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HARVARD     UNIVERSITY. 


LIBRARY 


MUSEUM   OF  COMPARATIVE  ZOOLOGY. 


H'^RT. 


%^\^A>^^5\>u^>^^A^\0 


JUL     10    1905 

PROCEEDINGS 


American  Philosophical  Society 

HELD    AT    PHILADELPHIA 


PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE 


VOLUME    XLIX 
JANUARY    TO    DECEMBER 

I905 


PHILADELPHIA 
THE   AMERICAN    PHILOSOPHICAL   SOCIETY 

1905 


Press  of 
The  New  Era  printing  Comp 
Lancasier,  Pa 


PROCEEDINGS 


American  Philosophical  Society 


HELD    AT    PHILADELPHIA 


PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE 


VOLUME    XLIV 
JANUARY    TO    DECEMBER 

I905 


PHILADELPHIA 
THE   AMERICAN    PHILOSOPHICAL   SOCIETY 

1905 


PROCEEDINGS 

^A^Vt)  OF   THE 

AMERICAN  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY 

HELD    AT    PHILADELPHIA 

FOR    PROMOTING    USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE 

Vol.  XLIX.    .  January-April,  1905.  No.   179. 

CONTENTS. 

Stated  Meeting,  January  6  3 

Stated  Meeting,  January  20 4 

Stated  Meeting,  February  3 4 

Stated  Meeting,  February  17   4 

Stated  Meeting,  March  3 5 

Stated  Meeting,  March  17 5 

The    Filipino;     His    Customs   and    Character.      By    John  A. 

Metzger  6 

Sociology  of  the  Aborigines  of  Western  Australia.      By  R.  H. 

Mathews,  L.S 32 

Stated  Meeting,  April  y   ' 35 

General  Meeting,   April  12-14  35 

A  Plea  for  Governmental  Supervision  of  Posts  Necessitating  Nor- 
mal Perception  of  Color.     By  Charles  A.   Oliver 40 

Emancipation  of  the  Waterways.      By  Lewis  M.    Haupt 42 

The  Oligodynamic  Action  of  Copper  Foil  on  Certain  Intestinal 

Organisms.     By  Henry  Kraemer 51 

The  Effect  of  Preservatives  on  Metabolism.     By  H.  W.  Wiley, 

M.D 66 

Notes  on  the  Osteology  of  Sinopa ;  A  Primitive  Member  of 

the  Hyaenodontidae.     By  W.   D.   Matthew 69 

The   Marsupial   Fauna  of  the   Santa   Cruz  Beds.     By  Wm.   J. 

Sinclair 73 

The  Straight  Line  Concept.     By  P.  A.  Lambert .k 82 

PHILADELPHIA 

THE   AMERICAN   PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY 

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I905 


GENERAL    MEETING— 1906 

The  next  General  Meeting  of  the  Society  will  he  held  on  April  17-20. 
1906;  beginning  on  the  evening  of  Tuesday,  April  17. 

Wednesday,  April  iS,  will  be  devoted  to  the  presentation  and  discussion 
of  scientific  papers,  and  Thursday,  19  and  Friday,  20,  to  the  ceremonies 
connected  with  the  celebration  of  the  200th  Anniversary  of  the  Birth  of 
Benjamin  Franklin. 

Members  desiring  to  present  papers  on  subjects  of  science  at  the  Gen- 
eral Meeting  are  requested  to  communicate  with  the  Secretaries  at  the 
earliest  possible  date. 


Members  who  have  not  as  yet  sent  their  photographs  to  the  Society  will 
confer  a  favor  by  so  doing:  cabinet  size  preferred. 


It  is  requested  that  all  correspondence  be  addressed 
To  the  Secretaries  of  the 

AMERICAN   PHILOSOPHICAL   SOCIETY 
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PROCEEDINGS 

OF    THE 

AMERICAN  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY 

HELD   AT   PHILADELPHIA 
FOR   PROMOTING    USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE 


Vol.  XLIV.  January-April,  1905.  No.  179. 

Stated  Meeting,  January  6,   1905. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

The  resignation  of  membership  by  Prof.  Charles  De  Garmo, 
was  presented  and  accepted. 

The  decease  of  the  following  members  was  announced  : 
Prof.  Benjamin  W.  Frazier,  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  on  January 

4,  1905,  aet.  64. 
Edward   H.  Weil,   at   Philadelphia,   on  January  5,    1905, 
aet.  68. 
The  Judges  of  the  Annual   Election  of  Officers  and  Coun- 
cillors reported  that  an  election  had  been  held  on  the  afternoon 
of  this  day  and  that  the  following  named  members  had  been 
elected  to  be  the  officers  for  the  ensuing  year  : 

President 
Edgar  F,  Smith. 

Vice-Presidents 
George  F.  Barker,  William  B.  Scott,  Simon  Newcomb. 

Secretaries 

I.    Minis  Hays,   Edwin  G.   Conklin,  Arthur  W.    Goodspeed, 

Morris  Jastrow,  Jr. 

3 


4  MINUTES.  [March  17, 

Curators 

Charles  L.  Doolittle,  William  P.  Wilson,  Albert  H.  Smyth. 

Treasurer  ' 

Henry  La  Barre  Jayne. 

Councillors  to  serve  for  three  years 

George  F.   Edmunds,   James  T.   Mitchell,   Joseph    Wharton, 

William  W.  Keen. 


Stated  Meeting,  January  20,  zpoj. 
President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

The  decease  of  the  following  members  was  announced  : 
Sir  Lowthian  Bell,    Bart,   at  North  Allerton,  Eng.,   on 
December  20,  1904,  set.  88. 
Dr.  C.  Juhlin  Dannefeld,  of  Stockholm. 
The  following  papers  were  read  : 
"  Biblical  Pessimism,"  by  Prof.  Paul  Haupt. 
"Universal  Radio-Activity,"  by  Prof.  M.  B.  Snyder. 


Stated  Meeting,  February  3,  1903. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair 

The  decease  was  announced  of  Mr.  William  Sellers,  at 
Philadelphia,  on  January  24,  1905,  xt.  81. 

Prof.  Edwin  G.  Conklin  read  a  paper  on  "  Development 
and  Evolution." 


Stated  Meeting,  February  //,  1903. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair 
The  decease  was  announced  of  Prof.  Alpheus  Spring  Pack- 
ard, at  Providence,  on  February  14,  1905,  ait.  66. 


'90s.]  MINUTES.  5 

Prof.  Amos  P.  Brown  read  a  paper  on  "  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tains." 


Stated  Meeting,  March  j,  ipoj. 
President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

The  decease  was  announced  of  Prof.  Albert  Benjamin 
Prescott,  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  on  February  25,  1905,  aet.  72. 

Prof.  Hermann  V.  Hilprecht  read  a  paper  on  "  Recent  Re- 
searches in  the  Temple  Library  at  Nippur." 


Stated  Meeting,  March  ij,  1905. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

The  decease  of  the  following  members  was  announced  : 
Prof.  John  Lyle  Campbell,  at  Crawfordsville,  Ind.,  on  Sep- 
tember 7,  1904,  set.  yj. 
Hon.  James  C.  Carter,   at  New  York,  on   February    14, 

1905,  aet.  78. 
Richard  Somers  Hayes,  at  New  York,  on  March  2,  1905, 

aet.  58. 
James  Dundas  Lippincott,  at  Philadelphia,  on  March  6, 
1905,  set.  66. 
The  following  papers  were  read  : 

"  The  Filipino,  his  Customs  and  Character,"  by  Dr.  J.  A. 
Metgzer.     (See  page  6.) 

"  The  Sociology  of  the  Aborigines  of  Western  Australia," 
by  R.  H.  Mathews.     (See  page  32.) 


METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  LMarcm7, 


THE  FILIPINO  ;   HIS   CUSTOMS    AND  CHARACTER. 

BY  JOHN  A.   METZGER,   M.D. 

{Read  March  ij,  igoj.) 

The  early  history  of  the  people  of  the  Philippines  can,  unfortu- 
nately, be  none  other  than  that  of  imperfect  conjecture.  We 
do  know,  however,  that  the  present-day  Filipino  is  not  the  direct, 
unalloyed  descendent  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  these  islands 
but  have  lineage  from  some  nomadic  people  who,  through  affiliation 
with  the  aborigines,  have  given  to  the  ethnologist  this  almost  in- 
comprehensible human  being.  The  progenitorial  element  is  un- 
questionably Malayan  but  the  source  is  a  much  debated  question. 
Some  authorities  contend  that  the  ancestors  of  this  great  semi- 
civilized  people  came  from  Chili,  drifted  thither  by  the  currents 
and  prevailing  winds,  while  others  with  as  equitable  reasoning 
believe  them  to  have  migrated  from  the  shores  of  Madagascar  and 
Patagonia.  Neither  the  paleontologist  nor  the  paleographer  has  thus 
far  been  able  to  throw  any  definite  light  on  the  source  or  character 
of  the  original  inhabitants  of  th  s  dependency.  However,  the 
generally  accepted  theory  points  to  a  mountain  tribe  called  the 
Negrito  or  yEtas,  which  is  universally  regarded  as  the  surviving 
remnant  of  this  once  powerful  people  who  first  populated  the 
archipelago. 

From  a  paleontological  and  structural  point  of  view  we  are  wont 
to  believe  that  during  the  later  Miocene  or  the  very  early  Pliocene, 
there  was  that  progressive  uplifting  of  the  land  which  subsequently 
became  separated  from  Borneo  and  the  Asiatic  continent  (through 
Formosa)  by  the  present  China  sea.  The  evidence  which  warrants 
this  deduction  must  be  admitted  is  very  fragmentary,  however,  the 
distribution  of  living  forms  is  certainly  calculated  to  throw  some 
light  on  the  more  recent  history  of  these  islands  and  should  be 
made  to  contribute  all  it  can,  but  at  the  same  time  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  obstacles  which  seem  geologically  of  small 
moment  may  limit  the  extension  of  species.  The  island  of  Cebu 
affords  a  striking  example  of  this  fact  regarding  the  bird  fauna  and 
mammalia  which  are  regarded  as  the  descendant  forms  of  Borneo 
and  Continental  Asia.     This  theory  is  corroborated  by  Mr.  Waller, 


i9°5]  METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  7 

who  has  given  this  considerable  study,  when  he  says:  "Absence 
of  a  large  number  of  Malayan  groups  would  indicate  that  the  actual 
connection  with  Borneo,  which  seems  necessary  for  the  introduction 
of  the  Malayan  types  of  mammalia,  with  the  large  proportion  of 
wide-spread  continental  genera  of  birds  would  seem  to  imply  that 
greater  facilities  had  once  existed  for  the  migration  from  Southern 
China,  at  which  time  the  ancestors  of  that  peculiar  deer  seen  in 
Samar  and  Cebu  entered  the  islands."  It,  therefore,  seems  impos- 
sible to  understand  this  existing  fauna  unless  it  can  be  assumed  that 
island  connection  must  have  existed.  Accepting  this  theory,  why 
then  should  not  primitive  man  have  made  his  ingress  from  Borneo 
or  Continental  Asia?  This  question  of  the  aboriginese  is  indeed  a 
field  for  research  and  is  one  for  the  ethnologist  and  not  the  province 
of  a  mind  inexperienced  in  this  line  of  study., 

Conceding  for  the  present  the  Negrito  to  have  been  the  aborig- 
inal inhabitants,  we  have  as  yet  to  discover  any  signs  or  writings 
of  an  early  day  which  might  lead  us  to  a  solution  of  the  origin  of 
this  strange  tribe.  We  have,  however,  characters,  many  of  which 
are  hieroglyphical,  of  the  ancient  Tagalog,  Visayan,  Yliocano, 
Pampango,  Pangasinan  and  Tagbanua.  These  characters  were  ex- 
pressed or  inscribed  on  tubes  of  bamboo,  with  some  pointed  in- 
strument the  nature  of  which  is  as  yet  unknown,  and  like  the 
present-day  dialects  of  the  several  tribes  there  seems  to  have  been 
a  great  preponderance  of  consonants  and  a  very  limited  vocabulary. 
A  comma  above  a  letter,  should  it  be  a  consonant,  gave  it  the  sound 
of  having  been  written  with  an  E  or  I,  and  if  below  as  O  or  U. 

Upon  the  conquest  of  the  archipelago  by  the  Spaniard  their 
alphabets  were  abandoned  by  many  and  the  Spanish  or  the  original 
of  the  present  mongrel  dialects  were  adopted  and  after  a  period  of 
three  hundred  years  there  is  scarcely  a  person  to  be  found  who  can 
either  read  or  write  in  the  original  characters.  This,  however,  is  the 
field  of  the  paleographer  but,  I  believe,  is  worthy  of  mention  in  this 
connection.  The  adoption  of  the  Spanish  language  by  some  of  the 
tribes  was  the  first  step  in  the  domestication  of  these  people,  in 
that  it  permitted  the  placing  of  the  Doctrina  in  their  hands  with 
the  consequent  closer  affiliation.  (For  those  wishing  to  further  in- 
vestigate these  early  languages  of  the  Filipino,  I  would  refer  them 
to  the  writings  of  the  Agustinian  father  Marcilla,  and  especially 
his  "  Estudio  de  los  antigues  alfabetos  Filipinos.") 


8 


METZGER— THE    FILIPINO. 


[Mar 


Of  the  fifty  odd  different  tribes  there  are  almost  as  many  distinct 
dialects,  however,  with  few  exceptions,  there  is  a  general  similarity 
which  permits  of  mutual  comprehension.  There  are  not  only  many 
words  in  common  peculiar  to  the  native  tongue  but  Spanish  words 
have  been  adopted  into  most  of  the  dialects.     The  Tagalog  and 


I.     Negritos. 


Yliocano  are  probably  the  most  general  in  the  northern  country, 
while  the  Visayan  and  the  Mahratte  dialect  of  the  mother  Sanskrit 
predominate  in  the  middle  and  south  lands. 

The  Tagalog,  Yliocano  and  Viscayan  are  gutteral  languages  01 
great  preponderance  of  consonants  and  limited  vocabularies. 

The  remnant  of  the  tribe  of  Negritos,  the  supposed  descendants 


i9o5]  METZGER— THE   FILIPINO.  9 

of  the  aboriginese,  scarcely  number  five  thousand  at  the  present 
time  and  are  scattered  widely  over  all  the  northern  islands,  living 
in  the  most  remote  and  dense  parts  of  the  hill  country.  They  are 
pygmean  in  stature,  barely  reaching  four  and  one  half  feet  in  height 
and  resembling  closely  the  Alfoor  Papuan  of  New  Guinea.  Al- 
though small  in  frame  they  are  powerful  andfleet  of  foot.  Unlike 
any  of  the  other  tribes  of  this  archipelago  they  are  the  possessors 
of  a  closely  matted  kinked  head  of  hair.  The  Negrito  is  of  very 
low  intellect  and  appreciates  no  conception  of  social  order.  He 
is  cowardly  and  indolent,  but  exhibits  a  marked  respect  for  the 
aged  and  dead  such  as  is  not  seen  among  any  of  the  other  tribes. 
Frequent  attempts  have  been  made  to  civilize  these  little  people 
but  without  success,  for  they  will  neither  endure  social  or  military 
restraint  but  prefer  to  return  to  the  mountain  fastnesses  and  their 
nomadic  state.  Model  villages  of  bamboo  and  nepa  were  built  in 
Upper  Pampanga  by  the  Spaniards  with  the  object  of  domesticat- 
ing these  strange  people.  They  were  supplied  with  food,  clothing 
and  all  the  necessaries  of  life  for  a  period  of  one  year  or  until  such 
a  time  as  they  could  till  the  soil  and  provide  for  their  future  but  the 
experiment  was  an  utter  failure  and  in  a  short  time  the  subsidy  was 
discontinued.  They  have  never  been  either  individually  or  collec- 
tively brought  under  the  influence  of  the  Church  but  to  this  day  con- 
tinue to  worship  the  sun  and  elements  as  did  their  forefathers. 
The  Negrito  subsists  wholly  upon  reptiles,  fish,  herbs  and  wild  moun- 
tain rice.  They  wear  no  clothing  except  the  breech-clout  and 
their  customs  and  habits  are  those  of  the  savage.  Ablution  of  body 
is  something  almost  unknown  to  them.  These  little  people  have 
no  permanent  abode  but  wander  about  in  little  bands  of  five  to 
twenty  living  in  trees  as  a  matter  of  safety.  They  are  more  or  less 
peacefully  inclined  but  do  occasionally  make  incursions  into  the 
territory  of  some  neighboring  tribe  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  oft 
cattle.  Their  means  of  defense  is  a  bow  made  from  the  palma- 
brava  and  poisoned  arrows,  and  with  these  they  are  indeed  expert 
marksmen.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  at  an  early  period  in  the 
history  of  these  islands  these  dwarfish-people  were  in  great  numbers 
and  as  rulers  levied  heavy  tribute  upon  the  accessors  of  some  of  the 
present  day  tribes,  but  as  emigration  increased  they  were  gradually 
forced  into  the  background  and  subsequently,  upon  the  advent  of 
the  white-man,  were  forced,  through  terror,  to  take  definitely  to 
the  mountain  fastness. 


10  METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  [March  17, 

The  exact  number  of  tribes  in  existence  on  the  several  islands  at 
the  present  time  is  not  definitely  known,  however,  the  following 
are  a  few  of  those  which  we  as  a  foster  nation  must  deal  with  : 
Tagalog,  Viscayan,  Macabebe,  Yliocano,  Musulman,  Igorrote, 
Malaneg,  Pampangan,  Pangasinan,  Itanes,  Goddan,  Tinguian, 
Dodayan,  Idayan,  Apayao,  Negrito,  Itugoao,  Ibiloa,  Zambal, 
Vrigrito,  Cebuano,  Panayano,  Munabo,  Coyuro,  Calamino,  Agu- 
tamo,  and  that  great  hybrid  class,  the  Maestizo.  Other  of  the 
fifty-two  tribes,  which  have  thus  far  been  determined,  might  be 
mentioned,  but  I  believe  it  to  be  superfluous  here,  as  their  customs 
are  in  the  main  those  of  the  aforementioned.  In  this  ethnical 
analysis  I  have  dealt  solely  with  generic  denominations,  for  whilst 
these  tribes  are  subdivided,  the  clans  show  no  material  moral  or 
physical  difference  and  the  local  names  are  apt  to  be  confusing. 
Lie,siwe,  in  order  to  avoid  prejudice,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
divide  this  great  congeries  of  humanity  into  two  great  classes,  the 
domesticated  Filipino  and  the  properly  termed  savage.  Conserva- 
tive estimation  elicits  the  fact  that  three  hundred  thousand  of  the 
population  of  this  archipelago  are  human  beings  in  whom  exotic 
notions  do  not  pertain  and  in  whom  are  the  instincts  of  the  wild 
animal,  and  of  this  number  one  fifth  are  to  be  found  on  the  island 
of  Luzon,  the  largest  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  enlightened 
from  ecclesiastic  and  worldly  standpoints. 

As  all  uncivilized  human  beings  have  characteristics  in  common 
and  at  the  same  time  many  distinctive  traits  characterize  a  people 
surrounded  by  the  same  natural  environments,  to  recount  these  as 
they  pertain  to  the  several  tribes  is  wholly  unnecessary.  It  is  suf- 
ficient to  point  out  a  few  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  more 
powerful  of  this  class  of  untamed  nomads  as  they  pertain  to  the 
Philippines. 

Probably  the  most  unrestrained  and  barbarous  Filipinos  are  the 
Gaddanes.  A  race  occupying  the  extreme  northwestern  end  of  the 
archipelago  and  entirely  out  of  the  pale  of  civilization.  They  are 
the  only  real,  war-like  people  of  the  North.  They  know  no  moral 
restraint  and  glory  in  the  shedding  of  blood.  At  a  certain  time  of 
the  year,  when  the  so-called  fire-tree  is  in  bloom,  the  young  men, 
as  is  their  custom,  go  forth  on  a  head  hunting  expedition  and  vie 
with  each  other  in  presenting  to  the  sachem  of  their  tribe  all  the 
grewsome  trophies  they  are  able  to  take  from  their  enemies,  as  a 


METZGER— THE   EILIPINO. 


1  I 


proof  of  their  manliness  and  courage.  The  arms  used  by  these 
people  are  wicked  looking  lances  with  trident  tips  and  arrows  car- 
rying at  the  point  a  mesh  of  bats'  claws  which  have  previously  been 
dipped  in  the  venom  of  snakes. 


m 

•i 

teJ^^S' 

i^^^^Bb 

H4 

h 

1 

N£'N 

The  men  are  magnificient  specimens  of  physical  strength,  and 
with  a  wealth  of  long,  straight,  jet-black  hair  reaching  to  the 
shoulders  and  with  a  color  of  skin  of  almost  equal  hue,  they  make  a 
very  striking  picture  of  primitive  man.  Like  the  Negrito  they 
subsist  on  roots,  game  and  such  other  food  stuffs  as  falls  in  their 
path.  They  are  pagans  and  at  no  time  has  any  attempt  been  made 
to  persuade  them  to  embrace  the  western  system  of  civilization. 


\-^ 


METZGER— THE    FILIPINO. 


[March  17, 


Xext  to  the  Gaddanes  in  war-like  propensity  are  the  Itaves,  a 
tribe  inhabiting  the  territory  just  to  the  south  and  adjoining  that 
of  the  head-hunters.  Their  manners  of  living  and  religion* are 
similar  to  those  of  the  Gaddanes,  but  they  are  not  so  fierce  and  are 
more  indolent.  They  are  also  lighter  in  color  and  wear  their  hair 
shorter  than  their  neighbors  of  the  north.  This  tribe  is  one  of  the 
few,  if  not  the  only  one,  which  uses  the  war-club  and  executes  a 
war-dance  preliminary  to  going  into  battle. 


Fig.  3-     Igorrote. 

To  the  American,  unquestionably  the  most  interesting  people  of 
this  class  of  Filipinos,  is  the  Igorrote,  for  the  reason  that  they  more 
closely  resemble  the  American  Indian  in  color,  configuration  and 
habits  than  any  other  tribe  of  the  archipelago.  These  people  domi- 
nate the  middle  north  country,  where  they  live  in  idleness,  oblivious 
of  time  or  conditions.  Of  all  the  tribes  of  the  islands  they  are  the 
acme  of  physical  development.  Their  chief  ethnical  characteristics 
are  the  high  cheek  bones,  aquiline  nose,  copper  colored  skin,  long 
straight  black  hair  cut  into  a  fringe  over  the  forehead,  naked  save 
for  a  breech-clout,  and  gaudily  bedecked  with  paint,  feathers  and 
rings.      Unlike  the  American  Indian  their  lips  are  thick  and  large, 


i9o5]  METZGER— THE   FILIPINO.  13 

and  their  gait  is  sluggish  and  toddling.  They,  like  their  brothers 
of  the  North  subsist  upon  that  which  nature  is  kind  enough 
to  cast  in  their  way,  however,  they  do  make  occasional  futile  at- 
tempts at  cultivating  a  little  sugar  cane  or  rice.  These  people  can- 
not justly  be  termed  a  war-like  people,  yet  revenge  is  one  of  their 
strongest  traits.  Distrust  of  the  white-man  is  a  preeminent  feature 
of  this  tribe.  This  fixed  dislike  is  the  result  of  one  of  the  many  of 
Spain's  blunders  in  her  sovereignty  of  these  islands,  for  it  was  her 
attempt  to  force  western  civilization  on  these  people,  who  did  not 
wish  to  exchange  the  comforts,  usages  and  independence  of  their 
primitive  state,  for  what  the  crown  of  Spain  deemed  a  proper  con- 
stituent principle  of  good  colonists.  To  roam  at  large  in  their 
forest  home,  free  as  the  wind,  was  to  them  more  to  be  desired  than 
to  have  to  wear  clothes,  pay  taxes  and  incarcerate  themselves  in  the 
conventional  domestic  habits  of  the  European.  Foreman  aptly  ex- 
presses it  when  he  says  "as  to  Christianity,  it  would  be  as  hard  a 
task  to  convince  them  of  what  Roman  Catholicism  deems  indispen- 
sable for  the  salvation  of  the  soul  as  it  would  be  to  convert  all  Eng- 
land to  the  teachings  of  Buddha,  although  Buddhism  is  as  logical  a 
religion  as  Christianity."  The  distrust  incident  to  this  forcible 
attempt  to  civilize  and  domesticate  this  people  will  remain,  I  be- 
lieve, one  of  their  prime  distinctive  characteristics  for  centuries  to 
come. 

There  is  a  hybrid  class  of  Igorrotes,  known  as  the  Chino-igorrote. 
A  people  differing  little  from  the  unmixed  blood  except  that  asso- 
ciated with  the  brutal  instincts  there  is  the  cunning  and  astuteness 
of  the  Mongol.  This  mongrel  race  are  supposed  to  be  the  descen- 
dants of  an  issue,  the  result  of  the  affiliation  of  the  dispersed  fol- 
lowers of  the  Corsair  Li-ma-hong  who  attacked  the  city  of  Manila 
and  was  routed  and  fled  to  the  region  of  the  Igorrotes.  They,  like 
their  half  brothers,  are  confirmed  infidels. 

Of  the  uncivilized  tribes  of  the  north,  there  are  a  few  who,  owing 
to  their  distinctive  characteristics,  are  worthy  of  mention,  the 
principal  of  which  tribes  are  the  Tinguians,  Dayapes,  and  a 
peculiar  class  of  tropical  inhabitants  known  as  Albinos. 

The  Tinguians  inhabit  principally  the  district  of  Al  Abra  and  in 
appearance  closely  resemble  the  Igorrote,  and  appear  to  be  as 
intelligent  as  the  ordinary  subdued  native.  They  are  pagans  but 
have  no  temples.      Their  gods  are   hidden  in  the  cavities  of  the 


14  METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  [March  i7l 

mountain  fastnesses.  These  idols  are  called  Anitos  and  are  ex- 
horted when  any  dire  calamity  befalls  them,  and  are  always 
appealed  to  when  a  child  is  to  be  named.  In  this  latter  ceremony 
the  priest  to  the  Anito  holding  the  new  born  in  one  hand  raises  a 
large  knife  or  bolo  over  its  head  and  upon  lowering  the  blade 
strikes  it  into  a  nearby  tree,  if  the  tree  emits  sap  the  first  name 
uttered  is  the  one  the  child  will  henceforth  bear.  The  oozing  of 
the  sap  signifies  to  them  the  will  of  the  deity.  The  Tinguians  are 
monogamists  and  generally  are  forced  by  the  parent  to  take  a  mate 
before  the  age  of  puberty.  These  people,  like  the  Negritos,  live 
mostly  in  a  baji  built  in  trees,  sometimes  sixty  or  seventy  feet  from 
the  ground.  They  have  a  few  characteristics  akin  to  the  Japanese, 
principally  in  the  manner  of  wearing  the  hair,  tuft  on  the  crown 
of  the  head,  and  the  custom  of  blackening  the  teeth.  Their  com- 
mon weapon  is  the  spear,  this  they  use  as  a  matter  of  defense  as 
well  as  a  means  of  slaying  animals  for  food. 

The  Davanese  are  unquestionably  Hindoos  and  are  supposed  to 
be  the  descendants  of  the  Indian  Sepoys,  who  deserted  the  British 
Army  when  the  latter  occupied  the  city  of  Manila  in  1763.  They 
are  few  in  number  and  occupy  principally  the  district  lying  about 
the  pueblo  of  Cainta.  These  people  are  semi-civilized,  peaceful 
and  to  an  extent  industrious. 

There  are  to  be  seen  among  the  natives  of  the  north  a  few  of  the 
class  of  people  known  as  Albinos.  These  abnormalities  of  nature 
present  a  marble  white  skin,  pink  white  hair,  and  pink  eyes.  They 
are  not  associated  in  tribes  or  clans  but  may  be  found  scattered 
about  in  most  any  of  the  provinces  of  the  north. 

Before  taking  up  the  analysis  of  the  various  domesticated  tribes, 
which  go  to  make  up  two  thirds  of  the  seven  million  of  people  who 
are  styled  Filipinos,  a  brief  epitome  of  their  early  political  history 
is,  I  believe,  essential,  as  it  no  doubt  has  indelibly  modified  and 
ultimately  formulated  the  character  and  customs  of  these  people. 
We  are  wont  to  believe  that  long  before  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards 
in  this  Colony,  these  islands  were  visited  by  the  Molaccans,  for  it 
was  from  them  that  Hernando  de  Maghallanes,  then  a  Portuguese 
subject  and  in  the  service  of  his  majesty,  learned  of  the  existence 
of  these  supposed  rich  possessions  in  the  Pacific,  and  had  it  not  been 
for  petty  jealousies  and  a  weak  and  arrogant  monarch,  these  same 
Philippine  Islands  might  have  become  the  possession  of  Portugal 


I905-]  METZGER— THE   FILIPINO.  15 

and  not  of  Spain,  as  they  subsequently  became  through  the  public 
renunciation  of  Maghallanes  to  his  rights  as  a  Portuguese  citizen, 
and  his  assumption  of  the  fosterage  of  Spain,  with  the  result  of  his 
entering  into  a  contract  with  the  King  of  Spain  to  seek  and  discover 
these  islands  of  which  he  (Maghallanes)  had  heard.  Sufficient  to 
say,  that  Maghallanes,  knighted  and  invested  with  the  habit  of  St. 
James,  set  sail  from  the  harbor  of  San  Lucor  de  Boramida,  August, 
1519,  in  command  of  a  fleet  of  five  small  vessels,  which  was  to  figure 
in  history  as  not  only  the  first  to  formally  discover  the  Philippine 
Islands  but  the  first  to  circumnavigate  the  globe,  thus  proving  the 
theory  of  Aristotle  and  Ptolemy. 

After  twenty -one  months  of  privation,  scurvy,  mutiny  and  deser- 
tion Maghallanes  entered  the  Butan  River  on  the  Island  of  Min- 
hanao,  and  effecting  a  landing  without  any  opposition  from  the 
natives,  took  possession  in  the  name  of  King  Charles  of  Spain, 
thereby  realizing  his  one  ambition  to  discover  those  islands  which 
had  been  his  constant  dream  for  years.  Thus  in  part  he  was 
recompensed  for  the  bitterness  of  the  past,  but  he  was  not  decreed 
by  fate  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  discovery,  as  he  fell  mortally 
wounded  by  a  poisoned  arrow  soon  after  in  a  conflict  with  the 
natives  on  the  island  of  Magtan.  The  command  of  this  expedition 
fell  to  Duorte  de  Borbosa,  who  also  met  his  death  soon  after  at  the 
hands  of  the  natives  of  the  island  of  Cebu.  Juan  Corobola,  next 
in  command,  finding  his  ships  in  a  leaky  condition  and  crews 
insufficient  in  number  abandoned  all  the  ships  except  the  Victoria, 
and  returned  to  Spain,  first  touching  at  Borneo  and  the  Molaccas, 
arriving  in  the  harbor  of  San  Lucor,  September  6,  1522.  Again 
in  1542  a  second  expedition  from  Spain  under  Villalobos  touched 
on  the  island  of  Luzon.  Here,  like  his  predecessors,  he  met  his 
death.  From  1542  to  1564  no  more  expeditions  were  sent  out  by 
Spain.  Finally,  on  account  of  the  bitter  jealousy  existing  between 
Spain  and  Portugal  over  new  acquisitions  of  territory,  another 
expedition  was  dispatched  by  King  Philip,  under  Maguil  Lopez  de 
Legaspi,  in  November,  1564.  This  expedition  encountered  even 
more  opposition  from  the  natives  than  the  former  ones,  and  for  a 
period  of  five  years  Legaspi  was  busily  engaged  forcibly  colonizing 
these  people.  On  the  twenty-fourth  of  June,  1571,  the  city  of 
Manila  was  incorporated  as  the  capital  city  of  the  archipelago,  after 
a  treaty  had  been  consummated  with  the  native  Rajahs,  Dolumal 
and  Lacaubola. 


16  METZGER— THE   FILIPINO.  [March  17. 

Soon  after  this  formal  acquisition  of  the  islands  and  the  incorpora- 
tion of  its  capital,  Legaspi  returned  to  Spain  where  he  died, 
destined  like  his  predecessors  to  enjoy  but  little  of  the  honor  of 
having  been  the  first  to  establish  real  sovereignty  for  Spain  in  this 
colony. 

Spanish  suzerainty  of  the  Phillippines  was  not  one  long  glorious 
regime,  neither  were  the  islands  the  El  Dorado  they  had  fancied, 
but  instead  her  three  hundred  years  of  reign  was  but  a  period  of 
almost  constant  strife.  Other  nations  strove  to  seize  them  and 
rebellion  followed  rebellion  in  an  effort  to  expel  a  sovereign  power 
whose  reign  was  considered  unjust,  oppressive  and  tyrannical.  In 
truth,  Spanish  sovereignty  was  never  complete  except  in  name 
only,  and  full  domination  only  extended  over  the  sea-coast  towns 
and  a  few  miles  into  the  interior.  Tribal  customs  governed  as 
many,  if  not  more,  of  the  inhabitants  as  Spanish  laws  and  Spanish 
monastics. 

The  Spanish  friar  was  next  installed  and,  with  the  aid  of  the 
military,  set  about  civilizing  and  converting  to  Christianity  those 
tribes  lying  outside  the  Capital  city. 

About  this  time  the  island  of  Luzon  was  invaded  by  the  Chinese 
under  the  notorious  pirate  Li-ma-hong  and  the  Japanese  Sioco. 
Early  on  the  morning  of  the  thirtieth  of  November,  1574,  they 
appeared  in  the  bay  of  Manila  and  instituted  a  vigorous  attack. 
After  a  bloody  hand-to-hand  conflict  the  Chinese  were  completely 
routed  and,  not  being  able  to  regain  their  fleet,  fled  up  the  coast 
as  far  as  the  Province  of  Pangasinan,  and  it  is  through  the  affilia- 
tion of  these  survivors  with  the  natives  that  we  accredit  the  mani- 
fest traces  of  Chinese  blood  among  some  of  the  hill-tribes  to-day. 

Following  the  attempt  of  the  Chinese  to  seize  this  Colony  the 
Emperor  of  Japan,  learning  of  the  European  colonization,  sent 
one  of  his  suite,  Ferranda  Kiemon,  with  a  message  to  the  Gover- 
nor of  the  islands,  demanding  prompt  surrender  and  threatening 
invasion  if  refused.  This,  Gomez  Perez  Dasmarinas,  the  Gover- 
nor, refused  to  do  but  solicited  a  treaty  of  commerce,  and  ex- 
pressed a  desire  to  conclude  an  offensive  alliance  for  mutual  pro- 
tection. The  Mikado  consented  to  this  proposition  and  thus  for  a 
time  amicable  relations  were  assured  with  the  Japanese. 

As  a  result  of  the  war  with  the  Flanders,  which  terminated  with 
the  Treaty  of  Antwerp  in  161 9,  the  Dutch  were  obliged  to  seek  in 


i9°5.]  METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  17 

the  far  east  such  commodities  as  they  were  previously  accustomed 
to  obtain  on  the  peninsula,  consequently  they  established  trading 
headquarters  in  the  Molacca  islands,  and  from  there  preyed  upon 
the  Spanish  galleons  carrying  provisions  and  silver  from  New  Spain 
to  the  Philippines.  This  state  of  piracy  continued  until  1645, 
when  the  Dutch  navy  under  Admiral  Whitier,  attacked  the  city  of 
Manila  with  twelve  men-of-war  and  was  defeated  by  General 
Lorenzo  Ugarte  with  great  loss,  including  that  of  the  commander 
of  the  fleet. 

The  period  from  1645  t0  I7I9  was  one  °f  contention  between 
Church  and  State,  as  to  prestige  in  the  civil  affairs  of  the  colony. 
This  dissention  became  more  marked  and  the  bitter  feeling  thus 
engendered  finally  culminated  in  one  of  the  most  revolting  scenes 
in  Philippine  history.  Little  is  to  be  said  of  this  most  disgraceful 
affair  other  than  that  a  riotous  mob  led  by  the  priests  of  the  Sacred 
Orders  of  San  Fancis,  San  Dominic  and  Saint  Augustine  attacked 
the  palace,  stabbed  and  dragged  the  Governor,  Fernando  Busta- 
mente  Bustillo  y  Riieda,  through  the  streets  of  Manila,  and  at  the 
same  time  killed  his  son.  The  mob  during  their  delirium,  tore 
down  the  Royal  Standards  and  maltreated  all  those  who  in  any  way 
offended  them.  A  mock  investigation  was  made  in  due  official 
form  but  little  or  no  punishment  was  inflicted  on  any  of  the 
offenders. 

Early  in  1561  England  became  involved  in  a  war  with  Spain 
through  the  so-called  Family  Compact  —  an  alliance  formed  by  the 
three  branches  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  —  and  this  resulted  in  the 
city  of  Havana  and  many  other  of  the  West  India  ports  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  British,  and  at  the  same  time  the  sending  of  a  fleet 
of  thirteen  ships,  under  Admiral  Carnish,  to  the  Philippine  waters. 
A  siege  was  begun  on  the  twenty-fourth  of  September  with  heavy 
cannonading  from  the  ships  and  was  replied  to  by  the  batteries  01 
Fort  Santiago  and  San  Andres.  At  the  same  time  troops,  to  the 
number  of  five  thousand,  were  landed  to  the  south  of  the  city  and 
at  once  engaged  the  Spanish  allies  (about  five  hundred  native 
Pangasenans)  driving  them  back  in  great  disorder  to  the  fortified 
city.  This  state  of  siege  lasted  for  fifteen  days,  during  which  time 
General  Draper  communicated  freely  with  the  Acting  Governor 
relative  to  surrender.  The  capitulation  was  finally  accomplished 
on  the  sixth  day  of  October  after  great  loss  of  life,  and  the  British 
flag  soon  waved  over  the  walls  of  Fort  Santiago. 


18  METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  [March  i7) 

By  the  terms  of  the  Pacto  de  Paris,  which  reached  Manila  on  the 
twenty-seventh  of  August,  1763,  the  British  evacuated  the  islands, 
but  peace  and  quiet  did  not  follow.  Hardly  had  the  Spanish  colors 
been  unfurled  ere  the  natives  of  Cagayan,  Ylocos  and  Pangasanan 
provinces  broke  out  in  open  rebellion  under  a  religious  fanatic 
Diego  de  Silan,  a  half-caste  Indian,  who  declaring  the  Spanish 
sovereign  a  usurper,  directed  that  no  more  tribute  be  paid  to  the 
Spanish  Treasury.  This  insurrection  assumed  considerable  propor- 
tions and  not  until  many  lives  had  been  sacrificed  and  noteworthy 
concessions  made  by  Spain  was  peace  established. 

During  this  revolt  in  the  north  country,  the  Mussulmans  under 
Datto  Teng-teng,  attacked  the  Spanish  garrisons  on  the  island  of 
Mindanao,  butchering  their  prisoners  and  destroying  much  of  the 
public  property.  This  outbreak  was,  however,  but  one  of  the 
many  reprisals  of  the  Mussulmans  as  the  result  of  the  enforcement 
of  a  sovereignty  and  a  religion  which  was  to  them  nauseous  and 
antagonistic  to  the  Mohammedan  faith. 

In  1872  occurred  what  is  known  as  the  Cavite  insurrection.  The 
real  cause  of  this  rebellion  was  the  native  opposition  to  the  Spanish 
friars  holding  parochial  incumbencies  contrary  to  the  decision  of 
the  Council  of  Trent.  However,  the  friars  claimed  to  have  such 
authority,  by  virtue  of  papal  bulls  issued  by  Pius  V,  wherein  they 
were  authorized  to  act  as  parish  priests  where  the  native  clergy 
were  insufficient  in  numbers.  This  authority,  unfortunately,  was 
abused,  doubtless  on  account  of  the  friars  recognizing  that  full  and 
strict  compliance  meant  monastic  impotence  politically.  This 
uprising  of  the  natives  was  promptly  suppressed  and  their  leader, 
Jose  Burgos  and  his  confederates,  were  duly  executed,  upon  the 
instigation  of  the  friars,  on  the  Luneta  (Manila's  famous  drive)  in 
accordance  with  Spanish  custom.  The  moral  effect  of  these  execu- 
tions, however,  was  but  temporary  and  only  served  to  engender  a 
more  bitter  feeling  against  the  friars,  and  at  the  same  time,  this 
one  act  of  Spain's,  was  the  prime  factor  in  the  formation  of  one  of 
the  most  powerful  .freemasonries  in  the  world,  the  Katipunan. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  end  of  Spanish  rule  in  the  Philip- 
pine islands,  for  it  meant  the  coalescence  of  all  of  the  tribes,  with 
the  common  object  of  expelling  a  power  (the  friars)  which  was 
not  .only  odious  and  tyrannical,  but  dictatorial  and  to  which  the 
Spanish  government  of  the  islands  was  subservient.      The  cry  of 


i9°5]  METZGER— THE   FILIPINO.  19 

the  native  was  not  against  Spain  as  a  potentate  but  against  the 
dominant  power  of  the  friars.  Spain's  avaricious  propensity  seemed 
to  have  subverted  her  better  judgment,  and  this  nation,  that  at  one 
time  was  a  power  potent,  was  soon  to  experience  the  worst  insur- 
rection in  the  history  of  her  Philippine  dependency. 

She  had,  by  virtue  of  the  Cortes  de  Cadiz,  convened  on  the 
twelfth  of  September,  1809,  passed  the  first  Suffrage  Bill,  which 
permitted  of  the  assembling  of  deputies  from  the  various  depen- 
dencies. For  twenty  years  the  people  of  this  colony  enjoyed  politi- 
cal equality,  but  finally  in  1837,  their  exclusion  was  voted  as  was 
also  the  government  of  the  islands  by  special  laws.  Spain's  mis- 
take was  irremediable,  the  native  had  tasted  of  equality  and  suffrage 
and  he  was  apprehensive  of  the  motive  force  back  of  this  repeal  and 
it  was  this  innate  contempt  for  the  timorous,  so  characteristic  of 
this  people,  and  the  hatred  engendered  through  the  treatment 
accorded  Jose  Burgos  that  finally  culminated  in  the  insurrection  of 
1896  and  '97,  the  result  of  which  was  the  sacrifice  of  many  lives, 
especially  that  of  Jose  Rizal  (a  story  in  itself),  one  of  Polaviejo's 
most  shameful  acts,  the  imprisonment  of  thousands  of  suspects  in 
the  dungeons  of  Fort  Santiago,  who  were  drowned  like  rats  upon 
the  rising  of  the  tide,  the  breaking  of  the  treaty  of  Biac-na-bato 
and  finally  the  indelible  stamp  of  distrust  of  the  white-man  by  the 
native. 

With  the  American  occupation  and  subsequent  history,  we  are 
all  familiar  and  does  not  permit  of  repetition  here.  From  this 
brief  summary  of  the  political  history  of  this  colony  you  will  have 
observed  the  potent  agencies  and  modifying  forces  the  native  has 
been  subjected  to  for  a  period  of  three  hundred  years  and  now  we 
can  take  up  the  analysis  of  these  people  who  have  been  subjected 
to  this  environment. 

For  practical  purposes,  we  will  divide  the  various  domesticated 
tribes  into  three  great  classes  and  endeavor  to  point  out  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  tribes  which  dominate  the  several  territorial 
divisions. 

The  Tagalog  dominates  the  northern  islands,  the  Visayan,  the 
central  group  and  the  Mussulmans,  or  so-called  Moros,  the  south- 
ern islands  of  the  archipelago.  There  exists  no  mutual  feeling  or 
harmony  between  these  tribes,  yet  they  may  unite  against  a  common 
enemy  as  in  the  recent  insurrection.     The  Tagalog  and  the  Visayan 


20 


METZGER— THE   FILIPINO. 


[March  17, 


listen  to  the  teachings  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  while  the 
Mussulmans  are  the  followers  of  Mohammed  and  never  during  the 
three  hundred  years  of  Spanish  sovereignty  were  they  brought 
under  either  her  religious  or  political  control. 


Fig.  4.     Tagalog  Girl. 


The  Tagalog  as  a  tribe,  numbering  about  seven  hundred  thousand  , 
are  the  most  civilized  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  the  domesti- 
cated Filipinos.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  ever  since 
the  conquest  of  the  islands  by  the  Spaniards,  they  have  been 
brought  in  direct  contact  with  Europeans  and  have  felt  to  an 
extent  the  influence  of  domesticity  and  social  order.  The  Tagalog 
and  the  Visayan  differ  very  little  in  physique  and  configuration  of 


1905J  METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  21 

countenance,  but  their  attitude  towards  strangers  (Europeans)  is 
most  distinctive.  The  Tagalog  feigns  great  friendship,  while  the 
Visayan  is  haughty  and  arrogant.  From  a  physical  point  of  view 
they  both  are  magnificent  specimens  of  humanity  but  mentally  an 
anomaly  which  is  most  unfathomable.  They  are  about  five  and 
one  half  feet  in  height,  ginger-bread  in  color,  with  high  cheek 
bones,  flat  nose  and  a  wealth  of  coarse,  straight,  black  hair  pre- 
senting at  all  times  a  lavish  amount  of  cocoanut  oil  and  surmount- 
ing a  placid  countenance. 

The  innate  spontaneity  of  moral  character  of  these  so-called  civi- 
lized Filipinos  is  that  of  half  child  and  half  devil.  In  him  we  see 
that  puerile  lack  of  objective  and  simplicity,  while  beneath  that 
placid  countenance  and  solemn  gravity  of  feature  lies  deeply  rooted 
all  the  cruelty,  deceit  and  fiendishness  of  a  demon.  He  is  a  profli- 
gate and  is  passionately  fond  of  gambling.  This  latter  foible  is 
gratified  in  the  national  sport  of  cock-fighting  and  the  Spanish 
game  of  monte.  However,  where  facilities  offer  he  is  a  willing 
tyro  to  the  many  and  varied  gambling  devices  imported  in  recent 
years  by  the  Europeans.  He  has  no  sense  of  appreciation,  neither 
can  he  comprehend  a  spontaneous  gift,  but  rather  looks  upon  any 
form  of  kindness  as  an  expression  of  fear  or  weakness.  Honor,  in 
the  sense  of  self  respect,  dignity,  fidelity,  virtue  or  a  just  discern- 
ment of  right  in  strict  conformity  with  duty,  is  to  this  most  incom- 
prehensible being  virtually  nil.  Magnanimity  and  chivalry  are 
likewise  unknown  quantities  in  the  Filipino's  composition.  He  is 
quick  to  borrow  but  slow  to  return,  superstitious  to  the  utmost 
degree,  a  natural  coward,  a  brute,  and  if  angered  does  not  readily 
reveal  it  in  his  expression  but  is  most  unrelenting,  and  will  await 
his  opportunity  for  revenge.  Unlike  the  Japanese  or  Chinese,  he 
is  a  poor  imitator  and  no  originator.  Few  have  any  regular  voca- 
tion, and  those  few  who  are  endowed  with  a  spirit  of  self-improve- 
ment are  only  to  be  found  in  the  large  cities.  These,  moreover, 
are  mostly  of  the  hybrid  class,  known  as  msestizos,  and  their  train- 
ing is  in  the  arts.  The  average  full-blooded  Filipino  is  well  satis- 
fied to  trust  to  the  morrow  and  the  munificence  of  a  bountiful  nature. 
He  may,  out  of  necessity,  cultivate  a  little  patch  of  rice  or  sugar- 
cane, but  his  preference  is  to  sit  and  dream  in  the  shade  of  the 
mango-tree. 

Polity  and  discipline  are  vague  institutions,  and  Filipino  veracity, 


22  METZGER— THE   FILIPINO.  [March  ,7, 

excepting  the  Moro,  is  but  a  myth.  To  lie  is  but  the  manifestation 
of  a  second  nature  and  to  prevaricate  with  a  nicety  is  an  accom- 
plishment with  him.  The  native  of  this  class  is  so  contumacious 
to  all  bidding  and  so  averse  to  social  order  that,  I  am  inclined  to 
believe,  he  understands  and  appreciates  no  law  except  force.  Sen- 
timent and  honor  are  lost  virtues,  and  there  is  nothing  in  which  the 
average  male  delights  more  than  to  pillage  and  torture.  Intuitive 
modesty  is  as  foreign  to  the  average  Filipino  as  it  is  to  the  dumb 
brutes  of  the  jungle,  while  the  domestic  habits  of  many  are  very 
little  above  their  animal  surroundings. 

Early  in  the  sixteenth  century  the  marriage  custom  was  estab- 
lished among  certain  tribes  through  the  good  offices  of  the  church, 
and  as  a  result  of  which  nuptial  vows  are  held  very  sacred,  and  the 
husband  is  extremely  jealous  of  his  wife  after  wedlock,  notwith- 
standing his  indifference  as  to  any  indiscretion  she  may  have  been 
guilty  of  before  entering  the  nuptial  state.  This,  I  believe,  is  but 
a  selfish  vigilance  and  not  a  virtuous  sense  of  chastity,  for  it  is  the 
universal  practice  with  this  class  of  islanders,  or  at  least  a  large  per- 
centage of  them  and  more  especially  the  touis,  to  barter  their  daugh- 
ters. These  poor  creatures  are  virtually  sold  or  given  in  exchange 
for  a  loan  to  pass  their  youth  as  queridas  (kept-mistresses).  As 
this  transfer  of  human  chattel  is,  in  many  cases,  for  the  payment  of 
a  gambling  debt  or  to  secure  a  loan  for  some  equal  moral  turpitude, 
the  poor  victim  not  infrequently  becomes  the  permanent  vassal  of 
the  money-monger. 

The  cheapest  thing  in  the  Philippine  archipelago  is  human  life 
and  the  dearest  object  to  this  oriental's  heart  is  his  pet  game-cock. 
He  will  risk  his  life  many  times  over  to  save  this  idol  of  the  race, 
while  he  would  tranquilly  stand  by  and  see  his  family  in  peril 
rather  than  expose  himself  to  possible  harm  in  effecting  a  rescue. 

Notwithstanding  the  Filipino  has  so  many  undesirable  character- 
istics, he  is  not  totally  devoid  of  good  qualities.  Of  these  I  would 
mention  his  temperance  in  the  use  of  alcoholics.  During  my  three 
years  of  service  on  the  islands  I  saw  but  one  native  inebriate,  yet 
these  same  people  have  liquors  more  powerful  than  the  worst  of 
moonshine  whiskey.  Then  again  there  is  a  certain  hospitality  ex- 
isting among  themselves  which  is  evinced  in  the  fact  that  even  as 
an  utter  stranger  they  are  always  welcomed  to  such  food  and 
shelter  as  may  be  at  hand  and  no  remuneration  is  expected. 


iyo5J  METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  23 

As  a  people  they  are  musical,  although  not  composers,  they  are, 
however,  in  this  latter  respect  excellent  mimics.  This  inherent 
musical  talent  is  truly  most  remarkable,  for  not  only  will  one  find 
the  average  native  skilled  in  the  playing  of  one  instrument,  but  it 
is  not  uncommon  to  see  orchestral  players  exchange  instruments 
two  and  three  times  during  an  evening  and  apparently  play  the 
various  instruments  with  equal  skill.  Go  where  you  will  among 
this  great  class  of  Filipinos  and  every  community  worthy  the  name 
of  town,  you  will  find  a  band  of  musicians  varying  from  half  a 
dozen  to  thirty  pieces,  and  even  in  the  isolated  mountain  districts,, 
where  conventional  instruments  are  not  obtainable,  musicians  are 
to  be  found  playing  upon  rudely  constructed  implements  made  of 
bamboo  of  various  lengths  and  calibre.  Unlike  most  Oriental 
music  their  melody  is  pleasing  to  the  European  ear. 

Among  the  Tagalogs  and  Visayans  there  exists  a  great  maestiza 
genera,  in  consequence  of  which  there  is  manifested  a  class  of  dis- 
affected, arrogant  and  indolent  people,  who  through  appreciation 
of  the  superiority  of  the  Caucasian  (as  a  race)  have  assumed  many 
of  his  customs,  manners  and  dress,  likewise  many  of  his  vices  but 
few  of  his  virtues.  This  mixture  of  the  blood  has  instilled  an 
increase  of  energy  in  some,  but  it  has  not  obliterated  any  of  the 
other  Malay  characteristics  in  any. 

Sunday  throughout  the  archipelago,  is  the  one  day  of  the  seven 
in  which  the  native  throws  off  his  state  of  lethargy  and  makes  ready 
to  enjoy  himself.  True  to  his  faith,  he  wends  his  way  to  the 
church  at  the  break  of  day,  this  obligation  over  (for  it  is  more  of 
an  inherent  duty  and  superstitious  fear  with  him  than  a  true  sense 
of  religious  reverence),  he  straightway  directs  his  steps  to  the 
public  market  place  to  spend  the  day  in  the  national  sport  of  cock- 
fighting.  It  is  here  that  one  gets  an  exemplification  of  a  Filipino 
characteristic  which  but  goes  to  prove  the  incomprehensible  anom- 
alism  of  these  people.  By  nature  they  are  apprehensive  of  honesty, 
yet  according  to  the  custom  of  making  a  stake  on  the  combatants, 
the  universal  practice  in  vogue,  permits  any  one  or  any  number  of 
persons,  even  though  they  be  unknown  to  the  keeper  of  the  pit,  to 
throw  their  money  into  the  arena  and  keep  their  own  council  as  to 
their  choice,  and  should  they  be  successful,  can  demand  their  gain 
and  it  will  be  forthcoming  without  question.  No  system  seems  to 
be  practiced  to  prevent  knavishness,  and  if  asked  as  to  this  apparent 


24  METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  [March  17 

laxity  they  simply  shrug  their  shoulders.  The  Filipino  fights  his 
cocks  with  monte  sandwiched  between  pittings,  until  mid-day, 
when  he  betakes  himself  to  his  house  for  his  siesta,  and  when  the 
sun  begins  to  dip  well  into  the  western  heavens,  he  agains  seeks 
the  fl/az a  de  gallos,  where  he  remains  reveling  in  this  brutal  sport 
until  the  last  cock  has  crowed  over  its  fallen  adversary.  I  am 
wont  to  believe  that  the  cock-pit  is  the  native's  club,  his  school 
and  not  infrequently  his  only  source  of  revenue. 

Probably  one  of  the  most  uninviting  sights  in  the  Colony  is  the 
market  of  the  so-called  domesticated  natives.  From  the  amount  of 
filth  and  the  myriads  of  flies  one  wonders  little  at  the  various 
epidemics  that  so  frequently  scourge  this  archipelago.  The  average 
Filipino  market,  of  this  class,  is  a  combination  of  hasty  lunch, 
general  merchandise  and  reservoir  for  all  the  bacteria  known  to 
science.  Here  doubled  up  like  a  jack-knife  squats  the  tribesman 
with  his  wares  spread  out  before  him  on  the  ground.  The  barter, 
even  in  the  city  of  Manila,  is  more  an  exchange  of  one  commodity 
for  another  than  a  purchase  through  the  medium  of  currency. 
Fabrics  are  exchanged  for  cocoa-nuts,  fish  for  buyo,  eggs  for 
tobacco  and  one  of  those  mysterious  native  dulcies  for  personal 
ornaments.  The  native  is  a  true  Shylock,  and  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  see  two  of  these  tribesmen  spend  an  hour  chaffering  over  some 
article  whose  value  scarcely  exceeds  five  centavos  (two  and  one 
half  cents). 

The  buyo  and  betel-nut  are  probably  the  two  commodities  almost 
indispensable  to  the  Filipino  of  the  lower  class,  as  well  as  to  many 
of  the  elite.  He  can  go  a  goodly  time  without  food  if  he  but  has 
his  buyo.  Properly  speaking,  this  is  the  areca-nut,  and  which, 
when  cut  into  small  pieces,  dusted  with  the  lime  produced  from  the 
oyster  shell,  and  wrapped  in  the  stripped  leaf  of  the  betel  tree,  is 
marketed  as  an  individual  quid.  The  buyo  is  to  this  Oriental 
what  tobacco  is  to  the  European  ;  however,  it  is  by  far  the  more 
offensive  to  the  aesthetic,  in  that  it  stains  the  teeth  and  lips  a 
blood-red,  exhibiting  a  condition  most  repugnant  to  the  eye.  The 
effect  of  this,  when  the  habit  is  once  acquired,  is  most  disastrous, 
and  in  this  respect  closely  allies  itself  to  the  results  of  the  use  of 
opium. 

Even  though  buyo  plays  such  a  prominent  part  in  the  life  of 
these  people,  everyone  is  a  devotee  to  tobacco,  men,  women  and 


i9o5]  METZGER— THE   FILIPINO.  25 

children,  the  high  and  the  low,  the  poor  and  the  rich,  priest  and 
layman.  The  men  take  to  the  cigarette,  while  the  women  and 
children  prefer  the  cigar.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  sight  to  see  a 
child  of  some  three  or  four  years  whose  only  adornment  is  a  long 
cigar.  The  cigar  is  to  the  Filipino  pickaninny  apparently  what  the 
bottle  is  to  the  American  youngster,  a  pacifier. 

One  may  see  in  their  marriage  customs  another  phase  of  Filipino 
life  which  characterizes  this  class  of  natives.  A  sort  of  purgatorial 
preliminary  exists  among  these  people,  in  which  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  average  native  swain  are  anything  but  enviable.  If  poor,  and 
this  seems  to  be  the  universal  state,  the  prospective  groom  must 
serve  the  girl's  parent  as  a  catiped  or  house  servant  for  a  more  or 
less  indefinite  period,  according  to  their  whim,  and  it  is  not  infre- 
quently the  case  that  after  many  months,  or  perchance  years,  of  this 
bondage,  he  is  turned  out  and  another  suitor  installed.  Again,  the 
marriages  are  arranged  by  the  parents  without  consulting  the  wishes 
of  the  child,  and  quite  frequently  they  are  wholly  obnoxious  to  one 
or  both  of  the  contracting  persons,  and  as  a  result  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon for  the  child  to  force  the  hand  of  dictatorial  parents  by  com- 
pelling them  to  countenance  his  or  her  legitimate  aspirations. 
Before  a  marriage  is  consummated,  a  dowry  is  made  by  the  girl's 
parents  in  favor  of  the  bride,  with  the  understanding  that  it  is  not 
transferable  to  the  husband  upon  the  death  of  the  wife,  but  must 
revert  to  the  parents  in  the  event  of  there  being  no  offspring  (which, 
however,  is  rarely  the  case).  In  consequence  of  this  it  is  not  un- 
common to  see  the  children  well  provided  while  the  father  is  a 
beggar.  The  day  of  the  wedding  is  always  fixed  by  the  ever  vigi- 
lant padre  and  the  fee,  which  is  always  exhorbitant,  is  paid  in 
advance,  either  in  currency  or  collateral.  The  marriage  ceremony 
of  these  people  is  one  grand  display  of  barbaric  ritualism.  Among 
the  very  poor  class  of  these  so-called  domesticated  natives,  where 
the  enormous  fees  demanded  by  the  church  are  beyond  their  means, 
the  two  sexes  were  accustomed  to  live  together  under  mutual  vows, 
but  since  the  American  occupation  marriages  by  the  ecclesiastics  is 
not  compulsory,  and  this  practice  of  mutual  assent  is  fast  dying  out. 

Among  some  of  the  pagan  tribes,  especially  the  Igorrotes,  the 
marriage  ceremony  is  a  sort  of  a  catch  if  you  can  affair,  in  which 
the  prospective  groom  is  led  a  chase  about  the  village  by  the  bride- 
to-be,  and  for  a  time  feigns  to  catch  her,  finally  he  secures  his  prize 


26  METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  [March  17, 

and  upon  bringing  her  before  her  parents,  in  very  much  the  man- 
ner one  might  lead  a  reluctant  dog  at  the  end  of  a  chain,  they  bow 
down  and  bring  their  heads  together  sniff  in  the  air  violently  (the 
native  substitute  for  osculation)  and  receive,  at  the  same  time,  the 
parent's  sanction  which  is  demonstrated  by  the  pouring  of  cocoanut 
oil  over  their  heads.  No  feast  follows  as  among  the  Christian  tribes 
but  the  bridal  pair  flee  to  the  mountain  fastnesses,  where  they  re- 
main for  a  fortnight  subsisting  on  wild  berries  and  fruits  and  then 
return  to  their  native  village  or  clan  to  take  up  their  abode. 

A  curious  custom  which  prevails  among  the  more  ignorant  of  the 
domesticated  class  of  natives,  a  relic  of  barbarism,  is  the  practice 
of  closing  all  the  windows  and  doors  of  the  house  and  filling  every 
available  inch  of  floor  space  with  the  presence  of  neighbors,  during 
the  birth  of  a  child,  while  the  male  members  of  the  family  thrash 
about  the  room,  flourishing  large  knives  or  bolos,  like  so  many 
mad-men,  in  their  attempt  to  drive  out  the  evil  spirit,  as  they  are 
wont  to  believe  influences  the  destiny  of  the  mother.  This  bar- 
barous practice  is  carried  still  farther  in  some  cases  by  making  long 
gashes  through  the  skin  of  the  encienle  in  the  hope  that  the  devil 
may  have  an  easier  exit. 

The  Filipino  funeral  is  yet  another  exemplification  of  the  pecu- 
liar customs  of  this  type  of  Oriental.  It  is  a  display  of  fantastic 
barbarism  and  blase  sensualism.  There  is  the  ghastly  bier  with  its 
harsh  and  crude  ornaments  of  wood  and  metal,  a  relic  of  his  un- 
tutored and  savage  ancestry.  A  native  band  precedes  the  funeral 
cortege  to  the  grave,  playing  some  wierd  uncanny  air  followed  by 
a  group  of  professional  mourners  and  the  members  of  the  deceased 
family,  exhibiting  no  signs  of  grief  or  regret  but  an  air  of  stoical 
indifference,  in  fact  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  them  follow  along 
chatting  and  smoking  as  if  they  were  but  repairing  to  some  place  of 
jollification.  In  the  large  cities,  this  burial  custom  is  somewhat 
modified  by  the  introduction  of  a  tawdry  bier  on  wheels  and  drawn 
by  four  or  more  horses,  with  footmen  and  runners  dressed  in  the 
garb  of  the  sixteenth  century  courtier,  the  whole  rendering  this 
solemn  procession  ludicrous  and  insensate.  Upon  reaching  the 
burial  ground  the  corpse  is  stripped  and  wrapped  in  a  piece  of 
sdula  or  matting,  and  without  further  ceremony  deposited  in  a  vault 
or  grave  until  such  time  as  the  rental  expires,  when,  if  not  renewed, 
it  is  resurrected  and  thrown  to  bleach  under  a  tropical  sun,  with 


i9°5-]  METZGER— THE   FILIPINO.  27 

hundreds  of  others,  unclaimed  and  forgotten,  upon  the  so-called 
bone-pile.  Every  necropolis  has  its  bone-pile.  It  is  an  institution 
of  the  church  and  like  the  potters-field  is  the  final  resting  place  for 
many  a  departed  being  destitute  of  friends  or  kin. 

Sunday  in  the  Philippines,  as  in  all  Spanish  countries,  is  the 
great  theater  day  and  all  the  large  towns  of  the  islands  have  their 
various  play-houses.  The  dramatic  composition  is  always  in  the 
native  dialect  and  usually  melo- dramatic  in  character.  To  the 
European  the  plays  are  highly  ludicrous  and  extremely  tiresome,  as 
the  several  parts  are  not  memorized  by  the  actors  but  are  repeated 
after  a  prompter,  who  is  seated  in  front  of  the  stage  and' not  infre- 
quently in  full  view  of  the  audience.  The  plot  is  always  some  sup- 
posed conflict  of  times  past  between  the  Mohammedans  of  the  south 
and  the  early  Christians.  There  is  much  palavering  with  painful 
attempts  at  oratory  and  brandishing  of  knives.  Then  comes  the 
bloody  conflict,  the  wild  beast  of  the  forest  puts  in  its  appearance, 
the  ghost  walks  and  the  curtain  is  finally  drawn  amidst  the  loud 
applause  of  the  audience.  These  plays,  like  those  of  the  Chinese, 
not  infrequently  run  for  days  before  the  climax  is  reached  and  the 
plot  unraveled. 

The  matter  of  bathing  practiced  by  this  beople  is  worthy  of  men- 
tion. Notwithstanding  the  filth  of  the  average  native's  house  and 
the  unsanitary  surroundings  these  same  people  may  be  seen  each 
morning  bathing  in  the  waters  of  a  nearby  stream.  If  this  is  not 
accessible  they  will  find  a  pool  in  which  to  bathe,  even  should  this 
pool  be  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  composite  of  all  manner  of 
filth.  He  must  take  his  daily  bath  no  matter  in  what  or  with  what 
and  not  infrequently  this  latter  resolves  itself  into  nothing  more 
than  a  bowl  of  water  and  a  gourd  for  a  dipper.  His  bath  like  his 
siesta  is,  I  believe,  more  a  habit  than  a  sanitary  necessity  in  the 
eyes  of  this  people.  Men  and  women  bathe  together  and  with  little 
or  no  respect  for  modesty. 

The  Filipino,  as  a  people,  wash  their  linen  as  do  the  East 
Indians  by  beating  them  with  a  pamalo  upon  the  rocks.  Needless 
to  say  the  clothing  suffers  no  little  in  consequence  of  this  treat- 
ment. 

Being  naturally  prone  to  superstitious  beliefs  the  early  native 
accepted  all  the  fantastic  tales  of  the  early  missionaries,  and  the 
modified  heathen  rites  adopted  by  the  Church  were  received  will- 


28  METZGER— THE    FILIPINO.  [March  17, 

ingly  by  them.  He  loved  the  pompous  ritual,  the  gaudy  and 
elaborate  robes,  the  glitter  of  gold  and  silver  and  the  images  of 
saints.  All  these  appealed  to  his  savage  nature  and  his  ancient 
tribal  legends,  and  this  ocular  demonstration  seems  to  have  im- 
pressed him  with  the  sanctity  of  the  system  and  the  infallibility  of 
its  believers.  The  result  is,  that  to-day,  shrines  are  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  semblance  of  a  town  throughout  the  islands  where  the 
faithful  Filipino  comes  at  least  once  a  year  to  worship. 

There  seems  to  be  no  limit  to  the  number  of  saints,  there  is  the 
patron  saint  of  the  islands,  Santa  Rosario,  and  the  innumerable 
local  sainte  whose  images  are  revered  and  worshipped  for  some 
wonderful  mystic  power  of  healing  the  sick  and  halt  or  some 
marvelous  act  they  are  supposed  to  have  performed  in  the  dim  past. 
The  victory  over  the  Chinese,  during  the  invasion  of  Li-ma-hong, 
is  accredited  by  the  natives  to  the  appearance  of  Saint  Francis  on 
the  walls  of  the  city.  The  legend  of  the  celestial  protector  of 
Manila  is  not  less  interesting.  It  is  related  that  in  Dilo,  near 
Manila,  a  wooden  image  of  St.  Francis  de  Assisi  was  seen  to  weep 
so  copiously  that  many  cloths  were  moistened  by  its  tears,  and 
again  this  same  image  with  its  hands  uplifted  and  opened  during 
three  hours  asked  God's  blessing  on  the  city  of  Manila,  then 
closing  its  hands  it  grasped  a  cross  and  skull  so  firmly  that  these 
appeared  to  be  one  and  the  same  thing.  Vows  were  made  to  this 
saint,  who  was  then  declared  protector  of  the  capital.  Others  of 
equal  significance  might  be  mentioned  but  this  will  suffice  to  show 
the  innate  mysticism  of  these  people.  Many  of  these  images  are 
most  tawdry  and  elaborately  ornamented.  I  believe  the  most 
elaborate  I  have  seen,  outside  of  the  metropolis,  was  in  the  town 
of  Quingua,  province  of  Bulican.  The  image  was  that  of  a  man 
astride  a  horse  and  attired  in  a  gorgeous  robe.  In  his  uplifted 
hand  he  held  a  dangerous  looking  knife  and  under  his  pranc- 
ing steed  lay  the  prostrated  form  of  a  Mussulman,  bleeding  and 
wounded  unto  death.  This  was  mounted  on  an  elevated  carriage, 
and  strung  about  the  platform  were  the  heads  made  of  carved  wood, 
mutilated  in  appearance,  representing  the  many  victims  of  this 
venerated  saint.  The  whole  was  a  barbarous  display  of  cruelty  and 
superstition. 

The  roguery  of  the  Filipino  is  not  infrequently  manifested 
through  the  agency  of  these  saintly  images,  and  it  was  only  within 


9o5.]  METZGER— THE   FILIPINO.  29 

• 

the  past  few  years  this  was  brought  to  the  American  public's  notice 
through  an  unjust  attack  upon  the  army  in  permitting  the  supposed 
looting  of  one  of  the  churches  of  the  Colony  and  bringing  into  the 
states  one  of  these  sacred  images.  Upon  investigation  this  "  Black 
Christ,"  over  which  the  stir  was  raised,  proved  to  be  a  private  in- 
stitution of  some  scheming  natives  working  upon  the  superstition 
of  their  people  to  extort  money  for  personal  gain.  The  image  was 
an  exquisitely  carved  piece  of  wood,  waxed  and  stained  to  a  deep 
brown,  while  the  eyes  were  of  glass  and  framed  with  eyelids  most 
human,  and  the  whole  enveloped  in  rich  drapery.  With  the  aid  of 
a  ventriloquist  (Jose  Zaide)  the  natives  were  led  to  believe  that 
this  "Black  Christ"  was  the  new  Messiah  through  whom  their 
sole  redemption  from  the  torments  of  hell  could  only  be  obtained 
by  the  making  of  large  donations  of  money. 

Other  superstitious  beliefs  might  be  mentioned,  such  as  the  dia- 
bolical influence  supposed  to  be  possessed  by  certain  persons  which 
preserves  them  from  all  harm  even  refractory  to  the  effect  of  bullets, 
called  the  anting-anting.  Then  again  the  belief  held  by  many, 
that  a  crime  escapes  punishment  if  committed  in  Easte  week,  be- 
cause the  thief  on  the  cross  was  pardoned  of  his  sins,  and  many 
more  might  be  enumerated  if  but  time  permitted. 

Before  taking  up' the  third  great  classification  of  these  domesti- 
cated natives,  I  wish  to  make  mere  mention  of  the  sport  of  hunt- 
ing the  wild-buffalo  and  boar  much  engaged  in  by  these  people 
and  the  bull  fights,  which  until  1885  obtained  throughout  the 
principal  cities  of  this  dependency.  Likewise  a  brief  description 
of  this  freemasonry  that  exists  on  the  islands,  the  so-called  Kati- 
punan.  This  is  a  Tagalog  word  the  meaning  of  which  is  league. 
The  organization  was  originally  perfected  with  the  object  of  retri- 
bution and  was  the  result  of  the  confederation  of  the  various  dis- 
satisfied islanders  under  the  leadership  of  one  Andres  Bonifacio,  a 
native  half  caste,  who  drew  up  its  constitution  and  devised  its 
mystic  rites,  which  were  of  a  dread  and  impressive  character, 
breathing  vengeance  upon  Spain  and  more  especially  the  monas- 
tics. Since  the  end  of  Spanish  rule  in  the  archipelago  the  Kati- 
punan  has  been  felt  not  a  little  by  the  American  forces  operating 
in  the  islands,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  is  a  powerful  agent 
in  the  political  prosperity  of  this  Colony.  In  1896  there  was 
known  to  have  been  at  least  fifty  thousand  leaguers  and  by  1900 
this  number  was  trebled. 


30 


METZGER— THE    FILIPINO. 


[March  17, 


As  regards  this  third  division  of  the  domesticated  Filipino,  the 
so-called  Moros,  I  can  say  but  little  and  that  principally  from  the 
observation  of  others,  as  it  has  never  been  my  lot  to  have  been 
thrown  in  contact  with  these  people  as  a  collective  body.  These 
people   occupy  the   islands   of  Mindanao,   Palawan  and  the  Sulu 


Fig.  5.      Mussulman  Girl,  "so-called  Moro." 

sultanate.  Their  early  history  is  vague  and  dissipated.  It  is 
generally  conceded,  however,  that  these  people  are  the  descen- 
dants of  the  Mussulman  Dyaks  of  Borneo,  their  ancestors  having 
been  a  great  chief  and  his  retinue,  who  early  in  the  sixteenth 
century  fled  his  native  land  and  settled  on  these  islands,  bringing 
with  them  the  Mohammedan  faith.  This  strange  people  never 
yielded  to  either  Spanish  arms  or  Spanish  monastics,  but  continued 


i9°s]  METZGER— THE  FILIPINO.  31 

throughout  Spain's  regime  to  rule  by  tribal  custom  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  Datto  or  chief  and  recognizing  only  the  spiritual  supremacy 
of  the  Sultan,  whose  position  is  hereditary  under  the  Salic  law  and 
who  annually  makes  his  trip  to  Mecca. 

The  Mussulmans  are  a  valiant  and  merciless  people  and  for  cen- 
turies they  controlled  the  high  seas  in  that  part  of  the  world,  ravish- 
ing the  coasts  in  their  piratical  workings.  It  was  not  until  the 
introduction  of  steam  vessels  that  Spain  was  able  to  cope  with  these 
robbers  of  the  seas.  The  Moro  is  very  much  averse  to  work,  con-' 
sequently  he  is  not  an  agriculturist.  His  whole  ambition  in  life 
seemingly  is  to  strut  about  in  gaudy  attire,  and  encased  in  a  veri- 
table arsenal  of  knives,  etc. 

Slavery  exists  in  an  occult  sense  among  these  people.  There 
are  slaves  by  birth  and  slaves  by  conquest,  such  as  insolvent  debtors 
and  prisoners  of  war.  Unlike  the  other  tribes  of  the  islands  the 
veracity  of  these  people  is  not  to  be  questioned,  for  to  lie  with 
them  is  a  heinous  crime  and  deserving  of  severe  punishment,  the 
penalty  of  which  is  usually  the  severing  of  the  tongue  or  splitting 
the  mouth. 

Until  1902  these  people  gave  the  United  States  authorities  no 
trouble  but  the  moment  their  ancient  rights,  customs  and  religion 
were  supposed  to  have  been  interfered  with,  it  was  the  stirring  up 
of  a  hornet's  nest. 

Many  other  characteristics  might  be  enumerated  if  but  time  per- 
mitted, however,  this  will  suffice  to  show  the  character  of  these 
people  as  we  see  them  to-day. 


32  MATHEWS— ABORIGINES    OF    AUSTRALIA.  [March  i7 


SOCIOLOGY    OF    THE    ABORIGINES    OF   WESTERN 
AUSTRALIA. 

R.   H.   MATHEWS,  L.S. 
( Read  March  jj,  igoj. ) 

Five  years  ago  I  communicated  an  article  to  the  Society,1  deal- 
ing with  some  of  the  customs  of  the  natives  of  Western  Australia. 
On  that  occasion  I  described  the  organization  of  a  number  of  tribes 
possessing  four  divisions  in  their  social  structure.  In  the  present 
paper  it  is  proposed  to  give  a  short  explanation  of  a  different 
organization,  found  among  some  tribes  occupying  the  northeastern 
corner  of  Western  Australia,  comprising  the  country  drained  by  the 
sources  of  the  Ord,  Denham,  King  and  other  rivers,  Stirling  Creek, 
Sturt  Creek,  Margaret  River  and  the  Upper  Fitzroy.  Some  of  the 
best  known  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  within  the  immense  geographic 
limits  mentioned,  are  the  Lunga,  Kityu,  Charrau  and  Nining. 

All  the  details  given  in  this  article  have  been  gathered  by  me 
through  the  kind  assistance  of  correspondents  who  reside  in  the 
Kimberly  district  of  Western  Australia,  in  the  region  inhabited  by 
the  tribes  treated  of.  I  sent  them  categorical  lists  of  all  the  points 
upon  which  I  wanted  information  and  gave  them  directions  how  to 
proceed  with  the  investigations.  From  the  reliable  character  of 
my  correspondents,  and  my  own  general  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
I  feel  sure  that  their  work  can  be  depended  upon.  It  is  unneces- 
sary to  add  that  I  am  under  no  obligations  to  any  other  authors. 

A  whole  tribe,  or  it  may  be  a  community  of  several  tribes,  is 
nominally  divided  into  two  portions,  which  may  be  called  phratries, 
groups,  or  any  other  distinguishing  title.  Next  there  is  a  reparti- 
tion of  each  phratry  into  four  parts,  which  for  purposes  of  refer- 
ence, may  be  called  sections  or  classes.  A  name  is  given  to  each 
section,  by  means  of  which  the  members  of  the  different  divisions 
are  readily  distinguished  ;  and  identification  is  further  facilitated 
by  a  masculine  and  feminine  form  of  every  one  of  the  eight 
names. 

A   phratry  therefore  contains  four  given  sections  of  men,  who 

'"Native  Tribes  of  Western  Australia,"  Proc.  Amer.  PHILOS.  Soc,  Vol. 
XXXIX,  pp.  123-125. 


*9°5-] 


MATHEWS— ABORIGINES    OF   AUSTRALIA. 


33 


marry  certain  four  sections  of  women.  In  other  words,  the  men 
of  one  phratry  marry  the  daughters  of  the  men  of  the  other,  in  a 
certain  fixed  rotation.  The  constitution  of  the  phratries,  the 
nomenclature  of  the  sections,  with  the  order  of  intermarriage  and 
the  designation  of  the  children,  will  be  readily  understood  by  an 
examination  of  the  following  tabular  synopsis  ; 


Table  I. 


Phratry. 


Father. 

Mother. 

Son. 

Daughter. 

C  Changura 

Nungulla 

Chabuldyi 

Nabicherri 

Chanima 
j 

.Nulima 

Chungarin 

Nabungarti 

1 

|    Chungulla 

Nangilli 

Chambin 

Nambin 

I  Chulima 

Nabana 

Chakara 

Nakara 

f  Chakara 

Nabicherri 

Chulima 

Nulima 

I    Chambin 
j 

Nabungarti 

Chungulla 

Nungulla 

|    Chungarin 

Nambin 

Chanima 

Nabana 

[  Chabuldyi 

Nakara 

Changura 

Nangilli 

The  above  table  gives  the  phratry,  father,  mother,  son  and 
daughter  on  the  same  line  across  the  page.  For  example,  Chan- 
gura takes  a  Nungulla  as  his  wife,  which  is  the  ordinary  or  normal 
rule  of  marriage  and  may  be  called  "  No.  i."  He  could  instead 
marry  a  Nulima,  which  I  shall  designate  as  "No.  2."  Or  he  could 
mate  with  a  Nabana  woman  as  "No.  3."  And  lastly,  he  may 
espouse  a  Nangilli,  who  can  be  distinguished  as  "  No.  4."  Mar- 
riages of  the  "No.  1  "  type,  which  are  those  given  in  the  table, 
are  the  most  usual ;  "  No.  2  "  is  the  next  most  in  favor;  whilst 
"No.  3"  and  "No.  4"  are  more  or  less  uncommon,  although 
quite  lawful. 

In  the  tribes  we  are  now  discussing  the  section  to  which  the 
children  belong,  and  consequently  the  phratry  also,  is  invariably 
determined  through  the  women.  Taking  an  example  from  phratry 
A  in  Table  I :  If  Changura  wed  a  Nungulla,  as  in  the  table,  his 
children  will  be  Chabuldyi  and  Nabicherri ;  if  he  take  a  Nulima 
spouse,  they  will  be  Chungarin  and  Nabungarti ;  if  he  choose  a 
Nabana,  the  offspring  will  be  Chakara  and  Nakara  ;  and  if  his  wife 
be  a  Nangilli,  then  his  family  will  be  Chambin  and  Nambin. 

We  will  now  show  the  wives  eligible  to  Chanima,  the  next  name 
in  Table  I.  He  marries  Nulima  as  his  tabular  wife  or  "No.  1  "; 
he  takes  Nungulla  as  his  alternative  spouse,  or  "  No.  2  ";  he  mates 
with  Nangilli  as  "No.  3,"  and  he  can  marry  a  Nabana  woman  as 


34  MATHEWS— ABORIGINES   OF   AUSTRALIA.         [March  i7> 

"  No.  4."  Similarly  Chungulla  and  Chulima  can  marry  either  of 
the  women  opposite  their  names  in  the  table  as  "No.  1"  and 
"No.  2"  wives;  or  they  can  take  Nulima  or  Nungulla  as  their 
"  No.  3  "  and  "  No.  4." 

It  appears,  then,  that  any  specific  man  in  Phratry  A  can  marry 
any  one  of  the  four  women  opposite  to  him  in  the  column  headed 
"mother"  in  the  table.  Everything  which  has  been  said  respect- 
ing the  marriages  in  Phratry  A  applies  equally  to  the  marriages  of 
the  men  and  women  in  Phratry  B. 

All  the  people  have  totems,  consisting  of  animals,  plants,  the  ele- 
ments, and  so  on,  but  there  is  no  well  established  descent  of  any 
given  totem  from  the  parents  to  their  offspring.  Indeed,  there 
could  not  be  any  regular  succession  of  the  totems  in  a  tribe  where 
the  intermarrying  laws  are  as  stated  in  Table  I.  For  example,  if 
descent  were  through  the  males,  and  Changura's  totem  were  a 
bandicoot,  it  would  not  only  be  liable  to  be  disseminated  through 
the  children  of  any  or  all  the  sections  in  Phratry  A,  but  in  the  next 
generation  it  would  be  similarly  distributed  to  the  children  of  all 
the  men  in  Phratry  B.  Hence,  in  a  tribe  where  the  sociology  is  so 
constituted,  we  discover  that  in  some  cases  the  totems  follow  the 
father,  in  others  the  mother,  and  again  in  other  instances  the  chil- 
dren inherit  the  totem  of  neither  parent.  The  totem  of  the  off- 
spring is  determined  by  the  old  men  in  accordance  with  customary 
laws,  which  need  not  now  be  entered  upon. 

Space  willnot  permit  of  a  genealogical  tree,  but  the  reader  can 
easily  construct  one  for  himself  from  the  following  explanation.  A 
study  of  Table  I  discloses  that  Chabuldyi,  the  first  name  in  the 
"son"  column,  has  a  normal  or  "tabular"  father,  Changura. 
But  he  may  have  what  we  shall  distinguish  as  an  "alternative" 
father.  Of  these  "alternative"  fathers  Chanima  is  the  most 
general,  whilst  Chungulla  and  Chulima  are  not  so  frequent. 

Looking  at  Table  I,  we  see  that  Changura's  father  is  Chabuldyi, 
and  the  latter' s  father  is  Changura.  That  is,  Changura's  paternal 
grandfather  is  Changura,  the  same  as  himself.  Then  Changura 
marries  his  father's  "  tabular  "  father's  sister's  son's  daughter  Nun- 
gulla, as  "  No.  1"  wife  already  described.  Or  he  marries  his  father's 
"  tabular  "  father's  sister's  daughter's  daughter  Nabana  as  "  No.  3." 
Again,  Changura  may  espouse  his  father's  "alternative"  father's 
sister's  son's  daughter  Nulima  for  "No.  2."  Or  he  can  take  his 
father's  "alternative"  father's  sister's  daughter's  daughter  Nan- 
gilli  as  his  "  No.  4  "  wife. 


xgos.]  MINUTES.  35 

The  genealogy  of  Changura's  wives  could  likewise  be  traced 
through  his  mother's  father.  A  woman  ascertains  who  are  her 
potential  husbands  by  going  back  to  her  mother's  "tabular" 
father,  or  her  mothers  "  alternative  "  father,  as  well  as  her  father's 
father,  from  which  point  the  pedigree  is  the  same  in  principle  as 
that  of  last  paragraph.  It  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  whichever 
one  of  the  four  specific  women  which  a  man  is  allowed  to  take  as  a 
wife,  possesses  practically  the  same  relationship  to  him,  although 
through  different  channels.  The  lineage  from  which  a  man  obtains 
his  wife  is  decided  by  the  elders  of  the  tribe. 

Parramatta,   New  South  Wales. 
February,  1905. 


Stated  Meeting,  April  7,  190J. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

A  letter  was  read  from  Mr.  James  Douglas  describing  a  so- 
called  shower  of  toads  which  he  saw  in  the  Sulphur  Spring 
Valley,  Arizona,  and  confirming  the  observations  of  Dr.  C.  C. 
Abbott  (see  these  Proceedings,  Vol.  XLIII,  p.  163). 
The  decease  was  announced  of  the  following  members  : 
Henri  Louis  Frederic  de  Saussure,  at  Geneva,  Switzerland, 

on  February  20,  1905,  stt.  75. 
F.  A.  Randall,  M.D.,  at  Warren,  Pa.,  on  January  23,  1905. 
Dr.   Alexander    C.   Abbott    read    a    paper    on   "  Epidemic 
Cerebro-Spinal  Meningitis." 


General  Meeting,  April  12,  zj,  and  14,  ipoj. 
April  12, 

Afternoon  Session. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

The  President  opened  the  meeting  with  a  brief  address  of 
welcome. 

An  invitation  was  received  from  the  Naturwissenschaftliche 
Verein  fur  Schleswig-Holstein  to  be  represented  at  the  cele- 


36  MINUTES.  March  17, 

bration  of  the  Fiftieth  Anniversary  of  its  foundation  to  be 
held  at  Kiel  on  June  17  and  18  next.  On  motion,  the  Presi- 
dent was  authorized  to  appoint  delegates. 

The  following  papers  were  read  : 

"The  Weal-Relation,"  by  Prof.  Lindley  M.  Keasbey,  of 
Bryn  Mawr,  Pa. 

"A  Plea  for  Governmental  Supervision  of  Posts  Necessitat- 
ing Normal  Perception  of  Color,"  by  Dr.  Charles  A.  Oliver, 
of  Philadelphia. 

"The  Present  Status  of  the  International  Catalogue  of  Sci- 
entific Literature,"  by  Dr.  Cyrus  Adler,  of  Washington. 

"  The  Composite  Character  of  the  Babylonian  Creation 
Story,"  by  Prof.  Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.,  of  Philadelphia. 

"The  English  Masque,"  by  Prof.  Felix  E.  Schelling,  of 
Philadelphia. 

"  The  Emancipation  of  the  Waterways,"  by  Prof.  Lewis  M. 
Haupt,  of  Philadelphia. 

"The  Beginnings  of  Lumbering  as  an  Industry  in  the  New 
World,"  by  Mr.  John  E.  Hobbs,  of  North  Berwick,  Maine. 


April  13, 

Morning  Session. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  papers  were  read  : 

"The  Structure  of  the  Lignified  Cell  Wall,"  by  Prof.  John 
M.  Macfarlane,  of  Lansdowne,  Pa. 

"New  Species  of  Genus  Nepenthes,"  by  Prof.  John  M. 
Macfarlane,  of  Lansdowne,  Pa. 

"  On  Thought  Transference  Among  Animals  by  Touch 
and  Scent,"  by  Mr.  Alden  Sampson,  of  Haverford. 

"  Mosaic  Development  in  Ascidian  Eggs,"  by  Prof.  Edwin 
G.  Conklin,  of  Philadelphia. 

"The  Oligodynamic  Action  of  Copper  on  Some  Intestinal 
Organisms,"  by  Prof.  Henry  Kraemer,  of  Philadelphia. 


lew.]  MINUTES.  37 

"Observations  on  Columbium  and  Tantalum,"  by  Dr. 
Edgar  F.  Smith,  of  Philadelphia. 

"The  Effects  Upon  Metabolism  of  Preservatives  Added  to 
Foods,"  by  Dr.  Harvey  W.  Wiley,  of  Washington. 

"The  Use  of  the  Rotating  Anode  and  Mercury  Cathode  in 
Electro-Analysis,"  by  Lily  G.  Kollock  and  Dr.  Edgar  F. 
Smith,  of  Philadelphia. 

Afternoon  Session. 
Vice-President  Scott  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  papers  were  read  : 

"  The  Rounded  Sands  of  Palaeozoic  Formations,"  by  Mr. 
Gilbert  van  Ingen,  of  Princeton. 

"  A  Review  of  Lacroix's  Work  on  the  Montagne  Pelee,"  by 
Prof.  Angelo  Heilprin,  of  Philadelphia. 

"  Notes  on  the  Genus  Sinopa,"  by  Dr.  W.  D.  Matthew, 
of  Princeton. 

"The  Mammalian  Fauna  of  the  Fort  Union  Beds,"  by  Mr. 
M.  S.  Farr,  of  Princeton. 

"The  Marsupial  Fauna  of  the  Santa  Cruz  Beds,"  by  Mr. 
W.  J.  Sinclair,  of  Princeton. 

"The  Mutual  Affinities  of  the  Species  of  the  Genus  Cam- 
barus,"  by  Dr.  A.  E.  Ortmann,  of  Pittsburgh. 

"The  Faunal  Relations  of  the  Ryu-kyu  (Loo  Choo) 
Islands,"  by  Dr.  Henry  A.  Pilsbry,  of  Philadelphia. 

Evening  Session. 
Prof.  Russell  H.  Chittenden,  of  New  Haven,   read  a  paper 
on   "  Reason  and   Intelligence  vs.   Custom  and   Habit  in  the 
Nutrition  of  the  Body." 


