Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Field Club

OP- THE

COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’

AN

VOLUME XII

Part I, 1896. Part Il, 1897. Part III, 1898

PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER
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CONTENTS“ OF" VOEUME -XII

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PART I, 1896

PAGE
THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1896 : : > : 2 I
The Depths of the Sea in Past Epochs. By E. B. WETHERED,
F.G.S., with 4 plates. : : ; : , Bien 29
On the Hibernation of Certain Animals. By EDWARD CORN-
FORD, M.A. . : : : ‘ ; ; ‘ eae «|
On the Pre-Saxon Occupation of the Middle Cotteswolds. By
JOHN SAWYER, with map - A : : Q 2 By
PART II, 1897
THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1897, with plate ; nae
hy Notes on the Geology and Glaciation of Norway. By CHARLES
¢ UPTON, with 2 plates : ; : : : . . 109
On the Archeology of the Coln Valley and Notes on the Welsh
Way and Foss Way. By JOHN SAWYER ; J 25
The Manner in which the Domestic Animals and Plants have
aided Civilization. By WINNINGTON-INGRAM . 3 ee
; Gloucestershire Rainfall. By A. S. HELPS, with plate. - - 255
Notes and Observations on the Earthquake of December 17th,
1896. Contributed by Members of the Cotteswold Club,
. and edited by the Rev. H. H. WINWOOD : 3 a iy,
PART III, 1898
THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1898 : : : ‘ Bt 7

Chalk Under the Microscope. By CHARLES UPTON, with
plate A : : : ; : ee: : = 209

Observations of a Cycle Tour. By S. S. BUCKMAN,
F.G.3:

Recent Discoveries in the Geology of the Malvern Hills.

C. CALLAWAY, D.SC., EG oom

Beverstone Church and Castle, and Malmesbury Abbey.

F. W. WALLER

PAGE
27,

By
239

By
249

ViOlac X11 : ; | PART I

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Cotteswold Uaturalists’

FIELD CLUB

For 1895—1896

President
M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

Vice-Presidents
Sa tiAM-c. LUCY, Gs.
mooie SMITHE, MA LL.D., > FaG.S:.
JOHN BELLOWS
Rev. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.S.
EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.M.S.

PHonorarp Creasurer
tae. JONES

Honorary Decretarp
Rev. E. CORNFORD, M.A., (CHELTENHAM)

‘THE COUNCIL OF THE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERSTOOD THAT THE AUTHORS
ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED
IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS.

Se

Contents
Z ‘THE PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1896.
|| — The Depths of the Seas in Past Epochs. By E. B. WETHERED, F.C.S.
; _ On the Hibernation of Certain Animals. By EDWARD CorNForRD, M.A., Hon. Sec.
2 |e On the Pre-Saxon Occupation of the Middle Cotteswolds. By JOHN SAWYER.

PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. S 193919

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’
FIELD CLUB

For 1895—1896

PRESIDENT

M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

HONORARY SECRETARY

Rev. E. CORNFORD, M.A.

b Wol X1e Part 1

1896

ANNUAL ADDRESS
TO* THE
COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB
MAY, 1896
BY

M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS, PRESIDENT

The Annual Meeting of the Club was held at the Bell
Hotel, Gloucester, on Tuesday, May 7th.

The Treasurer presented his financial statement with
the very satisfactory result that the Club possessed a
credit balance (exclusive of arrears ae subscriptions) of
£125 16s. 3d.

Since the death of Professor Harker, Mr Madan had
most kindly performed the duties of Hon. Secretary, and
he was earnestly pressed to continue to fill an office for
which he was so exceptionally fitted. To this he was
unable to agree; and the Rev. E. Cornford was then
appointed Hon. Secretary of the Club.

The other officers of the Club were unanimously
re-elected.

I greatly regret that I have to record the death of Mr
Raitt, of Broughtons, who had been for several years a
member of the Club, during which time he has been most
regular in his attendance at the Field and Winter Meetings.
His geniality and his hearty appreciation of all matters
that interested the Club made him a most pleasant and
acceptable companion ; and his loss will long be felt by
the members.

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

It was decided that the Field Meetings for the year
should be held at
Yate and Chipping Sodbury
Frocester and Uley
Caerleon and Caerwent
Newent.
During the winter Papers were read by :—
Mr Cornford on “ The Hibernation of Animals.”
Mr Wethered on “The Depth of the Sea in Past Epochs.”
Mr John Sawyer on “The Pre-Saxon Occupation of the
Central Cotteswolds,” and by
Mr Buckman on “ Geological Non-sequence.”

These papers, which were all of great interest, will be
printed in the forthcoming volume of Proceedings.

The first Field Meeting of the Club was held on
Monday, 27th May, when about 20 members met at Yate
Station, and first visited the Eggshill Colliery, where many
characteristic fossils of the coal period were exhibited,
and also the remains of a pump made of oak, which there
is reason to believe was used earlier than the introduction
of the first Newcomen Engine in 1712.

On the way to Yate Court a stay was made to enable
members to see some celestine deposits which are being
quarried just below the surface of the ground. ‘The
existence of celestine in this locality is a comparatively
recent discovery, but it has now been traced in the
Triassic Marl from near the base of Sodbury Hill across
the plain to Aust Cliff. Its chief commercial value is for
sugar refining, and for this purpose it is largely exported
to Germany. Mr Madan described the chemical processes
which are rather numerous and complicated, but the main
facts are these: from Celestine (the native form of
Strontium Sulphate) is prepared Strontium Hydrate, a
substance very analogous to “slaked lime,” and_ this
substance when added to solutions containing sugar,
forms with the sugar a compound which readily separates

we PEAT ahhie v. j

=

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 3

from the other ingredients present in the solution, such as
treacle, gum, extractive matter, &c. Thus a fine compound
of sugar is obtained, from which the Strontium Hydrate
can be separated, and the sugar crystallised out. Before
this process was used, about half the sugar present in the
beet-root or cane juice was simply lost.

Yate Court is a very interesting old building, of which
the chief features are a fine gate-way with portcullis
grooves, and the lower halls of what apparently was a
tower; and a moat still exists in almost its original entirety.
The property has changed hands so often that nearly all
its records are lost, but there is evidence that it existed
in the days of Richard I. In the time of Henry VIII
Lord Maurice Berkeley bought the property and built a
house upon it, in which he incorporated some portions of
the earlier building. In the Civil War of the 17th
century it was garrisoned by the Parliamentary forces,
who, it is said, on leaving it, set it on fire and reduced it
to ashes. A farm-house now on the site contains portions
of the old structure, including a staircase made of solid
blocks of oak.

The party next went to Yate Church which has a
history dating back to Norman times. The original
edifice was cruci-form, with a chapel on the north side of
the chancel. Early English builders considerably changed
the character of the building, and it appears to have
remained as they left it until the perpendicular era. Late

in the 15th and in the early part of the 16th centuries the

church was practically re-built. To some extent, however,
the building still tells its own history. There are very clear
traces of Norman work in the-south transept, and the
eastern limb, and of early English architecture at the base
of the tower arch, and in the south wall of the nave. The
eastern end of the arcade between the nave and the nave
aisle, and the arch opening into the south transept, are
half-a-century later in date than the western end. The
A2

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

staircase to the rood-loft still remains, with its lower steps
jutting into the north-west angle of the north chapel.
The present church consists of a nave, chancel chapels on
the north and south sides of the chancel, a south transept,
north nave aisle, south porch, and a tower nearly 100 feet
high. Henry VII, it has been suggested, had directly or
indirectly a connection with the building of the tower, for
on the entrance door-way and around the turret are the
fleur-de-lys and the Tudor rose. On a gable over the
chancel arch a sanctus bell-cot still remains.

After lunching at the Portcullis Inn, the party paid a
visit to Chipping Sodbury Church, which we are told by
Mr Pope in a paper in Vol. XIII of the Transactions of
the Bris. and Glos. Archeological Society, was erected in
the 13th century. The chancel was probably built first ;
the older builders almost invariably commencing at the
east end, so that the offices of religion might be celebrated
with becoming decency and reverence as soon as possible.
Some early side chapels, into which existing arcades must
have opened have disappeared. Possibly some relics of
them are the 13th century capitals used as corbels for the
north aisle roof, which is of 15th century date.

The eastern end of the north aisle is 14th century
work, and it is suggested that it was part of a design for a
church on a grand scale, but which the black death
prevented being carried out. As the town prospered,
first the north aisle in the early part of the 15th century,
and then the south aisle in the latter part of the same
century, were erected. A stone pulpit of 15th century
work forms a part of the first pier of the north aisle, and
at the back is an inscription “Tobias Davis his charge.”
In the north chapel is a beautiful incised slab, which
probably commemorates a Flemish Merchant who had
settled in the town. The ancient altar slab, with four
dedication crosses upon it, has been appropriated as a
grave-stone.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 5

To Cheltenham visitors one feature of the church has
a special interest, because of its connection with Richard
Pate, founder of the Cheltenham Grammar School. In
the reign of Henry VI, a religious guild was founded in
Chipping Sodbury, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
Its objects, to quote the quaint language of the period,
were “to erecte a chauntry for ij priests to celebrate at
thalter of S. Mary within the Chapell or Church of the
seid Chipping Sodbury prayeng for the good estate of the
seid King, and after his deceasse for his sowle, the
ffounders’ sowles, and all Xpen (Christian) sowley.” The
chantry chapel was behind the north chancel of the church
and has disappeared. Part of the possessions of the
suild were, in the reign of Henry VI, bought by Richard
Pate, as one of the King’s Commissioners, and several
years later Pate sold a portion of them to the Burghers of
Sodbury, part for a Town Hall and part for an Almshouse.

The members then drove to Little Sodbury, to see the
- Manor House, and the little that remains of its parochial
church. The Manor House stands on the hill slope, a
short distance below the Roman Camp, and Mr John
Bellows is of opinion that it occupies the site of the
signalling station belonging to the Camp. ‘The house has
a long and interesting history, which has been carefully
traced by Mr Bazeley, of Matson. It was built, he tells
us, by Sir John Walshe, who in 1490 was the King’s
receiver for the Berkeley lands which had been alienated
from the Berkeley family by William, Marquis Berkeley,
and entailed on the King and his heirs male. This
appointment was a profitable one, and Sir John Walshe
who died in 1492 left his son-heir to several manors.
Sir John Walshe (the 2nd) was the champion of
Henry VIII at his coronation, and was a great favourite
with the young King. He married, first, Ann, daughter
of Sir Robert Poyntz, and secondly, Ann, daughter of
John Dinley, of Hampshire. The house owes much of

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

its interest to the fact that William Tyndale lived there
for a short time as tutor of Sir John Walshe’s children,
and also because it was visited by Henry VIII and Anne
Boleyn on the 21st August, 1535. The next owner was
Maurice Walshe, son of Sir John. In 1556 while he was
at dinner in the Hall with his family, “a fiery sulphurous
globe” passing from one window to another, killed him
and one child, and so injured six more children that they
all died within six months. Two sons, however, remained,
Nicholas, who succeeded, and Henry. Nicholas married
Mary, daughter of Sir John Berkeley, of Stoke
Gifford. He died 1577, leaving a son Henry, who
was slain in a duel by Sir Henry Wintour, and was
succeeded by his cousin Walter, who was seized of the
Manor in 1602. Soon afterwards the three Manors of
Old, Little, and Chipping Sodbury were sold to Thomas
Stephens, of Lypiatt. The Stephenses seem to have
resided in the old Manor House, as various members of
the family are described in the pedigree as of Little
Sodbury. In 1728 on the failure of heirs male, the
Manors came to Richard Packer, whose mother was a
Stephens; and on his death, without male issue, they
passed to Elizabeth, second wife of David Hartley, D.D.,
whose descendants still hold them. The house seems to
have been “restored” at the latter end of the 17th
century, but it still contains many traces of the original
structure, such as a beautiful oriel window, a fine porch
with wood moulding, and several 15th century windows
heavily barred. In the interior, the dining hall, although
dismantled, is much, as regards its structure, as it was in
the time of Tyndale and Sir John Walshe.

The family and their guests sat at a raised dais at the
south end, whilst the retainers sat at tables placed along
the east and west walls. Part of the old hall has been
partitioned off, but the original north end, with its two
doors, remains intact. Over the entrance from the

a ee Eee Te Ye er SS

PROCEEDINGS. OF -THE COTTESWOLD: CLUB 7

kitchen and buttery was the minstrel’s gallery, the
entrance to which still remains. On the east side of the
dais, high up in the wall, is a mask through which the
ladies in the ladies’ gallery could watch the revelry below.

A few yards to the east of the Manor House are the
ruins of Little Sodbury Church, consisting simply of a
porch and a fragment of the north wall with the aumbrey,
where the sacred vessels were kept.

On the summit of the hill above the Manor House is
thé well-known Roman Camp, with its well-preserved
lofty mounds and deep ditches. Enclosing the Roman
Camp is an earth fortification, which may be a British
Camp or may be of Post-Roman date. The remains of a
circular building and other erections are very similar to
remains upon Cleeve Hill, a matter which Mr G. B.
Witts discusses in detail in his paper on Sodbury Camp,
in the Archzological Society’s Transactions.

A survey of the camp brought the labours of the day
to a close, and the party drove to Wickwar, en route for
home.

For its second Meeting, the Club selected a bit of
Cotteswold country rich in geological and antiquarian
interest, and about a score of members met at Stonehouse,
on Thursday, 27th June. Starting in the direction of
Frocester, the first halt was at a gravel-pit, just above
Stanley Downton, where Mr Charles Upton recounted to
the members his recent find, in a pot-hole in the gravel, of
a reindeer’s antler. He remarked that it was an interesting
specimen, nearly two feet long, bearing upon its surface
marks which appear to be undoubtedly the result of blows
inflicted with some rather blunt-edged weapon at the
hands of man. With regard to the gravel itself, Mr S. S.
Buckman pointed out that it is a river accumulation,
deposited by the river Frome when it ran at a much
higher level than at the present day. The valley of the
Frome is now some 50 feet lower than where these beds

) PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

are situated, a fact which means that the valley has been
deepened to this extent since the gravel was deposited.

The drive was then continued to the foot of Frocester
Hill. There the members left the break, and, under the
guidance of Mr S. S. Buckman, examined the geology.
Attention was first drawn to a roadside section, showing
beds yielding Ammonites bifrons and A. falcifer, species
characteristic of the Upper Lias.

The geological structure of the hill was then explained :
a short distance up the hill is the Marlstone, a hard rock
of the Middle Lias, which generally forms a particular
feature of the Cotteswold landscape as a lower subsidiary
escarpment of the hill flank, projecting beyond the more
lofty escarpment of the Oolitic rocks. Above this is a
considerable thickness of clay beds—the Upper Lias upon
which the members were standing: and they are of
economical importance as being one of the water-bearing
beds of the district. The clay is capped by an immense
development of the Cotteswold Sands—in the present
case nearly 250 feet thick, as ascertained by measurement
with the level, and these are covered by _ iron-shot,
calcareous, marly strata, surmounted by some Oolitic
rocks. By means of a coloured diagram showing sections
of various localities between Frocester Hill and the coast
of Dorset, Mr Buckman explained both here, and when
the party arrived at the top of the hill, the result of his
work during the last ten vears, namely, that the sands of
the Cotteswold Hills, over which there had been so much
controversy, as the annals of the Club can testify, were
not deposited contemporaneously with the sands of Bath
and Dorset, though they are similar in colour and appear-
ance. The fact is, he said, that the sands of the
Cotteswolds had all been deposited, and part of the
over-lying cephalopod bed had been laid down, long before
sands began to form in Dorset; and that the underlying
clay beds in Dorset which have always, on account of

a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 9

similarity in lithology, been called “Upper Lias,” and
thought to be contemporaneous with bifrons beds at
Frocester Hill, are shown by their fossil contents to have
been deposited at a later date—contemporaneously with
the over-lying cephalopoda bed of the Cotteswolds, a bed
nearly 300 feet above.

Leaving the roadside section, the members ascended the
hill, Mr Buckman pointing out the scenic features made
by the Marlstone, and noticing other points of interest
shewn by the Vale of Severn. Higher up he drew
attention to a bed about the middle of the Cotteswold
Sands yielding “Ammonites bifrons,” and recalled the
fights this find had occasioned among some Cotteswold
geologists in days gone by.

Arrived at the top of the hill, the geological guide
continued his remarks upon the strata as compared with
those of other localities. Then he drew the members’
attention to the false bedding exhibited, and explained its
cause.

From the top of Frocester Hill the party drove to Uley
Bury Camp, the unusual fortifications of which were seen
with special interest by those members of the club who
had not previously visited Uley. The possible date of the
camp was the subject of some discussion. That it was
occupied by the Romans is beyond question: it was one
of the long series by which they strengthened the
“scientific frontier” of the Cotteswold escarpment in
coping with the Silures. But it probably is of much
earlier than Roman date. In some of its features, Mr
John Sawyer pointed out, it resembles the admittedly
British Camp on the Malvern Hills; while the occurrence
within it of numbers of worked flints, and without of
long and round barrows are also evidence that it was
constructed in pre-Roman times, possibly by the early

Celts.

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

From the camp the members made a short descent into
the adjacent Coaley Wood, being shown an interesting
quarry wherein Mr Buckman drew attention to the Upper
Trigonia grit—resting upon the lower beds of Inferior
Oolite, the bearing of which he explained later. They
were also being shown the cephalopoda bed in_ this
locality, when the Secretary’s whistle hurried them to the
next item in the programme.

This was a visit to the famous long barrow of Uley
Bury, locally known as “Hetty Pegler’s Tump.” It is one
of the few long tumuli in Britain which have been opened
and yet preserved in their original condition; and those
members who for the first time crawled through its
narrow entrance, and then in stooping posture, and with
lighted tapers, explored its chambers, expressed their
eratification that such an interesting memorial of far-off
days is protected under the Ancient Monuments’ Act,
mingled with their regret that there is not sufficient
scientific enthusiasm in this country to keep these
monuments in a condition, such as obtains in France in
like circumstances.

Half-a-mile to the north, at Nympsfield, is another
barrow of similar type, which was opened by the
Cotteswold Club in 1862, and described in the Club’s
Proceedings by the late Professor Buckman; but this is
now minus its roof and covering earth-mound. Since the
last visit of the Club to these tumuli, anthropology has
made enormous strides, and very much light has been
thrown upon the history of the men who made these
early Cotteswold burial-places. Seating themselves upon
the dry greensward of the Uley barrow, the party listened
to a short paper by Mr Sawyer. He pointed out that the
first fact to note about the tumulus is that there can be no
doubt as to its relative age. Near its highest part, and
about six inches below the surface, was found a skeleton,
with which were three Roman coins. If the coins may

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB II

be regarded as indicating the age of the skeleton, the
mound is obviously of Roman or post-Roman date. but
this evidence. of age is of little moment compared with
that afforded by the plan of the barrow, and by what has
been found in it. Its special features are its ovoid-form,
and the peculiar horned shape of the walling at the wider
end. Tumuli of similar plan are found in almost every
county between John O’Groats and Land’s End, indicating
that they are the work of one race. It has been suggested
that, as no one race has occupied Great Britain in historic
times, this wide-spread occurrence of the burial mounds of
one race is very strong proof that that race occupied the
country before the arrival of the Roman invaders. The
evidence is no doubt very strong, but it is not conclusive,
because the distribution may be due to the race being
driven, as other races unquestionably have been driven,
from one part of the kingdom to another, by powerful
and persistent enemies. Still, although the supposed
Roman supra-interment and the widespread occurrence of
this type of barrow may be insufficient proof, the evidence
afforded by the contents is absolutely conclusive that the
tumulus is of pre-historic age. Long-chambered barrows
have been opened all over the country, and their contents
carefully observed; and in not one of them has there
ever been found the slightest trace of metal. Implements
and weapons are of constant occurrence, but all are
flint. stone, or bone. When Czsar invaded Britain he
found to his cost that the natives were armed with metal
weapons: the beginning of the bronze age, in fact, dates
back to a time long before the Roman invasion. The
men who made the long barrows lived at a time when the
use of metal was to them unknown. They belong, in
fact, to that period in the history of man known as the
age of stone.

Mr Sawyer then pointed out the nature of the evidence
by which the stone age is divided into older and newer—

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

the older dating back to a time before the North Sea had
divided England from the Continent, and before the Severn
Valley had been scooped out, and the newer being, so far
as is known confined to the period within which the
country had assumed its present configuration.

Next he showed that the men who made the long
barrows belonged to the earlier part of the newer stone
age, and that in the opinion of anthropological experts
they were Iberians, a race which at one time inhabited a
a great part of Western Europe. When the Uley and
Nympsfield barrows were constructed it was, he concluded,
impossible to determine ; it was best to follow the advice
of the Duke of Argyll, and to treat pre-historic chronology
not as time-absolute but as time-relative.

From Uley Bury the party retraced their steps to the
top of Frocester Hill, and then drove to Selsley Common,
stopping on the way to see the Nympsfield tumulus in a
field on the road-side. At the top of Selsley Hill the
members left the break, and walking across the down were
shown the different beds of the Inferior Oolite by Mr
Charles Upton. His intimate knowledge of the strata of
this hill, and of the fossil contents of each bed, was fully
placed at the disposal of the party.

At the quarry on the west side of the hill Mr Upton
drew attention to the Oolite Marl and Upper Freestone
overlaid by Upper Trigonia-grit : and Mr Buckman, by the
aid of a diagram, explained the result of his recent
investigations in the Cotteswolds—shortly to be published
by the Geological Society—saying that though to their
eye the Upper Trigonia-grit followed the Upper Freestone
in a perfectly regular manner, yet other localities shewed,
as separating their deposits, more than 60 feet of strata,
all of which are absent here. He said that the same state
of things obtained at Birdlip, and that it was due to
erosion before the time when the Upper Trigonia-grit
was deposited. At Birdlip this erosion had cut out a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB fe)

trough in the Inferior Oolite beds some six miles wide
and 30 feet deep.

Other sections on the hill were visited under Mr
Upton’s guidance. He drew attention to particular
features of the Upper Freestone, and to a very noticeable
trough-fault where the Upper Trigonia-grit had been let
down some 10 feet. The remaining sections of the Pea-
erit and the lower beds of the Inferior Oolite had to be
hurried over for want of time.

As the party walked across the common, the Rev. E.
Cornford directed attention to the very large number
of shallow depressions which many antiquaries regard as
remnants of Pit-dwellings. Ina brief paper Mr Cornford
summarised the evidence for and against this theory,
leaving members to form their own conclusions. As a
further aid in doing so, Mr Upton pointed to a slight
mound and ditch following an irregular line across the
hill, and to the fact that all the depressions are on one
side (the western) of this line. Descending the precipi-
tous hillside, the members rejoined the break at Selsley
Church, and drove through Stanley Park and Dudbridge
to Stonehouse.

The most largely attended Field Meeting of this Club
in recent years was that held on Friday, July 26, when
about forty members and friends arrived at Newport,
ready for a drive to Caerleon and Caerwent. The latter
place was visited by the Club in 1876, when it was
included in a day’s journey from Portskewett to Sudbrook
Camp and Caldicot Castle. This was the first time,
however, that the Club had gone to Caerleon, a fact
which partially accounted for the large attendance; for
those who are acquainted with the history of the Roman
invasion and settlement in the western part of the
kingdom, are aware that the first Roman force that
occupied the Cotteswold area and then built Gloucester,
afterwards pushed forward into South Wales, and

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

constructed strongly fortified camps at Caerwent and Caer-
leon, the latter place ultimately becoming one of the nine
Roman colonies established in Britain. ‘The members
also had the great advantage of being accompanied by
their colleague, Mr John Bellows, as guide, philosopher,
and friend; for no one is better qualified, if indeed there
is anyone so well qualified, to speak of the connection
between the Roman settlements in Gloucestershire and
those in South Monmouth, and to tell the story of why
and how the settlements were planned and carried out.

CAERLEON

Caerleon, to which place the party first drove, is a quiet
village about three miles north-east of Newport, and close
to the river Usk. The wall built by the Romans more
than eighteen hundred years ago may still be traced in its
entire length, and in some places it is ten or twelve feet
high. Within its area a large number of Roman remains
have been found, most of which are preserved in a small
museum. Outside the walls is a well-preserved amphi-.
theatre, very much like that at Cirencester. Giraldus
says that in his time the stone seats might still be seen.
They have, however, long since disappeared, because,
probably, local builders looked upon them with utilitarian,
rather than antiquarian eyes. The name Isca Silurum,
which the place bore in Roman times, has of course
fallen out of general use, but strangely enough, a few
houses on the south side of the river are still known
among the cottagers as “ Ultra Pontem,” a name which
eighteen centuries has not effaced! The bridge which
connected the two places was in existence a hundred
years ago, for Archdeacon Coxe describes, how in crossing
it, he was nearly being precipitated into the river, because
the planks were loose, and how, in reply to his remons-
trance, he was told that the planks could not be nailed

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 15

down, because the nails would split the wood. Mr
Bellows ventured the explanation that the loose planks
were a survival from Roman times, as Pliny states in his
Natural History, that it was an article of religious faith
never to nail down the planks of a bridge. Of course, the
object in leaving them loose was, that they might instantly
be removed on the approach of an enemy.

‘While the party were gathered in the Caerleon Museum,
Mr Bellows gave an exceedingly lucid address upon the
invasion of Britain by the Romans, and their settlement
in the country, illustrating it by allusions to local events,
and local remains of Roman rule. He began by pointing
out the composition of a Roman legion, and traced its
history and developments originally. A legion consisted
of 3,000 foot and 300 horse, but by degrees it was
enlarged, until in the time of Czesar it comprised over
4,000 foot and 300 horse, besides being associated with a
- large body of auxilaries.

About the beginning of the Christian era, the Emperor
Augustus raised a legion with the title “ Legio Secunda
Augusta,” named in honour of himself, and bearing as a
badge the sign of Capricorn, under which he was born.
Vespasian, when a young man, became an officer in this
legion, and accompanied it to Thrace, where it was
recruited with several cohorts (or regiments) of Thracian
horsemen. From Thrace, the legion was drafted up the
Danube, and down the Rhine to Holland, taking with it
six cohorts of this auxiliary cavalry, one of which was
recruited in Holland. On the Rhine were also at this
time two other of the Roman legions, which had been
-sent there under Germannicus, to avenge the Roman
defeat by the Germans; and in the year 43 A.D. these
three legions (the second, fourteenth, and twentieth),
joined later by the ninth, which had served in Africa with
their auxiliaries, formed the invading army of Britain, and
numbered in all, at least 50,000 men.

16 PROCEEDINGS \OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

The plan of the Claudian invasion of Britain was next
dealt with by Mr Bellows.

The popular idea that the invaders came from Rome
and followed the line of Julius Czesar’s march across Gaul,
is, he said, a mistake. A force sufficiently large was
already stationed near the mouth of the Rhine, with ample
means of transport, and with nothing to do there, for the
Germans were effectually conquered, and kept in entire
subjection. In the century which had elapsed since Julius
Ceesar’s abortive invasions, England had ceased to be a
“terra incognita” to the Romans, for Strabo says the
Romans during the reign of Augustus were brought into
intimate relationship with Britain, and he mentions four
“principal” ports on the continent which were used for
traffic with this island, namely, the mouths of the Rhine,
the Seine, the Loire, and the Garonne. A definite plan of
invasion could therefore be arranged; and Mr Bellows
hinted at his belief that this plan was really the work of
Julius Czesar, and laid in the pigeon-holes at the war
office at Rome until the Emperor Claudius found a fitting
Opportunity to carry it out. The reason for this belief is
that Julius Czesar was the first man to devise the policy
of making great rivers the boundaries of the Empire ; and
we have the clearest archeological evidence that the
Claudian invasion made the securing of the Severn its
primary object. The order for the invasion was given in
the year 43 A.D., and it was given to Aulus Plautius,
under whom Vespasian was placed as a General of
Division. Dion Cassius says that as they sailed along,
they were discouraged by contrary winds, but encouraged
by a meteor, which fled from east to west, the direction in
which they were sailing; so that clearly they sailed past
Dover and along the English Channel, and not from
Boulogne, or Calais, north, as many take for granted.
There is also good evidence that they landed on the
shores of Southampton Water, and entrenched themselves

-

——— ee ee

ei |

aT

PROCEEDINGS OF. THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 17

at Wareham, where there are still remains of strong
defences on the northern side.

Having firmly planted their feet on British soil, the
invaders set about their conquest with two leading ideas
clearly in view. The first was as we have said, to make
rivers the boundaries of the subjected parts of the
country; the second was, as Dr Htbner has shown, to
advance northward in parallel lines from east to west.
It has long been known that Camulodunum (Colchester)
where the ninth legion was stationed, was one of the
earliest spots garrisoned by the Romans, but until twenty
years ago, the site of the other end of the line, of which
it was the commencement, was not known, nor was there
any evidence of where the second legion was quartered.

To Mr Bellows belongs the credit of having solved both
problems. In 1876 he contributed to the “ Proceedings ”
of the Cotteswold Club a paper descriptive of a number of
discoveries he had made in Gloucester, clearly proving
that it was a garrison of the second legion; and shortly
afterwards, Dr Hubner, of Berlin, one of the greatest
authorities living, on Roman history, published an article
in a German Archeological Serial, in which he said Mr
Bellows had supplied: the missing link in the history
of the Roman invasion of Britain, by showing that
Gloucester was the western end of the line of which
Colchester was the eastern end.

But Mr Bellows’ discoveries did something more than
reveal the first location of the second legion, and the
relation of Gloucester to Colchester. They prove beyond
question the intention of the Romans to make the Severn
the north-western boundary of the province with Glou-
eester as the key to it. The Romans had, it is true,
previously crossed the river. Dion Cassius tells us that
soon after landing they received the submission of the
Boduni, who occupied the Cotteswold Hills, and whose
chief town, according to Ptolemy, was Corinium,

B

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

(Cirencester) and that leaving a garrison among them,
they came to the banks of a “large” river, beyond which
the enemy lay in fancied security. That river could only
have been the Severn, and the place where the enemy lay
was probably Newnham.

Among the Roman auxiliaries were a number of splendid
swimmers, and at low water the passage would not be
difficult; and crossing the river they fought the Britons
in a decisive battle. But they did not remain on the
Forest side of the Severn; that was not a part of their
plan. They made their way to Gloucester, upon building
which they spent more pains than they did upon any other
camp in Britain; as no fewer than four different lines of
water defence had to be crossed, before the actual wall of
the fortification could be reached on the western side.

But the intention to make Gloucester the north-western
boundary, at least for a time, was frustrated by the Silures,
who lived on ‘the western side of the Severn. In the
Annals of Tacitus, we are told that “the Silures were not
so easily quelled; neither levity, nor rigorous measures
could induce them to submit. To bridle the insolence of
that warlike race, Ostorius judged it expedient to form a
camp in the heart of their country.” There can be no
doubt, that in this brief notice Tacitus refers to the
foundation of Caerwent, or as the Romans called it
“Venta Silurum.” This fortress stands about four miles
inland from Portskewett, where the camp to cover the
landing of troops after the passage of the Severn is still
in excellent preservation. On the former visit of the
Cotteswold Club to Caerwent, the Great Western Railway
Surveyors happened to be at the Tunnel works, which
adjoins the camp, and at the request of some of the
members, they took the exact average height of the
ramparts, 19 ft. 3 in., this being 20 Roman feet. On the
south-western side of this camp is an excellent beach for
running the boats on, used in the passage. It has even

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 19

been suggested that the name “Aust” passage is a corruption
of Augusti, in “ Trajectus Augusti”—that is the crossing
place of the “ Augustan,” or second legion. It may be
remarked, while laying no store on this etymology, that it
is in accordance with the general tendency of the western
Celtic dialect to suppress the “g”- thus in Cornwall the
miners of a generation ago, always pronounced “ engine ”
and “angel” as “Inyan” and * Ain-yel.” Similiarly the
town in North Italy has changed from Augusta to
* Aosta.”

This settlement of Caerwent, however, could not have
finally secured the conquest of the Silures, for about the
year 80 the Roman General and Engineer, Julius Fron-
tinus, was charged with the task of subduing them. In
this he succeeded, and it must have been as a sequence of
this conquest that the head-quarters of “ Legio Secunda
Augusta” were removed from Glevum to Isca Silurum ;
that is, that Caerleon became the permanent camp of the
legion till nearly the close of the Roman occupation of
Britain.

In reply to a question, Mr Bellows said that the reason
the Romans called the town I[sca was that the true
pronunciation is nearer this than Usk, the “u” in Welsh
being sounded as “e.” The word Esk, in Scotland is the
same and means “water.” The Exe was also called Isca
by the Romans, but owes its native form to a peculiarity
of the Devon dialect, which transposes the “sk.” Thus
from “Pysq” the Cornish for witchcraft or sorcery,
we have the Cornish “ Piskie,” a sprite; but the Devon-
shire folk make this “Pixie.” In the same way they make
pesk. into “ Be

The name Caerleon, it is scarcely to be doubted, is a
corruption of Cair-legion. This has been disputed by an
eminent Welsh scholar, on the ground that the Welsh
language has a word of its own for legion, which would
have been used, and not the Latin form. As against this,

B2

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

however, we must place the fact that the dialects of Celtic
varied, and that which prevailed in the districts with which
we are dealing showed some affinities with Cornish, which
are not found in standard Welsh. One of them is the
eliding of the sound of “g,” as already mentioned—so
that the Cornish form of the Latin “legionis” would be
“leon.” As the place was a colony, and so specially
connected with the “Legio Secunda,” and as the Latin
.name of the village across the Usk has remained un-
changed till our own time (Ultra Pontem) the probabilities
are strong that Caerleon is thus derived. Not only did
the Roman occupation leave its impress on Caerleon and
Caerwent in the circumstance that each of these places
was a seat of learning, an “academy” in Saxon times ;
but the Legionary City was the Archbishopric afterwards
removed to ‘St. David’s.” Thus in Gaul, each adminis-
trative centre under the Romain domination became the
seat of a bishopric, so that the whole of the present
ecclesiastical districts of France have been moulded by the
Roman occupation.

The most curious of all the results of the Roman stay
in Caerleon, is however, the rise of the legend of King
Arthur’s Round Table. As has already been mentioned,
the Cotteswold Club visited the amphitheatre, which still
forms a conspicuous feature in the green meadows outside
the old city wall. It is a depression of considerable
depth, slightly oval in form; but the strange thing about
it is, that it is known locally by the name of “King
Arthur’s Round Table.” As there are many spots in
widely separated parts of England that bear the name of
“ Arthur,” we must be prepared to seek the clue to their
nomenclature in some mis-translation of a precedent
British name, probably descriptive of some physical
feature in the landscape. Thus we have King Arthur’s
Castle, at Tintagel, in Cornwall, where “Ard” or “Arth”
means “high,” the word Tintagel itself meaning in a still

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB an

older dialect high headland. On the Wye and in York-
shire we have caves respectively known as King Arthur's
Hall, and in Westmoreland a round evidently used for
some ancient games is known as King Arthur’s Round
Table. At Edinburgh is “Caer Arthur”—high camp:
not “ Arthur’s Seat.” Now the Welsh “Bwr” meant a
bank or round seat or camp. We have it in the
name of the next Roman station after Isca—in
Burricum or Usk, and in Bourton, Gloucestershire, as,
well as in the Cornish word Burrows for the spoil banks
of mines. ‘“Arth” was the name for a bear, so that
Bur Arth would be the “ Bear Pitt.” That this was really
the name of the Roman amphitheatre at Caerleon is
confirmed by that of the field on the opposite side of the
Roman street. The latter is still called the Bear-House
field. It is evident that the people of the district who
were accustomed on certain high-days and holidays to
witness the Roman games, continued to keep up these
games after the legions had withdrawn from Britain.
Thus at Wareham, cock-fights, etc., were kept up in the
Roman amphitheatre under the north wall, till the last
century, or, beginning of the present one. But the sound
of “Bwr Arth” is so near that of “Bwrdd Arth” as to
be easily confused with it—and while the first means
“Bear Pit” the second signifies “Arthur’s Table” !

The fact of several centuries having elapsed after the
death of King Arthur before any historian hints at the
story of the round table, should of itself make us more
cautious in accepting the story as more than a myth: and
here we have the clue to the myth. Well may Wendall
Holmes say that all things are in all things—and Emerson
declare that nothing is wholly new, but must also contain
some thread that is old.

Vespasian’s founding of Gloucester, and the conquest
by Julius Frontinus, of the Silures, brought Alfred
Tennyson to Caerleon to compose his “‘Idylls of the

22 PROCEEDINGS ‘OE .T HE COTTESWOLD CLUB

King,” and to “Give to airy nothing a local habitation and
a name.”

The concluding portion of Mr Bellows’ address—
which was an informal talk, with interesting digressions
from the main line of the story—was devoted to a com-
parison of the size and plan of Gloucester, as ample
evidence that both places were the work of one set of
builders, and to a brief description of the road connecting
.them. Ordnance maps of the two places, prove that
Caerleon is a replica of Gloucester in size and plan, and
there is evidence in the masonry of the walls that both
were the work of the second legion. Besides conquering
the Silures, Julius Frontinus also constructed a magnifi-
cent paved road from Gloucester through Dene Forest to
Caerwent and Caerleon—a road still known as the “Julian
Way,” and the paving of which is still preserved in some
of the Forest glades. The road crossed the Severn at
Over, near Gloucester; indeed the iron bridge which
carries the Great Western Railway there rests upon
foundations which were laid by the second Augustan
legion, eighteen hundred years ago.

Returning to Newport, the party lunched at the King’s
Head Hotel, and then breaks drove to Caerwent. On the
way they stopped to see the remains of a Roman Villa in
process of excavation in a field on the roadside. At
Caerwent, time only permitted of a walk round a portion
of the wall.

The sight is a very striking one of the great Roman
city standing silent in the midst of the fields; its rampart
for the most part buried in foliage, though here and there
the solid masonry shows out twenty feet in height, and
with its polygonal bastions almost intact. There-has been
a good deal of pilfering of the stone from the foundations,
which unless stopped, will destroy this most interesting
and beautiful monument of antiquity: and we hope our
Monmouthshire archzeological colleagues will bestir them-
selves to prevent the loss to the world of Isca Silurum.

ee ee See eae ee eee ve

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 23

On arriving at Chepstow some of the members returned,
but the majority accepted a kind invitation to tea at Pen
Moel, where Mrs Price had various fossils from the great
quarry set out for inspection below her house. The stay
here would have been most willingly prolonged had time
permitted, and with an expression of hearty thanks to Mrs
_ Price for her hospitality, and with a graceful response on

her part and a hope that in the next season the Club

would pay a longer visit, the party reluctantly wended .
their way to the station at Chepstow, and trained home.

The fourth and last Meeting of the Club was held on
Tuesday, August 20th, and the members had the good
fortune to be accompanied by their old and able associates
Poagtessor R Etheridge, F-R-S:, and Mr W. C... Lucy.
Driving from Gloucester, the party first went to the site
of the new Gloucester Waterworks at Newent, which was
visited by the Club about two years ago. Here Mr Lucy
gave an interesting sketch of the distribution of the
northern drift in the district, and added some generalisa-
tions upon the character of the drift period.

Tracing the drift on the route the party had driven from
Gloucester, Mr Lucy said that after passing Over Bridge,
it occurs at Elmore, Hempsted, and Lassington. At the
Pinetum, at Highnam, is a thick bed of sand; and near to
Highnam Court, a gravel pit of thirteen feet deep,
containing pebbles of considerable size, with syenite,
chalk flints, and what is remarkable, some oolite, having
the appearance of being brought there by a strong eddy,
indicating a time before the present river was formed, and
when the drainage of the country was probably different
from what it is now. Maisemore and Woolridge are
capped with drift, and at Collen Park it is thicker still.
But by far the most instructive example of glacial drift—
and this was probably re-deposited—is at Limbury, an
isolated hill quite flat at the top, and covering ten acres.
A pit, nine feet deep, contains Silurian blocks, probably

24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

from Malvern, with characteristic corals and brachiopods,
and from it he obtained a large boulder of Caradoc lime-
stone two feet six inches long, and one foot six inches
wide, (now in the Gloucester Museum) Lickey quartz, pieces
of Carboniferous Limestone, a piece of hard chalk, and
Grypheea Incuroa and other foss Is from the Lower Luias.
The denudation of the Lias round high hills forms an
interesting chapter in drift history to trace out, and shows
what must have been the position of Lias during the
latter part of the quarternary period. As a rule, there is
a striking continuity of drift terraces upon the slopes of
the hills, ranging from forty to three hundred feet above
the sea, and it is in those, that Mammalian remains are
found.

Dividing the drift period into three great divisions, with
several intermediate stages, Mr Lucy said these are :—
(1) A great subsidence of the land underneath the sea
and strong currents, bringing icebergs into our valleys,
transporting rocks with them from Scotland and the
North of England and depositing them, as seen in our
Midland Counties, and, though reduced in size, in our
Northern Cotteswolds and on Cleeve Hill. (2) An up-
heaval of the land took place, and the hills appeared from
beneath the sea with a less cold climate, and land _ ice,
frozen snow, and heavy rainfall became the principal
agents in distributing the drifts. (3) Another depression
of the land, which afterwards rose again above. the sea,
and although less cold, the temperature in winter was
sufficiently low to form land ice, and it is not improbable,
it is to this date, that the drift brought down from higher
levels and re-deposited, may be referred. Several minor
oscillations of the land took place subsequently, and the
sea again came up the estuary of the Severn, levelling the
gravels brought down by the land ice, of which there are
examples in the pits extending from Berkeley to
Worcester, often two or three miles from the present

EET

lil

Ee ee

PROCEEDINGS OF. THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 25

hills. In conclusion, Mr Lucy impressed upon those
present, that where gravel is found on isolated hills and
terraces corresponding in height, the level of the ground at
the time the gravel was deposited, was probably fairly con-
tinuous, and the valleys between them have been made
since. In fact the Severn valley is a valley of denudation
caused by water, frost, rain, and wind.

The water is being tapped, or rather pumped, by the
Gloucester Corporation, at a spot, half-a-mile from
Newent. The well, said Mr R. Read, the Gloucester
Corporation Surveyor, is situated in the New Red Series,
nearly mid-way between two parallel faults running north-
east and south-west with the syenite of the Malvern
Range, about seven miles to the north-east, and the
Silurian of May Hill three miles south-west. The west
fault is of great extent, and has the Keuper beds of the
New Red on the surface on its east side—in which the
well is sunk—and the Old Red on the surface on its west
side. All along the west fault, from Retford Bridge, over
the Leadon, on the north, down to Great Boulsdon, in the
south, small out-crops of coal are found, and some years
ago the Oxenhall Colliery shaft was sunk right on the
fault which yielded an abundance of water, but very little
coal. The results of the Corporation boring show that
the bottom Bunter beds were not completely pierced at
1,190 feet, and as these crop out on the surface with the
breccia or pebble beds of the Permian, at a distance of six
miles north-east, it is fair to assume that they are in a
wedge-shaped trough of the New Red, 1,200 feet deep at
the bore-hole, thinning out at six miles to the north-east,
near Bromsberrow, where the surface is some 200 feet
higher than the ground at the bore-hole, which is 102°5
feet above ordnance datum. The first 300 feet of the
bore-hole consists of beds of Conglomerates, Marls, and
Sandstones, but below this the whole of the beds are
Sandstones of varying hardness. The well section is

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

much more reliable than the bore-hole section, owing to
the difficulty in boring through Conglomerates, without
destroying their character, but there is a remarkable
difference in the position of the beds in the two sections,
although they are only 300 feet apart. Red Sandstone
Rock was found at eleven feet deep, and the beds are hard
Marls, Conglomerates, and Sandstones, but chiefly Con-
glomerates of varying character and size. At nineteen
feet in a Conglomerate bed, a piece of stone like part of an
elk or stag’s horn was found, and at fifty-two feet some
petrified timber. The dip of the strata is chiefly from
west to east. It is only one in sixty to about forty feet,
but then the dip increases until at 126 feet, it is one
in twelve. The water over-flowing from the bore-hole
was not affected until 26 feet had been reached, and the
water in the colliery shaft, which was 46 feet from the
surface at the commencement, was not altered until after
passing through a bed of Conglomerate 31 feet thick,
from 58 feet to 88 feet of depth of well. ‘This bed was
very hard, with traces of iron and some large pebbles.
The next eleven feet consist of Marlstone, Sandstone, and
a dark broken Conglomerate, and from 99 feet to 110 feet
Conglomerate eleven feet thick, with large pebbles, nearly
six inches in diameter, followed by five feet of very dark
mottled Conglomerate to 115 feet in depth, then seven feet
of grey rock and Conglomerate to 122 feet deep, six feet
of hard Red Sandstone to 128 feet, and six feet of mottled
Conglomerate to 134 feet, the present depth.

As was pointed out at the visit of the Club two years
ago, it is singular that with such a large drainage, so little
water finds its way to the surface. Mr Lucy said the only
way he could explain the matter was this:—That in all
probability an under-ground current passes beneath the
bed of the Severn near Over into the very deep gravel
pit there. In the early part of their negociations the
Corporation sank a well near Over Bridge, in the hope of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 27

getting a good supply of water out of the gravel there,

and although evidence of an ample supply was forthcoming,
it was found that the water was not of a character suitable

_ for the city. Although the place, where the boring took
place, was within 40 or 50 feet of the river, that water
had no connection at all with the Severn—it all passed

underneath ; and whether the tide was flowing or ebbing

it did not make the slightest difference. Mr Fox said that
his theory was that the water crossed the bed of the
Severn much farther down the river than at Gloucester,
and at a much lower level than that of the Gloucester
meadows.

The reservoir is at Madam’s Wood, about eight miles
from Gloucester, and is 250 feet above the sea level, or about
50 feet below the level of the water-works at Witcombe.
The service reservoir, which is simply intended to equalise
flow and pressure, is 100 feet long by 60 feet broad, and
18 feet deep, and will have a capacity of 675,000 gallons.
The water will be conveyed to Gloucester through 14-inch
castiron pipes. It will be possible to lengthen the
reservoir, if necessary, but inasmuch as the mains will be
ablé to deliver this quantity of water in ten hours, and the
pumping machinery being in duplicate will be able to
replace the water in the tank with equal dispatch—and as
with night and day pumping it would be possible to
deliver a million-and-a-half gallons in 24 hours—it is not ~
thought likely that any large tank will be required.

The members were most hospitably and sumptuously
entertained at luncheon by Mr Knowles, of Newent Court,
after which the journey was resumed to Clifford’s Mesne,
which was visited by the Club in 1887. At that time
the Downton Sandstones were the only beds exposed,
but a large excavation of fully 40 feet in depth has
recently been made, showing some of the Limestone beds
of the Upper Ludlow formation. The Downton Sand-
stones are generally considered to be the top beds of the

28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Silurian system, upon which rests the Ledbury Shales
(transition beds) separating the Silurian beds from the
Old Red Sandstone.

The return to Gloucester after a most pleasant day’s
excursion was made through Vaynton.

ere Die fits. OFT HE. SEA

IN

PAST, EPOCHS

BY

Paes ewe LER ED: FGiS.

At the beginning of this century Hutton taught that the
past history of our planet is to be explained by what we
see going on at the present time. The lapse of more than
half-a-century has proved the truth of this assertion.

Applying this principle to the Depths of the Sea we
have been at a disadvantage. Up to the time of the
“Challenger” expedition our knowledge of what was to be
found was very limited, and we knew less of those regions
in past epochs.

We now know that at the present time calcareous

deposits are taking place over very extensive areas, and
that these are largely the result of the accumulation of the
tests and skeletons of microscopic life. The Globigerina
Ooze is an instance of this. We have, too, proof that
larger creatures, mollusca, corals, etc., contribute in
the same way to the building up of calcareous deposits,
but this appears to be the case chiefly in shallower waters.

Modern dredging appliances have made it comparatively
easy to obtain this information from the depths of the

ocean of to-day, but how are we to know what took place in

past epochs? It is possible that in the case of extreme
depths we may always remain in ignorance, but of the
shallower waters we may obtain very considerable

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

information by the study of limestones. ‘These rocks are,
of course, the marine calcareous deposits in the depths of
past oceans, now elevated often high above the level of the
sea and altered by molecular changes. In limestone then
we may expect to find what is capable of preservation of
the life which lived in the sea of past epochs.

Much, of course, has already been done in the study of
limestones, but, strange as it may appear, the use of the
microscope has been but little applied to this work in
anything like a systematic investigation. In fact, com-
paratively little had been done with this instrument in the
study of thin section of limestones till Dr. Sorby, F.R.S.,
called attention to the subject in his excellent Presidential
Address to the Geological Society in 1879.

Generally speaking, Geologists have been content with
fossils which could be detected without the use of the
microscope, and this mostly for the purposes of the classifi-
cation of the rocks or the study of the structure of fossils.
The examination of the limestone has yet to be done, and
there is much to be learnt.

After reading the report on “Deep Sea Deposits” by
Mr Murray, a member of the “Challenger” expedition, it
occurred to me that it would be of interest to study
microscopically the marine calcareous deposits in past
epochs, now represented by limestones, and still further.
test the teaching of Hutton relative to the depths of the
sea ancient and modern.

In attempting this paper, however, it must be clearly
understood that the subject is a vast one, a life’s work in
fact. I can therefore only now give results so far
obtained, namely from Silurian, Carboniferous and Jurassic
limestones.

Commencing with the Silurian system, I have selected
the Wenlock Limestone as being perhaps the most
interesting calcareous deposit in the Silurian sea.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 31

A visit to a quarry where this rock is exposed will

__ afford proof that mollusca, corals, polyzoa, encrinites, etc.,

were numerous in the waters of this period. This is
further proved by thin sections of the limestone which

show that the rock is largely made up of the debris

of these and other calcareous organisms in a very
fragmentary condition. Another interesting feature is

that at times these remains became either partially or

entirely enclosed in a crust (Fig. 1A) which up to the
time of my investigations had passed unnoticed. To such
an extent has this process gone on that the crusts form
a very considerable part of the limestone. It therefore
becomes important that we should understand the nature
of this growth. Microscopically examined thin sections
of it show that it is made up of endless minute tubules,
(Fig. 1B) varying in size between ‘o1 and ‘05 of a
millimétre in diameter. Small as these objects are, aggre-
gations of them form dense masses of crust around the
calcareous remains of other organisms, but each tubule is
a separate individual with a clearly defined wall of
carbonate of lime.* Living matter occupied the interior:
this of course perished after death, but not so the
tubules which were filled in with calcite or mud, or
became closely pressed together.

When first I discovered these crusts in 1889 I
recognised the organism as the little understood genus
Girvanella, first noticed and briefly described by Professor
Alleyne Nicholson and Mr R. Etheridge, junr.+ They
figured one species, namely, G. problematica, but since
then I have discovered a considerable variety of forms
varying from the Silurian to the Jurassic system of rocks.
Minute, and at first sight apparently insignificant, as these

*In the illustration a form of Girvanella is represented not previously figured.

4 + Mon. Sil. Foss. Girvar, pp. 22-23, p.l. ix., more recently in Nicholson’s and
_ Sydekker’s Palaeontology, Vol. i, pp. 127-128.

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

forms of life are, I shall show that at times they lived in
great profusion in the depths of the sea, and there
performed a work of incrustation around nuclei which
became a considerable factor in the formation of the
calcareous deposits and subsequent limestone rocks.

Shortly stated, the process which went on in the
Silurian sea during the formation of the Wenlock limestone
was this: the shells and skeletons of the larger marine
organisms which existed collected on the floor of the sea
in very small fragments. Whether this condition was
due to detrition or to the fact that the creatures had
served as food for large Ganoid fishes, I know not.
Judging, however, by the high percentage of inorganic
detrital material in the Wenlock limestone derived from the
denudation of existing rocks, which sometimes amounts
to as much as 30°4 per cent., I conclude that land was
not far distant. Consequently the Wenlock Limestone
represents a Terrigenous deposit, and the shells, etc.,
would probably be subject to the action of waves. This
may be an explanation of the fragmentary condition in
which they occur in the Wenlock limestone.

These remains having finally settled on the floor of
the sea, then the incrusting process of Girvanella
commenced. Tubules of this genus attached themselves
to fragments of debris as nuclei, and partially or entirely
enclosed them in a crust formed by the multiplication
and growth of the tubules.

To avoid misunderstanding [ must make it clear that
there are very many exceptions to the fragmentary
conditions of the shells and other calcareous remains of
organisms which have furnished material for the building
up of the Wenlock limestone. Thus it is not difficult to
find well preserved portions of coral, especially of
polyzoa, shells, etc. These fossils, however, in the May
Hill district of Gloucestershire, are chiefly to be found
in argillaceous beds which separate thin strata of limestone.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 33

I now pass to the Carboniferous Epoch. The calcareous
deposits in the sea of this period are represented by the
Carboniferous Limestone, of which the well known cliffs in
Derbyshire, at Clifton in Gloucestershire, Cheddar in
Somersetshire, and a great portion of the hills near Rhyl
in North Wales are instances.

That mollusca, corals, crinoids, polyzoa, etc., were
plentiful in the sea of this period is well known, but it is
erroneous to suppose the remains of the shells and
skeletons of these creatures were the chief contributors
to the calcareous deposits which accumulated on the
floor of the Carboniferous sea.

In certain beds of this series, remains of mollusca
and coral debris became doubtless the chief factors, but if
we take the great central mass, which at Clifton is 1620
feet thick, we shall find that microscopic life has in the
main contributed the material of which the limestone has
been built up.

Indeed microscopic life must have been quite as
abundant in Carboniferous days as it was in the sea in
which the chalk formation took place, and in parts of the
ocean of to-day. We know that the white chalk is largely
made up of the shells of foraminifera, and that the
calcareous ooze dredged up by the “Challenger” was also
largely made up of these minute shells, together with the
remains of certain other low forms of life, including
siliceous ones. .

It is, of course, deeply interesting to know of the
existence of these deposits, both at the present time, and
during that of the period in which the white chalk was
gradually formed. This interest, too, is increased when
we know that a very similar condition of things existed in
the still earlier Paleeozoic days of the Carboniferous Lime-
stone, a fact which is strictly consistent with the teaching
of Hutton.

c

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

That foraminifera were very numerous at times in the
Carboniferous sea is of course well understood, but the
vreat extent to which the tests of these microscopic
creatures contributed to the calcareous ooze which
collected on the floor of the sea of this period has not
been fully realised. It is of these minute shells that the
great central mass of, the Carboniferous Limestone in the
West of England and North Wales has been so to speak
constructed Fig. 2A. The only other organism which
can rival the foraminifera in this respect is the remarkable
and minute genus Calcisphzra which averages about “004
of an inch in diameter (Fig. 2B). This organism, so named
by Professor Williamson, F.R.S..* of Manchester, consists
of a hollow sphere of carbonate of lime, the interior of
which was apparently occupied by living matter. When
cut in section the Calcispharz have the appearance of
rings, in which form they are seen in Fig. 2A and B.
In the former they are so minute that a magnifying glass
will probably be required to see them, but in Fig. 2B they
will be observed without difficulty.

That the Calcisphzrz are organisms | think there is no
doubt, but whether they are to be referred to the animal
or vegetable kingdom is a matter yet to be decided. They
must have existed in Carboniferous waters in vast multi-
tudes, and their interest as limestone-forming organisms
has not been realized. So numerous were they that I
question whether a fragment of Carboniferous Limestone
from the middle series of this formation could be examined
without finding several of them either whole or in part.

Another important incident attached to Calcisphara
is that we have not found it to occur in any other rock
but that of the Carboniferous Limestone, hence its presence
is one way of determining this formation when doubt
arises.

* Phil. Trans. vol, 171, pp. 520-525, 1880.

ee

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 35

As in the case of the Wenlock sea, incrusting organisms
were at work on the floor of the Carboniferous ocean.
The Girvanella tubules were at times very abundant,
seizing hold of calcareous fragments and enclosing them
in a thick crust. In this way whole beds of limestone
have been built up by the granules so formed.

At this time, too, we meet with a second incrusting

organism, namely, the genus Mitcheldeania, to which

reference was made in the Cotteswold Club Proceedings
for 1885-1886 (pp. 77-79). The same is no guide to
the nature of the organism, for it is so complicated
that I thought it best not to attempt any specific
naming, hence I called it Mitcheldeania, from the
locality, Mitcheldean in Gloucestershire, where I discovered
the first species, namely, M. Nicholsoni. The interesting
nature of this organism has attracted the attention of
other geologists, especially Professor Alleyne Nicholson,
after whoin [ named the first species. He has now
discovered another species in the South of Scotland, to
which he has given the name M. gregaria.*

Briefly stated, the skeleton of Mitcheldeania consists of
capillary tubes, with a diameter ;: to 1; of a millimétre,
which, according to Professor Nicholson, have “porous
walls and are united by a still more minutely tabulated
tissue.” t

At times Mitcheldeania must have lived in great
profusion, usually incrusting some foreign object. In
Fig. 3A I have given a representation of a fragment of a
small Gasteropod shell surrounded by a Mitcheldeania
crust. In Fig. 3B I have represented, by greater magni-
fication, the minute structure of the organism. At first
I was disposed to refer this to a low form of animal life,
and this may still be correct, but there are certain

* Geol. Mag., Dee. r11, vol. v, p. 17. 1888.
+ Nicholson’s and Sydekker’s Palaeontology, p. 200, vol, i, 1889.

G2

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB
features about the fossil which would seem to indicate
a vegetable origin. Possibly it may ultimately be referred
to the calcareous algze, or even to some still lower form of
vegetable life.

I now pass to the Oolitic Period of the Jurassic rocks.
I need not remind geologists of the origin of the term
oolite, but as we have present persons who are not
conversant with geology in general, I may mention that
the oolites are characterised by a structure resembling the
roe of a fish, hence the name “roestone” or “eggstone”
was given by the quarrymen, and this has been translated
in the language of science into oolite. Freestone is a
type of this rock.

We know that during the Jurassic Period marine life was
exceedingly abundant. There were numerous types of
mollusca, echinodermata, ammonites, corals, polyzoa,
etc.; but the interesting process which went on was the
formation of the minute oolitic granules (“roestone”) to
which I have referred.

The process of oolitic formation is still going on in the
sea of to-day, but dredging expeditions appear to have
over-looked the importance and interest attached to them.
The explanation probably is that it was taken for granted
that the granules were simply concretions. Dr. Rothplatz
however has written on oolitic granules collected in the
Red Sea and Great Salt Lake, and assigns their origin to
lime—secreting fission algz,* and not to a concretionary
process as generally supposed.

At the British Association, in 1888, Professor H. G.
Seeley, F.R.S., read a paper “On the Origin of Oolitic
Texture in Limestone Rocks.” t

* British Association Report, 1888, pp, 674-675.

+ American Geologist, vol. x, 1892, p- 280: trans. F. W. Cragin, from
“Botaniocheo Centralblatt,” No. 25, 1892.

ee er es)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 27)

In this the Professor argued that the oolitic texture
might originate in many ways, and drew attention to the
close resemblance of the internodal grains of nullipores
to grains of oolite. I was also at work on the same
subject, and in 1889 I wrote a paper “On the Microscopic
Structure of the Jurassic Pisolite,’* in which I proved
that these larger forms of oolitic granules were not

concretions, but were formed by an incrusting process

produced by the genus Girvanella. In fact these larger
oolitic granules called “Pisolites” or “Pea Grit” are

simply the work of incrusting organisms on a large scale.

More recent observations+ have convinced me that all
oolitic granules, large and small, are of organic origin,
Figs. 4A, the majority being the work of a variety of
incrusting organisms, but others apparently, originating
from growth not necessarily around a nucleus. The
process is illustrated in Fig. 4A, where it will be observed
that the calcareous fragments which settled on the floor
of the sea are coated with a crust, some being entirely
enclosed and appear in the fossil state as “ oolitic granules.”
In this way freestones have originated.

As to the nature of the incrusting and oolite-forming
organisms, it is possible that they may belong to the
calcareous alge. As I have said it is to this low order
of vegetation that Rothplatz assigns the oolite granules in
the Red Sea and Great Salt Lake. If the fossil ones
have a similar origin, then there is again further proof of
the teaching of Hutton that the past is to be explained by
the present.

* Geol. Mag., N.S., Dee. 111, vol vi, pp. 196-200, 1887.

+ Formation of Oolite, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. li, pp. 196 205, 1895-

: EXPLANATION OF PLATES

Fic. 14.—Section of Wenlock Limestone x 17 Diam., May Hill, Gloucestershire,
shows fragments of Calcareous organisms enclosed in crusts of Girvanellz, thus forming
sranules. Owing to a defect in the negative this illustration is not so clear as could be

desired.

Fic. 1p.—Portion of the crust of the uppermost granule in Fig. ta x 7o Diam.
Shows the Girvanella Tubules which form the crust. The lower portion of the
figure is the calcareous fragment shown in the centre of the uppermost granule in

Fig: 1a. This is a new form of Girvanella here described for the first time.

Fic. 2a.—-Section of Carboniferous Limestone from the middle series, Clifton, Bristol,
~ 32 Diam, Shows the Limestone to be made up of the minute fragmental remains of
microscopic life, mostly Foraminifera and Calcisphzerze. Some of the former are well
preserved, and can be easily distinguished, but the Calcisphzerae appear as very minute

rings requiring a magnifying glass to see them clearly.

Fic. 28.—A portion of Fig. 2a x 65 Diam. This higher magnification shows one
of the foraminifera, and fragments of others, also several sections of Calcisphzerae which

appear in rings.

Fic. 34.—Section of Mitcheldeania inerusting a fragment of shell x 9 Diam. From

the Lower Carboniferous Limestone Shales. Drybrook, Gloucestershire.

Fic, 38. Tangential section of Mitcheldeania Nicholsoni x 70.Diam., shewing the

minute structure. From the Carboniferous Lower Limestone- Shales, Drybrook,
Gloucestershire.

Fic. 4a. Section of Inferior Oolite Leckhampton Hill, near Cheltenham x 16 Diam.
Shows fragmental remains of Calcareous organisms enclosed in crusts of Girvanellze,

thus illustrating the formation of oolitic granules.

Fic. 48. Sections of portions of the crusts of two of the granules in Fig. 4a,
showing the Girvanellge tubules x 70 Diam The two crusts touch each other. The

lighter part on the left is a portion of the nucleus of one of the granules.

ie

x 17 Diam.

Fig. 1a.

x 70 Diam.

Fig. 1b.

i os
rey

We sign
hone

7
we

nf

edad te ees

Fig. 2a. x 32 Diam.

Fig. 8b x 70 Diam.

Fig. Ab. x 7O Diam.

ON THE

HIBERNATION OF CERTAIN ANIMALS

BY

EDWARD CORNFORD, M.A., HON. SEC.

There may be some misapprehension as to the true
meaning of the word “Hibernation.” Its origin, no
doubt, leads our thoughts into winterly associations. But
as applied to animal life it may have nothing whatever to
do with winter nor a cold condition of atmosphere. A
“hibernacle” is generally understood as signifying a
winter shelter or covering, and could be applied to the
warm retreat of the squirrel, or the’ hut of the Eskimo ;
or any winter quarters, as Carlyle writes in his “ Frederic
the Great”: “From the beginning of April the Russians
hibernating in the interior parts of Poland were awake,
and getting daily under weigh.” The scales which
protect the buds of the horse chesnut and of many
other trees, shielding them from sleet and frost, are
hibernacula. The operculum of the snail is its outer
door, and behind it, it hibernates in its dark chamber,
during many months.

Hibernation has been said by some, and by many others
thought to be, passing the winter in a secluded place and
in a torpid state. This definition of the term is some-
what inaccurate and misleading, as I think we shall see.

It may be taken for granted that a supply of oxygen is
absolutely necessary for the sustenance of animal life, and
that any animal totally deprived of a supply of this gas

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

must, within a shorter or longer period, by no means an
illimitable one, cease to exist.

This is one of the laws of Nature, which amongst
others is inimitable and unexceptionable, and from man
1o the lowest forms of life rules over all.

Another law of Nature is this: vital functions fail
without a supply of a certain amount of heat. Many
animals retain sufficient heat for their existence within
their bodies, when the temperature of the surrounding
atmosphere is extremely low; e.g., the Arctic fox and
other animals inhabiting the northern regions of the
elobe, and possibly also the southern—of which we know
at present so little.

In the account of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition,
we read that when the Thermometer registered 50°
below zero, bears came and rubbed their noses against
the windows of the Russian log-house, in which the
explorers were passing the winter.

There is therefore, if I may so express it, an internal
generation of heat, more or less independent of atmos-
pheric influences; but there can be no animal heat apart
from some measure of a supply of oxygen, and movement
of the blood is necessary. Those animals which have not
the property or gift of maintaining their internal tempera-
ture up to a certain degree—varying considerably in its
range, die: other animals having this property survive.
Nature in this direction, as in others, has its differential-
tions, and whilst some insects survive the winter, and in
tattered robes appear in the sunnier days of spring, and
give occasion for letters in provincial prints, others are
unable to resist the influence of the cold of any ordinary
winter, and though probably equally sufficiently supplied
as some others with material to withstand its rigour,
are no more, owing to their less instinctive faculties : may
it not be so?

PROCEEDINGS: OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 4I

Thus whilst that very common butterfly, the small
tortoise-shell, is seen in the very early days of the year,
other Lepidoptera as a rule do not hibernate, and | think
it probable that no moths survive the winter.

Where then do those animals which are capable of
enduring an extreme degree of cold derive the resistant
power; what is the secret of the fortress which defies
in some instances the rigour of a temperature of which
none of us can have had any experience and probably
never shall ?

When animalcule—I use the term generically—are
frozen in a containing vessel of water they are not
destroyed. This is a fact which may easily be verified
by anyone in a very simple manner. Each of the little
organisms will live for a time in a tiny uncongealed space.
A minute portion of film of the surrounding fluid, by
reason of the temperature of the body enclosed, is kept
in an uncongelated condition. It is true that these
creatures are called cold-blooded, as also others, which,
really are not truly and absolutely so. If you want to
make an experiment, which though not agreeable, may be
instructive, I have read on good authority that if you —
were to make a pile of worms, leeches, snails and slugs
round a thermometer you would find the mercury rise
above the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere,
and therefore (if this be true) these animals have some
power of resisting the influence of a cold temperature,
owing to their internal heat—without which they would
inevitably perish. In the so-called cold-blooded vertebrata
the heat of the body almost entirely depends on the
temperature of the environment. It is so with fishes,
~ Qvith some few exceptions) in which the blood contains a
larger proportion of red globules or discs. For in birds,
reptiles, and fishes the blood particles curiously differ
from those of mammalia. The proportion of red blood
particles in the whole mass of the blood varies greatly in

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

different animals. They are greatest in those which
possess the highest measure of muscular vigour and
activity, and which therefore consume the largest quantity
of oxygen by respiration, and they are much more
abundant in mammals than in reptiles or fishes. This
fact throws a side-light at all events on my _ subject.
Physiologists tell us that one function of the red particles
is to convey oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and
organs through which the blood circulates. When the
muscular system is in active operation it requires a larger
supply of oxygen: when it is at rest it wants but little;
so that when roused into activity it requires an increased
supply.

The quantity of oxygen which the animal takes in by
its breathing apparatus, and the quantity of carbonic acid
which it gives off, will therefore vary with the amount of
its muscular exertion. It is in consequence evident that
an animal in a state of repose requires a much less
amount of oxygen than when in a state of vigorous
activity of existence.

Animals in a state of lethargy, by consequence, do not
require the same amount of oxygen as is necessary for an
active habit of life. .

Atmospheric air is necessary to the continued life of all
animals, and the result of its inspiration is the giving out of
carbonic acid gas. But the amount of atmospheric air
absolutely necessary for the continuance of vitality is a
question which perhaps no one can decide. Certain
functions as I shall mention bye-and-bye are performed,
but with some diminution or decretion. Life may be
apparently in abeyance for a considerable time without
vitality being absolutely destroyed. The common garden
snail, not to mention other instances, may be kept for a
very long time without water. I kept one quite by
accident more than two years, and it revived when placed
in a moist atmosphere. Snakes and frogs have been

_ i

ee

Lee ee

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 43

placed in ice-houses and have revived after two or
three years exposure to and experience of the low
temperature.

Hibernation, as I have already mentioned, is generally
understood as passing the winter in a state of torpor—a
mistake arising from a derivation of the word from the
Latin—but it has not, strictly speaking, this restricted
meaning as applied to animals. The state of hibernation
is not the same thing as, or any condition of, a state of
torpor.

Hibernation is a provision of nature for the preservation
of life, especially for that of the insectivora, when by
reason of seasonal change their sources of daily food
supply are necessarily unprocurable. This, e.g., is the
case with the bat, when spring and summer give place to
winter, and insects as a rule disappear.

The very observant author.of the “ Natural History of
Selborne” hardly, if at all, makes good his opinion that
swallows hibernate by any reliable facts. in December,
1773, writing to Barrington, he says: “ We make great
“enquiries concerning the withdrawal of the swallow
“kind, without examining into the causes, why this tribe
“is never to be seen in winter. The hirundines, if they
“please, are certainly capable of migration, and yet no
“doubt are often found in a torpid state.” The sand
martin makes a hole, round and regular, in sand or fine
gravel, generally straight, with a slope upwards towards
the opening, and about two feet distant from the entrance.

At the end of this, in a little globular chamber, the bird
builds its nest, consisting of moss, fine grasses, and

feathers, which one would think would be, if anywhere, a
desirable place in which to spend the winter. But says
Gilbert White, speaking of this species: “ These birds do
“not make use of their caverns by way of hibernacula as
“might be expected; since banks have been dug out
“with care in the winter, when nothing was found but

-

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

‘empty nests.” In September, 1781, with reference to
another species, viz. the house martin, he says: “ In some
“former letter I expressed my suspicions that many of
“the house martins do not depart in the winter far from
‘your village. I determined to make some search about
“the S.E. end of the hill, where I imagined they might
“slumber out the uncomfortable months of winter. But
“ supposing that the examination would best be made in
“the spring, and observing that no martins had appeared
“by the 11th April, | employed some men to explore
“the shrubs and cavities of the selected spot. The
“persons took pains, but without any success.” With
reference to swifts, which are the first to leave our
country, as they are the last to arrive, Gilbert White
states that the swifts left about the Ist day in August—all
save one pair—which in two or three day’s time was
reduced to one individual. This one was watched till
August 24th, and then it was found that this—which was
the mother bird—was looking after two young ones,
which by that time were fledged, and they were seen
until the 27th ; but, on the 3Ist, on examination, it was
found that the nest only contained two stinking swifts.
Reverting subsequently to the case of the sand martins,
Gilbert White seems to be his own witness against his
theory that some swallows hibernate, for if any species
would be more likely to do so than others I should judge
the sand or bank martin to be that one, seeing what a
warm nesting place it has. Now in March, 1788, oppor-
tunity was taken to examine some of the holes in the
banks, where that species of bird congregated. The
investigator hoped that they might have slept there, and
that he might come upon them just before they awoke
from their winter slumbers. He dug with some diligence
and perseverance into the bank. He found the nests at
the end of the canal as was to be expected, they had
evidently been occupied, but no birds were to be found.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 45

Occasional late appearances of these birds prove really
nothing as regards their hibernation. Their power of
accumulating even a modicum of food within them must
be extremely limited, and I think we are quite safe in saying
that no species of hirundines hibernate (in the sense of
the word as used in this paper) in this or as a matter of
fact in any other country. (1 know I have Von Humboldt
against me.) They fly to fresh fields, and a more genial
climate, and all tales of their surviving the winter in this
country are (me judice) not worthy of belief.

The bat goes to sleep, and its usual food is, for a time,
not a necessity of its existence, and even if the weather
be abnormally mild we cannot find that it leaves its
shelter until it has been there for a considerable time.

To what extent hibernation extends in the animal
world has not been and cannot. be accurately ascertained.
The enquiry into the subject is a very difficult one, and
we can only draw our conclusions from certain plain and
evident facts, leaving many more which are beyond our
powers of investigation. The bat, the badger, the hedge-
hog, and the dormouse amongst the mammalia are the
most easily observed examples in our country of this
singular and strange physiological condition, and_ this
condition presents no easy problem for naturalists to
solve; and it may be by reason thereof, the literature
bearing on the subject is very scanty, and some even of
that, not altogether reliable.

What is hibernation, from a physiological point of
view? This question is the root of the whole matter
and embraces many considerations of much interest, for it
is evident that any animal in a state of hibernation, i.e., of
more or less suspended action of its ordinary functions is,
so far, in an abnormal condition. How then does it
continue to exist ?

Now, we are told by physiologists that the quantity of
respiration is inversely as the degree of irritability of the

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

muscular fibres. The bird tribe have a high degree of
respiration and a low irritability; the reptiles have a high
degree of irritability and a low degree of respiration.
This law holds good not only in the different genera of
animals, but also in the different stages or states of the
same animal under altered conditions. The structural
changes of an animal from one condition to another, or
from one stage to another, are always a change from a
lower to a higher degree of respiration, and from a higher
to a lower degree of irritability. Thus the changes from
the egg to the bird, or from the tadpole to the batrachian,
or from the larva to the insect condition, are changes in
which the quantity of respiration is augmented, and the
degree of irritability is diminished, whilst on the other
hand, the physiological changes in the degree of activity
in animals, [for example, during sleep] but especially in
that remarkable condition which is called hibernation, the
respiration is diminished, whilst the degree of irritability
is augmented.

On what this susceptibility of change depends, and
especially on what the power of taking on an augmented
irritability depends, is at present unknown. But I think
that in this power we may find one clue to the secret of
hibernation. I take it for granted that all animals have
the power, or privilege, of sleeping. During sleep,
respiration is in its intervals diminished only as a rule
slightly; the irritability is probably proportionately
increased, and this may be one object of the period of
repose. So it is that after a night’s rest we wake up and
feel invigorated for the day’s work. So also if we do not
sleep, or sleep only fitfully, we do not feel ourselves
as fully “fit” as we should like in the morning. This
phenomenon has its limits, and limits beyond which it
cannot pass, so far as we are concerned. But in some
animals the boundary line is beyond ours; their limit
beyond ours. In them the quantity of respiration is still

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 47

further diminished, and the degree of irritability still
further augmented, and the deeper sleep or lethargy
of hibernation results. During this lethargy, the law of
the universe ratio of the respiration and of the irritability
still continues. If the respiration were to be diminished
without a corresponding increase in irritability, the heart
would cease to be stimulated, and the animal would die,

-as in the case of torpor, or of asphyxia. If the respira-

tion were augmented, without proportionate diminution
of irritability, the heart would be over-stimulated, and

_ death in this case also would ensue, as in the instance of

an animal too suddenly roused from its lethargy, or
of one placed in an atmosphere of pure oxygen gas.
A dormouse roused from sleep and exposed to a low
temperature did not go to sleep again, but died.

One difference therefore between those animals which
hibernate, and those who do not, seems to be this: that in
the former, there is a power of involving, if I may so say,

or somehow or other generating, an augmented degree

red
of irritability of the muscular fibres; a power possessed

by all animals within certain limits, but by hibernating
animals beyond those limits.

Sleep, (however a condition both remarkable and
perhaps inscrutable it may be in itself) and hibernation
are really similar periodic phenomena, induced by some-
what similar causes, leading to similar effects, but differing
very greatly in degree. Hibernation seems to us more
extraordinary than sleep, but only perhaps because it is
less familiar to us. Most animals are in fact naturally
awake and asleep each day or night, some being
diurnal, others nocturnal in their habits in this respect.
Sleep may be called the first stage of hibernation. The
faculty of passing into the second stage is really the
acquisition of a greater irritability of the muscular fibres.
Many have made mistakes by viewing hibernation as an
effect only produced by a low temperature. The influence

48 PROCEEDINGS#OF THE COTTESWOED CEUS

of cold in inducing torpor is its too well-known power in
producing a sleep which has so often resulted in death.*
The direct effect of cold on the animal frame is totally
different from hibernations. Hibernation is a physiological
condition—not the direct effect of cold. Torpor is on
the contrary, a pathological condition, and generally only
too frequently a fatal one.

The term hibernation, as I have said, has usually been
employed to signify the condition in which certain animals
pass the winter season, and I have also said, it is by no
means an exact definition. If we may, e.g., credit Cuvier it
is not so. He observes with reference to the Tenrecs:
“These are nocturnal animals, which pass three months
“of the year in a lethargic state, although they are
“inhabitants of the torrid zone.” Burguiére even asserts
that it is “during the great heats that they sleep.” The
Germans have not only the word Winterschlaf, but also
Sommerschlaf—for which Von Humboldt is responsible.
If Cuvier be correct, it is evident that ‘the? State oF
hibernation in its widest and fullest sense is not necessarily
connected with a low degree of temperature; and_ yet,
strange to say, he writes in another place: “The sole
“condition of lethargy is cold and the absence of irritating
“causes.” How on this supposition can we explain the
hibernating of numerous insects during our warmest
time of the year?

In the sleep of hibernating animals, respiration is more
or less diminished, until it almost reaches the vanishing
point, and if the temperature be taken, it will be found to
be many degrees lower than if the animal were in a state
of activity. The following facts have been observed and
recorded. Dr. Todd made careful observations in the
case of two hedgehogs, which were kept in a temperature
varying from 45° to 50°. They alternately woke up, took

* And does inevitably if the dormant cannot be roused.

PROCEEDINGS, OF THE COTTESWOLD. CLUB 49

food, and went to sleep again. When they were awake,
their temperature, (which he found by placing a ther-
mometer under their stomachs) was about 95°; when they
were dormant, their temperature was only 45°; that of
the atmosphere being 42°. In the month of February,
with the atmospheric temperature at 50°, both hedgehogs
were dormant, the temperature of one being 52°, and
that of the other 1° lower. On the next day, the air
temperature being 49°, the temperature of one hedge-
hog, who had woke up for a bit, was 87°; of the other,
who was asleep, many degrees lower. The difference
between the air temperature and that of the animals under
observation was on one occasion no less than 39°.
Similar observations were made in the case of dormice.
These two kinds of creatures seem to wake up at call of
hunger, to eat, Gf they have access to food, in default
whereof, I expect they perish) and then again become
dormant in temperatures which may be called moderate ;
but the bat, which could not find its food, however
swiftly and keen-sightedly it might swirl through the air,
as a rule sleeps the winter through.

There are therefore degrees between ordinary sleep—
broken at longer or shorter intervals, and profound hiber-
nation. The ordinary sleep produces or rather induces
less vivification, as far as the action of respiration is
concerned, as also a less evolution of contained heat, with
at the same time an increased power of resistance to the
abstraction of a greater or less extent of atmospheric air.
This sleep, in some instances, passes into true hibernation.
The blood becomes less arterial and more venous for the
diminution of respiration, and the muscular fibre of the
heart acquires increased irritability.

Various functions of the system during the period of
hibernation are, of course, much modified. The process
of sanguification is, in most cases, all but arrested,
possibly entirely in some. There is also a marked

D

50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

difference in the effect, and therefore in the activities of
the digestive organs. It is a condition of appropriated
somnolence. The bat, being insectivorous, would rouse
himself in vain, when the snow whitens the ground or the
cut of the skates rings clear.

The hedgehog which on some unusually warm morning
might find a few slugs or worms—even the dormouse a
nut or two amongst the leaves fallen from the filbert trees—
are not enticed out for any time, until as a rule, the increase ©
in temperature tells them of a coming period of love and
food and general enjoyment, and they then leave their
hibernacula. They are not in any hurry to do this. It
seems that the bat is not disposed to really wake up,
except by reason of external warmth and excitement. If
the air temperature be about 40° to 50°, the hedgehog
rouses itself at various intervals from two to four days, .
when after taking food it will return to its hibernaculum.
At the same temperature the dormouse will wake up
daily. In proportion also to surrounding temperature, as |
we might expect, the action of the stomach, bowels, and
kidneys of hibernating animals is almost, in varying degrees,
I admit, suspended, as also that of respiration. This is
proved by the absence of all detectible respiratory acts—
by the absence of any but the slightest change in the air
as tested by the pneumatometer—by the capability of
supporting for a time the entire or nearly entire depriva-
tion of air.

When, e.g., placed in a box, during its hibernation, the
slightest knock caused the bat inside to respire more
quickly, the hedgehog in a similar condition respired
deeply and sonorously. If touched, it can be ascertained
whether the. last-named animal is hibernating or not.
If hibernating, he responds with a snore, if not hibernating
moves and rolls himself up more tightly. After the deep
respiration, there are some gradually more and more
feeble ones, and then apparently, quiescence. The bat

#
¢

“oe iene SE

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 51

similarly respires, rather more quickly, but without the
deep sound of the hedgehog, and then soon lapses into
quietude.

It is very difficult to ascertain the comparative tempera-
ture of the animal with that of the environing atmosphere.
The slightest excitement induces a quicker respiration,
with the consequent evolution of an increased degree of
heat. From observations, which extended continuously
over many years, it was found that the temperature of some
of the. hibernating animals followed that of the atmosphere
—of course within certain limits and with certain excep-
tions. A animal can endure the total abstraction of oxygen
or of atmospheric air for some time. For instance, Spallan-
zani placed a marmot—one of the hibernates, in its
hibernated state—in carbonic acid gas for four hours, and
it was not killed, but a rat and a bird died at once. It
seemed, therefore, that in the case of the hibernating
animal, respiration was all but, if not altogether, suspended
for a time.

Torpor and hibernation must then be distinguished, the
one from the other. Torpor may be produced in any
animal, e.g.: in man, but a man cannot hibernate. Torpor
means a benumbed state of the nerves, a_ stiffened

_ condition of the muscles, a loss of any desire for exertion,

a strong desire to sleep. This is the direct effect of cold,
and even the hibernating animal, under such surrounding
influences, may be affected by them and die. ‘True

-hibernation is not produced nor induced by extremely low

temperatures—but rather by those only moderately low.

All creatures which hibernate avoid, as much as their

instinct teaches them, and their opportunities allow,
exposure to extreme cold, though of course in some
seasons all their precautions are in vain, and they perish
in countless myriads. Such must have been the case last
winter, (I speak of 1895) when we all in common with
the lower forms of life experienced, and perhaps suffered
from its very severe and prolonged frosts.

D2

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

The safe and cosy hollow in a gnarled oak, or an old
pollard willow, the cleft or cavern in the cliff, the shelter
of the thatch on some country cottage, the heap of leaves
in the forest, the mound of the cast-off dress of the
larches and firs, provide so many hibernacula for “our
humble relations.” Sometimes these hibernates congregate
in clusters, and it is not beyond the range of possibility
that the mass of wintering snails with which gardeners are
familiar, derive some amount of heat from their associate-
ship. Be this as it may, the true hibernating animal, if
roused from a state of rest and shelter to a state of
activity, is then exposed to severe cold, it passes into a
state of fatal torpor.

If we ask, what are the hibernating animals? I would say
it is a question which needs further investigations than
(so far as I know) it has received up to the present time.
All animals, as I have already said, sleep periodically
during the night or day. Some sleep several days together,
especially after food, and in the colder or any other part of
the year. During true hibernation, respiration and circu-
lation are reduced to the minimum, consistent with the
presence of life.

Hibernation may result in changes in some instances
which, unless we had the evidence of our senses, would
be absolutely incredible; but in other cases the condition
of the animal hibernating is scarcely altered. I take two
familiar instances. The first that of a butterfly or moth.
In the pupa stage they maintain the continuity of life in
a sufficient, though much changed and greatly modified
condition. The environment is absolutely altered. The
access to food from without is shut off, a great change is
undergone in the greater or less darkness of the coffin,
or place of temporary confinement, a change which may
be prolonged for years, or which may take place within a
very short period.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 53

But it is a remarkable fact amongst many others of a
like sort that whilst the larva of the goat moth, Cossus
lipniperda, does not come to maturity for three years,
the pupa hibernates only for a few weeks. I may say
that owing to its size and perhaps also to the nature of its
food, it afforded Lyonnet an excellent subject for his
anatomical researches.

It by no means follows that during the process of
hibernation the imago, or perfect insect, will become in
time as handsome as the larva, or vice versa. E.g.: the
caterpillar of the peacock butterfly, Vanessa io, one of the
most beautiful of our country, is black spotted with white,
with hind legs red, and feeds on the common stinging-nettle.
The pupa is greenish and dotted with gold, whence the term
Aurelia or Chrysalis. Such is the larva, and such the
pupa. What is the imago? The caterpillar, I may say,
is about two inches in length when fully grown. After
hibernation, it sees again the full light of day. !t can
___ breathe freely, it can with its thousands of eyes look the
sun in the face, it can with its delicately-feathered pinions
float on the air, it can chase its fellows in a seemingly
endless dance, it can direct its course from one flower to
another, sipping here and there the nectar which has been
provided for it. What a marvellous, and be it noted so
far as we know a continuous work is going on during that
period! Indeed some might almost be disposed to say,
“all things are become new.” - In a sense it is so, but not
_ by a new creation, but by an evolution and development
_ of that which previously existed. It is by no means
impossible, and some have asserted it to be the fact that
the future form, I do not know a better word, of the
perfect insect may be found in the caterpillar. It is
certainly I think not beyond the range of possibility for
this reason. The caterpillar feeds on those substances
which will by the laws of the natural world supply it with
such juices as will in its perfected state result in and

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

exhibit that form and colouring which is, if I may so say,
(they keep as it were to their own peculiar castes) its
hereditary possession. For the Lepidoptera are a very
conservative species of animals and we cannot cross a red
admiral with a meadow brown and get a new variety—
or a peacock with a tortoiseshell—and I think that some
physiologists have not given sufficient attention to this
subject.

The alchemy of Nature is a mystery, and the process
by which the caterpillar, by its instinctive faculties and the
powers with which it is endowed, absorbs those elements
which are necessary for its future development, will
probably ever remain amongst the many insolubles. But
still the fact remains. The larva has absorbed “a
quantity "—whatever that quantity may be—or of what-
ever character—which it does not throw off or lay aside,
except as regards its integriment, when it enters into
the chrysalis or pupa condition. It takes its juices with
it into its coffin. It falls into a condition not far from
death, insomuch that many have said of such, it is dead.
But far from that, from the time it is shut up, by its own
will and action, from the outer world, there is a process
going on within that gold-spangled or dull coloured
encasing, day by day, hour by hour, may we not say
moment by moment, a marvellous, ever-progressive
development of that which was, into that which shall be,
and if that progression be not interrupted will result in
a transformation such as could never have entered into
the wildest dreams of man to conceive.

There are many secrets to be discovered in Nature, in
its work and in its results, but there is no more difficult
problem in.my humble opinion to be solved, than that to
which I have referred. The microscope can help us
much in many instances, in some not at all; and though
it may reveal the changes which take place hour by hour,
in the condition of certain pupa, it cannot, nor can any

PROGEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 55

appliance of science reveal to us the reason of, nor the
manner of, nor the operation of those changes.

I turn now to another part of my subject. It is
interesting to us naturalists to know what is the relative
quantity of air consumed by insects in their three states,
their power of existence in certain media, and the relation
which this power and the consumption of air bear to the
comparative volume of the structures concerned. It is
obvious that only two or three examples can be referred
to on the present occasion. In larve we find that
respiration in the very early stages of existence is feeble,
but the circulation is quicker; the amount of food
required is, of course, less, though in proportion to the
size of the individual it is enormous; the generation
of heat is less than at a later period. In the next or pupa
or hibernating stage respiration is very much less in
frequency and volume, circulation slows down, no food
is taken, and the temperature is consequently much
diminished in degree. In the imago, or perfect insect, all
functions, as we might expect, are working at their full
power, with this exception—that the need of food is, in
most cases, if not all, not nearly so great as in the case
of the larva. Many caterpillars eat daily twice their
weight of leaves, and by a simple arithmetical process we
conclude that this is as if an ox weighing say 60 stone,
as exhibited, would require about 34-ton of grass in 24
hours, or a man weighing 12 stone, something like three
ewt. of food. The larve of flesh flies or maggots—
commonly so called—in 24 hours become two hundred
times heavier than they were. I mention these facts
because I think they have a distinct bearing on my
subject. We see the very extraordinary capacity of insects
in the larval state, and the, in most cases, absence of any
nutriment from outside in the pupal and succeeding state.
The voracious caterpillar had, in fact, to lay up in store,
in the most condensed form possible, for succeeding

56 PROCEEDINGS Z@E~LHE- COTTESWOLD CLUB

generations, probably also assimilating metallic atoms.
Rejecting by evacuations the coarser substances, it retained
chiefly the juices of its food, and by a process which it were
in vain to try to understand even if in itself there was
outlined the future development of the animal, which in
the pupa becomes more pronounced, so that by a
momentary inspection in the case of many genera, we
can see without difficulty under the temporary tabernacle,
or hibernacle the eyes, the proboscis, the folded wings, and
so on, of the fly that is sooner or later to break its bonds
asunder.

The voracious caterpillar when changed into a moth
or butterfly feeds on the daintiest of foods, and only very
sparingly on those.

If we from feeding, turn to breathing, in these species
of animals, we note that the parts which have to do with
respiration are the trachee and spiracles, together with their
associated muscles and nerves. The trachee are the
ducts by which air is conveyed from the exterior, and the
spiracles are the outer doors as it were. These are,
generally speaking, nine in number on each side, and
between the spiracle and trachee there is a_ conical
‘“oeclusor” muscle by which the trachee may be closed
at will, and these conditions or others very similar exist
in the case of the larva. Nearly all the muscles and
nerves of each segment of the body are used in the act
of respiration. It has not been, and here again I speak
only so far as I know, definitely ascertained how air is
renewed in the trachea ducts; it may be by contraction
of the dorsal vessels, or the opening or closing of the
muscle just referred to, or as some think, by the active
over-lapping of the segments of the body. In the grass-
hopper (Gryllus sp. viridissimus) about 37 contractions
per minute were observed when it was excited—several
short inspirations being followed by one long one. In
the hive bee there have been observed 110 to 160

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB By

contractions per minute of the abdominal segments when
aroused or excited, and about half that number when at
rest. In the account of Mr Newport's experiments as
communicated to Royal Society by Dr. Roget (1836) we
find his method was as follows:—First the bulk of the
insect was ascertained. It was then confined in a
stoppered bottle of known capacity, and the hour and the
degree of temperature were noted. After some time the
bottle was put invertedly into a vessel containing lime
water, and the stopper withdrawn. It remained thus for
half-an-hour. The contraction in the enclosed air (allow-
ance being made for any change of temperature and
pressure) indicated the amount of carbonic acid formed,
and therefore the quantity of respiration.

The following tables as the results of some of a number
of experiments are given.

DURATION OF

Amount of
Insect State Experiment, Temperature carbonic acid
f cubic in.
Sphinx Ligustri - Larva -— 5 hours - 69°—71° .- 07430
eu eee apa: A TAZ. i =) 52°58 i=) 20-280
_ Papilio or Vanessa

urticee SUVA eee in -. 70°—66°" = 07120
0 = yPupa’ 9-48 ou 67°—-78° - 0°130
u - Imago - 16% » - 79°—82° - 0°200

(4 weeks old)
Bombus terrestris Imago - 1 i" - 60” oi = {O25

(just caught)

During hibernation, the temperature being from 20° —
37°, the respiration of certain pupe experimented upon
was almost suspended, but yet distinct evidence of its being
‘carried on in some degree was obtained, and vitality
continued in spite of the low temperature and all the
pupz became imagos. The relation of the organs of
respiration to the volume of structure is this: In larvee

58 PROCEEDINGS @OPo HE» COT TESW OLD "CLUE

the organs are proportionally very small—in the pupa
state the organs much larger, though the respirations are
very much less in number.

Ancient Natural History gave wonderful accounts of
the existence of an animal under very unfavourable
circumstances. The poor toad, a very useful—but often
by ignorant people a much-abused and ill-treated creature—
was the subject of experiment. That it is not a trivial
matter to which I draw your attention I may gather from
the fact that the occurrences to which I shall allude were
the subject of papers read before the Royal Academy of
Sciences in Paris, which even in the 7th decade of the
last century contained members who were by no means
mere sciolists. Before the members of that Academy, a
paper was read bya M. Guillard. He stated that in pulling
down a wall which was known to have existed 100 years,
a toad was found, without the smallest aperture being
discernible by which it could have entered, and it had
been dead only a short time. Forty years before the date
of this statement, a M. Seigne before the members of the
same Academy gave an account (more remarkable than
the foregoing) of a toad found in the centre of a solid
oak, and no place by which it could have entered could be
found. From the size of the tree he calculated that it
must have lived where it was found for 80 to 100 years.
Other similar instances are recorded, but I have
ventured to name these two, as they were gravely and by
men of some scientific knowledge at all events, brought
before the notice of those Frenchmen, who in their day
represented the science of the period. How the
assembled philosophers received the tales, history does
not tell: but one M. Herissaint determined to test the truth
or otherwise of these alleged facts by experiments, which
however conclusive, and putting an end to such nonsense,
I do not wish to justify. M. Herissaint, in February,
1771, enclosed three toads in three cases of plaster,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 59

plaster of Paris, I presume. He then placed these cases
in a box,—the size of the box is not stated—which also
he covered with a thick coat of plaster. On the 8th
April, 1774, i.e., about three years and two months after,
he removed the plaster coverings and found two of the
toads alive,—one had died. On the 15th April the
survivors having had access to air, and perhaps to food
for a week; he placed the two live toads in a basin of
plaster, which he covered with a sealed glass case, so that
he might observe their movements. On the 9th May
he exhibited this case and its occupants before the
members of the Academy. One was still living, the
other had died the night preceding. On the 15th April
he enclosed in a glass bottle another toad, and buried the
bottle, after securely closing it up, and on the 9th May it
was found to be well, and it croaked when the bottle was
shaken.

You will observe that in these experiments the
animals were in a case pervious to the air. and the
waste of tissue owing to their compulsory inactivity must
have been exceedingly small, and their respiration probably
very slow. But the result I think is to show that all those
stories which tend to prove that the laws of Nature can
be almost indefinitely suspended are utterly unreliable.
Nature, as I have said, has its laws, and they cannot be
set aside by man or beast without direful or fatal
consequences; for the laws of Nature are decreed and
directed by a Higher Power. It is in my judgment
absolutely impossible for a toad or any other animal to

live for three years totally without any supply of moisture

or air, and I do not think much of the experiments of
__M. Herissaint, for they prove nothing as regards the
_ power of any living creatures of a higher or lower order
to exist for any lengthened period deprived of those
elements which are necessary for that existence. All
animals that hibernate must have access to air (some
perhaps to food).

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

As to the hibernation of fishes, it is evident that we
cannot know anything about those which live in salt water
and we may conclude, I think, that the hibernation
question does not touch them. Fresh water fishes do no
doubt hibernate, by compulsion, not always as a certain
habit, but by instinct through force of environment, e.g.,
as in the instances of fish in shallow streams, which in
some years become altogether iced for weeks together,
and yet the fish are, I think, not destroyed. But as this
statement may be questioned, I would call your attention
to the case of a fish which inhabits the beds of rivers in
Africa, and which is called by zoologists Lepidosiren
annectens, or mud fish. Now it is known to all who
have a little knowledge of the smaller rivers in tropical
or sub-tropical latitudes, that at certain times of the
year the rivers are in full flush, at other times only a
trickling stream, or perhaps none at all—only shallow
pools here and there. What then becomes of the fish
which one day are swimming in a full bath and a few days
after have not sufficient water even to shelter them
from the burning sun? They hibernate, not owing to the
cold, but owing to the heat. The heat of the sun in
January or February bakes the cracked mud into so many
irregularly-formed bricks. When the fish I have mentioned,
by that instinct, which in similar instances is possessed by
many other kindred animals. feels that the hot and dry
season is coming, it wriggles its way into the mud. After
burrowing, if I may so say, a sufficient depth, it curls
itself round, and waits for the rain, and _hibernates.
When the rain falls, the water soon reaches the cell of the
fish through the numerous fissures caused by the drought.
It then resumes its activity. The cell, or cocoon, in
which it hibernates is described as formed of clay, the
hollow being quite smooth. Three specimens found in
one lump of clay were immersed in water. At first the
creatures were very sluggish, but after an hour or two

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 61

they became active, one however died, and one of the others
lived only about six weeks. In this case you will note
that they without doubt had, during their seclusion, access
to air. IJ must, however, remark that it was and perhaps
still is a moot question whether Lepidosiren is a fish or a
reptile. It seems to depend on the question whether it
possesses more of the piscine or reptilian characters. |
myself was inclined to place it amongst the reptiles, but on
consulting various authorities | have come to the conclu-
sion that it must be classed as a fish, belonging to the
order *Dipnoi,” and a hibernating fish.
3 A number of other observations have been made, but I
__ will allude to one instance only. The salt water Terrapin,
~ “Malachlemys” is found in the salt marshes in North and
South America. During the summer it is always on the
prowl; but when the cold weather comes it excavates a
hole in the muddy banks of the marsh, and there lies
buried until the spring. But this is an exceptional case,
as a rule, and only those animals which are found in very
shallow waters, and under special circumstance, hibernate.
Allow me now briefly to sum up the leading features
connected with my subject.
One of the most important characteristic of organisms
__and that on which the maintenance of life depends, is their
~ metabolic power: (metabolism being the act or process by
_ which on the one hand the dead food is built up into living
_ matter, and by which on the other hand the living matter is
_ broken down into simpler products within a cell or
5 peeeism). Metabolic power 1s therefore | the power

Bee wing the matter of which the body is composed.
_ Every phenomenon of growth pre supposes the reception
_ of, and the change of, material constituents; all movements,
secretions and manifestations of life depend on the exchange
3 of matter; or in other words the breaking down and building

up of chemical compounds. On this alternating destruction

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

and renewal of the combination of the body-substance—
two properties necessary to living creatures depend—viz. :
the secretion of food and the excretion of waste products.
Nevertheless this important property of living creatures,
viz.: metabolic action, may under certain circumstances
be temporarily suspended or suppressed without thereby
depriving the creature, or organism, of the power of
existence. By removal of water or heat, it is possible, in
the case of many of the lower organisms and their germs,
to suspend the vital principle for months and even for years,
and then to restore the apparently lifeless body to the
full exercise of its vital properties by the simple addition
of water or warmth. Such is the case with the eggs of
Apus—one of the Entomostraca, of the Cypris, a cuirassed
ostracod, which is found in our ponds and ditches, and
other like forms, and of frogs and other animals. The
intensity of respiration stands in direct relation to the
energy of the metabolism. Animals which breathe by
means of gills and absorb but little oxygen, are not, of
course, in a position to oxidize a large quantity of organic
constituents, and can only transform a small quantity of
potential into active energy. They perform, therefore,
not only a proportionately smaller amount of muscular
and nervous work, but also produce in only a small
degree the peculiar molecular movements known as heat.
The source of this heat is to be sought, not in the
respiratory organs, but in the active tissues. Animals, in
which thermogenic activities are small, have no power of
keeping independently their own internal heat when exposed
to the influence of the temperature of the surrounding
medium. This is also true of those air-breathing animals
in which the metabolic and thermogenic activities are great,
but which in consequence of their small size offer a relatively
large surface for the loss.of heat by radiation, as in the case
with many insects and the lower orders of animals. On
account of the changes of heat which are constantly

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 63

taking place between the animal body and the surrounding
medium, the temperature of the former must be in such
animals largely dependent on the latter rising and falling
with it. Hence most of the lower animals are poikiloth-
.ermic, or, as they not so accurately, but more commonly,
designated, cold-blooded. The higher animals on the
contrary in which, on account of their highly-developed
respiratory organs and energetic metabolism, the thermo-
genic activity is great, and which are protected from a
rapid loss of heat by radiation by the size of their bodies
and by the possession of a covering of hairs or feathers,
or some artificial covering, possess the power of main-
___ taining a somewhat constant temperature, which is largely
. independent of the rising or falling of the temperature of
_ the surrounding medium. Such animals are called
~ homothermic, or warm-blooded. Since they require a
high internal temperature, varying only within compara-
tively small limits, as a necessary condition for the normal
course of the vital processes, or one may say for the
maintenance of life itself, they must possess within them-
selves a series of what may be termed regulators, whose
function it is to keep the body-temperature within its
proper limits with relation to the temperature of the
surrounding medium. This may be effected either by
_ diminishing the production of internal heat (diminishing
the metabolism) or by increasing the loss of heat from
the surface of the body (by radiation, evaporation of
_ secretions, or cooling in water), when the temperature of
the surrounding medium is high; and on the contrary,
when it is low, by increasing the production of internal
heat (increasing the metabolic energy) by a more plentiful
_ food supply, more vigorous movements and so on; or
also, by diminishing the loss of heat by the use of more
__ effectually-protective coverings. When the conditions
necessary for the action of what I have called these

64 PROCEEDINGS-OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

the phenomenon of winter sleep, in which life is preserved,
though there is a temporary lowering of the metabolic
processes; or when the metabolic processes of the
organisms do not enter into abeyance, we find the remark-
able phenomenon of migration, as is the case with many
birds.
NOTES
Re “IRRITABILITY ”

Movement of a voluntary description is accomplished by muscles receiving through
nerves their stimulus to action from the brain, which in turn is stiniulated in an unknown
way by the will. Thus the central nervous system is both the terminus to which
messages from the organs of sense are sent, and that from which commands to the voluntary
muscles proceed.

