridge Philos. Soc., 
Phys. Soc., Lond., Soc. Frang. de Phys., Am. Phys. Soc. Rice In- 
stitute, Houston, Tex. 


Wilson, James Cornelius, A.M., M.D. Professor Emeritus of Medicine 1885 
in Jefferson Medical College. Mem. Assoc. Am. Phys. (Past- 
Pres’t), Fell. Coll. of Phys., Phila. (Past-Pres’t). 1509 Walnut 
St., Philadelphia. 


Wilson, William Powell, B.S., Dr.Sc. (Tiib.). Director of the Phila- 1887 
delphia Museums. Mem. Botan. Soc. of Am., Wash. Acad. Sci., : 
Deut. Botan. Gesell. Commercial Museum, 34th St. bel. spr 
St., Philadelphia. 


Wilson, Woodrow, A.M., LL.D., Litt.D. 28th President of the United 1807 
States. Formerly President of Princeton University and Governor 
of New Jersey. The White House, Washington, D. C. 


Wister, Owen, A.M., LL.D., Litt.D. 1004 West End Trust Bldg., Phila- 1897 
delphia. 


Witmer, Lightner, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Psychology and Director 1807 
of the Laboratory of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania. 
Mem, Am. Psycholog. Assoc. 2426 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 


Wood, Robert Williams, A.B., LL.D. Professor of Experimental Physics, 1908 
Johns Hopkins University. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. 
Nat. Acad. Sci, Am. Phys. Soc., Am, Astr. and Astrophys. Soc., 
Solway Inst. of Physics (Brussels). Corr. Mem. Roy. Soc., Gét- 
tingen. Hon. Fell. Roy. Microscop. Soc. (Lond.). _Medals—Rum- 
ford (Lond. Soc. of Arts) ; John Scott (Franklin Institute, Phila.). 
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 


Woodward, Robert Simpson, C.E., Ph.D., LL.D., Sc.D. President of the 1902 
Carnégie Institution of Washington. Mem. A. A. A. S. (Pres'’t, 
1901), Am. Math. Soc. (Pres’t, 1898-1900), Geolog. Soc. of Am., 

Am. Phys. Soc., N. Y. Acad. Sci. (Pres’t, 1902), Wash. Acad. Sci. 
Pres’t, 1915), Nat. Acad. Sci. Fell, Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C. 


Wright, Frederick E., Ph.D. (Heidel.). Petrologist, Geophysical Labo- 1914 
ratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Geologist, U. S. Geol. 
Surv. Fell. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Mem. Am. Phys. Soc., Am, 
Chem. Soc., Am. Math. Soc., Geolog. Soc. of Am., Am. Inst. Min- 
ing Eng., Wash. Acad. Sci. 2134 Wyoming Ave., Washington, D.C. 


dens, London, W., England. 


FOREIGN MEMBERS 43 
Date of 
— Election 

Wurts, Alexander J., Ph.B. M.E. Professor and Head of Department 1899 
of Electrical Engineering, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pitts- 
burgh. Mem. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng. Medal—John Scott (Franklin 
Inst., Phila.). 1764 Shady Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Wyckoff, Ambrose Barkley. Lieutenant U. S: N. (retired). 13z E. H 1886 
St., Ontario, Cal. 

Zeleny, John, B.S., Ph.D., B.A. (Cantab.), M.A. Professor of Physics, 1915 

Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University. Mem. Am. Phys. Soc. 
Assoc. Mem. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 44 Cold Spring St., New 
Haven, Conn. 

FOREIGN MEMBERS 

Adam, Lucien. 41 Bard Sevigné, Rennes, France. - 1886 

Adams, Frank Dawson, D.Sc., Ph.D. Professor of Geology, McGill 1916 
University. McGill University, Montreal, Canada. 

Arrhenius, Svante August, Dr.Phil. Juris et Med. Director of the to11 
Physico-Chemical Department of the Nobel Institute. Medal— 
Nobel Laureate, Chemistry (1903). Nobel Institute, Experi- 
mentalfallet, near Stockholm, Sweden. 

von Baeyer, Adolf, Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry, University of Mu- 1910 
nich. Medal—Nobel Laureate, Chemistry (1905). Arotisstrasse I, - 
Munich, Bavaria. 

Balfour, Rt. Hon. Arthur James, LL.D., D.Cl. 4 Carlton Gardens, S.W., 10917 
London, Eng. 

Bonaparte, Prince Roland. 10 Ave d’Jena 22, Paris, France. 1895 

Broegger, Waldemar Christofer. Professor of Mineralogy and Geology, 1899 
Kong. Frederiks Universitet. Christiania, Norway. 

Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, Viscount, 0.M., D.C.L. Hindleap, Forest Row, 1895 
Sussex, England. 

Budge, E. A. Wallis, M.A., Litt.D. British Museum, London, England. 1895 

Canizzaro, Tomaso. Villa San Guiseppe 40, Catania, Sicily. 1885 

Capellini, Giovanni. Professor of Geology and Palaeontology, Bologna 1873 
University. Rue Medal Hayden, 1896, Bologna, Italy. 

deCharencey, Comte Hyacinth. 25 rue Barbet de Jouy, Paris, France. 1886 

Cora, Guido. Professor of Geography, R. Universita, Rome. 18r Via 1886 
Nazionale, Rome, Italy. 

Crookes, Sir William, Kt., 0.M., LL.D., D.Sc. 17 Kensington Park Gar- 1886 


44 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 

Curie, Marie Sklodowska, D.Sc., LL.D. Professor of Physics, Univer- 1910 
sity of Paris. Medal—Nobel Laureate, Physics (1903) ; Chemistry, 
(1911). 12 Rue Cuvier, Paris, France. 

Darwin, Sir Francis, Kt., M.A., Sc.D., LL.D., Ph.D. 10 Madingley Road, 1909 
Cambridge, England. 

Dawkins, W. Boyd, M.A., D.Sc. Hon. Professor of Geology and Pa- 1880 
laeontology, Victoria University, Manchester. Fallowfield House, 
Fallowfield, Manchester, England. 

deBar, Hon. Edouard Séve. Ramsgate, England. 1882 

Delage, Yves. Professor of Zoology, Université de Paris. Université 1905 
de Paris, Station Zoologique de Roscoff, Paris, France. 

Delitzsch, Friedrich, Ph.D. Professor of Assyriology, University of 1904 
Berlin. University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany. 

Dewar, Sir James, Kt., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc. Professor of Natural Ex- 1899 

- perimental Philosophy, University of Cambridge. 1 Scroope Ter- 
race, Cambridge, England. 

Diels, Hermann, Dr.Phil., M.D., LL.D. Professor of Classics, Univer- 1909 
sity of Berlin. Niirnbergerstr. 65, II, Berlin W., 50, Germany. 

Engler, Adolf, Ph.D. Professor of Botany, University of Berlin. 1906 
Berlin-Dahlem, Botanischer Garten, Germany. 

d’Estournelles de Constant, Baron. 78 bis Ave. Henri Martin, Paris, 1907 
France. 

Evans, Sir Arthur John, Kt., M.A., D.Litt., LL.D. Extr. Professor of 1913 
Prehistoric Archaeology, Oxford. Youlbury, Oxford, England. 

Fennell, C. A. M., Litt.D. Mayfield, Great Shelford, Cambridge, Eng- 1895 
land. 

Fischer, Emil, Ph.D., M.D. Professor of Chemistry, University of 1909 
Berlin. Medal—Nobel Laureate, Chemistry, 1902. Hessischestr. 

2, Berlin, Germany. 

Forbes, George, M.A. (Cantab.). Formerly Professor of Natural Phi- 1891 
losophy, Anderson’s College, Glasgow. 11 Little College St., West- 
minster, S. W., London, England. 

Foster, George Carey, LL.D., D.Sc. Formerly Professor of Physics, 1907 
University College, London. Ladywalk, Rickmansworth, Herts, 
England. 

Geikie, Sir Archibald, 0.M., K.C.B., Sc.D., LL.D., D.C.L. Late Director- 1880 


General of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. Shepherd's 
Down, Haslemere, Surrey, England. 


FOREIGN MEMBERS 


45 


Date of 
Election 


Glazebrook, Sir Richard Tetley, Kt., C.B., M.A., Sc.D. Director of the 1895 


National Physical Laboratory. Bushy House, Teddington, Middle- 
sex, England. 


de Gregorio, Marquis Antonio. A/ Molo, Palermo, Sicily. 


Haeckel, Ernst, Ph.D., M.D., LL.D. Professor of Zoology, University of 
Jena. Jena University, Jena, Germany. 


Hilprecht, Hermann V., Ph.D.,D.D., LL.D. Formerly Professor of Com- 
parative Semitic Philology, University of Pennsylvania. Leopoldstr. 
8, Munich, Bavaria. 


Johannsen, Wilhelm L. Professor of Plant Physiology, Copenhagen 
University. The University, Copenhagen, Denmark. 


Jusserrand, Jean Adrien Antoine Jules, LL.D. French Ambassador. 
French Embassy, Washington, D. C. 


Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius. Professor of Astronomy, Royal Univer- 
sity of Gréningen. Grdéningen, Holland. 