April  14, 
Morning  Session. 
Vice-President  Newcomb  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  papers  were  read  : 

"The    Secular  Perturbations    of  the   Earth,"  by  Mr.   Eric 
Doolittle,  of  Upper  Darby,  Pa. 


38  MINUTES.  [March  i7f 

"On  the  Problem  of  Four  Bodies,"  by  Prof.  Edgar  Odell 
Lovett,  of  Princeton. 

"  Radio-Activity  in  Solar  Phenomena,"  by  Prof.  Monroe  B. 
Snyder,  of  Philadelphia. 

"  Evidence  Relating  to  Latitude  Variations  of  Short  Periods. 
From  Observations  at  the  Flower  Observatory  During  the  Year 
1904,"  by  Prof.  C.  L.  Doolittle,  of  Philadelphia. 

"  Enquiry  Into  the  Pressure  and  Rainfall  Conditions  of  the 
Trades-Monsoon  Area,  by  W.  L.  Dallas,  of  the  Meteorological 
Office,  India. 

"  On  the  Construction  of  Isobaric  Charts  for  Upper  Levels 
and  Their  Dynamic  Importance  in  Dynamic  Meteorology,"  by 
Dr.  J.  W.  Sandstrom,  of  Stockholm. 

"The  Straight  Line  Concept,"  by  Prof.  P.  A.  Lambert,  of 
Bethlehem,  Pa. 

Executive  Session. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

The  pending  nominations  for  membership  were  read  and 
the  Society  proceeded  to  an  election. 

Afternoon  Session. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

The  Tellers  of  Election  reported  that  the  following  candi- 
dates had  been  elected  to  membership  : 
Residents  of  the    United  States: 
Joseph  S.  Ames,  Ph.D.,  Baltimore ; 
Thomas  Chrowder  Chamberlin,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Chicago  ; 
William  Gilson  Farlow,  Cambridge  ; 
Charles  H.  Frazier,  M.D.,  Philadelphia  ; 
David  Starr  Jordan,  Stanford  University,  Cal.  ; 
George  Lyman  Kittredge,  LL.D.,  Cambridge; 
Robert  G.  Le  Conte,  M.D.,  Philadelphia  ; 
Eliakim  Hastings  Moore,  Chicago  ; 
George  T.  Moore,  Ph.D.,  Washington  ; 
Richard  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr.,  Ph.D.,  Philadelphia  ; 


MINUTES.  39 

Francis  P.  Venable,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C; 

J.  Edward  Whitfield,  Philadelphia ; 

Bailey  Willis,  E.M.,  C.E.,  Washington. 

Foreign  Residents : 

Yves  Delage,  Paris ; 

Otto  Nordenskjold,  Stockholm  ; 

William  Matthew  Flinders-Petrie,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
London ; 

Edward  Sievers,  Leipzig  ; 

Sir  William  Turner  Thiselton-Dyer,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S., 
Kew,  England. 

The  following  papers  were  read : 

"  On  the  Theory  of  the  Double  Suspension  Pendulum,"  by 
Prof.  Robert  S.  Woodward,  of  New  York. 

"The  Relation  between  the  Economic  Depth  of  a  Bridge 
Truss  and  the  Depth  Which  Gives  Greatest  Stiffness,"  by  Prof. 
Mansfield  Merriman,  of  South  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

"  On  tne  Dispersion,  Absorption,  Fluorescence  and  Mag- 
netic Rotation  of  Sodium  Vapor,"  by  Prof.  Robert  Williams 
Wood,  of  Baltimore. 

"  On  a  Possible  Case  of  Scattering  of  the  Ultra- Violet 
Light  by  Gas  Molecules,"  by  Prof.  Robert  Williams  Wood,  of 
Baltimore. 

"  The  Use  of  the  Falling  Plate  Oscillograph  as  a  Phase 
Meter,"  Dr.  William  McClellan,  of  Philadelphia. 

"  On  the  Brains  of  Scymnus,  Mitsukurina  and  Chlamydo- 
selachus,  with  Remarks  Upon  Selachian  Brains  from  Stand- 
points Morphic,  Ontogenic,  Taxonomic,  Phylogenic  and  Peda- 
gogic," by  Prof.  Burt  G.  Wilder,  of  Ithaca. 


40         OLIVER— GOVERNMENT   SUPERVISION   OF   POSTS.    [April  12. 


A  PLEA  FOR  GOVERNMENTAL  SUPERVISION  OF 
POSTS    NECESSITATING   NORMAL  PER- 
CEPTION OF    COLOR. 

BY  CHARLES  A.  OLIVER,  A.M.,  M.D. 
( Read  April  12,  /goj. ) 

When  it  is  realized  how  important  becomes  normal  perception 
of  color  in  situations  in  which  accurate  color-vision  is  one  of  the 
main  requisites  or  the  sole  determining  factor  for  the  safety  of 
lives  and  the  protection  of  property,  it  will  be  at  once  understood 
that  definite  rules  for  the  obtainance  of  color-material,  the  con- 
struction of  test  and  governing  objects,  and  the  choice  of  standards 
of  necessary  color-sense,  should  all  be  placed  under  the  supervision 
of  a  controlling  body  from  whom  all  requisite  laws  shall  proceed, 
all  regulations  exercised,  and  all  appeals  of  enforcement  made. 

Arbitrary  selection  of  color-material,  even  though  scientifically 
and  properly  obtained  primarily  ;  voluntary  employment  of  neces- 
sarily many  empirical  —  and  hence  ofttimes,  imperfect  —  methods  ; 
and  the  existence  of  multitudinous  controlling  corporate  bodies  for 
the  adjudication  of  uncertainties,  neglect,  and  intentional  wilful 
acts  —  must  all  exist  —  as  they  practically  now  do — just  as  long 
as  no  steps  are  taken  to  place  the  entire  question  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  national  governing  board. 

Railway  service,  no  matter  what  the  form  of  motor  may  be  or  in 
what  manner  the  necessary  duties  are  performed,  is  mainly  governed 
during  actual  work  by  the  proper  and  ready  recognition  of  color- 
signals  which  are  placed  sufficiently  distant  for  safety  to  those  for 
whom  the  signalling  is  intended ;  naval  and  marine  transport 
throughout  the  world  is  mostly  accomplished  amid  its  many  vicis- 
situdes of  atmospheric  and  hydrostatic  change,  by  quick  and  certain 
detections  of  chosen  peculiarities  of  color  situated  at  safe  points  of 
definite  signification  ;  and  army  signalling  and  geodetic  survey  work 
in  their  every  varying  degrees  of  necessity  of  occasion,  are  largely 
dependent  for  success  upon  both  aided  and  unaided  color  vision. 
These  conditions  granted,  it  will  be  at  once  seen  how  vast  the  field 
of  color  employment  is,  how  necessary  that  proper  material  shall 
be  correctly  used,  and  how  important  it  becomes  that  the  perfor- 


igos-]       OLIVER— GOVERNMENT    SUPERVISION  OF   POSTS.  41 

mance  of  the  actual  work  shall  be  limited  to  those  who  possess 
normal  color-vision. 

The  facts  set  forth  in  this  brief  communication  once  recognized 
and  systematically  applied,  thousands  of  lives  must  be  annually 
protected  and  millions  of  property  yearly  saved  ;  a  result  for  which 
this  plea  —  a  most  urgent  one  —  is  offered  ;  a  plea  which  demands 
that  in  this  country  —  these  United  States  of  America  —  there 
shall  be  established  a  board  of  authority  composed  of  those  who 
are  best  suited  for  the  establishment  and  the  continued  furtherance 
of  the  required  work  performed,  meeting  in  association  with  repre- 
sentatives from  the  variously  affected  departments  of  state. 


42  HAUPT— EMANCIPATION   OF   THE   WATERWAYS.    [April 


EMANCIPATION    OF   THE    WATERWAYS. 

EY   LEWIS   M.   HAUPT. 

{Read  April  12,  iQOj. ) 

Probably  no  expenditure  made  by  the  Government  produces  a 
larger  return  than  that  for  the  development  of  our  waterways. 
They  are  the  lines  of  least  resistance  but  in  a  state  of  nature  they  are 
not  always  available.  Their  economic  possibilities  are  inestimable, 
when  not  obstructed  by  bars  or  tolls.  By  the  improvement  of  the 
channels  connecting  the  Great  Lakes  to  a  depth  of  20  feet,  not 
only  has  the  cost  of  the  transportation  been  greatly  reduced  but  the 
enormous  stimulus  given  to  manufacturers  has  added  largely  to  the 
population  and  wealth  of  the  cities  encircling  these  waters.  Thus 
the  rate  on  a  bushel  of  wheat  from  Chicago  to  New  York  by  the 
Lakes  and  Erie  Canal,  in  1866,  when  the  Sault  Canal  depth  was 
limited  to  12  feet,  was  29.62  cents,  whereas  the  rate  on  a  20-foot 
draught  in  1904,  was  only  4.71  cents,  or  only  about  one  sixth, 
thus  effecting  a  saving  of  84  per  cent.  The  rail  charges  between 
the  same  terminals  were,  for  the  year  1866,  32.79  cents,  and  in 
1904,  1 1. 1 1  cents  showing  a  reduction  of  about  two  thirds  in  the 
charges  by  rail.  From  these  significant  figures  it  appears  that 
while  the  charges  by  rail  and  water  had  both  been  greatly  reduced, 
in  1866  the  water  charge  was  90  per  cent,  of  that  by  rail  while  in 
1904  it  was  only  42  per  cent. 

But  a  still  more  impressive  illustration  as  to  the  beneficial  effects 
of  this  improvement  is  set  forth  by  the  statement  made  in  1892  by 
Senator  Wm.  P.  Frye,  in  presenting  his  committee  report,  wherein 
he  said  that  for  the  year  1890  "The  total  expenditure  for  water 
improvements  of  the  lakec  has  amounted  to  about  $30,000,000,  or 
approximately  one  fifth  of  the  annual  saving  effected  in  transporta- 
tion. .  .  .  Our  waterways  have  acted  as  the  most  powerful  regu- 
lators of  rates.  .  .  .  When  it  is  considered  that  a  diminution  of  one 
mill  per  ton  on  the  railroads  of  the  country  effects  a  saving  of 
nearly  $100,000,000  to  the  shippers  in  transportation,  the  value 
of  this  restrictive  power  cannot  be  overestimated."  Had  the  dis- 
tinguished Senator  added  as  a  recognized  fact  that  such  regulation 
by  water  does  not  reduce,  but  greatly  increases  the  revenues  of  the 


»9°5]        HAUPT— EMANCIPATION   OF   THE   WATERWAYS.  43 

railroads  he  would  but  have  emphasized  the  Commercial  Paradox, 
which  comparatively  few  persons  appear  to  recognize. 

In  1890  the  unit  rate  by  rail  was  about  9  mills  and  by  the  lakes 
alone  was  1.2  so  that  the  computed  saving  on  the  tonnage  moved 
by  water  that  year  was  $147,027,514.  Applying  the  same  method 
to  the  tonnage  and  rates  of  1903  it  is  found  that  the  water  rate  is 
about  6.7  mills  less  that  that  by  rail  while  the  total  ton-mileage  of 
the  lakes  is  28,974,660,408  so  that  the  economy  effected  for  the 
year  1903  is  about  $194,139,206.  Attention  is  directed  to  another 
impressive  result  of  the  deepening  and  enlargement  of  the  capacity 
of  the  channels,  in  the  greatly  increased  size,  tonnage  and  economy 
of  operation  of  the  vessels  engaged  in  this  traffic.  Thus  from  1855 
to  1883,  or  during  the  26  years  when  the  draught  was  limited  to 
12  feet  the  traffic  increased  from  106,296  to  2,042,259  registered 
tons,  giving  an  average  increment  of  56,918  tons  per  annum. 
From  1883  to  1896,  when  the  Weitzel-Lock  was  in  operation,  with 
its  16  feet  depth,  the  annual  increment  was  935,211  tons  and  after 
the  opening  of  the  great  Poe-Lock  in  1896  it  immediately  expanded 
to  2,750,000  tons  so  that  the  registered  tonnage  in  1902  reached 
the  unprecedented  total  of  31,955,582,  in  the  seven  months  of 
open  navigation.  Again  the  value  of  land  is  effected  by  its  earn- 
ing capacity  as  measured  by  the  price  of  its  products  on  the  spot 
and  this  in  turn  is  a  function  of  the  cost  reaching  the  ultimate 
consumer. 

Thus  the  effects  of  the  cheaper  water  routes  manifests  itself  most 
remarkably,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  average  values  of 
the  farm  products  of  the  several  states  as  furnished  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  From  the  statistics  covering  a  decade,  it  is 
found  that  the  lowest  average  price  for  wheat  is  in  Nebraska  and 
that  it  increases  in  value  as  the  seaboard  is  approached.  The  dif- 
ference in  price  between  the  50.9  cents  per  bushel  in  Nebraska  and 
the  7S  cents  at  New  York,  1,214  miles  distant,  is  27.1  cents  per 
bushel  or  $8.94  per  ton  which  gives  7.2  mills  for  the  ton-mile  rate 
which  is  just  the  average  for  the  United  States,  so  that  the  price  on 
the  farm  in  Nebraska  is  regulated  by  that  at  the  port  of  export,  less 
the  freight  charges. 

In  Missouri  where  wheat  maybe  shipped  by  the  Mississippi  river 
to  New  Orleans  from  St.  Louis,  1,162  miles  for  4.88  cents  per 
bushel  or  $1.61  per  ton  the  rate  becomes  only  1.4  mills  by  water. 


44  HAUPT— EMANCIPATION    OF   THE    WATERWAYS.    LApni  12, 

If  sent  to  New  York  by  rail,  946  miles,  it  is  6  mills  per  ton-mile. 
In  consequence  of  this  possible  competition  therefore  the  average 
price  paid  to  the  Missouri  farmer  is  ten  cents  a  bushel  higher  than 
that  paid  in  Nebraska  and  this  at  12  bushels  to  the  acre  means  a 
net  return  of  $1.20  per  acre  on  his  crop. 

Extending  this  analysis  to  the  cereals  of  the  two  adjacent  states 
of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  the  former  having  the  advantage  of  greater 
proximity  to  the  waterways,  for  the  year  1901  it  was  found  that  the 
five  cents  higher  price  realized  on  the  wheat  crop,  gave  to  Kansas 
$4> 953>965  greater  revenue  than  her  neighbor,  while  at  nine  cents 
more  per  bushel  on  corn  her  advantage  was  $5,535,543  and  for 
oats  at  six  cents,  it  was  $1,039,944,  makinga  total  of  $11,530,000 
on  these  three  cereals.  In  the  same  manner  it  is  found  that  if  Ne- 
braska could  have  marketed  her  grain  at  Kansas  prices  she  would 
have  received  $14,267,000  more,  in  one  year.  The  total  expendi- 
tures on  the  rivers  and  harbors  of  the  country  up  to  September  19, 
1900,  is  reported  to  have  been  $370,411,124.44,  4  per  cent,  of 
which  would  represent  the  annual  loss  to  one  state  due  to  the 
absence  of  water  competition. 

THE    POLICY    OF    OTHER    COUNTRIES. 

It  is  not  surprising  therefore  that  in  the  sagacious  French  Re- 
public which  has  expended  over  $700,000,000  on  her  internal 
waterways,  which  are  free  of  tolls,  her  economists  believe  this 
policy  to  be  fully  justified  by  the  indirect  returns  and  the  thrift  and 
prosperity  of  the  people  incidental  thereto. 

So  too  the  Dominion  of  Canada  has  not  hesitated  to  provide  the 
munificent  sum  of  $95,316,910.07  for  her  system  of  internal  water- 
ways, which  have  returned  only  about  one  eighth  of  this  sum,  yet 
the  Government  recognizes  "that  waterways  and  roadways  are 
essential  to  the  commercial  life  of  the  country." 

Great  Britain  has  learned  from  a  sad  experience  that  the  purchase 
of  1,138  miles  out  of  a  total  of  3,906,  by  the  railroads,  up  to 
1883,  has  so  retarded  her  trade  that  she  is  no  longer  able  to  com- 
pete successfully  with  her  foreign  rivals  and  Parliament  had  pro- 
hibited the  further  control  of  the  waterways  by  hostile  interests 
and  is  returning  to  the  policy  of  rehabilitating  them  under  cor- 
porate management.  Moreover  it  is  shown  that  the  2,768  miles 
under  independent  control,  in  1898,  earned  a  net  profit  of  $1,080 


i9°5]        HAUPT— EMANCIPATION    OF    THE    WATERWAYS.  45 

per  mile  while  the  returns  from  the  1,138  miles,  managed  by  the 
railroads,  only  averaged  $200  per  mile.  To  secure  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  an  open  port  the  Manchester  district  contested  for 
enabling  legislation  for  five  years  at  a  cost  of  $750,000  against  the 
allied  interests  of  the  railroads  and  the  port  of  Liverpool  but  now 
that  the  great  work  is  completed,  at  a  cost  of  about  $75,000,000 
the  13,000  vacant  dwellings  and  factories  are  filled  and  as  many 
more  have  been  added  to  the  district,  while  the  interests  formerly 
opposed,  on  principle,  are  all  doing  a  much  larger  business  than 
before. 

Belgium,  but  little  larger  than  Vermont,  has  1,300  miles  of 
waterways  of  which  the  center  is  Antwerp.  Notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  State  owns  most  of  the  railways  it  has  encouraged  the 
construction  of  the  canals  so  as  to  render  the  transportation  "as 
cheap  as  possible,  that  by  this  means  the  Belgian  manufacturer  may 
be  enabled  to  compete  on  most  advantageous  terms  with  his  foreign 
rivals."  During  the  last  25  years  about  $90,000,000  have  been 
spent  on  ports  and  canals,  so  that  goods  can  be  carried  in  300-ton 
barges  directly  from  the  factory  to  the  ship  and  by  the  economies 
thus  effected  the  manufacturer  can  underbid  his  foreign  competitor. 

Germany  is  building  an  extensive  system  of  canals  to  connect  the 
Rhine  with  the  Vistula,  passing  through  her  national  capital. 
Russia  is  urging  a  thousand-mile  canal  to  unite  the  Baltic  and  Black 
seas.  France  is  proposing  further  extensions  to  her  ample  facilities 
and  intends  making  a  sea-port  of  Paris.  Austria  and  Italy  are  also 
expending  large  sums  for  the  benefit  of  their  trade  with  foreign 
countries  and  yet  the  astute  American  who  is  on  the  alert  for  the 
best  and  most  economic  administration  apparently  fails  to  appreciate 
the  great  utilities  and  possibilities  lying  almost  in  a  state  of  nature, 
at  his  very  doors. 

POLICY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

As  evidence  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  the  condition  of  the  canals 
of  this  country  to-day  as  compared  with  those  of  the  past  century. 
Massachusetts  claims  the  honor  of  building  the  first  canal  around 
the  falls  of  the  Connecticut  in  1792-3  and  the  first  railroad  at 
Quincy  in  1827,  34  years  later.  During  this  period  a  large  num- 
ber of  canals  were  incorporated  to  connect  navigable  waters,  and 
the  discovery  of  hard   coal  in   Eastern  Pennsylvania  in  1792  also 


46  HAUPT— EMANCIPATION   OF   THE   WATERWAYS.    [April  12. 

stimulated  the  opening  of  canal  routes  to  the  great  cities  of  the 
seaboard  and  for  its  transportation  to  the  manufactories.  Thus  the 
Delaware  and  Hudson,  the  Morris  and  Essex,  the  Schuylkill  Navi- 
gation, the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  the  Delaware  and  Raritan,  as 
well  as  the  James  River  and  Kanawa,  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Schuyl- 
kill &  Susquehanna  and  the  Erie  were  well  under  way  or  completed 
prior  to  the  advent  of  railroads ;  but  it  soon  after  became  apparent 
that  a  railroad  constructed  by  private  capital  could  not  conduct  a 
profitable  business  as  a  competitor  of  a  free  waterway  built  and 
operated  by  public  funds,  so  that  a  war  of  extermination  began 
between  these  interests  and  it  became  necessary  to  purchase  or  lease 
the  canals  to  control  their  tonnage.  Instead  of  enlarging  and 
modernizing  them  for  the  interest  of  the  lessees  and  the  public 
they  have  in  some  cases  been  abandoned  and  in  others  only  suffi- 
cient traffic  is  carried  to  maintain  the  charters.  The  result  of  this 
policy  is  well  illustrated  in  the  history  of  the  State  works  of  Penn- 
sylvania where  between  1865  and  1874  some  701  miles  of  canals, 
which  had  cost  over  $33,000,000  to  build,  were  abandoned.  In 
a  similar  way  656  miles  of  the  Ohio  canals  were  obliterated  having 
cost  nearly  $11,000,000.  New  York  has  been  more  fortunate  in 
having  lost  only  about  269  miles  which  cost  something  over  $10,- 
000,000,  but  the  determined  effort  now  making  to  prevent  the 
enlargement  of  the  Erie  Canal  to  even  1 2  feet  depth  indicates  that 
the  active  opponents  to  our  waterways  are  not  yet  convinced  that 
their  best  interests  are  conserved  by  these  great  arteries  of  cheap 
transportation.  The  beneficial  effects  of  the  cheapest  water  com- 
petion  in  the  country  upon  railroad  interests  may  be  seen  along  the 
Great  Lakes  where  the  roads  skirting  their  banks  are  amongst  the 
best  revenue  producers  in  the  United  States.  If  it  were  possible  to 
purchase  the  90,000  square  miles  of  non-productive  water-surface 
and  convert  it  into  arable  land  the  railroad  interests  would  not  per- 
mit it  to  be  done  as  it  would  exterminate  the  prosperous  cities  and 
industries  which  these  waters  have  created,  and  ruin  the  tonnage 
incidental  thereto,  yet  they  persist  in  obstructing  deep  water  legis- 
lation. By  the  end  of  1835  there  were  about  2,700  miles  of 
canals  open  and  in  use  and  only  about  1,000  miles  of  railroad  ;  in 
1889  the  canal  mileage  had  fallen  to  2,305.2  while  the  railroad 
mileage  had  increased  to  157,976  miles  and  to-day  it  is  not  less 
than  212,000.      Of  the  canal  mileage  only  40.6  is  under  the  con- 


igos]        HAUPT— EMANCIPATION   OF   THE   WATERWAYS.  47 

trol  of  the  general  Government  and  2,264.6  is  under  State  or  cor- 
porate control.  This  does  not  include  the  1,078  miles  of  slack- 
water  river  improvement,  making  in  all  only  about  3,400  miles  for 
the  entire  internal  water-borne  commerce  of  the  United  States. 

What  this  indifference  to  the  earning  capacity  of  canals  means 
in  the  cost  of  wear  and  tear,  for  maintenance,  may  be  well  exem- 
plified by  a  comparison  of  the  reports  of  the  United  Railroads  of 
New  Jersey  for  the  best  year  of  the  canal  traffic  before  it  was 
leased  by  the  railroad,  and  when  its  traffic  reached  nearly  4,000,- 
000  tons  per  annum. 

In  the  reports  of  the  company  for  the  year  1866  it  is  stated  : 

The  cost  of  the  Camden  and  Amboy  R.  R.  and  its  equipment $10,099,000 

The  cost  of  the  canal  and  appurtenances 4,381,251 

The  cost  of  operating  the  railroad  for  the  year  was 3,801,732 

The  cost  of  operating  the  canal  for  the  same  period 360,513 

The  net  revenues  from  the  railroad  were 511,162 

The  net  revenues  from  the  canal  were 933,642 

So  that  the  railroad  returned  a  little  more  than  five  per  cent,  while 
the  canal  earned  nearly  twenty-three  and  the  operating  expenses 
were  less  than  one  tenth  of  the  former.  This  financial  statement  is 
independent  of  the  general  benefit  conferred  upon  the  public  at 
large  by  the  lower  charge  for  freight  carried. 

From  the  above  statements  as  to  the  great  economic  advantages 
of  canals,  the  neglected  condition  of  our  own  and  the  activity  shown 
in  foreign  countries  which  are  thoroughly  alive  to  their  importance, 
it  would  seem  incredible  that  this  government  has  failed  so  fre- 
quently to  act  upon  or  authorize  others  to  engage  in  most  laudable 
projects,  which  call  for  no  appropriations  from  the  general  treasury 
for  construction,  and  that  petitions  of  influential  communities  and 
large  industrial  centers  are  set  aside  on  the  score  of  economy  or  for 
other  pretexts  so  that  these  most  important  economies  in  interstate 
traffic  are  prevented  from  securing  legislation  for  periods  varying 
from  ten  to  twenty  or  more  years.  Some  of  the  most  worthy 
projects  have  been  before  Congress  for  nearly  a  half  century  and  do 
not  appear  to  be  much  nearer  fruition  than  when  they  were  first 
proposed. 

THE    OHIO    RIVER. 

The  largest  manufacturing  district  in  the  world,  that  at  Pitts- 
burgh, has  been  praying  Congress  for  a  charter  to  construct  a  ship 


48  HAUPT— EMANCIPATION    OF   THE   WATERWAYS.    [April  12. 

canal  to  connect  the  Ohio  river  at  Beaver  with  Lake  Erie  at 
Ashtabula,  so  that  the  congestion  of  the  trade  in  coal,  iron  and 
steel  may  be  raised  and  the  price  of  these  commodities  be  reduced, 
but  in  vain.  In  this  district  the  annual  tonnage  now  exceeds  86,- 
000,000  which  is  greater  than  that  of  any  port  in  the  world,  and 
the  great  rivers  leading  to  the  sea  are  not  yet  navigable  for  boats  of 
even  six  feet  draught.  They  must  wait  for  floods  to  float  them  to 
the  markets.  What  this  means  may  be  best  shown  by  the  experi- 
ence of  the  season  of  1895  when  the  coal  which  had  been  accumu- 
lating from  April  18  until  November  28,  seven  months,  and  which 
amounted  to  1,200,000  tons  was  providentially  released  by  a  flood 
only  in  time  to  prevent  it  being  frozen  in  and  a  large  part  of  it 
lost.  As  it  was,  the  cost  of  keeping  the  barges  afloat  amounted  to 
$2,000  a  day.  The  value  of  the  plant  thus  tied  up  was  estimated 
at  $6,500,000. 

Although  the  improvement  of  this  river  has  been  discussed,  sur- 
veyed and  frequently  reported  upon,  the  first  dam,  that  at  Davis 
Island,  was  not  opened  until  1885  and  since  then  another,  at 
Beaver,  has  been  completed,  twenty-eight  miles  below.  Four 
above  and  five  below  Beaver  are  under  contract,  but  it  is  estimated 
that  between  Pittsburgh  and  Cincinnati  thirty-seven  locks  and 
dams  will  be  required  and  fourteen  more  below  Cincinnati ;  all  for 
a  six-foot  navigation,  but  already  it  is  found  insufficient  and  nine 
feet  are  now  required.  At  this  rate  it  may  well  be  asked  when  will 
the  1,000  miles  be  available?  This  is  all  down  grade  and  amongst 
the  cheapest  systems  in  the  world  —  on  a  six-foot  draught  the  esti- 
mated cost  is  .675  mills  per  ton-mile  and  on  a  nine-foot,  .39  mill. 
The  lowest  rail  movement  is  believed  to  be  that  across  the  Lake 
Divide,  on  the  Bessemer  and  L.  E.  R.  R.  where  the  charge  was 
1.87  mills  in  1901,  and  2.10  mills  in  1904  —  or  three  times  the 
river  rate. 

THE    COASTWISE    CANALS    AND    PRIVATE    ENTERPRISE. 

Again  for  more  than  twenty  years  urgent  demands  have  been 
made  for  the  creation  of  harbors  of  refuge  along  the  New  Jersey 
coast,  where  there  have  been  368  wrecks  in  ten  years,  which  is 
recognized  as  one  of  the  most  dangerous  on  the  great  bay  between 
Cape  Cod  and  Cape  Hatteras,  but  while  several  estimates  have 
been  submitted    for  projects  costing  from  three  to   four   millions 


ig°5]         HAUPT— EMANCIPATION    OF   THE   WATERWAYS.  49 

each  they  have  been  rejected  as  unworthy  of  improvement  because 
of  the  absence  of  sufficient  local  commerce,  caused  by  the  existing 
bars  which  it  is  desired  to  remove.  The  interior  coastwise  canals 
have  been  recommended  for  about  a  century,  but  as  yet  only  a 
few  links  have  been  built  and  those  mainly  by  private  and  State 
aid.  Massachusetts,  has  authorized  private  companies  to  open  a 
canal  across  Cape  Cod  ;  New  Jersey,  across  its  girdle  ;  Delaware 
and  Maryland  through  their  peninsula  ;  Virginia  from  the  Chesa- 
peake to  Albemarle  Sound  ;  South  Carolina  from  the  Santee  to 
the  Cooper  rivers  twenty-two  miles,  opened  in  1802  ;  and  many 
others.  The  State  of  Illinois  has  authorized  the  levying  of  a 
special  tax  which  has  been  expended  in  cutting  the  Chicago  Drain- 
age Canal  through  the  Sag  to  the  Illinois  river.  Thus  past  history 
and  present  experience  point  conclusively  to  the  greater  efficiency 
of  the  policy  of  constructing  local  works  under  local  legislation  and 
and  supervision  rather  than  to  attempt  to  legislate  for  the  entire 
country,  by  general  appropriations  made  in  Congress  where  so  many 
other  matters  of  a  political  nature  consume  time  and  prevent  action, 
or  where  sectional  jealousies  have  operated  to  restrain  important 
measures.  Even  at  this  date  there  are  said  to  be  works  recom- 
mended for  approval  aggregating  nearly  $500,000,000,  in  rivers 
and  harbors  alone,  to  meet  immediate  demands,  yet  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  pass  a  bill  for  even  the  most  urgent  improvements.  So 
that  it  has  recently  been  deemed  necessary  to  authorize  private 
parties,  corporations  or  municipalities  to  make  their  own  improve- 
ments at  their  own  cost  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  plans  by  the 
Government,  but  without  authority  to  charge  tolls,  or  to  collect 
revenues.  As  this  is  not  a  practical,  commercial  proposition,  it 
has  been  further  amended,  in  the  last  act,  by  giving  authority  in 
several  special  instances  to  private  individuals  to  open  channels  and 
charge  tolls,  the  Government  reserving  the  right  to  recover  control 
after  a  period  of  years. 

Thus  the  pressure  for  commercial  channels  which  it  is  beyond 
the  power  of  the  general  Government  to  furnish  in  a  reasonable 
time,  is  leading  back  to  the  original  policy  of  local  control  and  de- 
velopment of  the  lines  of  least  resistance  for  our  internal  commerce 
which  has  done  so  much  to  open  up  the  country  prior  to  the  de- 
struction of  our  merchant  marine  in  1867  when  it  was  the  pride  of 
the  nation,  and  mistress  of  the  seas. 


50  HAUPT— EMANCIPATION,  OF   THE    WATERWAYS.     [Aprils, 

If  the  Government  desires  to  adhere  to  the  policy  of  expending 
seventy-five  per  cent,  of  its  revenues  for  the  war,  navy  and  pension 
establishments  it  would  seem  to  be  wise  to  surrender  its  jurisdiction 
over  the  secondary  rivers  and  harbors,  to  local  or  State  authorities 
that  there  may  be  opportunities  afforded  for  the  creation  of  chan- 
nels of  ample  capacity  not  only  for  commerce  but  also  for  the  use 
of  the  military  and  naval  arms  of  the  service  in  case  of  necessity 
that  they  may  be  operated  on  safe  strategic  bases  between  naval 
depots.  Thus  may  the  waters  of  the  country  be  emancipated  from 
the  shackles  which  have  so  seriously  retarded  their  development. 


i9°S-J 


ON   INTESTINAL   ORGANISMS.  51 


THE    OLIGODYNAMIC    ACTION    OF    COPPER    FOIL    ON 
CERTAIN   INTESTINAL   ORGANISMS. 

BY    HENRY   KRAEMER. 

( Read  April  /j,  1903. ) 

Carl  von  Nageli,  probably  the  greatest  botanist  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, being  both  a  philosopher  and  a  true  scientist,  passed  away  on 
May  10,  1 89 1.  Among  his  papers  was  found  the  manuscript  of  a 
paper  entitled  "  Ueber  oligodynamische  Erscheinungen  in  lebenden 
Zellen,"  which,  together  with  an  added  note  by  Cramer,  was  pub- 
lished by  Schwendener  several  years  after  his  death  in  Neue  Denk- 
schriften  der  schweizerischen  naturforschenden  Gesellschaft.1 

This  really  remarkable  paper,  while  it  has  attracted  considerable 
attention,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  given  the  credit  in  some 
quarters  that  its  merits  deserve.  In  the  light  of  more  recent  bio- 
logical studies  it  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  papers 
that  was  written  by  Nageli,  and  illustrates  both  the  fertility  of  his 
resources  and  the  incisiveness  of  his  genius. 

In  this  paper  Nageli  showed  how  exceedingly  sensitive  certain 
living  plants  are  to  very  minute  quantities  of  various  metals.  For 
forty  years  he  had  been  studying  the  algae,  but  it  was  not  until  some 
time  in  the  '8o's  during  an  illness  that  he  observed  that  if  alga? 
were  placed  in  distilled  water  they  were  killed.  This  he  at  first 
attributed  to  various  causes,  but  found  upon  analysis  of  the  water 
that  it  contained  traces  of  copper,  and  later  experiments  showed 
that  the  copper,  which  had  been  dissolved  by  the  water  in  its  pas- 
sage through  the  copper  still,  was  the  toxic  agent.  He  then  carried" 
on  a  large  number  of  experiments  placing  copper  coins  in  distilled 
water,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  calculate  approximately  the  amount 
of  copper  which  was  dissolved. 

1  For  example,  in  the  English  translation  of  Pfeffer'  s  Physiology  of  Plants,  Vol. 
II,  page  260,  it  is  stated  that  copper  is  poisonous  to  Spirogyra  in  the  proportion 
of  one  part  of  copper  to  1,000  million  parts  of  water,  an  observation  made  by 
Nageli  in  the  paper  referred  to  above,  and  yet  no  mention  of  this  paper  is  made  in 
the  citation  of  literature,  which  would  lead  the  reader  to  believe  that  one  of  the 
other  investigators  quoted  deserved  the  credit  for  the  discovery. 


52  KRAEMER— ACTION   OF   COPPER   FOIL 


[April  13, 


In  these  experiments  Nageli  used  2 -pfennig  pieces,  consisting  of 
95  parts  of  copper,  4  of  tin  and  1  of  zinc.  These  were  cleaned 
with  sand,  and  twelve  of  them  were  placed  in  12  liters  of  distilled 
water  and  allowed  to  remain  for  several  days.  The  solution  was 
evaporated,  the  residue  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the 
copper  precipitated  as  sulphide.  This  precipitate  was  dissolved  in 
nitric  acid  and  an  excess  of  ammonia  added,  producing  a  blue  solu- 
tion. On  comparing  the  intensity  of  color  of  this  solution  with 
that  of  other  solutions  containing  known  quantities  of  copper  sul- 
phate, Nageli  estimated  that  it  contained  1.3  parts  of  copper  to  100 
million  parts  of  water.  He  found  that  this  solution  was  toxic  to 
various  species  of  Spirogyra,  and  a  further  experiment  showed  that 
if  the  solution  were  diluted  ten  times,  that  is,  so  that  it  contained 
1.3  part  of  copper  to  1,000  million  parts  of  water,  it  would  still  kill 
Spirogyra. 

Inasmuch  as  solutions  containing  such  extremely  minute  quanti- 
ties of  copper  were  toxic  to  Spirogyra,  Nageli  was  inclined  to  believe 
that  the  toxic  action  was  different  from  ordinary  chemical  poison- 
ing. This  view  appeared  to  him  to  be  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  the  effects  produced  in  the  cells  were  different  from  those  pro- 
duced by  ordinary  poisons  or  those  resulting  from  the  natural  death 
of  the  organism. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some  later  investigators1  that  Nageli  did 
not  regard  the  copper  as  being  in  a  state  of  solution,  yet  the 
experiments  just  described  clearly  show  what  his  information  was 
on  this  point,  and  in  another  part  of  his  paper  he  distinctly  states 
that  he  so  regards  it.  The  marvellous  thing  to  him,  as  to  us,  was 
that  such  minute  quantities  of  copper  exerted  toxic  action,  and  at 
first  he  was  inclined  to  believe  that  the  effect  produced  was  due  to 
a  new  force  "  Isagitat,"  and  in  his  original  manuscript  he  used  the 
word  "  isagische  "  in  describing  it.     But  this  term  was  later  replaced 

1  On  page  23  of  his  paper  Nageli  says,  "  Die  oligodynamischen  Eigenschaften 
des  Wassers  lassen  sich  also  in  alien  Fallen  auf  Stoffe,  die  ini  demselben  gelost 
sind,  zuruckfiihren.  Nun  weicht  aber  das  durch  Metalle  oligodynamische 
gewordene  Wasser  in  seinem  Verhalten  wesentlich  ab  von  anderen  Losungen. 
Eine  Salz  or  Zuckerlosung  verliert  ihre  eigenschaften  nicht,  wenn  unloslicbe 
Korper  in  dieselbe  gelegt  werden  und  sie  erteilt  den  Wandungen  des  Gefasses 
nicht  die  Fahigkeit,  reines  Wasser  wieder  salsig  or  siiss  zu  machen,  wahrende 
analoge  Erscheinungen  bei  den  Kupferlosungen  eintreten." 


I9oSj  '  ON   INTESTINAL   ORGANISMS.  53 

by  that  of  "  oligodynamische  "  derived  apparently  from  two  Greek 
words  meaning  the  force  within  a  small  quantity  of  substance.1 

There  seems  to  be  some  confusion  among  recent  writers  as  to 
the  condition  of  the  copper  produced  by  placing  copper  foil  in 
water,  and  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  solution  as  being  a  solu- 
tion of  colloidal  copper.  While  it  has  been  customary  since  the 
classical  experiments  of  Graham  to  apply  the  name  colloid  to  those 
substances  which  in  solution  or  suspension  will  not  pass  through 
animal  membranes,  still  recent  researches  have  shown  as  pointed 
out  by  Noyes 3  that  there  are  two  subclasses  of  colloidal  mixtures,  — 
the  one  having  the  characteristic  properties  of  true  solutions,  that 
is,  possessing  osmotic  pressure,  diffusibility  and  usually  a  limited 
solubility  at  some  temperature  ;  the  other  being  without  these  prop- 
erties and  being  in  the  nature  of  macroscopic  and  microscopic  sus- 
pensions. Considering  the  origin  of  the  copper  in  solution  it  would 
properly  belong  to  the  class  of  colloidal  suspensions,  but  it  has  none 
of  the  properties  of  this  class  of  substances  ;  and  it  differs  funda- 
mentally from  the  so-called  colloidal  solutions  not  only  in  origin 
but  in  that  it  possesses  the  property  of  permeating  colloids,  as  the 
cell  wall  and  the  organized  contents  of  the  cell,  thereby  producing 
marked  disturbances  in  the  cell  and  thus  resembling  the  crystalloids. 

It  is  well  known  as  stated  by  Copeland  .and  Kahlenberg2  (page 
455)  that  "every  metal  in  contact  with  water  and  air  is  subject  to 
some  change.  It  reacts  with  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  dissolved 
in  water,  or  with  the  water  itself,  to  form  oxides,  hydroxides,  car- 
bonates, basic  carbonates,  or  acids,  which  in  greater  or  less  degree 
pass  into  solution.  When  this  chemical  action  is  sufficient  for  the 
effect  to  become  visible,  the  metal  is  tarnished  or  corroded  ;  and 
even  gold  and  platinum  lose  their  lustre."  Nageli  in  his  paper 
(page  24)  says  that  a  solution  of  copper  manifesting  oligodynamic 
properties  results  only  when  copper  is  placed  in  water  containing 
oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  ;  but  so  far  no  one  has  determined 
which  compound,  or  compounds,  of  copper  is  formed  under  these 
conditions. 

1  As  further  indicating  the  meaning  that  Nageli  had  in  mind  we  quote  from  his 
paper  (page  8)  as  follows  :  "  Ich  will  nun,  um  eine  bestimmte  und  feste  Bezeich- 
nung  zu  haben,  die  specifische  Wirkungen  des  Giftes  die  chemischen,  die  jenigen 
der  noch  unbekannten  Ursache,  in  dem  ich  dem  Endresultat  vorgreife,  die  oligo- 
dynamischen  nennen." 


54  KRAEMER— ACTION   OF   COPPER   FOIL  [April  i3> 

While  Niigeli's  paper  was  incomplete  he  nevertheless  had  carried 
on  a  sufficient  number  of  experiments  to  show  that  there  is  a 
marked  difference  in  the  sensitiveness  of  various  species  of 
Spirogyra  to  the  oligodynamic  action  of  copper.  He  found,  for 
instance,  that  Spirogyra  orthospera  and  other  Spirogyra s  with  lense- 
shaped  nuclei  were  more  resistant  than  the  remaining  species.1 
He  also  showed  that  there  was  a  marked  difference  in  the  sensitive- 
ness in  some  of  these  plants  (S.  m'tida)  at  different  times  of  the 
day. 

While  Niigeli  confined  his  attention  to  studies  on  Spirogyra 
using  copper  coins2  to  produce  the  oligodynamic  effects,  other  in- 
vestigators since  his  time  have  carried  on  experiments  with  other 
organisms  both  plant  and  animal  and  have  employed  metallic  cop- 
per and  salts  of  copper  as  well.  One  of  the  most  important  of 
these  researches  is  that  by  Israel  and  Klingmann.4  These  investi- 
gators studied  the  effects  of  copper  on  certain  bacteria  (as  Bacil- 
lus typhi,  B.  coli  and  Microspira  comma'),  as  well  as  certain  animal 
organisms  (as  Amoeba,  Difflugia  oblonga,  Hematococcus  pluvialis, 
Paramecium  Bursaria,  Spirostomum  ambiguum,  Vorticella  micro- 
stoma and  Sty lony chia  mytilus),  and  also  on  Spirogvra.  They  used 
copper  foil  and  found  that  it  had  a  marked  toxic  effect  on  all  of 
the  bacteria  that  they  worked  with,  B.  typhi  being  the  most 
sensitive.  They  also  found  that  by  placing  the  solutions  of 
copper  containing  the  organisms  in  an  incubator  at  a  temperature 
of  35°-4o°  C.  the  toxic  effects  were  manifested  in  i  hour,  whereas 
at  the  ordinary  temperature  similar  effects  were  produced  in  two 
hours.  In  the  case  of  the  animal  organisms,  while  the  toxic  effects 
were  visible  in  most  instances  in  but  a  few  minutes,  in  Vorticella  it 
required  several  hours  for  any  toxic  effects  to  be  observed  and  it 
was  found  that  Sty  lony  chia  might  resist  the  action  for  24  hours. 
These  authors  further  found  that  water  in  which  copper  foil  had 
been  placed  for  24  hours,  could  be  diluted  100  times  and  still 
manifest  oligodynamic  effects  on  Spirogyra.     In  the  latter  instance 

1  Cramer  made  a  similar  observation  with  S.  setiformis  (?). 

Israel  and  Klingmann  (page  307)  found  that  S.  Crassa  was  killed  in  15  min- 
utes, S.  majuscula  in  30  minutes  and  S.  laxa  in  75  minutes. 

2  During  his  investigation  Nageli  also  discovered  that  minute  quantities  of  other 
metals,  as  silver,  lead,  tin,  iron  and  mercury  manifested  oligodynamic  properties 
similar  to  copper. 


i9o5] 


ON   INTESTINAL   ORGANISMS.  55 


the  time  required  was  24  hours  as  against  8  minutes  in  the  first 
instance. 

While  we  have  seen  that  solutions  containing  minute  quantities 
of  copper  are  exceedingly  toxic  to  certain  organisms,  other  investi- 
gators have  shown  that  various  plants  not  only  withstand  the  influ- 
ence of  relatively  large  quantities  of  copper  sulphate,  but  under 
certain  conditions  even  appear  to  be  benefited  by  its  presence. 
With  these  various  data  before  us  we  may  say  that  while  copper 
has  a  specific  toxic  action  even  in  very  minute  quantities  on  certain 
organisms,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  same  organisms 
manifest  a  specific  sensitiveness  towards  copper  and  various  other 
metals.1 

These  data  are  not  only  of  great  interest  from  a  scientific  point 
of  view  but  in  their  practical  application  are  of  very  great  impor- 
tance, and  it  was  to  be  expected  that  pharmacologists  would  appre- 
ciate the  important  bearing  of  this  line  of  investigation  on  their 
work.  Cushny 5  among  pharmacologists  early  recognized  the  value 
of  these  researches  and  the  possibilities  in  their  application  in  the 
prevention  and  treatment  of  disease.  He  states  that  while  copper 
is  comparatively  harmless  to  man,  yet  it  is  exceedingly  toxic  to 
certain  microorganisms  and  intestinal  parasites.      He  says  : 

"  Small  quantities  of  copper  may  be  taken  for  indefinite  periods 
without  any  symptoms  being  induced,  so  that  so  far  as  man  is  con- 
cerned the  general  action  of  copper  is  unknown.  ...  On  the 
other  hand,  copper  is  a  deadly  poison  to  several  of  the  lower  plants. 
Thus,  traces  of  copper  added  to  the  water  in  which  they  live, 
destroy  some  of  the  simpler  algae,  and  Nageli  asserts  that  1   part 

1  While  various  explanations  might  be  offered  to  show  why  such  extremely 
minute  quantities  of  copper  in  solution  are  sufficient  to  kill  unicellular  and  fila- 
mentous algre,  bacteria,  and  unicellular  animal  organisms,  and  yet  not  affect 
multicellular  plants  and  animals,  whose  cells  are  as  delicate  in  structure  as  those 
of  the  unicellular  organisms,  it  seems  that  this  is  in  a  measure  due  to  the  fact  that 
in  the  latter  the  entire  individual  is  comprised  in  a  single  cell,  which  performs  all 
the  vegetative  as  well  as  reproductive  functions,  and  being  entirely  surrounded  by 
the  copper  solution,  all  the  life  process  are  affected,  there  being  no  way  for  the 
organism  to  distribute  the  solution  to  other  cells,  and  thus  by  a  dilution  minimize 
the  toxic  action  of  the  copper.  Or  if  some  of  the  cells  in  the  multicellular  organism 
are  destroyed  or  injured  by  exposure  to  the  solution,  others  are  formed  to  take  their 
place  from  the  more  or  less  deep-seated  meristematic  cells.  It  is  true  that  the 
idiosyncrasies  in  these  organisms  should  also  be  borne  in  mind,  some  of  them 
being  more  resistant  than  others. 


56  KRAEMER— ACTION   OF   COPPER   FOIL  [April  13, 

of  copper  in  1,000,000,000  parts  of  water  is  sufficient  to  kill  these 
plants.  .  .  .  Locke  found  that  the  traces  of  copper  contained  in 
water  distilled  in  copper  vessels  were  sufficient  to  destroy  tubifex 
(one  of  the  annelid  worms)  and  tadpoles,  while  Bucholtz  states 
that  the  development  of  bacteria  is  stopped  by  a  solution  of  copper 
sulphate  under  1  per  cent,  in  strength.  Copper  thus  seems  to  have 
a  very  powerful  poisonous  action  on  certain  living  forms  and  to  be 
harmless  to  others,  and  the  subject  deserves  further  investigation. 
It  is  possible  that  it  may  prove  to  act  prejudicially  to  some  human 
parasites,  and  it  is  certainly  less  dangerous  to  man  than  many  other 
remedies  used  as  parasiticides  and  disinfectants." 

It  was  not,  however,  until  the  publication  of  the  bulletin  on  "A 
Method  of  Destroying  or  Preventing  the  Growth  of  Algae  and  Cer- 
tain Pathogenic  Bacteria  in  Water  Supplies"  by  Moore  and  Keller- 
man,6  nearly  a  year  ago,  that  the  very  great  practical  significance 
of  work  along  these  lines  became  apparent  and  general  interest  was 
aroused  in  the  subject. 

Since  last  fall  we  have  been  carrying  on  a  series  of  experiments 
in  the  Microscopical  Laboratory  of  the  Philadelphia  College  of 
Pharmacy '  with  the  view  of  testing  the  efficiency  of  metallic  copper 
for  destroying  typhoid  and  colon  bacilli  in  water.  Some  of  the 
results  obtained  have  already  been  published.7 

In  presenting  the  results  of  our  experiments  sufficient  of  the 
details  will  be  given  to  show  the  manner  in  which  the  work  was 
conducted. 

In  the  first  series  of  experiments  here  recorded  water  under  three 
different  conditions  was  employed  : '  («)  Distilled  water  which  was 
prepared  from  tap  water  by  first  treating  it  with  potassium  perman- 
ganate and  then  distilling  it  two  or  three  times  by  means  of 
apparatus  constructed  entirely  of  glass ;  (b)  filtered  tap  water, 
prepared  by  means  of  a  Berkefeld  filter  attached  to  a  copper  spigot ; 
(V)  tap  water,  collected  after  being  allowed  to  run  for  five  minutes, 
the  spigot  being  the  usual  copper  one.  All  of  these  were  sterilized 
in  an  autoclave  at  1  io°  for  30  minutes.2 

The  cultures  of  typhoid  and  colon  which  were  used  were  pure 
cultures  developed  in  bouillon  for  18  to  24  hours. 

1 1  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  Mr.  John  R.  Rippetoe  for  valuable  assis- 
tance in  carrying  on  the  experiments  recorded  in  this  paper. 

2  In  all  of  our  work  we  found  in  the  blank  experiments  that  water  which  had 
been  sterilized  in  an  autoclave  remained  sterile. 


ON    INTESTINAL   ORGANISMS. 


57 


To  200  c.c.  of  samples  of  water  prepared  as  stated,  and  contained 
in  sterile  Erlenmeyer  flasks,  were  added  two  3-mm.  loops  of  the 
fresh  bouillon  cultures  of  typhoid  and  colon  bacilli  respectively. 
Counting  the  duplicate  experiments  provided  for,  we  thus  had  a 
series  of  1 2  flasks,  6  of  them  containing  typhoid  bacilli,  and  6  colon 
bacilli. 

For  determining  the  number  of  organisms,  1  c.c.  of  the  respective 
solutions  was  transferred  directly  to  a  Petri  dish  by  means  of  a 
sterile  i-c.c.  pipet,  and  to  this  was  added  10  c.c.  of  Heyden's 
nutrient  agar,  which  had  been  kept  at  a  temperature  of  40 °  C.  for 
some  time.  Three  separate  plates  of  the  water  in  each  of  the  12 
flasks  was  made  immediately  upon  the  addition  of  the  cultures,  and 
both  the  plates  and  the  flasks  were  kept  at  a  temperature  of  35 ° 


Table  I. — Experiments  with  Bacillus  coll. 


Water  Without  Copper  Foil. 


Triple 
Distilled 
Water 


At  time  of  add- 
ing culture. 
At    end  of    4 

hours. 
At   end  of    8 

hours. 
At  end  of  24 

hours. 
At   end  of  48 

hours. 
At  end  of    6 

days. 
At  end  of  14 

days. 
At  end  of  21 

days. 
At  end  of  28 

days. 
At  end  of  53 

days. 
At   end  of  60 

days. 
At  end  of  83 

days. 
At  end  of  90 

days. 
At  end  of  1 30' 

days. 


Filtered 

Tap 
Water. 


7,746  11,246 

7,655   '■  5,075 

7,735  !  3,"5 
1,000,000  1,000,000 
1,200,000  1,600,000 
1,200,000   1,000,000 


Tap 
Water. 


8,283 

7,665 

7,000 

1,500,000 

2,000,000 

1,200,000 


Water  With  Copper  Foil. 


Triple 
Distilled 
Water. 


,866 


No  or- 
ganisms. 


1,060,000  910,000  2,245,000 

700,000  462,000   650,000 

700,600  462,446 

602,000  456,000 

!  583,200  421,000 

215,600  128,766 


208,133 
289,333 


48,433 
146,543 


649,666 
693,000 

687,333 
206,950 
147,000 
225,400 


4,410 

No  or- 
ganisms. 


Tap 


6,790 

No  or- 
ganisms. 


1  The  nutrient  medium  used  in  the  plates  made  at  the  end  of  130  days  was  agar 
having  an  acidity  of  0.5  percent. 


58 


KRAEMER— ACTION   OF   COPPER   FOIL 


[April 


C.  to  37°  C.  To  six  of  the  flasks  were  then  added  strips  of  copper 
foil  about  15  mm.  wide  and  18  cm.  long,  these  being  corrugated 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  entire  surface  was  exposed  to  the  water. 
Plates  were  made  from  all  the  12  flasks  at  the  end  of  4  hours  and 
8  hours,  and  1  day,  2  days,  and  6  days,  even  in  the  cases  where  no 
organisms  remained,  and  in  the  cases  in  which  they  continued  to 
develop,  also  at  the  end  of  14,  21,  28,  53,  60,  83,  90,  120,  130 
and   134  days.     The  results  are  given  in  the  accompanying  tables. 

Table  II. — Experiments  with  Bacillus  typhosus.1 


Water  Without  Copper  Foil. 


Triple        Filtered 
Distilled         Tap 
Water.         Water. 


Tap 
Water. 


Water  With  Copper  Coil. 


Dis'tilled       Filtered  Tap 

Water.         Water.         Water. 


At  time 
At  end 


of  adding  culture, 
of  4  hours. 


24  " 
4S  « 
6  days 
14  " 
21  " 
28  " 
602 
90 


days 


134 


3.740 
2,835 

3,85o 

3,75o 

3,8i5 

1,850 

16,380 

39,690 

153,600 

295,866 

239,400 

78,75o 

34,440 


4,75o 
No  or- 
ganisms. 


3,675 
3,8i5 

1,995 
i,435 

i,540 


3,986  127 

No  or-      No  or 
ganisms.  ganisms.  ganism 


1,400 
No  or- 


3,920 

65,500 

221,867 

961,800 

346,500 

9,156 

7,875 


1  Bouillon  cultures  of  the  different  samples  of  water,  at  the  end  of  60  days, 
gave  with  Widal's  test  the  characteristic  behavior  of  typhoid  organisms.  After 
60  days  the  organisms  were  found  to  be  very  long  and  more  or  less  filamentous 
and  did  not  respond  to  Widal's  test.  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Herman  B.  Allvn, 
Philadelphia,  for  specimens  of  typhoid  blood. 

It  is  seen  in  the  foregoing  tables  that  in  all  the  flasks  to  which 
copper  foil  had  been  added  all  of  the  organisms  were  destroyed  in 
less  than  four  hours,  and  furthermore  the  solutions  remained 
sterile  as  shown  by  plates  made  for  a  number  days  thereafter. 

I  may  say  that  every  single  experiment  which  we  have  conducted, 
not  only  those  given  in  the  foregoing  tables,  but  all  others,  shows 
that  copper  foil  is  exceedingly  toxic  to  colon  and  typhoid  bacilli, 
particularly  the  latter. 

It  will  be  seen  further  that  in  the  filtered  water,  to  which  no 
copper  foil  had  been  added,  the  typhoid  organisms  did  not  develop 
as  was  the  case  with  the  tap  water  and  distilled  water,   although 


ON   INTESTINAL   ORGANISMS. 


59 


there  was  a  larger  number  of  organisms  to  begin  with  ;  while  the 
colon  bacilli  multiplied  considerably  in  the  filtered  water  still  there 
was  a  very  marked  inhibiting  action.  At  first  I  was  inclined  to 
attribute  this  diminution  in  the  number  of  the  organisms  to  minute 
traces  of  copper  in  the  flasks,  but  subsequent  experiments  showed 
that  this  was  not  the  case.  I  was,  then,  inclined  to  attribute 
these  rather  anomalous  results  to  the  presence  of  extremely  small 
quantities  of  copper  dissolved  by  the  water  in  its  necessarily  slow 
passage  through  the  copper  spigot  to  which  the  filter  was  attached. 
In  order  to  test  further  the  validity  of  this  assumption  another 
series  of  experiments  was  conducted  using  (a)  tap  water,  (/;)  water 
filtered  through  a  stone  filter,1  and  (V)  water  filtered  through  a 
Berkefeld  filter.  The  water  in  each  case  was  sterilized  in  an  auto- 
clave at  a  temperature  of  no°  C.  for  30  minutes,  and  iS-  to  24- 
hour  cultures  of  typhoid  and  colon  bacilli  were  respectively  added 
to  the  samples  of  water  at  the  ordinary  temperature.  The  results 
are  summarized  as  follows  : 


Table   III. — Experiments   with   Bacillus 
Water. 


coli    and  B.  typhi  in  Filtered 


Stone 
Filtered 
Water. 


Berkefeld 
Filtered 
Water. 


Bacillus  typhi. 


^  Stone      !  Berkefeld 

Tap  Filtered       Filtered 

Water.         Water.         Water. 


At  time  of  adding 

culture. 
At  end  of  2  hours. 

"      "    4       « 

"  "    6  " 

"  "    8  " 

«  "24  " 

«  "48  " 

"  "7  days. 

"  "  14  « 

"  "  21  " 

"       "3°      " 
«       "60      " 


5,040 

6,426 
8,505 

6,930 

16,065 

315,000 

630,000 


10,611 

18,270 

24,570 

28,350 

77,175 

630,000 

1,000,000 


7,875 


10,269 

6,600 

5,500  j    2,714 


5,040 


2,646 

3,654 

150,000 

200,000 


,512        1,764 


2,520       No  or- 
ganisms. 


250 
150 
38 
39 


1,289,333 


1,505,700 


599,333  ,  80,770 


900,000 
730,800 


1,260,000 
945,000 


94,500  j  No  or- 
ganisms. 
t49,33l  I        " 


2,930 
3,829 
1,820 
9,000 

43 
No  or- 
ganisms. 


1  In  the  preliminary  experiments  with  samples  of  water  that  had  been  filtered 
through  a  stone  filter  or  a  Jewett  filter,  it  was  found  that  there  was  a  similar  in- 
hibiting action  on  the  organisms  to  that  of  water  from  the  Berkefeld  filter. 
This  action  was  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  influence  of  the  copper  in  the  spigot 
attached  to  the  receiver  of  the  filter,  and  was  overcome  by  removing  the  spigot 
and  using  a  rubber  stopper  fitted  with  a  glass  tube. 


60  KRAEMER— ACTION    OF   COPPER    FOIL  [April  13, 

It  is  seen  from  the  foregoing  table  that  while  we  began  with 
approximately  5,000  organisms  of  colon  bacilli  to  the  cubic  centi- 
meter in  the  case  of  the  tap  water,  there  were  over  700,000  at  the 
end  of  sixty  days ;  and  that  in  the  case  of  the  stone  filtered  water 
where  the  initial  number  of  organisms  was  about  10,000  they  in- 
creased on  an  average  similar  to  those  in  the  tap  water.  In  the 
case  of  the  water  from  the  Berkefeld  filter,  however,  beginning  with 
10,000  organisms  to  the  cubic  centimeter,  there  was  a  rapid 
diminution  of  the  organisms,  so  that  but  about  2,500,  or  about  25 
per  cent,  of  the  organisms  persisted  at  the  end  of  six  hours,  and 
while  they  continued  to  multiply  after  this  still  the  number  was 
considerably  less  than  in  either  the  tap  water  or  stone  filtered  water, 
showing  that  with  Berkefeld  filtered  water  there  is  some  agency 
which  inhibits  the  growth  of  the  colon  bacilli.  This  we  concluded 
to  be  due  to  the  copper  dissolved  from  the  spigot  to  which  the 
filter  was  attached,  as  already  suggested. 

In  the  experiments  with  the  typhoid  organisms  it  was  found  that 
they  multiplied  in  number  in  both  the  tap  water  and  stone  filtered 
water  persisting  for  fourteen  days,  after  which  they  disappeared,  as 
was  also  the  case  in  some  other  experiments  ;  but  in  the  case  of 
Berkefeld  filtered  water  they  entirely  disappeared  within  four  hours, 
which  was  also  the  case  in  three  other  experiments  not  here  re- 
corded. It  may  also  be  stated  that  it  was  not  unusual  to  observe  in 
the  case  of  both  tap  and  stone-filtered  water,  where  cultures  of  the 
typhoid  bacillus  were  used,  that  if  the  organisms  persisted  until  the 
fourteenth  day,  they  would  multiply  enormously  after  that  as  shown 
for  tap  water  and  distilled  water  in  Table  II. 

In  an  investigation  of  this  kind  many  lines  of  experiment  are 
suggested,  and  it  was  thought  desirable  to  carry  on  another  series 
of  experiments  with  a  view  of  testing  the  toxicity  of  solutions  in 
which  metallic  copper  had  been  allowed  to  remain  for  varying 
lengths  of  time.  In  these  experiments  sterilized  distilled  water 
and  stone  filtered  water  were  used.  To  600  cc.  of  water  in  a 
graduate  8  strips  of  copper  foil  15  x  130  mm.  were  added.  The 
graduate  was  agitated  continuously  and  100  cc.  of  the  solution 
were  removed  at  the  end  of  1,  5,  10,  20  and  30  minutes.  The 
respective  solutions  were  placed  in  Erlenmeyer  flasks  and  sterilized 
in  an  autoclave  at  no°C.  for  30  minutes.  To  these  were  added 
18-  to  24-hour  cultures  of  typhoid  bacilli,  and  plates  made  with 
results  as  indicated  in  the  two  following  tables  : 


^OS-] 


ON    INTESTINAL    ORGANISMS. 


61 


Table   IV. — Experiments   with    Bacillus   typhi   in    Distilled  Water   in 
Contact  with  Copper  Foil  for  Varying  Lengths  of  Time. 


Water 

Water  in  Contact  with  Copper  for 

without 

1.5 

.  IO 

20 

3° 

minute.       minutes. 

minutes. 

minutes 

minutes. 

At  time  of  adding  culture 

3-45» 

7,119         7,420 

6,791 

8,631 

I2J26 

At  end  of  2  hours. 

5.292 

No  or-      No  or- 
ganisms, ganisms. 

2,139 

3,150 

6,l88 

4       " 

6,489 

No  or- 
ganisms. 

25 

420 

6      " 

5,95° 

" 

" 

"     " 

3 

35 

8      •' 

4,410 

No  or- 
ganisms. 

12 

"      24      " 

6,4S9 

" 

" 

' ' 

" 

No  or- 
ganisms. 

«      48      " 

8,410 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

3  days. 

11,466 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

4      " 

7,560 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

7      " 

2,SqS 

" 

" 

" 

" 

Table  V. — Experiments  with  Bacillus  typhi  in   Stone  Filtered  Water 
in  Contact  with  Copper  Foil  for  Varying  Lengths  of  Time. 


Water 

Water  in  Contact  with 

Copper  fo 

without 

1 

5 

10 

20 

3° 

minute. 

minutes. 

minutes. 

minutes. 

minutes. 

At  time  of  adding  culture. 

5,050 

4,725 

7,221 

6,111 

13,482 

",403 

At  end  of  2  hours. 

4,599 

4,977 

6,615 

7,056 

16,000 

II,o88 

4      " 

6,300 

5,859 

3,906 

6,339 

14,000 

15,482 

6      " 

7,"9 

6,300 

4,250 

5,4i8 

8,946 

5,574 

8      " 

4,914 

8,064 

5-48I 

5,645 

7,951 

5,624 

10,710 
10,700 

3,213 
i,i55 

2,205 
142 

1,925 
104 

4,4IO 
790 

"      48      » 

3 

"         3  days. 

11,277 

152 

No  or 

ganisms. 

No  or- 
ganisms. 

123 

No  or- 
ganisms. 

«         4       « 

io,395 

No  or- 
ganisms. 

No  or- 
ganisms. 

"        7      " 

7,899 

" 

" 

" 

Table  IV  shows  that  in  the  experiments  made  with  distilled  water, 
the  mere  contact  of  the  copper  foil  with  the  water  for  from  1  to  5 
minutes  imparted  to  it  sufficient  toxicity,  or  oligodynamic  property, 
to  kill  the  typhoid  organisms  placed  in  the  solution  within  two 
hours,  when  the  organisms  did  not  exceed  approximately  7,000  to 
the  cubic  centimeter,  or  700,000  to  the  entire  solution.  Where 
the  number  of  organisms  in  the  solution  exceeded  this  number  ap- 
proximately three-tenths  of  1  per  cent,  persisted  four  to  eight 
hours  longer. 


62 


KRAE.MER— ACTION   OF   COPPER    FOIL 


[April  13, 


In  the  case  of  stone  filtered  water  (Table  V)  a  longer  time  was 
required  to  affect  the  organisms.  This  is  probably  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  that  the  water  contained  other  substances  which  modi- 
fied the  action  of  the  copper  either  precipitating  it,  absorbing  it, 
or  even  adsorbing  it,  and  thus  weakening  the  solution.1 

As  showing  the  influence  of  a  material  which  would  be  in  the 
nature  of  a  food  to  the  organisms  and  which  at  the  same  time 
would  have  a  tendency  to  inhibit  the  oligodynamic  action  of  the 
copper  solution,  the  following  experiments  were  conducted  using 
filtered  water  :  (a)  Berkefeld  filtered  water  ;  (&)  stone  filtered  water. 
In  both  series  of  experiments  1  cc.  of  nutrient  bouillon  was  added 
to  200  cc.  of  water,  which  was  then  sterilized  in  the  autoclave, 
and  the  typhoid  organisms  added  after  cooling. 

Table  VI. — Experiments  with  Bacillus  typhi  in  Filtered  Water  Con- 
taining Bouillon. 


Berkefeld  Filtered  Water. 

Stone  Filtered  Water. 

Without 
Bouillon. 

With 
Bouillon. 

Without 

Bouillon. 

With 
Bouillon. 

At  time  of  adding  culture. 
At  end  of  4  hours. 
8      " 

"      24      " 

«      48      " 

"         7  days. 

"       14      « 

"       30       » 

"       60      « 

7-245 
550 
No  organisms. 

1,296 

9 
5 
17 

2,500,000 
7,000,000 

14,044 

11,907 

7,560 

No  organisms. 

2,151 
1.323 

4,820 
3,000,000 
4,500,000 
2,255,000 

11,109 
6,466 

In  the  case  of  the  Berkefeld-filtered  water  it  is  seen  that  there 
was  no  growth  in  the  flasks  to  which  bouillon  had  not  been  added, 
after  four  hours  ;  and  while  there  was  a  diminution  of  the  number 


'Nageli  found  (p.  13  of  his  paper)  that  the  oligodynamic  action  of  a  copper  so- 
lution could  be  lessened  by  the  introduction  of  the  following  substances  :  Sulphur 
(either  roll  or  flowers),  carbon  (either  graphite  or  soot),  coke,  coal,  peat,  black 
oxide  of  manganese,  starch,  cellulose  (either  as  Swedish  filter  paper,  or  cotton, 
linen  or  wood  fiber),  silk,  wool,  stearic  acid,  paraffin,  gum,  dextrin,  egg  albumin 
and  glue. 

True  and  Oglevee  s  have  studied  the  influence  of  insoluble  substances  on  the 
toxic  action  of  poisons  and  have  confirmed  several  of  Nageli's  observations. 

Moore  and  Kellerman  have  shown  in  their  recent  bulletin  the  relative  decrease 
of  toxicity  of  copper  sulphate  solutions  depending  on  the  amount  of  organic 
matter  present,  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  in  solution  or  the  temporary  hard- 
ness of  the  water. 


IO0S.] 


ON    INTESTINAL   ORGANISMS. 


63 


of  organisms  in  those  solutions  containing  bouillon  between  the 
first  4  and  24  hours,  there  was  after  this  a  marked  increase  in 
growth.  This  increase  in  development  would  appear  to  begin  after 
the  last  inhibiting  traces  of  copper  are  removed,  either  by  precipi- 
tation in  the  organisms  or  by  the  bouillon. 

Other  experiments  which  we  conducted  showed  that  there  was  a 
difference  in  the  persistence  of  the  typhoid  organisms  depending 
upon  whether  the  cultures  added  to  the  water  were  2 4 -hour  or  14- 
day  bouillon  cultures,  as  seen  in  the  following  table. 

Table  VII. — Experiments  with  Cultures  of  Bacillus  typhi  of 
Different  Ages. 


TapW 

ater. 

Berkefeld  Filtered  Water. 

24-Hour 

14-Day 

24-Hour                 14-Day 

Cultures. 

Cultures. 

Cultures.              Cultures. 

At  time  of  adding  cultures. 

3,058 

1,050 

1,983                     952 

At  end  of  4  hours. 

682 

1,105 

40                574 

8      " 

440 

604 

No  organisms.           215 

"      24      " 

137 

217 

"                      106 

"      48      " 

63 

179 

150 

7  days. 

No  organisms. 

49 

35 

The  figures  in  Table  VII,  show  that  the  older  cultures  of  the 
typhoid  organisms  were  most  resistant  in  the  tap  water,  and  that 
they  survive  over  7  days  in  Berkefeld-filtered  water,  the  24-hour 
cultures  usually  being  destroyed  in  about  4  hours. 


Table  VIII.- 


-experiments  on  tap  water  with  copper  foil  and  copper 
Sulphate. 


Tap  Water  without 

Copper  Foil  or 

Copper  Sulphate. 


Berkefeld 
Filtered 
Water. 


Tap 
Water 

with 

Copper 

Foil. 


Tap  Water  with 
Copper  Sulphate. 


1  Part  to     1  Part 
100,000       1,000,000 


At  time  of  adding  copper 
foil  or  copper  sulphate. 

On  drawing  tap  water  or 
before  filtering. 

After  filtering. 

At  end  of  2  hours. 


days. 


39,000 

32,666 
21,300 
40,900 
41,000 
68,933 


39,ooo 


8,233 


46,800 
666 


27,133 


I  35,666 

■    29,266 

20,516 

!  9,866 

61,466  609,900 

87,100(500,200 

n,ooo  395,300    33,600 
'343,700  


9,500 
7,766 
10,200 

13,333 

102,200 


1  ?3j 


3°o 

66 

200 

300 

3,633 
185,000 
211,760 


8,233 


1,833 
1,300 
2,233 
1,166 
112,300 

97,l5o 
134,000 


64  KRAKMER— ACTION   OF   COPPER   FOIL  [April  13, 

At  the  beginning  of  our  investigation  a  number  of  experiments 
were  made  with  a  view  of  testing  the  comparative  efficiency  of  both 
copper  foil  and  copper  sulphate  in  destroying  the  organisms  in 
tap  water,  and  it  is  thought  that  the  results  obtained  are  of  suffi- 
cient interest  to  present  at  this  time. 

It  is  observed  that  in  the  case  of  the  Berkefeld  filtered  water,  99 
per  cent,  of  the  original  number  of  organisms  were  removed  by 
the  process  of  filtration.  When  copper  foil  was  introduced  into 
the  water  about  75  per  cent,  of  the  organisms  were  destroyed  in 
8  hours,  although  in  other  experiments  where  larger  quantities  of 
water  were  used  from  85  to  97  per  cent,  of  the  organisms  were 
destroyed.  When  copper  sulphate  was  added  to  the  tap  water,  so 
that  there  was  1  part  to  100,000  of  water,  97  per  cent,  of  the 
organisms  was  destroyed  in  8  hours.  When  the  strength  was  reduced 
so  that  there  was  1  part  of  copper  sulphate  to  1,000,000  parts  of 
water,  there  was  a  reduction  of  86  per  cent. 

Owing  to  the  sensitiveness  of  typhoid  and  colon  bacilli  to  the 
influence  of  copper,  as  previously  shown,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
they  would  have  been  included  in  the  75  to  97  per  cent,  of  the 
organisms  destroyed. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

From  the  experiments  thus  far  conducted  as  well  as  the  results 
obtained  by  other  writers,  the  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn  : 

1.  Certain  intestinal  bacteria  like  colon  and  typhoid  are  com- 
pletely destroyed  by  placing  clean  copper  foil  in  water  containing 
them,  or  by  adding  the  organisms  to  water  previously  in  contact 
with  copper  foil. 

2.  The  toxicity  of  water  in  which  either  copper  coins  or  copper 
foil  has  been  added  is  probably  due  to  a  solution  of  some  salt  of 
copper,  as  first  suggested  by  Nageli. 

3.  The  copper  is  probably  in  the  form  of  a  crystalloid  rather 
than  that  of  a  colloid,  as  it  has  the  property  of  permeating  the  cell 
walls  and  organized  cell  contents  of  both  animals  and  plants, 
thereby  producing  the  toxic  effects. 

4.  While  the  effects  produced  by  the  oligodynamic  action  of 
copper  are  apparently  different  from  those  of  true  chemical  poisons, 
the  difference  is  probably  in  degree    only  and  not  in  kind. 

5.  Certain  lower  organisms  including  both  plants  and  animals 
possess  a  specific  sensitiveness  to  minute  quantities  of  copper,  and 


I90S.]  ON   INTESTINAL   ORGANISMS.  65 

it  has  been  shown  that  they  are  not  restored  on  transferring  them 
to  water  free  from  oligodynamic  properties. 

6.  Oligodynamic  solutions  of  copper  are  obtained  by  adding 
either  copper  coins,  copper  foil  or  salts  of  copper  to  water  ;  when 
copper  foil  is  used,  sufficient  copper  is  dissolved  by  the  distilled 
water  in  i  to  5  minutes  to  kill  the  typhoid  organisms  within  two 
hours. 

7.  A  solution  of  copper  may  lose  its  toxicity  by  the  precipita- 
tion of  the  copper  as  an  insoluble  salt  or  compound  ;  by  its  ab- 
sorption by  organic  substances  ;  or  by  adsorption  by  insoluble  sub- 
stances. 

8.  The  oligodynamic  action  of  the  copper  is  dependent  upon 
temperature  as  first  pointed  out  by  Israel  and  Klingmann. 

9.  The  effects  of  oligodynamic  copper  in  the  purification  of 
drinking  water  are  in  a  quantitative  sense  much  like  those  of  filtra- 
tion, only  the  organisms  removed,  like  B.  typhi  and  B.  coli  are 
completely  destroyed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

1.  Nageli. 

Ueber  oligodynamische  Erscheinungen  in  lebenden  Zellen.  Neue  Denk- 
schriften  der  schweizerischen  naturforschenden  G*esellschaft  (33-34), 
1S93-1S95,  pp.  1-5 1. 

2.  Copeland  and  Kahlenberg. 

Trans.  Wisconsin  Academy  of  Sciences,  Arts  and  Letters,  1898  and  1899, 
pp.  454-474- 

3.  Noyes. 

The  Preparation  and  Properties  of  Colloidal  Mixtures.  Jour.  Avier. 
Chem.  Soc,  Vol.  27,  1905,  pp.  85-104. 

4.  Israel  and  Klingmann. 

Oligodynamische  Erscheinungen  (v.  Nageli)  an  pflanzlichen  und  thier- 
ischen  Zellen.      Virchoto 's  Arc/iiv,  147,  1S97,  pp.  293-340. 

5.  Cushny. 

Pharmacology  and  Therapeutics,  1 899,  p.  159. 

6.  Moore  and  Kellerman. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletins  64, 
1904  ;  and  76,  1905. 

7.  Kraemer. 

Amer.  Jour.  Phariii.,  76,  I904,  pp.  574-581  ;  Amer.  Medicine,  9,  1905, 
pp.  275-277. 

8.  True  and  Oglevee. 

The  Effect  of  the  Presence  of  Insoluble  Substances  on  the  Toxic  Action  of 
Poisons.     Bot.  Gaz.,  39,  1905,  pp.  1-21. 


6U  WILEY— EFFECT   OF   PRESERVATIVES.  [April  13, 

THE    EFFECT    OF    PRESERVATIVES    ON    METABOLISM. 

BY    H.   W.  WILEY,  M.D. 

( Read  April  /j,  /goj. ) 

The  question  of  the  use  of  preservatives  in  food  products  has  of 
late  assumed  an  importance  greater  even  than  in  previous  years. 
A  tendency  to  legislation  of  a  prohibitory  character  has  developed 
in  all  civilized  countries.  Many  preservatives  are  now  forbidden 
by  law  in  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Austria,  and  many  of 
the  States  of  the  United  States.  It  seems  that  it  is  scarcely  just  to 
legislate  against  preservatives  individually  rather  than  as  a  class. 
Universally  excepted  from  prohibitory  or  restricted  legislation  are 
the  preservatives  in  common  use,  namely,  sugar,  salt,  vinegar  and 
wood  smoke.  The  basis  of  all  prohibitory  legislation,  at  least,  the 
alleged  basis  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  preservatives  restricted  or  for- 
bidden are  injurious  to  health.  If  literature  on  the  subject  is  con- 
sulted some  conflicting  statements  are  found  emanating  from  scien- 
tific sources  apparently  of  equal  reliability.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  there  is  a  very  widespread  difference  of  opinion  among 
physiological  chemists  and  hygienists  respecting  the  effect  of  pre- 
servatives added  to  foods  upon  the  public  health.  The  data  of 
research  are  very  extensive  in  experiments  in  vitro,  with  the  lower 
animals  and  with  man.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  there  are  many 
grounds  for  the  prohibitive  and  restrictive  legislation  referred  to. 
There  are  other  questions  which  must  be  considered  in  connection 
with  this,  namely,  the  dangers  which  attend  the  use  of  nonpreserved 
foods  and  the  effects  which  the  prohibition  of  preservatives  might 
have  upon  the  price  of  foods.  The  latter  is  a  purely  economic 
subject  and  does  not  enter  into  the  present  discussion.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  if  a  preservative  is  injurious  to  health  it  will  in  some  way 
affect  the  metabolic  process.  It  will  either  derange  digestion  or 
interfere  with  assimilation  and  excretion. 

There  are  many  apparently  almost  insurmountable  difficulties  in 
the  experimental  determination  of  this  problem  with  man  himself. 
A  merely  negative  result  is  not  sufficient  to  secure  a  verdict  of 
acquittal.     The  reason  of  this  is  apparent,  namely,  the  fact  that  in- 


igo5]  WILEY— EFFECT   OF   PRESERVATIVES.  67 

dividuals  present  such  marked  differences  in  their  powers  of  resist- 
ance. One  person  may  be  affected  with  great  facility  while  an- 
other person,  subjected  to  the  same  treatment  shows  no  sign  of 
injury.  The  object  of  restrictive  laws  is,  of  course,  the  protection 
of  the  weakest  and  not  of  the  strongest.  Hence,  I  think  it  may  be 
laid  down  as  a  direct  principle  of  legislation  that  the  addition  of 
any  substances  to  foods  whatever  not  necessary  in  their  preparation 
which  affect  the  health  of  the  most  susceptible  should  be  prohibited 
or  so  regulated  that  danger  of  injury  even  of  the  weakest  may  be 
eliminated. 

I  have  now  to  briefly  record  the  results  of  experimental  work  on 
strong  and  healthy  young  men.  I  can  do  no  more  than  merely 
state  the  principal  points  which  were  noticed.  First,  the  action  of 
borax  and  boric  acid  on  nitrogen  metabolism  was  extremely  slight. 
There  was,  however,  a  very  slight  tendency  manifested  in  the  ex- 
periments which  extended  over  a  period  of  nearly  eight  months  to 
inhibit  the  excretion  of  nitrogen.  The  general  effect,  however,  on 
nitrogen  metabolism  is  not  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  warrant  the 
drawing  of  any  definite  conclusions.  The  effect  of  the  borax  and 
boric  acid  upon  the  metabolism  of  phosphoric  acid  is  very  marked. 
A  very  much  larger  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid  is  excreted  under 
the  influence  of  these  preservatives  than  without  them.  Borax  and 
boric  acid  appear  to  increase  the  digestibility  of  the  fats  in  food. 
In  other  words  there  is  slightly  less  fat  in  the  feces  during  the  ad- 
ministration of  these  bodies  than  without  them.  These  preserva- 
tives have  a  slight  tendency  to  diminish  the  utilization  of  calories 
of  foods.  In  other  words,  there  is  a  great  number  of  non-metabo- 
lized calories  in  the  feces  during  the  administration  of  the  preserva- 
tives than  without  them.  Both  boric  acid  and  borax  have  a  slight 
tendency  to  increase  the  traces  of  free  albumen  in  the  urine.  Boric 
acid  has  a  decided  tendency  to  increase  the  acidity  of  the  urine. 
Borax  has  a  decided  tendency  to  diminish  the  acidity  of  the  urine, 
establishing  often  the  amphoteric  reaction  and  occasionally  an 
alkaline  reaction.  Both  these  bodies  when  exhibited  over  long 
periods  in  small  quantities  tend  to  disturb  the  digestion  by  dimin- 
ishing the  appetite  and  inducing  a  feeling  of  heaviness  in  the  head 
or  often  headache  of  a  persistent  character.  The  results  of  these 
influences  are  seen  in  a  gradual  diminution  of  weight. 

In  large  doses,  from  one  to  three  grams  per  day,  both  boric  acid 


68  WILEY— EFFECT    OF    PRESERVATIVES.  [APrili3, 

and  borax,  when  their  use  is  continued  for  a  short  time,  tend  to 
produce  a  feeling  of  distress  and  even  nausea.  There  is,  however, 
no  tendency  to  produce  diarrhea.  The  general  effect  produced  by 
borax  and  boric  acid  upon  health  and  digestion  is  decidedly  un- 
favorable, whether  by  large  doses  over  a  short  period  of  time  or  in 
the  case  of  small  doses,  namely  seven  and  one  half  grains  or  half  a 
gram  per  day,  over  a  period  of  fifty  days. 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


r9°5-J 


MATTHEW— THE   OSTEOLOGY   OF   SINOPA.  69 


NOTES    ON   THE    OSTEOLOGY    OF    SINOPA,    A    PRIMI- 
TIVE   MEMBER    OF   THE    HY.LNODONTIDtE. 

BY   W.    D.    MATTHEW. 

( Read  April  /j,  igoj. ) 

The  following  observations  are  based  upon  a  nearly  complete 
skeleton  of  a  Middle  Eocene  creodont  discovered  by  Mr.  Walter 
Granger  near  Fort  Bridger,  Wyo.,  in  1902.  The  specimen  is  the 
property  of  the  National  Museum  and  the  full  description  will  be 
published  under  the  auspices  of  that  institution.  I  am  indebted 
to  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  permission  to 
publish  this  abstract  in  advance. 

The  skeleton  is  unusually  well  preserved,  and  practically  complete 
except  for  the  feet.  Most  of  one  fore  and  one  hind  foot  are  pre- 
served, the  others  are  missing.  It  is  believed  to  be  one  of  the  most 
perfect  skeletons  ever  found  in  this  formation  and  is  of  interest  as  a 
typical  generalized  Creodont.  The  points  of  especial  interest  in  its 
study  were  :  (1)  the  relations  of  the  Creodonta  to  marsupials  and 
Insectivora,  and  (2)  the  relations  of  Sinopa  to  Hycenodon  and  to  the 
Oxysenidae. 

Sinopa  was  the  first  fossil  carnivore  described  from  the  Eocene 
of  North  America  and  is  a  characteristic  genus  of  the  Lower  and 
Middle  Eocene  found  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  this  country.  The 
dentition  of  this  or  allied  genera  has  been  well  known  from  the 
descriptions  of  Cope  and  Scott,  and  Wortman  in  1902  described  a 
skull  and  some  parts  of  the  skeleton  which  he  referred  to  Sinopa. 
The  complete  knowledge  of  the  skeleton  enables  us  to  determine 
its  relationships  with  certainty,  and  for  the  most  part  confirms  the 
views  hitherto  generally  accepted. 

The  animal  was  a  little  smaller  than  a  coyote,  but  in  proportions 
much  more  like  the  Tasmanian  wolf,  the  lower  limbs  and  feet  being 
much  shorter  and  less  compact  than  in  any  of  the  Canidse,  and  the 
tail  long  and  heavy.  The  skull  is  long  both  in  cranial  and  facial 
regions,  the  long  basicranial  region  being  very  characteristic  of 
carnivora,  while  in  marsupials  and  insectivores  the  basicranial  region 
is  short.     The  mastoid  has  a  small  exposure  on  the  side  of  the 


70  MATTHEW— THE    OSTEOLOGY   OF  SIXOPA. 


[April  13. 


skull,  as  in  carnivora,  while  in  marsupials  and  insectivores  it  has  a 
large  exposure  on  the  back  of  the  skull.  The  brain  is  very  small 
and  of  inferior  type,  as  in  marsupials  and  all  primitive  mammals. 
The  occipital  and  sagittal  crests  are  high,  as  in  the  carnivorous 
marsupials.  The  tympanic  bullae  are  not  preserved  and  probably 
were  incompletely  if  at  all  ossified,  and  loosely  attached  to  the 
skull  as  in  marsupials  and  insectivores.  In  modern  carnivora  they 
are  completely  ossified  and  fast  to  the  skull.  But  there  is  no  trace 
in  Sinopa  of  the  supporting  plates  from  the  alisphenoid  and  basi- 
sphenoid  bones  around  the  margin  of  the  bulla,  the  so-called 
"  false  bulla,"  which  is  more  or  less  developed  in  most  insectivora 
and  marsupials.  In  Hyanodo'n  the  bullae  are  ossified  to  a  varying 
degree  in  the  different  species,  in  some  apparently  not  at  all,  in 
others  a  loosely  attached  bony  ring,  in  others  again  a  complete 
osseous  bulla  ;   but  there  is  no  trace  of  false  bulla. 

The  teeth  resemble  those  of  many  carnivorous  marsupials,  the 
molars  being  triangular  with  transverse  and  oblique  shearing  edges  ; 
but  the  dental  formula  is  that  of  eutherian  mammals,  three  incisors, 
a  canine,  four  premolars  and  three  true  molars,  while  the  marsupials 
have  four  or  five  incisors,  canine,  three  premolars  and  four  true 
molars.  The  angle  of  the  lower  jaw  is  like  that  of  typical  carniv- 
ora, and  shows  no  trace  of  the  marsupial  inflection.  This  inflected 
angle  is  seen  quite  as  clearly  in  Cretaceous  as  in  modern  marsupials 
and  is  evidently  a  distinction  of  very  ancient  origin. 

The  details  of  construction  of  the  skull,  especially  the  basicranial 
bones  and  foramina,  agree  entirely  with  the  true  carnivora,  and 
show  that  the  marsupial  resemblance  is  a  superficial  one. 

The  vertebrae  agree  with  carnivora  in  all  important  points.  The 
vertebral  artery  perforates  the  atlas  and  does  not  perforate  the 
seventh  cervical.  This  condition  prevails  in  carnivora  and  most 
eutherians ;  in  marsupials  as  far  as  I  have  examined,  the  reverse  is 
the  case. 

There  are  13  dorsals  and  7  lumbars,  making  a  dorsolumbar 
formula  of  twenty  as  in  carnivora  instead  of  nineteen  as  in  marsupials. 
The  dorsolumbar  formula  is  known  in  only  a  few  creodonts.  In 
Oxyecna,  and  probably  in  Patriofelis  and  Hyeenodon,  it  was  twenty 
as  in  Sinopa;  in  Dromocyon  nineteen  according  to  Wortman.  It  is 
probable  that  in  all  Oxyaenidae  and  Hyaenodontidae  it  was  twenty 
and  in   the  Mesonychidae   nineteen,    this   family  approaching  the 


i9°5-] 


MATTHEW— THE   OSTEOLOGY   OF   SINOPA.  71 


marsupials  in  two  or  three  other  important  characters,  and  differing 
rather  widely  from  the  remaining  creodonta.  The  lumbar  region  is 
long  and  the  vertebrae  large  with  long  transverse  processes,  indi- 
cating a  flexible  body  with  great  leaping  powers,  as  in  primitive 
mammals  generally.  Among  modern  carnivora  the  cats,  viverrines 
and  mustelines  retain  more  of  this  character  than  the  other  groups. 

The  limbs  show  a  considerable  degree  of  cursorial  adaptation  for 
an  Eocene  carnivore,  the  bones  being  longer  and  the  feet  more 
compact  than  in  the  majority  of  creodonts.  The  scapula  is  nearly 
as  long  and  narrow  as  in  the  dogs  (the  anterior  border  is  incom- 
plete and  is  restored  too  wide  in  the  mount)  ;  the  humerus  com- 
pares with  that  of  the  cat  ;  the  femur  retains  a  vestigial  third 
trochanter,  but  its  distal  end  is  deep  and  narrow,  almost  ungulate 
in  type  ;  the  ulna  is  somewhat  more  robust  than  the  radius,  as  in 
creodonts  generally,  and  in  most  insectivora  and  marsupials  ;  in 
modern  carnivora  the  shaft  of  the  ulna  is  reduced  to  a  varying 
degree. 

There  are  five  well  developed  toes  on  each  foot  and  the  axis  of 
symmetry  in  both  fore  and  hind  foot  passes  through  the  middle 
digit  (mesaxonic)  as  in  Hyanodon.  In  all  modern  carnivora  and 
in  the  Mesonychidas  among  creodonts,  the  axis  of  symmetry  lies 
between  the  third  and  fourth  digit  (paraxonic).  In  the  Oxyaenidas 
the  weight  is  distributed  over  comparatively  short  spreading  digits 
so  that  the  axis  of  symmetry  is  not  well  defined  (amphaxonic). 
The  scaphoid,  lunar  and  centrale  bones  of  the  wrist  are  separate  as 
in  creodonta,  instead  of  united  as  in  true  carnivora ;  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  carpals  resembles  that  in  Hycznodon,  but  their  vertical 
diameters  are  greater.  The  fibula  is  large  and  has  a  considerable 
facet  for  the  calcaneum,  and  the  contact  between  astragalus  and 
cuboid  is  slight  as  in  Hymnodon. 