All sensory function is not sensation, and all movement is not voluntary. The nervous

system may receive an influence from without and transmit it to groups of muscles

without intervention of any act of consciousness. This is what is called reflex action, and

“
in such a case the part irritated, from which the nervous impulse starts, is still said to have

sensibility and the nerve to be sensory, although there 1s no sensation, and the movement

is involuntary. Also the property of response to irritation is not confined to the nervous

system; structures may alter their shape or undergo other change on application of a
stimulus, and this property is termed irritability. The active part of change of shape or
movement probably in all cases consists in contraction, and is hence called contractility.
Irritability and contractility, although they may be well included under the terms sensory
function and movement, are not, like sensation and voluntary movement, confined to
animals. ‘They are found in the vegetable world also; and it may be maintained with
probability, that they are properties of every part of every living being.—Cleland’s
“ Animal Physiology,” pp. 15, 16.

The great majority (if not the whole) of the movenients of the body and its parts are
the effect of an influence (technically termed a stimulus or irritation) applied directly, or
indirectly, to the ends of afferent nerves, and giving rise to an molecular change, which 1s
propagated along their substance to the central nervous organ with which they are
connected. The molecular activity of the afferent nerve communicates itself to the central
organ and is then transferred to the motor nerves which pass through the central organ
to the muscles affected. And when the disturbance in the molecular condition of the
afferent nerves reaches their extremities, it is communicated to the muscular fibres and
causes them to take up a new position, so that each fibre shortens and becomes thicker.
Such a series of molecular changes is called a reflex action, the disturbance caused by the
irritation being as it were reflected back, along the motor nerves to the muscles.

A reflex action, strictly so called, goes on without our knowing anything about it, and
hundreds of such actions are going on continually in our bodies without our being aware
of them, . . . . We speak of “states of consciousness,” but what consciousness is,
we know not; and how it is that anything so remarkable as a state of consciousness comes
about as the result of irritating nervous tissue, is just as unaccountable as any alternate
fact of Nature.’ —Huxley, “Elementary Lessons in Physiology,” pp. 187, 188: see also
p- 254, &c.

ON THE

PRE-SSAXON OCCUPATION OF THE

MIDDLE COTTESWOLDS

BY

JOHN SAWYER

In broad outlines, the nature and extent of the
occupation of the Middle Cotteswold area before the
coming of the English are well known. Camps and
implements and burial mounds tell of tribal dwellers in
pre-historic times; roads and villas and divers remains
reveal a complete and prolonged colonization in the palmy
days of Rome. During the last few years the outlines
_ have bit by bit been filled in, and a fairly good picture is
now presented of what manner of men they were whose
records we trace before and at the dawn of Cotteswold
history.

Ethnologists are now agreed in dividing the primitive
races of mankind into two ages, for which Sir William
Dawson suggests the names Palanthropic and Neanthropic*
and Mr Horace B. Woodward the terms Palzanthropic
-and Mesanthropic,t as being more scientific than the terms

*“ The terms ‘Paleolithic’ and ‘Neolithic’ are objectionable, as implying that
_ these ages can be best distinguished by the use of certain stone implements, which is
not the fact.”—“‘ The Meeting-Place of Geology and History,” p. 17.

—s- F Congrés Géologique Internationale Compte rendu de la 4™° Session, Londres,
_ 1888. Appendix B, p. 29. In Mesanthropic Mr Woodward includes the Neolithic,
_ Bronze and Iron ages.

66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Palceolithic and Neolithic, with which we have been
familiarised by Sir John Lubbock. It is also generally
believed that the men of the Palzeanthropic age belonged
to two distinct periods, and possibly to two distinct races.
The earlier men are those whose traces are found in drift
deposits on hill slopes and in river valleys; the later are
those whose weapons and implements are found in
and beneath stalagmitic accumulations in caverns and
caves.

THE DRIFT PERIOD

There is some evidence of the occupation of the
Middle Cotteswolds by men of the Drift period. ‘Thirty-
three years ago Mr John Jones and Mr Edwin Witchell*
described and figured the occurrence in a drift bed on the
slope of Stroud Hill of some flint implements, associated
with carbonised wood, oolitic stone changed in colour by
the action of fire, and the bones of animals. The bed
had undoubtedly been formed by the denudation of the
higher ground and had never been disturbed; and both
gentlemen were convinced that the flints (some of which
had cutting edges), charcoal and fire-marked oolite were
the relics of men who dwelt on the top of the hill before
the bed was deposited. Mr Thiselton Dyert has also
recorded the occurrence at the Barton Pits, Cirencester,
of a considerable number of very rude flint flakes, some
of which were accepted by Mr Franks, at the British
Museum, as being of human manufacture. Our late
Presidentt (Mr W. C. Lucy) notes the abundance in the
neighbourhood of Blockley Station of small flints, having
a chipped appearance, associated with drift of a, variable

* Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. iii., pp. 97-1115 208-211.
+ Ibid, Vol. v., pp. 273-2.

+ Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. v., p- 100.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 67

character.* In the peat-bed at Sharpness, described by
Mr Lucy, a head of Cervus Elephas was found, the antlers
of which had, in the opinion of Professor Church, been
cut off by some rude instrument. Mr Chas Upton has
also found ina gravel pit at the mouth of the Stonehouse
_ yalley a reindeer antler bearing marks of having been cut
- with a sharp instrument. Diligent search and careful
observation may add to our knowledge of primitive
Cotteswold men; but there can be little doubt that the
plateau was occupied by men who were contemporaneous
with those whose remains are found in gravel beds in the
valleys of the Somme and the Thames—men who, as
Professor Boyd Dawkins says, hunted the reindeer, bison,
woolly rhinoceros, and horse, and who were in the same
rude state of civilisation as “the Palzolithic man who
“hunted the extinct hippopotamus in the forests of
a India; who wandered over Palestine and the valley of
“the Nile; who hunted the wild boar and stag, the
“mammoth, and probably the pigmy rhinoceros in the
_ “ Mediterranean,” and in whose time the English Channel
had not been formed, and the North Sea did not exist.

THE CAVE PERIOD

_ Of the existence upon the Cotteswolds of men of the
Cave period there is no evidence whatever. And looking
to the great changes in the configuration of the country
that have taken place since their time, it is not likely that
any trustworthy testimony will ever be forthcoming. The
jate Rev. W. S. Symonds (a distinguished member of our
Club) estimated that since the relics of Cave men were
x

*In “A Slight History of Flint Implements, with especial reference to our own

» (Cottes. Club Proc. Vol. x., p. 22) Mr Lucy discusses the general

and adjacent areas,
gests localities in

differences between Paleolithic and Neolithic flint implements, and sug
this county where the former may be found.

oe.
_ F Ibid, Vol. vi., p. 113-
/ £2

68 PROGEEDINGSAOFE, THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

left in the well-known King Arthur’s Cave and Banner-
man’s Hole on the Wye, the deep gorge between
Symond’s Yat and the Great Doward has been excavated,*
and that both caverns “are mere fragments and vestiges
‘of limestone fissures which were once much longer,
“and have been worn away at their northern extremities
“and degraded by the atmospheric denudation of ages.” t
In other caves, the nature and position of the deposits
above the buried implements of human manufacture also
indicate the prolonged action of eroding forces. It is
obvious that the soft Jurassic rocks of the Cotteswolds
have offered far less resistance to denudation than have
the Mountain Limestone of the Wye gorge and other
hard rocks in which alone caverns containing the remains
of Cave men occur; and any Cotteswold caverns which
existed in the Cave period have undoubtedly been
destroyed in the scooping out of the river valleys.

TYPES OF YLUMULI

The evidence of the occupation of the Middle Cottes-
wolds in the Neolithic or Neanthropic age is abundant
and varied. Typical of long tumuli are those in West
Wood, near Birdlip; the prominent one on Shurdington
Hill; Belas Knapp, in the parish of Charlton Abbotts ;
and others at Notgrove and Stow-on-the-Wold. Although
they vary in the number and position of the chambers or
cists in which the bodies were placed, they are built to
one general design. A dry wall of stone determines the
shape, and at one end curves inwards, giving the peculiar
horned appearance which is characteristic of long barrows,
and is, the late Professor Rolleston{ said, strikingly

* “ Records of the Rocks,” p 353.
T “‘ The Severn Straits,” p. 37.

{ Trans. Bris. and Glou. Archzo. Soc., Vol. v., p. 210.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 69

suggestive of the form of the entrance to a Cave
dwelling. Much more numerous than the long barrows
are round tumuli, of which examples may be found
within any two-mile radius in the Middle Cotteswold area.
— Asarule, the circular barrow consists of a small stone
cist (in which the human remains were placed), covered
with a mound of loose stones. Besides the long and
round barrows, circular mounds of loose earth or gravel
are scattered about the district. Whether or not they are
_ burial places is an open question. Canon Greenwell, who
has opened a number of similar mounds in the North of
_ England, says that he has never* found the least trace of
any burial in them, or the slightest fragment of pottery or
chipping of flint. Nevertheless, he thinks that they
covered unburnt bodies, interred without vase or imple-
~ ment; while Professor Rolleston thought the absence of
_ human remains is accounted for by the small size of the
mound, which, to quote his words, “would give free
“access to rain and carbonic acid, to say nothing of rodents
and carnivores, and the larve of insects, all of which
animals learn, and act upon the learning, the value of
phosphate of calcium.” Canon Greenwell admits that the
explanation is not absolutely satisfactory, and the late Mr
'G. F. Playne, a member of our Club, whose careful
examination of a number of Gloucestershire mounds
entitles his opinion to considerable weight, dissented from
1e view that they were ever used as places of sepulture.t
But it is worthy of note, that at Cubberley there is a
circular mound, simply a heap of earth and stones,
thout any trace of a chamber, yet in the centre of which,
D -. Bird records, there was found a human skull, and with
it some flint flakes.§

70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

CONTENTS OF TUMULI

The dates to which the long and round barrows may be
assigned have been the subject of much controversy.
That the long tumuli are the earlier has generally been
recognised. When first studied they were also referred
to a pre-historic age. Against this theory Sir James
Fergusson has protested with great vigour. All the
chamber-tumuli in Gloucestershire, he contends, belong to
the post-Roman period. “There are,” he says, “hardly
“ half-a-dozen tumuli in the whole county. . . . All, too,
“it may be remarked, are close to Roman stations, and
‘surrounded by evidences of Roman occupation.” But
in the quarter of a century that has elapsed since he
wrote, the number of long barrows known to exist in the
county has increased to about forty, and enough has been
learned about them to place their pre-Roman date beyond
question. First, we have the fact that flint and stone
implements are frequently found in them, while in an
undisturbed barrow there has never been found the
slightest scrap of metal. Secondly, although long barrows
are distributed over the greater part of Britain, all have
the same peculiar conformation, indicating that they are
the work of one race of men; and, as Professor Rolleston
says, we have no record of Great Britain ever having been
occupied by one single race in historic times. Thirdly, we
have the authority of Professor Rolleston,} that a fairly
selected set of bones from any long barrow would be
distinguishable from any fairly selected set of bones from
any other variety of interment in Great Britain, of what-
ever age. Any one of these facts is strong proof of a
pre-historic occupation, but the cumulative character of all
is conclusive.

* « Rude Stone Monuments,” p. 166.

} “British Barrows,” p. 627.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 71

If further evidence be needed, it may be seen by
_ comparing and contrasting the contents of the long and

round tumuli. As types of the human bones found in
each, we may take those from the West Tump long
_ barrow, and from round tumuli at Hawling and elsewhere.
‘In a letter to Mr G. B. Witts, to whom belongs the
honour of having discovered the interesting mound near
_ Birdlip, Professor Rolleston says: “The bones from the
“West Tump are like all bones from similar barrows
“which have been through my hands, and in the following
“points: They belonged to a short-statured but long-
: Breaded race, who were, if we may judge at all from what
‘we see of living men of the samie eee character,
“darkish in complexion and hair.”

Dr. Bird, describing the skeletons from round barrows
at Hawling and other places on the Central Cotteswolds
_ which he examined, says: “The bones of the extremities
“are large and strong, and the processes and ridges well
“marked, thus showing that they belonged to a tall,
_ “square-built, muscular people.” These are exact des-
criptions of typical long and round barrow skeletons
throughout Britain. Professor Rolleston also notes the
not infrequent association in round barrows of skulls
of dolicho-cephalic and brachy-cephalic types;{ and
Dr. Bird records that in a round earth tumulus at
_Cubberley there was found “a small skull, long and
“narrow,” and “the stature of the individual was not more
than five feet.’ The implements found in the round
tumuli often include metal as well as flint and stone. In

* Trans. Bris. and Glos. Archzo. Soc., Vol. v., p. 210.
Tt Cottes, Club Proc., Vol. vi,, p, 333-
‘a -{“ British Barrows,” p, 627, et seq.

2 § Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. vi., p. 332:

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

and a leaf-shaped arrow-point were unearthed ;* in one at
Snowshill some bronze spear-heads and a_ bronze pin,
with a beautifully worked implement of stone, having a
hammer-head and cutting edge; + and in one at Oddington
some spear-heads and a fibula of copper.t Besides the
differences presented by the contents of the two types of
barrows in the craniology, the skeletons and the non-
metallic and metallic character of the implements, there
is a third distinguishing characteristic to be noted. In all
the long barrows that have been opened, over the Cottes-
wolds generally, burial has been by inhumation only. In
the round barrows, on the other hand, there is abundant
evidence that the prevailing practice in the deposition
of the dead was burial after cremation, the body so
treated being sometimes placed in an urn, sometimes in a
small stone cist, covered with earth, and sometimes
in the ground without any protection whatever.

STONE CIRCLES

At two places on the Mid-Cotteswold escarpment
there are what appear to be portions of stone circles.
On the south side of the small valley between Leck-
hampton Hill and the Crippetts are several masses of
rock belonging to one of the lower beds of the Inferior
Oolite. Some of these masses are so placed as to seem
to form portions of two distinct circles, and on the
six-inch ordnance survey map they are so described.
The hill-slope bears evidence of landslips, and it may be
that the position of the stones is due to accident. On
the other hand, there is some evidence that their position
is due to design. Old people residing near assert that

* Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. v., p. 283.
+ Archzeo. Handbook of Gloucestershire, p. 99.

t Fosbrooke’s Gloucestershire, p. 406.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB vie.

some years ago the circles were much more complete
than they now are, and there is a tradition that at one time
_ they were regarded with something akin to superstitious
awe. More important, however, is the size of the circles.
The only one that can be measured with any approach to
accuracy has a diameter of 100 feet. This is exactly the
diameter of the well-known Rollright circle, near Chipping
Norton, and also of stone circles in Cumberland; and one
of the circles at Stanton Drew and another in the
Orkneys are of nearly the same diameter.* If, therefore,
the Leckhampton circles are due to natural causes, it is a
remarkable coincidence that one of them is of the
same size as stone circles elsewhere which are un-
-questionably the handiwork of man.
In a small coppice, known as Nutter’s Wood, on the
slope almost immediately beneath the well-known Cleeve
Hill Camp, are about half-a-dozen small stone circles.
The stones are two or three feet square, but irregular in
shape, and some if not all of the enclosed spaces have
apparently been excavated. About fifty years ago,, Mr
~Gomonde, a Cheltenham antiquary, printed for private
circulation a small pamphlet treating of archeological
remains near Cheltenham, and to it appended a map on
which he marked the undercliff at Cleeve Cloud as the
site of a British village. It is therefore possible that
excavation in the wood may reveal further traces of
human occupation than are now to be seen.
_ The purpose of stone circles is a matter of conjecture.
Fergusson contends that they are entirely of a sepulchral
ture. Tylor, while recognising that they have often to
do with burials, says that “ considering how tombs are apt
“to become temples where the ghost of the buried chief
“or prophet is worshipped, it is likely that such stone
“circles should also serve as temples.” t

~ * Rude Stone Monuments,” pp. 124, 149, 159, 241.

+ “‘Anthropology,” p. 348.

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

STONE AND FLINT IMPLEMENTS

In the number and variety of its Flint Implements, the
Middle Cotteswold area is exceedingly rich.* In almost
any recently ploughed field, especially after rain, flints
bearing undoubted marks of human manufacture may be
picked up by the dozen. At the top of Crickley Hill,
near the Air Balloon Inn, flints have been found in such
numbers, and in such a variety of stages of manufacture,
as to suggest that here was the site of a flint factory.
One of the most diligent and observant Cotteswold
collectors is the Rey. J. H. Cardew, Rector of Wingfield,
Wilts, for some years a resident in Cheltenham. Many
thousands of flints gathered on the Cotteswolds have, he
says, passed through his hands, and the results he has
embodied in a valuable monograph, with a great number
of illustrations.—| [he most numerous implements, he

* The methods by which the stone and flint implements were manufactured are
treated of in detail in Sir John Evans’s well-known work. But on the manner in
which hammers and axes, such as have occasionally been exhibited at our Club
meetirfes, were perforated and externally shaped, it may be of interest to supplement
Sir John Evans’s suggestions of chiselling, grinding, and drilling, by stating how
similar instruments are made to-day on the comparatively unknown islands of New
Britain and Duke of York. Until the advent of the white trader a few years ago, the
natives of these islands made the whole of their weapons and implements of stone, so
that in this respect they are a modern type of pre-historic dwellers on the Cotteswolds.
The most formidable weapon used by the New Britain natfves is a stone club—a large,
round ball of stone, with a long wood handle through a hole in its centre. It is made,
Mr Wilfred Powell tells us in this way :—‘“‘ The native first takes a piece of suitable
“granite, which he places in a slow fire of cocoa-nut shells, which give an immense
“heat, and allows it to become red-hot. He then, by the aid of a split bamboo, in the
“place of tongs, removes it from the fire, and begins to drop water on it drop by drop,
“each drop falling exactly on the same place. That portion of the stone on which the
““ water falls begins to crack and fly off, until the heat has gone out of the stone. He
““then repeats the operation until an irregular hole is formed through the centre; he
“then fixes a stick through it, and takes it to a place where there is a large granite
“rock in which is a dent like a small basin. He hits the stone upon the rock until
“all the rough corners are knocked off, and it is worn fairly round; then takes the end
“of the stick, and pressing the stone down into the hollow of the rock makes the stick
“revolve rapidly between his hands, weighting it with other stones fastened to the top
“of the stick, until that side of the stone is worn perfectly smooth and round. He
“then shifts the other side of the stone downwards and works at that until both are
“smooth and even.”——‘‘ Wanderings in a Wild Country,” p. 160.

ft Trans. Bris. and Glos. Archzeo. Soc., Vol. xvi., p. 246, et seq.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 75

- tells us, are scrapers, varying in diameter from less than
an inch to an inch and a half. Most of them are of a
shape suitable for scraping the skins of animals, while a
few have the concave edge which would be specially
useful for scraping arrow-shafts or bone needles. Arrow-
heads are so numerous and so varied in shape, that Mr
- Cardew divides them into six typical varieties, some half-
an-inch some two inches, from base to point. Equally
- yariable in pattern are the knives. Some are triangular,
and might easily have been fitted into a handle ; others are
scimitar-shaped; others are like lancets, with sides
curving to a sharp point, the effect of a prog from one
pu of which, says Mr Cardew, we would rather contemplate
in the imagination than experience in the reality, for no
_ sharper weapon could be devised with hammer and steel.
~ Worked balls of flint, like bullets, were probably used as
_ sling-stones. Borers and rimers are by no means un-
common, and flints with serrated edges, like miniature
¢ saws, are often found. A remarkable feature, not only of
- the Middle Cotteswolds but of the Cotteswolds generally,
is the almost entire absence of the larger megalithic
_ instruments, such as hammers and hatchets. The
“scarcity is the more remarkable from the fact that in
other parts of the country pre-historic stone implements
include a fairly large proportion of axes and hammers,
indeed, Canon Greenwell does not believe it would be
possible to find a parallel to it in any other part of
Britain, at all events in so great a degree. Explanation
he has none; it is not easy, he says, to understand “how
a population which it might be supposed would require
“axes to cut down trees, adzes to work upon the wood,
“and hoes to break up the soil, equally with other people
“who appear to have lived under much the same
“conditions, were able to construct the essential requisites
p. of domestic life, or to obtain some of the main products

76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

“of the soil, without such tools.”* Professor Rolleston
suggests that the paucity of axes and hatchets indicates
that the Long Barrow people enjoyed the blessings of
peace, and in support of this view he says there is an
absence of evidence of cremation, reminding us also that
Herman, the classical commentator, held that cremation
was practised only or mostly out of necessity, such as
wars or pestilence produce.t

Two other “finds” in the Middle Cotteswold area are
also noteworthy. In a long barrow at Eyford, three miles
from Stow-on-the-W old, there was found a bead or amulet
(apparently made of Kimmeridge slate) slightly oval in
shape, much flattened, and with a large hole through
its centre. This was found lying upon the breast of a
skeleton of a woman, indicating that it was an ornament
suspended from the neck when she was buried. Canon
Greenwell records it as a remarkable and unique dis-
covery.{ Four years after the learned Canon’s work was
published, Mr Witts found in a long barrow at Notgrove
a bead resembling the one found at Eyford, but larger.¢

GENERAL CONCLUSION

The general conclusion to which we are led by the
construction and contents of the long and round barrows,
and by megalithic and ancient metal remains of human
manufacture, is that in the Middle Cotteswold area, as in
many other parts of the kingdom, there were in the
Neanthropic age at least two successive races of men.
The earlier race were of short stature, used implements

* “ British Barrows,” P 444.
Y Trans. Bris. and Glou. Archzo. Soc., Vol. i., p. 55.
at British Barrows,” p, 519.

§ “ Archzeo. Handbook of Gloucestershire,” p. 83.

PROGEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB ii

and weapons made only of flint, stone, and bone, and
buried their dead by inhumation in long, horned-end
barrows. The later race were taller and stronger, were
acquainted with the use of metal as well as of stone,
practised cremation, and disposed of the cremated remains
beneath circular mounds of earth.

THE EVIDENCE OF HISTORY AND PLACE-NAMES

The knowledge thus obtained agrees with and_ is
supplemented by the records of history. The long
_ barrow men belonged to the Iberian race, which long ago
_ inhabited a great part of Western Europe, and whose
nearest modern representatives are the Basques of the
_ Pyrenees. The round barrow men, to judge from their

osseous remains and historical records, belonged to the
great Celtic race which, starting from its home in the East,

swept across the Southern part of the Continent, seized
upon land in Spain and Gaul, and then landed in Britain.
These Celtic invaders came in two swarms, and a
considerable time elapsed between the two invasions.
The earlier swarm were the Goidels; the later were the
_Brythons, from whom the name of our island is derived.
7 Professor Rhys tells us that to the Goidelic race “belonged
_ “the ancestors of the people who speak Gaelic in Ireland,
“the Isle of Man, and the Highlands of the North;” and
that the Brythonic group “is represented in points of
“speech by the people of Wales, formerly one might have
“added the Welsh of Cumbria, and till the last century
“some of those of Cornwall.”* The obvious inference -
is that the Goidels were pushed northward and westward
by the Brythons, who were in turn driven in the same
directions by a still later race.
_ Traces of the Celtic occupation of the Middle Cottes-

a

wolds are also to be found in place-names. A great deal

* “Celtic Britain,” p. 3.

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

has been written about the origin of the word “Cotteswold.”
The explanation generally received is that given by
Camden, that, to quote his words, “ Cotteswold, which of
“wolds and cotes, that is, hils and sheepfolds tooke that
“name.” But, as Mr John Bellows once pithily said, to
imagine, as Camden does, that “cotes” is from sheepcotes,
would require us to suppose that the hills were first
covered with sheep pasturage and then named. The fact
is that the word “ Cotteswold” contains two synonymous
elements. ‘‘ Cotes” is from the Celtic “coed,” “wold” is
from the Anglo-Saxon “ weald;” and both words signify a
wood. Other local illustrations of Celtic names may be
found in Bredon, from “ Bre,” a Celtic word for promon-
tory, and the suffix “down,” a common ending of the
names of the Severn Valley outliers, is probably a corrup-
tion of the Celtic word “dun,” a hill. As to river-names,
they, says Taylor, “‘are everywhere the memorials of the
“earliest races... .' 4. they seem to posseseuam
“almost indestructible vitality . . . . throughout
“the whole of England there is hardly a single river-name
“which is not Celtic.”* The Isbourne, the Chelt, the
Coln, the Avon, are examples from the Middle Cottes-
wolds.

The completeness of the Saxon conquest of Gloucester-
shire doubtless abolished many Celtic place-names, and
drove off much Celtic speech. But, as Professor Rhys
says, “skulls are harder than consonants, and races lurk
“behind when languages slink away. The lineal descen-
“dants of the Neolithic aborigines are ever among us,
“possibly even those of a still earlier race.”+ Much
ingenuity has been expended in endeavours to fix approxi-
mate dates for the order of the pre-historic invasions. In
the absence of trustworthy data, it is wise to act upon the

* «Words and Places,” p. 130.

+ “Celtic Britain,” p. 275.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 79

advice of the Duke of Argyll in reference to the first
appearance of man upon the earth, and to content
_ ourselves with the relation the order of invasions bears to
- time-relative rather than to time-absolute.*

THE ROMAN INVASION

It was in the middle of the first century that the
~ Romans planted their feet upon the Middle Cotteswolds.
~ What is now Cirencester was seized and fortified, and it
is probable that the Roman rampart (a part of which still
_ exists, and is known to every child in the town as “the
city bank”) followed the irregular oval line of the British
entrenchment. A few years later we find the Romans
_ occupying a chain of camps extending the whole length of
_ the Cotteswold escarpment. Then onward for nearly four
_ centuries the Middle Cotteswold area was occupied by a
_ population under rigid Roman rule. The magnificence
of the remains at Cirencester, and the pavements and
other relics in villas like those at Chedworth, Spoonley,
_ Wadfield, Dryhill, and Andoversford, attest a peaceful

possession and cultured taste. But westward there were

for a long period a source of danger. The great
Roman stations of Caerwent and Caerleon were planted
in Silurian territory; behind them was the strongly forti-
ied colony of Gloucester; and behind that was, to use a
famous phrase of a famous statesman, the “scientific
frontier” of the Cotteswold escarpment. We know that

after time, when it was supposed that their power had

80 PROCEEDINGS (OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUE

or less of success. We know that when they had been
conquered a strong hand was required to keep them in sub-
jection, for they and other tribes living in the fastnesses of
Wales offered a prolonged resistance, and were among the
last to submit to the Imperial yoke of Rome.

ROMAN CAMPS AND ROADS

ec

Prebendary Scarth says that ““when the Romans left
“the island they had formed a system of roads throughout
“its whole extent, even over its inaccessible mountains
had constructed bridges, and made fords.”*
A glance at a map of the Cotteswolds reveals large
districts without Roman roads which were somewhat
thickly populated in Roman times. Five great arterial
roads converged at Cirencester; one of less importance
can be traced from that town through Salperton and
Hawling to Hailes; and the Ermine-street, which con-
nected Cirencester with Gloucester, was continued (as the
Via Julia) through the Forest of Dean to Caerwent and
Caerleon. It is obvious that beyond these vie there.
must have been a considerable number of minor lines of
communication, traces of which have altogether dis-
appeared or can only be found by diligent and careful
observation.

In endeavouring to add to the road map of the Middle
Cotteswolds in Roman times, we may get some help from
the positions of camps and villas, the names or lines of
ancient highways, and the existence of fords.

The camps at Birdlip, Crickley, Norbury (near Coles-
borne), Leckhampton, Dowdeswell, Cleeve, and Notting
Hill must have had, in Roman times, easy means of com-
munication, not only with each other, but also with the
colonies of Corinium and Glevum, for, as Mr John
Bellows has forcibly pointed out, rapidity of transport was
the chief secret of Roman domination.

oe

“Roman Britain,” p. 218,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 81

The Roman Villa at Chedworth, which in the opinion
of Mr Bellows was a government farm for the supply of
horses to the posting stations,” and the important villa at
_ Andoversford,’ must also have been connected with arterial
roads. From Cooper’s Hill, running through Brockworth
to Churchdown Hill, is a road still known by the name
of Green-street; another road climbing the hill from
Shurdington to Ullen Wood and across to the Seven
Springs is called the Greenway: a third road termed
Greenway-lane passes Battledown Knoll, on the eastern
boundary of Cheltenham; and a fourth highway called
Greenway follows a winding course from Andoversford
to Norbury Camp, near Northleach. It is probable, as
the Rev. S. E. Bartleet has suggested, that the name
“Greenway” is a translation of the Roman designation
“Via viridariensis.”t From Seven Springs, skirting the
side of Leckhampton Hill, and descending to Charlton
Park is an ancient highway called Sandy-lane, a name
_ which in some places is the modern name for a Roman
way. In the little valley of the Churn, near Cowley,
_ where an old road through Elkstone from the Ermine-street
-erosses the river, is Cockleford, a name which Mr
_ Bellows suggests may be derived from a Welsh word
_ signifying a ford in a hollow. In Cheltenham, a road to
4 Bath, which is known to have existed in Saxon times,
crosses the river Chelt at Sandford; and the probability
_ that this name is a corruption of “sarn-ford,” a paved-way
_ ford, is strengthened by the presence of paving-stones in
ay bed of the stream beneath the bridge which carries
the road. Andoversford, the site of the Roman station
of “Wycombe, probably derives its name from a ford

* Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. x., p. 226.
{ Described in ‘“ Gentleman’s Magazine,” Jan., 1864.

mt t Trans. Bris. and Glou. Arceeho. Soc., Vol. vii., p. 132.

| 82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

on the little river Coln, and may reasonably be identified
with the Onnanford, near Withington, mentioned in
ecclesiastical records of the eighth century, but which the
Rev. C. S. Taylor, in an article on “Gloucestershire in the
Eighth Century,” says cannot now be traced.* As
further evidence that places whose names have the affix
“ford” are upon ancient highways we have the fact that
Fairford, Whelford, and Kempsford are joined by a road
still called the Welsh Way.

BRITISH TOWNS AND TRACKWAYS

In endeavouring to ascertain what track-ways may have
existed in the Mid-Cotteswold area before the coming of
the Romans there are some considerations which are
useful for guidance.

(1) “ When the Britons,” says Czsar, “have fortified
“a thick wood with rampart and ditch, they call it a
“town.”t With such a definition, it does not require any
stretch of the imagination to identify many of the Cottes-
wold camps as British towns. Cooper's Hill, with its
double mound enclosing an area of about two hundred
acres; Norbury (near Colesborne) with its area of
six acres, defended by a single mound and_ ditch,
and close to thick woods; Crickley, with its nine
acres, protected on three sides by precipitous hills, and
with a thick wood on the fourth side; Dowdeswell, with
an even larger area, in the middle of thick woods; Cold
Aston, whose entrenchments have disappeared under the
plough, but in which a great number of flint arrow-heads
have been found; Salmonsbury, in the parish of Bourton-
on-the-Water, with a mound and ditch defending an area
of sixty acres; Eubury Camp, in the village of Condicote,

* Trans. Bris. and Glou. Archzo. Soc., Vol. xvi., p. 229.

T Ceesar, ‘‘ Gallic War,” Book v.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 83

near Stow-on-the-Wold, with an area of eight acres—all
these camps are probably the sites of British towns, just
as Cirencester to-day is the modern representative of the
ancient town of the Boduni.

(2) Some of the escarpment camps bear evidence of
successive British and Roman occupation. In the Nott-
ingham Hill Camp, in 1863, Mr Witts records, during
some excavations the original mound of the Britons and
the superstructure erected by the Romans were laid
-bare.* The camp on Cleeve Hill was unquestionably
occupied by the Romans, and it is probable that a long
_ line of earthworks to the north of the camp was the
_ boundary of a pre-historic settlement. On Leckhampton
Hill there is a somewhat similar entrenchment outside
_ the camp, and inside this area a large number of flint
_ arrow-heads have been found; while the fact recorded by
Buckman and Newmarch that in 1850 a true Roman well
was still existing in the centre of the camp, is of itself
sufficient evidence that the camp was occupied by the
Romans.+

(3) Ancient British track-ways, says Prebendary Scarth,
_ may be traced by their being “often worn into deep
“hollows, especially near the camps and places of occupa-
“tion.” The camps at Nottingham Hill, Cleeve Hill,
Hewlett’s Hill, Dowdeswell, and Leckhampton, are
approached from the valley by roads sunk below the level
of the adjoining land, in some cases to the depth of
several feet. Whether the hollows are due to wear or
to their having been so constructed to ease the gradient is
an open question.

(4) Old maps of the county Bane that some roads now
almost disused were formerly important highways. A

* “ Archzological Handbook of Gloucestershire,” p. 13.
+ “Roman Remains at Corinium,” p. 5.

t “Roman Britain,” p. 18.

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

map of Cheltenham and the vicinity a century ago, in the
possession of our colleague Mr Vassar-Smith, notes two
roads to London which even then had ceased to be so
used. One was over Hewlett’s Hill, past the Hewlett’s
Hill camp; the other was up Sandy-lane, on the eastern
brow of Leckhampton Hill. Ogilby’s “Book of the
Roads of England and Wales,” published in 1698, in
describing the road from Gloucester to Coventry, tells the
traveller, when he gets to Prestbury, to avoid the turning
on the left to Southam, and to go “thro’ an irregular
‘“Way over a Hill of 1M. by a Beacon on the Left, and
“by Postlip on the Right”—to Winchcomb. Therefore
two hundred years ago there was a regularly-used road
over Cleeve Hill direct from Prestbury, instead of from
Southam, and which crossed the common on the south
side of the beacon or camp. These three roads, it is
important to note, have for a considerable distance been
worn into deep hollows.

(5) There are certain bye-roads which from construc-
tion or name or connection with ancient camps require to
be connected with arterial highways. In addition to the
roads from camps already mentioned, is a road running
from Whittington past Cleeve Hill camp to Nottingham
Hill camp, and another from Seven Springs past Norbury
camp to Colesborne. There are also two short pieces of
road which are somewhat remarkable. From Upper
Dowdeswell to the village of Withington, there is a road
nearly two miles long, which from its straightness and
breadth is almost certain to be of Roman construction.
A similar road, nearly three miles long, joins Eubury
camp with the Cheltenham and Stow road two miles west
of Stow-on-the-W old.

If these camps and bye-roads are marked upon a map of
the Middle Cotteswolds, it will readily be seen that three
additional lengths of highway are required to bring them
into common communication.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB: 85

First, we want a road extending from the Ermine-street
at Birdlip to the Foss Way at Stow-on-the-Wold. If we
_ suppose the existing highway between these places to
have been a British road, we may by following its course
see that a number of bye-roads and camps are connected
with it.

(a) The British town on Crickley Hill.

(b) The Greenway, from Churchdown, which crosses
the Leckhampton-Birdlip road and runs through
the grounds of Ullen Wood.

(c) Sandy-lane, from Cheltenham, and road from
Norbury Camp (Colesborne).

(d) Two camps at Dowdeswell.

(e) The bye-road from Nottingham Hill and Cleeve
camps.

(f) A small camp at Salperton.

(g) What, judging from its barrows, must in _pre-
historic times have been a populous district
around Upper and Lower Swell.

(h) What is apparently a Roman road from Withington
to Upper Dowdeswell.

(G) A probable Roman road from Eubury camp.

The last two roads should be specially noted. If they

are of Roman construction, as they appear to be, the

pre-existence of the Birdlip-Stow road is_ proved.

Indeed, the only possible conclusion seems to be that one

road was made by the Romans to connect the villas

at Withington and Chedworth and the White Way with a

British track-way at Andoversford; and that the other

road was made to bring into connection with the same

_ track-way the important camp at Eubury.

_ Secondly, we want a .road crossing the valley from

~ Leckhampton Hill to Cleeve Hill via Sandford Bridge,

Cheltenham; for the Romans would assuredly have con-

nected the camps on Leckhampton and Cleeve by a direct

valley toute as well as by the circuitous road past

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Andoversford. Such a road we have in the disused
Sandy-lane and a line of road (the Old Bath road, Hale’s
road, and Cemetery road) to Prestbury, which until
recently was the boundary between Cheltenham and
Charlton Kings; and from Prestbury to Cleeve Cloud
there is the road described in Ogilby’s book. Allusion
has already been made to the probability that Sandy-lane
and Sandford Bridge indicate a Roman way. To this
evidence for place-names may be added that not only are
there, as already mentioned, paving-stones in the bed of
the stream at Sandford Bridge but that in the road
climbing the Cleeve escarpment the edgings of a stone
pavement may still be seen. From Sandford Bridge only
a short length of road would be required for a connection
with Greenway-lane and the track-way over Hewlett’s Hill
to Andoversford.

In connection with these two valley roads, reference
should be made to a camp on the summit of Battledown.
It is somewhat singular that this camp has never been
included in the printed lists of Cotteswold camps.
What its age may be is doubtful; but considering its size
(about ten acres), the strength of its embankments, and
its short distance from the camp on Hewlett’s Hill, it was
in all probability occupied in Roman times if not earlier.
Commanding as it did two important track-ways at its
base, it was not likely that the Romans would have left
such a position open for occupation by their enemies.

Lastly, we want a road extending from the Seven
Springs to Cirencester. There is an old track-way, a
continuation of Sandy-lane, which runs past Norbury
camp to Colesborne. From that village, and west of the
present high road, which is quite a modern one, an old
track-way passes Combend Roman villa, North Cerney
camp, and the remarkable entrenchments at Bagendon,
whence it continued to Cirencester along the valley of the
Churn through Baunton and Stratton.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 87

In his Annual Address to the Cotteswold Club just
twenty years ago, Sir William Guise said: “The fact
~ “forces itself upon us more and more every year, that we
“are gradually ransacking every cranny and corner of the
“district which is within our reach by road or rail within
_ “the compass of a day’s journey. It becomes, therefore,
m6 increasingly difficult to arouse interest in mere locality,
“and we must rely more and more upon the efforts of
“members to work out minute facts of scientific interest
“in their different localities.”*
It is in the spirit which ought to prompt a response to
_ the appeal of our departed President that | venture to
~ offer these notes “On the pre-Saxon occupation of the
~ Middle Cotteswolds.” In the same spirit, may | ask for
the co-operation of members of the Club in an endeavour
to make a complete map of the old by-roads of the
county, many of which were in constant use by drovers
before the abolition of turnpikes, and are now practically
_ discarded.

* Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. vi., p. 269.

Treod

24 NOV.96

é Eubury Camp

r ] Salmonsbury
Camp

orthleach
Norbury Camp

@ Notting Hill Camp

[| Sppontey Villa

Camp Wadfield

Vill
Prestbury se

Churchdown

@ Salmonsbury
Camp

Seven Springs

. . H Wy
[Withington Villa : =} Northleach

Birdlip Elkstone @ Norbury Camp @ i020" Bas
{_]Chedworth Villa

aDap

To Illustrate Paper

“On the Pre-Saxon Occupation of the
Middle Cotteswolds.”

Scale—Half-inch to the Mile.

1 DEC. 97

PARE

PROCEEDINGS

Cotteswold Uaturalists
| FIELD CLUB

For 1896—1897

President
M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

Vice- Presidents
* WILLIAM C. LUCY, F.G.S.
_ Rev. FRED. SMITHE, M.A., ELD, Paes:
3 JOHN BELLOWS
" Rey. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.5S
EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.GS., F.C.S., F.RMS.
Honorary Creasurer
J. H. JONES
Honorary Accretarp
A. S. HELPS, (Gtioucesrer)

1B COUNCIL OF THE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERS1T00D THAT THE AUTHORS
_ ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED
IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS.
a , a —_——__

ib

Contents

eal s AppREss at the Annual Meeting at Cheltenham, 1897.

s on the Geology and Glaciation of Norway. By CHARLES UPTON.

‘the Archeology of the Coln Valley and Notes on the Welsh Way and Foss Way. By
J OHN SAWYER.

2 Manner in which the Domestic Animals and Plants have aided Civilization. By
WINNINGTON-INGRAM.
G Brastershire Rainfall. By A. S. Hers, Hon. Sec.

Notes on the Earthquake of December 17th, 1896. By H. I. Winwoop.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. S 203813

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Pei ClLUB

For 1896—1897

PRESIDENT

M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

HONORARY SECRETARY

A. 5 HELPS

Vol. XII. Part II.

1897

ANNUAL ADDRESS

EG) CAE

COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB
| APRIL, 1897
BY

_M. W. COLCHESTER -WEMYSS, PRESIDENT

_ The Annual Meeting of the Club was held on Monday,
q April 27th, at Cheltenham, in consequence of the serious
outbreak of small-pox at Gloucester.

_ The Treasurer presented his financial statement and
~ the following 7
“a RULES

_ were adopted for the Club :—

¥.—The Objects of the Club are to study the Natural
_ History and Antiquities of the County and the adjacent
_ districts.

_ 2.—The Club shall consist of a President, Vice-Presi-
dents (not exceeding seven in number), an Honorary
Secretary and an Honorary Treasurer, and Honorary,
rdinary and Ex-officio Members. The number of
Ordinary Members shall be limited to one hundred.

- 3.—Before anyone can be elected a Member he must
be duly proposed and seconded at an Ordinary Meeting,
and come up for ballot at a subsequent meeting; one
black ball in ten to disqualify.

_ 4.—The Entrance Fee shall be £1. The Annual Sub-
scription of Ordinary Members shall be Fifteen Shillings,

due in advance on the first day of January.

gO PROCEEDINGS” OF ‘THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

5.—Any Member in arrear with his subscription for
the year is liable to removal from the list of members.

6.—No Member shall be entitled to a copy of the
proceedings whose subscription is one year in arrear.

7.—The Club may admit a limited number of Honorary
Members (see Rule 2), whose scientific work entitles
them to the distinction, and who must be elected at the
Annual Meeting.

8.—The Executive Council for the management of the
Club shall consist of the President, Vice-Presidents, the
Honorary Secretary and the Honorary Treasurer, all of
whom shall retire at the Annual Meeting, but are et
for re-election.

9.—The Annual Meeting shall be held in the early
part of each year, at which meeting the President's
Address shall be read, the financial statement of the
Honorary Treasurer shall be presented, and the President,
Vice-Presidents, Honorary Secretary and Honorary
Treasurer shall be elected, and the dates and places of the
Field Meetings be fixed; but the arrangements for the
Winter Meetings shall be left to the Executive Council.

10.—The Club shall usually hold yearly four Field
Meetings, and also four Winter Meetings for the reading
and discussion of Papers. At the Field Meetings any
Member may introduce one Visitor, and at the Winter
Meetings more than one; and at the Winter Meetings
the term “ Visitor” may include ladies. Members must
give due notice to the Honorary Secretary of their inten-
tion to be present at any Field Meeting, and should any
Member, having given such notice fail to attend, he will
be liable for his share of the expenses.

I1.—The Council may at any time call a Special
General Meeting of the Members. Upon the requisition
of any eight Members being sent to the Honorary
Secretary, a Special General Meeting shall be convened,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB gI
a

_and any proposition to be submitted shall be stated in the
notice. Not less than seven days’ notice of any such
- General Meeting shall be given.

12.—The Club shall use its influence to promote the
preservation of all antiquities and to prevent, as far as
possible, the removal of scarce plants and the extermina-
tion of rare species of flora or fauna.

eS
ha

It will interest the members to know that on the roth

awarded to Professor Etheridge, an honorary member of
our Club, the Bolitho Medal. The honour was all the

greater, as Professor Etheridge is the first recipient of

honoured by the Geological Society, Mr S. S. Buckman

having received the award of the Murchison Fund for this

year, chiefly in recognition of his researches in the

Geology of the Cotteswolds.

- This year being the Jubilee of the Club, it was decided

to repeat, as far as possible, the programme of the first

‘meeting of the Club, which was held at Birdlip on July

7th, 1846. |

It was arranged that the Field Meetings of the year

should be held at—

4 Oxford

Birdlip

Awre and Westbury

a Bibury

2 4 During the winter papers were read by :—

Mr Chas. Upton on “ Geological Notes on Norway.”

Mr John Sawyer on “ The Archeology of the Coln
_ Valley and Notes on the Welsh Way and Foss Way.”

Winnington-Ingram on “The Manner in which
Domestic Animals and Plants have aided Civilization.’

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Mr Helps on “Gloucestershire Rainfall.”
Mr Winwood on “ Notes on the Earthquake of December
17th, 1896.”

These papers, which all possess great interest, will be
published in the forthcoming volume of Proceedings.

The first Field Meeting was held at Oxford on Thurs-
day, 4th June, when the members assembled at the
Oxford Station at noon. They were here met by Pro-
fessor Green, who had kindly agreed to act as guide, thus
materially contributing to the success and interest of the
excursion. During the drive through Cowley to Wheatley
several quarries were examined and their geology
explained by Professor Green. After luncheon the
members inspected some excellent photographs by Mr
H. W. Taunt of Saxon skulls, complete skeletons, and
various articles of Saxon handicraft which had been found
on the site of a Saxon settlement about a mile to the east
of the village. Two or three exposures of Kimmeridge
Clay and a quarry of Coralline Oolite were inspected, and
during a walk over Shotover Hill, strata of Iron Sand,
White Quartz, Portland Sands, Kimmeridge Clay, and
Coralline Oolite were successively examined.

A portion of the party then visited the Bodleian
Library, where Mr F. Madan, the sub-librarian, kindly
called attention to some of its treasures. The members
then proceeded to Queen’s College, where the College
Plate was shown, many excellent examples of the silver-
smiths’ art being the property of the College, including a
curious silver trumpet of the time of Henry VIII., which -
was formerly used to summon the members to dinner, a
custom still retained. Mr H. G. Madan most hospitably
entertained the members with tea, and a most instructive
and agreeable day was thus brought to a close.

The Jubilee Meeting of the Club was held on July 7th,
and I am very much indebted to the Editor of the

| a PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 93

_ “Cheltenham Examiner” for his kind permission to
reproduce the following most admirable article entitled,
' “A Fifty Years’ Retrospect,” which was printed in that
_ paper in giving a description of this meeting.

A FIFTY YEARS’ RETROSPECT

It was on Tuesday, the 7th July, 1846, that a few
_ gentlemen met at the Black Horse Inn, at Birdlip, and
_ founded the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club. Yester-
_ day week was the Jubilee of the Club, and to celebrate
_ the auspicious event the Club again met at the Black
Bs 3 Horse Inn, Birdlip. In one thing, at least, the half a
hundred gentlemen who assembled did not follow the
example of the founders of the Club. “They met for
breakfast at eight o’clock,” says the minute book which
records the first meeting. Most of those who attended
x the Jubilee meeting were content to meet at the G.W.R.
_ station, Cheltenham, at 9.45, and be driven to Birdlip, via
_ Leckhampton Hill and Crickley. En route, they visited
_ the camp on Crickley Hill, and descended the precipitous
escarpment to the “ Devil’s Table,” and then they went
_ to an exceedingly interesting quarry near the Air Balloon
_ Inn, where some of the geological controversialists fully
_ maintained the reputation of the Club for ding-dong argu-
ment upon knotty geological problems. Thence the
q party drove to Birdlip, where a luncheon fit for the veriest
- epicure fully satisfied appetites made keen by Cotteswold
air. While at Birdlip Mr Wethered gave an excellent
address on the chief geological features of the Cotteswold
Club area, Mr S. S. Buckman discussed some of the
problems yet awaiting solution, and Mr John Bellows
dilated on the Roman occupation of Gloucestershire as
typified by what could be seen in the far-reaching land-
scape spread around. From Birdlip the party drove to

94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

the long barrow in West Wood, which Mr G. B. Witts
had thoughtfully had partly uncovered, and of which he
gave a lucid description. Thence to Buckholt, where the
breaks were again left, for the party to descend the hill to
the Roman Villa at Witcombe, to which the Rev W.
Bazeley acted as guide. Thus in the day’s programme
three of the chief Subjects- discussed by the Club were
kept in view— geological, prehistoric, and Roman remains.
And as the Jubilee of the Club offers a fitting opportunity,
it may be of interest if we take a retrospect of the progress
made in the subjects alluded to during the fifty years that
the Club has been in existence.

GEOLOGICAL

When the Club met for the first time the interest taken
in geology was increasing. The geological survey of the
United Kingdom had just been formed into a separate
department of the Civil Service, and the Geological
Society, which was formed in 1807, was just beginning a
record of great advance in geological research. In those
days there were few professional geologists, and the work
of tracing out the history of our planet from the record
of the rocks was chiefly done by amateurs, for whom the
study had a great fascination. Among the geologists who
have from time to time done excellent geological work
are several members of the Cotteswold Club who have
attained considerable eminence, and whose works will live
in the annals of geology. Lycett, Wright, Buckman
(father and son), Witchell, Lucy, Guise, Etheridge,
Smithe, John Jones, Strickland, Brodie, Tomes, Symonds,
Wethered, and others, have done work which has made
their names famous far beyond the circles of the Cottes-
wold Club.

Early in the present century William Smith, the
“Father of Geology,” astonished the world by showing

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 95

_ that rocks may be identified by the fossils they contain,
and on this basis he, in 1815, published a map of the
~ strata of England and Wales. The correctness of his
system of classification has never been shaken, and is
now adopted throughout the world. For twenty years
after Smith’s work was published, the rocks of May Hill,
a well-known Gloucestershire landmark, were given the
- yague name of “ Transition Rocks,” the belief being that
they represented a period of the world’s history which
was transitional between the time when rocks were laid
down all over the globe by chemical precipitation (a
theory, however, now proved to be in error), from a hot
ocean, and a time when conditions more like the present
existed. Sir R. Murchison had doubts about this so-called
“transition period,” and he undertook, with the help of
Professor Sedgwick, to examine this great mass of rocks
with a view to their classification. In this he was entirely
successful, and he added another clearly defined epoch to
¥ the geological succession of strata, and one, too, especially
interesting because of its great antiquity. As a name for
these rocks, Murchison selected the word Silurian, after
_ the name of the brave tribe which at one time occupied
_ the whole area of Gloucestershire, Monmouthshire and
South Wales lying to the west of the Severn; and the
name is now adopted for all rocks of similar age the world
over. Little did Caractacus imagine that the name of his
tribe would be handed down to posterity by the name
_ given to some of the rocks of the land over which they
contested with such determination the advance of the
_ Romans. Though the Silurian rocks were named before
the Cotteswold Club was formed, yet the working out of
~ details of the various sub-divisions has been chiefly done
since, and many have been the interesting days spent by
the Cotteswold Club in the study of the Silurian rocks at

May Hill and other parts of the county.

=
ia

96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

During the last fifty years there has been considerable
discussion as to the origin of coal, and several papers on
this subject have appeared in the Club’s Proceedings.
The vegetable origin of coal is, of course, established
without doubt, but the nature of this vegetation is not
even now accurately ascertained. For some years coal
seams were supposed to have originated from the sub-
mergence of forests, but more recent research seems to
point to aquatic vegetation, more in the nature of bogs
than forests.

With the Coal Period the Paleozoic series of rocks
come to an end, and this end was brought about by
physical disturbance on a very grand scale. Instead of
there being a continuous series of horizontal beds
deposited one over the other in regular sequence, the
Paleeozoic system of rocks became tilted up, and it was
not till after a long lapse of time that these forces sub-
sided and the process of rock building continued. The
débris which formed the Permian and Trias systems was
then deposited over the upturned edges of the Palaeozoic
rocks. As to what went on during this great interval we
are but little better informed than we were 50 years ago.
All we know is that when the forces of disturbance ceased
a new order of things was introduced with the advent of
the Secondary Period. Most of the life of Palaeozoic
days had disappeared, and new forms appeared in the
Permian and Trias rocks, which lie at the base of the
Secondary series, this life including Marsupials, Mam-
malia, and numerous Reptilia, and among the latter is the
Thecodonto-saurus discovered in the Keuper beds near
Bristol.

Resting on the uppermost beds of the Trias are a very
interesting series of strata which have been the subject of
much discussion at the Club meetings, the question in
dispute being to define where the Trias system ends and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 97

the Lias begins. These beds are now included under the
term Rheetic, as they are doubtless the representation in
time of strata in the Rhatic Alps of Lombardy. The
determination of these beds in this country is mostly due
‘to the researches of four members of the Cotteswold
‘Club—Dr Wright, Mr C. Moore, Mr Etheridge, and the
Rev P. B. Brodie. In England these rocks may be
eearded as representing a period of transition, during
which the fauna of the Trias died out, and that of the
‘Lias came into existence, and in this sense they are
mS beds.

_ At the top of the Upper Lias we come to beds which
are still in dispute, the problem being to determine where
the Lias ends and the Oolites begin. After a discussion
for 50 years, the advocates of drawing a hard and fast line
_ between these systems appear to be still at variance as to
where this line should be drawn. Probably it is im-
possible to do so, for, as Professor Phillips has well
observed, “before the Liassic life had come to an end,
the Oolitic had begun.” This question of passage beds
is a question of more than local interest, owing to strata
f this character becoming generally recognised between
Bost systems of rocks.

_ This passage of life from one system of rocks to the
one above was a subject of controversy when the Club was
inaugurated, the dispute being between the advocates of
Catastrophism and Uniformity. The former taught that
tt the close of each geological formation a catastrophe
curred which put an end to the living creatures and
vegetation, and that in the succeeding formation there
afresh creation. The doctrine of Uniformity, with
ch the name of Sir Charles Lyell will ever be associated,
taught the principle that there had been a regular and
Beterrupted sequence of geological phenomena, and
a the vast changes which have taken place in former

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

periods have been the result of the slow and ceaseless
working of ordinary physical forces ; further, that the life
of one period was the progenitor of the life which
appeared in the succeeding formation. Within the last
fifty years the theory of Catastrophy has been shown to
be erroneous, and that of Uniformity generally accepted.

One of the greatest geological discoveries of the last
fifty years is associated with the name of Mr E. Wethered,
a vice-president of the Club and a former secretary. The
Oolitic rocks were until a few years ago looked upon as
of mineral origin, the small grains being supposed to have
been formed by layers of lime gathering round a tiny
nucleus. By microscopic examination, Mr Wethered has
demonstrated that instead of being of mineral origin, the
Oolitic grains are organic in structure, and were formed
by the tubules of a very low form of life, to which the
name “ Girvanella” has been given. Had the Cotteswold
Club done nothing else of importance, it might rest its
geological fame upon the work of Mr Wethered. But
the work also done by Mr Lucy in connection with the
Glacial Epoch as it affected the Cotteswolds, by Professor
Etheridge and Mr Taunton relative to the hydrology of
the Cotteswold area, by Mr Hoskold upon the coal-bearing
strata of Dean Forest, and by other members on other
branches of geological science, have placed the Cottes-
wold Club in the front rank of scientific societies in the
kingdom.

PREHISTORIC MEN

The progress made in our knowledge of our pre-
historic ancestors since the Cotteswold Club was founded
has been enormous. Fifty years ago, indeed, scarcely any
attempt had been made to classify the evidences of pre-
historic occupation afforded by burial mounds, flint and
stone implements scattered over the surface of the soil,

PROCEEDINGS: OF «THE? COTTESWOLD CLUB 99

worked flints beneath stalagmitic floors in. caves, and
signs of man’s handiwork buried beneath accumulations
of gravel. To-day the chaotic mass has been reduced to
order, and ethnologists have from it written the story of
early men in Britain. When the Romans landed on our
: shores they were opposed by natives who apparently for
a long time had used weapons and domestic articles made
of iron and bronze. The Cotteswold dwellers were a
Celtic tribe called the Boduni (Bo, to dwell; dun, a hill
_ —literally, “hill-dwellers”). They belonged to the great
- Celtic race which, in two swarms—the earlier the Goidelic,
the later the Brythonic—started from their home in the
_ East, swept across the southern part of the Continent,
seized upon land in Spain and Gaul, and then landed in
_ Britain. Their voice is no longer heard in the land ; but,
as Professor Rhys, author of ‘Celtic Britain,” says,
_ “skulls are harder than consonants, and races lurk behind
when languages slink away;” and in circular burial
-mounds like those at Leckhampton, Crickley, Birdlip, and
_ elsewhere are the bones of the race which had occupied
- Gloucestershire long before they had to bend to the stern
4 yoke of their Roman conquerers. But other burial
s mounds tell of an earlier race than the Celts. Tall,
square-built, muscular, not pleasant in face, were the
people whose skeletons are found in the circular-shaped
tumuli, and the shape of their burial places was very
nearly the shape of their heads. In the long “ tumps,”
on the other hand, barrows like those in West Wood and
on Shurdington Hill, and, best preserved of all, that
which crowns the height of Uley Bury, we have the
‘remains of an Iberian race, short of stature, long in head,
and pleasant of countenance. Metal was to them
unknown, save that they may have recognised that bits of
stone with glistening grains or surface were particularly
; iseful, because heavy, when with sling and stone they

100 PROGEEDINGS: OF THE COTTESWOLD:’ CLUB

hunted their prey or defended their homes. Arrow-
heads, knives, scrapers, saws, borers were made of flint,
beautifully shaped adzes and hammers were of stone, and
lighter articles such as needles and pins were constructed
of bone. For how long these men dwelt in Gloucester-
shire no man knows. Whence they came and whither
they went no man can tell.

But early as these Iberian stone and flint-using folk
were, investigations made during the last fifty years, and
particularly during the last twenty years, show that there
were other races far earlier. In two caves on the banks
of the Wye, and in a cavern near Lydney, remains of man
have been found covered by beds of earth, gravel and
stalagmite. The thickness of the beds of stalagmite
indicates the dropping of lime-charged water from the
cavern roof during a very long period, and it is difficult to
avoid the conclusion that the beds of earth and gravel
were swept in by streams which once flowed at the same
level as the cavern floor—a level far above that at which
the nearest streams now flow. In many caves the bones
of extinct animals are associated with human remains,
thus placing the great antiquity of the cave dwellers
beyond any reasonable doubt. Even cave men, however,
were not the earliest Gloucestershire men. It is now
about fifty years since a French scientist found some
worked flints in a gravel bed many feet below the surface
of the soil. His theory that these flints were the remains
of men who lived when the gravel was deposited was at
first received with incredulity. In the course of a few
years worked flints were found under similar conditions
in other parts of Europe, and then men began to search
for them in England. ‘The gravels in the valley of the
Thames speedily revealed evidence of man’s existence
when the gravels were laid down, and similar evidence is
forthcoming from the valley of the Severn. The general —

PROCEEDINGS OF THE -COTTESWOLD CLUB IOI

conclusion from these discoveries is that men roamed
_ over Gloucestershire, hunting for animals now extinct,
with weapons of flint and stone, at a time when the
Severn Valley as we know it had not been scooped out,
and the North Sea and English Channel did not exist.
_ Following them came the men whose remains are found
in caves, then the Iberians who were buried in long
" barrows, and then the Celtic race, whose remains are
interred in round barrows. and who peopled Britain when
Julius Czesar landed upon our shores.

ag In the working out of these problems of the prehistoric
as the Cotteswold Club has taken a prominent part.
» To the late Rev W. S. Symonds, rector of Pendock,
belongs the honour of having discovered undoubted relics
Beeman i in King Arthur’s Cave and Bannerman’s Hole, on
the banks of the Wye, and thus made a valuable and
‘corroborative contribution to our knowledge of men of
% ne Cave period. The well-preserved long barrow near
B irdlip was found by Mr G. B. Witts, and in opening and
Beeocnbing it he had the invaluable help and guidance of
Professor Rolleston, one of the greatest authorities on the
BR bicct. A long barrow at Nymphsfield was opened by
a late Professor Buckman, and the Club also undertook
the cost of opening barrows in other parts of the county.
The ancient camps on the Cotteswolds were carefully
surveyed and mapped by Mr G. F. Playne, who also was
the first to discover pit-dwellings on the commons above
Stroud, and the value of which Professor Rolleston was
one > of the first to recognise.

THE ROMAN OCCUPATION

hen the complete story of the Roman occupation of
cestershire is written, the work done and recorded
members of the Cotteswold Club will occupy a large
: Fifty years ago our knowledge of the Romans in

102. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

this county was confined to a few arterial roads and villas,
and some remains brought to light at Gloucester and
Cirencester. Thanks to the researches of the last twenty
or thirty years, and the vast amount of Roman relics
brought to light, we can now in imagination see the
march of Vespasian and his followers over the Cottes-
wolds, the capture and occupation of Cirencester, the
construction—mainly by adaptation of existing defences ~
—of a series of camps along the Cotteswold escarpment,
the settlement all over the plateau, and then the building
of acamp (which afterwards became a colony) at Glou-
cester as part of the forward movement against the Silures
on the Western side of the Severn. Evidence has come
to light, too, which shows the dates and other details of
much of the Roman work. We know that it was in the
first century that the Roman engineers constructed the
splendid fortress of Gloucester, and made the road which,
straight as an arrow flies, connects the city with the
Roman posting station at Birdlip. We know that,
advancing from Gloucester, they made a road, known as
the Via Julia, through Dean Forest to beyond Chepstow,
where tall, strong, green-covered walls still mark the site
of the Roman camp at Caerwent. We know that, still
advancing, the Roman road was carried to near Newport,
and that at Caerleon a camp was constructed which was
an exact replica of Gloucester. We know that the
engineers and soldiers who did all this work belonged to
the Second Augustan legion. We know that the villas at
Chedworth, Witcombe, and Wycombe (Andoversford)
were Government farms for the breeding of horses for
the Government service, and the details given by Roman
historians as to the civil and military administration
enable us to draw a fairly complete and accurate picture
of what Gloucestershire was during the first four centuries
of the Christian era.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 103

_ Several members of the Cotteswold Club have done
“much to increase our knowledge of the Roman occupa-
tion, but head and shoulders above all is Mr John Bellows,
of Gloucester.. He it was who not only discovered but
completely traced the walls of Glevum; it was he who
found and tracked the road from Blcacamat to Caerwent
and Caerleon; and no man, hardly excepting Prebendary
Scarth, knows more than he does of the details of the
coming, the stay, and the going of the Power which for
nearly four centuries ruled the island of Britain.

_ Ina short address the President of the Club glanced at
the general character of the work it had done, and
expressed a_ hope that the next fifty years will see the
3 lub maintain its present high position. If the spirit of
enquiry after truth which has animated its members be
continued, a solid record of progress will mark the
centenary of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club.

_ Among those present at the meeting were—Mr M. W.

nm

Colchester-Wemyss, president; Messrs John Bellows and
E. Wethered, vice-presidents; Rev E. Cornford, hon.
sec.; Mr J. H. Jones, hon. treasurer; Major Abbott,
Messrs G. E. Baker, Dr Bond, C. Bowly, C. J. Bowstead,
© E. Browne, S. S. Buckman, Rev W. Butt, H..G.
fas... Currey Dr J. Drew, T:-S.. Ellis, Major
er, C. E. Gael, F. Hannam-Clark, G. W. Keeling, A.
Blanc, H. G. Madan, W. Margetson, W. L. Mellersh,
L. Meredith, A. E. W. Paine, E. W. Prevost, Deputy-
peon-General Ringer, John Sawyer, E. C. Sewell,
J. Stanton, C. H. Stanton, C. Upton, Rev. A. W.
a : Viner, eee General Watson, Rev A. R.

104. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

The third field meeting was held on August 7th, when
the party assembled at Newnham, and drove thence to
Awre, where the architectural features of the church were
explained by Mr Waller. The members examined the
curious old muniment chest, on the top of which in old
days the bodies of those found drowned in the Severn
were placed; and the Register, complete from the year
1538. The tide was too high to allow of an inspection of
the interesting Liassic beds which are exposed at low
water in the bed of the river. The drive was then
resumed through Blakeney to Soudley, where there
exists in good preservation a small Roman Camp in a
commanding position close to the Via Julia. Most of the
members then climbed the Hill to the Blaize Bailey and
walked thence to Littledean, enjoying one of the most
lovely and extended views in the Forest of Dean. They
passed an old house called the “ Temple,” about which
Mr John Bellows made some remarks, saying that he was
of opinion that the Severn at Newnham was the scene of
the most important battle the Romans ever fought in
Britain; that the site of “the Temple” commands this
battle field from the summit of the hill above, and that no
less than four Roman roads are known to cross at the
same spot. »After luncheon at Littledean, the members
proceeded to Gunns Mills along the Roman road, on
which the bordering stones can still be very clearly
traced, passed Flaxley Abbey, examined, close to the
schools, an interesting Upper Ludlow Quarry, and thence
drove to Westbury, where the Vicar kindly acted as guide
to the church. A visit was then paid to the celebrated —
Garden Cliff, the geological features of which were
explained by Mr Wethered. The party then honoured
the President with a visit to Westbury Court, and
returned thence in the carriages to Newnham. t

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 105

_ The last Field Meeting of the season was held on
_ Thursday, September 3rd, when for the first time the
Club paid a visit to Bibury. Driving from Cirencester
_ past the junction of the Foss Way and Ikenild Street, the
~ Quarry of Forest Marble at Barnsley was examined and
_ described by Mr Buckman and Mr Wethered. The
_ interesting Camp at Ablington was visited, which has an
_ area of some nine acres, and was probably the site of a
_ permanent settlement in very ancient times. Hence a
_ member of the Club led the party over Lady Hill, pointing
out along low mound with a shallow ditch outside it,
_ which is believed to be the vestige of an ancient Rampart.
Near Bibury Court Mr Sawyer pointed out the site of a
~ Roman villa which was accidentally discovered some years
ago, and which has never yet been excavated. Since the
Club visited this spot I have been informed that the chief
_ obstacle which hitherto has interfered with the exploration
of this villa has been removed, and I should like to
suggest that we communicate with the Bristol and Glou-
cester Archzological Society with a view to jointly carry-
a out a complete examination of the site. A visit was

‘Saxon, is very early Norman. After an excellent luncheon
at the Swan Hotel, the famous Bibury spring was
eeomined, from which sce Rone an immense

v itts, in his Archzological Handbook of Gloucestershire,
Says differs from other barrows in the county in being

OH

106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

with rubble. It was opened about forty years ago, and_
found to have the horned end so characteristic of long
barrows all over the kingdom, and in the middle of the
curve between the ends stood a stone about 6 feet square. —
At the north end was a chamber made of rough stones,
in which human bones were found.

Another structure visited by the Club is of great
interest. It is an underground chamber, constructed
entirely of stone with dome-shaped roof. The diameter
of the chamber is about six feet, and it has an entrance
about two feet wide. A few stones on the crown have
been removed, but otherwise the structure is in an
excellent state of preservation. Locally it is known as a
shepherd’s hut, but whatever it was it can never have
been built by or for shepherds. Canon Greenwell has
described two very similar structures, both at Nether
Swell. As to their antiquity he has no doubt whatever,
and he inclines to the belief that they were used for inter-
ments, and belonged to a transition period, when the long- —
chambered barrow was being replaced by the round
tumulus for purposes of burial.

About half a mile away is a barrow about 100 feet long
and 40 feet wide, which has the appearance of a round
barrow 40 feet in diameter, with a low mound some 60
feet long extending on its northern side. This extended
mound had been dug into, but the loftier circular portion
had not been disturbed until it was recently opened by
Mr Sawyer. Digging downwards from the highest part
of the mound, he found that its central portion, about 10
feet in diameter, was composed entirely of stones, arranged
carefully from the centre, from which they had a slight
tilt. All the rest of the mound is of rubble. About two
feet east of the centre, and on the natural surface of the
ground, was a cist about 2 feet square and 9 inches deep,
containing phosphate of lime and dirt. The inference is

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 107

_ that a body had been cremated, the bones and dust placed
- inthe cist, and then the huge mound built over it.
Returning to the village of Ablington, a short visit was
paid to the Manor House, where Mrs Gibbs kindly invited
the party to afternoon tea. The house is a good speci-
men of sixteenth century architecture.

- Appended isa short report on the Society’s Library :—
It will be within the recollection of the members that an
arrangement was authorised at the last General Meeting,
under which a large and very suitable and convenient
_ room on the premises of Mr J. Bellows in Eastgate street,
Gloucester, was rented jointly by the Cotteswold Club
and the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archeological Society,
for the purposes of a library, reading room, and meeting
room for committees.

_ The tenancy commenced in June, 1896, and a bookcase
was then placed in the room for the reception of the
a literature” of the Club. This, which consists chiefly
periodicals and reports sent by other societies and

at his ees in the Docks. The whole of it, including a
large number of surplus copies of the “ Proceedings,” has
been transferred to the new bookcase, and a careful
inventory has been made of it. About 30 copies of each
of the first three volumes of the “Proceedings” have
been collected from the loose sheets and stitched in paper
covers, ready for issue to any members who desire to
have them or other back volumes.

_A few articles of furniture, the cost of which has been
ired by the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archzological
ciety, have been purchased for the room, which has,
ce September last, been open every Tuesday afternoon

for the convenience of members, very few of whom, how-

108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

It is proposed to continue the same arrangement, in
conjunction with the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archzeo-
logical Society, at any rate, for another year, viz., until
June, 1898. .

It may be as well to mention that the rent of the room,
viz., £12 per annum, and the other expenses of main-
tenance, have for the past year been divided equally
between the two Societies; but since it is found that the
Archeological Society takes the largest share both of
space in, and use of, the room, it is proposed that for the
coming year the Society should pay two-thirds, and the |
Cotteswold Club one-third of the expenses. There is
every reason to believe that this arrangement will be
accepted as a fair one by the Archzological Society.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY AND

GLACIATION OF NORWAY
BY

CHARLES UPTON

One of the first things which strikes a stranger with
_ geological instincts on first visiting Norway, is the almost
entire absence of plains and gently undulating country
such as we are accustomed to see in England. There are
no Secondary Rocks such as give rise to our rolling chalk
downs, our rounded Cotteswolds, or our level stretches
_ of country occupied by clays of the Lias and Trias. .
_ Metamorphic Rocks—Gneiss, Mica-schist and the like
—occupy the greater part of the country, and these (as is
‘usually the case) are very much dislocated and contorted.
The pressure to which the Rocks have been subjected
has been so extreme that the included “eyes” have in
many cases been drawn out into mere threads and lamine.
As one steams along the coast from South to North,
one sees nothing but an almost continuous succession of
rugged cliffs, sometimes of stupendous height, as in the
e of Hornelen, a sheer cliff of about 3000 feet in height,
rising straight up from the water’s edge.
_ From Stavanger northwards to about the Nordfjord,
the rocks have the massive rounded appearance of granite :
they are, however, a very highly metamorphosed Gneiss,
as -atule of no very great elevation. From thence right ©

TLOD /-PROGEEDINGS- OF THE COT LES WOLD “CLUB

up to the North Cape, and for some distance to the East-
ward of that point, the mountains which fringe the coast
are, generally speaking, loftier and of more rugged out-
line, almost the only breaks in the line of cliffs being the
entrances to the numerous Fjords and the lesser valleys
at the mouths of the rivers.

To the north of Trondhjem the rocks appear to be
somewhat less altered, consisting mainly of Schists, fre-
quently showing the original lines of stratification very
plainly. About three hours steam north of the entrance
to the Trondhjem Fjord, is a magnificent range of cliffs
of all shades of red, yellow and brown, with occasional
white bands. Lit up by the evening sun, as I saw them,
these cliffs are a truly gorgeous spectacle, the recollection _
of which is not easily effaced. These Red Rocks have
been referred to the old Red Sandstone, but this sugges-
tion is, I believe, not generally accepted, and in the
absence of fossil evidence their age must be considered
not proven.

Further north the rocks are for the most part of
Schistose character, gradually getting finer in texture
until at the North Cape itself they are more of the nature
of a dark grey clay slate than true Schists.

From Bodé northwards, to some 40 to 50 miles
beyond Tromsé, the disturbance and dislocation has been
tremendous, and this, together with the action of the
frost on the splintery Schists, has given rise to some of
the grandest scenery possible. For some 200 miles or
more the Lofoten Islands, the islands of Hind6é and
Senjen, the islands in the neighbourhood of Tromsé, and
the peninsula behind which lies the Lyngen Fjord,
present one continuous succession of lofty mountains
with sharp jagged tops and equally sharp valleys
between, many of the valleys and mountain sides being
occupied by glaciers of no mean dimensions, affording

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB III
4 altogether, in my opinion, the grandest scenery of the

Eastwards, ied Hie: North Cape, the character of the
g rocks changes, gradually growing less rugged and stern
: until at Vads6, on the North shore of the Varanger
_ Fjord, the shore line consists of low level cliffs composed
_of black muddy shales. Here, too, the general appearance
of the country is very different. Instead of lofty rugged
_ mountains we have comparatively low ridge-like hills, with

= On the South shore of the Varanger Fjord the moun-
tains, which consist of Gneiss, are considerably more
rugged in outline than the stratified rocks of the Northern
_ shore, but not so lofty as those further south. So far as

_ highly metamorphosed.

In one or two places rocks of Silurian Age have been
_ detected along the West Coast, but the area occupied by
them is comparatively insignificant.

Such is a very brief outline of the physical geology of
_ the country as seen from the deck of a steamer.

It is stated in all text Books on Geology that the
southern portion of Scandinavia is sinking, whilst the
northern portion is being elevated, and, naturally, I was
-on the look out for evidence in confirmation of that
assertion. Such evidence I found in plenty. From the

races, occasionally of very considerable extent. All
towns and villages are built upon them, and, indeed,
e it not for such terraces it would be almost impossible

Ll2 .. - PROCEEDINGS “OF THE) COTTESWOLD CLUB

apparent, as level as the sea itself, looking very like rail- —
way embankments, while in many of the Fjords terrace
rises behind terrace to a height in many instances of
several hundred feet.

The materials of which the terraces are formed varies,
as it might naturally be supposed, according to the
materials which the sea had to act upon, and the circum-
stances under which they were deposited, in some
instances consisting of pebbles and shingle, ranging from.
huge boulders weighing many cwts. each, down to fine
gravel; in others, as in the Romsdal, being composed
almost entirely of sand; again, in other places being
mainly constituted of clayey material, and not un-
frequently of shells and shell sand. Where the shore is
steep and exposed to the open sea, usually there is but
little evidence of terracing, but occasionally more or less
obscure notchings in the cliffs could be seen. Two
reasons may be assigned for this— Ist, the violent action
of the water would tend to keep all portable material
below high tide mark, and, as the elevation of the land,
though relatively rapid at times, was nevertheless very
gradual, the sea had ample time to work upon the in-
coherent material which in more sheltered spots would
have been left where it was deposited; 2nd, the accumu-
lation of débris from the crumbling of the cliffs would
obscure any such narrow terraces as the sea might have
left. On the other hand, in the Fjords and sheltered
coves terraces are almost invariably found.

The city of Trondhjem stands on a terrace of sand far
up in the Fjord of the same name, formed, so far as one
could judge from a very hasty survey, in the manner
indicated, but moulded, so to speak, by the river which
winds around the city.

In the Romsdal the terraces could be plainly seen for
many miles up the valley, extending right up to and beyond

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB [13

the very base of the mighty Romsdalshorn itself. The
terraces here are composed almost exclusively of sand.
Ido not know the height to which they extend, but it
must be very considerable, as the road ascends almost
continuously from Andalsnaes. The number of perfectly

_ well defined terraces is very great, too many to be easily
counted, and as they extend entirely across the valley, the
quantity of sand accumulated is prodigious.

The town of Bod6é stands on a raised beach of an
entirely different character. The valley in which the
town is situated is of considerable size. Behind the
town, and between it and the mountains which rise inland,
there lies a level plain, the greater portion of which is at
the present day occupied by a peat bog resting upon a
substratum of stiff dark blue clay. All along the sea
‘margin there is a ridge having an elevation of about 80 to
90 feet, composed of similar blue clay, with a considerable
number of well rounded boulders embedded in it, and
upon the top of this there rests a bed of regularly

stratified shell sand, varying in thickness from one up to
several feet, containing vast numbers of the shells of
Mya truncata. Most of the shells are entire, and in very
many instances the pairs were lying in contact. ' It
_ appears probable, however, that the shells were washed
_ up, as none were observed in crypts, and all were lying
on their sides, although from their perfect condition they
could only have been transported a very short distance,
_and by comparatively tranquil water.’ Overlying the shell
* is a bed of peat of about 9 inches in thickness. The

a ircumstances favoured observation, as extensive Faeasage
works were in progress, and consequently a number of
excellent sections were open for inspection. In this

connection a feature of some interest observed at Bod6é

[TA PROCEEDINGS*OF--LHE “-COPTES W OLD*CLUB

may be mentioned. For a considerable distance along
the foreshore on the sheltered side of the bay there runs
a ridge of boulders just about the line of high tide mark
at ordinary tides. Being somewhat conspicuous and
unusual, one naturally desired to know how they came
there. The action of the water alone is clearly insufficient
to account for their presence, and there is no obvious
reason why they should have been placed there by man.
The only tenable hypothesis is that they were pushed up
by the action of floating ice.

It is a well known fact that in severe winters ice forms
along the shore in shallow places to a considerable thick-
ness, picking up boulders from the bottom. On the ice
breaking up, it drifts through the action of the wind and
tide, into the more sheltered bays, where it becomes
stranded and eventually deposits its burden of boulders.
These in time are pushed up further and further by
subsequently formed ice, and ultimately form a ridge at
the highest point reached by the drift ice.

Amongst and on the land side of this row of boulders
a blue clayey deposit is accumulating, very similar to that
underlying the town and forming the substratum of the
peat bog, and the inference is irresistable that the line of
boulders seen along the foreshore is merely a repetition
of the action which has been going on for a very con-
siderable period; that the ridge is nothing less, in fact,
than the commencement or foundation of another terrace.

Troms6, like Bod6, is built upon a raised beach. It
stands on the west side of a narrow channel, through
which runs a very strong current. Ow ving to local causes,
the swift portion of the stream is on the side of the strait |
farthest from the town, whilst near the shore on the town
side there is practically no current. The subsoil consists
of Blue Clay with a few boulders, not materially different
in appearance from that underlying Bod6, and, as in that

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB II5

case, capped by a bed of very fine shell sand, only of
% much greater extent and thickness. One section was
_ observed where upwards of 5 feet of the shell gravel was
exposed without showing the base. The species of shells
are also much more numerous, and a very large propor-
.tion are entire. A similar deposit appears to be in
course of formation along the shore at the present day.

Another instance of a town similarly situated is that of
_ Hammerfest, but the circumstances here are somewhat
_ different and peculiar. The town is built at the head of
an almost circular bay, perfectly sheltered from the
_ violence of the open sea, but having apparently a circular
current which enters from the south-west, sweeping along
_ the north shore, and which, but.for the circumstance to be
next noticed, would make the entire circuit of the bay. At
the north-eastern extremity of the bay, and immediately
to the north of the town, is a stream of sufficient volume
to deflect the current, causing it to take a course towards
the centre of the bay. Immediately to the south of
where the two streams unite, there juts out into the
“water a somewhat triangular shaped terrace, and on this

has been levelled at the top by the same agency
which deposited the material of the terrace just men-
tioned, and to exactly the same height as the uppermost

116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

terrace on which part of the town stands, and it would
appear that the moraine was formed beneath the waters of
the bay before the land was elevated to its present
position, being, in fact, a fine example of a subaqueous
moraine. The top of the terrace and dam would be from
8v to 90 feet above the sea level.

The best opportunity of studying raised beaches in
detail was afforded during the stay at Vads6. The town
itself, unlike most of those passed on the voyage thither, is
not situated upon a raised beach. Stretching from the
town eastwards is a range of low cliffs seldom more than
25 to 30 feet in height, consisting of black shales, looking
very tempting to the hammer, but wofully disappointing
on investigation, for although they were examined with
very considerable care for some miles by two companions
and myself, we were unable to discover the slightest
vestige of an organism. The age is unknown, though
probably of earlier date than the Trias. Towards the
_ west the shale is obscured by recent shingle, and about
two miles west of the harbour there stands out a pro-
montory of Schistose or Gnessic Rock, against which
abuts a series of raised beaches. This promontory, with
a range. of ancient cliffs extending inland from it, evidently
once formed the shore line. Immediately behind the
town is a ridge of old beach, the top being about 9o feet
above sea level, then comes a bog of considerable extent,
and beyond this a grand series of terraces. I cannot say
how many distinct terraces might be counted, but
probably not fewer than thirty. The height of several of
the most important were noted, four of them being
respectively 227, 232, 240 and 285 feet above sea level,
the last being, so far as my observation went, the highest.
The height of the first range of hills in the rear of Vads6
is about 400 feet, but I am disposed to think that an
examination of the loftier hills further inland would disclose

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB II7

terraces of greater altitude. As, however, there are
no roads except along the shore, and the natural features
of the country making walking very laborious, I was
unable to investigate the matter further in that direction.
. a was, however, fortunate enough to be able to extend
_ my investigations up to the head of the Varanger Fjord,
_and from thence right across the low-lying country lying
_ between it and the Tana River, altogether somewhere
~ about 35 miles. Over the whole of that area the same
_ series of terraces is persistent, and it is quite obvious that
_ at no very great distance of time, geologically speaking,
the peninsula lying to the eastward of the Tana River,
and to the north of the Varanger Fjord, on which the
_ towns of Vads6 and Vard6 stand, was an island.

Just above the Lapp village of Karlbotn, which lies at
the southern head of the. Varanger Fjord, there exists a
_ very interesting feature in connection with these terraces.
Bro the-left of the village, looking from the Fjord, is a
; me euncent array of terraces, looking, at a distance, like

Pthe most perfect manner. On the opposite side is a
oe, poneing series. a terraces for about the lower

| 4 settlement of Bigganjargga, the view was very strik-
x Immediately in front lay a step-like arrangement of

118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

the Fjord, and on the opposite side of the Fjord, from
the extreme left of the range of vision, all along the shore,
passing Karlbotn and right away to the valley of the Tana
River for many miles, there is an almost continuous
range of terraces, broken only here and there by the more
precipitous mountain spurs, constituting probably as fine
a panorama of ancient beaches as it would be possible to
see.

In the neighbourhood of Vads6 each of the more
prominent terraces is bordered on the land side by a
range of low cliffs, having precisely the appearance of the
cliffs against which the sea now washes lower down, and
it is perfectly easy to estimate the force of the waves
which once played against them. In places where the
wave action was but slight, the shales are merely sub-
angular slabs, piled up precisely as may be seen on any
beach where the rocks are flaggy or shaly, whilst towards
the west of the town, where the water must have exerted
greater force, the pebbles are perfectly rounded, and the
rocks against which they lie smoothed and worn away by
the continuous pounding of the pebbles. There were
many small potholes or giants kettles in the rocks, in a
few instances having the original pebbles remaining in
them.

The 240 foot terrace was perhaps the most extensive,
having a width in places of 40 to 50 yards, and this was
remarkable in another way. All along for miles it was
strewn with thoroughly well-rounded boulders, many of
them of huge dimensions, much too large to have been
transported by water, except in the form of ice. Many of
the boulders were of material not found in the immediate
locality, and the only way to account for their presence is
to assume that they were brought there by drift ice. So
far as one could judge from an imperfect knowledge of
the country, they came from the eastward, beyond the
head of the Fjord.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB _ II9

Of equal importance and interest with the raised
_ beaches is the evidence of the action of ice in the past
and at the present day. Generally it may be stated that
_ there is most unequivocal proof that in former ages the
- whole country, with the probable exception of the top-
“most points of the mountains, was covered by an
enormous mass of ice. The sides of all the deep valleys,
Srfor, perhaps, from 2000 to 3000 feet up, are smoothed
and polished as if they had been carefully worked by
‘masons, and where the rocks are of a character to retain
wihem, the striz are as clear as if they were made
but yesterday. The direction of the flow was naturally
‘seawards. The pressure of the ice must have been some-
thing inconceivable. In the valley above Odde, for miles
the side of the mountain is almost vertical, and the face

phenomena on perhaps a still more gigantic scale. The
Romsdalshorn is about 6000 feet in height, and for

the Nzrodal, is ice rounded to the very summit.
_ The rocks along the actual coast line and the small

untry to the other, have their tops and sides similarly
rounded and polished. This may, however, be due partly
fo the action of water, but it is probable that ice action

highest mountain tops do not appear to have been
covered by ice. This is very noticeable in the Romsdal.

120 - PROCEEDINGS OF THE ‘COTTESWOLD: GLUE

Further north, too, in the Lofoten Islands and in the
neighbourhood of Troms6, the pointed mountain tops
stand out from the snow and ice which to a very large
extent covers their flanks and fills up the higher valleys
between them. Bare mountain peaks also stand out from
the perpetual snows of the Jostedalsbrae and the Svartisen
Glacier. Nansen noticed the same thing in Greenland,
and most arctic navigators have given similar testimony.
It is therefore safe to assume that even during the glacial
periods the ice never completely covered the loftiest
mountains.

The action of floating ice in pushing up the ridge of
boulders along the shore at Bod6 and in depositing the
rounded boulders on the old beach at Vads6, has already
been alluded to, but I confess to a slight disappointment
at not finding more evidences in this direction. The
instances mentioned were not the only ones observed,
but, generally speaking, the effects were not very con-
spicuous.

The usual phenomena connected with glaciers is, of
course, very apparent wherever glaciers exist or have
existed. At the foot of the Buarbre and the Bojumsbree
(which were the only glaciers I visited) there were the
usual moraines, and throughout the length of most of the
valleys were huge masses of moraine matter, frequently
extending completely across the valley and holding up
considerable lakes. The Buar lake, just above Odde, is
an instance of this kind, and another lake of similar
character exists in the Romsdal. Each glacier, too, has
its ice cave, out of which flows the stream caused by the
melting of the ice. The ice cave at the Bojumsbre is
of very considerable dimensions. Near the Bojumsbre
is another glacier called the Suphellebra, which is a good
example of a re-cemented glacier. The peculiarity arises
from the circumstance that masses of ice break off from

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 121

the end of the descending glacier and re-consolidate at the
base of the mountain, forming a secondary glacier.

Before quitting the subject of ice and ice action, I must
refer to a supremely interesting instance of palozoic
glaciation to which my attention was called by Mr A.
Strahan, of the Geological Survey, and which it was my
good fortune to visit in company withhim. Near Biggan-
jargga, at the head of the Varanger Fjord, the formation
consists of sandstone altered into a quartzite. This quart-
zite rests unconformably on an eroded surface of Gneiss,
_ and is regularly bedded. The surface of one of the beds
of quartzite is.very clearly scored with glacial strice. The
_ grooves, which are very numerous and distinct, run in
_ various directions, the three principal sets having the
following directions, viz: —N. 30° W.; W. 20° N.; and
_N. 10° W. There was no doubt whatever about them.
_ They were not mere casual scratches such as might be
made by rocks tumbling upon and slipping over the
surface, but perfectly well defined and unmistakable
glacial strice, which could be traced up to and under the
drift which rested upon the striated rock. Immediately
upon this striated surface reposed a mass of consolidated
glacial drift with embedded boulders, the included frag-
ments ranging from sand up to two feet in diameter, the
larger being for the most part of granitic character, the
‘smaller of shale and other materials. The bed of con-
glomerate has a maximum visible thickness of about

9 feet, and a lateral extent of about 60 to 70 yards. How

far it extends inland it is impossible to tell. The mass
thins out northerly in about four yards from its thickest
t, and against it the quartzite is unconformably bedded,
is continued in regular sequence over it for a con-
siderable thickness. Just at the junction of the upper
quartzites with the mass of drift, the rock consists of an
termixture of the drift and sandstone, or, to express it

122 ‘PROCEEDINGS OF. THE COTTES WOLD: CLUB

more correctly, the quartzite encloses fragments of the
drift material, constituting a kind of secondary con-
glomerate. The quartzites have not yielded any fossils,
so their age is uncertain, but from extrinsic evidence it is
considered that they cannot be more recent than the
Trias, and are not unlikely to be of Silurian age.

| am informed that a somewhat parallel case is known
in Australia, but with that one single exception it is
believed to be unique.

Dr Hans Reusch was the discoverer of this remarkable
example of ancient glaciation, and he describes it at some
length in the “Norges Geologiske Underségelse” for
1892, with diagrams and reproductions from photographs.

It has been stated, on the strength of certain measure-
ments taken at intervals of some years, that the Scandin-
avian glaciers are gradually advancing down the valleys.
Iam not prepared to deny this, nor, on the other hand,
am I quite able to accept it as a true proposition. The
evidence afforded by the moraines seems to point in the
other direction, for they are found in all the valleys
whether occupied at the present day by glaciers or not, at
frequent intervals from the sea upwards, and in the case
of existing glaciers the moranic matter for a distance of
some hundred yards from the actual ice foot, has a very
modern appearance. This looks very much as if the ice
was receding.

In connection with this glacial débris one feature which
astonished me was the enormous size of some of the
blocks of stone of which it consisted. At the foot of the
Bojumsbrz some of the blocks must have been of many
thousand tons in weight, large enough to have accommo-
dated a respectable quarry.

Although there is so much evidence of disturbance,
such crumplings and dislocations of the rocks of Norway,
and so much extreme metamorphism—by far the greater

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 123

portion of the surface rocks being metamorphic, I believe
I am correct in saying that there are a few examples of
_ igneous rock, properly so-called. Granitoid rocks there
_ are in abundance, but most of them are only granitic in
_ appearance, and are, in point of fact, sedimentary rocks
_ which have undergone extreme metamorphosis. Nor is
_ there any evidence of volcanic energy in mesozoic times,
such as we have in the West of Scotland in the vast
s sheets of Basalt and kindred rocks which there overspread
so large an extent of country.

The extent of the knowledge of the geology of a
E Seontry like Norway which can be acquired in the course
of a month, most of which was spent at sea, is necessarily
very small, and that. together with the fact that my object
in going to Norway was not primarily geological, must be
my apology for the brevity and disconnected nature of
_ this communication.

| P.S.—Since the above paper was written, a paper by
Col. H. W. Fielden, F.G.S., on “‘ The Glacial Geology of
Arctic Europe and Its Islands,” has appeared in the
ee Journal of the oe ie vol. lii.,

Baiced Beaches and Glacial Deposits of the Varanger
Fjord,” will also be found in the same journal, vol. liii.,
pp. 137 and 147. Some of the matters touched on in
my paper are there dealt with in greater detail, and to

CHAS. UPTON

ON THE
ARCHASOLOGY OF THE COLN VALLEY

AND

NOTES ON THE WELSH WAY AND
FOSS WAY

BY JOHN SAWYER

_ From Foss Bridge to its junction with the Thames at
Lechlade, the river Coln flows through a district which
has been occupied by man from very ancient times. The
earliest monument of human occupation is a long barrow
‘in the hamlet of Ablington, on the western edge of
‘Lambrough Banks covert. _ In its general proportions and
in its horned end it is similar to other long tumuli in the
county, but it differs from them in the character of its
masonry. Instead of, as is usual, being surrounded by a
single wall, this tumulus has a double wall, each wall
facing outwards, and the space between is filled with rubble.
In another respect, also, it is unlike most of the Glou-
cestershire long barrows, for instead of the interior being
a mere mound of débris, it was, says the late Canon
Lysons, “built up of loose stones placed in a slanting
position, converging to the centre, like a succession of
roofs placed one upon the other, a kind of gutter
arently running down the centre through the whole
course of the tumulus. A straight dry wall here and
there at intervals intersected this sort of roof at right

126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

angles, so as to strengthen the fabric, the whole covered
with soil and turf at the northern or principal end.”*
Directly in the centre of the curve formed by the horned
_end, and between the two walls, was a stone six feet high
by five feet wide. Wood ashes, a few flints, and several
sling stones were found in the mound; and at the narrow
end was a cist made of rough stones, containing one
skeleton. The presence of wood ashes points to burial
after cremation, and possibly small chambers containing
human dust may have been overlooked. Unfortunately,
when the barrow was opened in the summer of 1854, the
art of tump excavation was in a rudimentary stage; but
we have reason to be grateful to a distinguished member
of our Club for placing on permanent record the character
and contents of an exceedingly interesting barrow, so far
as they were observed in an incomplete examination.
Even now considerable portions of the mound are
apparently undisturbed, but it is doubtful if further
excavation would reveal anything of special interest.
About half-a-mile to the north-east of the long barrow
just described, in a field near some farm buildings known
as Oldwalls Sheds, is a tumulus not marked on the
Ordnance map, to which my attention was last summer
directed by Mr W. Mills, of Ablington, in whose field it
stands. In appearance it is a circular mound, about forty
or fifty feet in diameter, and eight or nine feet high, with
alow mound about fifty feet long and ten or twelve feet
wide on its northern side. By the kind permission of Mr
Mills, and with the aid of a stalwart quarryman, | was
able to examine its construction and contents, although I
am afraid that in so doing it has been robbed of its interest
for future antiquaries. We first of all dug into the low
extension of the barrow by cutting a trench across it, and

* «Our British Ancestors,” p, 318.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 127

making shallow excavations in other parts of its surface.
Nowhere was there the slightest evidence of masonry. It
seemed to be entirely made up of loose rubble, thrown,
as an onlooker said, “all of a yep” (heap), or as loads of
_ broken stone are tipped from carts along the margins of
our roads.

Finding that the “crust” of the circular mound was of
the same rubbly character as its extension, we decided to
dig into its centre from its crown. Two trenches were
made, intersecting at right angles; anda few inches below
_ the surface the rubble was found to be resting upon a
_ mass of stones which in size, shape, and setting were like
the dry walling so common upon the Cotteswolds. As
we went downwards we carefully extended the area of the
_ excavation, and kept a sharp look out for any sign of a cist
or other evidence of human burial. All the stones had a
slight tilt from an imaginary central line, as though they
had been built over a small object placed in the centre at
_ the surface of the ground. But of such an object in that
- position no sign whatever did we find. East of the
_ central line, however, there seemed to be indications of a
small chamber, and every stone was carefully removed in
approaching it. Our surmise proved to be correct.
d j About two feet from the centre, on the original surface of
_ the ground, was a cist, approximately two feet square, and
nine inches deep, formed of rough, unshaped stone slabs.
_ As a general rule, cists in round barrows contain human
bones or other undoubted human relics. This one con-
tained a few handfuls of phosphate of lime and dirt. So

Pye

purpose for which the barrow was built. In round
barrows in Gloucestershire, Canon Greenwell says, the
_ prevailing practice was burial after cremation. The only
inference in this case seems to be that a body had been

128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

burnt, the bones and dust placed in a small cist, and then
a huge mound built over it. A barrow similarly built
was some years ago opened at Nether Swell, but the
burnt bones were placed on the surface of the ground,
and the stones placed directly upon them.

A third structure in the hamlet of Ablington is of a
very remarkable character. This is an underground
chamber, with a beehive roof. From its widest part,
about six feet in diameter, the stones overlap inwards and
make a dome. In the walls are three recesses, each
about ten inches wide, fifteen inches high, and fifteen
inches deep. A fourth opening in the wall, with a steep
cutting in the surrounding soil, leads to the outside of the
structure. Whether this was originally an entrance, or
whether it was originally a recess and has been made an
entrance, is uncertain. In similar structures elsewhere
the entrance is sometimes through the crown, sometimes
from the side. In this structure the crown has been
disturbed, and it is impossible to determine whether the
dome was originally perfect, or whether an opening was
left in it which might have been covered with a slab.

For what purpose was this underground structure
made? Locally it is known as a shepherd’s hut. Amid
much that is uncertain about it, we may be quite certain
that it was never built by or for shepherds. A man who
could build such a structure would find much more
profitable employment than tending Cotteswold sheep ;
and a shepherd would require a much more convenient
shelter than an underground chamber six feet across, into
which he had to swing like a monkey or crawl like a mole.
Canon Lysons says that in the immediate vicinity of the
Ablington long barrow “there exists a round hut under-
ground, formed of dry walling similar to that employed in
the construction of this tumulus. There were formerly

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 129
more of them close at hand.”* I have reason to think
that the hut to which Canon Lysons alludes is not the
structure which I have described, but one much simpler
in shape, now filled or covered in, and I cannot find
evidence of any others in the neighbourhood. Canon
Greenwell, however, describes two very similar structures
in Nether Swell,f where, singularly enough, as already
stated, is a round barrow very much like that at Ablington.

For what purposes these underground chambers were
made is to a large extent a matter of conjecture. Sir
John Lubbock describes some whose object was the con-
~ cealment of food or treasure.{ Dr Tylor, discussing the
arts of life, speaks of beehive houses in the Hebrides,
‘covered in with growing turf, which, he says, “ remind
_antiquaries of Tacitus’ account of the caves dug by the
ancient Germans and heaped over with dirt, where they
stored their grain and took refuge from the cold, and in
a time of war from the enemy.Ӥ Mr Robert Damon, of
_ Weymouth, records, among objects found in similar
underground structures in the Isle of Portland, a celt,

- skulls and bones of domestic animals ; and some of the
articles, he adds, do not differ from those found in the
Swiss Lake dwellings.) Canon Greenwell strongly
inclines to the belief that the Nether Swell structures
a places of et ae for bodies that had not under-

_ *«QOur British Ancestors,” p, 319.

+ “ British Barrows,” p. 447, et seq.
_ “Prehistoric Times,” 1869, chap. ii.
§ “ Anthropology,” p. 232.

|| « Geology of Weymouth,” p. 166.

130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

When the Club visited Ablington in its Field Meeting
last September, the structure had been, by the kind offices
of Mr Garne, partially cleared of its accumulation of
débris. A further clearance might, however, reveal
objects of interest, and it is sincerely to be hoped that
care will be taken to preserve intact this almost unique
monument of our prehistoric Cotteswold ancestors.

The Valley of the Coln is intersected by two well-
known Roman roads. The Foss Way crosses it at Foss
Bridge, and Ikenild Street at Coln St. Aldwyns. Parallel
with the Valley on its northern side, and running
to, and probably through, the town of Lechlade,
is the Salt Way. But these are not the only ancient
highways in the district. On the Ordnance map the
Welsh Way is the name given to a road running from
Barnsley past Ready Token to Fairford and Lechlade.
On old maps of the county a road bearing the same name
goes in the other direction from Barnsley to Perrott’s
Brook. Connecting with it at Perrott’s Brook is a short
length of road, also known as the Welsh Way, which
joins the Irmin Street about three miles north of Ciren-
cester. In the days when Welsh cattle were driven from
the Principality through Gloucester to the metropolis,
this road was greatly used for that purpose, and a glance
at the map shows that it is shorter than the ordinary
route through Cirencester.

The probability that the road is an ancient one is very
much strengthened by the name of a place upon it—
Ready Token. In its present form the name is meaning-
less, and it is obviously a corruption of a name that had a
ineaning. For the original name we must look at the
position and surroundings of Ready Token. It is a small
area of high ground, and with its clumps of trees is

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB _ I3I

visible for some distance away, so that it is a useful land-
mark for travellers. Four miles east of it, along a wide
road, is Fairford, with its “fair ford” over the river Coln,
an important matter in the days when bridges were few
and far between. It is therefore very probable that the
_ place once bore a name indicating that it was the way to
the easy passage across the river. If this be so, the
origin of the name is not difficult to find. Rhydd, the
Celtic name for a ford, may easily be corrupted into
Ready, and Token is very likely to be a corruption of the
Saxon word “ tacen,” an indication or sign. Ready Token
__ would on this theory mean simply * ‘The way to the ford,”
and would indicate an origin dating back to pre-Saxon
times.
_ Whether this be the explanation of the name or not,
_ the existence of the Welsh Way suggests an interesting
enquiry. Commencing, as [ have said, from the Irmin
Street, it ends at Lechlade. Why does it end there? A
second ancient road also runs to the town—the Salt
_ Way, which some say ended at Lechlade, while others
_ maintain that it passed through the town on its way south.
A third road passing through Lechlade also merits some
attention. If you follow the course of the Roman road
from Winchester through Marlborough, you will see that
from almost exactly opposite where it joins the Irmin
Street an important highway runs northward through
_ Lechlade to Stow-on-the-Wold, where it joins the Foss
_ Way and also the Roman road through Alcester to the
Watling Street.
_ Lechlade is therefore connected with the most im-
7 ortant of the Roman roads in the South of England. Is
: this from accident or design?
oe In studying the means of communication used by the
omans in Britain, we have not, | think, sufficiently con-
“sidered the extent to which they may have utilised inland

132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

navigation. We know that on the Continent the rivers
were in Roman times, as they have ever since been, great
highways for military and commercial purposes.
Mommsen records that a tombstone found near Tréves
“has the form of a ship; in this sit six mariners plying
the oars; the cargo consists of large casks, alongside of
which the merry-looking steersman seems—one might
imagine—to be rejoicing over the wine which they con-
tain.”"* Mommsenalso reminds us that immediately after
the Romans crossed the Thames and took Colchester, the
working of the British mines began, and “a stream of
Roman merchants and artisans poured into the country,
and London became the natural emporium of trading on
a great scale.”