Karpinsky, Alexandre Petrovitch. Hon. Director of the Russian Geo- 
logical Survey. Geological Survey, Petrograd, Russia. 


Kitasato, Shibasaburo, M.D. Director of the Kitasato Institute for 
Infectious Diseases. Kitasato Institute for Infectious Diseases, 
Tokyo, Japan. 


Krauss, Friedrich S. vii/2 Neustiftgasse 12, Vienna, Austria. 


Lanciani, Rodolfo, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of Ancient Topogra- 
phy, University of Rome, Senator of the Kingdom. 24 Piazzo 
Sallustio, Rome, Italy. — 


Lankester, Sir Edwin Ray, K.C.B. M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. Late Director 
of the Natural History Departments, British Museum. 29 Thurloe 
Place, S. W., London, England. 


Larmor, Sir Joseph, Kt., M.A.,D.Sc., LL.D.,D.C.L. Professor of Mathe- 
matics, University of Cambridge. St. Johns College, Cambridge, 
England. * 


Lockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc.D. Director of Hill Observa- 
tory. Hill Observatory, Salcombe Regis, Sidmouth, England. 


Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph, Kt., D.Sc., LL.D. Principal of the University 
of Birmingham. Mariemont, Edgebaston, Birmingham, England. 


Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon. Professor of Physics, University of Leyden. 
Medal—Nobel Laureate, Physics (1902) ; Franklin (Franklin In- 
stitute of Phila., 1917). 76 Zylweg, Haarlem, Holland. 


Macallum, Archibald Byron, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor 
of Biochemistry, University of Toronto. Room 157 West Depart- 
mental Block, Ottawa, Canada, 


1888 
1885 


_188€ 


1916 
1907 
1907 
1897 


1914 


1889 
1897 


1903 


1913 


1874 
IQOI 


1906 


1917 


46 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 

Mackenzie, Arthur Stanley. President of Dalhousie University, Hali- 1899 
fax, Nova Scotia. Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia. 

McMurrich, James Playfair, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Anatomy, 1907 
University of Toronto. Anatomical Laboratory, University of To- 
ronto, Toronto, Canada, | 

Marconi, Guglielmo, D.Sc., LL.D. Medal—Nobel Laureate, Physics 1901 
(1909). 18 Finch Lane, London, E. C., England. 

Mengarini, Guglielmo. Piazza Quirinale 14, Rome, Italy. 1898 

Meyer, Eduard, LL.D., D.Litt. Ph.D. Professor at the University of 1910 
Berlin. Berlin-Gross-Lichterfelde, Mommsenstr. 7, Germany. 

Nansen, Fridtjof, D.Sc., Ph.D., D.C.L. Professor of Oceanography, 1897 
Christiania University. Lysaker near Christiania, Norway. 

Néldeke, Theodor, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus of Semitic Philology, 1906 
University of Strassburg. University of Strassburg, Strassburg, 
Germany, 

Nordenskjéld, Otto, Ph.D. Professor of Geography, University of 1905 
Gothenburg, Géteborg 3, Sweden. 

Nys, Ernest, LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of International Law, University 1908 
of Brussels. 30 Rue Saint-Jean, Brussels, Belgium. 

Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh, Ph.D., D.Sc. Professor of Physics, Univer- 1914 
sity of Leyden. Medal—Nobel Laureate, Physics (1913) ; Franklin 
(Franklin Institute of Phila.,1915). Huizse ter Wetering, Haaweg, 
Leyden, Holland. 

Osler, Sir William, Bart., M.D., D.Sc. Regius Professor of Medicine, 1885 
University of Oxford. 13 Norham Gardens, Oxford, England. 

Ostwald, Wilhelm, D.Sc., LL.D. Professor Emeritus of Chemistry, 1912 
University of Leipzig. Medal—Nobel Laureate, Chemistry (1909). 
Gross-Bothen b. Leipzig, Germany. 

Pefiafiel, Antonio. Callején Betlemitas 8, Mexico, D. F., Mexico. 1886 

Penck, Albrecht 'F. K., Ph.D., D.Sc. Professor of Geography, Univer- 1908 
sity of Berlin. 7 Georgenstrasse 34, Berlin N. W., Germany, 

Petrie, William Matthew Flinders, D.C.L., Litt.D., LL.D. Professor of 1905 
Egyptology, University College, London. 8 Well Road, Hampstead, 

N. W., London, England. 

Pfeffer, Wilhelm F., Ph.D., M.D., Sc.D. Professor of Botany, Univer- 1909 
sity of Leipzig. Botanisches Institut, Leipzig, Germany. 