The  skeleton  represents  an  undescribed  species  nearly  allied  to 
S.  rapax  Leidy.  The  skull  described  by  Wortman  as  Sinopa  agilis 
differs  considerably  in  dentition,  etc.,  and  should  be  distinguished 
generically ;  the  generic  name  Prototomus  Cope,  is  probably  avail- 
able for  this  form.  The  most  important  distinctions  from  Sinopa 
in  the  teeth  are  the  closely  connate  paracone  and  metacone  on 
M1---!,  absence  of  metacone  on  M&,  reduced  heels  of  the  lower 
molars,  and  much  compressed  premolars. 

In   all   respects  Sinopa   appears  as  a  primitive  member  of  the 


72  MATTHEW— THE   OSTEOLOGY   OF   SINOPA.  [April  13, 

Hygenodont  phylum.  The  genera  Sinopa,  Prototomus,  Cynohycen- 
odon,  Pterodon  and  Hyccnodon  show  a  series  of  stages  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  highly  specialized  sectorial  dentition,  and  with  some 
exceptions,  in  the  specialization  of  the  skull  and  skeleton  so  far  as 
they  are  known.  The  geological  occurrence  of  the  known  species 
of  these  genera  precludes  their  being  regarded  as  in  the  direct  line 
of  phyletic  descent.  Sinopa  and  Prototomus  are  found  together  in 
the  Lower  and  Middle  Eocene,  while  Cynohyoznodon,  Pterodon  and 
Hycenodon  occur  together  in  the  Oligocene.  But  without  doubt 
the  genera  represent  very  closely  the  stages  through  which  the 
phylum  passed  in  its  evolution,  and  that  is  about  as  much  as  it  is 
safe  to  assert  of  most  phylogenetic  series. 

The  relationship  of  Sinopa  to  the  Oxyaenidae,  especially  to 
Limnocyon,  is  not  yet  clear.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  resemblance 
in  skeletal  characters,  a  marked  diversity  in  the  more  significant 
features  of  the  skull.  Most  of  the  resemblance,  perhaps  all,  is  to 
be  explained  as  due  to  retention  of  primitive  creodont  characters, 
but  some  may  indicate  a  nearer  relationship  of  Hyasnodonts  to 
Oxyaanids  than  to  any  other  creodont  family. 


1905.] 


SINCLAIR— FAUNA   OF   SANTA    CRUZ    BEDS. 


THE  MARSUPIAL  FAUNA  OF  THE  SANTA  CRUZ  BEDS. 

(Plates  I  and  II.) 

BY  WM.  J.    SINCLAIR. 

[Read  April  13,  fcpoj. ) 

The  Patagonian  marsupials  of  the  Santa  Cruz  epoch  are  of  pecu- 
liar interest  from  the  relationship  which  they  bear  to  certain  Aus- 
tralian and  Tasmanian  forms.  This  relationship  establishes  the 
reality  of  a  former  land  connection  between  the  Australian  region 
and  South  America,  so  plainly  indicated  by  the  distribution  of  the 
Tertiary  marine  mollusks,  fishes,  land  shells,  decapod  Crustacea  and 
plants.1 

These  marsupials  are  referable  to  three  families,  remnants  of 
which  survive  in  widely  separated  parts  of  the  world.  The  Thyla- 
cynidas  are  represented  by  at  least  four  genera  in  the  Santa  Cruz 
fauna,  where  they  occupy  the  place  of  the  placental  carnivora.  The 
Didelphyidae  include  the  genus  Microbioiherium  and  several  other 
imperfectly  known  forms,  comparable  in  size  to  some  of  the  smaller 
South  American  opossums.  The  Santa  Cruz  diprotodonts  belong 
to  a  third  family  which  may  be  called  the  Casnolestidae.  A  single 
representative  of  this  family,  dznolestes,  survives  in  Ecuador  and 
Colombia. 

The  Thylacynid.e. 

This  family  is  sharply  separated  from  the  Dasyuridse  and  all  other 
existing  carnivorous  marsupials  by  the  absence  of  the  metaconid  in 
the  lower  molars  and  by  the  great  reduction  of  the  outer  cingulum 

'Ortmann,  A.  E.,  Reports  of  the  Princeton  University  Expeditions  to  Pata- 
gonia, iSqb-iSqq,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  299-302,  1902. 

Ortmann,  A.  E.,  "The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Freshwater  Decapods 
and  its  Bearing  upon  Ancient  Geography,"  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc,  Vol.  XLI, 
pp.  267-400,  1902. 

Pilsbry,  H.  A.,  "Distribution  of  Helices  in  Time  and  Space,"  Manual  of 
Conchotomy,  Series  2,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  xxxviii  et  set/.,  1894. 

Lydekker,  R.,  "A  Geographical  History  of  Mammals." 

Hedley,  C,  "  Considerations  on  the  surviving  refugees  in  Austral  lands  of 
ancient  Antarctic  life,"  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Ar.  S.  Wales,  August,  1895,  p.  3,  foot- 
note 1. 


74  SINCLAIR— FAUNA   OF   SANTA    CRUZ   BEDS.  [April  13. 

and  styloid  cusps  in  the  upper  teeth.  In  the  Dasyuridre,  these 
styles  are  almost  as  high  as  the  outer  cusps  of  the  trigon.  The 
family  name,  based  on  the  Tasmanian  marsupial  wolf  Thylacynus, 
was  proposed  by  Buonaparte  in  1838,  and  may  very  properly  be 
extended  to  include  the  related  South  American  forms. 

The  Santa  Cruz  thylacynes  were  predatory  carnivores.  An  indi- 
cation of  their  pugnacious  habits  is  afforded  by  the  traces  of  wounds 
received  in  fighting,  which  are  found  occasionally  on  the  skull  and 
mandible. 

These  carnivores  have  been  placed  by  Ameghino  in  a  sub-order 
named  by  him  the  Sparassodonta,  a  group  which  he  regards  as  refer- 
able neither  to  the  creodonts,  the  placental  carnivores,  nor  the  car- 
nivorous marsupials.  That  the  so-called  Sparassodonta  are  true 
marsupials,  and  not  worthy  of  sub-ordinal  rank,  is  fully  apparent 
from  the  following  characters,  which  they  possess  in  common  with 
existing  marsupial  carnivores : 

1.  A  typical  marsupial  dental  formula,  ^,  \,  f,  \. 

2.  The  number  of  successional  teeth  is  reduced  below  that  char- 
acteristic of  the  placentals. 

3.  The  nasals  are  broad  posteriorly,  excluding  from  contact  the 
frontals  and  maxillas.  There  is  usually  a  small  contact  in  existing 
carnivorous  marsupials.  A  similar  broadening  of  the  nasals  is  ob- 
servable in  Mesonyx,  Harpagolestes  and  Dromocyon  among  the 
Creodonta. 

4.  Anteroposterior  shortening  of  basis  cranii. 

5.  Lachrymal  spreading  out  on  the  face ;  lachrymal  duct  within 
the  orbit.  An  internal  opening  of  the  lachrymal  duct  is  observable 
in  Tliylacynus. 

6.  Inflected  mandibular  angle. 

7.  Excavation  of  the  premaxillse  for  reception  of  the  tips  of  the 
lower  canines  as  in  the  dasyures,   Thylacynus  and  the  opossums. 

8.  Basisphenoid  and  alisphenoid  ridged  as  in  existing  marsupial 
carnivores  and  unlike  the  structure  of  this  region  in  the  placentals. 

9.  Posterior  extension  of  the  malar  bar  to  form  the  pre-glenoid 
process. 

10.  Posterior  border  of  palate  thickened.  This  structure  is 
observable  also  in  certain  creodonts. 

11.  Posterior  border  of  palate  perforated  by  a  large  foramen  on 
either  side  of  the  posterior  nares. 


i9°5-] 


SINCLAIR— FAUNA    OF    SANTA    CRUZ    BEDS. 


12.  An  alisphenoid  bulla  present  in  some  genera,  absent  in 
others.  Tympanic  annular  and  unfused  with  the  adjacent  elements 
in  the  former,  unknown  in  the  latter. 

13.  Basisphenoid  perforated  by  internal  carotid  artery. 

14.  Presence  of  avascular  foramen  (the  post-zygomatic  of  Cope) 
perforating  anteriorly  the  base  of  the  zygoma  below  or  within  the 
lip  of  the  post-glenoid  foramen. 

15.  Presence  of  a  large  vascular  foramen  (the  sub-squamosal  of 
Cope)  perforating  the  squamosal  on  or  above  the  crest  which  con- 
nects the  base  of  the  zygoma  with  the  inion.  This  is  absent  in  the 
placental  carnivores. 

16.  Sutures  of  the  skull  distinct.  Not  strictly  a  marsupial  char- 
acter, but  indicative  of  marsupial  affinities  when  considered  in  con- 
nection with  the  other  characters  presented. 

The  four  best  known  genera  may  be  arranged  as  follows  : 

A.  Skull  brachycephalic.      Alisphenoid  not  dilated  to  form  an  auditory  bulla. 

I.  Dental  formula  |,  i,  |,  |-  Protocone  on  upper  molars  reduced.  Mi 
biscuspidate  with  paracone  and  antero-external  style.  Posterior  pre- 
molars greatly  enlarged.  Talonid  of  MT  with  single  conical  cusp. 
Terminal  phalanges  round,  blunt,  and  broadly  fissured  at  the  tips. 

B.  Skull  dolichocephalic.  Borhycena. 

(a)  Alisphenoid  bulla  absent. 

1.  Dental  formula  |?,  i,  f,|-  Protocone  well  developed  on  M1  and  M-, 
reduced  on  1VP-.  Mi  with  vestigial  protocone  and  metacone.  Poste- 
rior premolar  not  greatly  enlarged  ;  in  the  inferior  series  not  exceeding 
the  median  premolar  in  size.  Talonid  of  MT  small  and  basin-shaped. 
Terminal  phalanges  laterally  compressed,  sharply  pointed,  and  slightly 
cleft  at  tips.  Prothylacynus . 

(b)  An  alisphenoid  bulla. 

1.  Dental    formula  |,  i,  |,  |.     Protocone    well    developed    on    Mi-^-.     Mi 

with  small  conical  protocone,  large  paracone  and  antero-external  style  ; 
metacone  reduced  to  the  merest  vestige  or  absent.  Premolars  increas- 
ing regularly  in  size  posteriorly  in  both  upper  and  lower  series. 
Talonid  of  MT  enclosing  a  small  basin-shaped  area,  unicuspidate. 
Terminal  phalanges  uncleft,  laterally  compressed  and  pointed. 

Cladosiclis. 

2.  Dental  formula  f,  \,  f,  |-     Protocone    well  developed   on  all  the  upper 

molars.  Mi  with  protocone  enclosing  a  basin-shaped  area  ;  paracone 
and  antero-external  style  large ;  metacone  vestigial  or  absent.  Upper 
premolars  increasing  regularly  in  size  posteriorly  ;  median  and  posterior 
lower  premolars  subequal.  Talonid  in  MT  large  and  strongly  bicuspi- 
date.  Terminal  phalanges  laterally  compressed  and  pointed  without 
clefts.  Amphiproznverra. 


76  SINCLAIR— FAUNA   OF   SANTA   CRUZ    BEDS.         [April  i3j 

The  Santa  Cruz  thylacynes  are  short-legged  animals  with  large 
heads,  long  necks  and  heavy  tails.  These  characters  are  well 
shown  in  the  accompanying  restorations  of  Prothylacynus  patagoni- 
cus  and  Cladosictis  In  stratus  (Plates  land  II)  reproduced  from  the 
forthcoming  Volume  IV  of  the  Reports  of  the  Princeton  Univer- 
sity Expeditions  to  Patagonia.  In  addition  to  the  characters 
already  mentioned,  the  following  are  worthy  of  notice  : 

i.  The  facial  region  of  the  skull  is  short  in  proportion  to  the 
length  of  the  cranium.  The  brain  case  is  small  and  greatly  con- 
stricted postorbitally.  The  orbits  are  placed  much  further  forward 
than  in  the  Dasyuridre,  opossums,  or  Thylacynus.  The  jugal  arches 
are  robust  and  broadly  expanded,  and  the  sagittal  and  lambdoidal 
crests  well  marked  but  not  very  high.  The  palate  lacks  the  vacui- 
ties present  in  all  existing  carnivorous  marsupials,  but  is  perforated 
by  a  number  of  accessory  palatine  foramina.  Between  the  molars, 
the  margin  of  the  palate  is  depressed  into  deep  hemispherical  fossa; 
for  reception  of  the  tips  of  the  lower  teeth  when  the  mouth  is 
closed.  The  occiput  is  semicircular  in  outline  in  contrast  with  its 
triangular  shape  in  the  dasyures,  Sarcophtfus  and  Thylacynus.  The 
lachrymal  canal  opens  well  within  the  orbital  rim.  In  the  majority 
of  living  marsupials,  the  opening  of  the  lachrymal  duct  is  placed 
either  on  or  external  to  the  orbital  rim.  Thylacynus  is  transitional 
between  these  two  types  of  structure  in  that  it  possesses  a  double 
lachrymal  perforation,  one  branch  of  the  canal  opening  without 
and  the  other  within  the  orbit.  Borhycena  and  Prothylacynus, 
resemble  Sarcophilus  in  the  fusion  of  the  mandibular  symphysis. 
In  the  remaining  genera  the  symphysial  union  is  ligamentous. 

2.  The  molars  are  of  the  same  type  as  in  Thylacynus,  differing 
principally  in  the  greater  reduction  of  M4-,  the  loss  of  all  the  styloid 
cusps  except  the  antero-external,  and  the  character  of  the  heel  of 
the  last  lower  molar,  which  may  be  either  small  and  conical, 
basin-shaped  or  bicuspidate.  The  premolars  are  unreduced  in 
number,  and  usually  increase  in  size  posteriorly  in  both  series. 
The  canines  are  long,  sharply  pointed  and  slightly  curved  in  the 
smaller  genera.  In  Borhycena  the  fang  is  swollen  and  the  point 
short  and  blunt.  The  incisors  in  Borhycena  are  reduced  to  f ,  an 
exceptional  formula  among  marsupials  in  that  the  number  above 
and  below  is  the  same.  In  Amphiproviverra  the  median  pair  are 
conical  and  approximated  at  the  tips  as  in  Dasyurus  and  DiJcl- 


I9oS.]  SINCLAIR— FAUNA   OF   SANTA    CRUZ    BEDS.  77 

phys.  The  posterior  premolar  is  preceded,  in  Cladosictis,  by  a 
deciduous  tooth  resembling  the  first  molar.  x\ccording  to  Ame- 
ghino,  the  median  premolar  and  canine  in  this  genus  also  have 
deciduous  predecessors,  and  in  Borhycena  the  canine  is  said  to  dis- 
place a  deciduous  tooth. 

3.  The  atlantal  intercentrum  is  unfused  with  the  base  of  the 
neural  arch  in  Borhycena  and  Amphiproviverra,  as  it  is  also  in 
Thylacynus.  In  Prothylacynus  and  Cladosictis  complete  fusion  has 
taken  place  with  obliteration  of  the  sutures.  An  atlantal  fora- 
men for  the  transmission  of  the  spinal  nerve  and  vertebral  artery  is 
present  in  all  the  genera  except  Borhycena,  which  resembles  Phasco- 
lomys  in  transmitting  the  nerve  and  artery  through  a  groove  in  the 
anterior  margin  of  the  neural  arch.  The  axis  carries  a  large  hatchet- 
shaped  neural  spine.  The  bases  of  the  transverse  processes  of  the 
second  to  the  seventh  cervicals  are  perforated  for  the  transmission 
of  the  vertebral  artery.  The  dorso-lumbar  vertebral  formula  was 
probably  nineteen  as  in  Tiiylacynus :  thirteen  dorsals  and  six  lum- 
bars.  As  in  that  genus,  the  anticlinal  vertebra  is  the  tenth  dorsal. 
Two  vertebras  are  coossified  in  the  sacrum.  The  tail  was  undoubt- 
edly long,  very  heavy  and  greatly  thickened  at  the  base. 

4.  The  limbs  are  short  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  body 
and  the  feet  small  with  spreading  toes.  The  trochlear  surface  of  the 
astragalus  is  short  and  flat  with  feebly  differentiated  facets  for  the 
tibia  and  fibula  which  latter  articulates  with  the  calcaneum.  In 
Prothylacynus,  the  hallux  is  reduced  to  a  deformed  metatarsal, 
which  carries  no  phalanges  and  terminates  distally  in  a  blunt  rounded 
knob.  In  Cladosictis,  the  hallux  is  small,  judging  from  the  size  of 
its  articulation  on  the  entocuneiform.  It  may  have  supported 
phalanges.  The  hallux  in  Amphiproviverra  is  large  and  opposable 
indicating  that  this  genus  was  probably  arboreal.  The  pollex  is 
known  in  Amphiproviverra  and  Cladosictis.  In  these  genera,  the 
phalanges  of  the  pollex  are  deflected  toward  the  inner  side  of  the 
foot  as  a  result  of  the  enlargement  of  the  outer  condyle  of  the 
metacarpal  of  the  thumb.  In  gait,  the  Santa  Cruz  thylacynes 
were  probably  plantigrade.  In  striking  contrast  with  these  extinct 
genera  the  pes  of  Thylacynus  shows  a  peculiar  cursorial  modification. 
Not  only  is  the  gait  of  this  animal  digitigrade,  and  the  hallux 
entirely  obliterated,  but  the  ectocuneiform  has  shifted  t6\vard  the 
outer  side  of  the  foot  until  it  is  supported  almost  entirely  by  the 


78  SINCLAIR— FAUNA    OF   SANTA    CRUZ    BEDS. 


L  April  13. 


cuboid.  In  the  Santa  Cruz  forms,  this  shifting  has  progressed  to 
about  the  same  extent  as  in  Sarcophilus.  There  is  no  trace  of  syn- 
dactyly.  The  manus  and  pes  are  pentadactyl  in  Amphiproviverra 
and  Cladosictis.  The  manus  is  pentadactyl  in  Borhycena  and  prob- 
ably also  in  Frothy lacynus.  The  hallux  is  reduced  to  a  vestige  in 
the  latter  genus.      Its  condition  in  Borhycena  is  unknown. 

5.  The  pelvis  is  without  trace  of  epipubic  ossifications  in  Clado- 
sictis. The  pubes  are  not  preserved  in  the  only  specimen  of  Pro- 
thylacynus in  the  Princeton  collection,  and  the  pelvis  of  Bor- 
hyana  and  Amphiproviverra  is  unknown.  The  patella  is  ossified  in 
Amphiproviverra  and  Prothylacynus.  The  radius  and  ulna  are 
capable  of  some  degree  of  pronation  and  supination.  The  tibia  and 
fibula  are  unfused.  The  inner  humeral  epicondyle  is  perforated  by 
a  large  foramen  in  Prothylacynus  and  Cladosictis ;  imperforate  in 
Amphiproviverra.  The  supinator  ridge  terminates  in  a  hook-shaped 
extremity  in  Prothylacynus.  This  is  wanting  in  Amphiproviverra 
and  Cladosictis. 

THE    DIDELPHYID.E. 

The  Didelphyidas  are  represented  in  the  Santa  Cruz  fauna  by 
several  genera  of  which  Microbiotherium  is  the  best  known.  In 
dental  formula  and  the  structure  of  the  lower  molars  Microbio- 
therium agrees  with  Didelphys,  differing  from  all  the  opossums  in 
the  greater  reduction  of  the  outer  cingulum,  styloid  cusps,  and 
metacone  spur  in  the  upper  molars.  The  posterior  premolar  is  en- 
larged in  both  the  upper  and  lower  dental  series.  The  premolars 
are  double-rooted  in  the  majority  of  the  species  and  decrease  in 
size  anteriorly.  The  molars  in  both  series  decrease  in  size  pos- 
teriorly as  in  the  existing  didelphyd  genus  Caluromys. 

THE    CVENOLESTID.E. 

This  family,  better  known  as  the  Epanorthidae,  includes  all  the 
Santa  Cruz  diprotodont  marsupials.  As  the  genus  Palceothentes, 
defined  by  Ameghino  in  1887,  has  priority  over  Epanorthus,  pro- 
posed by  him  two  years  later,  necessitating  the  rejection  of  the 
latter,  the  family  has  been  renamed  after  its  best  known  representa- 
tive, Ccenolestes.  All  the  members  of  this  family  are  small  animals 
and  are  very  incompletely  known. 

Three  subfamilies  may  be  recognized.  The  more  primitive 
members  of  the  first  of  these,  the  Caenolestinae,  form  a  connecting 


igos.]  SINCLAIR— FAUNA   OE   SANTA   CRUZ   BEDS.  79 

link  between  the  polyprotodont  and  diprotodont  marsupial  sub- 
orders in  possessing,  in  the  lower  jaw,  the  tuberculo-sectorial  type 
of  molar  characteristic  of  the  polyprotodonts  combined  with  a 
diprotodont  modification  of  the  median  incisors.  One  of  the 
minute  Santa  Cruz  forms  has  the  same  inferior  dental  formula  as  the 
opossums.  Unfortunately,  nothing  is  known  of  the  upper  denti- 
tion, skull  and  feet  of  this  important  transitional  form. 

The  second  subfamily,  the  Palseothentinae,  contains  the  largest 
of  the  Santa  Cruz  diprotodonts.  The  upper  molars  of  the  Palaeo- 
thentinae  resemble  closely  those  of  certain  bunodont  phalangers. 
The  first  is  fully  quadritubercular.  The  second  has  a  rudimentary 
hypocone.  The  third  and  fourth  are  tritubercular.  The  lower 
molars  are  lophodont.  The  posterior  upper  premolar  and  first 
lower  molar  are  modified  as  sectorial  teeth.  The  dental  formula 
varies  in  the  different  genera  but  there  are  always  four  molars  above 
and  below.  The  members  of  this  subfamily  form  a  regular  pro- 
gressive series  in  the  shortening  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
mandible  and  the  reduction  of  the  posterior  lower  premolar  from  a 
double-rooted  fully  functional  tooth  to  a  single-rooted  more  or  less 
vestigial  condition. 

The  Abderitinse,  the  third  subfamily,  are  the  most  specialized  of 
the  Santa  Cruz  diprotodonts.  The  first  lower  molar  is  greatly  en- 
larged, vertically  grooved,  and  notched  along  the  cutting  edge  of 
the  crown,  resembling  in  some  respects  the  peculiar  sectorial  teeth 
of  the  multituberculate  Plagiaulacidae.  The  sectorial  in  Abderites, 
however,  possesses  a  large  bicuspidate  heel,  which  is  lacking  in  the 
Plagiaulacidae,  and  the  remaining  molars  are  quadritubercular. 

The  Csenolestidae  are  examples  of  the  restrictive  influence  of 
competition  on  adaptive  radiation.  During  the  Santa  Cruz  epoch 
they  were  crowded  into  obscurity  by  a  horde  of  placentals,  sloths, 
rodents,  and  ungulates,  and  had  no  opportunity  to  attain  the  high 
degree  of  adaptive  specialization  shown  by  the  Australian  dipro- 
todonts, although  so  far  as  can  be  judged,  they  possessed  as  much 
latent  capacity  toward  variation  as  do  their  nearest  living  allies,  the 
phalangers. 

RELATIONSHIPS    OF    THE    SANTA    CRUZ    MARSUPIALS. 

The  Patagonian  thylacynes  do  not  represent  the  main  line  of 
descent  which  ended  in  Thylacynus.     In  all  the  Santa  Cruz  genera 


80  SINCLAIR— FAUNA    OF    SANTA    CRUZ    BEDS.         [April  13, 

the  last  upper  molar  has  undergone  greater  reduction  and  the  sty- 
loid cusps  have  decreased  in  number,  the  antero-external  alone  being 
represented.  Apart  from  these  advanced  characters  in  the  denti- 
tion, the  Santa  Cruz  thylacynes  are  of  a  distinctly  more  primitive 
type  than  their  surviving  Tasmanian  relative,  which  has  progressed 
in  the  lengthening  of  the  face  and  posterior  shifting  of  the  orbit, 
the  increased  brain  capacity,  the  acquisition  of  palatal  vacuities, 
the  prenatal  shedding  of  the  deciduous  teeth,  the  external  shifting 
of  the  outer  cuneiform,  and  the  loss  of  the  hallux.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  reduced  hallux  in  Prothylacynus,  transitions  to  these 
advanced  types  of  structure  do  not  appear  in  the  Santa  Cruz  mem- 
bers of  the  family. 

The  marsupial  faunas  of  those  formations  in  Patagonia  older 
than  the  Santa  Cruz  are  still  too  imperfectly  known  to  afford  a 
secure  basis  for  phylogenetic  speculation,  but  it  may  confidently 
be  expected  that  the  common  ancestor  of  Thy  lacy  mis  and  the  ex- 
tinct Santa  Cruz  types  will  be  found  among  them.  In  fact,  certain 
large  carnivorous  marsupials  from  the  Pyrotherium  beds  named  by 
Ameghino,  Proborhyama  and  Pharsophorus  retain  the  metaconid  in 
the  lower  molars  as  in  the  Dasyuridai,  while  the  premolar  formula 
is  unreduced  as  in  the  Thylacynidre. 

The  affinities  of  Microbiotheriimi  are  unquestionably  didelphyd. 
The  genus  can  not  be  regarded  as  ancestral  to  any  of  the  existing 
South  American  opossums  as  the  degree  of  reduction  of  the  ex- 
ternal cingulum  and  styloid  cusps  in  the  upper  molars  is  greater. 

The  most  primitive  of  the  Csenolestidae,  the  genus  Halmarliiphus, 
is  transitional  to  the  Polyprotodontia  and  represents,  with  little  or 
no  modification,  a  type  which  is  not  only  ancestral  to  the  Palreo- 
thentinae  but  agrees  perfectly  with  the  "minute  insectivorous 
forms  which,  apart  from  the  diprotodont  modification  of  the  ante- 
molar  teeth,  possessed  a  full  antemolar  formula,"  indicated  by 
Bensley's1  studies  as  the  ancestors  of  the  Phalangerinae.  Un- 
fortunately this  interesting  transitional  genus  is  known  only  from 
the  lower  jaw.  The  Palaeothentinae  are  important  in  retaining 
constructive  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  bunodont  type  of  molar 
characteristic  of  the  more  primitive  of  the  existing  phalangers. 
The  Abderitinas  are  highly  specialized  diprotodonts  which  appear 

1  Bensley,  B.  A.,  "The  evolution  of  the  Australian  marsupials,  etc.,"  Trans. 
Linn.  Sec,  London,  ser.  2  (Zool.),  vol.  9,  p.  1 39,  1 903. 


rgos.]  SINCLAIR— FAUNA    OF    SANTA    CRUZ    BEDS.  81 

to  have  become  extinct  with  the  Palaeothentinae  at  the  close  of  the 
Santa  Cruz  epoch,  while  the  less  specialized  Caenolestinae  were  able 
to  persist  to  the  present  day. 

The  Csenolestidae  resemble  the  primitive  phalangers  in  so  many 
respects  that  it  is  impossible  to  escape  the  conclusion  that  the  two 
families  are  related  and  not  merely  convergent  groups.  With  the 
exception  of  Halmarhiphus,  a  persistent  ancestral  type,  the  Santa 
Cruz  diprotodonts  possess  specializations  in  dental  structure  which 
prevent  their  being  regarded  as  direct  ancestors  of  the  phalangers, 
but  favor  the  idea  that  both  groups  are  descended  from  a  common 
ancestry. 

Considerable  evidence  is  now  available  to  show  that  a  land  con- 
nection between  Patagonia  and  the  Australian  region  existed  noj 
later  than  the  close  of  the  Cretaceous  or  beginning  of  the  Tertiary  * 
and  it  is  possible  that  at  this  time  the  interchange  of  marsupials 
between  the  two  continents  was  effected.  Whether  the  marsupials 
originated  in  South  America  and  migrated  thence  to  Australia,  or 
the  reverse,  can  not  at  present  be  demonstrated,  but  a  South  Amer- 
ican origin  for  at  least  some  of  the  existing  Australian  and  Tas- 
manian  types  appears  probable  in  view  of  their  unmistakable  rela- 
tionships with  Santa  Cruz  forms. 

Princeton  University,  April,  1905. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATES. 

Plate  I.  Cladosictis  luslratus.  Restoration  based  upon  two  specimens  in  the 
collection  of  Princeton  University.  The  skeleton  measures  3  feet 
over  all.      Restored  parts  are  indicated  by  a  cross. 

Plate  II.  Prothylacynus  patagonicus.  Restored  from  a  single  specimen  in  the 
Princeton  collection.  The  skeleton  measures  4  feet  8^  inches 
over  all.      The  restored  parts  are  indicated  by  a  cross. 

1  For  a  summary  of  the  evidence  see  Ortmann,  Reports  of  the  Princeton  Uni- 
versity Expeditions  to  Patagonia,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  310-324. 


82  LAMBERT— THE   STRAIGHT    LINE    CONCEPT.         [April  i4, 

THE  STRAIGHT  LINE  CONCEPT. 
BY   P.   A.   LAMBERT. 

{Read  April  14,  /<?PJ.) 
INTRODUCTION. 

The  foundation  of  a  science  is  the  system  of  assumptions  which 
gives  precision  to  the  concepts  with  which  the  science  deals.  It  is 
essential  that  the  system  of  assumptions  together  with  the  results 
obtained  by  applying  the  processes  of  logic  to  the  concepts  shall  be 
free  from  contradiction.  This  freedom  from  contradiction  is  gen- 
erally established  by  showing  that  the  system  of  assumptions  gives 
precision  to  some  complete  number  system  of  arithmetic. 

It  is  an  important  problem  in  any  science  to  reduce  the  system 
of  assumptions  to  a  minimum.  This  problem  is  solved  by  exclud- 
ing all  assumptions  which  are  logical  consequences  of  other  assump- 
tions. When  the  system  of  assumptions  of  a  science  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum  the  omission  of  any  one  assumption  or  the  change  of 
any  one  assumption  will  either  lead  to  a  contradiction  or  change 
the  concepts  of  the  science. 

In  order  that  a  science  shall  not  become  a  mere  exercise  in  men- 
tal gymnastics  the  results  obtained  by  applying  the  processes  of 
logic  to  the  concepts  of  the  science  must  agree  with  observed  results 
in  the  processes  of  the  physical  world. 

The  assumptions  of  a  science  are  also  called  the  axioms  of  a 
science.  The  assumptions  of  geometry  are  called  axioms  by  Hil- 
bert  in  the  Grundlagen  der  Geometric 

THE    STRAIGHT    LINE. 

The  logical  entities  with  which  rational  geometry  deals  are  the 
concepts  named  the  poirrt,  the  straight  line  and  the  plane.  Pre- 
cision is  given  to  these  concepts  by  axioms  which  have  been  ar- 
ranged by  Hilbert  in  five  groups,  called  axioms  of  relation,  axioms 
of  order,  axioms  of  congruence,  axioms  of  parallels  and  axioms  of 
continuity. 

The  importance  of  the  straight  line,  whether  by  straight  line  we 
understand  the  intuitive  entity  of  experience  or  the  logical  entity 


I905j  LAMBERT— THE   STRAIGHT   LINE   CONCEPT.  83 

of  rational  geometry,  depends  primarily  on  the  fact  that  a  straight 
line  is  determined  by  any  two  of  its  points  and  can  be  indefinitely 
extended  between  any  two  of  its  points.  Right  here  arises  a  ques- 
tion that  can  not  be  answered  by  experience  or  experiment.  If  the 
straight  line  is  indefinitely  extended  beyond  any  two  of  its  points, 
will  there  be  found  on  the  straight  line  two  points  at  infinity,  one 
point  at  infinity,  or  no  point  at  infinity  ?  This  question,  of  course, 
can  not  be  answered  until  precision  has  been  given  to  the  term 
distance. 

In  the  plane  determined  by  a  given  point  and  a  given  straight 
line,  draw  a  straight  line  through  the  given  point  intersecting  the 
given  straight  line  and  revolve  the  straight  line  about  the  given 
point.  When  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  revolving  line  with 
the  given  line  moves  to  an  infinite  distance  from  the  foot  of  [the 
perpendicular  from  the  given  point  to  the  given  line,  the  revolving 
line  is  said  to  become  parallel  to  the  given  line.  In  how  many 
positions  does  the  revolving  line  become  parallel  to  the  given  line  ? 
This,  again,  is  a  question  that  can  not  be  answered  by  experience 
or  experiment.     It  can  be  answered  only  by  the  axiom  of  parallels. 

If  the  axiom  of  parallels  is  made  to  read  :  Through  a  given  point 
without  a  given  line  one  and  only  one  parallel  to  the  line  can  be 
drawn  —  we  have  a  geometry  in  which  the  straight  line  has  only 
one  point  at  infinity.  This  is  the  geometry  of  Euclid.  Since  the 
parabola  meets  the  straight  line  at  infinity  in  only  one  point,  this 
geometry  is  also  called  the  parabolic  geometry. 

If  the  axiom  of  parallels  is  made  to  read  :  Through  a  given  point 
without  a  given  line  two  and  only  two  parallels  to  the  line  can  be 
drawn  —  we  have  a  geometry  in  which  the  straight  line  has  two 
and  only  two  points  at  infinity.  Since  the  hyperbola  intersects  the 
straight  line  at  infinity  in  two  points,  this  geometry  is  called  the 
hyperbolic  geometry.  The  hyperbolic  geometry  was  developed  by 
Euclidean  methods  by  Lobachevski  and  Bolyai. 

If  the  axiom  of  parallels  is  made  to  read  :  Through  a  given  point 
without  a  given  line  no  parallel  to  the  line  can  be  drawn  —  we  have 
a  geometry  in  which  the  straight  line  has  no  point  at  infinity. 
Since  the  ellipse  does  not  intersect  the  straight  line  at  infinity  in  a 
real  point,  this  geometry  is  called  the  elliptic  geometry.  The 
elliptic  geometry  has  been  discussed  by  Riemann,  Clifford  and 
Newcomb. 


84  LAMBERT— THE    STRAIGHT    LINE    CONCEPT.  [April  i4, 

THE    EXPRESSION    FOR    DISTANCE. 

Much  of  the  apparent  mystery  of  hyperbolic  and  elliptic  geom- 
etry vanishes  when  precision  is  given  to  the  term  distance.  Dis- 
tance is  the  result  of  measurement,  and  the  measurement  of  a  straight 
line  requires  that  any  part  of  the  straight  line  may  be  applied  any- 
where along  the  straight  line.  If  A,  B,  Care  any  three  points  in 
a  straight  line,  and  B  is  between  A  and  C,  the  expression  for  dis- 
tance must  satisfy  the  equation 

distance  AB  +  distance  BC=  distance  AC. 

In  a  system  of  measurement  introduced  by  Cayley  in  the  Sixth 
Memoir  on  Quantics  and  developed  by  Klein,  the  expression  for 
the  distance  between  two  points  on  a  straight  line  is  a  function  ot 
the  cross-ratio  of  these  two  points  and  two  fixed  points  on  the 
straight  line.  Let  the  fixed  points  be  X,  YandA,  B,  Cany  three 
points  taken  in  order  on  the  straight  line.  By  definition  the 
cross-ratio  of  the  four  points  A,  B,  X,   Fis 

(AX)/(AY)+(BX)/(BY). 

It  follows  from  this  definition  that  : 

cross-ratio  ABXY  X  cross-ratio  B CX Y=  cross-ratio  ACXY. 
Applying  logarithms  to  this  equation 

log  cross-ratio  ABXY ' -\-  log  cross-ratio  BCXY 

=  log-cross-ratio  A  CYX. 
The  expression 

k  log  cross -ratio  ABXY 

where  k  denotes  any  constant  may  therefore  be  taken  as  the  expres- 
sion for  the  distance  between  the  points  A,  B} 

The  pair  of  fixed  points  X,  Fis  called  the  absolute  of  linear 
measurement.  When  one  of  the  points  A,  B  coincides  with  a 
point  of  the  absolute  the  distance  AB  becomes  infinite.  Hence 
when  the  absolute  consists  of  two  distinct  real  points,  the  straight 
line  has  two  points  at  infinity  ;  when  the  absolute  consists  of  two 
coincident  points,  the  straight  line  has  one  point  at  infinity  ;  when 

1  The  constant  k  must  be  so  determined  that  the  expression  for  distance  has  a 
real  value.  Since  the  logarithm  is  a  many-valued  function  for  which  the  series 
of  values  differ  by  multiples  of  2k\/— I,  when  k  is  imaginary  the  expression  for 
distance  is  a  many-valued  function  for  which  the  series  of  values  differs  by  multi- 
ples of  some  real  constant. 


i9°5-] 


LAMBERT— THE   STRAIGHT   LINE   CONCEPT.  85 


the  absolute  consists  of  a  pair  of  imaginary  points,  the  straight 
line  has  no  point  at  infinity. 

In  the  geometry  of  two  dimensions  the  absolute  must  be  the  locus 
of  the  point  pairs  which  are  the  absolute  of  all  the  lines  in  the 
plane.  It  follows  that  the  points  on  the  absolute  are  the  points  at 
infinity  in  the  plane.  By  substituting  in  the  equation  of  the  abso- 
lute f(x,  y)  =  o  for  x  and  y  respectively  (xx  +  Xx2)/(i  +  '•)  and 
0'i  +  l)\)/(l  +  '•)  there  will  be  found  two  values  of  X,  say  A,  and 
/.,,  to  which  correspond  the  points  of  intersection  of  the  straight 
line  through  the  points  (.\\,  j\)  and  (x2,  v2)  with  the  absolute,  and 
the  cross-ratio  of  the  points  (.v,,/,),  (xv  y3)  and  the  points  of 
intersection  with  the  absolute  is  Xjk%.  This  cross-ratio  is  there- 
fore readily  calculated  whether  the  points  of  intersection  are  real  or 
imaginary. 

If  the  equation  of  the  absolute  in  homogeneous  coordinates  is 
v2  +  v2  —  4a2/"  =  o,  in  order  that  the  distance  between  two  points 
within  the  absolute  shall  be  real  the  constant  k  must  be  real. 
Every  straight  line  determined  by  two  points  within  the  absolute 
has  two  points  at  infinity  and  we  have  the  hyperbolic  geometry  of 
two  dimensions.  Points  without  the  absolute  are  non-existent  in 
this  geometry. 

If  the  equation  of  the  absolute  in  homogeneous  coordinates  is 
x2  +y  +  ^z2/2  =  o  the  constant  k  must  be  assumed  imaginary  in 
order  that  the  distance  between  two  points  of  the  plane  shall  be 
real.  The  straight  line  has  no  point  at  infinity  and  we  have  the 
elliptic  geometry.  In  this  geometry  the  straight  line  has  a  finite 
length  and  must  return  into  itself.  The  distance  between  two 
points  has  a  series  of  values  differing  by  multiples  of  the  length  of 
the  entire  straight  line. 

The  points  whose  homogeneous  coordinates  are  x  =  1,  y  = 
y/ —  1,  t=  o)  x  =  1,  y  =  —  s/ —  1,  /=  o  satisfy  the  equations  of 
the  absolute  in  both  the  hyberbolic  and  elliptic  geometries.  These 
two  points,  named  the  imaginary  circular  points  at  infinity,  consti- 
tute the  absolute  of  plane  parabolic  geometry.  The  parabolic 
geometry  is  therefore  a  common  limiting  case  of  the  hyperbolic 
and  elliptic  geometries.  By  a  suitable  choice  of  the  constant  k 
the  parabolic  geometry  becomes  the  geometry  of  Euclid. 

In  the  geometry  of  three  dimensions  the  absolute  of  hyperbolic 
geometry  may  be  written    v2  4-  r2  +  z1  —  4a2/2  =  o  ;    the  absolute 


86  LAMBERT— THE   STRAIGHT   LINE   CONCEPT.         [April  i4) 

of  elliptic  geometry  x'2  +  y2  +  z'2  -f  4a2/-  =  o  ;  the  absolute  of 
parabolic  geometry,  x2  -f-  y1  -f-  r  =  o,  t  —  o,  again  a  common 
limiting  case  of  the  absolute  of  hyperbolic  and  elliptic  geometry. 

By  taking  a  in  the  equation  of  the  absolute  sufficiently  large  the 
hyperbolic  and  elliptic  geometries  approach  identity  with  the  para- 
bolic geometry  in  finite  regions  of  space,  so  that  experience  or 
experiment  can  never  determine  that  the  space  of  experience  is 
hyperbolic,  elliptic  or  parabolic. 

The  expression  for  the  distance  between  two  points  must  satisfy 
the  requirement  that  the  distance  between  two  points  shall  be  the 
same  for  all  positions  of  the  straight  line  on  which  the  two  points 
are  located.  A  collinear  motion  of  space  into  itself  is  represented 
analytically  by  a  linear  transformation  which  transforms  the  abso- 
lute into  itself.  The  cross-ratio  is  an  invariant  of  linear  transforma- 
tions. Hence  the  definition  of  distance  k  x  log  cross-ratio  satisfies 
also  this  requirement  of  the  expression  for  distance. 

By  the  calculus  of  variations  it  is  proved  that  in  the  elliptic, 
hyperbolic  and  parabolic  geometries  the  straight  line  is  the  shortest 
distance  between  two  points.  Hilbert,  by  taking  for  absolute  a 
triangle,  has  proved  that  the  sum  of  two  sides  of  a  triangle  may  be 
equal  to  or  less  than  the  third  side. 

ANGLE    MEASUREMENT. 

In  Cayley's  system  of  measurement  the  measure  of  an  angle  is 
defined  as  a  constant  times  the  logarithm  of  the  cross-ratio  of  the 
pencil  of  four  rays  formed  by  the  sides  of  the  angle  and  the 
tangents  to  the  absolute  from  the  vertex  of  the  angle.  If  the 
equation  of  the  absolute  in  line  coordinates  is  /(//,  v)  =  o,  the 
measurement  of  angles  about  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  lines 
(«j,  i\)  and  (u2,  7'2)  is  analytically  identical  with  the  measurement 
of  distance  on  a  line  through  two  points. 

It  follows  from  the  definition  that  a  right  angle  is  an  angle 
whose  sides  are  harmonic  conjugates  with  respect  to  the  tangents 
from  the  angle  vertex  to  the  absolute.  In  the  hyperbolic  geometry 
any  line  through  the  pole  of  a  given  line  with  respect  to  the  abso- 
lute intersecting  the  given  line  is  perpendicular  to  it  ;  the  angle 
between  lines  intersecting  on  the  absolute  is  zero,  hence  the  two 
lines  drawn  from  a  given  point  to  the  intersections  of  a  given  line 
with  the  absolute  are  parallel  to  the  given  line  ;  the  sum  of  the 
angles  of  a  triangle  is  less  than  1800. 


i9°5-] 


LAMBERT— THE   STRAIGHT   LINE   CONCEPT. 


The  chief  attraction  of  hyperbolic  geometry  lies  in  the  fact  that 
one  has  the  power  to  see  the  whole  of  hyperbolic  space  and  to 
direct  geometric  constructions  from  a  vantage  point  outside  of  this 
space.  For  example,  to  draw  a  common  perpendicular  to  two  straight 
lines,  not  intersecting  and  not  parallel,  connect  by  a  straight  line  the 
poles  of  the  given  straight  lines  with  respect  to  the  absolute.  This 
problem  has  been  solved  by  Hilbert  by  methods  such  as  a  being 
living  in  hyperbolic  space  would  be  obliged  to  use.  It  is  a  simple 
matter  to  determine  directly  from  the  expression  for  distance  that 
the  locus  of  points  in  the  hyperbolic  plane  equidistant  from  a  given 
straight  line  is  an  ellipse  tangent  to  the  absolute  where  the  given 
line  meets  the  absolute. 

GEOMETRY    ON    SURFACES    OF    CONSTANT    TOTAL    CURVATURE. 

If  Rl  and  R2  are  the  maximum  and  minimum  radii  of  curvature 
of  the  normal  sections  of  a  curved  surface  at  any  point  of  the  sur- 
face, the  reciprocal  of  the  product  of  Rx  and  R2  is  called  the  Gaus- 
sian or  total  curvature  of  the  surface  at  this  point.  The  geometry 
of  geodesies  on  surfaces  whose  total  curvature  is  constant  has  strik- 
ing analogies  to  plane  Euclidean  geometry.  Euclid's  definition 
of  a  straight  line  as  a  line  which  lies  in  the  same  manner  with 
respect  to  all  the  points  in  the  line,  and  his  definition  of  a  plane 
as  a  surface  which  lies  in  the  same  manner  with  respect  to  all 
straight  lines  in  the  plane,  when  taken  in  connection  with  Euclid's 
"Common  Notions"  implies  the  congruent  displacement  of  a 
straight  line  into  itself,  that  is  the  displacement  of  the  straight  line 
into  itself  such  that  any  two  points  of  the  line  may  be  made  to  coin- 
cide with  any  other  two  points  of  the  line  provided  the  distance 
between  the  first  pair  of  points  equals  the  distance  between  the 
second  pair ;  and  the  congruent  displacement  of  the  plane  into 
itself,  that  is  the  displacement  of  the  plane  into  itself  such  that  any 
portion  of  the  plane  bounded  by  straight  lines  may  be  made  to 
coincide  with  any  other  portion  provided  the  two  portions  are 
bounded  by  straight  lines  of  equal  length  and  the  corresponding 
angles  are  equal.  Now  surfaces  whose  total  curvature  is  constant 
and  geodesies  on  these  surfaces  also  possess  this  property  of  con- 
gruent displacement,  provided  displacement  is  suitably  defined. 

If  the  constant  total  curvature  of  the  curved  surface  is  —  a'1,  the 
geometry  of  geodesies  on  the  curved  surface  is  identical  with  the 


88  LAMBERT— THE    STRAIGHT    LINE    CONCEPT.         [April  14, 

geometry  of  the  plane  with  hyperbolic  measurement.1  The  type 
of  surfaces  with  constant  negative  total  curvature  is  the  pseudo- 
sphere  of  revolution,  generated  by  revolving  the  tractrix  about  its 
asymptote. 

If  the  constant  total  curvature  of  the  curved  surface  is  -f-  a2,  the 
geometry  of  geodesies  on  the  curved  surface  is  identical  with  the 
geometry  of  the  plane  with  elliptic  measurement.1  The  type  of 
curved  surfaces  with  constant  positive  total  curvature  is  the  sphere. 
It  is  important  to  note  that  the  entire  elliptic  plane  is  represented 
on  the  hemisphere. 

These  statements  show  the  reasonableness  of  using  as  equivalent 
the  terms  elliptic  space  and  space  of  positive  curvature  ;  hyperbolic 
space  and  space  of  negative  curvature  ;  parabolic  space  and  space 
of  zero  curvature. 

CONTINUITY    OF    THE    STRAIGHT  LINE. 

It  remains  to  examine  the  elemental  structure  of  the  straight  line. 
Adopting  as  definition  of  continuity  the  totality  of  all  real  num- 
bers, is  the  totality  of  distances  from  a  fixed  point  of  the  line  to  all 
other  points  of  the  line  continuous?  This  question  must  be  an- 
swered by  establishing  a  correspondence  between  sets  of  numbers 
and  points  and  lines,  that  is  by  a  system  of  analytic  geometry. 

Let  any  pair  of  numbers  (x,  y)  correspond  to  a  point,  any  pair 
of  numbers  (//,  v)  correspond  to  a  straight  line,  and  let  the  equa- 
tion ux  +  vy  -+-  i  =  o  denote  that  the  point  (x,  y)  is  on  the  line 
(u,  7>).  The  straight  line  is  now  determined  by  any  two  points 
and  two  straight  lines  intersect  in  only  one  point,  that  is,  the 
straight  line  is  the  straight  line  of  Euclid.  If  x,  y  and  it,  v  are 
any  numbers  of  the  totality  of  numbers  obtained  from  unity  by 
applying  a  finite  number  of  times  the  operations  addition,  subtrac- 
tion, multiplication,  division  and  taking  the  positive  square  root  of 
unity  plus  the  square  of  any  number  previously  determined,  Hilbert 
has  proved  that  all  the  constructions  of  Euclid  are  possible.  The 
straight  line,  however,  is  clearly  not  continuous,  for  no  transcen- 
dental numbers  occur  in  the  totality  of  numbers  represented  on  the 
straight  line. 

The  continuity  of  the  straight  line  is  not  a  necessity  of  Euclid's 

1  Except  for  certain  self-evident  limitations  due  to  the  peculiarities  of  the 
surface. 


I9o5.]  LAMBERT— THE    STRAIGHT    LINE    CONCEPT.  89 

geometry,  it  is  not  an  intuitive  property  of  the  straight  line  and  it 
cannot  be  proved  by  experiment.  The  continuity  of  the  straight 
line  can  be  established  only  by  means  of  axioms,  whether  these 
axioms  take  the  form  given  by  Dedekind  in  his  Essays  on  Number 
or  by  Hilbert  in  his  Foundations  of  Geometry.  When  the  contin- 
uity of  the  straight  line  has  been  established  the  Cartesian  geometry 
at  once  follows. 

Lehigh  University, 
April  S,  1905. 


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CONTENTS. 

The  Mutual  Affinities  of  the  Species  of  the  Genus  Cambarus, 
and  their  Dispersal  over  the  United  States.  By  Dr.  A. 
E.  Ortmann 91 

The  LTse  of  the  Rotating  Anode  and  Mercury  Cathode  in 
Electro- Analysis.  By  Lily  G.  Kollock  and  Edgar  F. 
Smith 137 

Observations    on   Columbium  and  Tantalum.     By  Edgar  F. 

Smith 151 

Enquiry  into  the  Pressure  and  Rainfall  Conditions  of  the  Trades- 
monsoon  Area.     By  W.  L.   Dallas 159 

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and  the  Depth  that  Gives  Greatest  Stiffness.  By  Mans- 
field Merriman 164 

On  the  Use  of  the  Falling  Plate  Oscillograph  as  a  Phase  Meter. 

By  William  McClellan 166 

Some  Observations  on  Columbium.      By  Roy  D.   Hall  and 

Edgar  F.  Smith 177 


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PROCEEDINGS 

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Vol.  XLIV.  April-May,  1905.  No.  180. 


THE   MUTUAL  AFFINITIES   OF  THE    SPECIES    OF   THE 

GENUS    CAMBARUS,  AND   THEIR    DISPERSAL 

OVER  THE  UNITED    STATES. 

(Plate  III.) 

BY    DR.    A.    E.   ORTMANN. 

{Read  April  ij,  fcpoj.) 

In  a  previous  study  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  cray- 
fishes of  the  United  States  (see  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc,  xli,  1902, 
pp.  277-285),  the  present  writer  took  it  for  granted  that  the 
division  of  the  genus  Cambarus,  into  five  groups,  as  introduced  by 
Faxon  {Mem.  Mus.  Harvard,  10,  1885),  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  species  within  each  group  adopted  by  him,  would  correspond, 
as  far  as  one  might  expect,  to  the  natural  affinities. 

This,  however,  is  true  only  to  a  certain  degree.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  Faxon  correctly  recognized  the  chief  systematic  groups 
within  the  genus,  and  that  he  also  had,  in  most  cases,  appropriate 
views  as  to  the  relationship  of  smaller  groups  of  species.  But  accept- 
ing his  system  as  a  whole,  and  trying  to  correlate  it  with  the  peculi- 
arities shown  by  the  geographical  distribution,  a  number  of  cases 
are  revealed,  where  such  a  correlation  is  not  very  apparent,  and 
attempts  to  give  a  reasonable  theoretical  explanation  prove  to  be 
more  or  less  unsatisfactory.     I  shall  mention  here  a  few  instances. 

1.   The  fifth  group  of  the  genus  follows,  in  Faxon's  system,  after 

PROC  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XLIV.   l8o.  G.      PRINTED  JULY  28,   I905. 


92  ORTMANN— AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS. 


[April 


the  fourth,  and  he  apparently  believes,  that  it  is  connected  genet- 
ically with  the  latter.  The  geographical  distribution,  however,  is 
opposed  to  this  assumption,  and  a  closer  study  has  led  me  to  think 
that  there  is  no  such  affinity  between  these  two  groups,  and  that  the 
fifth  is  more  closely  allied  to  the  first  and  second.  (Compare  Ort- 
mann,  I.  c,  1902,  p.  283.) 

2.  Faxon  believes  (/.  c. ,  1885,  p.  19)  that  the  first  group  con- 
tains the  most  primitive  forms.  This  is  not  probable  when  we  con- 
sider the  very  highly  specialized  character  of  most  of  the  species. 
Indeed,  there  are  rather  primitive  forms  among  them,  but  they  are 
clearly  not  as  primitive  as  certain  species  of  the  second  group  (Ort- 
mann,  1903,  p.  283),  and  further,  the  main  range  of  the  first  group 
occupies  a  territory  that  is,  geologically,  comparatively  young, 
namely,  the  lowlands  of  the  southern  states  (Mississippi,  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Florida),  of  which  we  know  that  they  became  land  by 
degrees  during  the  Tertiary  period,  the  more  southern  parts  in  very 
recent  times.  It  is  not  very  likely  that  this  recent  land  is  occupied 
by  an  ancient  group  of  animals. 

3.  I  strongly  object  to  placing  Cambarus  pellucidus,  the  blind 
cave-species  of  Kentucky  and  Indiana,  with  the  first  group,  where 
it  stands  entirely  isolated,  morphologically  as  well  as  geographically. 
If  we  place  this  species  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  group,  it 
comes  into  an  assemblage,  from  which  it  is  not  so  strongly  differ- 
ent. It  will  always  remain  a  remarkable,  and,  as  Faxon  believes, 
a  primitive  type,  but  it  is  not  the  most  primitive  type  of  the  genus 
in  all  respects.  In  the  shape  of  the  male  organs  it  certainly  points 
rather  to  the  fourth  group  than  to  the  first. 

4.  Faxon  places  C.  blandingi at  the  head  of  the  genus:  this  is 
apparently  due  to  the  desire  to  let  the  type-species  of  the  genus 
stand  first.  This,  however,  may  convey  the  wrong  impression, 
that  C.  blandingi  is  the  lowest  (or  else  the  highest)  form  of  the 
whole  genus.  But  I  do  not  think  that  it  is  either,  and  regard  it  as 
a  highly  specialized  (but  not  the  most  highly  specialized)  form  of 
a  branch  of  the  genus  that  is  rather  ancient.  The  distribution  of 
C.  blandingi  has  all  the  characters  of  a  comparatively  modern 
encroachment  upon  foreign  territory. 

5.  I  believe  that  the  second  group  of  Faxon  contains  the  most 
primitive  types  of  the  genus.  But  this  is  to  be  understood  "cum 
grano  salis."     There   are,  in   this  group   also  some   very  highly 


1905.]  ORTMANN  —  AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  93 

specialized  types  (C.  gracilis  and  allies),  and  even  some  of  the 
primitive  forms  (C.  cubensis)  possess  some  peculiar  and  apparently 
advanced  characters.  I  think  we  can  express  it  this  way  :  among 
the  second  group,  there  are  species  that  approach  most  closely  the 
original,  stock  of  the  genus,  but  they  themselves  are  modified  to  a 
degree.  If  I  am  to  single  out  a  species  that  possibly  is  the  most 
primitive,  I  should  name  C.  digueti  Bouvier  (Bull.  Mus.  Paris, 
1897,  p.  224),  which  is  identical  with  C.  carinatus  Faxon  (Pr. 
U.  S.  Mies.,  20,  1898,  p.  648).  It  is  remarkable  that  the  most 
primitive  forms  are  found  in  Mexico  (and  Cuba),  which  agrees 
well  with  the  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  genus  in  these  parts  (see 
Ortmann,  /.  c. ,  1902,  p.  283). 

CHARACTERS    OF    THE    GENUS    CAMBARUS    THAT    SERVE    TO 
DISTINGUISH    GROUPS    AND    SPECIES. 

Sexual  Organs. — Already  the  earlier  writers  (Girard,  Hagen) 
have  pointed  out  the  importance  of  the  anterior  pair  of  abdominal 
appendages  of  the  male  (copulatory  organs)  for  systematic  pur- 
poses. Faxon  made  large  use  of  them  in  defining  his  five  groups, 
but  within  the  groups  he  rarely  tried  to  avail  himself  of  these  limbs 
to  reveal  the  mutual  affinities  of  the  different  species.  It  is  now 
generally  known  that  these  organs  furnish  not  only  the  best  specific 
characters,  but  that  their  similarity  in  certain  assemblages  of  species 
clearly  indicates  genetic  relationship.  In  close  connection  with 
the  shape  of  this  organ  is  that  of  the  female  "  annulus  ventralis," 
as  we  now  know,  the  receptaculum  seminis.  There  is,  however, 
not  so  much  variety  in  the  shape  of  the  latter  organ,  it  is  not  so 
polymorphous,  and  the  main  types  occur  in  different  groups,  which 
is  apparently  due  to  the  more  simple  structure  of  this  organ. 
Nevertheless,  the  annulus  —  in  connection  with  the  male  organ  — 
is  rather  important.  We  may  add  that  in  a  number  of  species 
the  annulus  is  not  very  well  known. 

As  regards  the  male  organs,  their  shape  is  very  complex  and 
much  varied.  Several  main  types  may  be  distinguished,  and  these 
again  show  much  diversity.  It  is  hardly  likely  that  in  so  complex 
an  organ  the  identical  form  has  developed  several  times,  that  is  to 
say  that  there  are  cases  of  parallelism  ;  where  there  is  identity  or 
similarity  of  these  organs  in  different  species,  this  is  generally  and 
surely  a  sign  of  close  affinity.      Only  one  or  two  exceptions  in  the 


94  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  i3, 

first  and  second  group  are  known  to  me,  where  the  question  is  ad- 
missible, whether  convergency  plays  a  part.  There  are  rarely  two 
species  known,  where  the  shape  of  the  male  organs  is  absolutely 
identical  (except  in  the  third  group  of  Faxon,  where  they  are  re- 
markably uniform),  and  since  they  have  developed  from  the  begin- 
ning in  three  or  four  different  main  lines,  it  is  easily  understood 
why  they  furnish  the  best  specific  characters  as  well  as  the  best 
criteria  for  judging  the  affinities.  Thus  the  danger  of  being  misled 
by  convergency  of  structure,  which  is  the  chief  impediment  of 
properly  recognizing  natural  affinities  in  any  group  of  animals,  is 
here  reduced  to  a  minimum.  We  shall  see  below  that  by  the  ac- 
tual use  of  this  principle  we  arrive  at  conclusions  that  render  the 
investigation  of  the  development  of  the  genus  Cambarus  a  com- 
paratively easy  task,  furnishing  a  clue  to  the  explanation  of  the 
geographical  distribution  ;  further,  the  study  of  the  male  organs 
gives  us  a  standard  by  which  to  judge  the  other  characters  that  are 
of  systematic  value,  and  as  we  shall  presently  see,  there  is  hardly 
another  structure  that  has  the  same  value  for  revealing  the  affinities 
within  the  genus,  that  is  to  say,  the  same  characters  generally  de- 
velop independently  in  different  groups,  being  clearly  subject  to 
parallelism,  presumably  under  the  influence  of  similar  external  con- 
ditions.     In  a  few  cases  the  latter  is  very  evident. 

Copulatory  Hooks  of  the  Male. — Faxon  lays  much  stress  upon  the 
number  of  hooks  present  in  the  male  on  the  ischiopodite  of  the  sec- 
ond, third,  or  fourth  pereiopods,  which  are  used  to  take  hold  of  the 
female  in  copulation.  The  third  pereiopods  always  possess  these 
hooks,  and  in  many  cases  only  this  pair  is  present.  But  sometimes 
there  is  an  additional  pair  on  the  second,  or  on  the  fourth  pereio- 
pods. The  number  of  pairs  of  hooks  is  very  constant  in  the  single 
species  (except  for  occasional  abnormities;,  and  it  is  remarkable 
that  certain  types  of  male  sexual  organs  are  generally  connected 
with  certain  type  of  hooks  ;  this  is  chiefly  the  case  in  the  third, 
fourth  and  fifth  group  of  Faxon,  while  it  is  not  in  the  first  or  sec- 
ond, where  similar  types  of  sexual  organs  may  be  connected  with 
different  types  of  hooks. 

If  we  consider  that  the  presence  of  two  pairs  of  hooks  is  cer- 
tainly a  more  highly  advanced  stage  than  that  of  only  one  pair,  that 
is  to  say,  that  the  difference  of  the  number  of  hooks  is  only  a  differ- 
ence in  the  degree  of  development  of  one  and  the  same  feature,  it 


i9°5-] 


ORTMANN— AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  9i 


is  easily  conceivable  that  the  increase  of  the  number  of  hooks  may 
have  taken  place  independently  in  different  groups,  and  we  shall 
see  below  that  there  is  at  least  one  case  (C.  pellucidus),  where  we 
are  to  assume  an  independent  origin  of  an  additional  pair  of  hooks 
on  the  fourth  pereiopods  ;  this  is  also  rendered  probable  by  the 
variability  of  this  character  seen  in  this  species.  That  Faxon's 
fifth  group  has  developed  an  additional  pair  of  hooks  independently 
is  clearly  shown  by  the  fact  that  here  it  is  the  second  pair  of  pereio- 
pods that  carries  the  additional  hooks. 

Indications  of  a  more  general  tendency  to  increase  the  number 
of  hooks  are  found  in  occasional  freaks  in  other  groups  (  C.  propin- 
gi/us,  C.  virilis). 

General  Shape  of  Carapace.  —  The  primitive  type  of  the  cara- 
pace seems  to  be  more  or  less  ovate,  generally  depressed.  It 
assumes,  however,  sometimes  a  more  cylindrical  form  (in  some 
cave-species),  and  in  some  cases  it  is  rather  compressed.  The 
latter  character  is  most  remarkable  in  all  burrowing  species,  and 
has  developed  independently  at  least  in  two  groups  (second  and 
third  of  Faxon,  gracilis-  and  diogenes-groups). 

The  Areola  seems  to  be  originally  rather  broad  and  short.  But 
there  is  a  general  tendency  of  it  to  become  narrower,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  increase  its  relative  length.  This  is  evidenced  in 
almost  all  groups,  and  a  narrow,  sometimes  partly  obliterated 
areola  is  found  in  species  that  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
each  other.  In  fact,  it  is  only  the  fifth  group  of  Faxon  where  this 
tendency  is  not  manifested.  Generally,  the  length  of  the  areola  is 
correlated  to  the  width,  but  there  are  exceptions. 

Rostrum.  —  The  shape  of  the  rostrum  is  characteristic  for  most 
species,  but  it  is  available  only  as  a  specific  character.  The 
original  type  seems  to  be  a  rather  long  rostrum,  with  more  or  less 
parallel  margins,  with  a  marginal  spine  on  each  side,  and  a  rather 
long  acumen.  The  chief  tendency  in  further  development  is  for 
the  marginal  spines  to  disappear,  and  for  the  whole  rostrum  to 
become  shorter.  This,  however,  is  found  in  all  five  groups  of 
Faxon  in  species  which  are  not  at  all  allied  to  one  another.  Even 
certain  peculiar  types  of  rostrum  may  reappear  in  a  widely  diver- 
gent group.  Thus  the  d/andingt'-type  is  imitated,  if  the  expression 
is  permitted,  by  C.  immunis,  and  the  burrowing  species  possess  all 
a  rostrum  of  similar  shape. 


96  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  i3> 

[It  is  very  remarkable,  that  burrowing  crayfishes  of  the  southern 
hemisphere  (Parastacus  defossus  Fax.  from  southern  Brazil  is  at 
hand)  resemble  the  North  American  burrowing  species  in  a  remark- 
able degree  externally,  chiefly  so  in  the  shape  of  carapace,  rostrum, 
chel?e,  length  of  abdomen,  etc.] 

The  Chela  are  very  variable  in  shape  :  they  are  fully  developed 
only  in  old  males,  but  generally  quite  characteristic  for  the  species. 
One  and  the  same  type  is  often  common  to  large  groups  of  species, 
and  thus  they  are  often  a  good  help  in  the  investigation  of  the 
natural  affinities.  But  in  other  cases  a  similar  form  of  chelae  is 
found  in  different  groups  which  is  most  striking  again  in  the  bur- 
rowing species. 

Among  the  more  primitive  species  the  shape  of  the  chelae  seems 
to  be  more  or  less  subcylindrical,  and  rather  elongated.  This 
shape  is  found  in  Faxon's  first,  second,  third,  and  fifth  groups,  but 
only  in  the  first,  second  and  fifth  it  is  frequent.  Removing  C. 
pellucidus  to  the  fourth  group,  also  in  the  latter  this  type  of  chela? 
is  represented.  In  part  of  the  second  group,  and  in  the  third  and 
fourth,  a  more  or  less  ovate,  broad,  and  depressed  chela  becomes 
common,  but  there  is  not  much  uniformity  in  detail,  each  group 
generally  developing  its  own  type. 

The  above  are  the  more  important  characters.  We  see  that  all 
of  them  must  be  dealt  with  cautiously,  if  they  are  to  be  used  for 
the  investigation  of  affinities  of  species.  Indeed,  in  many  cases, 
they  support  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  the  examination  of  the 
the  sexual  organs,  but  very  frequently  similarities  of  the  above 
characters  are  due  to  convergency.  The  same  is  true  of  all  other 
characters,  such  as  armature  of  carapace,  chelae,  shape  of  "epistoma, 
antennal  scales,  of  abdomen,  telson,  etc. 

SUBGENERA  OF  CAMBARUS,   ACCORDING   TO   THE    CHIEF    TYPES    OF  THE 
SEXUAL    ORGANS    OF    MALE. 

There  are  three  chief  types  of  the  male  sexual  organs  (first  pair 
of  abdominal  appendages),  the  last  of  which  is  easily  divided  into 
two  subtypes.     According  to   these,  I   should   like  to  distinguish 
four  subgenera,  as  follows  : 
i.   Subgenus:   Cambarus  (sens,  strict.). 

Sexual  organs  of  male  stout,  more  or  less  straight,  and  compara- 
tively short,  truncated  or  blunt  at  the  tip,  the  outer  part  ending  in  i-j 


i9oS.]  ORTM ANN— AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  97 

horny  teeth,  which  are  sometimes  recurved,  or  compressed,  or  plate- 
like, and  are  always  sharply  distinguishable  from  the  blunt  end. 
Inner  part  terminated  by  a  shorter  or  longer,  acute  spine,  which  is 
sometimes  distinct  from  the  tip  of  this  part,  so  that  it  appears  two- 
pointed.  In  the  male  the  third  or  the  third  and  fourth  pereiopods 
have  hooks. 

2.  Subgenus  :   Cambarellus  nov.  subgen. 

Sexual  organs  of  male  stout,  straight,  or  slightly  curved  at  the 
tips.  Outer  part  ending  in  two  horny  teeth,  which  are  rather  long, 
taper  rapidly,  and  are  not  sharply  distinguishable  from  the  end, 
which  is  not  truncated.  Inner  part  terminated  by  a  rather  long, 
acute  spine.  In  the  male,  the  second  and  third  pereiopods  have 
hooks. 

[The  two  following  subgenera  represent  the  third  type  of  male 
sexual  organs,  in  which  both  parts,  outer  and  inner,  each  terminate 
in  only  one  tooth,  which  is  rather  slender,  and  not  sharply  distin- 
guishable from  the  end,  which  is  never  truncated.] 

3.  Subgenus  :   Faxonius  nov.  subgen. 

Sexual  organs  of  male  shorter  or  longer,  not  very  stout,  generally 
slender,  or  with  slightly  curved  tips.  Tips  never  truncated,  ending 
always  in  two  more  or  less  elongated  spines,  the  one  formed  by  the 
outer  part,  and  horny,  the  other  formed  by  the  inner  part  and 
softer.  There  is  never  more  than  one  tip  to  the  outer  part,  and  there 
is  no  terminal  tooth  distinguishable,  but  the  tip  tapers  gradually, 
or  the  whole  outer  part  is  setiform.  In  the  male  generally  the  third 
pereiopods  only  have  hooks,  very  rarely  (in  C.  pellucidus')  hooks 
are  found  on  third  and  fourth  pereipods. 

4.  Subgenus :   Bartonius  nov.  subgen. 

Sexual  organs  of  male  very  uniform  throughout  the  subgenus. 
They  are  short  and  thick,  inner  and  outer  part  each  terminating  in 
only  one  short  and  thick  spine,  tapering  to  a  point.  Both  terminal 
spines  are  strongly  recurved,  forming  with  the  basal  part  about  a 
right  angle.      In  the  male,  only  the  third  pereiopods  possess  hooks. 

Subgenus  :    Cambarus.      (Type  :    C.  blandingi.  ) 

This  subgenus  comprises  Faxon's  first  and  second  group,  exclud- 
ing the  species  C.  pellucidus.  Both  groups  are  rather  heterogeneous, 
and  so  is  this  subgenus,  and  there  are  considerable  variations  in  the 
male  sexual  organs.      The  chief  feature  of  the  latter  is  their  blunt 


98  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES  OF  CAMBARUS.  [April  13, 

ending,  a  character  that  possibly  points  to  the  condition  seen  in 
the  genus  Potamobius  ;  for  the  rest,  the  terminal  teeth  are  quite 
variable,  but  always  very  characteristic  for  the  species. 

It  is  advisable  to  distinguish  groups  within  this  subgenus,  not 
only  with  reference  to  the  sexual  organs,  but  also  with  reference 
to  the  hooks  of  the  male,  for  the  presence  of  one  or  two  pairs  of 
hooks  seems  to  constitute,  as  already  Faxon  recognized,  important 
differences,  the  presence  of  two  pairs,  on  third  and  fourth  pereio- 
pods,  being  evidently  a  more  advanced  stage.  Using  in  addition 
some  other  differences  of  the  areola  and  the  chelae,  we  obtain  the 
following  three  sections. 

1.  Section  :   C.  digit eti. 

Sexual  organs  of  male  with  one  to  two  teeth  at  the  tip  of  the  outer 
part.  Male  with  hooks  on  third pereiopods.  Areola  wide  or  nar- 
row, but  never  obliterated,  about  half  as  long  as  the  anterior  section 
of  the  carapace  {incl.  rostrum),  or  shorter.  Chela  elongated  and 
subcylindrical. 

2.  Section  :   C.  gracilis. 

Sexual  organs  of  male  with  one  to  tiuo  teeth  at  the  tip  of  the  outer 
part.     Male  with  hooks  on  third  pereiopods.     Areola  obliterated  in 
the  middle,  considerably  longer  than  half  of  the  anterior  section  of 
the  carapace.      Chela  short,  broad,  ovate. 
J.   Section  :    C.  blandingi. 

Sexual  organs  of  male  with  one  to  three  teeth  at  the  tip  of  the  outer 
part.  Male  with  hooks  on  third  and  fourth  pereiopods.  Areola 
wide  or  narrow,  rarely  obliterated  in  the  middle,  shorter  or  longer. 
Chela  generally  elongated,  narrow,  and  subcylindrical. 

The  most  primitive  sexual  organs  are  found  in  species  of  the  first 
section,  where  there  is  only  one  tooth  at  the  end  of  the  outer  part. 
Similar  sexual  organs  are  found  in  the  second  (C.  advena)  and  in 
the  third  section  (C  evermanni}  :  in  the  latter  cases,  however,  I 
think  we  have  to  deal  with  parallelism,  the  single  tooth  in  both 
cases  being  due  possibly  to  reduction.  Since  these  two  species  are 
very  rare  and  poorly  known,  and  since  C.  evermanni  belongs  to  a 
group  that  offers  other  difficulties,  further  investigations  are  needed. 

A  closer  examination  may  reveal  the  fact,  that  the  sexual  organs 
of  the  digueti-group  are  more  sharply  distinguished  from  those  of 
C.  advena  and  evermanni.  Through  the  courtesy  of  Professor  E. 
Bouvier  of  Paris,  I  have  received  two  cotypes  (male  and  female) 


i9°5  ] 


ORTMAXN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  99 


of  his  C.  digueti,  which  show,  on  the  one  hand,  that  C.  carinaius 
Fax.  is  a  synonym  of  this  species,  and  on  the  other  hand,  that  the 
sexual  organs  have  a  rather  peculiar  shape.  The  figures  of  these 
organs,  given  by  Faxon  (/V.  U.  S.  Mus.,  20,  1898,  pi.  65,  f.  2 
and  3)  are  absolutely  correct,  but  the  description  (p.  648)  is  rather 
short  and  unsatisfactory.  Faxon  says:  "Inner  and  outer  parts 
ending  in  a  small  horny  tooth,  anterior  margin  furnished  with  a 
small  tooth  near  the  tip."  Fig.  2  represents  this  organ  of  the 
right  side,  seen  from  the  outside  :  the  outer  part  ends  bluntly, 
without  a  distinct  tooth,  while  the  inner  part  ends  in  a  rather 
pointed  tooth,  outside  of  which  is  a  sharp  spine  that  is  longer  than 
the  outer  part.  Faxon's  Fig.  3  represents  the  identical  part  seen 
from  the  inside  :  only  the  two  tips  of  the  inner  part  are  seen  here, 
and  the  tip  of  the  outer  part  is  hidden  behind  the  end  of  the  inner  ; 
the  inner  part  is  flattened  and  hairy  on  the  inside,  and  the  "  shoul- 
der "  (  "  small  tooth  near  tip  "  )  is  distinctly  developed.  My  male 
specimen  of  C.  digueti 'agrees  in  every  detail  with  the  figures  of  Faxon. 

A  very  similar  structure  is  seen  in  C.  cubensis  (Faxon,  1885,  pi. 
7,  f.  5),  only  here  the  flattened  face  of  the  inside  is  dilated,  and 
the  shoulder  is  more  prominent.  In  both  cases,  there  are  practi- 
cally three  tips  to  this  appendage,  two  of  which  belong  to  the 
inner  part. 

The  description  of  this  organ  in  C.  mexicanus  (Faxon,  /.  c,  p. 
50)  agrees  closely,  but  possibly  the  "small,  procurved  spine"  at- 
tributed to  the  external  part  belongs  to  the  internal,  and  then  there 
would  be  complete  agreement. 

The  double  tip  to  the  inner  part,  and  the  shoulder,  which  has  a 
very  peculiar  position,  possibly  give  to  these  three  species  a  more 
isolated  position  within  this  subgenus,  and  might  possibly  justify 
the  creation  of  a  separate  subgenus,  which  then  should  stand  at  the 
head  of  the  genus.  This  would  also  agree  well  with  the  geographi- 
cal distribution. 

Aside  from  these  more  primitive  species  (C.  digueti,  cubensis, 
mexicanus),  the  first  section  contains  two  others  (C.  simulans  and 
gal  Unas),  which  mark  the  transition  to  the  third  section,  from 
which  they  differ  only  by  the  number  of  hooks  of  the  male  ;  the 
third  section  contains  more  advanced  forms  of  the  simulans '-type. 
The  second  section  is  a  peculiar  side  branch  going  off  from  the  first 
section,  which  has  acquired  burrowing  habits;   this  is  known  posi- 


100  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  i3, 

tively  of  C.  gracilis  and  of  C.  advena  (Hyeme  vitam  degit  subter- 
ranean!.     Aestate  in  fossis  invenitur.      Leconte). 

The  large  number  of  species  known  in  the  third  section  makes  a 
further  division  desirable,  which  is  easily  made  according  to  the 
following  characters  : 
i.    Group  :   {spicu  lifer) . 

Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  two  or  three  recurved  teeth,  with- 
out prominent  angle  {shoulder)    on  anterior  margin.      Rostrum  with 
marginal  teeth,  acumen  rather  long.      Areola  wide,  rarely  narrow, 
distinctly  shorter  than  half  of  the  anterior  section  of  the  carapace. 
2.    Group:   {blandingi). 

Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  three  {rarely  two)  recurved 
teeth,  inner  part  with  terminal  spine  directed  obliquely  outward.  No 
shoulder  on  anterior  margin.  Rostrum  with  marginal  teeth,  acumem 
rather  short.  Areola  narrow,  generally  distinctly  lunger  than  half 
of  the  anterior  section  of  the  carapace. 
j.    Group:  {clarki). 

Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  two  compressed  tubercles,  inner 
part  straight,  directed  forwards.  Anterior  margin  with  a  distinct 
shoulder.  Rostrum  with  marginal  teeth,  acumen  rather  short. 
Areola  very  narrow,  often  obliterated  in  the  middle,  about  half  as 
long  as  anterior  section  of  carapace. 
4.    Group  :   {alleni) . 

Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  one  or  tiuo  teeth,  often  peculiarly 
formed  {compressed  and  plate-like),  inner  part  straight  or  oblique. 
No  shoulder  on  anterior  margin.  Rostrum  without  marginal  teeth 
{at  least  in  the  adult  stage).  Areola  moderately  wide,  about  half  as 
long  as  anterior  section  of  carapace. 

There  is  no  doubt,  that  the  spicu lifer-group  is  the  most  primitive 
of  these,  and  that  the  others  represent  special  modifications,  each 
developed  in  a  different  direction. 

The  following  key  for  the  identification  of  the  species  of  the  sub- 
genus Cambarus  is  submitted  ;  it  is  claimed  that  this  key  represents 
—  as  far  as  is  possible  in  a  "  key  "  —  the  natural  affinities.  If  adult 
males  of  the  first  form  are  at  hand,  it  should  be  possible,  in  every 
case,  to  correctly  identify  the  species. 
1.   Section  of  C.  digue ti  (see  p.  98). 

flj  Sexual  organs  of  male  with  only  one  terminal  tooth  on  outer  part,  inner  part 
with  two  tips  ;  anterior  margin  with  an  angular  projection  (shoulder )  near 
the  tip  {digueti-group). 


1905.]  ORTM ANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  101 

bx  Rostrum  with  marginal  teeth. 

cx  Sexual  organs  of  male  with  inner  part  not  broadly  dilated  on  inner 
side,  curved  forward  at  apex  ;  shoulder  small.  Rostrum  carinated 
above.      Carapace  with  lateral  spines. 

C.  (Cambarus)  digneti  Bouv. 
c2  Sexual  organs  of  male  with  inner    part  greatly  dilated,    forming  a 
broad,  flat,  setose  plate  on  inner  side  ;  shoulder  strongly  developed. 
Rostrum  not  carinated.      Carapace  without  lateral  spines. 

C.  (Cambarus)  cubensis  Er. 
b2  Rostrum  without  marginal  teeth,  subplane  above.      Carapace  without  lat- 
eral teeth.      Inner  part  of  sexual  organs  flattened  within,  but  not  greatly 
dilated.  C.  (Cambarus)  mexicanus  Er. 

?2  Sexual  organs  of  male  with  two  terminal  teeth  on  outer  part,  one  of  which  is 
flat  and  disk-shaped,  inner  part  with  one  terminal  spine;  without  shoul- 
der on  anterior  margin.  Rostrum  without  marginal  teeth  (simulans- 
group). 
bx  Terminal  teeth  of  sexual  organs  oblique,  both  of  about  the  same  length 
Acumen  of  rostrum  longer.  C.  {Cambarus)  simulans  Fax. 

b2  Terminal  teeth  of  sexual  organs  straight,  one  much  longer  than  the  other. 
Acumen  of  rostrum  shorter.        C.  (Cambarus)  gallinas  Cock,  and  Port. 
2.   Section  of  C.  gracilis  (see  p.  98). 

?!  Rostrum  suddenly  contracted  into  a  short  acumen.      Sexual  organs  with  two 
teeth  at  end  of  outer  part.      Terminal  spine  of  inner  part  straight,  longer 
than  outer  part. 
bx  Anterior  margin  of  carapace  forming  a  blunt  suborbital  angle. 

C.  (  Cambarus)  gracilis  Bund. 
b2  Anterior  margin  of  carapace  not  forming  a  suborbital  angle. 

C.  (Cambartis)  hagenianusYzx. 
i2  Rostrum  triangular,  margins  not  suddenly  contracted  to  form  an  acumen.      Sex- 
ual organs  with  only  one  compressed,  triangular  tooth  at  the  end  of  outer 
part.      Inner  part  straight,  not  longer  than  outer. 

C.  (Cambarus)  advena  (Lee). 

3.   Section  of  C.  blandingi  (see  p.  98). 
1.    Group  of  C.  spiculifer  (see  p.  100). 
(j  Areola  wide.     Chelre  rather  broad.     Two  lateral  spines  on  each  side  of  the 
carapace. 
bx  Chela;    with    large,    remote    tubercles.      Margin    of  rostrum    converging. 
Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  two  terminal  teeth. 

C.  (Cambarus)  spiculifer  (Lee). 
b2  Chel?e  with  small,   crowded  tubercles.      Margins  of  rostrum  subparallel- 
Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  three  terminal  teeth. 

C.  (Cambarus)  versutus  Hag. 
i2  Areola  wide  or  narrow.     Chelae  generally  narrower.     One  lateral  spine  on 
each  side  of  the  carapace. 
<$j  Rostrum  subplane  above,   ciliated.      Areola  wide.     Outer  part  of  sexual 
organs  with   two  terminal   teeth,  the  inner  part  with  terminal  spine  di- 
rected outward.  C.  (Cambarus)  pubescens  Fax. 


102  ORTM ANN  — AFFINITIES  OF   CAMBARUS. 


[April  13, 


b2  Rostrum  concave  above,  smooth.     Areola  narrower. 

Cj   Margins  of  rostrum  subparallel.     Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  two 
terminal  teeth,  the  inner  part  straight. 

C.  (Cambarus)  angustatus  (Lee). 
c2  Margins  of  rostrum  convergent.      Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with 
three  terminal  teeth,  the  inner  part  directed  outward. 

C.  (Cambarus)  lecontei  Hag. 

2.  Group  of  C.  blandingi  (see  p.  100). 

ax  Eyes  rudimentary.      Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  two  terminal  teeth. 

C.  (  Cambarus)  acherontis  Loennb. 
a2  Eyes  well  developed.     Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  three  terminal  teeth. 
bx  Sexual  organs  straight,  terminal  teeth  well  developed. 

cx  Sexual  organs  not  excavated  on  outer  side  near  distal  end. 

C.  (  Cambarus)  blandingi  (  Harl.  ) 
c2  Sexual  organs  excavated  on  outer  side  near  distal  end. 

C.  (Cambarus)  hayi  Fax. 
b2  Sexual  organs  curved  back  distally,  terminal  teeth  minute. 

C.  (Cambarus)  J "alia x  Hag. 

3.  Group  of  C.  clarki  (see  p.  100). 

ax  Rostrum  concave  above,  acumen  slightly  longer.  Shoulder  of  sexual  organs 
slightly  developed.  C.  (Cambarus)  clarki  Gir. 

a2  Rostrum  plane  above,  acumen  shorter.  Shoulder  of  sexual  organs  very  promi- 
nent. C.  (Cambarus)  troglodytes  (Lee). 

4.  Group  of  C.  alleni  (see  p.  100). 

«j  Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  one  or  two  terminal  teeth ;  inner  part  not 
longer  than  the  outer.      Hooks  of  fourth  pereiopods  of  male  not  bituber- 
culate. 
bx  Rostrum  concave  above.     Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  with  one  recurved 
terminal  tooth  ;   inner  part  with  the  terminal  spine  placed  obliquely. 

C.  (Cambarus)  evermanni  Fax. 
b2  Rostrum  plane  above.      Outer  part  of   sexual  organs  with  terminal  part 
plate-like,  covering  the  inner  part,  and  with  two  very  small  teeth. 
*  cx  Chelae  bearded  on  inner  margin.  C.  (Cambarus)  barbatus  Fax. 

c2  Chelae  not  bearded  on  inner  margin. 

C.  (Cambarus)  wiegmanniYx.  (?). 
a..  Outer  part  of  sexual  organs  forming  at  apex  a  broad,  flattened  plate,  whose  an- 
terior margin  is  furnished  with  hairs  and  one  strong  seta,  the  posterior 
margin  of  the  plate  produced  anteriorly  into  a  blunt  process.  Inner  part 
produced  into  an  erect  spine,  which  is  much  longer  than  the  outer  part. 
Hooks  of  fourth  pereiopods  of  male  bituberculate. 

C.  (Cambarus)  alleni  Fax. 

Note  :  The  position  of  C.  wiegtnanni  is  very  doubtful,  since  the 
male  sexual  organs  are  unknown.  It  has  been  placed  with  C.  bar- 
batus by  Hagen  and  Faxon,  but  only  the  external  resemblance  to 


i9°5-] 


ORTM ANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  103 


this  species  speaks  for  its  position  here.  The  geographical  distribu- 
tion, however,  is  entirely  opposed  to  it,  and  I  very  strongly  suspect 
that  it  belongs  somewhere  else. 

GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    SUBGENUS    CAMBARUS. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  subgenus  Cambarus  occupies  a  rather  con- 
tinuous area,  with  a  possible  interruption  in  northern  Mexico:  this 
gap,  however,  may  be  due  only  to  the  incompleteness  of  our 
knowledge.  It  covers  Mexico,  and  a  large  part  of  the  southern, 
central  and  eastern  United  States,  but  leaves  unoccupied  the 
mountainous  region  of  the  East ;  it  is  lacking  in  the  larger  part  of 
Tennessee,  in  Kentucky,  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  and  north- 
ward. The  largest  number  of  species  is  found  in  the  southeastern 
states  :  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  this  region  represents 
at  present  the  center  of  frequency  of  the  subgenus.  From  here  it 
extends,  gradually  declining,  westward  into  Texas,  northward  up 
the  Mississippi  valley,  becoming  quite  scarce  north  of  the  State  of 
Missouri  (only  two  species),  and  further  it  has  populated  the 
Atlantic  coast  plain  as  far  north  as  New  Jersey  (only  one  species 
north  of  South  Carolina). 

Regarding  the  single  sections,  the  distribution  shows  rather 
peculiar  features.  The  digueti-section  is  characterized  by  a  marked 
discontinuity  :  two  species  are  found  in  Mexico,  one  in  Cuba,  and 
two  in  New  Mexico,  Texas  and  Kansas.  Since  I  consider  this 
section  the  most  primitive  of  the  genus,  this  discontinuity  is  highly 
interesting,  and  tends  to  confirm  this  view.  And  further,  this 
peculiar  distribution  probably  indicates  the  direction  of  the  immi- 
gration into  the  United  States.  The  most  primitive  forms  {C. 
digiteti  and  mexicanus)  are  still  preserved  in  the  original  home  of 
the  genus,  in  Mexico,  while  two  other,  somewhat  more  advanced 
species  (  C.  simulans  and  gailinas)  occupy  the  higher  plains  lying 
to  the  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  southwestern  United 
States.  These  parts  are  largely  formed  by  Cretaceous  deposits, 
and  represent  the  first  land-connection  between  western  and  eastern 
North  America  after  the  Upper-Cretaceous  separation.  It  is  very 
significant,  that  just  these  parts  contain  the  most  primitive  forms 
of  the  United  States,  and  thus  the  distribution  of  the  digueti-section 
clearly  indicates  this  old  condition  prevailing  at  the  end  of  the 


104  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  .3, 

Cretaceous  and  the  beginning  of  the  Tertiary  time,  and  also  gives 
a  clue  as  to  the  direction  of  the  migration  :  it  did  not  go  over  the 
lowlands  of  Texas,  which  are  geologically  younger,  but  over  the 
higher  plains  of  the  interior.  (See  Ortmann,  1902,  pp.  282-285, 
p.   388.) 

The  gracilis-section,  which  is  a  specialized  type,  arising  from  the 
more  primitive  forms  of  the  subgenus,  forms  in  the  distribution  of 
the  species  C.  gracilis  a  direct  continuation  of  this  southwestern 
range  of  the  digueti-section  :  C.  gracilis  is  found  from  eastern  Kansas 
through  Missouri,  to  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  southern  Wisconsin.  This 
is  in  the  same  line  of  the  migration  marked  by  the  distribution  of 
the  species  of  the  digueti-section,  and  plainly  its  continuation  in  a 
northeastern  direction.  However,  the  two  other  species  of  the 
gracilis-section,  C.  hageniamts  and  advena,  are  entirely  isolated, 
being  found  only  far  in  the  east,  in  the  lowlands  of  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina.  Here  again  we  have  discontinuity,  indicating  old 
age.  I  have  no  doubt,  that  these  separated  localities  once  were 
connected,  namely  from  Kansas  and  northern  Texas  over  Arkansas 
and  across  the  Mississippi  valley  into  Mississippi,  and  the  northern, 
higher  parts  of  Alabama  and  Georgia,  including  probably  Tennessee. 