Now it is obvious that a great deal of the mineral
wealth of the country was then, as now, in the south-
west. In the Forest of Dean, as abundant evidence
testifies, the Romans worked iron to an enormous extent,
and even to-day the unexhausted “cinders” they left are
worked to profit. Some, if not much, of the mineral
resources of the Forest probably reached the Continent
through the port of London. Was the conveyance to the
metropolis the entire distance by road, or was part of the
journey by water? There is no trustworthy evidence for
an answer to either question. But three considerations
point to the probability that the Thames was used for a
considerable part of its course. (1) From Gloucester,
the lowest point at which the Severn was crossed by a
bridge, to London there was no direct road in Roman
times; the great Roman road from Gloucester to the
metropolis was through Silchester, a very roundabout and
troublesome journey for commercial traffic. (2) The

* Mommsen’s “ History of Rome: The Provinces.” Part I., p. 116.

+ Ibid., p. 177.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 133

Romans were perfectly well aware of the great
advantage of water over land transport in labour and
expense ; they could see the help afforded by a current
flowing towards their great emporium; and the vast
importance they attached to the use of horses for military
purposes would naturally lead them to avail themselves of
any other means of communication for non-military
objects. (3) The Thames was then, as now, navigable
_ for a very considerable part of its course by boats which
— could carry many times the weight that could be drawn
by horses. John Chamberlayne, F.R.S., whose work on
Great Britain was published in 1708, says that much of
the fuel used in London came down the Thames, and that
from London “boats are drawn about 200 miles to
- Oxford, and higher many miles.”* This is sufficient
proof that before the weirs, which now form an essential
feature of Thames navigation, were erected, the river was
navigable for boats as far as the town of Lechlade.
a Members of the Club scarcely need to be reminded that
q when a century ago the Thames and Severn Canal was
constructed, it was at Lechlade that the junction with the
Thames was made.

In the plan they adopted for the conquest of Britain,
the Romans had two leading ideas. One, as Mr John
Bellows has demonstrated so admirably, was to make
rivers the boundaries of the subjected parts of the
country; the second was, as Dr Hiibner has shown, to
advance northward in parallel lines from east to west.
The first of these lines, as Dr Hiibner and Mr Bellows
prove, was from Gloucester to Colchester. The reason
for selecting Gloucester as the western end of the line is
obvious : it was the key to the Severn. Was Colchester
‘selected for the eastern end simply because thereby the

-

* « Magnae Britannige Notitia,” by John Chamberlayne, p. 284.

134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

line was made parallel, or was there another object in
view? May it not also have been because it passed just
north of Oxford and thereby secured complete command
of the Thames from its source to its mouth ?

The coming of the English into the Coln Valley may
reasonably be assumed to have quickly followed the
famous battle of Deorham, in 577. Dr Guest’s* view is
that when the Saxons first entered Gloucestershire they
came from the Marlborough Downs across the Cottes-
wolds to the Foss Way a few miles south of Cirencester,
and then marched down the famous Roman highway in
the direction of Bath. It is generally believed that after
the battle they at once descended into the Severn Valley
and marched northward. Is it not much more likely that
they kept to the high ground of the Cotteswolds? By
doing so they would have protected their lines of com-
munication with their base in Wiltshire, while a descent
into the valley might have hemmed them in between
fierce enemies on the one hand and the broad waters of
the Severn on the other. By quickly retracing their steps
they would be able to prevent their scattered foes from
again collecting in dangerous force, and with the plateau
conquered and reinforcements close at hand if required,
the conquest of the lower part of the Severn Valley would
be a comparatively easy task. The language of the
Chronicle, too, bears out this theory, for after recording
that Cuthwine and Ceawlin slew three Kings, it adds that
“they took three cities, Gleawanceaster and Cirenceaster
and Bathanceaster.” Clearly, therefore, the invaders
went to Cirencester on their Northward march.

Some light is thrown upon the early Saxon occupation
of the Cotteswolds by an examination of the boundaries

* “ Origines Celticze,” II., p. 182.

=
Fe
c
y.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 135

of parishes along the Foss Way. This is now made easy
by the publication of county Ordnance maps which exhibit
parish boundaries with lines of main roads. A study of
the maps of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire reveals the
remarkable fact that the Foss Way from Littleton Drew
through Cirencester to Stow-on-the-Wold, a distance of
about forty miles, is for almost its entire length a
boundary of parishes. No other main road in the two
counties, ancient or modern, is a parish boundary for
more than a mile or two in length, and even this is of
rare occurrence. The Irmin Street, which, next to the
Foss Way, is the most important of the other Roman
roads, is in its entire course across the two counties a
parish boundary for only about half-a-dozen miles. It is
further noteworthy that the southermost point from
which the Foss Way is a parish boundary is almost
exactly where it is joined by the direct road from Dyrham.

Was this boundary originally parochial or tribal ?

If the West Saxons, after their victory at Dyrham,
_ marched over the Cotteswolds instead of up the Severn
_ Valley, they probably did so along the Foss Way. In the
settlement which quickly. followed, its well-defined line
_ would be of great service in the distribution of the land,
and thus it may originally have been a parochial boundary.
On the other hand, the Foss Way may have been a
tribal boundary. The Hwiccas were a tribe which, on the
authority of Professor Freeman, occupied Gloucestershire,
_ Worcestershire, and a part of Warwickshire. The
western boundary of their land was probably the Severn,
and the southern the Avon. What was the northern and
eastern? The Foss Way, which runs near the border of
Gloucestershire, may well have been the eastern boundary,
_and the Watling Street, from the point where it is inter-
-sected by the Foss Way, may have been the boundary on

136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

In the road map of England there is no such striking
feature as the Foss Way, which runs in almost a straight
line from Cornwall to the mouth of the Humber. Its
importance in the Roman occupation of the country is
obvious. It is probable that the historical interest which
thus attaches to it is increased in our own part of the
Kingdom by the part it played in determining the original
settlements of our English forefathers.

Upon the Coln Valley and its neighbourhood the Danes
have left a more lasting impress than upon any other
district of like size in Gloucestershire. Elsewhere in the
county, with two or three exceptions, the Danish inva-
sions were mere plundering expeditions. In and around
the Coln Valley the invasions resulted in permanent
settlements.

The earliest record of a Danish connection with Glou-
cestershire is that in 855 Burhred, King of the Mercians,
brother-in-law of Alfred the Great, granted to a Danish
bishop Alhun and his family, at Worcester, certain
property in Ablington and the surrounding parishes of
Barnsley, Poulton and Eisey. Twenty-two years later the
Danish army first planted their feet in the county, and,
despite a desperate resistance from the citizens, success-
fully attacked Gloucester, and settled within its walls.
At the beginning of the following year the Danish host,
as the Chronicle says, “rode through the West Saxons’
land, and there sat down, and mickle of the folk over sea
they drove, and of the others the most deal they rode
over.” In the spring of the same year (878) Alfred
defeated them in the great battle of Ethandun, near Trow-
bridge ; in the following year the Danish army went from
Chippenham to Cirencester, where they “sat” for a year,
and in 880, under the treaty of Wedmore, the Danish
army left Gloucestershire and never afterwards came
within its borders.

a
=

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 137

By this agreement, which was renewed half a century
later, the Danish district was divided from the English
Kingdom bya line passing along the Thames, the Lea,
and the Ouse, and then following the course of Watling
Street to Chester. It is commonly believed that south
of this line Danish names do not exist. It is true that
tried by the most important of the characteristic Danish
test-words, the suffix “ by,” the place-names fail to reveal
a Danish origin. But take another useful test-word,
“thorpe,” “throp,” or “trop,” a Danish suffix which
means a village, and we find a number of Danish settle-
ments south of the line indicated, and several in and con-
- tiguous to the Coln Valley. Adjoining the town of
_ Lechlade is Bouthrop (or Eastleach Martin), and follow-
_ ing up the valley of the Coln we have Southrop, Hatherop,
- Williamstrip (the suffix “trip” probably a corruption of
“trop”) and Cockrup, and adjoining the Foss Way at
_ Foss Bridge is Dr Taylor holds that from the
q - Danish. word “bzc,” a brook, we have several place-
_ names,” so that possibly Bibury, which in the Domesday
4 Book is called “ Bechberie,” may also be a name of
} Danish origin. Coln St. Dennis is a name said to be
_ derived from the fact that in Norman times its church
. belonged to the Abbey of St. Deny’s, near Paris. But it
_ is noteworthy that the natives of the village and of the
3 neighbourhood invariably call it Coln Deans, and the
rector of the parish (Rev Lewis B. Bubb), to whom I am
indebted for some interesting information on the subject,

Bleted 1683, the parish is twice described as “ Coln St.
Deny’s alias Coln Deans,” and that on the church plate
the name is spelt in three different ways—Coln St.
os, Coln St. Denys, and Coln Deans. Everyone

+.

* « Words and Places,” p. 124.

138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

acquainted with the Cotteswold dialect is familiar with
the sound of “a” as “e,” so that it is easily understood
that Coln Danes, or the Danes’ Coln, would be called
Coln Deans. Of course, Deans is also a very possible
corruption of Denys, and if the popular name were Coln
Saint Deans, that might be the correct explanation. But
the “ Saint” is dropped, whereas Coln St. Aldwyns, three
parishes south, is called by its right name, and never
called Coln Aldwyns. Pindrup, although close to the
Foss Way, and within a stone’s throw of Coln St. Dennis
Church, is in the parish of Coln Rogers. At one time,
Mr Bubb tells me, it must have been a place of some
importance, and some remains of a moat around it still
exist. Coln Rogers, therefore, was probably a Danish
settlement, and it is significant, as well as curious, that
amongst its inhabitants recorded in Domesday Book was
“one foreigner.”

If, then, we admit the place-name Bibury to be of
Danish origin, the whole of the Coln Valley from the
Foss Way to the Thames bears an unmistakable impress
of occupation by the only foreign enemies our English
forefathers had to fight against in England until they had
to bow their necks under the iron heels of the Norman.

| THE MANNER IN WHICH
THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND PLANTS
; HAVE AIDED CIVILIZATION

BY

WINNINGTON-INGRAM

_ There can be no doubt that Man has not suddenly
reached his present position on the earth, but has only
attained it after vast ages of development and progress.

__ .Man, though weak in body compared with the other
be mnimals, has struggled upwards through the gloom of ages
to hold the Supreme command. Many circumstances
assisted his rise, and perhaps, indeed, the very conscious-
‘ness of his weakness was one chief help in his upward
course, for that consciousness made him seek the aid of
other forms, and he pressed into his service those animals
and plants which seemed best adapted to his needs. This
practice was begun, many thousands of years ago, and for
a long time little advantage was gained. By degrees,
hi owever, some races wee were more ees than

Ag
aa

; "The dog, the horse, the ox nae the sheep are those
nimals which have been most useful to the primitive

140" (PROCEEDINGS "OL--PHE COTTES WOLD, £LUB

Throughout the world the dog was the first possession
of man and his earliest companion beyond his own race,
and the dog has been so long separated from the primitive
species that we cannot trace with any certainty the stock
from which he originally sprang. No animal has been so
thoroughly or so universally domesticated as the dog, in
none have the moral and intellectual faculties been so
largely developed. Wherever man of any degree of
civilization is found, there also is the dog found. The
dog took his origin at a very remote period, for we find
undoubted evidence in the very earliest records of his
existence and regular domestication. Among the early
Hebrews he seems to have been known, or rather despised,
and it seems very remarkable that such an astute nation
of shepherds should not have domesticated and used so
valuable an assistant. Possibly this was partly owing to
the prejudice of the Hebrews against an animal which was
venerated as a symbol of the Divine Being by the
idolatrous Egyptians. Yet this objection cannot go for
much, as the Hebrews kept oxen, which were also wor-
shipped by the Egyptians. But it must be remembered
that in the East dogs were, and are, filthy and savage
creatures, which act as scavengers in the towns. The only
instance in the Bible where the dog is mentioned as a
domestic animal is in Job, chapter 30, verse 1, where,
speaking of the greatness of his former prosperity, he says,
“But now they that are younger than I have me in
derision, whose fathers I would have disdained to have
set with the dogs of my flock.” This passage is extremely
remarkable as showing at what an early period of the
world’s history the dog was sufficiently domesticated to
be capable of the arduous task of guarding sheep—a task,
the proper performance of which necessitates a total
suspension of the true canine instinct, which is not to
guard sheep but to worry and devour them.

PROCEEDINGS OF-THE COTTESWOLD CLUB = 141

There is, however, another allusion in the Sacred
Writings to the domesticated dog, I mean in the
Apocrypha, where in the Book of Tobit, chapter 5, verse
16, we are told that when Tobias and the angel were
setting out on their journey, “ They went forth both, and
the young man’s dog with them.”

It is certain that the Egyptians selected their dogs so as
to produce well-marked varieties, for there are to be seen
on the Egyptian temples representations of dogs with
long ears and broad muzzles. The Assyrians, too, had
considerably advanced in the breeding of dogs, for mastiffs
anda kind of greyhound are found represented on their
tombs. The ancient Greeks and Romans, as is well
_ known, possessed dogs. Homer frequently alludes to
them.

But more ancient than any of these records are the
evidences which prove the existence of the domestic dog
_ among the prehistoric savages of Northern Europe.

In the Danish “ Kitchen middens” or heaps of house-
hold refuse piled up by men of the newer stone period,
are found bone cuttings belonging to some species of the
_ genus Canis. Together with these remains are some of
the long bones of birds, all the other bones of the said
: ‘birds being absent. Now it is known that the bird bones
here found are the very ones which dogs cannot well
devour, while the absent ones are those which they can
_ bolt with ease, and it has been ingeniously argued from
this that the remains in question really belong to the
domesticated dog, as if the animals to which they apper-
tained had been wolves, they would have made short work
of the long bones of the birds as well as of the others.
Other dog bones are found in Denmark belonging to later
“periods. At the time when flint knives were succeeded
by bronze a large dog existed, and at the time when iron
was used a larger one still. In Switzerland during the

142 (PROCEEDINGS OPLTHE COTTES WOLD CLUB

newer stone period a dog existed, probably the oldest of
which we have any record. It partook of the character of
our hounds and setters or spaniels, and in the formation
of its scull was equally remote from the wolf and from the
jackal. This dog, too, like its Danish contemporary, was
succeeded in the bronze period by a larger variety. Thus
we see that when our ancestors were living in the dens
and caves of the earth the dog was systematically kept and
selected, that is, any good varieties which appeared were
noted and kept up.

When the savage was driven to feed upon his dogs in
times of dearth he was naturally more willing to sacrifice
the least intelligent and affectionate of them, and would
delay killing the best dogs as long as possible. In this
way for ages a careful, though unintended, process of
selection was applied to those animals, and to this we may
attribute the great intellectual and physical pablo. |
which has taken place among them.

The dog has contributed in various ways to the civiliza-
tion of man; he has done so by calling forth sympathy
and kindness towards the lower animals, the dog being
the first creature which was domesticated and made the
captive and friend of man for the sake of companionship
rather than profit. As time went on, however, the dog
was serviceable to man by helping him in the chase, and
so enabling him to procure a larger quantity of game ina
shorter time than by himself: and so man had more
leisure for other pursuits. Also the dog was useful as a
guard over the dwelling and property of his master, and
later on, when man acquired flocks and herds, the dog
protected them; and in some countries he was used to
draw sledges.

The opportunity to advance beyond the state of the
early savages depends very much upon men possessing
animals which can be domesticated and used as beasts of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 143

burden and of draught; and where men had such means

of supplementing their own strength they made great

advances. In Asia, in Europe, and in North Africa where
the country afforded the horse, the ass, the ox, the buffalo,
the camel and the elephant, mensoon advancedincivilization.

But in North America the natives, though they were

ingenious people, remained savages; andalso in Southern

and in Central Africa, though there were plenty of large

mammalia, yet as they were not such as could be domesti-
cated and used as beasts of burden, the savages remained

in their barbarism. The immediate result of the posses-

sion of beasts of burden and of draught is to increase the
productiveness of the soil, to save men the labour of

digging, to promote trade by producing a surplus of food
and distributing it ; and also to develop the arts of war by

enabling swift marches to be made, by furnishing an army
with cavalry as its eyes and ears, and to bear down the
enemy by a furious charge ; and to facilitate the transport
of war materials.

The chief of these beasts of burden and of draught is

certainly the horse. .
In the early Pliocene and late Miocene Ages the family
of the horses was represented by the hipparion, a small,
slender and graceful .animal possessed of three well-
_ defined toes on each limb bearing hoofs, one strong and
_ large in the middle, while the two lateral toes were so
small that they did not extend below the fetlock, but
_ might be compared to dew claws. The next step above
_ the hipparion was the anchitherium.

_ It is very remarkable that occasionally horses have been
_ born with tridactyl feet similar to the ancestral type.
_ The tarpon and the wild horse of Tartary are the nearest
- examples of the stock from which the domestic horses are
derived. It was in the Polished Stone Age that domestic
horses were introduced into Europe. Their remains are

144. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

found in the ruins of Swiss Lake dwellings, but it is sup-
posed that at this time they were chiefly used as food.

The horse was universally used for food by man before
the historic period. During the Roman occupation of
Britain it formed a large part of the diet of the inhabitants.
It was eaten by the Scandinavians in honour of Odin.
As Christianity prevailed over the heathen worship, it was
banished from the table. It was, however, used in this
country as late as 787 A.D., after it had been prohibited
in Eastern Europe. The ecclesiastical rule, however, was
not always strictly obeyed, for the monks of St. Gall, in
Switzerland, not only ate horseflesh in the XIth century, but
returned thanks for it in a beautiful metrical grace.
During the Bronze Age horses were used for riding, as
may be seen from the bronze bits which are dug up in
France and in Italy.

As the horse came into use in war, those nations which
used horses conquered those which were without them,
and pressing forward from their own lands they over rode
the tribes which were unmounted. So imposing is the
effect of cavalry on all peoples who have no previous
knowledge of the horse, that it always produces fear, for
to such people the horse and his rider appear a single
terrible being, and the Greeks have left a token of their
appreciatoin of the strength derived from the union of the
man and horse in the myth of the Centaur. And the
ease with which the Spaniards conquered Mexico and
Peru is to be attributed to the awe which they struck into
the ranks of the savage footmen by their mail-clad horses.

Until the invention of gunpowder the success of an
attack depended chiefly on the charge, and the army
which possessed cavalry was able to overwhelm a host
consisting only of infantry. Since the introduction of
firearms, and more especially since the invention of the
breech-loading rifle, the manner of employing cavalry has

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB I45

been altered; but, nevertheless, horses are more useful
than ever in war. They are used as chargers for field

officers and aides-de-camps, and artillery, on which the

success of a modern battle chiefly depends, could not be
managed without horses. And they are necessary to
bring up stores. Cavalry are still of great use as scouts
and to pursue fugitives. So the strength of a country in
war depends very much on its supply of horses.
Although at one time the horse was chiefly used in war,
yet, perhaps, it is in peaceful pursuits that he has most

contributed to the civilization of man. Asa pack horse,

as a plough horse, and as a coach horse he has distributed

- goods, increased the food supply, and conveyed passengers,
letters, and merchandise throughout the country. An

hundred years ago, if the horses had been exterminated in
England, famine and depopulation would have been the
result. But since steam engines are coming into such
general use, horses are not so necessary to man as they
were, and it is possible that before long the use of horses

will be chiefly confined to luxury and sport, to farm work
and to war. But it is worthy of remark that even in this
_ age of machinery the force of engines is still calculated in
_ horse power, horse power being the force which will raise
33,000 lbs. one foot in one minute.

And this fact bears strong testimony to the great

services which the horse has rendered to mankind.

The earliest use of animals to assist the strength of

_ man appears to have been brought about by the taming of
wild cattle. Several varieties of wild bulls were dis-
tributed throughout Europe and Asia, such as the Bos
'Primigenius, Bison Europeus, and Bos Longifrons, and
_ were chased by the primitive hunters. The full grown
animals were ferocious, but when the young were caught
and brought up by hand they soon became tame and
continued about the dwellings of their masters. And

146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

thus men became possessed of domestic cattle, whose
tameness increased and whose shape and colour changed
after passing through successive generations in subjection.
By domesticating horned cattle man gained the use of
creatures well suited to promote his advancement from
savagery to civilization. The first use to which domesti-
cated cattle were put was probably that of carrying packs
and of moving tents and such like from place to place.
Then some ingenious savage was seized with the idea of
harnessing one of his tame bulls to the forked branch of a
tree and making him draw it up and down a field, tearing
up the ground, and so produced a great improvement
in agriculture by thus originating the plough. Then,
having experienced the beneficial effects of making the
strength of the bull assist his own, the primitive farmer
proceeded to put cattle to other occupations and made
them draw carts and wagons.

The next advantage which man derived from horned
cattle after their use as working animals was from their
milk, which is the most perfect and complete form of
food; and those nations which drink milk and use its
products, cheese and butter, are the strongest and most
enduring. With regard to the moral aspect of the owning
of cattle, nothing has been found more civilizing than the
possession of property, with its sympathies, its responsi-
bilities, and its independence. And among primitive men
cattle were the earliest forms of property.

The clever and astute Jesuit missionaries who evan-
gelized South America made much use of this means of
civilization, and by introducing property in cattle they
raised the natives above the state of mere hunters, and by
improving their worldly condition they were able also to
promote their spiritual welfare.

Asia is the headquarters of the genus Ovis, and the
domestic sheep is said to be derived from the different

PROCEEDINGS “OF. THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 147

wild forms which are found in that Continent. The fleece
of the wild sheep is composed of hair with wool at its
roots. But in the domestic species, by continued care
and selection, the hair has been reduced to a minimum, so
_ that wool is the only coat. In Great Britain the breeds
- of domestic sheep are very numerous, and have been
greatly improved of late, and have been brought by
judicious breeding to a high state of perfection in the
valuable qualities of early maturity, aptness to fatten,
smallness of bone, and gentleness of disposition. And
~ the length of the wool and its quantity has been improved
till a single fleece will now generally weigh from 5 or 6 to
12 lbs., the latter being, of course, an unusual weight.

As flesh-producers in a barren country, sheep are much
more valuable than horned cattle. They mature more
_ rapidly, and are reproductive in less than two years, so
_ that in many parts of the world it is possible to obtain a
larger quantity of flesh from poor pasturages with sheep
_ than with any other domesticated animal. But the chief
contribution of the sheep towards civilization is in provid-
ing material for warm clothing for men inhabiting cold
countries. Before the domestication of sheep, men who
- were exposed to severe winters dressed in the skins of
wild beasts, but such garments were rough, uncleanly, and
not always procurable in sufficient quantities. But by the
introduction of sheep, which can be shorn year by year,
_abundance of wool is obtained, which, when made into
cloth, forms the strongest and warmest clothing that can
be devised; and if we consider only such an item as cloth
for the uniforms of our army, navy, and police we shall
see how much we depend upon the sheep for our modern
costume.

_ Did time permit, I might go on to point out how the
goat has contributed to civilization by its milk and flesh
and by providing material for tents; the ass and mule,

148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

by acting as handy beasts of burden in rough countries
and over rocky mountain paths, and the pig by its abun-
dant food supply. How the camel has acted as the ship
of the desert by conveying men and merchandise across
the sandy wastes. And how the intelligent Asiatic
elephant has been enlisted into the service of civilization
as a mighty bearer of burdens both in peace and in war.

As I have mentioned the elephant, I will at this point
of my paper read a note which [ have recently made con-
cerning that animal.

At the present time Mr Hagenbeck, a German, is
engaged in a scheme for re-domesticating the African
elephant for use in German East Africa. I say re-domesti-
cating, for the African elephant was trained and success-
fully employed by Pyrrhus and by Hannibal in their wars,
but of late it has only been regarded as a wild beast and
shot down for its ivory. But if the African elephant
could be re-domesticated and used as a beast of burden in
the districts where the tetse fly stops all animal carriage,
and where for generations human transport has been the
only means of conveying goods from the interior to the
coast, it would be of vast service to civilization. The
African elephant is hard to tame, and is deficient in
memory, and is said to be descended from the mastodon.
The teeth of the African elephant correspond with those
of the mastodon, and it may be that it has inherited the
mental qualities of its huge ancestor.

With regard to the Asiatic elephant, it is easily domesti-
cated and has a good memory, and it is possible that it
owes these qualities to its descent from the mammoth.
The teeth of the Asiatic elephant are analogous to those
of the mammoth.

But were I to enter into a full description of the
manner in which these and other animals have contributed

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 149

towards civilization, I should weary both you and myself.
I will, therefore, now turn to the domesticated plants.

As the pastoral life was an advance from the existence
of the hunter, so agriculture was a step in civilization
above the pastoral life. But in order to live by agriculture
it was necessary that certain plants should be domesti-
cated, so that man, instead of ranging the forests for game
or wandering about with his cattle in search of pasturage,
should be able to settle in one spot and by means of these
plants be able to keep himself, his family, and his animals
in plenty and comfort.

Of these domesticated plants the various kinds of corn
are undoubtedly the chief. The original plant from which
wheat has been developed is said to be the zegilops, a wild
grass which still grows On the French and Italian shores
of the Mediterranean. If the seed of this grass be trans-
_ planted to good soil and well tended, after a few years of
_ cultivation it develops into perfect and productive wheat.
_ This transmutation of grass into a cereal was effected by
_ M. Fayre, who found that by selecting the most perfectly
_ developed plants of each generation and thus making each
_ crop an advance on the preceding, in 12 generations wheat
was evolved. From other plants originally wild like this
_ have come our oats and barley, rve and maize and other
_ varieties. Corn has been used by man for a vast number
of years. Many bushels of wheat and some ears of six-
rowed barley have been discovered in the pile works of
the Stone Age at Wooseedorf and Wangen, in Switzerland.

Egypt since historic times has been a great corn-producing
country, and was also remarkable for its early advance in
civilization, the extreme fertility of the soil enabling a
“comparatively small number of men to raise abundance of
corn for the food of the rest of the population, and so
leaving a large number of people to engage in literary

I50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

pursuits, to erect magnificent buildings and pyramids, and ~
to invent elaborate systems of religion.

Theophrastus and Pliny make frequent mention of
wheat, for it was used among the Greeks and Romans.
When Cesar landed in Britain he found wheat growing in
the island, which, possessing a temperate climate, is well
suited to its cultivation. In early times in this country
corn was grown for several years running on the same
ground, and then the land was allowed to fall down to
grass, which was after a time ploughed up again for corn.
But in process of time the system of seeding with clover
and artificial grasses was introduced. The clover, by
means of its broad leaves, attracts the nitrogen from the
atmosphere and stores it up in the nodules on its roots to
the great benefit of the succeeding corn crop. And,
moreover, the clover itself provides an abundant supply of
green food and of dry fodder for live stock.

Another domesticated plant which has produced an
important effect upon civilization is the turnip, which is
not a truly British plant, but was introduced by the
Romans, having been previously evolved by years of
cultivation from a wild plant with a slender and worthless
root. The culture of the turnip was discontinued in this
country for a time, but in the 16th century the Flemings
brought in several vegetables, and it is supposed the
turnip among them. But for many years after it was
chiefly used as human food, being sometimes mixed with
flour and made into bread. This was notably the case
in 1629 and 1630, which were years of dearth.

But in the 18th century Lord Townsend, who was
Secretary of State to Kings George Ist and George 2nd
greatly promoted the growth of the turnip as a regular
farm crop as food for animals, and turnips have for some
time taken their place in the four course system of agri-
culture—wheat, turnips, barley, clover.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 151

Root crops, including the turnip, Swedish turnip, and a
_ root of the chenapodez tribe, the mangel wurzel, have
been of great service by providing material for feeding
sheep in folds and cattle in stalls during the winter, thus
enabling animals to be made fat just at the season when
such meat is required, and abolishing the necessity for the
old plan of feeding animals fat in the autumn and then
killing and salting them for consumption during the
winter and spring, a plan which was productive of scurvy
and other cutaneous diseases, which were also accelerated
by the dearth of green vegetables of the brassica group of
_ the cruciferze, which are now in general use.
_ The potato is a domesticated plant of the solanum
tribe, which has been, and is, of great service to civiliza-
tion.
The early explorers of America discovered a plant of
the solanum tribe with a small, bitter root, growing on the
_ sea shore, which plant, having been brought to these
_ islands and carefully cultivated, has developed into the
large and palatable potato.
Besides the fact that. the potato produces a large
4 quantity of wholesome food, without much skill or
_ expense being necessary on the part of the grower, there
is another advantage connected with the potato which is
not, I think, generally appreciated, and that is that the
_ potato crop could not be burnt nor easily destroyed in
_ other ways in war time. I will give an illustration of this
_ from events in the history of Ireland.
a oe the Cromwellian | wars OBO. Inshiquin, and

.. man and beast. Bepopulation therefore Paanet and
the country was reduced to a desert. But some fifty
q years or so later, during the war of the Revolution, when
King William’s soldiers killed and wasted without control,

I52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

the population of Ireland nevertheless kept increasing.
This was owing to the potato, which about this time was
spreading into cultivation and afforded the Irish and their
animals an abundance of food, almost beyond the power
of the enemy to destroy, for the potato field cannot be
fired like a cornfield, nor when the root is out of the
ground can it be destroyed with much facility.

It would not be proper for me to conclude my remarks
upon domesticated plants without some reference to the
flowers which have been artificially reared in our gardens,
for they, too, have their bearing on civilization. Among
the poor it is well that they should aim at something
more than bare existence, and the few bright flowers
which adorn the cottage garden in addition to the vege-
tables, are an advance beyond the mere necessities of life
and are good both on account of the refining influence
which flowers exercise even over the roughest natures,
and because any nation which keeps too near the line of
want soon feels the pinch of poverty in seasons of dearth,
since the people have nothing which they can abandon
without actual distress. 3

Ireland in 1847 and India at the present time are
instances of what I mean.

Among the richer classes there is no purer or more
healthy and civilizing pleasure than that which is derived
from seeing the various flowers springing up in their
seasons, refreshing the eye with their lovely hues and
gratifying the senses by their fragrance. Some of these
flowers bring us acquainted with the flora of foreign lands,
while others are monuments of the patient ingenuity and
attention with which skilful gardeners have developed
their gay forms.

Modern civilization is fast filling this country with
unsightly rows of brick houses and the din and fumes of
steam engines. Such uninteresting sights and sounds

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 153

grow wearying and monotonous, and there is nothing
i Bevore refreshing to the spirit than to turn away from them

Eeaath nature, has developed and autos iced and has
brought into close communion with himself.

But in regarding both the domesticated animals and
; - plants as contributors to civilization, we must not forget
that there is a yet Higher Power which has been working
through all the ages by means of the lower forms for the
hhysical and moral progress of mankind.

-
x *
o

GLOUCESTERSHIRE RAINFALL

BY: ai SS HELPS

_ The widespread attention which is now given to the
Be resting subject of rainfall statistics may be said to be
Be tirely due to the labours of Mr G. J. Symons, who,
since the year 1860, has published a yearly record for the
British Isles; and the success which has attended his
devotion to the work is manifested by the striking increase
the number of observers making returns dealt with by
m. In the year 1895 these observers were over 3000,
the number having been only 1000 in the year 1865.

4 ‘I have long thought that the collection and publication
of the earliest known rainfall returns for the County of
Gloucester, which, as far as I am aware, have not yet been
brought together in an easily available shape, would be of
sufficient interest to form a part of the proceedings of the
Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, and this more
cially as it is the fact that some of the earliest and
est and, consequently the most valuable registers
been kept by past members of the Club.

ave, therefore, endeavoured to make such a collec-
of rainfall returns for the county as will form at least
basis for a complete record of all such information as
ow in existence, and, although Iam quite aware that
collection is not as yet an exhaustive one, sufficient
erials have come to my hand to warrant a beginning.

156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Rainfall records in the British Isles are known to be in
existence which go back complete for over 170 years, and,
with intervals, for about 50 years more, or over 220 years
altogether.

The earliest known records for Gloucestershire date
back to the years 1774 to 1778: these were taken in
Bristol. .

Records for the six years 1833 to 1839 were taken by
Mr Moss, of Cheltenham, and then come returns which
will be found below, kept by Mr T. C. Brown, F.G.S.,
who was a member of the Cotteswold Club, at Further
Barton, near Cirencester, commenced in 1844 and con-
tinued by his daughter, Miss E. Brown, F.M.S., to the
present date, and another kept by the late Mr J. Curtis
Hayward, at Quedgeley, from the year 1844, and con-
tinued by his son, Colonel Curtis Hayward, and Mr W.G.
Robinson, to the present time.

These two registers and that of the late Mr Clegram
and the Rev C. J. Jones, at Westbury-on-Severn, are good
representative returns from the Hill and Vale; the Forest
is not so well represented, the best record which I have
as yet discovered being that from Edgehill House, Mitchel-
dean, kept by the late Mr Phillips. .

The late Dr Burder, who was also a member of the —
Cotteswold Club, kept a return at Clifton for the years 1853
to 1865. This register I give, and then follows the return
kept by Mr W. B. Clegram, C.E., another member of the ©
Cotteswold Club, at Saul Lodge, which dates from the
year 1858, and which has been continued since Mr
Clegram’s death by Mr F. A. Jones, C.E., to the present
time. | ;

Among the other registers given are those for the
Witcombe Water Works, Heath Lodge, Cheltenham,
Witcombe Court, Bowden Hall, Westbury Vicarage, |
Newnham, Edgehill House, Mitcheldean, and Gloucester.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 157

There are now no less than 75 observers in Gloucester-
shire whose returns are yearly published in “Symons’s
British Rainfall,” but, in the main, I confine this paper
to some of the older and more continuous returns, illus-
trative, as far as possible, of the three natural divisions of
the County: Hill, Vale, and Forest.

For all or most of these records I have calculated the
means both of the monthly and yearly falls, and have
distinguished by a red line all those figures which exceed

the average; thus, I hope, adding to the interest of the
information recorded.
It may be thought that a register of rainfall such as is
here printed is, after all, rather a dry statement, but let
us see what may be gathered from one, by analysis and
comparison.
I take my own register, with which | am most familiar.
First of all it should be noted that 14 years, which is my
total of observation, is obviously too short a record to
give atrue average. This is shown by the fact that the
first seven years show an average fall of 30°03, and the
last seven of only 25°90: and bya comparison with the fall
at Witcombe Waterworks.

The recognised standard for calculation is, that the
amount of rain increases in ordinary hill districts (not
mountains) 2% per cent. per 100 feet of increased eleva-
tion. Witcombe Water Works for 34 years gives an
average of 29°52.

4 My gauge is over 400 feet higher, and should, therefore,
show 10 per cent. more, or 32°67, but the 14 years only
_ give 28°02. Witcombe, for the same 14 years, gives
_ 27°67, thus proving an increase in the higher station.

One point comes out very strongly, viz., the remarkable
_ correction afforded by a continuous record. The proverb
is quite true—‘ There is no debt so justly paid.as that

158 PROCEEDINGS OF -FHE-COT TES WOLD: CLUB:

from the sky to the earth.” In my own return it will be
found that the monthly returns have varied as follows :—

Jantae es. from “69 to 4°76 |. July ...... from 0°30 to 5°10
Feb: 23 ey Ol- 5. hose Aug. » > O09). Sees
Mar FO 20 eee || Sept: » 76. ees
Aprile. eo Ome) Oct se: 3. 700) Saas
Mayes 2» fa toetee 9 1 Novi 3 -) “O82 aime
JUneees. ae Gage 449 | Dero ,°) “40\32aan

Showing an average range of as much as from I to I0,
and considerably more in individual months. July, for
instance, “30 to 5°10, or as I to 17; while the yearly
returns have only varied from 20 inches to 36 inches, or
as from I to 134.

It will be noted, also, that February is the driest month
of the year, and that the last six months of the year
average 16°07 inches, as against 11°91 for the first six;
hence, when February has any heavy fall of rain its effect
following on the six wetter months, at a time when
evaporation and vegetation are at their lowest, is so
apparent in the larger amount of rain finding its way into
watercourses as to have given rise to its “fill-dyke” name.

Another fact not perhaps recognised, and which can
only be shown by daily returns, is that a fall of one inch
in 24 hours is not by any means common even to every
year. The last which I had was on 12th November, 1894,
and there were none in 1892-3, so that four years out of
14 did not have any fall of one inch; in the other 10 years
the falls of one inch were rather more than two for each
year. A rainfall of three inches in two days has only
once fallen within my experience, and the result of this,
in the consequent flooding of the road between Gloucester
and Birdlip, and the lower parts of Gloucester at the Spa,
Wagon Works, &c., is such as to make one thankful that
in our temperate climate we have not to contend with the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 159

enormous rainfall with which some parts of the world are
regularly visited. In a severe thunderstorm, as much as
‘15 to 20 will fall in as many minutes, or at the rate of
O'OI per minute. A fall of from O'10 to 0'15, between
9 a.m. and 9 p.m., will make quite a wet day.

Since writing this, I note in the “Times” of 8th
February, the results of a fall of less than three inches.
in five days following upon a wet January, where, speak-
ing of the district round Lincoln, it is stated that
“ Thousands of acres of land are flooded in Lincolnshire,
and the loss to agriculturists will be incalculable.

_ Many houses in Lincoln are flooded, and at three of the
_ large engineering establishments work had to be stopped.
The bank of the Fossdyke Canal, at a point
seven miles west of Lincoln, gave way just as a barge was
passing, and the vessel was carried by the sudden rush of
water partly over the bank. It would have been taken
right into the adjoining field had not the captain realised
_the position, and dropped anchor.”

_ * What would be the effect on the Severn Valley of a fall
of 40 inches in one night, as reported to me last year by
the Rey Canon Parker through a relative in the Mauritius ?

_ But without contemplating any such a visitation, it is
clear that the Severn Valley would become largely un-

- inhabitable with a rainfall of 80 inches per annum, such
as is common to the N.W. Coast of Scotland, and that
but for the marvellous adaptations of nature, if the rainfall
at Clifton were common to Tewkesbury, its Severn
- meadows would be very prejudicially affected. Eleven
inches more per annum fall at Clifton than at Tewkesbury.

An interesting and practical point is apparent from the
_ return (when given) of the number of days with rain in
_ayear. This on my register for 14 years averages 172,
_ but it must be remembered that a rainfall day is 24 hours,

160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Some observers are enthusiastic enough to take their
return both at 9 a.m. and 9 p.m., but the majority, of ©
which I form one, are content to take it every morning
for the previous 24 hours.

I have, however, made a compromise by declining to
label a fine day as a day with rain, when the gauge showed
a fall during the night, and have roughly used a distin-
guishing mark for such cases, from which I conclude that
from 30 to 40, or even more, days from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m.
may be deducted as rainless, thus showing that on the
average 230 days out of the 365, or nearly two days out
of every three, may be expected to be absolutely without
any fall of rain to interfere with either business or pleasure.

The relation of the number of days rain to the total
also presents noticeable features.

In the driest year 166 days give 19°19, or “II for each
day of 24 hours; while the wettest year, with 198 days,
shows ‘18 for each day; the mean figures are 172 days
with ‘16 for each day, so that the more days rain there are
the more rain you get on each day, and the less days the.
less rain each day.

It is obvious that a rainfall of 80 or 90 inches must
involve much heavier falls than we ever experience in this
county, or there would be no fine days at all, and accord-
ingly at Fort William, the station at the base of Ben
Nevis, 78°81 falls on 222 days, showing an average for
each day of over ‘35, while an east coast station, Lincoln,
gives 22°73 on 170 days, or “13 per diem.

The observer who lives in a town does so under great
disadvantages in respect to rainfall. He can, on a rainy
day see only a wet pavement and roof, and a glimpse of
open sky, with perhaps a weather cock stuck in the wrong
direction, and one rain is very like another; he cannot
enjoy or take any interest in a rainfall, or see where it
comes from, or goes to. Now on a hill station how

THE MATTERHORN

-~

Raga © ae ea ee

G ey EY BOG rae ae

CS" ; wae Be a=)
g Wf

NOSS HEAD, SHETLANDS, S.E. WIND

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB I61

different it allis!} You go outside the front door and
hear a S.E. wind drawing down through the trees on the
edge of the hill, and you hardly need to look at the baro-
meter to know that it is falling for the passage of a
cyclonic depression. You may see from the windows the
“badgers brewing in the wood,” a local expression refer-
ring to an indication, which requires some explanation.
At certain states of the distribution of pressures a warm,
or comparatively warm, and saturated current comes over
from the south and east and condenses on the colder
banks of the Witcombe valley, which faces N., and parts
of which never get any warm sun, presenting the appear-
ance of a continuous formation of cloud which seems to
rise out of the hill side, and which is similar to that, to com-
pare small things with great, observed to advantage on such
places as, for instance, the peak of the Matterhorn, or
Noss Head, Shetlands, when a. warm and moist wind
passing a cold headland forms a continuous stream of
cloud. When, therefore; the “ badgers are brewing,” rain
is not far off; these floating clouds are visible until a
large amount of rain has fallen, but when the balance of
temperature is restored “ the brewing is done.”

With the advance of the depression the regular succes-
sion of weather may be watched—from halo, gloom,
muggy weather, drizzly rain S.E. to S., driving rain,
passage of trough S. to S.W. Squall or showers W. to
N.W., when the sky clears with cumulus clouds and blue
sky, and the Forest Hills, the Black Mountains, and Brecon
Beacons become visible. This is a clearness of distant
views not forecasting rain.

At another time the rain storms may be seen on the
Forest side working up the valley, obscuring, and again
leaving clear, the Forest Hills. May Hill, more distant
hills in Herefordshire, and the range of the Malverns, and
sometimes, though only to a partial extent, striking across
the Severn Valley.

162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

If you see a moon with a greasy ring of halo at about
twice the distance of its apparent size you may expect
half an inch of rain in the night.

It has been noted that rainfall observers are generally
long-lived ; probably the regular habits acquired by a daily
visit to a rain gauge, with the consequent distraction from
other cares, may have something to do with this.

In 52 years 18,980 rainfall observations will have been
taken, and if to this be added, as is very common, the
readings of a barometer, dry and wet, maximum and
minimum, and ground thermometers, the number is no
less than 113,880.

The amount of rainfall is most important with reference
to water supply—a question which is yearly attaining
greater prominence, and which will some day, for England
with its dense population, present one of the problems of
the age, even if this time may not be said to have already
arrived.

In considering this aspect of returns, attention should
be paid to the area of woodland which, especially when at
a good elevation, has a large influence over and above that
produced by the tendency of a thickly-wooded district to
attract and detain low-lying clouds, and so increase the
recorded rainfall. I am disposed to think that this
influence is perhaps insignificant in comparison with the
precipitation induced by trees at a time when rain does
not actually fall.

When the air is saturated with moisture short of the
formation of rain, you may see under a large beech tree in
the winter quite a stream of water coursing down the
bark, and a heavy shower of rain falling from the branches,
so much so that, ona light, oolite soil, a large area round
each tree will be found to be saturated with moisture and,
even, standing in puddles of water. I am not aware that
the amount of this precipitation, as distinguished from

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 163

rainfall, has been measured and recorded, but it must be
very considerable, especially when a large area of wood-
land is present.

In a severe frost the same effect is continued by the
formation of ice, every twig bearing at times an inch, or
even two inches, of frozen moisture extracted from the
air. When this is dislodged and falls under the influence
of the morning sun a very beautiful effect is produced,
and one which, once seen, is not easily forgotten. In
connection with this it is very noticeable how far from
any town smoke products are present in the air, which
now become visible by a black deposit in the ice. The
same deposit is found to be present on the leaves of trees,
for instance, in shooting through a cover of young larch
which, even on the top of the Cotteswold Hills above
Cheltenham, will quite blacken the hands and clothes.

By the kindness of Mr J. G. Symons, I am able to
show you a rainfall map for the British Isles. This was
constructed 30 years ago, and was published with the
sixth report of the Rivers Pollution Committee, and is
the one which is reduced in Huxley’s “ Physiography.”
Mr Symons, in sending it to me, writes that of course he
could doa better now, but that he cannot get the time.
You will see that the only details given for this county
are a rainfall from 25 to 30 inches over the whole county,
except the Cotteswold district, &c., where it is given as
30 to 40 inches. On such a small scale map, further
niceties cannot perhaps be easily shown, but bearing in
mind that the key to the amount of rainfall is the physical
configuration of the land in relation to the direction of
the rain-bearing winds, you will see that the mountains of
Ireland, Cornwall, Wales and Scotland, dispose of all the
heavier rains ; and that not more than from 35 to 40 inches
reaches our coast, if I may use the expression (the S.W.
boundary of the county). This maximum gradually thins

164. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COT'TESWOLD CLUB

out up the Central Severn Valley, as shown by the follow-
ing figures :—
No. of Years Average

Rlifton.(Dr.Burder): . = s22:. AQ. ak... 34°11
iito, Wk. Fs Sturse(to-1039). 34 ~is23 35°51
EEK GION = prise ates 9. BO tose 28°80
recs UE SES 2 <r BOE 5. 27°50
Opedpeleys se Ve be ke: La 29°83
qT Gt Sse aE ee | ae een 20 boat. 28°34
Gloucester, opiate joi: i aes 24°34
Tewkesbury, Upper Lode eae tee 24°79
Beckiolie.: yi terrae — bee Lf toe 23°59

The same thinning out is continued in a N.E. direction
over Warwickshire and Leicestershire into South Lincoln-
shire, where the rainfall is as small as any in the British
Isles. }

On the Forest side, with its high land, the fall at places
runs up to 34°63—

Staunton Rettory -) 9i/22%2. aa 34°54
Newnhatie 9") Sy aare TO -seect: 33°34
Vestas re eaenea ig es Bf ieee 27°66
Mitcheldean, Edge Hill

House; op a" noe ene Or bal Sane 34°63

And on the Cotteswold side, the same features, with
more variation, are presented—

Stroud (Upheld jes" 222. OT tase: 30°80
(Cimencester: 9 hehe 3 BOS Rae ieee
HatheropsRectory "22 BOs Ate 29°34
Bowden, Hall’. 222: Re ees: Le ee 23°47
undlipe es ee ee, Lo Pa ee 28°02
Witcombe Water Works ....... fe a de 29°52
Wtcamibe (Gane 22 hin BG; Sek 28°30

Cheltenham, Heath Lodge
CEOMOO 7) = mettoeer yea Py ae 29°30

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 165

I hope some day or another to construct a complete
rainfall map for our county, which, with its striking
physical features, will present for rainfall registry an amount
of variation perhaps not to be equalled by any other
county in England.

In conclusion, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to
numerous correspondents for all of the information which
I have endeavoured to present to you in an interesting
light.

THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

>
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NOTES AND
OBSERVATIONS ON THE EARTHQUAKE
OF DECEMBER THE 17TH, 1896

CONTRIBUTED BY MEMBERS OF THE
COTTESWOLD-CLUB, AND EDITED BY THE
REV. H. H. WINWOOD, VICE-PRESIDENT

The earthquake which occurred with especial severity
in the Cotteswold and neighbouring districts on the
morning of Thursday, the 17th of December, 1896, has
not unjustly been characterised by Mr Symons as the
greatest English earthquake (except the Essex one, in
1884) of modern times. It was therefore thought that a
permanent record of the occurrence would find an appro-
priate place in the Proceedings of the Cotteswold Club,
and a circular was sent by the Secretary to all the
members, requesting those who had made any definite
and noteworthy observations of the phenomenon, or who
had heard any really trustworthy accounts of the details

of it from others, to commit them to paper and send
_ them in; for the purpose of forming the basis of a short
_ report on the subject.

As an indication of the kind of information which

‘ would be most useful, the following series of questions,
_ formulated by Dr C. Davison, F.G.S., who has made
_ seismology his special study, was sent with the circular,

188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

and members were asked to arrange their replies under
the heads given. It is to be feared that this request was
taken too literally by some, at any rate; for many of the
replies are severely tabular, and hardly take the form of a
continuous, succinct narrative, such as would be best
suited for transference verbatim to the pages of the
Proceedings.

THE CHIEF POINTS ON WHICH
INFORMATION RESPECTING THE EARTHQUAKE
IS DESIRED
(ORMULATED-BY DR -C. DAVISON,, F:G,5.)

1.—Name of the place where the shock was felt.

2.—Situation of the observer. (a) Whether indoors (and on which
floor of the house) or in open air; (b) How occupied at the
moment of the shock.

3-—Time at which the shock was felt ; if possible, to the nearest
minute,

4.—Nature of the shock: (a) Was any tremulous motion felt before
the principal vibrations, and for how many seconds? (b)
How many principal or prominent vibrations were felt, and
for how many seconds did they last? (c) Was any
tremulous motion felt after the principal vibrations, and for
how many seconds? (d) Did the movement gradually
increase in intensity and then die away, or were there two
or more maxima of intensity or series of vibrations ; and, if
so, what was the interval between them, and the order of
their intensity? (e) Were the principal vibrations strongest
near the beginning, the middle, or the end of the series ?
(f) Was any vertical motion perceptible, and, if so, was the
movement first upward and then downward, or vice versa ?

5-—Duration of the shock in seconds, not including that of the
accompanying sound.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 189

6.—Intensity of shock: Wasit strong enough (a) To make windows,
doors, fire-irons, &c., rattle ; (b) To cause the chair or bed
on which the observer was resting to be perceptibly raised
or moved ; (c) To make chandeliers, pictures, &c., swing,
or to stop clocks ; (d) To overthrow ornaments, vases, &c.,
or cause plaster to fall from the ceiling ; (e) To throw down
chimneys, or make cracks in the walls of buildings ?

7-—Sound phenomena: (a) Was any unusual rumbling sound
heard at the time of the shock, and, if so, what did it
resemble? (b) Did the beginning of the sound precede,
coincide with, or follow, the beginning of the shock, and by
how many seconds? (c) Did the end of the sound precede,
coincide with, or follow, the end of the shock, and by how
many seconds? (d) Did the sound become gradually louder
and then die away? (e) Did the instant when the sound was
loudest precede, coincide with, or follow, the instant when
the vibrations were strongest, and by how many seconds ?
(f) Did the sound change in character at or about the time
when the vibrations were strongest ?

8.—If any slight shocks were felt before or after the principal shock,
a list of them with their times of occurrence would be most
useful, together with answers for each shock to any of the
above questions, ‘especially to Nos. 4, 6, and 7, the notes
relating to each shock being kept separate.

The following thirteen members (a rather small pro-
portion out of a total of about a hundred) responded to
the appeal :—

Mr M. W. Colchester-Wemyss (President)
(Westbury-on-Severn)

Sir Brook Kay (Cheltenham)

Rev. E. Cornford (Secretary) (Cheltenham)

Sir J. E. Dorington (Stroud)

Mr A. S. Helps (Birdlip)

Mr W. Leigh (Woodchester)

Mr G. E. Lloyd Baker (Hardwicke)

190 . PROCEEDINGS OF “THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Mr H. G. Madan (Gloucester)

Mr W. H. Mellersh (Cheltenham)

Mr W. L. Meredith (Gloucester)

Dr T. Ringer (Cheltenham)

Mr C. H. Stanton (Stroud)

Rev. H. H. Winwood (Vice-President) (Bath)

In giving a general summary of the information
supplied, it is proposed to adhere to the order of Dr
Davison’s series of questions, and to preserve, as far as
possible, the individuality of the replies.

1.—THE LOCALITY OF THE OBSERVATION

It will be seen from the above list that the records
come from places situated on or near the line of the
Cotteswold escarpment—from Cheltenham on the north,
to Bath on the south—the majority coming from Chelten-
ham and Gloucester.

2.—THE POSITION AND OCCUPATION OF THE
OBSERVERS
With two exceptions—Mr Meredith and Mr Mellersh
—all were (as they should be) asleep in their bedrooms,
the latter being, in all cases except two, on the first floor
of the house.

3.—THE TIME AT WHICH THE SHOCK WAS FELT

Here discrepancies occur in the accounts which would
be remarkable and almost inexplicable but for the fact that
nearly all the observers were aroused from a state of sleep
and took an indeterminate time to collect their senses
and consult their watches.

Probably the most reliable statements are those of the
two observers who happened (I suppose I must say
fortunately) to be awake at the time, viz., Mr Meredith,
who dates the commencement of the shock at “5h. 33m.
a.m., Greenwich time,” and Mr Mellersh, who gives

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB I9QI

5h. 34m. a.m. Mr Madan estimates that the whole
occurrence was comprised within the limits of 5h. 32m.
and 5h. 32m. 45s.a.m. Other records vary from 5h. 29m.
to 5h. 40m. a.m.,a difference of I1 minutes. This may
partly be accounted for by inaccuracies of clocks, certainly
not by the progressive movement of the earthquake wave
past the places of observation, for these tremors are
calculated to have travelled at the rate of thirty miles per
minute.

4a.—THE NATURE OF THE SHOCK

The bulk of the evidence appears to show that the
principal vibrations were not preceded by any tremulous
motion, at least, the latter was not noticed, owing possibly
to the fact of its not being sufficiently strong to arouse
the sleepers. One observer, however, Mr Mellersh, who
was awake at the time, states that “the shock began with
a distinct tremulous motion, which merged into prominent
vibrations, increasing in intensity and then dying away.”

Neither is there any record of such tremulous motion
having been felt after the principal shock, though there is
a general agreement as to the gradual increase in the
intensity of the shock. Mr Helps states that “the shocks
increased to a maximum, the final vibrations being shorter,
and hardly, if at all, less intense than the maximum.”

Dr Ringer says that “the movement gradually increased
in intensity and then died away, the principal vibrations
being strongest near the middle of the series.”

Sir Brook Kay considers that “they were more violent
towards the end.”

Mr Madan states that “there were at least two maxima of
vibration, one dying away and followed almost imme-
diately by another, which latter was the most violent of
the two.”

I92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Mr Meredith’s report (which, from his long experience
as an engineer, and from the fact of his being fully awake
at the time, is worthy of especial attention) includes the
following details :—‘“ My attention (being awake) was
drawn to a rattling and vibration of the whole house, too
strong to be entirely accounted for by the disturbance
due to a train which was passing near my house at the
time. Thinking that the train had left the rails I jumped
up in bed and noted the time, 5h. 33m. a.m. Instantly a
second shock occurred, which I at once recognised as an
earthquake, and noted all the subsequent incidents.
Including the first shock, observations of which were
rendered doubtful by the passing train, there were three
distinct series of vibrations, separated by intervals of
about one or two seconds. The second of these con-
sisted of five lateral oscillations, equal to at least one inch
horizontal movement, and lasted between two and three
seconds. The third shock consisted of seven distinct
vibrations, of which the first three were the most severe,
and about equal to those of the previous shock. It lasted
about four seconds, and all tremulous motion ceased
within about two seconds after the distinctly-counted
seven of the third shock.”

4b.—THE DIRECTION OF THE OSCILLATIONS

It seems to be the opinion of all the observers that the
vibratory movement of the earth was entirely horizontal,
and not vertical, and that it took place in a plane lying
approximately north and south. (Mr Meredith, however,
considers it to be N.N.E. and S.S.W.) The following
notes by Mr Madan may be quoted in confirmation of
this. He says—“I have a barograph (Richard Frére’s
pattern) in which the changes in atmospheric pressure
are continuously recorded by an ink trace upon a band of
paper wrapped round a brass cylinder which is rotated on

:

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 193

a vertical axis by clock work. The instrument is screwed
firmly to a bracket attached to one of the internal walls of
the house. The long arm, or lever, which carries the
recording pen is so sensitive to changes of vertical pressure
that the mere employment of a housemaid’s brush near
the instrument is enough to cause a vertical displacement.
of 1-12th of an inch in the ink trace. If, then, there was
any vertical movement of the wall during the shock, there
would undoubtedly be a straight vertical line observable
in the ink trace. If the movement was purely horizontal
the pen would be simply jerked away from the paper and
would fall back to its former position. I examined the
register shortly after the shock and could find no trace
whatever of any vertical irregularity in the barometric
line.”

Mr Madan goes on to say—‘“I have seen here (at
Gloucester) one interesting piece of evidence respecting
the direction of the earthquake wave. A large iron
ornamental vase, weighing at least 3 or 4 cwt., with square
pedestal, stands in the middle of a lawn on a square block

of stone sunk in the ground. A few hours after the

earthquake this vase was found to have been moved side-
ways on its stone foundation through a space of about an
inch, or rather more. [ laid a long straight lath close to
it, and adjusted the lath so as to lie as nearly as possible
in the direction of displacement. I then took compass
readings near each end of the lath (to eliminate any
deflexion due to the mass of iron). The mean of the
readings gives (magnetic) N. 18° 30’ E. as the direction
in which the vase had been shifted by the movement of
the earth underneath it. Since the magnetic declination
at Gloucester is now approximately 18° W., this would
show that the oscillations took place in a plane lying very
nearly due (geographical) north and south.”

194. PROCEEDINGS OF “THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Sir J. Dorington mentions a fact which seems con-
firmatory of the above estimate of the direction of the
wave. He says—“ A pane of glass in a mullion window
in my house (near Stroud) was cracked from top to
bottom by the earthquake. This window lies in a plane
nearly north and south, which perhaps indicates that the
vibration passed from N. to S. or vice versa. If the pane
had been broken by an E. and W. oscillation, it would
have cracked horizontally and not vertically.”

5.—THE DURATION OF THE SHOCK

This is variously stated. Only five attempts to
estimate it were made, and these range from 3 seconds to
45 seconds. Mr Meredith says—‘‘ The whole earthquake
did not last more than 10 or II seconds from beginning
to end.”

6.—THE INTENSITY OF THE SHOCK

This seems to have varied very much in different
localities, but in no case is any serious structural damage
recorded by the observers (except in one or two instances
at Gloucester). All agree in reporting that the vibrations
were sufficient to make doors, windows, jugs, &c., rattle,
and to ring bells on shutters. The minimum of disturb-
ance seems to have occurred at Cheltenham and Stroud,
where no permanent displacement of things was observed.
Mr Colchester-Wemyss (Westbury) mentions that china
was thrown off shelves into the middle of the room. Mr
Lloyd Baker (Hardwicke) says that a bottle on his dress-—
ing table was upset, and that two or three vases and
ornaments about the house were thrown down or broken.
At Gloucester, besides the displacement of the massive
iron vase already alluded to, several chimneys were partly
or wholly shaken down, and a fair amount of damage was
done to glass and crockery.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB) 195

47.—THE CHARACTER AND INTENSITY OF THE
SOUND ACCOMPANYING THE QUAKE

Here the usual and obvious difficulty of distinguishing
between the sound of shaking doors, windows, furniture,
&c., and the true earth sound-wave is felt by many of the
observers. At least two were not conscious of having
heard any sound either preceding, accompanying, or
following the vibrations. The others describe the sound
phenomena in various ways. Mr Colchester-Wemyss
compares the noise to “that which a traction engine
would make.” Mr Lloyd-Baker heard “a rumbling sound
as if a wagon had run against the house.” Mr Helps, on
the edge of the oolitic formations, likens the noise in its
intensity to “that of Niagara Falls.” Mr Winwood, to
“the roaring and rumbling of wind in a chimney.” Mr
Madan speaks of it as a “ rattling and grinding sound like
that of a load of bricks emptied out of a cart.” Mr
Meredith thinks it was similar to “the sound of an under-
ground explosion as heard by a person on the surface.”
Most of those who noticed the sound and its character
consider it as coincident with the vibrations, increasing
in intensity with them and dying away as they ceased.
Mr Madan, however, is pretty sure that the greatest
oscillation of the bed occurred a second or two later than
the maximum of sound, and this is likely to have been
the case, since sound waves are known to travel through
rocks faster than vibrations of the whole mass.

8.—SUBSIDIARY SHOCKS

No one appears to have noticed any minor shocks or
noises during the hours preceding or following the occur-
rence of the principal sets of vibrations above described.

A few remarks may be offered, in conclusion, respect-
ing the area affected. Mr Symons (Meteorological
Magazine, Jan. 1897, p. 178) considers that this earthquake

196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

was one of a series which have occurred at various times
during the last 600 years over approximately the same area.
The damage done (which is, of course, a rough measure
of the intensity of the shocks) seems to have been chiefly
confined to a district included within lines drawn through
Worcester, Hereford, Ross, Dursley, and Gloucester, a
space about 30 miles in length and about half that amount
in breadth. This district Dr Davison (in a letter to
“Nature ” of Dec. 24th, 1896) considers to contain the
epicentre, though the exact position of the latter is not
yet definitely ascertained. The total area, however, over
which the seismic disturbance was felt, was very much
greater than the district above mentioned, and includes
nearly the whole of England and Wales—a space nearly
ten times as great as that of the Essex earthquake of
1884, though the intensity of the latter was much greater.
Mr Symons, in the article above referred to, estimates the
rate of progress of the disturbance at about 30 miles per
minute, from Hereford as a centre.

Perceptible shocks, according to Mr Lowe (Proc.
British Meteor. Society, vol. 1863-65, p. 59), are much
more frequent than is generally supposed; and it is
believed that a shock occurs on an average every six days
somewhere in the British Isles, and that they are more
frequent in winter than in summer.

VOL. XII PART III
: 7

. PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Cotteswold Uaturalists’

Pet D CLUB

For 1897—1898

President
j M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

Vice- Presidents
Pay =F RED. SMITHE, M-A., LL.D:,:-F:G.S.
JOHN BELLOWS
Rev. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.S.
EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.M.S.
[SE JONES
CHRISTOPHER BOWLY, M.A.I.

Ponorarp Creagurer
Ae S, HELPS

Honorary Accretarp
S. S. BUCKMAN, F.G.S., (CHELTENHAM)

—EEEEEE

‘THE COUNCIL OF THE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERSTOOD THAT THE AUTHORS
ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED
IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS.
—E—SEeE

_ Contents

Tue Presipent’s Appress at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1898.

q “Chalk under the Microscope. By CHARLES UPTON, with Plate A.

Observations of a Cycle Tour. By S. S. BuckMaN, F.G.S.

Recent Discoveries in the Geology of the Malvern Hills. By C, CALLAWAY, D.Sc., F.G.S.
_ Beyerstone Church and Castle, and Malmesbury Abbey. By F. W. WALLER.

as.

PUBLISHED, SEPTEMBER, 1898.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. s 208663

The Library of the Club is at Mr John Bellows’, Eastgate,
Gloucester.

_ It is open every Tuesday afternoon from 2.30—4.30, when
‘books may be examined, or borrowed.

Books, Pamphlets, etc., presented to the Club should be
addressed to The Cotteswold Club, The Library, East-
gate, Gloucester.

PROGEE DINGS

OF THE

Pett eaVOkD NATURALISTS

FIELD CLUB

For 1897—1898

PRESIDENT

M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

HONORARY SECRETARY

Ss, BUCKMAN E.G.

Vol. XII. Part III.

1898

—*

Se UCC

Ae eA Be A DD BHESS:S
; TO: THE
COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS? FIELD CLUB,
MAY 16th, 1898,

BY

M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS, PRESIDENT.

During the year the Club has sustained a severe loss
by the death of its late Honorary Secretary, the Rev. E.
Cornford. With the exception of two years spent in
South Africa, when he was first ordained, his whole career
was passed in Gloucestershire, until the last few months
of his life, when he accepted the living of Shipton Bellinger,
near Andover, where he died on New Year’s day last. A
resident for many years in Cheltenham, he took an active
part in public life, and his leisure hours were devoted to
natural science, of which he was an ardent student, and a
keen observer. On the death of Professor Harker he was
appointed Honorary Secretary of our Club, and on resign-
ing that office he was elected a Vice-President. Since
his death, Mrs Cornford has presented the Club with his
collection of fossils, the result of the devotion of many
years to the study of geology. This gift will be highly
appreciated ; it will form a fitting and lasting memorial of
a most regular attendant at the Club Meetings, who will
be greatly missed by the members, to nearly all of whom
he was intimately known.

N

198 PROGEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Since this address was penned there has occurred the
death of another officer whose loss will be long and
severely felt: William Charles Lucy, lately our President,
one of our oldest and ablest members, has passed away,
full of years, honoured and respected by everyone. It is
most desirable that some record of his life should appear
in our Proceedings. No one is better able to write this
record than his old friend, John Bellows. To him I tele-
graphed a request to render the Club this service. He
most kindly and promptly responded with the following
letter :

“Tt will be the desire of every member of the Cottes-
“wold Club that some expression should be given to the
‘sorrow we all feel at the loss of our most valued mem-
“ber, and late President, William Charles Lucy.

‘All through the most vigorous period of our history
“as a society, his name has been associated with it as the
“most active of its workers, not only from the material
“he has left in permanent record in our Proceedings, but
“from the aid he has given us, verbally, in our summer
“excursions, and in our winter meetings, as well as by his
‘individual study at other times, of areas both at home
“and abroad, which offered features of geological interest.

“For a large part of his life William Lucy held a lead-
“ing position as a merchant of Gloucester: a position
“won by-a unison of ability and uprightness such as is
“not very common, even where these qualities are separ-
“ately present. In using the word ‘ability, Ido not mean
“that he was a brilliant, or a remarkably original man. He
“was not: but he possessed an insight into the broad
“bearings of whatever he had to decide upon, and a pru-
“dence that made his judgment valued, and sought after.
“This led to his being weighted with an amount of work
“under which a less patient and methodical man would
‘have failed hopelessly. Not only as a merchant carrying

‘

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 199

“on a large foreign business, as a director of the Bank,
“and of the Canal Company, as chairman of the Severn
“Bridge Railway Company, as a Magistrate, and as a
‘““member of I know not how many local committees, was
“the estimate shown in which he was held by the busi-
“ness men of the community; but he was continually
“appealed to by unbusinesslike people to help them in
“their dilemmas, some of which must sorely have tested
“his patience. I recollect an occasion when I had
“accidentally become aware of such a task that had been
‘unreasonably laid upon him; I asked why he should be
“expected, busy as he already was, to give his time to it;
“he said, with his wonted quiet smile, ‘they come to me
“because I am a busy man; for if you want a thing done,
“you are more likely to get it attended to by a busy man
“than by an idle one: he must get it out of the way;
“but the man of leisure puts it off till some other time,
“and perhaps never does it at all.’

“The real motive for his undertaking so much extrane-
“ous work was his sympathy with others—especially
“with those least able to help themselves. He gave

_ “the same painstaking and interested attention to secur-
“ing the savings of a poor needlewoman, so as to
_ “make her lonely old age comfortable, that he did to the
_ “management of the thousands invested by his wealthier
_ “friends in the bank, or in the Severn Bridge. Apropos
_ “of the Bridge, I know that at one period he would gladly,
: “have retired from the Chairmanship, to take more rest ;
Be but he told me that as he had been the means of
“some persons placing their money in it, he felt they
- “would be easier if the management were in his hands
_ “than if it were intrusted to anyone else—‘and so for.
““their sakes,’ he added, ‘I am keeping on.’

“Not personal gain, but the happiness of others; not
“self first, but duty first, was the continuous motive of
N2

-

200 , FRECCEEDINGS ‘OFS [HE -COTTES WOLD ‘CE@B

“William Lucy’s daily life. He was very reticent, even to
“an intimate friend, of speaking of his own inner state,
“but his conduct and his spirit manifested it more clearly
“than words.

“Wisely forseeing the danger of confining his circle of
ideas too exclusively to business matters, he chose the
“study of geology as a relaxation from the cares of bread-
“winning. This enforced a little leisure on him, and
“gave interest to his country walks, which as we all know
“was shared by many of his friends: and more especially
“by the members of this Club. How excellent a leader
“he was to us, as our President, every one of us will
“testify. It was my own lot, besides so often accompany-
“ing the Club under his guidance in our field excursions,
“to share his walks for hundreds of miles, both in Eng-
“land and on the Continent; and as I look back on
“these journeys I am reminded of some of those little
“acts of self-denial, and of consideration for others, that
“so endeared him to those who knew him. I have said
“little acts’: but they were little only in the sense that
‘the ruby or the diamond are so: for it is precisely such
“acts that build up the ultimate character. For forty
“years I knew William Lucy very intimately. I have seen
“him lifted on the wave of prosperity without losing his
“balance of simplicity and humility in the smallest degree.
“T have seen him plunged into disappointment, and trial,
“and sorrow, and yet bear himself with the same quietude
“and sweetness of spirit that he had shown in his happier
“days. Age, that for some men is dark and unlovely,
“was not so with him; and now that it, too, is closed we
“have seen in it the fitting end of a life spent in the
“patient endeavour to do justly, to love mercy, and to
“walk humbly with God. We know not what there is
“beyond our sight, or in another state of existence; but
“we do know that a life so spent cannot fail of its
“ reward.”

ee

oe ae

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 20I

During the year there has also passed away one of the
last, if not the last, link between the Cotteswold Club of
to-day and of fifty years ago. The Rev. P. B. Brodie,
F.G.S., who died in November last, was one of the earliest
members of the Club, for he was elected in 1849; and
as President of the Warwickshire Field Club he was an
ex-officio honorary member of our Club at the time of his
death. While curate of Down Hatherley, from 1840-1853,
he was an earnest student of geology, and contributed
some valuable papers to the Club’s Proceedings. After
leaving Gloucestershire he continued his geological in-
vestigations with great zeal, chiefly devoting himself to
a study of insects and vertebrates. The collections he
made in these two branches of Palzeontology, in the course
of half-a-century, were unique. About three years ago the
British Museum acquired many of his specimens of fossil
_ yertebrates, and it has now purchased the rarer and unique
_ examples from his collection of fossil insects. The name
of Brodie ranks with those of Wright, Lycett, Buckman,
Lucy, Jones, Witchell and other early members whose
contributions to geological science have shed great lustre
‘upon the Cotteswold Club.

During the year four Field Excursions have been made :
_ one to the Forest of Dean, the next to Beverstone and
~ Malmesbury, the third to the neighbourhood of Chelten-
ham, the last to Thornbury and Aust Cliff.

__ The day’s programme in the Forest of Dean (May 24th)
: included a descent of the Trafalgar Colliery, an inspection
_ of an Electrical Fuse Factory, and a visit to some stalactite
_ caves near Symond’s Yat.

= In the prosecution of these scientific objects, some
-yery lovely parts of the Forest of Dean were passed
through, especially lovely at the time as many of the en-

closures were seen to be literally carpeted with masses of

202, PROCEEDINGS “OF THE COTTES WOLD CLUB

the beautiful flowers of wild hyacinth. Fortunately times
have altered since the publication of an ancient book on
Forest Laws, called “the Book of Denys,” which in-
forms us that “noe stranger of what degree soever hee
“bee but onely that beene borne and abideing within the
“Castle of St Brevills and the bounds of the Forest as is
‘aforesaid shall come within the mine to see and to know
“ye privities.” No penalties however were incurred by
the members of the Club who, thanks to the courtesy of
Mr. Frank Brain, were enabled to descend some hundred
fathom at the Trafalgar Pit, to see something of the
method of winning the coal in one of the largest and
best appointed mines in the County of Gloucester. One
interesting feature at Trafalgar is the extent to which
electricity is, and for a long time has been used as a motive
power. The whole of the haulage on one of the main
roads in the Pit, with a gradient of about I in 5 (up which
the loaded trucks have to be pulled), is done by electric
motors supplied by dynamos above ground. Electrical
energy is also extensively used for lighting both above
and below ground; and there are many pumps in different
parts of the Pit which are worked by the same power.
Its ready capacity for transmission renders it peculiarly
applicable for this special work.

After luncheon at Symond’s Yat, the afternoon was
spent by some members in exploring the Coldwell Rocks,
by others in visiting the interesting stalactite caves at the
Elysian Fields, by the remainder in a placid contemplation
of the beautiful work of nature so lavishly displayed on
woodland, cliff, and river, in one of the most lovely valleys
in the kingdom.

The second excursion of the season was to Beverstone
and Malmesbury, on June 19th. The members assembled
at Nailsworth Station, thence they drove over the Cottes-
wold Hills to Beverstone, where they spent some time in

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 203

the examination of this most picturesque and interesting
village. The remains of the Castle are extensive enough
to show that it must have been a place of considerable
importance; and the old farm house, partly built out of,
and partly embedded in the ruins of the Castle, is very
quaint and attractive. From Beverstone a pleasant drive
over the hills brought the party to Tetbury, where a halt
was made for luncheon, and to allow of a ramble through
the streets of this old-world Cotteswold Town. A short
distance beyond Tetbury the boundary of the County of
Gloucester was passed, and journeying for a few miles
through Wiltshire, the party arrived at Malmesbury. The
rest of the day was devoted to an examination of the
_ Church and other remains of the ancient Abbey of this
Town.

I have to tender my hearty thanks to Mr. Waller, who
acted as guide during the day, for his great kindness in
_ furnishing me with some valuable and interesting notes
on the Church and Castle of Beverstone, and on the
Abbey of Malmesbury. They will be found printed as a
_ separate communication in the body of the Proceedings,

—p. 249.

On July 23rd, the Club spent a most enjoyable day in
the neighbourhood of Cheltenham. For its success
- the members are largely indebted to Mr. Sawyer for his
careful explanations of the archeological items on the
_ programme, and to Mr. Buckman for his interesting re-
_ marks on geological features.

The earlier part of the day’s programme was chiefly of
antiquarian interest, and related to the Roman occupation
of the bay in which the town of Cheltenham stands.
_ Rapidity of transport being an essential feature of the
Roman military system, it is obvious that the camps at

i

_ Leckhampton and Cleeve were connected by a road across

5 <m
oS

204 PROCEEDINGS OF ‘THE ‘COTTESWOLD- CLUB

the valley as well as by vie over the crown of the hills.
This valley road, it is now clear, ran from Leckhampton
by Sandy Lane, the Old Bath Road, Hale’s Road, and
Cemetery Road; and from Prestbury it ascended to Cleeve
Cloud by a now disused trackway, which, two centuries
ago, was the main road to Winchcombe. Stone paving of
possible Roman date may in places still be seen; and
the names Sandy Lane and Sandford (on the Old Bath
Road), judging from their roots and associations, indicate
the line of a Roman highway. In view of these facts,
there was an interesting discussion as to the date of the
camp on Battledown. Mr. Witts omits it from the list
of camps in his “Archeological Handbook of Gloucester-
shire.” He did so, he told the members, on the advice
of the late Mr. S. H. Gael, an eminent local antiquary,
who held that the entrenchments were made during the
war between Charles I. and the Parliament. Against this
theory of the origin of the camp, it may be urged that
there is no evidence, in the very full journals of the war,
that Battledown was visited for more than a few hours by
the combatants of either side; while it is only reasonable
to suppose that the Romans would have occupied a
height which commanded one of their important lines of
communication.

At Whittington the members of the Club saw ample
evidence of Roman occupation. Nearly forty years ago,
excavations in a field known as Wycombe, near the
Andoversford Hotel, revealed the foundations of Roman
buildings of considerable size. Amongst the embedded
remains were a very large quantity of pottery (ncluding
plain and figured Samian), several hundred coins (extend-
ing from the earlier emperors to Areadus), some sculp-
tured stones, fibula, &c., and a beautifully preserved
bronze statuette, believed to be of Mars. The late Mr. C.
W. Laurence made a careful record of the discovery

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 205

which was published in the ‘Gentleman’s Magazine. The
present owner of the relics, Mr. C. W. Laurence, of Sandy-
well Park, kindly exhibited them to the members. The
site on which they were found was undoubtedly that of a
Roman posting station; and, at the Garrick’s Head Inn,
the members of the Club saw what an important position
it occupied. A road of Roman, and possibly pre-Roman,
date runs through Andoversford from the Ermine Street
at Birdlip to the Foss Way at Stow. Connected with it
were the camp of Crickley Hill, the Greenway Lane past
Ullen Wood, Sandy Lane, three camps at Dowdeswell,
the White Way from Cirencester past Withington Villa,
a trackway over Ham Hill, Nottingham Hill and Cleeve
camps, Salperton camp, and the Eubury camp, near Stow.
Withington and Eubury are connected with this arterial
highway by roads whose remarkable straightness testifies
to their Roman construction; and the little village of
-Foxcote is in Domesday, and by every villager called
‘Foscote, or the ‘wood by the fosse.’ Two of the camps
at Dowdeswell—one of which was visited—are marked
on the ordnance map as Roman. One has ramparts on
two sides, and the other on three sides; so that possibly
they may have been haiz, or places into which cattle were
driven and kept: this theory receives some support from
a neighbouring place-name—Heylens farm. The third
camp covers a large area, and was undoubtedly a British
village.

At Whittington the party visited the church and the
court. Like most Cotteswold churches the former dates
back to Norman times; but it has been much altered. The

restoration its eastern arch and west window were exposed.
_ Two knightly effigies are of the de Crupet family, whom
_ the late Mr. John Jones, an erudite member of the Club,

206 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

name. The Rector, the Rev. A. C. Lawrence, a courteous
and capable guide to the edifice, showed the well-preserved
parish register, which dates from 1539: it contains
curious entries of persons being touched for king’s evil,
bodies buried in wool, and of the marriage of Sir Walter
Raleigh’s grandson. Of the Court, now occupied by Mr.
C. Faulkner Dobell, one of the most interesting points is
the size and character of the arches, which the late Pro-
fessor Middleton considered were the remains of a
destroyed castle, whose moat and walls still exist. On
the old staircase is a good example of a dog-gate; and two
of the bedrooms have interesting oak entrance-lobbies.
Of another style of architecture is the fine old manor
house and buildings at Upper Dowdeswell, occupied by
Mr. J. Arkell.

Doddle’s Hole, at Whittington, is of special interest,
because here, for generations, the Lower Freestone has
been worked underground. It is a massive bed, overlying
the Pea Grit, and yields the best building stone in the
district: its good qualities are apparent in Whittington
Church and Court. From Cleeve Hill to Colesbourne
a special feature of the geology is the persistence of the
Upper Trigonia-Grit upon beds which were denuded
before its deposition. At Cleeve Hill there are, between
the Upper Trigonia-Grit and the Notgrove Freestone,
beds about twenty-five feet thick; at Cold Comfort only
four feet; but in the Hilcot Valley the upper bed rests
directly on the lower; and at Colesbourne, the Notgrove
Freestone has entirely disappeared—the bed immediately
below it has the Upper Trigonia-Grit resting on its sur-
face. The explanation of this interesting feature of the
district is that there had been a considerable amount of
denudation of the beds below the Upper Trigonia-Grit,
before that bed was deposited. Some of the details of
this geological feature the members were able to study,

~* On theta:

Awe

eee.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 207

visiting sections on the route from Dowdeswell to Coles-
bourne down the Hilcot valley: which, by the way, is a
remarkable piece of river excavation. On the return
journey from Colesbourne, a brief visit to Seven Springs
gave Mr. Buckman an opportunity to explain the changes
which have taken place in the configuration of the district
since the Chalk spread not only over the Cotteswolds, but
also over what is now the Severn Vale.

The last Field Meeting of the Club was held on Tues-
day, the 31st August, when the members present were
most ably chaperoned by Mr. Winwood, who has kindly
written the following geological notes of the day’s ex-
cursion.,

On leaving Charfield Station the attention of the mem-
bers was invited to an exposure of vesicular basalt at the
side of the road west of the station. It was difficult
however to recognise the section now as the excavation
has been filled up with refuse. On the top of Hammerley
Down a halt was made, and an old quarry of Lower Lime-
stone Shales, on the left-hand side of the road, inspected.

At the bottom of the hill a fine quarry, worked in the
Lower Limestone, was seen, the beds dipping rapidly to the
south, some of the upper beds being oolitic. Passing
_ through Bibstone and Cromhall—the northern apex of the
_ Bristol and Gloucestershire coal-basin — the members
crossed the Old Red Sandstone of Milbury Heath, and,
_ after luncheon and a long drive, found themselves beneath
the Rheetic Cliffs of Aust. A shelter having been sought
in vain from the high wind, Mr. Winwood described the
section to the few energetic members who braved the
gusts, under difficulties. Having on a geological map
_ shown the day’s route, and that they had crossed from the
eastern edge of the coal-basin to the western, he said
that every member of the Cotteswold Club ought to be

208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

familiar with the admirable section made by their old and
valued member, Mr. Etheridge, to be found in the Pro-
ceedings, vol. [V., 1866. In the 150 odd feet of sandstone,
marls, and limestones they had one of the finest succes-
sions of beds from the Triassic Marls, resting upon the
upturned edges of the Mountain Limestone, to the Rheetic
Beds and White Lias above, that exists anywhere, rendered
classical by the many eminent geologists who had de-
scribed them. Notwithstanding this there was still some-
thing left for Cotteswold geologists to do, namely, to
accurately measure and describe some 13 feet of the top
beds which Etheridge had omitted from his section: they
were very difficult of access. The shortness of the time,
as usual, only allowed a hasty traverse along the shore;
but many fossils were collected, e.g. fish scales and
teeth, saurian vertebre and bones, /ectex valonzienszts,
slabs covered with Pullastra arenicola, blocks of Cotham
marble and the iron-pyritised bone-bed, the result of
falls from the cliff above. But no teeth of Cervatodi
were obtained—local collectors probably having carefully
watched the opportunity of securing these notable teeth
after violent gales had brought them down from the
cliff.

After entraining at Thornbury, the entire succession of
the Carboniferous Limestone beds was passed through,
from the Lower Limestone shales, through the Lower and
Middle, to the Upper Limestones, so well exposed in the
Tytherington quarry, of which a section is given in the
Proceedings, Vol. IX, p. 325.

During the winter three afternoon meetings were held,
when papers were read, which will be found printed in
the forthcoming portion of the Proceedings.

OO ae

CHa UU MODER «THE MiCckOSCOPE:
BY
CHARLES. UPTON:
(Read February r4th, 1898.)

In the early days of Geology chalk was thought to be a
chemical precipitate of carbonate of lime. The micro-
scope, however, long ago proved this a mistake: it is
almost entirely composed of the remains of minute

- organisms.
Of these microzoa the Foraminifera are by far the most
important, numerically; in fact it may safely be asserted that
our chalk hills are composed of countless millions of the
shells of these minute creatures. Ehrenberg endeavoured
_ to form an estimate of the number of their shells in a
_ given mass: he came to the conclusion that a cubic foot
of the material contains something like 200 millions.
3 Dr. M. C. Cooke also experimented on several samples:
_ and his conclusions were similar to those of Ehrenberg.
These investigators only estimated the number of the
shells of Foraminifera. [I venture to assert that the
-coccoliths (which are usually taken to be organic bodies)
: “outnumber the Foraminifera by a million to one. The
number of Foraminifera which can occupy the space of a
. drop of water can be counted with some approximation to
truth, but the coccoliths which may be taken up in a drop
of water are absolutely beyond computation.

210 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTFESWOLD CLUS

Both divisions of the Foraminifera, 1.e., the /wzperforata
and the Perforata, are found in chalk. The most numerous
forms belong to the latter division: G/lodzgerina, Rotalia,
Textularia (Plate A, figs. 8, 9, 15), and €7zste/laria may
be mentioned as exceptionally plentiful. 77ochamemzna,
Ouingueloculina, and one or two others, belong to the
Imperforata.”

Altogether about 40 genera of Foraminifera have been
detected in the Chalk. Many of the forms, such as
Globigerina, Rotalia, Bulimina (Plate A, figs. 3-5), Cves-
tellaria, Truncatulina, Textularia, Quinqgueloculina, etc.,
are not to be distinguished from their living analogues : this
was one of the reasons which led Sir Wyville Thompson
and Dr. Carpenter to promulgate their theory of the con-
tinuity of the Chalk. Occasionally I have found among
the other forms portions of shells which appear to be
composed of grains of sand, or other granular matter,
agelutinated together: they would seem to belong to the
arenaceous Foraminifera. Further I may mention one
singular form to which I am unable to assign a place. It
consists of a spherical cell covered with spines of con-
siderable length, as compared with the size of the organism ;
and, from what I take to be the base of the cell,
a long, slightly curved stem proceeds—its extremity
appears to be broken off. The mouth is at the apex,
upon the summit of an obtuse, conical elevation. The
whole very much resembles an apple with a long stalk,
covered with spines, the mouth taking the place of the
apple’s eye (see Plate A, fig. 1.)

The next in importance of the microscopic organisms
of the chalk are the sponge spicules, which are both

* The Foraminifera are placed in the divisions /mperforata and Perforata on
account of the structure of their shells: those of the former are white, opaque and not
traversed by canals, or tubules; while those of the latter are more or less transparent, or

more correctly translucent, and “traversed by canals or tubules, through which the
pseudopodia are protruded.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 2II

numerous and varied in shape. The sponges of the
chalk are very numerous ; some authorities, in fact, con-
sider that the flints are formed solely from the silex
derived from silicious sponges by a process of dissolution
and re-solidification. Other authorities hold different
views; but, as I do not propose to enter upon a dis-
cussion as to the origin of flints, suffice it to say that
a very considerable percentage of flints contain well-
preserved sponge spicules, and spicular network, and
in some cases entire sponges, enclosed in their masses.
All the chalk sponges appear to belong to the silicious
class—at least I am not aware of any calcareous form having
been found —and comprise the orders Tetractinellidze
and Hexactinellide. To the former belong the spicules
which have 4 rays proceeding from a centre, the stellar
forms, such as occur in Zethya, and probably all the
acicular spicules. The latter order comprises the Ven-
triculites and their allies, which have a continuous spicular
skeleton forming a beautiful though complex network.
The structure of the spicular network of the Hexactinellids
is best seen in sections of flint, although in the majority
_ of specimens the finer structure is so completely obscured
__ by iron oxide that the elegant lantern nodes at the points
of intersection cannot be made out.

In some localities the chalk contains great numbers of
_ ostracoda belonging to the genera Cytherella, Cythere,
_ Cythereis and Bairdia. In a small piece of chalk taken
- from the hollow of a flint at Caterham Junction, I
found no fewer than 5 different species, comprising all

__ Coccoliths, as I have stated above, occur in chalk in
_ immense numbers: I have never yet examined a piece
_ without finding them. These bodies are exceedingly
minute, and require a magnification of 800 to 1000
diameters. Even then, to see them at all satisfactorily, it

212 - PROCEEDINGS OF RHE COTTESWOLD: CEU

is necessary to use an achromatic condenser with an
angular aperture, adjusted for the angle of the objective,
and very carefully centred. The coccoliths are of various
forms, mostly consisting of an elliptical ring, either plain
or marked by transverse lines, giving the ring a jointed
appearance ; and in many cases the space inside the ring is
occupied by a granular film. Ehrenberg, Huxley, Wallich,
and others have theorised about these organisms ; but by a
later authority they are believed to belong to the Algz.
The best method (at least, according to my own experience)
to obtain coccoliths for mounting is to take a small
quantity of whiting, well mix it up with water to the
consistency of cream, and then let it stand in a small
beaker or large test tube until the heavier portions of the
whiting have settled, leaving the water at the top apparently
clear. Upon the surface of the water will be found a kind
of scum, which should be avoided. With a rather fine-
pointed pipette take up some of the water, taking care not
to disturb the sediment; put a cork in the upper end of
the pipette, and stand it, with the open point downwards,
upon a clean cover glass, upon which a drop of distilled
water has been placed. After about a quarter of an hour
the coccoliths will have settled to the bottom, and will be
found in the drop of distilled water. This drop should
be spread evenly over the covering glass, evaporated very
slowly, the residue moistened with benzole or turpentine,
and mounted in pure Canada balsam.

Diatoms of several kinds are present in chalk—not
abundantly, I believe; but still they are to be found. I[
have never searched specially for these organisms, and
cannot say how many genera and species occur. Two
species of Fvagz//aria are mentioned in the Micrographic
Dictionary as having been found by Ehrenberg; and Dr.
Carpenter figures a Mavecu/a in his work on the micro-
scope. Upon a slide which I mounted for coccoliths

PROGEEDINGS7OF THE GOTTESWOLD CLUB 213

I have one diatom which most resembles Bacil/arvia. It is
quite worth while, however, to bear in mind, when ex-
amining chalk, that diatoms do occur in it.

The Polyzoa of the Chalk are numerous and interesting,
and, as a rule, are in a splendid state of preservation. They
all appear to belong to the order Infundibulata, sub-order
Cyclostomata, i.e., those in which the cells have a simple,
round mouth. I have a good many forms mounted; but
as I have not been able to get access to any work upon
the Chalk Polyzoa, I have not been able to gather much
information respecting them. Beautiful specimens of

_ Diastopora, Alecto, and other parasitic forms may fre-
quently be found incrusting the shells of the commoner
Echinoderms, such as AZecraster and Ananchytes ; and by

washing the soft chalk which is found in the external
hollows of flints many fragments of the erect-growing
forms may be secured. Of the many specimens of

_ Polyzoa which I have procured from the Chalk, not a

_ single one has any appearance of having possessed the

_ peculiar appendage called the “avicularia,” or bird’s-head

_ process; and only one solitary example has vibracula.

This is a somewhat singular circumstance, as in the

- Polyzoa of the Crag, and in the majority of living species,

either avicularia or vibracula are present, and in some
~ both occur. In most of the Chalk Polyzoa a few of the.
cells are found to be almost closed. by a calcareous

_ diaphragm, or extra growth extending inwards from the

edge of the mouth of the cell, and having a very small
opening in the centre. This appears to be in some
~ way connected with the process of sexual reproduction.

I have already referred to flint in speaking of the

_ sponges; but sponge spicules are not the only interesting

_ objects to be found therein. In some specimens very per-

fect casts of the interior of the shells of the Foraminifera

_ may be found, showing in the most complete manner the

214. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

connections between the several chambers, being, in fact,
perfect pseudomorphs of the animals which formed and in-
habited them. Again, scarcely a piece of flint can be taken
which does not contain Zaxthidia. In some specimens they
are extremely numerous. The Zan¢hidia are said to be the
sporangia of the Desmidiacee. Some 5 or 6 different
forms occur in flint. Some flints also contain immense
numbers of globular bodies which have been erroneously
called Pyxidicula,; they do not however belong to the
Diatomacez, and it is far from certain what they really are :
possibly they are sponge gemmules. I have in my
cabinet a section of flint which is literally crowded with
them.

Chalcedony is frequently found on the inside of hollow
spongeous flints, sections of which are lovely objects for
the polariscope.

Polycistina are occasionally found in the chalk, but it
has never been my fortune to meet with any.

The ordinary fossils of the chalk, such as the Brachio-
poda, Conchifera, and Echinoidea, are not exactly micro-
scopic objects; but sections of the tests, especially
those of the Brachiopods, are very interesting; and so
are sections of the plates and spines of Echinoderms.
Fragments of bones which are occasionally found in the
Chalk should also be submitted to microscopical examina-
tion, as by this means it may be determined whether the
bone under examination belongs to the Mammalia, Aves,
or Reptilia; and the microscope may also be applied
to fragments of wood which are occasionally met with.

Echinodermata are plentifully represented in the chalk
by the Echinidea or sea-urchins, and the Asteridea or star-
fishes; but hitherto no remains of the Holothuria, or
sea-slugs, have been recorded. Upon examining some
washed chalk some time since, which I obtained at
Caterham Junction, I was considerably delighted to find

OO —_

ch

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 215

a single wheel of Chzrodota: it has 6 rays, and is
‘00425 in. in diameter (See Plate A, fig. 16).

Various methods are recommended in the Micrographic
Dictionary and other works for the preparation of the
Chalk Microzoa for examination with the microscope; but
in my hands no process has been so successful as the
following :—For Foraminifera, Ostracoda, Polyzoa, and
such sponge spicules as are free in the chalk, my plan is to
procure the very soft chalk from the deep hollow cavities on
_ the exterior of freshly extracted flints : while damp this has
somewhat the consistency of putty, or clay, and contains the
most perfect and the largest organisms, anda greater number
of spicules than chalk taken from a distance from flints.
This soft chalk, upon being placed in water, immediately
breaks up and falls to the bottom of the vessel in a kind
of mud, without the need of any brushing or other
_ pulverising process. The chalk and water should be —
shaken and allowed to settle, and the water poured away a
_ good many times, regard being had to whether the smaller
forms are required or not, and as a rule this will be found
: Sufficient ; if, however, the organisms are not found to be
perfectly leat a good boil in strong soda, and decantation,
_ will invariably be found sufficient. Care should be taken
_ in the soda-process to keep the test tube continually
in rapid motion, otherwise it is apt to spurt and so eject
p the organisms.

The soft chalky material from the interior of hollow
5 spongeous flints frequently contains good specimens of
sponge spicules. This can be ek with acid, as the
‘spicules are silicious. The preparation and mounting of
_ sections of Flint and Chalcedony is, of course, best left to
the lapidary ; but sections of test, Echinid spines, and stems
_of Crinoids are easily made by grinding down upon a hone
in the usual way: they should be mounted in Canada

216 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

balsam. Foraminifera, Ostracoda, and Polyzoa are best,
I think, when mounted dry as opaque objects; but
if it is desired to mount the Foraminifera in balsam, I
consider the best process to be, to put some of the
material, which must be perfectly dry, into a small test
tube with some spirit of turpentine, and boil it until all the
air has been expelled from the interior. Very little
turpentine suffices. When the air has been expelled, drop
in some pure balsam, and keep at a considerable heat for
a short time in order to evaporate the turpentine, stirring
the material so as to disseminate the organisms equally
throughout the mass. The balsam with its contained
forms may then be taken up with glass rod or a piece
of wire, and placed upon covering glasses. The organisms
may then be mounted without the slightest difficulty, and
without any air bubbles.

The annexed Plate A illustrates certain of the organisms
to which reference has been made in the text, as well as
other noticeable forms. It will give some idea of the
interesting and varied microzoa, whose remains, as the
microscope reveals, make up the substance of what is
known as chalk.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE A.

Fig. 0. Foraminifer, Genus? x 95.
pitene eee Gaudryina sp., x 120.

Figs. 3-5. Bulimina sp. var., ~ 58.
Figs. 6,7. Frondicularia sp. var., = 38.
Figs. 8,9. Textularia cretacea, = 76.
Figs. 10, 11. Pullenia sp., x 58.

Fig. 12: Glandulina sp., = 38.

Figs. 13, 14. Fotalia sp., x 40.

Sh eae a Textularia sp., = 40.

Fig. 16. Wheel of Chirodota, « 200.

All the specimens are from the Upper Chalk, Purley, Surrey.

ee ee eS Eee

.
Geo West & Sona:mp.

Proc: Cotteswold Chib, Vol.XILPlate A.

OBSERVATIONS OF AvGYCLE TOUR,
BY

674. oe BUCKMAN. b.G.S,

(Read March 21st, 1898.)

In the summer of last year my wife accompanied me on
a short cycle tour through some of the counties of West
and Central England. The observations which I made
during the journey have a general connection with lessons
learnt in our own neighbourhood, wherefore they may
not be unsuitable for placing before the members of the
Club.

We started one morning from Charlton Kings, on the
road to Coomb Hill. The route lies over a Lower Lias
plain, and the changes by which this broad, flat vale has
been produced are certainly remarkable. The sea of the
early Jurassic Period, of course, once covered this area,
because the Lias is now beneath the road; but the non-
geological mind does not at once grasp the idea that the
sea of the post-liassic period also covered it, depositing
strata like those of Leckhampton and Cleeve Hills. Yet the
outliers seen on both sides during the ride—Bredon and
Churchdown—are relics of such strata. Still less is it
generally understood that the Cretaceous rocks must also

_ have overspread all thisdistrict. Yet thesea, which deposited

218 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

those rocks in Wiltshire and in the North of Ireland,
must have been continuous, unless it was interrupted by
any Paleozoic land-area. And there was no such possible
land-area in the Severn vale this side of the Malverns.

So to commence the story of the Severn Valley, it is
necessary, in imagination, to refill that valley with its lost
Jurassic and Cretaceous strata, and then to tell the tale of
its excavation out of a great Cretaceous plain—like the
Wiltshire Downs—raised, perhaps, 3000 feet above the
present level of the road to Coomb Hill.

At Coomb Hill we turned to the right towards Tewkes-
bury, running along a ridge. And this ridge is not easy
to account for. I have surmised the possibility that it is
the relic of one side of an old river-valley : that the Avon
flowed east of this ridge, past Tredington, into the
present course of the Chelt, to join the Severn where the
Chelt does now ; and that subsequently the Avon obtained
connection with the Severn at Tewkesbury. The right-
angle turn of the Chelt below Boddington, and the
alluvium in which the old canal to Coomb Hill is cut,
seem to support this idea.

We turned off from the Tewkesbury road, took the
way to the Haw Bridge, crossed the Severn there, and
followed the road to Ledbury. On this journey there is
a fine south-end view of the Malverns. They are grand
merely as scenery; they are far more remarkable in their
geological aspect.

For the Malverns stood up as a shore line—a huge
bluff of cliffs against which beat the waves of the
Jurassic sea. They are the merest relic now of what they
must have been then. For just as it is necessary to
continue the strata from east to west in order to picture
the Severn Valley before its excavation, so it is necessary
to continue the strata from west to east, in order to
restore the Malvern Hills.

OO

a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 219

Strickland made such a restoration of the Malverns,
___ shewing a “great fault” of some 12,500 feet.* Though
the details of his diagram may be open to criticism,
yet it forms a good basis upon which to start in the
reconstruction of what may be called the lost strata of our
own country. Thus on the east he shows about 11,000
feet of Palaeozoic rocks above the present level of the
Malverns. On the west we may place, above sea-level,
Trias rocks about 4000, Lias 1800, Oolites 2000, and
Cretaceous 1200 feet. The given thicknesses are only
approximate: they probably understate the case; for near
a shore line would be expected a greater accumulation of
strata than at a distance.

The Cretaceous strata would be unconformable to the
_ Jurassic rocks. And by the time the Cretaceous strata
were laid down the degradation of the Malvern land-area
by denudation during Jurassic times would have
_ sufficiently lowered it to permit of its submergence

beneath Cretaceous deposits.

Since it is evident that the Malverns must have stood
_ up as land while the sea was depositing the rocks of the
— Cotteswold Hills, and since it is thus possible to map the
‘relative areas of land and sea in this district, it is not
_ uninteresting to study a map of the world constructed
_ from similar data, showing the distribution of land and
water during the Jurassic Period. Three rather remark-
able points then demand attention. First, all the great
mountain ranges of the world—the Andes, the Rocky
~ Mountains, the Himalayas, the Alps, the Caucasus—were,
- like our Cotteswold Hills, being slowly formed in the bed
_ of the sea during Jurassic times: they have all been raised
_ to their present positions by subsequent earth movements.

is

i ‘dea the oe "ee which ari the ae Hills ;’ Phil. Mag., 4th ser.

220 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Second, South America and Africa are supposed to have
been joined together as a great continent ; North America
stretches over beyond Iceland, but is separated from the
southern continent by a comparatively narrow sea, where-
fore the Atlantic, as an ocean, is of comparatively late
geological date. Third, Europe is mostly under the sea:
it is the area of an archipelago whereof Wales, Brittany
and Ireland joined together formed a principal island.*
Of this island the range of the Malverns, May Hill, and
so forth formed the eastern coast line; and this ancient
Jurassic coast line can be observed at many places in our
district with often a great stratal unconformity.

Further about the Malverns: the noticeable serrated
edge and the dry valleys leading down from the hill tops
—some of them, as for instance that at the Holly Bush,
very conspicuous on the route taken—are due to denuda-
tion; but it is a denudation largely accomplished at a
time when the Jurassic strata were level with or even
above the present height of the Malverns, when such
strata were contiguous to the older rocks, just as is the
case with the Mendips to-day, and when the drainage
passed equally over newer and older strata, before the
existence of the Severn Valley.

Our route was continued to Ledbury. A _ noticeable
point in the scenery of that district is the valley excava-
tion. Taking into consideration the full width across
from the highest ground on the one side to the highest
ground on the other side of such a valley as that of the
Leadon, two points become of interest—the height at
which the river must once have flowed, the width and
depth of the valley it has excavated.

There is a quaint legend attached to Ledbury. It has
a geological origin, for it relates to certain hollows excavated

* The map is given by Emile Hang in his article, ‘Jurassique, in “La Grande

Encyclopedie,” Paris, 1894, p. 325,

i i i

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB) 22I

in the Old Red Sandstone rock. Most satisfactorily, of
course, the legend accounts for them. It is as follows :—

“A person, said to be a girl with a pair of pattens on,
“having stolen St. Catharine’s mare and colt, and led
“them down several brooks to avoid detection, the saint,
“upon being informed of her loss, prayed that wherever
“the animals and thief trod the marks of their feet might
“be left, and that in answer to this prayer the prints of
“the animals’ feet and also of the patten rings, were
“deeply indented, not only in the earth, but also in the
“stones whereon they trod, and thereby they were traced
“to and found at Ledbury.”*

A worthy Worcestershire antiquary is said to have
been dissatisfied with the saintly part of this explanation.
He argued ina valuable pamphlet that the marks were
really made by antediluvian mares and colts.

Beyond Ledbury is some interesting Old Red Sand-
stone country. It is fertile and suited to the growth of
hops. Irish labourers come over for the hop picking.

Some miles beyond Ledbury, on the Leominster road,
isa place called England’s Gate, suggestive of a former

boundary between English and Welsh. The influence of

the latter was also brought home to us in another way.
We took a wrong road here, and were informed that it
would lead us over Dinmore Hill. The name shows very
little alteration from the original Welsh Dx mawr, the
big hill. In our own district the Welsh origin of place-
_ names is generally more involved: they have taken an
English form. As an instance may be cited Garrick’s

Head, a well-known place on the Gloucester to Stow road
_ —its first word is Gavreg, a common Welsh place-name

connected with careg, a stone. The whole is possibly an
_ Anglicised version of Garvreg sad, firm stone. So, too,

* E. Lees “Pictures of Nature,” p. 141.