Picard, Charles Emile. Professor of Mathematics at the Sorbonne. I910 
4 Rue Joseph Bara VI, Paris, France. 

Postgate, John Percival, Litt.D. Professor of Comparative Philology, 1886 


University of London. 15 Linnet Lane, Liverpool, England. 


FOREIGN MEMBERS 


K. Universitet, Vienna, Austria. Universitet, Vienna, Austria. 


47 
Date of 
‘ v Election 

Prain, Sir David, M.A. M.B., LL.D. Director of the Royal Botanic 1917 
Gardens, Kew. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England. 

Rayleigh, Rt. Hon. John William Strutt, Lord, 0.M., M.A, Ph.D., Sc.D., 1886 
LL.D. Formerly Professor of Physics, University of Cambridge. 
Medal—Nobel Laureate, Physics (1904). Terling Place, Witham, 
Essex, England. 

Redwood, Sir Boverton, Bart., D.Sc. The Cloisters, 18 Avenue Road, 1898 
Regents Park, N. W., London, England. 

Retzius, Magnus Gustav, M.D. Late Professor of Anatomy, Caroline 1912 

_ Medico-Chirurgical Institute, Stockholm. 116 Drottninggatan, 
Stockholm, Sweden. 

Richardson, Owen Willans, M.A., D.Sc. Professor of Physics, Univer- 1910 
sity of London, King’s College. 4 Cannon Place, Hampstead, Lon- 
don, England. 

Rutherford, Sir Ernest, Kt., M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. Professor of Physics, 1904 
University of Manchester. Medal—Nobel Laureate, Chemistry 
(1908). 17 Wilmslow Road, Withington, Manchester, England. 

Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Honorary Professor of Physics, 1913 

University of Manchester. Yeldall, Twyford, Berks, England. 

Sergi, Giuseppe. Professor of Anthropology, R. Universita, Rome. 1885 
Museo e Laboratorio di Antropologia, Rome, Italy. 

Snellen, Herman, Jr. Professor of Ophthalmology, Rijks University. 1894 
Utrecht, Netherlands. 

Szombathy, Josef. Keeper of the Anthropologico-Ethnographic Sec- 1886 
tion, K. K. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum. Burgring 7, Vienna, 
Austria. 

Temple, Lt. Col. Sir Richard Carnac, Bart. The Nash, Worcester, 1886 
England. 
Thistleton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.C.M.G., M.A., Sc.D., Ph.D., 1905 
LL.D. Late Director, Royal .Botanic Gardens, Kew. The Ferns, 

Witcombe, Gloucester, England. 

-Thomson, Sir Joseph John, Kt., O.M., M.A., Sc.D., Ph.D., LL.D. Pro- 1903 
fessor of Experimental Physics, Cambridge University. Medal— 
Nobel Laureate, Physics (1906). Holmleigh, West Road, Cam- 
bridge, England. 

im Thurn, Sir Everard, K.C.M.G., M.A., LL.D. 39 Lexham Gerdans, W., 1885 
London, England. 

Trevelyan, Rt. Hon. Sir George Otto, Bart., O.M., LL.D., D.C.L. Wel- 1809 
combe, Stratford-on-Avon, England. 

Tschermak, Gustav v. Professor of Mineralogy and Petrography, K. 1882 


48 LIST OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Date of 
Election 

Turrettini, Theodore. Geneva, Switzerland. 1890 

Unwin, William Cawthorne, B.Sc., LL.D. Emeritus Professor of Engi- 1890 
neering at Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London 
Inst. Palace Gate Mansion, 29 Palace Gate, Kensington, London, 
England. 

van der Waals, Joannes Diderik, Ph.D. Professor of Theoretical 1916 
Physics, University of Amsterdam. Medal—Nobel Laureate, 
Physics (1910). The University, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 

Volterra, Vito, Ph.D. Professor of Physics, University of Rome. Via 1914 
in Lucina 17, Rome, Italy. 

de Vries, Hugo. Professor of Plant Physiology, University of Am- 1903 
sterdam. University, Amsterdam, Holland. 

Waldeyer, Wilhelm. Professor of Anatomy, University of Berlin. 1904 
Lutherstr. 35, Berlin W. 62, Germany, 

Woodward, Henry, LL.D. Late Keeper of the Department of Geology, 1874 
British Museum (Natural History). 13 Arundel Gardens, Notting 
Hill W., London, England. 

Wundt, Wilhelm, Ph.D. Formerly Professor of Philosophy, University 1805 


of Leipzig. Schwéigerichen Str. 17, Leipzig, Germany. 


Q American Philosophical 


tos 8 Society, Philadelphia 
P5 Proceedings 
v.56 
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