Thus  I  think  that  the  most  primitive  forms  of  Cambarus  occu- 
pied, in  the  United  States,  first  the  Cretaceous  plains  of  the  south- 
west, necessarily  reaching  in  very  early  times  the  Ozark  Mountains, 
following  the  Ozark  uplift  into  Illinois  and  beyond,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  crossing  the  present  Mississippi  valley,  and  reaching 
the  southern  end  of  the  Appalachian  system,  and  finally  the  sea 
coast  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  Representatives  of  the 
primitive  sections  of  the  subgenus  have  now  disappeared  in  the 
Appalachian  region,  and  this  is  very  likely  due  to  the  fact,  that, 
as  we  shall  see  below,  just  in  this  region  some  other  very  vigorous 
groups  developed,  which  apparently  suppressed  those  earlier  forms. 
In  the  southwestern  extremity,  where  these  new  groups  are  rather 
scarce  or  entirely  lacking,  there  was  a  chance  for  the  old  types  to 
survive,  and  this  may  account  for  the  presence  of  C.  simulans  and 
gallinas  in  this  region,  while  C.  gracilis,  which  is  found  right  in 
the  chief  domain  of  the  subgenus  Faxonius,  survived  possibly  on 
account  of  its  different  habits.  For  similar  reasons  C.  hagenianus 
and  advena  may  have  survived  at  the  extreme  eastern  seashore. 

The  third  section  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus  represents  typically 


,9o5.j  ORTM ANN— AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  105 

the  distribution  of  the  whole  subgenus,  with  the  exception  that  it 
is  not  found  in  the  extreme  west  and  in  Mexico.  (I  disregard  C. 
wiegmani,  since  I  do  not  believe  that  its  position  with  this  section 
is  correct.) 

Here  again  we  have  peculiar  facts  of  distribution.  The  more 
primitive  forms  (spiculifer-group)  are  restricted  to  the  states  Georgia, 
Alabama,  and  northwestern  Florida.  Thus  they  come  into  close 
contact  with  the  hypothetical  old  range  of  the  more  ancient  types 
of  the  subgenus  in  the  southern  Appalachians,  and  I  believe  that 
they  originated  from  an  original  stock  of  the  digueti-section,  that 
immigrated  into  the  lowlands  south  of  the  mountains,  which  became 
dry  land  by  degrees  during  Tertiary  times.  Here  in  these  low- 
lands, chiefly  in  Alabama  and  Georgia,  is  the  center  of  origin  of 
the  blandingi-section,  which  represents  a  secondary  center  for  the 
subgenus.  The  more  primitive  forms  {spiculifer-group)  still  stick 
to  this  center,  while  the  more  advanced  forms  have  spread  out  from 
here  as  follows. 

The  blandingi-group  invaded  (  C.  fallax)  northern  Florida,  and 
spread  out  northeastwardly  along  the  Atlantic  coast  plain  ( C. 
blandingi-typicus),  and  also  it  migrated  westward  aud  northward, 
up  the  Mississippi  valley  (C.  hayi  and  blandingi  acutus).  The 
clarki-group  extended  chiefly  westward  from  northern  Florida  far 
into  Texas  (C.  clarki),  and  slightly  eastward  into  South  Carolina 
(C.  troglodytes,  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia).  Finally,  the 
alleni-group  occupied  Florida  :  C.  alleni,  the  most  aberrant  form, 
goes  farthest  south  here  (Caloosahatchee  River,  Lee  Co.).  (The 
other  species,  C.  evermanni  and  barbatus,  are  known  from  scattered 
localities  in  Georgia,  western  Florida,  and  Mississippi,  and  their 
distribution  needs  further  investigation  ;  C.  wiegmanni  from  Mexico 
possibly  does  not  belong  here. ) 

Thus  the  distribution  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus  illustrates  the 
early  history  of  the  immigration  of  the  genus  into  the  United 
States,  and  it  also  illustrates  the  later  population  of  the  southern 
parts  of  the  United  States  during  Tertiary  times  by  forms  of  the 
blandingi-section.  The  latter  prevail  here,  and  hardly  ever  had 
any  competitors,  and  thus  the  southern  states  are  at  the  present 
time  the  center  of  the  frequency  of  the  whole  subgenus.  They  are, 
however,  the  center  of  origin  only  for  the  blandingi-section,  while 
the  center  of  origin  of  the  subgenus  is  to  be  sought  in  Mexico. 


106  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [APriii3, 

The  more  advanced  forms  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus  generally 
seem  to  prefer  the  ponds,  lakes,  and  sluggish  streams  of  the  lowlands. 
Subgenus:   Cambarellus  (Type:    C.  montezuma). 

This  subgenus  corresponds  to  the  fifth  group  of  Faxon. 

Faxon  compares  the  male  sexual  organs  with  those  of  his  fourth 
group  (=  Faxonius),  but  I  rather  think  that  they  are  more  closely 
allied  to  those  of  his  first  and  second  group  (=  subgenus  Cambarus^. 
This  latter  relation,  with  the  more  primitive  forms  of  the  subgenus 
Cambarus,  is  confirmed  by  other  characters  :  carapace  and  areola 
which  are  rather  primitive,  at  least  not  very  highly  advanced  ;  the 
rostrum  has  lateral  teeth,  which  show  a  tendency  to  disappear  ;  the 
chelae  are  very  simple,  more  or  less  elongated  and  subcylindrical, 
which  is  distinctly  a  primitive  feature.  The  annulus  ventralis  of 
the  female  seems  to  be  very  remarkable  in  C.  montezuma  (movable, 
fixed  only  at  the  posterior  end),  and  also  in  C.  shufeldti  (a  trans- 
verse curved  ridge,  the  hind  side  of  the  ridge  concave). 

The  three  species  of  the  subgenus  may  be  distinguished  as  follows  : 

ax  Sexual  organs  of  male  with  straight   terminal  teeth.     Carapace  with  lateral 
spines.      Rostrum  with  distinct  marginal  spines. 

C.  {Cambarellus)  shufeldti  Fax. 
a2  Sexual  organs  of  male  with  curved  terminal   teeth.      Carapace  without  lateral 
spines.      Rostrum  with  or  without  marginal  spines. 

61  Carapace   slender   and    subcylindrical.      Rostrum    longer    and    narrower, 
with  sharp  marginal  spines,  and  long,  spiniform  acumen. 

C.  {Cambarellus)  chapalanus  Fax. 
/'.,  Carapace  ovate.      Rostrum  shorter  and  wider,  with  or  without  marginal 
spines,  in  the  first  case,  the  acumen  is  much  shorter. 

C.  [Cambarellus)  montezuma  Sauss. 

C.  shufeldti  is  apparently  more  primitive  than  the  other  two 
species.  I  have  no  doubt  that  Cambarellus  took  its  origin  from  the 
most  primitive  species  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus  (digueti-group) , 
but  developed  in  a  peculiar  direction,  which  is  chiefly  characterized 
by  the  male  sexual  organs,  and  by  the  presence  of  hooks  on  the 
second  pereiopods,  a  condition  that  is  found  nowhere  else  in  the 
genus. 

The  distribution  of  this  subgenus  also  suggests  its  antiquity,  for  it 
is  characterized  by  a  strong  discontinuity,  C.  shufeldti  being  found 
in  Louisiana,  the  other  two  species  in  Mexico.  This  geographical 
discontinuity  is  accompanied  by  morphological  discontinuity,  the 
former  species  differing  very  strongly  from  the  two  latter.     While 


I905-] 


ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  107 


C.  chapalanus  and  montezumce  still  remain  in  the  original  home  of 
the  genus,  although  they  have  changed  a  good  deal,  C.  shufeldti 
seems  to  be  an  early  emigrant,  which,  however,  has  not  much 
changed.     Further  investigations  in  this  subgenus  are  much  needed. 

Subgenus:  Faxonius  (Type:    C.  limosus)} 

This  subgenus  corresponds  to  Faxon's  fourth  group,  with  the 
addition  of  C.  pellucidus.  As  regards  the  latter  species,  which 
Faxon  places  with  his  first  group,  apparently  chiefly  on  account  of 
the  presence  of  hooks  on  the  third  and  fourth  pereiopods  in  the 
male,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  sexual  organs  do  not  agree  with  the 
blandingi-type.  Faxon  himself  says  (1885,  p.  42),  that  they  are 
very  simple,  and  generally  admits  that  this  species  unites  characters 
of  different  groups.  Looking  at  the  figures  of  the  sexual  organs 
given  by  Hagen  (111.  Cat.  Mus.  Harvard,  3,  1870,  pi.  1,  f.  68-71), 
and  Hay  {P.  U.  S.  Mus.,  16,  1893,  pi.  45,  f.  11-14),  I  fail  to 
see  any  similarity  to  any  of  the  species  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus, 
but  their  shape  approaches  rather  closely  that  of  some  species  of 
Faxon's  fourth  group,  namely  :  C.  limosus,  indianansis  and  sloanei. 
Indeed,  in  C.  pellucidus  this  organ  is  different  from  any  one  of 
these,  but  it  agrees  with  them  in  the  more  or  less  straight  and 
simple  form,  with  the  outer  and  inner  parts  separated  at  the  tips 
for  a  short  distance  ;  there  is  also  no  trace  of  a  terminal  truncation. 
The  rostrum  and  the  chelae  are  rather  primitive  in  C.  pellucidus, 
while  carapace  and  areola  are  peculiar,  which  is  possibly  a  char- 
acter due  to  the  subterranean  life  (see  Faxon). 

If  we  place  C.  pellucidus  with  the  species  of  the  fourth  group 
named  above,  it  loses  its  isolated  position  also  with  reference  to 
the  geographical  distribution:  it  is  found  in  a  region  (Kentucky 
and  southern  Indiana),  where  at  least  two  of  the  above  species  are 
also  found  :    C.  indianansis  and  sloanei. 

I  think,  that  C.  pellucidus  is  a  rather  primitive  form,  connecting 
the  subgenus  Faxonius  with  the  more  primitive  forms  of  Cambarus 

1  Astacus  limosus  of  Rafinesque  has  been  considered  by  all  authors  (Girard, 
Hagen,  Faxon)  as  very  probably  identical  with  A.  ajfinis  of  Say.  Although 
Rafinesque' s  description  is  very  poor,  the  locality  given  ("  muddy  banks  of  the 
Delaware  near  Philadelphia")  renders  it  absolutely  certain  that  C.  affinis  was 
intended.  There  is  no  other  species  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware  but  this,  and  it 
is  so  abundant  there,  that  it  even  attracts  the  attention  of  the  casual  observer. 
Thus  I  do  not  see  why  the  older  name  of  Rafinesque  should  not  be  restored. 

PROC.  AMER.   PHII.OS.   SOC.   XLIV.    iSo.  H.       PRINTED  JULY  28,    I905. 


108  ORTMANN  —  AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  i3, 

(digueti-group) ,  and  that  the  development  of  an  additional  pair  of 
hooks  on  the  fourth  pereiopods  is  a  parallelism  to  the  similar  ten- 
dency in  the  more  highly  advanced  forms  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus 
{blandingi  group)  :  to  the  latter,  C.  pellucidus  has  no  direct  relation 
at  all. 

With  regard  to  all  the  rest  of  the  species  of  this  subgenus,  I 
agree  with  Faxon  in  thinking  them  to  form  a  natural,  genetically 
connected  group.  Nevertheless  there  is  much  diversity  within 
this  subgenus,  and  is  chiefly  indicated  by  the  shape  of  the  male 
sexual  organs.  Faxon  did  not  use  the  latter  in  arranging  the 
species  of  his  fourth  group,  and  thus  his  key  (1885,  p.  86)  is,  as 
he  admits  himself,  artificial  to  a  degree.  But  I  shall  show  here, 
that  according  to  the  sexual  organs  we  can  divide  the  subgenus  in 
groups,  which  seem  to  be  quite  natural. 

1 .  Section  :   C.  limosus. 

Sexual  organs  short,  rather  thick  up  to  near  the  tips,  reaching  to 
the  base  of  the  third  pair  of  pereiopods.  Tips  split  for  a  short 
distance,  each  tapering  to  a  point.  Hooks  on  third,  or  on  third  and 
fourth  pereiopods. 

This  is  the  most  primitive  section  of  the  subgenus,  and  it  is  also 
in  other  characters  quite  indifferent,  and  not  highly  specialized  ; 
and  further,  it  appears  a  little  heterogeneous.  The  rostrum  is 
quite  uniform  in  shape,  generally  with  marginal  spines  (except  in 
certain  varieties  of  C.  pellucidus) ,  with  a  rather  long  or  a  moderate 
acumen.  The  areola  is  wide  and  of  medium  length  (except  C. 
pellucidus) ;  the  chelae  are  comparatively  narrow  and  without 
remarkable  features  (except  in  C.  harrisoui). 

The  annulus  of  the  female  shows  the  tendency  to  develop  tuber- 
cles upon  its  face  ;  these  tubercles  have  a  more  or  less  central 
position  (limosus,  indianensis),  or  a  posterior  (sloanei),  or  have 
the  shape  of  a  transverse  ridge  (harrisoni),  or  form  a  "median 
keel"  (pellucidus). 

2.  Section  :   C.  propinquus. 

Sexual  organs  shorter  or  longer,  not  thick,  deeply  split  at  the  tips, 
tips  slender,  more  or  less  straight,  sometimes  the  onto-  one  slightly 
curved,  but  never  both  tips  curved  in  the  same  direction.  Always 
only  third  pereiopods  7vith  hooks  (barring freaks) . 

The  other  characters  are  very  uniform  in  this  section.  The 
rostrum  possesses  with  one  exception  ( C.  tnedius),  marginal  spines, 


1905.] 


ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  109 


and  a  rather  long  or  moderate  acumen.  The  carapace  is  of  normal 
shape,  oval  and  depressed  ;  the  areola  uniformly  rather  wide,  and 
there  is  no  tendency  to  become  narrow.  There  !are,  however, 
some  differences  in  length  :  generally,  the  areola  is  about  half  as 
long  as  the  anterior  section  of  the  carapace  (inch  rostrum);  but  in 
certain  species  (erichsoni  and  forceps)  it  is  slightly,  and  in  one 
species  (spinosus)  decidedly  shorter,  and  in  two  others  (nistieus 
and  medius)  it  is  decidedly  longer.  The  chelse  in  this  section'are 
also  rather  uniform,  but  not  very  primitive  :  they  are  more  or  less 
broad  and  ovate.  The  fingers  (in  old  males)  generally  are  gaping 
at  the  base,  and  in  contact  distally,  and  the  movable  finger  pos- 
sesses a  peculiar  S-shaped  curve.  The  immovable  finger  is  generally 
not  bearded  at  the  base  (a  slight  indication  of  a  beard  is  seen  in  : 
C.  propinquus,  obscurus,  neglectus).  In  C.  forceps,  the  fingers  are 
unusually  and  widely  gaping,  up  to  the  tips.  In  C.  medius  the  chelae 
are  unusually  broadly  ovate,  and  the  movable  finger  has  no  S-curve. 

The  annulus  of  the  female  is  flat,  with  a  median  depression  and 
raised  margins.  Very  often  the  anterior  margin  is  elevated  into 
tubercles,  and  in  C.  hylas  the  posterior  margin  is  very  prominent, 
which  is  rather  unusual  in  this  section,  and  ought  to  be  confirmed 
by  additional  investigations. 

This  section  contains  ten  species,  which  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups. 

1.  Group:   {propinquus). 

Tips  of  sexual  organs  comparatively  short,  reachitig  only  to  the 
third  rarely  {in  erichsonianus)  to  the  second  pereiopods,  without  or 
with  {obscurus)  a  shoulder  on  the  anterior  margin.  Outer  tip  regu- 
larly tapering  from  base  to  end. 

2.  Group.-  {rusticus). 

Tips  of  sexual  organs  long,  reaching  rarely  only  to  the  second,  gen- 
erally to.  the  first  pereiopods,  mostly  with  a  shoulder  on  the  anterior 
margin.  Outer  tip  not  regularly  tapering,  but  thin  {setiform)  from 
base  to  end. 

C.  erichsonianus  forms  a  transition  between  the  two  groups :  the 
sexual  organs  are  rather  long,  but  they  lack  a  shoulder,  and  in  shape 
they  resemble  those  of  C.  propinquus. 

3.  Section  :   C.  virilis. 

Sexual  organs  generally  quite  long  {rarely  rather  stout),  reaching 
about  to  the  second  pereiopods,  deeply  split  at  the  tips,  tips  slender 


110  ORTMANN— AFFINITIES  OF   CAMBARUS. 


[April  i3) 


{rarely  shorter}  and  more  or  less  strongly  curved  backward,  both  in 
the  same  direction.  Always  only  the  third  pereiopods  with  hooks 
{barring  freaks'). 

The  shape  of  the  sexual  organs  is  quite  uniform  in  this  section, 
and  they  do  not  vary  much  in  the  different  species,  with  one  excep- 
tion :  C.  difficilis.  Here  they  are  remarkably  short  and  stout, 
reaching  only  to  the  third  pereiopods.  But  we  cannot  separate 
this  species  on  this  account  from  the  section,  since  in  other  charac- 
ters it  is  closely  allied  to  C.  palmeri. 

This  section  closely  approaches  the  propinquus  type,  especially 
that  represented  by  C.  rusticus,  in  fact,  the  curvature  of  the  tips  of 
the  sexual  organs  is  the  only  important  differential  character.  Be- 
sides, however,  there  is  in  no  case  a  shoulder  developed  here, 
which  is  so  frequently  seen  in  the  propinquus-section. 

In  other  characters  this  section  is  more  variable  than  the  propin- 
quus-section, and  this  is  most  evident  in  the  width  and  length  of 
the  areola.  The  chelae  are  built  according  to  the  type  of  the 
propinquus-section,  but  a  remarkable  character  is  the  presence  of  a 
dense  tuft  of  hairs  {beard)  at  the  base  of  the  immovable  finger. 
This  beard  is  absent  in  C.  compressus  only.  In  two  species,  C. 
alabamensis  and  compressus,  the  chelae  are  very  broad,  and  excep- 
tionally smooth. 

The  annulus  of  the  female  is  depressed  in  the  middle,  with 
raised  margins,  similar  to  that  of  some  species  of  the  propinquus- 
section  (virilis,  longidigitus) .  In  other  cases  it  is  elevated  posteri- 
orly, and  the  anterior  part  is  depressed  ;  it  is  never  elevated  ante- 
riorly, as  is  generally  the  case  in  the  propinquus-section.  (In  some 
species,  alabamensis  and  mississippiensis,  the  description  of  the 
annulus  is  inadequate). 

The  eleven  species  of  this  section  are  easily  arranged  into  three 
groups  according  to  the  areola. 
i.    Group:  {alabamensis). 

Areola  wide  a  fid  short. 

2.  Group :  (virilis'). 

Areola  narrow,  of  medium  length. 

3.  Group.-   {palmeri). 

Areola  obliterated  in  the  middle,  of  medium  length. 

4.  Section  :    C.  lancifer. 

Sexual  organs  very  peculiar ;  short,  and  with  slightly  curved  tips, 
the  outer  tip  remarkably  compressed. 


>9°5-l 


ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  Ill 


This  section  is  formed  to  receive  an  isolated  species,  the  position 
of  which  seems  quite  uncertain.  There  is  a  remote  resemblance  of 
the  sexual  organs  to  those  of  C.  difficilis  of  the  third  section  of  this 
subgenus,  and  in  other  characters  there  are  resemblances  to  C.  mis- 
sissippiensis,  namely  in  the  lack  of  marginal  spines  of  the  rostrum, 
and  in  the  obliteration  of  the  areola.  The  annulus  of  the  female 
agrees  with  C.  palmeri  in  being  depressed  in  front,  and  prominent 
and  tuberculated  behind  :  but  a  similar  shape  is  found  in  the  sub- 
genus Bartonius.  On  the  other  hand,  also  the  male  sexual  organs 
can  be  compared  with  Bartonius,  although  they  are  by  no  means 
identical  with  the  very  uniform  type  seen  in  the  latter  subgenus. 
The  chelae,  according  to  the  description,  are  very  peculiar,  namely 
long  and  subcylindrical,  the  palm  with  subparallel  margins  :  this  is 
entirely  unlike  anything  that  is  seen  in  the  virilis-section  of  the 
present  subgenus,  and  rather  stamps  this  species  a  primitive  one. 
Then,  again,  this  species  presents  in  the  elongate  rostrum  and 
antennal  scale  very  unusual  features. 

Thus  it  is  hard  to  form  a  positive  opinion  about  its  position.  I 
should  not  hesitate  to  place  it  with  the  palmeri-group  of  the  virilis- 
section,  if  it  was  not  for  the  primitive  character  of  the  chelae.  Ac- 
cording to  the  latter,  and  possibly  also  according  to  the  sexual 
organs,  we  might  place  it  at  the  beginning  of  the  subgenus,  as  a 
peculiarly  developed  primitive  form,  but  It  also  may  be  the  most 
highly  specialized  form  of  the  subgenus.  The  distribution  (Mis- 
sissippi and  northeastern  Arkansas)  would  fit  either  assumption. 

KEY    TO   THE   SPECIES    OF   THE   SUBGENUS    FAXONIUS. 

i.   Section  of  C.  limosus  (see  p.  108). 

«j  Generally  third  and  fourth  pereiopods  with  hooks  in  the  male.     Carapace  sub- 
cylindrical.     Areola    wide    and  long.     Chela;  subcylindrical.     Eyes  rudi- 
mentary. C.  (Faxonhts)  pellucidvs  (Tellk. ). 
rtj  Only  third  pereiopods  with  hooks  in  the  male.     Carapace  ovate,  depressed. 
Areola  rather  wide,  of  medium  length  (about  half  as  long  as  anterior 
section  of  carapace).      Chelae  not  subcylindrical,  compressed,  and  more 
or  less  ovate.     Eyes  well  developed. 
bx  Sexual  organs  thick,  swollen  in  the  middle,  tips  short  and  stout,  both 
slightly  curved  in  the  same  direction.         C.  (Faxonius)  harrisoni  Fax. 
b2  Sexual  organs  short,  thick,  but  not  swollen,  straight.     Tips  divergent. 
i\  Sides  of  carapace  with  one  spine  behind  the  cervical  groove. 

dx  Sexual  organs  with  tips  not  crossed,  the  outer  directed  outward, 
the  inner  inward.  C.  (Faxonzus)  sloanei  Bund. 


112  ORTMANN  —  AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  13, 

d2  Sexual  organs  with  tips  crossed,  the  outer  directed  inward,  the 
inner  outward.  C.  (Faxonius)  indianensis  Hay. 

c2  Sides  of  carapace  spinose,  several  spines  behind  cervical  groove,  and 
spines  on  the  hepatical  region.     Tips  of  sexual  organs  crossed. 

C.  (Faxonius)  limoszts  (Raf. ). 

2.  Section  of  C.  propinquus  (see  p.  108). 

1.  Group  of  C.  propinquus  (see  p.  109). 

<?j  Sexual  organs  reaching  to  the  third  pereiopods,  with  or  without  shoulder. 

bx  Rostrum  with  or  without   median  keel.      Sexual  organs  without  shoulder 

on  anterior  margin.  C.  {Faxonius)  propinquus  Gir. 

b2  Rostrum  without  median  keel.     Sexual    organs  with  shoulder  on  anterior 

margin.  C.  (Faxonius)  obscurus  Hag. 

a2  Sexual  organs  reaching  to  the  second  pereiopods,  without  shoulder. 

C.  (Faxonius)  erichsonianus  Fax. 

2.  Group  of  C.  rusticus  (see  p.  109). 

ax  Rostrum  with  marginal  spines.      Carapace  with  a  lateral  spine. 

bx  Margins  of  rostrum  concave.     Sexual  organs  reaching  to  the  second  perei- 
opods 
cx  Tip  and  marginal  spines  of  rostrum  bent  upward.      Fingers  of  chela 
gaping  only  at  base.  C.  (Faxonius)  rusticus  Gir. 

c2  Tip   and   marginal  spines  of  rostrum  not  bent  upward.      Fingers   of 
chela  gaping  to  the  tips.  C.  (Faxonius)  forceps  Fax. 

b2  Margins  of  rostrum  straight,  generally  subparallel.      Sexual  organs  reach- 
ing to  the  first  pereiopods. 
cx  Rostrum  with  distinct  median  keel.     Sexual  organs  without  shoulder. 

C.  (  Faxonius)  neglectus  Fax. 
c2  Rostrum  without  median  keel.     Sexual  organs  with  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct shoulder. 
d1  Areola  shorter  than  half  of  the  anterior  section  of  carapace. 

'  C.  (Faxonius)  spinosus  Bund. 
d2  Areola  half  as  long  as  the  anterior  section  of  carapace. 
<?j  Margins  of  rostrum  almost  parallel, 

C.  (Faxonius)  putnami  Fax. 
e2  Margins  of  rostrum  distinctly  convergent. 

C.  (Faxonius)  /ty /as  Fax. 
a2  Rostrum  without  marginal  spines.      Carapace  without  lateral  spines. 

C.  (Faxonius)  medius  Fax. 

3.  Section  of  C.  virilis  (see  p.  109). 

1.  Group  of  C.  alabanicnsis  (seep.  no). 
ax  Areola  very  short.     Carapace  not  compressed. 

C.  (Faxonius)  alabamensis  Fax. 
a2  Areola  a  little  longer.     Carapace  compressed. 

C.  (Faxonius)  compressus  Fax. 

2.  Group  of  C.  virilis  (see  p.  no). 

tfj  Margins  of  rostrum  concave,  acumen  moderately  long,  together  with  marginal 
spines  bent  upward.  G.  (Faxonius)  meeki  Fax. 


igo3]  ORTM ANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  113 

a2  Margins  of  rostrum  straight,    parallel   or   convergent.      Marginal    spines   and 
acumen  not  bent  upward. 
bx  Acumen  of  rostrum  long,  marginal  spines  sharp,  margins  parallel.     Fingers 
of  chela  long.  C.  (Faxonius)  longi  digitus  Fax. 

b„  Acumen  of  rostrum  short,  marginal  spines  small  or  absent,  margins  more 
.  or  less  convergent, 
fj  Acumen  of  rostrum  not  considerably  shorter  than  width  of  rostrum  at 
base  ;    marginal   spines  small,   but  present ;    margins  slightly 
convergent ;  upper  surface  slightly  concave.      lingers  of  chelre 
not  remarkably  long  and  not  emarginate  at  base. 
dx  Sexual  organs  longer,  slightly  curved. 

C.  (Faxonius)  virilis  Hag. 
d2  Sexual  organs  shorter,  more  strongly  curved. 

e1  Immovable  finger  bearded  at  base,  chela  for  the  rest  with- 
out hairs.  C.  [Faxonius)  uais  Fax. 
e2  Immovable  finger  bearded  at  base,  chela  pilose. 

C.  (Faxonius)  pilosus  Hay. 

if2  Acumen  of  rostrum  considerably  shorter  than  width  of  rostrum  at  base  ; 

marginal  spines  generally  wanting  (rarely  present  and  small ) ;   upper 

surface  deeply  concave  ;    margins  strongly    convergent.      Movable 

finger  of  chela  with  a  deep  emargination  at  base  of  inner  margin. 

C.  (Faxoniits)  immunis  Hag. 

3.    Group  of  C.  palmeri  (see  p.  no). 
«j  Rostrum  with  marginal  spines. 

bx  Sexual  organs  long.  C.  (Faxonius)  palmeri  Fax. 

b2  Sexual  organs  remarkably  short.  C.  (Faxouius)  dijjicilis  Fax. 

a2  Rostrum  without  marginal  spines.  C.  (Faxonius)  mississippiensis  Fax. 

4.   Section  of  C.  lane  if er  (see  p.   no). 

Rostrum  very  long,  without  marginal  spines.     Antennal  scale  very  long.      Areola 
obliterated  in  the  middle.      Chelae  long,  subcylindrical. 

C.  (Faxonius)  lancifer  Hag. 

GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    SUBGENUS   FAXONIUS. 

The  area  occupied  by  this  subgenus  is  almost  entirely  continuous  ; 
it  extends  over  all  of  the  central  parts  of  the  United  States,  from 
northern  Texas  to  Lake  Winnipeg  in  Canada,  and  from  Kansas  to 
the  Appalachian  Mountains.  To  the  south,  it  hardly  encroaches 
upon  the  domain  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus,  being  found  only  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Alabama  and  Georgia.  To  the  North,  it 
reaches  the  Great  Lakes,  and  follows  down  the  St.  Lawrence  valley. 
Eastward,  the  Allegheny  Mountains  apparently  form  a  boundary, 
but  at  two  places  it  has  crossed  these  mountains,  namely  in  the 
north,   where   C.   limosus  is  found  in  the  lowlands  and   rivers  of 


114  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  i3j 

Virginia,  Maryland,  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey ;  and  in  the 
south,  where  C.  spinosus  and  erichsonianus  cross  over  from  the 
Tennessee  River  drainage  into  that  of  the  gulf  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  in  Alabama,  Georgia,  South  and  North  Carolina.  These 
latter  cases  are  continuous,  the  same  species  being  found  in  both 
drainages,  while  in  the  former  case  discontinuity  is  implied,  C. 
limosus  being  cut  off  and  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  range  of  the 
subgenus. 

Generally  speaking,  this  subgenus  seems  to  belong  to  the 
great  rivers  of  the  interior  basin,  its  center  lying  about  in  the 
region  where  the  rivers  Missouri,  Mississippi,  and  Ohio  come 
together,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  states  of  Mississippi,  Kentucky, 
southern  Illinois,  and  southern  Indiana.  From  this  center  it 
spreads  out  in  the  directions  of  these  rivers  and  tributaries,  chiefly 
toward  the  North  and  Northeast.  However,  the  area  remained  not 
restricted  to  the  Mississippi  drainage,  but  crossed  the  divides  into 
other  systems  in  the  following  cases  :  From  the  Tennessee  River 
two  species  {spinosus,  erichsonianus}  have  crossed  over  into  the 
Gulf  and  Atlantic  drainages,  and  from  the  upper  Ohio  drainage 
another  species  (limosus)  has  crossed  over  into  the  Chesapeake  and 
Delaware  Bay  drainage.  Another  species  (mississippiensis)  is  found 
in  the  Gulf  drainage  (outside  of  that  of  the  Mississippi  River)  in 
the  state  of  Mississippi.  In  the  North  the  area  largely  extends 
into  the  drainages  of  the  great  lakes,  and  even  into  that  of  Hudson 
Bay  (through  the  Red  River  of  the  North  and  Winnipeg  Lake). 

Studying  the  distribution  of  the  single  sections,  the  following  is 
to  be  remarked.  The  most  primitive  section  (that  of  C.  /imosus) 
is  marked  by  discontinuity  :  C.  limosus  being  found  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  plain,  C.  pellucidus,  indianensis,  sloanei  in  Kentucky  and 
southern  Indiana,  C.  harrisoni  in  Missouri.  This  discontinuity, 
chiefly  the  isolation  of  C.  limosus,  is  accompanied  by  morpholog- 
ical isolation,  the  latter  species  possessing  in  its  spinosity  a  charac- 
ter, that  only  recurs  in  the  allied,  but  otherwise  peculiar  species, 
C.  pellucidus.  This  latter  species,  as  well  as  C.  sloanei,  indi- 
anensis and  harrisoni,  undoubtedly  are  the  last  remnants  of 
the  primitive  stock  of  the  subgenus  in  its  original  home,  i.  c, 
in  the  central  basin  formed  by  the  three  great  rivers.  Thus  the 
geographical  distribution  of  the  limosus-section  confirms  the  char- 
acter of  antiquity  :    most  of  the  species  remain   in   the  original 


I9oS.]  ORTMANN  —  AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  115 

home,  while  C.  tiniosus  apparently  is  an  early  emigrant  that  has 
crossed  over  into  the  Atlantic  drainage,  and  has  been  entirely 
cut  off  from  the  connection  with  the  original  stock.  At  present, 
I  am  not  prepared  to  say  which  was  the  way  by  which  C.  limosus 
reached  its  present  habitat. 

The  section  of  C.  propinquus  contains  quite  a  number  of  species  : 
studying  their  distribution,  we  see  that  the  distributional  areas  of 
the  two  groups  into  which  this  section  is  divided  correspond  to  the 
main  ranges  of  two  species,  while  the  other  species  seem  to  be 
rather  local  forms  of  these.  The  typical  form  of  the  propinquus- 
group,  C.  propinquus,  occupies  a  continuous  range  that  belongs  in 
part  to  the  Mississippi  drainage  (Iowa,  Illinois,  Minnesota),  in  an- 
other part  to  the  Ohio  drainage  (in  Indiana),  and  for  the  rest  to 
the  Lakes  and  St.  Lawrence  drainage  (in  Michigan,  Ohio,  Penn- 
sylvania, New  York  and  Canada).  Compared  with  C.  rusticus, 
this  range  is  more  northern  and  northeastern,  and  it  is  remarkable, 
that  there  is  hardly  a  locality  known  for  the  typical  C.  propinquus, 
that  lies  south  of  the  Terminal  Moraine  of  the  Wisconsin  ice 
sheet.  C.  obscurus  is  found  at  the  eastern  edge  of  the  range  of  C. 
propinquus,  namely  in  the  upper  Ohio  drainage  in  western  Pennsyl- 
vania and  western  New  York  (See  Ortmann,  Ann.  Carnegie  A/us., 
v.  3,  1905,  p.  387-406),  and  seems  to  be  the  representative  form 
of  C.  propinquus,  in  this  region. 

C.  rusticus,  the  typical  species  of  the  other  group  of  this  section, 
has  a  wide  range  over  the  central  basin,  from  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Kentucky  to  Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Tennessee.  With  reference  to 
C.  propinquus  it  is  more  southern  and  western,  although  it  extends, 
in  Ohio,  far  northward,  and  is  found  in  the  lake  drainage  in  Michi- 
gan and  Wisconsin.  (The  investigation  of  the  distribution  01 
these  two  species,  rusticus  and  propinquus,  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illi- 
nois, Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  will  certainly  be  very  interesting.) 
Associated  with  C.  rusticus  in  the  same  group  are  six  other  species  : 
all  of  these  are  rather  local,  and  all  are  found  at  or  near  the  edge 
of  the  range  of  C.  rusticus.  C.  forceps,  spinosus,  and  putnami  are 
found  at  the  southeastern  edge,  namely  in  the  Cumberland  and 
Tennessee  river  drainages  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  northern 
Alabama.  One  of  these  species  (spinosus)  has  crossed  over  into 
the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  drainages  in  northern  Georgia,  South  and 
North  Carolina.      (This  is  an  additional  case  throwing  light  upon 


116  QRTMANN  —  AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  i3, 

the  changes  of  the  drainage  systems  in  the  southern  Appalachians, 
see:  Simpson,  Science,  12,  1890,  p.  133,  and  chiefly  Adams, 
Americ.  Natural.,  35,  1901,  p.  844  ff. ;  where  on  p.  849  three 
species  of  Cambarus  are  mentioned  (C.  spinosus,  extraneus,  and 
erichsonianus)  that  belong  into  this  category).  The  species  C. 
neglectus,  hylas,  and  medius  belong  to  the  southwestern  and  western 
edge  of  the  range  of  rusticus,  and  are  found  in  Missouri,  Arkansas, 
Texas,  Kansas,  and  Iowa.  Thus  it  is  evident,  that  the  six  species 
morphologically  allied  with  C.  rusticus  in  the  same  group,  express 
this  relation  also  in  their  distribution,  being  apparently  locally 
modified  forms  of  the  rusticus-type,  and  being  naturally  found 
just  where  we  ought  to  expect  them,  namely  at  the  edge  of  the 
range  of  this  rusticus-type. 

C.  erichsonianus  seems  to  be  abnormal  :  morphologically  we  have 
placed  it  with  C.  propinquus,  but  its  range  is  far  remote  from  it  in 
eastern  Tennessee  and  central  Alabama  (in  both  the  Tennessee 
and  Alabama  river  drainages).  But,  as  we  have  seen  above,  its 
position  is  a  little  uncertain,  it  resembling  C.  rusticus  and  its  allies 
to  a  degree,  and  the  distribution  suggests  the  same  :  it  clearly 
agrees  better  in  this  respect  with  C.  forceps  and  spinosus,  and  it 
would  thus  become  another  local  form  of  the  rusticus-type.  Fur- 
ther investigations  on  this  question  should  be  made. 

The  third  section,  that  of  C.  virilis,  has  been  divided  into  three 
groups.  The  virilis-group  agrees  somewhat  with  the  rusticus-group 
in  its  range,  belonging  to  the  central  basin,  only  being  a  little 
more  western,  and  considerably  more  northern  :  it  is  hardly  found 
in  the  drainage  of  the  Ohio,  but  it  is  very  abundant  in  that  of  the 
Mississippi  and  Missouri,  and  crosses  over  not  only  into  the  lake 
drainage,  but  also  into  that  of  Hudson  Bay  (Winnipeg  Lake). 
The  typical  species  of  the  group  {virilis)  occupies  almost  all  of 
this  range,  while  four  other  species  associated  with  it  (nieeki,  longi- 
digitus,  nais,  f>ilosus)  apparently  are  local  forms  of  it,  being  found 
at  or  near  the  southwestern  extremity  of  the  range  of  C.  virilis 
in  Arkansas  and  Kansas.  C.  i/nmunis  is  a  peculiar  type  of  the 
virilis-group,  and  its  range  coincides  with  the  southern  part  of  the 
range  of  C.  virilis  (Kansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Ohio)  :  this  is  interesting  in  so  far  as  this  occupation  of  the  same 
territory  by  two  closely  allied  species  is  rendered  possible  as  it 
seems  in  this  case,  by  the  different  habits  :   as  far  as  we  know,  C. 


i9o5j  ORTMANN— AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  117 

immunis  inhabits  the  (often  temporary)  shallow,  stagnant  ponds 
and  roadside  ditches  of  the  western  prairies,  and  is  a  burrower, 
while  C.  virilis  prefers  rocky  places  in  running  streams.  (See 
Harris,  Americ.  Natural.,  35,  1901,  f.  187  ff.,  and  Kansas  Univ. 
Quart.,  9,  1900,  pp.  268  and  270). 

Of  the  other  two  groups  of  the  third  section,  that  of  C.  alaba- 
mensis  contains  only  two  species,  which  are  very  local,  being  found 
only  in  northern  Alabama.  Both  are  rather  primitive,  and  appar- 
ently are  the  last  remnants  in  the  Tennessee  drainage  of  a  once 
more  widely  distributed  stock.  The  difficilis -group  seems  to  rep- 
resent a  southern  extension  of  the  subgenus  Faxonius :  the  species 
are  found  in  western  Tennessee,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Indian  Ter- 
ritory, northeastern  Texas  and  Mississippi,  all  in  the  drainage  of 
the  lower  Mississippi  (below  Cairo),  only  C.  mississippiensis  be- 
longs to  the  Tombigbee  river  drainage. 

C.  lancifer  would  agree  in  its  range  (Mississippi  and  Arkansas) 
with  this  latter  group. 

The  species  of  this  subgenus,  generally,  are  river-species,  and 
prefer  the  large  rivers  of  the  great  central  basin.  Some  species 
have  become  lake-forms  (  C.  propinquus,  for  instance),  and  others 
ascend  the  rivers  into  the  smaller  streams  (chiefly  so  in  the  Tennes- 
see and  upper  Ohio  drainages),  but  they  rarely  inhabit  true  moun- 
tain streams. 

Further  investigation  of  the  distribution  of  this  subgenus  should 
pay  particular  attention  to  the  ways  by  which  several  species  have 
crossed  the  divides  of  the  Hudson  Bay,  Great  Lakes,  and  Atlantic 
coast  plain  drainage  systems.  It  is  very  likely  that  wandering  of 
the  divides  has  played  here  an  important  part. 
Subgenus:   Bartonius  (Type :    C.    bartoni). 

This  subgenus,  which  corresponds  to  the  third  group  of  Faxon, 
is  a  very  natural  one,  and,  in  my  opinion,  contains  the  most  mod- 
ern and  most  highly  specialized  forms  in  those  that  have  acquired 
burrowing  habits  (diogenes-section) .  There  are,  however,  other 
species,  which  are  rather  primitive,  as  indicated  by  certain  char- 
acters. 

The  length  of  the  areola,  in  this  subgenus,  is  rather  variable  :  in 
the  extraneus-section  it  is  shortest,  about  half  as  long  as  the  anterior 
section  of  the  carapace,  and  it  is  even  shorter  than  that  in  C.  acu- 
minatus.     In  all  other  species  it  is  considerably  longer.     The  an- 


118  ORTMANN— AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS. 


[April  13, 


nulus  of  the  female  is,  corresponding  to  the  uniformity  of  the  male 
organs,  also  very  uniform,  and  is  characterized  by  its  posterior  ele- 
vation. Aside  from  the  length  and  width  of  the  areola,  the  shape 
of  the  chelae,  the  presence  or  absence  of  marginal  spines  of  the 
rostrum,  and  the  shape  of  the  carapace  serve  to  distinguish  the  more 
primitive  forms  from  the  more  highly  developed,  and  furnish  a 
division  of  the  subgenus  into  sections  as  follows  : 

1.  Section  :   C.  hamitlatus. 

Carapace  subcylindrical.  Rostrum  with  or  without  marginal 
spines.  Chelce  long,  subcylindrical.  Areola  rather  long.  Eyes 
rudimentary. 

Only  two  species,  C.  hamulatus  and  setosus,  belong  here,  both 
blind  cave-forms.  They  do  not  seem  to  be  closely  related  to  one 
another,  since  they  differ  in  very  important  characters.  The  sub- 
cylindrical  shape  of  the  chelae,  however,  indicates,  that  both  are 
rather  primitive,  and  have  become  separated  from  the  primitive 
stock  of  this  subgenus  very  early,  and  probably  independently. 
The  shape  of  the  carapace,  the  long  areola,  and  the  rudimentary 
eyes  are  very  likely  due  to  parallel  development,  brought  about  by 
the  similar  conditions  under  which  these  species  are  found.  (See 
Faxon,  Pr.   U.  S.  Mus.,  v.   12,  1890,  p.  628). 

2.  Section  :  C.  extrancus. 

Carapace  more  or  less  ovate,  depressed,  with  lateral  spines  behind 
cervical  groove.  Chela  not  very  elongated,  depressed,  and  rather 
broad,  but  a  little  more  elongated  than  in  the  following  sections. 
Areola  more  or  less  wide,  of  medium  length,  about  half  as  long  as 
anterior  section  of  carapace,  sometimes  slightly  shorter,  rarely,  in  C. 
cornutus,  the  areola  is  rather  long.     Eyes  well  developed. 

Two  of  the  species  belonging  here  (  C.  extraneus  and  jordam) 
are  typical,  and  are  unquestionably  the  most  primitive  forms  of  the 
subgenus,  as  is  shown  by  the  shape  of  the  carapace,  the  rostrum, 
and  chelae,  at  least  as  compared  with  the  following  sections.  The 
third  species,  C.  cornutus,  stands  by  itself,  and  is  a  rather  aberrant 
form,  peculiar  on  account  of  its  antennae,  which  have  a  large,  com- 
pressed flagellum,  ciliated  on  inner  margin.  Also  the  spines  of  the 
rostrum  (upturned)  are  peculiar.  In  the  long  areola,  it  is  rather 
advanced.  It  seems  to  be  a  peculiar  local  form,  developed  out  of 
the  primitive  stock  now  represented  by  C.  extraneus  and  jordani, 
and  we  may  safely  leave  it  with  this  section,  since  the  only  alter- 
native would  be  to  create  for  it  a  separate  section. 


i9oS.]  ORTM ANN  —  AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  119 

3.  Section  :   C.  bartoni. 

Carapace  ovate,  depressed,  with  or  mostly  without  lateral  spines. 
Rostrum  without  marginal  spines.  Chela  comparatively  short  and 
broad,  depressed,  ovate.  Areola  wide  or  narrow,  generally  distinctly 
longer  than  half  of  the  anterior  section  of  the  carapace,  only  in  one 
case  (  C.  acuminatus)  slightly  shorter  than  half  of  the  anterior  section. 
Eyes  well  developed. 

The  four  species  belonging  here  are  all  closely  allied  to  one 
another.  Their  chief  differences  are  furnished  by  the  shape  of  the 
rostrum,  width  and  length  of  areola,  and  shape  of  chelae  :  but  all 
are  built  according  to  the  same  plan. 

4.  Section;   C.  diogenes. 

Carapace  ovate,  compressed,  without  lateral  spines.  Rostrum 
without  marginal  spines.  Cheloz  short  and  broad,  depressed,  ovate. 
Areola  very  narrow  or  obliterated  in  the  middle,  always  distinctly 
longer  than  half  of  the  anterior  section  of  the  carapace.  Eyes  well 
developed. 

The  five  species  belonging  into  this  section  also  form  a  very 
natural  group.  They  are  connected  with  the  bartoni-section  through 
C.  latimanus  (chiefly  its  var.  striatus  Hay).  The  peculiar,  com- 
pressed shape  of  the  carapace  (and  possibly  other  characters,  as 
shape  of  rostrum,  narrow  areola,  shape  of  chelae)  seems  to  be 
closely  connected  with  the  habits  :  all  these  species  (it  has  not 
been  reported  for  C.  uhleri  but  it  is  likely  also  the  case  with  this 
one)  are  burrowing  species  and  so-called  chimney-builders.  This 
habit  begins  to  appear  in  the  bartoni-section  :  C.  bartoni  often,  but 
not  always,  makes  burrows  and  chimneys,  apparently  forced  to  do 
so,  when  the  water  supply  of  the  small  mountain  streams,  in  which 
it  lives,  begins  to  run  short  in  dry  seasons.  With  the  species  of 
this  group,  this  habit  becomes  firmly  established,  and  they  never 
live  without  making  burrows,  having  abandoned  the  streams  and 
brooks,  and  taken  to  swampy  and  springy  places,  generally  to  the 
groundwater,  where  it  is  found  at  a  short  distance  below  the  surface. 

The  species  of  this  section  are  distinguishable  by  the  width  of 
the  areola,  shape  of  rostrum,  shape  of  the  chelae,  and  in  some  cases 
by  peculiar  colors.  I  believe  that  it  is  the  most  highly  specialized 
group  of  the  whole  genus,  as  is  indicated  partly  by  the  burrowing 
habits,  no  doubt  an  extreme  adaptation,  and,  in  one  species  (C. 
uhleri),  by  the  adaptation  to  brackish  and  salt-water,  which  is 
found  in  no  other  case  in  the  genus. 


120  ORTMANN  —  AFFINITIES  OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  13, 

KEY   TO   THE  SPECIES   OF   THE   SUBGENUS    BARTONIUS. 

i.   Section  of  C.  hamulatus  (see  p.  118). 

ax   Rostrum  with  marginal  spines.      Areola  wide. 

C.  (Bartonius)  hamulatus  (Cope  and  Pack.). 

a2  Rostrum  without  marginal  spines  (rarely  with  spines  in  the  young).     Areola 

narrow.  C.  (Bartonius)  setosus  Fax. 

2.  Section  of  C.  extraneus  (see  p.  118). 

tfj  Antennae  with  normal  flagellum. 

bx  Rostrum  concave  above.     Areola  rather  wide. 

C.  (Bartonius)  extranius  Hag. 

b2  Rostrum  flat  above.      Areola  narrower.  C.  (Bartonius')  jordani  Fax. 

a2  Antennae  with  very  long,  compressed  flagellum,  which  is  ciliated  on  the  inner 

side.  C.  (Bartonius)  cornutus  Fax. 

3.  Section  of  C.  barton i  (see  p.  119). 

flj  Rostrum  long,  tapering  from  base  to  tip.  Areola  very  wide  and  short,  a  little 
shorter  than  half  of  the  anterior  section  of  carapace.  Carapace  with  lateral 
spines.  C.  (Bartonius)  acuminatus  Fax. 

a2  Rostrum  shorter,  suddenly  contracted  to  a  short  acumen.  Areola  moderately 
wide  or  narrow,  distinctly  longer  than  half  of  the  anterior  section  of  cara- 
pace.     Carapace  with  or  without  lateral  spines. 

bx  Areola  rather  wide.     Chelae  smooth,  punctate,  inner  margin  of  palm  with 
one  or  two  rows  of  tubercles. 
cx  Fingers  of  chelae  broad,  slightly  gaping  at  base,  not  bearded. 

C.  (Bartonius)  bartoni  (¥.). 
c2  Fingers  of  chelae  subcylindrical,  widely  gaping  at  base,  the  outer  one 
bearded  at  base.  C.  {Bartonius)  longulus  Gir. 

b2  Areola  narrower.     Chelae  rough  or  tuberculated. 

C.  (Bartonius)  latimanus  (Lee). 

4.  Section  of  C.  diogenes  (see  p.  119). 

«!  Areola  very  narrow,  but  not  obliterated.     Color  very  striking. 
bl  Rostrum  broad.     Outer  margin  of  hand  serrate.     Color  red. 

C.  (Bartonius)  carolinus  Er. 
b7  Rostrum  narrower.     Outer  margin  of  hand  not  serrate.     Color  blue. 

C.  (Bartonius)  monongalensis  Ortm. 
a2  Areola  obliterated  in  the  middle.     Color  dull,  greenish  or  brownish. 
bx  Rostrum  concave  above. 

cx  Fingers  of  chelae  not  remarkably  flattened,  the  inner  one  without  dis- 
tinct excision  at  base,  the  outer  one  not  bearded, 

C.  (Bartonius)  diogenes  Gir. 

cs  Fingers  of  chelae  flattened,  the  inner  one  with  distinct  excision  at 

base,  the  outer  one  bearded.  C.  (Bartonius)  argillicola  Fax. 

/>.,  Rostrum  flat  above.  C.  (Bartonius)  uhleri  Fax. 


i9o5.j  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  121 

GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    SUBGENUS    BARTONIUS. 

This  subgenus  is  characteristic  for  the  mountainous  regions  of 
the  east  of  the  United  States,  that  is  to  say,  for  the  Appalachian 
mountains,  but  the  more  highly  developed,  burrowing  species  have 
in  part  descended  from  the  mountains,  and  spread  largely  over  the 
central  portions  of  this  country.  The  greatest  number  of  species 
is  found  in  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Appalachian  system,  and 
there  is  no  question  that  we  have  to  regard  this  as  the  center  of 
origin  of  the  subgenus. 

The  two  cave  forms  of  the  first  section  are  widely  separated  from 
each  other.  This  indicates,  on  the  one  hand,  that  they  are  not 
very  closely  allied,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  discontinuity  thus 
displayed  again  indicates  antiquity.  The  one,  C.  hamulatus,  is 
found  in  a  cave  in  eastern  Tennessee,  that  is  to  say,  right  in  the 
center  of  origin  of  the  subgenus,  while  the  other  one,  C.  setosus, 
comes  from  a  cave  in  Jasper  Co.,  Missouri  (in  the  Ozark  region). 
This  is  very  remarkable,  and  very  likely  indicates,  that  the  center 
of  origin  of  the  subgenus  possibly  includes  the  Ozark  Mountains, 
west  of  the  Mississippi :  this  is  further  suggested  by  the  reported 
presence  of  C.  carolinus  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Indian  Terri- 
tory, not  far  from  the  locality  of  C.  setosus  (see  below).  Conse- 
quently, we  are  to  regard  C.  setosus  as  the  last  remnant  of  the 
primitive  forms  of  the  subgenus  surviving  in  the  western  extremity 
of  the  original  home. 

We  have  regarded,  morphologically,  the  second  section  of  the 
subgenus  as  the  most  primitive  group  of  it :  this  view  is  supported 
by  the  geographical  distribution.  C.  extraneus  is  known  from 
northern  Alabama,  northern  Georgia,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky 
(see  below,  p.  134)  ;  C.  jordani  is  found  in  northern  Georgia; 
and  C.  cornutus  in  Kentucky  (locally,  only  in  Edmonson  Co.). 
Thus  all  the  localities  are  in  or  near  the  old  center  of  origin  of  the 
subgenus.  The  presence  of  C.  extraneus  in  the  Cumberland  and 
Tennessee  river  drainages,  as  well  as  in  the  Alabama  river  drain- 
age indicates  an  old  drainage  feature,  namely  the  Appalachian 
river  (see  above,  p.   116). 

The  third  section  presents  very  interesting  conditions,  such  as  we 
have  noticed  in  several  groups  of  the  subgenus  Faxonius.  Here 
we  have  apparently  one  widely  distributed,  typical  form,  C.  bartoni  : 
this  is  found  all  along  the  Appalachian  mountains  and  extends  very 


122  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES  OF   CAMBARUS. 


[April  13, 


far  to  the  northeast.  This  species  has  followed,  in  its  dispersal, 
chiefly  the  direction  of  the  strike  of  this  mountain  chain,  and 
reaches  now  from  Tennessee  to  Maine  and  New  Brunswick.  East- 
ward, it  hardly  decends  to  the  Atlantic  plain,  at  any  rate  it  does 
not  spread  over  it,  and  westward  it  goes  as  far  as  Indiana,  always 
preferring  smaller  streams  in  mountainous  or  hilly  regions. 

C.  bartoni  possesses  several  marked  varieties,  chiefly  at  the  south- 
ern and  southwestern  extremity  of  its  range,  in  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee and  northern  Georgia ;  one  variety  (robustus)  seems  to 
follow  the  northwestern  edge  of  the  range  of  the  main  species, 
from  Ohio  through  northwestern  Pennsylvania  to  western  New 
York  (and  in  Canada).  This  variety  has  also  been  reported  from 
Maryland  and  Virginia,  but  I  doubt  that  this  is  actually  the  same 
thing  (see  below,  p.  135). 

Besides,  there  are  three  other  species  in  this  section,  which  are 
closely  allied  to  C.  bartoni.  One  of  them,  C.  acuniinatus,  is  found 
in  North  and  South  Carolina,  at  the  southeastern  edge  of  the  range 
of  C.  bartoni ;  the  second,  C.  latimanus,  fringes  the  southern  and 
southwestern  extremity  of  the  area  of  C.  bartoni  in  South  Carolina, 
northern  Georgia,  northern  Alabama,  and  central  Tennessee  ;  and 
the  third,  C.  longulus,  is  apparently  a  form  belonging  to  the  high 
mountains,  being  found  in  the  middle  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
main  range  of  C.  bartoni  along  the  highest  mountain  chains  of 
North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia.  Thus  it 
is  beyond  question,  that  we  can  regard  these  three  species  as  local 
forms  of  C.  bartoni,  the  one  belonging  to  the  high  mountains, 
another  being  its  southeastern,  the  third  its  southern  and  south- 
western representative. 

While  the  first  and  second  sections  characterize  the  earlier  stage 
of  the  distribution  of  the  subgenus,  the  third  section  expresses  its 
advance  and  dispersal  over  the  eastern  mountain  system  of  the 
United  States. 

Finally,  the  fourth  section  (of  C.  diogenes)  offers  remarkable 
conditions.  Two  of  the  species,  belonging  here  (  C.  carolinus  and 
monongalensis')  are  evidently  a  little  more  primitive  than  the  rest. 
C.  carolinus  seems  to  possess  a  wide  range  within  the  Appalachian 
system.  It  is  a  true  mountain  form,  and  is  found  from  northern 
South  Carolina  to  southern  Pennsylvania,  thus  representing  the 
same  direction  of  migration  as  C.  bartoni.  from  southwest  to  north- 


iyoS.]  ORTM ANN  — AFFINITIES   <  >F   CAMBARUS.  123 

east,  parallel  to  the  strike  of  the  mountains.  This  species,  how- 
ever, has  also  been  reported  from  Indian  Territory  (Ozark  region). 
This  locality  is  very  strange,  and  at  present  is  not  connected  with 
the  main  range,  no  localities  being  known  in  Missouri,  Arkansas 
or  the  larger  part  of  Tennessee  (except  the  eastern  extremity). 
But  it  is  possible  that  a  connection  exists  here,  and  if  this  should 
be  so,  this  would  indicate,  as  has  been  said  above  (p.  121)  that  the 
Ozark  region  is  to  be  included  in  the  original  home  of  the  sub- 
genus. C.  monongalensis  apparently  is  a  representative  form  of  C. 
caro Units  in  southwestern  Pennsylvania. 

The  most  puzzling  distribution  is  offered  by  the  remaining  three 
species,  of  which  C.  diogenes  is  the  most  widely  distributed.  This 
species  has  an  eastern  and  a  western  range  on  both  sides  of  the 
Allegheny  Mountains.  Apparently  it  has  descended  from  the 
mountains,  that  is  to  say,  represents  a  more  highly  specialized 
branch  of  the  original  mountain-loving  chimney-builders.  It  has 
descended  into  the  Atlantic  coast  plain  on  the  one  side,  and  is 
found  from  New  Jersey  to  North  Carolina  (Cape  Fear).  On  the 
other  side,  it  has  descended  westward,  and  is  found  from  south- 
western Pennsylvania  over  all  the  states  north  of  the  Ohio  (also  in 
Kentucky)  as  far  north  as  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  westward  to 
Iowa  (also  reported  from  southwestern  Wyoming  and  Colorado), 
Kansas,  and  southward  to  Louisiana.  This  immense  distribution 
represents  possibly  the  widest  known  range  of  any  of  the  species 
of  crayfishes  of  the  United  States.  The  question  remains  open, 
whether  the  eastern  and  western  range  of  C.  diogenes  is  actually 
connected  across  the  mountains. 

Of  the  other  two  species,  C.  ulilcri  clearly  is  a  local  form  of  C. 
diogenes,  inhabiting  the  sea  coast  (brackish  and  salt  marshes)  in 
Maryland.  C.  argillicola  is  morphologically  very  closely  allied  to 
C.  diogenes,  and  might  be  regarded,  at  least  in  Ohio,  Michigan  and 
Canada,  as  a  local  form  developed  at  the  northern  edge  of  the  range 
of  C.  diogenes.  But  the  fact  that  C.  argillicola  is  also  found  in  cen- 
tral and  southern  Indiana,  in  southern  Illinois,  and  that  it  has  been 
reported  from  Mississippi  and  southern  Texas  (Victoria  and  Bra- 
zoria), does  not  render  this  assumption  probable  :  further  investi- 
gations of  the  range  of  these  two  species  {diogenes  and  argillicola) 
in  the  south  and  west  are  desirable,  before  their  mutual  geographic 
relation  can  be  ascertained. 

PROC    AMER.    PH1LOS.    SOC.    XLIV.     iSo.    I.       PRINTED  JULY    29,    I905. 


124  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  t3j 

Thus  the  burrowing  species  of  the  diogenes-section  of  the  subgenus, 
while  conforming  in  part  to  the  original  habit  of  living  in  the  moun- 
tains, have  in  another  part  abandoned  their  original  mountain  home, 
and  largely  spread  over  the  plains.  That  this  was  possible  is  no 
doubt  due  to  their  peculiar  way  of  living.  Aside  from  C.  gracilis  of 
the  subgenus  Cambarus,  which  is  also  a  burrowing  form,  and  occu- 
pies a  certain  part  of  the  western  plains,  there  are  no  other  forms 
in  the  central  basin  that  have  acquired  this  habit,  and  thus  C.  diog- 
^nes  did  not  find  any  competition,  and  was  able  to  occupy  a  large 
territory.  That  C.  diogenes  is  a  very  vigorous  and  flourishing  form 
is  also  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  it  attains,  chiefly  on  the  wes- 
tern plains,  a  considerable  size. 

GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS    AND    CONCLUSIONS. 

We  have  divided  the  genus  Cambarus  into  four  subgenera : 
Cambarus,  Cambarellus,  Faxonius,  Bartonius.  Cambarus  orig- 
inated in  Mexico,  and  immigrated,  probably  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Tertiary,  into  the  southwestern  and  southern  United  States, 
originally  occupying  only  the  southwestern  Cretaceous  plain,  the 
Ozark  Mountains,  and  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Appalachian 
System.  A  side  branch,  Cambarellus,  has  also  its  center  in  Mex- 
ico, and  spread,  possibly  along  the  sea  coast,  to  Louisiana.  In  the 
central  and  southeastern  parts  of  the  United  States  three  new  cen- 
ters developed.  The  one  is  a  secondary  center  for  the  subgenus 
Cambarus,  and  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  in  the 
lowlands  of  Alabama  and  Georgia.  Here  the  more  advanced  forms 
of  this  subgenus  took  their  origin,  and  spread  all  over  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coast  plain,  and  further  up  the  Mississippi  valley.  These 
are  species  inhabiting  chiefly  ponds,  lakes,  and  sluggish  streams  of 
the  lowlands.  Another  subgenus,  Faxonius,  developed  in  the 
central  basin  of  the  three  great  rivers,  spreading  over  almost  all  of 
the  Mississippi  drainage,  and  crossing  over  into  the  Hudson  Bay, 
Great  Lakes,  and  even  into  the  Atlantic  drainages,  probably  by  the 
aid  of  shifting  divides.  The  species  belonging  to  this  subgenus 
are  chiefly  true  river  species.  Finally,  a  fourth  subgenus,  Barton- 
ius, developed  in  the  mountainous  region  of  the  southern  Appalach- 
ians, probably  including  also  the  Ozark  region,  and  from  here  it 
spread  chiefly  over  the  Appalachian  chain  in  a  northeasterly  direc- 
tion as  far  as  New   Brunswick.       Most  of  the   species  belonging 


i9°5-] 


ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  125 


here  are  inhabitants  of  smaller  mountain  streams  and  brooks.  A 
peculiar  group  separated  from  these,  the  section  of  C.  diogenes, 
which  acquired  burrowing  habits,  and  is  originally  also  a  mountain 
loving  group,  but  began  to  descend  into  the  lowlands.  Finding  no 
competition  here,  on  account  of  its  peculiar  mode  of  life,  it  had 
a  chance  to  spread  over  a  large  area. 

The  centers  for  the  more  highly  advanced  forms  of  the  subgenus 
Cambarus,  and  for  the  subgenera  Faxonius  and  Bartonius,  appa- 
rently form  physiographically  differentiated  parts  of  one  larger  cen- 
ter, situated  in  the  southeast  of  the  United  States,  clearly  corre- 
sponding to  the  southeastern  center  of  dispersal  of  Adams  (Bio- 
logical Bulletin,  3,  1902,  p.  115  ff.  )l  Adams  discusses  this  center 
chiefly  with  reference  to  the  glacial  and  postglacial  time,  but  it  ex- 
isted, no  doubt,  also  during  the  Tertiary,  and  the  development  of 
the  different  branches  of  Cambarus  falls,  in  my  opinion,  chiefly 
into  the  preglacial  time.  As  Adams  maintains,  this  center  is  quite 
distinct  from  the  southwestern  center  on  the  arid  plateau  of  Mexico 
and  the  adjoining  parts  of  the  United  States.  This  latter  does  not 
seem  to  be  very  important  for  the  later  development  of  the  genus, 
arid  regions  being  generally  unfavorable  for  crayfishes.  In  older 
Tertiary  times,  however,  also  the  southwestern  center  played  a  part, 
in  fact  it  is  the  original  center  of  the  whole  genus  Cambarus. 

The  different  "outlets  or  highways  of  dispersal,"  as  Adams 
(/.  c,  p.  123)  has  characterized  them,  are  rather  well  represented 
in  the  distribution  of  Cambarus,  and  here  again  I  believe,  that  they 
were  efficient  in  preglacial  times  as  well  as  in  postglacial  times. 
The  Mississippi  valley  route  is  represented  in  the  dispersal  of  the 
subgenus  Faxonius,  and  also  by  that  of  the  blandingi-group  of  the 

1  Adams'  southeastern  center  does  not  include  the  central  basin,  and  he  thinks 
that  the  Mississippi  river  (although  it  undoubtedly  possessed  a  fauna  of  its  own) 
was  largely  populated  by  way  of  the  Tennessee  River,  which,  after  having  cap- 
tured the  upper  course  of  the  old  Appalachian  River,  opened  an  outlet  to  its  fauna 
toward  the  Mississippi.  This  is  no  doubt  quite  correct  with  reference  to  the 
freshwater  shells,  and,  as  has  been  pointed  out  already  by  Adams,  finds  some  sup- 
port in  the  distribution  of  certain  crayfishes  (/.  c. ,  p.  849).  But  as  we  have  seen 
in  the  above  pages,  the  center  of  Faxonius  in  the  central  Mississippi  valley  is 
very  marked,  and  apparently  distinct  from  the  other  two  centers.  It  is,  however, 
easy  to  unite  all  three  of  them,  and  regard  them  as  parts  of  one  larger  center  of 
older  (old  Tertiary?)  age,  including  parts  that  are  differentiated  physiographi- 
cally, as  indicated  above. 


126  ORTMANN  —  AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  i3j 

subgenus  Cambarus  (C  blandingi  acutus).  The  route  along  the 
coastal  plain  seems  to  be  the  least  frequented,  only  C.  blandingi 
typicus  characterizing  it.  But  then  again  the  Appalachian  plateau 
formed  a  third  outlet  to  the  north  ;  this  is  clearly  indicated  by  the 
dispersal  of  the  subgenus  Bartonius.  Adams  says  very  pertinently 
(p.  129):  "dispersal  is  both  forward  and  backward  along  these 
highways,"  and  thus  we  see  that  in  special  cases  the  direction  of 
the  migration  may  become  the  opposite.  In  one  case  (C  clarki} 
we  have  a  reversed  current  of  migration  from  the  southeastern 
United  States  toward  the  southwest,  going  in  a  direction  opposite 
to  the  general  direction  of  immigration  of  the  whole  genus.  A 
direction  downward  the  Mississippi  valley  (southward)  is  probable 
in  the  palmeri-group  of  Faxonius,  and  C.  diogenes  seems  to  repre- 
sent the  identical  reversed  direction,  descending  the  Ohio  valley 
from  the  Allegheny  Mountains.  The  same  species  shows  indica- 
tions of  a  reversed  migration  on  the  Atlantic  coast  plain,  from 
Maryland  to  Virginia. 

That  the  different  centers  of  origin  assumed  above  are  very  likely 
correct,  is  shown  by  a  two-fold  consideration.  First,  the  largest 
number  of  species  of  each  subgenus  is  generally  found  in  or  near 
these  centers  (Adams,  /.  c,  1902,  p.  128:  first  criterium),  and 
then  the  more  primitive  forms  of  each  subgenus  are  found  there 
(third  criterium  of  Adams).  For  the  subgenus  Cambarus,  this  is 
not  entirely  true,  Mexico  possessing  only  two  species,  while  Kansas 
possesses  three  of  the  more  primitive  forms,  but  this  may  be  due  to 
deficiency  of  our  knowledge,  or  else  it  is  due  to  interruption  and 
breaking  up  of  the  old  southwestern  range  of  the  genus  ;  it  is  ap- 
parently not  so  flourishing  any  more  in  these  parts  as  it  used  to  be. 
Of  the  more  highly  advanced  forms  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus 
{blandingi-section) ,  the  largest  number  of  species  is  recorded  for 
Georgia  (7),  Florida  (6),  and  Alabama  and  Mississippi  (4  each). 
The  most  primitive  forms  {spiculifer-group)  are  found  in  Georgia, 
Florida  and  Alabama. 

The  subgenus  Cambarettus  also  makes  an  exception,  two  species 
being  found  in  Mexico,  and  only  one,  but  this  a  more  primitive 
one  in  Louisiana. 

The  subgenus  Faxonius  possesses  the  largest  number  of  species 
in  Arkansas  (8),  and  in  Missouri  and  Indiana  (7  each).  Illinois 
has  only  4,  but  this  may  be  due  to  defective  knowledge.     The  more 


I9o5.]  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  12"t 

primitive  forms  of  the  limosus-section  (aside  from  C.  limosus  itself) 
are  found  in  Indiana,  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  that  is  to  say,  in  the 
same  general  region. 

The  subgenus  Bartonius  has  the  largest  number  of  species  in 
Tennessee  (6);  then  follow:  Georgia,  North  Carolina,  Virginia 
and  Pennsylvania  (with  4  each).  The  more  primitive  forms  of  the 
extraneus-section  are  found  in  Georgia,  Alabama,  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky.  In  Tennessee  is  also  found  one  of  the  blind  cave  forms 
(C.  hamulatus).  Thus  also  here  is  apparently  a  mutual  relation 
between  center  of  origin,  location  of  most  primitive  forms,  and 
center  of  frequency.  This  rule,  consequently  holds  good  in  the 
section  of  C.  blandingi  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus,  and  in  the  sub- 
genera Faxoniits  and  Bartonius,  while  it  is  not  very  evident  in  the 
more  primitive  forms  of  .the  subgenus  Cambarus,  and  in  the  sub- 
genus Cambarellus} 

A  few  peculiar  and  striking  facts  ought  to  be  mentioned  especi- 
ally. 

Discontinuity  of  distribution  proof  of  antiquity. — We  have  found 
this  rule  substantiated  in  the  following  cases:  (1)  In  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  more  primitive  forms  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus  (sec- 
tions of  C.  digueti  and  gracilis)  ;  (2)  in  the  subgenus  Cambarellus  ; 
(3)  in  the  limosus-section  of  the  subgenus  Faxonius;  (4)  in  the 
hamulatus-section  of  the  subgenus  Bartonius.  The  discontinuity 
offered  by  C.  wiegmanni  in  the  alleni-group  of  the  subgenus  Cam- 
barus needs  further  investigation,  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  estab- 
lished before  the  systematic  position  of  this  species  has  been  posi- 
tively ascertained. 

Morphologically  isolated  species  occupy  isolated  stations. — This  is 
illustrated  by  :  (1)  C.  cubensis  in  Cuba  ;  (2)  C.  shufeldti  in  Louisi- 
ana ;  (3)  C.  limosus  on  the  Atlantic  coast  plain  from  New  Jersey 
to  Virginia;  (4)  C.  harrisoni  in  Missouri;  (5)  C.  alabamensis 
and  compressus  in  northern  Alabama:  (6)  C.  setosus  in  Missouri 
(cave-form). 

Closely  allied  species  occupy  neighboring  areas.  — This  is  most  evi- 

1  Addition  to  our  knowledge  may  change  this  considerably.  I  only  call  atten- 
tion to  the  fact,  that  up  to  very  shortly  ago  only  two  species  of  Bartonius  were 
known  from  the  state  of  Pennsylvania.  Investigations  during  the  last  four  years 
have  revealed  the  presence  of  two  more  species,  thus  doubling  the  number.  This 
may  happen  in  any  other  state. 


128  ORTMAXX  —  AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS. 


[April  13. 


dent  in  the  following  cases,  where  groups  of  species  occupy  a  cer- 
tain range,  but  represent  each  other  in  the  different  parts  of  this 
range  :  ( 1 )  in  the  spicalifer-group  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus  :  spic- 
ulifer  in  northern  and  central  Georgia,  versutus  in  central  and 
southern  Alabama,  and  in  northwestern  Florida,  pubescens  in  eastern 
Georgia,  angustatus  in  southeastern  Georgia.  (2)  In  the  clarki- 
group :  clarki,  parallel  to  the  Gulf  coast  from  Texas  to  Florida, 
troglodytes  in  corresponding  localities  in  Georgia  and  South  Caro- 
lina. (3)  Limosus-section  of  Faxonias  :  indianensis  in  southwestern 
Indiana,  sloanei  in  southeastern  Indiana  and  Kentucky.  (4)  Pro- 
pinquus-group  :  propinquus  has  a  western  and  northern  distribution  ; 
it  is  represented  in  western  Pennsylvania  by  obscurus.  (Between 
both  possibly  is  C.  prppinquus  sanborni,  occupying  an  intermediate 
range.)  (5)  Rusticus-group :  spinosus  is  southern  and  eastern 
(North  and  South  Carolina,  northern  Georgia,  northern  Alabama 
and  eastern  Tennessee),  while  putnami  is  more  northern  (Ken- 
tucky). (6)  In  the  palmeri-group  the  different  species  occupy  dif- 
ferent parts  of  a  range  that  includes  Mississippi,  western  Tennessee, 
Arkansas,  Indian  Territory  and  northeastern  Texas. 

Groups  of  allied  species  are  oj ten  formed  by  a  typical  species,  which 
shows  a  wide  range,  while  the  allied  species  form  a  fringe  on  the  edge 
of  this  range  thus  representing  local  forms.  This  is  shown  beauti- 
fully in  the  following  natural  groups  :  (1)  Rusticus-group:  the  typ- 
ical form  is  rusticus,  the  local  forms  at  the  edge  of  its  range  are  : 
forceps  (southeast),  neglectus  (west  and  southwest),  spinosus  and 
putnami  (southeast),  hylas  (south),  medius  (south);  probably  also 
erichsonian us  (southeast).  (2)  Virilis-group :  the  typical  form  is 
virilis,  the  local  forms  are  :  mceki,  longidigitus,  nais,  pilosus,  all  in 
the  southwest.  (3)  Barto?ii-section:  bartoni  is  the  typical  form,  the 
local  forms  of  it  are  :  acuminatus  (southeast),  latimanus  (south  and 
southwest);  in  this  section  also  a  mountain  form  has  developed 
within  the  range  (longulus),  and  varieties  are  found  in  the  southern 
section  of  the  range,  as  well  as  at  its  northwestern  edge.  (4)  C.  mon- 
ongalensis  is  a  local  form  developed  at  the  northwestern  edge  of  the 
range  of  C.  carolinus.  (5)  In  the  diogenes-section,  at  least  one 
species,  C.  uhleri,  seems  to  be  a  local  form  of  the  widely  distributed 
C.  diogenes,  developed  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  its  range. 

More  or  less  closely  allied  species,  occupying  the  same  or  nearly  the 
same  territory,   generally  possess  different  habits.      In   most   of  the 


I9o5.]  ORTMAMN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  129 

species,  we  do  not  know  much  about  their  habits,  but  a  few  remark- 
able cases  may  be  mentioned,  (i)  C.  virilis  and  C.  immuuis, 
although  sharply  separated,  are  rather  closely  allied,  and  occupy 
large  identical  tracts  of  the  central  states.  We  know  that  C.  virilis 
prefers  running  water  with  stony  bottom,  while  C.  immunis  is  a 
pond  and  ditch  form  (see  above,  p.  117).  (2)6".  monongalensis 
inhabits,  in  western  Pennsylvania,  almost  the  same  territory  that 
is  occupied  by  C.  diogenes.  The  first,  however,  belongs  to  the 
hills,  the  second  to  the  lowlands  (see  Ortmann,  Ann.  Carnegie 
Mus.,  v.  3,  p.  400). 

The  various  drainage  systems  have  a  different  effect  upon  the 
species  of  the  different  subgenera,  which  is  apparently  due  to  funda- 
mental differences  in  their  habits.  (1)  Bartonius  is  preeminently  a 
mountain-stream  group.  It  goes  up  into  the  smallest  streams,  up 
to  their  very  sources.  In  this  region,  changes  of  drainage,  due  to 
piracy,  are  common,  and  rather  the  rule  than  the  exception,  and 
thus  the  species  quite  generally  occupy  the  headwaters  of  streams 
running  in  different  directions  from  the  divides.  This  is  exampled 
by  the  distribution  of  the  following  species  :  extraneus,  bartoni, 
longulus,  latimanus,  carolinus,  and  probably  also  by  diogenes.  (See 
Adams,  "  Migration  of  Divides,"  in  Americ.  Natural.,  35,  1901, 
p.  844).  (2)  The  blandingi-section  belongs  originally  to  the  low- 
lands of  ths  Gulf  and  Atlantic  plain.  Here  removal  of  barriers 
largely  has  taken  place,  and  thus  the  species  of  this  group  belong 
to  the  drainages  of  different  coast  rivers,  for  instance  :  lecontei 
blandingi,  clarki,  troglodytes,  alleni.  (See  Adams,  ibid.,  p.  842  : 
"In  a  country  approaching  base-level  a  wide  distribution  of  the 
fauna  will  be  facilitated.")  (3)  The  subgenus  Faxonius  belongs 
to  the  great  rivers  of  the  interior  basin,  and  does  not  ascend  far  into 
the  headwaters,  at  least  in  the  mountainous  regions,  and  also  does 
not  descend  far  toward  the  coastal  plain.  Consequently,  the  drain- 
age systems  being  more  permanent,  the  distribution  of  these  species 
is  more  closely  connected  with  the  latter.  We  may,  perhaps,  com- 
pare this  —  in  a  very  general  way  —  with  the  period  of  maximum 
roughness  of  Adams  (/.  c),  although  this  does  not  hold  good  for 
all  of  this  immense  region.  Indeed,  there  are  important  excep- 
tions, and  the  subgenus  has  crossed  over  into  the  lake-drainage 
(C  propinquus,  obscurus,  rusticus,  virilis,  immunis},  and  evert  into 
the  Hudson  Bay   drainage    (C    virilis).     This  has  been  brought 


130  ORTMANN— AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  13, 

about,  apparently,  by  extensive  shifting  of  divides,  and  we  know 
positively,  that  this  has  taken  place  in  great  style  during  and  after 
glacial  times.  The  eastern  mountains  (Appalachian  system)  have 
formed  a  sharper  barrier,  but  also  here  certain  species  have  been 
able  to  cross  :  in  ancient  times  C.  limosus,  in  more  recent  times 
C.  obscurus  (see  Ortmann,  Ann.  Cam.  Mus.,  v.  3,  p.  406).  The 
most  interesting  region  is  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Appa- 
lachian system,  as  we  shall  presently  see. 

Very  important  drainage  changes,  that  have  taken  place  in  the 
southern  Appalachian  system,  are  clearly  indicated  by  the  distribution 
of  crayfishes,  and  tend  to  confirm  the  results  obtained  by  Simpson  and 
Adams  for  the  freshwater  mollusks  (see  above  p.  116).  In  the 
region  of  the  Alabama  River  drainage  and  that  of  the  Tennessee 
River,  we  had  at  a  certain  time,  a  large  river  running  to  the  South, 
the  Appalachian  River,  the  upper  course  of  which  was  deflected 
toward  the  Northwest,  forming  the  present  Tennessee  River.  The 
former  unity  of  the  drainage  system  is  indicated  by  identical  or 
closely  allied  species  found  now  in  both  systems.  The  following 
species  illustrate  this  :  C.  erichsonianus,  exiraneus,  Jordan/',  lati- 
vianus,  and  possibly  others.  Further  investigations  of  the  condi- 
tions present  in  these  regions  are  very  desirable. 

This  is,  I  think,  a  rather  satisfactory  outline-sketch  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  genus  Cambarus  over  the  United  States.  But  it  is 
only  a  sketch,  and  more  detailed  investigations  are  much  needed. 
We  see  that  the  migrations  of  the  different  groups  are  very  com- 
plex, the  directions  of  the  migrations  crossing  at  various  angles, 
often  being  directly  opposed  to  each  other.      (See  map,  plate  III.) 

Further,  we  are  to  emphasize,  that  our  knowledge  is  by  no 
means  complete  with  regard  to  the  distributional  facts.  There  is 
hardly  a  single  case,  where  the  actual  boundaries  of  a  species  are 
known.  We  have  a  large  number  of  locality-records,  and  by  plot- 
ting them  on  a  map,  we  obtained  a  general  idea  of  the  range  of  the 
different  species,  but  rarely  we  know  the  exact  limits,  and  nobody 
has  ever  tried  to  ascertain  these,  except  the  present  writer  in  a 
very  limited  region,  in  western  Pennsylvania  (see  Ann.  Carnegie 
Mus.,  v.  3,  1905).  But  this  ought  to  be  done -by  all  means,  and 
there  is  no  doubt,  that  very  interesting  results  will  be  obtained. 

It  may  be  remarked  in  conclusion,  that  I  do  not  think  that  a 
number  of  reported  localities  for  certain  species  are   trustworthy. 


I9o5]  ORTMANN— AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  131 

It  is  astonishing  how  easy  records  and  museums  specimens  become 
mixed  up,  and  a  number  of  localities  which  are  given  bona  fide  by 
various  authors  are  very  questionable.  In  the  following,  I  put 
together  those  records,  that  appear  —  at  least  to  me  —  doubtful  or 
in  need  of  confirmation.  At  the  same  time,  a  number  of  new 
records  is  given  which  have  been  made  use  of  in  the  above  pages. 

C.  blandingi  (Harl.). 

New  Localities.  — ■  Millpond  at  Plainsboro,  Middlesex  Co.,  New 
Jersey,  coll.  by  the  writer  (Cam.  Mus. ).  — This  species  is  further 
abundant  in  the  millpond  of  Grover's  Mills,  Princeton  Junction, 
Mercer  Co.,  N.  J.  (seen  by  the  writer),  and  is  rare  in  the  Dela- 
ware-Raritan  Canal,  at  Aquaeduct  near  P/inceton,  Mercer  Co.,  N. 
J.  (seen  by  the  writer). 

C.  clarki  Gir. 

New  locality.  — Devils  River,  Val  Verde  Co.,  Texas,  coll.  by 
H.  A.  Pilsbry,  1903  (specimens  in  Philadelphia  Acad,  and  Cam. 
Mus.). 

C.  timosus  (Raf. ). 

New  localities. — Stony  Brook,  Princeton,  Mercer  Co.,  N.  J., 
coll.  by  the  writer,  May  30  and  Sept.,  1898  (Cam.  Mus.). — 
Delaware-Raritan  Canal,  at  Aquaeduct  near  Princeton,  Mercer  Co., 
N.  J.,  coll.  by  the  writer,  Jan.,  1899  (Cam.  Mus.).  —  Delaware 
River,  North  Cramer  Hill,  Camden  Co.,  N.  J.,  coll.  by  the  writer, 
Sept.  18,  1904  (Cam.  Mus.).  — Collected  by  the  writer  at  the 
following  new  places  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania  in  September,  1904  : 
Delaware  River,  Torresdale  Fish  Hatchery,  Torresdale,  Philadel- 
phia Co.;  Marcus  Hook  Creek,  Marcus  Hook,  Delaware  Co.: 
Little  Neshaminy  Creek,  Grenoble,  Bucks  Co.;  Delaware  River, 
New  Hope,  Bucks  Co.;  Schuylkill  River,  West  Manayunk, 
Montgomery  Co.  (Cam.  Mus. ). — Further:  Tributary  of  Brandy  - 
wine  Creek,  Chadds  Ford  Junction,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.  (Acad. 
Philad. ).  —  Delaware  River  at  Holmesburg,  Philadelphia  Co.,  Pa. 
(Acad.  Philad.  and  Cam.  Mus.).  — Gettysburg,  Adams,  Co.,  Pa., 
coll.  by  H.  A.  Pilsbry  (Acad.  Philad.). — Potomac  River, 
Cherry  Run,  Morgan  Co.,  W.  Va. ,  coll.  by  the  writer,  Sept.  23, 
1904  (Cam.  Mus. ). 

Doubtful  and  spurious  older  records. — Hagen  gives,  in  1870, 
Niagara  (L.  Agassiz)  ;  Lake  Erie;  New  York  (Mr.  Pike)  ;  and 
Pittsburg.      Faxon    (1885)    drops    New   York  and   Pittsburg,  but 


132  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS. 


[April  13 , 


again  gives  Niagara  (  "  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  correctness  of  the 
determination"  ),  and  Lake  Erie  (Peabody  Ac.  Sci.).  In  1890, 
Faxon  says  of  the  latter  specimens,  that  they  "are  too  small  to 
determine  with  certainty."  He  further  gives,  in  1885,  Lake  Su- 
perior (Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.).  I  do  not  entertain  the  slightest 
doubt  that  all  these  localities  are  wrong.  As  to  Niagara,  which  is 
founded  upon  the  authority  of  L.  Agassiz,  we  only  have  to  con- 
sider that  the  same  locality  upon  the  same  authority  is  given  also 
for  C.  propinquus,  and  it  is  quite  probable,  that  specimens  of  C. 
limosus  were  put  by  mistake  into  a  jar  containing  C.  propinquus. 
As  to  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Superior,  some  other  species  may  be  in- 
tended, or  a  similar  mistake  has  been  made  :  I  do  not  believe, 
most  emphatically,  that  this  species  is  found  in  the  lake-region. 
With  regard  to  the  absence  of  C.  limosus  in  the  state  of  New  York, 
we  possess  the  testimony  of  De  Kay  (Zool.  N.  Y. ,  6,  1844,  p. 
23)  :  "I  have  searched  for  it  {Astacus  affinis')  without  success  in 
the  tributaries  of  that  stream  (Delaware)  within  the  limits  of  this 
State." 

C.  propinquus  Gir. 

New  Localities.  — Lake  Erie,  Lorain  Co.,  Ohio,  Lorain  gill  nets. 
May  1,  1892,  coll.  by  H.  Warden  (Mus.  Oberlin).  These  speci- 
mens from  the  lake  are  the  true  C.  propinquus,  while  all  other 
specimens  from  the  tributaries  of  the  lake  in  Lorain  Co.,  Ohio, 
belong  to  propinquus  sanborni,  see  below.  Crooked  Lake,  Oden 
near  Petoskey,  Emmet  Co.,  Mich.,  coll.  by  E.  B.  Williamson,  Sept. 
1,  1904  (Cam.  Mus.).  This  is  the  northernmost  exact  locality 
known,  and  is  very  near  to  a  locality  recorded  by  Ward  (Bull. 
Mich.  Fish  Comm.,  6,  1896,  p.  15),  but  not  recorded  by  Faxon, 
namely:  Lake  Michigan  and  Pine  Lake  at  Charlevoix,  Charlevoix 
Co.,  Mich. 

Doubtful  Locality.  —  The  latter  localities  in  northern  Michigan 
render  it  possible  that  the  old  records  of  Lake  Superior,  given  by 
Hagen  on  the  authority  of  L.  Agassiz,  may  be  correct.  But  since 
to  L.  Agassiz  also  the  record  of  C.  rusticus  and  virilis  for  Lake 
Superior  are  attributed,  we  have  again  several  species  mixed  up, 
and  it  is  better  to  wait  for  a  confirmation. 

C.  propinquus  sanborni  Fax. 

New  Localities.  — Oberlin,  Lorain  Co.,  Ohio,  is  the  type-locality 
(Faxon)  for  this  form.      I  have  seen  it  (Mus.  Oberlin)  from  the 


igos.]  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  133 

following  localities  in  this  region  and  the  state  of  Ohio  :  Water- 
works reservoir,  Oberlin,  and  Plum  Creek,  Oberlin  ;  further :  Ver- 
million River,  Beaver  Creek,  French  Creek,  all  in  Lorain  Co. ; 
Killbuck  Creek,  Creston,  Wayne  Co.;  Tuscarawas  River,  Gnaden- 
hutten,  Tuscarawas  Co.  The  latter  two  localities  belong  to  the 
Ohio  drainage,  while  the  rest  is  lake  drainage.  This  variety  forms 
a  morphological  link  between  C.  propinquus  typicus  and  C.  obscurus, 
and  seems  to  be  intermediate  also  in  its  range. 

C.  rusticus  Gir. 

The  locality  Lake  Superior  (L.  Agassiz)  given  by  Hagen  (1870) 
needs  confirmation.  As  I  have  shown  elsewhere  (Ann.  Car.  Mus., 
v.  3,  1905,  p.  387),  the  locality  Pittsburgh  is  wrong. 

C.  neglect  us  Fax. 

New  Locality. — Rogers,  Benton  Co.,  Arkansas,  coll.  by  H.  A. 
Pilsbry,  March  25,  1903  (Acad.  Philad.  and  Cam.  Mus.). 

C.  putnami  Fax. 

New  Locality.  —  Rockcastle  River,  Livingston,  Rockcastle  Co., 
Ky.,  coll.  by  E.  B.  Williamson,  June  21,  1904  (Cam.  Mus.). 
(See  Williamson,  Ohio  Natural.,  5,  1905,  p.  311.) 

C.  virilis  Hag. 

New  Locality.  — Sandy  Lake,  Ontario,  Canada,  coll.  by  G.  H. 
Clapp  (Cam.  Mus.).  This  species  has  been  reported  by  Ward 
(Bull.  Mich.  Fish  Coram.,  6,  1896,  p.  15)  from  Lake  Michigan 
and  Pine  Lake,  Charlevoix  Co.,  Mich. 

The  locality  Lake  Superior,  given  on  the  authority  of  L.  Agassiz  by 
Hagen  (1870),  has  been  confirmed  by  Faxon  (1885)  on  the  authority 
of  C.  L.  Herrick,  and  falls  within  the  known  range  of  the  species. 

Doubtful  Records.  — Lake  George,  N.  Y.  (L.  Agassiz)  has  been 
recorded  by  Faxon  (1885)  with  a  ?  .      It  surely  is  very  doubtful. 

Faxon  also  mentions  this  species  from  Laramie  City  in  Wyoming  ; 
this  may  be  correct,  but  needs  confirmation.  He  records  it  further 
from  near  Bridgeport,  Jackson  Co.,  in  northern  Alabama,  in  the 
Tennessee  drainage  (U.  S.  Mus.);  I  seriously  doubt  the  correct 
ness  of  this  locality,  since  it  is  the  only  one  east  of  the  line  formed 
by  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  rivers,  and  is  far  remote  from  the  rest 
of  the  range. 

C.  immunis  Hag. 

New  Localties. — Lamoni,  Decatur  Co.,  Iowa,  coll.  by  J.  B. 
Hatcher  (Cam.   Mus.).     This  species  is  also  found  in  northern 


134  ORTMANN  —  AFFINITIES   <  >F   CAMBARUS.  [April  13, 

Ohio,  as  first  indicated  by  Osburn  and  Williamson  (6  Ann.  Rep. 
Ohio  Ac.  Sci.,  1898,  p.  21),  in  Sandusky,  Erie,  and  Lorain  Cos., 
and  in  Lake  Erie.  I  have  seen  specimens  (Mus.  Oberlin)  from 
Huron  River,  Huron,  Erie  Co.,  and  from  Oberlin,  Lorain  Co. 
(Waterworks  Reservoir  and  Plum  Creek), 

Doubtful  Records.  —  Hagen  (1870)  gives  Huntsville,  Madison 
Co.,  northern  Alabama.  This  is  possibly  not  this  species,  at  any  rate 
it  is  "not  normal"  (Faxon,  1885,  p.  100).  The  locality  is  too  far 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  range,  to  be  accepted  without  hesitation. 