222. _ PROCEEDINGS’ OFSEHE’ COTTESWOED: ‘CLUB

such place-names as Toadsmoor, Tudmoor, Todmore, to
be found in our district, received more or less of an
English dress to make sense—Anglo-Saxon 7éde, a toad,
mere, a pool; the British original was 7awdd, wetness,
mawr, great. But some of our place-names have been
little changed: Maisemore, near Gloucester, is maes,
mawr, big field; Wycombe, near Andoversford, is Gwy
cw, water valley.

We passed on through Leominster, and bore away for
Mortimer’s Cross. Noticeable on the journey was the
escarpment-cutting by the river Lug. Such escarpment-
cutting where the river is still engaged in doing the work,
gives an interesting clue to the origin of our Cotteswold
escarpments, at the base of which no river now flows.
For instance may be cited the escarpment at Puckham
Wood, near Cheltenham. It is plain that a river once
flowed at the foot of that, but the action of denudation in
decreasing the drainage area, coupled probably with a
greatly diminished rainfall, has caused the complete dis-
appearance of the river. But the escarpment remains as
evidence of its former existence.

Escarpment-cutting is only another phase of valley-
formation ; but the difference may be noted. When the
river cuts through inclined strata in the direction of their
dip, a valley is formed with, approximately, equally sloping
sides: the width of the valley and the steepness of the
slope depend ina large measure on the rapidity of the
river's fall. When a river cuts through inclined strata at
right angles to their dip, then the feature of escarpment-
cutting is produced: that is to say, a valley is formed
with very unequally-sloped sides. The side with strata
dipping towards the river has a long gentle slope; it has
10st more material because of the facility given by the dip
for the transport of its rocks to the river; but the side
which dips from the river has a steep slope, and however

ee ee

aaa

PROCEEDINGS OF ‘THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 223

much the river cuts it back, it still, on account of the dip,
tends to retain a cliff-like face. The extreme difference
in unequally sloping sides of a valley is produced when
the river runs at right angles to the dip, but obviously
the difference lessens as the river takes more and more of
a course in the direction of the dip. If the equal-sided
valley be represented by V, and the extreme unequal-
sided by L, all the gradiations between V and L may
be obtained as the river takes intermediate courses in
regard to the dip of the strata-courses between that with
the dip and that at right angles thereto. So all the vary-
ing features in the sloping sides of our valleys, and the
scenery thereby produced will be found to have connec-
tion with the direction of rivers in relation to the dip of
strata they cut through ; and the depth of the valleys has
relation to the rapidity of the fall of the stream, among
other factors.

And speaking of valleys, the opportunity may be taken
to point out that our district shows three kinds—Ist,
those which a stream is now engaged in excavating ; 2nd,
those which a stream has excavated, but where there is
no stream now; 3rd, those which may be called duplicate
valleys, like the Chelt valley and the Winchcombe valley.
Their upper portions have been cut out by a stream flow-
ing in one direction. When this stream was tapped they
became dry valleys, then their lower part has been cut
again by a stream flowing in the opposite direction. So
_ they are really composed of one valley beneath another

valley.

Again, these types of valleys might be subdivided
according to the general directions of the excavating
streams in regard to the dip of the strata.

We passed on to Mortimer’s Cross, famous in the
_ Wars of the Roses. As it was about 50 miles from our
_ starting place, we were more interested in tea, and we

224 PROCEEDINGS -OF* THE GOTTES WOLD CLUB

were glad to find suitable accommodation in the hotel of
Mortimer’s Cross, not far from where the cross itself is
situated.

This hotel seems to be a convenient stopping place for
cyclists from the Midlands on their way to the Welsh
coast, say, to Aberystwith. Those who journey from our

district may, perhaps, like the hint as to its suitability, its

historical associations, and other interesting features.

However, we could not stop; we had to go another 10
miles to our friend’s house, situated near Leintwardine, in
Shropshire. This is the Roman_ station Bravinium,
which is presumably a careless Latinization of wardine
the Latin v being properly w. There is a street in the
village called Watling Street, and the Roman road runs
northwards from the village over the hill to Craven Arms.

There are really in the neighbourhood two Roman
roads known as Watling Street—an east and west road
from London to Shrewsbury, and a north and south road
from below Hereford up to Manchester. This Watling
Street is a part of the latter.

Leintwardine is an obvious Welsh name, and there are
several place-names in the neighbourhood ending in
wardine, for instance, Pedwardine, Lugwardine, ete. In
this case Leznt is the Welsh Lian?t, a stream, war is
gwar, meaning ‘water,’ from the same root as Sanskrit
var, water, Greek ¢ugs, Latin wzzza, and Welsh gwern,
a swamp, gwerven, a sauce: but azze demands special
notice.

Isaac Taylor®™ finds a somewhat similar river name in
“the Tyne in Northumberland and Haddington, the
“Teign in Devon, the Tian in the Isle of Jura, the Teane
“in Stafford, the Teyn in Derbyshire, and the Tynet in
“Banff.” He connects it with Moz or Van in Danube,
Don, Dneiper, etc., or with Celtic 7zaz, running water.

* «Words and Places;’ London, 1865, p. 209.

a

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PROCEEDINGS. OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 225

I feel doubtful about his association of ¢yze and don ;
the latter presumably has reference to colour. And
possibly the dzze in the compound words ought not to be
associated with ¢yze—it may have an adjectival force,
and be derivable from the Aryan root ¢az, to stretch, and

so denote a narrow stream. Some of the names in our

own district—of places situated on small streams—seem to
contain the same word as in the Shropshire instances, but
in a median position; for examples, Boddington (Botin-
tune), Cheltenham (Chinteneham), Withington (Widen-
dune)—the names in brackets are those given in the

Domesday Book.

Having got so far towards the etymology of Chelten-
ham, further suggestions may be made. ‘The ending
cham may be a corruption of Welsh y cwm, the valley.
The difficult part is C4zz. This may be a corruption of
a river name Szz, found in Shannon, called by the
Romans Seva, or Scenna flumen, and in the name of
India, Szzdhze.

The neighbourhood of Leintwardine is very rich from
an antiquarian point of view. My host wrote to me :—
“Within less than a-10-mile radius we have Brandon
“Camp, the Watling Street, the British Camp on Coxhill
“Knoll, Caer Caradoc, Hopton Castle, Warfield Bank, .
“Norton Camp, Stokesay Castle, etc.” And Offa’s dyke is
at no great distance.

Of these interesting places we chose Caer Caradoc for
_ the next day’s excursion. It is said to be the camp where
_ Caractacus made his last stand against the Romans. To
reach the camp we proceeded up a river-valley, where is a
place called Redlake. Legend says that the origin of the
name is connected with the slaughter of the British in
_ this last stand: the stream became a lake of blood in
_ consequence. Buta more prosaic interpretation may be
_ suggested: in Welsh A&ydd is a ford, aca is mud, or

226 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

llech, a flat stone; and the name has reference to the
character of a crossing of the stream at this point.

The Shropshire valleys seen on this day’s excursion
differ appreciably from most of those in the Cotteswolds.
They are deep and narrow, and are not, as is so often the
case in the latter, out of all proportion to the width of the
contained stream. ‘These differences tell much in regard
to their history and development.

The hills also differ much from those of the Cottes-
wolds. They have a peculiarly rounded appearance, and
there are not the angular clifflike outlines such as are
found in our district.

Occupying one of this rounded, isolated hills is Caer
Caradoc. The hill is enclosed by the ramparts. The
defence of the entrance is very different from what may be
called the L shaped gateway, found in such perfection at
Crickley Hill. At Caer Caradoc the inner ramparts are
turned back towards the inside of the camp, so that the
defenders could take the attacking force in both flanks as
they assailed the gate.

The camp is very well situated to resist an attack: the
steepness of the hill, on all sides defended by double,
and, in certain places, treble ramparts, should have made
an assault an extremely hazardous undertaking.

A visit to an oblong barrow—of a type between long
and round—situated close to the banks of the river Clun,
and to a large, circular, low elevation a little distance
from it, occupied the next morning. ‘The latter object
may be compared to certain mounds in Standish Park,
near Stonehouse, which the Club might profitably in-
vestigate.

The Clun valley where the remains are found is of a
different character to the valleys traversed on the previous
day. It is of considerable width, with broad belts of
flattish land. The distance from the hill summit on one

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 227

side to that on the other shows that the amount of
excavated material removed by denudation has been
enormous.

In the afternoon we continued our journey—the
destination Buildwas, about 25 miles distant. For the
first part of our journey we purposely travelled along the
Watling Street into Craven Arms. Thence our road
seemed to be a constant succession of inclines for miles,
till we reached the edge of the Severn valley, above Much
~ Wenlock, when descent was rapid.

On the right, as we journeyed, Clee Hill stood out as a
fine object, interesting to all cyclists as the source of the
best roadstone. It is a fine example of the resistance
which a hard rock, such as this basalt, offers to denuda-
tion. The geological history of this hill was ably
sketched by the late Prof. Harker on the occasion of the
Club’s visit.*

Above Much Wenlock I observed pebbles, similar to
what we know in this district as northern drift, heaped up
by the roadside for use as road metal. I should like to
have extended this observation, for there is little doubt
_ that the pebbles are obtained from local deposits. In
that case these deposits would be a continuation of the
_ drift spread over the Cheshire Plain and the high ground
_ north of the Severn, which would indicate that the Severn
has cut the gorge at Coalbrookdale since the deposition
of this northern drift debris.t
We know in our own district that very much denuda-
tion has been accomplished in the Severn valley since this
_ drift was deposited. For the drift occupies the tops of

* Proc., vol. xi., p. 239, 1895.
% + At Ironbridge, near Coalbrookdale, the drift is 200 feet thick—H. B. Woodward,
Geology of England and Wales,’ 2nd Ed., p. 492.

228 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Chepstow, it is on the top of the cliff, high above the
river. Wherefore the division of the cliff at Sedbury
Park from its opposite counterpart at Aust, has presum-
ably been accomplished since the deposition of the
northern drift.

The neighbourhood of Much Wenlock and Buildwas is
famous for Silurian fossils, and in the course of our
descent to the Severn valley we passed several places
where they are obtainable in abundance. It was from
this district that George Maw procured such a large series
for Thomas Davidson. The latter described to me how
Maw _ used to work. He washed something like 11 tons
of the shale, and the debris, sorted out by sieves, was
spread on tables for women to look over, so that they
might pick out the fossils. By this means thousands of
specimens were obtained, and all the Brachiopods were
sent to Davidson for the purposes of his monograph.
There were as many as 10,000 specimens of Orthzs bzloba.
I asked Davidson how he accomplished the labour of
sorting, and with a chuckle he replied that he engaged the
services of some Brighton parsons for the rough sorting
of the species, ““ because they had nothing to do six days
in the week.”

We duly reached the inn at Buildwas, and while a meal
was being prepared we visited the famous Buildwas Abbey,
a fine Norman ruin.

The next morning we proceeded down the Severn
valley to Coalbrookdale. It is a fine gorge, with steep,
well-wooded sides. In proportion to the stream it is
very much narrower than the valley in Gloucestershire,
and in any history of the development of the Severn
valley such noticeable differences of width would have to
be accounted for. If this Shropshire Severn was once a
Thames tributary, as suggested by an American, Prof.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 229

Davis,* of Harvard College, and if it was comparatively

recently tapped by a northern working back of the Glou-

- cestershire Severn, then the resulting lowering of the
level would produce a narrow gorge-like valley.

At Coalbrookdale we turned northwards, and climbing
the Severn valley found ourselves on somewhat high
ground—a wide, level plateau, the southward continuation
of the great Cheshire plain. It is all Trias, though con-
siderably overlaid with northern drift. Practically all the
Jurassic strata have been removed from a great area many
square miles in extent; but their former extension over
the district is shown by the presence of one or two
patches of Lower Lias, according to the evidence of
geological maps.

The whole of the day's journey—about 60 miles to
beyond Knutsford—was, after the rise out of the Severn
valley, practically over a level country. I do not remember

noticing a hill on the route; but one thing we remarked,
the excellence of the Cheshire sign-posts, a point wherein

our county is behind hand. Our way was through

Wellington, Hodnet, Market Drayton, Audlem, Nant-

~ wich, and Middlewich. —

Our stay in Cheshire continued for several days,
during which I took the opportunity to visit places of
interest. Knutsford is noteworthy as the scene of * Cran-
_ ford’ in Mrs Gaskell’s novel of that name, and several of
Piher characters are taken from members of my wife’s

‘ea

* H. J. Osborne White, ‘On the Origin of the High-Level Gravel with Triassic

tions from the writings of Prof. Davis I am indebted for what I may call a very rapid
g enlargement of ideas that I was forming as to the westward extension of Thames
Streams. My views will be found in ‘Cheltenham as a Holiday Resort, 1897, p. 50
and ‘Deposits, Bajocian Age: The Cleeve Hill Plateau,’ Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., vol. liii.

(1897), p. 607.

230 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

family—the Holland’s. It also boasts a dragon legend,
which is thus detailed :—

“The story is about a Thomas Venables, son of that Sir Gilbert Venables, who was
cousin-german to King William the Conqueror. In the time of this Thomas Venables,
says the old chronicle—* Yt chaunced a terrible dragon to remayne and make his abode
in the lordeshippe of Moston, in the sayde countye of Chester, wheare he devoured all
suche p’sons as he laid hold on, which ye said Thomas Venables heringe tell of, con-
sideringe the pytyfull and dayly dystruction of the people, w'thowte recov’ie, who in
followinge th’ example of the Valiante Romaines, etc., etc., dyd in his awne p’son
valiantlie and courragiouslie set on the said dragon, where firste he shotte hlmy throwe with
an arrowe, and afterward with other weapons manfullie slew him, at which instant tyme

the sayd dragon was devouringe of a childe.”*

Wherewith the author compares the quaint “ Legend
of Wantley,” published in the Percy Reliques :—

“ This dragon had two furious wings,
Each one upon each shoulder.
With a sting in his tayl, as big as a flayl,
Which made him bolder and bolder.
He had long claws, and in his jaws
Four-and-forty teeth of iron.
With a hide as tough as any buff,

Which did him round environ.

Have you not heard of the Trojan horse—
Held seventy men inside ;

This dragon was not quite so big,
But very near betide ;

Devoured he poor children three
That could not with him grapple,

And at one sup he eat them up,

As one would eat an apple.”

To explain the Knutsford dragon legend, the author
gives a tale about a child, a minor, in danger from his
guardian, who wished to seize the estate. But the dragon
legend is too widely spread for such an explanation. It
is related in regard to the parish of Deerhurst.f It is

* «Knutsford: Its Traditions and History, by Henry Green, 1869, p. go.
+ E. S. Hartland, ‘ Folklore of Gloucestershire, 1892, p. 23.

PROCEEDINGS: OF THE -COTTESWOLD CLUB 231

brought forward in Revelations, where a red dragon is
ready to devour a child,* and persecutes women; ¢ there
is the tale of Perseus and Andromeda; and many other
stories might be cited.

Natural history will furnish the readiest interpretation
of this wide-spread legend—an origin in the devouring
propensities of beasts of prey generally—the characters of
dragons being furnished by a bringing together in the
form of one animal of all the special attributes of death-
dealing animals, not omitting the wings of birds. To
these are further added such man-slaying elements as fire
and iron, to make a more terrible picture of the monster.
Knutsford is also famous for the meres in its vicinity—
Rostherne Mere, Tatton Mere, Mere Mere. With the
name reduplication in the latter case, our Cotteswold
“ Snowshill Hill” may be compared.

I visited Rostherne Mere. It is a grand sheet of deep-
blue water, in a large basin-like depression, said, of course,
to be unfathomable. It has a legend, which was told me
as follows :—“ That when the men were hanging the
bells in the parish church, which stands on the edge of a

_ bank sloping towards the mere, the biggest bell fell down
and rolled almost to the edge of the mere. The men
tried to haul it back, but it was so heavy that three times
it broke away from them. Then one of the men swore
_ —some wish that Old Nick had the bell at the bottom of
_ the mere. Then the bell broke away, crushed the man
who had sworn, rolled to the bottom of the mere, where
it now lies. And at certain times, especially on the
_ approach of rain, the mournful sounds of the bell may
_ still be heard coming from the depths of the mere.”

IT suppose that under certain conditions the surface of
__ the water reflects sounds from a distance.

SEH Exi. Ws 4 Hi Chien, v.33.
Pe2.

232 - PROCEEDINGS .OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

The meres are stated to owe their origin to two causes,
some to the one and some to the other. One cause is
the dissolution by springs of the salt in the Trias strata :
as a result a subsidence occurs. The other cause is
Glacial action, which produced hollows in the drift.

Of Glacial action I obtained good evidence in a section
of drift near asmall stream by Mobberley, which is not
far from Knutsford.* I brought away some well-scratched
stones from a deposit of boulders and gravel embedded in
a reddish clay. The scratches are very definite, and the
whole surface of the stones has undergone much attrition.
But something has happened to the stones since the
wearing processes were in action, and before the time of
embedding in the clay. Certain pieces have been broken
off, leaving rough surfaces. They do not seem to have
been knocked off by blows, and it is difficult to suggest
what the agency has been.

From the position of this drift near the stream, certain
inferences may be drawn. The denudation of the plain
of Cheshire had been accomplished before the deposition
of this drift. The somewhat shallow valley of the stream
has been cut out subsequently.

Drift of another character, presumably formed of
materials, removed by a stream during valley excavation,
partly through drift, partly through Trias rocks, and
redeposited as river gravel, was found in another section
not far distant. Here I did not obtain any evidence of
ice-action, though I cannot say the search was prolonged
or exhaustive. But the interest of this gravel section was
the finding of rounded pebbles by the side of sub-angular
rock fragments, which had only their edges abraded. The

* Other Glacial evidence at Mobberly was furnished by large boulders by the road-
sides. To one of these was attached a legend about a white lady who sits thereon and
combs her hair. Dire consequences were to overtake anyone daring enough to attempt

to move the stone.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 233

rounded pebbles had been shaped by marine action, the
sub-angular fragments by river water. But the marine
action had had no share in the making of the gravel
deposit : the pebbles had been rounded before they were
enclosed in the strata from whence the river had derived
them, namely, the Trias rocks. The lessons are that the
least abraded fragments in a gravel pit indicate the agency,
and that the finding of marine-rounded pebbles in a gravel
is no evidence that the sea formed that particular deposit.
A lesson similar to the last was learnt at Alderley
Edge. This is a fine Red Sandstone escarpment over-
hanging the Cheshire plain as a bold cliff. In the sand-
stone are numerous very rounded quartz pebbles. Where
the sandstone had become disintegrated the pebbles were
collected as a kind of gravel. But the rounding of the
pebbles was anterior to the formation of the sandstone.
Sitting on the cliff near these pebbles I wondered if, in
propounding the theory of the “Straits of Malvern,” the
authors thereof might not have been led astray by finding
~in our local gravels sea-worn pebbles, whose date of
abrasion was not that of the formation of the gravels, but
of a period anterior to the deposition of the rocks whence
they had been derived.
Rocks of such a character we saw in several exposures
_ of Bunter Conglomerate during the first day of our return
journey. A road section near Leek, in Staffordshire, was
particularly fine, some of the embedded pebbles being as
large as cricket balls.
_ The country about Leek is very hilly; it is, in fact,
a southern portion of the Pennine range. From a
~ geological point of view, perhaps, the true Pennine range
might be confined to the area of the Paleozoic rocks ;
_ but the hilly country extends southwards to the Mesozoic
_ strata. And the sculpturing of the strata of both Eras
_ has been comparatively recent.

234. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

If the drainage of the Welsh hills formed the north-
western tributaries of the original Thames river-system,
then presumably the drainage of the Pennine range
yielded the northern streams thereof. And among such
streams a continuation of one would have flowed down
the valley of the Evenlode. The westward working back
of the Trent would have tapped these streams successively,
giving them a shorter distance to a much lower level. In
consequence they would have rapidly cut their valleys
much deeper ; and so would be produced the hilly country
around, and south of Leek, by stream denudation.

From Leek we proceeded to Uttoxeter, the Roman
station Utocetum castra. In asking our way we were
told to enquire for Utchetur, if we wished to be under-
stood. This reminds one of the story in Akerman’s
Wiltshire Tales—of the man who enquired of a native for
Cirencester. The native knew no such place. “The
next town!” ‘Oh, Zizitur, you mean, about two mile off.”

By the road-side, south of Uttoxeter, there was evidence
of much northern drift. I seemed to follow this drift all
the way into the Severn valley, and on another occasion
into the Thames valley, by Oxford. The importance of
the distribution of this drift, and its connection with
ancient river drainage has been pointed out by H. J.
Osborne White.” .

Owing to tyre troubles, the rain, and the hilly country
we were not able to accomplish more than some 55 miles
on our first day's homeward journey. It was necessary
to halt for the night at a little village called Abbots
Bromley.

The peculiarity and the similarity of features ina group-
photograph attracted my attention here. Nearly all the
faces possessed a broad, somewhat bulbous nose, with

“Op. Cit..up. L577:

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 235

wide nostrils. The character was so noticeable and so
similar in all cases that I asked if it was a family group ;
but it was not, it was a group of school children with
their teachers. So this facial character seems to be a
racial peculiarity of the district.

The next day our joint tour was brought to a sudden
termination. Owing to a collision with poultry, my wife
had a severe fall, which necessitated her conveyance to
the house of the friends we were travelling to visit.

Their house is situated near Lichfield, in the valley of
the Tame, not far from its junction with the Trent. The
width and remarkable flatness of this valley is noticeable ;
the latter feature seems to be due to a filling up with
redeposited material. I gather from H. B. Woodward's
“Geology of. England and Wales, that the redeposited
material in the Trent valley can be divided into eight
beds, laid down during three periods of the Pleistocene ;
that Boulder clay is a great feature connected with
Glaciers from the Pennine range ; also that there is much
chalky material in the Boulder clay derived from Glacial
denudation of the Yorkshire wolds. .

However, I had no time for exploration. In order to
attend the meeting of the Club, near Cheltenham, on July
23rd, it was necessary for me to start the day after our
arrival, July 22nd, leaving my wife to the kind nursing of
our friends.

I passed through Tamworth, Coleshill, Kenilworth,
~ Warwick, Stratford-on-Avon, and Evesham to Chelten-
_ ham—a ride of about 75 miles. A feature of this ride
was that though I passed over the watershed of central
_ England—between the basins of the Trent and Severn—
yet I did not traverse any particularly high ground. This

236 PROCEEDINGS, OF CEHE: COTTESWOLD' CLUB

If the main drainage of England and Wales was
originally Thamesward, and if the westward working back
of the Trent, and the northward working back of the
Severn has successively tapped the upper Thames tribu-
taries, diverting them to the building up of their own
respective river-systems, it is obvious that, in their con-
tests with the Thames, the Trent and the Severn have
both had the immense advantage of working at lower
levels ; they have, as it were, been able to undermine the
Thames tributaries, and to give them a shorter and more
expeditious outlet seawards. But, when they came into
contest with each other, neither would have so marked an
advantage ; though that river, which had any such advan-
tage, should ultimately gain on the other, until complete
equilibrium was established.

In its contest with the Thames the Severn still has an
immense advantage, as we may see anywhere along the
line of our Cotteswolds ; and it will retain this advantage
until it has eaten its way far into the Cotteswold country,
and until the degradation of that country has been carried
immensely further than at present.

Another feature of this day’s ride was the persistent
evidence of northern drift apparently throughout the
whole journey. There is a very fine section of this drift
in the Avon valley at Bengeworth, near Evesham. I did
not stop for its examination that day, as I had seen it on
other occasions. The collection of materials is remark-
able. There are pebbles and boulders of granite and
similar rocks,* of quartz and quartzites, of Jurassic lime-
stones ; and there are broken up flints. All are mixed

* Some of the pebbles: indicate much history. For instance, one is made up of
angular fragments which must have been derived from the waste of an older rock. These
fragments were cemented together to form a newer bed. That completed, the sea broke
that newer bed into fragments, rounded this pebble, and laid it down as part of a
newer conglomerate. Out of that it was taken by some agency and carried along to be a

constituent of the drift in the Avon valley.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB = 237

with a reddish sand, and deposited on an irregular surface
of the Lias clay. Some of the blocks are as large as the
hand can grasp, or bigger: one quartz block measured
5 in. by 4% in. Many of the blocks are very rounded,
others of all kinds are sub-angular. The Jurassic blocks
are sub-angular. The flints are very little water-worn.

The great difficulty is to account for the presence of
the flints. H. J. Osborne White wrote to me—“ The
“presence of flints at Moreton [in-the-Marsh] and other
“places still more remote from any existing occurrence of
“the Upper Chalk is very hard to explain satisfactorily on
“any theory with which I am acquainted.”*

The subject is one of much interest; but I wish to
examine more of these exposures—for instance, those
near Moreton—before I say much.

[In connection with the subject it may be mentioned
that in a deposit of river gravel near Frampton-on-Severn,
mostly composed of local materials, I found a lump of
chalk. Writing from recollection and from where Mr.
Lucy’s paperf is not available, I think that this agrees
with his experience. But whence came this chalk, and
how ?| ;

While in the neighbourhood of Evesham and the Avon,
I may remark on the possibility of travelling from the
_ Avon valley at this point into the Thames basin, and yet
_ be ina valley all the time. From Evesham, the route is
a up the valley of the Isborne, past Winchcombe, to
~ Charlton Abbots. Then there is arise to higher ground,
_ but it is only low ground in comparison with the sur-
; rounding hills. It is, however, the watershed of the
_ Severn and Thames river-systems. And the valley of the
_ Coln is entered just by Charlton Abbots.

_ . * Letter, March 4, 1898.
2. + ‘On the Gravels of the Severn, Avon, and Evenlode, Proc. of this Club, vol. v.,
# p. 71. A most valuable treatise in connection with a study of the drift.

5

238 PROGEEDINGS. OF LHE COTFESWOLD CLUB

This is a case of a duplicate valley. The upper valley
was cut out by a stream which flowed past Evesham, along
the course of the Isborne, and past Charlton Abbots into
the Coln: it was a Thames tributary.

And yet this stream was probably not an original one.
The more original stream took a course from north-west
to south-east: an indication of a part of its course may
be seen in the valley by Hailes, Pinnock, and Guiting.
This valley is a fine example of a breach of the Oolite
escarpment caused by an old river. A north-westerly
extension of the Windrush was this river, reaching back
towards the Malverns. This was the more original
stream. It was tapped by the northward extension of the
Sevenhampton branch of the Coln, when the main stream
of the Coln came from beyond Cheltenham.

Time did not permit this matter being touched upon
when the paper was read; but Dr. T. S. Ellis noticed in
the discussion, that from the Severn at Tewkesbury up
the course of the Swillgate into the Chelt valley by
Dowdeswell, and so into the Coln valley, was all a follow-
ing of comparatively low ground. And it seems that he
had many years ago first enunciated the idea of this part
of the Severn having taken this course into the Thames,
and of the westward rising of Thames tributaries on the
west side of the Severn valley, when that valley was not
in existence, and when there was no Severn as a river in
the present sense. I gladly take this opportunity to draw
attention to his paper; for, if I may say so, it contains
the germ of some remarkable ideas with regard to ancient
river-courses which we are now beginning to understand.”

So [ conclude the account of a tour expressly under-
taken to a country where there are no Jurassic rocks, in
order to give me aneeded rest from geological work. How
exactly it fulfilled its object may be gathered from this
account.

* «On some Features in the Formation of the Severn Valley as seen near Gloucester,

Gloucester Philosophical Society, 1882.

RECENT DISCOVERIES

IN THE

GEOLOGY OF THE MALVERN HILLS,

BY
CoGALIEA WAY. SC. F:G.S.
(Read April 18th, 1898)

_ The crystalline rocks forming the chief mass of the
- Malvern Hills have received considerable attention from
a. geologists. The following are the most important con-
~ clusions at which al have arrived.

Prof. John Phillips * regarded the crystalline schists as
altered sediments of Pre-cambrian date, and the massive
rocks, granites and diorites, as eruptive and posterior.
He says distinctly of the schists, that ‘ oy were strati-
“fied, the traces of stratification remain.’

Dr. Holl ¢ pushed the views of metamorphism then
current even further than Phillips, and assigned a meta-
morphic origin to some of the diorites. He referred
these so- called metamorphic rocks to the “Laurentian ”
system. He described the mass forming the eastern
‘spurs of the Herefordshire Beacon as being composed of
. “baked rocks,” probably of Cambrian age, the alteration
being regarded as due to the intrusion of trap dykes.

* Geol. Survey of Gt. Britain, vol. II., part 1, pp, 58-65.

‘. . + Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., Feb., 1865, p. 72.

240) > PROCEEDINGS -@F =CHE COTTESWOLD GLUB

Sir R. J. Murchison * opposed the “ Laurentian” hypo-
thesis of Dr. Holl, and contended that the gneisses and
schists are metamorphosed Cambrian strata.

Much more recently, Mr. F. Rutley t has suggested a
modification of the views of Phillips and Holl, and has
attempted to construct a succession amongst the foliated
rocks. He thinks that the structural planes “sometimes
certainly, at others possibly, indicate planes of stratifica-
tion.”

My attention was first attracted to the Malvern region
by Holl’s “baked rocks,” which, from his descriptions,
I suspected to be something very different. In 1878, I
visited the ground, and was at once able to identify the
rocks with our Salopian Pre-cambrian volcanic series, {
which is now known as the Uriconian system. Both
lavas and ashes were to be recognised in the craggy out-
crops, but nothing approaching a succession could be
made out. Happily, the local authorities of Malvern, with
unconscious benevolence, have come to the aid of science
by excavating a reservoir for water in the heart of these
volcanic rocks, thus exposing to view excellent sections of
the anatomy of the formation. It is now seen that the
lavas and ashes clearly alternate with each other in bands
which display definite dips and strikes. Mr. H. D. Acland,
President of the Malvern Field Club, has published §
a short account of the rocks exposed in the cuttings; and
it is to be hoped that he will work out the details of this
interesting formation.

We now come to the crystalline rocks which form the
core of the Malvern ridge from end to end. The main

* ©Siluria,’ 1867, p. 14.
+ Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., Aug., 1887, p. 481.
t Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., 1880., p 536.

§ Pres. Address; Proc. Malvern Fieid Club, 1893.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 24I1

problem to be solved was the origin of the parallel
structure which they so frequently display. Were the
older geologists right in concluding that the gneisses and
schists were once sedimentary strata, mere beds of clay
and sand, which, under the influence of heat and pressure,
had been transformed into the likeness of bedded granites
and diorites ?

In the year 1884, while studying the crystalline rocks
of Donegal, I was struck with the fact that in one locality
the massive granite of that region was distinctly foliated
and bedded, as if it had been formed in layers; yet within
a few yards of this foliation, the granite sent out veins
into adjacent rocks. It was therefore evident that an
apparent bedding was no proof of an original sedimentary
condition.*

In the following year,f 1 found a similar phenomenon
in County Galway. In addition, I ascertained that differ-
ent kinds of igneous rocks, intruded into each other
and, subjected to pressure, assumed a banded appearance.
The different bands were therefore merely compressed

veins, and not igneous sediments.

These studies led me to undertake an investigation of
_ the Malvern crystallines, which I commenced in 1886, and
- continued for five years. The results were embodied in
a series of three papers to the Geological Society of
_ London,f{ the last of which appeared in the Journal for
_ 1893. I propose in the present paper to sketch, in un-
— technical form, the chief conclusions to which I have

been led.
All the crystalline rocks of the Malvern chain, excepting
_ the volcanic mass at the Herefordshire Beacon, are in

* Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., May, 1885, p. 228.
+ Ibid., Aug., 1887, p. 517.
} Ibid., 1887, p. 525; 1889, p. 475; 1893, p. 398.

242 PROCEEDINGS «OF THE ‘COT TES WOLD CLUE

their origin igneous and plutonic, not igneous and sedi-
mentary. ‘The apparent stratification is due to pressure,
not to deposit under water. The crystalline condition is
not superinduced upon an original fragmental structure,
but is itself either original or a recrystallization under
new conditions. To make the theory clear, a few details
are necessary.

The Malvern crystallines were once an igneous complex,
that is to say, they were a mass of igneous rocks, chiefly
a granite, and two or three varieties of diorite, which were
intruded into each other in veins, dykes, and masses. The
diorites form by far the largest part of the range, and may
be well seen in the quarries at North Malvern, in a large
quarry in the Hollybush Pass, and indeed almost wherever
rock is exposed. The granite is easily distinguished from
the dark-green diorites by its pink or reddish colour. It
usually forms veins in the diorite, but at the northern end
of Swinyard’s Hill, and at several other localities, it appears
in considerable masses. The veins vary in thickness from
several yards to a scarcely perceptible line. Sometimes
they occur in great numbers very close together, and give
the rock a distinctly banded appearance.

After the rocks of the complex had consolidated—or
the greater part of them—the whole mass was subjected
to enormous pressures, acting for the most part along a
north-east and south-west line, which caused the rock
here and there to give way, and flow along planes at right
angles to the direction of the compressing force. I say
“flow,” but it will be readily understood that the flow
of a solid differs from that of a liquid. A solid body
yields to the pressure by fracturing; it can give way
to the new stresses only by breaking into fragments, and
these, as the crushing continues, are forced to shear and
slide over each other. They take the form of lenses,
thickest in the middle, and thinning towards the edge.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB) 243

These lenses or lenticles are of all sizes, from the dimen-
sions of a sofa-cushion down to the minuteness of a wafer.
In the granite, which is a very coarse rock, they are much
thicker in the middle than they are in the finer-grained
varieties of diorite, where they are almost like uniform
sheets, though of course they thin out towards the

margin.
The bands of rock within which shearing and sliding
have taken place, I have called “shear-zones.” These

zones vary in breadth between a few lines, or inches, and
several yards, or hundreds of yards. They usually strike
obliquely across the axis of the hills, and their laminated
structure gave rise to the belief that they were composed
of aqueous sediments subsequently metamorphosed by
heat. This hypothesis, I may remark, was at the time, a
very natural one, since deposition under water was the
only cause known to the older geologists which was
capable of producing a laminated or banded structure.

I need hardly point out that all this crushing and shear-
ing must have been attended with the evolution of heat.
_ The rubbing of two sticks against each other will cause
_ heat enough to kindle the wood. What then must have
been the result of the friction between flakes of solid
rock, forced to slide over each other under inconceivable
_earth-pressures ? An illustration taken from modern

_ Dr. J. W. Redway, of Mount Vernon, New York,
writing in “Science,” in 1894,” describes a remarkable
accident that happened to some machinery. A cone-
_ shaped bearing was found to be too large for the cylindrical
_ box in which it was supposed to revolve. Dr. Redway
_ goes on to say: “ A speculative workman thought it might
_ “wear down to shape, and started the machinery. The
“experiment, though of doubtful success from a mechanical

Babeby 0; pi. 79;

244° PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

“standpoint, was brilliantly successful in another light.
“The bearing and box, both of drop-forged steel, were
‘welded to each other, and broke into a dozen pieces. The
“interesting point, however, was the fact that two forgings
‘of laminated steel under the agency of heat were con-
“verted toa metamorphic form. At the surface of welding,
“the laminated steel became crystalline, and even the parts
“at some distance became semi-crystalline. It was a fair
“illustration of what is now called ‘ dynamo-metamorph-
““ism. > The ‘writer “then: goes on to comparesthe
metamorphism of the steel under the influence of pressure
and heat, with the metamorphism of the Malvern rocks
as described in my memoirs, and he concludes that “in
essential principles” the metamorphism in both cases is
of the same kind. With this view I agree, and I point
the moral of Dr. Redway’s illustration by asking: If the
forces developed in a steam-engine can do so much in
such a substance as steel, how much more may be effected
by enormous earth-pressures acting upon stone, which,
compared with steel, is soft and friable ?

That heat was generated during the metamorphism of
the Malvern crystallines, can be demonstrated by the
direct observation of microscopic slides. The fragments
produced by the crushing are seen in an advanced stage
of the schist-making to lose their angularity, and to be
flattened out into minute cakes. These are often cement-
ed together to form larger cakes or lenticles. In the
completed gneiss, the fragmental structure is often entirely
lost, but sometimes there remain a few crushed crystals of
felspar to indicate, like an ill-cooked potato in Irish stew,
the origin of the rock.

There will be little difficulty in understanding that all
this crushing and shearing has been attended by great

chemical changes. In the earlier stages, decomposition:

sets in; in a later stage, reconstruction occurs. Complex

Ee ee

4

PROCEEDINGS! OF SHE COTTESWOLD CLUB 245

minerals are at first broken up into simpler compounds,
and these products often form new combinations. Take
for example, the change frequently undergone by potash-
felspar. This is a silicate of alumina and potash. In the
metamorphism, a portion of the silica separates as quartz,
and the remainder, in union with the alumina and potash,
forms white mica. Apply this change to the metamorph-
ism of the Malvern granite. This granite is a coarse
crystalline compound of quartz and a reddish potash-
felspar. The quartz remains unchanged. A part of the
felspar breaks up into quartz and white mica; and the rest
is reconstructed in granules, or in small crystals. Thus
a binary granite, consisting of quartz and felspar confusedly
intermixed, is transformed under pressure into a rock
made up of quartz, felspar, and mica, with these minerals
arranged in lenticular layers, so as to form a mica-gneiss.
Sometimes in the crushing process a portion of the
rock proves too tough for the earth-mill, and remains
unaffected. Owing to the shearing motion of the sur-
rounding mass, this core is made to assume a lenticular
form, while the planes of sliding curve round it, just as the
current in a rivulet is divided by a boulder in mid-stream,
and bends round it on each side. These lenticular cores
are galled ¥ eyes, . and the rock containing them is known
as “augen-gneiss.”
The activity of the chemical forces in the rock will
obviously be greatly increased by its crushed condition.
_ A crushed granite is almost as porous as a sponge. The
_ products of the decomposition of a diorite, such as iron-
_ oxide and chlorite, can often be traced into an adjoining
‘sheared granite for many yards, passing between lenticular
- flakes and filling microscopic cracks. In this way, heated
_ waters containing in solution ahah: alkaline caupuates,

246 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

The change from a massive igneous rock to a well-
foliated gneiss or schist sometimes produces in an
intermediate stage a curious mimicry of a sedimentary
grit. The large quarry at the hamlet of White-leafed Oak
exhibits this phenomenon. A coarse-grained diorite is
intensely crushed. The felspar is broken up into angular
fragments, the hornblende being decomposed into chlorite,
iron-oxide, and other compounds. As the pressure in-
creased, the fragments were rolled out into thin layers,
with the soft green chlorite and the dirty-looking iron-oxide
lying between the layers, and among the fragments. The
resemblance of this rock to a laminated grit is remarkably
close. Ina further stage of metamorphism, this grit is
converted into a well-foliated micaceous schist.

I must not enter into further details of the new theory
of metamorphism. ‘They may be seen in the papers to
which I have referred.

In conclusion, I will indicate the great variety of gneisses
and schists which have been formed out of the few
varieties of igneous rocks contained in the Malvern range.

One of the most striking effects of the metamorphism
is the production of mica. Three varieties of this well-
known mineral have been generated in the Malvern rocks,
white mica or muscovite, brown mica or biotite, and a
silky white mica called sericite. One or more of these
micas will be found in all the gneisses and schists in which
the metamorphism has proceeded to an advanced stage ;
yet in the granites and diorites which have been the raw
material of the metamorphism, not a scrap of mica occurs.
All the varieties of mica which are found in the Malvern
crystallines must therefore be regarded as of secondary
origin.

These micas are formed in several ways. Potash-felspar,
as we have seen, breaks up into quartz and white mica.
Soda-lime-felspar may also be a source of mica. But the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 247

most remarkable change that takes place in the Malvern
metamorphism is the generation of mica out of hornblende.
The hornblende yields, as a product of decomposition, the
soft green mineral called chlorite, a silicate of magnesia
combined chemically with water. In a further stage of
metamorphism, this chlorite loses water and takes up
potash, thus becoming a brown mica. It would seem
then that all the principal minerals in the Malvern igneous
rocks, except, of course, quartz, may be a source of mica.
Granite alone is converted into muscovite-gneiss, as we
have already seen. Diorite, a compound of hornblende
and soda-lime-felspar, is changed to a hornblende-gneiss,
and in a further stage into biotite-gneiss. Sericite-gneiss
also may be formed out of diorite. Some of the most
interesting gneisses are produced by the interveining of
diorite and granite. The contact of the granite with the
diorite assists in the production of brown mica, and when
_ the veins are numerous and near together, the intervening
' diorite becomes charged with the mica, and a beautiful
gneiss results, in which the bands of red granite alternate
with dark seams glittering with the mica.
These illustrations will perhaps suffice to explain the
_ general theory of the metamorphism of the Malvern
_ crystallines. A similar theory has been found to apply
_ to the old gneissic rocks of the Highlands of Scotland, of
_ Scandinavia, and of many other parts of Continental
_ Europe, as well as to the so-called Laurentian gneisses of
— North America. Indeed, it is now generally admitted that
all the older Archaean rocks of the globe are of igneous
‘origin.

+e
a
5 ; _s.
7
2 oe

BEVERSTONE CHURCH AND CASTLE,
AND MALMESBURY ABBEY,
BY
F. W. WALLER.

(Read at the Annual Meeting, May 16th, 1898.)

BEVERSTONE CHURCH

The Church, dedicated to St Mary, was no doubt
a originally a Norman structure. It now consists of a
“nave, 40 ft. 10in. by 19 ft., a narrow south aisle only 6 ft.
wide, and the whole length of the nave, a chancel, 28 ft.
Sin. by 14 ft., a chapel on the north side known as the
Berkeley Chapel to ft. 6 in. by 11 ft. 6 in., and a western
_ tower.

_ The arcade between the nave and south aisle is an
interesting example of transitional Norman work. This,
the doorway under the porch, and the figure which
has been inserted in the south wall of the tower are
ae about the same date. Lord Berkeley is said to

‘restored, and it is difficult to understand some portions :
for instances, the stone coffin-covers built into the south wall

250 PROCEEDINGS “OF THE .COTTES WOLD: CEUB

of the nave, and the west wall of the Berkeley Chapel
in the 14th century; also the arched canopy under the
window in the south aisle, which probably covered a re-
cumbent figure; also the skew passage or large squint in
the Berkeley Chapel, and the rood stair. Bigland says:
“In the great window of the Church are the arms of
‘“ Berkeley, which was probably built by Thomas, Lord
‘“ Berkeley in the Reign of Edward III.”

There is an angle piscina at the south-east corner of the
chancel very similar to that in the chapel at the Castle.

There is a good Edwardian pulpit on a modern stone
base.

There is no arch or other opening from the Church,
though I am told that a small doorway existed previous to
the last restoration.

The jambs of the chancel arch have been cased on the
front apparently, thus much injuring the effect of the
responds of the inner arch.

Was the floor of the Church formerly lower than at
present? See the part by the tomb. I understand that
some very interesting mural paintings were destroyed at
the last restoration, by being covered up with cement.

Some traces of decorative work still remain round the
north door.

The roof and fittings are all modern.

BEVERSTONE CASTLE.

I feel very great diffidence in venturing upon any re-
marks on the subject of this Castle. The building and
its history are most interesting, but I have not had
either the time or opportunity for such study as I should
have wished in such an exceptional case.

Unfortunately no plan of the building exists, either old
or new, so far as I have been able to ascertain, and a good
plan is an invaluable aid to investigations.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 251

Had time permitted, I would have taken a plan myself;
but to plot such a structure as this with fair accuracy, and
to lay down the probable lines of the parts which have
| wholly or partially disappeared is a considerable undertak-
ing, and one needing much careful research. I have only
a rough sketch plan for reference.

For the following notes I am mainly indebted to Big-
land and other known authorities.

The place does not appear to have been known in
history until ‘‘ Earl Godwine and his patriot host,”
marched from here to Gloucester to meet Eustace of
Boulogne “in the autumn of 1051.” Godwin did not
actually reach Gloucester, so it is said, and the difficulty
was got over, and Godwin reinstated in his position; but
Sweyne, his son, was outlawed, and died at Beverstone,
which they are stated to have seized: it appears in Domes-
day Book in 1086 as crown property.

There seems to be a doubt as to whether any Castle
actually existed here in 1051, though Rudder says “some
“accounts expressly say that they (the Godwine’s) seized
_ “upon the Castle of Beverstone;” but he does not state

~ whence this information comes.

_ It seems probable that there may have been a strong-
_ hold here before the present one ; and Blunt calls attention
to the fact that “the base of a circular tower of solid
“rubble masonry, 24 feet in diameter, was discovered in
_ “1873 in the Rectory kitchen garden, opposite the west
es face of the great tower of the Castle, and 37 yards dis-
Seetantirom it... . .-. and some large chamfered
“stones were also found under the Rectory lawn, and
“their position seemed to indicate the presence of a gate
“of similar age.”

Could these have been the remains of an earlier build-

»

252 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

Beverstone formed part of the Royal Manor of Berkeley
which was Crown land at the Conquest, and was granted
by the Conqueror to Roger de Berkeley of Dursley.

The Berkeleys having got into trouble in the wars
between Stephen and Matilda, the property was granted
by Henry II. on his accession, in 1154, to one Robert
Fitzhardinge, son of a Bristol worthy; and Robert was
born in Bristol.

The Manor passed to the 3rd son of Robert Fitzhard-
inge, who took the name of de Wearr, from a manor he
held in Somersetshire, and then to his son Maurice, who
assumed his mother’s name of de Gaunt, and to him is
ascribed the building of the Castle of Beverstone in 1225.
There would appear, however, to have been great doubts
as to his loyalty and intentions; and he was taken to
“task” for having fortified his Castle without Royal
permission.

He seems to have overcome the difficulty, and to have
been allowed to complete the work; and Bigland says: “it
‘then became a military fortress, and was probably much
“ dilapidated during the Barons’ wars.” Blunt says: “the
“lower parts of the Castle are all of this date, massive
“Norman piers and groining still remaining in a perfect
“condition, with external walls many feet in thickness.”
But nearly all appears to me to be of later date.

Maurice de Gaunt was succeeded by his nephew, de
Gournay, and he again by his son, Anselm, and the latter
by his son, John, whose daughter and heiress married
John Ap Adam: and their son, Thomas, sold Beverstone
to the 8th Lord Berkeley, in 1331, who is said to have
reconstructed the Castle, without however destroying all
the work of his predecessors.

The necessity for reconstruction is explained by Big-
land’s note as to the dilapidations during the Barons’ wars.

There is a curious point connected with this recon-
struction; the funds are said to have come from the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 253

ransom of prisoners taken by Lord Berkeley, at Poictiers,
(1356) but Lord Berkeley’s eldest son, Maurice, was taken
prisoner there by the French. Why was it that Lord
Berkeley did not first ransom his son—was he an un-
natural parent, or the son an unsatisfactory person ?

The Manor next passed to Sir John Berkeley, and
remained in that family for over 200 years. It was sold
by another Sir John, the last of the Berkeleys of Bever-
stone, to Sir John Pointz, in 1579, and successively to
Henry Fleetwood, Sir Thomas Earstfield, Sir Michael
Hicks, and in 1842 to Mr Holford, whose son, Captain
Holford, is the present owner.

-__- During the early part of the 17th century, Smyth says
that the Castle was kept in good repair, and was “ often
“inhabited by the Lord thereof;” but by 1840 it had become
a farm house, for Nicholas Shipway (farmer) of the Castle
was buried on August 27th, 1640. Subsequently, during
_ the Civil Wars, the Castle was a point of contention
_ between the opposing forces, its position being important
for strategic reasons. It was held first by the Royalists in
1643-4, but Colonel Massey determined, if possible, to take
ee it. .

__ There is an interesting and somewhat amusing account
of his first endeavour in this direction :—

“Colonel Massey brought up his men and two sakers
_ “against Beverstone Castle, when having surrounded it he
_ “planted his guns within pistol shot of the gate and gave
A “fire several times.”

“Fifty musketeers ran up to the gates at noonday and
_ “fixed a petard, which nevertheless failed in execution.”
_ “Those from within threw grenades amongst our men,
~ “but hurt none, who, although thereby forced from the
ba gate, ran up a second time, being open to the full shoot
“of a secure enemy, and brought of the petard with much
e gallantry.”

254. PROCEEDINGS..OF THE COTTESWOLD -CLUB

The attempt to take the Castle was abandoned for the
time, but a second effort was more successful. The
Governor, Oglethorpe, while away from his duties, as
some say courting a fair lady in the neighbourhood, paid
for his temporary abberation by being taken prisoner ; and
Massey, suddenly appearing before the Castle, and de-
manding its surrender, it was yielded to him, and from
thence held by the Puritans.

According to Bigland, the Castle was burnt down soon
after the siege, and a large dwelling house built within its
walls; that house was also burnt in 1691, and replaced
by the present farm house. But this hardly seems pro-
bable, it is more likely that the Castle was dismantled,
and the old Hall turned into a farm house, as suggested
by Blunt, and that this old hall, adapted as a farm house,
was the house which was burnt previous to the erection
of the present one.

Next, with regard to the building itself, of which I
must regret there was no time to make a good plan. As
before suggested, it is possible that an earlier strong-
hold may have existed, and that the remains found in the
Rectory garden were part of it; and there may be remains
of the Castle of 1225 in the lower portions and founda-
tions of the present building, but it appears to me to be
for the most part Edwardian.

Blunt gives the following general description :—‘* The
‘reconstruction of the Castle by Lord Berkeley left it a
“fine quadrangular structure, with—so tradition states—
‘four towers (though only two now remain) a Barbican,
“a large Banqueting hall on the site now occupied by the
“dwelling house of the Castle Farm, and a moat im-
“mediately under the walls of the Towers and Curtains.”

“The western face of this Edwardian Castle still re-
‘mains, consisting of a large square Tower, 34 ft. by 30 ft.,
“at the southern end, a smaller one, 24 ft. square, set

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB) 255

“angularly at the northern end, and a curtain between
“them containing roomy galleries, the whole side extend-
“ing to 123 ft. The distance from the outside of this
“face to the outside of the Barbican is 165 ft.; the whole
“area of the Castle within the moat may thus be reckoned
“at 2255 sq. yards, and the Court Yard must have been
“ of small dimensions.”

“The great tower at the southern end of the west side
“consists of three storeys, and is 60 ft. in height. The
“lower storey formed an entry and a guard room, the
“latter being lighted by a beautiful ogee leaded window,
_ “which remains extremely perfect, as may be seen from
_ “the bank of the moat.”

“The ascent from the entry is by a newell staircase in
“an octagonal turret, which seems to have been added on
“to the main tower in a very insecure manner.”

“The large chamber above the guard room and entry
“was probably appropriated originally to domestic use,
“but turned into a Chapel early in the 15th century, two
“sedilia and a piscina having been added, which are

; elaborately carved ina shallow and rather debased style

“of art.”

“ Another large chamber occupies the tower above this,

“forming the third storey ; and northward of this is the
“more ancient Chapel, which is situated in the curtain,
“and beyond which is another chamber nearly as large as
_ “that in the tower.”
_ “There are double slits or squints on both sides of this
_ “Chapel, so that although it is not large enough to hold a
“dozen persons, more than a hundred could be accommo-
- ‘dated in the chambers on either side, most of whom
“could obtain a view of the altar through these squints,
“and all could distinctly hear the service which was going
eon there.”

256 PROCEEDINGS* OF -THE GOTTESWOLD “CLUB

“The only trace of the Great Hall is the mark of the
“weather table, on the inner wall of the table adjoining
“the Great Tower.”

‘ Below this is the roof of the present dwelling house,
“which preceded this, and which was burnt down, was
“the great hall itself, divided by floors and partitions.”

“A noble gallery which, with the narrow passage be-
“tween its western wall, and the exterior wall of the
‘Castle, occupied the second storey of the curtain, is
“now roughly divided, and used as store rooms for farm
“ produce.”

“A handsome stone chimney piece of 18th century
“workmanship, shows how recently it was used.”

‘“ Beneath it, on the level of the courtyard, are vaulted
“offices, which are now used as dairy and brewhouse.”

“Lower still, is the only underground portion of the
“Castle, a gloomy ‘dungeon, which lies immediately
“under the west end of the upper Chapel.”

“This vault, whatever its use may really have been, is
‘entered by a door near the guard room.”

“The northern, or angular tower, has nothing remain-
‘ing of its interior dimensions except the vaulting of the
“floor chamber, which is used as a coal cellar.”

‘Above the vaulting the tower is gutted to the roof,
‘which itself is modern.”

“Tf there was ever a curtain on the northern side of
“the Castle not a trace of it remains, nor is there any of
“the other two towers, which are said to have completed
“the square of the fortress.”

‘

‘

MALMESBURY ABBEY CHURCH

In placing these notes before you I can lay no claim to
original research: I fully acknowledge my indebtedness
to a most valuable paper by the late Mr. E. A. Freeman,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD: CLUB - 257

and to an article, with a plan, which appeared in the
“ Builder,” in March, 1895.

I do not propose to enter into any detailed account of
the early history and foundation of the Monastery: this
has already been dealt with in various able papers.

The generally received account of the original founda-
tion is that Maeldulph built a cell at Malmesbury; that
Aldhelm, a disciple of his, enlarged, in the 7th century,
upon Maeldulph’s work, founded the Monastery, and
dedicated it to the Holy Saviour and St Peter and St
Paul.

Mention is also made of two smaller Churches dedi-
cated respectively to St Mary and St Michael. Aldhelm
was transferred to Sherborne, but was subsequently buried
at Malmesbury.

The Monastery received many grants of land and other
benefactions from various donors, particularly from King
Athelstan, who is said to have been buried before the altar
in 941.
fm Passing over the interval between the original founda-

_ tion of the Monastery and the rebuilding of “the Church
- onits present grand scale, we find that this building is
_ said to have been commenced by Roger, Bishop of Salis-
bury, about the year 1135, but the character of work
_ would hardly bear out this view. Freeman says on this
eet : “It appears to be generally believed that the
“present Church was begun by Roger, Bishop of Salis-
- “bury, about the year 1135,”

“This tradition seems confirmed by two passages
“of William of Malmesbury, neither of which directly
“assert it.”

“ Certainly the architecture of even the earliest portions
“of the Church is remarkably advanced for that date, but
“this is no more than we might reasonably expect in the
“works of a prelate so renowned for his architectural

258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

“skill, and whom we might therefore naturally expect to
‘find at the head of the artistic developments of his age.”

“Tf, then, we accept this date we may recognise in the
“foundation of this Church one of the most memorable
“epochs in the history of architecture in this island, for
‘““we may safely set it down as exhibiting the first English
“example, not indeed of the incidental use of the pointed
“arch, when any special necessity rendered it desirable,
“but, what is a very different matter, the first instance of
“its distinct preference on esthetical grounds in the main
“arcades of a great Church,”

‘When this point had been gained, the battle between
“Romanesque and Gothic was really won by the latter ;
“every Gothic detail now followed as a natural develop-
“ment in its natural order.”

‘“ Malmesbury, however, happily exhibits the style just
‘after this first and greatest change had been accomplish-
“ed, and no other commenced; every other feature is
“still Romanesque.”

“In short, while in a history of English architecture,
‘we ought to speak of Malmesbury as the earliest of
‘“ Transitional examples, it will, in practically describing
“the building itself, be far more convenient, and indeed
“far more accurate, to speak of its earliest portions as a
“specimen of the pure Norman style.”

“One remark, however, I must make. I mentioned
‘1135 as the date assigned to the commencement of the
“Church. We must on the one hand remember that
‘“oreat churches were not, least of all in the reign of
“Stephen, finished in a year or two, and that the west end
“would probably be the last part finished ; consequently
“Malmesbury nave may well be twenty or thirty years
“later than 1135.”

This is such an important point in the architectural
history of this Church that I venture to quote the words
of so great an authority in full.

‘

¢

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB = 259

PLAN. On reference to the plan it will be seen that the
whole of the main walls are Norman, everything in fact
to the clerestory level except some minor details, and the
building consisted of the usual parts of a great Norman
Church, the four arms of the cross and a central tower,
and the dimensions, so far as they can be ascertained,
were as follows: the nave, 150 ft. by 32 ft.; north and
south aisles, each 12 ft. by 150 {t.; the central tower, 28
ft. by 28 ft. within the walls; he south transept, 39 ft.,
internal projection beyond the aisle, the width probably
30 ft. The size of the north transept cannot be deter-
mined, nor yet the sizes of the presbytery, and the eastern
chapel which is said to have existed.

William of Worcester mentions some dimensions
(gresons snos) from which it might be inferred that the
length of the presbytery was 110 ft. east of the crossing,
that is, a presbytery of six bays, with an eastern ambulatory
_ supposing the bays were the same size as those of the
nave (see planin blue); but Freeman thinks that the pres-
__ bytery was ‘“‘a short Norman structure of 3 or 4 bays, as
_ at Peterboro’ or Romsey,” (see plan in red.)

The large south porch is 14 ft. by 12 ft.
The cloisters and other buildings were to the north of
4 the Church, as at Gloucester, and in their main features

enclosed in one semi-circular arch, all being Norman;
above this again is a clerestory and vaulting of entirely

The unusual height of the clerestory (which appears to
have been about the same in the Norman work) has a

260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

particularly fine effect, and is far more satisfactory in
design than that at Gloucester. Freeman says of it: “ this
“whole elevation must have been one of the very grand-
‘est in England; it has all the solemn majesty of a
“Romanesque building, combined with somewhat of
‘ Gothic inspiration.”

There is, however, an unpleasing effect in the awkward
lines of the long ribs of the quadripartite groining where
they join the wall and pass down it.

Note the roof shafts rising off the caps of the columns,
the elaborate mouldings of the arches, and the increased
richness eastward, the arch labels and their terminations.

AISLES. These were lighted by single round-headed
windows, with arcades beneath them, many of these re-
main with later perpendicular tracery inserted, and some
have been entirely replaced with large decorated windows.

Note the treatment of that on north side—those on the
north side are higher than those on the south, being
above the cloisters. The vaulting is quadripartite.

WEST FRONT. The treatment of this was unusual in
Norman work, at each angle was a large staircase turret,
oblong on plan, with a wall connecting it with the west
end of the nave, thus forming a facade which screened
the terminations of the roofs westward. This facade was
richly arcaded and divided into four storeys horizontally.

Freeman calls this facade “simply a sham,” “the pro-
totype of that at Salisbury.”

Lincoln and Wells were similarly treated, there was a
fine Norman west doorway, which has now a perpendicular
insertion within it, and above is a window of similar date.

A great western tower was added in the perpendicular
period.

The construction of this appears to have been alto-
gether exceptional and reckless : instead of being built on
to the west end of the Church, as was the usual plan, it

¢

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 261

was actually built over the last two bays of the nave, the

western wall of the tower resting on the western wall of

the nave.

Leland speaks of it as a “great square” tower, and
Freeman suggests that such towers were to carry bells—
the central towers acting as internal lanterns—and that
the arrangement adopted at Malmesbury may have arisen
from a desire not to injure the fine west front already

- existing, and because the form of that front would not
have harmonised with a tower built out in the ordinary
manner.

In carrying out this tower, so completely was it sup-
ported on the existing work that even the clerestory and
cornice on the south side were not disturbed, nor the
decorated clerestory and vault interfered with internally,
an arch being thrown across aboye the vaults between the
second piers westward, on which the east wall of the
tower rested, and some additional support being obtained
by strengthening the wall and pier, and by flying buttresses
outwards: thus a fine west front was obtained, and no
material alteration effected internally.

But this piece of reckless construction, though standing
in Leland’s time, fell subsequently, and in its fall destroyed
the west end of the nave and north aisle,

SOUTH PORCH. This is a magnificent specimen of
~ Norman work, with a subsequent casing in the decorated
_ period. Possibly this is the most remarkable feature of
~ Malmesbury, and, as such, merits a paper all to itself, es-
pecially as so much of the interest would naturally centre
in the sculptures.

____ Professor Cockwell has treated of these in his work on
_ the sculptures of Wells Cathedral.

There is a Norman doorway in the north aisle which
gave access to the cloisters. This has a perpendicular
_ insertion with groining of the same date over.

*

262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

CENTRAL TOWER AND LANTERN. The north and
west arches of the central tower still remain, the latter
being blocked by the later masonry. The effect of these
great arches is extremely fine, and when complete, this
lantern and tower must have been grand indeed. The
tower is said to have been surmounted by a lofty spire—
these fell previous to the Dissolution, and were not rebuilt.

Freeman says: “the character of the central tower
“which these arches supported we can only conjecture—
“ perhaps we shall be nearest the truth in imagining a rich
“Norman tower crowned witha timber spire of later date.”

The Ritual Choir, as may be seen by the inner faces of
the eastern and western arch of the tower piers, was under
the crossing—as these faces have no projection, whereas
those north and south have, and the arches above are
stilted to compensate for the difference in width, and
bring the arches level.

A perpendicular vault was subsequently introduced and
cut off the lantern—the springing of this can still be
seen.

Leland speaks, in 1540, of two steeples, one having a
“mighty high pyramis,” and which stood in the middle
of the Church, and fell dangerously, within the memory
of man.

TRANSEPTS. Of these a great part of the west wall
of the south transept remains, and a small piece on the
north side—they had no western aisles—and that on the
south projected two bays beyond the aisles of the nave.

PRESBYTERY. Of this only sufficient remains to show
that the general character of the work was similar to that
of the nave, but richer.

EXTERNALLY. Of the external changes from the Nor-
man work now apparent are the pinnacles and flying
buttresses, which the decorated stone vaults over the nave,
rendered necessary by the new clerestory with stone
vaulting, and the pagancts.of the same date.

RESENTED

tad

15 JUL. 1901

PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 263

INTERNALLY. There are some points of interest which
should’ be noted. The perpendicular rood screen still
remains within the present church, and forms an altar
screen; and stone screens of the same date, but with
decorated tracery, exist at the ends of the aisles.

The tomb of Athelstan, so called, is now placed on the
south side of the altar.

There is a curious projecting gallery on the bays of the
south’ triforium, and Freeman suggests that this may have
been a watching place of some kind.

As before pointed out, the cloisters and buildings were
on the north side, and the ground here slopes rapidly
down to the river. The effect of the whole group of
buildings from this side must have been very fine. Some
remains of the old buildings may be seen forming a base-
ment to the old house to the north-east of the Church.

There is one point to which I should particularly like to
direct attention, and that is the wonderful similarity in
much of this Church with that of certain of the Roman-
esque Churches of the South of France.

The decoration on top of the abacus of some of the
nave columns closely resembles that on a string at the
Chapel of St Croix de Montmajour. At the Cloister at
the same place are arcades of four arches beneath one.
The T + is on an abacus in the Chapel of St Gabrielle,
and at St Trophime (Arles).

The ornament over the north door is similar to that
on the capitals of the columns in the cloisters of Vaison,
and also at Montmajour.

(END OF VOL. XII.)

PRESENTED
1415 JUL. 1901

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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

FIELD CLUB

Sa

VOLUME XIII.

Parts I, II, 1899. Part III, 1900. Part IV, 1901

GLOUCESTER: 1899—1I901

: <a

PRINTED BY JOHN BELLOWS

GLOUCESTER

CONTENTS OF VOL. XIII

PART I, 1899
PAGE

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, May 2. M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS
(Part I, Formal Record; Part I, A Gold-Bearing River in

California) —. g : ; , : : : . 3

: ’ The Valley of the Lower Wye. By S. S. BUCKMAN : Sener
Paintion in the Monastic Orders. By JOHN BELLOWS. eas

~ Roman Work at Chepstow. By JOHN BELLOWS 45

4 Roman Remains at Bath. By JOHN BELLOWS 47

PART Il, 1899

‘ he Earliest Known Forms of Life on the Globe. By C.
CaLLaway, M.A., D.Sc. ° : : : : ; Ben pee fe:

: ‘onze Spear Heads from Rodborough, near Stroud. By Major
eu. Fisher 2)!” E : er ; j et

Human Babies: Some of their Characters. By S. S. BUCKMAN.
Plates I, II . ' 89
Some Cotteswold Brachiopoda. By CHARLES UPTON. Plate III 121

st of Types and Figured Specimens of Brachiopoda. By S. S.
_ BUCKMAN, EGS ae : : : ; : 3 S. i

7 PART III, 1900
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, April 3. M. W. COLCHESTER- WEMYSS
(Part I, Formal Record; Part II, A Visit to Robben Island ;

Part III, An Account of Leprosy). ; : é 2 EAQ
&

PAGE
Excursion Notes: Chiefly on River Features. By S. S.
BUCKMAN. 3 : ; : 5 : : « SES

Excursion Notes: The Garden at Priors Mesne. By M. W.
COLCHESTER-WEMYSS_. A : : , : . 193

A Fatal Combat between a Rove Beetle and an Ant. ByC. A.
WITCHELL and C. J. WATKINS ‘ i : : - 195

Survivals of Roman Architecture in Britain. By JOHN BELLOWS.
Plates IV-VIII ; ; ‘ : ‘ : ; . 199

The Common Fields at Upton Saint Leonard’s and the Recent
Inclosure (1897.) By Rev. Canon E. C. SCOBELL. Plates

IX-XI__.. : : : : ‘ : : : < p2n5
List of the Members, May, 1900. F : ; : 3 i
List of Societies, Institutions, etc. . , = ; ’ 2 v
Treasurer’s Account : ; : ‘ ; : ; F vi

PART IV; 190%

Homceomorphy among Jurassic Brachiopoda. By S. S. BUCKMAN,
E.G.S:; Plate XH; SIM. ‘ : : : : wat

The Pyrenees and Andorra. By WILLIAM BELLOWS. Plates
XIV-XVI ; : : 3 . : ; ; «S90

Polydactylism in Cats; and other Features. By Rev. A. R.
WINNINGTON-INGRAM ; : : , - “Sgoy

Rhynchelmis: A Rare Aquatic Worm. By W. A. BAILY.
Plate: XVII. ‘ ‘ : : : : : » 309

Resolutions concerning Maps . : : ; ; : . aD

VOL. XIII PAR 1!

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

| Cotteswold Uaturalists’

PRED CLUB

For 1898—1899

President
M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

Vice- Presidents
Rev. FRED. SMITHE, M.A., LL.D., F.GS.
JOHN BELLOWS
| Rev. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.S.
EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.MLS.
J. H. JONES
CHRISTOPHER BOWLY, M.A.I.

Honorary Creasurer
AS EBIERS

Honorary Accretarp
S. S. BUCKMAN, F.G.S., (CHELTENHAM)

ee ee

" _ THE COUNCIL OF THE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERSTOOD THAT THE AUTHORS
\s ‘
a - ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED

IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS,

ti | Contents

THE PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1899

a aaa page 3
The Valley of the Lower Wye. By S. S. BucKMAN, F.G.S. -_..........-----.------- nu 25
| Evolution in the Monastic Orders. By JOHN BELLOWS. .._.__......---.-------------- in 38
Roman Work at Chepstow. By JoHN BELLOWS ....._....--..-—.--------------------- n 45
Roman Remains at Bath. By JoHN BELLOWS _______...--..-—----~------------------- un 47

| The Camps at Minchinhampton. By E., NoRTHAM WITCHELL

oe ip ee a aan ee " 53
) The Carrara Marble Quarries. By Rev. H. H. Winwoop, M.A., V.P.G.S. ..--..-

PUBLISHED, JUNE, 1899.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. S 210555

ay

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

_ COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’

eo ci es ae sO

For 1898—1899

PRESIDENT

M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

HONORARY SECRETARY

S. S. BUCKMAN, F.G:S.

Wate SIT. Part: I.

JUNE, 1899

o&

ANNUAL ADDRESS

re) FEE

COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB,
(Read at Gloucester, May 2, 1899)
BY

M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS, PRESIDENT.
PART I.—FORMAL RECORD.

During the year members of the Club have not been
idle: they have added to scientific and other literature.
For instance, in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological
_ Society are the following contributions :—

' By Mr C. J. Gardiner, “On the Bala Beds and
_ Associated Igneous Rocks of Lambay Island.”

By Mr H. G. Madan, “On an Ebbing and Flowing
_ Well at Newton Nottage, Glamorganshire.”

By Dr C. Callaway, “On Metamorphism of a series
of Grits and Shales in Northern Anglesea.”

_ By Mr S. S. Buckman, “On the Grouping of some
_ Divisions of so-called ‘Jurassic Time.’”

_ By Mr H. D. Acland (an ex-officio member as President
of the Malvern Field Club), ‘On a Volcanic Series near
the Herefordshire Beacon.”

4 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

The Palzontographical Society has published Part X.
of the “ Monograph on Inferior Oolite Ammonites,” by
Mr S. S. Buckman, wherein many of our local fossils are
figured and described.

Mr Arthur Gibbs has written an interesting work,
entitled, ““A Cotswold Village,” which is published by
John Murray; and I would call particular attention to a
paper, full of local references, by Mr S.S. Buckman, “On
the Development of Rivers; and particularly the Genesis
of the Severn.” It is published in Natural Science,
vol. xiv., April, 1899.

It is evident, therefore, that we can congratulate our-
selves. Our members are doing their best to maintain
the prestige of the Club.

Concerning what has been accomplished by the Club
in the way of meetings and scientific work during the
past season, I give the following formal account.

The Annual Meeting was held at the School of Science,
Gloucester, on May 16, 1898. The President read his
Address, which is printed in Vol. XII., p. 197. The
Treasurer read his financial statement. The President
and the Vice-Presidents were re-elected. Mr A. S. Helps,
who resigned the office of Secretary, was appointed
Treasurer, and Mr S. S. Buckman was elected to the
Secretaryship. Mr J. H. Jones, the late Hon. Treasurer,
and Mr C. Bowly were elected Vice-Presidents.

The places selected for the summer meetings were—

Chepstow and Tintern ; -
The vicinity of Bath ;

Silchester ;

Woodchester and Avening.

A vote of condolence with the family of Mr W. C.
Lucy was proposed by Mr William Leigh and seconded
by Mr W. Stanton, and carried; as also was a vote of
thanks to Mrs Cornford for the gift to the Club of the
cabinet of fossils collected by her late husband.

1899 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 5

For the first Field Meeting, held on June 6, 1898, the
lower part of the Wye Valley was selected, and the
members assembled at Chepstow station.

Starting from Chepstow, with Mr H. Saunders as local
guide, the party soon halted to examine a quarry in the
Mountain Limestone, when Mr Wethered gave an
explanation of the genesis of these beds of rock, pointing
out the important part played by microscopic organisms
in the building of such beds of limestone.

The journey was then continued to the Windcliff, and
when the party had ascended to the summit the beautiful
view was much enjoyed. Here Mr Wethered sketched
the estuarine conditions under which the Old Red Sand-
stone was formed. A gradual deepening of the water led
to the deep sea deposit of the Carboniferous Limestone,
which is mainly made up of remains of microscopic life.
Shallower water conditions then again prevailed, and con-
siderable sandy sediment brought down by rivers formed
the Millstone Grit; and’still greater shallowing brought
the lagoon conditions of the Coal Measures.

Following up the geological record from the point at
which Mr Wethered left it, Mr Buckman gave an account
of the making of the Wye Valley, pointing out the infer-
ences to be drawn from its configuration. (This paper is
printed in the present volume of Proceedings, p. 25.)

From the Windcliff the party went to Tintern, and after
lunch at the Beaufort Arms, Mr John Bellows read a
paper, in which, taking Tintern Abbey as an object lesson,

he traced the evolution of monasticism in this country,

submitting evidence that the suppression of the monas-
teries was a just and necessary act. (This paper will be
found in the Proceedings, p. 33.) The members then
visited the abbey, under the guidance of Mr Saunders.
Returning to Chepstow, through Piercefield Park, the
party went over the Castle. Here Mr Bellows discoursed

6 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

to his audience about the Roman occupation of the
district. (A short summary of his remarks will be found
at p. 45).

To finish the day a visit was paid to the residence of
Sir William Marling, Bart., at Sedbury Park. Here,
acting under instructions from Sir William and Lady
Marling, the agent entertained the party to tea, and after-
wards accompanied them to a portion of Offa's Dyke,
which is on the border of the park. Only sufficient time
now remained to drive to the station, from which point
the return journey was commenced shortly after seven
o'clock.

The second Field Meeting was held at Bath on
Monday, June 27, 1898.

Nearly thirty members assembled at the Bath railway
station, and followed the Vice-President (Rev. H. H.
Winwood) to the famous Roman baths. A paper upon
them and upon the Roman occupation of the city was
read by Mr John Bellows in the concert room, which
adjoins the Pump Room. (This paper is printed in the
Proceedings, p. 47.)

Returning to the main bath, Mr Winwood and Mr
Bellows conducted the party from point to point, throw-
ing much valuable light on the architecture, the methods
used in constructing lead pipes, the excavations, &c. In
one corner the workmen found a teal’s egg, which, said
Mr Winwood, was a proof that after the retirement of the
Romans there must have been a period of desolation, as
such a wild bird would not lay its egg near the dwellings
of human beings. Mr Bellows remarked, that the
Romans paid a rental for the use of water, and it was
based on the size of the pipe connected with the aqueduct.
A man might draw as much as he liked through the pipe,
but woe-betide him if he was caught tampering with it.
Many thousands of tons of lead were exported from the

1899 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS y

Mendip Hills to Rome, where it was used during the
days of imperial greatness; and now some of it might be
found on the roofs of modern Italian churches.

After thanking the Corporation of Bath for their kind-
ness in allowing a free inspection of the ruins, and Dr
Collins, their genial and attentive representative, the party
lunched at Fisher’s.

After luncheon, carriages were taken for Midford, to
see the house of William Smith, the father of English
geology, and also the sections in the neighbourhood.

In this journey the Foss Way was crossed, and then
the Wansdyke; about the latter there was a discussion,
_ which a passing shower cut short.

The Wansdyke is an earth rampart which, it is probable,
originally crossed the country from the Thames, near
Reading, to the Severn, at Portishead. In Savernake
Forest and on Marlborough Downs it is a prominent
landmark, and south of Bath its course is in places also
_ clearly marked, sometimes, as at Hampton Down and

Maes Knoll, by forming a boundary of camps. Eminent
antiquaries have long held that the Wansdyke marks the
boundary line of the last conquest of the Belge. But is
the Wansdyke old enough to have been the boundary of
_ the Belge? That prince of excavators, General Pitt-
_ Rivers, has opened a part of the Wansdyke, in Wiltshire,
and at the base of the mound he discovered some Roman
nails. At that point, therefore, the Wansdyke, instead of
_ being prehistoric, is post-Roman.

On arrival at Midford the party inspected the famous
cutting of Midford Sands, and Mr S. S. Buckman pointed

8 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII.

He also drew attention to the remarkable non-sequence—
the Upper 77zgonza-grit resting directly upon the Midford
Sands, so that there is no representative at Midford of
something like 200 feet of the strata of Leckhampton Hill.

A visit to the house of William Smith, and to the Fullers’
Earth Works in the neighbourhood, brought the day’s
excursion to a close.

The third Field Meeting, held on July 20, 1898, had
the Museum at Reading, and the excavations of Silchester
for its objectives.

On arrival at Reading, the party proceeded to the
Museum, a fine building with well-arranged collections
under the care of Dr Joseph Stevens, as honorary curator.
In his absence, the members were received by the
assistant-curator, Mr Colyer, who courteously explained
the very interesting collection of Roman relics obtained
from Silchester.

After a well-served luncheon at the Great Western
Hotel, the party drove to Silchester, the Roman city,
Calleva Attrebatium.

On arrival at Silchester, the party were met by Mr
Herbert Jones, one of the superintendents of the
explorations, who courteously gave as much information
as he could concerning the uncovered portions of the
Roman city. The time at his disposal, owing to the
exigencies of the train service at Reading, was all too
short—for a visit to the museum and to the excavations
in one day, so far from home, is really too much; but Mr
Jones made the most of his opportunities.

The fourth Field Meeting was held at Nailsworth and
Minchinhampton on Wednesday, September 21, 1898.

The party assembled at Nailsworth station, and pfo-
ceeded to the High Beeches, where Mr A. E. Smith had
made a small excavation, exposing a fossiliferous band of
yellow sands, resting on blue clay. Two or three hundred

1899 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 9

yards away, in excavating for a new church, a bed of
yellow sand was exposed, containing ammonites of a
different type from those at the High Beeches, and Mr
Smith supposed that they might belong to beds above
those in his garden, because the latter rest on blue clay.
Mr Buckman, however, pointed out that in all the sections
he has examined the ammonites from the church exposure
occupy a lower position than those from the garden bed ;
and his experience is that the colour of beds is not to be
relied upon as a test of horizon, even in a few yards.
Indeed, when excavations were made for a gasometer, at
Nailsworth, he found ammonites of exactly the same type
as those at the church, not ina yellow matrix, but ina
bed of blue colour; while at Chalford he had obtained
ammonites of a blue colour but of a similar type to those
in Mr Smith’s garden. To call these beds, as is generally
done, “Upper Lias” or “ Cotteswold Sands,” only leads
to confusion in Mr Buckman’s opinion. Mr Upton sup-
ported this view, having examined several of the sections
mentioned by Mr Buckman. About 60 feet higher up
the garden the well-known Cephalophoda bed is exposed,
and Mr Buckman gave a description of its contents and
its relation with other parts of England. Before leaving
the High Beeches the archzologists of the party, at the
invitation of Mr Smith, jun., inspected an interesting little
collection of antiquities found in the neighbourhood, the
most noticeable of which was a hand-quern—a stone
mortar with a handle.
_ A large gravel pit was next visited, in which there is
evidence of deposition of gravel that had undergone little
rolling; and running through the pit isaclay bed contain-
ing fresh-water shells, showing that the Nailsworth Valley
has occasionally been turned into a lake.

Another object of interest was the remains of the 14th
century church, formerly a chapel-of-ease to Avening,

IO PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

which is supposed to have been destroyed at the dissolu-
tion of the monasteries. A portion of the edifice is now
used as a schoolroom by Miss Tabram, who welcomed
the party-.and read some notes on the building, made by
her father. The piscina is now built into one of the
walls, with the under part of the drain separated from the
upper part, in order to show its use. Inside the building
is an Anglo-Saxon bell, made of plates of iron, rivetted
together in the shape of an inverted wedge. A somewhat
similar bell was dug up at Gloucester a few years ago.

On the journey towards Avening a halt was made at
Longfords, where various roadside sections were examined,
concerning which Mr C. Upton and Mr S. S. Buckman
gave explanations.

At Avening the party were met by the Rev. E. Edwards
and Mr Erskine Pollock at the entrance to the Rectory
grounds, where the removed and re-erected remains of
some long barrows were seen—noticeable as an instance
of mistaken archeological zeal.

Then the Rector conducted the party over the interest-
ing Norman church, and gave details concerning it.
Three of the original Norman windows remain, two above
the north and south arches of the tower, and one on the
north side of the chancel; and the eastern arch of the
tower, the tower groining, and some groining in the
western bay of the chancel are also Norman. On the
western jamb of the north-west tower-piers are what are
supposed to be remains of a recluse’s cell. The porch
and south part of the north transept are of thirteenth
century date, and some of the windows in the nave and
north transept were inserted a century later. Formerly
there was a chapel on the north side of the chancel, and
its piscina (partly formed out of a Norman window-head)
still exists in the outside north wall of the chancel; and
the presence of ancient tiles, a piece of melted gold, and

1899 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS II

other relics within the area, suggest the possibility that
the building was destroyed by fire. Since its destruction,
an eastern bay, of considerable artistic merit, has been
added to the chancel.

By the time the church had been inspected it was
nearly two o'clock, and the members gladly responded to
Mr Erskine Pollock’s invitation—an invitation entirely
unsolicited—to luncheon at Avening Court. The kind-
ness of the host and Mrs Pollock was gracefully acknow-
ledged by Mr W. Leigh, of Woodchester Park, who was
the acting president for the day.

From Avening the party went towards Minchinhampton,

passing the large tumulus at Gatcombe, described by the
late Mr G. F. Playne, and in the one chamber of which
he found a long-headed skeleton in a sitting position.
Near to it is the well-known Long Stone. Minchin-
hampton Church, with its monument to Bradley, the
celebrated Astronomer-Royal, was hurriedly looked at;
and then a move was made for the Common, where
entrenchments, pit-dwellings, and worked flints indicate
early occupation by man. Concerning the entrenchments,
Mr Northam Witchell read a paper, which will be found
in the Proceedings, p. 53. He also exhibited a series of
worked flints from the neighbourhood; while the Hon.
Secretary produced and described some other specimens
from various localities, the series illustrating the different
_uses for which the implements were made.
Four Winter Meetings have been held during the past
‘session, and we have been fortunate in securing an
unusual number of papers on interesting subjects. They
show how much there is to be done by members of the
Club, not only in the immediate neighbourhood, but also
further a-field. They will be found printed in the Pro-
ceedings, so that the first part of our thirteenth volume
promises to fully maintain the Club’s reputation.

12 PROG=COTTESWOLD ‘CLUB VOL. XIII.

PART II.—A GOLD-BEARING RIVER IN CALIFORNIA.

Last autumn it fell to my lot to visit in California a
property almost entirely owned by two friends of mine.
The property comprises all the gold, timber, and water
rights ona stream, called the Coffee Creek, some 40 miles
long, a tributary of the Trinity River.

My journey there was rapid: in just a fortnight to a
day after starting from Westbury I reached San Francisco.
Yet I had time to see something of New York, including
the great demonstration in the harbour in honour of the
war fleet returning from Cuba; and I also made a short
stay at Chicago, where I had the opportunity of examin-
ing Armour’s marvellous establishment, with its many
and varied subsidiary industries, mainly created for the
purpose of dealing with some form or other of refuse
from the parent undertaking.

After a few days at San Francisco, where, among other
things, I visited the United States Government Agri-
cultural College, at Berkeley, I took the train for Redding,
a place some 150 miles north of San Francisco. Thence
I travelled by coaches, of sorts, about another 80 miles to
Trinity Centre, a small mining town on the Trinity River.
Here I was met by horses and mules from the camp at
Coffee Creek, and I started off for my friends’ property.

The Canon down which Coffee Creek flows enters the
Trinity Valley some 10 miles from Trinity Centre. The
Creek is a mountain stream of considerable volume in the
spring and early summer; and it rushes tumultuously
through a most romantic wild and rocky glen, the moun-
tains rising thousands of feet above it on either side.
From the Divide at the head of the valley to its mouth is
a distance of about 40 miles, and the stream falls

1899 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 13

altogether about 3000 feet. Nothing can exceed the
wild beauty of the scenery. In most places rocky, and
often precipitous, cliffs press right over the Creek ; but
here and there, as you ascend, you come across level
plateaux formed by deposits of gravel of unknown thick-
ness.

Wherever they can find foothold, and where they have
not been destroyed by fires, groves of magnificent pines
raise their tall crests hundreds of feet towards the sky,
clothing the mountain sides almost up to the snow line.
Wherever there is water, ferns, lilies, a very curious plant,
Darlingtonia californica, and many varied forms of
vegetable life flourish luxuriantly. In the lower parts of
the valley there is a fairly dense undergrowth of
Manzaneta, of tallow shrub, and several varieties of oak:
at the higher elevations this is almost replaced by Azadea.
Here and there on either side small Cafions enter the
gorge, each one seemingly more wild and lovely than its
predecessor. As the Divide is approached, the valley
widens out, and the forests become less dense.

There are not many. varieties of Pine in the valley.
Among them are the Sugar Pine, Pzxus lambertiana; the
Bull Pine, Pzxus ponderosa; the Douglas Spruce, Psez-
dosuga taxifolia; and a variety of Cedar, Thuja plicata.
These trees grow to an enormous size. I measured
many which had a girth of from 25 feet to 30 feet at
_ 6 feet from the ground; up to that height there is a good
big bole, but after that, up to 60 feet or 70 feet, the taper-
_ ing is but slight, and they are usually straight as an arrow.
_ Several that I measured, lying on the ground blown down
by tempests, were 200 feet and over in length; and I
_ must have seen thousands of such trees during my visit.
Countless numbers are annually destroyed by fires which
ravage the forests disastrously. The trees are generally
covered, more or less, with a lichen of a lovely pale

14 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

yellow colour; and it is most curious to see a flash of
fire run up atree when the flame has once caught the
lichen at the base. But it gives one a feeling of sadness
to see these giants of the woodlands, with their foliage
and vitality destroyed, still standing with blackened stem
and withered branches, or lying prostrate, half burnt, and
rapidly decaying.

The special “big trees” of California, the Seguoza
sempervirens, and Sequoia gigantea are only found in the
southern parts of the State; and I think the latter is
practically confined to the Yosemite valley: the former,
always known as “Redwood,” covers thousands of
square miles of land in the State, growing everywhere
south of San Francisco within the limits of a certain zone
of altitude above the sea.

Such is briefly a general description of the valley, wild
and rugged among the mountains, sombre and mysterious
in the. silent shadows of the mighty pine forests ; lively
and enchanting where the Creek hurls its waters madly
downwards over a never-ending series of glistening
cascades. It is far removed from the busy throb of
civilisation, but surpassingly lovely, and bathed in an
atmosphere redolent with the odour of the pine forests,
and so translucent as completely to deceive the stranger
who unwarily judges the distance of a remote object by
any ordinary standard.

There are few signs of life; as far as mankind is con-
cerned they are almost non-existent, except that here and
there you notice by the side of the trail a rough box
fastened to a stake, which indicates that “ John Webb,” or
someone, is prospecting for gold far away, perhaps, up
some side Canon, and will be glad for anyone descending
the valley to carry away and post any letter he may find
in the box; or, that the postman riding up the valley
twice a week may drop into the box the missive from the

1899 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 15

States, or, may be, from far away England, or Ireland.
There are but few birds, chiefly, perhaps, because there is
not much insect life, no end of rattle snakes, a few bears,
but plenty of deer, who do not show themselves much by
daytime. And the Creek is full of excellent trout, which
are as yet sufficiently unsophisticated to allow them-
selves to fall easy victims; though I must confess that
the baskets secured by the miners, with a stick, a bit of
cord, and a grasshopper, put to shame my European rod,
fine tackle, and artificial flies.

About half way up the valley the mining camp has been
fixed, and there I spent several days of unalloyed happi-
ness. I lived with the manager, who is brother to one
of the chief owners of the property, a most charming
man with a wonderful experience of life in many climes,
and under varied conditions. He has a little wooden
house of his own; but we lived entirely with the men,
who are all catered for in one large mess room, the
kitchen department being presided over by a couple of
Chinamen, one of whom woke up the camp every morn-
ing by making a most fiendish row on a sort of gong
formed of a steel bar bent into triangle form. Three real
square meals a day forms the rations; and as tea and
coffee are drunk at all three, and the Azéce de résistance is
always beef or venison, with the unlimited cakes, pies,
and waffles that gladden the heart of the American miner,
_ it is not easy to tell from outward signs whether the meal
is breakfast, dinner, or supper; and the same keen
appetite is invariably ready to form the sauce to all of
them. ;

Besides the mess room and kitchen, there are large
dormitories for the men, workshops, and store rooms.
There is also the Store, which is kept up not only for the
use of the camp, but to supply the needs of the scattered
population of a very large district ; and, as the Store is

16 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

also the Post Office, on every mail day purchasers are
sure to arrive with horse or mule to carry off their
necessaries. It is curious, too, that practically there is
no current money; everything is paid for in gold dust or
nuggets. Then there is the Saw Mill, the most important
adjunct of the Camp, where some fine saws, driven by
water power, are constantly at work cutting up the
lumber, which is used for the bulk-heads, sluices, and
flumes, by means of which the water is controlled and
utilised. Of course, every building is made entirely of
wood, for every single thing that comes to the Camp,
except timber, has to be carried on mule back, over most
difficult trails, for a distance of nearly 80 miles, where the
nearest point on the railway is struck. There is a train
of about 24 mules, led, as is usual in California, by a grey
mare, kept constantly at work for the use of the Camp
and Store.

About a quarter of a mile below the Camp the stream
makes a somewhat wide detour to pass round a huge
mass of stone which obstructs the valley, and through
this mass a tunnel has been constructed, by means of
which placer-working has been rendered possible for the
whole length of the stream above it. Down every valley
through which a stream runs there are beds of gravel,
certainly in the existing course of the current, and
probably also in many places now high and dry, but
where the stream flowed at some former time. In Coffee
Creek and in many another Californian stream and river,
these deposits are all more or less gold-bearing, and the
problem of placer-working is to extract this gold from the
gravel. This can only be done where hydraulicking, or
sluicing is possible.

In order to explain the position, I had better describe
what placer-working is, as applied to a stream such as

Coffee Creek.

1899 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 17

In this case, as in many others whereof we have
examples at home, the real bed of the stream is many feet
below the channel of the flowing water. In Coffee Creek
the valley has been filled up with several feet of gravel.
The annexed diagram, which represents a cross-section of
the stream, its gravel deposits, and its original valley, will
explain my meaning.

a
7
a cee @2'0°9 30 a0. &
Ar Ee ee:
oy it? 8d ors fe OL
© 9 2Do we: gba ae ea a
tad we foe of
Say ee
Ridin t vei =
oir)

Fig. 1.—Cross section of a stream and its valley.

In this diagram a, a, a mark the solid rock called “ Bed-
rock;” b, b, bare beds of gravel which may be of very
great thickness ; c, c indicate the actual channel of water.

Consequently the bed of gravel or sand below the
running stream is saturated with water, and the bulk of
any gold gravitates to the bottom of the mass of gravel to
become lodged in the crevices of the bed-rock. It is
almost certain that the whole body of gravel glides slowly,
_ yery slowly, down stream with a movement similar to that
_ of a glacier, and, as it moves, all the particles of gold it
contains will tend downward in the mass.

Since the gravel is permeated with water, directly a
hole is made in it by boring, drifting, or open-cut, it is
immediately filled with water, and endless are the con-
trivances invented by man’s ingenuity to enable him to
get rid of the water and follow down the bed-rock. But
in a stream of the volume of Coffee Creek all contrivances

B

18 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

are unavailing, and it is only the circumstance that
rendered possible the construction of a tunnel that has.
virtually opened the way for dealing with the whole bed
of the ravine above its level.

The process of working is this :—Gravel is forced into
the current of the river either by hydraulicking, sluicing,
or simple manual labour, and so carried on through the
tunnel; and all, or nearly all, the gold it contains is
arrested in its passage along the bottom of the tunnel-
flume. This flume is specially constructed for this
purpose, and figures 2, 3, 4 show its elevation, plan, and
section. It is built of great strength, but not in the least

Fig. 2.—A flume. Elevation.

too strong, when it is considered that all the material
treated—sand, gravel, and boulders, many of the latter
weighing much over a ton, must be hurled along the
flume with enormous force and thrown out into the
stream at the lower outfall. The framework of the flume
is constructed in exactly the same way as any ordinary

1899 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 19

flume, except that inside the tunnel the frame timbers are
connected overhead and boarded over. In the sills of the
frames, cuts (1in. xX 4in.) are made (aa); into these

Fig. 3.—A flume. Plan.

are let strips of a similar section, flush with the top of
the sills and running the whole length of the flume.
Planks are then laid lengthways down the flume, with
their joints immediately over the centre of the strips a a.
There are then nailed against the sides of the flume for
its entire length, 1% in. boards, rising some 4 feet up its
sides. Blocks of wood (c,c,¢,c), 12 ins. deep, 28 ins.

Fig. 4.—A section along line M N of Fig. 3.

wide, are laid across the bottom of the flume; when a
yank of these has been laid, a so-called “ riffle-stick”
(d, d, d), 1% in. x 3in. is placed on the bottom of the
flume and nailed up tight against the rank of blocks; a
_ few nails are left projecting from the opposite side of the
_“riffle-stick,” and another set of blocks is then laid and
driven tight up against it. Another “ riffle-stick” is then
= Bb 2

20 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII.

fixed, and the same process is repeated right down the
flume. Side pieces (e,e,e) of 1% in. board are then
nailed along the sides of the flume, resting on the blocks.

It will, therefore, be seen that above the “ riffle-sticks,”
and between each rank of blocks, there is a cavity
3in.x 10% in. Directly work commences, these fill
loosely with gravel, which the water keeps constantly in
motion, and as pieces of gold pass down, they are arrested
in the cavities and gradually gravitate to the bottom of
them. In a partial “clean-up” the contents of these
cavities are roughly scraped out, but a complete “clean
up” can only be made when the whole of the “ riffle-
sticks” and blocks are taken up: they need taking up and
replacing about once a year.

There is a strong bulkhead about 100 yards above the
tunnel, and from there the river is flumed for the greater
part of the detour it makes round the rock through which
the tunnel passes. By means of suitable gates at the
bulkhead, the water can be sent at will either through the
tunnel or along the flume of the detour. At the head of
the tunnel-flume, where it strikes bed-rock, a piece of
open-cut is left towards the bulkhead, with the bed-rock
exposed. On this some little gold collects and is easily
gathered. For this gathering of gold in placer-working a
set of simple tools is used. One (Fig. 5) is usually an

Fig. 5.—The Scraper.

old file, one end ground to an edge and turned over and
downwards, the point end being also bent at about right
angles. With this tool the miner scrapes out all the
contents of the cavities, gathering them in the scoop

1899 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 21

(Fig. 6), from which he passes them into the ordinary
gold-washing pan (Fig. 7). .By washing in the pan, with
skilful manipulation, he is able to reject the sand and
gravel and save the gold. Where men are just placer-
working on their own account, they will generally put up

Fig. 6.—The Scoop.

by the side of the stream some rocker arrangement, or
some contrivances such as very small wooden flumes
with strips nailed across the bottom to arrest the gold:
they lead the water from the stream into this arrange-
ment, and feed in the gravel.

Fig. 7.—Gold-Washing Pan,

The Camp at Coffee Creek is just at the fork where
another stream, the Union Creek, joins the main stream ;
and a few hundred yards up Union Creek, two French-
men took up a location about 25 years ago. They built
themselves a log hut of the rudest description, and here
they lived ever since, all the year round—their hut

_ buried in the winter under 20 feet of snow—just working

along the edge of the stream as far down as the water
would allow them;.and many thousand dollars worth of
gold they got out. A few days before I came to the
Camp one of them died, and all the miners from the
Camp turned out and gave him quite a distinguished

22 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

funeral. His grave was dug about a hundred yards from
his hut in a grove of enormous sugar pines, and marked
by a rough erection of planks. The survivor was so
utterly miserable, that he came into the Camp one
morning when I was there, said he could stand the
solitude no longer, and that he had made up his mind to
leave his location for ever. Poor old man, he seemed
quite broken and shattered, and utterly unable to take any
fresh interest in life, too miserable to remain and yet
miserable to go, though he had a good bit of money laid
by down in San Francisco.

It may be of interest to describe the difference between
sluicing and hydraulicking. In sluicing, the water in the
stream is simply diverted and led along flumes in such a
way as either to drain the water off some bed of gravel,
or to make the water by its own force wash away banks,
or beds of gravel.

Hydraulicking is using water under pressure. Water
is taken from the stream far away up the valley, and led
along, with as slight a fall as possible, either in an open
ditch or a flume, until a height of some hundreds of feet
above the valley is attained. The water is then conveyed
straight down into the valley in an iron pipe of consider-
able dimensions. At the end is a peculiar nozzle,
commonly called a “ giant,” which is so arranged that by
means of levers it can be pointed in any direction when
the water is turned on.

The force of the water is almost inconceivable. A jet
is thrown for hundreds of feet, and whole hill sides can
by this means be washed down into and along the stream,
leaving the gold deposited in the crevices of bed-rock, or
in the “riffle-stick” cavities of the flume. It is used
either for clearing away the gravel in the bed of the
stream, where often the deposits of gold on the bed-rock
are very rich, or for moving great masses of ancient

1899 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 23

gravel beds; and so economical is the process that a
yield of a very few grains of gold to the ton will pay; for
the cost of moving a ton of ordinary material rarely
exceeds 2d or 3d. It is marvellous to see how the force
of the water will cut right into a hill side and bring great
boulders of rock rolling down into the stream. I once
saw a railway cutting being made by hydraulicking, and
the process seemed to answer most admirably.

How the gold has got into the bed of these streams is a
very interesting subject for investigation.

Of course it has all come out of veins, or “ledges” as
they are usually called in California, which during count-
less ages have been gradually washed away with the rocks
that enclosed them. There are two distinct theories on
the subject :—One, that the gold has been dissolved out
of the ledges, carried down to the cafons in solution, and
there again deposited in the stream as fragments of gold ;
the other, that the process has been purely mechanical,
that bit by bit the “ledges” have been washed away,
pounded up by the action of torrents, the particles of
gold have been separated out, and have gradually gravitated
on to the bed-rock in the streams.

The facts urged in support of the precipitation theory
are.as follows :—

1. The rarity of nuggets or gold masses of any con-
siderable size in quartz veins.

2. The greater purity of the gold contained in placers
than that in the neighbouring ledges or veins.

3. The frosted character of the surface of some gold
nuggets.

4. Instances of deposition of gold in organic sub-
stances buried in the gold placers. .

5. The solubility of gold as proved by laboratory
experiments.

24 PROG. :COTTES WOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

Against which the following facts are urged in favour
of the mechanical theory :—

1. Deposits of placer-gold are always found adjacent
to and lying below districts traversed by auriferous veins,
and nowhere else.

2. The areas where the quartz veins occur have
certainly suffered great erosion, and great mechanical
forces have undoubtedly been for countless ages in action.

3. The’ conditions in which the placer gold is found,
mingled with rolled fragments of quartz and in the
irregularities of the surface of the bed-rock, prove the
accumulations of gold to be mechanical. A deposit from
chemical solution would not be thus circumstanced and
localized.

4. The nuggets and coarsest gold are always found
nearest the outcrops of the quartz veins.

5. Pebbles and fragments of gold-bearing quartz are
found in the placers which must have been derived from
the neighbouring veins, and often nuggets have fragments
of quartz still adhering to them.

6. The surfaces of nuggets bear almost always in-
contestable evidence of the battering they have sustained.
They are generally rolled and rounded, and the surface is
such as could be produced only by blows and friction ;
whereas, if the gold were deposited from solution, much
of it would be found crystallized and forming strings and
sheets running through the porous matter.

Such are the arguments that can be adduced, and I
leave it to the members of the Club to determine which
may be considered to have the greater weight.

THE VALLEY OF THE LOWER WYE,
BY

54:5. BUCKMAN, F.G.S:

(Read at the Windcliff, Chepstow Meeting, June 6th, 1898)

The valley of the Lower Wye is as interesting as it is
picturesque. And although all the principles of river
development which it illustrates cannot be fully considered
in a short paper, yet some of its chief features deserve
notice.

North of Tintern the river passes through an Old Red
_ Sandstone district, and maintains therein a fairly straight
course. From Tintern to Chepstow it has scooped out a
_ deep gorge-like valley through hard rocks of Carboniferous
4 Limestone, and its course is remarkably sinuous. The
question is, why it should have developed these features
_—why it shows the combination of remarkable meanders
and a steep-sided, deep valley. For the Wye is a some-
what swift river, and the tendency of such a river is to cut
Fy straight course. A meandering course is only developed
by a river which is flowing sluggishly over a somewhat
flat district. It is obvious, then, that the meandering
course of the Wye is something which does not accord
with the present river, and consequently it must be an

26 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB. VOL. XII.

inheritance from some earlier period of its development—
an inheritance which the power of the swift-flowing river
has not had time to efface in the part of its course where
it traverses hard Carboniferous Limestone, although it
has accomplished this effacement where it runs through
the softer Old Red Sandstone to the north of Tintern.

To understand the past history of the river, a slight
geological sketch is necessary. In post-Carboniferous
times the Palaeozoic rocks of the district were elevated
from the sea-bottom to form land; but about two miles to
the east of the Windcliff they were beneath the sea, which
was depositing Triassic rocks. And in the neighbourhood
of Chepstow the old Triassic shore line can be easily
traced. But as the accumulation of Mesozoic rocks con-
tinued, necessitating a gradual subsidence of the whole
area, and as at the same time there would be denudation
of the western land-area, it may be concluded that, before
the deposition of the Mesozoic strata ended, the whole
of the district of the Lower Wye Valley had been buried
beneath overlapping Secondary rocks.

It was after the deposition of the Cretaceous strata that
the country was again elevated, and the river system, of
which the Wye forms a part, was commenced. In the
development of that river system, with its accompanying
denudation, all the Mesozoic. strata which formerly
covered the Lower Wye district have been completely
swept away. Once more the Palaeozoic rocks have been
bared, and in their turn they have suffered much from
sub-aerial denudation.

But before the covering of Mesozoic strata had been
removed, there was a time when it is supposable that no
Severn Valley existed. The rivers of this Wye district
drained into the Thames system. ‘The Usk and neigh-
bouring streams formed the head waters of a southern
branch of the Thames—a westward extension of the

1899 S. BUCKMAN.—WYE VALLEY 27

Kennet; and to this river system belonged a stream
occupying somewhat the course of the present Lower
Wye. It was a river which had developed in an area of
Mesozoic strata.

Later this river system was broken into by the growth
of the Severn from the (present) Bristol Channel north-
eastwards. Working its way back, it cut into these
Thames-flowing rivers, and, tapping them, diverted their
head waters to itself. It could give them so much
quicker fall to the sea than if they travelled all the way to
East England.

This will account well enough for the steep, gorge-like
valley of the Lower Wye. For when the Wye was
flowing at a level high enough to carry it over the Cottes-
wold escarpment at Bath, and the growing Severn was
working back in a channel 200 or 300 feet lower, as soon
as the Wye was tapped by the Severn it would be enabled
to lower its bed by the difference between them. And in
thus rapidly lowering its bed it would cut a gorge-like
steep-sided channel.

The Cotteswold Hills, relatively to the Severn Vale,
furnish many parallels to this presumed state of affairs,
before the Wye had been tapped by the Severn. Thus,
_ near Andoversford, the Coln is flowing in a bed 500 feet

above sea-level. The bed of the Chelt, at Cheltenham,
some five miles distant, is 300 feet lower, and that level
the Coln does not reach till it has travelled some 40 miles.
not counting windings. So when in time the Chelt taps
the Upper Coln, the latter will be able to deepen its bed
very rapidly, and will make a gorge-like valley. Such has
happened with the upper waters of the Stroud stream,
_ the Frome, and its wonderful valley at Sapperton.*

* The views upon this and other river developments have since been put forward in
a paper in “ Natural Science,” vol. xiv., p. 273, 1899, to which the reader is referred,

28 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIIL.

The horse-shoe curves of the Lower Wye Valley are
still unaccounted for. It is difficult to imagine that they
were made when the river was flowing at a high level as
a Thames tributary, because it would have then been
flowing over Mesozoic rocks. That supposition, that the
curves initiated in Mesozoic rocks would be continued
into the harder Carboniferous beneath, would not be
easy to contend for.

Another theory may be put forward. The horse-shoe
curves of the Wye were formed while the Mesozoic strata
were being deposited. This Lower Wye area was low-
lying land, and its river drained on a gentle slope into a
Mesozoic sea on the east. On that low-lying area it
would meander to form big curves. The channel of this
river was subsequently drowned out, submerged beneath
the encroaching sea, and it became filled with Mesozoic
rocks. When the new river system was started it was
roughly on the line of the present river. When that was
tapped by the Severn and given a very quick fall, it
naturally sought the easiest erodable channel, and that was
along the line of the old filled-up meandering channel.
It re-excavated that channel in preference to the hard
Carboniferous rocks, and then, being established therein, it
had to follow its sinuosities as it subsequently deepened
its bed. This much is certain, the horse-shoe curves
were developed first, and the gorge was developed later.
The sinuous course of the gorge is on account of the
previous existence of the meanders.

This theory may seem elaborate; and yet the late
Edward Wilson pointed out to me that the Bristol Avon,
flowing through a similar Carboniferous Limestone gorge,
has found, or adapted itself to, a pre-Jurassic channel.
For there is, in the Clifton gorge of the Avon, Dolomitic
Conglomerate of the Trias, showing that a channel had
been already formed in Triassic time. But, as there is

1899 S. BUCKMAN.—WYE VALLEY 29

Lias on the high ground above, that channel must have
been subsequently filled with Mesozoic strata, and must
then have been re-excavated by the present river Avon.

Something further may be said concerning the
meanders of the Lower Wye, their manner of develop-
ment ina river valley, and their possible effacement by
an accelerated stream. I have made some addition to the
following remarks since the paper was read, and have to
acknowledge my indebtedness to the written and verbal
communications of Prof. W. M. Davis.

The appended Figs. 1, 2, 3 show the development of a
stream from slight curves into pronounced meanders,
which become greater as the river impinges more first on
the one bank and then on the other. In these figures
A A’ are the sides of the valley, B is the curving stream,
and CC are the “spurs” of the convex portions of the

ABA
& re
Cc
i c)4
A
Bt

Fig. 1. Initiating Fig. 2, Pronounced curves Fig. 3. Considerable meanders

curves and well-developed spurs _ with tendency to obliterate spurs

valley. These spurs tend to become more and more
worn away with the development of the meanders, on
-account of lateral encroachment of the stream—encroach-
ment, that is, on the sides of the spurs; and it is the
_up-stream sides of the spurs which are most worn away.

30 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

In time, when the curvature of the meanders becomes
very great, the river straightens its course by cutting

Fig. 4. The meander neck severed

through the narrow neck of the meander at D, as shown
in Fig. 4. This phenomenon is well known in the case

A’
B D B
A A A
D Se
=
WiNoc.ire
A Rh A B P

Fig. 5. Supposed earlier, more tortuous Fig. 6. Present course of the Wye
course of the Wye, when it flowed at
a higher leyel. Meander neck at D

1899 S. BUCKMAN.—WYE VALLEY 31

of the Mississippi.» Now, in soft rocks this process
would go on much more quickly than in the hard
Carboniferous Limestone. And it is possible that this
process of straightening out may have gone on consider-
ably in the Old Red Sandstone area north of Tintern,
thus accounting for the straighter course of the river in
_ that portion.

Quite possibly, however, the same process has been
accomplished in certain cases in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone part of the valley. In Fig. 5 is shown what may
have been a previous, more meandering course of the
Wye just north of the Windcliff. It will be seen that it
represents the river in a somewhat analogous stage of
development to that represented in Fig. 3. Then the
river is supposed to have straightened its course by
cutting through the neck D, and so has produced the
present day contour shown in Fig. 6, which is a copy of
the Ordnance Survey I-inch map.

This supposition will explain the greater width of the
valley just north of the Windcliff, and why the river is
now far away from the cliff which it must once have
been cutting at.

Between Tintern and Tintern Parva there is a noticeable
horse-shoe bend. On the east is a spur of Carboniferous
Limestone still remaining; and this rock may be said to
have contributed to the preservation of the bend. But at
the foot of this spur is a jutting-out piece of Old Red
_ Sandstone, and it will be seen that the river is working
away on both sides of this strip to narrow the neck.
Now that the Carboniferous Limestone has been worn
away sufficiently to leave this neck of comparatively soft
rock to the mercy of the river, it can only be a question

* While this paper was in the press I have found an interesting example of a
pronounced meander on the point of extinction—one corresponding to Fig, 3, with a
_yery narrow neck. It is on the Upper Coln, just south of Withington.

32 PROC. .COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

of time before the neck is cut through and the river
straightens itself.

One more future speculation may be indulged in.
The Carboniferous Limestone between Tintern and
Chepstow acts as a kind of check to the outflow of the
- Wye—the river cannot cut its bed down rapidly. Now
the Usk, on the west, has no such impediment to contend
with: it can lower its valley and drain the surrounding
country effectually. As it is, a tributary of the Usk rises
at Trellech, within a couple of miles of the Wye; and as
the Old Red Sandstone will be denuded faster than the
Carboniferous Limestone, in time the Wye may find
prepared for it an easier course into the Usk than down
its own channel, a course which it will hasten to make
use of in flood time.

Then it will soon make use of it regularly; so that the
gorge of Carboniferous Limestone between Tintern and
Chepstow will be left like that at Cheddar, a dry, or
nearly dry, valley—the relic of a once existing river.

EVOLUTION IN THE MONASTIC ORDERS,
BY
JOHN BELLOWS.

(Read at Tintern, at the Chepstow Meeting, June 6, 1898)

Archeology, as a science, must include something
more than the observation of isolated facts. It should
co-ordinate such facts and put them in their true place in
their relationship to history; and thus help us toaclearer
estimate of the evolution which is the underlying law of
history. With this in mind, Tintern Abbey is not only
an object of beauty in its architecture and environment,
but presents a series of endeavours, often renewed,
and yet as often failing to accomplish the aim of the
earnest men who founded the several monastic orders.
The family tie, which is a basis of society, is the
_ greatest of the natural forces that conduce to order: a
fact which Confucius had in view when he laid down
the principle that the whole government of an Empire
should be an evolution from it. The monastic system
springs from the opposite theory, being founded on the
assumption that “there is something inherently imperfect
in the family relationship, which hinders the highest
development of the soul; and the several monastic orders
are so many variations, or modifications, of an ideal which
would make the world better by superseding the family,
that is. by isolating certain individuals, or communities,
C

34 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

under a pledge to abstain from entering into the family
bond, as a means to their perfection.

Beginning in the retirement of single individuals to the
solitude of an African desert in times of persecution,
monachism has preserved a reminder of its origin in the
first portion of its name, from the Greek povess* but
the experience that it was “not good for man to be
alone,” led to a modification of this alone-ness, or isola-
tion, by the grouping of a certain number of the hermits
into a community; and the head of this community, the
Abba, or father, exercised rule in the artificial family,
as the parent does in the real one. This monastic
régime was taken up and systematised by Basil, in the
East; and, as modelled by him, passed into Europe in the
fourth century. Before the middle of the sixth, however,
it had so far ceased to fulfil the requirements of the most
earnest adherents of monachism, that a new order was
evolved out of it by Benedict. But the unattainable was
still unattained; and the practical working of the Bene-
dictine monasteries was found so far short of the ideal,
that by the end of the eleventh century, and during the
twelfth, a reform was again made by the establishment of
stricter rules in a Benedictine house near Dijon. The
new order, named in France from its founder, “‘ Bernardins,”
and known in England as “ Cistercians,” from Bernard’s
monastery at Citeaux, built this Abbey of Tintern, shortly
after his death. ‘Tintern, therefore, marks a period of
endeavour after the reformation by the Benedictines: -
how strong an endeavour anyone may see who examines
the Bernardine rules which forbad all unnecessary orna-
ments ; all pictures in the monastery, except that of
Christ; the use of stained glass in the windows, and so

* That is the beginning of Western monachism. The system had been devised

long previously among Oriental peoples.

1899 J. BELLOWS—MONASTIC ORDERS 35

on. But every attempt to purify the monastic system by a
return to simplicity and severity in discipline, is like the
effort to tighten a screw with overworn threads: the
result, in the one case as in the other, is a momentary
firmness, followed by a further slipping back. In respect
of the Cistercian reformation itself, I would quote the
words of a writer of reputation, a warm eulogist of the
services rendered to scholarship by many of the Bene-
dictines, notwithstanding the degeneracy of the mass of
their members :

In the “ Dictionnaire d’Histoire” of M. N. Bouillet, In-
spector-General of Public Instruction in France, the
article on “‘ Citeaux” closes thus: “Les Bernardins deé-
générérent bientdt, et leurs désordres nécessitérent de
fréquentes réformes.”

Of these “frequently reformed ” Cistercians, the order
most celebrated for its strictness is that of La Trappe.
It had already been organized before Tintern was com-
pleted (that is as early as 1140); but of it again we read
in the work just cited (Dict. Bouillet, article La Trappe)
“Cet ordre, qui s’était relaché, fut réformé en 1662.”

Here we see that an evolution had been going on for
more than a thousand years, in the development of the
theory that a greater degree of purity is attainable in the
convent, than that which is compatible with the family
relationships; for as men of piety, who often brought
their piety with them into the cloister, in a character already
formed at the mother’s knee, and in the environment of
the home, were disappointed with the practical outcome
of the monastic rules, they naturally tried to amend those
rules as the remedy for all shortcomings.

The discipline of the cloister life tended to bring every-
thing to routine, and to the imitation of fixed standards,
rather than to develop originality. In agriculture this had
some advantages, and the intercourse between members of

C2

36 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII.

the same order, but of different nationalities, was calcu-
lated to diffuse knowledge of new or improved plants,
and methods of cultivation: thus resuming a process
that had been carried on everywhere under the Roman
Empire. To the out-door pursuits that occupied the
earlier monks, the Benedictines added more work of the
pen and pencil; until they attained a high degree of ex-
cellence in the copying and illumination of manuscripts,
in painting on glass, etc. But above all they were suc-
cessful in ecclesiastical architecture: evolving by a con-
tinuous gradation from the cruder forms of Roman and
Byzantine building the most beautiful designs to which
stone and lime can lend themselves ; and nowhere perhaps
were these brought to greater perfection than in the build-
ing of Tintern Abbey.

It is sometimes remarked that the times which pro-
duced such architecture, and during which the copyist
preserved to us the great treasures of Hebrew and of
classical antiquity, ought not to be styled “the dark
ages:” but those who make the remark seem never to
have reflected that the earlier “dark ages” of classical
Greece and Rome not only produced marvels of archi-
tecture, but those more enduring marvels of writing,
which they also preserved as effectually as did the monks
who afterwards came into possession of them.

It is clear that while the monks worked out this remark-
able evolution in architecture, they did not accomplish a
commensurate progress in literature. The horizon of
the cloister was too restricted for that freedom of thought
which is indispensable to such an expansion; and its
narrowing influence is apparent even in the most valuable
of the works for which we are indebted to them: such
for instance as the several mediaeval Chronicles. Even
the best of their compilations will not bear comparison
with works of the same class of an earlier period. For

rf

P.-e

1899 J. BELLOWS—MONASTIC ORDERS 37

example, who would place Bede’s “ Ecclesiastical History ”
on a level with the works of Tacitus or Pliny? Had the
development of European literature during a thousand
years of the monastic régime been on a par with that of
architecture in the same period, we should not only have
had a greater abundance and variety of authorship, but at
least a few authors of the very highest power to reflect
lustre on the cloister. Dante was unquestionably the
most powerful and original of the medizeval writers ; and
his work was not the outcome of monastic seclusion ;
but. like that of Tasso and Chaucer, was accomplished
in the busy outside world. All through the ages of
monachism we seek in vain, all over Europe, for any one
work produced by it, which is read to-day everywhere.
To find such a book we must go back to an earlier, or
come forward to a later time; for the golden day of
English literature did not dawn till after that of the
monasteries had set.

The principal aim, however, of good men, in establish-
ing the monastic orders, was not so much the develop-
ment of the arts or of literature, as of a higher morality
than prevailed in the world at large; for no grandeur of
building, and no beauty in writing tends to make men
good. On the contrary they often comport with the
greatest moral debasement, both in the individual, and in
the masses: as is shewn by the corruption that reigned
universally in the days that produced the most splendid
architecture of Greece and Rome, and by the wicked-
ness that had its home in the shadow of the temple at
Jerusalem.

If a foot-bridge is built for the passage of a multitude,
it is idle to insist upon its strength because some men

have crossed it in safety. And the crucial point in the

history of the monastic system, is not whether at some
time some men have come up to its several respective

‘

38 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XU.

ideals ; but whether as a whole, both as to time and place,
it has set an example to the masses of the people, such
as tended to their enlightenment and moral well-being.

The several efforts at reformation of the orders at
which we have glanced, show that in the opinion of
such men as Benedict, Bernard, Dominic, and Francis
of Assisi, it has repeatedly failed to do this. If, for
example, Bernard had not believed that the ornamentation
and the stained glass, of which some of the monasteries
were so proud, hindered instead of aiding the soul in its
effort after Divine communion, he would not have for-
bidden the use of them: since his object in founding a
new order was that it might maintain that communion
more perfectly than the one previously existing, and that
it might set the world a purer example. And if, again,
the daily round of the cloister monk were compatible
with the essential missionary work of preaching the
gospel, what need could there be of a new order whose
specialty it was to abandon the cloister routine in order
that it might effectually preach the gospel? It would
be in vain to argue that. the new order was created to
meet a new necessity of the times; for if the whole of
Europe had been for ages in a lawless condition, with
turbulence and violence everywhere rampant outside the
cloister, then the necessity for the preaching was not
new, but had existed for ages, and the monastic system
had failed to meet it.

The very grandeur and beauty for which Tintern is
so admired are evidence of the failure of its builders to
carry out the rules of their founder. Two centuries
earlier the Cluniac Order had inaugurated a system based
on the theory that nothing could be too magnificent in
a building dedicated to the service of God. Bernard’s
rules shew clearly that he regarded this as a fallacy; for,
so far from basing worship upon an indulgence of the

1889 J. BELLOWS—MONASTIC ORDERS 39

senses, or a stimulating of the imagination, he called. his
followers to simplicity and self-denial, not merely in their
personal habits, but in all their surroundings, especially
including the buildings in which they assembled for
worship.

As we are considering more particularly the period of
the foundation of the Cistercian order, and of the Abbey
of Tintern, it is worth our while to examine as to how
far the reform was needed, which Robert of Molesme
began at Citeaux in 1098, and Bernard carried on in the
next century.

Arnulf, the Bishop of Lisieux (1159—81) petitioned

the Pope, Alexander III., to dissolve a Benedictine

monastery in his diocese on the ground of the evil lives
of the monks: no fewer than three of whom had com-
mitted murder—the Abbot, an absentee, living a debauched
life in England, while these disorders were going on.
Two hundred years later we find a book published by
one of the foremost leaders of education in Europe, the
Rector of the University of Paris, to call attention to the
general condition of the monasteries, whose inmates he
states were guilty of idleness, drunkenness, gluttony, and
debauchery. He uses even stronger language than this:
but the title of his book may suffice: De Corrupto

- Ecclesiz Statu.

A local history, such as that of Gloucester, shews a
state of things not much more satisfactory in the century
following that dealt with by the University rector; and,
as Gloucester was proverbial for the number of its
monastic houses, there is no reason to suppose that their
condition differed materially from that of similar estab-
lishments in other places.

More important, however, than the question whether
the monasteries ever did, in their earlier history, come up
to the expectations of the earnest men who founded them,

40 PROG.-COTTES WOLD VGLUB VOL. XIII.

is that of their actual state at the period of their dissolu-
tion in England. School-books for the most part tell us
that although there were “irregularities” among them,
their dissolution was an irreparable loss to the country,
being due to the caprice and greed of Henry VIII.:
some of the “Extension” lecturers incline to the same
view.” The truth is that both the school-books and the
lecturers are so taken up with the misdeeds of Henry VIII.
that they have no time to touch upon certain facts with
which Henry had nothing to do. But these facts are of
great interest and value for forming a right judgment on
one of the most important events in our national history.
Much exception, for example, is taken to the bias of the
commission appointed by Henry’s government to en-
quire into the state of the monasteries. But this was not
the only commission appointed; nor was England the only
country in which the enquiry was made. Pope Paul III.
cannot be accused of bias against the monasteries; yet
complaints against them reached him, in such force and
from such a variety of sources, that he appointed a com-
mission to enquire into their condition generally. Its
members were exclusively Cardinals: among them were
Reginald Pole, who can hardly be suspected of playing
into the hands of Henry VIII., and Cardinal Caraffa,
afterwards Pope Paul IV. No writer, or lecturer, who
deals even briefly with the dissolution of the monasteries,
has any right to omit mentioning this commission, and
the substance of its official report to the Papal See,
delivered in 1538, at the very period of the dissolution
in this country, which was from 1536 to 1539. It says :—

* It is due to the Extension lecturers to mention that some of them do not consider
that the cloister produced the purest and most perfect of the characters of the Tudor
time. They award this distinction to Tuomas More, the active statesman, the father of
a family, and the writer of the remarkable letter which is given a few pages further on

1899 J. BELLOWS—MONASTIC ORDERS 41

“Another abuse needing correction is the religious
“orders, because they have so deteriorated that they are
““a serious scandal to the laity, and do the greatest harm
“by their example.” * * * “We are of opinion that
“they should all be abolished ”—etce.

If it was the opinion of the cardinals of the Roman
Church that the monasteries did ‘“‘the greatest harm by
their example,” and that “ they should all be abolished,”
then it is evident that all the endeavours, to set up a
standard of purity higher than that of the family circle,
had failed utterly. More than a thousand years of evolu-
tion in one experiment after another, had ended in this
verdict of the very guardians of the institution, that it
had so “ deteriorated” that the only thing to be done with
it was to “ abolish” it.

This has nothing to do with Henry VIII. or his mis-
deeds. If he had never been born it would evidently have
been the duty of the English parliament to abolish the
monasteries, if they were in the condition which the Pope
and his counsellors seriously averred they were in, all
over Europe. There were no fewer than thirty heads of
monasteries in the House of Lords that passed the Act of
Dissolution, and when the Commissioners’ Report of the
abuses in the various houses was read, Lingard states that
not one of these 28 Abbots and 2 Priors opened his lips
in refutation of it. Yet even if the charges made had
been untrue, it was not much like Englishmen to sit still
under them, no matter what the risk of speaking might
be. There was great indignation against the betrayal of
the trust of which the bulk of the monks had been
guilty ;* but amidst all the indignation there was an

* What the condition of the English monks was, twenty years before the Cardinals’
Report here mentioned, may be seen from a letter by Thomas More in reply to one of
their number who had expressed a fear that he would be corrupted by the “new learning”

of his friend Erasmus. It was written in 1519: He, certainly, is above suspicion of bias
against monachism : yet this is what he says:

42 PROG: ‘COTTESWOED CLUB VOL. XIII.

endeavour to do justly in dealing with the vested interests
involved, notwithstanding the unworthiness of so many
of the participants in them. The Cardinals, in their

“Into what factions—into how many sects is the order cut up! Then, what
tumults, what tragedies arise about little differences in the colour or mode of girding the
monastic habit, or some matter of ceremony which, if not altogether despicable, is at all
events not so important as to warrant the banishment of all charity. How many, too,
are there (and this is surely worst of all) who, relying on the assurances of their monastic
profession, imwardly raise their crests so high that they seem to themselves to move in the
heavens, and reclining among the solar rays, to look down from on high upon the people
creeping on the ground like ants, looking down thus, not only on the ungodly, but also
upon all who are without the circle of the enclosure of their order, so that for the most
part nothing is holy but what they do themselves. , . . They make more of things
which appertain specially to the religious order, than of those valueless and very humble
things which are in no way peculiar to them but entirely common to all Christian
people, such as the vulgar virtues—faith, hope. charity, the fear of God, humility, and
others of the kind. Nor, indeed, is this a new thing. Nay, it is what Christ long ago
denounced to his chosen people, ‘ Ye make the word of God of none effect through your
traditions.’ ;

“There are multitudes enough who would be afraid that the devil would come upon
them and take them alive to hell, if, forsooth, they were to set aside their usual garb,
whom nothing can move when they are grasping at money.

“Are there only a few, think you, who would deem it a crime to be expiated with
many tears, if they were to omit a line in their hourly prayers, and yet have no fearful
scruple at all, when they profane themselves by the worst and most infamous lies ?”

[He goes on to speak of an Abbot who, he says, had “committed the most horrible crimes
I ever heard of”; and he concludes thus :]

“Now, I have not mentioned this with the view either to defame the religion of the
monks with these crimes, since the same soil may bring forth useful herbs and pestiferous
weeds, or to condemn the rites of those who occasionally salute the sacred Virgin, than
which nothing is more beneficial; but because people trust so much in such things that
under the very security which they thus feel they give themselves up to crime.

“From reflections such as these you may learn the lesson which the occasion suggests.
That you should not grow too proud of your own sect—nothing could be more fatal.
Nor trust in private observances. That you should place your hopes rather in the
Christian faith than in your own and not trust in those things which you can do for
yourself, but in those which you cannot do without God’s help. You can fast by yourself,
you can keep vigils by yourself, you can say prayers by yourself--and you can do these
things by the devil! But verily, Christian faith. which Christ Jesus truly said to be in
the spirit; Christian hope, which, despairing of its own merits, confides only in the mercy
of God; Christian charity, which is not puffed up, is not made angry, does not seek its
own glory—none, indeed, can attain these except by the grace and gracious help of God
alone.

“But how much the more you place your trust in those virtues which are common
to Christendom, by so much the less will you have faith in private ceremonies, whether
those of your order or your own; and by how much the less you trust in them by so
much the more will they be useful. For then at last God will esteem you a faithful
servant, when you shall count yourself good for nothing.”

1899 J. BELLOWS—MONASTIC ORDERS 43

report already alluded to, in order to guard existing in-
terests, recommended that the older monks should be
allowed to continue for the rest of their lives, while all
the younger postulants should be sent to their homes.
The English government acted in the spirit of this, and
gave to every monk and nun who was under twenty-four
years of age at the dissolution the option of remaining
under the vow of celibacy, and receiving a pension for
life ; or, of being released from it, and receiving one year’s
pension and a suit of clothes.

Those who imagine that the object of the government,
or of the King, in dissolving the monasteries, was to
obtain their revenues, have probably never endeavoured
to reconcile this theory with the fact that no monk or
nun of over the age of twenty-four was allowed to go
free with the one year’s salary, although many entreated
permission to do so; for in every case without exception
such persons were compelled: to keep under the celibate
vow for the rest of life, although it involved the payment
to them of the annual pension. The amount of this
pension varied with the rank of the recipient: that is, more
for abbots and other dignitaries, but for the monks them-
selves the usual income of a parish curate ;* and for the
nuns one-half as much.

If spoliation was the aim it was clumsily managed.
That favoritism affected the allotment of the estates
thrown into the market by the nation, is probable. It
affects many things now; but if the allottees paid 20
years’ purchase for the lands and 15 years’ for the buildings,
the terms, on the whole, do not appear very different from
those which would be secured at the present day, if a
twentieth part of all the land in the country were suddenly

* Several years before this, a number of priests waited on Wolsey to remonstrate
against a tax laid on them. They stated that “twenty nobles a year” was a bare income,
that would not stand such a'tax. A noble was six and eightpence.

AA PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII.

offered for sale. As the total revenues confiscated
amounted to under £170,000 a-year,* and out of the
proceeds of the sales the debts of every monastery were
cleared off, and the pensions provided for the thousands
of monks and nuns for life, as well as the incomes of
half-a-dozen new bishoprics, and the cost of fortifying
places on the south coast, with that of building ships for
a navy, it is not easy to suppose any very large balance
left either for the king, or anyone else.

The dissolution of the monasteries was the snapping
of the chain of endeavour to make a system perfect
which, on the testimony of the commission of Paul IIL.,
was inherently incapable of being perfected. We are
sometimes told that the nation suffered great loss by the
change. It is not easy to see where the loss comes in.
It could not have been in respect of learning or of the
general diffusion of knowledge, as is shown by the rise
of the Elizabethan era of the national literature, after the
monasteries were closed. It certainly was not in respect
of the moral example set by the monks; for on this point
the language of Cardinal Pole and of More leaves nothing
to be said.

* Some authorities give under £143,000. Possibly one figure may represent the
gross, and the other the net amount. [See Coxe’s “ Monmouthshire: ” chapter on Tintern
Abbey.]

There is a very full article on the History of Monachism in the ninth edition of the
“Encyclopzdia Britannica.” It is from the pen of Dr. Littledale, and will be read with
interest not only by those who believe, as he does, that the monastic system is founded on
aspirations inherent in human nature, but by those who do not agree with him.

ROMAN WORK AT CHEPSTOW
BY
JOHN BELLOWS |

(Read at Chepstow, June 6th, 1898)

The great number of Roman tiles in the Castle walls
evidence the Roman occupation of the site (which has
been doubted by some); and the finding of Roman coins
in Chepstow is further proof of it, as is also the local
name, “ Port wall,” as applied to the town wall. This has
nothing to do with “‘ port” in the sense of “ harbour,” but
is a corruption of the Latin farietes, which became in
Cornish and south-east Welsh, “ poruit,” and finally
“port,” a wall, and a walled town. The head officer
of such a town was known till recent times as the
Portreeve. The word “ port,’ for wall, still lingers
on in four towns—Bristol, Chepstow, Caerwent, and
Caerleon—just the corner most affected by the Second
Roman Legion. Another curious fact is that while Mon-
mouthshire was officially reckoned as belonging to Wales
down till the time of Henry VIII., the Castle of Chepstow
-is classed in Domesday as belonging to Gloucestershire ;
and this singular exclusion of it from the rest of Mon-
mouthshire is explained by the Roman occupation: it
_ formed the necessary ¢é¢e de pont to the bridge crossing
_ the Wye from the Gloucestershire shore. It was on the
great line of Roman road from London to South Wales,
_ generally known as the Vva /ulia; and as Chepstow was
_ the most important point on this road so far as it linked
_ Gloucester with Caerleon, it was impossible the Romans

46 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

could have neglected to guard it, with its passage over the
Wye. In Coxe’s “ Monmouthshire” a drawing is given of
the bridge over the Wye, at Chepstow, as it stood at the
end of the last century; as well as a plan of the piers. I
took a tracing from this plan of the angle of a pier, and
on laying it down upona similar plan of a pier of the
Roman bridge at Newcastle-on-Tyne, as given by Dr.
Bruce, the angle of the cutwater in both (83 degrees)
was found to be identical. That is, the engineer who
built the pier at Chepstow (which there is good reason to
believe is Roman) made it of precisely the same degree in
the angle as that of the bridge at Newcastle, which is
known to be Roman. It must be remembered that all
the engineering of such work in the south-west of Britain
was done by the Second Legion, which had its head-
quarters first at Gloucester, and afterwards at Caerleon ;
and that the same Second Legion was employed on
Hadrian’s Wall. Evidently the angle was a standard one
adopted in building their bridges.

Further, these piers, which are hexagonal in plan, like
a bee’s cell, but somewhat more acute at the points, were
only built to about the water's edge, the superstructure
consisting of tall trestles of timber, twelve feet asunder.
On these timber frames, or piers, the floor of the bridge
was laid in loose planks.* The intention of this was, of
course, that the planks might be taken away ata moment’s
notice in case of the approach of an enemy; and, accord-
ing to Coxe, the bridges both at Caerleon and at Chepstow
were of this construction. It is therefore evident that
Chepstow was Roman. .

* A carpenter in Caerleon told Coxe that the planks used to be nailed down, but
that this was discontinued because the nails split the oak planks! He evidently invented
this to account for what he had no real knowledge of; for Pliny, in his “ Natural History,”
says it was an article of religious faith with the Romans never to nail down the planks

of a bridge.

ROMAN REMAINS AT BATH
BY

JOHN BELLOWS
(Read at the Bath Meeting, June 27, 1898)

It is interesting to compare the points of similarity and
of difference between Gloucester and Bath. Both date
from the earliest occupation of Britain by the army of
Claudius; but while Gloucester, from all its lines, shows
that it was meant for a fortress of extreme strength, Bath
owed its importance then, as it does now, to its hot
springs, not to its strategic position. The first thing that
strikes one, in comparing the ground plans of the two
cities, is the much more perfect preservation of the minor
or sub-dividing streets, in Gloucester than in Bath; and
the next is the greater regularity of Gloucester in its outline :
it approaches very clearly to a square, while Bath, in its
southern portion, is irregular—approaching more to the
form of Silchester, or of Kenchester (the Roman AZagna).
That is, the last two cities were British modified by
Roman occupation : they were not originally founded by the
Roman invaders, like Gloucester, Chester, and some other
fortresses. Some of the Roman lines in Bath are, how-
ever, well preserved. There is the main cross, formed
by Union and Stall streets, traversed by Westgate street
and Cheap street; while in the north-west quarter the
sub-division into three blocks, which is so general a

48 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

feature in the earlier Roman camps,” has survived all the
changes the place has undergone. The two small streets
between the Westgate street and Borough Walls do not
run straight across Westgate street on the southern side ;
where, as in other Roman towns, the opposite quarter
was divided in the same way. But while the upper, or
northern half of the Roman city makes a tolerable
approach to the right angles of the standard type, the
southern walls are deflected so greatly from this square
standard, that we are driven to one of two conclusions :—
Either the Roman wall was originally built square, and
after some destruction of the city has been rebuilt, so as
to leave the outline what the streets now show; or else
Bath was a British town before the invasion of Claudius,
and the Romans partly preserved its outline on the
southern side, while they carried out their own plans by
measuring off as much as they required on the side of the
hot baths—thus producing the same effect as at Silchester,
where at the East gate the regular Roman wall runs in a
straight line, while the rest of the ezceznte is polygonal.
It is impossible to suppose that no town existed here in
the pre-Roman time. The Britons were in a_ fairly
advanced state of civilization in many points, and it is not
likely that they would neglect these remarkable curative
waters. Indeed, the British name Sw/ implies a know-
ledge of the waters; and the clever way in which the
Romans combined this name with that of their own Minerva
(Sul-Minerva) shows that they regarded such a com-
promise as inevitable. The existence, therefore, of baths
and a temple at the time of the Claudian invasion would be
a strong reason for the Romans making their plan of this

* The two quarters cut off by the shorter end of the cross were those occupied by
the officers and used for the stores. These were each divided into three blocks of building,
separated by two minor streets. The other two quarters, parted from the short end of the
camp by the via principia, were each composed of four blocks divided by three streets.

he
¥
Ny
on
x
al

1899 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN REMAINS 49

part of the city subordinate to the existing buildings; so
that they would simply arrange their cross streets in the
centre of the city in such a manner as to get the baths and
the temple close to thecross. The Roman temple of Sul-
Minerva stood on the site of the present Pump Room,
and this determined the site of the Abbey, which was
built.as close to the temple as possible.

The street leading to the East gate of the city is not
now called Eastgate street, as is the case in Gloucester,
but Cheap street. The explanation is that the position of
the river Avon made the East gate merely a water gate,
not a roadway equal in importance to the West gate; so
that the fact of its being east ceased to impress itself so
much on the mind as the fact that the market was in it,
and it therefore got to be known as Cheap street (or
Market street). That Bath was the great market of the
district, and was known to the country folk outside as
the Forum, is shown by this name having lasted till the
present day in the name of the Hundred of which it is
the head borough, for the Hundred still bears the name
of Bath-Forum.

There is good reason to conclude that in the erection
of the Abbey the builders made a compromise, as the
Romans had done before them: that is, they found the
position of Sul-Minerva too strong to permit of the
demolition of the temple, for a portion of the latter was
standing till comparatively recent times.

Two other traditions have come down from the Roman
times, and leave their mark on Bath of the present day.
One is that while many of the streets are macadamised,
there are still others in which the Roman method of
paving with squared sets is continued: not necessarily
old streets, for some of them are quite recent. The
other tradition is the Roman system of building pillared
porticos along the ‘streets, for that system has been

D

50 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XI.

adopted from generation to generation until the present

\ day, as, for instance, Bath street and the entrance to the
Abbey Close, the latter being simply a modern representa-
tion of the ancient court of the temple.

The common idea that the name of Bath occurring in
the Saxon Chronicle as “ Acemannes ceastre,” meant
“Sick men’s city,” will not stand examination. The
Saxon word for “sick man” was then practically what it is
now seéc man, for although ace was used for “ache,” no
such form as “Ace-man” existed. It is simply an
unintelligent attempt to account for a name which was
probably the result of the abrasion which is so marked in
Celtic speech. Even down to our own time the Cornish
people, for example, clip many words till they are scarcely
recognisable. Miners say, instead of “ Yes, I believe,”
“Iss, bleh!” and so on. This abbreviation was carried
on excessively with words adopted from Latin: as
Cathedra, which the Welsh make Cadr; soctus, which
the Cornishman make soce, &c. There was also a
tendency in adopted words to bring forward the accent to
the first syllable (like the Italians sound O’tranto,
Brin‘disi). But for this it is not easy to see why the
Englishman of the present day pronounces the name of
the eighth month as “ Au’gust,” or why he says sec’ond,
where a Frenchman says “sgohnd.” ‘This would lead the
Britons to make agua, or ague, a single syllable, just as
we know the Gauls did, for the French pronounce Azg’
Mort, and “Aix (hat is, the exact sound “ofthe
English “aches”). Then accenting the word Min’erva,
and dropping, in turn, the terminal syllables, as already
shown in Cath’edra, Ague Minerve becomes A’ca min’er,
and then Ac’min (ceaster). In the Chronicle of Florence
of Worcester we get a glance at the intermediate form,
for he says the coronation of Edgar took place in 973,
“in civitate Acamannt.” “ Aca” had nothing to do with

1899 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN REMAINS 51

“ache.” Itis the abbreviation of agua or ague. In the
same way, in the Riviera we find the five syllables of
forum Juli clipped down to two in the modern name
of Fre’jus.

In the remarkable map known as Peutinger’s, which
comes down to us from about the third century, there is
a peculiarity which throws light upon the architecture of
the Baths. This map is really a series of road-plans,
marking the stations in Gaul, &c.; and wherever there is
a thermal station (similar to Bath) it is depicted as a sheet
of water surrounded on three sides by rooms, but with
the centre left unroofed or opento the sky. The entrance
is indicated as a pillared portico, with no building over it,
and there seems no reason to doubt that the present
pillared entrance to the Abbey Yard and Pump Roon, at
Bath, is a simple evolution from the style so clearly
shown as. that of a thermal station by Peutinger; that is,
that each succeeding architect has copied the work he has
replaced, with but unimportant modifications, since the
Roman time. In the same way “ Bath street” (opposite
this portico), the present houses in which date from last
century, preserves the Roman tradition of the pillared
walks for the foot passengers on both sides of the way.
We have examples of this in many other Roman towns in
Britain and on the Continent.

|

THE CAMPS AT MINCHINHAMPTON,
BY
E. NORTHAM WITCHELL.

(Read at the Nailsworth Meeting, September 21st, 1898)

(1.) THE BRITISH CAMP.

This Camp consists of an entrenchment from 3 to 4
feet in height, with a ditch on the outside. It extends
from near the May-pole, at Amberley, to the Reservoir of
the Stroud Water Company, and thence turns to the
south-west to the escarpment.

The Camp measures in length, from north to south,
760 yards; and in width, from west to east, 366 yards.

The north-west end of the Camp is divided from the
remainder by a mound and ditch. The ditch is on the
south-east, or outward, side of the mound, and the height
of the latter from the bottom of the ditch is, from 10 ft.
to 14ft. This fortification runs diagonally across the
Camp from the escarpment on the south west to the
entrenchment on the north-east, and measures 283 yards
in length.

I am of opinion that this is Roman work, and that the
British Camp was thus utilized as an occasional camping
ground. The only evidence I have obtained in support
_ of this theory is a copper coin found in the Camp, kindly

54 PROG. “GOTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

described for me by Mrs Bagnall-Oakley, who states that
it is a coin of Constantius, son of Constantine the Great,
struck at the second Mint of Iréns.

There is a never-failing spring of water below the
escarpment, to which the old path from the Camp can
still be traced. -

The remains of hundreds of pit-dwellings are in and
around the Camp.

I have opened several, and found in them, burnt stones,
and charcoal, also foreign pebbles, and pieces of stone
known locally as “holy stone.”* In one pit-dwelling I
found an upright stone placed acfoss it as a division. We
dug to about 18 in. below the surface of the ground, and
found burnt stones only on one side of it. Pit-dwellings
similarly divided have been found in Wiltshire.

A considerable number of flint implements, and frag-
ments of pottery, have been found in, and near, the camp.
They consist of scrapers, knives, leaf-shaped arrow points,
borers, &c.

I also found a small lead weight, shown in Fig. 1; and
Mr Reed, of the British Museum, says it was used re the
Britons for weighting their drag-nets.

Fig. 1.—Lead Weight, from Minchinhampton. Natural size.

The pebbles found in the pit-dwellings were probably
used in the manufacture of flint implements, and the
larger specimens as pestles for grinding purposes.

Some of the pottery is of a very rude and early type,
and was apparently baked in the sun. Other pieces have
been baked by fire, and are Romano-British in character.

* [Equivalent to the Dagham Stone of the Cirencester Great Oolite, Zd. |

1899 E. N. WITCHELL—MINCHINHAMPTON CAMPS- 55

C(I.) THE DANISH CAMP.

This is the largest Camp in Gloucestershire, and covers
an area of about 300 acres. It consists of a high mound
with a ditch on the inside. The mound runs from near
“The Box” across the Common to Minchinhampton
Park, and formerly extended round the site of the town,
as there are remains of the fortifications about a mile to
the eastward.

I consider it to be of Danish origin for the following
reasons :—

1.—There are few, if any, pit-dwellings in or around
the Camp.

2.—Only one fragment of a flint implement has been
found by me after careful search in the arable fields in
the Camp.

3.—The mound is outside the ditch, instead of inside
as in the Amberley Camp.

4.—Local tradition, and also the entry in the Saxon
Chronicle, point to a great battle with the Danes having
been fought here.

5.—The soil of a great portion of the Camp is of clay,
which would not be so healthy for a people who lived in
pit-dwellings as a dry porous soil, such as one finds in
the sites of other British Camps.

6.—The great size of the Camp, which measures
roughly one mile in length by half-a-mile in breadth: it
would have required a large army to defend it.

In Prof. Ingram’s translation of the Saxon Chronicle
appears the following :—

“A.D. 837. This year Alderman Wulfherd fought at
Hampton with thirty-three Pirates and after great slaughter
obtained the Victory.”

Local tradition points to a great battle with the Danes
having been fought here.

56 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

There is a stone called the “Lang Stone” situated on
the far side of the Camp, which tradition states was placed
with two other similar stones (since removed) to mark
the spots where three Danish Chieftains were killed. The
hollow to the south is called “ Woeful Dane Bottom” :
tradition says that the blood at that spot was over the
fetlocks of the horses, and that the stream in the valley
below was red with it.

The ancient name of Minchinhampton was Hamton
or Hanton: the word “Minchin,” a religious House of
Mercy, having been added later.

There is also an old road running nearly due east
called Daneway.

The lack of pit-dwellings and the other characteristics
mentioned, the local tradition, and names, and the entry
in the Chronicle, are, I think, sufficient evidence to
warrant a conclusion that this is a Danish Camp, and that
the great battle of A.D. 837 was fought at this spot.

The term “pirates” was often used in the Chronicle
to designate Danes, and it doubtless refers to 33 Pirate
Chiefs, or Earls, and their following.

In another part of the Chronicle, in a description of the
Danish army, it is stated that the average following of a
Danish Earl, or Chief, was 500 men. Supposing that
these Pirate Chiefs had the same average following, the
Danish army, which was defeated at Hampton, would
have numbered about 16,500 men, which would have
been sufficient to man this Camp.

THE CARRARA MARBLE QUARRIES
BY

REV. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., VICE-PRES. GEOL. SOC.
(Read February 21st, 1899)

These notes are the result of a visit to the marble
quarries of Carrara last year, with a genial companion, no
mean authority in geological matters, Prof. Boyd Dawkins.
Leaving behind us that city of palaces, Genoa la Superba,
in the glorious sunshine of an autumn morning, we took
the train to Avenza, the junction for Carrara. Much has
been written about the beauties of the road between Genoa
and Pisa—the far-famed Riviera di Levante; and lucky are
those travellers who, before the days of the iron way,
followed the devious but picturesque route along the
carriage road, for the railway line is the most disagreeable
of all I have travelled. On this lovely coast it is reasonable
to expect seascapes and landscapes far surpassing those
pretty peeps on the Exeter and Torquay line; but nothing
of the sort. Landwards a glimpse is caught of the
wooded heights with a picturesque Italian villa embosomed
amidst tropical foliage. You try to remember what tree
or shrub it is growing so luxuriantly and to sucha height,
familiar to you in a dwarfed greenhouse or hothouse
form, when you are shot intoa tunnel. You take the
other side of the carriage, and think you must certainly
be rewarded by a sight of the blue waters of the Mediter-
ranean, just catch a peep of the wavelets gently laving the
sunny shore, when another tunnel, and into the darkness
you go. Well, in any case the gulf of Spezzia, the Portus
Lunense, must be seen. If you are very quick you may
just catch the glinting of the waters of that celebrated bay

EB

58 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII.

capable of containing all the navies of Europe, and that is
all. But after passing Spezzia, troubles cease. The
country is more open, those 70 tunnels in 80 miles come
nearly to an end. You can open the window again and
breathe freely, without being stifled by the heat or
suffocated by the black sulphurous smoke of the engine.

At last Avenza, in the Duchies of Massa and Carrara, is
reached, and the mighty range of the Apennines, with
their worn and rifted summits rising more than 5000 feet,
opens out on the left. White streaks run down their
sides from the summits, which may easily be mistaken
for snow. They are the debris of the marble quarries—
records of the wasteful method of working for thousands
of years.

CARRARA

A branch line from Avenza, three miles in length,
following the course of the now dry torrent bed of the
Carrione, lands us finally at the town of Carrara, or rather
just outside its barrier gate. Two Italian friends, Messrs
Robson and Pelliccia, who met us at the station, passed us
quickly by the sentinel on guard, giving the assurance
that we had nothing contraband, and conducted us to the
comfortable Hotel de la Poste, where our plans for the
morrow’s visit to the quarries were matured. A short
walk in the evening through the town and up the valley
of the Torano* on the west, gave sufficient proof of the
industry carried on. Everywhere was marble—white,
glaring white, houses, road-metal, road-dust, workmen’s
clothes, all was as marble in some form or other, consoli-
dated in large blocks, or triturated into fine impalpable
powder.

* The Torano Valley, on the west, seems to be the boundary line of the true marble,
as the strata which we examined with our hammers, much to the curiosity of the women,
were apparently Triassic beds very crumpled up.

nated

AT

* sa

1899 H. WINWOOD—CARRARA QUARRIES 59

The town of Carrara itself is most picturesquely
situated at the foot of the Apennines, whose various
summits form a fine background. The buildings are of
a superior class, as might be expected from the excellent
material so close at hand, especially the public buildings,
Duomo, theatre, schools, &c. Two fine statues of
Garibaldi and Mazzini adorn the piazzas, and the west end
of the Duomo has a beautiful “ Rota window,” what we
should call a rose window. From the weathered appear-
ance of the outside one would not recognise its material,
until told that the box of the wheel and the spokes were
cut out of white marble. The inside, which was dimly
lighted at the time of our visit, was a mass of marble of
various colours.

THE APENNINES

It may be well to give a short description of the range
of the Apennines. It is a continuation of the Maritime
Alps, striking off E.S.E. from Genoa towards the Adriatic
Sea. Trending then S.S.E., it runs down nearly through
the centre of Italy, terminating in Italy’s toe. Forming
the southern boundary of the great plain of North Italy,
the range is a watershed, the drainage flowing on the one
side into the Adriatic, and on the other into the Mediter-
ranean Sea. The summits of this range reach from 5000
to 6000 feet, so well described by Virgil—

“ Gaudet (que) nivali
“Vertice, se attollens pater Apenninus ad auras.”
(AEneid XII, 703.)

Deep valleys and rugged ravines cut into the heart of
the mountains, thus making detached ranges and spurs,
especially on their southern slopes. One of these spurs,
dividing the valleys of the Macra and Serchio (Auser),
contains the celebrated marble quarries of Massa and

E2

60 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

Carrara. A railway, specially constructed for the purpose,
runs right to the foot of the quarries, connecting them
with the port of Avenza, about six miles distant from
Carrara.

THE QUARRIES

An early start in the morning enabled us to catch the
first workmen’s train, which, zigzagging up the steep
incline, depositing sand and men at the various levels,
finally reached its terminus at the station of Ravaccione
(1110 feet). Here we left the train and found ourselves
surrounded by a mountainous semi-circle of white marble.
High above were the “cave,” or quarries, with their

as c ON ee

Fig. 1.—Ravaccione. Cave del Torrione,

streams, or rather ¢ovvents, of white debris extending to
our feet, so well shown in the picture which forms Fig. 1.

1899 H. WINWOOD—CARRARA QUARRIES 61

And just below is the scene shown in Fig. 2—the patient
meek-eyed, dun-coloured oxen, waiting for the wains to be
loaded with the large blocks for transport to the sawing
houses below—a busy and most interesting scene. Prof.
Boyd Dawkins considers that the Italian large-horned,

Fig. 2—Cave di Carrara. Oxen and wagons for transport of marble.

fawn-coloured, patient oxen are different from the large
English domestic breed (Chartley, Chillingham, &c.) 7x
every rvespect—colour, horns, and shape, and are not their
ancestors. He considers Mr Arthur Evans’ suggestion,
that they have been derived originally from Egypt, very
likely to be true.

We had our work cut out for the rest of the day. It
was no easy matter climbing under the hot sun over
debris composed of loose angular blocks of white marble.
Here a staircase of steps rudely put together led straight
up to a level, whence a zigzag path, scarcely discernible
from the white mass around, and only known to the
workmen, led up to the various workings. Some of

62 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIIL,

these quarries can only be approached by the skilled
mountaineers who work them. A steep climb of another
500 feet brought us to Dervillé’s cava.* This produces
the ordinary clear white Carrara marble, called “ Marmo
Siciliano,” used for common statuary and architecture, its
fine grain resisting the action of the weather. On the
left is a valley containing the Cava del Polvaccio,.whence
came the marble for Trajan’s Column at Rome, and for
the Pantheon (temp. Agrippa, B.C. 26). The fineness of
the grain, its purity and slight opaqueness adapt it for
statuary purposes. Here Michael Angelo, who explored
the Versiglia district in 1565, is reported often to have
turned his steps. And the marble for his masterpiece,
the statue of Moses, well known to visitors in Rome from
its position before the Church of St. Peter, is said to have
been brought hence.

After lunching at Ravaccione, we returned to the
Stazione Torano, and walked up the Piastra valley, visit-
ing the quarries on either side. A feature here was very
noticeable, one which we afterwards saw in the other
valleys: the road had been cut through a mass of drift.
Large and small rounded pebbles and boulders, consisting
principally of angular blocks of thin-bedded limestone,
were mixed up here and there with some of a different kind,
in one case a large green schistose boulder resting on a
bluish, dense, crystalline rock, with occasional white bands
approaching the marble structure. This drift stretched
across the valley, but has since been cut through by the
stream, now a mere rivulet, dry in the summer, which
must formerly have descended in much greater volume
from the watershed above, cutting out the valleys and
bearing with it the various materials through which it ran
its course.

* The quarries belong to different owners, and are called after their names.

oh “WV ae an Sk maae . —

1899 H. WINWOOD—CARRARA QUARRIES 63

A steep ascent on the opposite side took us to Cava az
Betogl, whence comes the Marmo statuario. Resting
ona huge block of ordinary statuary marble,* we were
content to feast our eyes upon the fine view, to be told
that the best was in a quarry still higher up, and to learn
from the description that it was noted for its translucency
when first excavated, losing that character when exposed
to the air for some time. Hence it is more suitable for
indoor work and the artist’s studio, It also possesses a
certain elasticity, for when sawn into thin slabs and placed
against a wall, a slight curvature is plainly perceptible.

Descending the valley to Torano, we passed a section
showing the “Dove Marble” zx sztu, called Bardiglio
marmo,~ blue in colour, and generally found at the base
or on the lower slopes of the hills. Having done as much
as we could in the Piastra valley, we retraced our steps to
Carrara.

The next day, after an early start, we were landed at
the small station of Miseglia, and thence backed to
Torano and up a steep incline to Tornone, 820 feet above
Carrara. Our object was to examine the quarries to the
south-east on the opposite side to those seen the preced-
ing day, and situated in the Canal Grandet and Canal
Colonata, two valleys. leading down to the Bedizzano
valley. The deep valley called Canal Grande has its

origin in Monte Sagro (1749 m.).
' A short distance from Cava det Ravaccione, and on the
right hand, is the celebrated Cava det Fantiscritti, or
“quarry of the soldiers,” so called from certain figures

* The statuary marble is the most highly crystallised, and difficult to get without
flaws.

+ Bardiglio unito, quite plain; Bardiglio scuro, dark; Bardiglio fiorito, blue
with black veins. The “Lion” and the “River,” of the Vatican (/emp. Antoninus) were
sculptured in Serravezzan Bardiglio.

+ Canale, a narrow valley.

64 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

cut in the marble, supposed to be those of three Roman
soldiers, but really the figures of Jupiter between Hercules
and Bacchus (¢emp. Septimus Severus, 193-211. A.D.)
These, with other Roman sculptures, have been deposited
in the Academy of Fine Arts at Carrara.

It would be tedious to enumerate all the quarries that
we visited, suffice it to mention that in passing to the
Fossa cava the marks of Roman working were plainly
visible where a way had been cut from one quarry to
another in the slate-coloured marble ; their tool marks also
remaining ona face of blue marble just above a modern
reservoir. Leaving Fossa Cava, belonging to our guide,
Signor Pelliccia, we crossed to a quarry belonging to a
Signor Catani, where some magnificent blocks of Szcz/zano
Clara had just been cut out, one weighing 200 tons.
Near at hand a Roman column was just peering out of
the debris, having been left behind by the workmen,
probably for some imperfection which disclosed itself in
the finishing. A Roman pick, similar to those in present
use, and recently found not far off, possibly the very one
used in shaping this column, was presented to us and is
now in the Owen's College Museum. Crossing a cause-
way which carried the road over one of the numerous
fissures in the marble, some semi-circular worn cavities,
coloured reddish from the infiltration of the red soil
above, indicated where water had once found its way and
formed swallet holes. Near here we observed a curious
method of quarrying. A tall scaffolding of three stages
was erected against the face of the quarry over the block
required. Each stage was of sufficient height to allow
three or four men to stand upright and work an iron bar
(some 20 feet in length) up and down, time being kept to
the tune of a wild Italian song, whilst the hole was being
bored for blasting.

1899 H. WINWOOD—CARRARA QUARRIES 65

Descending to the Colonata valley, we were glad to take
a short rest in a dirty a/éergo kept by one Josepho, who
gave us an excellent repast of Salami, eggs, and chopped
up fowl stewed in wine sauce, a most savoury dish, our
thirst being allayed by some vzxo di Carrara bianco, the
common wine of the country and very good. Refreshed,
we made our last ascent to La Gioija (579 m.), Signor
Pelliccia’s quarry, whence we had a fine view of the village
of Colonata (450 m.), below us on the right. The height
of the Campanile, seen on the ridge to the left, was
500 m. In the distance, Monte Sagro reared its pointed
top. Descending, and leaving on our left hand five
quarries on the mountain side which divides the territory
of Carrara from Massa, we entered the valley of Bedizzano,
passing over the whole series of strata down to the
many coloured Areccze pavonazze, with fragments and
pebbles of white crystalline marble, compacted by a
ferruginous red or purple cement, hence called Marmz
pavonazzt or Mischi.* The following diagram of the
strata in the Colonnata valley, copied froma rough section
lent me by Prof. Boyd Dawkins, will give a general idea
of the succession. .

Fig. 3. Diacram oF Srrata IN CoLonnata VALLEY, By Pror. Boyp Dawkins

1 Conglomerate 4 Veined Sicilian (280m.) 7 Sicilian.

(192m O.D.) 5 Pavonazzo Marble. 8 Colonnata Valley,
2 Crushed Sericite Slate. 6 Torone (382 m.) (430 m.) Schist.
3 Bedizzano Valley, Bardiglio Marble.

Micaceous Schist.

* The columns of the Campo Santo at Pisa are made of Mischi

66 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

GEOLOGY

After this lengthy description of the quarries, it is time
to give some notice of the geology.

The Apuan Alps, considered as a continuation of those
of Switzerland, have been described as an elevated ellipse
or dome-shaped structure, with Secondary beds and
schists on either side of a central crystalline nucleus. To
what age the latter belongs has been, and is, the verata
guestio. That this marble nucleus is altered limestone
admits of no doubt; but how altered and to what series it
belongs, has been much disputed. The south-western
flanks of the mountains in the Torano valley near Carrara
are of Secondary age, as the Museum at Carrara contains
fossils from these beds characteristic of the Lower Lias,
and Rheetic, e.g., Lower Lias Ammonites, and Avicula
contorta from the schists at Graguana farther up the
valley, north of Torano. The Italian geologists generally,
with Stefani at their head, trace an orderly succession
from the Lias through the Rhetic and Triassic beds
downwards to the marble series, which they consider to
be altered Triassic beds. M. Coquand, in his communi-
cation to the Comptes rendues, * “On the Age and Position
of the White Statuary Marble of the Pyrenees and the
Apuan Alps, in Tuscany,” considers them to be of
Carboniferous age, contemporaneous with the saccharoid
marble of St. Béat, in the Pyrenees: he gives the order of
succession as Lias, Rhzetic, Permian, and Carboniferous,
its base being Carrara marble.

It is unnecessary to give a longer list of the various
opinions as to the position of these rocks, ranging from
the Mesozoic to the Paleozoic series. Since these views

* Compt. rend. t. LXxIx., p. 411, 1875.

1899 H. WINWOOD—CARRARA QUARRIES 67

were held, a great advance has taken place in our know-
ledge as to the position and formation of crystalline rocks.
Crushing, faulting, over-thrusts and shearing have been
accepted as explanatory of much that has been hitherto in
dispute. That a great crush and strain has taken place no
one can doubt. There is evidence, too, of faulting, the
extent of which, however, requires more time than we had
at our disposal to work out. From the diagrammatic
section there is an apparent dip of the various beds at a
high angle—in some instances observed they were nearly
perpendicular—but it is difficult to ascertain in these
crystalline rocks whether this was the true dip or the
result of cleavage. M. Jervis, in his “I tesori sotterranei
dell’ Italia” vol. iv., 1889, p. 261, 8vo., Turin, evidently
thinks that this shows stratification, which, he writes, is
sometimes well marked, sometimes completely obliterated.

He considers the marble to be Pre-paleozoic. In one
quarry (Ravaccione), where the crush was_ especially
remarked, the crushed planes measured from a few inches
in thickness to even a thin thread. A specimen taken
from this spot measures half-inch in thickness, the faces
of the thin slabs being stained a brownish hue from down-
ward percolation of iron oxide.

_ In any case, whether that section shows dip or cleavage
planes, it is clear evidence of great disturbance. And
notwithstanding the opinion of the Italian geologists that
these are planes of stratification following in orderly
succession the Cainozoic and Mesozoic beds which are
highly inclined on the flanks of this range, yet, comparing
the structure of the Alps, where similar earth movements
have taken place, and considering the analogy of this
marble with the white crystalline Palaeozoic marble of that

‘range, the more recent view supported by Professors

Bonney and Boyd Dawkins seems to be the more likely
one—that this marble is of the same age as the schists

68 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII.

which flank it on either side and forms part of the masszf
of the Apennines, altered as that central nucleus has been
in the Alps.

The fact, however, remains that whether the schists are
of Carboniferous, Palaeozoic or Archzean age, they are so
much altered that as yet undoubted evidence of their
position in the geological series is still wanting. And if
any Cotteswold geologist would visit this interesting
district and carefully map down the faults, note the great
crushes, and follow up the strata from the flanks on either
side to the central nucleus, he would pass a pleasant and
profitable time amongst the picturesque valleys and
glorious scenery of these marble mountains.

As to the alteration of the limestones, of whatever date,
into their present crystalline form, here, again, opinions
differ. That a metamorphosis has taken place all agree ;
some attribute this to igneous action, but there is no
evidence of this in the Carrara district. The yellow,
streaky, veined Sienna marble may have been formed by
the intrusion of igneous rocks, as veins of Serpentine are
not uncommon there; but in our visit we saw no indica-
tion of any intrusive dykes, and M. Jervis says that
evidence of igneous action in the Carrara mountains,
consisting of marble 3000 feet high, is singularly wanting.
An intrusion of Serpentine does, however, appear near
Spezzia, I have since ascertained.

The crystalline, granular, saccharoidal structure of the
marble requires, according to the best authorities, heat
and pressure, aided by moisture. Geikie writes: “ The
conversion of wide areas of limestones into marble
is a regional metamorphism associated usually with the
alteration of other sedimentary masses into schists,
&e.” (Text Book, 1882, p. 304.) M. Jervis thinks that
metamorphism of sedimentary rocks, without the inter-
vention of intense heat from the redistribution of the

1899 H. WINWOOD—CARRARA QUARRIES 69

mineral molecules under the influence of chemical
decomposition, might account for this alteration. Stefani
does not agree with the view that the formation of the
marbles is due to compression, but attributes the altera-
tion to slow molecular changes, brought about by
circulating waters and by the ordinary metamorphic sur-
roundings. (Geol. Mag., 1890, p. 373.)*

It might be interesting to give an analysisf of the marble,
which is almost pure Carbonate of Lime :—

Rimete whet ee: 554 or Carb. of Lime 9871
Magnesia _...... 04 or Do. Magnesia 09
Carbonic acid 432 or Clay and quartz 1°'0
Clay and quartz 1'O

I00'O I00'O

There are crystals of calcite, iron pyrites, gypsum,
sulphur, and pure white rhombohadral crystals of dolo-
mite. In the cavities of the best marble clear quartz
crystals called “‘ Madre macchie ” and “‘ Carrara diamonds,”
sometimes one inch long and pointed at both ends, occur,
and are much sought after.

METHOD OF WORKING

In conclusion, a few words may be written on the
methods of working and conveying the blocks from the
different quarries. The way in which the vast mass of
debris is shot from one slope to another at the discretion
of the many proprietors, without any organised system, is

* We need not go far to see an alteration in limestone rocks obliterating their
ordinary lithic features. A visit either to the fields around Castle Comfort, on the
Mendips, or to Shepton Mallet, will afford very good instances. Scientists have not yet
succeeded in showing cause for this metamorphism, neither do they agree as to that of the
limestone of the Apuan Alps.

+ Berthier (T. des essais, tom, 1, p. 614).

70 PROG, GOTT ES WOLD: CLUB VOL. XIII.

most wasteful. It conceals much of the workable marble
beneath its thick coating, and renders the lowering of the
blocks over its irregular surface most hazardous. The
way in which this work is done is shown in Fig. 4;
the manner thereof has probably not varied from the
earliest times. The large blocks are placed on wooden

Fig. 4.—Cave di Carrara. Method of lowering the blocks of marble.

sleighs, with large cables attached. A rough upright
block of wood, the limb or body of some small tree
is let into a solid mass of marble enclosed in the
debris above. Round this two or three men wind the
end of the cable, and gradually slack off as the sleigh
below slowly grinds its way over the rough and uneven
surface of the angular debris. Two men, one on each
side of the sleigh, place wooden rollers beneath the
runners, and, whenever a stoppage occurs, start it off
again by the aid of iron crowbars. The danger of this
process can easily be seen; many accidents happen daily,
and there are often deaths. Michael Angelo, com-
missioned by the Medici (Cosmo I.) to visit the quarries,

salinities sin

vi
¥

ssighebitiiees

———— el

1899 H. WINWOOD—CARRARA QUARRIES pe

especially the Cava del Polvaccio, speaking of his diffi-
culties, says, “ the countrymen are excessively ignorant of
the duties required of them; great patience and a long
time will be requisite before the mountains have been
made accessible (addomesticaté) and the men trained for
their work (ammestrate). The peculiar grating noise of
these primitive windlasses, accompanied by signals from
the men to each other as they worked them, filled the air
with a weird sound as it reverberated from one side of
the valley to the other.

A syndicate has been formed for the purpose of work-
ing most of the principal quarries at Carrara and Massa.
As most primitive methods have hitherto been employed,
the marble being extracted near the surface and often
much injured in blasting, it is thought that a great saving
will be effected by modern appliances and machinery; the
cost of “getting” the marble will be materially reduced,
its purity better preserved, and the waste much lessened
by cavern working. The supply is practically inexhaustible.
The chief difficulty will arise probably from the disinclina-
tion of the Italian workmen, numbering about 5000, and
physically, a remarkably fine body of men, to accept any
improvement on their conservative ways of working,
unless they can be persuaded that their earnings will not
be diminished thereby. Like all mountaineers, they form
a very independent and masterful community.

PRESENTED
31 OCT.1900

e.

VOL. XIII PART II

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Cotteswold Uaturalists’

FIELD CLUB

:
‘

President Puan wo
M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

Vicez Presidents
Rev. FRED. SMITHE, M.A., LL.D., F.G.S.
JOHN BELLOWS
Rev. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.S.
EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.GS., F.C.S., F.R.M.S.
J. H. JONES
CHRISTOPHER BOWLY, M.A.I.

Honorary Creasurer
ALS. HELPS

Honorary Accretarp
S. S. BUCKMAN, F.G:S.

‘THE COUNCIL OF THE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERSTOOD THAT THE AUTHORS
ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED
IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS.

' Contents
| The Earliest Known Forms of Life. By C. CALLAWAY, M.A. — ..-.-...-.-------- page 73
Bronze Spear Heads. By Major C. H. FIsHer, F.R.A.S. _._-.-.-.-.------------- n 85
Human Babies. By S. S. Buckman, F.G.S. PlatesI. II. ___.___._...-.----------- n 89
Some Cotteswold Brachiopoda. By CHARLES Upron. Plate III. ?_..._._..__....- un 121
Brachiopoda: Types and Figured Specimens. By S. S. Buckman, F.G.S. n 133

PUBLISHED, DECEMBER, 1899.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. S 210555

The Library of the Club is at Mr John Bellows’, Eastgate,
Gloucester. ;

It is open every Tuesday afternoon from 2.30 to 4.30, when
books may be examined, or borrowed.

Books, Pamphlets, etc., presented to the Club should be 3
addressed to the Cotteswold Club, The Library, East-
gate, Gloucester.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’

Peri DO CEUB

PRESIDENT

M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

HONORARY SECRETARY

S. S. BUCKMAN, FGS.

Vor, XIfl.- Part If:

December, 1899

The Secretary very much regrets that, although this (the
second) part of the yearly Proceedings was kept back for the
sake of Mr John Bellows’ important paper on the ‘‘ Evolution
of Public Buildings,” Mr Bellows’ very numerous engagements
have prevented his preparing the paper for the press. It is
hoped, however, that the paper will appear. in the next part

of the Proceedings, which may be issued next June.
S.S2R.

THE EARLIEST KNOWN FORMS OF LIFE
ON THE GLOBE,
BY
Gc Ca AW ACY a: MeN SD Se.--E.G.S:

(Read March 2tst, 1899)

Our Hon. Secretary, in a paper read before the Club
on January 24th, called attention to a very recent
phase of the process of evolution. He described some of
the evidence which leads to the belief that Man is derived
from the lower animals.. He sketched the probable line
of descent from the Ascidian or Sea-squirt. But the
Ascidian is itself an animal of some complexity of
organisation, possessing distinct organs of respiration and
circulation, and being furnished with a granule of nervous
matter, answering the purpose of a brain. When the
Ascidian first came into being we probably shall never
know, for the tissue of the animal is entirely perishable,
and it is hardly likely that its sac-like body has left any
traces of itself in the earth’s crust. It seems, however,
fairly certain that this ancestor of our race flourished in
Pre-Cambrian times, for the lowest Cambrian strata
contain the remains of several animal types of much
higher organisation. This leads me to the main topic of
my paper.

F

74 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. Xill. (2)

As we follow the succession of life downwards through
Tertiary, Mesozoic, and Palzozoic formations, we find the
higher types gradually disappearing. Man we lose almost
at the start. He may be found below the Post-Pleiocene
rocks, but we have not identified him yet with certainty
in older strata. A corresponding qualification will apply
to the first appearance of all animals and plants. We
know where we first find them, we do not know how
much older they may really be. The Mammalia dis-
appear in the Upper Trias, birds in the Jurassic, reptiles
in the Permian, Amphibia in the Carboniferous, and fishes
in the Ordovician. The Vertebrata had therefore been
evolved at least as early as the Ordovician, and it is not
improbable that they commenced their existence as simple
worm-like fishes, even in Cambrian times.

In the Cambrian rocks, from the top right down to the
base, we find an abundant fauna. Even in the lowest
Cambrian strata we have proof that nearly all the chief
types of life below the Vertebrata had been evolved.
We can detect sponges, Crustacea, Brachiopoda, Gastero-
poda, and conical shells which were formerly thought to
be Pteropoda, but are now regarded as the ancestors of
the Kephalopoda, the highest of all the molluscs. These
are but the relics of worlds of life that peopled the earliest
Cambrian seas, for the occurrence of these animals
implies the co-existence of numerous types which had no
bone, or shell, or crust to perpetuate their memory.

But in the Pre-Cambrian rocks the traces of the life of
the globe are meagre in the extreme. The abundance of
the Cambrian period suddenly sinks almost to zero. It
is as if, in tracing back the history of England, we passed
in a moment from the varied life of the Elizabethan epoch
to the poverty and emptiness of the Age of Bronze.

Yet we are sure that the seas of the Pre-Cambrian
ages were teeming with living creatures. We believe it

x -

1899 C. CALLAWAY—ON EARLIEST LIFE Fhe

on theoretical grounds, and. we know it in some degree
by actual indications furnished by the rocks themselves.
I will take these two lines of evidence in their order.

I assume that the types of life found in the Cambrian
rocks are the descendants of preceding species. I assume
this as a deduction from the theory of evolution, which
may now be taken for granted as safely as the law of
gravity or the doctrine of the conservation of energy.
Before the Cambrian fauna can have commenced to evolve
the succession of life which culminates in Man, it must

itself have been evolved. It is the result of a series of

evolutions extending through vast periods of time.

Think what the plastic material of life must have gone

through before a brachiopod or a trilobite was born!
Some of the Cambrian trilobites are furnished with com-
pound eyes. Yet we regard an eye as one of the most
elaborate of all organs. The brachiopod possessed com-
plex apparatus for respiration and a digestive system of a
comparatively high type, and the gasteropod was more
elaborately formed. The conical shells of the Cambrian
probably contained creatures of still higher organisation.
In estimating the time required to evolve Pre-Cambrian
life, we must keep in mind the fact that the lower forms
change less rapidly than the higher. This law is well
seen if we compare the mollusca of the Tertiary epochs
with the mammalia. Existing species of molluscs began
to appear in the oldest Tertiary strata, but no living
mammal is found even so low as the Pleiocene. Since
the beginning of the Eocene period the Molluscan fauna
has varied but slightly, very few new genera having been
produced ; but the mammalia have varied fundamentally,
nearly all the existing orders, to say nothing of families
and genera, having come into existence. In the Eocene
period, we find the primeval stock from which all the
higher mammals have descended, but the differences
F2

76 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

between the Eocene mammals and their modern representa-
tives are enormous. To take one example. The Eocene
horses were about as large as a fox, each front foot was
furnished with four toes and a thumb, while the hind feet
had three toes, each of them terminating in hoofs.

We have next to compare the amount of differentiation
in Pre-Cambrian times with the differentiation of life in
subsequent epochs. We know that at the opening of the
Cambrian epoch all, or nearly all, of the existing animal
sub-kingdoms had been evolved. ‘These ancient types, as
we have seen, must have been differentiated much more
slowly than the higher forms. The differentiation before —
the Cambrian epoch was therefore much greater than
since, and it was much less rapid. We are therefore
driven to conclude that Pre-Cambrian life took much
longer in developing than all the faunas of succeeding
epochs. Some authorities make the difference at least
nine to one. I will assume it to be one to one. In
other words, we may conclude with reasonable certainty
that the sedimentary formations—the only ones that are
fitted to contain the remains of life—below the Cambrian
represent time at least equal to the long succession of
epochs represented by the Palzozoic, Mesozoic, and
Kainozoic systems. ,

The result at which we have just arrived will appear
the more surprising when we reflect upon the paucity of
the formations which represent Archaean (Pre-Cambrian)
time. Thirty years ago we knew next to nothing of these
rocks. The Laurentian and the Huronian had been
described in America; and the Laurentian had _ been
correlated by British geologists with the crystalline rocks
of the Malvern Hills and North-Western Scotland. But
since that time the enormous gap between these ancient
gneisses and the base of the Cambrian has been partly
bridged over by two great formations. First of all, Dr Hicks

ell

1899 C. CALLAWAY—ON EARLIEST LIFE ay

discovered a volcanic series below the Cambrian of
St. David’s, and this he called “ Pebidian.” These rocks
have also been identified in Shropshire, the Malverns,
Charnwood Forest, and other’ Midland localities; but
here we name them “ Uriconian,” though I have always
conceded that Hicks’ term has priority. More recently, a
third Archean group has been established in Western
Shropshire. The vast series of slates, sandstones, and
conglomerates composing the hill range of the Longmynd,
originally identified by Murchison and the Survey as
Lower Cambrian, underlies the lowest Cambrian uncon-
formably, and the present Director of the Geological Sur-
vey now admits its Pre-Cambrian age. I have called this
formation the Longmyndian. Rocks of probably the same
age have been found underlying the basal Cambrian of the
Scottish Highlands. In America, also, more than one
series of strata have been found to lie between the
Huronian and the Cambrian. The name “ Algonkian”
has been given to the most prominent of these formations
in the United States. The rocks immediately under-
lying the Cambrian, on Lake Superior, are called “ Kewee-
nawan.” Whether these formations, or either of them,
were formed contemporaneously with our Longmyndian
it is impossible to determine on the present evidence ; but
in a general way we may regard them as occupying the
corresponding position in the geological series.

It would not be difficult to speculate on the succession
of life in Archean time; but I wish at present to confine
your attention to bare facts. Much has been written on
the life of the Laurentian (Malvernian) epoch. The
famous £ozoon (Dawn-animal) has done duty in text
books as long as I can remember. It fitted so neatly into
the evolutionary scheme that it seemed as if it must be
real. But regretfully we must come to the conclusion
that this supposed ancestor to all the forms of animal life

78 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. XIII. (2)

is a mere mineral mimicry of an organic structure. It
has also been contended, it is still contended by some
authorities, that the occurrence of limestones in these
ancient rocks is a proof of the agency of living beings. I
have elsewhere* given reasons for treating this opinion
with extreme scepticism, and in the same paper I have
pointed out the insufficiency of the arguments based upon
the presence of iron ores, graphite, apatite, and metallic
sulphides. I do not consider that the chemical evidence
for the existence of animals or plants in the Lower
Archzan formations is of any decisive value. I will go
even further. I hold that these rocks never can furnish
any evidence for the existence of living beings. For
these gneisses and schists are of plutonic origin. They
are igneous masses, formed at great depths in the earth’s
crusts, under enormous pressures, and at temperatures
which sometimes caused absolute fusion. This con-
clusion has been proved for the Malvernian masses of
Malvern and the Highlands; and American geologists are
applying the same interpretation to most of the Laurentian
rocks of the Western Continent.

The older Archzan formations being thus excluded
from our purview, we turn to the newer rock-groups. I
will first notice the evidence furnished by foreign localities.

In Southern Brittany is found a graphitic quartzite
which has yielded numerous minute fossils. The rock
forms part of the series of Saint-L6, which is the probable
equivalent of our Pebidian, but at least is certainly Pre-
Cambrian. The fossils have been referred by some of
the highest authorities to the Radiolaria, unicellular
gelatinous bodies enclosed in a siliceous test, which is
usually spherical in form, but sometimes ellipsoidal, and _
often bell-shaped. The wall of the test is perforated, but

* Proceedings of the Liverpool Geological Society, 1896-97, p. 98.

1899 C. CALLAWAY—ON EARLIEST LIFE ~ 79

not sO minutely as in the Foraminifera. One or more
radial spines occur in some of the species ;and in two or
three of them an inner wall has been detected, connected
by rays with the outer shell. One objection to the
organic origin of these forms is their extreme minuteness,
their average diameter being only one-seventeenth of that
of one of the Palaeozoic Radiolaria. For this and other
reasons we aré unable to accept these specimens as
undoubtec proofs of the co-existence of living beings. If
we could do so, we should have to regard them as the
oldest known forms of life.

The Algonkian rocks of North America have yielded
Brachiopoda not unlike some of the Cambrian forms, and
obscure fragments of trilobites. The conical shells
which have been referred to the Pteropoda, have also been
detected. These types are so similar to the Lower
Cambrian fauna as to indicate that we are -still very far
from the base of the great life-succession. Associated
with these highly organised forms is Cryftozoon, which,
if organic, is a compound structure allied to the Forami-
nifera, and somewhat resembling the S¢vomatopora of the
Silurian.

We will now return to our British Upper Archzean
formations. Of the Uriconian there is little to be said.
It is usually of volcanic origin, consisting of lavas and
tuffs. No fossils could occur in the former, save under
very exceptional circumstances; but organic remains are
sometimes found in volcanic rocks. However, the tuffs
of the Uriconian have not yielded fossil remains in any of
_ the localities in which the rocks have been studied. In
some localities the Uriconian is composed of ordinary
sedimentary strata ; but hitherto they have proved entirely
barren of life. .

There remains only the Longmyndian series, and it is
here, if anywhere, that we should expect to find some of

80 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xml. (2)

the ancestors of the world’s inhabitants. I have been
searching these rocks at intervals for the last 20 years;
and I have been in the habit of urging upon younger
workers that a fortunate discovery of fossils in these
strata might be of the very first importance in the history
of geological and biological science. Hitherto, however,
our researches have been tantalising in the extreme; for,
though we have obtained evidence that the life of the
Longmyndian period was by no means meagre, we know
very little of its nature.

The Longmyndian series in the typical area consists of
conglomerates, purple and green sandstones, and _fine-
grained shaly and slaty rocks. Their thickness was
calculated by the Government Surveyors at not less than
five miles. Making allowance for probable repetitions,
we may adopt a minimum estimate of three miles, whereof
at least one-third is composed of strata which were once
a fine mud, a material above all others most favourable
for receiving and retaining impressions made upon it. It
is in such rocks as these that we find the exquisite plant
remains of the Coal Measures and the exceptionally
perfect ammonites of the Middle Oolite. Nor have these
shales undergone any material change. ‘They are in-
durated and somewhat slightly cleaved, but they usually
split along the planes of lamination, and readily reveal
such traces of fossil remains as they contain.

When the Geological Survey first studied the Long-
mynd rocks, they described them as “ unfossiliferous.”
Subsequently, Mr Salter discovered what he regarded as
the pygidium of a trilobite which he named Padeopyge
Ramsayt. This marking must, however, be relegated to
the limbo where Zozoon Canadense is already peacefully
reposing. Salter’s discovery of Avenzcolites is, however,
abundantly confirmed. It occurs in the form of small
pits, which Salter supposed to be the orifices of borings

9
.
;

1899 C. CALLAWAY—ON EARLIEST LIFE 81

made by a sea-worm ; and as they are sometimes found in
pairs, he gave them the specific name of addyma. He
presumably thought that the animal ascended by one of
the apertures and descended by the other. My own
experience is that these pairs are extremely rare, while
single pits occur in vast numbers. That the single and
double pits belong to different species may be considered
probable. I have also detected the traces of a fossil of
larger size, about one-eighth inch in diameter. It is in
the form of an annular depression surrounding a raised
ring, in the centre of which is a minute pit. This
structure would also seem to be connected with the
movements of worms on a sea-shore; and in this opinion
I am confirmed by the high authority of Mr E. T.
Newton, F.R.S. On some of the slabs of shale there
appear linear elevations, which sometimes bifurcate like
the veins of a fern-leaf, and are aggregated in clusters so
as to suggest a Lctyonema, or a Polyzoan. I have one
specimen which looks as if it were an impression of a leaf
with parallel venation, but I incline to think that it is
merely the weathered outcrop of thin laminz of sediment.
The absence of any trace of carbonaceous or chitinous
matter in these rocks somewhat militates against the
belief that either. of the last two forms is really of organic
origin. My last fossils are in the form of oval depres-
sions, the largest of which are about half-an-inch in length,
and are well marked, with sharply defined edges. Others
are smaller and less distinct, and some are so minute as
to be scarcely visible. They can hardly be footprints, for
they do not occur in pairs; but they certainly suggest
the action of living creatures.

The evidence I have adduced clearly points to the
abundance of animal life in Longmyndian times. The
traces of organisms are often extremely obscure, but that
wormlike animals abounded on the shores of the seas is

82 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XIU. (2)

fairly certain. But the question still presses upon us—.
what preceded these annelids? We know of nothing
which is certainly organic and certainly older. We are
apparently not much lower down in the scale of living
beings than we were in the Lower Cambrian; and we
have still beyond us a vast gulf of time which has to be
occupied by fossiliferous formations, if our knowledge of
the earliest forms of life is to advance beyond the specula-
tive stage. Why is it that the required evidence has not
been forthcoming ?.

There is one reply to this question which will cover a
part of the ground. There can be little doubt that the
earliest plants and animals were composed entirely of
perishable tissue. The first forms of life were probably
unicellular marine plants. These could exist in the |
absence of an organic environment, since they were able
to elaborate their protoplasm out of inorganic materials.
Their tissue would provide food for the earliest animals.
Long ages must have passed before the organisms that
tenanted the Archean seas came to be protected by a
shell or test of any kind. The need of such protection
could not have arisen until the ocean began to teem with
living beings, and the struggle for life grew intense and
forceful. It is probable that the open’ ocean was the
habitat of the earliest animals ; but, as competition grew
“fierce, some of the species would be driven to take refuge
from their fellow-creatures amidst the dangers of the
shore. Here protection would be needed against the
attacks of the waves as it had been required against the
living tyrants of the deep.

Another cause of the scarcity of fossils in Pre-Cambrian —
rocks is the fragmentary state of the Archzean succession.
This is the natural result of the extreme antiquity of these
formations. They have, of course, been exposed to the
forces of denudation much more frequently than other

1899 C. CALLAWAY—ON EARLIEST LIFE 83

rocks, and the probability of their destruction is much
greater.

As denudation destroys, metamorphism obliterates.
‘Sedimentary Archzan rocks have been metamorphosed
oftener than newer formations. They have more fre-
quently sunk down to deeper and more heated zones of
the crust, and been exposed to the pressures which so
profoundly modify original structure. It is rare indeed
for fossil remains to survive the complete metamorphism
of the strata in which they were imbedded.

Of one thing we may be certain. The earliest forms of
life were the lowest. If we wish to people the Archean
seas with their original inhabitants we must supply them
with sea-weeds, Foraminifera, sponges, Radiolaria, jelly-
fishes, annelids, simple forms of Crustacea and Mollus-
coidea, and probably many of the Mollusca proper. But
we cannot doubt that a large proportion of the Archzan
faunas consisted of animals the very types of which have
no modern counterparts. Just as amongst the Mesozoic
vertebrates creatures lived which were neither birds nor
reptiles, but were the ancestors of both, so in Archzean
times there probably existed animals of generalised types,
which by gradual differentiation gave rise to the forms
now called annelid, or crustacean, or mollusc. A blind dull
life they must have lived, these Archzan tenants of the
deep; but let us not despise them, for without them we
could not have been.

TWO BRONZE SPEAR-HEADS

FROM RODBOROUGH, NEAR STROUD,

BY

MAJOR C. H. FISHER, F.R.A:S.

(Read February 21, 1899)

The two spear-heads depicted in the accompanying
Figs. 1, 2, are in my possession. ‘They were given to
me long ago by Mr Pinfold, the last of a very old family
of that name, who inhabited a house called the Wood-
house, in the Parish of Rodborough, near Stroud, and
possessed much land around there. He informed me
that these old weapon-heads were ploughed, or dug up
when the site of a very ancient beech wood, on the edge
and fringe of Rodborough Common (unenclosed for-
tunately and unenclosable, from its proximity to the
populous town of Stroud) was converted into arable land,
and finally into hill pasture. This was not much less
than fifty years ago. He only added that there was not,
he thought, any appearance of an interment (though
oddly enough the two spear-heads were found near one
another), and that nothing else of the kind was disco-
vered. They were not very deep in the ground, some 18
inches, he believed, only.

86 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XII. (2)

In an interesting and well illustrated work by Waring
called “ Rude Stone Monuments, Tumuli, and Ornaments

Piper. Fig. 2. A

of Remote Ages,” London, John B. Day, 1870, Plate 77
contains engravings of many bronze‘implements. In this

1899 C. H. FISHER—BRONZE SPEAR-HEADS 87

plate the. spear-heads depicted in Figs. 1 and 2 are
strikingly like mine. They have the same shallowness
of socket for the reception of the handle, and two loops
(sudct) one on each side of the socket for further securing
the head to the helve, or handle: a very rough and un-
satisfactory form of attachment, instead of the vastly
longer socket adopted for modern boar spears, and the
lances of all lance-armed cavalry. | Waring says (p. 62)
“Fig. 1 is a bronze spear-head 7% inches long, with the
sulct, or side loops, usual in Irish specimens, for at-
taching it more strongly to the handle: these loops Sir
William Wilde believes gradually rose towards the head
till they were formed in the spear-head itself, as seen in
Fig, 5. The length of Fig. 2 is 714 inches.” My spear-
heads are shorter than those figured by Waring; one is
5 inches, and the other only 4 inches long.

These memorials of the Celtic folk who dwelt in the
Cotteswolds in what is known as the Bronze Period are
interesting from their local associations. They show
very good workmanship. They are depicted in the ac-
companying illustrations, Figs. I, 2, of natural size.

HUMAN BABIES: SOME OF THEIR
CHARACTERS,

BY
oo. BUCKMAN, -F:G.S.

[PLATES let]
(Read January 24th, 1899)

I. . INTRODUCTION ... Se mi re ie sh pe 8g

II. ee
Quadrupedal progression p
b. Quadrupedal attitude ... 33 aa Pee
c. Arboreal traits Aa nee ie: ssa piper 2 96
d. Incipient bipedalism : er ass
III. EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS
a. Expression of Pleasure Pp
b. Expression of Pain , )
IV. THE Last STAGES OF MAN’S Deeeomenr boa 8
V. OvuR PRE-HUMAN ANCESTOR oa ean neous LAT
VI. OUR HUMAN ANCESTOR 9)
VII. CONCLUSION p
VIII. APPENDIX. — ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION Pp

I. INTRODUCTION

In the Introduction to his “ Descent of Man” Darwin
says: “The conclusion that man is the co-descendant
with other species of some ancient, lower, and extinct
form, is not in any degree new. Lamarck long ago came
to this conclusion, which has lately been maintained by.

90 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

several eminent naturalists and philosophers ; for instance,
by Wallace, Huxley, Lyell, Vogt, Lubbock, Buchner,
Rolle, and especially by Haeckel.”

In the General Summary of his conclusions which he
advances in the same work, Darwin remarks: “ By con-
sidering the embryological structure of man,—the homo-
logies which he presents with the lower animals, the
rudiments which he retains, and the reversions to which
he is liable—we can partly recall in imagination the former
condition of our early progenitors ; and can approximately
place them in their proper place in the zoological series.
We thus learn that man is descended from a hairy, tailed
quadruped, probably arboreal in its habits. This creature,
if its whole structure had been examined by a naturalist,
would have been classed among the Quadrumana, as
surely as the still more ancient progenitors of the Old and
New World monkeys. The Quadrumana and all the
higher mammals are probably derived from an ancient
marsupial animal, and this through a long line of diversified
forms, from some amphibian-like creature, and this again
from some fish-like animal. In the dim obscurity of the
past we can see that the early progenitor of the Vertebrata
must have been an aquatic animal, provided with branchie,
with the sexes united in the same individual, and with the |
most important organs of the body (such as the brain and
heart) imperfectly or not at all developed. This animal
seems to have been more like the larvae of the existing
marine Ascidians than any other known form.”

It is only with the last chapter of this history that the
present communication is concerned, and only very par-
tially with that; for the subject is of such wide scope that
it is impossible in this case to treat it exhaustively. But
the object is to call attention to certain characters of
human babies, and to point out that in the main they are
totally foreign to characters which would have arisen in

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES gI

Man if he had never been anything else but Man; while
on the other hand, they are such as would be shown if
Man’s immediate ancestors had been, as Darwin states,
“hairy, tailed quadrupeds, probably arboreal in their
habits.” :

Putting aside, however, for the moment, the question
of the development of the race, it cannot be said that
Man is always Man in his individual history. The ovum
from which he proceeds “is about 735 of an inch in
diameter, and might be described in the same terms as
that of the dog; it is very long before the body of the
young human being can be readily discriminated from that
of the young puppy ;” then for a period of foetal develop-
ment it resembles that of an ape; and “it is only quite in
the later stages of development that the young human
being presents marked differences from the young ape.”*

Man is not truly Man, then, until he has passed these
stages in his individual history. That such stages have to be
passed through in the development of every human being
is inexplicable if Man has always been Man: in such case
he should commence life as Man, with every organ, brain,
heart, limbs, etc., complete, though minute.

On the other hand, it is what would be expected if Man
_ has only lately become Man, and if his ancestors, starting
from a unicellular organism, have gradually developed to
become Man in successive generations.

A short reference may now be made to a paper read
before this Club some seven years ago, and published in
its Proceedings (Vol. X. p. 258, 1892). Therein was
dealt with the Law of Earlier Inheritance—that if an
organism with a character, say, 4 throughout the greater
part of life, develops a character 4 in maturity, then in
successive generations the character 6 will tend to appear

* Huxley, “ Man’s Place in Nature,” p. 67; London, 1863.
G2

g2 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

earlier and earlier. Circumstances being favourable to
character 4, it will elaborate and pass through stages B to
B. Then circumstances favour the growth of a character c,
which similarly develops to become C and C, the while
that b, B and B appear respectively earlier in life. Thus
the life-history—youth, adolescence, maturity—of a given
species may be stated as all A. In its descendants such
life-history may be represented as youth and adolescence
A, maturity incipient b. In later descendants, youth may
be A, adolescence and maturity increasing degrees of
b--B ; and, in still later descendants, youth may be A,
adolescence the stages of b—B rapidly developed, ma-
turity c increasing, and so forth.

Such a symbol as b may denote any given character—
for instance, the growth of ribs by a smooth Ammonite,
or the ability of Man to walk upright.

This is only a short and partial summary of what was
more fully considered in the paper referred to; but it is
sufficient for the present purpose. It is desired to point
out that, in accordance with this law of earlier inheritance,
the characters of adult and adolescent monkeys should
become characters retained by youthful Man. Or the
argument may be put the other way }
are found special characters such as would be developed
in an arboreal quadruped, while they are unfitted or
unsuitable for a biped, then it is reasonable to infer that
Man oe an arboreal auecees for his immediate
ancestor.”

It is now proposed to consider some of the characters
of youthful Man.

* Immediate in an evolution sense—say, some million years ago—in a line of

ancestors whose developmental history would extend back soine roo to 500 million years.

£

%
‘

‘block made from it appeared in “ Nature,

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES 93

II. CHARACTERS
a. Quadrupedal Progression

It is unusual for the babies of civilized races to adopt
a truly quadrupedal method of progression. Their method
of movement is fittingly called crawling, because they
progress on hands and knees. Or, in other cases, sitting
on the buttocks, they progress in a spasmodic manner by
putting one hand to the ground and then dragging the
body up to it.

The human baby, as the descendant of four-footed
animals, should be able to progress on its four limbs
directly it is born. That it does not do so is the result of
excessive maternal solicitude for a great number of genera-
tions, so that it has been unnecessary for the young human
being to develop its powers of progression as early as it
should do. The more the mother protects her offspring,
the more helpless does the offspring become in successive
generations, development being retarded (see p. 116).
Other examples of this state of affairs can be observed in
the animal kingdom. The human mother relieves her
offspring of the necessity of locomotion by carrying it
about. The more civilized the race the greater will be the
relief given. Rarely, therefore, among civilized races does
the child progress in a truly quadrupedal fashion; yet, as
would naturally be expected, among some uncivilized races
such progression is almost the rule.

Fig. 1, Pl. I, shews the only one of my children
which progressed in a quadrupedal fashion. It may be
noted that it is a truly plantigrade progression with diagonal
movement of the limbs.

Another photograph was taken at the same time. A
”* with some
notes by myself relative to some remarks concerning

* Vol. 51, November 4th, 1894.

94 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII. (2)

African children by Mr H. M. Stanley.“ The annexed
block is from an electrotype thereof.

PIG. 1. CHILD 10 MONTHS OLD, ON GARDEN PATH

After these pictures were taken the child had a slight
illness. The weakening effect of this was seen, because
she did not afterwards accomplish true quadrupedal pro-
gression, but crawled like other children.

When a four-footed animal tries to walk on its hind legs
it shews its want of adaptation for that style of movement,
particularly in the bowed character of the knee joint. This
may be seen in the picture of a cat (Pl. I. fig. 3): it has
been persuaded to reach up for something, and to stand
momentarily on its hind legs.

Similarly, then, a human baby possessing the heritage
from its four-footed ancestors, should, when it first at-
tempts bipedal progression, shew the inability to straighten
the knee joint, which characterizes four-footed animals
under these conditions.

Fig. 2, Pl. I., illustrates this perfectly. The child, not

yet able to balance itself for long on its hind limbs (note.

the position of the arm) is trying its best to reach as high

* October 18th, 1894.

*
3
3

1899 S. $. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES 95

as it can, yet it is unable to straighten the knee-joint.
The comparison with the cat in a similar attitude is very
interesting.

In fig. 5, Pl. I., another view of the same child, the same
inability to straighten the knee-joints is apparent. This
flexure of the knee, which is a necessity for quadrupedal
progression, and is a heritage of great antiquity, is only lost
gradually in the attempts to attain the bipedal position.
That it is retained by the young baby in its early efforts to
walk, shews that Man’s pre-human ancestors were accus-
tomed to a quadrupedal gait.

The small ability of this baby, and others of similar ages,
in regard to the attainment of the bipedal gait, is analogous
to that shown by the Gorilla. That animal, however,
strong as he is, cannot attain to any greater bipedal pro-
ficiency throughout life; shewing that the baby’s bipedal
awkwardness is not the mere result of want of strength:
it is simply a question of heredity, and of how long the
race has attempted and achieved bipedal progression. Man,
it may be surmised, started to attain the bipedal gait long

_ before the Gorilla did; or at any rate he has made much

better progress in the effort. So much better that now the
accumulated inheritance of the bipedal character has, as it
were, pushed back the quadrupedal character until the
latter belongs merely to infancy.” Thus in bipedal attain-
ment adult man is far beyond the Gorilla; while the human
infant is its morphic equivalent. But such equivalence
points to this—that Man’s adult pre-human ancestors had
for a long time no better bipedal ability than that possessed
by the Gorilla.

* The earlier inheritance of characters, so that a prior character seems to be forced
back and back, is specially illustrated in palaeontology, particularly in the progressive
elaboration of ornament among Ammonites. And in Brachiopods we have a capital
_ example near at home—the adult character of the earliest examples of Zerebratula fimbria
—the fimbriation—becomes quite a character of the early youth in the later appearing
examples

96 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

6. Quadrupedal Attitude

Another relic of quadrupedal ancestors which the human
baby exhibits was first noticed by Dr Louis Robinson,*
namely, that children go to sleep “with the abdomen
downwards and the limbs flexed beneath them.” I can
confirm this from repeated observations of my own and
other children. They go to sleep somewhat in the
attitude of crawling, only with the arms tucked under the
body and the head turned sideways. Mothers, ignorant
of the child’s and their own quadrupedal ancestry, will dis-
turb the sleeper in order to put him into, as they think, a
more comfortable position; and then they are surprised
that the child is fretful.

c. Arboreal Traits’

The arboreal episode in the history of Man’s ancestors
must have been short compared to what may be called
the quadrupedal period.¢ For one thing during the time
of arboreal existence a certain quadrupedal method of pro-
gression was still maintained. But in the arboreal life
new manners of using the limbs were introduced, and the
chief development pertained to the fore-limbs. So that
though the arboreal period may have been comparatively
short, yet for these reasons, and for another—that it
shortly preceded what may be called the bipedal period—
it has left some very striking traces on the human infant.

A few of these traces may be noticed. The picture,
Pl. 1, fig. 4, shows a child grasping a flower pot. First
may be remarked the sympathetic action of the other

* « Darwinism in the Nursery,” Nineteenth Century, Nov., 1891, p. 841.

+ The first appearance of a kind of quadrupedal movement started with fishes. It
is a genuine and firmly established quadrupedal progression with the Amphibians.
Thence onward it remained the usual method of progression, except that arboreal habits
induced for a short time a greater use of the fore-limbs.

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES 97

hand—a character very likely to arise in an animal accus-
tomed to hold by both hands at once toa branch. Next
the flower pot has been picked up by dabbing down the
hand on to the rim—the action which a monkey would
use in catching at a branch: the thumb has not been
brought into play as in an adult; but the fingers have
been made to hold the flower pot between themselves
and the palm of the hand.

The child has got hold of the flower pot just as an
arboreal animal like a monkey would get hold of a branch.
In fig. 6, again, where the child is grasping a stick, the
thumb is very obviously not employed.

Now the fact that the thumb is not used, which at first
sight seems remarkable, is the strongest piece of evidence
for the Simian ancestry. The fingers are quite sufficient
for tree-climbing purposes; and the more arboreal a
monkey becomes the less service does he make of the
thumb. “The most arboreal monkeys in the world,
namely, dZze/es in America, Co/obus in Africa, and Ay/o-
dates in Asia, are either thumbless or their toes partially
cohere, so that their limbs are converted into mere grasp-
ing hooks.”* Also in arboreal animals like the Squirrel
and the Dormouse the thumb has practically dis-
appeared. It may be known, then, that the pre-human
ancestor gave up living an arboreal life before there
was time enough for abortion of the thumb. Yet the
arboreal life lasted long enough to give a very noticeable
character to a baby’s hands.

Thus from the arboreal life it has inherited the habit of
keeping the hands in a semi-clasped attitude. Fig. 5
illustrates this very well. Fig. 8 also shows the same
character to a certain extent. In fig. 10 the idea of grasp-
ing something may be noted. And in fig. 2 the instinctive

* Darwin, “ Descent of Man,” Ch. II.

98 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xiII. (2)

action to grasp at something in order to steady itself is
particularly apparent: actually it would have got more
balance if it had stretched the hand out flat.

Not only in children, but even in adults, may the effect
of our ancestors’ bough-grasping habits be seen; for it
comes natural to place the hands in a semi-clasped posi-
tion when they are at rest.

When children are asleep, particularly if they are not
well—the time when reversion to ancestral habits would
be most apparent—it may be observed that they throw
the arms above the head, tightly clasping the hands. The
monkey holding the branch above its head is exactly what
this expresses. The fact was that the hands of our
arboreal ancestor had obtained a permanent set into the
bough-grasping attitude; and that we have not yet lost
this till after the baby stage. This permanent set is so
observable in the hands of the Chimpanzee, the Gorilla,
etc., that now, though they have more or less abandoned
the arboreal life, and have not attained to the bipedal pro-
gression,-so that they have to move with the help of all
four limbs, the “set” in the hands from bough-grasping
prevents their putting the hand down as the baby does in
figs. Iand 7. “They walk on the outer margins of the
palms or on the knuckles ” (Darwin).

What are called “the wonderful adaptations of Nature”
are often pointed to with astonishment to compel our
admiration. Therein is much misconception. The
adaptations are a matter of time and permanence of en-
vironment, and then are often only the making the best
of a bad job due to some previous episode of history.
Thus the anthropoid apes are examples of ill adaptation in
the matter of their fore-limbs: those limbs are fitted for
an arboreal life, and these apes have not been settled long
enough in any other form of life to get their limbs
thoroughly adapted thereto. In //omo clothed man is

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES 99

a special instance of making the best of abad job—the loss
of a coat: beside him a cat shows what he may envy. And
in adapting a quadrupedal body to a bipedal gait he has
laboured under great disadvantages: his want of success
is attested by many complaints to which he is subject.
Then in adapting the stomach of his herbivorous ancestors
to an organ fit for his present diet, he has been re-
markably unsuccessful. He retains a relic of the stomach
of his herbivorous ancestors in the vermiform appendix,
_ which is not only totally useless to him, but has often been
a cause of death. Then, in the present day, Man, adapting
himself to the sedentary life, shows, in the trouble with his
digestive, urinary, and other organs, in neurotic affections,
and the great increase of insanity, how ill-suited he is to
the conditions of his environment. He has been forced,
comparatively recently, to adopt new ways of living: to
acquire the necessary adaptation will require thousands of
years, and cost a terrible sacrifice of life.

One more point about the hands—Man does not get over
what may be called the “set” of the bough-grasping
attitude until he is some 5, 6, or more yearsold. Two of
my children, aged 6 and 5 years respectively, were told to
hold out their hands as straight as they possibly could. I
photographed their hands, and the bough-grasping curve is
very apparent—both hands have a forward bending of the
fingers: the children were unable to straighten them out.

I stopped several village school children—boys and girls
—on one occasion, and offered a prize to the one who could
hold out the fingers the straightest, showing them what
was wanted. It was most interesting: the failure of some
of them to straighten the fingers was ludicrous. — Practi-
cally all but one showed a more or less definite curvature.
The exception, who took the prize, was a girl—not the
oldest of the group.

100 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

Now if acquired characters are transmitted, what may be
called the human ability to straighten the hand should dis-
place the inherited monkey attitude earlier in those children
whose forbears have for several generations been engaged
in work which would favour the human finger-extension.
That is to say, that the ability to straighten might be ex-
pected to appear earlier in certain classes than in others.
There is an interesting field here for the collection of
accurate data.

Something else may be noted. Injury and unfavourable
environment often cause the re-appearance of ancestral
characters. This is very noticeable among fossil molluscs.
Now in the human hand injury from an accident increases
the bough-grasping tendency, or brings it back, so that no
straightening of the fingers is possible. Cold, too, in-
creases it, decreasing the ability to straighten.

The longer an arboreal life was maintained, and the
more an animal became adapted thereto, the greater must
be the tendency to lose the ability of digit movement in
the hands and to lose the power of accurate arm move-
ment,—because the fore-limbs must do the greatest share
in weight sustaining. On the contrary, the toes of the
feet might become the more flexible and delicate instru-
ments. There are some interesting facts in this connexion
in young children—they have the ability to move the toes
separately (see fig. 6), but they are clumsy with the
fingers, and the movements of the arm are very awkward.
Trying to put something into its mouth the child will
probably hit itself in the eye, and then turn the head to
the hand instead of bringing the hand to the mouth.

In bipedal progression the functions of fore and hind
limbs are just reversed to what they would be among
arboreal quadrumana. The hind limbs are the weight-
carriers and the front limbs manipulators. And so pre-
viously inherited traits have to be dispensed with, and

.