Faxon  (1885)  gives:  New  York  (L.  A.  Lee);  Laramie,  Wyo- 
ming (U.  S.  Mus.)  ;  Orizaba,  Mexico  (U.  S.  Mus.),  and  further  in 
1898  he  adds  :  small  stream  flowing  into  Oneida  Lake,  N.  Y.  The 
locality  in  Wyoming  may  be  correct,  but  we  have  to  try  to  connect 
it  with  the  rest  of  the  range,  before  accepting  it.  Orizaba,  Mexico, 
is  no  doubt  wrong,  and  I  do  not  hesitate  for  a  moment  to  drop  it. 
Oneida  Lake  in  New  York  seems  very  strange,  since  there  are  no 
connecting  localities  with  northwestern  Ohio.  I  cannot  accept  this 
locality  unless  verified  by  unequivocal  evidence. 

C.  palmeri  longimamis  Fax. 

New  Locality. — Limestone  Gap,  Choctaw  Mt.,  Indian  Terr., 
coll.  by  H.  A.  Pilsbry  (Ac.  Philad.  and  Carn.  Mus.). 

C  extraneus  Hag. 

New  Locality.  —  Rockcastle  River,  Livingston,  Rockcastle,  Ky., 
coll.  by  E.  B.  Williamson,  June  21,  1904  (Carn.  Mus.).  This  is 
in  the  Cumberland  River  drainage  ;  previously,  this  species  was 
known  only  from  Tennessee,  Alabama  and  Georgia.  (See  William- 
son, Ohio  Natural.,  5,  1905,  p.  310.) 

C.  bartoni  (F.). 

New  Localities.  — Small  streams,  Princeton,  Mercer  Co.,  N.  J., 
coll.  by  the  writer  (Carn.  Mus.);  East  Canada  Creek,  Herkimer 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  coll.  by  R.  Ruedemann  (Carn.  Mus.);  Selbysport, 
Garret  Co.,  Md.,  coll.  by  the  writer  (Carn.  Mus.);  Cherry  Run, 
Morgan  Co.,  W.  Va.,  coll.  by  the  writer  (Carn.  Mus.);  Green- 
ville, New  Castle  Co.,  Del.  (Ac.  Philad.).  The  following  locali- 
ties in  eastern  and  central  Pennsylvania  are  represented  in  the 
Carnegie  Museum  (coll.  by  the  writer):  Driftwood  and  Sinnama- 
honing,  Cameron  Co.;  Keating  Summit,  Potter  Co.;  Wills  Creek, 
Mance,  Somerset  Co.;  Cush-Cushion  Creek,  Indiana  Co.;  Cresson, 
Cambria  Co.;   Ashville,   Cambria  Co.;   Hollidaysburg,   Blair  Co.; 


I9o5]'  URTMANN  —  AFFINITIES    OF    CAMBARUS.  135 

Wissahickon,  Philadelphia  Co.;  Shoemakersville,  Berks  Co.;  Valley 
Forge,  Chester  Co.;  Grenoble,  Bucks  Co.;  New  Hope,  Bucks  Co.; 
West  Manayunk,  Montgomery  Co.;  Wallingford,  Delaware  Co. 
Other  new  localities  in  eastern  Pennsylvania  are :  Headwaters  of 
Loyalsock  Creek  and  Ganoga  Lake,  Sullivan  Co.  (Ac.  Philad.); 
Pinegrove,  Cumberland  Co.  (Ac.  Philad.). 

Doubtful  Record.  —  Lake  Superior,  given  by  Hagen  on  the  au- 
thority of  L.  Agassiz,  is  undoubtedly  wrong.  As  to  records  of  this 
species  from  Ohio  see  C.  bartoni  robustus. 

C.  bartoni  robustus  (  Hag. ) . 

New  Localities.  —  Small  stream  tributary  to  Rockcastle  River, 
Livingston,  Rockcastle  Co.,  Ky.,  coll.  by  E.  B.  Williamson,  June 
21,  1904  (Carn.  Mus. ) .  These  specimens  agree  well  with  young 
individuals  of  this  variety  ;  adult  ones  are  not  in  the  lot.  (See 
Williamson,  Ohio  Natural.,  5,  1905,  p.  310.)  Oberlin,  Lorain 
Co.,  Ohio  (Mus.  Oberlin).  This  form  was  doubtfully  reported 
from  Knox  Co.,  Ohio,  by  Osburn  and  Williamson  (1896).  All 
specimens  from  Oberlin  seen  by  the  writer  belong  to  this  variety. 
The  typical  form  seems  to  prevail  in  southern  Ohio. 

Doubtful  Records. — Faxon  (1885)  gives  Decatur,  Macon  Co., 
111.,  but  this  needs  confirmation.  Further  it  is  doubtful,  whether 
the  form  called  by  this  name  in  Maryland  and  Virginia  is  identical 
with  the  true  (northern)  robustus. 

C.  bartoni  longirostris  (Fax.). 

Doubtful  Record. — Pollard,  Escambia  Co.,  Alabama,  seems 
doubtful,  since  it  is  close  to  the  Gulf  coast,  and  far  away  from  the 
original  mountain  home  of  this  form. 

C.  latiinanus  (Lee). 

The  locality,  Ocean  Springs,  Miss.,  is  doubtful  for  the  same  reason. 

C.  carolinus  Er.  (=  dubius  Fax.). 

The  reported  occurrence  of  this  species  in  Indian  Territory 
(Faxon,  1890)  seems  strange.  It  must  be  looked  upon  as  doubtful 
till  the  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  range  is  established. 

C.  diogenes  Gir. 

New  localities.  —  Cooper,  Greene  Co.,  Iowa,  coll.  by  J.  B. 
Hatcher  (Carn.  Mus.);  Seaford,  Sussex  Co.,  Delaware,  coll.  by  S. 
N.  Rhoads,  June  18,  1903  (Ac.  Philad.  and  Carn.  Mus.).  — Ober- 
lin, Lorain  Co.,  Ohio  (Mus.  Oberlin).  — The  specimens  from  this 
locality  have  been  mentioned  by  Osburn  and  Williamson  (1898) 
as  C.  dubius  ?,  but  they  are  typical  C.  diogenes. 


136  ORTMANN  — AFFINITIES   OF   CAMBARUS.  [April  i3> 

Doubtful  records.  — Faxon,  1885,  gives  Deer  Park,  Garrett  Co., 
Md.  This  should  be  confirmed  ;  according  to  the. writer's  experi- 
ence, C.  carolinus  ought  to  be  expected  there.  If  confirmed,  this 
locality  will  be  highly  interesting. 

Faxon  further  gives  :  Cheyenne,  Wyoming,  and  Clear  Lake, 
Colorado ;  in  both  cases  the  most  western  extremity  of  the  range 
of  the  genus  is  reached.  Harris  (Kansas  Univ.  Quart.,  9,  1900,  p. 
267)  gives:  Boulder,  Colorado.  This  serves  to  establish  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  above  records,  but  the  connection  with  the  rest  of 
the  range  must  be  found  (I  have  not  been  able  to  locate  Clear  Lake 
in  Colorado).  The  southern  localities  for  C.  diogenes  recorded  by 
Faxon,  Monticello,  Lawrence  Co.,  Miss.,  and  New  Orleans, 
Louisiana,  certainly  need  further  support. 

C.  argillicola  Fax. 

New  locality.  — Oberlin,  Lorain  Co.,  Ohio  (Mus.  Oberlin).  — I 
have  seen  three  specimens  from  Oberlin  (adult  and  young  male, 
adult  female),  two  of  which  bear  the  label:  Hovey's  Ice  house, 
northeast  of  Oberlin,  coll.  by  Leuthi,  Sept.  29,  1892. 

Doubtful  records. —  The  localities,  Kinston,  N.  Carolina,  and  New 

Orleans,    Louisiana,   given    by   Faxon    in    1885    are    doubtful,  as 

admitted  by  himself.     The  localities  given  in   1898,  Victoria  and 

Brazoria,  Texas  (U.  S.  Mus.),  most  emphatically  need  confirmation. 

Carnegie  Museum, 

Pittsburgh,  April  7,  1905. 


explanation  of  plate 


v,„. 


The  plate  is  introduced  to  illustrate  the  centers  of  origin,  and  the  chief  directions 
of  migration  of  the  different  subdivisions  of  the  genus  Cambarus.  Circles  or  ellip- 
ses indicate  centers  of  origin,  the  lines  radiating  from  these,  and  ending  in  an 
arrow-point,  indicate  the  migration.  The  different  colors  mark  the  different  sub- 
genera :  Red,  Cambarus  ;  brozvn,  Cambarellus  ;  green,  Faxonius  ;  blue,  Bartonius. 

It  will  be  remarked  that  two  centers  are  given  for  the  subgenus  Cambarus  ;  the 
one  in  Mexico  marks  that  of  the  more  primitive  forms,  the  other  in  Alabama  and 
Georgia,  that  of  the  more  highly  advanced  forms  (bla?idingi -section).  This  latter 
one,  as  well  as  the  subgenera  Faxonius  and  Bartonius,  took  their  origin  probably 
from  a  primitive  stock  of  the  subgenus  Cambarus,  immigrated  into  the  southern 
United  States  along  the  broken  red  line  running  from  Kansas  to  Alabama. 

For  further  particulars  see  text,  pp.  103,  106,  113,  121,  and  124  ff. 


igos-]  KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS.  13^ 


[Contribution  from  the  John  Harrison  Laboratory  of  Chemistry.] 

THE  USE  OF  THE   ROTATING  ANODE  AND    MERCURY 
CATHODE  IN  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS. 

BY  LILY  G.   KOLLOCK  AND  EDGAR  F.  SMITH. 

( Read  April  13,  iqos- ) 

First  Paper. 

Several  investigations  made  in  this  laboratory  have  shown  that 
when  in  electro-analysis  the  anode  is  rotated  high  currents  can  be 
used  and  metals  be  precipitated  completely  in  very  short  periods 
of  time ;  further,  by  the  use  of  mercury  cathodes  most  interesting 
determinations  and  separations  of  metals  are  possible.1  In  the 
latter  case,  however,  the  anode  has  been  stationary,  and  the  elec- 
trolyte consequently  not  agitated.  Then,  of  course,  the  precipi- 
tation of  the  metal  has  been  comparatively  slow.  Observing 
the  splendid  results  got  with  the  rotating  anode,  when  platinum 
was  the  cathode,  we  determined  to  use  a  combination  of  rotating 
anode  and  mercury  cathode.  This  was  accordingly  done,  and  in 
some  preliminary  trials  made  last  August  (1904),  the  results  of 
which  were  briefly  alluded  to  in  a  communication  published  in 
the  Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc,  26,  16 14,  mention  was  made  that 
0.4810  gram  of  copper  could  be  precipitated  in  twenty-five 
minutes,  and  that  this  success  could  be  had  with  other  metals. 
Since  then  we  have  made  additional  experiments  which  we  desire 
to  record  here.  Not  only  is  the  time  factor  reduced  for  the  metals 
studied,  but  the  plan  of  combining  a  mercury  cathode  with  the 
rotating  anode  gives  an  inexpensive  form  of  apparatus  which  will 
eliminate  the  platinum  dish,  cone  or  cylinder  from  electro-analysis 
and  thus  remove  an  expensive  factor. 

Apparatus. — The  decomposition  cell  is  a  tube  3.5  cm.  in 
diameter  and  7.5  cm.  in  height,  made  from  a  test  tube.  Soften 
the  bottom  of  the  tube  in  a  blast  lamp  flame,  then  push  through  it 
a  platinum  wire  two  centimeters  in  length,  so  that  its  end  projects 
0.5  cm.  into  the  tube.  Flatten  the  bottom  of  the  tube  on  an 
asbestos  plate  and  anneal  it  in  the  ordinary  way. 

xJour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc,  25,  884:  26,  1 124. 


138  KOLLOCK-SM1TH  — ELECTRO-ANALYSIS.  [April  13 

The  anode,  7.5  cm.  in  length,  is  made  from  platinum  wire  1 
mm.  in  diameter,  coiled  into  a  flat  spiral  1.5  cm.  in  diameter.  It 
is  inserted  in  a  chuck  carried  by  the  rotator  which  is  also  provided 
with  three  pulleys  varying  from  2  to  5  cm.  in  diameter.  These 
pulleys  are  connected  by  a  belt  to  two  pulleys  on  the  motor. 
With  this  arrangement  the  rotation  of  the  anode  could  be  varied 
from  100  to  1800  revolutions  per  minute.  During  the  decom- 
position an  amperemeter,  a  voltmeter  and  a  rheostat,  allowing  of 
resistance  from  .1  to  100  ohms,  were  kept  in  the  circuit. 

The  precautions  indicated  by  Myers  in  his  paper  with  regard  to 
the  decomposition  cell  were  observed.  If  care  be  taken  to  have  the 
cell  as  clean  as  possible  there  will  be  no  trouble  experienced  with 
the  amalgam  subsequently  adhering  to  its  sides.  The  mercury,  be- 
fore using,  should  be  washed  with  alcohol  and  ether  and  after  the 
odor  of  the  latter  has  disappeared,  be  placed  in  the  desiccator  until 
it  is  weighed.  It  was  generally  allowed  to  remain  for  about  five 
minutes  on  the  balance  pan  before  taking  the  final  weight.  In  prac- 
tice a  beaker  containing  a  large  quantity  of  mercury,  so  prepared, 
should  be  kept  in  the  desiccator  ready  for  use.  The  mass  of  the 
mercury  taken  in  a  single  experiment  varied  from  forty  to  fifty  grams. 
This  was  frequently  used  for  two  or  three  determinations,  except 
in  the  case  of  chromium,  where  it  was  found  advisable  to  use  it 
but  once.  The  cathode  surface  in  the  first  experiments  upon  zinc 
was  3.5  sq.  cm.,  but  throughout  the  rest  of  the  work  it  was  about 
9  sq.  cm.  After  weighing  the  decomposition  cell  and  mercury, 
the  solution  to  be  electrolyzed  should  be  introduced.  The  volume 
of  the  electrolyte  is  always  recorded  in  the  accompanying  tables. 
The  cell  should  then  be  placed  upon  the  copper  plate  and  the 
anode  lowered  into  the  solution.  The  distance  between  the 
cathode  and  anode  depended  upon  the  volume  of  the  electrolyte. 
When  the  volume  was  five  cubic  centimeters  the  electrodes  were  .5 
cm.  apart  and  in  other  instances  1  cm.  was  their  distance  apart. 
The  difference  did  not  appear  to  materially  affect  the  rate  of 
deposition.  The  tube  should  be  covered.  The  anode  should  next 
be  rotated  and  the  connection  made  with  the  required  number  of 
chloride  accumulator  cells.  The  speed  of  the  anode  was  varied 
either  by  using  less  current  for  the  motor  or  by  changing  the  com- 
bination of  pulleys.  With  the  higher  currents  recorded,  the  solu- 
tion was  frequently  heated  to  boiling.      When  this  occurred  the 


i9°5-]  KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS.  139 

current  invariably  dropped  sometimes  as  much  as  one  ampere.  But 
upon  washing  down  the  cover  glasses  with  cold  water  it  rose  to  its 
former  strength.  The  dropping  of  the  current  is  probably  due  to 
the  accumulation  of  steam  bubbles  upon  the  electrodes.  During 
the  electrolysis  some  of  the  solution  will  of  course  be  carried  to  the 
sides  of  the  containing  vessel  and  to  the  cover  glasses  by  the  escap- 
ing gases  or  by  the  agitation  of  the  liquid.  After  many  trials  it 
was  found  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  wash  down  this  portion  when 
the  higher  currents  are  used.  The  condensed  steam  continually 
frees  the  sides  from  the  solution.  The  cover  glasses  may  now  and 
then  be  tilted  against  the  sides  of  the  tube  in  order  to  run  off  the 
water  which  collects  in  large  drops. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  observed  in  the  present  work  that  the 
greater  the  concentration  of  the  electrolyte,  the  greater  the  rapidity 
of  deposition,  but  the  last  traces  of  metal  were  always  difficult 
to  remove.  For  this  reason,  after  a  solution  had  become  colorless, 
the  electrolytic  action  was  continued  several  minutes  in  order  to 
precipitate  the  minute  amount  remaining  unprecipitated.  It  is, 
therefore,  also  important  to  have  the  volume  small  toward  the  end 
of  the  decomposition. 

When  the  metal  has  been  completely  deposited,  the  anode 
should  be  stopped,  the  cover  glasses  removed  and  the  decomposi- 
tion cell  filled  with  distilled  water.  This  should  then  be  siphoned 
off  to  the  level  of  the  spiral  and  the  liquid  replaced  by  distilled  water 
until  the  current  drops  to  zero.  This  wash  water  should  always  be 
put  aside  and  tested  in  order  to  ascertain  that  the  metal  has  been 
completely  deposited.  The  current  should  next  be  interrupted  and 
the  tube  removed  and  washed  again  with  distilled  water,  inclining 
and  twirling  the  cell  in  order  to  more  completely  wash  the  amalgam. 
As  much  of  the  water  as  possible  should  be  poured  from  the  cell 
and  the  amalgam  then  be  washed  twice  with  absolute  alcohol  and 
twice  with  ether.  It  should  be  wiped  dry  on  the  outside  and  after 
the  volatilization  of  the  ether  be  placed  in  the  desiccator  and 
weighed  as  previously  described. 

Experimental  Part. 
Zinc. 
The  first  experiments  made  after  those  described  in  the  Jour. 
Amer.    Chem.  Society  26,   16 14,  were  upon  zinc  sulphate.     They 

PROC.    AMER.    PHILOS.    SOC.    XLIV.    l8o.    J.       PRINTED   JULY    31,    I905. 


140 


KOLLOCK-SM1TH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS. 


|April  13, 


were  conducted  in  order  to  ascertain  the  rate  of  deposition  with 
varying  concentration,  current  strength,  electromotive  force,  speed 
of  anode' and  how  the  quantity  of  metal  in  the  mercury  affected  the 
subsequent  rate  of  deposition.  The  solution  for  the  first  experi- 
ments contained  0.2025  gram  of  metallic  zinc  in  10  cc.  This  was 
determined  by  the  electrolytic  method,  depositing  it  upon  a  plati- 
num dish  from  an  ammonium  acetate  electrolyte.  The  speed  of 
the  anode  was  400  revolutions  per  minute.      The  current  strength 

was  one  ampere  and  the 
E.M.F.  was  5  volts.  The 
volume  of  the  zinc  sulphate 
solution  equaled  15  cc,  the 
current  acted  thirty  minutes. 
The  solution  siphoned  from 
the  tube  showed  no  trace  of 
zinc  Consecutive  experi- 
ments so  conducted  gave  the 
following  results  in  25  min- 
utes: .2027,  .2030,  .2025, 
.2025,  .2021,  .2027,  .2025 
grams.  Two  trials  were  made 
with  the  same  conditions  but 
using  a  volume  of  10  cc  in- 
stead of  15c  c.  It  was  found 
that  the  zinc  was  completely 
separated  in  twenty  minutes. 
Experiments  were  then 
made  to  determine  the  rate 
of  deposition  in  successive 
periods  of  time  and  the  curve  constructed  from  the  data  thus  obtained, 
using  periods  of  time  for  abscissas  and  masses  for  ordinates.  The 
conditions  employed  were  those  given  above.  The  results  were  as 
follows : 

In     5  minutes  o.ll96gram. 

"    10       "  0.1774      " 

"    15        "  0.1897      " 

"20       "  0.2002     " 

"   25        "  0.2027      " 

Upon  employing  a  current  of  2  amperes,  adding  sulphuric  acid 
to  increase  the  conductivity,  the  entire  amount  was  deposited  in 


p 

& 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

0 

/ 

— 

0 

5 

0 

5 

0    ■ 

g- 

Curve  i.     Zinc — 1  Ampere,  5  volts. 


1905.] 


KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS. 


141 


15  minutes.  The  following  conditions  were  employed  :  Total  vol- 
ume 15  c.c,  sulphuric  acid  0.4  c.c,  current  strength  2  amperes, 
pressure  7  volts,  speed  of  anode,  500  revolutions  per  minute. 

In    5  minutes  0.1860  gram  of  zinc  was  deposited. 
"  10        "        0.1998      "        "     "       i(  " 

"  15         "        0.2020     "        "     "      "  " 

Double  the  quantity  of  zinc  mentioned  above  was  dissolved  in 
15  c.c.  To  this  was  added  .25  c.c.  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
the  anode  was  rotated  at  the  rate  of  800  revolutions  per  minute  and 
the  solution  electrolyzed.  In  thirty  minutes  the  zinc  was  com- 
pletely deposited,  using  a  current  of  1.5  amperes  and  10  volts. 


1 

t 

y 

/ 

17 

/ 

1 

1 

1 

£11 

5 

0 

5 

0  a; 

nvtc 

i 

/ 

/ 

/ 

1 

n 

Curve 2.    Zinc— 2  Amperes,  7  volts. 


Curve  3.    Zinc-2  Amperes,  6  volts 


In  10  minutes  0.3701  gram  was  deposited. 
"   15        "       0.3997      "        " 
"   20        "       0.4011      "        "  " 

"   30        "       0.4058     " 

Curve  3  was  drawn  from  these  results. 

The  same  mass  of  zinc  in  twenty  cubic  centimeters  was  electro- 
lyzed with  a  current  of  2  amperes  and  6  volts,  other  conditions 
being  identical. 


142 


KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSTS. 


[April  13, 


Curve  4.  Zinc- 


In  10  minutes  0.3352  gram  was  deposited. 
"   15        "       0.4010     "       "  " 

"20        "       0.4030     "       "  " 

"  30        "       0.4050     " 

Curve  4  was  drawn  from  these  re- 
sults. A  comparison  of  the  third 
and  fourth  curves  shows  the  effect  of 
greater  dilution  upon  the  quantity  of 
zinc  deposited  in  the  first  ten  minutes. 
Two  experiments  were  made  to  learn 
the  effect  of  different  speeds  of  the 
anode  upon  the  rate  of  precipitation. 
It  was  found  that  the  amount  of  zinc 
deposited  under  a  rotation  of  440  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  and  1,000  revolu- 
tions per  minute  was  only  .0004,  which 
is  within  experimental  error,  showing 
that  between  these  limits  there  is  no 
apparent  effect.  It  was  also  discovered 
that  when  more  than  1  gram  of  zinc  was 
present  in  the  mercury,  the  latter  should 
not  be  further  used  if  it  is  desired  to 
-1.5  Amperes,  10  volts,  obtain  results  in  the  shortest  period. 

Zinc. 


I 

4 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

' 

I 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

11 

b 

0 

.5  '•/ 

a 
1 
1 

Zinc 

Present 
in  Gram. 

Sulphuric 

Acid 

Present 

Volume 
in  c.c. 

Current. 
Am- 
peres. 

Volts. 

Revolu- 
tions of 
Anode 
Per 

Time 

in 

Minutes. 

Zinc 

Found 

in  Gram. 

Error    in 
Gram. 

W 

Minute. 

j 

0.2025 

O 

15 

I 

7 

75° 

30 

O.2027 

+  0.0002 

2 

" 

0 

15 

I 

7 

75° 

25 

O.203O 

+  O.OOO5 

3 

" 

O 

15 

I 

7 

750 

25 

O.2OI5 

— O.OO  I 

4 

" 

O 

15 

I 

7 

750 

25 

0.2020 

— O.OOO5 

5 

" 

O 

15 

I 

7 

750 

25 

O.2025 



6 

" 

0 

IO 

2 

7 

750 

25 

O.2024 

— O.OOO  I 

7 

" 

25 

IO 

2 

7 

75° 

3° 

O.2O27 

+  0.O0O2 

8 

O.4050 

25 

20 

1-5 

b 

750 

45 

O.2054 

—  O.OOO4 

9 

O.2025 

25 

IO 

I 

5 

750 

25 

O.2025 



10 

" 

25 

IO 

I 

5 

750 

25 

O.2029 

+  O.OOO4 

11 

" 

25 

15 

I 

5 

750 

25 

0.2025 



12 

" 

25 

IS 

I 

5 

75° 

20 

0.2027 

-|- 0.0002 

13 

" 

25 

15 

2 

b 

750 

15 

0. 2030 

+  O.OOO5 

H 

" 

25 

15 

2 

b 

750 

i5 

0.2020 

— O.OOO5 

15 

" 

25 

15 

2 

b 

750 

15 

O.  202 1 

— O.OOO4 

16 

O.4050 

2S 

i5 

5 

8 

I4OO 

6 

O.4057 

+  O.OOO7 

17 

" 

25 

15 

5 

8 

480 

6 

O.4045 

— O.OOO5 

18 

" 

2S 

15 

S-b 

7-5 

4S0 

8 

O.4042 

— O.CO08 

19 

" 

25 

IO 

5 

7 

b40 

5 

O.4050 



i9o5  ] 


KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS. 


143 


To  10  c.c.  of  the  zinc  sulphate  solution  0.4  c.c.  of  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  was  added,  after  which  it  was  electrolyzed  by  a  cur- 
rent of  5  amperes  and  7  volts  ;  the  speed  of  the  anode  being  640 
revolutions  per  minute.  Under  these  conditions  0.405  gram  of  zinc 
was  precipitated  in  five  minutes. 

Copper. 

Having  found  that  .405  gram  of  zinc  e 
could  be  deposited  in  from  five  to  eight 
minutes  it  was  decided  to  try  other 
conditions  upon  copper  than  those  rec- 
orded in  the  previous  paper,  in  order 
to  reduce  the  time  factor.  By  using 
higher  currents  and  greater  concentra- 
tion of  the  electrolyte  this  was  accom- 
plished. 

A   solution  of  copper  sulphate   con- 
taining 0.3945  gram  of  metallic  copper 
in  five  cubic  centimeters  was  used  for 
these   experiments.      This    quantity   of 
metal   was    precipitated   finally  in  five 
minutes.     The  solution  became  color- 
less in  three  minutes.     Twice  this  quan- 
tity (.789  gram)  was  deposited  in  ten 
minutes,  although  the  solution  had  be- 
come   colorless    at    the    expiration    of      Curve  5. 
seven    minutes.      The  volume   in    this  Peres>  6  volts- 
case  being  ten  cubic  centimeters  it  appeared  the  last  traces  of  cop- 
per required  more  time  for  precipitation.     A  current  of  5  amperes 
and  6  volts  was  used,  sulphuric  acid  being  introduced  to  increase 
the  conductivity. 

The  current  strength  recorded  in  the  following  table  was  main- 
tained during  the  greater  part  of  the  electrolysis.  When  it  showed 
a  tendency  to  rise,  on  the  liberation  of  the  acid,  additional  resis- 
tance was  thrown  into  the  circuit.  The  following  rates  of  depo- 
sition of  copper  were  determined  under  the  preceding  conditions. 
The  anode  made  640  revolutions  per  minute. 

In  I  minute  0. 1800  gram  of  copper  was  deposited. 
"2       "       0.3400     "      "        "         "  " 

"   3       "       0.3664     "       "        " 
"  4       "       0.3945      "       " 

"  5      "      0.3945     "      "       « 


/ 

/ 

1 

/ 

3       4 

hmuUi 

144 


KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS. 


[April  13. 


Copper. 


0. 

Copper 
Present 
in  Gram. 

Sulphuric 
Acid 
Present 

Volume 
in  c.c. 

Current. 
Am- 
peres. 

Volts. 

Revolu- 
tions of 
Anode 
per 

Time 

in 

Minutes 

Copper 

Found 

in  Gram. 

Error  in 
Gram. 

W 

Minute. 

I 

O.789O 

•25 

12 

3-5 

6 

I200 

IO 

O.79CO 

—  O.OOI 

2 

0.3945 

•15 

12 

4 

6 

I080 

5 

O.394I 

—  O.OOO4 

3 

0.3945 

•25 

12 

3-5 

6 

I200 

6 

0.3942 

O.OOO3 

4 

0-3945 

•15 

12 

5 

6.5 

I200 

5 

0-3944 

— O.OOO  I 

5 

0-3945 

O 

IO 

2-4 

9-7 

I200 

6 

O.3946 

—  O.OOOI 

6 

0-3945 

•17 

IO 

3-5 

8.5 

I200 

4 

0.3944 

O.OOOI 

7 

0.3945 

•17 

IO 

4 

6 

1080 

5 

O.3946 

—  O.OOOI 

Nickel. 
A  nickel  sulphate  solution  containing  0.4802  gram  of  metal  in  ten 
cubic  centimeters  was  used  in  the  following  experiments*,  and  after 
finding  that  this  quantity  was  completely  deposited  in  the  mercury 
in  twenty  minutes  with  a  current  of  2  amperes  and  7  volts,  the  rate 
of  deposition  in  succeeding  periods  of  time  was  determined  with  a 
current  of  2.5  amperes  and  6  volts. 

In    2.5  minutes  0.2017  gram  of  nickel  was  deposited. 


7-5      ' 

0.4095 

10         ' 

0.4651 

12.  s      ' 

o.4774 

15 

0.4802 

s 

a 

Nickel 
Present 

Sulphuric 
Acid 

Volume 

Current. 
Am- 

Volts. 

tions  of 
Anode 

Time 
in 

Nickel 
Found 

Error  in 

p, 

in  Gram. 

in  c.c. 

peres. 

per 

Minutes 

in  Gram. 

« 

Minute. 

O.4802 

1 

O.4802 

■25 

18 

2 

7 

600 

18 



2 

O.4802 

•25 

12 

3-5 

7 

600 

16 

0.4799 

— O.OOO3 

3 

O.4802 

•25 

12 

2-4 

6-5 

600 

IO 

O.4S06 

-j- O.OOO4 

4 

O.4802 

•25 

12 

6 

5 

500- 

7 

O.4804 

—  0.0C02 

5 

O.4802 

•25 

12 

5 

6.5 

600 

10 

O.4796 

— O.OO06 

6 

O.9604 

•25 

IO-3O 

4 

6 

I IOO 

10 

0-9597 

— O.OO07 

7 

O.4802 

•25 

12 

3 

7-S 

I IOO 

10 

O.4806 

—O.OOO4 

8 

O.4802 

•25 

12 

3 

7 

I  IOO 

10 

O.4796 

—  O.OO06 

9 

O.9604 

•25 

12 

3-5 

7 

I  IOO 

16 

0. 9604 



10 

O.4802 

•25 

12 

5 

7 

640 

12 

O.4S09 

—  O.OOO7 

11 

O.4802 

•25 

12 

5 

6 

S80 

8 

O.4806 

—  O.OOO4 

12 

O.4802 

•25 

7 

6 

S 

I2CO 

9 

O.480I 

— O.OOOI 

*3 

O.4802 

•25 

7 

6 

6 

I200 

7 

O.480I 

O.OOOI 

•  On  employing  a  current  of  6  amperes  and  a  pressure  of  5  volts 
the  solution  became  colorless   in    four   minutes.      Not   a   trace  of 


KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS. 


145 


nickel  was  found  in  the  liquid  after  seven  minutes.  The  amalgam 
was  very  bright  and  of  the  consistency  of  soft  dough,  when  one 
gram  of  nickel  was  combined  with  the  usual  quantity  of  mercury 
(40  grams). 


qrams 

48 
4b 

44 
4^ 

4 

38 

,, 

s 

/ 

- 

1 

3 

.28 
26 
24 

18 

, 

12 

.06 
06 

' 

02 

\ 

r 

> 

5 
it 

/ 

/ 

21 

.16 

1/ 

1 

a 

i 

.08 

/  '  ' 

/ 

Vr 

1 

\_r 

t> 

~1 

1 

S 

^ 

5 

Curve  6.    Nickel — 2. 5  Amperes, 
6  volts. 


Curve  7. 

volts. 


Cobalt — 5  Amperes,  5 


Cobalt. 
This  metal  does  not  appear  to  enter  the  mercury  with  the  same 
rapidity  as  nickel  under  similar  conditions.  The  last  minute  traces 
are  more  difficult  to  remove.  Various  conditions  were  used.  When 
no  sulphuric  acid  was  added  the  current  was  at  first  low,  but  it 
rapidly  rose  as  the  decomposition  proceeded.  The  conditions, 
giving  the  total  cobalt  in  the  least  time,  were  the  following  :  10 
c.c.  of  solution,  containing  0.3535  gram  of  cobalt  ;  0.25  c.c.  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  a  current  of  5  amperes  with  a  pressure  of  6 
volts.  The  speed  of  the  anode  was  1,200  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  solution  became  colorless  in  seven  minutes,  but  ten  minutes 
appeared  to  be  necessary  for  the  removal  of  the  last  traces  of  the 


14G 


KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS. 


[April  13, 


metal.  On  using  the  same  amount  of  cobalt  in  a  volume  of  five 
cubic  centimeters,  other  conditions  remaining  unchanged,  all  of  the 
metal  separated  in  seven  minutes,  thus  : 


In     I  minute  0. 1197  gram,  of  cobalt  was  deposited. 
3       "       0.2930     "       "      " 

5  "       0.3300     "       "      " 

6  "       0.3520     "      "     " 

7  "       0.3535     "      »     " 
10       "       0.3530     "      "     " 


The  curve  (7)  was  constructed  from  these  results. 
Cobalt. 


i 
e 

V 

0. 

Cobalt 
Present 
in  Gram. 

Sulphuric 
Acid 
Present 

Volume 
in  c.c. 

Current. 
Am- 
peres. 

Volts. 

Revolu- 
tions of 
Anode 
Per 

Time 

in 

Minutes. 

Cobalt 

Found 

in  Gram. 

Error  in 
Grams. 

W 

Minute. 

I 

0.3525 

•35 

■5 

5 

7 

1250 

15 

0.3522 

— O.  COO3 

2 

0.3525 

•25 

15 

3 

5 

980 

18 

0.3524 

— O.OOO  I 

3 

0.3525 

•25 

'5 

4 

6 

GOO 

14 

0.3523 

— 0.0002 

4 

0.3525 

•25 

10 

4 

6 

860 

16 

0-3530 

+O.OOO5 

5 

0.3525 

•5 

10 

4 

6 

IOOO 

15 

0-3530 

+  O.OOO5 

6 

0-3525 

0 

10 

4 

6 

I24O 

16 

0.3528 

+  O.OOO3 

7 

0.3525 

•25 

10 

3 

6 

1200 

IO 

0.352I 

— O.OOO4 

8 

0.3525 

•5 

10 

6 

6 

I200 

IO 

0.3530 

—  O.OO05 

9 

0.3525 

.25 

10 

5 

8 

SOO 

IO 

0.3522 

— O.OOO3 

10 

0  3525 

•25 

10 

3 

8 

I4OO 

12 

0-3523 

— 0.0002 

11 

0.3525 

•5 

10 

6 

5 

800 

II 

0.3530 

—  O.OO05 

12 

O.7050 

•5 

15 

6 

7 

I200 

3° 

O.7052 

+  0.0C02 

13 

O.I762 

•35 

!    10 

1      4 

8 

560 

7 

O.I762 



Chromium. 
A  solution  of  chromium  sulphate  was  electrolyzed  with  currents 
varying  from  1  to  4  amperes  and  7  to  12  volts  and  with  a  varying 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid.  It  was  found  by  Myers  that  the  addi- 
tion of  the  acid  was  necessary,  otherwise,  there  was  a  separation  of 
the  oxide  of  chromium  throughout  the  liquid  ;  but  too  much  acid 
retards  or  entirely  prevents  the  decomposition.  When  10  drops 
{40  drops  =  1  c.c.)  were  added  and  a  current  of  2.5  amperes  and 
6  volts  applied  one  half  hour  was  necessary  to  deposit  o.  23  gram  of 
chromium.  With  0.5  c.c.  of  acid  and  a  current  of  5  amperes  and 
4  volts  the  solution  at  the  end  of  60  minutes  did  not  appear 
to  have  lost  its  color.     Experiments  were  then  made  to  learn  how 


KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS 


147 


much  chromium,  if  any,  was  deposited  when  the  acid  was  present 
in  large  quantity.  Thus,  with  a  current  of  4  amperes  and  7  volts, 
solution  containing  1  c.c.  of  acid,  0.05  gram  of  metal  was  precipi- 
tated in  forty-five  minutes  ;  while  with  two  cubic  centimeters  of 
acid  and  a  current  of  1  ampere  and  4  volts  the  mercury  showed  no 
increase  in  weight  after  thirty  minutes.  The  following  results, 
obtained  in  the  use  of  smaller  amounts  of  acid,  confirm  this.  By 
adding  10  drops  of  acid  (=  .25  c.c.)  and  employing  a  current  of 
4  amperes  and  7  volts,  the  liquid  became  colorless  in  thirty  minutes, 
but  forty  minutes  were  necessary  for  the  complete  removal  of  the 
metal.  With  the  same  quantity  of  acid,  and  a  current  of  5  amperes 
and  8  volts,  the  chromium  was  completely  precipitated  in  thirty 
minutes.  With  five  drops  of  acid  and  a  current  of  3  to  4.5  am- 
peres and  8  volts,  the  solution  became  colorless  in  eleven  minutes. 
It,  therefore,  seems  that  more  than  three  drops  of  acid  are  sufficient 
to  materially  affect  the  rate  of  precipitation.  More  than  two  drops 
of  acid  must  be  present  to  prevent  the  separation  of  chromic  oxide 


f 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

f 

/ 

f 

1 

-/ 

1 

1 

Curve  8.     Chromium — 3.5  Amperes,  11-10  volts. 

which  always  took  place  with  less  than  that  amount  of  acid.  The 
following  conditions  gave  the  most  rapid  determination  :  A  volume 
of  the  solution,  containing  0.1180  gram  of  chromium  and  three 
drops  of  sulphuric  acid  (40  drops  =  1  c.c),  was  electrolyzed  with 
a  current  of  4  to  5  amperes  and  six  volts,  the  speed  of  the  anode 
being  400  revolutions  per  minute.  In  four  minutes  the  solution 
was  colorless  and  in  six  minutes  the  chromium  was  found  to  be 
completely  deposited.     The  solution  was  siphoned  off  in  the  man- 


148 


KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS. 


[Apri! 


ner  previously  described,  but  after  the  cell  was  removed  anhydrous 
alcohol  was  poured  in  as  quickly  as  possible  and  the  operation  re- 
peated twice  and  followed  by  two  washings  with  ether  in  order  to 
prevent,  if  possible,  oxidation  of  the  chromium.  Oxidation,  if  it 
occurred,  was  but  slight,  for  the  error  never  exceeded  0.0007  gram. 
Curve  8  was  constructed  from  the  results  given  below  : 

In    2  minutes  0.048    gram  of  chromium  was  deposited. 


'     4 

'       0.085 

'     6 

'       0. 1000 

'     8 

'       0.1105 

'     9 

'       0.1 185 

'   10 

0.1185 

Chromium. 


s 
1 

0. 

w 

Chromium 
Present 
in  Gram. 

Sulphuric 

Acid. 
40  Drops 
=  1  c.c. 

Volume 
in  c.c. 

Current 
Am- 
peres. 

Volts. 

Revolu- 
tions of 
Anode 

per 
Minute. 

—  u 
lg 

Chromium 

Found 
in  Gram. 

Error  in 
Gram. 

1 

0.1 1  So 

5 

IO-15 

3-4 

7 

28o 

J5 

0.1 186 

-f  O.OOO6 

2 

0.1 180 

3 

IO-I5 

2-4 

1 1-9 

280 

i5 

0.1 187 

-f  O.OOO7 

3 

0.1 180 

3 

IO-15 

i-3 

9 

640 

20    0. 1 185 

-  O.OOO5 

4 

0.1 180 

3 

8-15 

1-5-3 

10-8 

220 

15    0. 1 186 

-f  O.  OO06 

5 

0.1 1 80 

3 

IO-15 

i-3 

1 1-9 

520 

20    0.1 186 

-f  O.OOO6 

6 

0.1 180 

3 

5-15 

1-2 

1 1-9 

640 

17    0.1175 

— O.OOO5 

7 

0.1 180 

3 

5-15 

2-4 

9-8 

480 

15  j  0.1 180 



8 

0.2360 

3 

5-15 

2-5 

10 

520 

150  0.2355 

— O.OOO5 

9 

0.1 180 

5 

5-15 

3 

7-5 

400 

15 

0.1 179 

—  O.OOO  I 

10 

0.1 180 

3 

7-i5      4-5 

8 

640 

i  6 

O.II75 

— O.OOO5 

11 

0.1 180 

3 

7-15       3-4 

10-9 

640 

10 

0.1 180 



12 

0.1 180 

7 

7-15  '     3-4 

10-8 

200 

13 

0.1 187 

-[-O.OOO7 

*3 

0.1 180 

3 

5-15    3-5 

8 

640 

1  II 

0.1177 

—  O.OOO3 

14 

0.2360 

4 

5-i5  1     3 

12 

640 

35 

0.2359 

— O.OOO  I 

15 

0. 1 180 

3 

5-15  i     3-4 

10-8 

320 

11 

0.1179 

— O.OOO  I 

16 

0.1 180 

3 

5-15       3-4 

10 

540 

0.1 182 

^0.0002 

Iron. 
In  experimenting  with  salts  of  this  metal  it  was  soon  discovered 
that  sulphuric  acid  in  large  amount  retarded  its  precipitation.  It 
was  also  noticed  when  higher  currents  were  used  that  the  solution 
became  very  hot  and  assumed  a  decidedly  pink  color,1  which  dis- 
appeared on  the  addition  of  cold  water  or  when  the  cover  glasses 
were  removed,  allowing  the  steam  to  escape  rapidly  and  thus  decreas- 
ing the  pressure  and  consequently  the  temperature  of  the  boiling 
solution.  The  color  reappeared  a  few  seconds  after  the  cover  glasses 
were  replaced. 

1  Due  to  traces  of  manganese. 


KOLLOCK-SMITH  —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS. 


149 


The  conditions  which  gave  the  most  satisfactory  results  were  as 
follows  : 

Volume  of  solution  5  c.c.  containing  0.275  gram  of  metallic  iron, 
3  drops  of  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  and  a  current  of  3  to  4  am- 
peres and  7  volts.  The  rotation  of 
the  anode  varied  from  520-920 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  iron 
was  completely  deposited  in  seven 
minutes.  The  following  observa- 
tions on  rate  of  deposition  were 
made  under  the  conditions  just 
given  : 

In  2  minutes  o.  1760  gram  of  iron  deposited. 
"4        "       0.2000     "         "  " 

(i  5        <<       0.2050     "         "  " 

"  8        "       0.2075     "         "  " 

In  addition  to  the  results  just 
described  a  solution  of  ferrous  sul- 
phate containing  0.1945  gram  of 
iron  in  10  c.c.  was  used  to  get 
further  working  conditions.  By 
using  a  current  of  3.5  A.  and 
10-9  volts,  with  about  900  revolu- 
tions per  minute  of  the  anode, 
the  total  iron  content  was  deposited  in  fifteen  minutes.  The 
residue  from  the  decompositon  cell  when  oxidized  by  nitric  acid 
and    tested    with    potassium   sulphocyanide   gave  no   color.     The 


1 

2 

/r 

IS 

/ 

/ 

It 

.13 
12 
.11 

05 

.02 

fl 

i 

Curve  9. 
volts. 


Iron — 3.5  Amperes,  7 


s 

Revolu- 

a 

Iron 
Present 

Acid 
in  Drops. 

Volume 

Current. 
Am- 

Volts. 

tions  of 
Anode 

if 

Iron 
Found 

Error  in 

& 

in  Gram. 

40  Drops 

peres. 

„,per 

HS 

in  Gram. 

a 

=1  c.c. 

Minute. 

1 

O.2075 

7 

5 

4-5 

8-7 

520 

14 

O.2072 

— O.OOO3 

2 

O.2075 

4 

5-i5 

5-4 

b.5-5 

680 

14 

0. 2078 

+  0.0003 

3 

O.2075 

5 

5-10 

3-2-4 

6.5 

680 

15 

O.2077 

— O.OOO3 

4 

O.2075 

3 

5 

2-2.5 

7-b 

680 

is 

0.2073 

O.OC02 

5 

O.2075 

3 

5 

4 

6-5 

6SO 

10 

O.2080 

-+-O.OOO5 

6 

O.2075 

3 

5 

3-4-5 

7-b 

920 

7 

O.2078 

+  O.OOO3 

7 

O.2075 

3 

5 

2-3 

6 

740 

9 

O.2076 

+O.OOOI 

8 

O.2075 

3 

5 

2-4 

6-5-5-5 

700 

9 

O.2076 

+  O.OOOI 

150 


KOLLOCK-SMITH   —  ELECTRO-ANALYSIS. 


[April  i3) 


experiments  made  to  determine  the  rate  of  deposition  with  a  lower 
current  (1-2.5  amperes  and  10-9  volts)  while  the  other  conditions 


ls 

.2 

.18 

--' 

.16 

/ 

14 

I 

.12 

1 

.01 

1 

/ 

i 

06 

02 

1 

15  Minutes. 
Curve  10.     Iron — 1  to  2.5  Amperes,  10-9  volts. 

remained  as  above,   gave  the   following   results  which  appear   in 
Curve  10. 

In    2.5  minutes  o.  1141  gram  of  iron  was  deposited. 

"     5  "        0.1787     "      "     »       " 

"     7.5        "        0.1945     "      "     "       " 

"   10  "        0.1950     "      "     "      "  " 

When  the  residue  was  tested  with  potassium  sulphocyanide  no 
iron  was  detected.  By  the  addition  of  3  drops  (40  drops  =  1  c.c.) 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  using  a  higher  current  (3.5  amperes)  in  10 
minutes  a  faint  reaction  for  iron  was  observed  indicating  that  the 
acid  has  some  retarding  influence.  In  fifteen  minutes  under  these 
conditions  the  iron  had  completely  separated.  By  using  a  higher 
current  3  amperes  and  9  volts  under  the  same  condition  all  the 
iron  was  deposited  in  ten  minutes. 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 


SMITH— COLUMBIUM  AND  TANTALUM.  151 


[Contribution  from  the  John  Harrison  Laboratory  of  Chemistry.] 

OBSERVATIONS   ON    COLUMBIUM    AND   TANTALUM. 
BY   EDGAR    F.    SMITH. 

{Read  April  13,  1905. ) 

In  1  So  1  Hatchett,  while  studying  minerals  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum came  upon  a  specimen  from  Haddam,  Conn.,  which  attracted 
his  attention  because  of  its  rather  high  specific  gravity  and  its  bril- 
liant black  color.  A  portion  of  this  material  was  given  him  for  ex- 
amination, with  the  result  that  he  discovered  in  it  a  new  metallic 
acid,  to  the  metal  of  which  he  applied  the  name  columbium.  It 
was  his  earnest  hope  that  he  might  obtain  larger  quantities  of  the 
American  mineral  in  order  to  exhaustively  study  the  new  element, 
and  it  is  of  interest  to  remark  that  Hatchett  fondly  expected  this 
material  assistance  from  Thomas  Peters  Smith,  a  member  of  this  So- 
ciety and  an  enthusiast  in  chemical  science,  who  on  his  return  from 
England  met  an  untimely  death  on  shipboard. 

In  1802  Ekeberg,  of  Sweden,  while  examining  an  unknown  min- 
eral, found  that  it  contained  a  new  metallic  acid,  to  the  metal  of 
which  acid  he  assigned  the  name  tantalum,  because  "when  placed 
in  the  midst  of  acids  it  is  incapable  of  taking  any  of  them  up  and 
saturating  itself  with  them."  Later,  Wollaston  (1809)  strove  to 
prove  that  columbium  and  tantalum  were  identical.  In  this  he 
failed.  The  few  reactions  known  even  at  that  early  day  differ- 
entiated the  new  elements.  About  1840,  Heinrich  Rose,  in  study- 
ing similar  minerals,  from  other  localities,  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  American  mineral  contained  an  element  absolutely  differ- 
ent from  tantalum,  and  called  it  niobium.  Subsequently,  owing 
to  his  inability  to  account  for  the  peculiar  products  which  he  got 
by  chlorinating  a  mixture  of  the  oxide  of  the  new  element  and  car- 
bon, he  asserted  that,  in  addition  to  niobium,  there  was  present 
pelopium  (1846).  Later  (1853),  however,  he  seems  to  have  ar- 
rived at  the  opinion  that  niobic  acid  and  pelopic  acid  were  differ- 
ent oxides  of  niobium.  The  first  he  called  niobic  acid  and  the 
second  hyponiobic  acid.  Hermann,  also,  contributed  to  the  un- 
certainty which  surrounded  the  two  elements  (columbium  of  Hat- 


152  SMITH— COLUMBIUM  AND  TANTALUM.  [April  i3) 

chett  and  tantalum  of  Ekeberg)  in  that  he  announced  the  existence 
of  ilmenium  ;  but  it  was  not  generally  accepted  by  chemists.  Her- 
mann, however,  persisted  in  his  declaration  that  it  occurred  along 
with  the  other  two  elements  to  which  reference  has  been  made.  v. 
Kobell  believed  that  he  had  detected  dianium  in  allied  minerals. 
This  unfortunate  state  of  affairs  prevailed  until  the  early  sixties, 
when  Marignac,  after  a  careful  study  of  a  number  of  minerals  from 
various  localities,  announced  the  existence  in  them  of  but  two  ele- 
ments —  the  columbium  of  Hatchett  and  the  tantalum  of  Ekeberg 
—  and  added  that  the  confusing  reactions  which  had  perhaps  led 
Heinrich  Rose  —  but  most  certainly,  Hermann  and  von  Kobell  — 
astray  were  to  be  explained  by  the  presence  of  titanium  in  all  tan- 
talites  and  columbites.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  Marignac  never 
succeeded  in  obtaining  titanium  from  any  one  of  the  minerals  in 
which,  according  to  him,  it  occurred,  associated  together  with 
columbium  and  tantalum.  Indeed,  in  his  concluding  paper  on 
columbium  he  frankly  acknowledged  that  the  columbium  com- 
pounds, which  he  used  for  the  determination  of  the  atomic  weight  of 
the  metal,  contained  titanium,  and  that  he  knew  of  no  method  by 
which  the  latter  could  be  separated  from  columbium.  Marignac's 
conclusion  was  accepted  by  the  chemists  of  the  world  as  final. 

When  we  come  to  examine  the  evidence  which  Marignac  gives 
for  the  presence  of  titanium,  we  find  that  it  is,  practically  :  that 
the  recrystallization  of  a  double  fluoride  of  columbium  and  potas- 
sium, supposed  to  contain  titanium,  gave  rise,  gradually,  to  a  frac- 
tion which  became  more  insoluble  in  water  and  the  molecular 
weight  of  its  acid  oxide  approached,  within  ten  or  more  units, 
that  required  by  titanic  oxide.  It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that 
at  no  time  did  Marignac,  whose  ability  and  keen  insight  one  would 
not  for  a  moment  question,  give  any  tests  which  are  ordinarily 
regarded  as  indicating  titanium.  He  assumed  it  to  be  present  on 
the  evidence  mentioned  above,  viz  :  the  greater  insolubility  of 
the  double  fluoride  and  an  approximate  molecular  weight  corre- 
sponding to  that  required  by  titanic  oxide.  Ever  since  Marignac's 
day  chemists  the  world  over  have  tacitly  accepted  titanium  as  asso- 
ciated with  columbium  in  columbites.  They  have  also  estimated 
its  quantity  by  methods  suggested  from  time  to  time.  One  of  these 
methods  is  based  on  the  color  reaction  which  titanium  salts  give 
with  hydrogen  peroxide.      Its  intensity,  compared  with  that  shown 


i9°s  ]  SMITH— COLUMBIUM  AND  TANTALUM.  153 

by  a  known  amount  of  titanium,  has  been  regarded  by  most 
analysts  as  entirely  satisfactory.  For  the  determination  of  the 
amount  of  titanium  in  columbium  many  methods  have  been  pro- 
posed, but  this  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  them  or  their  value. 

As  late  as  1877,  in  the  last  paper  published  by  Hermann,  he  an- 
nounced the  element  neptunium  and  claimed  to  have  obtained  it 
from  the  acid  mother  liquors  remaining  after  tantalum  potassium 
fluoride,  ilmenium  potassium  fluoride  and  columbium  potassium 
fluoride  had  been  crystallized  out.  The  particular  mineral  in 
which  he  observed  it  was  a  columbite  from  Haddam,  Conn.;  in 
other  words,  the  same  mineral  in  which  columbium  had  been  orig- 
inally discovered  by  Hatchett. 

The  existence  of  neptunium  has  never  been  contradicted.  This 
is  probably  because  the  majority  of  chemists  thought  that  the  ver- 
dict in  regard  to  the  constitution  of  tantalites  and  columbites  had 
been  given  by  Marignac,  and  that  the  numerous,  unusual  reactions 
of  the  metallic  acids  contained  in  those  minerals,  noted  and  com- 
mented upon  at  various  times  by  Heinrich  Rose,  von  Kobell, 
Blomstrand  and  Hermann,  were  all  due  to  the  contaminating 
influence  of  titanium. 

The  two  elements,  columbium  and  tantalum,  in  their  derivatives, 
have  received  comparatively  little  attention  within  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century,  although  at  intervals  attempts  have  been  made  to 
clear  up  the  mystery  which,  in  a  certain  sense,  surrounds  them. 
In  this  laboratory,  several  investigations  upon  derivatives  of  them 
have  been  made.  These  being  not  wholly  satisfactory,  about  three 
years  ago,  50  lbs.  of  columbite  from  South  Dakota  and  25  lbs. 
from  Haddam,  Conn.,  were  worked  up,  with  a  view  of  getting  an 
abundant  supply  of  starting-out  material ;  with  the  view,  also,  of 
studying  anew  the  various  derivatives  of  both  columbium  and  tan- 
talum. In  the  year  1903-1904,  Dr.  R.  D.  Hall  devoted,  in  this 
laboratory,  much  time  and  labor  to  the  double  fluorides  of  tantalum 
and  columbium.  He  made  a  comparative  study  of  the  reactions  of 
the  same  with  the  reactions  of  titanium.  His  results  have  been 
published,  but  from  an  examination  of  them  it  will  be  observed 
that  he  was  not  able  to  find  any  tests,  while  using  the  double  fluor- 
ides, which  differentiated  titanium  from  columbium  so  thoroughly 
that  he  could  expect  to  obtain  a  complete  separation  of  these  two 
most  interesting  elements.      It  is  true  that  he  was  able,  by  precipi- 


154  SMITH— COLUMBIUM  AND    TANTALUM.  [April  13, 

tating  potassium  columbium  fluoride  incompletely  with  ammonia, 
to  get  a  columbium  oxide,  which  apparently  gave  no  response  to  the 
hydrogen  peroxide  test  upon  its  application,  or  to  the  reagent  called 
chromotropic  acid.  Hence  he  inferred  that  he  had  eliminated  the 
titanium  from  the  columbium.  More  recent  work  with  large  quan- 
tities of  material  has  demonstrated  that  in  the  latter  cases  it  was 
impossible  to  entirely  remove  the  metallic  acid  which  gave  the 
color  tests.  It  was  further  found  that  by  the  action  of  sulphur 
monochloride  upon  the  oxides  of  columbium  and  titanium,  cor- 
responding chlorides  were  produced  ;  but  again,  it  proved  im- 
possible to  wholly  expel  the  titanium  from  the  columbium  by 
this  process,  notwithstanding  titanium  chloride  is  an  exceed- 
ingly volatile  liquid  and  columbium  chloride  a  solid,  crystalline 
body. 

In  the  present  year,  we  have,  in  this  laboratory,  prepared  large 
quantities  of  the  double  fluoride  of  tantalum  and  potassium,  and 
found  no  difficulty  whatsoever  in  eliminating  from  it  every  trace  of 
what  was  supposed  to  be  the  titanium  double  fluoride. 

Having  thus,  at  our  disposal,  such  generous  amounts  of  pure 
tantalic  oxide,  free  from  columbic  oxide,  in  short,  really  pure  tan- 
talic  oxide,  it  was  determined  to  make  a  new  study  of  the  double 
fluorides  of  tantalum  with  the  alkali  metals  and  organic  bases. 
This  was  undertaken  in  order  to  discover,  if  possible,  why  Dr. 
Pennington,  when  working  in  this  laboratory  in  1895,  obtained 
double  fluorides  of  tantalum  and  columbium  with  caesium,  which 
showed  these  unusual  formulas:  15CSF.  TaF5  and  yCsF.  CbF5, 
which  varied  so  widely  from  those  generally  followed  by  the 
double  fluorides  of  tantalum  and  columbium,  and  were  not  in  ac- 
cord with  the  law  proposed  for  double  halides  (Amer.  Chem.  Jour., 
v.  291). 

At  the  outstart  it  was  thought  that  this  re-investigation  of  the 
double  fluorides  would  prove  to  be  an  easy  and  simple  matter. 
But  it  was  not  long  until  it  was  seen  that  the  discordant  results  of 
Dr.  Pennington  were  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  there  was  more 
than  one  csesium  tantalum  fluoride.  Indeed,  the  latest  work  done 
in  this  laboratory,  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Balke,  proves  that  there  are  two 
coasium  tantalum  fluorides,  two  rubidium  tantalum  fluorides,  two 
sodium  tantalum  fluorides,  two  ammonium  tantalum  fluorides,  and 
so  forth,  of  these  ratios  : 


i9°s-]  SMITH— COLUMBIUM  AND  TANTALUM.  155 

TaF5.CsF  2TaF5.3RbF 

TaF5.2CsF  TaF5.2NaF 

TaF5.2NH4F  TaF5.3NaF 

TaF5.3NH4F  TaFs.2KF 

The  existence  of  several  such  double  fluorides  with  each  of  the 
alkali  metals  naturally  raises  the  question  whether  these  salts  ought 
to  be  used  for  the  determination  of  the  atomic  weight  of  tantalum, 
inasmuch  as  each  salt  is  likely  to  be  contaminated  with  smaller  or 
larger  quantities  of  the  other,  depending  upon  the  condition  or  the 
care  with  which  they  are  prepared.  Marignac  used  potassium 
tantalum  fluoride  and  ammonium  tantalum  fluoride  in  his  re-deter- 
mination of  the  atomic  weight  of  tantalum.  It  would  seem,  from 
the  study  of  the  salts  just  mentioned,  that  even  this  skilled  and 
careful  analyst  could  not  have  been  sure  that  he  had  a  definite, 
homogeneous  body  in  the  determinations  which  he  made.  Of 
course,  if  there  was  even  a  slight  amount  of  a  second  salt  in  the  salt 
used  for  the  atomic  weight  work,  it  would  naturally  vitiate  the  final 
result.  Of  all  the  double-  fluorides  of  the  alkali  metals  and  bases 
with  tantalum  which  have  thus  far  been  studied  by  Mr.  Balke,  that  of 
sodium  and  tantalum,  of  the  ratio  3  to  2,  seems  to  be  the  one  having 
some  definite  and  most  stable  characteristics.  We  hope  to  re-deter- 
mine the  atomic  weight  of  tantalum,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  we 
shall  use  any  one  of  the  double  fluorides,  of  which  mention  has  been 
made,  although  they  appeal  strongly  because  of  the  ease  with 
which  they  can  be  crystallized.  The  uncertainty,  however,  as  to 
whether  they  are  really  absolutely  of  one  definite  ratio  every  time 
that  they  are  crystallized  is  uncertain.  Hence  they  had  better  be 
abandoned  in  atomic  weight  determinations. 

The  question  may  also  be  asked,  may  not  the  double  fluorides  of 
colurnbium  with  the  alkali  metals,  which  have  been  used  for  atomic 
weight  purposes,  been  contaminated  with  salts  of  varying  ratios  ? 
This  point  will  receive  attention. 

Turning  again  to  colurnbium,  it  seems  proper  to  record  that 
having  eliminated  the  tantalum  completely  from  a  mixture  of  oxides 
obtained  from  Haddam  columbite,  the  remaining  potassium  colurn- 
bium oxy-fluoride  was  crystallized  a  number  of  times  from  water 
and  also  from  solutions  containing  much  hydrofluoric  acid.  This 
procedure  finally  gave  a  mother  liquor  that  was  decidedly  acid.  A 
metallic  acid  remained  in  this  mother  liquor.     According  to  Her- 

PROC  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC  XLIV.   l8o.  K.       PRINTED  JULY  31,  I905. 


156  SMITH— COLUMBIUM   AND  TANTALUM.  LApm  .3. 

maun,  in  his  communication  of  1877,  this  acid  should  be  neptunic 
acid.  Therefore,  the  acid  mother  liquor  was  treated  as  directed 
by  Hermann;  namely,  it  was  evaporated,  the- residue  was  dissolved 
in  water  and  the  boiling  solution  precipitated  with  an  excess  of 
caustic  soda.  The  precipitate,  after  the  liquid  had  become  cold, 
was  filtered  out,  pressed  thoroughly  from  adherent  water  and  then 
boiled  with  25  times  its  own  weight  of  pure  water.  Everything 
dissolved.  The  solution  was  perfectly  clear.  On  cooling,  there 
separated  from  it  the  beautiful  needle-like  crystals  of  sodium  colum- 
bate.  According  to  Hermann,  the  precipitate  which  was  collected, 
pressed  out  and  then  boiled  with  water,  should,  if  neptunium  were 
present,  have  left  a  slimy  mass,  insoluble  in  water.  This,  Her- 
mann said,  was  sodium  neptunate.  It  should  be  observed  that  our 
experiments  were  made  with  the  final  acid  liquors  obtained  from 
the  double  fluorides  present  in  columbite  from  Haddam  ;  further, 
that  we  proceeded  in  strict  accordance  with  the  directions  of  Her- 
mann and  having  done  all  this,  did  not  obtain  a  gelatinous  mass 
which  might  have  been  sodium  neptunate.  In  Hermann's  com- 
munication, to  which  reference  has  been  made  so  frequently,  he 
lays  great  stress  on  the  fact  that  the  distinguishing  reaction  of 
neptunium  is  the  beautiful  golden  yellow  color  which  sodium  nep- 
tunate imparts  to  a  salt  of  phosphorus  bead  in  the  reducing  flame. 
It  is  needless  to  add  that  we  tried  on  different  occasions  to  find 
neptunium,  according  to  the  directions  of  Hermann ;  but  our 
search  was  fruitless.  On  one  occasion,  however,  we  obtained  a 
mass,  not  great  in  amount,  which,  in  the  inner  blow-pipe  flame, 
did  impart  a  yellow  color  to  the  salt  of  phosphorus  bead,  but  more 
careful  examination  of  this  residue  demonstrated  that  it  contained 
tantalum,  iron  and  some  columbium.  The  intense  golden  yellow 
color,  which  was  so  strongly  emphasized  by  Herman,  we  could  not 
get ;  so  that  it  is  very  probable  that  neptunium,  like  ilmenium  and 
the  other  metals  announced  from  time  to  time  as  present  with 
columbium  and  tantalum  must  really  be  placed  in  the  list  of  defunct 
elements.  It  has  not  been  our  wish  to  bury  this  candidate  for 
elemental  honors.  Indeed,  we  would  have  been  only  too  glad  to 
have  found  the  evidences  of  its  existence  and  to  have  confirmed  the 
observation  of  that  earnest  and  sincere  student  of  chemical  science, 
who,  in  his  tireless  labors,  frequently  felt  confident  that  he  had 
fallen  upon  the  cause  of  the  varying  results  observed  with  colum- 
bium and  tantalum. 


I905-]  SMITH— COLUMBIUM  AND  TANTALUM.  157 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  added  that,  having  freed  the  tanta- 
lum and  columbium  oxides  as  thoroughly  as  possible  from  ordinary 
contaminations,  the  problem  of  removing  tungsten  and  tin  con- 
fronted us.  After  much  experimentation,  we  found  that  the  cer- 
tainty of  the  removal  of  these  impurities  could  only  be  had  by 
fusing  the  tantalum  and  columbium  oxides  with  sodium  carbonate 
and  sulphur.  It  is  true  that  small  quantities  of  tantalum  and 
columbium  will  be  lost,  being  carried  along  with  the  tungsten  and 
tin,  but  as  we  were  seeking  a  method  of  purification  and  not  a  sepa- 
ration, we  adopted  this  course.  It  is  the  one  which  was  pursued 
by  Heinrich  Rose.  Our  own  experience  leads  us  to  say  that  the 
removal  of  tungsten  and  tin  from  columbium  and  tantalum  oxides 
cannot  be  realized  by  digestion  with  ammonium  sulphide.  Indeed, 
not  only  did  we  find  the  fusion  with  the  sodium  carbonate  and  sul- 
phur necessary,  but  that  working  in  large  quantities  of  material,  as 
in  our  case,  two  and  three  refusions  with  these  reagents  were  found 
necessary.  Another  point  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  puri- 
fication of  the  tantalum  and  columbium  oxides  may  be  mentioned. 
It  has  frequently  been  said  that  in  crystallizing  out  the  double 
fluorides  of  these  metals,  if  titanium  be  present  with  them,  it  will 
be  found  in  the  potassium  tantalum  fluoride.  We  have  encountered 
no  difficulty  in  getting  potassium  tantalum  fluoride  perfectly  free 
from  what  is  supposed  to  be  titanium  by  one  or  two  crystallizations. 
It  has  been  assumed  that  as  potassium  titanium  fluoride  is  rather 
insoluble  in  water,  it  would  naturally  go  with  potassium  tantalum 
fluoride.  This,  however,  seems  to  be  an  incorrect  observation.  It 
masses  with  the  columbium  potassium  fluoride  ;  at  least  the  element 
which  gives  the  yellow  color  with  hydrogen  peroxide,  or  a  rose  red 
with  chromotropic  acid  is  always  found  associated  with  the  colum- 
bium. How  to  free  the  columbium  from  titanic  acid  we  do  not 
know.  We  are  in  precisely  the  same  position  as  that  of  Marignac, 
notwithstanding  we  have  probably  made  greater  efforts  than  he  to 
remove  it  from  the  columbium.  It  is  this  point  in  our  investigation 
upon  which  we  have  been  continuously  at  work  for  the  last  year. 
We  have  tried  fractional  precipitation  with  ammonia  water,  frac- 
tional crystallization  of  the  double  fluorides,  fractional  chlorination 
of  the  oxides  in  the  presence  of  carbon  and  the  action  of  numerous 
organic  bases,  without  finding  any  way  of  effecting  a  separation. 
Indeed,  the  separation  of  columbium  and   titanium  is  a  problem 


158  SMITH— COLUMBIUM  AND  TANTALUM.  |Apnii3) 

which  the  analyst  has  not  solved  up  to  the  present.  As  remarked, 
it  has  received  and  is  receiving  our  daily  attention.  Once  having 
achieved  this  result  and  having  definitely  determined  the  character 
of  the  color-giving  metallic  acid,  or  proved  it  to  be  titanium,  with- 
out any  further  doubt,  we  then  hope  to  subject  the  purified  coiumbic 
oxide  to  a  searching  review  in  all  its  derivatives,  just  as  we  are  now 
doing  with  the  compounds  of  tantalum.  In  anticipation,  it  may 
be  said  that  there  are  some  most  interesting  complexes  of  tungstic 
acid  with  tantalic  oxide  and  also  of  tungstic  acid  and  coiumbic 
acid.  These  are  under  study  at  present.  These  complexes,  also, 
have  brought  analytical  problems  that  are  most  puzzling.  Yet  our 
progress  with  them  leads  us  to  hope  for  a  separation  and  a  satisfac- 
tory solution  of  the  same. 

Some  attention  has  likewise  been  given  to  per-tantalates  and  per- 
columbates.  It  would  not  be  the  least  surprising  to  find  these  de- 
rivatives answering  admirably  for  atomic  weight  work. 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 


CONDITIONS  OF  THE  TRADES-MONSOON  AREA.  159 


ENQUIRY  INTO  THE   PRESSURE   AND  RAINFALL  CON- 
DITIONS  OF   THE    TRADES-MONSOON    AREA. 

BY  W.    L.   DALLAS. 

{Read  April  14,  igoj.) 

In  1900  the  writer  undertook  the  discussion  of  the  seven  mon- 
soon seasons  1893  to  1899  and  showed  that  during  those  seven 
years  there  occurred  a  series  of  oscillations  of  pressure  and  that  be- 
tween these  oscillations  and  the  monsoon  rainfall  over  India  there 
existed  a  very  distinct  and  marked  relationship.  The  data  used  in 
this  discussion  consisted  of  the  mean  monthly  and  seasonal  varia- 
tions of  pressure  over  India,  derived  from  all  the  stations  employed 
in  the  Daily  Weather  Report  of  the  Meteorological  Department, 
and  the  mean  monthly  and  seasonal  variations  of  pressure  over  the 
Equatorial  Belt  and  the  Arabian  Sea  as  given  by  the  pressure  obser- 
vations recorded  (1)  at  the  Seychelles,  Zanzibar  and  Mauritius  and 
(2)  on  board  ships  traversing  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  South-east 
Trades  Region. 

The  relationship  as  established  for  those  seven  monsoon  seasons 
was  as  follows:  (1)  The  Indian  monsoon  rainfall  was  in  defect 
during  the  rising  portions  of  these  pressure  oscillations  and  in 
excess  during  the  falling  portions  while  the  amount  of  the  rainfall 
variation  agreed  directly  with  the  rapidity  of  the  pressure  changes. 
(2)  The  pressure  oscillations  exhibited  a  periodicity  of  about  four 
years. 

It  was  carefully  pointed  out  at  the  time  that  the  discussion  dealt 
solely  with  the  seven  years  under  review  so  that,  though  the  agree- 
ment there  disclosed  was  exact  and  clear,  it  was  obvious  that  a 
much  longer  series  of  observations  would  be  required  before  it 
would  be  safe  to  assert  that  the  period  of  the  oscillations  and 
the  relationship  between  the  pressure  oscillations  and  the  rainfall, 
as  disclosed  in  the  discussions,  could  be  accepted  as  having  a  gen- 
eral application.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  before  the  publication  of  the 
paper,  it  had  already  become  apparent  that  the  relationship  had 
not  been  maintained,  while  a  simple  examination  of  the  existing 
rainfall  data  of  India  showed  that  there  does  not  obtain  any  simple 


160  DALLAS— PRESSURE  AND  RAINFALL  [April  13, 

four-year  cycle  in  the  Indian  rainfall.  The  author  believes  that 
these  four-year  oscillations  form  the  basis  of  the  weather  changes 
over  the  Indian  monsoon  area,  though  there  occur  at  times  violent 
or  spasmodic  interruptions,  the  cause  of  which  is  not  as  yet  appar- 
ent, and  that  these  interruptions  are  the  cause  of  the  great  irregu- 
larities in  the  course  of  the  pressure  cycle  and  in  the  occurrence  of 
the  variations  of  rainfall.  Since  the  history  of  these  seven  mon- 
soon seasons  was  written,  Professor  Bigelow's  "  Contributions  toCos- 
mical  Meteorology  "  ]  has  appeared.  In  it  the  following  paragraph 
occurs  : 

"  The  increase  of  solar  magnetic  intensity  is  synchronous  with  a 
diminution  of  temperature  but  with  an  increase  of  pressure  and  this 
function  persists  throughout  every  phase  of  the  research.  In  spite 
of  some  irregularity  there  is  a  distinct  conformity  in  the  general 
sweep  of  these  curves  and  also  in  the  tendency  to  describe  crests 
during  the  same  years.  Indeed  the  occurrence  of  four  subordinate 
crests  in  the  n -year  periods  suggests  strongly  that  a  2 f -year  period 
is  superposed  upon  the  long  sweep  of  that  period  curve.  Appar- 
ently this  minor  period  is  the  basis  of  the  seasonal  variations  of  the 
weather  conditions  of  the  U.  S.  A.  more  than  anything  else,  so 
that  in  long  range  forecasting  this  period  must  be  very  carefully 
considered. ' ' 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  period  of  these  minor  oscillations  as 
then  determined  by  Professor  Bigelow  was  2f  years  for  the  United 
States.  Subsequently  Professor  Bigelow  produced  his  "Report  on 
the  Barometry  of  the  United  States"  and  from  the  complete  data 
there  employed  he  obtained  an  eight-year  cycle  of  pressure  which 
is  a  simple  multiple  of  the  four  year  cycle  determined  for  the  Indian 
Monsoon  Area.  Professor  Bigelow's  researches  terminate  with  the 
year  1899  but  where  they  overlap  the  Indian  series  of  observations 
the  principal  characteristics  of  the  two  series  agree.  Thus  Pro- 
fessor Bigelow  obtains  a  maximum  in  1896  and  a  minimum  in  1898 
with  pressure  rising  again  to  a  maximum  through  1899.  In  the 
Indian  equatorial  area  the  period  is  approximately  four  years,  and 
the  writer  agrees  in  believing  that  these  minor  oscillations  of 
pressure  are  mainly  influential  in  determining  the  seasonal  varia- 
tions of  weather.      On  this  point  it  appears  probable  that  the  ex- 

1  See  Monthly  Weather  Review,  July,  1902,  and  especially,  Weather  Bureau 
Bulletin,  No.  21,  pp.  125-6,  Washington,  1898. 


I905-]         CONDITIONS  OF  THE  TRADES-MONSOON  AREA.  161 

perience  of  the  Indian  area  will  be  found  to  correspond  with  that 
of  the  United  States.  It  must  however  be  born  in  mind  that  the 
investigation  is  one  of  extreme  complexity  and  that  superposed  on 
the  four-year  or  minor  oscillation  there  are  great  irregularities 
which  cannot  now  be  explained  but  which  at  times  completely  upset 
the  regular  course  of  the  cycle.  Notwithstanding  these  irregulari- 
ties and  interruptions  it  appeared  to  the  writer  that  in  face  of  the 
remarkable  agreement  between  the  pressure  oscillations  and  the 
rainfall  during  the  years  1893  to  1899  'li  was  worthwhile  to  con- 
tinue the  discussion  in  a  more  exact  and  detailed  manner  so  as  to 
determine  (1)  over  what  area  the  pressure  oscillations  extended 
(2)  how  far  they  agreed  in  amplitude  and  in  time  throughout  the 
affected  area  and  (3)  what  relation  the  rainfall  of  the  whole  mon- 
soon area  bore  to  the  pressure  oscillations. 

The  author  has  collected  and  discussed  a  large  amount  of  ma- 
terial and  has  arrived  at  certain  conclusions  which  he  regards  as 
tentative  and  far  from  satisfying.  He  feels  doubtful  if  the  obser- 
vations would  fulfil  the  requirements  which  Professor  Schuster  laid 
down  as  a  means  of  estimating  the  reality  of  the  periodicity,  but  the 
investigation  has  brought  out  certain  relationships  which  appear  at 
least  worthy  of  record. 

The  tentative  conclusions  arrived  at  are  as  follows : 
(1)  That  over  the  trades  monsoon  area — and  most  markedly 
so  over  the  equatorial  belt — there  occur  four-year  oscillations  of 
pressure;  (2)  that  during  the  rising  portions  of  these  oscillations 
the  general  rainfall  of  the  trades  monsoon  area  is  below,  and  dur- 
ing the  falling  portions  is  above  the  average,  with  a  well-marked 
minimum  of  rainfall  in  the  first  year  of  the  cycle  and  a  well-marked 
maximum  of  rainfall  in  the  third  year  ;  (3)  that  from  the  Antarctic 
or  extreme  southern  regions  there  emanate  at  irregular  intervals 
rays  or  streamers  of  varying  extent  and  intensity  which  occasion 
increased  atmospheric  pressure  over  the  affected  area;  (4)  these 
rays  or  streamers  are  apparently  not  in  the  least  in  the  nature  of 
waves,  as  they  affect  large  areas  practically  simultaneously  and  con- 
tinue for  considerable  periods;  (5)  when  these  rays  or  streamers 
are  frequent  and  extensive,  as  in  portions  of  the  years  1899  and 
1900,  pressure  ranges  largely  above  the  normal,  but  exhibits  large 
oscillations  or  fluctuations  ;  when  on  the  contrary  they  are  absent 
as  in  portions  of  the  years  1898-1899  pressure  is  low  and  the  oscil- 


162  DALLAS— PRESSURE  AND  RAINFALL  [April  14. 

lations  small;  (6)  these  variations  are  superposed  on  the  four- 
year  cycle  of  the  tropical  belt,  and  are  spasmodic,  occurring  at 
irregular  intervals  over  irregular  areas  so  that  their  influence  oc- 
casions irregular  variations  of  rainfall  and  irregularities  in  the  pres- 
sure cycles. 

There  appears  to  be  no  satisfactory  explanation  either  of  the  four- 
year  cycle  of  pressure  over  the  trades  monsoon  area  or  of  the 
irregular  spasmodic  disturbances  of  pressure  referred  to  above. 
With  regard  to  the  cycles  it  is  possible  that  compensatory  actions 
are  at  work,  so  that  when  atmospheric  pressure  increases  in  one 
part  of  the  world  it  decreases  in  another,  though  the  evidence  of 
the  barometry  of  the  United  States  is  opposed  to  this  and  rather 
suggests  that  the  principal  secular  variations  of  pressure  are  of  a 
uniform  character  over  the  whole  globe.  It  is  impossible  to  believe 
that  the  variations  of  pressure  are  a  result  of  variations  of  rainfall. 
For  one  thing,  the  variations  are  as  marked  in  a  dry  area  like  Aden 
as  in  a  wet  area  like  Bombay,  and  for  another,  the  evidence,  so  far 
as  it  can  be  sifted,  shows  that  the  variations  of  pressure  precede  the 
variations  of  rainfall.  Thus  the  increase  of  pressure  which  culmi- 
nated in  the  large  excess  of  pressure  in  the  months  of  July,  August 
and  September,  1899,  commenced  in  February  of  that  year,  thus 
preceding  by  some  months  and  not  succeeding  the  scanty  rainfall  of 
that  season. 

The  memoir  contains  all  the  figures  and  data  on  which  the 
enquiry  is  founded.  Some  of  the  observed  changes  are  at  present 
quite  inexplicable,  but  the  observations  are  given  as  recorded  so 
that  though  the  author  has  not  succeeded  in  obtaining  any  con- 
clusive results,  it  may  be  possible  for  other  students  of  meteorology 
with  more  available  leisure  to  work  them  into  a  more  harmonious 
scheme. 

In  order  to  undertake  this  detailed  examination  the  employment 
of  pressure  or  rainfall  means  of  large  areas  has  been  abandoned, 
and  instead  the  actual  monthly  pressures  and  their  variations  for 
certain  selected  stations,  which  it  is  believed  represent  fairly  ade- 
quately the  whole  monsoon  area,  have  been  used.  The  list  of 
stations  includes  :  Batavia,  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Aden,  Cairo,  Mad- 
ras, Colombo,  Seychelles,  Zanzibar,  Mauritius,  Durban  and  Perth, 
while  in  addition  the  marine  observations  of  the  Arabian  sea  and 
the  Equatorial  belt  have  been  utilized  to  obtain  averages  for  those 


igos  ]  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  TRADES-MONSOON  AREA.  163 

areas,  mainly  with  the  object  of  determining  whether,  in  the  case 
of  these  pressure  oscillations,  there  occurs  any  horizontal  transla- 
tion in  the  pressure  changes  or  whether  they  occur  simultaneously 
throughout  the  whole  area. 

Numerous  tables  and  figures  are  given  in  the  memoir  to  assist  in 
the  discussion  of  the  observations. 
Meteorological  Office, 
India. 


Ki4  MERRIMAN— DEPTH  OF  BRIDGE  TRUSS.  [April 


THE    RELATION    BETWEEN   THE    ECONOMIC    DEPTH 

OF    A    BRIDGE    TRUSS    AND    THE    DEPTH 

THAT  GIVES  GREATEST  STIFFNESS. 

BY  MANSFIELD  MERRIMAN. 

( Read  April  14,  1Q05. ) 

The  fact  that  there  is  a  certain  depth  for  a  bridge  truss  which 
renders  the  quantity  of  material  a  minimum  has  long  been  known, 
and  the  marked  increase  in  the  depth  of  bridge  trusses  which  has 
occurred  during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  is  due  to  the  efforts 
of  manufacturers  to  use  the  least  possible  amount  of  material.  It 
has  generally  been  supposed  that  the  vertical  deflection  of  a  bridge 
under  a  moving  load  decreases  with  the  depth,  and  this  is  true  for 
plate  girders.  For  a  truss,  however,  investigations  made  by  the 
author  show  that  the  least  deflection  and  hence  the  greatest  stiffness 
increases  up  to  a  certain  limit,  as  the  depth  increases,  and  then 
decreases,  so  that  there  is  a  depth  which  gives  the  truss  its  greatest 
vertical  stiffness. 

The  following  are  the  results  obtained  by  the  author  for  the  type 
known  as  the  deck  Pratt  truss.  Let  /  be  the  span,  d  the  depth,  p 
the  panel  length,  and  n  the  number  of  panels,  so  that  /=  np. 
The  economic  depth  was  obtained  by  forming  an  algebraic  expres- 
sion for  the  amount  of  material  in  the  truss  in  terms  of  its  dimen- 
sions, given  loads  and  allowable  unit-stresses,  and  then  finding  the 
value  of  d/p  which  renders  that  expression  a  minimum.  There 
were  found, 


for     n 

=     4 

8 

12 

d\P 

=     1.29 

i-73 

2.08 

d\l 

=     0.32 

0.22 

0.17 

2.65         3.21 

0.13  O.I  I 

which  shows  that  djp  increases  with  length  of  span  while  ^///decreases 
with  length  of  span.  To  determine  the  depth  that  gives  greatest 
stiffness,  an  algebraic  expression  for  the  stored  energy  in  the  truss 
due  to  the  deformation  of  its  members  was  formed  and  this  equated 
to  the  deflection  due  to  the  given  loads.  Then  the  values  of  djp 
that  render  this  expression  a  minimum  were  deduced  for  different 
values  of  n,  as  follows  : 


igos]  MERRIMAN— DEPTH  OF  A  BRIDGE  TRUSS.  165 

30 


n    =.    4 

8 

12 

20 

d\p    -     1.29 

1.63 

1.92 

2. 

4/     =    0.32 

0.20 

0  16 

0. 

0.09 

which  give  laws  similar  to  those  of  the  economic  depth,  and  which 
show  that  the  depth  which  gives  the  greatest  stiffness  is  slightly 
less  than  the  economic  depth.  It  hence  appears  that  no  additional 
stiffness  can  be  imparted  to  a  bridge  by  giving  to  the  truss  a  depth 
greater  than  the  economic  depth. 
April,  1905. 


166  McCLELLAN— USE   OF   OSCILLOGRAPH.  [April  i4. 


ON   THE   USE    OF   THE    FALLING   PLATE   OSCILLO- 
GRAPH   AS    A    PHASE    METER. 

BY  WILLIAM   McCLELLAN, 

RANDAL   MORGAN    LABORATORY    OF    PHYSICS,    UNIVERSITY   OF    PENNSYLVANIA. 
(Read  April  14,  /QOJ.) 

The  wave  form  of  a  periodic  quantity  is  the  curve  which  shows 
the  magnitude  of  the  quantity  for  each  instant  of  time.  It  is 
always  interesting  and  careful  examination  reveals  relations  that 
could  hardly  be  discovered  in  any  other  way.  In  alternating  cur- 
rent calculations,  however,  little  can  be  done  until  the  wave  form 
is  known  accurately.  There  are  two  general  methods  in  use,  by 
which  it  may  be  determined — the  point  to  point  method  and  the 
oscillograph  method.  In  the  first,  the  quantity  is  measured  by  a 
meter,  through  which  the  circuit  is  closed,  by  a  revolving  contact  - 
maker,  for  an  instant  at  any  part  of  the  wave  for  which  it  may  be 
set.  The  meter  then  indicates  the  value  of  the  quantity  at  that 
particular  point  only.  By  taking  such  readings  at  various  points 
in  the  cycle,  the  whole  wave  may  be  plotted.  As  this  process  is 
somewhat  laborious,  various  instruments,  called  wave  tracers,  have 
been  designed  to  facilitate  the  operation.  In  the  Rosa  curve  tracer 
a  double  potentiometer  is  used.  The  operator  fixes  his  eye  on  the 
galvanometer,  and  produces  balance  by  means  of  a  small  crank, 
which  turns  the  cylinder  carrying  the  potentiometer  wire.  When 
this  occurs,  a  second  lever  is  pulled,  which  automatically  prints  a 
point  of  the  curve  on  a  paper  fixed  in  the  proper  position,  and  also 
turns  the  contact-maker  to  the  next  position. 

Either  of  the  foregoing  methods -requires  considerable  time  to 
plot  a  whole  curve.  The  successive  points  are  obtained  from  dif- 
ferent waves.  For  example,  a  good  operator  can  get  a  curve  in 
five  minutes  if  the  instrument  is  in  order.  If  he  is  working  on  a 
sixty-cycle  circuit,  he  has  obtained  his  curve  from  18,000  succes- 
sive waves.  It  will  be  a  true  curve,  therefore,  if  he  has  kept  his 
conditions  absolutely  constant  in  the  interval.  This  is  always 
troublesome  to  do,  but  particularly  so  in  commercial  work  where 
the  operator  seldom  has  control  of  the  generator.     To  avoid  this 


igo5.] 


McCLELLAN— USE   OF-  OSCILLOGRAPH. 


167 


difficulty,  the  oscillograph  has  been  devised,  by  which  it  is  possible 
to  obtain  the  form  of  a  single  wave,  or  a  number  of  successive 
waves. 

The  oscillograph  is  essentially  a  galvanometer  of  very  short 
period.  The  one  used  in  this  work  as  shown  in  Fig.  i  is  of  the 
moving  coil  type,  made  under  the  Duddell  patents.     The  field  is 


Fig. 


supplied  by  an  electromagnet,  the  coils  of  which  are  wound  in  sev- 
eral sections,  so  that  different  voltages  may  be  used  for  the  exciting 
current.  The  normal  current  nearly  saturates  the  core,  so  that 
slight  changes  in  the  value  of  the  current  do  not  cause  appreciable 
changes  in  the  strength  of  the  field.  The  coil  consists  of  an  in- 
verted U  with  the  ends  rigidly  fastened  at  the  bottom  by  a  rubber 
block,  and  connections  made  to  the  binding  posts.  The  upper 
loop  is  threaded  over  a  small  pulley,  to  which  is  fastened  the  spring 
by  means  of  which  the  tension  is  applied  to  the  strips.  There  are 
two  distinct  loops,  thus  permitting  the  taking  of  two  curves  simul- 


168 


McCLELLAN— USE   OF   OSCILLOGRAPH. 


[April 


taneously.  The  free  period  is  approximately  one  ten-thousandth 
of  a  second,  undamped.  There  are  three  mirrors,  one  fastened  on 
each  coil,  and  one  fixed  in  the  center,  to  give  a  zero  line.  The 
maximum  current  used  is  about  one  tenth  ampere. 

To  obtain  a  curve,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  uniform  motion 
perpendicular  to  the  motion  of  the  mirrors.  In  this  instrument  it 
is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  falling  photographic  plate.      This 


motion  is  uniformly  accelerated,  but  the  error  in  the  length  of  the 
plate  is  very  slight,  though  measurable.  The  error  amounts  some- 
times to  about  a  half  per  cent,  of  the  wave  length.  The  arrange- 
ment can  be  understood  from  Fig.  2.  The  galvanometer  M  is 
placed  in  a  camera  as  shown.  This  is  provided  with  a  slit  in  the 
end,  through   which   parallel   light   is  sent.     The  ribbon  of  light 


i9°5.]  McCLELLAN— USE   OF  OSCILLOGRAPH.  169 

falls  on  the  three  mirrors  of  the  galvanometer,  and  is  reflected  to 
the  cylindrical  lens  CL.  This  renders  the  parallel  ribbon  of  light 
a  point.  The  lens  is  focussed  so  that  this  point  is  in  the  plane  of 
the  photographic  plate.  The  chute  through  which  the  plane  is 
dropped  is  about  ninety-five  centimeters  long,  giving  the  plate  a 
speed  which  allows  the  record  of  one  twenty-five  cycle  wave  on  a 
four  by  five  plate.  Light  enters  the  chute  through  a  slit  which  is 
provided  with  the  hand  shutter  S.  The  shutter  is  open  when  the 
plate  is  dropping,  but  is  closed  before  the  plate  is  pulled  back  to 
the  top  so  that  the  slide  may  be  inserted.  This  prevents  any  possi- 
bility of  fogging.  The  plate  is  carried  in  an  ordinary  wooden  four 
by  five  plate  holder.  This  in  turn  is  held  by  a  light  wooden  car- 
riage H,  which  is  provided  with  springs  on  the  sides  and  back. 
These  are  adjusted  so  that  they  just  bear  on  the  surfaces  of  the 
chute,  thus  providing  a  very  steady  motion  of  the  plate  during  the 
fall.  The  springs  also  serve  the  purpose  of  holding  the  front  of 
the  plate  holder  tight  against  the  chute.  The  plate  is  started  by 
means  of  a  bulb  release  R,  and  is  stopped  by  an  airdash  pot  D.P. 
The  bottom  of  the  carriage  is  provided  with  a  leather  packed  brass 
piston  which  fits  the  cup.  Light  is  provided  by  a  powerful  25- 
ampere  arc  light,  which  has  the  usual  condensers.  In  addition,  to 
get  a  proper  parallel  beam,  the  concave  lens  L  is  provided.  The 
whole  camera  is  provided  with  leveling  screws,  in  addition  to  those 
for  the  galvanometer.  This  is  necessary,  since  the  chute  must  be 
vertical.  The  low  potential  currents  used  in  this  work  were  brought 
to  the  galvanometer  by  lamp  cords,  which  passed  through  corks  in 
the  side  of  the  box.  For  convenience  in  lifting  the  plate  holder 
and  carriage  the  sliding  bracket  F  is  provided.  This  is  raised  by 
the  knob  and  string  7\  lifting  the  carriage  until  it  catches  in  the 
release  apparatus.  The  bracket  then  drops  to  the  bottom  of  the 
box.  It  is  held  in  place  by  a  rod,  on  which  it  slides.  For  access 
to  the  camera,  the  whole  top  of  the  box  is  arranged  to  slide  in  a 
light  tight  groove. 