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES 101

those fitted for the bipedal condition must be cultivated
afresh.

So the ability of toeemovement does not make any
progress—it rather retrogrades: it does so particularly in
civilized children; but the ability of separate finger move-
ment gradually increases, to finally become more perfect
than that of the toes. The pointing with the finger,
shown in fig. 7, is quite beyond the ability of the child at
the age when fig. 6 was taken.

The baby’s ability to move the toes,* and the flexibility
of its ankles, point to an arboreal ancestor who used the
hind limbs as the principal tactual instruments; and the
flexibility of the ankles was necessary to a tree-climbing
animal in order to make the soles opposable for the pur-
pose of grasping limbs of trees.

d. Incipient Bipedalism

An attitude which babies are fond of assuming is that
of sitting on the hocks, shown in fig. 8. It is significant
of the transition stage from the quadrupedal to the bipedal
attitude. It does not require the same amount of exertion
as the poising of the body erect on the two hind limbs,
and yet it leaves the fore-limbs free for any manipulative
processes.

The same attitude is often adopted by quadrupeds. It
may be noticed in the dog and cat when “ begging,” in the
cat when performing her toilet, in the rabbit when listen-
ing, in the mouse on many occasions. It is the attitude
which has been cultivated by the kangaroo, until it has

* The ability of toe movement has not been lost among savages. “Among these
people [Kaffirs] the foot assumes its proper form and dimensions. The toes are not pinched
together by shoes or boots, and reduced to the helpless state too common in this country.
The foot is like that of an ancient statue, wide and full across the toes, each of which has
its separate function just as have the fingers of the hand, and each of which is equally

capable of performing that function ” (J. G. Wood, “ Natural History of Man” Vol. I, p. 15.)

102 PROG<COT/ES WGED CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

become almost permanent, even in locomotion. And it
must have been an attitude very extensively adopted
among the Saurian-like ancestors of Birds, thus having
been an important factor in Bird evolution.

Darwin was inclined to think that the sitting-down
attitude had been largely responsible for the abortion of
the tail in Man and the higher apes. This hardly seems
to meet the case, considered together with instances of
tail-diminution, amounting almost to tail-abortion, in other
animals. Increased use of the hind limbs for locomotion
might favour tail-reduction on a principle of economy.
And there is another point to be considered—does disuse
following excessive use cause the rapid diminution of an
organ? ‘That is to say, the arboreal ancestors of Man and
the higher Apes made excessive use of the tail; and
then Man and these Apes in abandoning, more or less,
the arboreal life, give up use of the tail, and make more
use of the hind limbs. Did the former excessive use of
the tail hasten its later deterioration when disused ?

III. EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS

This is so large a subject that it can only be treated
very shortly within the limits of the present paper. It
may be divided into two parts—(a) Expressions of
Pleasure, (b) Expressions of Pain; and under these
headings the different expressions will be considered.
It is, perhaps, necessary to take this opportunity to
announce my complete dissatisfaction with the principle of
antithesis in regard to expressions set forth by Darwin in
his standard work on the subject, “ The Expression of
the Emotions;” the reason for such dissatisfaction may
perhaps be gathered from what is stated presently. Space —
does not permit a full discussion.

1899 S. §. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES 103

a. Expressions of Pleasure

Roughly speaking the muscular movements which
make up what are known as expressions of pleasure may
be said to have a two-fold origin—(1) they are the move-
ment of muscles made in connexion with the satisfaction
of the sexual feelings, (2) they are the movements
made in connexion with the satisfaction of hunger
and thirst. But it may easily be understood that these
movements have, in course of time, become conven-
tionalized; that they may have little reference to the
present habits of life of a species, but may have been first
called into play by very different circumstances of the
former life of more or less remote ancestors; and that
the particular movements arising from the sexual and
hunger origins would not be kept distinct, but that a
movement originally expressive of sexual satisfaction
might be used in connexion with pleasure felt in regard to
food, and vice versa.

Thus a cat when stroked dibeates the tail, and generally
turns the hinder part of its body towards the person who
is stroking, an obvious exhibition of sexual feelings; but
these actions have become so habitual as signs of pleasure
that it makes just the same movements when called to its
food.* Soa child, when expressing pleasure at a present

* The elevation of the tail is noticeable, and the manner in which the cat spins
round and round in front of the person carrying a plate of food is due to the instinct which
prompts the turning of the hinder part. Among many monkeys this exhibition of the
hinder part (an obvious: sexually prompted act) is an habitual greeting, and a sign of
pleasure (Darwin, “ Descent of Man,—Supplemental Note on Sexual Selection.”) The
same exhibition is a greeting among Man (Batoka Salutation, J. G. Wood, Nat. Hist. of
Man, Vol. I., p. 389). It is a sign of pleasure among children forming a particular
feature in many games, such as the one with the rhyme about “the dog went to Dover.”
The habit of bowing, probably, had the same origin, altered in course of time as other

habits gave rise to new ideas. and then it was supposed to have another signification.

Among certain savages it is etiquette only to speak with the back towards the king; and
then would arise the idea of the impropriety of seeing the face of a king or deity.
There are various developments of these customs in connection with worship of deities

in many lands.

104 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

of sweets, will hug and kiss. These actions, however,
have become expressive of pleasure because they were
originally employed in connexion with the sexual embrace.

To consider the expressions of pleasure shown in the
Photographs. The opening of the mouth, a slight parting
of the lips to expose the teeth—or sometimes with babies
the place where the teeth should be, though the teeth
themselves have not yet cut the gum—shown to a small
extent in fig. 5, more distinctly in figs. 7, 8, 9, is obviously
an expression of pleasure from the food idea. A holding
of the body, particularly a rubbing or patting of the
abdomen, shown to a certain extent in fig. 9, is again
an action from the food idea. So conventionalized as a
pleasure token has this become, that it is with savages an
expression of delight at what they cannot eat—thus some
African natives rubbed their stomachs to express the
pleasure which the sight of beads, bracelets, etc., gave
them.

The partial closing of the eyes as a pleasure symptom,
shown very distinctly in figs. 7, 8, 9, is difficult of ex-
planation, unless it be connected with a kind of contrac-
tion of the face-muscles, for the purpose of enlarging
and inflaming the visage as an act of courtship to excite
the admiration of the mate.

The ridging of the nose, and of the cheeks on each side
of it, as a pleasure symptom, is very common with chil-
dren, and also in adults. It is well shown in fig. 8; it
may be seen also in fig.9. And running up from the nose
on each side somewhat obliquely towards the eyes are
little ridges and furrows of flesh—the photographs do not
bring this character out, but it may be observed frequently
in children when pleased, and in adults sometimes the
furrows have become permanent. This ridging of the
face in this manner is undoubtedly of sexual origin, and
has reference to practices indulged in by pre-human

———. =

|

1899 S. S$. BUCKMAN—-HUMAN BABIES 105

ancestors in order to excite the mate. The male mandril
is a particular instance of the carrying of this character to
excess, as may be seen from the figure of its head given by
Darwin in his “ Descent of Man.” *

It may be inferred that in the pre-human ancestors of
Homo, cheek lumps, though never elaborated to the same
extent as in the mandril, attained to a certain develop-
ment, and were always coloured, at times' of excitement
vividly so. Of this coloration a relic remains in the
habit of blushing, perhaps to a certain extent in a rosy face.
Colour at any rate appears as a sexual symptom in many
animals, and becomes a sexual excitant.T

6. LEapression of Pain

The muscular movements which make up what are
known as expressions of pain, may be said to have origin-
ated in fighting, that being the principal source of injury ;
and the receipt of injury prompting an excessive employ-
ment of warlike weapons in order to retaliate. So that

* « When the canine teeth are fully developed, immense protuberances of bone are
formed in each cheek, which are deeply furrowed longitudinally, and the naked skin over
them is brilliantly coloured.” (Darwin). ‘“ As the negro of Africa raises the flesh on his
face into parallel ridges or cicatrices high above the natural surface, which are considered
great personal attractions, as negroes and savages in many parts of the world paint their
faces with red, blue, white, or black bars—so the male mandril appears to have acquired
bis deeply furrowed and gaudily coloured face from having been thus rendered attractive
to the female.” (Darwin). And it may, perhaps, be said that savages indulge in these
practices because of the instinctive idea, inherited from Simian ancestors, that
striking coloration of the face attracted the notice of the female. So what nature had

begun they carry further by art.

+ “In the Cercopithecus cynosurus and griseoviridis, one part of the body which is
confined to the male sex, is of the most brilliant blue or green, and contrasts strikingly
with the naked skin on the hinder part of the body, which is vivid red.” “ In the adult
male mandril, the face becomes of a fine blue, with the ridge and tip of the nose of a most
brilliant red.” Other parts of the body are brilliantly coloured. “When the animal is
excited all the naked parts become much more brilliantly tinted.” ‘In the adult female
the nose at Certain regular intervals of time becomes tinted with red.” (Extracts from
Darwin, “ Descent of Man,” Part II., chap. xviii.)

H

106 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB’ VOL. xi. (2)

directly an injury is received and the consequent pain felt,
the muscular action started is that connected with inflict-
ing injury in return. Such muscular action then becomes
expressive of pain felt, even when there is no ability for
retaliation. In the child crying, in fig. 10, the first thing
to notice is the open mouth peculiarly squared. It may
be seen that the lip of the lower jaw is particularly drawn
down at both corners. The reason is that the pre-human
ancestors were accustomed to fight with their canine teeth.
The child has not cut its canine teeth yet; but that matters
not. It has inherited the idea of exposing the canine
teeth—the mere coming through the gums is not of im-
portance in such a relic.

In fig. II is acat made angry, and “swearing.” The
action is exactly the same as the child’s—its one idea is
to show the canine teeth, to indicate that it can and will
fight.

It may be noticéd, too, that the child, fig. 10, has the
eyes tightly closed, and the cat, fig. 11, has the eyes nearly
shut. The cat shows the reason of the child’s expression
-—it is to keep the eyes protected as much as possible
when the foe strikes back.

The cat’s ears, in fig. 11, are turned back out of harm’s
way, as much as possible, for the same reason.

In fig. 12 is a cat afraid of receiving a blow—taken, in
fact, just aS.a person was pretending to strike at her with
the hand. The attitude is instructive—the crouching, the
turning away of the ears, the closing of the eyes—all to
avoid injury as much as possible ; and the paw is ready to
strike back.

Now this habit of closing the eyes when injury IS eX-
pected, and therefore as a symptom of pain, has in time
become an habitual act to be performed when anything in
the least suggestive of pain—such as mere mental diffi-
culty—is experienced. Fig. 6 shows the partial closing of

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1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—-HUMAN BABIES 107

the eyes, and the consequent corrugation of the eyebrows,
in the case of a child, who finds the task of manipulation
one of considerable difficulty. The corrugation of the
eyebrows is similar to that seen in fig. IO.

The expression of fright would be principally a modifi-
cation of that of pain. There would be the exhibition of
fighting weapons; the use of the voice—the original
motives for its employment being diverse; the shutting of
the eyes and general crouching out of harm’s way, as in
fighting ; the strained look of the hunted animal who has
exerted every muscle in efforts to escape. But I have not
had the opportunity to illustrate this subject with a photo-
graph, and merely mention it for the sake of alluding
to some rather curious childish traits.

Animals with fur on, and snakes would have been, from
long and painful experience, two recognised enemies both
to Simian ancestors and to primitive Man; and the fear
which they excited would have been deeply impressed on
our ancestors’ minds.

I have observed a young baby which had not seen a live
snake show very particular signs of perturbation at a
picture of one; and the antipathy of women to snakes is
notorious.

As to wild beasts, Dr Louis Robinson * noted the terror
of children under two years old at an imitation of a wild
beast. I consequently tried the experiment. A baby
screamed at a fur boa, and was very disturbed.. When at
another time I covered myself with a fur cloak and walked
towards her on all fours she was thoroughly terrified. When
I crawled without the fur even, she was also terrified.
When I got up she recognised me with pleasure, and said
“Dadda!” When again I put on the fur cloak she, was

* «The Primitive Child;” North American Review, Vol. CLIX, No. 4, p. 476.
Oct., 1894.

H2

108 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xill. (2)

again very frightened. She seemed to know who it was;
but instinctive habit conquered reason. A repetition of
the experiment a few days later produced similar
results; but on a third opportunity it was not so. She
seemed to have learnt by experience that no harm
resulted, and reason had conquered instinctive habit. She
said “‘ Dadda!” and was inclined to treat it as a new game.

IV. THE LAST STAGES IN MAN’S DEVELOPMENT

The following passage, which I have translated from
Prof. Ernst Haeckel’s standard work on the development of
Man,” has particular reference to those last stages in Man’s
history, those stages to which the characters of babies that
have been considered above especially point, and from
which they have been derived.

‘As the twenty-second stage f in our human genealogical
tree we can place, next to the Half-Monkeys [Prosimians,
or Lemurs] the oldest and lowest Platyrrhines of South
America, with jaws of 36 teeth.. They have developed
from the former by the perfection of the characteristic
monkey-head, by the particular modification of the brain,
of the jaw, of the nose, and the finger. From this Eocene
Monkey-stem, by modification of the nose and loss of four
teeth, have come the oldest Catarrhines or Old World
Monkeys, with jaws of 32 teeth as in Man. These oldest
stem-forms of the whole Catarrhine group would, at any
rate, have been still very hairy, and furnished with long
tails: Tail-Monkeys (J/enocerca). They certainly lived
during the oldest period of the Tertiary, and are found

* Anthropogenie oder Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen: Keimes- und
Stammesgeschichte.—Zweiter Theil, Stammesgeschichte oder Phylogenie, p. 611,
Ed. IV., Leipzig, 1891.

+ That is, reckoning up from Protozoon as the first.

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES 109

fossil in the Miocene. Their nearest representatives,
among the present-day species of Tail-Monkeys, are pro-
bably the Slim-apes (Semznopithecus).”

“As the twenty-third stage of our genealogical tree we
can place in order, after these Tail-Monkeys, the Tail-less
Man-like Apes (Anthropoids) under which name, as we
now know, are brought together the highest developed of
the living Catarrhines—those which are nearest allied to
Man. They developed from the Tailed Catarrhines by loss
of the tail, by partial loss of the hairy coat, and by the
greater improvement of the brain, which is indicated by the
greater elaboration of the frontal portion of the skull [the
greater development of the forehead]. At the present
day there are but four species of this remarkable family in
existence; and they form two distinct groups—an African
and an Asiatic. The African Manlike Apes are confined
to the western portion of tropical Africa; possibly, how-
ever, yet more species have spread into Central Africa.
We only know two species with exactitude: the Gorilla
(Pongo gorilla, or Gorilla gina) the largest of all Apes:
and the little Chimpanzee (Pongo troglodytes, or Troglo-
dytes niger) which at present often lives in our Zoological
Gardens. Both the African Man-like Apes are black in
colour, and are long-headed (dolichocephalic) like their
countrymen, the negroes. On the other hand, the Asiatic
Man-like Apes are mostly brown, or yellow brown, in
colour, and short-headed (brachycephalic) like their coun-
trymen, the Malays and the Mongolians. The largest
Asiatic Man-like Ape is the well-known Orang, or Orang-
Utan, which dwells in the Sunda Islands (Borneo,
Sumatra, etc.) and is brown in colour. It is now possible
to separate two species: the small Orang (Satyrus morio)
and the large Orang (Sa¢yrus orang). One genus of
small Anthropoids, the Gibbon (//y/odates) lives on the
Continent of Southern Asia, and in the Sunda Islands: of

IIO PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

this genus 4 to 8 different species are separable. None of
these living Anthropoids can be pointed out as the most
absolutely man-like Ape. The Gorilla stands nearest to
Man in the shape of its hand and foot; the Chimpanzee in
important characters of the skull; the Orang in brain-
development; and the Gibbon in the development of the
breast cavity. Obviously not any one of these living
Anthropoids belongs to the direct ancestral line of the
human species ; they are all the last divergent remnants
of an old Catarrhine branch.”

“Although the human species (//omo) now follows
immediately upon this Anthropoid family, and has un-
doubtedly taken its rise directly therefrom, yet we can
insert as an intermediate form between them, and as a
twenty-fourth stage of our ancestral series, the Ape-Men
(Pithecanthropi).* By this name have I denoted the
speechless Primitive-Men (4/a/z), who certainly in general
appearance (namely, in the differentiation of the limbs)
would properly stand as ‘Men’ in the ordinary sense ;
and yet one of the important human peculiarities, namely,
articulate speech, and the greater understanding connected
therewith, are wanting.”

“As the twenty-fifth and [ast stage of our animal
ancestry, the true man, the one able to speak, would
now finally be seen. This is the man who has developed
from the foregoing stages by gradually improving brute
noise (sound-speech) into the human talk (word-speech).
As to the place and time of this true ‘Creation of Man-
kind’ we can only put forward very doubtful speculations.
Probably primitive Man first had a beginning during the

* Dr Eugene Dubois has found in the Pliocene of Java a skull and other remains
which he considers to be this link. He discusses them and their relations in a paper “On
Pithecanthropus erectus: a Transitional Form between Man and the Apes ; Royal
Dublin Society; Vol. VI., Series II., p.1. February, 1896.

Fe ET ER OLY PG
un teat
a ( — ery “.

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES III

Pleistocene Period,* in the Torrid Zone of the Old World,
either on the Continent of tropical Africa or Asia, or on
a former Continent now sunk beneath the surface of the
Indian Ocean—one which stretched from East Africa

(Madagascar and Abyssinia) to East Asia (Burmah and the

Sunda Islands).”

These are the views of Prof. Haeckel elaborated by that
profound and most painstaking research which is so grand
a feature in all German work, and illustrated by an im-
mense mass of most interesting detail concerning the
ontogenetic and phylogenetic history of the animal
kingdom. .

I will now venture to fill in slightly more detailed
portraits of our immediate ancestors.

V. OUR PRE-HUMAN ANCESTOR

By studying the embryonic and youthful characters of
fossils, and the characters of allied species in particular
series, it is often possible to predict, by methods known
to many paleontologists, what the general appearance and
chatacters of a particular ancestor should be—one which
the rocks have not yet yielded to our researches. And in
many cases it has happened that, subsequently, the pre-
dicted ancestor has been found, answering most satis-
factorily to the portrait drawn on supposition.

There is no reason why the same method should not
be pursued in the case of Man; and working on this basis
it may be allowable to state, tentatively, the following
description of our pre-human ancestor, of the one answer-
ing to about the middle period of what Haeckel calls the
twenty-third stage.

* He must have been earlier than that; for the excellently worked weapons
(Palaeoliths) are of Pleistocene Age. It would be reasonable to conclude that primitive
Man began in the Pliocene. Z

I12 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

A quadruped, or more properly four-handed animal,
with fore-limbs longer than hind limbs; the body covered
with a hairy coat; the face somewhat of a bull-dog style.

This animal walked somewhat clumsily on all-fours,
being rather troubled with its front hands, which stil]
retained the definite inward curve of the fingers, the
bough - grasping attitude. In consequence, the animal
would often rise on the hind limbs, using them for short,
rather unsteady walking. It would also rise on the hind
limbs in order to grasp, say fruit, and when feeding itself,
and in play, and in courtship, and so forth. But the hind
limbs were too ill-adapted for sustaining the weight of the
body—the knees would not straighten out—the animal
had no muscles properly developed for the arduous duty
of balancing. There was no calf to the leg.

On the long hind hands (feet) were opposable thumbs,
and well-developed fingers (toes) capable of considerable
independent, and fairly accurate movement.

The front hands were short, broad, had short opposable
thumbs, and fingers not capable of accurate, independent
movement.

The body was thin, rather long, covered on the back
with a dark reddish-brown, or in some cases, almost black
hair,* on the belly, with lighter coloured hair. But the
whole hairy coat tended to become lighter with age; it
tended to get thin and fall off considerably, especially
from the chest, abdomen, and insides of limbs.f

The posterior part of the body was bare, and, possibly,
as in Macacus rhesus, of a bright.red colour, especially
in the female.

* “Not infrequently the woolly coat of the [human] Embryo differs considerably in
colour from the later hair covering, Thus, for instance, sometimes it happens that in our
Indo-German stock the children of blond parents are born covered with a dark brown or
even black woolly coat. After this has come off, then there appears the blond hair which
the child has inherited from its parents. Sometimes the dark coat remains for some
weeks, or even months, after birth.” Haeckel, Anthropogenie, Ed. IV., Vol. II., pag. 635.

+ Partial shedding of hair characterizes many Anthropoids.

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES II3

Head long (dolichocephalic); face decidedly prognathous,
jaws heavy and prominent; lips heavy; mouth large, fur-
nished, in the males, with fairly developed canine teeth
for fighting. Nose very depressed, broad ; nostrils large,
parted by a broad septum. In the males each side of nose
carried fleshy protuberances, spreading below the eyes ;
these protuberances furrowed and highly coloured with
red, especially during the breeding period. Cheeks
perhaps pouched for storage of food; eyes blue, large,
prominent; ears rather large, slightly movable.

Head covered with reddish-brown hair, which in male
probably stood up as a prominent crest over the skull.
Both sexes furnished with beard, whiskers, and moustache,*
in colour yellowish-brown, inclining to become white.

The animal lived in herds, and carried on a certain
amount of communication by means of guttural sounds.
The breeding season would have been limited to a certain
portion of the year. There would have been much fight-
ing between the males. There would have been promis-
cuous intercourse subject to the law of battle.t

VI. OUR HUMAN ANCESTOR

The pre-human ancestor acquired the ability to walk
more and more on the hind limbs, until the perfection of

* Among the bearded races of Man it is stated that the female is becoming more
hairy about the face. This follows the well-known law of the gradual transmission of
male characters of hair, horns, etc. to the female; so the female of the future Man should

again become more and more bearded.

+ The season would have been spring, and the effect is still felt in Man, according to
poets. [Asto the season and the nature of the intercourse there are relics in sundry customs
—notably the kissing ceremony of Hungerford, in April; a similar practice in Birming-
ham—the subject of a police-court case this year; and the May-day revels. The actual
significance of these customs is shown by the religious festivals of certain tribes of India,
where the ceremonies are fully carried out (described by Westermarck in his “ History of
Human Marriage”); and also by the worship of Priapus. Oct., 1899. j

II4 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

bipedal gait was obtained. This brought about a con-
siderable differentiation in fore and hind limbs — the
latter became longer, the former became shorter; the
latter lost much of the grasping ability, the former acquired
more tactual ability. Further, the bipedal position required
very remarkable modification in the skeletal structure, and
it induced, together with the necessity for providing
greater brain-accommodation, a decrease of prognathism.
While these changes were going on there was another in
progress which produced a curious change of appearance
—the animal lost nearly the whole hairy coat from all
parts of the body, even from the head*—so that our
human ancestor became almost as destitute of hair as a
deal board.f

In other characters he was probably much like a negro,
only shorter in stature, longer armed, longer footed, more
prognathous, and of a reddish-brown colour.

This is my idea of what Haeckel would call the 24th-
stage.

* There may have been a little hair on the head and on the back; but it almost

seems as if for a short period of development there was a stage of complete hairlessness.

+ Loss of the typical mammalian hairy coat has not been confined to Man. Ata
rather later date it occurred in other cases, for instance, in the Elephant, the Rhinoceros,
Hippopotamus, etc. ;

+ Both in the Semitic and the Indo-German languages the roots which gave a word
for ‘‘earth” also gave a word for “Man”; as if both “Man” and “earth” were named
from what they possessed in common—a reddish-brown colour.

And the negro infant is not black, but of a reddish colour, shewing that the
blackness of the negro is not primitive.

But it may be asked if some of the now light races have been through a black stage,
and then retrograded. There is this to be said,-—they represent their gods as black.
Elworthy, in his work on “The Evil Eye,” gives a list of Hindoo, Egyptian, Greek, Roman
Christian, etc., deities and deified persons who are represented as being black ; and he says
(p. 190): “In India, the infant Chrishna, the incarnate deity, in the arms of Devaki
beeps the child is black with woolly hair—a thing strange in India.” How is this to
be explained ? The people with black deities have either been through a negroid stage,
or they have been subservient to a negroid race.

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES 115

But as to Homo alalus | feel doubtful; that is to say,
whether he was a@/a/us strictly. I should imagine that
he had a language, primitive enough perhaps, one of,
say, 100 words at most, with of course no distinction as
to parts of speech. But this would be a language; and
by it, with gesture and intonation, primitive Man could
let his fellow know very well what he wanted.

Anyone who has conversed with a young baby will
know that with half-a-dozen monosyllabic sounds it can
give a fair account of what is going on around. This has
to be remembered, that the baby is perfectly understood
by the young children who are its associates ; it is better
understood by them than by its parents; and far better
understood by its parents than by strangers.

VII. CONCLUSION

I may bring this paper to a close with quotations from
two of the great masters.

“Ts Man something apart? Does he originate in a
totally different way from Dog, Bird, Frog, and Fish?
Or does he originate in a similar germ, pass through the
same slow and gradually progressive modifications,—
depend on the same contrivances for protection and
nutrition, and finally enter the world by the help of the
same mechanism? The reply is not doubtful for a
moment. Without question the mode of origin and the
early stages of the development of Man are identical with
those of the animals immediately below him in the scale”

(Huxley, 1863).

“* Know thyself!’ That is the source of all wisdom!
But for Man to have real self-knowledge it is of the first
importance that he know his own development” (Haeckel,

1891).

116 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XI. (2)

VII]. APPENDIX:

UNDUE ACCELERATION, AND RETARDATION, OF
DEVELOPMENT

Acceleration of development, or the inheritance of
characters at an earlier stage in each generation expresses
the process whereby the ontogenetic history recapitulates
the successive stages of phylogeny. But though the re-
capitulation may be fairly accurate when each character is
considered independently, yet it appears to be inexact
when the whole series of characters of a particular stage is
reviewed. Thus while in regard to many characters the
normal acceleration of development has taken place, yet
in others undue acceleration has become necessary to fit
the organism for the part it has to perform in life, and
in others again retardation has taken place.

The most noted case of retardation of development is
that of the wisdom teeth of Man. They appear late in
life, as if they were a character only recently developed ;
but actually they were very well developed in the pre-
human ancestors.

The post-natal development of teeth in Man is a case of
retardation.

The inability to see in the case of many animals until
some time after birth is again retardation.

The inability to walk in the case of many young animals
is an instance of retardation.

Some of the figures given in Plates I. and II. illustrate
what may be termed the unequal rate of development in
regard to certain characters. Thus in fig. I is the quad-
rupedal gait which would have characterised the old early
Catarrhine ancestor. But he would have had a hairy
body; here the body is destitute of hair, and that was a
character of primitive Man. Again, the hind foot shows
acceleration of the human foot-character: the quadrupedal

1899 S. §. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES II7
Catarrhine would have had a bough-grasping hind hand,
with rather long toes and an opposable thumb (big toe).
Again, the head (compare also fig. 2) shows extreme acceler-
ation. It is of the Caucasian or orthognathous type. The
head is of a more advanced type than that of the child
shown in fig. 4, which has a certain amount of the prog-
nathous character typical of primitive Man. And yet the
curly hair shown in figs. I, 2, etc. would seem to indicate
an earlier stage of development than the head, for curly
hair is associated with marked prognathism in the Negro.

The characters then may be summed up in this manner,
referring to Haeckel’s stages. There is the quadrupedal
character distinctive of early 23 stage, the naked body of
middle 24 stage, the foot of middle 25 stage, the type of
head of late 25 stage, and the type of hair of early 25
stage, all making up an ontogenetic stage which should
correspond to about middle or late 24 stage of phylogeny,
so that it is easy to see which characters have been unduly
accelerated and which retarded.

In fig. 10 there is an interesting case of retardation.
The form of the mouth of the crying child is on purpose
to display canine teeth. It is therefore an inheritance from
remote ancestors who used their canine teeth for fighting ;
and such special use of the canine teeth would have arisen
very soon after those teeth had been developed in a special
form, suitable for such a purpose. So that, strictly to repeat
phylogeny, the canine teeth should come first, and the
special form of mouth suitable for their use should come
afterwards. But, in the ontogeny of Man, the develop-
ment of the teeth has been retarded. The special
form of mouth suitable for the exhibition of canine teeth
appears first ; the teeth themselves do not appear till later.
If the ontogenetic development of the teeth had proceeded
equally with that of other characters, then the teeth should
appear through the gum of the embryo, long before the
child is born.

118 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xml. (2)

EXPLANATION? OF 'PLALE= 1:

Fic. 1. A child 10 months old, showing quadrupedal
. habit of progression (p. 93).

Fic. 2. The same child, 11 months old, not able to ~
walk, but able to raise itself momentarily on
its hind legs. The knee-flexure is shown .

(p. 94).

FIG. 3. A cat raising itself on its hind legs to claw at
something ; to compare with fig. 2 (p. 94).

Fic. 4. Another child, about 12 months old; showing
the manner of grasping (p. 96). The child is
unable to walk.

FiG. 5. The same child as fig. 2, and at the same time ;
showing bough-grasping attitude of hands
(p. 97), flexure of knee (p. 95), and facial
expression (p. 104).

FIG. 6. Same child as fig. 4, and at same date; showing :
method of grasp (p. 97), movement of toes
(p, 100), and facial expression (p. 107).

EROG. COTES WOLD CLUB: Vio, chi sPeatE 1:

120 7 PROG. (GOTTES WOLD? CLUB* “7 VOL xXII4@)

BXPLANATION OF SLATE «IL

FIG. 7. Same child as fig. 4, but 19 months old, show-
ing ability to use, and know the meaning of
the use of one finger for a definite purpose
(p. 101); also facial expression (p. 104).

Fic. 8. Same child as fig. 2, and about the same time,
showing sitting-on-hocks attitude (p. 101),
position of hands (p. 97), facial expression

(p. 104).

FIG. 9. Same child as fig. 7, and about same age,
showing, besides proportions of body, facial
expression, and other symptoms of pleasure

(p. 104).

FIG. 10. Same child, but at same age as fig. 4, showing
facial expression (p. 106), also attitude of

i hands (p. 97).

FIG. 11. A cat ‘“‘swearing,” to compare with fig. 10
(p. 106).

FIG. 12. A cat afraid of a blow (p. 106).

All the illustrations in these two plates are from
instantaneous photographs taken by myself. For the
capital reproductions I tender my best thanks to Messrs
Bemrose and Sons. Unfortunately in one or two cases
they have shaved just a little too closely round the figures.

PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB. Wor. AIL, PLATE 2.

~ SOME COTTESWOLD BRACHIOPODA,
BY

CHARLES UPTON.

[PLATE III.]

(Read March 21st, 1899)

INTRODUCTION.

In the Supplement to the British Jurassic and Triassic
Brachiopoda by Thomas Davidson (Vol. IV., p. 230) is
set out a list of 33 species collected by Dr F. Smithe from
the Lias of Churchdown—that term denoting all the strata
from the zone of Am. ee: down to the base of the
Lower Lias, inclusive.

Ina paper read before this Club in 1889,* S. S. Buckman
enumerated 34 species of Brachiopoda from the Inferior
Oolite of the Cotteswolds, the term in that case com-
prising the strata from the Clypeus Grit to the base of the
Pea Grit series, inclusive. In another paper read before
the Geological Society in 1895, which is printed in the
Quarterly Journal for that year (Vol. LI., p. 388) he in-
creases the number to some 53 or 54 forms. The list,
however, comprises a good many which are referred to
merely by the generic appellation.

Taking these figures as representing at the time of
publication the sum of the recognized forms of Cotteswold

* Published in the Proceedings, Vol. IX., p. 374.

£22 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL, XIII. (2)

Inferior Oolite and Liassic Brachiopods, we have some 86
or 87 species.

Since the publication of these works I have collected in
the Cotteswold district a number of forms which neither
Dr Smithe nor Mr Buckman mention. Some of them
belong to species already described from other localities:
others appear to be undescribed; and I thought it might
be of interest to the Club to have their discovery recorded
in its Proceedings, together with a more complete reference
to some two or three species which Mr Buckman mentions
in his second paper, above referred to, more or less on
my authority. I wish at the same time to notice a very
interesting and peculiar example of a somewhat scarce
Brachiopod (Terebratula galeiformts, M’Coy) which has
been found very sparingly up to the present time, and
only in the Cotteswolds. ‘[he specimen, which is in my
collection, I owe to the generosity of one of our members,

“Mr W. Thompson.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

I. TEREBRATULA GALEIFORMIS, J7’Coy, var.
Pl. III., figs. 1—4.

1853. TEREBRATULA BENTLEYI, var. SUB-BENTLEY],
Dav., Mon. Brit. Oolitic and Liassic Brach.

Vol. I., pl. xiii., fig. 11.
1854. TEREBRATULA GALEIFORMIS, 47’Coy,MS.; Dav.
Ibid. App. pl. A, fig. 15.

The species was first figured by Dr Davidson in his mono-
graph from a single pedicle valve in the late Mr Lycett’s
collection, under the name 7. Bentleyt, var. sub-Bentleyr.
The figured specimen is stated to have been found in the
Inferior Oolite of the neighbourhood of Minchinhampton.

f ad
Et A

.
:

1899 C. UPTON—BRACHIOPODA 123

At that date (1853) the brachial valve was not known to
the author of the monograph. He subsequently discovered
that a complete specimen, which was stated to have been
found in the Oolite Marl of Brimscombe, was in the
possession of Prof. Sedgwick, and that Prof. McCoy had
already given it the M.S. name of 7. galetformizs. This
specimen he figured in the appendix to Vol. 1 of the
monograph which was issued in the following year.

Each of the figured specimens has a deep medio-longi-
tudinal sinus and one on each side. The present example
differs from the type in having fimbriate margins, and an
almost flat brachial valve. In other respects it is con-
formable.

The tests of all Zervebratule are very thin, and conse-
quently fragile; and in their more primitive forms have
no frontal folds. The first advance on the simple form
was the acquisition of a single, more or less elevated,
frontal fold. The next advance in development consisted
of a reflex fold in the centre of the simple fold; and this
stage characterises the major portion of the Jurassic 7eve-
bratule. It is obvious that the acquirement of such folds,
whether simple or complex, resulted in a gain of strength
without an excessive expenditure of material. In the pre-
sent specimen the required strength was obtained by the
acquisition of a number of small folds instead of in the
more usual manner.

The exact locality of the specimen is unfortunately not
known ; but from the adherent matrix I have no hesitation
in stating that its horizon is the middle portion of
the Oolite Marl Series, which, south of Stroud,
usually consists of a white oolitic limestone. In respect
to horizon, therefore, it would agree very closely with all
other known specimens.

It is a somewhat singular circumstance that this shell
should be associated with the only two other well-marked

I2

124 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (2)

fimbriate Zerebratule known in the Jurassic rocks of
England, namely 7. plicata, J. Buckm.and 7. fméria, Sow.,
both of these shells being found in the Oolite Marl and
the Pea Grit: the former being common in the Pea Grit,
and the latter very abundant in the Oolite Marl. Two
other fimbriate Terebratuloids (one being a Zeredbratula,
and the other a Wage//ania) are found in the Lias on the
Continent ; and occasional specimens having additional
plicee are found belonging to species which normally have
either a plain margin, or a single, or a double fold, as
7. spheroidalis, Sow., T. conglobata, E. Desl., and 7. glo-
bata, Sow.

The species to which 7. ga/eiformis is most nearly
allied is undoubtedly 7. curvifrons, Oppel, which in
some localities is abundant in the Oolite Marl; though
7. curvifrons belongs to a somewhat lower horizon than
that to which I assign the present specimen.

In the very inflated pedicle valve and flat brachial valve
the present species has a very strong resemblance to
T. simplex, J. Buckm., which, however, is confined to the
Pea Grit. The plicated margin is as I have already stated
a character which it bears in common with 7. fmdbria
and 7. plicata. The brachial supports cannot of course
be seen; but from analogy I do not hesitate to assert
that the loop is very short, and that no mesial septum
exists.

2. TEREBRATULA SUB-SPHAEROIDALIS, sp. n.
Pi. ils fissi-5 7

D1aGNosis.— Shell inequivalve, pyriform; pedicle valve re-
gularly convex; brachial valve considerably elevated near
the umbo, sloping gradually towards the front, where it
makes a somewhat acute angle with the pedicle valve ;
beak prominent, and well separated from the umbo, trun-
cated by a medium-sized, round foramen; lateral ridges

1899 C. UPTON—BRACHIOPODA 125

indistinct; margin almost straight, with a slightly elevated
front, which in some specimens becomes somewhat
angular; shell smooth, growth lines faint; loop short.
Length 23 mm., width 20mm., height 15 mm.

Terebratula spheroidalis, Sow., has not hitherto been
recorded from any Cotteswold locality. In Somerset and
Dorset, and in Calvados it occurs abundantly in the upper
beds of the Inferior Oolite, attaining its largest dimensions
in the neighbourhood of Bayeux. The type came from
Dundry Hill, where however it is scarce and ill-developed.

On Selsley Hill, near Stroud, there is a bed of fine-
grained, non-oolitic limestone about two feet in thickness
over-lying, or possibly constituting the uppermost bed of
the Upper 77igonza-Grit which yields a form approach-
ing closely to 7. spheroidalis. The shells are slightly
elongate approaching 7. decipiens, but most nearly re-
sembling the shell usually called 7. spherotdats from
Castle Cary. At North Nibley a somewhat similar, but
usually more elongate shell occurs; and I have a
couple of specimens approaching the Nibley forms which
I found in a quarry on Wickeridge Hill near the Slad
Village. This is the most northerly spot at which
I have yet found them. This fossil differs from
T. spherotdalis in being much narrower in the neigh-
bourhood of the hinge, in the greater projection of the
beak which has a somewhat tubular character, and in
the more acute angle formed by the junction of the

valves. I therefore distinguish it by the name szdé-
spherotdalis.

3. TEREBRATULA JAUBERTI, E.. Deslongchamps.

1863. TEREBRATULA JAUBERTI, Z. Des/., Brach. Juras.
Pal. Fr., p. 176, pl. XLV., figs. 8—11, &c.

1878. TEREBRATULA JAUBERTI, Dav., Supp. Brit.
Juras. and Trias. Brach., Vol. IV., pl. xvii.,
fig. 13.

126 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

Dr Davidson figured an imperfect specimen of this
fossil from the Middle Lias of Ilminster. From the same
beds at Stinchcombe I have obtained two specimens.
The fossil is scarce in England, but appears to be abundant
in several localities in France, and also in Spain. The
Stinchcombe specimens closely resemble M. Deslong-
champs’ types.

_.4. TEREBRATULA SUBPUNCTATA, Davzdson.

1850. TEREBRATULA SUBPUNCTATA, Dav., Mon. Brit.
Oolitic and Liassic Brach., Vol. I., pl. VI.,
figs. 7—I10.

A large form allied to 7. punctata, Sow. occurs fairly
abundantly in the Middle Lias of the neighbourhood of
Ilminster. Dr Davidson considered it sufficiently distinct
from 7. punctata to justify his separating it from that
species ; and he named it 7. subpunctata. I have collected
a considerable number of both forms from near Ilminster,
and I find no difficulty in distinguishing between them.
Crushed specimens of 7. puncfata are abundant in one
thin bed of the Middle Lias (Wargaritatus Zone) of Stinch-
combe, but hitherto no specimen of 7. sudpunctata has
been recorded from the Cotteswolds. Last summer, how-
ever, I was fortunate enough to find a well characterised
specimen at Stinchcombe, although unfortunately a con-
siderable portion of the test is wanting.

5. TEREBRATULA EUIDES, S. Buckman.
Pl. III., figs. 8—10.

1881. TEREBRATULA FLEISCHERI, Oppel? Dazv.,
Appendix to Supp. Brit. Foss. Brach.,
Voli Ns. ples xix,, cup: 4

1886. TEREBRATULA EUIDES, S. Buckman. Juras.
Brach. ; Geol. Mag., Dec. III., Vol. Ill.,
P2217.

1899 C. UPTON—BRACHIOPODA 127

In the Appendix to the Supplements to Dr Davidson’s
Monograph is figured a Brachiopod from the Inferior
Oolite of Sherborne as “ 7. flezschert, Oppel?” Subse-
quently Mr Buckman distinguished the form as a new
species under the name of 7. euzdes. In the sandy beds
which underlie the Pea Grit (Zone of 7metoceras sctssum)
at Kimsbury Castle, Painswick, I have found several speci-
mens which Mr Buckman identifies with his species.

T. euides most nearly approaches 7. zxfra-oolztica,
E. Desl., but is distinguished from it by having a more or
less carinate pedicle valve and laterally pinched-in beak.

6. TEREBRATULA LENTIFORMIS, sp.n.
Pl. Ill., figs. 11—13.

DIAGNOSIS.—Shell inequivalve, lenticular, almost circular in
outline, pedicle valve having a somewhat indistinct longi-
tudinal ridge; beak erect, not overhanging the umbo;
foramen round ; lateral ridges prominent extending up to,
and producing an elevation on each side of the foramen;
front margin in adult specimens wavy ; test smooth; growth
lines indistinct; loop unknown, but probably short. Length
of figured specimen 29 mm., width 29 mm., height 14 mm.

To the large shell figured by Davidson under the name
T. maxillata, which somewhat resembles the present
species, Oppel* gave the name Zerebratula marmorea:
he took Davidson’s figs. 4 and 5, pl. Ix., (Mon. Brach.) as
the types. Szajnochat also figures 7. marmorea, and
states that it occurs in the Zone of Opfelia aspidoides of

* «Die Juraformation,’ p. 496.

+ ‘Die Brachiopoden-Fauna der Ool. von Balin bei Krakau;’ Denk. Math-Natur.
Wissensch. Cl. der K, Akad. der Wissenschaften, Bd XLI., pl. III., fig. ro. 1879.

128 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XIII. (2)

Balin. He also refers to the specimen figured by Dr
Davidson, and to a similar specimen from the Fuller’s
Earth of Metz, which is figured by M. Deslongchamps,
(Terr. Jur. Pal. Franc., pl. CIv., figs. 3, 4) as synonyms.
Both Dr Davidson and M. Deslongchamps describe the
specimens figured by them as the young of 7. maxzlata ;
and it cannot be denied that young 7. maxillata are very
like the figures.

In the Upper Ragstone beds of Rodporuel: either the
Upper 77zgonta-, or Clypeus-Grit, | have found a number
of specimens of various ages which are totally unlike any
other form occurring in those beds, but somewhat resemble
Szajnocha’s figure. However, I consider the Cotteswold
forms sufficiently distinct from Oppel’s species to justify
my giving them a specific name. Moreover, the beds in
which they occur in the Cotteswolds are older than those
in which 7. marmorvea is found either in Wiltshire, at
Balin, or Metz.

I am not aware that 7. dentiformzs is found in any
locality outside the Cotteswolds.

7. RHYNCHONELLA FORBESI, Davidson.

1852. RHYNCHONELLA FORBESI, ZDav., Mon. Brit.
Oolitic and Liassic Brach., Vol. I., pt. 3,
pl. xvii., fig. 19.

I have two specimens from near Stroud. One I found
at Swift’s Hill in the top of the sandy bed which occurs
in the 7: Buckmant-Grit, and the other is from the same
horizon at the Frith. The specimens are the exact coun-
terparts of examples which I have from the neighbourhood
of Bradford Abbas, where it occurs plentifully.

1899 C. UPTON—BRACHIOPODA 129 _

8. RHYNCHONELLA JURENSIS (Quenstedt)
Pl. IIL, figs. 14—17.

1858. TEREBRATULA JURENSIS, Quenst., Der Jura,
p. 287, tab. xli., figs. 33—35.

1878. RHYNCHONELLA JURENSIS, Dav., Supp. Brit.
Juras. and Trias. Brach., Vol. IV., pl. xxvii.
figs. 24—27.

A small Rkhynxchonella which has been identified as
Quenstedt’s /uvenszs is found in the Upper Lias—Zone
of Am. communts—of the neighbourhood of Banbury.
There is possibly some little doubt about the identity, but
nevertheless the Banbury fossil is always referred to as
R. jurensts. The fossil has not hitherto been correctly
recorded from any other British locality to my knowledge.
I have, however, found two specimens in beds of the same
age on the southern slope of Doverow Hill, near
Stroud, and another from the Margaritatus beds of the
Middle Lias at Haywardsfield. Dr Davidson figures the
species in the Supplement to his Monograph (pl. xxvii.,
figs. 24—27), but the figures do not bring out well the
peculiar flatness of the brachial valve which is charac-
teristic of the English specimens.

9. RHYNCHONELLA COTTESWOLDIA, sp. n.
Pl. IIL., figs. 18—22.

1878. RHYNCHONELLA RIMOSA, (non von Buch) Dav.
Supp. Brit. Juras. and Trias. Brach.,
Vol. IV., pl. xxvii., figs. 10, roa.

DIAGNOSIS.—Shell small, nearly circular in outline, slightly
wider than long; pedicle valve rather flat; brachial valve
very convex, umbo considerably inflated ; beak acute, sub-
erect, slightly truncated by the foramén which is small
and encroaches on the valve ; deltidial plates apparent and

"130 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

only partially surrounding the foramen; beak area fairly
prominent; hinge margin indenting the brachial valve.
Valves ornamented by a great number of fine rounded ribs
which extend from the beak to about two-thirds the length
of the shell, where they merge in from 8 to 10 prominent
angular ribs extending from about half-way along the
shell to the margin. Sinus and mesial fold well defined,
occupied by from two to four of the large ribs which are
usually somewhat unequal in magnitude. A large speci-
men measures in length 13 mm.,in breadth 14 mm., and in
height 9 mm. :

Dr Davidson on p. 224 of the Supplement to his Mono-
graph of the Brit. Foss. Brach. states that Prof. Tate in
the Geological Magazine for Dec., 1869, quotes Rhyn.
jurensts from the Zone of Am. opalinus, but does not
give the locality. His (Prof. Tate’s) authority appears to
be a record of Dr Lycett’s in the Proceedings of this Club
(Vol. II., p. 142, 1860), where it is stated to occur in the
Upper Zone of the Supra-Liassic Sands. Dr Davidson
goes on to say that he has seen the specimen referred to,
and has no hesitation in stating that it is referable to
R. vimosa of von Buch, and he gives a figure of it
(pl. xxvii., fig. 10). I agree with Dr Davidson that the
specimen figured is not 2. 7uvenszs, but I am unable to
agree with him that it is correctly called 2. rzmosa. Iam
well acquainted with both A. vzmosa and the shell figured
by Dr Davidson, and I am satisfied that they are not the
same. Moreover, 2. xzmosa has not certainly been found
in strata of later date than the Zone of Am. Henley,
which is below the Marlstone of the Middle Lias, whilst
the form in question is confined to the Dumortieria and
Moorez horizons of the Cotteswold Cephalopod-bed, which
are very much later in date.

1899 _ C. UPTON—BRACHIOPODA 131

NOTE.—The shell is usually more globose than the
specimen figured by Dr Davidson, which can scarcely be
considered typical.

LOCALITIES.—The species does not appear to have
been found except in the Cotteswolds. I have found it
-at Buckholt (Long) Wood, Pen Wood, and Haresfield
Beacon.

132 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xii. (2)

EXPLANATION OF PEATE FM,

FIG. 1I—4. TEREBRATULA GALEIFORMIS, AZ’ Coy, var.
Upper Freestone (Oolite Marl), Stroud.

FIGS. Bea 1 TEREBRATULA SUB-SPHAEROIDALIS, sp.n.
Top of Upper 7Z72¢gonza-Grit, Setter
Hill, near Stroud.

FIGS. 8—10. TEREBRATULA EUIDES, S. Buckman.
Ferruginous Limestone (Zone of 77met.
sctssum), Painswick Hill.

FIGS. 11—13. TEREBRATULA LENTIFORMIS, sp. n.
Clypeus Grit, Rodborough.

FIGS. 14-17. RHYNCHONELLA JURENSIS (Quenstedt).
Upper Lias Clay (Commune Zone),
Doverow Hill, Stonehouse.

FIGS. 18—22. RHYNCHONELLA COTTESW OLDIE, ‘sp. n-
Moore? Beds (Opalinum Zone), Buckholt
Wood, Frocester.

All the specimens are in the Author's collection.

Proc: Cotteswold Club Vol. XIfL. Plate II.

Geo.West & Sons lth. et imp.

Pool OF OIYPES AND. PIGU RED
SPECIMENS OF BRACHIOPODA

BY

Sse. BUCKMAN 1 E:G:S.

Only a few words of introduction are necessary. The
value of all types and figured specimens, and the necessity
for their safe preservation are now duly recognised. The
recognition has come none too soon. Specialists in
particular have to regret the disappearance of many of the
types figured by older authors. And the more doubtful
the identification of a species, the more is the dis-
appearance of the type to be regretted, and the greater
would be its value if it could be recovered. A case in
’ point is the type of Ammonites Bratkenridgti, Sowerby,
which has now been unfortunately lost sight of. It would
be most interesting to recover the specimen, to set at rest
the doubts as to its identification : hence its value is great.

To preserve types and figured specimens the British
Association formed a Committee for their registration,
and the present list is a partial contribution towards the
end they have in view. And it is offered to show the
manner in which such registration is performed. For I
have followed in the main the plan adopted by Mr G. C.
Crick, F.G.S., in his “List of the Types and Figured
Specimens of Fossil Cephalopoda in the British Museum.”

I have, however, made one innovation. In square
brackets I have added the date of each specimen, thus

134 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. ximl. (2)

[Disczt@]. This refers to the hemera, and it puts the
position of a specimen in time with extreme precision, a
detail very often wanting in regard to some of the earlier
figured specimens. Opportunity has also been taken to
amend certain statements of localities which were obviously
incorrect ; such emendation I can make from personal
knowledge of the specimens and of other circumstances.

Notice may be taken of the cases wherein a figure
has been made from a combination of two specimens.
This practice would easily lead to a non-identification
of the types unless the facts had been carefully noted.
It is an undesirable practice, unless special mention be
made of it in the explanation of the plates. Even then
it is dangerous. How easily for instance, supposing
a figure were made from imperfect specimens, might the
beak of Zerebratula curviconcha have been added to the
valves of Waldheimia haasi—two shells which are so
remarkably similar in external appearance, and moreover
occur together in the same bed.

BRACHIOPODA :

TYPES AND” FIGURED (25 PECIMENS;
S. S. BUCKMAN COLLECTION.

Rhynchonella balinensis, Szajnocha: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XX., fig. 3, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ;
Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Dzéscite]. (Figured specimen).

Rhynchonella beneckei, Haas: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
App. to Suppl. Pl. XX., figs. 8-10, 1884. Jurassic, Yeovil
Sands; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [AZoorec]. These specimens
became the types of RAyach. cynica, S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts.
Q.J.G.S., Vol. li., p. 451, 1895: the fig. 8 of Davidson’s plate
being taken as the Type. There were four specimens figured by
Davidson, his figs. 9 and 9a being from different examples.

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 135

Rhynchonella bilobata, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 19, 1884. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool. ; Corton Denham, Somerset. [Dzscite]. (Type). The
name subsequently altered to 2A. “iostraca, S. Buckm., Geol.
Mag., Dec. III. Vol. ii., p. 217, 1886.

Rhynchonella brasili, S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Q.J.G.S.,
Vol. lit, Pl. XIV., fig. 7, 1895. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Corton
Downs, Somerset. [Jurchisone, or Bradfordensis|. (Type x2).

Rhynchonella buteo, Szajnocha: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
App. to Suppl. Pl. XX., f. 7, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Brad-
ford Abbas, Dorset. [Déscite]. (Figured specimen).

Rhynchonella cymatophora, S. Buckman, 1895. See Rhynch.
gingensis.

Rhynchonella cynica, S. Buckman, 1895. See Rhynch. beneckei.

Rhynchonella cynomorpha, S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Q.J.G.S. |
Vol. li., Pl. XIV., figs. 2-4, 1895. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Frith
Quarry, Painswick. Oolite Marlseries. [Bradfordensis|. (Types,
3 specimens).

Rhynchonella dorsetensis, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach.
App. to Suppl. Pl. XX., fig. 2, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Half-
way House, Dorset. [Blagdeni, or Niortensis|. (Type).

Rhynchonella dundriensis, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach.
(Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 20, 1884. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool.; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. Probably from Irony bed and
hence [Sawze/]. (Autotype). The name was first given (Brach.
Proc. Dorset Club., Vol. iv., p. 43, 1883) to the figure by Davidson,
Mon. Brach (Pal. Soc.) App. Pl. A., fig. 28.

Rhynchonella gingensis, Waagen: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XX., fig. 1, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ;
Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [d¢@urchtsone]. This specimen after-
wards became the Type of Rhynch. cymatophora, S. Buckman,
Baj. Mid-Cotts. Q.J.G.S., Vol. li., p. 447, 1895.

136 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII. (2)

Rhynchonella hampenensis, S. Buckman, Proc. Cotteswold Club,
Vol. ix., Pl. IIl., fig. 6, 1886. - Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Upper Zrigonia-
grit); Naunton, Glos. [Garantiane]. (Type).

Rhynchonella liostraca, S. Buckman, 1886. See Rhynch. bilo-
bata.

Rhynchonella palma, Szajnocha: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 21, 1884. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [MJurchisone]. (Figured speci-
men).

Rhynchonella sp., S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Giese Vol. li.,
Pl. XIV., fig. 6, 1895. Jurassic, Yeovil Sands; Middle Chinnock,
Somerset. [Sciss¢]. (Figured specirhen).

Rhynchonella stephensi, Davidson: S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts.
Q.J:G.S., Voli hi.” PI. XIV.,. fig: 1, 1895. Jurassic;= Yeovil
Sands; Stoke Knap, Dorset. [.Sciss/]. (Figured specimen).

Rhynch. aff. weigandi, Haas and Petri: S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-
Cotts. Q.J.G.S., Vol. li., Pl. XIV., fig. 5, 1895. Jurassic, Yeovil
Sands; Netherton, Dorset. [.Scésst.| (Figured specimen).

Spirifer punct&tus, Sedgwick: J. Buckman, Geol. Chelt. Ed. 2,
Pl. X., fig. 7, 1845. Spirtfer rostratus, Davidson, Mon. Brach.
(Pal. Soc.) Pl. Il., fig. 2, 1850. Jurassic, Middle Lias; Hewletts
Hill (Battledown), Cheltenham. [en/eyz, or 4 Jbex|. (Type).
The fig. in Geol. Chelt. is reduced, and restored; that in Davidson
is also restored. Another specimen marked S. punctatus in J.
Buckman’s handwriting was used perhaps for some details in both

drawings.
Spirifer rostratus, Schlotheim. See Spirifer punctatus.
Terebratula ampla, J. Buckman: auct. See Terebratula perovalis
var. ampla.

Terebratula buckmani, Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) Pl. VIL.,
fig. 15, 1850. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Ragstone); Sudeley Hill, near
Winchcombe, Glos. [Dz¢scite]. (Type).

a ae eR et ee

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 137

Terebratula cortonensis, $. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 3, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ;
Corton, Somerset. [Dyscite]. (Type).

Terebratula crickleyensis, S$. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Q.J.G.S.,
Vol. li., Pl. XIV., fig. 8, 1895. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Ragstone) ;
Crickley, Glos. [Dzscite]. (Type).

Terebratula curviconcha, Oppel: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII., fig. 15, 1884. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool.; Halfway House (Wyke Quarry, Irony Bed), Dorset.
[ Blagdent |. (Type).

Terebratula decipiens, E..Deslongschamps: Davidson, Brach. Proc.
Dorset Club, Vol. I., Pl. I., fig. 1, 1877. Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) Suppl. Pl. XX., fig. 4, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Broad
Windsor, Dorset. [Zigzag]. (Figured specimen). A magni-
ficent large example, probably unique as to size and condition.
The locality in the text of the works is given as Bradford Abbas,
but the colour and condition of the specimen wholly negative
this statement, which was probably made on the authority of a
fossil collector. It is certainly not from Bradford Abbas; it is
most likely froni Broad Windsor, or possibly from Crewkerne.

Terebratula eudesiana, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIIL., fig. 18, 1884. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Dz¢scite]. (Type).

Terebratula euides, S. Buckman, Brach. Proc. Cotteswold Club,
Vol. ix., Pl. Ill., fig. 2, 1886, beak figured; and see Tereb.
fleischeri.

Terebratula fleischeri, Oppel: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 4, 1884. Jurassic, Yeovil Sands ;
Sherborne, Dorset. [.Sc/ssz]. This specimen became the Type of
Terebratula euides S. Buckm., Geol. Mag. Dec. III. Vol. iii., p. 218.

Terebratula ferryi, E. Deslongschamps: Davidson, Mon. Brach.
(Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII., figs. 20, 21, 1884.
Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Oborne, and Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Garan-
tiane|. (2 Figured specimens).

138 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xi. (2)

Terebratula gravida, Szajnocha; Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII., fig. 17, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ooll. ;
Halfway House (Louse- Hill), Dorset. [B/agdeni]. (2 Figured
specimens). Two specimens were drawn to make the figure,
as stated in a label in Davidson’s handwriting, referring to them.
They both bear the x wherewith Davidson marked figured
specimens.

Terebratula hollandae, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII., fig. 22, 1884. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Garantiane]. (Type).

Terebratula leesi, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII., fig. 16, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ;
Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [d/urchisone]. (Type). See Wald-
heimia carinata, var. Mandelslohi, under which name this
shell was first figured.

Terebratula linguifera, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 1, 1884. Jurassic, Fullers’
Earth Rock ; Haydon, Dorset. [Swbcontracti]. (Type).

Terebratula morierei, E. Deslongschamps: Davidson, Mon. Brach.
(Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII, fig. 11, 1884. Jurassic,
Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Gavantiane]. (Figured
specimen, unusually large).

Terebratula notgroviensis, S. Buckman, Brach. Proc. Cotteswold
Club, Vol. ix., Pl. III., fig. 5, 1886. Jurassic, Inf. Oolite Marl;
Notgrove Station, Glos. [ Bradfordensis|. (Type).

Terebratula perovalis, var ampla, J. Buckman: Davidson, Brach.
Proc. Dorset Club, Vol. i., Pl. 1., fig. 2, 1877. Mon. Brach.
(Pal. Soc.) Suppl. Pl. XXV., fig. 2, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ;
Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Comcavi, or discite]. (Type). This
form is now generally recognised as a distinct species, a less
advanced form than Zered. perovalis. The figures have been very
much restored. A similar remark applies to fig. 1 on the same
plates. In fact my father told me that figure was made up from
two specimens.

1899 Ss. S$. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 139

Terebratula phillipsi, Morris: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
Suppl. Pl. XVII., fig. 10, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Bradford
Abbas, Dorset. [Garantiane?] (Figured specimen).

Terebratula pisolithica, S$. Buckman, Brach. Proc. Cotteswold
Club, Vol. ix., Pl. IlI., fig. 1, 1886. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Pea-
grit); Crickley Hill, Glos. [Murchisone]. (Type).

Terebratula plicata, J. Buckman, Geol. Chelt. Ed. 2, Pie Wil. fig. 6.,
1845. Davidson, Mon. Brach, (Pal. Soc.) Pl. Malte 22, 150;
Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Pea-grit); Crickley Hill, Glos. [Alurchisone].
(Type). The fig. in the ‘Geol. of Chelt.’ is reduced, as was the
case with many figures in that work. The dimensions given in
p. tor of that work agree with those of the specimen. In David-
son’s figure the plications are exaggerated.

Terebratula provincialis, E. Deslongschamps: Davidson, Mon. Brach.
(Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 2, 1884. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool.; Corton, Somerset. [Bradfordensis|. (Figured specimen).

Terebratula shirburniensis, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach.
(Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 5, 1884. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool.; Sherborne, Dorset. [Bradfordensis|. (Type).

Terebratula simplex, J. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc. Pl. VIL, fig. 2, 1850. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Pea-grit); near
Cheltenham. [A/urchivone]. (Autotype). The beak has been
restored.

Terebratula sphaeroidalis, J. de C. Sowerby: Davidson, Brach.
Proc. Dorset Club, Vol. i., Pl. Il., fig. 6, 1877. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool.; Broad Windsor, Dorset. [Zégzag]. The locality given in
the text is Bradford Abbas; but the colour of the specimen does
not agree with that: it came most likely from Broad Windsor.
See note to Tereb. decipiens.

Terebratula stephani, Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) Suppl.
Pl. XVIII., fig. 6, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Broad Windsor,
Dorset. [Zigzag]. (Autotype). This is really a very pro-
nounced development of Zerebratula stephani, in the direction of

140 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2)

Terebratula linguifera. he locality given in the text, ‘ Bradford
Abbas,’ is doubtful. The specimen has the appearance of Broad
Windsor examples. See note to Tereb. decipiens.

Terebratula submaxillata, Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) PI.
IX., fig. 10, 1850. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Pea-grit series); near
Cheltenham. [Murchisone|. (Type).

Waldheimia bisuleata, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 9, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ;
Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Gavruztiane|. (Type).

Waldheimia brodiei, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal.
Soc.) App. to Suppl. Fl. XIX., figs. 14, 15, 1884. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool. ; Louse Hill, Sherborne, Dorset. [ Blagdent|. (Types, 2
specimens).

Waldheimia carinata, Lamarck: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 7, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ;
Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Garantiime|. (Figured specimen,
an unusually large example).

Waldheimia carinata, Lamarck: Davidson, Brach. Proc. Dorset
Club, Vol. i., Pl. IIl., fig. 7, 1877. Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
Suppl. Pl. XXIII., fig. 15, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Broad
Windsor, Dorset. [Zyzag]. This specimen was subsequently
taken as Type of Watdtheimia carinata var. crewkerniensis, S.
Buckman, Proc. Dorset Club, Vol. iv., p. 33, 1883. See under
that name.

Waldheimia carinata, var. crewkerniensis, S. Buckman: Davidson,
Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 8, 1884.
Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Haselbury, Somerset. [ Zrae//iz, or ? Zigzag ?|
(Autotype). Is now regarded as a distinct species—the plicate
mutation of carnats. Also see Waldh. carinata.

Waldheimia carinata, var. Mandelslohi, Oppel: Davidson, Proc.
Dorset Club, Vol. i., Pl. III., fig. 8, 1877. ‘Mon. Brach (Pal.
Soc.) Suppl. Pl. XXIII., fig. 16, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.;
Bradford Abbas, Dorset. | dZurchtsona@|. This shell was afterwards

:

aa Rien fins
a be fa sh

1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA I4I

made Type of Zered. fest, S. Buckman, Brach. Proc. Dorset Club,
Vol. iv., p. 28, 1883. See Terebratula leesi.

Waldheimia disculus, Waagen: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 17, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ;
Corton Denham, Somerset. [Discite|. (Figured specimen).

Waldheimia haasi, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., figs. II, 12, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ;
Halfway House (Louse Hill), Dorset. [Blagdeni]. Fig. 12 is the
uniplicate Type; fig. 11 isa very scarce biplicate development,
probably connecting haasié with reversa. Two specimens were
drawn for the details of fig. 11, as stated by a label of Davidson’s.

Waldheimia meriani, Oppel: Davidson, Brach. Proc. Dorset Club,
Mole ta PEST, fig. 9, 1877. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Cotteswolds,
Glos. [Discte]. (Figured specimen). There is every reason
to doubt the locality of ‘« Bradford Abbas” given in the text.

Waldheimia reversa, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. App. to
Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 13; Pl. XX., fig. 13, 1884. Jurassic, Inf.
Ool. ; Oborne, Dorset. [Miortensis, or ? Blagdeni]. (Type).

Waldheimia (Zeilleria) witchelli, s. Buckman, Brach. Proc. Cottes-
wold Club, Vol. ix., Pl. III., fig. 4, 1886. Jurassic, Inf. Oolite
Marl ; Notgrove Station. [ Bradfordensis], (Type).

NOTE CONCERNING FIGURED TYPES

I may take this Opportunity to make a note concerning two speci-
mens, both of which I have examined.

Waldheimia sub-numismalis, Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.)
Suppl. Pl. XXL, figs. 1, 2. The numbers are wrong in the
explanation of the Plate. Figs. 1 and 2 should be interchanged.
Fig. 1 (fig. 2 in the explanation) is in the Museum of the School
of Mines. Fig, 2 (in explanation, fig. 1) which was in the collection
of Mr D. Stephens, is now in the collection of Mr J. F. Walker.

Its beak is incorrectly drawn. It is not a Waldheimia, but is
Terebratula subpunctata.

< PRESENTED
31 OCT.1900

wOr. XIT PAT ETI

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Cotteswold Uaturalists’

: FIELD OG a Oils:

President
EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.GS., F.C.S., F.R.M.S.

; Vice- Presidents
: JOHN BELLOWS
Rev. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.S.
CHRISTOPHER BOWLY, M.A.
M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS
C. CALLAWAY, M:A., D.Sc, F.G.S.

Honorary Creasurer
A. S. HELPS
Honorary Wibrarian
H. G. MADAN, M.A,, F.C.S.

Honorary Accretarp
Ss. S. BUCKMAN, F.GS.

YHE COUNCIL OF THE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERSTOOD ‘THAT THE AUTHORS
ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED
IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS.

Contents
President’s Address. By M. W. COLCHESTER- By RaEES
Part I.—Formal Record - - - : - page 143
Part II.—A Visit to Robben Tstaad - - - - - - n 153
Part III.—An Account of Leprosy - - - - - See Teeny O16,
Excursion Notes: Chiefly on River Features. By S. S, BucKMAN, F.G.S. nw 175
Excursion Notes: The Garden at Priors Sets) 4 M. W. coneust ER-
WEMYSS - - 1295
A Fatal Combat between. a Rove Beetle and an Ant. By. c A. WitcHEL
and C. J. WATKINS - - n 195
Survivals of Roman Architecture in Brita By Joun BELLOWS - n 199
The Common Fields at Upton St. a vi oc id anon E. C. ScopeLL 215

List of the Members—May, 1900 - -
List of Societies, Institutions, ey - - - 2 2 .
Treasurer's Account - £ : : E .

PUBLISHED, AUGUST, 1900

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. S 217799

13, Qa. '900
(/01g)

The Library of the Club is at Mr John Bellows’, Eastgate,
Gloucester.

It is open every Tuesday afternoon from 2.30—4.30, when
books may be examined, or borrowed.

Books, Pamphlets, etc., presented to the Club should be
addressed to The Cotteswold Club, The Library, East-
gate, Gloucester.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS

Pine CLUB

PRESIDENT

EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G.S,, F.C.S., F.R.MLS.

HONORARY SECRETARY

So BUCKMAN, F.G.S.

Vol. XIII. Part III.

August, 1900

143

ANNUAL ADDRESS
Oe TEE:
COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB,
(Read at Gloucester, 3rd April, 1900)

BY

MW. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS,. PRESIDENT.

PART I.—FORMAL RECORD

During the past year death has, I regret to say, removed
one member from our ranks. I refer to the late Joseph
Arthur Gibbs, of Ablington Manor. Although quite a
new member of the Club—he was elected in 1898—and
although he had not contributed anything to our Proceed-
ings, yet we had every reason to expect that he would
prove one of our most valuable members; for his work,

“A Cotswold Village,” which I referred to in my last

address, is a book full of literary promise. Unfortunately,
almost before my address was printed, our hopes had been
disappointed. Mr Gibbs’ early death was particularly
sad, coming as the result of an accident in the cricket
field. I propose that the Club pass a vote of sincere
_ condolence with his mother, and I would further propose

144 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xill. (3)
that his work on “ A Cotswold Village” be added to our
Club Library as a memorial of him.

From the “ Cheltenham Examiner” of May 24th, 1899,
I take the following obituary notice :—

‘*Mr Joseph Arthur Gibbs, of Ablington Manor, has passed away
at the early age of 31. An injury from a cricket ball necessitated a
surgical operation of a rather serious nature, and death resulted from
failure of the heart’s action. Mr Gibbs was the eldest son of Mr
George Monk Gibbs, and was educated at Eton and Christ Church,
Oxford. After his University days, Mr Gibbs resided with his mother
at Ablington, entering keenly into all the pursuits of a country
gentleman, and at the same time developing those literary tastes, of
which his well-known book, ‘ A Cotswold Village,’ published only last
December, affords unquestionable evidence. Many people have read
this book with keen enjoyment. It gives a remarkably graphic picture
of Cotswold life, and presents a very unusual combination of interests.
Rustic legends, sketches of village character, village cricket, old Cots-
wold pastimes, the origin of place names, harvest feasts and Christmas
festivities, specimens of the dialect, and excellently illustrated de-
scriptions of the typical Cotswold towns, Cirencester and Burford, and
of that prettiest of Cotswold villages, Bibury, with its picturesque
hamlet of Ablington—all these matters are brightly treated of. Then,
too, there are pages of Wordsworthian musing, nature-sketches sug-
gestive of Richard Jefferies, discourse of angling and of hunting in the
spirit of a true enthusiast for sport, and, running through all, a distinct
feeling for literature and real literary quality. In reading ‘A Cots-
wold Village,’ one could not help feeling a wish to meet the author
and thank him for the human interest he had imparted to his book. _ It
is sincerely to be regretted that a life so full of promise of real literary
distinction should have closed thus early and abruptly.”

Another announcement | have to make with similar
regret,—that owing to the very sad state of his health, one
of our oldest members, and our senior Vice-President, the
Rev. Frederick Smithe, M.A., LL.D., F.G.S., has had to
resign. As you may know, for a long period the state of

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS I45

Dr Smithe’s health has been very serious, and has pre-
vented him not only from taking any share in the work of
this Club, but also from continuing his other duties; and
so his resignation of his position as an officer and a
member of this Club is not unexpected. Still I am sure
that I express the sentiments of all our members when I
say that we greatly regret it.

Dr Smithe’s connection with this Club has been a long
one; his name carries us back to quite early days. He
was elected at the Annual Meeting, February 15th, 1859
—he and your late President, W. C. Lucy, being elected
together on that day—and so he has been a member of
this Club for 41 years. He was elected Vice-President in
1887. He became a Fellow of the Geological Society in
1858 ; but he has not contributed any papers to its Journal.
In our Proceedings, however, will be found several con-
tributions, indicating his high attainments as a geologist
and petrologist. He specially devoted himself to the
study of the Middle and Upper Lias rocks, giving con-
siderable attention to their development in his own parish
of Churchdown. In fact, our chief knowledge of these
beds in this county is derived from the researches of Dr
Smithe, published in different papers in our Proceedings.
Further, when Dr Thomas Davidson was publishing his
important work “On Jurassic Brachiopoda,” Dr Smithe
was able to send him a very fine series of specimens from
Churchdown, and to give him many details, all showing
how much use he had made of his opportunities for study-
ing the Liassic rocks.

I do not at present give any more detailed account of
Dr Smithe’s work. You will understand why. It is
sufficient to show that we appreciate his labours, and
greatly regret the cause of his resignation.

I now turn to notice work accomplished by our members
during the year outside the Club’s Proceedings. I do not

K2

146 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xl. (3)

find so many contributions as I noticed in my last address.
If I have overlooked any work that has been published, I
hope members will kindly give me intimation thereof, so
that I may rectify the omission.

I notice that Dr E. W. Prevost has published an im-
portant work, “A Glossary of the Words and Phrases
pertaining to the Dialect of Cumberland, by W. Dickinson,
F.L.S.—Re-arranged, illustrated and augmented by quo-
tations. by E. W. Prevost, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.; ‘with ‘ashore
digest of the Phonology and Grammar of the Dialect by
S. Dickson Brown, B.A. London. Published by Bemrose,
London, and Thurman, Carlisle. Roy. 8vo., pp. cvi.—381.”

And I may add, as a matter of some interest, that this
work has been printed by John Bellows.

The Palzontographical Society has published another
portion of the “ Monograph of Inferior Oolite Ammonites”
from the pen of our Hon. Secretary. This makes the
eleventh contribution ; and the work is now illustrated by
118 quarto plates.

The following, which I take from a newspaper, is of
interest as reminding us of one of our members, Dr
Francis Day, who did so much in his special line of re-
search—fish culture: “The Society of Experimental Fish
Culture is now in a position to begin work at the Crystal
Palace . ... The Day collection of fishes which the
authorities at South Kensington removed from the Buck-
land Museum has been promised to the Society, and
should form a nucleus around which other collections
will be accumulated.”

A formal record of the Club’s work during the year
may now be given.

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS {47

COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB
REPORT OF THE YEAR'S WORK, 1899

The Annual Meeting was held at the School of Science,
Gloucester, on May 2nd, 1899, at 3.15 p.m. The Presi-
dent, Mr M. W. Colchester-Wemyss, was in the chair,
and about 23 members attended. The Minutes of the
last Annual Meeting were read by the Secretary and con-
firmed.

The President read his address, in which he referred to
the work done by members of the Club as shewn by their
papers, etc., published in the Journal of the Geological
Society and elsewhere. He then gave a formal account of
the Field Meetings, and finally read a description of his
visit to a Californian Gold-bearing river. A vote of
thanks was passed to the President for his interesting
address. ,

The Secretary then explained a “Jurassic Time-Table”
showing how its publication would conduce to future
work and to the value of the Club’s future volumes, by
becoming a basis for contributions from specialists.

The Secretary also exhibited and explained some Jurassic
Brachiopods.

The Treasurer then read his balance-sheet, which was

approved.

The President then left the chair, which was taken by

John Bellows, who proposed the re-election of Mr M. W.

Colchester-Wemyss. This was seconded and carried
unanimously.

Mr M. W. Colchester-Wemyss then an the chair, and
proposed the re-election of the Vice-Presidents, the Hon.
Treasurer and the Hon. Secretary. These proposals were
seconded and carried unanimously.

148 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xill. (3)

Proposals for the summer meetings were then discussed ;
and the formal arrangement of places and dates was left to
the Council.

The following was their arrangement :—

Thursday, June Ist. The Upper Coln Valley.
Monday, June 26th. |Salisbury; a two days’ excur-
Tuesday, June 27th. sion.
Wednesday, July 26th. Sodbury, for the cuttings on
the new railway.
Tuesday, Sept. 19th. Lydney and Awre.
It was afterwards found necessary to make changes with
respect to the last meeting; it was held at Coleford on
Thursday, Sept. 21st.

There was a good attendance of members at the first
of the summer meetings, and an interesting day was spent
under the guidance of the Hon. Secretary, who conducted
the party over Sevenhampton Common, down the Seven-
hampton Valley, and to the village of Withington. The
special study of the excursion being that of geological
problems connected with the formation of the Severn
Valley, and of the valleys through and adjacent to the
Cotteswold escarpment, particular attention was paid to
the evidence afforded by the valleys themselves.

The formation of the Severn Valley has hitherto been
generally regarded as the work of the river itself. The
- western shore of the sea in which the Cotteswold rocks
were deposited was probably the Malvern chain and the
hills continuing from it through the Forest of Dean. It
has been supposed that when the Severn began to make
a channel it found a line of least resistance in the junction
of the soft rocks of the Cotteswolds and the hard rocks
of the Malverns, and that in process of time it widened
its bed by cutting away the rocks on the eastern side and
thus formed the Cotteswold cliffs. It has also been com-
monly believed that lateral valleys like the Dowdeswell

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 149

valley were formed by tributaries of the Severn—that, in
fact, the pass of Andoversford was scooped out by a river
which was an ancestor of the Chelt, fed from the Cottes-
wolds when they were much higher than they now are.

Of late years, however, new investigations and parti-
cularly the researches of Professor W. M. Davis, as re-
corded in a paper on “ Development of English Rivers,”
in the Geographical Journal, vol. v., 1895, have caused
another theory to be advanced which, expressed briefly, is
this: that before the Severn Valley was scooped out,
rivers flowed from Wales in a south-easterly direction
across the Cotteswolds and the Chilterns to the sea; that
the valleys which break through the escarpment were
formed, not by tributaries of the Severn, but by feeders
of the Thames; and that instead of the Severn Valley
having been excavated by the Severn alone, the cutting-
out process was begun by an extended Thames.

I referred in my last address to the paper on the “ De-
velopment of Rivers” which our Hon. Secretary had just
published in Vatural Sczence ; and it was to hear his views
upon the spot that the meeting was arranged.

The discussion during the day was largely of an en-
quiring character, especially among the older school of
geologists. The botanists of the party were interested by
some specimens to which Mr W. L. Mellersh led them,
while Mr John Sawyer and the Hon. Secretary called atten-
tion to the ancient roads of the Cotteswolds. Luncheon
was taken at the Andoversford Hotel. Afterwards a
resolution was passed in support of the Wild Birds Pro-
tection Bill, about which Mr C. A. Witchell gave an
address. He also read a short paper about a combat
between a beetle and an ant (see p. 195).

On June 26th nearly a score of members assembled at
Marlborough Station, whence they drove across the Wilt-
shire Downs zz@ Oare Hill, Pewsey, Stonehenge, Ames-
bury, and Old Sarum, occasional halts being made at

150 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xml. (3)

interesting spots. Thus the Hon. Secretary demonstrated
how the Kennet Valley and the Vale of Pewsey supply
striking evidence of the theory of river valley formation
considered at the first meeting, and those of the party in-
terested in archeology found much matter for discussion
at Stonehenge, Vespasian’s Camp near Amesbury, and the
well-preserved ancient fortress of Old Sarum. On the
following morning a visit was paid to the Blackmore
Museum. Here the party was met by the Director of the
Museum, Dr H. P. Blackmore, F.G.S., who kindly con-
ducted them over the immense collection of stone im-
plements, showing them types of the Eolithic, Palzolithic
and Neolithic work, illustrating the evolution in form and
design. Such points as the evolution of the axe and
hammer, and the transition from the stone to the bronze
implements, were fully elucidated. A cordial vote of
thanks was passed to Dr Blackmore for his courtesy. In
the afternoon, a visit was paid to the Cathedral, and the
party had a most painstaking guide in Canon Bourne,
who pointed out the salient features of the structure in an
extremely interesting manner.

Over twenty members attended an excursion to Sod-
bury on August 3rd, the object being to inspect the
cuttings and tunnel shafts made by the Great Western
Railway in connection with their new direct line from
Wootton Bassett to the Severn Tunnel.

The party assembled at Yate Station, and then drove
to the western end of the big Lilliput cutting. Here the
Honorary Secretary gave a general account of the geology
of the district, and the Rev. H. H. Winwood, F.G.S.,
followed, devoting his attention more particularly to the
strata under inspection. The members then walked along
the cutting, many of them interested in the mechanical
developments now brought into play in the making of a
railroad. Under the guidance of the Secretary and Mr

—

toe?)

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS I51

Winwood other points of geological interest were noted,
and the party then drove to Chipping Sodbury, where
lunch was taken at the Portcullis Hotel. Afterwards a
moye was made to the tunnel shaft at the foot of the hill
and to that near the Cross Hands, where the various geo-
logical questions suggested by the exposed strata led to
much interesting discussion. During the day the party
was favoured with the presence of Mr W. W. Grierson,
the engineer in charge of the works, to whom the Presi-
dent tendered the thanks of the Club for all the facilities
and kind assistance extended to it. The members also
had to thank Mr Hooper, of Stanshaws, for some hospi-
tality very acceptable on a hot day.

An interesting day was spent in the neighbourhood of
Coleford on September 2 Ist.

The party assembled at Coleford Station on the arrival
of the train from Gloucester, and drove to Staunton,
stopping on the way to see a large stone which stands on
end close to the road, eee inside one of nae Forest En-
closures. It is called “The Long Stone,” or, in Welsh,
Maen hir. There are many such stones in + es and
they are said to have been used as mustering places for
men summoned to serve inwar. The Church at Staunton
aroused much interest, many styles of architecture being
visible in the building. It has an ancient font, which is
probably Early Norman; it has been suggested that it is
really a Roman altar converted into a font. The marks
of staples can be seen on it, showing that it was one of
those fonts that were locked up during very superstitious
times. The order for locking fonts was made in 1236.
The pulpit is entered by a flight of stone stairs which
anciently led up to the rood loft.

A walk of about half a mile brought the party to the
Buckstone, situated on an eminence which has an eleva-
tion of nearly 1000 ft., and commands a most extensive

152 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. xu. (3)

view over the Forest enclosures, and the High Meadow
woods, with many of the Welsh mountains showing in
the distance. Unfortunately this curious old rocking
stone can no longer be rocked. Some 15 years agoa
party of men armed with crow-bars wantonly and malici-
ously upset the stone, and though it was re-erected in its
former position, it had to be fixed firmly, and it cannot
now be made to oscillate.

From the Buckstone the members drove to St. Briavels
through the picturesque village of Newland, where time
could only be spared to see the far-famed Newland Oak,
one of the oldest and largest in the Kingdom. It isa
grand tree with plenty of life in it yet; though it is perhaps
a thousand years old.

An interesting visit was paid to St. Briavels Castle,
built by Milo Fitzwalter about the year 1100. Many of
the ancient walls are still standing, and there is a fine old
kitchen where the original dog-wheel is still 27 sz¢z, inside
which the dogs ran whose duty it was to turn the spit.

The Castle of St. Briavels stands on a very picturesque
site. Its long list of Constables extends in unbroken
line from Fitzwalter, till in 1838 this ancient office de-
volved upon the Commissioners of Woods and Forests.
Many quaint old legal Courts were held here as well as at
the Speech House, dealing with the mining laws, the
customs of the Forest, the rights of Freeholders and
Freeminers, and the many privileges claimed by the
Monarch.

After luncheon the drive was resumed, and by kind in-
vitation of its owner a visit was paid to Priors Mesne,
where Surgeon-General Cook has for many years devoted
his great knowledge of plants to the formation of a sub-
tropical garden.

It was with the greatest reluctance that the members
left this charming and secluded spot, and partook of the

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 153

hospitality courteously offered by Mrs Cook and her
daughters, and then drove to Lydney for the train.

Our Winter Meetings have been particularly well
attended, and the interesting series of papers which has
been read shows that the working activities of the Club
are in a vigorous condition. To accommodate the papers
it was necessary to hold an extra meeting besides the four
which have hitherto been our limit. I give a list of the
communications, which show that there is a wide field to
which the Club can devote work.

The Recently Enclosed Common Fields at Upton St.
Leonards, by the Rev. Canon Scobell.

How Nature Discards: a study of Relics and. Make-
shifts, by S. S. Buckman, F.G.S.

The Pyrenees and the Republic of Andorra, by
William Bellows.

The Birds of Gloucestershire, by W. L. Mellersh,
M.A.

A Mimicry of Organic Structure in a Silurian Lime-
stone at Old Radnor, by C. Callaway, M.A., D.Sc.

Incrusting Organisms, by E. B. Wethered, F.G.S.

A Submerged Forest at Westbury-on-Severn, by E. W.
Prevost, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.

PART II.—A VISIT To ROBBEN ISLAND—THE LEPER
SETTLEMENT

A few years ago I happened to be at Cape Town, and
went out one afternoon to call on the Bishop, who lives at
a most charming old Dutch house some miles away. At
one part of the road I well remember an avenue of giant
pines, vividly illustrative of the idea that is said to have
given birth to Gothic architecture. These pines lined the
road on either side at regular intervals, their stems rising

154 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. Xu. (3)

straight and clear without a single branch, and scarcely
tapering at all until they reached a height of about 70 ft.,
when a few strong branches stretched out and joined hands,
as it were, over the centre of the causeway.

The Bishop told me he was going over to hold a Con-
firmation at Robben Island the following day, and invited
me to accompany him, a suggestion which I most gladly
accepted, as in those days it was not easy to get leave to
go there.

The island is certainly a most curious place. It is in-
habited entirely by lepers, convicts, lunatics and paupers.
At the time of my visit, there were in it about 120 lepers,
250 lunatics, 75 convicts and 50 paupers. It has been
used for lepers and lunatics for some 50 years, and until a
year or two ago the methods adopted here were primitive
in the extreme. For instance, till quite lately all the foul
linen from the lepers was carried by them to the female
lunatics, who washed it in cold water; but the most dis-
gusting thing of all was that the same vehicle which was
used for conveying the corpses of lepers (the coffins are so
frail that they frequently burst ex route) was immediately
afterwards used for carrying about the food for the lunatics
and convicts.

The lunatics were in the constant habit of resorting to
the leper settlement to clear out and devour scraps of
food left, after meals, by the lepers. And yet, notwith-
standing all this, I was assured most confidently that no
instance is on record in the island where a case of leprosy
can clearly be traced to contagion.

However, everything. has been altered now. I went
over the whole of the establishments, and no exception
could be taken to anything inany department. Everything
is clean, and there is a generous dietary, which is the same
for all, except that the convicts have half-a-pound of meat
a-day more than the others. The lepers do everything

‘a

ee

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 155

' for themselves, one white man only, besides the doctors,
living with them. Their establishment consists of sundry
long, low, thatched sheds, cool, clean and fairly convenient.
They have their own compounds, reading-room, cook-house,
&c., but they are not confined in any way, and can wander at
will over the island. The female lepers have a small settle-
ment to themselves a mile or soaway. The year before my
visit the Cape Parliament passed a law giving the autho-
rities power to remove lepers compulsorily. When |
was there all the lepers were natives except two men and
one woman, and the males were to the females in the
proportion of about three to one.

The Superintendent, Dr Dixon, said things were very
different indeed now to what they were only a compara-
tively short time ago. All the doctors here have the
very strongest belief that leprosy is not contagious or
infectious, except perhaps in one special way. At any
rate they assert most positively that no case of communi-
cated leprosy has ever occurred on the island, even not-
withstanding the degree of inter-communication that has

always existed between the lepers and the other in-

habitants. They believe it is inherited in the blood, and
is also developed in some mysterious way. They had
lately been trying Gurgun oil (produced from a fir tree in
the Andaman Isles), but they have not yet had time to
give it a fair trial, for which a period of three years is
_ said to be necessary ; and it is difficult to get the stomach
to retain it in sufficiently large doses. They say, however,
that in some cases it certainly has arrested the course of
the disease. The disease, however, sometimes seems from
no discoverable reason to arrest itself. I saw aman who
had been on the island over 30 years, and they said he
was no worse than he was 20 years ago. Another man
of 94 was there, and his condition had remained unchanged
for years.

156 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (3)

There are two distinct forms of the disease, the tuber-
cular and the anesthetic; and sometimes both exist on
the same patient. Sores break out over the body with
most loathsome discharge. Nodules arise over the sur-
face of the flesh, the extremities, fingers, toes, nose,
gradually vanish and drop off, hands and feet becoming
shapeless stumps, and often the whole face becomes so
bulged and distorted that it hardly seems to bear any re-
semblance to a human countenance. Frightful looking
objects many of them were, but they none of them seemed
to suffer pain, and hardly to realize their position; all
seemed wonderfully cheerful and quite ready to laugh at
any little remark.

PART IIJ].—AN ACCOUNT OF LEPROSY

There have been many diseases in the history of the
world which from time to time have ravaged humanity,
and then have seemed to disappear more or less entirely.
Other diseases again, unknown of old, seem to have been
produced by causes coincident with the advance of civiliza-
tion. Leprosy stands in neither of these categories. It
has been known some thousands of years: it exists to-day
over the greater part of the world’s surface. It has,
perhaps more than any other disease, afforded mankind
subject for legislation and regulation ; and yet it isa disease
perhaps almost as mysterious to-day as it was when the
Israelites passed out of Egypt; and it has, up to now,
entirely baffled all those efforts of medical science and
research which have been devoted to finding a cure for it.

The disease is first definitely described in the “ Ebers
Papyrus” which was found at Memphis, and was written
during the reign of Rameses II. (1348—1281 B.C.),
though prescriptions have been found for a disease called
echetu, which seems to be leprosy, and these belong, it

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS _ ey

is believed, to a period about 4600 B.C. In Persia, India,
China, and Japan there are very ancient records of its
existence. The first case mentioned in Europe is described
by Aristotle in 345 B.C.; and from that time onwards the
disease has been over and over again depicted in terms so
clear and accurate, as to leave no doubt whatever that the
leprosy of to-day is in every particular precisely the same
disease which was known in classical days under the term
Lilephantiasis Grecorum. In the Middle Ages most
exact descriptions were given by men learned in the
medicine of the day, such as Theodoric of Bologna,
Lanfranc of Milan, Barchuone of Barcelona, the famous
Guy de Chauliac, and many others. Often the most
minute and detailed account is given of the various
symptoms which the physician ought to look for in
examining a suspected person, and the exact method is
pointed out by which he ought to proceed with his
examination before venturing to consign a suspected per-
son to the seclusion of a leper hospital, and thus for ever
doom him to be a despised “child of St. Lazarus.”*

It is but little realized how very widely spread was the
disease over the whole of Europe in the Middle Ages.
Evidence of this is afforded by the records still existing
of the laws and regulations, some of the most stringent
nature, dealing with the unfortunate lepers, and also from
the enormous number of lazarettos or leper-houses that
were erected for their reception. A list of over 150 of
these existing in Great Britain has been compiled, and it
is said that there were no less than 2000 in France. It
is no doubt true that many other diseases were confounded
with leprosy, and that, especially later on when leprosy
was dying out in Europe, a very large number of the
occupants of the leper-houses were not lepers. But

* Warrant of Edward IV. to examine a leper, 1468 (Simpson, Zdinburgh Medical
and Surgical Journal, 1841, 154.)

158 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. xm. (3)

after making due allowance for this, there is no doubt
that a great wave of leprosy passed over Europe com-
mencing about the 8th century, gradually spreading,
developing, and eventually passing away northwards and
westwards.

There is a common belief that it was first brought into
England by soldiers returning from the crusades, but
though many of them may have come back lepers, they
did not introduce the disease, which existed here long
before their time. There is a well authenticated case re-
ported in Ireland in 432. In 950 the Welsh King, Howel
Dda, passed a series of laws permitting the divorce of
married persons should the man become a leper. And
Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 1089, six
years before the first Crusade, founded, during his lifetime,
at least one, and probably two leper-houses at Canterbury.
Leprosy did not reach Scotland till somewhat later, but
it had practically died out in England, while it was still
virulent in the northern kingdom. In 1350 some statutes
were drawn up for the leper-house at St. Albans, and it
appears then that there were hardly any lepers requiring
admission ; but in the same year it was thought necessary
to institute a leper-house for Glasgow, and nearly 100
years later, in 1427, the Scottish Parliament deemed it
proper to legislate on the subject of lepers, though it is
curious that the latest leper-house established in the
kingdom was one at Highgate, and this was not founded
until 1472, at a time when it was officially reported that
there were very few lepers left in England. Some years
later, in 1540, a Royal Commission was appointed to in-
spect the Lazarettos in England, and they reported that
among the inmates were very few leprous persons, and
yet it is well known that as late as 1693 there were lepers
in the Lazaretto at Kingcase. It was long before it became
actually extinct in Scotland; it lingered in the Shetlands

1900 THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 159
till late into the last century, and the last known case of a
Scotch leper was a patient from Zetland who died in an
Edinburgh hospital in 1798.

These Shetland lepers seem to have been sent to the
Island of Papua, and the Session Books of Wales show the
expense incurred in keeping them there from 1736-40.

But for over 100 years leprosy may be said to have been
absolutely extinct in the United Kingdom, though cases
are occasionally noticed almost every year, but in all these
cases the disease has invariably been contracted during a
residence of the patient in some other country. It has
never died out in Iceland, and in Norway it exists to this
day to a very serious extent. At the present moment
there are about 1500 cases, mostly in two leper establish-
ments, though 40 years ago there were over double that
number.

In Italy there are a few spots where the disease still
lingers, and also in Sicily, Spain, Hungary and Turkey ;
but these spots are extremely limited in area, and the
number of cases very few indeed. With these excep-
tions, this malady may be said to be non-existent in
Europe. Throughout Asia it is, however, still very active,
in British India it is believed there are always at least
200,000 lepers. In China there are districts where a
very large proportion of the people are affected ; the disease
is found throughout Japan except in the Loo Choo Islands,
and, generally speaking, lepers are met with everywhere in
the Tropics. In the Brazils the malady is virulent, and in —

many other parts of South America; but in North America

it does not exist except in Mexico, where there are many
cases; in California, where some leper spots exist, trace-
able to Chinese settlers; in Louisiana, where a few leper

areas are to be seen, and in a Norwegian Colony in New

Brunswick, where it was clearly imported from Norway.
Broadly speaking, it may be said that, over by far the
L

160 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xull. (3)

larger portion of the earth’s surface, the disease exists
with greater or less virulence.

Numerous reasons have been given to account for the
existence and prevalence of leprosy in infected areas.

1. It has been said that climatic influences affect it.
But it exists as near the Arctic circle as Iceland, Norway,
and Siberia; all during the Middle Ages it was most pre-
valent in temperate regions; and then, as now, it existed
almost everywhere in the known Tropics. But in tropical
countries, where there are great fluctuations of temperature
and great moisture, the body becomes more or less ener-
vated, and there is a predisposition to specific disease ;
hence perhaps the prevalence in the Tropics.

2. Again, it is said to be specially prevalent near the
sea coast. To some extent this is true, but only partially
so. In Syria, for instance, it is rare on the coast, and
prevalent on the mountains. Precisely the same remarks
apply to Madagascar. In India the chief centre is at
Rumaon, with an elevation of 5000 ft. above the sea. In
the Brazils it is terribly prevalent in many up-country
districts, and very much less so on the coast. It has also
been observed in all ages that there are certain spots or
limited areas where the disease may rage; whereas imme-
diately outside these areas, though the conditions are
perhaps similar in every appreciable respect, there is
absolute or comparative immunity from disease.

3. Again, it is a very common belief that leprosy is
prevalent where fish, and especially salted fish, forms a
large part of the diet of the inhabitants; but it is endemic
in many places where no fish is eaten, and it has disappeared
from many places where fish still continues to be largely
consumed; and there are bad spots in the midst of large
fish-consuming districts, while there is exemption out-
side the limited affected area. In Central China fish is
essentially the food of the well-to-do, whereas the poorer

Mi 3 2 oe ed

an

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 161

classes, who rarely touch fish, suffer far more from the
disease.

4. The existence of leprosy is often ascribed to insanitary
conditions, especially when they are combined with insuffi-
ciency of food. Doubtless insanitary conditionswill produce
a predisposition to many kinds of disease ; but leprosy has
been by no means confined to the poorer classes whose
surroundings are more likely to have insanitary taint.
Naaman, the Captain of the host of Syria, was a mighty
personage in his country. Baldwin IV., King of Jerusalem,
relinquished his sceptre in consequence of his leprosy.
Constance, Duchess of Brittany, died of itin 1201. Robert
the Bruce suffered from it for many years. Henry IV. of
England is said to have been a leper, and Henry III.
almost certainly was one.*

There is a most touching account extant how one
Richard Orange, Mayor of Exeter, a wealthy and important
citizen of the town, found himself to be a leper, and
voluntarily cut himself adrift from friends, relations, and
the world, and secluded himself in a leper-hospital.

Again, that the disease is hereditary it would be difficult
to deny in general terms, though much can be urged
against it. For one thing, sterility accompanies leprosy.
From 2864 lepers of both sexes who in 18 years have
been secluded in Molokai, only 26 children have been
born, and of these only two were lepers; but there can
hardly be any doubt that a certain predisposition to the
disease can often be traced in certain families, though this
is a different thing to a definite hereditary taint.

It is, however, on the subject of contagiousness that
controversy has chiefly been raised, and it may be added
that uniformity of belief has chiefly existed; and yet the
proofs are by no means convincing. Certainly the opinion

* Vide Simpson, Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 1841, 396.
L2

162 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (3)

was most widespread in the Middle Ages that the malady
was both infectious and contagious, and in fact this belief
lay at the root of all the regulations that were passed ; and
yet Simpson says of the study of leprosy:

“The investigation of the cause of the disease has,
more than in any other department of medicine, been
marked by belief without evidence and assertion without
facts.”

Brunelli said (and he was no mean authority) :

“L’opinione era contagiosa e non la malattia.”
In support of Brunelli’s view it may be urged that—

a. As I have said before, the limits of the diffusion
of leprosy are often very narrow and very clearly
defined.

6. It may be seen in some parts of the world where
two races of men are living with complete inter-
course, and yet one race will be affected with
leprosy, and the other will be immune.

c. I believe it is a fact that the cases are very rare
where there is even suspicion that one member of
a family has communicated it to another.

d. Cases are innumerable where there are leprous
marriages with leprosy on one side only. 855
such cases were counted in the N.W. Provinces in
India, and in only, I think, two out of the number
did the free person become tainted during the
period of observation. A Parliamentary Report was
drawn up in 1867, consisting of answers sent from
Consuls and other officials in all parts of the world
to a series of questions framed by the College of
Physicians, and almost unanimously they reported
against the contagion theory.

e. I believe there is no case on record where a nurse
or a physician in a leper-hospital has taken the

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 163

disease, even though they do everything for their
patients.

J No cases have been ever described of the disease
spreading outwards from the leper-houses.

g. There is no instance, with one exception, where a
European, having contracted the disease ina leprous
country, has then come home and conveyed it to
others.

This is a strong body, if not of proof, at least of forcible
evidence.

There is no doubt that in medizval times many Public
Regulations were instituted affecting lepers, and it seems
that affected districts had very full powers to control them
in every way. Very few of these laws have been pre-
served. The first recorded edict is by Pepin in 757, who,
amongst other things, proclaimed that leprosy in either
sex was a legal ground for divorce, and so prevalent was
the disease in Lombardy in his time, that we are told that
in some cities there were many men with three wives
living at the same time. Charlemagne passed laws affect-
ing lepers in 789 ; and in 950, as I have said, Howel Dda,
the Welsh King, decreed, amongst other things, that a
woman might divorce a leprous husband, differing thus
very curiously from Pepin’s law on the subject. We are
told by “Maister Hector Boéce Channon of Aberdene”
that before the time of Malcolm Canmore a man who was
“sic infirmitie [e,g. daft or wod] as succedis be heritage
fra the fader to the son was geldit (castrated). The woman
that was fallin lipper was banist fra the cumpany of men,
and gif scho consavit barne under sic infirmitie, baith scho
and hir barne war buryit quik” (alive).

Philip V. of France passed a law that all leprous persons
were to be burnt ; this was in consequence of a belief having

* Simpson, Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 1842, p. 406.
+ Bellenden, Translation of Boéce’s History, p. 58.

164 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xi. (3)

become current that they were guilty of poisoning all
the wells in Christendom. The decree stated that “fire
should at one and the same time purify infection of the
body and of the soul.”

I have come across the record of a most curious Edict
of Henry II. of England. It was passed at the height of
his quarrel with Becket, when he was most anxious to
prevent the imposition of an Ecclesiastical interdict over
his kingdom. So he took all possible precautions to avoid
the conveyance of official letters to this effect into England.
To secure this more fully it was declared that if any in-
dividual did carry thither letters of interdict from the
Pope or Archbishop he should be punished “ by the ampu-
tation of his feet if a regular; by the loss of eyes and by
castration if a secular clergyman; he should be hanged if
he were a layman; and burned if he were a leper” (Sz
leprosus comburatur ).

This passage is very remarkable for several reasons. It
indicates that lepers were treated as being outside the
pale of ordinary law; it shows that notwithstanding all
restrictions they were yet able to circulate pretty freely
about the world; and it shows that it was considered
possible that a person of such high rank as a Nuncio of
the Pope might still be a leper.

Apparently, when a person became leprous, indirect
pressure was brought to bear upon him to seclude himself
in a leper-house, eit when he refused, the friends or
neighbours could bring the matter under the cognizance of
the Crown, and a Chancery warrant could then be issued.*
The earliest of these warrants now extant is one by Edward
IV. in 1468, and it directs the Sheriff of Essex to take certain
“discreet and loyal men of his county” and to cause
Johanna Nightingale, a reputed leper, to be “diligently

* Simpson, Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 1842, p. 153-

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 165

viewed and examined,” and if he finds her to be leprous
“to cause her to be removed, in as decent a manner as
possible, from intercourse with other people, and have
her betake herself immediately to a secluded place as is
the custom, &c.”

The Sheriff called in two “Doctors in Arts and Medi-
cine,” who report as follows :—“ We have examined her
person, touched and handled her, and made mature, dili-
gent, and proper investigation. On going through upward
of twenty-five of the more marked signs of general leprosy,
we do not find that she can be proved to be leprous, by

them or a sufficient number of them, . . . . and it is not
possible for any to labour under the disease in whom the
greater part of these signs are not found... . We find

. that she is utterly free and untainted, and we are
prepared to declare the same more fully by scientific pro-
cess if and wherever it shall be necessary.”

On the strength of this certificate, which I have been
informed is one of the earliest, if not the earliest medical
certificate preserved, we may be allowed to hope that poor
- Johanna Nightingale was allowed by her neighbours to
pass the rest of her days in peace.

It certainly appears that medical men of those days were
fully impressed with the very serious responsibilities thrown
upon them in connection with the disease. Bernhard
Gordon, first Professor of Medicine at the School of
Montpellier, devotes a very long chapter to the subject™
in a book written about 1305, and says that there are two
sets of signs, the occult or premonitory and the infallible ;
if the patient shows evidence of the first set, he is to be
watched and observed, but not to be adjudged for separa-
tion; he is only to be secluded in a leper-house if he
manifestly exhibits the infallible signs; and he enjoins the

* Feind, History of Physic, 1758, Vol. ii., p. 262.

166 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xull. (3)

utmost care and caution on any who may be called upon
to examine leprous patients.

Guy de Chauliac again, perhaps the most celebrated
surgeon of the 14th century, wrote on leprosy about
1363, and divides the signs or symptoms under six heads,
and he then details at very great length the precise mode
in which the physician ought to conduct the examination
of every suspected case of leprosy referred to him. The
examination is to commence one morning, and to be com-
pleted the following day, and “in the meantime,” says De
Chauliac, “let the physician cogitate upon what he has
seen, and what he may yet see in the case,” because “the
injury is very great if he submit to confinement those
who ought not to be confined.” If, therefore, the patient
is found to have some of the signs only “he must be
carefully watched and confined to his own house or
mansion ; but if he is found with many both unequivocal
and equivocal signs, he must be separated, with kind and
consoling words, from the people, and committed to the
leper-hospital.”

I think I have said enough to show that the question .
of leprosy in Europe in the Middle Ages was considered
of sufficient importance to demand the attention of kings
and rulers, and that special legislation affecting it was very
widely established.

Now let us regard the question from a more or less
social standpoint, and see what general evidence we have
indicating the importance that was attached to it. Nothing
in this respect can be more convincing than the fact of
the enormous number of Lazarettos that were everywhere
established to receive the sufferers from the malady. It
is no doubt true that at all times many of the inmates
were suffering from other diseases (such especially as
syphilis) which were freely confounded with leprosy. No
doubt, too, as years passed away, and leprosy became less

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 167

and less prevalent, the houses were used as general
hospitals and charitable institutions.

I believe the majority of these lazar houses (at any rate
in the earlier days) were under the control of the Knights
of the Order of St. Lazarus, a very ancient offshoot from
the great body of the Knights Hospitallers.* They were
a most interesting Order, and took their name from the
belief that Lazarus was a leper. For many years the
Rule of the Order was that the Superior must be a leper.
The knights were accorded many privileges, and at one
time were possessed of great wealth and influence. Their
chief station in England was at Burton Lazars, in Leicester-
shire, the richest and one of the most important of English
Lazarettos. In Henry VIII.’s time its revenues were
valued at £260. In 1608 Henry IV. of France united
the Order of St. Lazarus to those of Notre Dame and
Mount Carmel, and the candidates for this united knight-
hood were obliged to swear upon the Holy Evangelists,
inter alta, “to exercise charity and works of mercy to-
wards the poor and particularly lepers.”

Members of the Order appear to have been specially
numerous in Scotland and France.

As far as can be ascertained, the first Lazaretto was

established in the Frankish Kingdom about. . . 800
The first established in Ireland ee soieee BOO
- 5 Appa tT os jt atte OOF

ere Pi oa England: +43 <3. % . 1050

ss 5 in Scotland (Aldnestun) & HEFO

is x in Norway. . 1266

The Lazarettos were sometimes Pilla’ < Mesellaria”
and the lepers “ Mesels,” a word derived from “ Misellus,”
the diminutive of ‘‘ Miser,” miserable.

Next to Burton Lazars the most important Lazaretto in
England was at Sherburne in Durham.f The diet roll of

* Simpson, I., Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, pp. 303, 317-
+ Surtee’s History of County Durham.

168 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. Xu. (3)

this hospital has been preserved, as well as many particulars
regarding its internal economy. The daily allowance of
each leper inmate was a loaf weighing five marks, and a
gallon of ale, in addition a mess of flesh three days in the
week, and of fish, cheese, or butter the remaining four.
Every day they had the seventh part of a razer (rasarium)
of bean meal, and some pulse to make gruel, and they
had special extra allowances on certain days. Each leper
had a yearly allowance for his clothing of three yards of
woollen cloth, white or russet, six yards of linen, six of
canvas. Four fires of peat were allowed for the whole
community, and at Christmas they had four yule logs,
each a cartload; four trusses of straw three times a year,
four bundles of rushes three times a year, and on the
anniversary of Martin de Santa Cruce every leper received
five shillings and five pence in money. The rules of the
house were very strict and the religious duties austere.
All the leprous brethren whose health permitted were
every day expected to attend matins, nones, vespers and
complines. The bed-ridden sick were enjoined to raise
themselves and say matins in their bed; and for those
who are weaker “let them rest in peace and say what they
can say” (et guod dicere possint, dicant). During Lentand
Advent all were required to receive corporal discipline
three days in the week.

They were punished for disobedience or idleness at the
discretion of the Prior, by corporal correction with the
birch—“‘ zxo0d0 scholarum.”

At the large establishment of St. Julian at St. Albans,
the rules and regulations have also been preserved and are
very full and precise.* The dietary table seems to have
been much the same as at Sherburne, but on the Feast of
the Nativity of the Blessed Mary each leper received an
obolus “which is the charity of the hospital,” and at the

* Paris, Historia Angli.

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 169

Feast of St. Martin each had a pig from the common
stall; enough pigs were brought to some convenient place,
and there each chose one pig according to the priority of
entering the hospital. On the Feast of St. John Baptist
each received two bushel of salt; on Ascension Day one
obolus to buy pot herbs; and a penny on sundry other
Feast days; and it was ordered that fourteen shillings
was to be distributed in equal portions for their fuel for
the year, “as has been ordained of old for the sake of peace
and concord.” The “residue” of the property of the
hospital was “ordered and decreed to be applied to the
support of the master and priests of the said hospital.”
The lepers were to wear a tunic and upper tunic of russet,
with a hood cut from the same, so that the sleeves of the
tunic were closed as far as the hand. They were to wear
the upper tunic closed down to the ankles, and a close
cape of black cloth of the same length as the hood. A
particular form of shoe was also ordered, and, if the order
was disobeyed, the culprit was condemned “to walk daily
bare-footed until the master, considering his humility,
said to him ‘enough.’”

There was avery large number of Lazarettos in Norfolk,
seven or eight in Norwich itself; and in fact they were
fairly evenly spread overall England. The favourite Patron
Saint was St. Mary Magdalene, and, after her, St. James,
St. Leonard or St.John. Many lazar-houses, suchas Sher-
burne and St. Albans, were richly endowed. Others were
dependent upon casual charity, and the lepers were allowed
under strict regulations to beg in the neighbourhood on
certain days, and whenever they sallied forth they were
compelled to carry a “cop and clapper,” the cop being a
sort of cup to receive money; the clapper.a dish with a
peculiar movable lid, with which they had to make a
noise to announce their approach, and in which they re-
ceived food given tothem. Occasionally, where the leper-
house was by the side of the road, they were allowed to

170 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII-(3)

sit by the side and hold out a box for alms, hung by a
chain at the end of a pole, and the identical box used at
the house founded by Lanfranc at Harbledown, near Canter-
bury, is still preserved.

In Scotland there were many Lazarettos, the two most
notable being at Kingcase, near Ayr, and Greenside, near
Edinburgh.

In Gloucester there were certainly two, and possibly
three, Lazarettos. One dedicated to St. Mary Magdalene
belonged to the Priory of Llanthony, the other, St.
Margaret’s, was attached to the Abbey of St. Peter; they
were both of course, as was the invariable custom, out-
side the walls, and the chapels of both are still standing.
The first record of the existence of lepers in Gloucester
is seen in a document by which Alured, Bishop of Wor-
cester from 1153 to 1163, granted them leave to be buried
in their own churchyard at St. Margaret's.

Mr Bartleet has written an interesting account of the
Gloucester leper-houses in the Transactions of the Bristol
and Gloucestershire Archzological Society.

The only other known Lazarettos in Gloucestershire
were one at Tewkesbury, and several in and about Bristol.

At the Assize opened by the Justices in Eyre at Glou-
cester™ on the 2Ist June, 1221, it was presented that
(translation) “‘two coffins of lead were found in the court-
yard of Robert de Aqua full of bones.” Such treasure
trove belongs to the Crown, but the Judges directed as to
the coffins and bones “let them be given to the lepers.”
This was more humane treatment than was at one time
accorded to them in Scotland, for a decree has been pre-
served of the Council of Edinburgh that “any putrid or
rotten fish condemned in the market was to be sent out-
side the town to the lipper folk.”

* Maitland’s Pleas of the Crown for the County of Gloucester,

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS taro

A very ancient well-known leper-house, restricted to
females, existed on the site of St. James’s Palace in London.
Henry VIII. obtained possession of this, which in his time
had become a hospital, giving in exchange lands at Chatis-
ham in Suffolk.

But lepers were not always consigned to Lazarettos.
Bishop Stapleton, of Exeter, in 1330, having heard that
the Vicar of St. Neots in Cornwall had become a leper,
appointed one Ralph de Roydene to be his deputy and
take charge of him, “since he cannot, without danger,
have intercourse with the whole people as he has been
accustomed.” The part of the vicarage inhabited by
the leper is to be walled off from the rest of it, and a
new entrance made, for the leper’s use. Ralph is to pay
him 2s. a week for his maintenance, and once a year 20s.
for a new robe, &c.

According to the tenor of various old civil codes, when
a person became affected with leprosy, he was looked
upon as legally and politically dead. He lost the privileges
of citizenship, and was incapable of being an heir or of
disposing of any property that might have belonged to him.

There is an ancient French document in existence.
which describes most accurately the official procedure of
proclaiming a man a leper.

The medical examiners having reported upon the case,
if their verdict declared the man a leper, a Priest robed
with surplice and stole went to his house. He first
exhorted him to endure with a patient and penitent spirit
the incurable plague with which God had stricken him.
He was then conducted to church and all his ordinary
clothes were removed. He was thereupon vested in a
funeral pall, placed between two trestles before the altar,
and the Mass for the dead was celebrated over him. He
was then led to the Lazaretto; a cop, clapper, stick, cowl,
and dress, &c. were given to him. He was then solemnly

172 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xml. (3)

interdicted from appearing in public without his leper’s
dress, from eating and drinking with any but other lepers,
and he received a great variety of other ordinances. The
ceremony terminated by the chief official throwing a
handful of earth over the body of the poor outcast in
imitation of the closure of the grave.

I said just now that the disease has hitherto baffled all
the efforts of science to discover a remedy, and I believe
this is strictly true. I did read the other day a German
report of a case at Hamburg about 10 years ago which
a Dr Unna claims to have cured as the result of a course
of treatment spread over several months. He shows
photographs of the patient before and after the treatment,
but although these certainly indicate a great improvement
in the condition of the patient, they also show that the
disease was by no means very far advanced. His treatment
consisted chiefly in the use of ichthyol, in rubbing the
patient with pyrogallic acid, and in applying to the forehead
and chin a plaster made of chrysophanic and salicylic acids
with creasote.

In the Middle Ages leprosy was universally believed to
be incurable, though from time to time all sorts of specifics
were pronounced to be remedies, such as a bath of dogs’
blood, and even a bath of the blood of young children was
declared to be a certain cure.

Of late years two kinds of oil, gurjun oil and chaub-
moogra oil, have been found to possess very considerable
power, being taken internally and also rubbed over the
skin, but the utmost that can be said of this treatment is
that in some cases the progress of the disease is certainly
arrested and kept in quiescence for a more or less ex-
tended period, though I believe that, when it does recur,
it comes back with extra virulence.

I have seen a most curious account of a method adopted
for cure among the natives in the Fiji Islands. The leper

1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS Ts

is stripped naked, taken into a hut, his body rubbed with
leaves of the Sinugaga tree (Eucecaria agallocha), a small
fire is lighted and heaped up with logs of the same tree,
the smoke from which is poisonous and pungent. The
patient is bound hand and foot, and a rope is made fast in
such a way that, from outside the hut, he can be hauled up
and suspended by the heels, his head hanging about 15
inches from the ground. His tortured screams and calls
for pity and release are disregarded until he faints away,
though this may not befor hours. He is then dragged out,
the slime is scraped from his body, and gashes are cut into
the skin to make the blood flow freely. This wonderful
treatment almost always kills the patient; if it fails in pro-
ducing this effect it is said to cure.

Such isa brief history of one of the most ancient diseases
still existing in the world, most interesting from a historical,
most mysterious from a professional point of view.

175

EXCURSION NOTES:
CHIEFLY. ON ‘RIVER FEATURES,

BY

S: S: BUCKMAN, F.G:S.

The programmes of the excursions undertaken in the
summer of 1899 contained various notes and illustrations
of the points for special study during the respective out-
ings; and it seems desirable that these notes should find
a place in the Proceedings. For this purpose they have
been collected to form a paper, and in some cases further
illustrations both in the way of additional figures and of
explanatory text have been introduced. These illustra-
tions, it is hoped, will more fully elucidate the necessarily
brief notes given in the respective programmes. The
different excursions may be taken in order, the notes
of the programmes being given first, with such verbal
emendations as may be necessary, and further remarks
being added as occasion requires.

THE COLN VALLEY MEETING

_ The object of the day’s excursion was to study the
features of rivers and their valleys.

The ideas governing the investigations are that on the
first initiation of the present drainage the streams flowed
_ with the dip, from the Welsh mountains towards the south-
east of England (Fig. 1); that these streams were after-
wards in many cases intercepted by later-developed streams

M

176 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XIII. @)

such as the Severn (Fig. 2, B), which, working along the
strike of soft rocks, lowered the soft Lias country and so
left the Oolite in relief; that from these strike streams
anti-dip streams (Fig. 3, C) were developed, like the Chelt
and the Isborne, which work, and are working, back to
rob the original, but beheaded dip streams like the Coln
(Fig. 3, D).

:

‘|
w<

| |

‘| |
w<——-

A |

q

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Thus it may be understood that there are developed—
first, dip streams, on account of the surface slope; second,
strike streams, on account of the relative hardness of the
rocks; and third, anti-dip streams, on account of the
difference of ground level.

It may also be noted that of so many dip streams flow-
ing in a given direction (Fig. 4), one will become the
master stream by capturing, by means of the strike
streams which develop as tributaries (Fig. 5, B), the waters
of the neighbours (Fig. 5).

EEE a a] ae

=e | ar

= ee ba es | os
Fig. 4 Fig. 5

It is by such capture as this that the Cotteswold streams
flow to join the Evenlode at Oxford. They have been
captured by a strike stream—the Upper Thames.

Examples of the various stages of river and valley de-
velopment were studied.

The appended Figs. 6, 7, and 8 show the development
of a stream from slight curves into pronounced meanders,

1900 Ss. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES Fy,

which become greater as the river impinges more, first on
the one bank and then on the other. In these figures
A A’ are the sides of the valley, B is the curving stream,
and CC are the “spurs” of the convex portions of the
valley. These spurs tend to become more and more

| ABA Ht
A_B
Cc Cc c
a Z |
F G = es
lm aA A
E BX ue

"

Fig. 6 Big Fig. 8
InrrraTinGc Curves. PRONOUNCED CURVES AND CoNSIDERABLE MEANDERS WITH
WELL-DEVELOPED SPURS. TENDENCY TO OBLITERATE SPURS

worn away with the development of the meanders, on
account of lateral encroachment of the stream—encroach-
ment, that is, on the sides of the spurs; and it is the up-
stream sides of the spurs which are most worn away.

Fig. 9

Tue MEANDER NECK SEVERED.

In time, when the curvature of the meanders becomes
very great, the river straightens its course by cutting
through the narrow neck of the meander at D, as shown
in Fig. 9.

M2

178 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xill. (3)

A most interesting example of Fig. 9 occurs near
Withington; the cutting is all but completed—the neck
is 5 feet, and around the meander is 50 yards. There,
too, may be seen the different features in the cutting of a
valley, due to shrinkage in the river volume.

The following is some of the literature on the subject :—

W. M. Davis, ‘Development of English Rivers ;’ Geo-
graphical Journal, vol. v., 1895.

H. J. Osborne White, ‘ High Level Gravel ;’ Proc. Geol.
Assoc., vol. xv., pt. 4, 1897.

S. S. Buckman, ‘Development of Rivers;’ Natural
Science, April, 1899.

By means of some of the blocks which appeared in my
paper above mentioned, on ** The Development of Rivers,”
I can illustrate these remarks somewhat more fully. It
may be premised that dip streams are termed consequents,
strike streams, subsequents, and anti-dip streams, obse-
quents.* Then in Fig. 10, A there is a representation of
a theoretical case, a series of consequents flowing with
the dip being threatened bya subsequent which is develop-
ing along the strike of soft rocks, such as those of the
Lias vale. In Fig. 10, B there is shown a further theor-
etical case, the result of the successful growth of this
subsequent. It has captured the consequents successively,
has turned them to its own system, and has started ob-
sequent streams in the former valleys of the consequents

* Such terms as dip streams, etc., would suit the Cotteswold district well enough ;
but would be inapplicable in other cases. For instance, strata which dip, say, east may
cover unconformably older strata dipping west. The covering strata may give rise to
a dip stream, may in course of time be entirely denuded—and then the same stream
maintaining the same course has become an anti-dip stream because its channel is cut
down through the underlying strata which dip the opposite way. Yet this stream is not
an obsequent. There is what seems to be such a case in the Carding Mill stream which
flows from the Longmynd into the Church ‘Stretton valley, in Shropshire; it appears to
be an original consequent which has by cutting down become an anti-dip stream.

But the terms such as consequent, etc., are awkward, because they clash with ordinary

English words.

1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES 179

—such valleys being the natural places for such streams,
because they were the lowest ground, and the immediate
drainage would therefore find its way into them. These

Fig. 10. THeoreticat Diacrams or SrReAM DEVELOPMENT.

obsequent streams work back more and more, to diminish
the already beheaded consequents.

These are the theoretical cases,—the illustrations of
what is supposed to have happened. Fig. 11, which is a
tracing from the map of the Severn and its tributaries in
the neighbourhood of Gloucester. shows how closely the
actual river features correspond to the theory. The re-
markable point is that the tributaries on the left bank or
the Severn are flowing in a direction more or less opposed
_to the course of the Severn itself; but that curious cir-
cumstance is understood if it be conceded that their
direction was first marked out by the consequents, now
on the right bank of the Severn, continuing their course

180 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (3)

in the manner of the dotted lines shown in Fig. 11, when
they were rivers draining into the Thames system.

With regard to the breaches of the Cotteswold escarp-
ment, and such rivers as the Chelt, this means :—That

Fig. rr. Acruat SrreAmM DEVELOPMENT IN VALE OF GLOUCESTER.

The dotted lines indicate the courses of the original consequents flowing S.E. ;

the arrows, the courses of present streams.

the breaches high above the valleys of obsequent rivers
were cut by rivers which were extensions of the Thames
system ; that obsequent streams, such as the Chelt, Frome,
etc., which now flow in their respective valleys below the
breaches, are rivers of later date which have worked back
from the Severn, cutting out newer and lower valleys
beneath the floors of the original consequent valleys.

1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES I8I

Fig. 12 then shows what may be supposed to have been
the river system of the Thames with the original conse-
quents. But, as pointed out in Fig. 5, these consequents

4

pute, a me ait 5 y Ey hella Sey
Red \ LoucestrReT (“BAT NRE 2
ek. =
4 “(lite R I :
St "Weeden Articline

~f ‘

Ca No i,

RE SE ¢
aS cs

THE SUPPOSED ORIGINAL Dre STREAMS OR CoNnSEQUENTS, shown by dotted
lines; the present rivers being marked in the ordinary way. There are

some misprints in the block: Martrso should be Marlborough (Marlbro’).
Welden should be Wealden.

Fig. 12.

182 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xm. (3)
would compete among themselves; one would become a
master stream by developing subsequents along the strike
of soft rocks, and would in this way capture its neigh-
bours, turning them to its own system. Fig. 13 shows
the position of affairs which may be supposed to have

4
-~ sed ¢
! ‘
4 ‘
eenee = ‘( ‘
= coon ; .
iC ct --* } ~
aint af pace ee ° 4 \
ser) SO Deen Fe eo ee os x 4
Pas OcrA Teme \ \
ee ‘
% x ' \
+.’ ' ‘
N : ee \ ‘\ ' \
ed ‘ “at \
Pa 1 ’
‘ 1 '
a xy 1 = ‘
4 BSaeeee ‘ .
oe Wyant. ’ A ERR a!
*. ‘i . ne '
. ye 1
. is <> = ‘
ae : aS Ss cr ‘
e. Oy . 5 ’
Pa veeaeet <a ak > “ease! -
5 sees, j ee Sante kee
ee nt: Se mS 5 " ‘ o = eee
o 5 eee oo . , =e eo. , s
: Se Clty “4 °
: . < * cs a Ve
= - : " te Set
Sate . 1 07 \ OE Bs =,
=> rin ee . ' e >
+ ’ €
ce ,

eee
a

Fig. 13. A SUPPOSED LATER STAGE OF RIVER DEVELOPMENT THAN THAT SHOWN
in Fic. 12—the Severn working its way up the vale of Gloucester, but
not yet having captured what may be called the Cheltenham river group—
the Coln system.

Consequents .......
Obsequents ————++

Subsequents
1

existed while the Severn was engaged in working its
way back. The Coln flowing through the gorge east of
Cheltenham became a master stream, collecting to itself a
considerable amount of the drainage of the then high level

vale of Gloucester by beheading its neighbours, such as
the Churn, the Leach, the Windrush.

1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES 183

And lower down the river, where a similar series of soft
strata allowed a similar state of affairs, the Evenlode-Thames
had sent outa strike stream, and had collected consequents
in a similar manner. All the Cotteswold streams, such
as the Windrush, Coln, Churn, have been captured by
the strike stream, the Upper Thames, in this way. Fig. 13
shows it. And what is necessary to point out is that the
same state of affairs exists at the present day, the captured
rivers in the Vale of White Horse being taken up the
Thames now, through the breach in the Chalk escarpment
known as the Goring gorge. But what was presumably
the analogous state of affairs with regard to the Lias
streams taken through the Chelt gorge of Inferior Oolite
has passed away, owing to the successful growth of the
Severn.

If such was the case there should be evidence in the
valleys. The Teme-Coln, as it may be called, making its
way through the Inferior Oolite gorge should have cut
back the sides of that gorge to form a valley with worn-
away spurs and only slight concavities such as is shown
in Fig. 8, or in a more degraded manner in Fig. 9. And
so it has. If anyone will look at the successive spurs
and concavities of the sides of the Chelt valley—the high
level valley above the 600 feet contour line—they may
notice the resemblance of these spurs and combes to the
valley-sides formed by a meandering river.

This is an important point—the features of the present
Chelt valley were really determined by the meandering of
the original high-level consequent. The places where
Springs and rivulets would afterwards break out to feed the
Chelt would be in the combes of the meander bends; because
from them the protective Oolite capping had been most
removed, and the water-retaining Lias had been brought
nearest to the surface ; and, again, atmospheric denudation
would have the best chance to make valleys of these
combes.

184 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xu. (3)

This is quite opposite to what has usually been taught.
The combes have determined the position of springs, not
the springs determined the making of combes. Or, really,
the original meander bends determined where the springs
and rivulets of the obsequent river should be situated.
Even the valley turns of the obsequent river, seen to per-
fection near Dowdeswell, were determined by the mean-
derings of the original consequent.

And the result of these meanderings to produce valley
sides like those of Figs. 8 or 9 may be further observed
in the high level of the Coln valley above Withington.
Here there are really four valleys, each with their own
special features. Ist, the high level valley with nearly
obliterated spurs; 2nd, the three valleys with diminishing
river curves as pointed out by Prof. Davis, and illustrated
in Fig. 14. This figure is only a rough diagram, but from

A

3

Fig. 14. Roucu DrAGRam or THE CuRVES IN THE CoLN VALLEY, SourH or ANDOVERSFORD.

the hill south of Withington, looking up the Coln valley,
there may be seen the features which it indicates : namely,
A, large curves; B, course of a lower valley making two
turns in each original curve; C, very meandering course
of the present river.

The features of B to be noticed are, first, the development
of a subsidiary spur, jutting out like a buttress from the
large valley concavity: this is seen excellently on the left

ae IR OAR aF yties SHemrna.

oa
me tN

1900 S. S$. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES 185

bank of the Coln just below the allotments north of
Withington, and even better in the valley from Syreford
to Sevenhampton; secondly, the development of a sub-
sidiary concavity in a primary spur: this is well shown in
the right bank of the Coln just below the allotments, and
on the left bank just below Woodbridge, towards Casey
Compton. |

Diminution of river curves indicates diminution in river
volume ; the latter would be brought about by the success-
ful growth of the Severn, as it beheaded, first the western,
and then by means of the Avon, the northern tributaries
of the Coln—those which would have cut the pass at
Charlton Abbotts. So the fact of finding these diminish-
ing curves so plainly in the Coln valley is strong evidence
for the assumption that the original Thames streams
flowed from the Welsh hills over the Cotteswolds before
any Severn existed, as in Fig. 12; and that the present
condition of the drainage is due to their having been
successively broken into by the Severn working along the
strike of the soft Lias rocks.

A glance at Fig. 12 will show the possibility of the
‘Bristol Avon doing the same for the streams which enter
the Goring gorge, as the Severn is supposed to have
done for those entering the Chelt gorge, and so leaving
the Goring gorge as a riverless breach such as the Chelt
gorge is now. The Bristol Avon would have to work
back along the line of the Thames to Oxford; and it may
be seen that it has already accomplished the process in
_ part, and has captured some of the South Cotteswold
streams which, by analogy with their neighbours, the
_ Churn and Coln, there is every reason to suppose once
_ formed part of the Kennet (¢.e. Thames system) drainage.

186 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XIII. (3)

THE SALISBURY MEETING

The Vale of Pewsey is an interesting example of a
particular phenomenon of geomorphy. It illustrates what
has been called a “valley of elevation,” the result of the

denudation of an anticlinal fold. The vale has been

formed along the axis of the anticline, while the materials
were carried away by the rivers which drained north and
south from the anticline. Of these rivers the Salisbury
Avon is the only one now in existence. It started on
the high ground of the anticlinal axis when the Vale of
Pewsey was still filled with strata as high as the hills
which bound it; and, cutting for itself the channel which
now forms a gorge south of Upavon, it carried away the
softer rocks which separated the north and south Chalk
hills around Pewsey. In doing this it developed a series
of lateral streams more or less along the axis of the
anticline, and these streams now form its head waters.

toEy

H)
i /

=

‘
'
et River Kenneh

G
22,
Ler,

1) =~ ea
ae

Fig. 15. DraAcram or KENNET SYNCLINE AND Pewsey Anriciine. The dotted
lines show the former position of the Eocene. The horizontal
lines the gorge cut by the Avon.

The annexed diagram, Fig. 15, shows the structure of
the anticline, roughly indicating the general formation
of the county from north of Swindon to south of Pewsey,

1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES 187

with the position of the Kennet in regard to the Avon.
The Kennet occupies the synclinal trough. Its _posi-
tion and the eastern direction of the Kennet-Thames has
been largely determined by the position of the Pewsey
anticline. The diagram shows the possibility of the Avon
robbing the underground water from north of the Kennet.
How far this is applicable to the present case is a matter
for future work; but the possibility of such river-robbery
in this or other cases is interesting.

This diagram (Fig. 15), so far as ground levels were
concerned, was merely a rough sketch made after cycling
through the country; but since it was drawn, and the
above notes were written, I have been able to work out
the question more fully. Unfortunately the maps of the
Geological Survey do not give contour lines, so the infor-
mation as regards contours has to be obtained from one
map, and that as regards geology from another, which is
not a satisfactory plan.

However, I have now drawn a scale diagram of part of

the country, and have put in the geology according to
actual heights. The resulting diagram (Fig. 16), gives
the ground level contour, exaggerated on account of the
difference in horizontal and vertical scales ; but the relative
levels are correct. It will be seen that the valley of the
_ Salisbury Avon is, even near its head, 100 feet lower than
_ that of the Kennet, and that the springs supplying the
_ Salisbury Avon are below the level of the Kennet.
The syncline beneath the Kennet valley really forms a
__ basin wherein the water which, both north and south of the
_ Kennet, falls on and mainly sinks through the pervious
_ Chalk, is held up by the partly impervious Greensand and
_ the very impervious Gault. And the water in this basin
_ can be held up to the line marked as “water level for
_ Salisbury Avon ”-—proved by this being the level of one of
the Avon’s springs.

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COTTESWOLD CLUB

PROE:

188

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* S31IW $ sHONI | ‘TWLNOZINOH SATIN $ =HONI | ‘IWLNOZINOH

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JAOQL JUIUIYIVOIOUI-IOALI BULINOAL] SIdULISWINOIID Surmoys suiviseiqy ‘LI ‘QI ‘sSIy

1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES 189

The point is this :—That of the water which falls on the
Marlborough Downs very little finds its way to the
Kennet; it soaks down through pervious Chalk and is
drained away by the Salisbury Avon which has the advan-
tage of the lower level. And if the river bottom of the
Kennet were at all leaky that water would be taken by the
Avon. It is a very pronounced case of river robbery.
And further, the more a river robs, the more it is en-
couraged to rob; for the robbery itself enables it to eat
its way back into its neighbour’s territory.

However, the Salisbury Avon has not got it all its own
way. It is, and has been successfully attacked by the
Bristol Avon.

The diagram (Fig. 17), which is at right angles to the
last, along the axis of the anticline, shows the relative
position. One of the Bristol Avon’s streams is draining
the ground below the Salisbury Avon, and as it can give
a quicker fall in a shorter distance, it will certainly eat
into the territory of the Salisbury Avon, and get stronger
in the process. Already it has beheaded the stream
immediately west of the Salisbury Avon, one which, rising

from the anticline just south of Devizes, cut the pass

through the Chalk from West Lavington to Tilshead:* cut
that pass down to 418 feet, or within some 30 feet of
what the Salisbury Avon has done. So the capture must
be fairly recent.

The present position of the Bristol Avon in relation to
the Pewsey Vale and the Salisbury Avon may be exactly
compared to the state of affairs depicted in Fig. 13 as
regards the growing Severn, when part of the Lias vale
was drained by streams which flowed through the Chelt
gorge of Oolite. What the Bristol Avon is to the Salis-
bury Avon now, so was the Severn to the then extended

* This is now the beheaded stream which flows by Winterbourne—the name means

much in river-robbery. Winterbourne indicates shortage of supply in summer.

190 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (3)

Coln ; and the Chalk gorge at Upavon shows the counter-
part of what the Oolite gorge at Charlton Kings must
have been.

So that, changing the necessary names, putting Severn
for Bristol Avon, Coln for Salisbury Avon, Chelt Oolite
gorge for Upavon Chalk gorge, Severn Vale for Pewsey
Vale, we get from a present day example an exact picture
of what a Cotteswold river system was in the past.

Then, from analogy with what this river system of the
Cotteswolds is at present, we can infer the future of the
river system of the Pewsey Vale—the Bristol Avon will
invade that vale further and will behead the Salisbury
Avon; and then the Salisbury Avon will rise below
Upavon on the slope of the Chalk escarpment as the Coln
does now near Andoversford, and the Upavon gorge will
be deepened to become the valley of an obsequent river
like the Chelt.

But the success of the north-eastern part of the Bristol
Avon along the vale by Swindon—detailed in an earlier
part of this paper, p. 185—will probably precede this event.
It would hasten it, perhaps.

There was one feature noticed about the Kennet in the
day’s excursion. Ascending the hill from Marlborough,
a good view of the valley was obtained; and there could
be plainly seen just those diminishing curves which are
so characteristic of the Upper Coln—illustrated in Fig. 14.
There was another observation. The south-western road
by which we left Marlborough for Pewsey was evidently
a British trackway leading first to earthworks on the
downs overlooking the Pewsey Vale, and then perhaps
continuing as one of the ancient roads to Stonehenge.

1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES I9I

THE SODBURY MEETING

The Lilliput cutting shows some strata of Carboniferous
Limestone dipping west at an angle of 45 degrees. Against,
and overlapping them, are Mesozoic rocks with an easterly
dip of about 3 degrees.

The Carboniferous Limestone exposed is a part of the
shore-line of the late Trias and early Lias sea. It formed
a kind of cape. It was gradually buried beneath the
accumulation of Mesozoic strata.

The interesting geological history may be thus stated.
After the deposition of the Coal Measures, the strata
were thrown into anticlinal and synclinal folds. Denuda-
tion, probably marine, planed them down to a base level,
destroying the anticlinal fold. Then the district being
elevated to form a land surface, the unprotected Old Red
Sandstone was removed by sub-aerial denudation to form
a valley. The scenery which such denudation would
have produced may be compared to that of the Vale of
Pewsey. Afterwards depression admitted the sea to this
vale, and it became filled with Trias rocks; and then
continued subsidence allowed of the whole being buried
beneath Jurassic strata. There was again elevation; and
sub-aerial denudation removed some of the Mesozoic strata
and again exposed the Palaeozoic rocks on the western
syncline, but left the eastern syncline buried beneath the
_ Mesozoic rocks of the hills. .

There is an important question of economical Geology
here, namely, the position of the Coal Measures beneath
_ the hills. Following the synclinal and anticlinal folds, it
_ would be possible to indicate where the Coal Measures
_ would be most likely to be found by a boring beneath the
_ tocks of the Cotteswolds in the Badminton neighbourhood.
N

192 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xi. (3)

The effect of the Tunnel, which will be two-and-a-half
miles long, on the drainage of the district, will be an im-
portant point. In its course it will knock a hole in the
bottom of three water-retaining strata—the Upper Lias,
the Fullers’ Earth, and the Forest Marble. Thus it will
give the water of the hills which formerly went eastwards
a chance to go westwards. The upper tributaries of the
Bristol Avon will be robbed, and the lower tributary—the
Frome—will gain. The effect on the water wets of
the Badminton district may be very marked.

Two observations were made at this meeting, from the
fossils shown in the Engineer’s office at the Cross Hands:
—At 132 feet was obtained a specimen of the Grammo-
ceras aalense group; at 178 feet, a specimen of Grammo-
ceras striatulum. So the Cephalopod bed—the strata of
the Hemere aalense-striatuli — is 46 feet thick here.
This is a considerable increase on what obtains in the
Frocester neighbourhood.

The above notes refer to some of the questions studied
during the first three meetings in the summer of 1899.
For the fourth meeting, as I was much ‘engaged, the
President very kindly relieved me of the work. On one
feature of the excursion which he arranged he has made
the remarks contained in the next contribution.

193

EXCURSION NOTES:
He Ke NAT OPRIORS: MESNE,
BY
M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS

The garden to which Surgeon-General Cook has devoted
so much attention possesses many features of altogether
exceptional interest. It is about two acres in extent, lies
on the southern slope of a hill, and, surrounded by a wood,
is sheltered on all sides, though open to every ray of the
sun. There are three ponds at different levels, with many
aquatic plants, including six different varieties of water
lily, white, yellow, primrose, rose-coloured, sweet-scented,
and double. On an island are some fine specimens of
Wellingtonza, with Japanese and other pines, and in the
surrounding wood are many species of pine 60 years old:
—P. excelsa, P. araucaria (from Chili), Deodara (from
the Himalayas), and several younger trees (notably Aédzes
douglasi) which have attained a height of over 4o ft. in
15 years. There is alsoa fine specimen of Eucalyptus,
over 25 ft. high. Among the most striking objects are
several grand specimens of the Abyssinian Musa (MV.
ensete) bearing leaves 14 ft. in length and 2% ft. in
_ breadth, without a rent in any part; several hardy palms,
q Chamerops excelsa, C. humtls, and C. fortuner, the first
has been planted out about five years, and its fronds
_ measure nearly 6ft. round the circumference; the giant
Polygonum (sachalinense) with stems 12 ft. to 16 ft. in
height, huge leaves, and covered with spikes of small
flowerets. This is the male plant; while groups of the
female plant, which show drooping racemes of flowers,
and several other species, overhang the ponds.

oo N2

194 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. xi. (3)

There is also Hedychium gardnerianum, with large soft
leaves and flower spikes from 12 to 18 inches high, covered
with from 100 to 150 flowers, orange-yellow with scarlet
stamens; one of a family closely allied to the tropical
arrow-roots ; a new species of Sezeczo (groundsel) with
leaves 18 in. by 12 in., fresh, soft and green; a stately plant
(Senecio arborea) which promises to be a great addition
to the sub-tropical group; a new Musa (M. sinensis), its
leaves striped or barred with purple. Amongst other
tropical large-foliaged plants are the Azcznus (the castor-oil
plant); the giant red-flowered tobacco; three species of
Azalea (A. sieboldi, A. cashmeriensis, and A. papyracea);
masses of Canna indica; and single specimens of the lovely
C. ehemannz, by far the best of all the Caxne, with its
large, pure, rose-coloured flowers on hanging terminals.
Groups of the giant-leaved Gunnera, from South America,
(G. manicata and G. scabra), which are said to be the largest
leaved of all terrestrial plants, some of them being from
5 ft. to 6 ft. across, and having a superficial area of from
20 ft. to 25 ft.; they are here, however, exceeded by the
leaves of the great (Zus@ near them, some of which actually
attain a surface of over 28 ft.

The Arundo conspicua from New Zealand, a plant re-
sembling the Pampas grass, but far handsomer, flowering
in July, and retaining its plumes until the winter ; Spzvree,
some I2 or 14 species; and /‘wzkze in great variety, hardy
plants which need no extra care, were also noted.

Prominent among the foreign accessions to the English
garden are the different species of Bamboo; about a dozen
species are here represented of heights varying from 5 ft.
to 20 ft., some of them forming dense masses 6 ft. to 7 ft.
across at the base. These grand plants give a most dis-
tinctly sub-tropical character to the garden. Such area
few of the many interesting plants which Dr Cook has
succeeded in acclimatizing at Priors Mesne.

195

A FATAL COMBAT BETWEEN A ROVE
BEETLE AND AN ANT,

BY
C. A. WITCHELL AnD C. J. WATKINS,

(Read June Ist, 1899)

I.—DESCRIPTION OF COMBAT.
BY

C. A. WITCHELL

On the 12th of May, at 6.45 a.m., when gardening, I
_ found on a ball of mould two insects holding each other.
One was a Rove beetle (Xantholinus punctulatus, Payk),
_ and the other was a worker of the Garden ant (Lastus
niger). The ant held in its jaws one of the antennz of
the Rove beetle; and the latter bit at and held a leg or
an antenna of the ant, but did not retain its hold for
long. The ant appeared to be having the best of the
combat. He held on firmly, and seemed quite at ease;
the Rove beetle, on the contrary, seemed anxious to be
rid of its enemy. The insects pulled each other from
‘Spot to spot on the mould; and after a quarter of an
hour had elapsed I persuaded them to alight on a piece
of brown paper. But they still held each other.

I covered them with a glass, and looked at them from
time to time. Thinking to refresh them, I wetted the

196 PROC. COTTESWOLD .CLUB . VOL. Xig)

paper, and the Rove beetle lay as if dead in the water, the
ant above him. Indeed, I thought the ant had killed
him. At half-past nine I dried up the water, and the
insects at once resumed the strife. At this time the
Rove beetle seemed to be getting the best of the “ mill.”
I then left for the day.

At 6.30 p.m., when I returned, the ant still held the
antenna of the Rove beetle; but the ant was dead.
The Rove was as strong as ever, and ran about with the
corpse of his foe clinging to him.

At six o’clock next morning the Rove was asleep, the
ant still retaining his grim hold. I then killed the Rove
beetle, which resisted vigorously.

I put the insects, as they were, on stamp paper, and
took them to Mr C. J. Watkins, of Painswick, who kindly
identified them, and returned them to me mounted, but, I
regret to say, separated.

I]L.—REMARKS ON THE COMBATANTS
BY

C.J. WERING, “MES:

The Beetle is one of the great group of Brachelytra, of
which nearly 800 species have been recorded as British.
They are commonly called Rove beetles, which are readily
known by their elongate abdomen, and very short, straight
wing cases, covering, however, a pair of large, beautiful
wings. One of our largest species is the well-known
“Devil's coach-horse” (Ocypus olens). From the length
of an inch they vary down to a size so small as to require
a strong lens to show whether they are insects, much
less beetles. Most of these Rove beetles are carnivorous,
and feed upon decaying animal substances. The larvze or
these beetles resemble the perfect insect, and are found

1900 WITCHELL & WATKINS—INSECT COMBAT 197

under similar circumstances. They are very active and
voracious, using their sharp jaws with great effect, and
sucking the juices of their prey through them. The
Rove beetle in question is known as Xantholinus punc-
tulatus, Payk. There are 10 British species in this
genus, whose members have a peculiar habit of curling,
or rather “doubling” themselves up in repose.

Some kinds of Rove beetles are constantly found in
the nests of certain species of ants. These myrmeco-
philous, or ant-loving species have been found even in the
inner sanctuaries of the ant’s nest, and appear perfectly at
home, their numerous hosts never molesting them. Mr
Rye records having seen a Rove beetle (A¢temeles emar-
ginatus) being carried about tenderly in the mouth of
an ant much less than itself. Another Rove beetle
(Myrmedonia funesta) is often found in the nests of the
Jet ant (Formica fuliginosa); it is very like its host in
appearance, and even acquires the pungent odour common
to its host—from living in an atmosphere impregnated
with formic acid.

To return to our Rove beetle (X. punctulatus) and its
seeming enemy which appears to be a worker of the
Garden ant (Lasius niger). It is very possible that the
ant was the aggressor while out on a foraging expedition,
and had the combatants not been removed from the ground
it is probable that other workers of the species would soon
have assisted their comrade to overcome the beetle.

PROC. COTTESW OLD CLUB VOL. XIlI., PLATE TV¥g

A Au! \
\i Ns etait =
Je ae
yy ate vi
Li ne it -| il ban ‘i

W VY

I

<3 2—DOGE’S PALACE, VENICE

Myc LM

po

CROSS, 1602

hi Wh uly
cant

=

Fig. 1 eee

2

Fig. 8—GROUND PLAN OF BASILICA, ROME Fig. 4—CANTERBURY

fila any

Fig. 6—PEUTINGER’S MAP

Fig. 5—GREEK AGORA

199

SURVIVALS OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
IN BRITAIN,

BY
JOHN BELLOWS.
(Read December 13th, 1898)

The West of England, especially the district of which
Gloucestershire may be taken as a centre, is rich in archi-
tecture that shows a historical connection with the past;
and some of its public buildings which more than any
other have preserved to us features of a very high antiquity
are its pillared market-houses. As a whole they are
quaint and homely rather than beautiful; and possibly it
is their very homeliness that has caused archzeologists
to overlook the points which prove their true origin.

When the Tolsey, or Town-house, of the City of Glou-
cester was taken down in 1896, there were exposed under
its foundations the remains of some medizval structures ;
and below these again there were found portions of a still
earlier Roman building, which has been decided by George
E. Fox and Edward Jones, the explorers of Silchester, to
have been a Basilica, or place connected with the city
administration in the Roman period.

If we examine the old engraving [Plate IV., fig. 1] of the
Tolsey which was built previous to the one that has lately
given place to the Wilts and Dorset Bank we shall notice

(ore, )

200 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xl. (3)

three principal points in it. First, that it, too, has the
Council Chamber in an upper floor; second, that it has very
large and heavy sash windows, which were copied, with
modification, in the plate-glass lights of the late Tolsey ;
and third, that the room stands upon pillars, and covers
the side walk in the street, forming a portico. This older
building dates from 1602. Where did the architect who
designed this Tolsey of three centuries ago, get his idea
of the covered gangway ? for it was certainly a survival,
not an innovation. An examination of the Roman build-
ing on the same site gives us the clue; for it, too, had a
covered ambulatory ; and so had the Basilica at Silchester.

The new Guildhall, which happens to stand on the site
of the Roman Praetorium, is itself in some degree an
evolution of the Tolsey which it replaces, inasmuch as it
preserves the principal feature in the older building, which
was the placing of the Council Chamber in the upper
storey, instead of on the ground floor.

This arrangement was the result of experience ; and it
is clear that if the Tolsey has thus helped to determine the
form of the newer building, it must in turn have received
some impress from its predecessor : what it retained, with
what it discontinued, make up the evolution we shall
endeavour to follow.

It is remarkable that while the City of Chester has been
so far destroyed in the disturbances it has suffered, that
even the main cross of the streets is displaced; yet it has
retained the style of building which provides such covered
ambulatories on a larger scale than any other town in
Britain; for in the Rows at Chester, with their two-
storeyed covered passages, we have the parallel evolution
to that which is offered by the Doge’s Palace in Venice.
The only differences are those arising from the purposes
of a commercial building being different to those of one
intended for official occupation [Plate IV., fig. 2.]

1900 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 201

The houses in Pompeii and other Roman cities were
built, as our old timber-framed mansions are, with over-
hanging storeys, and the same style still prevails in towns
of Roman origin in the East: as for instance in Con-
stantinople, especially in the Stamboul quarter.

That the idea itself goes back to the Basilica and the
Agora may be seen from the description of the latter
given by Vitruvius, and from the double-storied porticos
in the Basilica represented on a coin of Lepidus [Plate V.,
fig. 2].

The origin of this style of building goes back to the
East. In the hot summers of Central and Southern Asia
the great desiderata were shade and air; and this deter-
mined the arrangement of every structure, from the
shepherd’s tent to the palace of the king. To go back to
the simplest group of dwellings in the old world, we get
a number of tents facing inward, to form a square with
an open court in the centre for the cattle: this is the
arrangement of every caravanserai in Asia to-day.

In the larger and more permanent grouping of a town
the same idea is kept in view; and a square space near
the gate serves as the Bazaar, round which the shops stand
under shaded ambulatories.

As the entrance of the town forms the market, it is also
the most convenient spot for the administration of justice ;
so that “the Gate” very early becomes the synonym
for Court, as in Job’s allusion (xxix., 7, 9): “When
I went out to the gate through the city . . . the Princes
refrained talking °—which in western language would read
“When I went to take my seat on the bench my fellow-
magistrates gave me precedence.” So in the Book of
Esther, Mordecai sitting in the King’s Gate is an orien-
talism for his attendance at Court: and in more recent
times the mistranslation into French, of Badz A/r, has
given us the nonsensical term “the Sublime Porte ”

202 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (3)

instead of “the Supreme Court ”—for ad isa gate in the
sense of Court, and AZ is the Arabic equivalent of the
Hebrew £7, “high” or “supreme,” as in the name of the
Supreme Being.

In Greece, we find this combination of the market and
the seat of justice in the Agora, which was at first a
market square in front of the King’s Palace, gradually
developed into a set of porticoed buildings round a court,
or courts, with ample shaded ambulatories, the elevation
of one of which is shown in Plate IV., fig. 5. These
buildings included

1. The market and shops.

2. The town offices.

3. A temple for worship.

4. The Court of Justice and the prison.

This Court was presided over by the second Archon, who
had to decide in matters connected with religion. As
during the monarchy this had been the duty of the king,
in his capacity of priest, the high magistrate on whom
the office devolved when the monarchy was abolished,
was styled the “Archon Basileus,” or King-Archon, and
the court-house itself was called the Stoa Basz/evos.

About two centuries before Christ the Romans borrowed
from the Greeks this combination of market and public
buildings, which the higher civilization of the Greeks had
so developed, and with it the Greek name of the Law-
court, which they now termed the Basz/ica. At first the
building was simply a pillared portico of two storeys—
that is, without side walls, if we may judge from the repre-
sentation of it on the coin of Lepidus, shown in Plate V.,
fig. 2. As its use extended, however, to parts of the
Roman Empire where the climate made so much exposure
impossible, side walls were added, the whole now forming
a kind of cloister running round an unroofed or open
square.

PROG. COZTTES WOLD CEUB VOL. XIll., PLATE Va

Hy WAY
2)
SS SEVEN V/V

Fig. 2—AEMILIAN BASILICA

Hey

hs
i

SNdId41
SNTIIWY

Fig. 1—TRAJAN’S BASILICA

—— a |
a
<-S Z, BA
SB Z,

Fig. 4—OLD TABARD, LONDON

Li, 4:
CA EZ

Fig. 5—BULL AND MOUTH, LONDON Fig. 6B—TALBOT, LONDON

1900 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 203

In the curious map of Roman Stations, known as
Peutinger’s, which has come down to us from probably
the second or third century, thermal stations are depicted
in this form of an ambulatory looking into an open square.
[Plate IV., fig. 6]. Places in which there was a Pre-
torium or Imperial Court of Justice, are also thus shown.
Cologne (Colonia Agrippina), for example, is drawn as in
the second block of fig. 6. _

If, however, the main building of the Basilica was open
to all the winds, though it afforded shade from the heat,
the law court itself was sheltered by a covered semi-
circular building at the end. The seats rose in the form
of an amphitheatre : the presiding judge in the centre, and
his assessors (adsessores or those who sat with him; ze.
advisers) on either hand of him. At the foot, across the
chord of the arc a bar separated the “court” from the
throng in the main building, and behind this was a low
screen of lattice work or cancel. The secretary who
recorded the decisions of the judge sat inside this screen,
and was therefore termed cancedlarius, or, as we anglicise
it, the chancellor. In some of the more magnificent
basilicae the cancelli were replaced by a network of marble
carving.

Now let us see what the simple court of the Greek
Archon had developed into under the Roman Empire,
A restoration of the grandest of these buildings in Rome,
the Basilica of Trajan, is shown in Plate V., fig. 1. The
atrium is no longer left open, but is roofed across with
timber; the ceiling, 120 feet from the floor, covered with
plates of gilded bronze. The great gallery that runs all
round the building is guarded with gilded bronze railings,
as in Santa Sophia, built by Justinian in Constantinople.

The galleries, supported by the granite columns, were
reached by outside stairs; a thoroughly Eastern plan to
which I shall again refer.

204 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (3)

It is worth our while to pause fora moment and glance
at the description Pliny gives (Epistle vi.) of the throng
assembled in the galleries of the Basilica when he made
one of his greatest orations in pleading before the court
for an heiress of high rank who had been defrauded by
her trustees.

It was this use of the basilicas as halls of assembly that
fitted them so well for places of worship, after Constantine
had made Christianity the religion of the state; when the
seat of the judge in the apse at the end became the throne
of the bishop, whose subordinate clergy took the places
of the assessors of the court.

The galleries, however, played a more important part
in the Greek Church than in the Western, as they were
allotted to the women of the congregation, who, in accord-
ance with Eastern etiquette, had to sit apart from the men:
a custom still maintained, as everyone knows, among the
Jews and the Mahometans. Thus it happens that while,
as women are not secluded in western lands, the abbeys
and cathedrals replacing the basilica in these countries
have mostly discontinued the galleries, in the East, on
the other hand, the basilica itself has been displaced in
favour of a building square in its ground plan, as better
adapted for galleries, while at the same time it admits of
being roofed with a dome. This has become the almost
universal type of Greek buildings for worship, as in
Russia, as well as of Mahometan mosques and Jewish
synagogues ; Santa Sophia, in Constantinople, and the
synagogue at Frankfort offering good typical examples of
such gallery arrangement.

While the retention of the atrium, or fore-court, with
its covered colonnade as an approach to the basilica, had
a distinct advantage in a hot country from the shade it
afforded, yet it injured the architectural effect from its too
great elongation. As, however, the covered ambulatory

1900 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 205

was distinctly useful in a stormier climate such as that of
Britain, as a place for exercise, we find the earlier archi-
tects of the abbeys and cathedrals retained the atrium ; but
they placed it at the side of the building instead of at the
end. This change is well shown by a comparison of the
original Basilica at Rome, which was demolished to make
way for Michael Angelo’s great cathedral, with the original
cathedral of Canterbury [Plate IV., figs. 3, 4.] In other
words, the atrium, with its covered walk in front, has
become, in ecclesiastical architecture, the cloisters at the
side of the main building, instead of remaining a fore-court.

We must remember that this idea of an atrium, derived
from Eastern lands, was a governing one in the architec-
ture of all Greek and Roman mansions of importance, and
of inns for the accommodation of travellers. Examples
of such an arrangement in inns have come down to our
own century in the “ Tabard,” the “ Bull and Mouth,” the
“Talbot,” the “White Hart,” the “Four Swans,” and
the “ Saracen’s Head,” hostelries in London [see Plate V.,
figs. 4, 5, 6]; in the “George” at Hungerford, in the
“Falcon” at Cambridge, in the “Ram” at Cirencester
(of which, by the way, there is a drawing by Hogarth,
who once lodged in it), and in the “New Inn” at
Gloucester [Plate V., fig. 3.] This “New Inn,” built
nearly five centuries ago, is as real asurvival of Roman
architecture, as to its style, as the Colosseum itself. In
most parts of Europe where the Roman influence was
felt, similar inns still exist; as for example at Bucharest,
where one finds the same open galleries looking into a
courtyard, built by the Roumanians of to-day, who are de-
scended from Italian colonists, still speaking the language.

It is worth noting for a moment that this Roman
atrium of the old hostelries has left a mark on our English
speech in a familiar word, the origin of which is not sus-
pected perhaps by many Englishmen. We call the room

206 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xill. (3)

in which liquors are supplied, in an inn, “the Bar.” This —

usually stood in the gangway or entrance to the courtyard,
where the “ bar” was dropped to close the premises during
the night.

In many towns we have examples of the “bar” still
occupying the same position; as in the “Greyhound” and
“Green Dragon” Inns at Gloucester. J remember hearing
a story, when a boy, of some acrobat who had taken a
hackney coach to one of the old inns in London, and
who in passing the open window of the bar as he was being
slowly driven through the narrow entrance, sprang into
it. The driver got down from the box when he reached
the courtyard—opened the door—and finding no “fare”
within, remounted in no pleasant temper and drove back
to his stand. On the way out, the “fare” slipped from
the bar back again through the carriage window un-
suspected. On reaching the stand he put his head out
and asked the man what he meant by driving him about in
this way, when he had been ordered to go to the “ Saracen’s
Head?” The man moodily drove to his destination a
second time, but on being tendered a half-guinea in com-
pensation for his wasted time, he grimly refused it, with
the significant remark, “No! I won't touch your money!
I know who yow are!”

Some of these old inns have retained interesting features
of the Roman architecture besides the open galleries, all
indicative of their oriental origin. The outside staircase
is one of these, as shown in the beautiful “ New Inn,” at
Gloucester [Plate V., fig. 3]. In the “ Bull and Mouth,” in
Aldersgate Street, London [fig. 5 in the same plate], we see
a modern casing put over such an outside staircase: a
condescension to the less hardy ways we have got into;
or rather an adaptation to the climate, for which Italian
‘architecture was not really suited. Another feature is
the use of lattice-work for the railing of the galleries of

PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. KIL, PLATE Vii

Y

Wh) | gg
7 LE5 Z
Me , a] Y

Fig. 1—TETBURY Fig. 2—DURSLEY

| YY)
i
TA Ot A coe

Lt >

Fig. 4-WHITBY

=~

Fig. 8—-LEOMINSTER Fig. 5—ROSS

Fig. 7—-LUTON

Fig. 6—MINCHINHAMPTON

1900 J. BELLOWS—-ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 207

the same inn. A piece of latticing is also visible in the
“Talbot,” an illustration of which appears in Plate V.,
fig. 6. This lattice or trellis will be referred to again.

The courtyard surrounded by these galleries was often
used for a place of assembly: and the scene described in
the book of Acts, where the young man Eutychus fell
down “from the third loft,’ doubtless refers to such a
place. He had probably been sitting on the baluster of
the upper gallery, listening to the preaching of the Apostle
in the “Chamber,” or, it might be, from the lower gallery -
opposite, when he fell asleep and lost his balance. Shakes-
pear’s and other plays used to be performed in the courts
of London inns; and a picture of such a performance in
Queen Elizabeth’s time is given as a frontispiece to the
second volume of Cassell’s “ London.”

Typical examples of the open pillared market-houses
which are so frequently met with in the specially Roman
parts of Britain are given in Plate VI.: Tetbury [fig. 1],
Minchinhampton [fig. 6], Dursley [fig. 2], and Ross

[fig. 5]. Those at Whitby and Luton [figs. 4 and 7] are

shown for comparison ;.and their similarity is striking.

In each of these the building is of stone; but beautiful

market-houses were built of timber-framing in Hereford-
shire: three of them by the same architect, John Adam,
at Hereford, Ledbury, and Leominster, respectively. The
town-hall of Leominster has been removed to the Grange,

_ where it is now altered toa private dwelling-house; but

the illustration in Plate VI., fig. 3, shows its original state.

Nearly all these old market-houses kept till a recent
_ period the two-fold character they inherited from the
Roman basilica, of places of business and rooms for the
- administration of justice: even the miniature but pictur-

_ esque timber-framed one at Newent has its “ magistrates’

_ room” in the upper storey. It will be observed that one

208 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XilI. (3)

architectural feature common to most of them is a bell-
turret in the roof. These turrets are so exactly alike in
form and in position, usually being in the centre, and not
at the end of the roof (and this in market-halls widely
separated both as to place and period,) that it is easier to
believe them to have come from one common type than
to be the results of undesigned coincidence. Thus in
Plate VI. the turret at Minchinhampton, in Gloucester-
shire [fig. 6] is exactly like that at Whitby in Yorkshire
[fig. 4], and that at Luton, in Bedfordshire [fig. 7]; while
an old map of London shows precisely such another
central belfry in a sketch marked “ Honey Lane Market,
off Fleet Street”: a building that has long disappeared.

It is interesting to note how, as markets introduced into
all parts of the Roman Empire were also carried by
traders beyond its limits, the same style of open ambu-
latory was preserved in the buildings erected for holding
them in, as in Northern Germany. Libeck is a fine
example [Plate VII., fig. 1]. Another is afforded by the
beautiful old Rathhaus of Schwalenberg [fig. 2]; but here
we see the cold of the German winter asserting the need
of more shelter than is afforded by the open ambulatory.
The rooms on.the ground floor are not brought quite to
the line of the street, but a survival of the ambulatory
has kept a tiny space behind the pillars with just enough
room for a cat to pass: certainly not for a burgomaster.*

In Russia, which was beyond the reach of the Roman
influence in the establishment of markets, the Eastern
bazaar has determined the form of the “ Dvors,” which
are sets of shops, as in Petersburg and Moscow, sur-
rounded by covered ambulatories: clearly copied from
those of a hotter climate.

Metz, a Roman city, has preserved a street of open
arches which are still used as shops [Plate VII., fig. 6];

* Similarly, the old houses in Hamburg imitate the Roman buildings by overhanging

their upper storeys, but the projection of each storey is usually only about nine inches.

PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIll., PLATE VII.

4

wey :
jeu EE

e UY YM aes
YY f zn

ie

Tian

Fig. 1—_LUBECK Fig. 2—SCHWALENBURG

ml

Ra ay
a hth!
WX

Re YLT YY Yl" Yo W]}
GA.
ie

Fig. 3-TOTNES

nal

Fig. 5—BATH Fig. B—METZ

1900 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 209

and many such examples may be seen in other parts of
Roman Europe, notably in Berne; while, to return to our
own Island, we find the tradition of the portico still
leaving its mark, as it has done at Chester, upon the
Roman towns of Winchester [Plate VII., fig. 4], Marl-
borough, Totnes [fig. 3], and Bath [fig. 5]. In the latter
city the covered pillar-way has been copied by one archi-
tect after another till the last century. “Bath Street” has
the side walls entirely under cover; while the entrance to
the Abbey Close and the Pump Room, which stands on
the site of the Temple of Sul-Minerva, has precisely the
arrangement of pillared shade that is indicated in the map
of Peutinger, already alluded to. The original of this
map was, as I have said, a kind of birds-eye itinerary of
the great Roman roads with their stations, in which the
towns were indicated by a double tower such as guarded
city gates, while places in which there were principal courts
of justice were shown by sketches like those on Plate IV.,
fig. 6. Thermz or Baths were also so indicated. What
is sketched is evidently an ambulatory round three sides
of an open court: the doors on the right representing
entrances to rooms, while the front is a pillared portico
carrying no rooms above it, precisely like that which the
conservatism of architects has kept for the present approach
to the Bath Pump Room and Abbey Close.

The Peutinger sketches show no roof over the sheet of
water answering to that which is an object of such interest
to visitors to Bath. The Romans, carrying with them
the same climatic ideas that determined the open market-
houses, built their baths, even in Britain, open to the
sky: and so they remained all through the middle ages;
for the hot spring at Bath was open to all weathers till
after the Tudor times. It was simply a Roman /mpluvinm
_ occupying the whole of the atrium.

While the ground plan of mediaeval abbeys and cathe-
drals preserves to us the fore-court of the Basilica, but

O2

210 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII. (3)

changed in its position, as the cloisters, the plan of the
Roman Domus has been remarkably kept to in some
of the old galleried inns. A good illustration is afforded
by the New Inn at Gloucester, the arrangement of which
is so precisely like that of the “house of the tragic poet”
in Pompeii that the plan of the latter, as given in Smith’s
Dictionary of Antiquities [Domus] would serve for it.
(Plate WL hes. 2.53).

This plan shows the same narrow passage from the
street as that leading to the courtyard of the New Inn,
with shops on either side, entered from this passage,
exactly as the “bar” in such inns was entered.

Then both the Pompeian house and the New Inn have
two courtyards, as have many other hostelries of the
same type. ‘This feature was universal in large Roman
mansions, and in the Greek houses from which the plan
was copied by the Romans. The reason for having two
courts was the same as that which led to the building of
galleries in the places of worship: z.e. the seclusion or partial
seclusion of the women; for while the outer court gave
access to the men’s apartments, and was the one in which
strangers were received, the inner court, with its little
garden, was surrounded by the apartments of the women.
A comparison of the plan of a Greek house, from
Bekkir, which is given in the article, Doss, in Smith’s
Dictionary, already referred to, with that of the house of
the tragic poet, and with one of Pansa’s house, at Pompeii,
makes this origin of Roman arrangement unmistakable.
[Plate ViMechos 1,2, ay:

While, however, the house of Pansa, and the Greek
house, both have the passage leading to the inner court
placed exactly opposite the street entrance—which is also
the arrangement in the great Roman Villa at Woodchester,
the house of the tragic poet has the entrance to the inner

PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII., PLATE VIII.

Fig. 2—TRAGIC POET’S HOUSE, fi

POMPEII
Fig. 1—GREEK HOUSE Fig. 83—NEW INN, GLOUCESTER

ee EMPLE OF WINERVA,” 2 > COINOF BYBLOS Cg TRELLIS GATE,
ATHENS GLOUCESTER

= =

stat

ypu, ais = rm a. ead FCAUTUAATU
eee oll ae
Oy” A

Fig. 7—GREEK TEMPLE Fig. 8—TRAITORS’ GATE, TOWER OF
(From Gem) LONDON

1900 J. BELLOWS—-ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 211

court on the right hand of the outer one, exactly as we
find it in the New Inn, as shown in Plate V., fig. 3. This
secured greater privacy.

An examination of pictures of several of the ancient
inns in London shows that they were also constructed on
the Roman plan of the double courtyard, and with the
entrance to the inner one not in line with that of the
outer.

The elevation of some of these hostelries shows another
survival no less remarkable than that just pointed out in
the plan. Vitruvius advises that in building a house the
southern wing, or side, should be one storey lower than
the northern, in order to let the sun shine on the latter
during part of the day. That this system has been followed
from age to age is manifest from the examples of it still
left to us. A glance at Plate V., fig. 3, will show the
Vitruvian architecture of the two storeys on the southern
side, and three on the northern, in the “New Inn”;
although the photograph from which the sketch is copied
has been taken so as to foreshorten the “ third loft,”
making it less striking than it really is.

In smaller Greek houses, and those mansions in Turkey
and Bulgaria which are copied from the Greeks, the separa-
tion of the Harem apartments is made by placing them
on the upper floor: one large room on each floor taking
the place of the atrium ; the doors of the several chambers
and other apartments opening directly into it, the windows
of this central hall being all placed at one end of it; pre-
ferably on the north, for shade.

In Constantinople (Stamboul) one can distinguish the
houses of Turks from those of Armenians or other
nationalities by the windows being fitted with trellis-work,
or lattice, to screen the women from observation: and
here, again, we have a Roman and pre-Roman survival.
In Plate VIII., fig. 4, the lights over the gate of the temple

212 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII. (3)

of Minerva at Athens, and another temple engraved on a
Greek gem [fig. 7], show beautiful specimens of trellis
windows, which preceded those of glass: and the lattice or
diamond panes of our older windows owe their shape to
the trellis of which they took the place. And not only
their shape, but their very angle: for while this is not
invariable, it is so generally of one standard that this cannot
be the result of accident. Thus I find the angle of the
panes in a window of Ann Hathaway’s cottage, near
Stratford-on-Avon, precisely the same as that of the glass
in the oldest windows of the Crypt in Gloucester
Cathedral, and of the panes in the lattice window of the
old tower at Llantwit, Neath. This angle is the obtuse
angle of a pentagon: and it is also very nearly that of the
beautiful wall ornamentation in the Alhambra, imitating
trellis, while it is precisely that of the trellis in the Greek
temple shown on the gem and in the temple of Minerva,
at Athens, shown in Plate VIII., fig. 4.

But it is far older than the Greek temple; for the wall-
decoration of the Palace at Birs-Nimroud, which is com-
posed of plugs of clay coloured and enamelled at the outer
ends, is of exactly the same lattice pattern, or elongated
trellis.

Of course, in the modern developments of lattice work,
there are often variations to suit odd measurements of the
window-frame: the glazier simply dividing the total width
and depth to avoid fractions of a pane in either direction:
as in the window of the chamber occupied by Erasmus’s
servant at Queen’s College, Cambridge, in which the pattern
is slightly broadened.

How ancient the use of trellis is, in temples, is proved
by a coin of Byblos, in Phoenicia, which shows the screen
round the idol (Isis?) in the cella, composed of lattice-
work. [Plate VIII., fig 5]. In the Imperial palaces at
Rome the inner doors were of trellis, known, like lattice

1900 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 213

screens in the Courts, as cauce/liz: and the guard of
such a door was, like the secretary of a judge, called
cancellarius. ‘Trellis doors offered the two-fold advant-
age of giving free passage to air in hot weather, and of
enabling the guard to see all who approached them.
They could be screened from inside by curtains of purple
cloth; and so completely did this arrangement come to
be associated with the court, that we find trellis and d/ze
cloth formed part of the regal paraphernalia on the
King’s journeys in France in the middle ages.* In the
“Nuremberg Chronicle” there is a quaint old engraving
of the City of Buda, in which the King’s palace is indi-
cated by trellised galleries in a building standing on the
same spot that is now occupied by the palace of the King
of Hungary.

Used as a railing, trellis is not only elegant in form, but
it is stronger than balustrading, as each piece is sustained
by the crossing of others. The bulwarks of ships are
shown so constructed on some ancient coins.

When large or heavy gates were of open work, the
timbers were best placed at right angles. The inner gates
of the City of Gloucester, which were taken down in the
time of Charles II. and are now in our local museum,
are made of three-inch bars of oak thus crossed, and
fastened together with iron bolts [Plate VIII., fig. 6]; and
the upper portion of the “ Traitors’ Gate” in the Tower
of London is similar, but with the timbers set diagonally
[Plate VIII., fig. 8], as is the case in the trellis above the
gates in the market-house at Ross.

* See Article “ TretLiis” in Littré’s large dictionary. An illustration of the word
given from a MS of the 13th century runs thus :

«Toutes ses herberges estoient closes de treillis de fust, et par dehors estoient les
treillis couvers de toilles yndes.” [His quarters were always closed in with wooden trellis,
and on the outer side the trellis was covered with blue cloths.]

215

THE COMMON FIELDS
AT UPTON SAINT LEONARD'S
AND THE RECENT INCLOSURE (1897),

BY
REV. CANON E. C. SCOBELL.
(Read November 14, 1899) -

In the parish of Upton St. Leonard’s, near Gloucester,
an event has occurred of considerable moment, not only
on account of its effect on the present and the future, but
because a system of remote antiquity has locally ceased
to exist. All connection with the land customs of early
times has come toanend. The future is severed from
the past. One of the last instances of the ancient system
of land tenure, as shown in the “Common Fields,” is no
more.

In treating this intricate subject it must at the outset
be confessed that it is not easy, perhaps not possible, to
satisfactorily describe the origin of this system, for those
who have made a special study of the subject hold different
views.

One theory, which may be described as “ legal,” supposes
that rights in the Common Fields grew out of grants made
subsequent to the Norman Conquest. “As the Lord of
the Manor is the absolute lord of the soil in his manor,

216 PROG; GCOTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. x7)

the rights which the freeholders and copyholders in the
manor enjoy depended originally on the grant of the lord.”

Another theory arises out of historical researches. It
traces the origin to much earlier times, when the Teutonic
village community cultivated and owned their land in
common, holding that the degeneration of this community
came through the strong influence of one of its members,
who ultimately became its lord.

A third theory—which may be called “intermediate ”—
is the one supported by Mr Seebohm, who shows that,
at all events before the Conquest, a system of agriculture
did exist, in form, manorial.

It would seem, then, almost impossible to give precise
date, or assign any single cause to account for this early
ownership and cultivation.

Professor Maitland* says “The open field system of
agriculture prevails as well in the free villages as in those
that are under the control of the lord.”

That certain customs, however, do exist dating from
ancient, even perhaps pre-historic times, before the Aryan
settlement, is probable, e.g. the election of a mock mayor
in some towns in Cornwall, while a custom in the village
of Randwick, in Gloucestershire, points to the former
election of an official of whose duties all trace has been
lost.

The title of certain plots of land called “ No-man’s
Land,” or, as in Upton St. Leonard’s, “ Norman’s Acre,”
looks back to the same archaic time. The explanation
has been found among the villagers of India. “A Surna,
among the aborigines of Gangpore, is a fragment of a
primeval forest left where the first clearance was made as
a refuge for the sylvan deities who might have thus been
disturbed. On such plots, too, there is a record of a

* Edinburgh Review, 381, p- 117, July, 1897.

is feta) hl

Pes

7
4
25M
Sree

Se
ti
be

yy
-
a
“A,
va:
Pi

PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xXill., PLATE [XS

A BALK OR DIVIDING STRIP, SHOWING THE MEERSTONE, UPTON ST LEONARDS

(From a Photograph by A. J. Lumbert)

“aa erre

te ati yp es

_

PIE Sad tly EE a Bt ra Ante
“ 2 et Py err ae)

1900 E. C. SCOBELL—COMMON FIELDS AT UPTON 217

fowl being offered every year to the departed by the living
members of the house.” *

The system, it may be noticed, is found to prevail in
India among savage races, and is fully developed in Ireland.
Such similar traits are shown that it may be fairly assumed
that this well-nigh universal system is one and the same
in general principle.

In it we clearly trace the primitive conception of unity
of kin—a family brotherhood: a clan or family, not, as
now, the individual, being the unit.

Whenever the system originated there can be no doubt
of its being general in England in the 14th century. ‘The
vision concerning Piers the Plowman’ bears witness to
this. In the vision he sees

‘<A faire filde ful of folke, fonde I there bytwene,
Of alle maner of men, the mene and the riche,
Worchyng and wandryng, as the worlde asketh.
Some putten hem to the plow, pleyed ful selde,
In settyng and in sowyng, swonken ful harde.”

Prol: 17 ff.

This must have been an open field in which the villagers
worked one fine morning—not several fields with hedges
around. )

From the tithe map of Upton it would appear that
“Common Fields” were once more general than at the
time of the recent inclosure, for many fields were divided
into the narrow strips, or lands, which are of such special
interest.

These strips, which thus appear to have existed gener-
ally in this and other uninclosed parishes, were separated
from each other not by hedges but by lengths of un-
ploughed grass—called “balks” or “ meers” (see Pl. IX.)
—the Latin equivalent is sado, the French sz//on, the

* Gomme, ‘ Village Community,’ p. 115.

218 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xill. (3)

Scotch and Irish term is 77g, the word dade is also used ;
the system being thus termed the “run-rig” or “‘ run-dale”
system, implying that cattle were allowed to run over the
ridges, dales, or divided strips, after Lammas Day, August I.

Among the above terms “dale” may be the same as
“dole,” meaning a portion, from Anglo-Saxon dealan to
divide—cp. “deal,” a piece of timber cut off from the
larger piece called the “balk”; hence also “ run-rig,”
conventionally to run riot (cp. proper name Rundell).

The term “balk” is found in Shakespeare, denoting a
heap or ridge. We read

‘Ten thousand bold Scots—two and twenty knights
Balked in their own blood, did Sir Walter see.”
I King Henry AV 2, 5, 4;

Locally, “to balk plough” or “to rafter” is to plough
so as to turn each furrow on to an unploughed piece, thus

laying the field out like a series of rafters [ |_[ |_[ L_

We also find these terms in the Homilies of the Church
of England in “An exhortation to be spoken to such
Parishes where they use their Perambulation in Rogation
Week for the oversight of the bounds and limits of their
town.”

When the bounds were thus beaten by the substantial
men of the parish, the Curate was directed to admonish
the people at different stations—to give thanks to God
and say Psalm ciii. In records of the Upton Perambula-
tions it is stated that the Gospel was read and crosses were
made.* Archbishop Winchelsea’s Constitutions, c. 1300,
confirmed by Henry VIII., order the Parish to provide
Vexilla pro rogationidus. At Todenham this custom is
said still to prevail.

* There is a tree marking a place in Upton referred to in former surveys of the

parish as “Gospel Beech,” and another as “ Gospel Oak.”

1900 E. C. SCOBELL—COMMON FIELDS AT UPTON 219

In this homily we read “they do much provoke the
wrath of God upon themselves which use to grind up
the doles and marks which of ancient time were laid for
the division of meers and balks in the fields to bring the
owners to their right.”

“It is lamentable to see in some places how greedy
men use to plough up and grate upon their neighbour’s
land that lieth next them; how covetous men now-a-days
plough up so nigh the common balks and walks which
good men aforetime made the greater and broader, partly
for the commodious walk of his neighbour, partly for the
better shack in harvest time, to the more comfort of his
poor neighbour’s cattle. It is a shame to behold the
insatiableness of some covetous persons in their doings ;
that where their ancestors left of their land a broad and
-sufficient bier-balk to carry the corpse to the Christian
sepulture, how men pinch at such bier-balks; and now
they either quite ear them up and turn the dead bodies
to be borne farther about in the high streets; or else, if
they leave any such meer, it is too strait for two to
-walk on.” * ;

We find a similar allusion in Piers the Plowman:
“ Dikeres and Delveres digged up the balks.”

Now these balks—which hold such an important place
in the common field system—must, owing to the various
shapes of the fields, be of various lengths, and sometimes
not in a straight line, but at the same time there does
appear to be a norm upon which they were formed, show-
ing that the length is not altogether arbitrary and fanciful.
It will be observed that the ancient shape of an acre is
oblong, for in the reign of Edward I. it is declared that
“40 perches in length and 4 in breadth make an acre”:
thus an acre may be said to consist of 4 strips, each 40

* A “corpse road” so called exists in Stratton, in Worcestershire.

220 — PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (3)

perches long and 1 perch wide. Now the length—4o
perches—is a furlong, ze. a “furrow long” being the
length of the drive of the plough before it is turned upon
the land at the end, called the “headland.” It does not
appear that the strips are always true to these measure-
ments, but the shape is, where possible, oblong; and the
fields consist of a number of long lands, or strips, divided
by balks of fixed length, taking their shape as most con-
venient for ploughing. The complete acre would repre-
sent a day’s ploughing: hence a German term Tagwan,
and late Latin ywrnal’s. The local word for a perch is
tees” meaning first a stick or pole used to measure, as
well as to pull up or pull down; hence what is pulled is
termed “ luggage.”

The term “acre” according to Professor Skeat means
a “pasture” or “hunting ground,” clearly implying the
absence of fences, cp. : “acorn ”—fruit of the field.

It was common for the balks, or meers, to enclose two
strips, so that the space within consisted of half an acre.

We read in Piers the Plowman—

“*T have an half acre to erye, by the heigh way

Hadde I eried this half acre, and sowen it after
I wolde wende with you.”

This implies that the two strips made what was a usual
holding or unit.*

Grass land, which could not be treated thus, was divided
by stones.

It will thus be seen that the open field system was
general—by no means exceptional—and that the shape
and size of the various plots was intentional, with both
purpose and meaning.

* Rider Haggard, in ‘Jess,’ describes the purchase of 3.000 Morgen—7.e. 4% acre—
in the Transvaal: the term is much used in Germany. The term “Jour de terre” is used
in East France.

1900 E. C. SCOBELL—COMMON FIELDS AT UPTON 221

In the Appendix at the end of this paper (p. 229) will
be found a plan (PI. XI.) of the Great Awe Field at Upton
St. Leonard’s.

The plan, together with the list in the Appendix,
giving the names of the owners and the sizes of the
strips, will show how numerous were the holders, how
scattered their holdings, and at the same time how
uniform, as a rule, were these holdings in size.

It introduces for consideration matters of some interest,
viz,, the character of the tenure, and the scattered nature of
the ownership. These features arose out of the old system
of agriculture which was “co-operative,” the supply of
oxen and the necessaries for the plough being provided
by various members of the community—a veritable Zpavos.

The land was often hard to cultivate, and the ploughs
were of great weight. It was needful, therefore, to have
great strength to move them: the ordinary plough team
consisted of no less than eight oxen, and even more were
sometimes required.

In proportion to the contribution made to the plough
team so was the size of the holding. Some such pro-
portion as this appears to have been accepted—a person
who provided two oxen would be entitled to hold about
2 acres, not of necessity situate together, but scattered
among the Common fields.

The holdings, too, of certain officials were also dependent
on their contribution in some way to the common weal.
Thus fields are named after the office held. In Upton we
find ‘‘ Constable’s Grove,” “ Spencer’s Piece,” “ Doctor's
Ground,” ‘“ Smith’s Piece,” “Grannie’s Ground.” Else-
where there are “Carpenter's Piece” and “ Punder’s
Piece,

The crops were taken from the lands as allotted—but
when the crops were removed all the holders had the
privilege of common pasturage over the whole after

222 PROG. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (3)

Lammas Day, August I—a custom which of late years
had for practical purposes fallen into disuse, but one which
was regularly observed by annually driving cattle over the
fields, termed “breaking the fields,” so as to maintain the
common rights.

Green, in his ‘Making of England’ (p. 180), thus
describes the village “tun ”—“ The unit of social life was
the cluster of the farmers’ homes, each set in its own little
croft, which made up the Township or the tun. Within
the earthen mound raised for purposes of defence lay the
homes of the villagers, and outside this mound lay the
home pastures and folds—beyond and around lay the
village plough land, generally massed together in three or
four large ‘fields,’ each of which was broken by raised
balks into long strips of soil which were distributed in
turn among the village husbandmen.”

The peasant would be dressed in times of peace in his
smock-frock,* falling to his knees—as still to be seen,
though rapidly dying out—to be superseded by the Norman
short coat, the “ curthose.”

Property had not then reached the stage of absolute
possession. The plough land was merely allotted to the
families of the Freemen, though subject to fresh divisions
as the number of claimants grew greater or less.

These Freemen would meet in the “tun-moot,” where
the good sense and opinion of each would be contributed
to form the wise decision—or “common sense,” implying
the good sense—of a community.

But we ask—Why was the ownership so scattered ?
why was it not compact, each property being together ?

The reason may be found here. We have seen that the
principle of co-operation prevailed, so that each who wished
to join in the co-ploughing must bring his contribution—

* The word “smock” implies something crept into, being put over the head.

Wi «

oo Seto

“ak” eb ee ee eee a, ee = ae ie |
‘ad . ) ul ateae eee fe ‘s le
° --

pee

ae equiny + “ydessojoyd & Wory)

LSV3"HLYON DNIMOO7 ‘SGYVNO37 1S NOLdN LV SSHONAT 4O MGIA

‘xX FLVId “MIX “IOA GAT “GAI1OMSALLOO JOUd

1900 E. C. SCOBELL—COMMON FIELDS AT UPTON 223

in wood, or iron, or oxen, etc., and hand them over to
the common ploughman.

Under this arrangement the first strip ploughed would
belong to the ploughman-—the next to the provider of
the irons—some strips to the owner of each ox, one to
the provider of the wood, etc.

If any complaint as to the fairness of ploughing arose
the ploughman’s own furrow was to set the rule. Hence
we have an explanation of the strips being scattered and
varying in position each year—well termed “ mingle-
mangle.” Thus when co-operation ceased and legal
ownership followed, holdings belonging to the same
person would be in various places rather than together—
a feature increased by subsequent purchases.

We may observe that there is to be seen in a Common
Field at Upton called “ Brimps” a good instance of terrace-
cultivation, or “ Lynches” (see PI. X.) Their origin has
been variously traced, e.g. to water action, as having been
once sea-shores ; to encampments ; to places of vantage, so
as to witness the ceremonies of Druid priests ; but they may
rather be regarded as part of the system of ploughing in
strips. The cultivators of the higher land, in order to
prevent their soil being entirely washed down, would
_ plough one way only, returning idle. Thus the soil would
be gradually moved downwards, and the slope would be
made level, between balk and balk. Every year’s plough-
ing would take a sod, or furrow, from the upper to the
lower part, with the result that the divisions would become
steep banks; by this means the soil would be kept on its
thus formed level terrace, or holding,* as shown in PI. X.

To turn now to the subject of inclosures, which have
removed the remnants of this system of such long dura-
~ tion, although the full intention had long ceased to exist.

* See Seebohms ‘English Village Community,’ p. 5.

224 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XiII. (3)

The mode of cultivation was at length considered waste-
ful, and prevented the introduction of improved methods
of tillage. One strip allowed to run waste would scatter
seeds far and wide, and pasture rights in stubble interfered
with the management of the land. Hence the desire was
felt for a different tenure. It would seem that much land
had been inclosed by mutual arrangement, especially in
the County of Kent, and very probably in time past in
Upton; for other fields besides “Common Fields,” as
recently existing, are shown in the Tithe Map as being
divided like them into small portions ; there are traditions,
too, of inclosures by arrangement.

But a legal process at length became necessary. Under
Queen Anne there were two Inclosure Acts, comprising
1439 acres; under George I. 16, comprising 17,660 acres ;
from the accession of George III. to the end of 1796, 1532,
comprising nearly three millions of acres; in the present
century up to 1844 there have been 2177 Acts. The
movement was on the whole regarded with satisfaction,
until 1845, when the present Inclosure Act became law.
The statute is noteworthy as recognizing the importance
of inclosure on economic principles, as well as the neces-
sity of open spaces for recreation. The preamble runs:—

“Tt is expedient to facilitate the inclosure and im-
provement of commons and other lands now subject to
rights of property which obstruct cultivation and the
productive employment of labour, and to facilitate such
exchanges of land as may be beneficial to the respective
owners.”

The time at length came when one of the last un-
inclosed Parishes, Upton St. Leonard’s, should be dealt
with, at the desire of the owners of the greater part of the
Common fields by a Provisional Order under the pro-
visions of the Inclosure Acts 1845 to 1882, confirmed by
a Confirmation Act in 1895, which was duly ratified

1900 E. C. SCOBELL—COMMON FIELDS AT UPTON 225

October 18, 1897; the effect is that scattered pieces
belonging to the same person are put as much as possible
together and fenced, and the land thus apportioned held
like any other property, free from former conditions.

The Common Fields amounted to 487a. Ir. 28p. in
1129 holdings (one as small as three perches) divided
among 90 owners, the two largest owning 72 and 67
acres. Some of this was copyhold, some freehold. All
was arable except one pasture field. The holdings were
subject to the, usual customs and rules enforced by the
Courts of the Manor—described as the Court Leet and
the Court Baron; a jury was sworn consisting of 15 good
and lawful men.*

The following is the form of Presentment :—

«We present and order that the Pinlockt to be paid by persons
resident in this parish or in Matson will be One shilling for any number
of Sheep under a score, Two shillings for any number exceeding a
score and under two score and in the same proportion for any greater
number and Six pence for each Horse, Ass or other Beast and for every
trespass after the first the sum of One shilling and sixpence for each
such Horse, Ass or other Beast.

<< We present that there ought to be no Staff keepingt in the Roads
and Common Fields within the Manor, nor in the Bond End Lanes
leading from Bowden Hall to Bottom Field in Church Field to Rookes
Moorfield and to Awefield nor in the Whornes Lane Peaches Green
nor in the Lanes leading from Nuthill Field nor within side any Gate
leading to any Common Fields.

«< We present and order that no person shall use Staff keeping upon
any such Roads Commonable Lands or Lanes under the penalty of

* Court Leet, z.c. of the people: cp. German /eute. Court Baron of Freemen of the
Manor. Jacob, in his Law Dictionary, derives “ Leet” from Anglo-Saxon Lite, parvus,
hence “little Court.”

+ Probably fee paid for unlocking the Pen, or Pound.

+ Allowing a person to be in charge of cattle—presumably with a staff—to keep
them within a certain part of the field ; or perhaps fastening the cattle to a staff—tethering.

P2

226 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xu. (3)

One Shilling and sixpence a head and which we do order the Hayward
to receive for all such Cattle as shall be so Staff kept.

‘“We also present that no Cattle or Sheep shall be turned on the
Waste Commons or Commonable Fields within this Manor without
the initial letters of the Christian and Surname of the Owners being
marked on each, under the penalty of Sixpence per head to be paid
for all such as shall be so turned out without being so marked.

‘‘We present and order that no Pigs shall be turned into the
Streets Lanes or Wastes of this Manor unringed and unyoked under
the penalty of Six pence per head for every such Pig.

‘« We present and order that no person shall turn any Stallion Bull
or Boar Ram or Foul or Shabby or Foot Rot Sheep in the Common
Fields or other places within this Manor under the penalty of Two
Shillings for every such Stallion Bull Boar or Ram and Ten Shillings
for every Foul or Shabby or Foot Rot Sheep so turned out.

“We present and order that the number of Sheep Cattle or Geese
to be turned out upon the Common Fields within this Manor be
stinted* in proportion to the Rent at which such Estate in respect of
which the right of Common is claimed shall be charged to the Poors
Rate and that the Stint* be as follows:

One Sheep or Three Geese for every Pound so charged and so
in proportion for any greater number.

That every head of Cattle be deemed equivalent to Three Sheep
and every Horse, Mare or Gelding to Six Sheep.

““And we present and order that the Hayward do impound the
Sheep and Cattle of every person who shall turn in without a right
and keep the same until he is paid a fine of Sixpence a head for the
same,

‘We present and order that the several persons who occupy lands
in the Common Fields do keep the Grips and Watercourses in their
respective lands properly cleaned and in case of default on Three days
Notice given by the Hayward that the Hayward shall do the same and
be paid Four pence per lug by the respective persons making default.

‘“We present. A.B. as a proper person to serve the office ot
Hayward for the year ensuing and he being present in Court was sworn
in accordingly.

* « Stinted,” limited—shortened ; cp, stunt.

1900 E. C. SCOBELL—-COMMON FIELDS AT UPTON 227

“‘We present and order that all the Common Fields within this
Manor be hained up from Cattle, Horses and Sheep from the day
of and that the Hayward do impound all such Horses, Sheep and
Cattle as shall be turned into the same Common Fields or any of them
contrary to this Order and not release the same until payment of Six-
pence per head for the Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs so turned in, in
addition to the sum he is authorized to charge for Fodder.”

Such were the Presentments.

May we regard the title “Hayward” as implying the
Warden of the “Haies” or boundaries? Cp. above
“hained up,” z.e. fenced from cattle by bounds.* Halli-
well, in his “ Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words,”
thus defines “ Hayward.”

‘Originally a person who guarded the corn and farm-
yard in the night time, and gave warning by a horn in case
of alarm from robbers. The term was afterwards applied
to a person who looked after the cattle, and prevented
them from breaking down the fences.”

These orders were rigidly enforced. In the records of
a Court Leet early in the century it is ordered that 2d.
a day be paid by all persons making encroachments, and
if not paid by November I the same to be “thrown up.”
Penalties are also inflicted for gates not fixed and ditches
thrown. These orders, when resisted, were enforced by
the Justices of the Peace.

Under the altered conditions, caused by the inclosure,
great changes have come. The holdings are re-arranged
and placed more conveniently together, two Recreation
Grounds of 6 acres, partly taken, and 13 acres of allot-
ment, entirely taken, from the common fields before re-
allotment, have been provided for the parish, vested in
the Parish Council; the tenure of the land is like that of
any other property, and soon, with fences and houses, all

* There is a Cotteswold term “to aim up” for hay, z.e. to keep free of cattle, etc.,
so that the crop may grow.

228 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xiIIL. (3)

vestiges of the ancient customs will have disappeared.
With these changes certain local words will also drop out
of use and be lost—éalks, meers, and Hayward will
no longer be needed—we shall no longer speak of a
gore, t.e. a small triangle of land; (cp. garfzck—the leek
with triangular or gore-shaped leaf), or of a danget, 2.e. a
longer piece like a tongue; although tongue-like pieces of
land not in Common Fields are named Zanget. Nor shall
we hear of a piece of ground described as dutts because
“abutting” on, or projecting towards another. Nor shall
we hear of Lammas roads, 2.e. field tracks to be used after
Lammas Day—August I—a day taking its name from the
Thanksgiving Service for the safe supply for the 4/af* or
loaf; or of dole,a boundary mark in an open field. These
will be meaningless terms—archzeological—out of date.

Although such changes have become necessary, it is
with some regret that the link with the archaic past is
severed, and the system adopted for centuries by the
makers of England, abandoned.

This, however, is one of the processes at work by which

‘* The old order changeth, yielding place to new.”

* Cp. “/ady,” loaf-kneader, supposed to be from A/af and Anglo-Saxon degee—a
kneader (Skeat).

1900 ~E. C. SCOBELL—COMMON FIELDS AT UPTON 229

APPENDIX

List of the Landowners, with the size of each holding
as shown on the Map, dated 1840. The holdings of Lord
Sydney are coloured blue, those of J. Blissett, yellow,
those of J. Wintle, pink.

No. on No. on

Tithe Tithe

Map Owner i UR aoae 2 Map Owner Bs Ry OBE
1840 Lord Sydney ... 1 © 3] 1877 J. Blissett OLR 27
1864 " ie Oy - P33 4916 " Or R38
1909 " Oy, -L 22 1937 v7 On eas
1938 " O 2 14 1866 " ORS LZ
1838 " O 2 22] 1892 - Ole ie
1853 " o 2 5} 1848 W. Davis Oo 0 30
1872 n © I 22] 1907 fs rattan Geer?
1893 " 0.3 207846 E. Smith 0 215
1923 " Oo 2 II | 1860 " O +2420
1926 0 Oo I 21) 1874 x om 1 32
1842 " ‘4-0 © 24) 4905 - O1-3).20
1849 Bisley Charity... 0 © 37 | 1932 tt tee
1920 " ae. JOMEY 5, 8>|--T92i1 # SORE SS
1867 Upton Church... 0 1 12] r917 T. Townsend... 0 1 28
1901 John Beard O71 34.| 1927 f Ole rrr
1904 1 I 0 4] 1874 Mary Wells On ORD5
1903 0 Me POR Eo 2 7889 it Ota
1863 Richard Helps... 0 3 24 | 1902 " 0 0 26
1936 " O I 37 | 1900 " Pant ee, a
1934 " ee O 608 | r88e, Thomas Avery. 0 2-14
1935 " On. St AEBS 0 O., F52
1861 G. Miles O25.) p88x ‘ o 318
1919 " o 1 20] 1856 " De Bie,
1845 J. Blissett E ot 22)) 189% 0 Oo. dy
1858 " o 1 22| 1844 M. Dean 0 0 35
1870 " o 2 6| 1859 A. Townsend... 0 o 28

230 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu (3)

‘Tithe. ‘wae
Map Owner fee TR Gh Map Owner Al) Re wee
Bishop of Glou- I . Wintle oO
1854 eter & Bristol matt a : a Oo I :
1876 " O 0 22 | 1836 3 ee 4
1940 " O 0 20 | 1841 " (oy 70)
1931 " Oy Tea 852 " oe GG)
1910 " OD 1 27 | 1857 " Casey
Igi2 oe > Oo I 15] 1865 " ogee irs
1915 " Oo I 33 | 1868 " Ola teres
1880 " TOW 2 |S 75 " 0 0 38
1875 John Cox Os 41 | 1 gu8 7 0 eS
1869 W. Wells ® 1 10+) 1995 i 0. 0.37
1873 " O 0 26 | 1929 n cas 0 See
1908 ne oO 3.17 | 1839: W. Nicholls. ..: “0, gas
1913 " O°-I OF T851 " 0) 4512
1914 n a Oar Th) hog - 9 sbrice O- 51e29
1850 G. Witcombe... 0 3 O| 1855 " 0" te 2
I9II " Oo PA Lay " 0 220
1922 " OF 2: 8 Pops. Ac jOnes O15 2b
1847 J. Wintle 6 <0. 33>] T5930 " 0. Sees
1862 0 o I 8| 1924 W. Higgs Oo 329
1906 " o. 1 18 | 1843 R. Carter o-246
PRESENTED

31 0CT.1900

DIE eac 2a ea

feo-------

en ce
9 oe Fy ia

oe ae ee ee

a aa Ba ne
a r

VOL. XUl., PLATE XI.

LEONARDS

AT UPTON ST.

COMMON FIELD

PROC COTTESWOLD CLUB

1908 eaaeaSSes

NOS ne:

pore OI, Sei ee
=== =--~ 22. = 19/27" >>-== Se oe

hf eae ae ee 9/9 ag ee Se
© ===.

.
i

LIST OF THE MEMBERS

May, 1900

OFFICERS:
: President :
E. B. WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.MLS.

Pice-Presidents :
Joun BELLows.
Rev. H. H. Winwoop, M.A., F.G.S.
CHRISTOPHER Bowty, M.A.I.
M. W. CoLCHESTER-WEMYSS.
C. Cattaway, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.

Hon. Creasurer :
A. S. HELPs,

The Knap, Great Witcombe, Gloucester.
Hon. Pibrarian:

H. G. Manan, M.A., F.C.S.,

Eastgate, Gloucester.

Hon. Secretary :
S. S. Buckman, F.G.S.,
Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

THE OFFICERS CONSTITUTE THE COUNCIL.

il. PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB

VOL. XIll. (3)

Ponorarp Members :

The President of the Dudley and Midland Field Club.
The Hon. Secretary of the Dudley and Midland Field Club, Dudley.

‘The President of the Malvern Naturalists’ Field Club.
The Hon. Secretary of the Malvern Naturalists’ Field Club, Malvern.

The President of the Warwickshire Field Club.

The Hon. Secretary of the Warwickshire Field Club, Warwick.

The President of the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club.
The Hon. Secretary of the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club, 26 Broad Street,

Hereford.

The President of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society.
The Hon. Secretary of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society, 145 White Ladies’ Road,

Redland, Bristol.

The President of the Bath Naturalists’ Field Club.
The Hon. Secretary of the Bath Naturalists’ Field Club, Bath.

The Hon. Secretary, Bristol and Gloucestershire Archzeological Society, Eastgate,

Gloucester.

Robert Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S., 14 Carlyle Square, Chelsea, S. W.
Nevil Story Maskelyne, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Bassett Down House, Swindon.
George Maw, F.L.S., F.G.S., Benthall, Kenley, Surrey.

Dr E. Hiibner, 4 Ahornstrasse, Berlin, W.

G. kmbrey, F.C.S., Belmont, Brunswick Road, Gloucester.
H. Y. J. Taylor, Conservative Club, Gloucester.

Abbott, Major A. K.

Ashton, Brigade-Surgeon W. ...
Babbage, Major-General H. P.
Baily, W. A. "

Baker, G. E. LI., J.P. ...

Ball, A. J. Morton

Batten, Rayner W., M.D.
Bellows, John

Bishop, W. NG 5a “as
Bond, F. T., B.A., M.D., F.R.S.E.
Bowly, Christopher, M.A.I.
Bruton, H. W. ...

Bubb, Henry

Buckman, S. S., I.G.S.

Butt, Rev. Walter, M.A.

SHlembers :

5 Suffolk Square, Cheltenham.
Marlborough Lawn, Cheltenham.
Mayfield, Cheltenham.

Market Place, Cirencester.
Hardwicke Court, near Gloucester.
The Green, Stroud.

1 Brunswick Square, Gloucester.
Upton Knoll, Gloucester.

The Brick House, Stroud.

3 Beaufort Buildings, Gloucester.
Siddington House, Cirencester.
Bewick House, Gloucester.

Ullen Wood, near Cheltenham.
Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

The Vicarage, Minety, Malmesbury.

Pe grrwws ah ¢<

1900 LIST OF MEMBERS ill.

Callaway, Chas., M.A. » D.Sc.
Chance, H. G., M.A. ...

Clark, Oscar, M.A., M.B.
Colchester-Wemyss, M. W.
Cooke, A. S.

Currie, G. M. mets Soe

- Dorington, Sir J. K., Bart., M.P.
Drew, Joseph, M.B., F.G.S.

Ducie, The Earl of, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Duke, Col. J. C.
Dyer-Edwardes, T

Ellis, T. S. aha

Evans, Rev. J., B.A.

Fisher, Major C. H., F.R.A.S.
Fisher, W. H. C.

Foster, R. G. oF ;
Gael, C. E., B.A., M. asst ¢ E.
Gardiner, C. I., M.A., F.G.S.
Garnett, F.

Garrett, J. H., M.D. .

Guise, Sir W. F. G., Bart.
Hall, Rev. Robert, M.A.
Hannam-Clark, F.

Hartland, Ernest, M.A.
Hayward, Archdeacon H. R....
Helps, A. S.

Jones, John H. ...

Kay, Sir Brook, Bart. ...
Keeling, G. W....

Knowles, H.

Le Blanc, A.

Leigh, William .. 4:
Madan, H. G., MA, FCS. .
.Margetson, W. ... ; 3
Marling, Sir William H, Bart.
Marling, W. J. Paley ..
Marling, S. S.

Medland, M. H.

Mellersh, W. L., M.A.
Meredith, W. L., F.G.S.
Moreton, Lord ...

Norris, H. E.

Northcott, R. W.

Paine, Alfred E. W.

16 Montpellier Villas, Cheltenham.
Heathville Road, Gloucester.

Spa Road, Gloucester.

Westbury Court, Newnham,
Badbrook House, Stroud.

26 Lansdown Place, Cheltenham.
Lypiatt Park, Stroud.

Montrose, Battledown, Cheltenham.
Tortworth Court, Falfield, R.S.O.
Southern House, Pittville, Chelt?ham
Prinknash Park, Painswick, Stroud.
6 Clarence Street, Gloucester.

. Rosedale Villas, Kings Rd., Chelt’m

The Castle, Stroud.

6 Rowcroft, Stroud.

Spa Villas, Gloucester.

Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

The College, Cheltenham.

Adsett Court, Westbury, Newnham.
24 Promenade, Cheltenham.

Elmore Court, near Gloucester.

Saul Rectory, Stonehouse, Glos.
Hucclecote, Gloucester.

Hardwick Court, Chepstow.

College Green, Gloucester.

The Knap, Great Witcombe, Glo’ster.
Barrow Hill, Churchdown, Chelt'm.
Battledown, Cheltenham.

10 Lansdown Terrace, Cheltenham.
Egerton House, Spa Road, Glo’ster.
The Hayes, Prestbury, Cheltenham.
Woodchester Park, Stonehouse, Glos.
Bearland House, Gloucester.

Bright Side, Stroud.

Stanley Park, Stroud.

Stanley Park, Stroud.

Stanley Park, Stroud.

Horton Road, Gloucester.

The Gryphons, Pittville, Cheltenham.
7 Midland Road, Gloucester.
Sarsden, Chipping Norton, Oxon.
Cirencester.

New Mills Court, Stroud.

Swords, Leddington, Ledbury.

iv. PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (3)

Perkins, Vincent R.

Playne, H. C. j
Prevost, E. W., Ph. Dy Fr. R. s. E.
Richardson, L. ... =e :
Ringer, Dep. Surgeon-Gen. T.
Rogers, Colonel R., J.P.

Royce, Rev. D., M.A....
Sawyer, John Fe
Scobell, Canon E. C., M.A.
Sewell, E. C.

Smith, A. E.

Stanton, Walter John ...
Stanton, C. H., M.A., F.R.G.S.
Taynton, HH. J.... ‘
Thomas, Arnold, F.G.S.
Thompson, W. ...

Upton, Charles... :

Viner, Rev. A. W. Ellis
Waller, F. W.

Washbourn, William

Watson, Dep. Surgeon-Gen. Gus A.
Wells, W. S.

Wethered, E. B., F.G.S., K.GS., F.RM.S.

Wilkinson, Rev. L., B.A.
Winnington-Ingram, Kev. A. R.
Winwood, Rev. H. H., M.A.
Witchell, E. Northam
Witchell, C. A.

Witts, G. B. oe

Witts, Rev. F. E. B., B.A.
Wollaston, G. H., F.G.S.
Wood, Walter B.

Wotton-under-Edge.

28 College Road, Clifton.

Elton Cottage, Newnham-on-Sevein.
10 Oxford Parade, Cheltenham.

20 Lansdown Terrace, Cheltenham.
Battledown Court, near Cheltenham.
Nether Swell, Stow-on-the-Wold.
Battledown, Cheltenham.

Upton St. Leonards, Gloucester.
The Beeches, Cirencester.

The Hollies, Nailsworth.
Stratford Lodge, Stroud.

Field Place, Stroud.