To  adjust  the  apparatus  for  a  curve  the  chute  is  first  made  per- 
pendicular by  the  outside  levelling  screws.  Then  the  galvan- 
ometer is  levelled  with  its  own  screws.  The  arc  light  is  then 
adjusted  so  that  a  strong  beam  of  closely  approximate  parallel  light 
falls  on  the  mirrors.  The  galvanometer  is  then  adjusted,  if  need 
be,  so  that  the  images  pass  through  the  center  of  the  slit.      Since 


170  McCLELLAX— USE   OF   OSCILLOGRAPH.  [April  14, 

the  mirrors  have  practically  the  same  horizontal  axis,  though  they 
are  not  in  the  same  vertical  plane,  necessarily,  the  spots  when 
focussed  on  the  plate  will  be  in  the  same  horizontal  line.  They 
must  be  adjusted,  however,  until  they  have  the  same  vertical  axis 
when  not  vibrating.  This  adjustment,  as  well  as  the  focussing,  is 
done  by  means  of  a  small  glass  cylinder  with  a  ground  glass  end. 
This  is  entered  through  the  back  of  the  chute,  and  is  of  such  a 
length  that  the  ground  glass'  is  in  the  plane  of  the  falling  plate. 
The  focussing  is  finished  and  the  cylinder  removed.  After  a  time, 
that  is  with  some  experience,  the  focussing  can  be  done  from  the 
front  of  the  box.  There  is  no  adjustment  for  the  verticality  of  the 
mirrors.  The  coils  may  be  twisted,  however,  so  that  they  may  be 
brought  to  various  horizontal  positions  by  adjusting  screws  on  the 
side  of  the  standard. 

The  double  oscillograph  permits  the  simultaneous  taking  of  two 
independent  curves.  Since  the  loops  are  so  fine,  and  the  area 
of  the  field  so  large,  comparatively,  the  loops  move  in  a  constant 
field.  The  amplitude  of  the  wave  is  therefore  proportional  to  the 
maximum  value  of  the  current  passing  through  the  loops.  This 
will  be  so  only  when  the  damping  is  critical,  that  is,  sufficient  to 
prevent  running  past  the  static  position  for  the  same  current,  and 
not  too  much  to  prevent  the  loop  reaching  its  static  position.  A 
proper  adjustment  of  a  non-inductive  resistance  in  series  with  the 
loops  would  make  the  deflection  a  definite  fraction  of  an  ampere 
per  millimeter.  One  of  the  suggested  uses  to  which  the  double  in- 
strument may  be  put  is  to  obtain  the  current  and  potential  differ- 
ence curves  for  the  same  piece  of  apparatus.  That  this  cannot  be 
done,  at  least  exactly,  will  be  apparent  from  a  little  study  of  the 
conditions.  The  problem  is  similar  to  the  wattmeter  problem,  in 
which  there  is  always  a  slight  error,  due  to  either  the  current  or  the 
E.M.F.  required  for  one  of  the  coils.  The  inference  is  also  fre- 
quently suggested  that  the  difference  in  phase,  as  indicated  by  the 
record  of  the  two  curves,  is  the  true  difference  of  phase  between 
the  quantities.  That  this  is  never  true,  and  seldom  approximately 
so,  will  be  apparent  from  the  following  discussion  : 

The  simplest  method  of  putting  the  oscillograph  in  circuit  is 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  L  is  the  apparatus  for  which  the  current  and 
E.  M.  F.  curves  are  to  be  determined.  Ox  and  02  are  the  two  loops  of 
the   oscillograph   joined  in  circuit  as  shown.      Usually  it  would  be 


1905.] 


McCLELLAN— USE   OF   OSCILLOGRAPH. 


171 


necessary  to  have  a  non-inductive  resistance  in  series  with  each 
loop  to  cut  down  the  current  to  a  proper  value.  A  non-inductive 
shunt  is  also  frequently  used  with   the  current  loop.      Fig.  4  pro- 


u 


vides  an  analysis  of  the  quantities  involved.  Let  E  be  the  poten- 
tial difference  between  A  and  B.  Lagging  behind  this  at  an  angle 
a  is  the  current  in  L(i)3.  Also  lagging  behind  E  at  an  angle  d 
is  the  current  in  02(i2).  But  the  current  through  Ox  is  the  vector 
sum  of  i  and  /  or  i .      Now  the  angle,  or  rather  the  space  on  the 


plate  equivalent  to  the  angle,  is  of  course  the  angle  of  phase 
between  t\  and  i2  and  not  between  E  and  /3,  as  is  frequently  in- 
ferred. It  may  approach  in  certain  cases,  but  it  is  never  the  true 
value.     The  angle  desired,  that  is  a,  is  given  by  the  relation 

a=8+(pjr0.  (1) 

PROC  AMER.   PHILOS.   SOC  XLIV.   l8o.  L.       PRINTED  AUGUST  I,    I905. 


17: 


McCLELLAN— USE  OF  OSCILLOGRAPH. 


[April  14, 


To  obtain  it  we  have  the  following  derivation  : 

i\  _     _  sin  ,5       sin  (<p  -f-  0) 
t\  sin  0  sin  0 

r  =  sin  (f  cot  0  —  cos  <p, 

r 

cot  0  =     . cot  cr, 

sin  y 

.  *.  a  =  cot-1  I cot  0  I  +  a>  +  d. 

\  sin  vr  '  / 

Before  we  can  determine  a,  therefore,  we  have  to  determine  8 


(2) 


Fig.   5. 

The  latter  may  be  obtained  by  putting  a  non-inductive  resistance 
in  place  of  L.     This  is  shown  in  Fig.  5,  from  which  as  before 


3  =  cot-1  I  -  ;     -  —  cot  if'  I  4-  a' 
\  sin  e'  / 


(3) 


where 


r'  = 


5MM 


To  illustrate,  and  provide  a  test,  arrangements  were  made  as  in 
Fig.  6.      An  alternator  which  was  under  the  control  of  the  oper- 


McCLELLAN— USE   OF   OSCILLOGRAPH. 


173 


ator,  so  that  its  speed  could  be  maintained  constant,  was  connected 
through  a  lamp  resistance,  a  variable  standard  of  inductance,  and 
the  loop  Ov  in  series.  The  other  loop  was  connected  across  the 
inductance.  The  resistance  of  the  standard  of  inductance  was 
9.89  ohms  in  all  positions.  The  angle  of  lag  for  any  given  posi- 
tion was  therefore  easily  calculated.  Moreover,  as  the  resistance 
of  an  oscillograph  loop  with  its  fuse,  is  also  about  ten  ohms,  quite 
a  difference  between  a  and  <p  could  be  expected.  Now  we  have  to 
determine  r,  <p,  and  8,  in  order  to  determine  a.  The  procedure 
was  as  follows.  With  the  inductance  set  to  some  definite  value, 
Z,   a  plate  was  taken.      Such  a  plate   is  shown  by  Fig.    7.      With 


Fig.  9. 

the  standard  set  to  zero  another  plate  was  taken.  This  is  shown 
in  Fig.  8.  Now  to  obtain  the  ratio  r,  we  have  to  measure  the 
ratio  of  the  amplitudes  of  the  two  waves.  As  these  waves  are 
obtained  from  two  different  loops,  it  will  be  necessary  to  obtain 
the  ratio  of  the  galvanometer  constants  of  the  two  loops.  A  third 
plate  was  taken  with  the  two  loops  connected  in  series,  and  one 
current  passing  through  both.  For  accuracy  in  measurement,  the 
loops  were  connected  oppositely,  so  that  an  apparent  phase  differ- 
ence of  180  degrees  results.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  fol- 
lowing measurements  are  then  made.  C  =  the  ratio  of  galvanom- 
eter constants  of  the  two  obtained  from  ratio  of  amplitudes  in 
Fig.  9. 
r=  iji2  obtained  from  ratio  of  amplitudes  in  Fig.  7. 


174 


McCLELLAN— USE   OF  OSCILLOGRAPH. 


[April 


A 4  and  l^,  wave-lengths  obtained  from  Figs.  7  and  8  respectively. 

/^  and  l^,  phase  displacement,  obtained  from  Figs.  7  and  8 
respectively  r  obtained  from  ratio  of  amplitudes  in  Fig.  7. 

During  the  taking  of  each  plate  the  value  of  the  frequency  must 
be  observed. 

R  =  resistance  of  the  standard  of  inductance.  We  then  have  the 
following  : 


=  /36o, 


9    =    ;        36°- 
V 


By  substituting  <p'  and  r'  in  (3)  we  get  6,     By  substituting  <s,  d 
and  r  in  (2)  we  get  «.     The  true  value  of  a  is  given  by  the  relation 


tan" 


Values  for  a  as  obtained  from  five  different  sets  of  plates  are 
given.  A  calculation  on  the  first  plate  showed  that  0  was  prac- 
tically equal  to  <p' ,  so  that  (3)  was  not  used. 


No. 

H 

'* 

V 

v 

& 

* 

e 

a 

L 

Tan"1  -g 

degrees. 

degrees. 

degrees. 

henrys. 

degrees. 

I 

1. 14 

1.74 

.11 

1.36 

1.76 

.025 

5-i° 

22.8 

32-3 

59 

.040 

56.8 

2 

M5ro 

1.79 

.10 

i-5S 

i-73 

.025 

5-2 

20.0 

23-5 

47 

.030 

48.8 

3 

1. 121 

1.98  .125 

1.36 

2.02 

.02Q 

3-0  °vo 

22.3 

31.8 

59 

.040 

56.8 

4 

M3H 

2.17-13 

1.36 

2. 1 1 

.025 

4-3  4 

21.6 

30.5 

57 

.040 

56*.  8 

5 

1.12 

2.08  1.13 

i-37 

2.12 

.025 

4.2 

22.3 

3i-8 

59 

.040 

56.8 

R  =  9. 


377 


It  is  evident,  that  in  the  simplest  application  of  the  oscillograph, 
a  mere  inspection  of  the  plate  is  not  sufficient  to  obtain  the  true 
difference  of  phase.  The  general  case  is  much  more  complex. 
This  is  represented  by  the  diagram  of  connections  in  Fig.  10,  and 
the  vector  diagram  in  Fig.  11.  It  is  necessary  to  introduce  a  series 
non-inductive  resistence  in  circuit  with  02,  and  a  shunt  on  Ov  in 
order  to  bring  the  current  to  a  proper  size.  The  letters  have  the 
same  significance  as  before,  and  in  addition  s  is  the  resistance  of  the 
shunt,  R'  is  the  series  resistance,  i,  is  the  total  current,  and  i,  is 
the  current  in  the  shunt.  As  before,  the  angle  {Etz)  is  the  quan- 
tity desired.  Now  a  plate  obtained  with  the  connections  ar- 
ranged as  in  Fig.  10,  would  give  us  /,,  i\,  and  the  angle  (*,*',), 


i9°5]  McCLELLAN— USE   OF   OSCILLOGRAPH.  175 

granting  that  the  loops  have  been  calibrated  so  that  current  values 
may  be  measured  by  them.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  multiplying 
power  of  the  shunt  for  direct  currents  is  known,  it  can  be  obtained 
from  z\  without  serious  error.  Also  since  s  is  non-inductive,  the 
angle  (i/3)  can  be  known  from  a  plate  taken  similarly  to  Fig.  8. 
Then  the  angle  (/,/,)  can  be  calculated,  and  subtracted  from  the 
angle  (i\i.,)  leaving  the  angle  (/>",).  Having  the  latter  angle,  with 
it  and  /.,,  (/>"3)  can  be  calculated,  and  added  to  (/>',),  and  (Ef), 
which  is  known  as  before,  thus  giving  Ei3,  which  is  the  desired 
angle. 

The   writer  has   not   worked   the   latter  discussion  out  for  two 
reasons.      First,  the  errors  of  measurement  on  a  photographic  plate 


U 


Fig.   io. 

would  not  permit  of  any  accurate  results  since  in  any  case  the 
angles  are  small.  Second,  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  the  mul- 
tiplying power  of  the  shunt  is  so  large,  that  the  currents  /,  and  i 
are  in  the  same  phase,  so  far  as  could  be  measured.  Also  the  re- 
sistance in  the  02  circuit  so  large  that  E  and  i  are  in  the  same 
phase.  Therefore  the  angle  desired  can  be  obtained  exactly  as  8 
was  in  the  preceding  discussion,  with  the  introduction  of  the  multi- 
plying power  of  the  shunt.  The  use  of  ammeters  in  some  of  the 
circuits  would  greatly  facilitate  matters  in  many  cases. 

The  above  discussion  shows  that,  with  the  oscillograph,  the  phase 
angle  can  be  calculated.  In  no  case  can  it  be  obtained  by  a  simple 
measurement  on  a  single  plate.  Owing  to  the  thickness  of  the  lines 
traced  by  the  moving  spot,  measurements  cannot  be  made  closer 
than  a  quarter  of  a  millimeter,  so  that  a  long  curve  must  be  obtained 
if  any  accuracy  is  to  be  attained,  especially  with  small  differences 
of  phase.  While  the  double  oscillograph  could  not  be  recom- 
mended in  any  way  as  a  phase  meter,  yet  it  does   permit  an  ap- 


176 


McCLELLAN— USE   OF   OSCILLOGRAPH. 


April 


proximate  value  of  this  quantity  being  obtained.  In  most  of  the 
cases  to  which  the  instrument  has  been  applied,  the  process  would 
be  quite  simple,  owing  to  the  magnitude  of  the  quantities  involved. 
The  fact  that  the  angle  can  be  obtained  is  valuable  in  those  cases 
where  curves  are  taken  under  fleeting  or  unknown  conditions,  in 
which  other  methods  could  not  be  applied. 


i9o5.]  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  177 


[Contribution  from  the  John  Harrison  Laboratory  of  Chemistry.  J 

SOME  OBSERVATIONS  ON  COLUMBIUM. 

BY  ROY  D.   HALL  AND    EDGAR  F.   SMITH. 

( Read  May  ig,  igoj. ) 

The  starting-out  material  in  this  study  was  columbite  from  Law- 
rence County,  South  Dakota.  Its  specific  gravity  equaled  5.86. 
It  contained  81  per  cent,  of  the  mixed  oxides  of  columbium  and 
tantalum.  The  total  quantity  of  substance  decomposed  by  fusion 
with  acid  potassium  sulphate  (58.5  kilograms)  was  21.3  kilograms. 
Each  fusion  was  made  in  a  platinum  dish,  using  100  grams  of 
mineral  and  275  grams  of  acid  potassium  sulphate.  While  still 
liquid  the  mass  was  poured  into  a  porcelain  dish.  When  cold  the 
fusion  separated  readily  from  the  dish  and  was  broken  into  small 
pieces,  which  were  boiled  with  water  in  large  No.  11  evaporating 
dishes  until  thoroughly  disintegrated  ;  when  they  were  transferred 
to  precipitating  jars  and  the  hydrates  washed  by  decantation  until 
the  wash  water  gave  no  precipitate  or  only  a  slight  precipitate  with 
ammonium  hydroxide.  The  solution  and  the  washings  were  evapo- 
rated to  dryness.  The  residue  was  designated  part  I.  The  moist 
hydrates  of  columbium  and  tantalum  were  covered  with  ammonium 
sulphide  and  allowed  to  stand  for  several  days.  This  ammonium 
sulphide  solution  was  decanted  and  designated  part  II.  The  re- 
maining oxides  were  finally  treated  with  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
and  then  thoroughly  washed  with  water.  The  washings  and  the 
diluted  sulphuric  acid  solution  were  also  evaporated  to  dryness  and 
marked  part  III.  The  residue  labeled  part  I  contained  potassium 
and  the  bases  from  the  mineral  in  the  form  of  sulphates.  It  was 
dissolved  in  water,  poured  into  five-gallon  jars  and  there  precipi- 
tated with  a  slight  excess  of  ammonium  hydroxide.  Having  de- 
canted the  supernatant  liquid  the  precipitate  was  washed  once  with 
water,  after  which  the  hydrates  were  covered  with  a  solution  of 
ammonium  carbonate  and  allowed  to  stand  for  several  days.  The 
ammonium  carbonate  solution  was  then  siphoned  off,  acidulated 
with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and  any  metal   present  precipitated 


178  HALL  AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  i9j 

with  a  slight  excess  of  ammonium  hydroxide.  The  hydrate  ob- 
tained in  this  way  was  dissolved  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
an  excess  of  ammonium  carbonate,  together  with  ammonium  sul- 
phide, added  to  its  solution.  The  iron  separated  in  the  form  of 
sulphide  and  with  it  there  was  a  small  amount  of  titanium.  The 
filtrate  from  this  precipitate  was  boiled  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
ammonium  hydroxide  added.  The  hydrate  which  was  precipitated 
was  ignited  and  tested  as  to  its  photographic  power.  It  gave  a 
picture  after  an  exposure  of  five  days.  It  contained  uranium.  It 
showed  the  greenish  color  characteristic  of  U308.  After  this  it  was 
fused  with  acid  potassium  sulphate,  taken  up  in  water  and  the  solu- 
tion boiled.  A  precipitate  formed  on  cooling  but  disappeared  on 
warming,  thus  indicating  the  presence  of  members  of  the  cerium 
group  or  of  zirconium.  On  the  addition  of  ammonium  hydrate 
there  separated  a  hydrate  which,  after  filtration  and  washing,  dis- 
solved completely  in  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid.  This  pointed  to 
the  presence  of  zirconium.  The  hydrates  were  again  precipitated, 
dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  solution  neutralized  with 
potassium  carbonate  and  saturated  in  the  cold  with  potassium  sul- 
phate. By  this  precipitation  the  zirconium  was  obtained  in  the  form 
of  insoluble  double  sulphate,  while  the  uranium  remained  in  solu- 
tion. After  filtering  out  the  zirconium  potassium  sulphate  it  was 
dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  zirconium  hydrate  precipitated 
with  ammonium  hydroxide.  It  was  well  washed  with  water  and 
dissolved  in  hydrofluoric  acid.  An  equivalent  amount  of  potassium 
carbonate  was  added  and,  on  evaporation,  potassium  zirconium 
fluoride  crystallized  out.  Three  grams  of  this  salt  were  obtained. 
Analysis.  — 0.5043  gram  of  the  salt  ignited  with  sulphuric  acid 
gave  0.5272  gram  of  K2S04  +  Zr02,  and  contained  0.2212  gram 
of  Zr02,  leaving  0.3060  gram  of  K,S04. 

Calculated 
K2ZrF6.  Found. 

2KF 4I05  40.47 

ZrF4 58-95  59-52 

100.00  99-99 

The  uranium  in  the  filtrate  from  the  zirconium  was  precipitated 
with  ammonium  hydroxide,  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  an 
excess  of  sodium  hydroxide  added  to  this  to  obtain  the  glucinum. 
This  was  not  found.     The  uranium  was  changed  to  nitrate  and  the 


igos.] 


HALL    AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  179 


solution  allowed  to  evaporate,  when  large  characteristic  crystals  of 
uranium  nitrate  separated.  The  solution  decanted  from  the  original 
ammonium  hydroxide  precipitate,  which  contained  manganese  and 
allied  elements,  was  treated  with  an  excess  of  sodium  carbonate. 
The  precipitate  produced  was  allowed  to  settle,  the  supernatant 
liquid  decanted  into  other  jars,  and  hydrogen  sulphide  passed 
through  it.  A  small  amount  of  a  black  sulphide  was  obtained.  It 
consisted  of  zinc,  iron,  copper  and  nickel  (from  the  crucible  tongs). 
The  precipitate  produced  by  sodium  carbonate  contained  manga- 
nese, zinc  and  iron.  Ten  grams  of  it  were  dissolved  in  hydrochloric 
acid  and  the  iron  removed  by  the  basic  acetate  method.  The  zinc 
was  then  precipitated  as  sulphide.  The  latter  was  changed  to 
chloride  and  tested  for  gallium.  Not  a  trace  of  the  latter  was 
found.      Zinc  lines  alone  were  shown  in  the  spectrum. 

Tin  and  tungsten  were  contained  in  part  II.  Part  III  was  not 
further  examined.  It  may  be  concluded,  therefore,  that  the 
columbite  from  South  Dakota  contains  as  acids  :  tantalum,  colum- 
bium,  titanium,  silicon,  zirconium,  tin  and  tungsten  ;  as  bases  : 
iron,  maganese,  zinc,  uranium,  copper  (?)  and  nickel  (?). 

The  moist  metallic  acids,  after  having  been  washed  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  were  brought  into  a  large  platinum  dish  and  dis- 
solved in  fairly  concentrated  hydrofluoric  acid.  This  solution  was 
then  filtered,  through  a  hot  water  funnel,  from  undecomposed 
mineral  and  from  potassium  silicofluoride  (due  to  the  presence  of 
some  potassium  sulphate  in  the  moist  oxides).  The  hydrofluoric 
acid  solutions  were  collected  in  large  rubber  dishes  and  sufficient 
potassium  hydroxide  was  introduced  to  convert  the  tantalum  into 
potassium  tantalum  fluoride,  most  of  which  separated  out  and  was 
removed  by  filtration.  This  precipitate  was  dried  as  far  as  pos- 
sible by  suction.  It  was  washed  once  and  then  allowed  to  dry  in 
the  air.  It  weighed  n  kilograms.  The  mother-liquor  from  the 
potassium  tantalum  fluoride  was  evaporated  in  stages,  potassium 
hydrate  being  added.  The  columbium  separated  usually  in  hexag- 
onal, hard,  short  crystals,  such  as  separate  from  a  strongly  acid 
solution  containing  an  insufficient  amount  of  potassium  fluoride. 
The  total  residue  obtained  in  this  way  amounted  to  about  8  to  10 
kilograms.  These  residues  were  decomposed  by  treating  them  with 
twice  their  own  weight  of  sulphuric  acid,  heating  gently  until  the 
bulk  of  the  hydrofluoric  acid  was  expelled,  and  then  evaporating 


180  HALL   AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  .9. 

until  the  mass  fumed  strongly  and  maintaining  the  temperature 
until  the  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  had  been  almost  completely  driven 
out.  Several  hours  were  required  for  this.  It  is  necessary  in  order 
to  get  rid  of  the  hydrofluoric  acid.  The  residual  mass  was  boiled 
with  water  to  extract  the  bases  which  dissolved  as  sulphates.  The 
insoluble  hydroxides  were  thoroughly  washed  and  dissolved  in 
hydrofluoric  acid.  The  first  crop  of  crystals,  obtained  by  evapora- 
tion with  potassium  hydroxide,  was  removed  and  the  mother-liquor 
then  evaporated  to  dryness  with  sufficient  potassium  hydroxide  to 
change  all  of  the  metallic  acids  into  double  fluorides.  A  portion 
of  these  crystals  (first  crop)  was  dissolved  in  water  and  the  tan- 
talum removed  by  adding  dilute  potassium  hydroxide  to  the  solu- 
tion, which,  after  the  formation  of  a  permanent  precipitate,  was 
boiled  for  some  time.  The  precipitate  consisted  mainly  of  potas- 
sium tantalum  oxyfluoride.  It  was  filtered  out  and  the  filtrate 
evaporated  to  dryness.  The  residue  was  baked  for  some  time  at 
2oo°.  By  this  procedure  some  hydrofluoric  acid  was  expelled  and, 
on  taking  up  the  residue  with  water  and  boiling,  more  potassium 
tantalum  oxyfluoride  separated.  By  repetition  of  this  process  all 
of  the  tantalum  was  removed  from  the  solution.  The  only  test  relied 
upon  for  the  detection  of  tantalum  was  the  solution  of  this  pre- 
cipitate in  a  drop  of  hydrofluoric  acid  and  evaporation  to  crystalli- 
zation. If  needles  separated  their  solubility  in  water  was  used  to 
ascertain  whether  they  were  potassium  tantalum  fluoride  or  potas- 
sium columbium  oxyfluoride.  It  is  true  that  this  test  consumes 
considerable  time,  yet  it  is  the  only  satisfactory  means  of  deter- 
mining with  which  of  the  metals  the  chemist  is  dealing.  The  for- 
mation of  a  precipitate  by  protracted  boiling  of  a  dilute  solution  of 
potassium  tantalum  fluoride  is  not  conclusive,  for  Krliss  and  Nilson 
(Ber.  1 88 1,  1676)  have  shown  that  potassium  columbium  oxy- 
fluoride deposits  under  like  conditions  a  small  amount  of  a  salt 
containing  less  fluorine.  Further,  the  double  fluoride  must  be 
recrystallized  several  times,  so  that  it  will  be  sufficiently  free  from 
acid  that  tantalum,  if  it  is  present  in  small  amounts,  may  be  pre- 
cipitated by  boiling. 

Having  freed  the  double  fluoride  from  tantalum  it  was  dissolved 
in  water  and  hydrogen  sulphide  conducted  through  its  solution. 
A  slight  precipitate  of  platinum  sulphide  was  obtained.  The  fil- 
trate from  it  was  evaporated  to  dryness  and  the  residue  baked. 


ig05.]  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  181 

On  dissolving  in  water  more  platinum  sulphide  was  found,  but 
when  hydrogen  sulphide  was  conducted  through  the  filtrate  no 
further  precipitation  took  place.  The  first  crop  of  crystals  got  by 
the  evaporation  of  this  solution  showed  the  usual  form  of  potassium 
columbium  oxyfluoride.  They  were  allowed  to  dry  in  the  air  and 
labeled  crystals  No.  i  (A).  The  filtrate  from  them  was  reduced 
to  a  small  bulk.  Strong  hydrofluoric  acid  was  added  when  -the 
needles  of  potassium  columbium  fluoride  (K2CbF.)  separated. 
These  were  dried  between  bibulous  paper  and  labeled  crystals  No. 
2  (B).  Samples  from  these  two  crops  of  crystals  were  analyzed. 
Analysts  of  No.  i  (A)  : 

0.53  gram  of  salt  gave  0.2346  gram  of  oxide  and 

0.3 16 1  gram  of  potassium  sulphate 
0.2346  :  0.3 1 61  ::  x/2  :   174  x  =  R.205  =  258.2. 

Calculated. 
K2CbOF5H„0.  Found. 

K.2S04 57.81  59.64 

Oxide  4452  44.26 

The  crucible  in  which  the  ignition  of  oxide  occurred  was  stained. 
This  was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  presence  of  tin,  which  had  not 
been  removed,  although  hydrogen  sulphide  had  been  conducted 
through  the  solution  of  the  double  fluoride. 

Analysis  of  No.  2  (2?)  : 

0.S428  gram  of  salt  gave  0.3635  gram  of  oxide  and 

0.4803    gram    of  potassium    sul- 
phate. 

0.481 1  gram  of  salt  gave  0.2082  gram  of  oxide  and 

°-  2 7 751    gram  of   potassium  sul- 
phate. 

0.3635  :  0.4803  ::  .v/2  :   174  x  =  263.4. 

0.2082  :  0.2775  ::  xJ2  :  174  x  =  250.1. 

Calculated 
K2CbF7.  Found.  Found. 

K2S04 57.05  56.99        57.68 

Oxide 43.93  43.13         43.28 

1  Probably  too  high  because  it  was  not  heated  enough  to  expel  all  of  the  sul- 
phuric acid. 


182  HALL   AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  19, 

Specific  gravity  of  oxide  (B)  : 

18  5924  pyknometer  -\-  water,       t  =  180 

.2346  gram  of  oxide  taken 
18.8270 
18.7760  pyknometer  -f-  water  -j-  oxide  .2346 

.0510  gram  water  displaced  .0510  4.60  sp.  g. 

To  determine  the  titanium  content  of  the  columbium  oxide  re- 
course was  had  to  a  comparison  of  the  color  tint  produced  by 
hydrogen  peroxide  in  an  oxalate  solution  against  known  amounts 
of  titanium  hydrate  dissolved  in  oxalic  acid.  Thus,  0.2262  gram 
of  columbium  oxide  was  fused  with  acid  potassium  sulphate  and  the 
fusion  dissolved  in  oxalic  acid  and  diluted  to  50  cubic  centimeters. 
It  gave  a  color  equivalent  to  0.4  cubic  centimeter  of  the  standard 
titanium  solution  (1  c.c.  contained  0.00106  gram  of  titanium 
dioxide).  In  other  words,  by  this  test  the  columbium  oxide  was 
thought  to  contain  0.000424  gram  of  titanium  dioxide,  or  .18  °/c. 

Solubility  of  Crystals  A. 
One  part  of  the  salt  was  found  to  be  soluble  in  a  little  over  12 
parts  of  water.      This  is  the  solubility  of  potassium   columbium 
oxyfluoride. 

100  grams  of  the  residues  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  mother- 
liquors  (page  180)  to  dryness  were  dissolved  in  water  and  fraction- 
ally crystallized.  After  having  removed  as  much  of  the  tantalum  as 
possible  by  introducing  dilute  potassium  hydroxide  into  the  boiling 
solution  until  a  rather  considerable  and  permanent  precipitate  was 
obtained,  the  solution  was  boiled  for  some  time.  The  first  fraction 
of  crystals  (2)  and  the  third  fraction  of  crystals  (3)  were  removed, 
after  which  hydrofluoric  acid  was  added  to  the  mother-liquor,  from 
which  there  separated  a  crop  of  needles,  which  we  shall  designate 
crystals  4.  These  last  were  recrystallized  from  hydrofluoric  acid. 
They  probably  contained  silicon  and  tantalum.  The  acid  mother- 
liquors  from  these  different  crops  of  crystals  were  treated  as  de- 
scribed by  Hermann  (J.  pr.  Chan.,  Series  2,  vol.  15,  105,  1877). 
That  is,  they  were  treated  with  20  parts  or  two  liters  of  water  ami 
150  grams  of  sodium  hydroxide.  A  clear  solution  resulted,  from 
which  a  fine  crystalline  precipitate  separated.     The  filtrate  from 


i9°5-] 


HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  183 


this  precipitate  gave  no  reduction  test  when  treated  with  acid  and 
zinc,  nor  was  anything  obtained  from  it  after  having  added  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  and  a  slight  excess  of  ammonium  hydroxide.  It  was 
free  from  earthy  bases  and  metallic  acids. 

The  crystals  of  the  sodium  salt  (2.5  grams),  obtained  as  outlined 
in  the  last  paragraph,  dissolved  almost  completely  in  20  parts  of 
boiling  water  and  separated  in  well-defined  forms  from  the  cold 
solution.  A  portion  of  this  salt  heated  in  a  salt  of  phosphorus  bead 
imparted  a  blue  color  to  the  latter  in  the  reducing  flame. 

The  next  step  was  to  decompose  the  solution  of  this  crystalline 
sodium  salt  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The  solution  was  hot.  The 
precipitate  which  separated  was  thrown  upon  a  filter  and  washed, 
after  which  it  was  dissolved  in  hydrofluoric  acid  and  an  equivalent 
amount  of  potassium  carbonate  added  in  order  to  form  potassium 
columbium  oxyfluoride.  The  solution  was  evaporated  to  dryness 
upon  a  water  bath,  the  residue  repeatedly  moistened,  and  evapora- 
tion to  dryness  repeated  until  the  odor  of  hydrofluoric  acid  could 
not  be  detected  by  the  smell ;  then  the  salt  was  baked,  taken  up  in 
water,  and  the  solution  boiled  for  some  time.  A  trace  of  tantalum 
oxyfluoride  separated.  It  was  filtered  out.  On  evaporation  to 
crystallization  the  leafy,  characteristic  crystals  of  potassium  colum- 
bium oxyfluoride  appeared.  They  were  dried  between  bibulous 
paper  and  then  analyzed. 

Analysis : 

0.5502  gram  of  salt  gave  0.2452  gram  of  oxide  and 

0.3224  gram  of  potassium  sulphate 
0.2452  :  0.3224  ::  x/2  :   174  x  =  264.6. 

Calculated 

K2CbOF5H,0.  Found. 

Oxide 44-52  44-56 

K2S04 57.81  58.60 

A  portion  of  crystals  No.  4  (page  182)  was  recrystallized  and 
analyzed. 

0.5588  gram  of  sample  gave  0.2407  gram  of  oxide  and 

0.3232  gram  of  potassium  sulphate 
0.2407  :  0.3232  ::  x/2  :  174  #=259.2. 

Calculated 
K2tbF7.  Found. 

Oxide 43-93  43-°8 

K2SO, 57.05  57-84 


184  HALL    AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  19, 

Analysis  of  recrystallized  portion  of  crystals  (4),  page  182. 

.5588  gram  of  sample  gave  .2407  gram  of  oxide. 

.3232  gram  potassium  sulphate. 
.2407  :  3232  ::  x/2  :  174  x=  259.2. 

Calculated. 
K2CbF7.  Found. 

Oxide 43-93  43-°8 

K,S04 57-05  57-84 

The  results  of  analysis  as  well  as  the  behavior  points  to  the  fact 
that  the  oxide  contained  in  these  residues  is  mainly  columbium 
oxide,  Cb205,  with  a  small  portion  of  another  oxide  causing  the 
equivalent  weights  obtained  to  be  too  low.  These  results  may  in 
part  be  due  to  the  presence  of  some  potassium  silicofluoride,  but 
more  likely  to  potassium  titanium  fluoride.  Yet  these  last  fractions 
of  double  fluoride  in  which  the  titanium  should  be  concentrated 
show  only  very  small  amounts.  Starting  with  so  much  material 
the  last  fractions  should  show  more  titanium  if  it  is  present  in  the 
mineral  in  appreciable  amounts. 

The  only  test  for  small  amounts  of  titanium  which  we  have  are 
the  hydrogen  peroxide  test  of  Schonn,  Jahresberichte,  1893,  901, 
and  the  chromotropic  acid  test  used  by  Geisow  (Dissertation,  1902). 
Of  these  the  former  is  the  only  one  relied  on,  and  it  offers  the  only 
direct  evidence  which  we  have  for  the  presence  of  titanium  in  the 
potassium  columbium  oxyfluoride  obtained  from  columbite. 

The  methods  applicable  in  the  preparation  of  columbium  oxide 
relatively  free  from  titanium  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Crystallization  of  potassium  columbium  fluoride  (K2CbF7) 
which  is  not  isomorphous  with  potassium  titanium  fluoride.  The 
difficulty  in  this  case  is  that  the  hydrofluoric  acid  increases  the 
solubility  of  the  columbium  body  and  decreases  that  of  the  titanium 
double  fluoride  so  that  the  titanium  would  have  less  tendency  to 
concentrate  in  the  mother  liquors. 

2.  Fractional  precipitation  with  dilute  ammonium  hydroxide. 
The  columbium  hydrate  is  precipitated  first  and  the  titanium  con- 
centrated in  the  last  fractions.  No  fraction  consists  entirely  of 
titanium  hydrate ;  even  the  last  fraction  is  largely  columbium 
hydrate. 

3.  The  formation  of  the  chloride  or  oxychloride  of  columbium 
and  the  chloride  of  titanium  and  separating  these  by  distillation. 


i9°5-] 


HALL  AND   SMITH— COLUMB1UM.  185 


4.  Treatment  of  the  hydrates  with  cold,  fairly  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid,  in  which  the  titanium  hydrate  should  dissolve  and 
leave  the  columbium. 

All  of  these  methods  were  tried  in  the  endeavor  to  obtain  suf- 
ficient titanium  from  the  columbium  to  identify  it  and  prepare  some 
of  its  derivatives,  e.  g.,  the  potassium  double  fluoride.  In  order  to 
try  out  method  "  1  "  the  remainder  of  the  residues  (page  180)  — 
2  to  3  kilos  —  was  crystallized  twice  from  hydrofluoric  acid,  thus 
getting  potassium  columbium  fluoride  (K2CbF7).  The  mother 
liquors  were  united.  They  equaled  600  c.c.  They  were  neu- 
tralized with  dilute  ammonium  hydroxide  ;  the  precipitated  hydrate 
filtered  out  and  the  filtrate  made  alkaline  with  a  large  excess  of 
ammonium  hydroxide,  which  gave  a  further  precipitate.  This  last 
hydrate  was  filtered  out  and  dissolved  in  hydrofluoric  acid.  Potas- 
sium carbonate  was  added  and  the  solution  evaporated  to  dryness 
on  a  water  bath,  the  residue  taken  up  in  water  and  crystallized. 
The  crystals  obtained  were  short  stubby  needles.  They  were  evi- 
dently not  potassium  columbium  oxyfluoride  (K2CbOF.).  Their 
quantity  was  too  small  to  recrystallize,  but  they  were  analyzed : 

0.4672  gram  of  sample  gave  0.1740  gram  of  oxide  =  37.6  percent. 
"  "     "        "  "     0.3050  gram  of  K2S04  =  65.3  per  cent. 

The  sp.  gr.  of  the  oxide  was  found  to  be  5.2,  although  too  little  of 
it  was  at  hand  for  accurate  work.  The  determination  of  the 
titanium  in  the  oxide  colorimetrically  gave  0.0106  gram  of 
Ti02=  6.1  percent. 

The  salt  originally  taken  showed  0.62  percent,  of  its  oxide  to  be 
Ti02  by  the  colorimetric  determination,  while  the  double  fluoride 
of  potassium  and  columbium  obtained  showed  a  Ti02  content 
equal  to  .25  per  cent,  of  its  oxide.  Hence  it  would  seem  that  by 
method  "  1  "  the  titanium  or  oxide  with  lower  sp.  gr.  and  molecu- 
lar weight  did  concentrate  in  the  mother  liquors. 

Crystals  2  and  3  (page  182)  were  combined.  Their  total  weight 
was  about  one  kilo.  This,  in  portions  of  100  grams  at  a  time,  was 
dissolved  in  about  2  liters  of  water  and  fractionally  precipitated 
with  ammonium  hydroxide,  using  dilute  alkali  and  working  in  the 
cold  with  constant  stirring.  The  alkali  was  added  until  the  solution 
was  barely  acid  to  litmus,  the  precipitate  formed  was  filtered  off  and 
the  filtrate  made  alkaline  with  an  excess  of  the  precipitant.     This 


ISO  HALL   AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  i9l 

second  fraction  contained  about  3-4  grams  of  oxide  from  each  100 
grams  of  double  fluoride  taken.  These  ten  last  fractions  were  com- 
bined and  dissolved  in  hydrofluoric  acid,  15  grams  of  potassium 
hydroxide  added,  then  dilute  ammonium  hydroxide  until  slightly 
acid,  and  the  precipitate  filtered  out.  It  was  marked  "A."  Am- 
monium hydroxide  was  then  added  to  the  nitrate  until  litmus 
showed  the  reaction  to  be  just  neutral.  The  precipitate  was 
designated  "B."  "C"  was  obtained  in  the  filtrate  from  "B" 
by  adding  a  large  excess  of  ammonium  hydroxide.  It  (C)  pre- 
sumably should  contain  most  of  the  titanium  from  the  1,000  grams 
of  double  fluoride  taken.  The  oxide  actually  present  in  it  was 
changed  to  double  fluoride  by  dissolving  in  hydrofluoric  acid  and 
adding  potassium  carbonate.  The  first  crop  of  crystals  was  ob- 
tained from  strong  hydrofluoric  acid.  It  recrystallized  from  the 
same  in  needles.     These  were  analyzed  : 

0.6954  gram  of  sample  gave  0.3018  gram  oxide  and 

0.3900  gram  potassium  sulphate, 
.3018  :  .3900  ::  x/2  :  174,         x=  269.3. 

Calculated 
K,,CbF7.  Found. 

Oxide 57-05  56.09 

K2S04 43-93  43-40 

The  sp.  gr.  of  the  oxide  equaled  4.45.  0.3  gram  of  it  showed 
the  presence  of  the  equivalent  of  .0025  gram  of  Ti02,  or  0.83 
per  cent. 

The  needles  from  "C,"  not  taken  for  analysis,  and  the  mother 
liquor  were  combined  and  evaporated  to  dryness  on  a  water  bath 
to  expel  the  excess  of  hydrofluoric  acid.  This  was  repeated  once. 
The  solution  of  the  salt  was  then  fractionally  precipitated  with 
amonium  hydroxide,  the  fractions  up  to  the  point  where  litmus 
showed  a  slightly  alkaline  reaction  being  discarded,  when  the  fil- 
trate from  them  was  made  strongly  alkaline  with  ammonium  hy- 
droxide. The  precipitate  obtained  was  changed  to  its  potassium, 
double  fluoride.      About  2.5  grams  of  the  double  salt  were  got. 

Analysis : 

0.7248  gram  of  sample  gave  0.3014  gram  of  oxide  and 
0.4205  gram  of  K,S04 
0.3014  :  0.4205  ::  x/2  :  174         .v=  249.4. 


i9°5  ] 


HALL   AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  187 


Calculated 
K2CbOF6H20.  Found. 


Oxide 57-81  58.02 

K2S04 44-52  4I-58 

The  sp.  gr.  of  the  oxide  was  found  to  be  4.667.  0.2930  gram 
of  oxide  gave  a  color  with  hydrogen  peroxide  equivalent  to  .0322 
gram  of  Ti02  =11  per  cent. 

The  crucible  in  which  the  oxide  was  ignited  was  deeply  stained. 
The  analysis  and  the  color  test  showed  the  presence  of  titanium, 
while  the  stain  on  the  crucible  and  the  high  sp.  gr:  of  the  oxide 
could  be  due  to  tin  in  considerable  amount,  which  is  precipitated 
in  the  last  fractions  on  fractional  precipitation  with  ammonium 
hydroxide. 

The  crystals  and  the  mother  liquor  remaining  from  this  salt 
were  dissolved  in  boiling  water  and  an  excess  of  sodium  hydrate 
added,  when  a  heavy  flocculent  precipitate  separated.  This  was 
filtered,  boiled  with  water  and  the  insoluble  portion  changed  to 
double  fluoride.  It  was  again  taken  up  in  boiling  water  and  an 
excess  of  sodium  hydroxide  added.  The  precipitation  was  not 
complete.  The  portion  precipitated  was  treated  with  boiling 
water,  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  found  to  contain  a  large  amount  of 
titanium.  That  portion  of  the  precipitate  insoluble  in  water  was. 
changed  to  double  fluoride. 

Analysis : 

0.5570  gram  of  sample  gave  0.2248  gram  of  oxide  and 
0.3468  gram  of  K2S04 
0.2248  :  0.3468  ::  x/2  :  174  x  =  225.6. 

The  sp.  gr.  of  the  oxide  was  found  to  be  4.2.  The  oxide  gave  a 
color  with  hydrogen  peroxide  showing  the  presence  of  about  21 
per  cent.  Ti02. 

Crystals  "A"  (page  181)  were  changed  to  double  fluoride  and! 
recrystallized. 

Analysts  : 

0.7184  gram  of  sample  gave  0.31 88  gram  of  oxide  and 

0.4176  gram  of  potassium  sul- 
phate. 
0.3188  :  0.4176  ::  x/2  :  174  x  =  265.7. 

PROC.   AMER.   PHILOS.  SOC.   XLIV.    l8o.   M.       PRINTED   AUGUST  I,    I905. 


188  HALL    AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  19, 

Calculated  Found. 
KjCbOFsHjO. 

Oxide 44.52  44.38 

K2SQ4  57.81  58.13 

The  sp.  gr.  of  the  oxide  was  found  to  be  4.481.  0.3160  gram  of 
oxide  gave  a  color  with  hydrogen  peroxide  equivalent  to  .0022 
gram  Ti02  =  .  7  per  cent. 

Crystals  "B"  (page  181)  analyzed  as  follows: 

0.8098  gram  of  sample  gave  0.3614  gram  of  oxide  and 
0.4708  gram  of  K2S04 
0.3614  :  0.4708  ::  x/2  :  174  x  =  267.0. 

Calculated  Found. 
KXbOF6H,0. 

Oxide 44-52  44-63 

K2SO, 57-Si  58-14 

The  sp.  gr.  of  the  oxide  was  found  to  be  4.864.  0.3600  gram  of 
oxide  gave  with  hydrogen  peroxide  a  color  equivalent  to  .0013. 
gram  of  Ti02  =  .36  per  cent. 

Having  failed  to  get  any  evidence  of  the  existence  of  neptunium 
in  the  last  fractions  of  the  double  fluoride  from  the  South  Dakota 
mineral,  it  was  decided  to  test  some  of  the  mineral  from  Haddam, 
Conn.,  the  source  of  the  material  used  by  Hermann  in  his  investi- 
gation. The  last  fractions  of  the  potassium  double  fluoride  from 
5.87  kilos  of  columbite  from  Haddam,  Conn.,  amounting  to  100 
grams,  were  dissolved  in  boiling  water  and  an  excess  of  sodium  hy- 
droxide added.  The  precipitate  obtained  was  partly  crystalline 
and  partly  flocculent,  as  described  by  Hermann.  It  was  filtered 
out,  dried  on  a  porous  plate,  and  boiled  with  25  parts  of  water. 
The  crystals  dissolved  leaving  a  yellowish  residue  evidently  con- 
taining much  iron.  This  residue  gave  a  yellow  colored  bead  in 
the  reducing  flame  containing  so  much  iron  that  it  was  impossible 
with  a  small  blowpipe  to  keep  it  all  reduced.  Is  it  not  probable 
that  this  is  what  Hermann  supposed  was  neptunium  ? 

This  salt  was  fused  with  acid  potassium  sulphate  to  remove  the 
iron,  the  oxide  remaining  after  extracting  the  fusion  with  boiling 
water  was  changed  to  double  fluoride,  dissolved  in  boiling  water, 
and  an  excess  of  sodium  hydroxide  added.  The  precipitate  ob- 
tained was  crystalline  and  perfectly  soluble  in  water,  leaving  an 
inappreciable  residue.      From  all  of  which  it  may  be  inferred  that 


igos.]  HALL   AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  189 

the  material  from  the  Haddam  locality  showed  no  more  evidence 
of  neptunium  than  did  that  from  South  Dakota. 

Ten  kilograms  of  the  main  bulk  of  the  potassium  columbium 
oxyfluoride  were  crystallized  from  strong  hydrofluoric  acid.  Five 
hundred  grams  were  taken  at  one  time  and  the  mother  liquors  from 
the  two  fractions  combined,  evaporated  one  half,  and  another  crop  of 
crystals  removed.  The  mother  liquors  from  these  were  united  and 
evaporated,  the  crystals  obtained  were  recrystallized,  the  mother 
liquors  from  the  recrystallization  combined  and  evaporated  to  dryness 
with  sulphuric  acid.  The  oxide  obtained  from  that  portion  evapo- 
rated to  dryness  was  5  grams.  The  fraction  of  crystals  immediately 
preceding,  60  grams  in  weight,  was  decomposed  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  the  oxide  obtained  from  it.  The  5  grams  of  oxide  and  about  one- 
half  of  the  oxide  from  the  60  grams  of  double  fluoride  were  heated 
in  carbon  tetrachloride  vapors,  taking  about  2  grams  of  oxide  at  a 
time.  The  more  volatile  portion,  which  should  contain  the  most 
of  the  TiCl4,  was  distilled  away  from  the  CbOCl3.  The  portions 
of  this  liquid  were  combined,  the  oxides  —  3  grams  —  obtained 
from  it,  and  these  oxides  again  heated  in  CC14.  Again  only  the 
liquid  portion  and  that  of  the  solid  which  was  carried  over  mechan- 
ically was  taken.  The  oxide  from  this  portion  was  changed  to 
double  fluoride. 

Analysis : 

0.567S  gram  of  sample  contained  0.2196  gram  of  oxide  and 

0.3390  gram  of  K.,S04. 
0.2196  :  0.3390  ::  x/2  :  174        x  =  225.4. 

Calculated 

K„CbOF6H20.  Found. 

Oxide 44-52  38. 6 

K2S04 57-8i  59.7 

Amount  of  Ti02  in  the  oxide  .0594  gram  =  29.7  per  cent. 

The  oxide  from  the  salt  taken  for  analysis  was  combined  with  the 
oxide  from  the  double  fluoride  not  taken  for  analysis  and  this  with 
the  remaining  half  of  the  oxide  from  the  60  grams  of  double  fluoride 
mentioned  above  was  mixed  with  the  oxide  from  all  the  previous 
double  fluorides  which  had  been  tested  for  titanium  and  shown  its 
presence  in  a  fair  degree.  This  mixture  of  oxides  was  heated  in  a 
current  of  sulphur  monochloride,    the  chloride   formed  collected 


190  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  19, 

in  a  receiver,  and  this  was  then  heated  until  all  of  the  sulphur 
monochloride  was  distilled  out.  This  sulphur  monochloride  and 
any  other  chlorides  which  it  might  contain  was  again  distilled  to 
remove  the  last  of  the  columbium  chloride  which  might  have  been 
carried  over  mechanically.  It  was  then  treated  with  water  and 
oxalic  acid,  the  sulphur  filtered  off,  and  any  oxide  dissolved  in  the 
oxalic  acid  precipitated  with  ammonium  hydroxide.  This  hydrate 
was  changed  to  potassium  double  fluoride. 
Analysis  : 

0.5444  gram  of  sample  gave  o.  1952  gram  of  oxide  and 

0.3850  gram  of  potassium  sulphate 
0.1952  :  0.3850  ::  x/2  :  174        x  =  175.9. 

Calculated. 
K2CbOF6H20.  Calculated.  Found. 

Oxide 44.52  33.33  35.85 

K.SO^ 57.S1  72.50  70.72 

0.0310  gram  of  the  oxide  was  found  to  contain  0.244  gram  Ti02, 
or  78.7  per  cent. 

A  solution  of  the  oxide  in  hydrochloric  acid  reduced  with  zinc 
to  an  amethyst  or  violet  color  ;  the  oxide  also  gave  a  violet  titanium 
bead  in  the  reducing  flame  with  salt  of  phosphorus. 

It  would  seem  that  about  80  per  cent,  of  the  oxide  from  this 
double  fluoride  was  Ti02. 

The  remainder  of  the  double  fluoride,  about  .5  gram,  was  dis- 
solved in  the  mother  liquor  from  which  it  came  by  heating,  and 
an  excess  of  sodium  hydrate  added.  A  fiocculent  precipitate 
formed.  After  cooling,  this  was  filtered  off  and  the  filtrate  acidi- 
fied with  hydrochloric  acid  and  tested  for  metallic  acids  with  am- 
monium hydroxide.  A  precipitate  was  obtained,  which  was  filtered 
out  and,  after  washing  thoroughly,  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid. 

Upon  passing  hydrogen  sulphide  through  this  solution  a  heavy 
precipitate  of  yellow  stannic  sulphide  was  obtained,  showing  that 
tin  had  been  carried  over  with  the  titanium  by  the  sulphur  mono- 
chloride. 

The  precipitate  formed  by  the  excess  of  sodium  hydroxide  was 
drained  thoroughly  and  boiled  up  with  water.  Nothing  went  into 
solution,  as  would  have  happened  had  there  been  any  sodium 
columbate  in  the  precipitate.      This  well  washed  precipitate  was 


i9°5-J 


HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  191 


dissolved  in  hydrofluoric  acid  and  potassium  carbonate  added  to 
change  it  to  the  potassium  double  fluoride. 
Analysis  of  the  crystals  obtained  : 

0.1S93  gram  of  sample  gave  0.0642  gram  of  Ti02  and 
o.  1366  gram  of  K2S04 

Calculated.  Found. 

Oxide 33.33  33.91 

K2S04 72.50  72.16 

The  determination  of  the  Ti02  colorimetrically  gave  .0636  gram. 
The  salt  was  undoubtedly  potassium  titanium  fluoride,  proving 
conclusively  the  presence  of  titanium  in  columbite. 

Behavior  of  Solutions  of  the  Double  Fluorides  of  Colum- 
bium  and  of  titanium  with  a  variety  of  bases. 

Excess  of  sodium  hydroxide  was  found  to  precipitate  titanium 
completely  from  a  solution  of  potassium  titanium  fluoride,  while 
with  potassium  columbium  oxyfluoride  it  gave  a  precipitate  soluble 
in  slight  excess  but  again  insoluble  and  separating  in  a  crystalline 
form  from  a  large  excess  of  the  sodium  hydroxide.  The  precipi- 
tate formed  in  the  case  of  the  titanium  was  insoluble  in  water, 
while  in  the  case  of  columbium  the  crystalline  deposit  was  com- 
pletely soluble  in  hot  water.  It  was  hoped  that  this  difference  of 
behavior  might  afford  a  means  of  separating  these  two  elements. 
To  test  this  experiments  were  tried  as  follows  : 

1.  0.9600  gram  of  K2CbOF. -f  H20,  containing  0.4272  gram 
ofCb20.,  and  1. 1600  gram  K2TiF6,  containing  0.3753  gramofTi02, 
were  dissolved  in  200  c.c.  water,  brought  to  boiling  and  an  excess 
of  sodium  hydroxide  added.  The  precipitate  which  formed  was 
partly  crystalline  and  partly  flocculent.  The  solution  was  allowed 
to  stand  over  night.  The  precipitate  was  filtered  out,  drained,  and 
washed  back  into  a  platinum  dish.  It  was  covered  with  200  c.c. 
of  water,  brought  to  boiling,  filtered  hot,  and  washed  with  hot 
water.  The  filtrate  which  should  contain  most  of  the  columbium 
and  none  of  the  titanium  was  brought  to  boiling  and  sulphuric 
acid  and  ammonium  hydroxide  added.  The  hydrate  obtained  was 
ignited  to  oxide  and  weighed  0.1640  gram.  It  was  found  to  con- 
tain .0117  gram  of  Ti02.  The  titanium  content  was  determined 
colorimetrically  by  fusing  with  potassium  acid  sulphate,  dissolving 


192  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  x9> 

the  fusion  in  oxalic  acid  and  comparing  the  color  developed  with 
hydrogen  peroxide  with  that  of  a  titanium  solution,  of  known 
strength,  in  oxalic  acid. 

Part  insoluble  —  0.2749  Cb205,  0.3636  Ti02 

Ti024Cb205  soluble  portion  ;   Cb2054Ti02  insoluble  portion. 

2.  A  mixture  containing  0.1270  gram  K2TiF6,  or  .0423  gram 
Ti02  and  2.5280  grams  K2CbOF5.H20,  or  1. 1376  gram  Cb20.,  was 
treated  as  above.  The  precipitate  was  nearly  all  crystalline.  That 
part  of  it  insoluble  in  water  weighed  .0470  gram  and  contained 
.0074  gram  of  TiOa  leaving  .0349  gram  of  Ti02  in  solution  (by 
far  the  greater  quantity). 

3.  0.2830  gram  K2TiF6,  containing  .0943  gram  Ti02,  and  2.7040 
grams  K2CbOF.H20,  containing  1.2168  grams  Cb205,  were  treated 
as  before.  The  precipitate  was  chiefly  crystalline.  A  small  part 
of  it  was  flocculent.  The  part  insoluble  in  water  weighed  .0740 
gram  and  contained  .0148  gram  Ti02,  showing  that  .0795  gram 
Ti02  went  into  solution  and  would  be  found  with  the  bulk  of  the 
columbium. 

4.  0.6790  gram  K,TiFfi,  containing  .2263  gram  Ti02,  and  2.2530 
grams  K2CbOF.H20,  containing  1.0139  grams  Cb20.,  were  treated 
as  before.  The  precipitate  contained  a  considerable  amount  of 
flocculent  material.  The  part  insoluble  in  water  weighed  0.1720 
gram  and  contained  0.0710  gram  Ti02,  leaving  0.1553  gram  of 
Ti02  in  solution. 

The  action  of  potassium  hydroxide  was  also  tried.  It  gave  a 
precipitate  with  columbium,  soluble  in  an  excess,  and  reprecipi- 
tated  by  greater  excess.  When  the  solution  was  evaporated  pearly 
plates  of  potassium  columbate  separated  out.  With  a  solution  of 
K2TiF6  a  heavy  precipitate  was  obtained,  but  the  filtrate  gave  a 
slight  test  for  titanium. 

1. 3 1 30  gram  K2TiF6,  containing  .4377  gram  of  Ti02,  and  1.0060 
gram  K2CbOF5H20,  containing  .4467  gram  Cb205,  were  dissolved 
in  200  c.c.  of  water  and  the  solution  brought  to  boiling,  when  an 
excess  of  potassium  hydroxide  was  added.  The  precipitate  obtained 
weighed  0.5900  gram  after  ignition.  The  filtrate  gave  a  very  pro- 
nounced test  for  titanium. 

Solutions  of  K2TiF6  and  K2CbOF5  were  studied  with  various 
organic  bases  in  the  hope  that  differences  of  behavior  might  pre- 


•9°S-] 


HALL   AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM. 


193 


sent  themselves  which  would  lead  to  a  quantitative  separation  of 
these  two  elements. 


Reagent. 

1.  Mono-methylamine, 

2.  Di-methylamine, 

3.  Tri-methylamine, 

4.  Tetra-methylamine, 

5.  Mono-ethylamine, 

6.  Di-ethylamine, 

7.  Tri-ethylamine, 


8.  Di-propylamine, 

9.  Amylamine, 

10.  Iso-butylamine, 

11.  Allylamine, 

12.  Ethylenediamine, 

13.  Propylenediamine, 

14.  Butylenediamine  (secondary), 

15.  Butylenediamine  (normal) 

16.  Hexylamine, 

17.  Benzylamine, 

18.  Benzylmethylamine, 

19.  Piperidine, 

20.  Camphylamine, 

21.  Di-benzylamine, 

22.  Pyridine, 

23.  Di-isobutylamine, 

24.  Tri-propylamine, 

25.  Di-amylamine, 

26.  Heptylamine, 

27.  Toluylenediamine  (meta), 

28.  Picoline, 

29.  Tri-isobutylamine, 

30.  Bornylamine, 

31.  Aniline, 

32.  Toluidine  (m), 

^^.  Mono-methylaniline, 

34.  Mono-ethylaniline, 

35.  Isoquinoline, 

36.  Quinoline, 


Solution  of  K2TiF6.         Solution  of  K„CbOF5. 
Precipit.  complete,     Precipit.  soluble  excess. 


"       by  large  excess. 

insoluble  excess. 

dif.  soluble  in  water. 

"         soluble  excess. 


slightly  soluble  excess. 
Precipit.  complete. 


Partial  precipitation,         " 

" 

Slight  precipitation,          " 

nearly  but  not 

quite  complete. 

"              "                      " 

not  complete. 

Precipit.  not  complete,    " 

heavy  but  not 

complete. 

Slight  precipitation,         " 

" 

"              "       after        " 

"         " 

24  hours, 

Slight  prec.  on  standing,  " 

slow — incom- 

plete. 

"              "         "            " 

heavy — incom- 

plete. 

"              "         "            ' 

'        nearly  com- 

plete, 

194 


HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM. 


[May 


Reagent. 

37.    I  lexylmethylenetetramine, 

3S.   Bromaniline  (ra), 

39.    Chloraniline  (o), 


40. 

Di-chloraniline, 

41. 

Di-ethylaniline,                                 " 

42. 

Chloraniline  (p), 

43. 

Di-methylaniline,                              " 

44. 

Xylidine  (p), 

45- 

Xylidine  (0),                                   " 

46. 

Xylidine  (mj,                                  " 

47- 

Tetra-hydroquinoline,                      " 

48. 

Benzylaniline, 

49- 

Di-phenylamine,                              " 

50. 

Tri-benzylamine, 

5i- 

Naphthylamine  (,3),                       " 

52. 

Naphthylamine  («),                       " 

53- 

Nitronaphthalene,                          " 

54 

Bromphenylhydrazine,                    " 

55- 

Nitrophenylh)drazine,                    " 

5^>. 

Benzidine,                                         " 

57- 

Nitraniline  (0), 

58. 

Nitraniline  (p),                              " 

59- 

Nitraniline  (m),                              " 

60. 

Diphenyl,                                          " 

61. 

Diphenyl  carbonate,                       " 

62. 

Methyl  carbonate,                          " 

63- 

Ethyl  carbonate,                              " 

64. 

Piperine,                                          " 

65. 

Mono-chlorhydrin,                         " 

66 

Tri-chlorhydrin,                               " 

67. 

Di-bromhydrin  (/?),                      " 

68. 

Nitroso-dipropylin,                         " 

69. 

Nitroso-diethylene,                        " 

70. 

Nitroso-dimethylene,                      " 

7i- 

Succinimide,                                     " 

72. 

Methyl-diphenylamine,                  " 

73- 

Tetra-nitromethylaniline,               " 

74- 

Bromamiline,                                    " 

Solution  of  K2TiF6.  Solution  of  K2CbOFs. 

Slight  prec.  on  standing,  Free,  heavy — in- 
complete. 
No  precipitation,        Slight  prec.  on  standing. 


Frecipit.  slow- 
plete. 


Slight  prec.  on  standing. 
No  precipitation. 


The  behavior  of  the  bases  which  react  with  the  above  solutions  of 
titanium  and  columbium  may  be  divided  into  the  following  classes  : 

1.  Those  which  precipitate  the  titanium  completely,  and  while 
they  precipitate  the  columbium  dissolve  it  upon  the  addition  of  an 


I9oS.J  HALL   AND   SMITH— C0LUMB1UM.  1(J5 

excess  of  the  reagent  to  form  columbates.  This  class  while  show- 
ing pronounced  difference  of  behavior  is  useless  as  a  means  of 
separation,  for  upon  treating  a  solution  containing  both  titanium 
and  columbium  with  one  of  these  reagents  the  titanium  was  found 
both  in  the  soluble  and  in  the  insoluble  portion.  Columbium  was 
also  found  in  the  titanium  precipitate.  The  probable  explanation 
for  this  is  that  a  columbate  was  formed  which  dissolved  the  freshly 
precipitated  titanium  hydrate  to  a  salt  of  a  complex  titanoso- 
columbic  acid,  which  was  soluble,  and  also  a  small  amount  of  an 
acid  salt  or  a  free  acid  containing  an  excess  of  titanium,  which  was 
insoluble. 

2.  To  the  second  class  of  reagents  belong  those  which  precipi- 
tate the  hydrates  of  the  two  elements  and  are  not  sufficiently  basic 
to  dissolve  the  columbium  hydrate  and  form  columbates.  Those 
reagents  which  are  sufficiently  basic  to  completely  precipitate  the 
columbium  are  strong  enough  to  partially  precipitate  the  titanium. 
Quinoline  seemed  the  most  promising  of  all  the  reagents  which  were 
tried. 

3.  Those  reagents  which  gave  only  a  partial  precipitation  with 
columbium  and  no  precipitation  with  titanium  solutions  did  not 
precipitate  columbium  hydrate  free  from  titanium,  from  a  solution 
containing  both  titanium  and  columbium.  The  hydrate  pre- 
cipitated always  gave  a  strong  test  for  titanium  after  dissolving  it 
in  oxalic  acid.  This  may  have  been  due  in  part  to  the  extreme 
difficulty  encountered  in  washing  the  precipitate  free  from  mother 
liquor. 

4.  The  remaining  reagents  precipitated  neither  titanium  nor 
columbium. 


REACTIONS    OF    THE    DOUBLE    FLUORIDES    OF    COLUMBIUM,    TITANIUM, 

TANTALUM,    TIN    AND    TUNGSTEN    WITH    VARIOUS     REAGENTS    IN 

CONCENTRATED    SULPHURIC   ACID. 

A  small  amount  of  the  reagent  was  dissolved  in  eight  to  ten 
drops  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  on  a  glazed  porcelain  sur- 
face and  the  crystalline  double  fluoride  introduced  into  this  acid 
solution.  In  most  cases  the  color  was  destroyed  upon  diluting 
with  water.  No  color  was  imparted  to  tin  solutions  by  any  of  the 
reagents  which  appear  below. 


196 


HALL    AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM. 


[May  ,9> 


Reagent.  Ta. 

Codeine,  No  color, 


Morphine,        Faint  yel- 
low, 
Resorcinol        No  color,  No  color 


Naphthol  (/?) 

Naphthol  («) 

Pyrogallol, 

Salicylic  acid, 

Cinchonidine, 

Apomorphia, 

Narceine, 

Bebeerina, 
Narcotina, 


Cb.  Ti.  \V. 

No  color,  Faint  pink  ;  may  Light  brown  ;    on  stand- 

be  due  to  mor-      ing  trace  purple, 
phine, 
Red  to    brown  ;    Gray    brown,    becoming 

very  delicate,         purple,  ll.fi  ppt. 
Red        brown  ;     No  color, 
fairly  delicate, 
Faint    yellow  Coffee     brown ;     Brown,     becoming    dark 

brown  very  delicate,         blue. 

Faint  brown,  Green     to    dark   Deep    blue ;     very    deli- 
greenish  brown,     cate. 
Yellow       to    Dull  dark  red,       Deep   red  to    brown   to 

light  brown,  dirty  blue. 

Very       faint  Deep  red,  Reddish  yellow. 

yellow, 
No  color,         No  color,  On     standing     a    slight 

purple. 
Yellow  brown,  Light  red  brown,  Purple  to  brown  to  green 

•    and  blue. 
Brownish  yel-  Brown,  Dirty  dark  green. 

low, 
No  color,  Clear  brown,  Dark  brown  to  green. 

Yellow,  Brown,  Light  brown  to  green. 


Strychnia,  quinidia,  cinchonidine  and  atropia  gave  no  color  with 
any  of  the  elements  tested.  Narceine  and  bebeerina  alone  in  sul- 
phuric acid  gave  a  considerable  color,  and  with  them  the  amount 
of  reagent  used  must  be  very  small  or  it  will  obscure  any  change 
produced  by  the  addition  of  the  double  fluoride.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  is  of  interest  to  note  that  Levy  (C.  R.,  103,  1074  and 
1 195)  studied  the  colors  produced  by  the  phenol-like  bodies,  dis- 
solved in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  when  brought  in  contact 
with  the  oxides  of  titanium,  tin,  tantalum,  columbium  and  other 
elements,  with  the  following  results.  Columbium  could  be  tested 
for  in  the  presence  of  all  the  others  by  using  codeine,  as  it  gave 
a  pink  color,  while  titanium  yielded  no  color  and  tantalum 
but  a  faint  green.  Titanium  could  be  tested  for  by  using  mor- 
phine, with  which  it  gave  a  carmine  color,  columbium  no  color 
and  tantalum  a  yellow  color  passing  into  brown.  Tantalum  with 
resorcinol  gave  a  dirty  green  color,  changing  to  amethyst  and  rose, 
while  titanium  yielded  a  flesh  red  color  going  to  chocolate  brown, 
and  columbium  a  yellowish  tint.      None  of  the  results  were  dupli- 


I9°5-] 


HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  197 


cated  save  the  morphine  test  for  titanium,  which  proved  exceedingly 
delicate,  yet  to  have  the  color  show  definitely  in  columbium  the 
latter  must  contain  .5  per  cent,  of  Ti02.  Codeine  gave  no  color 
with  columbium,  nor  did  resorcinol  with  tantalum,  therefore  Levy 
could  not  have  had  pure  material  for  his  tests. 

In  our  use  of  these  reagents  we  failed  to  find  satisfactory  tests 
except  in  the  case  of  morphine  for  titanium.  None  answered  for 
columbium  in  the  presence  of  titanium  or  for  tantalum  in  the  pres- 
ence of  columbium.  Resorcinol  proved  to  be  a  fairly  delicate  test 
for  titanium.  It  gave  no  color  with  columbium,  tantalum  or 
tungsten. 

ACTION    OF    HYDROCHLORIC    ACID    GAS    ON    IGNITED 
COLUMBIC    OXIDE. 

0.25  gram  of  ignited  columbic  oxide  was  completely  volatilized 
in  three  hours  in  a  current  of  dry  hydrochloric  acid  gas.  It  vola- 
tilized as  a  white  powder  with  no  indication  of  reduction  by  change 
of  color.  The  compound  formed  adhered  to  the  walls  of  the  glass 
tube,  was  insoluble  in  oxalic  acid,  and  only  very  slowly  soluble  in 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  requiring  long  boiling  to  dissolve  a  thin 
layer.  It  contained  hydrochloric  acid,  as  was  shown  by  washing 
with  ammonium  hydroxide  and  testing  the  washings  with  silver 
nitrate  and  nitric  acid.  It  would  be  very  difficult  to  collect  in  a 
form  convenient  for  analysis,  yet  this  should  be  done,  as  the  body 
evidently  contains  no  water,  as  is  given  in  the  formula  of  a  similar 
body  obtained  by  Smith  and  Maas  {Zeit.  atiorg.  Chem.,  7,  96)  by 
passing  moist  hydrochloric  acid  gas  over  the  hydrated  oxide.  It  is 
undoubtedly  analogous  to  the  body  obtained  on  heating  molybdic 
acid  in  hydrochloric  acid  gas,  namely,  Mo032HCl.  It  is  likely 
Cb20..xHCl. 

ACTION    OF     SULPHURIC    ACID     ON     THE     HYDRATES     OF     COLUMBIUM 

AND    TITANIUM    AFTER     RECIPITATION    BY    AMMONIUM 

HYDROXIDE    FROM    SOLUTIONS    OF    THEIR 

DOUBLE    FLUORIDES. 

The  method  used  was  to  precipitate  the  hydrates  from  a  weighed 
amount  of  the  double  fluorides,  filter  and  wash  as  thoroughly  as 
possible,  then  transfer  to  a  weighed  platinum  dish,  reweigh,  the 
difference  being  water,  after  which  a  weighed  amount  of  sulphuric 


198  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM. 


[May  19, 


acid  of  definite  specific  gravity  was  added  and  allowed  to  stand  in 
contact  with  the  hydrates  for  a  definite  time.  The  portion  in- 
soluble was  filtered  off,  and  the  amount  of  oxide  going  into  solu- 
tion determined  by  precipitation  with  ammonium  hydroxide, 
igniting  and  weighing.  The  amount  of  titanium  in  the  oxide 
which  went  into  solution  was  determined  colorimetrically. 

In  making  these  trials  columbium  oxyfluoride  was  used  in  which 
the  titanium  oxide  as  compared  with  the  columbium  oxide  was 
.00095  gram  Ti02,  or  0.41  per  cent.  The  specific  gravity  of  the 
sulphuric  acid  used  was  1.145. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  1  gram  ofK2TiF6,  containing  0.3330  gram  of  Ti02,  was  used 
to  obtain  the  hydrate.  The  latter  was  treated  with  40  c.c.  of 
water  and  70  grams  of  sulphuric  acid.  It  dissolved  completely  in 
fifteen  minutes. 

2.  0.4450  gram  of  columbic  oxide,  in  the  form  of  hydrate,  was 
treated  with  40  grams  of  water  and  108  grams  of  sulphuric  acid  for 
one  hour.  Only  a  slight  precipitate  was  obtained  with  ammonium 
hydroxide  in  the  filtrate.  It  was  not  weighed  but  contained 
.00032  gram  of  Ti02,  or  .07  per  cent,  of  the  total  oxide  taken,  or 
one-sixth  of  the  total  Ti02  present. 

3.  Columbic  hydrate,  containing  0.4450  gram  of  oxide,  was 
treated  with  60  grams  of  water  and  123  grams  of  sulphuric  acid  for 
four  hours.  The  portion  which  dissolved  equaled  0.0060  gram  = 
1.33  per  cent.,  and  contained  .000424  gram  of  Ti02,  or  7  per  cent, 
of  the  oxide  dissolved  and  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  titanium 
present. 

4.  The  hydrate  from  three  grams  of  columbium  oxyfluoride, equiv- 
alent to  1.35  grams  of  oxide,  was  allowed  to  stand  in  contact  with 
50  grams  of  water  and  100  grams  of  sulphuric  acid  for  seventeen 
hours.  The  acid  solution  showed  0.0236  gram  of  oxide  =  1.75 
per  cent.,  containing  .000954  gram  TiO,  =  4  per  cent,  of  oxide 
dissolved  or  17  per  cent,  of  the  total  Ti02  present. 

5.  Hydrate  containing  0.445  gram  of  oxide  when  treated  with 
57  grams  of  water  and  85  grams  of  H2S04  (sp.  gr.  =  1.435)  f°r  45 
hours  showed  in  solution  0.0500  gram  =11.1  per  cent.,  containing 
0.0008  gram  Ti02  =1.6  per  cent,  of  the  oxide  dissolved  or  43  per 
cent,  of  the  total  Ti02  present. 


igo5.] 


HALL  AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  199 


Known  amounts  of  the  two  hydrates  were  next  treated  together 
as  in  the  following  experiments. 

6.  0.2816  gram  of  K2TiF6,  containing  .0939  gram  of  Ti02,  and 
0.5078  gram  of  K2CbOF5H20,  containing  0.2255  gram  Cb205, 
were  treated  with  50  grams  of  water  and  15  grams  of  sulphuric  acid 
(sp.  gr.=  1.435)  f°r  f°ur  hours.  The  amount  of  oxfde  remaining 
insoluble  was  only  .07  gram.  It  was  not  examined  as  to  its  titan- 
ium content. 

7.  The  hydrate  from  o.  2420  gram  K2TiF6,  containing  .0807  gram 
Ti02,  and  that  from  0.3454  gram  of  K2CbOF.H20,  containing 
0.1537  gram  of  Cb205,  were  covered  with  70  grams  of  water  and  5 
grams  of  sulphuric  acid  of  sp.  gr.  1.435.  The  amount  of  oxide  in 
solution  after  four  hours  was  0.0800  gram,  corresponding  well  with 
the  weight  of  the  oxide  of  titanium  present,  but  the  insoluble  portion 
was  found  to  contain  0.0350  gram  of  Ti02,  determined  colorimet- 
rically ;  so  that  only  about  one-half  of  the  titanium  hydrate  had 
been  dissolved  out  while  nearly  as  much  columbium  hydrate  had 
gone  into  solution.  The  acid  used  would  not  have  dissolved  any 
columbium  hydrate  had  it  been  free  from  titanium  hydrate  ;  further 
it  would  have  dissolved  out  all  of  the  titanium  hydrate  had  it  not 
been  mixed  with  the  columbium  hydrate.  It  may,  therefore,  be 
concluded  that  this  method  of  separation  is  worthless.  It  remains 
to  be  seen  how  haloid  acids  would  act. 

THE    CHROMOTROPIC    ACID    TEST    FOR    TITANIUM. 

Geisow  (Dissertation,  1902)  observed  that  the  color  developed 
by  chromotropic  acid  with  titanium  solutions  offered  a  very  deli- 
cate test  for  that  element.  In  concentrated  solution  it  gives  a  deep 
red,  in  dilute  solutions,  a  pink  color.  The  color-giving  compound 
was  isolated  by  Geisow  and  found  to  have  the  following  composi- 
tion :  one  molecule  of  chromotropic  acid  to  four  of  Ti02  and  nine 
of  H20. 

As  it  was  most  important  to  find  some  means  of  estimating  the 
amount  of  titanium  in  columbium  we  were  induced  to  study  this 
reaction  of  Geisow,  using  solutions  of  titanic  hydrate  in  oxalic, 
sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acids. 

Solutions  used  : 

(A)  0.53  gram  of  Ti02  dissolved  in  3.42  grams  of  oxalic  acid 
and  diluted  to  500  c.c.  1  c.c.  =  .00106  gram  of  TiO,  and  con- 
tained .00684  gram  of  oxalic  acid. 


200  HALL   AXJ)   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  i9> 

(B)  10  c.c.  of  (A)  diluted  to  ioo  c.c.     i  c.c.  =  .000106  Ti02. 

( C)  10  c.c.  of  (B)  diluted  to  100  c.c.     1  c.c.  =  .0000106  Ti02. 

(D)  10  grams  of  oxalic  acid  in  100  c.c.  1  c.c.  =0.1  gram  of 
oxalic  acid. 

(is)    1  gram  chromotropic  acid  in  100  c.c. 

50  c.c.  Nessler  tubes,  one  inch  in  diameter,  were  used  for  all  of 
the  tests. 

.5  c.c.  of  (is)  in  50  c.c.  of  water  gave  a  mere  trace  of  color, 
for  which  reason  the  solution  to  be  tested  was  always  compared 
with  another  tube  containing  the  same  amount  of  chromotropic 
acid,  thus  making  allowance  for  the  slight  color  given  by  the  solu- 
tion of  that  reagent. 

.15  c.c.  of  (C)  gave  a  faint  pink  color  when  added  to  50  c.c. 
of  water  containing  .5  c.c.  of  (is)  ;  .00000159  gram  of  Ti02  in 
50  c.c.  of  water  gave  a  change  of  color  ;  .3  c.c.  of  the  same  solu- 
tion gave  a  very  distinct  coloration,  or  .00000318  gram  of  Ti02  in 
50  c.c.  More  than  1  c.c.  of  the  chromotropic  acid  gave  so  much 
color'as  to  interfere  with  the  delicacy  of  the  test. 

EFFECT    OF    OXALIC    ACID. 

i  c.c.  of  (is). 

i  c.c.  of  (-D),  or  1  gram  of  oxalic  acid  in  50  c.c,  required  2.6 
c.c.  of  titanium  solution  (C)  to  show  the  characteristic  pink  color, 
or  .0000275  gram  of  Ti02. 

1  c.c.  of  reagent  was  adopted  as  the  amount  best  suited  to  use  and 
was  the  amount  taken  in  all  of  the  following  cases  unless  otherwise 
stated. 

With  0.2  gram  of  oxalic  acid,  .0000339  gram  of  Ti022  in  50  c.c. 
gave  a  pink  color. 

With  0.5  gram  of  oxalic  acid,  .0000275  gram  of  Ti02  was  re- 
quired to  give  the  test  for  titanium. 

1.0  gram  of  oxalic  acid  required  .0000244  gram  of  Ti02  to  give 
the  test. 

In  the  presence  of  2.0  grams  of  oxalic  acid,  .0000244  gram  of 
Ti02  gave  a  distinct  pink  color  in  50  c.c,  while  with  5.0  grams  of 
oxalic  acid,  .0000265  gram  of  Ti02  gave  a  color. 

The  amount  of  oxalic  acid  seems  to  have  little  effect  although  the 
presence  of  the  acid  diminishes  the  delicacy  of  the  test,  but  this  is 
independent  of  the  amount  of  the  acid  present  when  more  than  o.  1 
gram  is  used. 


I9o5.i  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  201 

EFFECT    OF    THE    PRESENCE  OF  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID. 

The  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  used  was  one  part  of  concen- 
trated acid  to  five  parts  of  water. 

With  i  c.c.  of  hydrochloric  acid  (1:5)  and  1  c.c.  of  chromo- 
tropic  acid  in  50  c.c,  .0000795  gram  of  Ti02  gave  a  distinct  pink 
color. 

With  2  c.c.  of  hydrochloric  acid  (1:5)  .00017  gram  of  Ti02was 
required  to  give  the  color. 

When  5  c.c.  of  hydrochloric  acid  (1:5)  was  used  .000424  gram 
of  Ti02  gave  a  pink  color  to  50  c.c. 

10  c.c.  of  hydrochloric  acid  (1:5)  required  .000848  gram  of 
Ti02  for  the  color. 

20  c.c.  of  hydrochloric  acid  (1:5)  required  .00169  gram  of 
Ti02  in  50  c.c.  to  give  a  definite  test  for  titanium. 

It  may,  therefore,  be  concluded  that  the  destruction  of  the  color 
given  by  chromotropic  acid  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  acid 
present,  so  if  this  test  is  used  hydrochloric  acid  should  be  absent. 

EFFECT    OF    SULPHURIC    ACID. 

With  1  c.c.  of  sulphuric  acid,  specific  gravity,  1.435,  0.000318 
gram  of  Ti02  was  required  to  give  a  pink  color  in  50  c.c.  of 
solution. 

With  2  c.c.  of  sulphuric  acid  0.000742  gram  of  Ti02  was  required 
to  give  the  titanium  test. 

While  more  dilute  solutions  of  sulphuric  acid  were  not  tried  it  is 
evident  that  the  effect  of  the  sulpuric  acid  is  roughly  proportional 
to  the  amount  of  acid  present,  and  that  any  appreciable  amount  of 
this  acid  seriously  interferes  with  the  delicacy  of  the  test.  The 
same  is  true  of  hydrofluoric  acid. 

In  the  presence  of  oxalic  acid  in  any  appreciable  amount  chromo- 
tropic acid  will  show  .000025  gram  of  Ti02  in  50  c.c.  very  dis- 
tinctly. Half  that  amount  could  be  detected  but  the  color  is  very 
faint  and  its  similarity  to  the  color  possessed  by  the  solution  of 
chromotropic  acid  itself  renders  the  detection  of  this  amount  uncer- 
tain. In  making  the  test  it  is  best  to  avoid  the  presence  of  free 
mineral  acids,  as  they  interfere  and  generally  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  acid  present.  The  neutral  chlorides  and  sulphates 
are  without  effect,  as  Geisow  has  stated.  It  is  probable  that  the 
color  developed  in  oxalate  solution  could  be  used  to  determine  the 


202  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  i9. 

amount  of  titanium  present  by  comparison  with  the  color  developed 
by  known  amounts  of  titanic  acid,  but  this  method  would  offer  no 
especial  advantage  over  the  hydrogen  peroxide  method. 

THE    ACTION    OF    CARBON    TETRACHLORIDE    ON    THE    OXIDES 
OF    TITANIUM,     COLUMBIUM    AND    TANTALUM. 

According  to  Demarcay  (C.  R.,  104,  111)  carbon  tetrachloride 
vapor  passed  over  the  ignited  oxides  of  columbium,  titanium  and 
tantalum  changes  them  to  chlorides  —  in  the  case  of  titanium  with 
the  formation  of  an  intermediate  oxychloride. 

Lothar  Meyer  (Ber.,  20,  681)  found  no  action  on  oxide  of 
titanium.      He  did  not  try  the  other  two. 

Delafontaine  and  Linebarger  (Jr.  Am.  Ch.  S.,  18,  532)  found 
that  oxide  of  columbium  was  changed  to  oxychloride,  CbOCl3,  with 
the  formation  of  a  small  amount  of  the  chloride.  In  the  case  of 
tantalum  the  oxide  was  not  driven  from  the  boat  but  remained  be- 
hind as  a  pasty  mass,  suffering  no  change  to  chloride.  They  sug- 
gest this  as  a  possible  separation  of  the  two  elements  columbium 
and  tantalum. 

The  vapor  of  carbon  tetrachloride  was  found  to  act  slowly  on 
ignited  titanic  oxide  at  a  low  red  heat,  some  chloride  of  titaninm 
being  continuously  formed.  In  time  all  of  the  oxide  was  converted 
into  chloride. 

The  oxide  of  columbium  is  readily  acted  upon  by  carbon  tetra- 
chloride even  at  a  low  red  heat.  The  principal  product  is  the 
white  oxychloride.  Some  of  the  yellow  chloride  is  simultaneously 
produced.  It  continues  to  be  formed  in  small  amounts  as  the  oxy- 
chloride is  sublimed  in  the  vapors  of  carbon  tetrachloride.  Colum- 
bium oxide  heated  in  a  sealed  tube  with  carbon  tetrachloride,  is 
completely  changed  to  chloride  after  several  hours  at  2oo°-2  2  5°. 
The  chloride  dissolves  in  carbon  tetrachloride  and  separates  from 
it  in  large,  well-formed,  needle-like  crystals. 

The  action  of  the  vapors  of  carbon  tetrachloride  on  ignited  oxide 
of  tantalum  is  rapid,  contrary  to  Delafontaine  and  Linebarger,  con- 
verting it  into  chloride,  which  can  be  readily  freed  from  the  carbon 
tetrachloride  and  thus  obtained  pure.  If  the  carbon  tetrachloride 
used  contains  traces  of  moisture  oxide  will  be  produced  by  the  de- 
composition of  the  chloride.  This  oxide  dissolves  in  the  fused 
chloride  and  remains  as  a  glassy  mass    upon  sublimation  of  the 


igos.]  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  203 

chloride.  Therefore,  care  should  be  taken  in  the  dehydration  of 
the  tetrachloride  used  ;  otherwise  the  product  will  be  contaminated 
with  oxide.  This  seems  to  be  the  best  method  for  the  preparation 
of  tantalum  chloride  in  large  quantities  and  in  a  high  state  of 
purity.  The  chloride  is  an  excellent  starting-out  material  for  a  re- 
determination of  the  atomic  weight  of  tantalum,  a  number  none 
too  definite,  as  a  study  of  the  series  of  results  obtained  by  Marignac 
(Zei/.  anal.  Chem.,  5,  478)  by  the  analysis  of  potassium  tantalum 
fluoride  and  ammonium  tantalum  fluoride  will  show. 

The  action  of  carbon  tetrachoride  on  the  oxide  of  columbium 
also  affords  an  excellent  method  for  the  preparation  of  the  oxy- 
chloride  of  that  element.  It  is  produced,  however,  in  a  very 
voluminous  state,  and  mats  together  to  a  tough  felt,  completely 
stopping  up  any  tube  used  in  its  preparation.  When  heated  in  a 
sealed  tube  it  condenses  on  a  warm  surface  to  very  compact  lus- 
trous silky  needles.  It  is  very  difficult  to  remove  the  last  traces  of 
columbium  pentachloride  from  this  body.  This  may  be  done, 
however,  by  subliming  it  in  a  current  of  chlorine  over  ignited 
oxide,  but  as  long  as  any  carbon  tetrachloride  is  present  the  colum- 
bium chloride  will  continue  to  be  formed.  To  make  the  chloride 
of  columbium  it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  action  of  sul- 
phur monochloride  on  the  oxide  or  to  act  on  the  oxide  with  carbon 
tetrachloride  in  a  sealed  tube. 

PROPERTIES    OF    COLUMBIUM    CHLORIDE. 

As  already  mentioned,  columbium  chloride  is  soluble  in  carbon 
tetrachloride,  forming  a  yellow  colored  solution.  It  is  much  more 
soluble  when  hot  than  when  cold  and  crystallizes  out  on  cooling  in 
well  defined  crystals.  It  is  also  soluble  in  sulphur  monochloride, 
the  solution  saturated  in  the  hot  being  red  in  color  and  depositing 
yellow  crystals  of  the  chloride  on  cooling.  It  dissolves  in  ether 
with  a  yellow  color.  On  evaporating  this  solution  on  a  water  bath 
a  thick  liquid  remains,  and  an  acid  vapor  is  given  off,  but  no  crys- 
tals separate.  Upon  ignition  the  mass  chars,  then  burns  and  leaves 
a  residue  of  oxide.  On  passing  dry  ammonia  gas  into  the  ethereal 
solution  of  the  chloride  a  heavy  precipitate  is  formed.  This  is  am- 
monium chloride  and  columbium  nitride.  On  washing  with  water 
the  ammonium  chloride  is  dissolved  out,  leaving  a  white  residue 
which  reverts  on  ignition  to  oxide  of  columbium,  and  when  boiled 

PROC.  AMER.   PHILOS.   SOC.   XLIV.    l8o.  M.       PRINTED  AUGUST   I,    I905 


204  HALL    AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  i9. 

with  sodium  hydroxide  gives  off  ammoniacal  vapors,  thus  pointing 
to  nitride  of  columbium,  likely  Cb3N5. 

Columbium  chloride  containing  some  sulphur  monochloride  was 
treated  with  benzene.  The  sulphur  monochloride  dissolved  out, 
while  the  columbium  chloride  was  decomposed,  leaving  an  insol- 
uble gummy  mass.  Chloroform  dissolved  the  chloride  readily,  but 
the  solution  seemed  to  undergo  decomposition  on  warming  and 
evaporating,  as  the  liquid  became  brown  and  a  brown  powder  sep- 
arated.     No  crystalline  product  could  be  procured. 

The  chloride  is  also  soluble  in  alcohol.  In  the  cold  there  is  no 
decomposition.  On  warming  and  concentrating  the  solution  acid 
vapors  were  given  off,  due  perhaps,  as  H.  Rose  has  suggested,  to 
the  formation  of  ethyl  columbate.  That  there  is  no  decomposition 
in  dilute  solution  is  shown  by  the  formation  of  the  compound 
CbCl5(C5HnN)6,  which  was  obtained  on  adding  piperidine  to  the 
alcoholic  solution  (Zeit.  anorg.  Chem.,  36,  100).  Other  bases, 
such  as  aniline,  pyridine,  etc.,  gave  addition  products  which  were 
insoluble  in  the  solvent. 

The  best  solvent  for  columbium  chloride  is  carbon  tetrachloride. 
In  this  solution  reactions  should  take  place,  as  they  do  with  other 
chlorides,  in  aqueous  solution  ;  also  double  chlorides,  analogous 
to  the  double  fluorides,  should  be  formed  by  bringing  together 
solutions  of  the  chlorides  in  carbon  tetrachloride. 


POTASSIUM    FLUOXYPERCOLUMBATE. 

When  potassium  columbium  oxyfluoride  is  dissolved  in  three 
per  cent,  hydrogen  peroxide  the  solution  acquires  a  yellow  color. 
When  a  saturated  solution  cools  a  pasty  mass  of  crystals  separates. 
These  are  very  hard  to  free  from  mother  liquor.  When  dry  they 
have  only  a  faint  yellow  tint.  On  dissolving  in  water,  containing 
hydrogen  peroxide,  the  solution  again  becomes  yellow  in  color. 
The  salt  obtained  in  this  way  is  potassium  fluoxypercolumbate  of 
the  following  composition  —  K2Cb02F..H20. 

METHOD    OF    ANALYSIS. 

The  potassium  was  determined  as  sulphate  and  the  columbium 
as  oxide  in  the  usual  way,  that  is,  by  expelling  the  fluorine  with 
sulphuric    acid,    boiling    with   water,    filtering    out    the    insoluble 


I9oS.]  HALL   AND    SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  205 

columbium  hydrate  and  evaporating  the  filtrate  to  dryness  and 
weighing  the  potassium  sulphate  after  ignition. 

The  oxygen  and  water  were  determined  in  another  sample  by 
weighing  a  portion  of  the  substance  in  a  tube  sealed  at  one  end, 
covering  it  with  a  plug  of  ignited  asbestos,  connecting  with  a  gas 
burette  and  igniting.  The  oxygen  was  collected  and  measured, 
the  tube  was  reweighed,  the  loss  being  water  and  oxygen.  The 
water  was  obtained  by  difference. 

Analysis  ; 

0.4004  gram  of  the  salt  gave  o.  1672  gram  of  oxide  and 
0.2196  gram  of  K2S04 

0.4432  gram  of  the  salt  lost  0.0470  gram,  which  contained  17.9 
c.c.  of  oxygen  at  240  and  under  742  mm.  pressure,  or  0.0229 
gram,  the  difference  —  0.0241  gram  — being  water. 

Calculated.  Found. 

K2S04 54. S9  54.84 

Oxide  42.28  41-84 

O  (active)  5.05  5.16 

H20  5.68  5.44 

This  salt  was  obtained  and  the  above  composition  ascribed  to  it 
by  Piccini  {Zeit.  anorg.  Chan.,  2,  21).  He  regarded  it  as  a  deriv- 
ative of  percolumbic  acid  and  not  an  addition  product  of  potassium 
columbium  fluoride  and  hydrogen  peroxide,  because  the  water  was 
lost  on  heating  at  ioo°,  while  the  oxygen  did  not  escape  until  the 
temperature  reached  1500. 

On  crystallizing  this  salt  from  concentrated  hydrofluoric  acid 
and  hydrogen  peroxide  in  the  hope  of  getting  a  perfluoride 
large  plates  were  obtained,  which  were  quite  yellow  in  color  with 
a  green  tint  when  dry.  They  did  not  seem  to  differ  if  little  or 
much  hydrofluoric  acid  was  used.  The  crystals  taken  for  analysis 
were  obtained  from  a  solution  consisting  of  one-half  hydrofluoric 
acid,  48  per  cent.,  and  one-half  hydrogen  peroxide,  3  per  cent. 
They  were  dried  between  filter  paper  and  promptly  weighed  out 
for  analysis. 

Analysis : 

0.7260  gram  of  salt  gave  0.3274  gram  of  oxide  and 

0.3982  gram  of  potassium  sulphate. 


206  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM. 


[May  19, 


0.7482  gram  of  salt  lost  0.0784  gram  on  ignition,  i.  e.,  29.1 
c.c.  of  oxygen  at  240  and  under  742  mm.  pressure,  or  0.0374 
gram,  the  difference  —  0.0410  gram  —  being  water. 

Calculated.  Found. 

K2SO, 54.89  54-85 

Oxide  42.28  42.34 

O  (active)    5.05  5.00 

H20  5.68  5. 48 

Hence  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  salt  obtained  from  strong 
hydrofluoric  acid  is  the  same  as  that  got  when  hydrofluoric  acid 
is  not  used. 

It  would  seem  impossible  to  obtain  a  derivative  of  percolumbic 
acid  which  does  not  contain  oxygen. 

The  salt  separates  from  solutions  containing  hydrofluoric  acid  in 
large  well- formed  plates,  which  may  be  easily  measured.  They 
are  much  easier  to  handle  than  when  crystallized  from  a  solution 
free  from  acid.     The  crystals  are  always  greenish  yellow  in  color. 

Piccini  states  that  the  salt  obtained  by  him  had  a  slight  yellow 
tint,  but  that  this  color  was  completely  removed  by  two  recrystal- 
lizations  from  hydrogen  peroxide.  The  salt  obtained  above  was 
recrystallized  six  times  from  hydrogen  peroxide  containing  hydro- 
fluoric acid.  The  crystals  from  the  last  crystallization  were  fully 
as  highly  colored  as  those  which  had  not  been  recrystallized.  They 
were  then  recrystallized  twice  from  hydrogen  peroxide  containing 
no  acid.  The  resulting  salt  was  practically  colorless,  but  it  dis- 
solved in  water  and  hydrogen  peroxide  with  a  yellow  color,  which 
was  intensified  by  the  addition  of  hydrofluoric  acid  and  on  evapor- 
ating again  to  crystallization  the  crystals  were  as  highly  colored  as 
any  obtained  previously. 

The  oxide  from  the  double  fluoride,  originally  used,  gave  a  color 
equivalent  to  0.4  per  cent.  Ti02.  It  was  supposed  that  this  color 
was  due  entirely  to  titanium  and  that  the  yellow  color  of  the  solu- 
tion and  of  the  crystals  of  potassium  fluoxypercolumbate  was  also 
due  to  this  element.  To  test  this  supposition  100  grams  of  the 
purest  potassium  columbium  oxyfluoride  was  crystallized  twice  from 
strong  hydrofluoric  acid.  The  crystals  obtained  were  decomposed 
with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  hydrate  after  extraction 
with  water  ignited  to  oxide.  The  color  which  this  oxide  devel- 
oped in  oxalic  acid  solution  with  hydrogen  peroxide  was  equivalent 


19oS.]  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  207 

to  0.24  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  titanic  acid.  It  was  now  heated 
in  sulphur  monochloride  and  converted  into  chloride.  The  latter, 
together  with  the  excess  of  monochloride,  was  collected  in  a  re- 
ceiver and  the  sulphur  monochloride  distilled  out  in  the  hope  that 
any  titanium  tetrachloride  present  would  be  expelled  with  it.  The 
chloride  remaining  after  removing  the  sulphur  monochloride  was 
converted  into  oxide.  It  contained  titanic  oxide  equivalent  to 
o.  16  per  cent.  The  oxide  was  again  heated  in  sulphur  monochlor- 
ide and  treated  as  before.  After  the  second  treatment  the  titanic 
oxide  equivalent  was  .12  per  cent,  and  the  color  now  developed 
was  different.  It  was  greenish  yellow  instead  of  yellow  inclining 
towards  red,  which  is  characteristic  of  titanium.  About  five  grams 
of  the  oxide  which  had  passed  through  this  treatment  were  changed 
to  double  fluoride  and  crystallized  from  hydrogen  peroxide  and 
hydrofluoric  acid.  Its  solution,  in  hydrogen  peroxide,  was  yellow 
and  its  color  increased  in  intensity  on  adding  hydrofluoric  acid. 
The  crystals  from  it  were  canary  yellow  with  a  tint  of  green,  dif- 
fering in  no  respect  from  those  previously  obtained. 

About  ten  grams  of  this  yellow  salt  were  next  dissolved  in  water 
and  hydrogen  peroxide.  This  solution  was  distinctly  yellow  in 
color.  It  was  divided  into  two  portions.  To  one  portion  0.5 
gram  of  potassium  titanium  fluoride  was  added.  The  color  in  this 
portion  became  considerably  deeper,  but  the  excess  of  color  was 
completely  discharged  upon  adding  hydrofluoric  acid,  the  two 
solutions  becoming  again  identical  in  color. 

Potassium  titanium  fluoride  dissolved  in  hydrogen  peroxide  to  a 
deep  yellow-colored  solution.  On  cooling  crystals  were  deposited, 
which  were  not  yellow  but  colorless  when  completely  free  from 
mother  liquor.  The  addition  of  hydrofluoric  acid  to  the  colored 
solution  completely  destroys  the  color,  and  in  the  presence  of 
hydrofluoric  acid  the  salt  formed  is  white,  resembling  potassium 
titanium  fluoride.  When  air  dried  it  gives  off  neither  water  nor 
oxygen  on  ignition. 

The  only  elements  which  give  a  distinctive  color  in  acid  solution 
with  hydrogen  peroxide  and  which  might  occur  here  are  titanium, 
vanadium  and  molybdenum.  Of  these  the  first  has  been  excluded 
and  the  second  also  by  reason  of  the  color  which  it  gives  (red  to 
rose  red).  There  still  remains  molybdenum.  Its  color  in  an 
oxalic  acid  solution  with  hydrogen  peroxide  is  identical  with  that 


208  HALL    AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  19, 

observed  in  the  case  of  the  columbium  as  free  from  titanium  as  it 
could  be  obtained.  Although  the  columbium  oxide  used  for  these 
tests  had  passed  through  several  manipulations  which  should  re- 
move molybdenum,  such  as,  fusion  with  sodium  carbonate  and  sul- 
phur, changing  to  chloride  with  sulphur  monochloride  and  dis- 
tilling off  the  more  volatile  portion,  it  was  thought  best  to  determine 
how  much  molybdenum  would  be  required  to  give  a  test  equal  to 
that  obtained  from  the  purest  oxide  of  the  columbium  at  hand. 
To  this  end  weighed  amounts  of  molybdenum  were  dissolved  in 
oxalic  and  sulphuric  acids,  and  the  color,  developed  with  hydrogen 
peroxide,  compared  with  that  obtained  with  a  standard  titanium 
solution  of  hydrogen  peroxide. 

1.  0.2780  gram  of  molybdic  acid  developed  a  color  equivalent 
to  0.0048  gram  Ti02,  or  0.0058  gram  of  molybdic  acid  will  give  a 
color  equal  to  that  given  under  similar  conditions  by  0.0001  gram 
Ti02. 

2.  0.0660  gram  of  molybdic  acid  gave  a  color  equal  to  0.0015 
gram  Ti02,  or  0.0044  gram  of  molybdic  acid  is  equal  to  0.0001 
gram  Ti02. 

The  variations  in  these  results  is  due  to  the  difficulty  in  matching 
the  different  shades  as  to  intensity  of  color.  The  average  is  about 
right,  or  0.0050  gram  of  molybdic  acid  is  equivalent  to  0.0001 
gram  TiO.,.  Calculating  on  this  basis,  the  best  oxide  of  columbium 
obtained,  which  gave  a  color  equivalent  to  .  1 2  per  cent  TiO.,, 
would  contain  6  per  cent,  of  MoOs  if  the  color  was  due  to  the 
presence  of  molybdenum,  which  would  be  impossible  after  the 
treatments  through  which  the  oxide  has  passed.  It  had  been 
crystallized  twice  as  potassium  oxyfluoride,  fused  with  sodium  car- 
bonate and  sulphur,  the  tantalum  removed,  again  crystallized  as 
the  oxyfluoride  of  potassium  and  twice  from  hydrofluoric  as  potas- 
sium columbium  fluoride,  then  changed  to  chloride  in  sulphur 
monochloride,  the  sulphur  monochloride  and  the  more  volatile 
portions  distilled  off  and  rejected,  again  changed  to  oxide  and  this 
treatment  with  sulphur  monochloride  repeated.  The  final  oxide 
was  converted  into  potassium  fluoxypercolumbate  and  crystallized 
once  from  hydrogen  peroxide  and  hydrofluoric  acid.  This  salt 
was  yellow  in  color,  and  0.3540  gram  of  oxide  from  it,  dissolved 
in  oxalic  acid,  gave  with  hydrogen  peroxide  a  color  equivalent  to 
0.000424  gram  TiC)2,  or  .12  per  cent.  At  the  most  it  could  not 
have  contained  more  than  a  bare  trace  of  oxide  of  molybdenum. 


i9°5-] 


MALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  209 


0.3470  gram  of  the  oxide  from  the  yellow  fluoxypercolumbate 
was  dissolved  in  oxalic  acid  and  chromotropic  acid  and  diluted  to 
50  c.c.  It  gave  a  very  slight  pink  color,  about  equal  in  intensity 
to  the  color  developed  in  50  c.c.  by  .000025  gram  Ti02  in  the  same 
amount  of  oxalic  acid  on  treating  with  chromotropic  acid.  This 
would  correspond  to  less  than  .01  per  cent,  of  TiO,  and  is  likely 
not  very  far  wrong. 

From  these  experiments  it  may  safely  be  concluded  that  the 
color  produced  in  hydrofluoric  acid  solution  of  columbium  with 
hydrogen  peroxide  is  not  due  to  the  presence  of  titanium.  Also 
it  is  likely  that  columbium  itself  gives  a  distinctive  color  with 
hydrogen  peroxide,  equivalent  to  from  .10  per  cent,  to  .15  per 
cent,  of  its  weight  of  Ti02,  yet  yellow  green  instead  of  straw 
yellow,  as  is  given  by  titanium  in  dilute  solutions.  Possibly  there 
may  still  be  present  some  other  element.  For  this  careful  search 
will  be  made. 

PREPARATION    AND    ANALYSIS    OF    THE    YELLOW    OXIDE 
OF    COLUMBIUM. 

Hydrated  oxide  of  columbium,  containing  ten  grams  of  oxide, 
was  prepared  by  decomposing  the  double  fluoride  with  sulphuric 
acid,  evaporating  off  the  excess  of  acid  and  extracting  with  boiling 
water.  This  hydrate  was  washed  repeatedly  with  boiling  water 
and  air  dried.  It  was  covered  with  about  20  c.c.  of  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid  and  brought  to  boiling  for  several  minutes,  until 
all  of  the  lumps  had  thoroughly  disintegrated,  when  it  was  diluted 
to  about  three  times  its  original  volume  with  water.  All  but  a  few 
particles  were  dissolved.  This  solution  was  filtered  and  an  equal 
volume  of  three  per  cent,  hydrogen  peroxide  added.  It  became 
yellow  and  after  a  few  minutes  a  yellow  precipitate  appeared.  The 
solution  was  allowed  to  stand  over  night.  The  precipitate  was 
then  filtered  out,  washed  with  cold  water,  in  which  it  was  insoluble, 
and  air  dried. 

Under  the  above  conditions  about  one  quarter  of  the  oxide  in 
solution  was  precipitated  by  the  hydrogen  peroxide.  If  the  re- 
mainder of  the  oxide  in  solution  were  recovered  and  dissolved  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  as  before,  a  fresh  portion  of  it  could  be  pre- 
cipitated on  adding  hydrogen  peroxide.  The  air-dried  precipitate 
lost  oxygen  and  water  on  ignition  and  regained  its  white  color. 


210  HALL  AND  SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  i>; 

As  the  precipitation  of  the  columbium  was  only  partial  it  was 
best  to  be  certain  of  the  identity  of  the  portion  precipitated.  To 
this  end  2.5  grams  of  the  yellow  oxide  were  obtained,  ignited  to 
remove  the  excess  of  oxygen,  and  changed  to  the  potassium  double 
fluoride.     This  analyzed  as  follows  : 

0.6822  gram  of  the  salt  gave  0.3026  gram  of  oxide  and 
0.3966  gram  of  K2SOt 

Calculated.  Found. 

Oxide 44-52  44.36 

K4S04 57.S1  5S.14 

Hence  the  compound  obtained  is  a  derivative  of  columbium. 

Columbium  is  not  precipitated  from  the  solution  remaining  after 
the  yellow  precipitate  has  been  filtered  out,  by  an  excess  of  ammo- 
nium hydroxide,  until  the  hydrogen  peroxide  in  the  solution  has 
been  destroyed. 

Analysis  of  the  yellow  precipitate  : 

0.1917  gram  of  sample  gave  0.1298  gram  of  Cb20.. 
0.2556  gram  of  sample  gave  7.8  c.c.  of  oxygen  at  220  and  under 
741  mm.  pressure,  equal  to  0.0101  gram. 

Percentage.  Ratio. 

Cb2Q5 67.71  I. OOO 

O  (active) 3.95  0.984 

H20  (difference) 28.34  6.240 

100.00 

This  corresponds  to  Cb(OH)6,  or  to  Cb205H2025H20. 

Melikoff  and  Pissarjewsky  (Zeit.  anorg.  Chem.,  20,  340)  obtained 
a  percolumbic  acid  of  the  formula  HCb04  +  «H20,  by  heating 
columbium  hydrate  with  30  per  cent,  hydrogen  peroxide  on  a 
water  bath.  They  also  obtained  it  by  adding  sulphuric  acid  to  a 
solution  of  sodium  percolumbate,  dialyzing  out  the  excess  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  the  potassium  sulphate,  then  evaporating  the  clear 
yellow  solution  to  dryness  on  a  water  bath.  They  describe  it  as  a 
yellow  amorphous  powder,  insoluble  in  water. 

The  color  of  these  higher  oxides  seems  characteristic  of  colum- 
bium and  is  certainly  not  due  to  the  presence  of  titanium.  The 
hydrate  obtained  by  Melikoff  and  Pissarjewsky  contained  twice  as 
much  active  oxygen,  in  proportion  to  the  columbium,  as  did  the 
hydrate  obtained  during  this  investigation. 


I9o5.j  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  211 

DIFFERENCE    IN    SOLUBILITY    OF    DOUBLE    FLUORIDES. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  solubility  of  potassium  titanium 
fluoride  is  increased  upon  the  addition  of  hydrogen  peroxide,  while 
that  of  the  potassium  columbium  oxyfluoride  is  decreased.  In 
hydrofluoric  acid  this  order  is  reversed,  the  columbium  salt  becom- 
ing more  soluble  and  the  titanium  salt  less  soluble.  This  suggests 
alternating  these  solvents  in  the  crystallization  of  columbium  and 
potassium  double  fluorides  as  one  of  the  best  means  for  removing 
titanium. 

Recrystallization  from  hydrofluoric  acid  in  the  form  of  K2CbF. 
will  remove  tin  and  probably  also  tungsten  from  impure  potassium 
columbium  oxyfluoride.  Two  recrystallizations  from  that  solvent 
are  sufficient  to  give  an  oxide,  the  ignition  of  which  in  a  platinum 
crucible  gave  no  stain  on  the  crucible.  If  partially  dried  oxide 
wrapped  in  the  filter  paper  be  ignited  directly  in  a  platinum 
crucible  the  presence  of  a  stain  on  the  crucible  after  removing  the 
oxide  will  be  a  very  delicate  test  for  tin.  It  is  likely  that  when  tin 
is  removed  by  crystallization  tungsten  is  also,  if  they  are  present  in 
about  equal  amounts  and  in  such  cases  where  the  total  amount  is 
very  small.  The  procedure  would  remove  the  necessity  for  the 
tedious  sodium  carbonate  and  sulphur  fusions  used  in  this  work. 

BEHAVIOR    WITH    PRECIPITANTS. 

Pennington  {/our.  Amer.  Clicm.  Soc,  18,  38)  noted  that 
disodium  hydrogen  phosphate  gave  no  precipitate  in  a  solution  of- 
potassium  columbium  oxyfluoride,  while  it  completely  precipitated 
titanium  from  a  solution  of  its  double  fluoride.  This  was  studied 
briefly  in  order  to  determine  if  it  might  not  serve  as  a  quantitative 
separation  of  columbium  from  titanium.  It  was  found  that  when 
the  reagent  was  added  to  a  solution  containing  a  large  excess  of 
columbium  and  only  a  little  titanium  no  precipitate  was  produced 
even  on  prolonged  boiling.  If  the  amount  of  titanium  was  increased 
slightly  both  the  titanium  and  the  columbium  were  completely  pre- 
cipitated by  the  disodium  hydrogen  phosphate.  This  reagent, 
therefore,  does  not  separate  the  two  elements. 

Geisow  found  that  an  alkaline  formoxime  solution  precipitated 
zirconium  and  titanium,  but  did  not  precipitate  columbium. 

Formoxime,  or  its  polymerization  product,  was  prepared  by 
bringing  together  solutions  of  the  calculated  quantities  of  formal- 


212  HALL   AND   SMITH— COLUMBIUM.  [May  19, 

dehyde,  sodium  carbonate,  and  hydroxylamine  hydrochloride. 
The  resulting  solution  gave  no  precipitate  when  added  to  a  solu- 
tion of  titanium  as  double  fluoride,  zirconium  as  double  fluoride,  or 
to  a  solution  of  columbium  double  fluoride.  Further,  after  the 
addition  of  the  formoxime  solution,  ammonium  hydroxide  failed 
to  give  a  precipitate  with  any  of  the  solutions  noted  above.  It 
did,  however,  give  a  precipitate  with  tantalum  double  fluoride,  but 
this  was  only  partial. 

The  statement  of  Geisow  that  titanium  and  zirconium  can  be 
separated  from  columbium  by  means  of  an  alkaline  formoxime  solu- 
tion was  not  verified.  The  precipitation  with  tantalum  is  only 
partial,  and  not  complete  as  stated  by  him. 

It  was  noted  {/our.  Amer.  Chem.  Soc,  26,  1248)  that  potas- 
sium iodate  gave  a  complete  precipitation  in  a  solution  of  potassium 
titanium  fluoride,  and  no  precipitate  with  a  solution  of  columbium 
double  fluoride.  Potassium  iodate,  free  from  periodate,  was  pre- 
pared, and  it  was  found  to  give  no  precipitate  with  either  colum- 
bium or  titanium,  except  in  acid  solution,  when  both  were 
precipitated.     A  solution  of  a  periodate  was  not  tried. 

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A    Study  of  the  Anatomy  of  Phalaenoptilus,    Ridgway.      By 

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Vol.  XLIV.  August-December,  1905.  No.   181. 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  ANATOMY  OF  PHAL.ENOPTILUS, 
RIDGWAY.1 

BY  MARGARET  E.  MARSHALL. 

(Plates  IV,  V  and  VI.) 

( Received  June  ig,  igoj. ) 

Introduction. 

The  present  paper  is  a  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  Phaltz- 
noptilus  nuttalli  nil 'idles  (Brewster),  the  Poorwill,  and  presents  an 
account  of  the  alimentary,  respiratory  and  urogenital  organs,  the 
central  nervous  system  and  all  the  muscles  of  the  anterior  extremity 
and  those  of  the  thigh. 

As  generally  defined  now  the  Caprimulgi  include  the  three 
families  of  Steatornithidse,  Podargidse  and  Caprimulgidas.  In  re- 
gard to  their  distribution  Fiirbringer  (1888)  says  that  the  Capri - 
mulgidae  represent  the  largest  family  (some  100  species)  and  with 
almost  cosmopolitan  distribution  (exclusive  of  New  Zealand,  the 
pacific  subregion  and  the  southern  part  of  South  America)  ;  the 
Steatornithid?e,  represented  by  a  single  species,  occur  in  caves  in 
the  tropical  Andean  region  and  the  West  Indies ;  the  Podargidse 
consisting  of  about  20  species  inhabit  the  oriental  region,  particu- 
larly New  Holland  and  Papuasia.  Of  the  Caprimulgidge  the  fol- 
lowing genera  occur  in  North  America  :   Antrostomus,  Phalcenop- 

1  Contributions  from  the  Zoological  Laboratory  of  the  University  of  Texas, 
No.  68. 

PROC.  AMER.   PHILOS.  SOC.  XLIV.    l8l  G.       PRINTED  OCTOBER  28,   I905. 


214  MARSHALL— A   STUDY   OF  THE  [June  i9, 

tilus,  Nyctidromus  and  Chordeiles.  Of  these  genera  Phalcenoptilus 
extends  from  Guatemala  northward  in  the  western  United  States 
nearly  to  British  Columbia,  and  is  represented  by  three  geograph- 
ical races  of  one  species.  This  genus  was  first  established  by  Ridg- 
way  (1880),  and  is  defined  as  follows  by  Coues  (1903)  :  "Nos- 
trils tubular,  cylindrical,  opening  forward  and  outward.  Rictal 
bristles  immense,  but  simple.  Tarsus  naked  except  just  on  the 
joint  above  (as  in  Nyctidromus),  as  long  as  middle  toe  without 
claw.  Tail  square,  much  shorter  than  the  rounded  wings,  which 
fold  nearly  to  its  end."  No  anatomical  description  of  this  genus 
has  heretofore  appeared  so  far  as  the  writer  knows. 

The  aim  of  this  study  is  the  interesting  question  of  the  homol- 
ogies of  the  Caprimulgi.  Fiirbringer  (/.  c. )  discusses  at  length 
the  varying  views  on  their  relationship  to  Ardeidae,  Glareolidae, 
Strigidae,  Cuculidas,  Galbulidae,  Trogonidae,  Coraciidae,  Leptoso- 
midae,  Todidae,  Momotidae,  Coliidae,  Cypselidae,  Trochilidae  and 
Passeres  (Eurylcemus,  Hirundo),  and  sums  up  his  position  in  these 
words  :  "  On  the  ground  of  the  given  comparisons,  I  am  inclined 
to  regard  the  Caprimulgidae,  Steatornithidse  and  Podargidae  as 
independent  but  closely  related  families,  and  as  united  under  Capri- 
mulgi ;  they  stand  in  remarkable  genealogical  relations  in  the  first 
line  to  the  Striges  and  Coraciae  and  in  the  second  to  the  Trogonidae 
and  Cypselidae,  while  the  relation  to  the  other  families  coming  in 
question  is  less  near  and  direct."  Gadow  (1891),  considers  the 
Caprimulgi  as  related  ancestrally  to  the  Striges  and  laterally  first 
with  the  Coraciae  and  second  with  the  Cypseli.  It  soon  became 
apparent  to  the  writer  that  this  problem  of  affinities  could  not  be 
settled  by  the  investigation  of  a  single  genus.  Accordingly  this 
paper  is  intended  to  be  the  first  of  a  series  dealing  with  these  birds, 
and  is  essentially  descriptive,  general  theoretical  considerations 
being  postponed  until  personal  studies  have  been  made  upon  other 
forms.  Because  there  was  not  time  to  describe  the  whole  anatomy 
it  seemed  advisable  to  omit  the  osteology,  since  most  of  the  previous 
work  has  been  done  upon  the  skeleton. 

Special  anatomical  monographs  upon  such  species  of  birds  are  so 
few,  and  yet  so  much  needed,  that  it  is  hoped  this  one  may  be  of 
some  service  to  comparative  anatomists. 

The  material  used  consisted  of  two  entire  adult  females  secured  by 
Dr.  Thos.  H.  Montgomery,  Jr.,   in  the  month  of  June,  1904,  in 


I9o5.]  ANATOMY   OF   PHAL.-ENOPTILUS,  R1DGWAY.  215 

Brewster  County,  Texas,  one  preserved  in  alcohol  and  the  other  in 
formalin. 

This  work  has  been  done  entirely  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Montgomery,  and  I  am  very  much  indebted  to  him  for  many  help- 
ful suggestions,  and  for  his  unfailing  sympathy  and  encouragement 
during  the  preparation  of  this  memoir. 

I.  Alimentary  Tract. 

This  bird  is  remarkable  for  its  enormous  month.  Arranged  in  a 
regular  series  along  the  upper  border  of  the  gape  there  are  on  each 
side  of  the  mouth  eight  long  vibrissas,  modified  feathers. 

The  tongue  (T,  PI.  IV.,  Fig.  10),  is  slender  and  pointed. 
Posteriorly  it  is  bifid  and  fimbriated.  The  hyoid  bone  (Figs,  i 
and  10)  consists  of  the  following  parts:  os  entglossum  (Ent.  g.), 
basihyal  (Has.  h.),  urohyal  (Ur.  //.),  basibranchial  (Bas.  Ik), 
ceratobranchial  (Cer.  b.),  and  epibranchial  (Ep.  b.).  The  ent- 
glossum is  entirely  cartilaginous  and  is  bifurcated  in  the  posterior 
half,  the  forks  articulating  in  each  side  with  the  basihyal.  The 
osseous  basihyal  is  a  solid  piece  broadening  posteriorly,  reaching 
its  greatest  width  where  the  basibranchials  come  off.  It  then  nar- 
rows immediately  into  the  urohyal  which  has  the  same  structure 
except  for  the  cartilaginous  tip.  The  urohyal  is  about  twice  the 
length  of  the  basihyal.  The  "horns"  of  the  tongue  bone  are 
also  of  cartilage.  The  basal  segments,  the  basi-branchials,  are 
about  one  half  the  entire  length  of  the  horn  ;  the  articulating 
joints,  the  ceratobranchials,  are  a  little  more  than  one  fourth  the 
length  of  the  horn  ;  the  last  members,  the  epibranchials,  are  about 
one  fourth  the  length  of  the  horn. 

The  wide  pharynx  (Pha.,  PI.  IV,  Fig.  10)  is  succeeded  by  the 
oesophagus  (CEs.,  Fig.  10)  which  is  immediately  slightly  dilated. 
There  is  no  crop.  Behind  its  anterior  dilation  the  oesophagus 
gradually  narrows  until  at  its  posterior  end  the  diameter  is  little 
more  than  half  the  diameter  of  its  anterior  portion. 

The  cesophagus  passes  over  into  the  proventriculus  (Prov.,  PI. 
IV,  Figs.  9,  10,  15),  which  opens  into  the  anterior  end  of  the 
gizzard  (Giz.,  Figs.  9,  10,  15)  somewhat  to  the  right  of  the  mid- 
line. The  gizzard  is  overlain  anteriorly  by  the  liver  lobes,  and 
extends  posteriorly  to  the  region  of  the  cloaca. 

The  intestine   (Int.,  PI.  IV,  Figs.  9,  15),  arises  from  the  right 


216  MARSHALL— A    STUDY   OF   THE 


[June  19, 


side  of  the  gizzard  at  the  base  of  the  proventriculus,  and  consists 
of  four  distinct  divisions  : 

1.  The  duodenum  {Duo.,  Figs.  6,  9,  15)  makes  up  the  entire 
first  loop.  It  extends  from  the  pylorus  almost  to  the  posterior  end 
of  the  stomach.  It  then  bends  anteriorly,  and  at  the  edge  of  the 
right  liver  lobe  passes  over  into  the  small  intestine.  The  duodenum 
is  about  43  mm.  in  length. 

2.  The  small  intestine  (Figs.  12,  15)  lies  between  the  duodenum 
and  the  insertion  of  the  caeca.      It  measures  about  85  mm. 

3.  The  terminal  intestine  (Figs.  12,  15)  extends  from  the  in- 
sertion of  the  caeca  to  the  anus  and  is  very  short.  Anteriorly 
the  diameter  is  very  small  but  posteriorly  it  is  dilated  at  the  cloaca. 
Its  length  is  about  18  mm.  Thus  the  entire  length  of  the  main  in- 
testine from  pylorus  to  anus  is  146  mm.  The  intestine  consists  of 
three  closed  loops  of  which  the  duodenal  is  the  first  in  course. 
The  ascending  branch  of  the  third  loop  and  the  following  portion 
of  the  small  intestine  are  covered  by  the  first  and  second  loops. 
The  descending  branches  of  the  second  and  third  loops  are  to  the 
left  of  their  respective  ascending  branches.  The  intestinal  ar- 
rangement agrees  with  the  iso-orthoccel  type  of  intestine  as  defined 
by  Gadow  (/.  c. ). 

4.  Two  cozca  (Co?.,  Figs.  12,  15)  are  present.  They  are  quiet 
long  and  the  terminal  half  of  each  almost  equals  the  small  intestine 
in  size.  At  about  one  third  the  length  of  the  caeca  from  their  inser- 
tion there  is  on  each  a  constriction,  and  at  this  point  the  diameter 
is  less  than  in  any  part  of  the  alimentary  tract.  From  tip  to  inser- 
tion the  caeca  measure  about  35  mm. 

Filling  the  duodenal  loop  is  a  pale,  slender  organ,  the  pancreas 
(Pan.,  Figs.  6,  9,  15).  It  consists  of  two  branches,  the  main 
branch  occupying  the  position  mentioned.  Extending  beyond  the 
edge  of  the  ascending  branch  of  the  duodenum  is  the  smaller  division. 
The  pancreas  has  two  ducts  (Pan.  d. ),  both  coming  off  on  the  dor- 
sal surface.  The  larger  duct,  which  comes  from  the  main  portion, 
arises  proximal  to  the  branching  off  of  the  smaller  part,  and  run- 
ning anteriorly  close  to  the  descending  part  of  the  loop  of  the  duo- 
denum enters  its  ascending  branch  just  about  where  it  begins  to 
curve  along  the  right  liver  lobe.  The  small  duct  comes  from  the 
smaller  division  on  its  inner  edge  at  a  point  about  one  third  the 
length  of  that  division  from  its  anterior  end. 


igoS.]  ANATOMY   OF   PHALjENOPTILUS,  RIDGWAY.  217 

Only  the  merest  rudiment  of  a  spleen  (Spl.,  PI.  I,  Fig.  9)  is 
present.  It  is  a  small,  whitish,  almost  round  body  lying  under  the 
right  lobe  of  the  liver  close  beside  the  gall-bladder. 

The  liver  (Ziv.,  PL  IV,  Figs.  9,  10,  15)  consists  of  two  smooth 
lobes,  the  right  being  somewhat  the  larger.  The  lobes  are  con- 
nected anteriorly.  They  extend  from  the  heart  back  over  the 
stomach  for  about  one  half  its  length.  From  the  right  lobe  just 
above  the  duodenum  comes  off  the  greenish  colored  gall-bladder 
(G.  bl.,  Fig.  9).  The  figure  exhibiting  the  pancreatic  ducts  shows 
also  two  others,  one  situated  between  the  ducts  of  the  pancreas 
and  another  anterior  to  the  smaller  pancreatic  opening.  These 
I  have  taken  to  be  the  liver  ducts  (Ziv.  d.).  They  could  not  be 
traced  further  on  account  of  the  mutilated  condition  of  the  bird. 

The  salivary  glands  were  not  found. 

II.   Respiratory  Organs. 

The  glottis  is  an  oval  aperture  situated  behind  the  root  of  the 
tongue  leading  into  the  trachea.  Immediately  posterior  to  the 
glottis  is  a  bilobed  fimbriated  fold  of  the  mucous  membrane. 

Ventrally,  the  larynx  (Zar.,  PL  IV,  Fig.  10)  presents  two 
rather  fiat,  somewhat  triangular,  cartilages,  the  thyroids,  which  ter- 
minate anteriorly  at  the  posterior  border  of  the  basihyal.  The 
thyroids  are  narrowed  in  front  but  not  pointed.  The  two  carti- 
lages are  divided  anteriorly  by  the  urohyal  which  extends  almost  to 
their  base. 

The  length  of  the  trachea  (Tra.,  PL  IV,  Fig.  10)  from  the 
larynx  to  the  branching  of  the  bronchii  is  about  5  cm.  The  rings 
of  the  trachea,  about  seventy-seven  in  number,  are  complete  with 
two  exceptions  ;  the  anterior  dorsal  has  its  dorsal  edges  fused  with 
the  thyoid,  and  the  rings  of  the  posterior  dorsal  surface  are  incom- 
plete. There  are  three  modifications  of  these  rings  on  the  ventral 
surface.  Succeeding  the  base  of  the  larynx  there  are  four  simple 
rings.  The  next  three  are  slightly  constricted  in  the  middle. 
From  this  point  down  to  where  the  trachea  begins  to  broaden  out 
before  passing  between  the  forks  of  the  furcula,  the  rings  are  inter- 
laced, trowel  fashion.  Between  the  last  of  these  rings  and  the 
branching  of  the  bronchii  we  find  a  repetition  of  the  condition  first 
described,  only  the  rings  are  broader  and  stronger. 

The  trachea  has  only  two  sets  of  muscles  (PL  IV,  Figs.  7,  8,  10). 


218  MARSHALL— A   STUDY   OF   THE  [June  iy, 

One  pair  comes  off  on  each  side  from  the  last  tracheal  ring,  and 
continues  anteriorly  almost  to  the  larynx,  at  which  point  it  spreads 
out  fan-like,  the  delicate  fibers  being  attached  to  the  upper  end  of 
the  windpipe  ;  this  muscle  is  the  trachealis  lateralis  (Tr.  Lai.), 
named  according  to  the  description  given  by  Shufeldt  (1890),1 
though  it  does  not  agree  in  all  points  with  it;  there  is  a  partial 
agreement  with  Gadow's  (/.  c. )  m.  tracheo-bronchialis.  The  sec- 
ond pair  of  muscles  is  much  stronger  but  shorter  than  the  last 
described,  and  the  origin  is  more  ventral.  They  arise  from  the 
trachea  on  each  side  between  the  sixth  and  the  tenth  rings,  count- 
ing forward  from  the  last  tracheal  ring.  The  muscles  become  grad- 
ually smaller  as  they  approach  the  insertion  which  is  about  the  mid- 
point of  the  proximal  part  of  the  first  rib  articulating  with  the 
sternum.  This  is  the  m.  stemo-trachealis  {St.  tr.),  though  it  does 
not  agree  in  all  points  with  Gadow's  (/.  c.)  description  of  the 
muscle  of  the  same  name. 

The  syrinx  (PI.  IV,  Figs.  7,  8)  is  tracheo-bronchial.  On  the 
ventral  surface  (Fig.  7)  the  last  tracheal  ring  is  directed  downward 
forming  with  the  one  above  an  almost  triangular  space,  of  which 
the  preceding  tracheal  ring  is  the  base.  Corresponding  to  the  last 
tracheal  ring  on  the  left  side  there  are  two  on  the  right,  separated 
by  a  small  space.  These  rings  and  the  first  bronchial  rings  are 
fused  at  their  inner  extremities  to  a  small  membrane  at  the  base 
of  which  the  bronchii  separate.  This  membrane  is  stronger  than 
that  between  the  rings,  and  is  of  a  yellowish  color.  The  second 
bronchial  ring  bifurcates  at  its  inner  extremity,  the  lower  branch 
fusing  with  the  following  ring,  thus  causing  it  to  be  much  enlarged 
at  its  inner  termination.  Each  bronchus  is  bounded  on  its  inner 
surface  by  a  cartilaginous  rod,  and  this  rod  closes  the  almost  circular 
space  embraced  partially  by  the  above  mentioned  bifurcation.  The 
second,  third  and  fourth  rings  are  larger  than  any  of  the  others,  less 
flexible,  and  of  a  yellowish  color. 

The  membrana  tympaniformis  externa  (Tvm.  ex.),  is  double  in 
this  bird.  It  is  bounded  by  the  second  and  fourth  rings,  and 
crossed  in  the  middle  by  the  third.  This  third  ring  is  larger  than 
the  other  two.  The  fourth  at  its  inner  extremity  loses  the  yellow- 
ish color  and  for  this  reason  seems  shorter  than  it  really  is.  In  all, 
the  number  of  rings  in  the  right  bronchus  is  fourteen  and  in  the 
left  twelve.     This  may  be  an  individual  variation. 

1  Myology  of  the  Raven,  Philadelphia,  1S90. 


*9°5-] 


ANATOMY   OF   PHAL.4ENOPTILUS,  RIDGWAY.  219 


On  the  dorsal  surface  (Fig.  8)  we  find  a  condition  quite  differ- 
ent from  that  shown  on  the  ventral.  All  of  the  bronchial  rings 
are  incomplete  dorsally.  Counting  forward  from  the  last  tracheal 
ring,  we  find  between  the  third  and  sixth  rings  a  cartilaginous 
bridge  situated  in  the  mid-line  of  the  trachea.  It  is  like  the  carti- 
lage of  the  rings,  and  is,  probably,  a  fusion  of  the  dorsal  ends  of 
the  fifth,  fourth  and  part  of  the  third  rings  with  an  extension  to 
the  sixth.  This  bridge  broadens  posteriorly,  and  at  the  third  ring 
from  the  last  divides,  the  branches  terminating  at  the  last  tracheal 
ring.  Down  the  center  of  the  pyramidal-shaped  area  enclosed  by 
this  fork  passes  a  yellowish  rod  which  is  quite  resistant  to  the  needle 
and  is  probably  bony.  It  extends  beyond  the  ends  of  the  fork. 
This  pyramidal  area  is  bounded  posteriorly  by  a  cartilaginous  ridge 
which  bends  back  in  the  mid-line  and  gradually  fades  out  on  the 
side  as  the  bronchial  half-rings  are  reached,  forming  at  this  point 
the  upper  boundary  of  the  membrana  tympaniformis  interna  (  Tym. 
in.).  Below  this  is  another  ridge  of  like  structure  which  forms 
the  lower  boundary  of  the  inner  tympaniformis. 

Between  the  dorsal  ends  of  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  half  rings 
there  is  a  round  whitish  body  covered  irregularly  with  yellowish 
brown  spots.  About  half  way  between  the  ends  of  the  next  four 
half  rings  there  is,  in  the  right  tympaniformis,  a  white  club-shaped 
body  (PI.  I,  Fig.  8,  x).  The  membrane  is  much  thinner  around 
its  edges  than  elsewhere.  Strands  of  a  dark  pigment  substance  are 
seen  around  the  edges  and  over  the  inner  surface  of  this  object 
when  the  bronchus  is  opened.  A  similar  structure  has  evidently 
been  lost  from  the  left  tympaniformis,  judging  from  the  appear- 
ance of  the  membrane.  All  of  these  bodies  are  probably  bits  of 
cartilage. 

III.   Female  Urogenital  Organs  (PI.  IV,  Fig.  n). 

The  left  ovary  (  Ov. )  is  situated  anterior  to  the  left  kidney.  The 
oviduct  (Z.  ovi) ,  a  very  much  convoluted  tube,  terminates  anteriorly 
in  an  infundibulum  {Inf.)  facing  the  left  ovary.  It  lies  to  the  left 
of  the  pelvic  cavity  and  opens  posteriorly  into  the  left  side  of  the 
cloaca  just  behind  the  ureter.  The  right  ovary  is  absent,  but  a 
very  much  reduced  oviduct  (A5,  ovi. )  is  present.  The  infundibulum 
is  readily  made  out,  and  slight  convolutions  of  the  duct  are  to  be 
observed. 


220  MARSHALL— A    STUDY   OF   THL  [June  19, 

The  fused  kidneys  (A'.)  extend  from  the  lungs  to  the  pelvic 
cavity.  The  right  kidney,  slightly  larger  than  the  left,  consists  of 
three  lobes,  the  middle  one  being  the  smallest.  The  two  lobes  of 
the  left  kidney  are  of  about  equal  size.  The  ureters  {  Ur. )  pass 
posteriorly  to  the  cloaca  which  they  enter  on  its  dorsal  surface 
median  to  the  oviducts. 

IV.   Central  Nervous  System  (PI.  I,  Figs.  2,  3  ;  PI.  II,  Fig.  i6a). 

The  brain  of  this  bird  is  notably  small  as  compared  with  the  size 
of  the  head.  Its  length  much  exceeds  its  breadth,  resembling  in 
this  respect  the  brain  of  a  lizard.  The  large  optic  lobes  (  Op.  I.) 
are  only  partially  covered  by  the  cerebral  hemispheres.  The  cere- 
bellum (67;.),  which  is  comparatively  large,  covers  the  medulla 
oblongata  {Med.)  and  on  each  side  of  it  a  flocculus  {Flo. )  is 
found.  The  greatest  length  of  the  cerebrum  {Cere.)  is  about  8 
mm.,  its  width  9.5  mm.  The  longest  measurement  of  the  cere- 
bellum is  approximately  6  mm.,  its  breadth  above  the  flocculi  5 
mm.  The  uncovered  portion  of  the  optic  lobes  measures  from 
dorsal  to  ventral  surface  about  5.5  mm.,  anterior  to  posterior  border 
3  mm.  No  drawings  or  measurements  of  the  ventral  surface  of  the 
brain  could  be  made  on  account  of  its  torn  condition. 

The  spinal  cord  {Sp.),  is  marked  by  two  important  swellings; 
one  in  the  cervical  region  known  as  the  brachial  plexus  {Br.  u.) 
(PI.  II,  Fig.  1 6a),  and  one  in  the  posterior  region  as  the  sacral 
plexus.  Anterior  to  the  brachial  plexus  the  cord  is  larger  than  it 
is  between  this  plexus  and  the  succeeding  one.  The  swelling  which 
indicates  the  branchial  plexus  begins  at  the  tenth  nerve  and  termi- 
nates with  the  thirteenth.  Three  nerves  take  part  in  the  formation 
of  this  plexus,  the  eleventh,  twelfth  and  thirteenth.  The  second 
or  middle  nerve  is  the  largest  of  the  three,  the  third  the  smallest. 
Soon  after  leaving  the  cord  the  second  nerve  bifurcates,  one  branch 
going  to  each  of  the  other  two  and  all  intimately  related.  The 
posterior  part  of  the  spinal  cord  was  too  badly  broken  for  the  nerves 
of  that  region  to  be  made  out. 

V.   Sense  Organs  (PI.  IV,  Figs.  2,  4,  5). 

The  nostrils  {N~os. )  are  tubular  and  cylindrical,  opening  for- 
ward and  outward.  Vibrissas,  very  much  shorter  and  more  delicate 
than  those  around  the  gape,  are  observed  about  the  nostrils.     These 


i9°5-] 


ANATOMY   OF   PHAL/ENOPTILUS,  RIDGWAY.  221 


are  arranged  in  a  somewhat  circular  fashion  just  posterior  to  the 
external  opening.  On  each  side  of  the  median  ridge  of  the  palate 
is  a  long,  narrow  slit  bounded  by  fimbriated  folds  of  mucous  mem- 
brane, the  internal  nares. 

The  pecten  of  the  eye  (Figs.  4,  5)  consists  of  four  folds.  It 
measures  in  height  about  2  mm.,  and  its  basal  breadth  is  about 
1.5  mm.      Like  the  choroid  coat  it  is  heavily  pigmented. 

VI.   Myology. 

Only  muscles  of  the  extremities  have  been  considered,  and  in 
naming  them  the  terminology  of  Gadow  (/.  c. )  has  been  followed 
as  strictly  as  possible.  There  are,  however,  many  deviations  from 
his  definitions. 

1.    Anterior  Extremity. 

Here  are  described  all  the  muscles  of  the  wing  proper,  also  all 
coming  from  the  shoulder  girdle,  ribs  and  vertebrae  and  inserting 
upon  the  wing,  also  all  the  muscles  inserting  on  the  scapula  and 
coracoid.  The  metacarpals  named  by  Gadow  (/.  c. )  I,  II  and  III 
are  herein  termed  II,  III  and  IV,  for  recent  embryological  investi- 
gation show  the  first  and  fifth  to  be  the  ones  lost. 

A.   Pectoral  Muscles. 

1 .  M.  pectoralis.  The  pars  propatagialis  and  pars  abdominalis 
are  absent. 

Pars  thoracica  {Pect.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  24;  PI.  VI,  Fig.  25). 
This  is  the  large  superficial  muscle  of  the  breast,  and  covers  the 
other  breast  muscles.  It  has  an  extensive  origin,  coming  from  the 
clavicle  and  the  membrane  between  that  bone  and  the  sternum  ; 
from  the  surface  of  the  keel,  the  upper  half;  the  posterior  border 
of  the  sternum  ;  and  the  posterior  lateral  portion  of  the  breast  bone. 

It  has  two  points  of  insertion,  both  of  which  are  on  the  humerus. 
The  short  strong  tendon  which  terminates  on  the  ventral  projection 
of  the  humerus,  just  anterior  to  the  biceps,  is  the  posterior  inser- 
tion. The  fibers  of  the  anterior  portion  converge  and  pass  ob- 
liquely to  the  dorsal  crest  of  the  humerus  and  are  there  attached 
fleshily. 

2.  M.  supracoracoideus  {Sup.  cor.,  PI.  VI,  Figs.  25,  30).  This 
is  a  double-feathered  muscle  arising  from  that  portion  of  the  coraco- 
clavicular  membrane  not  occupied  by  the  muscle  just  described, 


222  MARSHALL— A    STUDY    OF   THE  [June  i9, 

from  about  the  lower  half  of  the  keel  and  from  that  portion  of  the 
body  of  the  sternum  not  appropriated  by  the  above  muscle.  The 
fibers  converge  to  a  line  which  is  dorsal  to  the  mid-line,  passing 
over  into  a  strong  flat  tendon  that  bends  around  to  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  coracoid.  The  tendon  goes  through  the  foramen  trios- 
seum  and  is  attached  to  the  humerus  on  its  dorsal  projection. 

3.  Coraco-brachialis posterior  (Cor.  br.  p.,  PI.  VI,  Figs.  25,  26, 
30).  When  the  m.  pectoralis  is  turned  back  this  small  muscle  is 
seen  extending  out  from  under  the  supracoracoideus.  It  arises 
from  the  dorsal  proximal  half  of  the  border  of  the  coracoid.  The 
fibers  converge  to  form  a  short  strong  tendon  which  is  attached  to 
the  antero-ventral  margin  of  the  humerus  just  anterior  to  the 
pneumatic  foramen. 

B.    Other  trunk  muscles  inserting  on  wing,  scapula  and  coracoid. 

1.  M.  delioideus  major  (PI.  V,  Figs.  16,  22).  This  muscle 
consists  of  an  anterior  and  posterior  portion.  The  delicate  an- 
terior part  {Del.  a.)  arises  fleshily  from  the  inner  surface  of  the 
clavicle  and  the  neighboring  portions  of  the  scapula.  It  emerges 
from  the  foramen  triosseum,  crosses  the  tendon  of  the  m.  supracor- 
acoideus, runs  entirely  around  the  projection  to  which  the  tendon 
of  the  muscle  is  attached,  and  makes  a  fleshy  insertion  at  the  base  of 
the  anterior  border  of  the  humeral  crest. 

The  large  posterior  portion  (Del.  p.)  springs  from  the  dorsal 
border  of  the  clavicle  and  adjoining  dorsal  surface  of  the  scapula. 
It  passes  obliquely  downward  and  is  inserted  fleshily  on  the  humeral 
crest  and  along  the  shaft  of  the  humerus  for  about  one  half  its 
length.      This  differs  somewhat  from  Gadow's  description. 

2.  M.  delioideus  minor.  This  muscle  could  not  be  made  out, 
therefore  is  probably  absent. 

3.  M.  latissimus  dorsi  (PI.  V,  Figs.  17,  22  ;  PI.  VI,  Fig.  26). 
This  is  the  most  superficial  muscle  of  the  back,  and  is  revealed  by 
the  removal  of  the  skin.  It  consists  of  two  portions,  a  very  thin 
anterior  layer  and  a  much  larger  and  stronger  posterior  muscle 
bundle. 

The  anterior  portion  (Lat.  d.  a.)  arises  from  the  spine  of  the 
last  cervical  vertebra  and  from  the  spines  of  the  two  following 
dorsal  vertebras.  The  fibers  pass  in  a  transverse  direction  over  the 
scapula,  converging  somewhat  after  crossing  it,  and  diverge  as  they 


igo5.]  ANATOMY   OF   PHAL^NOPTILUS,  RIDGWAY.  223 

approach  the  humerus.  The  muscle  inserts  upon  the  humerus  be- 
tween the  pars  scapuli-cubitalis  and  the  pars  humero-cubitalis  near 
the  lower  point  of  the  humeral  crest. 

The  posterior  part  (Zat.  d.  p.)  comes  from  the  last  dorsal  verte- 
bra and  the  anterior  rim  of  the  ilium.  The  fibers  converge  rapidly 
as  they  pass  anteriorly,  and  find  their  insertion  on  the  humerus 
beneath  the  anterior  border  of  the  above. 

4.  M.  rhomboideus  superficialis  (Rh.  s.,  PI.  V,  Figs.  17,  22). 
This  flat  muscle  comes  from  the  last  two  cervical  vertebrae  and  the 
following  dorsal  vertebrae.  It  is  inserted  fleshily  on  the  dorsal 
part  of  the  furcula  and  on  the  entire  dorsal  border  of  the  scapula. 

5.  M.  rhomboideus  profundus  {Rh.  p.,  PI.  IV,  Fig.  17).  This 
muscle  is  covered  by  the  last  mentioned  muscle  and  by  the  pos- 
terior portion  of  the  latissimus  dorsi.  It  springs  fleshily  from  the 
last  cervical  and  first  dorsal  vertebrae.  The  outward  directed  fibers 
find  a  fleshy  insertion  on  the  posterior  half  of  the  dorso-median 
border  of  the  scapula,  the  insertion  being  continued  down  to  the 
posterior  tip  of  this  bone. 

6.  M.  scapuli-humeralis  anterior.      This  muscle  is  absent. 

7.  M.  scapuli-humeralis  posterior  (Sc.  hum.  p.,  PI.  V,  Figs.  17,  22; 
PL  III,  Fig.  26).  This  large,  somewhat  rhomboidal-shaped  muscle 
comes  from  the  outer  surface  of  the  posterior  two  thirds  of  the 
scapula.  It  is  covered  by  both  portions  of  the  latissimus  dorsi. 
Its  fibers  are  directed  forward  and  downward,  converging  rapidly 
to  form  a  small,  round  bundle  which  is  attached  within  the  fora- 
men pneumaticum. 

8.  M.  subscapularis  (S.  sc,  PI.  VI,  Fig.  26).  This  muscle 
becomes  visible  after  the  removal  of  them,  scapuli-humeralis  poste- 
rior and  m.  scapuli-cubitalis.  Anteriorly  it  comes  from  the  dorsal 
surface  of  the  scapula  just  posterior  to  the  origin  of  the  scapuli- 
cubitalis,  and  posteriorly  from  the  lower  border  of  the  same  bone 
where  it  is  overlain  by  the  scapuli-humeralis  posterior.  In  its 
middle  portion  it  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  anterior  m.  ser- 
ratus  superficialis,  the  inner  division,  subscapularis  internus,  coming 
from  the  ventral  surface  of  the  scapula.  The  outer  portion  is  the 
subscapularis  externus. 

9.  M.  serratus  superficialis  (PI.  VI,  Fig.  26)  is  made  up  of  two 
parts.  The  smaller  anterior  division  (Ser.  s.  a. )  comes  from  the  last 
cervical  rib  and  its  process  uncinatus.    The  fibers  are  directed  upward 


224  MARSHALL— A    STUDY   OF  THE 


:;<- 


and  forward.     The  muscle  terminates  tendinously  on  the  ventral 
border  of  the  scapula.     It  divides  the  subscapularis. 

The  large  posterior  division  (Ser.  sp.)  springs  with  four  scallops 
or  teeth  form  the  second  and  third  dorsal  ribs,  just  below  the  proc- 
esses of  these  ribs.  The  fibers  of  these  closely-related  bundles  are 
directed  upward  and  forward.  The  most  posterior  bundle  is  in- 
serted on  the  posterior  tip  of  the  scapula.  The  others  do  not 
reach  the  scapula  but  terminate  on  the  ribs  and  the  membrane 
connecting  them  in  this  region. 

10.  M.  serratus profundus  (Ser.  p.,  PI.  VI,  Fig.  26),  occupies 
a  more  dorsal  position  than  the  last  mentioned  muscle,  and  is 
exposed  by  the  removal  of  the  m.  scapuli-humeralis  posterior.  The 
edges  of  the  two  thin  portions  composing  it  overlap.  The  dorsal 
bundle  comes  from  the  free  cervical  rib  at  the  outer  end  of  the  ver- 
tebral projection.  The  lower  bundle  arises  from  the  last  cervical 
rib  and  from  the  membrane  connecting  this  and  the  preceding  rib. 
Both  bundles  are  inserted  on  the  posterior  median  border  of  the 
scapula. 

11.  M.  sterno-coracoideus  (St.  co.,  PI.  VI,  Fig.  26)  is  covered 
at  its  origin  by  the  abdominal  muscles.  It  arises  tendinously  from 
the  first,  second  and  third  sternal  ribs.  This  small  muscle  passes 
obliquely  to  the  lateral  projection  of  the  sternum  below  the 
coracoid. 

12.  M.  suhcoracoideus  (Sub.  co.,  PI.  VI,  Fig.  26).  This  deli- 
cate fusiform  muscle  is  revealed  by  the  separation  of  the  scapula  and 
coracoid.  It  springs  tendinously  from  the  inner  anterior  border 
of  the  coracoid  about  one  third  the  length  of  that  bone  from  its 
distal  end.  It  is  inserted  on  the  humerus  proximal  to  the  coraco- 
brachialis  posterior.  The  fibers  of  this  muscle  are  closely  associ- 
ated with  those  of  the  subscapularis.  It  differs  considerably  from 
Gadow's  description. 

C.   Muscles  restricted  to  the  wing. 

1.  M.  propatagialis,  pars  propatagialis  musculi  deltoidei  (Pro.). 
This  includes  both  the  long  and  short  tendons,  the  other  parts 
being  absent.  It  arises  rleshily  from  the  dorsal  end  of  the  clavicle 
and  from  the  neighboring  portions  of  both  coracoid  and  scapula. 
It  is  a  flat  muscle,  about  14  mm.  long  and  5  mm.  broad.  At  its 
distal  end  it  tapers  off  into  two  tendons,  the  upper  and  more  deli- 


i9o5.] 


ANATOMY   OF   PHAL/ENOPTILUS,  RIDGWAY.  225 


cate  being  the  m.  propatagialis  longus  the  lower  and  stronger  ra. 
propatagialis  brevis. 

a.  M.  propatagialis  longus  {P.  pat.  1.,  PI.  V,  Figs.  22,  24). 
The  tendon  of  this  muscle  runs  along  the  anterior  margin  of  the 
patagium,  with  which  membrane  it  is  intimately  connected.  Thence 
it  continues  as  a  very  delicate  tendon  to  the  distal  end  of  the  radius. 
It  becomes  flattened  as  it  passes  over  the  os  radiale,  and  continues  so 
to  its  insertion.  The  flattened  tendon  passes  to  the  ventral  side  of 
the  os  magnum  along  its  base,  and  is  inserted  on  the  posterior 
proximal  projection  of  the  pollex  digit.  From  this  point  a  pyram- 
idal-shaped tendon  with  its  apex  on  the  pollex-digit  extends  down 
to  the  third  metacarpal. 

b.  M.  propatagialis  brevis  (P.  pat.  b.,  PI.  V,  Figs.  22,  23)  is 
very  complex  in  this  bird.  The  tendon  is  larger  than  the  longus 
and  flattened.  It  continues  distally  to  the  m.  extensor  metacarpi 
ulnaris  (radialis?)  where  it  bifurcates,  about  5  mm.  from  the  distal 
end  of  the  humerus.  The  longer  branch  runs  back  with  the  m. 
extensor  metacarpi  ulnaris  (radialis?)  to  become  inserted  on  the 
humerus  just  distal  to  this  muscle,  and  at  the  base  of  the  tubercle 
of  the  external  condyle  of  the  humerus.  The  shorter  one  continues 
distally  about  2  mm.,  then  passes  back  obliquely  to  the  m.  extensor 
digitorum  communis  and  here  it  bifurcates,  the  proximal  short 
branch  running  back  with  the  above  muscle  to  insert  itself  on 
the  tubercle  above  the  external  condyle  of  the  humerus  and  above 
the  origin  of  the  m.  ectepicondylo-radialis.  The  distal  extending 
branch  becomes  flattened  at  its  insertion,  which  is  at  the  base  of  the 
styloid  process  of  the  radius  on  its  ulnar  side,  near  the  m.  extensor 
pollicis  longus  and  covered  by  it.  From  the  second  bifurcation 
comes  off  a  broad  band  which  passes  directly  across  to  the  ulna  and 
is  inserted  on  that  bone  about  7  mm.  or  8  mm.  from  its  proximal 
end. 

2.  The  metapatagium  was  torn  away,  so  I  can  say  nothing  about 
the  ;;/.  metapatagialis. 

3.  M.  biceps  brachii,  pars  propatagialis  {Pi.,  PI.  VI,  Figs.  20, 
27  ;  PI.  II,  Fig.  24).  This  large  muscle  lies  on  the  anterior  sur- 
face of  the  forearm,  and  arises  as  two  heads.  The  long  head  comes 
from  the  anterior  end  of  the  coracoid  as  a  strong,  flat  tendon.  The 
short  head  passes  immediately  into  a  stout  muscle.  The  two  pos- 
teriorly unite  to  form  a  fusiform  muscle  which  inserts  at  the  elbow 


226  MARSHAL!.— A    STUDY    OF    THE 


[June  19, 


joint,  the  more  delicate  portion  of  the  split  tendon  being  attached 
to  the  radius  on  its  inner  surface,  the  other  portion  to  the  ulna  at 
the  base  of  the  m.  flexor  digitorum  profundus  and  dorsal  to  the  m. 
brachialis  inferior. 

4.  M.  brachialis  inferior  (Br.  inf.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  24).  This  trap- 
ezoid-shaped  muscle  arises  fleshily  from  the  distal  end  of  the 
humerus,  and  from  its  inner  surface  interior  to  the  origin  of  the  m. 
extensor  metacarpi  ulnaris  (radialis?).  It  crosses  to  the  ulna  and 
is  inserted  on  that  bone  beyond  the  elbow  joint  and  between  the 
separated  portions  of  the  m.  flexor  digitorum  profundus. 

5.  M.  triceps  cubiti.  This  muscle  consists  of  two  parts,  one  long 
head  and  two  short  ones. 

a.  Pars  scapuli-cubitalis  (Pars.  sc.  cub.,  PI.  V,  Figs.  16,  17, 
22  ;  PI.  Ill,  Fig.  29).  This  one  arises  from  the  neck  of  the  scap- 
ula, posterior  to  the  scapular  projection  which  forms  part  of  the 
glenoid  fossa.  It  passes  obliquely  across  the  humerus  above  the 
insertion  of  the  latissimus  dorsi,  continues  down  the  dorsal  pos- 
terior side  of  the  humerus  and  near  its  distal  end  comes  off  in  a 
strong  flat  tendon  which  is  inserted  on  the  rim  of  the  dorsal  prox- 
imal process  of  the  ulna. 

b.  Pars  humero-cubitalis  (Pars.  hu.  cub.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  24;  PI. 
IV,  Fig.  28)  arises  by  two  heads,  the  inner  comes  from  within  the 
rim  of  the  humeral  head,  while  the  stronger  has  its  origin  on  the 
outer  aspect  of  the  head  of  the  humerus,  and  from  about  its  proximal 
quarter.  This  part  ends  in  a  tendon  and  a  broad  aponeurosis 
inserted  on  the  proximal  edge  of  the  olecranon  process  of  the  ulna, 
and  the  intervening  space  between  this  process  and  the  insertion  of 
the  scapuli  cubitalis. 

6.  Mm.  entepicondylo-antibrachiales. 
a.   Mm.  entepicondylo-radiales. 

(1)  Pronator  sublimis  (Pron.  s.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  24).  This  is  the 
most  superficial  muscle  of  the  inner  arm.  It  springs  tendinously 
from  above  the  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus,  and  interior  to  the 
origin  of  the  brachialis  inferior.  It  passes  obliquely  across  the 
interosseus  space  to  become  inserted  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  radius 
for  about  one  third  its  proximal  length. 

(2)  Pronator  profundus.  This  muscle  is  smaller  than  the  sub- 
limis, and  is  covered  for  nearly  its  entire  length  by  the  superficial 
muscles.     It  arises  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  internal  condyle  of  the 


i9°5-] 


ANATOMY   OF   PHALiENOPTILUS,  R1DGWAY. 


humerus,  and  is  almost  concealed  at  its  origin  by  the  strong  tendons 
of  the  flexor  digitorum  sublimis.  It  is  split  in  two  by  the  extensor 
indicis  longus.  The  fibers  of  the  upper  half  pass  obliquely  over 
to  the  radius  and  are  inserted  on  that  bone  under  the  pronator 
sublimis,  extending  about  as  far  distal) y  as  that  muscle.  The 
lower  half  bends  under  the  m.  extensor  indicis  longus  and  is  inserted 
on  the  radius  in  a  position  corresponding  to  the  upper  half.  This 
muscle  is  not  shown  in  the  drawings. 

b.   M.  entepicondylo-ulnaris  is  absent  in  this  bird. 

7.  M.  ectepicondylo-ulnaris  (Ect.  u.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  19)  arises  by 
a  strong  tendon  from  the  posterior  projection  of  the  external  con- 
dyle of  the  humerus  below  the  m.  extensor  digitorum  communis,  and 
is  covered  by  the  tendon  of  the  m.  extensor  carpi-ulnaris  (radialis  ?). 
It  passes  over  to  the  anterior  surface  of  the  ulna,  and  is  there 
inserted  fleshily  for  fully  two  thirds  the  length  of  that  bone. 

8.  M.  ectepicondylo-radialis  (Ect.  r.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  19).  This 
muscle  arises  from  the  posterior  projection  of  the  external  condyle 
of  the  humerus,  below  the  origin  of  the  m.  extensor  digitorum  com- 
munis and  below  the  insertion  of  the  second  forward  directed 
branch  of  the  m.  propatagialis  brevis.  It  passes  directly  over  to  the 
proximal  end  of  the  radius  and  is  inserted  fleshily  along  its  dorsal 
surface  for  about  one  third  its  length. 

9.  M.  flexor  carpi  ulnaris  (E.  carp,  ul.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  24).  This 
is  the  largest  muscle  of  the  forearm.  It  arises  by  a  strong,  flat  ten- 
don from  the  posterior  border  of  the  external  condyle  of  the  hume- 
rus. It  is  held  in  place  by  a  ligament  which  passes  from  the  con- 
dyle over  and  under  the  tendon  to  the  base  of  the  olecranon  process 
of  the  ulna,  thus  forming  a  loop.  The  muscle  runs  along  the  ven- 
tral surface  of  the  ulna  and  at  about  the  middle  of  that  bone 
separates  into  two  tendons.  Both  continue  distally  to  become 
inserted  on  the  outer  border  of  the  os  ulnare,  the  more  delicate  on 
the  lower  edge. 

10.  M.  ulni  metacarpalis  veiitralis  ([//.  met.  v.,  PL  V,  Fig.  24). 
This  muscle  arises  fleshily  from  about  the  middle  three  fifths  of  the 
ventral  and  posterior  surface  of  the  ulna,  and  is  broadest  at  the 
distal  end  immediately  before  passing  over  into  the  tendon  which 
crosses  in  front  of  the  os  radiale,  to  the  surface  of  the  third  meta- 
carpal and  is  inserted  on  its  dorsal  proximal  projection.  It  is  cov- 
ered by  the  tendons  of  other  muscles  which  find  their  insertion  in 


22S  MARSHALL— A   STUDY   OF   THE 


[June  19, 


this  region.  The  distal  portion  of  this  tendon  with  that  of  the  m. 
flexor  digitorum  is  held  in  place  by  a  delicate  ligament  extending 
from  the  distant  ventral  border  of  the  radius  to  the  ventral  projec- 
tion on  the  third  metacarpal  above  the  os  carpi  ulnare. 

11.  M.  ulni  metacarpalis  dorsalis  (UI.  met.  d.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  24), 
arises  by  a  short  strong  tendon  from  the  dorsal  distal  end  of  the 
ulna  at  the  base  of  the  external  condyle.  The  tendon  bends  around 
the  condyle  to  its  posterior  border  where  it  swells  rapidly  into  a 
thick  muscle.  The  greater  part  of  the  muscle  is  inserted  fleshily 
on  the  posterior  border  of  the  fourth  metacarpal.  A  small  part  of 
the  muscle  terminates  distally  in  a  broad,  flat  tendon  which  fuses 
with  those  that  go  to  the  quills. 

12.  M.  extensor  metacarpi  ulnaris  {radialis  ?)  (£.  met.  ul.  r., 
PI.  V,  Figs.  19,  20,  22,  24).  The  origin  of  this  muscle  is  the  most 
proximal  of  all  that  come  from  the  distal  end  of  the  humerus.  It 
arises  by  two  heads,  one  tendinous,  the  other  fleshy,  from  the  ante- 
rior surface  of  the  humerus  superior  to  the  external  condyle  and 
above  the  upper  insertion  of  the  m.  propatagialis  brevis,  the  tendin- 
ous head  being  somewhat  dorsal.  At  about  7  mm.  from  its  origin 
the  tendon  passes  over  into  a  fusiform  muscle.  At  the  same  point 
is  given  off  a  tendinous,  sheath  which  fuses  with  the  tendon  of 
the  propatagialis  brevis,  above  the  first  bifurcation  of  that  ten- 
don. This  muscle  is  smaller  and  lies  dorsal  to  the  one  of  fleshy 
origin.  About  the  mid-point  of  the  radius  the  two  muscles  unite 
to  form  a  strong,  flat  tendon  which  passes  over  the  end  of  the  radius, 
across  the  os  radiale,  and  is  inserted  on  the  apex  of  the  os  magnum. 

13.  M.  extensor  metacarpi  ulnaris  (E.  met.  ?(/.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  22). 
This  muscle  springs  from  the  external  condyle  of  the  humerus  close 
beside  the  m.  extensor  digitorum  communis.  At  its  origin  it  is  held 
in  place  by  a  delicate  ligament.  It  finds  attachment  on  the  pos- 
terior surface  of  the  third  metacarpal  about  one  third  the  distance 
from  its  proximal  end. 

14.  M.  flexor  digitorum  sublimis  (F.  dig.  s.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  24). 
This  is  the  central  superficial  muscle  of  the  inner  forearm.  It 
arises  by  a  strong,  flat  tendon  from  the  internal  condyle  of  the 
humerus.  The  muscle  bundle  runs  parallel  to  the  ulna,  and  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  flexor  carpi  ulnaris  for  about  two  thirds  the  length 
of  the  ulna,  and  there  separates  into  two  tendons.  The  posterior 
tendon  passes  over  the  os  ulnare,  bends  under  the  tendon  of  the  m. 


i9°5-l 


ANATOMY   OF   PHAL^NOPTILUS,  RIDGWAY.  229 


extensor  digitorum  profundus  to  the  antero-ventral  surface  of  the 
third  metacarpal,  runs  along  the  anterior  rim  of  the  first  phalanx  of 
third  digit,  and  is  inserted  on  the  proximal  end  of  the  second  pha- 
lanx about  one  third  its  length  from  the  proximal  end.  The  ante- 
rior tendon  continues  to  the  wrist  where  it  merges  into  a  tendin- 
ous band  which  extends  from  the  ventral  edge  of  the  styloid  proc- 
ess of  the  radius  to  the  anterior  border  of  the  os  ulnare.  From 
this  latter  point  come  off  two  other  tendons,  the  upper  and  more 
delicate  being  inserted  at  about  the  mid-point  on  the  ventral  bor- 
der of  the  third  metacarpal.  The  thin,  flat,  posterior  tendon  runs 
along  the  ventral  surface  of  the  fourth  metacarpal  and  is  attached 
near  its  distal  end.  The  insertion  is  quite  different  from  the  de- 
scription of  Gadow  (/.  c. ). 

15.  M.  flexor  digitorum  profundus  {F.  dig.  p.,  PL  V,  Fig.  24). 
This  muscle  arises  fleshily  from  the  proximal  half  of  the  ventral  sur- 
face of  the  ulna.  Proximally  it  is  divided  into  two  almost  equal 
portions  by  the  brachialis  inferior  which  inserts  on  the  ulna  between 
them.  The  surface  of  origin  gradually  diminishes  and  ceases  alto- 
gether when  the  broad  expansion  of  the  ulni  metacarpalis  ventralis 
is  reached.  At  the  wrist  the  tendon  runs  under  the  tendinous 
band  of  the  m.  flexor  digitorum  sublimis,  passes  above  the  ventral 
projection  on  the  proximal  end  of  the  third  metacarpal,  and  is  here 
held  in  place  by  a  ligament  extending  from  this  projection  to  the 
distal  ventral  edge  of  the  radius.  It  is  inserted  on  the  antero- 
ventral  rim  of  the  proximal  end  of  the  second  phalanx  of  the  third 
digit. 

16.  M.  extensor  digitorum  communis  {Ex.  dig.  c.,  PL  V,  Fig. 
22).  This  fusiform  muscle  arises  by  a  short  tendon  from  the  ex- 
ternal condyle  of  the  humerus  between  the  tendons  of  origin  of  the 
m.  extensor  metacarpi  ulnaris  and  m.  ectepicondylo  radialis.  The 
muscle  becomes  tendinous  at  about  two  thirds  the  length  of  the 
radius.  Soon  after  passing  the  ulna  the  tendon  bifurcates,  sending 
a  delicate  slip  to  the  pollex  digit,  inserting  about  one  third  the 
length  of  that  bone  from  its  proximal  end.  The  long  fork  is  twice 
crossed  by  the  tendon  of  the  m.  extensor  indicis  longus  and  is  finally 
inserted  on  the  proximal  rim  of  the  first  phalanx  of  the  third  digit. 

17.  M.  extensor  pollicis  longus  (E.pl.  /.,  PL  V,  Figs.  19,  22). 
Covered  by  the  m.  extensor  indicis  longus,  the  muscle  comes  from  the 
facing  surfaces  of  ulna  and  radius,  from  the  proximal  third  of  the 


230  MARSHALL— A    STUDY    OF   THE 


[June  19, 


ulna  and  about  the  middle  third  of  the  radius.  At  its  proximal 
extremity  it  is  crossed  by  a  ligamentous  band  passing  from  ulna  to 
radius.  It  is  also  held  close  to  the  radius  by  fascia.  The  tendon 
accompanies  the  m.  extensor  metacarpi  ulnaris  (radialis?)  to  the 
apex  of  the  os  magnum  and  is  there  attached  below  that  muscle. 

18.  M.  extensor  indicis  longus  (E.  ind.  /. ,  PI.  V,  Figs.  22,  24). 
This  muscle  arises  by  a  very  short  tendon  from  the  internal  condyle 
of  the  humerus.  It  passes  directly  to  the  ventral  surface  of  the 
radius,  and  is  attached  fleshily  to  the  ulna  facing  surface  of  that 
bone  for  fully  five  sixths  of  its  length.  The  tendon  bends  under 
the  radius  and  becomes  dorsal.  It  crosses  the  tendon  of  the  m. 
extensor  digiterum  communis,  and  finds  attachment  on  the  base 
of  the  second  phalanx  of  the  third  digit.  It  fails  to  agree  with 
Gadow's  diagnosis. 

19.  M.  interosseus  dorsalis  {Int.  d.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  21).  Both 
interossei  spring  from  the  facing  surfaces  of  the  third  and  fourth 
metacarpals.  In  this  description  the  name  dorsalis  is  given  to  that 
muscle  which  clings  to  the  third  metacarpal.  At  the  distal  end  of 
the  interosseous  space  the  muscle  becomes  tendinous  and  bends 
posteriorly,  passing  along  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  phalanx  of  the 
fourth  metacarpal,  then  to  the  ventral  distal  end  of  the  second 
phalanx  of  third  digit  to  become  inserted  about  four  fifths  the 
length  of  that  bone  from  the  proximal  end. 

20.  M.  interosseus  palmaris  {Int.  p.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  21).  This 
muscle  comes  from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  fourth  metacarpal, 
and  terminates  tendinously  about  one  half  the  length  of  that  bone. 
The  tendon  turns  dorsally,  and  is  attached  to  the  distal  end  of  the 
first  phalanx  of  the  third  digit  on  its  dorsal  surface. 

21.  M.  abductor  indicts  {Ab.  in.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  20).  This  muscle 
springs  fleshily  from  the  ventral  surface  of  the  proximal  two  thirds 
of  the  third  metacarpal,  its  proximal  end  being  at  the  base  of  the 
ventral  projection  of  that  metacarpal.  The  round,  strong  tendon 
is  inserted  on  the  proximal  anterior  rim  of  the  second  phalanx  of 
digit  three. 

22.  M.  flexor  pollicis  (Ft.  pi,  PI.  V,  Fig.  20).  This  short 
muscle  comes  from  the  proximal  ventral  surface  of  the  third  meta- 
carpal, lying  between  the  abductor  pollicis  and  the  ventral  pro- 
jection of  this  metacarpal.  It  terminates  on  the  posterior  proximal 
projection  of  the  pollex  digit. 


igos.]  ANATOMY   OF   PHAL/ENOPTILUS,  RIDGWAY.  231 

23.  M.  abductor  pollicis  (Ab.  />/.,  PL  V,  Figs.  20,  24).  This 
rather  round  muscle  arises  tendinously  from  the  lower  surface  of 
the  tendon  of  the  m.  extensor  metacarpi  ulnaris  (radialis?)  some- 
what proximal  to  its  point  of  insertion.  The  muscle  then  twists 
around  the  base  of  the  pollex  digit  to  its  ventral  surface,  and  ter- 
minates tendinously  about  its  mid-point. 

24.  M.  extensor  pollicis  brevis  is  not  present. 

25.  M.  adductor  pollicis  {Ad.  pi,  PI.  V,  Figs.  20,  24).  This 
fairly  well  developed  muscle  lies  between  the  posterior  surface  of 
the  pollex  digit  and  the  anterior  surface  of  the  third  metacarpal. 
It  arises  by  a  strong,  fleshy  base  from  the  proximal  eighth  of  the 
third  metacarpal,  thence  it  goes  obliquely  to  the  pollex  digit  and 
is  attached  by  a  delicate  tendon  about  one  third  the  length  of  the 
digit  from  its  distal  end. 

26.  M.  flexor  digiti  III  (F.  dig.  Ill,  PI.  V,  Figs.  20,  24).  This 
slender  muscle  has  its  origin  on  the  posterior  proximal  third  of  the 
fourth  metacarpal.  At  its  fleshy  base  is  a  broad  ligament  extending 
from  the  anterior  rim  of  the  os  ulnare  to  this  point.  Near  the 
distal  end  of  this  metacarpal  the  muscle  becomes  tendinous  and 
finds  attachment  about  the  mid-point  of  the  first  phalanx  of  fourth 
digit. 

Below  are  given  some  muscles  found  on  this  bird  and  not  men- 
tioned by  Gadow  (/.  c. ). 

A.  {A.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  21.)  This  is  a  very  delicate  muscle  extend- 
ing along  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  third  metacarpal,  and  at  its  origin 
is  covered  by  tendons  of  other  muscles,  fascia  and  surrounding  mem- 
branes. It  arises  by  a  delicate  tendon  from  the  distal  dorsal  edge 
of  the  radius.  The  round  fusiform  carneous  portion  is  covered  by 
the  tendons  of  the  extensor  digitorum  communis  and  extensor  in- 
dicis  longus.  Its  distal  hair-like  tendon  fuses  with  the  m.  extensor 
indicis  longus  at  a  point  opposite  the  middle  of  the  third  metacarpal. 

B.  (B.,  PI.  V,  Fig.  24.)  This  slender  muscle  extends  from  the 
distal  end  of  the  first  phalanx  of  the  third  digit  to  the  distal  end 
on  the  dorsal  side  of  last  phalanx  of  that  digit. 

C.  From  the  dorsal  distal  end  of  the  ulna  a  tendon  passes  to  the 
quills.     It  is  not  shown  in  the  figures. 

D.  (B>. ,  PL  V,  Fig.  21.)  This  is  a  flat  muscle  which  has  its  car- 
neous origin  on  the  proximal  dorsal  surface  of  the  third  metacarpal. 
It   lies  between  the   proximal    projection   of   that    bone  and    the 


232  MARSHALL— A   STUDY   OF  THE  [June  19, 

pollex  digit  and  os  magnum.     It  is  inserted  tendinously  on  the 
proximal  ridge  of  the  pollex  digit. 

E.  This  is  a  short,  stout  muscle  arising  from  the  ventral  and 
dorsal  end  of  the  coracoid.  It  passes  directly  over  to  the  head  of 
the  humerus  where  it  is  inserted,  one  point  of  the  insertion  ex- 
tending down  to  the  anterior  border  of  the  humeral  crest.  The 
long  tendon  of  the  biceps  passes  over  this  muscle,  which  does  not 
appear  on  the  plates. 

2.   Posterior  extremity. 

Here  are  described  only  those  muscles  that  insert  upon  and  arise 
from  the  femur.  The  hind  limb  is  so  weak  in  this  species  and  its 
other  muscles  so  delicate,  that  it  did  not  seem  worth  the  time  to 
work  out  its  whole  musculature.  They  are  described  in  the  order 
of  their  occurrence,  beginning  with  the  superficial. 

i.  M.  ilio-tibialis  intemus  or  Sartorius  {II.  tib.  int.,  PI.  VI, 
Figs.  31,  34,  35).  This  is  the  most  anterior  muscle  of  the  thigh, 
of  those  extending  from  pelvis  to  femur.  It  comes  fleshily  from  the 
dorso-lateral  border  of  the  ilium  and  covers  the  posterior  origin  of 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  latissimus  dorsi,  and  the  anterior  edge 
of  the  ilio-trochanterici.  It  runs  free  from  the  muscles  of  the 
pelvis  behind  it  to  the  femur,  gradually  diminishing  in  size  and  ter- 
minating in  a  flat  tendon  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  knee  joint 
where  it  is  covered  by  a  lower  leg  muscle. 

2.  M.  ilio-trochanterici  {It.  troch.,  PI.  VI,  Figs.  31,  35). 
This  large,  somewhat  pyramidal-shaped  muscle  arises  fleshily  from 
the  region  of  the  acetabulum  and  that  portion  of  the  preacetabular 
ilium  not  occupied  by  the  sartorius,  the  fibers  extending  even  to 
its  ventral  border.  These  converge  and  insert  by  a  thin  tendon  on 
the  trochanter  where  it  is  covered  by  the  m.  ilio-tibialis.  It  has 
not  the  divisions  given  by  Gadow  (/.  c. ),  but  is  a  compact  muscle. 

3.  M.  ilio-tibialis  (PI.  VI,  Figs.  31,  34,  35).  This  thin,  broad 
muscle  is  the  most  superficial  one  of  the  thigh.  It  springs  semi- 
tendinously  from  the  acetabular  and  post-acetabular  ilium.  It 
consists  of  an  anterior  and  posterior  portion  which  are  readily  dis- 
tinguished. The  anterior  portion  (//.  tib.  ant.)  extends  about  two 
thirds  the  length  of  the  femur,  then  merges  with  the  underlying 
muscle.  The  posterior  portion  (//.  tib.  post.)  diminishes  in  width 
distally  and  inserts  aponeurotically  upon  the  muscles  covering  the 
outer  surface  of  the  knee  joint. 


I9oS]  ANATOMY   OF   PHAL/ENOPTILUS,  RIDGWAY.  233 

4.  M.  caud-ilio-flexorius  (Caud.  il.  fix.,  PI.  VI,  Figs.  31,  32, 
33>  34>  35)-  Behind  the  last  mentioned  muscle  this  superficial 
one  is  found.  It  is  a  small  band-shaped  muscle,  coming  from  the 
posterior  border  of  the  ischium.  It  is  partially  covered  on  its 
anterior  margin  by  the  m.  ilio-tibialis  and  m.  ilio-fibularis.  The  ter- 
mination is  very  peculiar.  Coming  from  the  under,  distal  surface 
of  the  femur  is  a  short,  broad  muscle,  which  fuses  with  the  large 
muscle  mass,  the  line  of  fusion  being  almost  at  right  angles  to  the 
fibers  of  that  portion.  From  its  tibial  side  comes  off  a  short  mus- 
cle bundle  with  fibers  directed  downward  and  the  tendon  of  which 
fuses  with  that  of  one  of  the  leg  muscles.  This  shows  great  devia- 
tion from  Gadow's  (/.  c.)  description. 

5.  M.  ischio-flexorius  (Isc.  fix.,  PI.  VI,  Figs.  31,  33,  34, 
35).  This  narrow  muscle  band  comes  from  the  distal  border  of 
the  ischium  at  its  union  with  the  pubis.  It  is  covered  anteriorly 
by  the  last  mentioned  layer.  Its  thin,  flat  tendon  finds  insertion 
on  the  anterior  borders  of  the  tibial  neck. 

6.  M.  ilio-fibularis  {II.  fib.,  PI.  VI,  Figs.  31,  34,  35).  This 
layer  becomes  visible  after  the  removal  of  the  m.  tibialis  anterior 
and  posterior.  It  springs  from  the  acetabular  ilium.  It  ends  in  a 
small,  round  tendon,  which,  passing  through  a  tendonous  loop  at 
the  knee,  continues  down  the  leg  to  become  inserted  between  fibula 
and  tibia  at  the  point  where  the  former  becomes  free  from  the 
latter. 

7.  M.  femori-tibialis  (Fm.  tib.,  PI.  VI,  Figs.  33,  34,  35). 
This  is  the  largest  of  the  thigh  muscles.  It  is  partially  covered  on 
the  ventral  anterior  border  by  the  m.  ilio-tibialis  internus,  dorsally 
by  the  m.  ilio-tibialis  anterior.  Its  origin  begins  at  the  trochanter 
and  it  is  attached  fieshily  to  the  femur  on  both  dorsal  and  ventral 
surfaces.  It  finds  a  tendinous  insertion  at  the  knee  joint,  being  at- 
tached to  the  proximal  border  of  the  tibia.  The  separation  into 
parts  as  given  by  Gadow  (/.  c. )  can  not  be  made  out. 

8.  M.  caud. -ilio-femoralis  (Caud.  il.  fm.,  PI.  VI,  Fig.  35). 
This  is  revealed  by  the  removal  of  the  m.  ilio-fibularis  and  m.  caud- 
ilio-flexorius.  Its  width  where  it  passes  under  the  m.  caud-ilio- 
flexorius  is  equal  to  that  of  the  above  muscle.  It  comes  as  a  small 
rounded  tendon  from  the  ventral  lateral  border  of  the  pygostyle. 
Just  before  reaching  the  ischium  the  tendon  passes  over  into  the  fleshy 
muscle.     This  bends  around  in  a  semicircular  fashion  to  the  proximal 


234  MARSHALL— A    STUDY   OF   THE 


[June  19, 


third  of  the  femur,  and  here  finds  a  fleshy  insertion  on  the  linea  as- 
pera,  occupying  its  posterior  surface.  Pars  iliaca  is  absent  and  pars 
caudalis  does  not  agree  in  origin  with  Gadow's  (/.  e.)  description. 

9.  M.  ischio-femoralis  (Ise.  fin.,  PL  VI,  Fig.  35).  This 
muscle  is  proximal  to  the  above.  It  springs  from  joining  surfaces 
of  ischium  and  ilium  and  from  neighboring  surface  of  ischium  down 
to  the  origin  of  the  m.  pub.-ischo-femoralis.  This  short,  thick,  flat 
muscle  there  crosses  the  femur  and  is  inserted  by  a  small,  thin 
tendon  at  the  base  of  the  trochanter. 

10.  M.  piib-ischio-femoralis  {PI),  ise.fm.,  PI.  VI,  Figs.  33,  35). 
This  is  one  of  the  largest  muscles  of  the  thigh.  It  arises  from  the 
proximal  half  of  the  pubis  and  ischium  along  their  line  of  union. 
It  passes  somewhat  obliquely  over  to  the  distal  half  of  the  femur 
and  is  there  inserted  fleshily  by  its  anterior  border.  Its  fibers  are 
intimately  associated  with  those  of  the  m.  caud-ilio-flexorius.  It 
consists  of  only  one  portion,  a  thick,  flat  layer. 

11.  M.  obturator  (Obt.,  PL  VI,  Fig.  35).  This  is  the  deepest 
lying  of  the  muscles  of  the  outer  surface.  It  springs  fleshily  from 
the  edges  of  the  foramen  obturatum.  Thence  it  passes  to  the  poste- 
rior border  of  femur,  and  there  is  attached  semitendinously.  The 
muscle  varies  considerably  from  that  of  Gadow's  (/.  e.)  of  the 
same  name.  It  agrees  in  some  points  with  his  mm.  accessorii  m. 
obturatoris. 

12.  M.  ilio-femoralis  internus  {II.  fin.  int.,  PL  VI,  Fig.  33). 
This  somewhat  triangular  muscle  comes  from  the  ventral  surface, 
near  its  lateral  border,  of  the  preacetabular  ilium  extending  almost 
to  the  acetabulum.  It  passes  to  the  ventral  surface  of  the  femur 
just  distal  to  the  head,  and  is  there  attached.  The  muscle  is  fleshy 
both  at  origin  and  insertion. 

13.  X.  (PL  VI.,  Fig.  33).  This  is  a  long  slender  muscle  begin- 
ning distal  to  the  insertion  of  the  m.  ilio-femoralis  internus,  and  is 
attached  fleshily  to  the  ventral  surface  of  the  femur  for  its  remain- 
ing length.  It  terminates  distally  in  a  thin,  flat  tendon  which  is 
inserted  on  the  dorso-ventral  border  of  the  proximal  end  of  the 
tibia.     Gadow  (/.  c. )  did  not  describe  such  a  muscle. 

The  following  muscles  were  not  found  :  m.  ilio-femoralis  exter- 
tuis,  m.  amine us,  mm.  aeeesorii  m.  obturatoris. 


19o5.]  ANATOMY    OF    PHAL.ENOPTILUS,   RIDGWAY. 


235 


VII.   Comparisons. 
Certain  characters  of  the  better  known  genera  of  the  Caprimul 
gidas  are  compared  in  the  following  table  : 


•8 

rt 

■6 

a 

■a. 

CO 

■a 

3 

3 

3 

g 

a 

^ 

H  u 

I 

0 

a 

u 

U 

5 

s 

m 
o 

3 

3 

CO 

^1 

—   t 

t 

o 

Caprimulgus. 

2 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Over 
biceps. 

Axy 

One 
notch. 

Traches- 
bronchial. 

X 

X 

- 

Nyctidromus. 

2 

X 

X 

X 

X 

" 

Axy 

" 

" 

X 

X 

— 

Chordeiles. 

2 

X 

X 

X 

— 

" 

Axy 

" 

<' 

X 

X 



Antrostomus. 

2 

X 

X 

X 

X 

" 

Axy 

" 

" 

X 

X 



Phalsenoptilus. 

2 

X 

X 

— 

X 

" 

(A)y 

" 

" 

X 

X 

— 

The  sign  "x"  denotes  occurrence,  and  "  —  "  absence  of  a 
character.  The  formulae  for  the  thigh  muscles  are  those  given  by 
Garrod  (1S74),  slightly  modified  by  Gadow  (1891),  and  denote 
the  presence  of  the  following  muscles  : 

Pars  caudalis  m.  caud.-il.  femoris , =  A 

Pars  iliaca  m.  caud-il.  femoris =B 

M.  caud-il.  flex,  inserting  only  on  the  tibia =  X 

M.  caud-il.  flex,  with  the    "  accessorius  "  inserting  on  the 

femur   —  Y 

All  the  points  of  comparison  of  the  first  four  genera  in  the  above 
table  were  taken  from  Beddard  (1898).  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  amount  of  difference  in  these  forms  is  slight.  The  only  char- 
acters which  differ  are  the  gall  bladder,  absent  in  Chordeiles,  biceps 
slip,  absent  in  Phaloznoptilus,  and  the  difference  in  the  last  genus 
of  the  muscle  formula  for  the  thigh. 

So  far  as  the  tabulated  characters  are  concerned,  Phalcenoptilus 
appears  less  closely  related  to  Chordeiles  than  to  the  other  genera. 
In  two  of  its  muscle  characters  it  differs  from  all  the  other  genera. 

VIII.  Aberrant  Characters. 

In  closing  it  will  be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  striking  varia- 
tions from  the  muscles  of  the  birds  studied  and  described  by 
Gadow  (/.  r.). 

The  following  wing  muscles  were  not  found:  Biceps  slip,  m. 
extensor  policis  brevis,  m.  entepicondylo-ulnaris  and  m.  deltoi- 
deus  minor.     Some  not  mentioned  by  him  were  present  in  the 


236  MARSHALL— A   STUDY   OF   THE  [June  19, 

bird,  and  in  the  descriptions  and  drawings  are  denoted  by  the  let- 
ers  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E.  The  complex  arrangement  of  the  m. 
propatagialis  brevis  should  also  be  mentioned. 

Of  the  thigh  muscles  these  were  missing:  m.  ilio-femoralis  ex- 
ternus,  m.  ambiens,  and  mm.  accessorii  m.  obturatoris.  A  muscle 
herein  denoted  by  the  letter  X  was  not  given  by  Gadow.  Pars 
caudalis  m.  caud-ilio-femoralis  differs  from  Gadow's  description 
and  this  difference  is  indicated  in  the  table  by  placing  the  letter 
representing  it  in  parenthesis.  M.  caud-ilio-flexorius  showed  con- 
siderable variation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  CAPRIMULGI. 
Beddard,  F.  E. 

1886.     On  the  Syrinx  and  Other  Points  in  the  Anatomy  of  the  Caprimulgidse. 

Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London. 
i8g8.     The  Structure  and  Classification  of  Birds.     London. 
Blanford,  W.  T. 

1877.     Letter  on  Capriraulgus  unwini  and  some  Batrachostomi.     Ibis. 
Clark,  H.  L. 

1894.     The  Pterylography  of  Certain  American  Goatsuckers  and  Owls.     Proc. 

U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. 
1 901.     The  Pterylosis  of  Podargus  :  with  notes  on  the  Pterylography  of  Capri- 
mulgi.     Auk. 
Coues,  £. 
1888.     Notes  on  the  Nomenclature  of  the  Muscles  of  Volation  in  Birds'  Wings. 

Auk. 
1903.     Key  to  North  American  Birds.     Fifth  edition.     Boston. 
Cuvier,  G. 
1795.     Memoir  sur  le  larynx  inferieur  des  Oiseaux.     Millin,  Magasin  encyclo- 

paed.     I.     Paris. 
Fiirbringer,  M. 

1888.  Untersuchungen  zur  Morphologie  und  Systematik  der  Yogel.  Amster- 
dam. 

1891.     Anatomie  der  Vogel.     Mem.  II.     Orn.  Congress. 
Gadow,  H. 

1889.  On  the  Taxonomic  Value  of  the  Intestinal  Convolutions  in  Birds.  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  London. 

1891.     Vogel.  Bronn's  Klassen  und  Ordnungen  des  Thier-Reichs.     Leipzig. 

Garrod,  A.  H. 

1872.     On  the  Mechanism  of  the  Gizzard  in  Birds.     Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London. 

1873a.  On  Certain  Muscles  in  the  Thigh  of  Birds,  and  on  their  Value  in  Classifi- 
cation.     Ibid. 

1873b.  On  the  Value  in  Classification  of  a  Peculiarity  in  the  Anterior  Margin  of 
the  Nasal  Bones  of  Certain  Birds.     Ibid. 


I9o5.]  ANATOMY   OF    PHAL^NOPTILUS,  RIDGWAY.  237 

1873c.  On  the  Carotid  Arteries  of  Birds.     Ibid. 

1874.  On  Certain  Muscles  in  Birds  and  their  Value  in  Classification.  Part  II. 
Ibid. 

Goodchild,  J   G. 

1886.     Observations  on  the   Disposition  of  the  Cubital   Coverts  in  Birds.     Ibid. 

Hartert,  E. 

1892.     Notes  on  the  Caprimulgida;.     Ibis. 

1896.     Notes  on  some  Species  of  the   Families  Cypselidae,  Caprimulgidte,  and 

Podargidre,  with  Remarks  on  Subspecific  Forms  and  their  Nomenclature. 

Ibis. 

Huxley,  T.  H. 

1867.  On  the  Classification  of  Birds  ;  and  on  the  Taxonomic  Value  of  the  Mod- 
ifications of  Certain  of  the  Cranial  Bones  Observable  in  that  Class.  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  London. 

Kessler,  K.  T. 

1841.     Osteologie  der  Vogelfiisse.     Bull.  Soc.  Imp.  Natur.     Moscou. 

Mitchell,  P.  C. 

On  the  Intestinal  Tract  of  Birds ;  with  Remarks  on  the  Valuation  and 
Nomenclature  of  Zoological  Characters.  Tr.  Linn.  Soc.  London.  Zool. 
VIII. 

Morse,  E. 

1872.     On  the  Tarsus  and  Carpus  of  Birds.     Am.  Lye.     N.  Y. 

Miiller,  J. 

1841.  Uber  die  Anatomie  des  Steatornis  caripensis.  Monatsber.  d.  k.  Akad. 
der  wiss.     Berlin. 

1842.  Anatomische  Bemerkungen  uber  den  Quacharo  (Steatorins  caripensis). 
Miiller' s  Arch.  f.  Anat.  and  Phys. 

Nitzsch,  C.  L. 

1867.  Pterylography,  translated  (by  W.  S.  Dallas)  from  the  German.  Roy.  Soc. 
London. 

Nitzsch-Burmeister. 

1840.     System  der  Pterylographie.      Halle. 

Nitzsch-Giebel. 

1858.     Dei  Zunge  der  Vogel  und  ihr  Geriist.   Zeitsch.  f.d.  ges.  naturw.  XL   Berlin. 

Parker,  W.  K. 

1868.  A  Monograph  on  the  Structure  and  Development  of  the  Shoulder  Girdle 
and  Sternum  in  the  Vertebrata.     Roy.  Soc.  London. 

1876a.   Memoir  on  ^Egithognathous  Birds.     Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London. 

1876b.  On  the  Structure  and  Development  of  the  Bird's  Skull.  Trans.  Linn. 
Soc.  Zool.     I.     London. 

1878.  On  the  Skull  of  the  /Egithognathous  Birds.  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  Lon- 
don.    X. 


J38 


MARSHALL— A    STUDY   OF   THE 


[June  19 


Sclater,  P.  L. 

1866a.  Additional  Notes  on  the  Caprimulgid£e.     Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London. 

1866b.  Notes  on  the  American  Caprimulgidae.      Ibid. 

Shufeldt,  R.  M. 

1885.  Contribution  to  the  Comparative  Osteology  of  the  Trochilidse,  Caprimul- 
gidse  and  Cypselidje.     Ibid. 

1886.  Additional  Notes  upon   the   Anatomy  of  the  Trochili,  Caprimulgi,   and 
Cypselidre.     Ibid. 

1889.     Studies  of  the  Macrochires,  Morphological  and  Otherwise,  with  the  View 
of  Indicating  Their  Relationships,  and  Defining  Their  Several  Positions  in 
the  System.     Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  Zool.     London. 
Zoological  Laboratory, 

University  of  Texas,  1905. 


Description  of  the  Plates. 
The  following  abbreviations  have  been   employed  : 


Ab.  in.,  Musculus  abductor  indicis. 

Ab.  pi.,  M.  abductor  pollicis. 

Ad.pl.,  M.  adductor  pollicis. 

A.,  Anus. 

Bas.  h.,  Basihyal. 

Bas.  b.,  Basibranchial. 

Bi.,    Biceps   brachii,    pars    propatagi- 

alis. 
Bi.  T.,  Tendon  of  biceps  brachii. 
Bi.  inf.,  Musculus  brachialis  inferior. 
Bi\  «.,  Brachial  nerve. 
Bro.,  Bronchus. 
C,  Coracoid. 
Ccb.,  Geca. 
Caud.  il.jlx.,  Musculus  caud.-ilio-flex- 

orius. 
Caud.  il.  fm.,  M.  caud.-ilio  femoralis. 
Cb.,  Cerebellum. 
Cer.,  Cerebrum. 
Cer.  b.,  Cerato-brachial. 
CI.,  Clavicle. 
Clo.,  Cloaca. 
Cor.   br.  p.,   Musculus  coraco-brachia- 

lis  posterior. 
Del.  a.,  M.  deltoideus  major  anterior. 
Del.  p.,  M.  deltoideus  major  posterior. 
Duo.,  Duodenum. 
Ect.   ?-.,   Musculus  ectepicondylo-radi- 

alis. 
Ect.  u.,  M.  ectepicondylo-ulnaris. 


E.  dig.  c.,  M.  extensor  digitorum  com- 
munis. 

E.  dig.  c.  t.,  Tendon  of  m.  extensor 
digitorum  communis. 

E.  ind.  I.,  Musculus  extensor  indicis 
longus. 

E.  ind.  1.  L,  Tendon  of  M.  extensor 
indicis  longus. 

E.  viet.  ul.,  Musculus  extensor  meta- 
carpi  ulnaris. 

E.  met.  ul.  ?:,  M.  extensor  metacarpi 
ulnaris  (radialis?  ). 

E.  met.  ul.  r.  t.,  Tendon  of  m.  ex- 
tensor metacarpi  ulnaris  (radialis?  ). 

Ent.  g.,  Os  entglossum. 

E.  pi.  I.,  Musculus  extensor  pollicis 
longus. 

Ep.  b.,  Epi-branchial. 

F.  carp,  ul.,  Musculus  flexor  carpi 
ulnaris. 

F.  dig.  p.,  M.  flexor  digitorum  pro- 
fundus. 

F.  dig.  s.,  M.  flexor  digitorum  sublimis. 
/•'.  dig.  III.,  M.  digiti  III. 

Fl.  pi.,  M.  flexor  pollicis. 

Flo.,  Flocculus. 

Fm.  tib.,  M.  femori-tibialis. 

G.  bl.,  Gall  bladder. 
Giz.,  Gizzard. 

lit.,  Heart. 


ANATOMY   OF   PHAL/ENOPTILUS.  RIDGWAY. 


>M9 


Hit.,  Humerus. 

II.  Jib.,  Musculus  ilio-fibularis. 

II.  fm.  int.,  M.  ilio-femoralis  internus. 

77.  tib.  ant.,  M.  ilio-tibialis  anterior. 

//.   tib.  post.,  M.  ilio-tibialis  posterior. 

//.  tib.  int.,  M.  ilio-tibialis  internus. 

//.  troch.,  M.  ilio-trochanterici. 

Inf.,  Infundibulum. 

Int.,  Intestine. 

Int.  d.,  Musculus  interosseus  dorsalis. 

Int.  p.,  M.  interosseus  palmaris. 

Isc.  fix.,  M.  ischio-flexorius. 

Isc  fin.,  M.  ischio-femoralis. 

K.,  Kidney. 

Lar.,  Larynx. 

Lat.  d.   a.,   Musculus   latissimus  dorsi 

anterior. 
Lat.d.p.,  M.  latissimus  dorsi  posterior. 
Liv.,  Liver. 
Liv.  d.,  Liver  duct. 
L.  ovi.,  Left  ovary. 
Lu.,  Lungs. 

Med.,  Medulla  oblongata. 
Nos.,  Nostril. 
Obt.,  Musculus  obturator. 
CEs. ,  Oesophagus. 
Olf.  n.,  Olfactory  nerve. 
Op.  I. ,  Optic  lobes. 
Ov. ,  Ovary. 
Pars.  hu.   cub.,  Musculus  triceps  pars 

humero-cubitalis. 
Pars.  sc.  cub.,  M.  triceps  pars  scapuli- 

cubitalis. 
Pan.,  Pancreas. 
Pan.  d.,  Pancreatic  ducts. 
Pb.,  Pubis. 
P.     pat.     b.,     Musculus    propatagialis 

brevis. 
P.  pat.  I.,  M.  propatagialis  longus. 
Pb.  isc.  fm.,  M.  pub. -ischio-femoralis. 
Pect.,  M.  pectoralis,  pars  thoracica. 
Pha.,  Pharynx. 


Pron.  s.,  Musculus  pronator  sublimis. 

Pro.,  M,  propatagialis,  pars  propata- 
gialis musculi  deltoidei. 

Prov.,  proven triculus. 

R.,  Os  radiale. 

Pa.,  Radius. 

Rh.  s.,  Musculus  rhomboideus  super- 
ficialis. 

Rh.  p.,  M.  rhomboideus  profundus. 

R.  ovi.,  Right  oviduct. 

Sc,  Scapula. 

Sc.  hum.  p.,  Musculus  scapuli-humer- 
alis  posterior. 

Ser.  p.,  M.  serratus  profundus. 

Ser.  s.  a.,  M.  serratus  superficialis  an- 
terior. 

Ser.  s.  p.,  M.  serratus  superficialis  pos- 
terior. 

Spl.,  Spleen. 

Sp.,  Spinal  cord. 

S.  sc,  Musculus  subscapularis. 

St. ,  Sternum. 

St.  co.,  Musculus  sterno-coracoideus. 

St.  tr.,  M.  sterno-trachealis. 

Sub.  co.,  Musculus  subcoracoideus. 

Sup.  cor.,  M.  supracoracoideus. 

T.,  Tongue. 

Tr.  lat. ,  Musculus  Tracheo-lateralis. 

Tra.,  Trachea. 

Tym.  in.,  Membrana  tympaniformis 
interna. 

Tym.  ex.,  Membrana  tympaniformis 
externa. 

U.,  Os  ulnare. 

Ul.,  Ulna. 

Ul.  met.  d.,  Musculus  ulni  metacarpalis 
dorsalis. 

UL  met.  v.,  M.  ulni  metacarpalis  ven- 
tralis. 

Urh.,  Urohyal. 

Or.,  Ureter. 


240  MARSHALL— A   STUDY   OF   THE 


[June  19, 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATES. 

All  the  figures  are  from  enlarged  freehand  sketches,   and  are  mostly  drawn 
to  the  same  scale;   they  have  been  reduced  almost  one  half  in  the  reproduction. 

PLATE    IV. 
Fig.  I.  Tongue  bone. 

Fig.  2.  Dorsal  view  of  brain  with  outline  of  head  and  nostrils. 
Fig.  3.   Brain  viewed  from  the  right  side. 
Fig.  4.   Lateral  view  of  pecten  of  the  eye. 
Fig.  5.   Pecten  seen  from  its  free  apex. 
Fig.  6.  Dorsal  view  of  duodenal  loop  and  pancreas. 
Fig.  7.  Ventral  view  of  syrinx. 
Fig.  8.   Dorsal  view  of  syrinx. 
Fig.  9.   Viscera  seen  from  the  right  side. 
Fig.  10.    Ventral  view  of  head,  trachea  and  viscera. 
Fig.  11.    Female  urogenital  organs,  ventral  view. 
Fig.  12.  Ventral  view  of  posterior  portion  of  alimentary  tract. 
Fig.  13.   Dorsal  view  of  oil  gland. 
Fig.  14.   Lateral  view  of  the  same. 

Fig.  15.   Lateral  view  of  viscera  showing  intestinal  loops.     Dotted  lines  repre- 
sent the  portion  of  the  intestine  covered  by  superficial  folds. 

PLATE   V. 

Fig.  16.  Muscles  of  upper  wing. 

Fig.  16a.   Dorsal  view  of  spinal  cord  and  brachial  nerve  plexus. 
Fig.  17.   Superficial  muscles  of  back  and  upper  wing. 
Fig.  18.   Dorsal  superficial  muscles  of  hand. 
Fig.  19.   Deeper  muscles  of  forearm. 
Fig.  20.   Muscles  of  ventral  surface  of  hand. 
Fig.  21.  Muscles  of  dorsal  surface  of  hand. 
Fig.  22.  Superficial  muscles  of  back  and  outer  arm. 

Fig.  23.   M.  propatagialis  brevis  removed  to  show  more  clearly  its  complex 
arrangement. 

Fig.  24.  Superficial  muscles  of  breast  and  inner  arm. 


Fig.  25.  Deeper  chest  muscles. 

Fig.  26.   Muscles  of  shoulder  and  chest. 

Figs.  27,  28  and  29.   Upper  arm  muscles. 

Fig.  30.  Origin  of  m.  coracobrachial  posterior. 

Fig.  31.   Superficial  muscles  of  thigh. 

Fig.  32.   M.  caud.-ilio  flexorius  removed  to  show  complex  arrangement. 

Fig.  33.   Muscles  of  thigh  viewed  from  median  surface. 

Fig.  34.   Deeper  thigh  muscles. 

Fig-  35-   Deepest  muscles  of  thigh. 


Stated  Meeting,  April  28,  1905. 
President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

Letters  accepting  membership  were  read  from  Prof.  Joseph 
S.  Ames,  President  David  Starr  Jordan,  Prof.  G.  L.  Kittridge, 
Dr.  Robert  G.  LeConte,  Mr.  George  T.  Moore,  President 
Francis  P.  Venable  and  Mr.  J.  Edward  Whitfield. 

Dr.  J.  W.  Harshberger  read  a  paper  on  "  Evolution  and 
Distribution  of  North  American  Plants." 


Stated  Meeting,   May  5,   1905. 
President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

Dr.  Robert  G.  LeConte  and  Mr.  J.  Edward  Whitfield, 
newly  elected  members,  were  presented  to  the  Chair  and  took 
their  seats  in  the  Society. 

Letters  accepting  membership  were  read  from  Mr.  R.  A.  F. 
Penrose,  Jr.,  Prof.  W.  G.  Farlow  and  Prof.  Eliakim  Hastings 
Moore. 

Mr.  Sydney  George  Fisher  read  a  paper  on  "  The  Military 
Strategy  of  the  American  Revolution." 

Mr.  Joseph  Willcox  exhibited  a  fossil  specimen  of  bone 
from  the  tail  of  the  Glyptodon  found  in  Florida. 


Stated  Meeting,  May  19,  190J. 
President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  R.   A.   F.  Penrose,  Jr.,   a  newly  elected  member,  was 
presented  to  the  chair  and  took  his  seat  in  the  Society. 

Letters  accepting  membership  were  read  from  Prof.  T.  C. 
241 


242  MINUTES.  [Oct.  6, 

Chamberlin,  Prof.  Yves  Delage,  Prof.  W.  M.  Flinders-Petrie, 
Sir  W.  T.  Thiselton-Dyer,  and  Prof.  Otto  Nordenskjold. 

Dr.  Henry  Skinner  read  a  paper  on  "  Insects  in  Relation  to 
Disease." 

Dr.  Edgar  F.  Smith  read  a  paper  entitled  "  Observations 
on  Columbium." 


Stated  Meeting,   October  6,    ipoj. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  Henry  Carey  Baird  presented  his  resignation  of  mem- 
bership which  was  accepted. 

The  decease  was  announced  of  the  following  members  : 
Hon.  John    Hay,  at    Newbury,  N.    H.,  on   July  I,  1905, 

aet.  66. 
Prof.  William  C.  Day,  at  Swarthmore,  Pa.,  on  August  4, 

1905,  aet.  48. 
Prof.    Franz  Reuleaux,  at   Berlin,  on   August   20,  1905, 

aet.  76. 
Prof.    Dr.    Jules   Oppert,  at   Paris,  on  August  21,  1905, 

aet.  80. 
Gen.   Isaac  J.  Wistar,  at  Claymont,  Del.,  on  September 

18,  1905,  aet.  78. 
Mr.    Ellis   Yarnall,  at    Philadelphia,   on    September    19, 
1905,  aet.  8y. 
The  following  papers  were  read  : 

"  The  Problems  of  Human  Anatomy,"  by  Dr.  George  A. 
Piersol. 

"  New  Species  of  Drosera  from  the  Gulf  States,"  by  Dr. 
John  Macfarlane. 

"  A  Study  of  the  Anatomy  of  Phalaenoptilus,  Ridgway," 
by  Margaret  E.  Marshall,  communicated  by  Prof.  Thos.  H. 
Montgomery.      (See  page  213.) 


igosl  MINUTES.  243 

Stated  Meeting,  October  20,  1903. 
President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  papers  were  read  : 

"  Eclipse  Problems,"  by  Prof.  C.  L.  Doolittle. 

"Some  of  the  Vertebrates  of  the  Florida  Keys,"  by  Henry 
W.  Fowler. 

Mr.  Samuel  Dickson  was  elected  a  Councillor  to  fill  the 
unexpired  term  of  Gen.  Isaac  J.  Wistar,  deceased,  and  Prof. 
Henry  F.  Osborn  was  elected  a  Councillor  to  fill  the  unex- 
pired term  of  Mr.  Henry  Carey  Baird,  resigned. 


Stated  Meeting,  November  j,  1903. 
President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

A  letter  was  presented  from  Mr.  Bailey  Willis,  accepting 
membership. 

Dr.  Franz  Boas  read  a  paper  on  "  Party  Allegiance  from  the 
Anthropological  Point  of  View." 


Stated  Meeting,  November  ij,  1903. 
President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 
The  decease  was  announced  of  Dr.  George  R.  Morehouse, 
at  Philadelphia,  on  November  12,  1905,  aet.  j6. 

Dr.  Charles  Conrad  Abbott  read  a  paper  on  "  The  Antiquit, 
of  Man  in  the  Delaware  Valley." 


Stated  Meeting,  December  1,  1903. 

President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

Prof.  John  M.  Macfarlane  read  a  paper  on  the  "  Occurrence 
Distribution  and  Hybridization  of  the  American  Pitcher  Plants, 
or  Sarracenias." 


244  MINUTES.  [Dec.  is, 

Stated  Meeting,  December  ij,  ipoj. 
President  Smith  in  the  Chair. 

A  letter  was  read  from  the  Committee  on  Organization  of 
the  6th  Congres  Internationale  d'  Anthropologic  Criminelle,  an- 
nouncing that  the  Congress  would  convene  at  Turin  on  April 
28,  1906,  and  inviting  the  Society  to  be  represented  thereat. 

The  President  delivered  his  Annual  Address  which  included 
"The  Story  of  the  Isolation  of  the  Metal  Calcium." 


INDEX. 


Abbott,  Alexander  C,  Epidemic  cere- 
brospinal meningitis,  35 

Adler,  Cyrus,  The  present  status  of  the 
international  catalogue  of  scientific 
literature,  36 


Election  of  officers,  3 
Electro-analysis,  The  use  of  the  rotating 

anode  and  mercury  cathode  in,  37, 

137  , 
Evolution,  Development  of,  4 


Babylonian  creation  story,  36 

Brains  of  Scymnus,  Mitsukurina  and 
Chlamydoselachus,  etc.,  39 

Bridge  truss,  Relation  between  the  eco- 
nomic depth  of  a,  and  the  depth  that 
gives  greatest  stiffness,  39,  164 

Brown,  Amos  P.,  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, 5 

C. 

Cambarus,  The  mutual  affinities  of  the 
species  of  the  genus,  37,  91 

Catalogue  of  scientific  literature,  inter- 
national, 36 

Cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  35 

Chittenden,  Russell,  H.,  Reason  and 
intelligence  vs.  custom  and  habit  in 
the  nutrition  of  the  body,  37 

Color,  Normal  perception  of,  36,  40 

Columbium,  Some  observations  on,  177 

Columbium  and  tantalum,  Observa- 
tions on,  37,  151 

Conklin,  E.  G.,  Development  of  evolu- 
tion, 4 

Mosaic  development  in  ascidian 

eggs,  36 

Copper  foil,  The  oligodynamic  action 
of,  on  some  intestinal  organisms,  36, 
51 

D. 

Dallas,  W.  L.,  Pressure  and  rainfall 
conditions  of  the  trades-monsoon 
area,  38,  159 

Doolittle,  C.  L. ,  Evidence  relating  to 
latitude  variation  of  short-periods,  38 

Doolittle,  Eric,  The  secular  perturba- 
tions of  the  earth,  37 

Douglas,  James,  Shower  of  toads,  35 

E. 

Eggs,  Mosaic  development  in  ascidian, 
36 


Farr,  M.  S.,  The  mammalian  fauna  of 

the  Fort  Union  beds,  37 
Fauna,  The  mammalian,   of   the   Fort 

Union  Beds,  37 
Fauna,   The    marsupial,   of    the    Santa 

Cruz  Beds,  37,  73 
Filipino,   His  customs  and  characters, 

Foods,  The  effects  upon  metabolism  of 

preservatives  added  to,  37 
Four  bodies,  The  problem  of,  38 


Gas  molecules,  A  possible  case  of  scat- 
tering of  the  ultra-violet  light  by,  39 

H. 

Haupt,   Lewis    M.,  The  emancipation 

of  the  waterways,  36,  42 
Haupt,  Paul,  Biblical  pessimism,  4 
Heilprin,  Angelo,  A  review  of  LaCroix's 

work  on  the  Montagne  Pelee,  37 
Hilprecht,    Hermann    V.,    Recent  re- 
searches in  the  Temple  Library  at 

Nippur,  5 
Hobbs,    John    E.,   The  beginnings  o 

lumbering  as  an  industry  in  the  New 

World,  36 
Hall,  Roy   D.,  and  Edgar  F.   Smith, 

Some   observations    on    columbium, 

177 


van  Ingen,  Gilbert,  The  rounded  sands 
of  Palaeozoic  formations,  37 

Isobanc  charts,  construction  of,  for 
upper  levels,  etc.,  38 

J- 

Jastrow,  Morris,  Composite  character 
of  the  Babylonian  creation  story,  36 


24G 


INDEX. 


K. 

Keasbey,  Lindley  M.,  The  Weal  re- 
lation,  36 

Kollock,  Lily  G.,  and  Edgar  F.  Smith, 
The  use  of  the  rotating  anode  and 
mercury  cathode  in  electro-analysis, 

37.  137 
Kraemer,    Henry,    The    oligodynamic 
action  of  copper  foil  on  some  intes- 
tinal organisms,  36,  51 


Lambert,  P.  A.,  the  straight  line  con- 
cept, 38,  82 

Latitude  variations,  Evidence  relating 
to,  of  short  periods,  38 

Lovett,  Edgar  Odell,  On  the  problem 
of  four  bodies,  38 


McClellan,  William,  The  use  of  the 
falling  plate  oscillograph  as  a  phase 
meter,  39,  166 

Macfarlane,  John  M.,  New  species  of 
genus  Nepenthes,  36 

The  structure  of  the  lignified  cell 

wall,  36 

Marshall,  Margaret  E.,  A  study  of  the 
anatomy  of  Phalaenoptilus,  Ridgway, 
213 

Masque,  The  English,  36 

Mathews,  R.  H.,  Sociology  of  the  ab- 
origines of  western  Australia,  5,   32 

Matthews,  W.  D. ,  Notes  on  the  genus 
Sinopa,  37,  69 

Meeting,  General,  35 

Stated,  3,  4,  5,  35 

Merriman,  Mansfield,  Relation  between 
the  economic  depth  of  a  bridge  truss 
and  the  depth  which  gives  greatest 
stiffness,  39,  164 

Metabolism,  Effects  upon,  of  preserva- 
tives, 37,  66 

Metzger,  J.  A.,  The  Filipino,  his  cus- 
toms and  character,  5,  6 

Members  deceased  : 

Bell,  Sir  Lowthian,  4 
Campbell,  John  Lyle,  5 
Carter,  Hon.  James  C. ,  5 
Dannefeld,  C.  Juhlin,  4 
Frazier,  Benjamin  W.,  3 
Hayes,  Richard  Somers,  5 
Lippincott,  James  Dundas,  5 
Packard,  Alpheus  Spring,  4 
Prescott,  Albert  Benjamin,  5 
Randall,  F.  A.,  35 


de    Saussure,  Henri    Louis  Fred- 
eric, 35 
Sellers,  William,  4 
Weil,  Edward  IL,  3 

Members  elected  : 

Ames,  Joseph  S.,  38 
Chamberlin, Thomas  Chrowder,  38 
Delage,  Yves,  39 
Farlow,  William  Gilson,  38 
Flinders-Petrie,  William  Matthew, 

39 
Frazier  Charles  H.,  38 
Jordan,  David  Starr,  38 
Kittredge,  George  Lyman,  38 
LeConte,  Robert  G.,  38 
Moore,  Eliakim  Hastings,  38 
Moore,  George  T.,  38 
Nordenskjold,  Otto,  38 
Penrose,  Richard  A.  F. ,  Jr.,  38 
Sievers,  Edward,  39 
Thiselton-Dyer,  Sir  William,  39 
Venable,  Francis  P.,  39 
Whitfield,  J.  Edward,  39 
Willis,  Bailey,  39 

Membership,  resignation  of  : 
De  Garmo,  Charles  C,  3 

N. 

Naturwissenschaftliche     V  ere  in    fur 
Schleswig-Holstein,    50th    Anniver- 
sary of,  35 
Nepenthes,  New  species  of  genus,  36 
Nippur,  Temple  Library  at,  5 
Nutrition  of  the  body,  reason   and  in- 
telligence vs.  custom  and  habit  in,  37 

0. 

Oliver,  Charles  A.,  A  plea  for  govern- 
mental supervision  of  posts  necessi- 
tating normal    perception  of    color, 

36,  40 

Ortmann,  A.  E. ,  The  mutual  affinities 
of  the  species  of  the  genus  Cambarus, 

37,  91 

Oscillograph,  The  use  of  the  falling 
plate,  as  a  phase  meter,  39,  166 

P. 

Palaeozoic  formations,  The  rounded 
sands  of,  37 

Pelee,  A  review  of  LaCroix's  work  on 
Montagne,  37 

Pendulum,  Theory  of  the  double  sus- 
pension, 39 


247 


Perturbations  of  the  earth,  the  secular, 

37. 
Pessimism,  Biblical,  4 
Phalaenoptilus,  Anatomy  of,  213 
Pilsbry,  Henry  A.,  The  faunal  relations 

of  the  Ryu-kyu  (Loo  Choo)  Islands, 

37 

R. 

Radio-activity,  Universal,  4 

in  solar  phenomena,  38 
Rocky  Mountains,  5 
Ryu-kyu  (Loo  Choo)  Islands,  37 

s. 

Sampson,  Alden,  Thought  transference 
among  animals,  by  touch  and  scent, 
36 

Sandstrom,  J.  \V.,  Construction  of  iso- 
baric  charts  for  upper  levels,  etc.,  38 

Schelling,  Felix  E.,  The  English 
masque,  36 

Sinclair,  W.  J.,  The  marsupial  fauna 
of  the  Santa  Cruz  Beds,  37,  73 

Sinopa,  Notes  on  the  Genus,  37,  69 

Smith,  Edgar  F.,  Observations  on  col- 
umbiurn  and  tantalum,  37,  151 

Snyder,  M.  B.,  Universal  radio-activ- 
ity, 4 

Radio-activity  in  solar  phenomena, 

38 
Sociology  of  the  aborigines  of  western 
Australia,  5,  32 


Sodium  vapor,   dispersion,   absorption, 
fluorescence   and    magnetic    rotation 

of.  39    . 
Straight  line  concept,  38,  82 


Thought    transference    among    animals 

by  touch  and  scent,  36 
Toads,  A  shower  of,  35 
Trades-monsoon     area,     pressure     and 

rainfall  conditions  of  the,  38,  159 

W. 

Wall,  The  structure  of  the  lignified 
cell,  36 

Waterways,  Emancipation  of,  36,  42 

Weal-relation,  36 

Wilder,  Burt  G. ,  The  brains  of  Scym- 
nus,  Mitsukurina  and  Chlamydose- 
lachus,  etc.,  39 

Wiley,  Harvey  W.,  The  effects  upon 
metabolism  of  preservatives  added  to 
foods,  37,  66 

Wood,  Robert  Williams,  The  disper- 
sion, absorption,  fluorescence  and 
magnetic  rotation  of  sodium  vapor, 
39 

A    possible   case  of  scattering   of 

the  ultra-violet  light  by  gas  mole- 
cules, 39 

Woodward,  Robert  S.,  Theory  of  the 
double  suspension  pendulum,  39 


THE  LIST 


American  Philosophical  Society 


HELD  AT  PHILADELPHIA 


FOR    PROMOTING   USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE 


(Founded  1743) 


January,  1906. 


OFFICERS 


PATRON 

The  Governor  of  Pennsylvania 

PRESIDENT 

Edgar  F.   Smith 

VICE-PRESIDENTS 
George  F.  Barker  William  B.  Scott  Simon  Newcomb 


SECRETARIES 


I.  Minis  Hays 
Edwin  G.  Conklin 


Arthur^W.  Goodspeed 
Morris  Jastrow,  Jr. 


Charles  L.  Doolittle 


Elected  in  1904 
Richard  Wood 
Samuel  G.  Dixon 
J.  G.  Rosengarten 
Henry  F.  Osborn 


CURATORS 

William  P.  Wilson 

TREASURER 

Henry  La  Barre  Jayne 

COUNCILLORS 

Elected  in  1905 
George  F.  Edmunds 
James  T.  Mitchell 
Joseph  Wharton 
William  W.  Keen 


Albert  H.  Smyth 


Elected  in  1906 
Patterson  Du  Bois 
Samuel  Dickson 
Ernest  W.  Brown 
William  Keith  Brooks 


MEMBERS. 


Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1871  Abbe,  Prof.  Cleveland U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

1S62     Abbot,  Gen.  Henry  L.,  U.S.A 23    Berkeley    St.,    Cambridge, 

Mass. 

1897  Abbott,  Alexander  C,  M.D University    of    Pennsylvania, 

Philadelphia. 
1889     Abbott,  Charles  Conrad,  M.D. ...  Trenton,  N.  J. 

1876  Ackerman,  Prof.  Richard Stockholm,  Sweden. 

1886     Adam,  Lucien 41      Bard     Sevigne,     Rennes, 

F  ranee. 
1901     Adams,  Charles  Francis,  LL.D.  .  .23  Court  St.,  Boston.  4 

1900  Adler,  Cyrus,  Ph.D Smithsonian  Institution,  i 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1875     Agassiz,  Prof.  Alexander 36     Quincy     St.,     Cambridge, 

Mass. 

1869     Agassiz,  Mrs.  Elizabeth Quincy  St.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

1878  Allen,  Prof.  Joel  Asaph Am.  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, New  York  City. 

1881  Ames,  Rev.  Charles  G 12  Chestnut  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

1905     Ames,  Joseph  Sweetman,  Ph.D... Johns     Hopkins     University, 

Baltimore. 
1886     Anderson,  Maj.  Geo.  L.,  U.S.A.  ..  .Ordnance    Board,    Governor's 

Island,  New  York  City. 
1889     Angell,  Pres't  Jas.  Burrill,  LL.D .  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
1893     Appleton,  Prof.  William  Hyde.  .  .Swarthmore,  Pa. 

1884     Ashhurst,  Richard  L 319  S.  11th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1884     Avebury,  The  Right  Hon.  Lord High  Elms,  Down,  Kent,  Eng. 

1884     Bache,  R.  Meade 4400  Sansom  St.,  Phila. 

1877  Bache,  Thomas  Hewson,  M.D 233  S.  13th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1898  Baer,  George  F 1718  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1896  Bailey,  Prof.  L.  H Cornell      University,     Ithaca, 

N.  Y. 

1884     Baird,  Prof.   Henry  M 219    Palisade    Ave.,    Yonkers, 

N.  Y. 

1899  Balch,  Edwin  Swift 1412  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1901  Balch,  Thomas  Willing 1412  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1897  Baldwin,  Prof.  James  Mark,  D.Sc.408  Cathedral  St.,  Baltimore. 
1891     Ball,  Sir  Robert  Stawell,  LL.D.  .Observatory,  Cambridge,  Eng. 

1882  deBar,  Hon.  Edouard,  Seve Ramsgate,    England. 


252  MEMBERS. 

E'ected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1873     Bakkeb,  Prof.  George  F.,  LL.D..  ..3909  Locust  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1884     Barker,  Wharton 119  S.  4th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1903     Barnard.   Edward   E.,   Sc.D Yerkes  Observatory,  Williams 

Bay,  Wisconsin. 

1903  Barus,  Prof.  Carl,  Ph.D 30  Elm  Grove  Ave.,  Providence, 

Rhode  Island. 
1899     Baugh,  Daniel 1601  Locust  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1902  Becquerel,    Prof.    Antoine-Henri  .  (ime  Dumont  d'Urville,  Paris, 

France. 

1882     Bell,  Prof.  Alexander  Graham.  . .  1331  Connecticut  Ave.,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

1895     Bement,  Clarence  S 3907  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1897     deBenneville,  James  Seguin University  Club,  Philadelphia. 

1895     Berthelot,  Marcelin  Pierre  Eu- 
gene, D.es-Sc Palais  de  l'Institut  de  France, 

Rue  Mazarin,  No.,   3,  Vie., 
Paris,  France. 

1895     Bertin,  Georges llbis  Rue  Ballu,  Paris, 

France. 

1880     Biddle,  Cadwalader 1420  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1877     Biddle,  Hon.  Craig -2033  Pine  Street,  Phila. 

1887     Billings,  John  S.,  M.D 40  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 

1895     Bispham,  George  Tucker 1805  DeLancey  Place,  Phila. 

1889     Blair,  Andrew  A 406  Locust  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1870     Blake,  Prof.  Wm.  Piiipps I,    University    Place,    Tucson, 

Arizona. 

1904  Bloomfield,  Prof.  Maurice,  LL.D. 861  Park  Ave.,  Baltimore. 

1903  Boas,  Franz,  Ph.D.  , 123  W.  82d  Street,  New  York, 

N.  Y. 

1895     Bonaparte,   Prince   Roland 10    Ave.     d'Jena    22,     Paris, 

France. 

1904  Bowditcii,  Henry  Pickering,  M.D.  Sunnyside,     Jamaica     Plains, 

Boston. 

1840     Bote,  Prof.  Martin  H Coopersburg,  Lehigh  Co.,  Pa. 

1877     Brackett,  Prof.  Cyrus  Fogg 4    Prospect    Ave.,    Princeton, 

N.  J. 

1886     Branner,  Prof.  John  C Stanford  University,  Cal. 

1902     Brasiiear,  John  A.,  Sc.D 1954     Perryville    Ave..     Alle- 
gheny, Pa. 

1886     Brezina,  Dr.  Aristides XIII6  St.  Veitgasse,  15, 

Vienna,  Austria. 

1886     Brinton,   John  H.,   M.D 1423  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1899     Brock,  Robert  C.  H 1612  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1899     Broegger,  Prof.  W.  C Christiania,  Norway. 

1886     Brooks,  Prof.  William  Keith Johns   Hopkins   University, 

Baltimore,  Maryland. 


MEMBERS.  253 

Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1901  Brown,  Prof.  Amos  P 20  E.  Penn  St.,  Germantown, 

Philadelphia. 

1879  Brown,   Arthur   Erwin 1208  Locust  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1S9S     Brown,  Prof.  Ernest   William  ...  Haverford  College,  Haverford, 

Pa. 

1895     Brubaker,  Albert  P.,  M.D 105  N.  34th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1865     Brush,  Prof.  George  J Yale  Univ.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

1898  Bryant,  Henry  Grier,  F.R.G.S 805  Land  Title  Building,  Phil- 

adelphia. 
1895     Bryce,  Right  Hon.  James 54  Portland  Place,  London, 

W.,  England. 

1895     Budge,  E.  A.  Walllis,  Litt.D British  Museum,  London,  Eng. 

1881     Butler,  Hon.  William West  Chester,  Pa. 

1899  Cadwalader,  John 1519  Locust  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1903  Campbell,  Wm.  Wallace,  LL.D..Lick  Observatory,  Mt.  Hamil- 

ton, California. 

1885  Cannizzaro,  Tomaso Santa  Maria  fuori  cinta,  Casa 

Roffa,  Messina,  Sicily. 

1873     Capellini,  Prof.  Giovanni Portovenere  pres  Spezia,  Italy. 

1875     Carll,  Prof.  John  Franklin Pleasantville,  Venango  Co.,  Pa. 

1902  Carnegie,  Andrew,  LL.D 2  E.  91st  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

1880  Carson,  Hampton  L.,  LL.D 1033  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1872     Cassatt,  Alexander  Johnson  ....  Haverford,  Delaware  Co.,  Pa. 

1887  Castner,   Samuel,  Jr 3729  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1888  Cattell,  Prof.  J.  McKeen Garrison-on-Hudson,  N.  Y. 

1905     Chamberlin,    Thomas    Chrowder, 

LL.D Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

1880     Chance,  Henry  Martyn,  M.D 819  Drexel  Building,  Phila. 

1S75     Chandler,  Prof.  C.   F Columbia  Univ.,  N.  Y.  City. 

1875     Chapman,  Henry  C,  M.D 2047  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1886  deCharencey,   Comte   Hyacinth  . .  25  Rue  Barbet  de  Jouy,  Paris, 

France. 

1904  Cheyney,  Prof.  Edward  Potts 259  S.  44th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1904     CHiTTENDEN,Prof.  Russel  H.,  Ph.D. 83  Trumbull  St.,  New  Haven, 

Conn. 

1889  Clark,  Clarence  H 42d  and  Locust  Sts.,  Phila. 

1902     Clark,  Prof.   William   Bullock.  .Johns  Hopkins  University, 

Baltimore,  Maryland. 
1904     Clark,      Frank      Wigglesworth, 

Sc.D U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1883     Claypole,  Prof.  E.  W Pasadena,  Cal. 

1895     Cleemann,  Richard  A.,  M.D 2135  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1897     Cleveland,  Hon.  Grover Westland,  Princeton,  N.  J. 

1899     Coles,    Edward 2010  DeLancey  Place,  Phila. 

1902     Collitz,  Prof.  Hermann,  Ph.D.  .  .  .  Brvn  Mawr,  Pa. 


254  MEMBERS. 

Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1897  Conklin,  Prof.  Edwin  Grant University  of  Perm.,  Phila. 

1898  Converse,  John  H 500  X.  Broad  St.,  Phila. 

1895  Cook,  Joel 849  N.  Broad  St.,  Phila. 

1886  Cora,    Prof.    Guido 2  Via  Goito,  Rome  Italy. 

1892  Cramp,  Charles  H Aldine  Hotel,  Philadelphia. 

1877  Crane,  Prof.  Thomas  Frederick  ..  Cornell  Univ.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

1886  Crookes,  .Sir  William 7    Kensington   Park   Gardens, 

London,  W.,  England. 

1898  Crowell,  Prof.  Edward  P 21  Amity  St.,  Amherst,  Mass. 

1897     Culin,  Stewart Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and 

Sciences,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

1904  Da  Costa,  John  Chalmers,  M.D.  .2045  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1897  Dall,  Prof.  William  H U.  S.  National  Museum,  Wash- 

ington, D.  C. 

1899  Dana,  Charles  E 2013  DeLancey  Place,  Phila. 

1896  Dana,  Prof.  Edward  S Yale  Univ.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

1902  Darboux,  Jean-Gaston 36  Rue  Gay-Lussac,  Paris, 

France. 

1898  Darwin,  Sir  George  Howard,  K.C.B.Newnham  Grange,  Cambridge, 

England. 

1876  Davenport,  Sir  Samuel Beaumont,  Adelaide,  S.  Aus- 
tralia. 

1866     Davidson,  Prof.  George 2221  Washington  St., 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 

1899  Davis,  Prof.  William  Morris  ....  Cambridge,  Mass. 

1880  Dawkins,  Prof.  William  Boyd.  . .  Woodhurst,  Fallowfield,  Man- 

chester, England. 

1899     Day,  Frank  Miles Allen's  Lane,  Mount  Airy, 

Philadelphia. 

1905  Delage,  Prof.  Yves Universite   de   Paris,    Station 

Zoologique  de  Roscoff,  Paris, 
France. 

1904     Delitzsch,  Prof.  Friedrich,  Ph.D.  .University   of   Berlin,    Berlin, 

Germany. 

1892     Dercum,  Francis  X.,  M.D 1719  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1899  Dewar,  Prof.  James,  LL.D The  Royal  Institution,  Lon- 
don, England. 

1884     Dickson,  Samuel 901  Clinton  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1892     Dixon,  Samuel  G.,  M.D Black   Rock   Farm,   Ardmore, 

Pa. 

1903  Dohrn,  Dr.  Anton Marine      Zoological      Station, 

Naples,  Italy. 

1886     Dolley,  Charles  S.,  M.D 3707  Woodland  Ave.,  Phila. 

1886     Donner,  Prof.  Otto Helsingfors,    Finland. 

1881  Doolittle,  Prof.  C.  L Upper   Darby,    Delaware    Co., 

Pa. 


MEMBERS.  255 

Elected.  Navie.  Present  Address. 

1903     Doolittle  Eric University    of     Pennsylvania, 

Philadelphia. 

1899     Dougherty,  Thomas  Harvey School  House  Lane,  German- 
town,   Philadelphia. 

1877     Douglass,    James,    LL.D Spuytenduyvil,      New     York, 

N.  Y. 

18S0     Draper,  Daniel,  Ph.D Meteorological  Observatory, 

Central    Park,    New    York, 
N.  Y. 

1880     Du  Bois,  Patterson 401  S.  40th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1879  Dudley,  Charles  Benj.,  Ph.D....  Box    156,  Altoona,  Blair  Co., 

Pa. 

1886     Duncan,  Louis,  Ph.D.,  U.S.N 56  Pine  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

1867     Dunning,  George  F 500  Madison  Ave.,  New  York, 

N.  Y. 
1873     DuPont,  Edouard Royal  Museum,  Bruxelles,  Bel- 

gique. 

1894  DuPont,   Col.   Henry  A Winterthur,  Del. 

1871     Dutton,  Maj.  Clarence  E.,  U.S.A .  Englewood,  N.  J. 

1880  Eckfeldt,  Jacob  B U.  S.  Mint,  Philadelphia. 

1877     Eddy,  Prof.  H.  Turner University  of  Minnesota,  Min- 
neapolis, Minn. 

1896  Edison,  Thomas  Alva,  Ph.D Orange,  N.  J. 

1895  Edmunds,  Hon.  George  F Aiken,  S.  C. 

1871     Eliot,  Pres't  Charles  W 17     Quincy     St.,     Cambridge, 

Mass. 
1895     Elliott,  Prof.  A.  Marshall Johns  Hopkins  University, 

Baltimore,  Md. 

1897  Ely,  Theodore  N.,  C.E 115  Broad  St.  Station,  Phila. 

1897  Emerson,  Prof.  Benj.  Kendall  ...  Amherst,  Mass. 

1898  Emmet,  W.  L.  R 48  Washington  Ave., 

Schenectady,  N.  Y. 
1883     Emmons,  Prof.  S.  F 1721  H  St.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1881  Evans,  Sir  John,  K.C.B Nash     Mills,     Hemel     Hemp- 

stead, England. 
1895     Ewell,  Marshall  D.,  M.D.,  LL.D. 59  Clark  St.,  Chicago,  111. 
1905     Farlow,  Prof.  William  Gilson  ...  Cambridge,  Mass. 
1895     Fennel,  C.  A.  M.,  Litt.D 139  Chesterton  Road, 

Cambridge,  England. 

1890     Field,  Robert  Patterson 218  S.  42d  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1897     Fine,  Prof.  Henry  B Princeton,  N.  J. 

1897     Fisher,  Sydney  George,  LL.D 328  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1901     Flexner,  Simon,  M.D Rockefeller  Institute,  50th  and 

Lexington  Ave.,  New  York. 
1880     Flint,  Austin,  M.D 60  E.  34th  St.,New  York,  N.  Y. 


256  MEMBERS. 

Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1891  Forbes,  Prof.  Geoege,  F.R.S 34  Great  George  St.,   8.   W„ 

London. 
1902     Foster,     Sib     Michael,     K.C.B., 

F.R.S.,   D.C.L Nine  Wells,  Great  Shelford, 

Cambridge,  Eng. 

1880     Fraley,  Joseph  C 1833  Pine  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1904     Francke,  Prof.  Kuno,  Ph.D Harvard  University, 

Cambridge,  Mass. 

1872  Frazee,  Persifor,  Dr.  es-Sc.  Nat.. 928  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1889  Friebis,  George,  M  "C 1906  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1890  Fullertox,  Rev    ..eorge  S Columbia  University, 

New  York,  N.  Y 

1873  Fulton,   John 136  Park  PI.,  Johnstown,  Pa. 

1880     Furness,  Horace  Howard,  LL.D . .  Wallingford,  Del.  Co.,  Pa. 

1897     Furness,  Horace  Howard,  Je 2034  DeLancey  Place,  Phila. 

1897     Furness,  William  H.,  3d,  M.D ...  The    Warwick,    1906    Sansom 

St.,  Philadelphia. 
1901     Garnett,  Richard,  C.B.,  LLD . .  .  .  27  Tanza  Road,  Hampstead, 

London,  England. 
1S86     Gates,  Merrill  E..  LL.D 1315  New  Hampshire  Ave., 

Washington,  D.  C. 
1884     Gatschet,  Albebt  S.,  Ph.D 2020  Fifteenth  St.,  N.  W., 

Washington,  D.  C. 
1880     Geikie,  Sir  Archibald 28  Jermyn  St.,  London,  S.  W., 

England. 
1876     Geikie,  Prof.  James 83  Colinton  Rd. 

Edinburgh,  Scotland. 

1886     Genth,  Prof.  F.  A.,  Jr 222  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1854     Gibbs,  Prof.  Oliver  Wolcott 158  Gibbs  Ave.,  Newport,  R.  I. 

1901  Giglioli,  Prof.  Henry  H 19  Via  Romana,Florence,Italy. 

1902  Gilbert,  Gbove  Kabl,  LL.D U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1903  Gildersleeve,  Prof.  Basil  L., LL.D.  1002  Belvidere  Terrace, 

Baltimore,  Md. 
1867     Gill,  Theodore  N.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.  .  .  .Smithsonian    Institution, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
1876     Gilman,  Daniel  C,  LL.D 614  Park  Ave.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

1895  Glazebbook,  Richard  T.,  F.R.S ...  Bushey  House,  Teddington. 

Middlesex,  Eng. 
1893     Goodale,  Prof.  George  Lincoln...  10  Craigie  St.,  Cambridge, 

Mass. 

1896  Goodspeed,  Prof.  Arthur  W Univ.  of  Pennsylvania,  Phila. 

1892  Goodwin,  Harold 133  S.  12th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1895     Goodwin,  Prof.  W.  W Cambridge,  Mass. 

1900     Gray,   George,  Hon Wilmington,  Del. 

1904  Greely,  Gen.  Adolphus  W.,  U.S.A.  1914  G  St.,  Washington,  D.  C. 


MEMBERS.  257 

Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1893     Gbeen,  Samuel  A.,  M.D Historical  Soc,  Boston,  Mass. 

1879     Gbeene,  William  H.,  M.D N.  E.  Cor.  Arch  and  16th  Sts., 

Philadelphia. 
1899     Geeenman,  Milton  J.,  M.D Wistar  Institute,  36th  St.  and 

Darby  Road,  Philadelphia. 
1888     di  Gregobio,  Marquis  Antonio... Al  Molo,  Palermo,  Sicily. 
1891     Gregory,  Prof.  Caspar  Rene Naunhoferstrasse    5    Marien- 

hohe,   Leipzig-Stotteritz, 

Germany. 

1886  de  Gubernatis,  Prof.  Angelo Florence,  Italy. 

1903     Gummere,   Prof.   Francis   Barton, 

Ph.D   Haverford  College,  Haverford, 

Pa. 

1902  Hadley,  Pres't  Arthur  T Yale  University,  New  Haven, 

Conn. 
1885     Haeckel,  Prof.  Dr.  Eenst University,  Jena,  Germany. 

1903  Hague,  Abnold,   D.Sc 1724  I  St.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1870     Hale,  Rev.  Edwabd  Evebett 39  Highland  St.,  Roxbury, 

Mass. 
1902     Hale,  Prof.  Geobge  E Yerkes  Observatory,  Williams 

Bay,  Wis. 

1878     Hall,  Prof.  Asaph South  Norfolk,  Conn. 

1875     Hall,  Chables  Edwabd Instituto  Geologico  de  Mexico, 

Santa  Maria,  Mexico,  Mex. 

1898  Hall,  Chables  M 136  Buffalo  Ave., 

Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 

1885  Hall,  Prof.  Lyman  B Haverford     Coll.,     Haverford, 

Pa. 

1891     Hamy,  Dr.  Ebnst  T 40  Rue  Liibeck,  Ave.  du  Troca- 

dero,  Paris,  France. 

1887  Habbis,  Joseph  S 144  School  Lane,  Germantown, 

Philadelphia. 
1895     Habbison,  Provost  Chables  C.  .  .  .400  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1877  Hart,  Prof.  James  Morgan 1  Reservoir  Ave.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

1878  Haupt,  Prof.  Lewis  M 107  N.  35th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1902  Haupt,  Prof.  Paul 2511  Madison  Ave.,  Baltimore. 

1886  Hays,  I.  Minis,  M.D 266  S.  21st  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1883  Heilprin,  Prof.  Angelo 1801  Arch  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1893  Hewett,  Prof.  Waterman  T 31  East  Ave.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

1895  Heyse,   Paul,   Ph.D Munich,  Bavaria. 

1903  Hill,  George  William,  LL.D West  Nyack,  N.  Y. 

1897     Hiller,  H.  M.,  M.D Kohoka,  Mo. 

1886     Hilprecht,  Prof.  Hermann  V Free  Museum  of  Art, 

Univ.  of  Penn.,  Phila. 
1874     Himes,  Prof.  Charles  Francis.  .  .  .Dickinson  Coll.,  Carlisle,  Pa. 

1899  Hirst,  Barton  Cooke,  M.D 1821  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia. 


258  MEMBERS. 

Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1870     Hitchcock,  Prof.  Ciias.  Henry.  .  .Dartmouth  College. 

Hanover,  N.  H. 

1897     Holden,  Prof.  Edward  S U.  S.  Military  Academy, 

West  Point,  N.  Y. 

1886     Holland,  James  W.,  M.D 2006  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1899  Holmes,  Prof.  William  H Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

1869     Hooker,  Sir  Joseph  D.,  LL.D The  Camp,  Sunningdale,  Eng. 

1893     Hoppin,  Prof.  J.  M New  Haven,  Conn. 

1886     Horner,    Inman 1811  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1872     Hough,  Prof.  George  W Northwestern    University, 

Evanston,  111. 

1872  Houston,  Prof.  Edwin  J 1809  Spring  Garden  St.,  Phila. 

1897  Howe,  Prof.  Henry  M 27  W.  73d  St.,  New  York  City. 

1903     Howell,  Prof.  William  Henry.  .  .  .232  W.Lanvale  St., Baltimore. 
1895     Huggins,  Sir  William,  K.C.B 90  Upper  Tulse  Hill,  S.  W., 

London,  England. 
1877     Humphrey,  H.  C ? 

1895  Hunter,  Richard  S 1413  Locust  St.,  Phila. 

1898  Hutchinson,   Emlen Aldine  Hotel,  Philadelphia. 

1875     Ingham,   Wm.  Armstrong 320  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1893     d'Invilliers,  Edward  Vincent.  .  .  .506  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1884  James,  Pres't  Edmund  J Urbana,  111. 

1897  Jastrow,  Prof.  Morris,  Jr 248  S.  23d  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1898  Jayne,  Henry  LaBarre 1826  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1885  Jayne,  Horace,  M.D 318  S.  19th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

18S2  Jefferis,  William  W 474  Central  Park  West, 

New  York  City. 

1905     Jordan,  Pres't  David  Starr Stanford  Univ.,  Cal. 

1884     Jordan,  Francis,  Jr Ill  N.  Front  St.,  Phila. 

1883  Kane,  Elisha  Kent Kushequa,  Pa. 

1897     Karpinsky,     Prof.     Alex.     Petro- 

vitch    Geological  Survey, 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia. 
1889     Keane,  Right  Rev.  John  J Dubuque,  Iowa. 

1899  Keasbey,  Prof.  Lindley  M Univ.  of  Texas,  Austin,  Texas. 

1897  Keen,  Gregory  B 3237  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1884  Keen,   William   W.,   M.D.,   LL.D. 

(Edin.)     1729  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1898  Keiser,  Prof.  Edward  H Washington  University, 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

1900  Keller,  Prof.  Harry  F Central  High  School,  Phila. 

1873  Kelvin,  Right  Hon.  Lord The  Library,  The  University, 

Glasgow,  Scotland. 

1896  Kennelly,  A.  E.,  D.Sc Harvard  University, 

Cambridge,  Mas<. 


MEMBERS.  25(J 

Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1905     Kittredge,   George   Lyman,  LL.D .  8  Hilliard  St.,  Cambridge, 

Mass. 

1898  Knight,  Prof.  William  A Holmleigh,  Malvern,  Eng. 

1874  Konig,  Prof.  George  A School  of  Mines, 

Houghton,  Mich. 

1899  Kraemer,  Prof.   Henry 14.5  N.  10th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1889     Krauss,  Friedrich  S.,  Ph.D VII2  Neustiftgasse  12, 

Vienna,  Austria. 

1872  Lambert,  Prof.  Guillaume 42  Boulevard  Bischoffsheim, 

Brussels,  Belgium. 

1904  Lambert,  Prof.  Preston  A Lehigh  University, 

Bethlehem,  Pa. 
1899     Lamberton,  Prof.  William  A University  of  Penna.,  Phila. 

1898  de   Lancey,   Edward   F 20  E.  28th  St.,  New  York. 

1897     Lanciani,   Prof.   Rodolfo 2  Via  Goito,  Rome,  Italy. 

1878     Landreth,    Burnet Bristol,  Pa. 

1875  Langley,  Samuel  P.,  LL.D Smithsonian  Institution, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1903  Lankester,    Edwin    Ray,     LL.D., 

F.R.S British  Museum,  Cromwell 

Rd.,  London,  S.  W.,  Eng. 

1873  La  Roche,  C.  Percy,  M.D 1518  Pine  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1867     Lea,  Henry  Charles,  LL.D 2000  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1899  Learned,  Prof.  Marion   D University  of  Penna.,  Phila. 

1905  LeConte,  Robert  G.,  M.D 1625  Spruce  St.,  Phila. 

1883     Lehman,   Ambrose    E 506  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1889     Le  Moine,  Sir  James  M Spencer  Grange,  Quebec,  Can. 

1881     Leroy-Beaulieu,  Prof.  Paul 27  Ave.  du  Bois  de  Boulogne, 

Paris,  France. 
1886     Levasseur,  Prof.  Emile 20  Rue  Mons.  le  Prince,  Paris, 

France. 

1896  Lewis,  G.  Albert 1834  DeLancey  Place,  Phila. 

1897  Libbey,  Prof.   William 20  Bayard  Ave.,Princeton,N.J. 

1897     Lister,  The  Right  Hon.  Lord....  12  Park  Crescent,  Portland 

Place,  London,  England. 

1874  Lockyer,     Sir     Joseph     Norman, 

K.C.B Royal    College   of   Science,    S. 

Kensington,  London,  S.  W., 

England. 
1901     Lodge,  Sir  Oliver  Joseph,  LL.D..  The  University, 

Birmingham,  England. 
1899     Loeb,  Dr.  Jacques University  of  California. 

Berkeley,  Cal. 
1878     Longstreth,  Morris,  M.D 1416  Spruce  St.,  Phila. 

1904  Lovett,  Prof.  Edgar  Odell,  Ph.D.  .Princeton,  N.  J. 

1892     Low,  Hon.  Seth 30  E.  46th  St.,  New  York. 

1897     Lowell,   Percival 53  State  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 


260  MEMBERS. 

Elected.  Xame  Present  Address. 

1869     Lyman,  Benjamin   Smith. 708  Locust  St.,  Phila. 

1S97     Mabery,  Prof.  Charles  F 57  Adelbert  St.,  Cleveland,  0. 

1886     MacAlister,  Pres't  James 4031  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1897     McCay,  Prof.  Leroy  W 257  Nassau  St.,  Princeton,N.J. 

1897     McClure,  Prof.  Charles  F.  W Princeton,  N.  J. 

1896     McCook,  Rev.  Henry  C,  D.D Devon,  Pa. 

1879     McCreath,  Andrew  S 121    Market   St.,    Harrisburg, 

Pa. 

1892     Macfarlane,  Prof.  John  M Univ.  of  Pennsylvania,  Phila. 

1899     Mackenzie,  Prof.  Arthur  S.,  Ph.D.Dalhousie  University, 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia. 

1896  Magie,  Prof.  Wm.   Francis Princeton,  N.  J. 

1897  Mahan,  Capt.  Alfred  T.,  U.S.N.  . .  1U0  W.  86th  St.,  New  York. 

1885  Mallet,  John  Wm.,  M.D University  of  Virginia, 

Charlottesville,  Va. 

1878     Mansfield,  Ira  Franklin Beaver,  Beaver  Co.,  Pa. 

1878     March,  Prof.  Francis  Andrew.  .  .  .Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Pa. 

1901     Marconi,  Guglielmo 18  Finch  Lane,  E.  C,  London. 

1901     Marcovnikoff,  Prof.  Vladimir.  .  .  .Imp.  Moskovsy  Universitet, 

Moscow,  Russia. 
1878     Marks,  Prof.  William  D Art  Club  Philadelphia. 

1886  Marshall,  John,  M.D 1718  Pine  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1890  Mascart,  Prof.  E 176  Rue  de  l'Universite, 

Paris,  France. 

1867     Mason,   Andrew 30  Wall  St.,  New  York  City. 

1899     Mason,  Prof.  Otis  T U.  S.  National  Museum, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1896  Mason,  Prof.  Wm.  Pitt,  M.D Rensselaer   Polytechnic   Insti- 

tute, Troy,  N.  Y. 

1891  Maspero,  Prof.  Gaston  Camille.  .  College     de     France,      Paris, 

France. 

1899  Matthews,  Albert , 483  Beacon  St.,  Boston. 

1899  Meigs,  Arthur  V.,  M.D 1322  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1901  Meigs,  William  M 1815  Pine  St.,  Phila. 

1886  von  Meltzel,  Prof.  Dr.  Hugo Koloszvar,  Hungary. 

1897  Melville,  Rear  Admiral  Geo.  W..Navy  Dept.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
1899  Mendenhall,  Prof.  Thomas  C ....  Worcester,  Mass. 

1898  Mengarini,  Prof.  Guglielmo Rome,  Italy. 

1895  Mercer,  Henry  C Doylestown,  Pa. 

1902  Merriam,  Dr.  C.  Hart 1919     16th    St.,    Washington, 

D.   C. 

1880  Merrick,  John  Vaughan Roxborough,  Philadelphia. 

1881  Merriman,  Prof.  Mansfield Lehigh  Univ.,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

1899  Meyer,  Prof.  Adolph  B K.  Zoologisches  u.  Antliropolo- 

gisch-Ethnographisches  Mu- 
seum, Dresden,  Germany. 


MEMBERS.  261 

Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1902  Michelson,  Prof.  Albert  A.,  Sc.D. 

(Cantab.)   Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

1899     Millek,  Prof.  Leslie  \V N.    W.    cor.    Broad   and    Pine 

Sts.,  Philadelphia. 

1896  Minot,  Chas.  Sedgwick,  M.D Harvard  University, 

Cambridge,  Mass. 

1890  Mitchell,  Hon.  James  T 1722  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1862     Mitchell,  S.  Weir,  M.D 1.324  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1895     Montegaza,  Paolo Florence,  Italy. 

1898  Montgomery,  Prof.  Thos.  H.,  Jr.  .  .Univ.  of  Texas,  Austin,  Texas. 
1S97     Moore.  Clarence  B 1321  Locust  St.,  Phila. 

1905.    Moore,  Prof.  Eliakim  H Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

1905     Moore,  George  T.,  Ph.D Hammond  Court,  30th  and  Q 

Sts.,  N.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1885  Moore,  Prof.  James  W.,  M.D Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Pa. 

1903  Morley,  Edward  W.,  LL.D Adelbert    Coll.,    Cleveland,    O. 

1897  Morley,    Prof.   Frank '.  .  .  .  Johns  Hopkins  University, 

Baltimore. 

1899  Morris,  Harrison  S Oak  Lane  P.  O.,  Philadelphia. 

1S99     Morris,  Israel  W 225  S.  8th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1883     Morris,  J.  Cheston,  M.D 1514  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1901     Morris,   John  T S26  Drexel  Building,  Phila. 

1895     Morse,  Prof.   Edward  S Essex  Institute,  Salem,  Mass. 

1903  Morse,  Harmon  N.,  Ph.D 1117  N.  Eutaw  St.,  Baltimore. 

1886  Much,  Prof.  Matil^us,  Ph.D XIIP  Penzingerstrasse,  84, 

Vienna,  Austria. 

1901     Munro,  Prof.  Dana  C University  of  Wisconsin, 

Madison,  Wis. 

1891  Munroe,  Prof.  Charles  E Columbian  University, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1886     Mtjrdock.  Com.  J.  B.,  U.S.N Navy  Dept.r  Washington,  D.  C. 

1881     Murray,  James  A.  H.,  LL.D Sunnyside,  Banbury  Road, 

Oxford,   England. 

1897     Nansen,  Prof.  Fridtjof Godthaab,  Lysaker,  Norway. 

1S78     Newcomb,  Prof.  Simon • 1620  P  St..  N.  W., 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1904  Nichols,  Prof.  Edward  L Cornell  Univ.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

1872     Nichols,  Rev.  Starr  Hoyt 128  Main  St.,  Danbury,  Conn. 

1866     Nikitin,  Prof.   Sergi ■.  .  .  .Geological   Survey, 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia. 

1905  Nordenskjold,  Prof.  Otto Univ.  of  Upsal,  Upsal,  Sweden. 

1872     Norris,  Isaac,  M.D Fair  Hill,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa. 

1895     Nuttall,   Mrs.   Zelia .  .  Casa  de  Alvarado,   Coyoncan, 

D.  F.  Mexico. 

18S6     Oliver,  Charles  A.,  M.D 1507  Locust  St.,  Phila. 

1897     Olney,  Hon.  Richard 23  Court  Street,  Boston. 


262  MEMBERS. 

Elected.  Same.  Present  Address. 

1897  OBTMANNj  Prof.  Arnold  E Carnegie  Museum,  Annex,  419 

Craft  Ave.,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 
1887     Osbobn,   Prof.   Henry  F American  Museum  of  Natural 

History,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
1885     Osler,  William,  M.D 7    Norham    Gardens,    Oxford, 

Eng. 
1867     Packard,  John  H.,  M.D University  Club,  Philadelphia. 

1898  Pancoast,  Henry  S 78  Vernon  St.,  Hartford,  Conn. 

1885  Patterson,  C.  Stuart 1000  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1900  Patterson,  Hon.  Edward Supreme  Court,  Appellate  Div., 

1st  Dept.,  New  York  City. 

1898  Patterson,  Lamar  Gray Guano,  Amherst  Co.,  Va. 

1851     Patterson,  Robert 329  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1897     Patton,  Pres't  Francis  L.,  D.D.  .  .Princeton,  N.  J. 

1899  Paul,  J.  Rodman 903  Pine  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1875     Pearse,  John  B 317  Walnut  Ave., 

Roxbury,  Mass. 

1897     Peckiiam,  Prof.  S.  F 150   Halsey  St.,  Brooklyn. 

1878     Peirce,  C.  Newlin,  D.D.S 3316  Powelton  Ave.,  Phila. 

1873     Pemberton,  Henry 1947  Locust  St.,  Phila. 

1886  Penafiel,  Dr.  Antonio City  of  Mexico,  Mexico. 

1901  Penniman,  Prof.  Josiah  H 4326  Sansom  St.,  Phila. 

1886     Pennypacker,  Hon.   Samuel  W ...  Executive  Mansion, 

Harrisburg,  Pa. 

1S63     Penrose,  R.  A.  F.,  M.D 1331  Spruce  St.,  Phila. 

1905     Penrose,  R.  A.  F.,  Jr.,  Ph.D 460  Bullitt  Bld'g,  Phila. 

1886     Pepper,  Edward,  M.D Care  of  Drexel,  Harjes  &  Co., 

31     Boulevard,     Haussman, 

Paris,  France. 
1897     Pepper,  George  Wharton,  LL.D..701  Drexel  Building,  Phila. 
1905     Petrie,    W.    M.    Flinders,   D.C.L., 

LL.D.,   F.R.S University  College,  Gower  St., 

W.  C,  London,  Eng. 

1895  Pettit,  Henry Pelican  Lodge, 

•  Palm  Beach,  Florida. 

1899     Phillips,  Prof.  Francis  C P.  O.  Box  126,  Allegheny,  Pa. 

1896  Pickering,  Prof.   Edw.  C Harvard  University, 

Cambridge,  Mass. 

1897  Piersol,  George  A.,  M.D Chester  Ave.  and  49th  St., 

Philadelphia. 

1895     Pilsbry,  Prof.  Henry  A Academy  of  Natural  Sciences, 

Philadelphia. 

1898  Platt,  Charles 237  S.  18th  St.,  Phila. 

1899  Poincare,  Prof.  Henri 63  Rue  Claude  Bernard, 

Paris,  France. 

1885  Pomialowsky,  Prof.  John St.  Petersburg,  Russia. 

1886  Postgate,  Prof.  John  P Cambridge,  England. 


MEMBERS.  2G3 

Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1899     Peeece,  Sir  Wm.  Henky,  F.R.S.  ...  13  Queen  Anne's  Gate, 

London,  S.  W.,  England. 

1875     Prime,  Frederick 1008  Spruce  St.,  Phila. 

1899     Pritchett,  Pres't  Henry  S.,  LL.D. Massachusetts  Institute  of 

Technology,  Boston. 

1874  Pumpelly,  Prof.  Raphael Newport,  R.  I. 

1896     Pupin,  Prof.  Michael  1 7  Highland  PI.,  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

1895     Putnam,  Prof.  Frederick  W Peabody  Museum,  Cambridge, 

Mass. 
1886     Rada,  Juan  de  Dios-y  Delgado.  .  .Calle  de  la  Corredera  baja  de 

S.    Pablo    No.    12,    Madrid, 

Spain. 
1899     Ramsay,  Sir  William,  K.C.B University  College,  Gower  St., 

W.  C.  London,  Eng. 

1901  Ravenel,  Mazyck  P.,  M.D 908  Pine  St.,  Phila. 

1898  Rawle,  Francis 328  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1899  Rawle,  William  Brooke 230  S.  22d  St.,  Phila. 

1886     Rayleigh,  The  Right  Hon.  Lord.  .  .Terling    PL,    Witham,    Essex, 

England. 

1875  Raymond,  Capt.  Rossiter  W 99  John  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

1898  Redwood,  Sir  Boverton,  F.R.S.  .  ..4,  Bishopsgate  St.  Within, 

E.  C,  London,  England. 

1899  Remington,  Prof.  Joseph,  P 1832  Pine  St.,  Phila. 

1879     Remsen,   President  Ira Johns   Hopkins   University, 

Baltimore,  Md. 

1879     Renevier,  Prof.  E Univ.,  Lausanne,  Switzerland. 

1886     Reville,  Prof.  Dr.  Albert 21  Rue  Guenegaud, 

Paris,  France. 

1902  Richards,  Prof.  Theo.  William.  ..15  Follen  St.,  Cambridge, 

Mass. 
1882     Robins,  Rev.  James  W.,  D.D 2115  Pine  St.,  Phila. 

1890  Rogers,  Prof.  Robert  W Drew  Theological  Seminary, 

Madison,  N.  J. 
1862     Rohrig,  Prof.  F.  L.  Otto 402  S.  Oakland  Ave., 

Pasadena,  Cal. 
1904     Roosevelt,  Hon.  Theodore The  White  House, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1903  Roscoe,     Sir    Henry    E.,    F.R.S., 

D.C.L Woodcote  Lodge,  West  Hors- 

ley,  Leatherhead,  England. 

1891  Rosengarten,  Joseph  G 1704  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1882     de  Rosny,  Prof.  Leon 28  Rue  Mazarin,  Paris, 

France. 
1877     Rothrock,  Prof.  Joseph  T West  Chester,  Pa. 

1904  Rutherford,  Prof.  Ernest,  F.R.S.  .McGill  Univ.  Montreal,  Can. 
1894     Sachse,  Julius  F.,  Litt.D 4428  Pine  St.,  Phila. 


2(54  MEMBERS. 

Elected.  Xante.  Present  Address. 

1874  Sadtler,  Prof.  Samuel  P X.  E.  cor.   10th  and  Chestnut 

Sts.,  Philadelphia. 

1888     Sajous,  Charles  E.,  M.D 2043  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1897     Sampson,  Alden Haverford,  Pa. 

1866     Sandberger,  Prof.  Fredolix University  of  Wiirzburg, 

Wiirzburg,  Bavaria. 

1897  Sanders,  Richard  H 1225  Locust  St.,  Phila. 

1882     Sargent,  Prof.  Charles  Sprague.  .Jamaica  Plain,  Mass. 
1902     Sciiellixg,  Prof.  Felix  E.,  Ph.D.. 4211  Sansora  St.,  Phila. 
1901      Schiaparelli,  Prof.  Giovanni Royal  Observatory, 

Milan,  Italy. 

1878     Schurz,  Hon.  Carl 54  William  St.,  New  York. 

1873     Sclater,    Philip    Lutley,    Ph.D., 

F.R.S 3  Hanover  Square,  London, 

W.,  England. 

1898  Scott,  Charles  F Westinghouse   Electric   Co., 

Pittsburg,  Pa. 

1886  Scott,  Prof.  William  B Princeton,  N.  J. 

1878  Scudder,  Samuel  Hubbard Cambridge,  Mass. 

1897  See,  Thomas  J.  J.,  LL.D Observatory,  Mare  Island,  Cal. 

1872  Sellers,  Coleman,  Sc.D 3301  Baring  St.,  Phila. 

1899  Sellers,  Coleman,  Jr 410  N.  33d  St.,  Phila, 

1885'  Sergi,  Prof.  Giuseppe Universita  Romana, 

Rome,  Italy. 

1886  Sharp,  Benjamin,  M.D Academy  of  Natural  Sciences, 

Philadelphia. 
1882     SHARPLES,Prof. Stephen  Paschall.26  Broad  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

1875  Sherwood,  Andrew Mansfield,  Tioga  Co.,  Pa. 

1899  Sigsbee,      Admiral      Charles      D., 

U.S.N Navy  Dept.,  Washington,  D.  C 

1900  Sinkler,  Wharton,  M.D 1606  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1897     Smith,  A.  Donaldson,  M.D 1820  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1887  Smith,  Prof.  Edgar  F Univ.  of  Pennsylvania,  Phila. 

1875     Smith,  Stephen,  M.D 57  W.  42d  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

1897     Smock,  Prof.  John  C Trenton,  N.  J. 

1887     Symth,  Prof.  Albert  H 5214  Main  St.,  Germantown, 

Philadelphia. 
1894     Snellen,  Herman,  Jr.,  Ph.D Utrecht,  Netherlands. 

1873  Snowden,  A.  Loudon,  LL.D 1812  Spruce  St.,  Phila. 

1884     Snyder,  Prof.  Monroe  B 2402  N.  Broad  St.,  Phila. 

1873     Spofford,  A.  R.,  LL.D Library  of  Congress, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1903     Stengel,  Alfred,  M.D 1811  Spruce  St.,  Phila. 

1897     Stepiiexs,  Prof.  H.  Morse University  of  California. 

Berkeley,  Cal. 


MEMBERS.  265 

Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1884     Stevens,  Prof.  Walter  LeConte.  .Lexington,  Va. 

1877     Stevenson,  Prof.  John  James  ....  Univ.  Heights,  New  York  City. 

1895     Stevenson,  Sara  Y.,  Sc.D 237  S.  21st  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1898  Stillwell,  Lewis  B 100  Broadway,  New  York  City. 

1902     Stoney,  Prof.  G.  Johnstone,  F.R.S. 30  Ledbury  Road,  Bayswater, 

London,  W.,  England. 

1904  Stratton,  Prof.  Samuel  W Bureau  of  Standards, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1886     Suess,  Prof.  Eduard K.    K.    Geologische   Reichsan- 

stalt,  Vienna,  Austria. 

1895  Sulzberger,  Hon.  Mayer 1303  Girard  Ave.,  Phila. 

1886     Szombathy,  Prof.  Josef Burgring  7,  Vienna,  Austria. 

1897     Tatham,  William 1811  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1886     Temple,  Col.  Richard  Carnac  .  .  .  .  Port  Blair,  Andaman  Islands, 

Bengal,  India. 

1896  Tesla,  Nikola,  LL.D Warclenclyffe,   Long   Island. 

N.  Y. 

1905  Thiselton-Dyer,  Sir  William  T.  . Royal  Botanic  Gardens, 

Kew,  England. 
1884     Thomas,  Prof.  Allen  C Haverford,  Pa. 

1884  Thompson,   Heber   S Sheafer  Build'g,  Pottsville,  Pa. 

1902  Thompson,     Prof.      Silvanus     P., 

F.R.S Technical    College,    Finsbury, 

Leonard      St.,     City    Road, 
London,  E.  C,  England. 
1876     Thomson,  Prof.  Elihu Swampscott,  Mass. 

1903  Thomson,     Joseph     John,     D.Sc, 

F.R.S Trinity  Coll.,  Cambridge,  Eng. 

1880     Thomson,  William,  M.D 1426  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1885  im  Thurn,  Everard  F Govt.  House,  Sura,  Fiji, 

Western  Pacific. 

1864     Thury,  Prof.  A University  of  Geneva, 

Geneva,  Switzerland. 

1902  Tilghman,  Benjamin  Chew 1126  S.  11th  St.,  Phila. 

1886  Topinard,  Prof.  Dr.  Paul 105  Rue  de  Rennes, 

Paris,  France. 

1895  Tower.    Hon.     Charlemagne,    Jr., 

LL.D U.  S.  Embassy,  Berlin,  Ger. 

1903  Trelease,  William   Sc.D Missouri  Botanical  Garden, 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

1899  Trevelyan,    Rt.    Hon.    Sir    George 

Otto    8   Grosvenor  Crescent,   S.  W. 

London,  England. 

1896  Trowbridge,  Prof.  John Harvard  University, 

Cambridge,  Mass. 
1899     True,  Dr.  Frederick  William  .  .  . .  U.  S.  National  Museum, 

Washington,  D.  C. 


266  MEMBERS. 

Elected.  Xame.  Present  Address. 

1882     Tschermak,  Gustav Universitat,  Vienna,  Austria. 

1897     Tschernyschew,  Prof.  Theodore.  .Geological  Survey, 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia. 

1864     V.  Tunner,  Prof.  Peter  R Leoben,  Austria. 

1890     Turrettini,   Prof.    Theodore Geneva,   Switzerland. 

1889     Tuttle,  David  K.,  Ph.D U.  S.  Mint,  Philadelphia. 

1889  Tyler,  Hon.  Lyon  G.,  Pres't Williamsburg,  Va. 

1887     Tyson,  James,  M.D 1506  Spruce  St.,  Phila. 

1890  Unwin,  Prof.  William  C 7  Palace  Gate  Mansions, 

London,  England. 

1904  Van't  Hoff,  Prof.  Jakob  H Univ.   of   Berlin,   Berlin,   Ger. 

1899     Vauclain,  Samuel  M 1533  Green  St.,  Phila. 

1897  Vaux,  George,  Jr 404  Girard  Building,  Phila. 

1905  Venable,  Pres't  Francis  P Chapel  Hill,  N.  C. 

1870  Vose,  Prof.  George  L Brunswick,  Maine. 

1890  Vossion,  Louis Consulate  of  France, 

Cape  Town,  South  Africa. 

1903  de  Vries,  Prof.  Hugo University  of  Amsterdam, 

Amsterdam,  Netherlands. 
1885     Wagner,  Samuel Greenbank  Farm, 

West  Chester,  Pa. 

1874     Wahl,  William  H.,  Ph.D 15  S.  7th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1897     Walcott,  Charles  D.,  LL.D U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1904  Waldeyer,  Prof.  Wilhelm 56  Luisenstrasse,  Berlin, 

N.   W.,   6,  Germany. 
1873     Wallace,  Alfred  Russel,  LL.D. . .  Parkstone,  Dorset,  England. 
1889     Ward,  Lester  F.,  LL.D 1464  Rhode  Island  Ave., 

Washington,  D.  C. 
1881     Ware,  Lewis  S 54  Rue  de  la  Bienfaisfince, 

Paris,  France. 

1897  Warfield,  Pres't  Ethelbert  D. .  .  .Easton,  Pa. 

1896     Welch,  William  H.,  M.D 935   St.   Paul   St.,   Baltimore, 

Md. 

1869     Wharton,  Joseph P.  0.  Box  1332,  Phila. 

1869     White,  Hon.  Andrew  D White  Library,  Cornell  Univ., 

Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
1878     Wthite,  Prof.  Israel  C 119    Wiley    St.,   Morgantown, 

W.  Va. 

1905  Whitfield,  J.  Edward 406  Locust  St.,  Phila. 

1898  Whitfield,   Prof.   R.   P American  Museum  of  Natural 

History,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

1899  Whitman,     Prof.     Charles     Otis, 

Ph.D.,  LL.D Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

1878     Wilder,  Prof.   Burt  G 60  Cascadilla  PI.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

1904     Wiley,  Harvey  W.,  M.D.,  LL.D ...  U.    S.    Dept.    of    Agriculture, 

Washington,  D.  C. 


MEMBERS.  267 

Elected.  Name.  Present  Address. 

1895  Willcox,    Joseph "  The  Clinton,"  10th  and  Clin- 

ton Sts.,  Philadelphia. 
1897     Williams,  Prof.  Edward  H.,  Jr.  .  .53  Phillips  St.,  Andover,  Mass. 

1888     Williams,  Talcott,  LL.D 910  Pine  St.,  Phila. 

1905     Willis,  Bailey,  E.M.,  C.E U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
1890     Willis,  Prof.  Hexry 4036  Baring  St.,  Phila. 

1885  Wilson,  James  Cornelius,  M.D.  .  .  1511  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 
1887     Wilson,    Prof.    William    Powell, 

M.D Commercial  Museum,  Phila. 

1897     Wilson,  Pres't  Woodrow Prospect,  Princeton,  N.  J. 

1897     Wister,  Owen 328  Chestnut  St.,  Phila. 

1897     Witmer,  Prof.  Ligiitner,  Ph.D 2426  Spruce  St.,  Phila. 

1879     Wood,  Richard 1620  Locust  St.,  Phila. 

1899  Wood,  Stuart 1620  Locust  St.,  Phila. 

1874     Woodward,  Henry,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  .  British     Museum,      Cromwell 

Road,  London,  S.  W.,  Eng. 

1902     Woodward,  Pres't  Robert  S.,  Ph.D. Carnegie  Institution, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

1896  Wright,   Prof.  Arthur  W.,  Ph.D..  73  York  Square,  New  Haven, 

Conn. 

1900  Wright,    William    Aldis,    LL.D., 

D.C.L Trinity  Coll.,  Cambridge,  Eng. 

1895     Wundt,  Prof.  William Leipzig,  Germany. 

1899     Wurts,  Alexander  Jay Carnegie  Technical  School, 

Pittsburg,  Pa. 
1881     Wurts,  Charles  Stewart,  M.D...  1701  Walnut  St.,  Phila. 

1886  Wyckoff,  Lieut.  A.  B.,  U.S.N Navy  Dep't,  Washington.  D.  C. 

1874     Young,  Prof.  Charles  Augustus..  16  Prospect  Ave., 

Princeton,  N.  J. 


MAGELLANIC   PREMIUM 

Founded  in  17S6  by  John  Hyacinth  de  Magellan,  of  London 
I9O6 

THE   AMERICAL    PHILOSOPHICAL   SOCIETY 

Held  at  Philadelphia,  for  Promoting  Useful  Knowledge 

ANNOUNCES    THAT    IN 

DECEMBER,  1906 

IT   WILL   AWAKD    ITS 

MAGELLANIC   GOLD    MEDAL 

TO  THE  AUTHOR  OF  THE  BEST  DISCOVERY,  OR  MOST  USEFUL  INVENTION, 
RELATING  TO  NAVIGATION  ASTRONOMY,  OR  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY 
(MERE  NATURAL  HISTORY  ONLY  EXCEPTED)  UNDER  THE  FOLLOWING 
CONDITIONS  : 

i.  The  candidate  shall,  on  or  before  November  1,  1906,  deliver  free  of 
postage  or  other  charges,  his  discovery,  invention  or  improvement,  ad- 
dressed to  the  President  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  No.  104 
South  Fifth  Street,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A.,  and  shall  distinguish  his  per- 
formance by  some  motto,  device,  or  other  signature.  With  his  discovery, 
invention,  or  improvement,  he  shall  also  send  a  sealed  letter  containing 
the  same  motto,  device,  or  other  signature,  and  subscribed  with  the  real 
name  and  place  of  residence  of-  the  author. 

2.  Persons  of  any  nation,  sect  or  denomination  whatever,  shall  be 
admitted  as  candidates  for  this  premium. 

3.  No  discovery,  invention  or  improvement  shall  be  entitled  to  this 
premium,  which  hath  been  already  published,  or  for  which  the  author 
hath  been  publicly  rewarded  elsewhere. 

4.  The  candidate  shall  communicate  his  discovery,  invention  or  im- 
provement, either  in  the  English,  French,  German,  or  Latin  language. 

5.  A  full  account  of  the  crowned  subject  shall  be  published  by  the 
Society,  as  soon  as  may  be  after  the  adjudication,  either  in  a  separate 
publication,  or  in  the  next  succeeding  volume  of  their  Transactions,  or  in 
both. 

6.  The  premium  shall  consist  of  an  oval  plate  of  solid  standard  gold  of 
the  value  of  ten  guineas,  suitably  inscribed,  with  the  seal  of  the  Society 
annexed  tothe  medal  by  a  ribbon. 

All  correspondence  in  relation  hereto  should  be  addressed 
To  the  Secretaries  of  the 

AMERICAN   PHILOSOPHICAL   SOCIETY 
No.   104  Soith  Fifth  Street 

PHILADELPHIA,  U.  S.  A. 


TRANSACTIONS 

OF    THE 

American  Philosophical  Society 

HELD   AT    PHILADELPHIA 

For  Promoting  Useful  Knowledge 


Vol.  XXI,  New  Series,  Part  II.     Just  Published 


On  the  Construction  of  Isobaric  Charts  for  High  Levels  in  tht 

Earth's  Atmosphere  and  their  Dynamic  Significance. 

By   J.  YV.  Sandstrom,  of  Stockholm. 


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Address  The  Librarian  of  the 

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PHILADELPHIA,  U    S.  A. 


Proceedings  Am.  Philos.  Soc.  Vol.  XLIV.    No.  180 


Plate  III 


7 


Map  to  illustrate  the  centers  of  origin  and  the  chief  directions  of  migration  of  the  different  subdi 
of  the  genus  Cambarus. 


Proceedings  Am.  Philos.  Soc.  Vol.  XLIV.  No.  181 


An-  '--~Clo. 

Anatomy  of  Phalrenoptilus,  Ridgway. 


Proceedings  Am.  Philos.  Soc.  Vol.  XLIV.  No.  181 


Plate  V 


M  y,kum. 


Anatomy  of  Phalsenoptilus,  Ridgway. 


Proceedings  Am.  Philos.  Soc.  Vol.  XLIV.  No.  181 


Plate  VI 


Anatomy  of  Phalaenoptilus,  Ridgvvay. 


e 


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V       V 


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