8 Clarence Street, Gloucester.
Severn Bank, Newnham-on-Severn.
Lansdown, Stroud.

Tower House, Stroud.

Badgeworth Vicarage, Cheltenham.
Horton Road, Gloucester.
Blackfriars, Gloucester.

Hendre, Cheltenham.

Netherleigh, Cheltenham.

4 St. Margaret’s Terrace, Cheltenham,
Westbury-on-Severn, Newnham.
Lassington Rectory, Gloucester.

11 Cavendish Crescent, Bath.
Lansdown, Stroud.

The Pines, Charlton Kings.
Leckhampton, Cheltenham.

Upper Slaughter, Bourton-on- Water.
Ellerncroft, Wotton-under-Edge.
Barnwood, Gloucester.

(Any corrections in this List will be gladly received by the Hon. Secretary.)

LIST OF SOCIETIES, INSTITUTIONS, &c. Vv.

LIST OF SOCIETIES, INSITUTIONS, &c.

To whom Copies of the Club’s Publications are presented

An asterisk denotes those from whom tublications are received in exchange.

*Tue AMERICAN MusEuM oF NATURAL History, Central Park, 77th Street and
8th Avenue, New York City, U.S. America, c/o Messrs Wesley & Son, 28 Essex
Street, Strand, London, W.C.

*TuE ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, c/o The Secretary, 3 Hanover Square,
London, W.

*lHE BATH NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB, c/o The Librarian (T. S. Bush, Esq.),
Royal Literary Institution, Terrace Walks, Bath.

*THe BRISTOL AND GLOUCESTERSHIRE ARCHOLOGICAL Society, c/o The
Librarian, Eastgate, Gloucester.

*Tye BristoL NaTuRALists’ Sociery, c/o C. King Rudge, Esq., L.R.C.P.,
145 Whiteladies Road, Redland, Bristol.

*Tur CLIFTON ANTIQUARIAN CLUB, c/o A. E. Hudd, Esq., 94 Pembroke Road,
Clifton, Bristol.

Tue GroLocicaL Society, c/o The Librarian, Burlington House, Piccadilly,
London, W.

THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, c/o The Librarian, The School of Mines, Jermyn Street,
London, W.

*Tue GEOLOGISTS’ AssOcIATION, c/o The Librarian, University College, Gower
Street, London, W.C.

*THE GLascow GEOLOGICAL Society, c/o The Librarian, 207 Bath Street,
Glasgow.

THe Roya. Society, c/o The Librarian, Burlington House, Piccadilly, W

*THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION (Washington, D.C., U.S. America), c/o Messrs
Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, W.C.

Tue SoutH KENSINGTON Museum, c/o The Librarian, Cromwell Road, South
Kensington, London, S. W.

*Tur U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY (Washington, D.C., U.S. America), c/o Messrs
Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, W.C.

THE UNIVERSITY Liprary, c/o The Librarian, Cambridge.

*THE WARWICKSHIRE NATURALISTS’ AND ARCHOLOGISTS’ FIELD CLuB, c/o
T. W. Whitley, Esq., 20 Camberwell Terrace, Radford Road, Leamington.

*Ture WooL_Hore NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB, c/o H. C. Moore, Esq., 26 Broad
Street, Hereford.

H. D. HosxKo xp, Esq., Calle Chareas, 1210, Buenos Aires, South America.

Mrs SyMonps, The Camp, Sunningdale, Ascot.

vi. PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xin. (3)

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PRESENTED
31 OCT.1906

§?

tT

WOT. XITL PART IV

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

| Cotteswold Waturalists’

FIELD Sg te ly S

President
EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G:S.

Vice2 Presidents
JOHN BELLOWS
Rev. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A,, F.GS.
CHRISTOPHER BOWLY, M.A.I.
M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS
C. CALLAWAY, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.

|
)
i|
ed

Honorarp Creasurer
ASS: HELPS

Ponorarp Librarian
H. G. MADAN, M.A,, F.C.S.

Honorary Accretarp
Ss, S. BUCKMAN, F.GS.

‘HE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERSTOOD THAT THE AUTHORS

‘THE COUNCIL OF
E RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED

oe ALONE AR
IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS.

4 Contents

f Homceomorphy among Jurassic Brachiopoda. By S. S. eae F.G.S.

4 x Plates XII, XIII - - - - - - - - - page 231
_ The Pyrenees and Andorra. By W1LLIaAM BELLows. Pilates XIV-XVI - u 291
_ Polydactylism in Cats. By Rev. A. R. WINNINGTON- INGRAM - - - nn 303

Rhynchelmis: A Rare Aquatic Worm. By W. A. Batty. Plate XVII - un 309
= - - =- = = " 319

Z ~ Resolutions Concerning Maps - - -
Title Page and Contents of Volume XIII

PUBLISHED, MARCH, 1901

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. $222299

The Library of the Club is at Mr John Bellows’, Eastgate,
Gloucester.

It is open every Tuesday afternoon from 2.30 to 4.80, when
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Books, Pamphlets, etc., presented to the Club should be
addressed to the Cotteswold Club, c/o John Bellows, The
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Correspondence should be addressed to the Hon. Secretary,
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Subscriptions (due ist January each year) should be sent to
the Hon. Treasurer, A. S. Helps, The Knap, Great
Witcombe, Gloucester.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’

PRR CLUB

PRESIDENT

EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G:S.

HONORARY SECRETARY

S..S. BUCKMAN, F.G.S.

Voli bh 7Part: TV

March, 1901

\—

231

HOMCEOMORPHY AMONG JURASSIC
BRACHIOPODA,
BY :
§,.5. BUCKMAN; ’F.G.S.
(Read May 2nd, 1899)

PLATES XII, XIII.

is INTRODUCTION ... 3 ae axe a patie aheeaes
Il. | METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT a ase eee
II]. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE MULTIPLICATE
CHARACTER ... : ee p- 240.
IV. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF BIELICATION p- 246.
V. PSEUDOBIPLICATE (BILOBATE) SERIES p- 249.
VI. NON-PLICATE HOMCEOMORPHS p- 257:
VII. NOTES ON CERTAIN SPECIES ... p: 261.
VIII. SUMMARY za oe a ae sie. oe 209;
IX. APPENDIX I. ON PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION... p. 264.
X. APPENDIX II. A JURASSIC TIME TABLE p- 265.

I. INTRODUCTION

The discovery of a multiplicate Brachiopod belonging

to the Zerebratula-galeiformts series, brought to the

notice of the Club by Mr Upton,” is particularly interest-
ing. It is a further, and as it happens, very striking
example of the phenomenon known as parallelism of
development. Thereby is produced what I have called
homceomorphy — that is to say, the phenomenon of

* “Some Cotteswold Brachiopoda,” Proc. Cotteswold Club, Vol. xiii., p. 121; 1899.

Q

232 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)

species nearly alike so far as superficial appearance is
concerned, but unlike when particular structural details
are closely examined. It is the phenomenon of similarity
in general with dissimilarity in details.

What is known as mimicry in the animal kingdom is,
of course, one phase of homceomorphy. Mimicry may
be suggested in regard to homceomorphous fossil species.
I seem to recollect suggesting it some years ago in regard
to Ammonites—the genera Dumortteria and Grammo-
ceras—but I have forgotten where. It would be, perhaps,
impossible to prove mimicry in regard to fossils; but
with them homceomorphy mostly arises from parallelism
of development—the tendency of different genetic stocks
to pass, quite independently, through similar phases of
development—such as the tendency of distinguishable
series of snooth Ammonites to become costate, of costate
Ammonites to become spinous, in progressive develop-
ment ; or in retrogressive development, of spinous Ammo-
nites to become costate, of the costate to become smooth.
Similarly there is a tendency among Jurassic Brachiopoda
for independent non-plicate species to become multiplicate :
that is, analogous to the costation in Ammonites; and
in the Rhynchonellide for the multiplicate (costate) to
become spinous (Acanthothyris), and in certain cases a
spinous species may, with age, retrogress to lose spines
(Acanth. obornensis.)*

Again, in Jurassic Brachiopoda a simpler development
may be found—the tendency of smooth non-plicate species
to become uniplicate, of the uniplicate to become biplicate.

The various species of different stocks may either pro-
duce these developmental characters more or less con-
temporaneously, in which case such forms are called
isochronous homceomorphs, or they may produce the

characters at different dates—a later form simulating an

* “Spinose Rhynchonelle;’ Buckman & Walker; Yorkshire Philos. Soc., 1880, p. 13.

-«

I90I Ss. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 233

earlier one—in which case they are called heterochronous
homceomorphs.*

An analysis of the methods of development pursued
by some of the more notable stocks of Jurassic Brachio-
poda may be given now, as having a particular bearing on
the subject of homceomorphy.

II. METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT

The following tabular arrangement is only a rough
analysis; but it may indicate the methods of develop-
ment :—

I a. Dorsalt sulcation slight. “© Tereb ( W.) Heyseana,” Desl.
Zeilleria circularis, sp. n.3 Z.
Lycetti ; Z. Leckenbyt, Z. anglica

; juv.)

6. Gradual development of ye Leckenbyi; Z. anglica; Z.
gibbous valves. Witchelli.

c. Later marginal thicken- old age forms of above species.
ing of valves.

From stage analogous to Id.

there is
bb. Dorsal plication slight. Z. Darwini,; Z. disculus.

A gibbous-valved form analogous to Id, (or perhaps the same,
attained by passing through Ia, but of this there is no evidence yet,)
develops :—

Ib a. Dorsal and ventral sul- LZeilleria numismalis ; Z. inden-
cation. tata; Z. digona, etc.

6. Later in some cases, Zeilleria cornuta; Terebratula

outgrowth of marginal imitator, sp. n.; T. eudesiana.

~ lobes each side of sulci,
produces bilobation
(pseudobiplication. )
c. Later, repetition of bilo- Z. quadrifida.
bation produces quadri-
lobation.

_* For remarks on this subject, see “The Bajocian of the Mid-Cotteswolds.”
Appendix, “Notes on certain Brachiopoda,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. li., p. 456.
+ Used arbitrarily, dorsal=brachial (valve), ventral= pedicle (valve).

Q2

234 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xu. (4)

Ida a. __ Bilobation directly, with- Z. emarginata (incipient); Z.
out any definite prior bicornis (olim Z. emarginata) ;
sulcation. Z. bullata ; Z. obovata.

II a. Dorsal sulcation; — de- Glossothyris (Nucleate.)

veloping into a some-
what linguiform ventral
projection.
6. Later bilobation, and the Pygope.
fusion of the lobes below
the sulcus producing a
perforated shell.

Ill- a. Flattening or slight de- T. Leest ; 7: simplex ; T. omalo-
pression of dorsal valve. gaster » T. subomatlogaster, sp. n.
6. Develops into dorsal T. curvifrons. \ Aulacothyris
sulcation. UJ Haast
c. Later dorsal plication T. galeiformis. { follows this
within the sulcus. \W | plan.

The Z.-curvifrons series is quite distinct from Zerebra/ula, the
method of biplication being just the opposite. Some of the series
have been put to Glossothyris,; but always with a query, as genetic
connexion therewith was obviously out of the question, though a
certain morphic similarity could be seen by anyone. The necessity
for a new generic name has long been felt ; and I venture to propose
Pseudoglossothyris (see p. 240.)

IV. a._~=Dorsal_ sulcation _pro- Aulacothyris.
nounced, and even ex-
cessive in some cases.

6. Bilobation added to pro- Aulac. crewkerniensts.

nounced dorsal sulca-
tion.

IVa a. Dorsal sulcation pro- Aulacothyris Mooret in some
nounced; and _ later, cases ;
ventral sulcation pro- Aulac. bisulcata, S. Buckm.
ducing incipient biloba-
tion.

rehuor =aar

I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 235
Analogous stage to I. and III. in the Rhynchonella, thus : —

Rh. liostraca; Rh. Meneghinii ;

bra eeecaeney, ere: ie Rh. standishensts, sp. n.

Vv a. Dorsal sulcation slight,
added multiplication.

These are most likely prior stages in the phylogenetic history of
many of the fully multiplicate RAyxchonelle, so that

V b. passes to
¢. multiplication fully de- Eehynch. spp.
veloped, continued to

d. ventral sulcation de- | Rhynch. spp. with raised
veloped after multipli- mesial fold.
cation.

Except from Vc., Rhynchonelle which attain a similar stage in other
ways ; for instance :—

VI a Ventral sulcation
strong ;
b. with subsequently de-
veloped multiplication.

Rhynchonella acuta group.

bd .

Vil Striation develops into Rh. furcillata; Rh. - rimosa
multiplication by anas- group; A. Wrighti.
tomosis of striz.

VIII a. Striation alone ; Rh. dundriensis, S. Buckm.
6. later a mesial fold de- Rh. dorsetensis, S. Buckm.
veloped.

A stage analogous to Ia. and IIIa. may have been an early stage
in the development of the biplicate Zerebratu/e. It is found thus:

IX a. Flattened dorsal valve. Terebr. Edwards (juv.) ;
T. subpunctata (juv.)
6. Dorsal valve deveiops T. Edwardsi ; T. spheroidaits ;
gibbosity. T. gravida; T. microtrypa, sp.n.

236 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. XIII. (4)

From form attained in IX. 4. various lines of development proceed.
One begins uniplication directly, which subsequently passes into biplica-
tion, and possibly quadriplication. Another elongates the valves before
plication commences ; another develops multiplication directly.

X a. Dorsal plica developed. Tereb. Etheridgit ; T. Wrighti,;

(compare 140.) f) T. ampla.

6. Subsequent sulcation of T. globata series, and a large
plica produces biplica- number of the biplicate Zere-
tion. A bratule.

The formation of the sulcus is perhaps a case of hypostrophy to
the form of I. a.d.

T. withingtonensis illustrates a. and 6.; perhaps Plestothyris does
too. TZ. maxillata illustrates a tendency towards quadriplication.

A slightly different course is taken by some other species.

XA a. Dorsal plication and al- T. shirburniensis ; T. hyalina,
most contemporaneous sp. n.
flattening of the plica. [7
6. The flattening proceeds T. Eudest.

to sulcation, and so bipli-
cation is produced. M

A large number of the biplicate Jurassic Zerebratule would be compre-
hended in Divisions X, XA. There is, probably, no real difference
in method except that perhaps in X the uniplica is persistent awhile
before any infolding begins, while in XA a certain infolding (flatten-
ing) begins early and has some duration before definite sulcation
commences.

Many of the other biplicate Zerebratule followed the course of first
elongating the valves: thus from [Xé. there is :—

XI —sa._—_—_ Elongation of valves be- T. punctata; T. Buckmant, ete.
fore plication.
6. Dorsal valve with uni- T. cortonensis ;; T. Buckmani, in
plica. (), some cases.

¢. Sulcation of plica pro- T. crickleyensis ; T. Phillipsi ;
duces biplication. AA IT. Phiilipsiana.

-¢

1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 237

Starting from stage attained in IXé there is again :—

XII @. Non-plication (gibbous Fimbriate TZerebratule ; Fim-
valves) developing drtothyris; the recent Magel-
directly into multiplica- lania flavescens ; Rhynch. spp.
tion.

XIII Dorsal and ventral sul- Dictyothyris.

cation ; and later a sub-
sidiary plica developed
within the dorsal sulcus.

XIV Ventral sulcation pro- Epicyrta Eugennii (von Buch.)
nounced.

This rough analysis of these phases of Brachiopod
development will show how homcomorphy may arise.
Non-plicate forms may both start towards plication in
similar ways. Or starting in dissimilar ways they may
become similar (biplicate Zerebratule and Glossothyris
to a certain extent.) This is particularly marked in the
Rhynchonelle,; in one case the mesial fold is developed
and the multiplication follows, in the other case this
order is reversed; but obviously after a while the result
must be a similarity in form, a multiplicate shell with a
mesial fold in both cases.

In another case, non-plicate forms may take what are
independent lines—one series becoming biplicate, the
other bilobate; yet so far as general appearance is con-
cerned the shells of the two series may have a very
similar aspect—only different in marginal view.

The introduction of old age features may often bring
about resemblance in what were diverse forms; but the
term “old age features” is relative rather than absolute.
_ For by the principle of earlier inheritance, or tachygenesis,
what is an old age feature, in species at an earlier period
of phylogenetic development, may soon become a youthful
feature in those at a later one. ‘Thus, multiplication is an
old age feature in some fimbriate forms; it is not so in

238 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)

others where another character, valve-thickening™ is, and
comes later. So again multiplication is an old age feature
in some Rhynchonelle, it is a normal and very youthful
feature in most of them.

Multiplication as an old age character pertains to the
fimbriate fossil figured by Mr Upton. The interesting
point about his discovery is this. There were already
known in the Inferior Oolite two nearly related fossils
showing homceomorphy—namely, 7erebratula plicata and
T. fimbria. They both develop similar multiplication ;
yet it is obvious from their beak characters and general
shape that they do it quite independently—that is to say,
after they have parted from the common ancestral stock.
Now Mr Upton produces another fimbriate fossil; and, as
it happens, one not allied in a close degree to 7. plicata
or 7. fimbria. It belongs to what is known as the caurvz-
Jrons group, the proposed genus Pseudoglossothyris. Mr
Upton calls this fossil 7. ga/ezformis, a form in which a
further development of the cusvzfrons sulcus is shown.
But in his fossil a fimbriate margin is produced, and the
curvifrons sulcus has been partially obliterated, or has
not been developed (see later, note p. 262.)

The point then about these fossils is this. 7. plzcata
and 7. fimbria show by their characters that they had a
common but not very remote ancestor—one, say, in the
Ludwigian Age (early Inferior Oolite.) But this fimbriate
Pseudoglossothyris shows by its characters a different line
of development since it separated from the common stock.
Presumably its date of departure therefrom was earlier, and
a species of Harpoceratan Age (Upper Lias) gives possible
support to the idea that the time was quite an “Age”
earlier.f Yet in the course of its development this

* By this term I mean the principle of separating the valves by marginal deposit
without adding to their superficial area, example Zez/leria Waltonz.
+ Bajocian Mid-Cotteswolds, p. 447.

1901 S. S$. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 239

curvifrons stock takes on characters which have hitherto
been regarded as special to the fmdbria group. Now I
have to point out another case in the same genus in which
the fiméria character is taken on by a shell earlier in the
Pseudoglossothyris series, because it had hardly commenced
to show dorsal sulcation before it added fimbriation. And
since these notes were written Mr L. Richardson has
brought to my notice a fossil of another group, the maazd-
lata series of Zerebratula, which shows similar indications
of developing fimbriz.

Thus in the Cotteswold district, in rocks of about the
same date, there are five independent developments of
the same character among species of Terebratulide.

It may be noted, in passing, that one of the recent
Brachiopods, Alagellania flavescens shows the same de-
velopment of fimbriae, and is remarkably like 7°. fmérza in
every way. The likeness is an excellent instance of hetero-
chronous homceomorphy. And in the Lias a fimbriate
series of the W/age//anide@ forms the genus /umbriothyris.

As may be easily imagined, homceomorphy has led to
many errors in identification of species — particularly
among Brachiopoda. When the homceomorphous species
are nearly related—two stocks of 7erebratule, for in-
stance—much excuse may be made. When, however, the
species belong to two families, Terebratulide and Magel-
lanide C(Waldheimiadz), whose structural details, espe-
cially the internal arrangements, are quite distinct, then
the confusion of two species of these families under one
name becomes serious. Yet such confusions have been
made even by the great authority on Brachiopoda, Thos.
Davidson, as may be seen in his work on the Jurassic
species. Itis the object of the present paper, in part, to call
attention to the mixing of examples of two families under
one name, to figure other remarkable homceomorphous

240 PROG, “COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)

forms, and generally to indicate the development of such
species.
I will now proceed with the description of some species.

III. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE

MULTIPLICATE CHARACTER

Genus :—PSEUDOGLOSSOTHYRIS, S. Buckman.
(Type :—Ps. curvifrons, Oppel, sp.*)

Definition: —Non-septate Terebratuloids, the beak stout, short,
without beak ridges, and generally with a large, complete foramen.
The brachial valve develops from flat to sulcate, with subsequent pro-
duction of a plica within the sulcus.

Distinction:—From Glossothyris, the whole of the
brachial valve is involved in the making of a broad sulcus,
whereas in that genus only the middle third is taken to
make a kind of narrow linguiform depression.

Remarks :—The following species belong to this
genus :—Leesz, S. Buckman; szmplex, J. Buckman ; curvi-
rons, Oppel; Brebrissonz, Deslongschamps ; galezformzs,
McCoy; provincialis, Desl.; all of the Ludwigian Age (lower
Inferior Oolite.) There is in the Harpoceratan Age (upper
Lias) a species, obviously a non-septate Terebratuloid,
hitherto confounded with Zerleria (Waldheimia) Lycettz,
which may be expected to be a member of Pseudog/osso-
thyrts.

* I take as type of the genus the Cotteswold shell known as Zerebratula, or Glosso-

thyris ? curvifrons, from the Oolite Marl.

ve

I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 241

1. PSEUDOGLOSSOTHYRIS SIMPLEX, /. Buckman.
PSX, figs: I—3-

1845. TEREBRATULA SIMPLEX, /. Buckman, Geol.
Cheltenham, Ed. ii., pl. vii., fig. 5. _

1851. TEREBRATULA SIMPLEX, Davidson, Jurassic
Brach., Vol. I., pl. viii., figs. 1—3.

Remarks :—This species is so well known that it needs
no detailed description.

The interest attaching to the present unusually large
example is that in maturity it shows certain small plications
similar to those exhibited by its contemporary, Zeredr.
plicata, though not so numerous. These plications are also
noteworthy in connexion with the plicate, later-appearing
“ Terebr. galeiformis” described by Mr Upton.

Another point that may be noticed is that the brachial
valve of this specimen is rather more convex than usual.

There is a rather interesting history connected with this
specimen. It was found at Birdlip by Robert Holland,*
of Cheshire, when a student at the Royal Agricultural
College, Cirencester, during one of the excursions con-
ducted by my father as Professor. This would be some-
thing like fifty years ago. ~The specimen attracted atten-
tion on account of its unusual size and condition. So
much so that some thirty years later my father had not
forgotten this find; but he told me that this 7. semplex
was one of the ornaments of Mr Holland’s collection.

Mr Holland subsequently became my father-in-law, and
so, through my wife, the specimen has at last come into
my collection.

* Robert Holland was a cousin of the Gloucestershire Hollands, one of whom, Miss
Holland, made a collection of Liassic fossils, which was the subject of a paper by Dr
Wright in the Club’s Proceedings, Robert Holland compiled the Cheshire Glossary, and,

~ with James Britten, of the British Museum, that useful book “A Dictionary of English
Plant Names,’’—both works published by the English Dialect Society.

242 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)

Locality and Stratum of the Figured Specimen :—
Birdlip, Gloucestershire, in the Pea-grit.
Date of Existence :—Murchisone hemera.

2. ‘“TEREBRATULA”* POLYPLECTA, S. Buckman, sp.n.
Pl. XII., figs. 4—7.

Description.—A gibbous valved, broadly ovate shell; the valves are
fimbriate for about one-third from the front margin, which itself is
usually thickened, obtuse, and fimbriate. Beak very short and obliquely
truncate.

Distinction :—From 7. plicata, J. Buckman, it is an alto-
gether smaller shell, the plications begin at a much earlier
age and are much more pronounced. From 7. faméria,
Sow., it has not the globose form of that species, it is
more elongate, its beak is shorter, obliquely truncate, and
does not overhang the brachial valve.

Remarks :—This species is a development of 7eredr.
plicata, and occurs at a later date. In that species the
plications are rather rare, and are only found as the adult
character, and then they are not much developed. In this
species the plications begin in early maturity, and in late
maturity or senility another character commences, namely,
thickening of the margin of the valves without increase in
the size of the shell—a character well shown in figs. 6, 7
of Pl. IV., the plication still being continued. Therefore
what is a character of late maturity in 7evedr. plicata has
become a feature of early maturity in this species, which in
late maturity introduces another developmental phase.

Locality and Stratum :-—Notgrove Station, Gloucester-
shire, in the Oolite Marl. A good series of specimens
has been obtained from this locality; but the species has
not been found elsewhere.

Date of Existence :—Bradfordensis hemera.

* Generic separation of the fimbriate from the biplicate Zerebratule would he
desirable.

I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 243

Two fimbriate Terebratuloids have now been noticed,
Pseudoglossothyris simplex and Terebr. polyplecta. Yo
the latter is related 7. A/icata as direct parent, to the
former Ps. galetformis, var., Mr Upton’s shell, as not
quite a direct descendant. There remains another series,
T. fimbria, collateral of 7. polyplecta, though not derived
actually from 7. plicata. The fimbria series commences
in the Pea grit (JZurchisone hemera) probably a little
later than 7. plicata. It has two characters pointing to
its close connexion with that fossil—first, a somewhat
obliquely truncate beak, such as characterizes the Alicata
stock all through ; secondly, a circular shape, which charac-
terizes only the young 7. Aficata. But its independence
is seen in this: it does not wait to become elongate before
it is fimbriate ; it becomes fimbriate while still circular.

Then the next stage is seen in the Oolite Marl (Brad-
fordensts hemera.) The beak has developed; it is not
obliquely truncate, but it curves over the umbo some-
what. And the development of the fimbriz has been
accelerated—they appear earlier and become more pro-
nounced.

The third stage is seen at a later date—the Upper Free-
stone (later Lradfordensts hemera.) The earlier inherit-
~ ance of the fimbriz has become so marked that little of
the original smooth shell is seen: the fimbriz begin in
early immaturity. And in immaturity elongation takes
place; so that somewhat the shape of Terebr. polyplecta
is simulated. But as the fmérza stock in its second stage
of development—in the Oolite Marl—becomes possessed
of the curved-over beak, it has in its third stage a character
of distinction, no matter how much it may simulate
another shell. The curved-over beak, in fact, is the
character : it isa further development than that of 7. oly-
plecta; but that fossil had not acquired it when elongate.
The 7. fméria series does so before becoming elongate.

244 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xi. (4)

It almost seems necessary when speaking of this very
complete developmental series of the fié77a stock to have
certain names for the stages attained. They might be
subjimbria, fimbria, and perfimbria.

Their characters might be defined as follows :—

LTerebr. subfimbria. Truncate beak; circular form of
shell, with slight fimbriation. Pea grit.

LTerebr. fimbria. Curved beak; circular form of shell,
pronounced fimbriation. Oolite Marl.

Terebr. perfimbria. Curved beak; elongate form of
shell, excessive fimbriation extending over most of the
test. Upper Freestone.

It need not be insisted upon that the advance towards
greater fimbriation is always uniform. It is not; and it
would not be expected. But such advance is the general
tendency
the more fimbriate become more numerous.

How far the development of the fmérza series corre-
sponds with that of other fimbriate fossils may be seen
in the following Table :—

Upper “Ps. galeiformis, T. perfimbria,
Freestone var.,” somewhat very _ fimbriate ;
fimbriate. elongate.
Oolite Marl T. polyplecta, T. fimbria,
distinctly fimbri- distinctly fimbri-
ate ; elongate. ate ; circular.
Pea Grit Ps. simplex, T. plicata, T. subjimbria,
very slightly fim- slightly fimbriate; slightly fimbriate ;
briate, and that elongate. circular.
rarely.

It is between 7. polyplecta and 7. perfimbria that
homceomorphy is most marked; but they are not truly
isochronous, they are slightly heterochronous.

the less fimbriate become scarcer and scarcer, »

I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 245

The multiplicate stage of development is uncommon
among the Terebratulide ; but among the Rhynchonellide
it is dominant. With the great majority of them it begins
with the growth of the test, showing that it has been a
long inherited character. With others, however, it does
not begin till some growth has been completed. Mr
Upton shows one such form, which he calls Ahynch.
cotteswoldi@: therein the multiplicate character is just
beginning to assert itself. Such a character, judging by
the young of the species, must be a development inde-
pendent from the settled multiplicate character of Rhynch.
tetraedra, or from the curious developments of plice in
the Rk.-acuta group. So it may be assumed that FZ.
cotteswoldi@ is developing plications as a new feature of
its own, not as the result of inheritance; and that the
multiplicate character in the Rhynchonellidz is polygenetic.

I take the opportunity to figure an interesting new
species, which shows plicze of a more settled character
than RA. cotteswoldia, and yet that they do not begin till
the shell is well grown—so that in this case the character
appears to be new. Further in this species the brachial
valve is sulcate, and that is a character which most Ahyn-
chonelle have grown out of, though it is the dominant
character in genera of Terebratulide and Magellaniide ;
viz., Pseudoglossothyris, Glossothyris, Aulacothyris.

3. RHYNCHONELLA STANDISHENSIS, S. Buckman, sp. nov.
Pl. XII., figs. 13—15.

Description.—A small, sub-circular, depressed Rhynchonelloid, with
a carinate pedicle valve, a sub-sulcate brachial valve, the sulcus ex-
tending nearly to the umbo; in each valve about 16 plaits extending
only half-way from the margin, no definite mesial fold, but the three
central plaits slightly larger than their fellows.

Distinction -—From Rhynchonella Meneghinit, Zittel,
the general form of the shell is rounder, the plicez are

246 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xi. (4)

more distinct, and they begin earlier, so that they are
longer as well as broader; the sulcus in the brachial valve
is less pronounced, and the pedicle valve is less convex.

Remarks :—The differences from the Italian shell, 2.
Meneghinit, are particularly interesting, because that shell
is distinctly earlier in date. It is said to come from Middle
Lias, presumably hemera sfzva¢z. And in accordance with
its earlier date it shows less development of plicze than the
present species. The general build of the little Italian
shell is pretty much the same as the English one, and it
has a similar sulcus in the brachial valve; but it is smooth
longer, and plicate later, while the sulcus is more distinct.
So the English species, which is, say two hemerz later,
shows a particular advance in development corresponding
with its date; it has carried on and elaborated the develop-
ment of plicze, just as we find in the case of the Zeredbra-
tula-fimbria series.

Locality and Stratum:—From a small exposure of Upper
Lias Clay on Standish Park Farm, below Standish Beacon,
the beds yielding Harfoceras falciferum, etc.

Date of L:xistence :—-Falcifert hemera, Harpoceratan
Age (Upper Lias). hk. Meneghinii is from Middle Lias,
that would be probably Sfzvatz hemera of the Deroceratan
Age, about two hemere earlier than 2. standishensts.

IV. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF BIPLICATION

3. TEREBRATULA WITHINGTONENSIS, S. Buckman.
Pl. XII., figs. Sr

Description :—A small, globose, uniplicate, or biplicate Terebratu-
loid, with a short, obliquely truncate beak, and an inflated umbo.

Distinction -—From Terebr. Etheridgii—the uniplicate
form is rather more circular, more globose, and has a less

QS

ier bepare nes

I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 247

pronounced fold; and a truncate beak. From 7Zeredr.
nolgroviensts, the biplicate form is rather less globose, and
the folds are not so pronounced. From 7. Fudesz, the
obliquely truncate beak.

Remarks :—The three specimens of the present species
which have been figured show the development of the uni-
plicate form (fig. 10), the incipient biplicate form (fig. 11),
and the definite biplicate form (fig. 12). They indicate
that the species is derived from a uniplicate form of the
Terebr.-Etheridgit type, and that it develops towards a
pronounced biplicate form like Zervedbr. notgroviensis. It
is therefore a strictly transitional form, and a connecting
link of marked importance between two very distinct
species. It is the parent of Zevebr. notgroviensis, preced-
ing it in time, as this species occurs in the Pea-grit, that
one in the Oolite Marl of the same neighbourhood. The
length of time is represented by a deposit of some 80 to
100 feet of limestone. 7. Atheridgit is not exactly the
parent of this form, because it has not the truncate beak
like this one; but it is a homceomorph of the uniplicate
form. 7. £udesi develops its folds in a different manner ;
and it belongs to a more spheroidal stock : it is a homeeo-
morph of the biplicate form.

The specimen of Zerebr. notgroviensis, figured by me
in the Proceedings of this Club, Vol. ix.,* is really an ex-
treme (Senile) form. It is rather a degenerate form with
somewhat pronounced plications. Other specimens from
the Oolite Marl are more robust, rather larger, and have
less developed plications.

Locality and Stratum :—The cuttings on the Midland
and South-Western Junction Railway near Withington
(Gloucestershire), in Pea-grit.

Date of Existence :—Murchisone hemera.

* Plate iii, fig. 5. 1887.

R

248 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xml. (4)

4. TEREBRATULA HYALINA, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Pl. XIIT., figs. Ga; ip

Description :—Valves convex, the pedicle valve the most. Outline
of shell ovoid, and in lateral aspect globose, elongate. Front margin
elevated to form a single fold, level across. Beak small, short, close
pressed to umbo. Foramen small.

Distinction: — From Terebratula radstockensis, the
smaller foramen, the curved lateral margin, the frontal
fold. From Zerebr. shirburniensis, longer, less globose,
less distinctly plicate.

Coneparison :—Many of the Zez//evie are more or less
homceomorphs.

Remarks :— This extremely elegant species, with a
glassy-looking and apparently very thin test, has much
resemblance to deep sea forms of the present day. The
clayey marl wherein it is found probably indicates deeper
water conditions than the limestone of the same date in
the Bradford Abbas neighbourhood—where the species
has not yet been obtained.

This is almost an incipiently biplicate form, closely con-
nected with the spheroidal stock of which 7. sherdur-
niensis and 7. Eudesi are examples. Though later than
the former, it is in some respects less developed, as in its
plication; in other respects—departure from the sphzeroi-
dal to the ovoidal form—it is more developed.

Locality and Stratum :—Somerset, Horethorne Down,
in a bluish, clayey marl; scarce.

Date of Existence :—Dviscite hemera.

5. TEREBRATULA SIDERICA, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Pl. XIII., figs. 11a, b, &

Description :—Valves inzequi-convex, the brachial valve being nearly
flat. Side margin curved, front margin biplicate; but the plice begin
rather abruptly. Beak short, rather stout, somewhat hanging over
umbo, hiding deltidial plates; foramen oval, with a kind of labiate ex-
tension over umbo.

hee tren Gree.

oo a ea cee tpi

eta stie ete

9 Ngee ne Pace ere

1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 249

Comparison :—-Zeilleria subcornuta is somewhat of a
homceomorph.

Distinction -—From Terebratula Stephani, the short-
ness and abruptness of the plicz.

Remarks :—This is a distinctly biplicate form, but its
general build shows it to be an independent development
separate from either the spheeroidal stock, or 7. wzthing-
tonensis. Not unlikely, it is the parent of the more plicate
7. Stephani. Its date agrees with that idea.

Locality and Stratum :—Yorset, Wyke Quarry, near
Halfway House, in the Irony bed.

Date of Existence :—Blagdenzt hemera.

V. PSEUDOBIPLICATE (BILOBATE) SERIES
(The emarginata homceomorphs.)

Attention may now be directed to another series of
shells, which show development of pseudo-biplication
(bilobation,) This series contains some species which
have been seriously misunderstood on account of their
homceomorphy; and the opportunity may now be taken
to point this out. Some of the following pages were
written several years ago; but time did not then allow of
the work being completed. Perhaps fortunately; for
they come in very well in connection with the subject of
this paper. .

The particular character of bilobation is not uncommon
among the Magellanide; and its independent develop-
ment in different stocks is well known. The interesting
fact is its occurrence also, though rarely, among Tere-
bratulida. And in some cases the resemblance between
the species of the two families with this bilobate front
margin is remarkable.

It is always a matter for regret when any reason
compels the changing of the name by which a particular

R2

250 PROCHCOPTES WOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)

species has been familiar for some time; but, unless
some fault attach to the work of the original nominator—
such as the giving of no figure, or of a flagrantly incorrect
description, which would excuse the mistake of subsequent
writers, the notoriety obtained by any particular form
under an incorrect name cannot become an excuse for its
permanently retaining a designation rightly belonging to
another. A case in point calls for rectification now.

Among a series of Brachiopoda sent to me some years
ago for identification by the late Mr E. Wilson, F.G.S.,
was a specimen from the Fullers’ Earth Rock of Nunney,
near Frome. On comparison [| found that this example
agreed exactly with what Sowerby had originally figured
as “ Terebratula emarginata—discovered at Nunney, near
Frome.”* But for many years we have been giving the
name emarginata to a more elongate and flatter species
found at a much lower level, namely, in the Inferior
Oolite. The mistake had arisen in this way. Davidson
re-figured Sowerby’s types in 1851,f and said that they
came from the Inferior Oolite—in other words, that the
rock which yielded these specimens at Nunney was
Inferior Oolite. With them he figured another specimen
which may have been from the Inferior Oolite, but it is
admittedly a malformation, and is in any case not like the
Nunney specimens of eargznata.

Not improbably the assumption that the rocks of
Nunney were Inferior Oolite may be traced to continental
authors, for in 1849 d’Orbigny{ had put Terebratula
emarginala as a species of his “ 10 Etage :—Bajocien,”
which would be translated in English as Inferior Oolite.

Then, in 1877, Davidson§ figured from the Inferior
Oolite of Broad Windsor, two specimens as Waldheimia

* « Mineral Conchology,” Vol. v., continued by J. de C. Sowerby, pl. ccccxxxv., fig. 5,
. 50.

a + “Oolitic and Liassic Brachiopoda” (Palzeont. Soc.), pl. iv., figs. 18, 19, 20.

t “Prodome de Paléontologie,” p. 287.

§ “ Brachiopoda of the Inferior Oolite of Bradford Abbas and its vicinity,” Proc.
Dorset N.H. Club, Vol. i., pl. iii., figs. ro, 11.

Sead ee ae

ee peers

I9O0I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 251

emarginata—the long-looped, septate Terebratuloids
having been separated as Waldhetmia. These specimens
are truly enough from the Inferior Oolite; but they do
not at all agree with Sowerby’s shells except in being
bilobate. The view, fig. I1@, shows almost a circular
form, whereas the same view of Sowerby’s shells gives a
depressed octagonal figure.

In 1878 Davidson figured the same two specimens ;*
and he also depicted another bilobate example very different
from them. It is undoubtedly from the Inferior Oolite,
and, as he says, from Bradford Abbas. It is more like
the Sowerbyan specimens, but it is somewhat proportion-
ately longer and its valves are more flat across. It is
well known what this specimen represents, although the
majority of the examples from the Dorset Inferior Oolite
are rather longer; it is the form which has of late years
been exclusively known as Waldheimia, or Zetlleria, emar-
gimata. It is found in the upper beds of the Inferior
Oolite, particularly at Bradford Abbas, Broad Windsor,
-and Burton Bradstock ; and it has been recorded from the
Cotteswolds.f

So the case about “emarginata” really stands in this
wise: we have three different forms from two different
horizons figured by the name of “emarginata” in English
literature. Thus there is:

I. From the Fullers’ Earth, a subpentagonal shell with
somewhat gibbous valves transversely.

2. From the Inferior Oolite, a subpentagonal, but rather
more elongate shell, with rather flat valves, transversely.

3. Also from the Inferior Oolite, a subpentagonal shell,
with very gibbous valves, transversely.

Of these three forms, I is that which is entitled to the
name emarginata, Sowerby: 2, though hitherto known as

ee

* “Monograph Brachiopoda: Oolitic and Liassic,” Suppl. pl. xxiii., figs. 5-—7.

+ See the Author’s “Bajocian of the Mid-Cotteswolds,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
Vol. li., p. 440, 1895

252 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)

emarginata, is a distinct shell, but it belongs to the same
genus; while 3, in spite of the fact that Davidson has
drawn it with the angular beak ridges characteristic of
Waldheimia (or Zeilleria), is undoubtedly a Zerebratula
—a short looped, non-septate species, with rounded beak
ridges.

Lastly, there is an altogether new species which has
not been figured or described:—4, from the Inferior
Oolite, like No. 3 in general shape, but longer. But it
is not a Zerebratula, it is a Zerllerta ; yet again it differs
from the other Zez//ervie@ by having an incurved beak.

This species is very like Z. cornuta of the Middle Lias.
I found it about twenty years ago, and sent it to Dr
Davidson with several of the other new species described
in this paper.* He agreed with me that they were new
species, and that they required naming, but he had drawn
all the plates for his work, and was unable to include
them. He hoped that I should undertake the task of de-
scribing them. At last I have partly carried out his wish.

These species may now be definitely noted in the
following manner :—

6. (1) ZEILLERIA EMARGINATA (/. de C. Sowerby).

1825. TEREBRATULA EMARGINATA, /. de C. Sowerby,
_Min. Conch., Vol. V., pl. ccccxxxv., fig. 5.
The large specimen only.

1851. TEREBRATULA EMARGINATA, Davidson, Ool.
Brach. (Pal. Soc.), pl. iv., fig. 18 only,
re-figure of Sowerby’s type.

1863. TEREBRATULA (WALDHEIMIA) EMARGINATA,
E. Deslongschamps, T. Jurass. Brachiopodes ;
Pal. frang., pl. Ixxxv., fig. 1.

Non. WALDHEIMIA EMARGINATA, Davidson, and many

" other authors.

* For instance: 7. hyalina, T. microtrypa, T. subomalogaster, Z. ferruginea;
and others not figured yet.

j
|
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I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 253

The species is found in the Fullers’ Earth Rock of
Nunney, near Frome, Somerset. Its date is, therefore,
presumably the hemera of MJacrocephalites subcontractus.

The specimen now figured is the one found by Mr
Wilson; it is now in the collection of that keen Brachio-
podist, Mr J. W. D. Marshall,* who has kindly sent it to
me again, with another example, for the purpose of this

paper.
7. (2) ZEILLERIA BICORNIS, S. Buckman.

1878. WALHEIMIA EMARGINATA, Davidson, Supple-
ment to Jurassic Brachiopoda, pl. xxiii.,
fig. 7 only.
_ Description :—Sub-pentagonal in outline, with a bilobate front margin.
Brachial valve flattish, pedicle valve sub-gibbous. Valves thickened
at margin, often considerably ; and the thickened bilobate portion often
protruded; beak sub-elevated, well separated from umbo; deltidial
plates exposed ; beak ridges defined, acute.

Comparison :— Terebratula tmitator is a remarkable
homceomorph in another genus. Z. sudcornuta is a
homceomorph in the ‘same genus. Both are isochronous
homceomorphs, or nearly so.

Distinction :— From Z. Wadtltonz, the bilobate front
margin.

Genetic affinity -—It is a bilobate development of the
form of Z. Waltoni which lived during Garantzaneg hemera.
(There is more than one form called Z. Waltonz).

Localities and Strata :—Dorset: Bradford Abbas, Broad
Windsor, in the upper beds; Louse Hill, near Halfway
House, above the Irony bed. Somerset: Crewkerne
Station, upper beds; Milborne Wick, Garantzana beds.

Date of existence :—Garantiane hemera, perhaps later
also.

* IT would call attention to his most useful papers, “Notes on British Jurassic
Brachiopoda,” Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc., Vol. viii., 1895-7.

254 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIU. (4)

8. (3) TEREBRATULA IMITATOR, S. Buckman, nom. nov.
Pl. XIIL., fig. 6a, b, c.

1877. WALDHEIMIA EMARGINATA, Davidson (non
T. emarginata, Sow.) Brachiopoda in the
Inferior Oolite, &c.; Proc. Dorset Field
Gluby-Vol- 1; -pl. ii, fies. 20, 2.

1878. WALDHEIMIA EMARGINATA, Davidson, Oolitic
and Liassic Brach. (Monogr. Palzont. Soc.),
Vol. IV., Suppl., pl. xxili., figs. 5, 6.

Description: —A somewhat ovoid, globose shell. The side and
front margins thickened, the latter indented, with a lobe each side of
the indentation. Junction of valves straight or nearly so, not definitely
waved as in biplicate forms. Beak short, stout, separated from umbo,
showing deltidial plates; no definite beak ridges; foramen somewhat
large, circular.

Comparison :—Zeilleria bicornis is so much a homceo-
morph that Davidson figured specimens of 7” zmz¢ator and
of that species as examples of Waldhermia emarginata.
Zeilleria subcornuta is an even more remarkable homeeo-
morph. Specimens are identical in shape, the beak is the
only point of difference, but of course the septum in
Z. subcornuta is indicated by a dark line in the umbo.

A heterochronous homceomorph is 7. ezdeszana, another
bilobate Terebratuloid.

Distinction :—From Terebr. eudesiana, the larger size
of the shell, the less globular form, the flatter brachial
valve, the straighter side margin, the beak less incurved
and definitely separated from the umbo.

Genetic relations :— Probably with 7. spherordahs,
whereof it is what may be called a bilobate, not a biplicate,
development. Its likeness to 7. ezdescana does not indi-
cate direct genetic affinity, but parallel development over
again from a similar stock.

Localities and Stratum:—Dorset: Broad Windsor, and
Bradford Abbas, in the upper beds.

1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 255

Date of Existence :-—Truellit hemera, most likely; or
possibly zzgzag hemera.

9. (4) ZEILLERIA SUBCORNUTA, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Pl. XIIL, fig. 7.

Description :—Valves about equally convex; front margin indented,
and a depression running up each valve. Beak small, with defined, sub-
acute beak ridges; beak curved over umbo, and not much separated
therefrom. Foramen small.

Note-—A broader form with less marked indentation
may, for the present at any rate, be reckoned as the same
species.

Comparison -—Terebratula tmitator is a remarkable
homceomorph. Zezlerta Marie is notable.

Distinction -—From Z. cornuta, the less definite inden-
tation, the bilobate (cornute) character less developed,
the marginal lobes less marked. From Z. dzcornes, the
incurved beak. From Z. Marie, the less incurved beak,
less acute beak ridges, smaller foramen, generally flatter
form.

Notes.—In Z. cornuta there is a somewhat quadrilobate
appearance; this species is but bilobate. The similarity
to Z. Marie is certainly remarkable, because of the differ-
ence in date. There is no difficulty in their separation if
the beak be studied.

Localities and Stratum. ae ee Bradford Abbas, in the
railway cutting near Yeovil Junction; Clifton Maybank, in
a temporary opening ; both in the base of so-called “ upper
beds of Inferior Oolite.”

Date of E-xistence:—Garantiane hemera.

There is a certain similarity in the following incipiently
bilobate form to the preceding species, so it may be noticed

pHere:

256 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (4)

10. MICROTHYRIS TARDECRESCENS, S. Buckman, sp.n.
Pi. XIIL., fig. 1a; bose

Description:—A somewhat elongate, globose shell, with nearly
equi-convex valves, which are marked with close-set, distinct ridges
of growth. Front margin obtuse, slightly indented. Beak short,
curved over umbo. Beak ridges very short, only defined just under
foramen, the beak appearing to have no ridges; foramen small.

Comparison..—There is much similarity to Zereér.
zmitator, except for the growth ridges. A TZeredbratula
figured by Deslongschamps as 7erebratula spheroidahs,
Brachiopodes jurassiques, Pl. Ixxxi., fig. 1, is similar in
shape, and also has growth ridges, which are, in fact,
exaggerated growth lines.

Distinction -—From Zerlleria ferruginea, the difference
in shape, but particularly the absence of well-defined beak
ridges.

Remarks -—The aspect of the beak is almost that of a
Terebratula; but there is a long and fairly marked dark
line indicative of a septum in the brachial valve. The
beak is of quite a different character from that of the
Z.-Waltoni series with the sharp beak ridges, or from the
incurved beak of sawbcornuta, which also has distinct beak
ridges. The character of the beak seems to justify the
placing of this species to Microthyris, E. Desl., whereof
lagenalis is the type. At any rate it does not deserve to
be called Zezlleria.

Localities and Strata:—Dorset: Burton Bradstock, from
the upper beds; Bradford Abbas, from about the horizon
of the Marl bed. Somerset: Stoford. A scarce shell, but
most distinctive, and several specimens have been obtained.

Date of Existence :—Garantiane hemera.

Note :—The character of ridges really arises from exag-
geration of valve-thickening, alternating with normal growth
to finally becomea settled feature. The ridges presumably
mark times of slow growth.

1901 S. S$. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 257
VI. NON-PLICATE HOMGZOMORPHS

II. TEREBRATULA MICROTRYPA, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Pio iit, fies. oa ob:

Description :—Valves convex, the pedicle valve more so than the
other; valves tapering to the margin. Shell in outline sub-circular.
Beak small, short, sub-tumid, slightly overhanging, not distant from
umbo. Beak ridges defined, sub-acute ; foramen small.

Note——A ground-down specimen shows a short loop.

Distinction :—From Terebr. ampla and T. Uptonz, it
is a smaller shell. From young 7. ama, it has more
gibbous valves, it is not so broad posteriorly, it is more
inflated around the beak, which is more curved and has
more definite beak ridges, and the foramen is smaller.
From immature 7. Uftonz, the more gibbous valves,
transverse shape, and the beak characters, with beak closer
to the umbo, separate it.

Locality and Stratum -—Somerset : Horethorne Down,
near Corton Denham, in a bluish marly clay with Ahyn-
chonella Forbes, etc.

Note -—I have two. specimens sent from Dundry by Mr
Marshall, which are very like this species ; but as the beak
characters are not well preserved, there may be doubt as
to specific identity.

12. ZEILLERIA CIRCULARIS, S. Buckman, sp. n.
PE XIIE,; figs.-9a,. b,c.

Description :—Valves about equally convex, tapering rather to margin,
in outline nearly circular. Umbo prominent, tumid. Beak short,
erect, truncate. Beak ridges distinct, sub-acute ; foramen not large.

Comparison .—Homceomorphs are Jerebratula ampla,
J. Buckman, and Ps. Leese (S. Buckman) especially ;
T. microtrypa toa certain extent; and Zeredr. lentzformis,
Upton, in less degree.

258 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xl. (4)

Distinction :—From Z. Leckenbyi (Walker), the more
transverse shape, and particularly the truncate beak.

Genetic relations :—With Z. Leckenbyz, and Z. Wit-
chelli, S. Buckman. It precedes the former in time dis-
tinctly, being sometimes as much as 100 feet lower. The
two species named as its descendants express the change
of shape from transverse to much elongate.

Localities and Stratum .:— Gloucestershire, Crickley
Hill; Bull Bank, Miserden; in Pea-grit.

Date of Existence .-—Murchisone hemera.

Notes.—The most transverse specimen is from Miser-
den: it measures 30 mm. across and 26 mm. in length.
The largest specimen from Crickley measures, length and
width, 35 mm. It shows a more overhanging beak like
that of Z. Leckendy:, so that with age it approaches that
species in this character, as would be expected.

Young Z. Leckendyz have the proportions and appear-
ance of Z. cercularis.

The Pea-grit of Randwick Ash, near Stroud, which is
about the date of the Lower Freestone of Cheltenham, has
yielded some broad specimens with rather overhanging
beaks; they are really the forms connecting Z. cercularis
and Z. Leckenbyt.

13. ZEILLERIA ANISOCLINES, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Pl. XI. figs. Tia, be

Description :—Inequivalve, sub-ovoid to sub-pentagonal in outline,
brachial valve nearly flat, pedical valve per-convex. Beak projected,
overhanging the umbo; beak ridges fairly defined, sub-acute ; foramen
small.

Comparison .—With the heterochronous homceomorph
Terebratula subomalogaster.

Remarks :—The inequivalve appearance of the shell
viewed sideways, which suggests the specific name, gives
a longitudinal section the figure of a D.

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I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 259

Distinction -—Like Zetlleria Leckenbyi (Walker), but
distinguished by the very unequal convexity of its valves.

Locality and stratum -—Gloucestershire, Cleeve Hill,
in the PAz//7pszana beds of the Rolling Bank Quarry ; rare.

Date of Existence :—Sauzet hemera ?

Note.—As so many of the Cotteswold Brachiopoda are
specifically distinct from their contemporaries in the Anglo-
Norman basin; and as these particular PAz//ipsiana beds
have. been destroyed by Bajocian denudation except over
the Cleeve Hill plateau, it is likely that that place will be
the only locality from which the species can be obtained.

14. TEREBRATULA SUBOMALOGASTER, S. Buckman, sp.n.
PE XU; figs.-2a, be

Description :—Inequivalve, subpentagonal in outline, brachial valve
nearly flat, pedical valve convex. Growth lines prominent at intervals.
Beak projected, overhanging the umbo considerably ; beak ridges fairly
prominent, sub-rounded ; foramen rather large.

Comparison :-—With the heterochronous homceomorph
Zeilleria antsoclines. There is a certain likeness, on
account of the transverse ridges, and even in shape, to
Dictyothyris Moriert, which occurs almost in the same bed.

Distinction :—From Terebratula omalogaster, Zieten.
Verst. Wirt. Pl. xl., fig. 4, by its less transverse shape,
and greater compression.

Remarks :—As the specific name implies, there is con-
siderable likeness to Zieten’s 7. omalogaster, which is
similar in inequality of valves, has an overhanging beak,
but of less pronounced character; the shell is, however,
remarkably transverse, with a beak, as depicted by Zieten,
rounded and largely perforate.

There is reason to conclude genetic connection between
these species; and as Oppel™ states that Zieten’s species

* “Juraformation,” p. 426.

260 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII. (4)

occurs in the Humphriescanus zone, it might be the an-
cestor, as its shape indicates.

Oppel further remarks that Zieten’s specimen differs
from most examples by being too much truncate in front.

This species has lain in my cabinet some 20 years, with
the present specific name, indicative of its resemblance to
the German form.

Note.— About transverse ridges, see M7. tardecrescens.

Locality and horizon :—Dorset, Bradford Abbas, Bed 5.
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. xlix., p. 485).

Date of Existence -—Garantiane hemera.

15. ZEILLERIA FERRUGINEA, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Pl. XIII., figs. 4a, b, c.

Description :—Valves convex, outline of shell elongate. Front mar-
gin more or less rounded, and a little elevated. Beak acute, projecting,
with defined, acute ridges. Growth lines prominent at intervals.

Comparison .—The elongate, non-plicate forms of the
Terebratule of the punctata and Buckmant groups are
homceomorphs. One, a new species of the latter group,
occurs in the same bed.

Remarks :—In the figured example the valves are separ-
ated by test deposition, which throws them further apart
without real increase of valve area. In some examples
this has been carried to an extraordinary excess. In most
cases there is not this thickening ; then the specimens have
a rather compressed appearance, and are not unlike what a
somewhat elongate, narrow Z. anzsoclines might be.

Distinction: — From Z . subbucculenta (Chapuis and
Dewalque), more elongate; more gibbous valves; more
elevated beak, further separated from the umbo.

Localities and Stratum :—Dorset, Louse Hill, and Wyke
Quarry, near Halfway House, in the Irony bed.

Date of Existence :—Llagdeni hemera.

I9OI S. S$. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 261

VII. NOTES ON CERTAIN SPECIES

The opportunity may be taken to notice the two follow-
ing species, one of which requires a name :—

16. TEREBRATULA WURTTEMBERGICA, Offed.

1832. TEREBRATULA BULLATA, Zefen, Verst. Wirt., |
pl. xl., fig. 6 (non Sow.)

1856. TEREBRATULA WURTTEMBERGICA, Offel, Juraf.,
p- 426.

Oppel named this species, taking Zieten’s figure as the
type. He says it is common in the highest beds of the
Inferior Oolite in Wirttemberg, and that Zerebr. sphe-
roidalis is distinct from it because it has a much rounder
shape.

The species is really a kind of elongate 7. spherordats,
with rather marked ridges of growth. It is probably
passed over as Zerebratula decipiens, E. Deslongschamps,
| a specific name made to cover a number of forms, few of
| which are really referable thereto.

17. TEREBRATULA PERMAXILLATA, S. Buckman, sp. n.

1884. TEREBRATULA MAXILLATA, Davidson (non
Sowerby), Monogr. Brach. ; App. to Supple-
ments, pl. xx., figs. 12, 12a, 12b.

Description :—A maxillatoid species, with very strong folds, which
would almost justify its destination as a quadriplicate shell. The side
| margin is in consequence very strongly curved.
§ Distinction :—From 7. maxillata, the greater strength
: of its plications in proportion to its size, the beak more
separated from the umbo.
Localities and Stratum :—Cotteswolds. Rodborough
Hill, near Stroud; Salperton (in the railway cuttings) ;
_ Brimpsfield, near Birdlip ; CZypeus grit ; rare.

262 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XIII. (4)

Date of Existence :—Truelhi hemera, assuming that
Clypeus-grit was contemporaneous with 77we/d7 strata of
Dorset.

Remarks :—I\t lived considerably earlier than the true
Terebratula maxillata, but it is a form with more old age
character. 7. maaz/lata comes froma non-plicate form of
the Zerebr.-marmorea type. The fact is that 7. maxzlata,
T. permaxillata, and 7. submaaitlata are not truly genetic-
ally connected. They are heterochronous homceomorphs,
independent plicate derivatives from a non-plicate stock,
the plicate character being the old age feature which they
independently assume.

18. PSEUDOGLOSSOTHYRIS sp.
1899. TEREBRATULA GALEIFORMIS, var., Upton,
Cotteswold Brach. ; Proc. Cotteswold Club,
Vol. XIIL., pl. iii., figs. 1-4.

I find some difficulty in agreeing with Mr Upton’s
identification. The shell seems to be really an indepen-
dent development from Ps. s¢mplex, whereof the in-
cipiently plicate form (Pl. XII., figs. 1-3) indicates the
method of development. In that case it deserves a name
as a new species, separable at any rate from Ps. galezformis.
I hope Mr Upton will give it one.

NOTABLE HOMCEOMORPHS

A notice of some of the more remarkable homeeo-
morphs is given below. They may be said to form
veritable “traps” in the matter of identification. Besides
them, there are the various uniplicate, and the various
biplicate Zevedbratule which are really homceomorphous
developments ; so are what may be called the various quad-
triplicate forms of the 7 -maxillata series; so are the bilobate
Zeillerie ; and the different multiplicate series.

1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 263

HOMCEOMORPHS
ISOCHRONOUS HETEROCHRONOUS
(more or less)
Aulacothyris Haast Pseudoglossothyris curvifrons
Glossothyris curviconcha Aulacothyris alveata

Terebratula subpunctata ; 2 :
Zeilleria subnumismalts Mucrothyris lagenalis
Terebratula subpunctata

Zeilleria circularis
Terebratula ampla (juv.) al %:
Pseudoglossothyris Leest Zeilleria ferruginea

Terebratula Buckmaniana

Leilleria Lycetti

PSOE §P- Zeilleria antsoclines

Terebratula subomalogaster
Lellerta bullata
Terebratula sp.

Zeilleria ornithocephala

Zeilleria ferruginea Terebratula Buckmant
Terebratula sp. aft. Terebr. ,
Buckmani °
Terebratula spherotdalis
Terebratula imitator Zeilleria bullata
Zeilleria bicornis Zeilleria Marie
Zeilleria subcornuta Zeilleria perobovata

VIII. SUMMARY

Species of Jurassic Brachiopods dissimilar internally, or
_ in regard to particular features, but similar in general aspect,
or developing a certain similarity in general features, have
been noticed in this paper as homceomorphs.

The following new genus has been proposed :—Pseudo-
glossothyris.

The following species have been noticed ; those printed
in heavy type are new; those marked with an asterisk are
figured in this paper.

5

264 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xut. @)

*Microthyris tardecrescens
- *PSEUDOGLOSSOTHYRIS SIMPLEX
*Rhynchonella standishensis
TEREBRATULA FIMBRIA
*Terebratula hyalina
*Terebratula imitator
*Terebratula microtrypa
Terebratula permaxillata
*Terebratula polyplecta
*Terebratula siderica
*Terebratula subomalogaster
*Terebratula withingtonensis
TEREBRATULA WURTTEMBERGICA
*Zeilleria anisoclines
Zeilleria bicornis
*Zeilleria circularis
*ZEILLERIA EMARGINATA
*Zeilleria ferruginea
*Zeilleria subcornuta

IX. APPENDIX I.—ON PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION

Plate XIII. of this paper forms an interesting experi-
ment in photographic reproduction, and a few words may
be said about it.

Photography is the ideal method to employ for depicting
fossils, because thereby the small personal errors of the
artist are avoided—errors inseparable even from the best
work. But few people realize how difficult is the photo-
graphy of fossils, on account mainly of the different actinic
values of their tests (or casts).

The plate in this paper is not put forward as an altogether
successful result of photographic reproduction ; but it was
considered fair as a first experiment.

For successful fossil photography the following condi-
tions are requisite :—Careful lighting by a side light, the
specimens being horizontal, and the camera being mounted

1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 265

vertically ; long, even over-exposure, with a small stop, the
plates being developed with much restrainer ;* some uni-
formity in regard to the colour of the examples—whereof
the eye is not an efficient guide ; elimination of shadows.

The last detail was not attended to in the photographs
which were taken for the plate, hence some of its inferiority.
To obviate shadows cast by one specimen on another, it
is necessary to place them far enough apart. To obviate
shadows on the background, Mr Chas. Upton has suggested
an excellent plan, which I take the liberty to mention.
Mount the Brachiopods to be photographed on small pieces
of clay on a glass plate, support the glass plate by glass
legs (tumblers) some distance above a white sheet of card-
board. Shadows will thereby be eliminated. I have tried,
with success, a modification of this plan in the case of
Ammonites.

X. APPENDIX IIJ.—A JURASSIC (part) TIME TABLE

Herewith is given an outline of the Jurassic Time Table
explained at the Annual Meeting, 1899. It is important in
one respect, as an appendix to this paper on Brachiopods,
because it explains the chronological terms used herein.
It is hoped that it will be of greater importance later—
that it will serve as a basis for making records both of the
stratal and faunal sequence ; and that such records, whether
made by members of the Club, or by other geologists and
palzeontologists, may furnish important technical papers for
publication in the Proceedings, to which they would give
a very special scientific value.

The Appendix is divided into three tables :—(A.) Ex-
planatory of the chronological terms. (.) The stratal
sequence. (C.) A list of hemerz, with blank spaces
left to be used for registration purposes.

* In November, 35 minutes with f. 32 gave very good results with Ammonites.

52

GQ

266

PROG} COTTESW OLD CLUB

TABLE A.—CHRONOLOGICAL TERMS

VOL. XIII. (4)

HEMERAL FULL TITLE OF :
NAMES DISTINCTIVE FOSSIL Agee ErOcH

disci Oppelia (?) discus

(coarctale ) Dictyothyris coarctata

(maxillate ) Terebratula maxillata

subcontractt Macrocephalites subcontractus PARKINSONIAN
Susce Oppelia fusca AGE
21g2ag ‘* Stepheoceras”’ zigzag

Truellit Strigoceras Truellit STEPHEOCERA-
Garantiane Parkinsonia Garantiana

niortensis Strenoceras niortense 7a
Blagdent Celoceras Blagdeni

Sauzet ‘* Spheroceras” Sauzei

Witchellie sp. Witchellia sp. |e
Sonninie sp. Sonninia sp.

Pp P

discite Lyperlioceras discites

concavd Ludwigella concava

bradfordensis Brasilia bradfordensis

Murchisone Ludwigia Murchisone LUDWIGIAN
“ sctsst Tmetoceras scissum AGE
opaliniformis Cypholioceras opaliniforme

aalensis “* Pleydellia” aalensis

Mooret Dumortieria Mooret

Dumortierie sp. ” sp.

dispansi “* Phylseogrammoceras” dispan-

sum
Struckmannt “* Pseudogrammoceras” Struck-
mann HARPOCERA-

striatulé Grammoceras striatulum TAN AGE
variabilis faugia variabilis

Lillt Lillia Lilli

bifrontis fMildoceras bifrons

Salcifert Harpoceras falciferum ARIETIDAN
acutt Arieticeras (2?) acutum EPOCH
Spinati Paltopleuroceras spinatum

margaritatt Amaltheus margaritatus

Algoviant Arieticeras algovianum

striati Liparoceras striatum

latecosta Platypleuroceras latecosta DEROCERATAN

Valdani Acanthopleuroceras Valdant AGE
JSamesont Optonta Jameson

petlt Celoceras petti

armati Deroceras armatum

raricostatt Echioceras raricostatum

oxynott Oxynotoceras oxynotus

stellarts Asteroceras stellare

obtuse ” obtusum =

Turneri Artetites Turnert <a reagee cs
Birch Microderoceras Bircht :
gmuendensis Coroniceras gmuendense

rotiformis ” rotiforme

marmoree Schlotheimia marmorea 4
megastomatos Wehneroceras megastoma ae ere

Pplanorbis Psiloceras planorbis

* This Age is regarded as belonging to the Triassic Period

I90I

S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA

267

A similar Table was first given by the author in “Group-

ing of Jurassic Time;

” Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. liv.,

p. 442, 1898. This one is substantially the same, with a
few additions and emendations.

The next Table gives some of the localities where may
be found strata deposited during the various hemere.
Additions thereto are invited.

TABLE B.—STRATAL DETAILS
Some Deposits made during respective Hemere, with the localities

where found.

Disct. DORSET; and other
counties. The strata known as Corn-
brash.
Coarctate. DORSET. The Forest Marble.
WILTSHIRE. The Bradford Clay of Brad-
ford-on-Avon; and the
Forest Marble.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE. ‘The Bradford Clay of Tet-
bury Road Station; and
the Forest Marble.
Maxillate. GLOUCESTERSHIRE, ‘The upper part of the Great
WILTSHIRE. Oolite.
Subcontracte. DORSET, The upper Fullers’ Earth
SOMERSET. Clay, and the Fullers’
Earth Rock.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE. The lower part of the Great
Oolite.
Fusci. DoRsET : Bridport. “* The scroff,” a marly stone

Bradford Abbas,

Halfway House, &c.

on top of limestones; and
some of the overlying
clay.

The upper part of the white
stone which is burnt for
lime.

268

Ziggag.

PROG, -COTTESWOLD 'ELUB

DORSET :
Broad Windsor,
Bridport.
Bradford Abbas,
Halfway House, &c.
SOMERSET :
Crewkerne Station.
Dundry.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cotteswolds.

NORMANDY :
Port-en-Bessin.

The upper limestones, or
sigzag beds.

The lower part of the white
stone.

The upper limestones.
(?) The strata at Barnes
Batch. The Coralline
Beds.

Limestones above the Cly-
peus-grit.

Blue calcareous stone beds,
about level of shore, east
of the village.

Truellit.

Garantiane.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cotteswolds.

SOMERSET: Dundry.
DORSET :

Halfway House,
Bridport.

NORMANDY: Around
Bayeux and Caen.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cotteswolds.
SOMERSET :
North Stoke,
Midford.
Dundry.

DORSET: Sherborne.
Bradford Abbas,
Halfway House, &c.

NORMANDY: Around
Bayeux.

The Clypeus-grit.
The Freestone.

The fossil-bed with Zvzcellit
and dorsetensis ; a hard,
bluish limestone.

‘* Oolithe blanche.”

The upper 7rigonia-grit.

The upper Zrigonia-grit.

The Conglomerate-bed of
Maes Knoll; the thin bed
below the Freestone at
other places.

The Building Freestone.

“*Marl Bed” and adjacent
strata.

Upper part of ‘‘ Oolithe

ferrugineuse.”

VOL. XIII. (4)

to's |
1 1
Swe SEL sae, ef

1901

S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA

269

Niortensis. DORSET: Oborne. The upper part of the road-
stone.
NORMANDY: Sully,
near Bayeux. Lower part of ‘‘ Oolithe
ferrugineuse.”
W URTEMBERG. ‘* Bifurcaten Schichten.”
Blagdeni. DORSET: Oborne. The lower part of the road-
stone.
NORMANDY: Sully,
near Bayeux. Conglomerate at base of
‘* Oolithe ferrugineuse.”
W URTEMBERG. “¢ Coronaten Schichten.”
Sauzet. GLOUCESTERSHIRE:
Cleeve Hill. The Phillipsiana beds.
DorseT: Sandford
Lane. The upper part of the Fossil
bed.
SOMERSET: Dundry. The Ironshot Oolite.
Witchellia. DorRsET: Sandford
Lane. The middle part of the
Fossil bed.
Chideock. The upper part of the “‘ Red
beds.”
Bridport. A reddish limestone.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cold Comfort, and An ironshot limestone, with
Cleeve Hill. Terebr. Wrighti.
SOMERSET: Dundry. The Upper White Ironshot.
Sonninie. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cotteswolds. The Notgrove Freestone,
and the Gryphite-grit of
Leckhampton, &c.
DorRsET: Sandford
Lane. The lower part of the Fossil

SOMERSET: Dundry.

bed.

The Lower White Ironshot
—the fissilobata - ovalis
horizon.

270 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)
Discite. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cotteswolds. The Buckmani-grit, and

DORSET :
Bradford Abbas.

Sandford Lane.
Stoke Knap.

SOMERSET: Dundry.

Horethorne Down,
Seven Sisters.

NORMANDY, near
Bayeux.

the Lower Trigonia-grit.

The upper part of the Fossil
bed.

Below the Fossil bed.

Top of Building Stone.

The upper part of the Grey
Limestone and Marl beds.

Bluish clay with Brachio-
pods.

Upper part of ‘* Maliére.”

GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cotteswolds.

Concavt.

SOMERSET: Dundry.

DORSET :
Bradford Abbas.

Sandford Lane.
Stoke Knap.
NORMANDY : near

Bayeux.

Bradfordensis. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cotteswolds.

DORSET :
Bradford Abbas.

Halfway House,

Louse Hill, Marston
Road, &c.

Chideock.

Stoke Knap.

SOMERSET : near
Corton.

NORMANDY: May-
sur-Orne, nr. Caen.

The Snowshill Clay, and
the Harford Sands.

The lower part of the Grey
Limestone and Marl beds.

The lower part of the Fossil
bed.

A bluish sandy bed.

Middle of Building Stone.

Middle part of ‘‘ Maliére.”

The Upper Freestone, and
the Oolite Marl.

A marl bed, associated with
the Paving bed.

The Rhynchonella ringens
beds.

Ironshot stone above Wild
Bed.

The base of the Building
Stone.

The Rhyn. ringens beds.

A chalky limestone, with
some iron grains.

fee oe Rare

190I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 271
Murchisoné. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cotteswolds. The Lower Freestone, and
the Pea-grit.
SOMERSET: Dundry, The hard, irony, massive
beds.
Misterton, The ‘‘ lower beds.”
Haselbury, &c.
DORSET :
Bradford Abbas. The Paving bed.
near Sherborne. Lower part of stone beds.
Stoke Knap. The ‘‘ bottom bed.”
Broad Windsor. The ‘‘ lower beds.”
Chideock. The. ** Wild) Bed:”*
Scisst. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cotteswolds. The sandy ferruginous beds.

DoRSET: Stoke Knap.

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE :

Duston.

OXFORDSHIRE :
Otley Hill.

At Kineton, near Guiting, Rhyuch.
subdecorata is abundant, cf. Otley
Hill; at other Cotteswold locali-
ties it is occasional.

The Byrachiopod-beds in

the Sands.

Northampton Sands.

Rhynch. subdecorata bed.

Opaliniformis. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :

Frocester & Hares-
field District.

DoRSET: Bridport
and Chideock.

Aalensis.

Hard ironshot stone capping
the Cephalopod-bed.

Upper part of yellow Sands.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Frocester & Hares-
field District.

SOMERSET: Dundry.

DoRSET : Chideock
and Bridport.

Top of the Cephalopod-bed.
A bluish clay stone.

Towards upper part of Brid-
port Sands.

272 PROG. “COTTES WOLD ‘CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)

Moorei. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Frocester district. A portion of Cephalopod-
bed.
SOMERSET: HamHill. Building stone.
Stoford. Upper part of Yeovil Sands, é

with some building stone.
DORSET : Bradford
Abbas. Upper part of Yeovil Sands.
Chideock. Rather above middle part
of Bridport Sands.
NORMANDY : Tilly -
sur-Seuilles. A clay bed yielding limonitic
fossils.

aia 2” ae ra ca i “4

Dumortierie@. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Frocester district. The middle part of the G
Cephalopod-bed—brown ;
ironshot marl, a very Am-
monitiferous horizon at
Penn Wood, Dursley, &c.
SOMERSET: Dundry. The Upper Clay beds.
Ham Hill, and

Yeovil district. The Yellow Sands.
DorseET : Bradford
Abbas district. Yellow and blue Sands.
Chideock. Blue clay of Down Cliffs,
about 70 feet, and about
too feet of yellow sand
above.
NORMANDY: May-
sur-Orne. An ironshot marl in Carriére
Cavalle.
Dispansi. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Frocester district. | About middle of Cephalo-
pod-bed.
SOMERSET : North
Stoke. A brown, ironshot, marly
stone.
near Cole, Somerset Yellow sands, with hard
and Dorset Railway. sandstone, yielding Ham-
matocerata.

Ilminster district. | Top of ‘‘upper Lias” clay,
below Yeovil Sands.

1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 273

Struckmannt. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Frocester district. | The lower part of the Cottes-
wold Cephalopod-bed.

SOMERSET : Bath. The lower part of the Mid-
ford Sands.
Dundry. Part of blue ironshot beds.
Striatuli. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Frocester district. The base of the Cotteswold
Cephalopod-bed.
Sodbury. Yellowish sand and hard
sandstones.
SOMERSET: Bath. The bed below the Midford
Sands.

Ilminster district, Clay and clay stones of
upper part of upper Lias. |

Dundry. Blue Ironshot bed.
DorsET : Down
Cliffs. Upper layer of Junction bed,

often missing.

Variabilis. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Coaley Wood, The upper part of the Cottes-
Frocester, wold Sands.
Nibley, &c.
Chalford. ‘Upper Lias,” blue sandy

clay of the Waterworks.
SOMERSET : I]minster
district. Clay and clay stones of
‘Upper Lias.”

Lilli. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Coaley Wood, Lower part of Cotteswold
Frocester, &c. Sands.
Nailsworth. A hard yellow, often blue

sandstone.
SOMERSET : Ilminster
district. Clay and clay stones, not
far below Yeovil Sands.
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE :
Moulton. ~ Upper Leda ovum beds.

274 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)
Bifrontis. GLOUCESTERSHIRE:
Stinchcombe, Clay and clay stones.
Alderley.
SOMERSET: Dundry, Some part of Blue Ironshot
bed.
Batcombe. A reddish yellow Ironshot
bed.
Yeovil district. Clay and stone.
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE :
Vigo. Brickyard.
DORSET: Down
Cliffs. Junction bed, part with iron-
oxidised Ammonites.
Falciferi. SOMERSET: Dundry, The Pink bed.
Ilminster, Yeovil, Clay and clay stones above
Trent. the Marlstone.
DORSET: Down
Cliffs. The part of the ‘‘Junction
bed” above the Marl-
stone.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Stinchcombe, The clay and clay stones
Standish. above the Marlstone.
[ Pre-falciferi? GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
(Horizon of Dumbleton. Insects beds and _ paper
Terebratula shales.
lobult d ate ;
Selgin chewella SOMERSET: Ilminster. Fish beds. ]
pygme@a).
Acuti. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Stinchcombe. Thin layer on top of Marl-
stone with Ar? acutum.
Spinati. DORSET: Down

Cliffs.

SOMERSET: South of
Mendips.
Dundry.

**Junction bed,” lowest

layer.

Marlstone.
A very ironshot, calcareous
stone.

I90I Ss. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 275

Spinati. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
(continued) Stinchcombe,
Wotton-under-Edge,
Alderton Hill,
Bredon Hill, &c. Marlstone.

Margaritatit. | SOMERSET: Ilminster

district. Marlstone (lower part).
DorRSET: DownCliffs. Clay below the ‘‘Junction
bed.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE :

Dudbridge (Stroud) Hard ironshot stone.

Algoviani. NORTHAMPTONSHIRE: Algovianum zone(Thomp-
son in litt). Lower Mar-
garitatus zone (Thomp-

son).
DORSET: Ilminster
district. Sands below Marlstone ?
Striati. SOMERSET: Radstock. Clay above ironshot stone.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cheltenham, near
Gloucester,

Dumbleton, &c. Brickyards on the hill flanks.

Latecoste. DorsET: Chideock
(Seatown Cliff). Clay.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Dudbridge. Hard bluish sandstone.
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE :
Catesby. Zone of Henleyi (Thomp-
son).
Valdani. SOMERSET: Radstock. Upper part ofironshot lime-
stone.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE :

Leckhampton Station. Brickyard.
Brockworth (near
Gloucester). Brickyard.

DorsET: Chideock. Under Golden Cap.

i"

|
:
i
}
'

276 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. xu. (4)

Jamesoni. SOMERSET: Radstock. Middle of ironshot lime-
stone.
WARWICKSHIRE :
Wolfhamcote
(Thompson).
Petti. WARWICKSHIRE :
Willoughby,
Wolfhamcote. Zone of Ammonites pettos
(Thompson).
Armati. SOMERSET: Radstock. Lower part of ironshot lime-
stone.

DORSET: Between
Charmouth and

Chideock. Clay yielding pyritized
fossils.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Cheltenham. Upper part of Folly Lane
Brickyard.
Standish. Railway cuttings.
WARWICKSHIRE :

Hillmorton (Thompson).

Raricostati. | SOMERSET: Inneigh- Bed of a dark, strong smell-
bourhood of Rad- ing stone; generally
stock. broken up and found as

remanié in base of ar-
matus limestone.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE:

Cheltenham. Bottom part of Folly Lane.
near Stonehouse. _ Railway cutting.
W ARWICKSHIRE:

Hillmorton (Thompson).

Stellaris. DORSET: Cliffs near
Charmouth. Top of Lias limestones. =
WORCESTERSHIRE :
Boughton, near Clay with the deformed
Pershore, Brick- Asteroceras, i.e,, Astero-

yard. ceras Slatteri (Wright).

1901

Oxynott.

Obtusi.

Turneri.

Birchi.

Gmuendensis.

S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA

277

DORSET: Cliffs near
Charmouth.

SOMERSET: Radstock.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE:
Cheltenham.
near Frocester.
near Gloucester.

WARWICKSHIRE:

Pyritized fossils.
Above the Spirifer bed.
Lansdown Station.

Railway cutting.
Canal cutting.

Hillmorton (Thompson).

DORSET: Near Char-
mouth Cliffs.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE:
Gloucester.

WARWICKSHIRE :
Hillmorton.

SOMERSET: Near
Bristol.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE:
Between Chelten-
ham & Gloucester.

DORSET: Near Char-
mouth.

SOMERSET: Radstock.

WARWICKSHIRE:
Hillmorton.

SOMERSET: Radstock.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE:
Fretherne.

Lias limestones.
Docks.

Zone of Obtusus (Thomp-
son).

Barrow Gurney Reservoir.

Coldpool.

Cliffs.
Arnioceras bed.

Zone of Zurvneri and semt-
costatus (Thompson).

“¢ Spirifer bank” of Lias
limestone.

The Cliff.

278

PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xml. (4)

Rotiformis. DORSET :
Charmouth. Cliffs.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE:
Willsbridge, near
Bitton. Limestones.
WORCESTERSHIRE :
Bengeworth, near
Evesham. Brickyard.
~ SOMERSET: Yeovil. — Clay.
near Shepton Mallet. Blocks of stone seen at a |
Somerset & Dorset Rail-
way Station.
Marmoree. GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Willsbridge, near
Bitton. Lower part of Quarry.
near Churchdown. Quarries (F. Smithe).
Megastomatos. SOMERSET: near
Radstock. White Lias.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE :
Sedbury Park, near
Chepstow. Lias in Cliff.
Planorbis. SOMERSET: Radstock. White Lias.

Watchet.

Lias.

The third Table is a list with blank spaces. It is hoped
that Geologists and Palzontologists will make use of the
blanks for recording the dates of deposits, or of fossil species
of different groups, and will send the results to the Club

for publication.

By that means a series of records, valu-

able not only to the Geologist and the Palzontologist, but
also to the student of evolution, will be obtained.

1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 279

TABLE C.—List OF HEMER&
With spaces for insertion of species or deposits.

Disc. |

Maxillate.

subcontracti.

280 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. xull. (4)

siggag.

Truellit.

Garantiane.

niortensis.

Blagdent.

I9O1 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 281

Sauget.

Witchellie@ sp.

Sonninie@ sp.

discite.

concavt.

282 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB

bradfordensis.

Murchisone.

SCISST.

opaliniformis.

aalensis.

2s

VOL. XIII. (4)

1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—-BRACHIOPODA 283

Dumortierie.

dispansi.

284 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xi. (4)

variabilis.

Lilli.

bifrontis.

Salciferi.

acutt.

a 1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 285

/

|

ZZ
margaritati,
|

i

“Ve algoviant.

-
ar
ir °
aa *
en.

~

é
4 : “%

286 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xi. (4)

Valdant.

Jameson.

petli.

avmati. —

vavicostati.

I9OI S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 287

oxynoti.

stellaris.

obtust.

Turnert.

~Birchi.

288 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xill. (4)

gmuendensis.

votiformus.

mavimioree.

megastomatos.

planorbis.

Geo.West & Sons lith.et imp.

1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 289

PLATE XH.

Murchisone hemera
FIGS. 1—3.—PSEUDOGLOSSOTHYRIS SIMPLEX (/. Buckman).

Three views of an unusually large specimen showing small plications
as a character of maturity. Pea Grit, Birdlip, (Ludwigian Age).

€P. 241).
Bradfordensis hemera
Fics. 4—7.—Terebratula polyplecta, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Four views of a specimen showing well-established plications as a
character of maturity, and thickening of margin as a character of
senility. Oolite Marl, Notgrove Station, Gloucestershire, (Ludwigian
Age.) (P. 242). .
Murchisone hemera
Fics. 8—12.—Terebratula withingtonensis, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Three views (figs. 8—r10) of a uniplicate example. Fig. 11, marginal
view of an incipiently biplicate specimen. Fig. 12, same view of a
definitely biplicate example. Pea Grit, Railway Cuttings, Withington,
Gloucestershire, (Ludwigian Age). (P. 246).

Falcifert hemera
FIGS. 13—15.—Rhynchonella standishensis, S. Buckman, sp. n.

Three views of a specimen showing plicz only as an adult character.
Upper Lias Clay, Standish Park Farm, Gloucestershire, (Harpoceratan

Age). (P. 245).

290 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA I901

PUAIE Meir

Garantiane hemera
Fics. 1a, b, c.—Microthyris tardecrescens, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Burton Bradstock, “upper beds of Inferior Oolite,” (Parkinsonian Age). (P. 256).

FIGS. 2a, b, c.—Terebratula subomalogaster, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Bradford Abbas, Dorset, just below “ Marl bed.” (Parkinsonian Age). (P. 259).

Discite herema
FIGS. 3a, b, c.—Terebratula microtrypa, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Horethorne Downs, Somerset, in Blue Marl, (Sonninian Age). (P. 257).
Blagdent hemera

Fics. 4a, b, c.—Zeilleria ferruginea, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Louse Hill, near Sherborne (Dorset), the Irony bed,” (Sonninian Age). (P. 260).

Subcontracté hemera
FIGS. 5a, b, c.—ZEILLERIA EMARGINATA (/. de C. Sowerby)
Nunney, near Frome, Somerset, “ Fuller’s Earth Rock,” (Parkinsonian Age). (P. 252).
Collected by the late E. Wilson, F.G.S., now in the cabinet of Mr J. W. D. Marshall.
Truellit, or Zigzag hemera
FIGS. 6a, b, c.—Terebratula imitator, S. Buckman, nom. nov.
Broad Windsor, Dorset, “upper beds of Inferior Oolite,’ (Parkinsonian Age). (P. 254).

Garantiane hemera

Fics. 7a, b, c.—Zeilleria subcornuta, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Railway Cutting between Bradford Abbas and Yeovil Junction, upper beds with Zevedv.
Hollande, (Parkinsonian Age). (P, 255).
Discite hemera
Fics. 8a, b, c.—Terebratula hyalina, S. Buckman, sp. n.

Horethorne Down, Somerset, on Bristol road about four miles north of Sherborne,
(Sonninian Age). (P. 248).

Murchisone hemera

Fic. 9.—Zeilleria circularis, S. Buckman, sp. n.
Crickley Hill, Gloucestershire, Pea Grit, (Ludwigian Age). (P. 257).

Sauzet hemera ?
FIG. 10.—Zeilleria anisoclines, S$. Buckman, sp. n.
Gloucestershire, Cleeve Hill, Rolling Bank Quarry, from sandy beds with Zeredr.
Phillipsiana, (Sonninian Age). (P. 258).
Blagdeni hemera

Fic. 11.—Terebratula siderica, S. Buckmant, sp. n.

Dorset: Wyke Quarry, near Halfway House, from the Irony beds, (Sonninian Age).
(P. 248).

Proc : Cotteswold Club, Vol. XIII. Plate XIII.

es

291

THE PYRENEES AND ANDORRA,

BY -

WILLIAM BELLOWS.
(Read January 26th, 1900.)

PLATES XIV.-XVI.

I. THE MOUNTAINS

In south-western Europe a continuous mountain range
runs from the Mediterranean on the east almost to Cape
Finistére on the west, a distance of considerably more
than 500 miles. The Asturian and Cantabrian mountains
make up the western section of this chain, whilst the
barrier of rock, snow, and forest standing between France
and Spain, and known to us as the Pyrenees,* forms the
eastern portion.

The Pyreneean chain is, roughly speaking, 250 miles
long. Its highest peaks rise above the snow line; and
within its depths may be found some of the grandest
scenery in western Europe. I sighted it first from the
windows of the train travelling south from Bordeaux to
Bayonne in the summer of 1895. We had crossed the

* Onisime Reclus states that the term Pyrenees may be derived from a word dz7en,

or piren, formerly employed in the Department of Ariége, signifying an upland, or

mountain meadow.

292 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. Xill. (4)

flat, sandy, pine-clad district of the Landes, and were enter-
ing the broken country of the river Adour, when the
huge line of peaks came into view, disappearing again in
the distance to the eastward. We were approaching the
mountain wall, and I left the train at Bayonne, in the country
of the Basques, within a few short miles of the Spanish
frontier.

The Pyrenees are not in all places accessible by railway.
On the southern side there is very little communication
at all, while on French soil the line running from east to
west is generally at some distance from the chain. At
certain points, however, convenient branch lines run to
the southward, bringing the traveller to the very foot of
the mountains; and in this way, by following the main
line eastward and by making continual digressions from it
to the south, my companion, Henry Simmons, and I
were enabled to visit some of the finest scenery of these
mountains.

We left Bayonne and the Atlantic coast behind us, and
by evening reached the town of Pau. This historic place,
the first centre from which we attacked the range, stands
beautifully on the plains; and from the terrace of the town
we could take in at a single glance one of the finest
sections of the chain. A line of peaks of all shapes,
battlemented, snow-capped, and indented, stretched un-
broken from east to west before us. The next morning
we travel southward to the foot of those huge masses
until finally our train is buried in the beautiful woodland
that fills the lower valleys of the western chain. The
railway suddenly comes to an end; and we take a coach
and journey southward through deep gorges and beneath
magnificent slopes to the little watering-place of Eaux-
Chaudes. This place is further south than the Alps, and
the warmer temperature does two things: it raises the
snow line by 1500 feet, and seems to give to these valleys

I90I WM. BELLOWS—PYRENEES AND ANDORRA 293

a richer vegetation and a denser foliage. It is in the
western Pyrenees, where the mountains are more exposed
to the Atlantic rains (according to the Encyclopedia
Britannica) that the foliage is seen at its best: on the
higher summits more snow falls than on the eastern peaks,
and hence glaciers and protecting snow-fields exist in these
parts that are unknown at the Mediterranean end.

Eaux-Chaudes, a little village with natural warm springs
strongly impregnated with sulphur, is lighted with electric
light. These Pyreneean villages make good use of the
wonderful mountain torrents that come so close to their
doors: many that we visited had electric installations,
however backward they might be in other matters. The
Val d’Ossau, in which the village stands, runs southward
for many miles towards the Spanish frontier, when it is
finally blocked by the huge Pic du Midi d’Ossau, less
known, but a mightier mass, than its sister further eastward,
the Pic du Midi de Bigorre. But the Pic du Midi d’Ossau
is well worth a visit, rising above the surrounding forests to
a height of over 9400 feet from sea level. My friend and I
walked many miles to see it : but the clouds hung round its
crags and we were disappointed. There were other things
of interest, however, to reward the traveller. At intervals
the loneliness of the forest road was relieved by some
passing native. Further down we had seen both men
and women working in the fields; but here we were in
a lonely haunt not far from the Spanish frontier, and
doubtless in a happy land of smuggling. At very few
places can these mountains be crossed by road. The
passes (called “ports” in.the Central Pyrenees) are at
lofty elevations, and only three or four of them, in the
whole length of the chain, would allow the passage of a
carriage. Certainly on the French side, in this Val d’Ossau,
the road was a good one; but we did not see the corre-
sponding road in Spain.

294 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)

The next valley visited was the one at Cauterets; and
there is nothing more beautiful in all these mountains
than the valleys, though they are extremely warm in
summer. The Pyrenees run east and west: their greater
valleys run north and south. Standing in one of them
you are separated from the next by one of the huge spurs
that depend from the main chain ; and though by crossing
the subordinate ridge you may attain the adjoining valley
by direct route, it is often quicker to return to the plains
and re-enter the mountains further on. This would apply
principally to the French side of the range, the surround-
ing country being much more broken on the Spanish side.

In this way we reached the town of Cauterets, only 17
miles away in direct line, but 71 miles round by coach
and train. The journey up the Cauterets valley was
typical, the road winding through one of those wonderful
and almost terrifying chasms that exist here. Far down
below could at times be seen the angry Gave, and above
our heads the huge walls of perpendicular rock that
seemed to close the valley from the outer world. We
saw more than one of these defiles in our wanderings.
portals as it were to the immense valleys they commanded.
and in some respects similar to the Aarschlucht at Meir-
ingen, in Switzerland.

A little further on we passed the track of a huge and
recent avalanche, and found ourselves in Cauterets, with its
hot springs of varying value and its numerous establish-
' ments of cure. Attendants in native Pyreneean costumes
were there busying themselves with the wants of invalids ;
but the cure we needed was the pure air of the woods and
mountain slopes, and an early opportunity found us again
on foot, and on our way up through the forest to the Lac
de Gaube. The lakes of these regions are smaller and
fewer than those of Switzerland, and lie generally at greater
elevations. The Lac de Gaube is the largest in the chain,and

PROC] COLES WOLD VOC urs ViOLZ Xie. PIbAIEEe Nani

Fig. 1.—LAC DE GAUBE, FRENCH PYRENEES

ee Se oe

1901 WM. BELLOWS—PYRENEES AND ANDORRA 295

stands at 5800 feet above sea-level. We were accordingly
anxious to see it. Climbing through the Pyreneean pines
we presently came to the lovely waterfall at the Pont
d’ Espagne, bringing down the surplus waters of the lake.
Another climb, and we finally stood on the bleak shore of
this lonely Lac de Gaube and gazed across the water, to
where the Vignemale, the highest summit of the French
Pyrenees, rose with its glacier into the clouds above (Plate
XIV., fig. 1.)

Our next destination was the village of Gavarnie in the
Central Pyrenees, lying beneath the shadow of Mont
Perdu, and in the presence of that huge “cirque” or
amphitheatre of rock for which it is so rightly famous.
More than one huge “cirque” is to be met with in these
mountains, but that of Gavarnie is the finest. We follow
the Gave up its huge ravine, and in a few hours are in a
wild country, practically treeless, and walled in by barren
slopes. The road ascends, and towards dusk we are 5000
feet above the sea. Then we enter a desolate gorge, strewn
with huge boulders of fallen granite and known as Chaos
(Plate XIV., fig. 2,) and by evening the little village comes
in sight, with the frowning cliffs of the ccvguwe towering
behind it. We have reached the head of the valley, and
the immense precipices of that amphitheatre of limestone
seem to bar all further progress southwards.

Gavarnie has been described as the Chamonix of the
Pyrenees: and although its mountains hardly attain 11,000
feet above sea-level, there is dangerous climbing to be done
here, too, by those who wish it. The famous “cirque”
offers a semicircular wall or series of rocks, rising in stages
from 3000 to 5000 feet above the bed from which they
spring. The amphitheatre is two miles across at the base,
and measures nine miles along its upper crest. The
melting snows on the heights above form beautiful cas-
cades that come tumbling into the abyss below, gleaming

U

296 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xu. (4)

at times in the sunlight with all the colours of the rainbow.

The principal cascade is, with one exception, the loftiest
in Europe: descending in the summer months in one un-
broken fall of nearly 1400 feet (Plate XV.)

As was natural at Gavarnie, we succumbed to the pre-
vailing contagion and made arrangements to climb a
mountain. In the hotel passage hung the ¢arzf for the
various peaks, and having decided to try Mont Perdu, a
guide and porter were chosen, and the afternoon found
us climbing the steep slopes near the entrance to the
“cirque.” Towards sundown we were high above the
village and the valley, and approaching the first traces of
perpetual snow. The pine trees became scarcer, and we
could now see more and more of the adjacent peaks, the
backbone of the Pyrenees. Opposite, but several miles
away, the famous Bréche de Roland stood out on the sky-
line and marked the frontier of Spain. From where we
now stood it looked but a mere cleft in the mountain
line ; but we were able to realize more forcibly the huge
size of this famous breach as we passed through it on our
descent from the summit of Mont Perdu the following day.

It was becoming dusk as we climbed the long snow
couloir, at the head of which we were to spend the night.
Away below the snow disappeared over a precipice into
the gloom, and as we carefully followed the upland steps
cut in the couloir by our leading guide, we felt more than
one misgiving as to our position. Zigzagging up the
frozen steep, and hardly daring to look round, we at
length came to its upper end and scrambled on to the
rocks. Ina few minutes, passing a bed of edelweiss on
the way, and clinging to the iron bars placed at the most
critical points by the French Alpine Club, we found our-
selves at the hut of the Tuquerouye—a stone cabin stand-
ing on the ridge between the vast chasm we had just
emerged from and another abyss in front of us. We

ae Le

PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOI ile iE ov.

HAUTECCUR

CIRQUE AND FALL OF GAVARNIE, FRENCH PYRENEES
(Total Height of Fall, 1380 ft.)

ry yl
Rees

@
Ode

wt?

I90I WM. BELLOWS—PYRENEES AND ANDORRA 297

were now 8700 feet above the sea, and here in this cold
and lonely spot we spent the night. I urged the guides
to light a fire, but the firewood had been brought from
many miles away and was not to be wasted. We there-
fore reserved the privilege of warmth for breakfast time,
and turned in for the night upon the rack of straw. We
were the first to sleep there for the year, and things
seemed damp. We could almost hear the icy wind howl
through the solid wall of masonry. There were no
windows: only iron lids for use in fine weather, and when
these were shut, and the door also, the inside was as dark
as night. The moon had risen, and the scene from the
rocks outside was one not to be forgotten. Mont Perdu,
the chief summit in the Pyrenees, after the group of
Maladetta, and within five feet of I1,000, rose in front of
us from the gloom below, apparently within a stone’s
throw, but two miles away across the abyss. Cold as it
was inside the hut, it was colder out, and we soon settled
in for the night. Early next morning we descended
hundreds of feet on to the snow fields below, and after
another hard climb beyond, found ourselves cutting steps
across the snow to the foot of the final dome. A little
later we were at the summit.

The descent was easier: we halted for breakfast at the
edge of a frozen lake; towards midday we passed a herd
of “izards,” or Pyreneean chamois: in the afternoon we
stood within the walls of the Bréche de Roland: and by
evening were once again in the village of Gavarnie.

II. THE REPUBLIC OF ANDORRA

This strange little republic lies between France and
Spain in the eastern Pyrenees, its people dating their in-
dependence back to the days of Charlemagne, who thereby
rewarded them for assisting him against the Moors. At

U2

298 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (4)

the present hour, their strength lies perhaps in their very
weakness : or perhaps it may be found in the protection
of their mountains: or perhaps in their possessing between
France and Spain a territory not worth the fighting of a
war. They pay an annual tribute of £40 to France, and
another of a smaller sum to the Spanish bishop of Urgel.
They are ruled on democratic principles. each of their six
parishes returning four members to the Andorran Chamber.
The head of the Chamber is the first Syndic or President
of the Republic, the executive power being wielded by
officials known as Viguiers.

To reach Hospitalet—the village at which I intended
to spend the night before crossing the Pyrenees into
Andorra—involved a lonely walk of twelve miles from
the railway terminus of Ax-les-Thermes. The road thither
led up an immense mountain valley, in which, at a lonely
turn, I overtook a French priest. He was bound for
Mérens, a village three miles further on: and the thought
of an hour’s mutual company pleased us both.

We reached Meérens just before sunset; and when my
fellow-traveller offered me hospitality at his rural dwell-
ing, I accepted, and enjoyed a meal with him. My host
hoped I would stop the night; but my object was to reach
Hospitalet that evening, and to cross the mountains into
Andorra the next day.

Darkness was coming on, and the little village of Hos-
pitalet was still some miles away. As I trudged on, the
road got worse. However, towards nine o’clock some
straggling lights shone down the valley, and a little later I
crossed the quiet cobbles of Hospitalet and found the
village inn. I tumbled up some wooden stairs, and having
met the landlady, was welcomed with a warmth that made
up for the deficiencies of the establishment. Having
satisfied my hostess with an epitome of my programme,
she asked how I proposed to reach Andorra. I told her

1901 WM. BELLOWS—PYRENEES AND ANDORRA 299

< ?

‘on foot, if possible ;” when she at once suggested the
more usual plan of hiring a guide and horse. I thought
the idea good, and soon the stalwart Raymond was intro-
duced as one well fitted for the work; he proved a most
satisfactory guide.

We started early next morning, and in half an hour had
crossed the frontier of France, and were within the con-
fines of the Republic of Andorra. There was nothing to
tell the traveller that he had reached another land except
a few small and unassuming stones inserted in the ground.

All around was solitude and silence as we stumbled and
panted up the bleak mountain-slopes. We were bound
for the Col de Saldeu, a saddle 8200 feet above sea level,
by which the track to the capital of the Republic crosses
the main chain of the Pyrenees. We reached the summit
about ten o’clock, and here, in the haunt of eagles, and in
the region of eternal snow, we rested a few moments to
admire the superb view. All around were mountains; in
the distance to the right of us could be seen the great
snow peaks of the Maladetta region: to the left rose the
rocky crags of the Eastern Pyrenees; while far down
below our feet we could now see the splendid forest
valleys of Andorra.

We were soon descending the other side, and down and
down we went till we had left the pass some 3000 feet
above us. Our first stopping place was to be Saldeu,
the first village in the Republic. We reached it about
midday. It was here, I think, that we first saw the in-
habitants: they were out in the fields, bringing in the
harvest. Their appearance was primitive, and the head-
dress of the women quaint.

The telegraph is found at Saldeu: and here we saw the
single wire that connects the people, somewhat against
their will, with the outer world. At the village of Escaldas
we passed through large plantations of tobacco: a hot-bed,

300 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xml. (4)

without a doubt, of Andorran smugglers. The water,
too, in this hamlet was worthy of attention: for it issued
from the ground almost boiling. Near here I was shown
the remains of some ancient Moorish graves, apparently
lined with slate, and visible in section, protruding from
the earth.

We were now approaching the capital, and I was looking
forward to the event with much interest. Our arrival
took the form of a state entry on a small scale; and as we
proceeded up the narrow passage leading into the town, and
slowly crossed the little public square (Plate XVI, fig. 2)
I could see that Englishmen were scarce here. We passed
up a very narrow cobbled alley, to the hotel where we were
to spend the night: and I must say I was disappointed
at the sight of the inn in question, when Raymond gave
the signal to halt opposite what would be called in this
country, not a hotel, but a “travellers’ rest.”. In a few
moments the horse was relieved of its burden, and with
little urging descended an inclined plane into a dungeon
of a stable beneath the eating room of the posada.

It was already growing dusk, and impatient to see and
do as much as possible in the shortest time, I suggested
to the guide a visit to the Legislative Chamber (Plate XVL.,
fig. 1.) Nothing could be easier: it was up an adjoining
lane, while the key, about 15 inches long, and very quaint,
was kept by the landlord of our inn. The building was
dark, gloomy, and cob-webby ; and we had some difficulty
in finding our way up the stone steps that led to the first
floor.

Whatever else the Republic is famous for—and its
principal claim to fame is that it is no larger than it is—
its House of Commons is managed on a really econo-
mical plan. On the first floor one room is devoted to
the National School, another serves as a place in which
the 24 Legislators of the Republic may either enjoy a

PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII., PLATE XVI.

Fig. 2.—AT THE CAPITAL OF THE REPUBLIC OF ANDORRA

1901 WM. BELLOWS—-PYRENEES AND ANDORRA 301

banquet or take the oath of allegiance to their fatherland ;
a third apartment is the Palace of Justice ; from the ceiling
of another is suspended a huge hook for producing Parlia-
mentary dinners, over an open hearth; whilst to another
is reserved the honour of the seat and centre of Andorran
legislation. ‘

Wereturned to our inn across the public square (where
the Chief of the State—an acquaintance of my guide—
was to be seen upon a balcony) and awaited with im-
patience the preparation of our evening meal. Mean-
while I silently contemplated operations; down below
could be heard from time to time the dismal braying of a
donkey in the gloomy stable of the inn; around the door-
way were inquisitive groups of children pressing forward
to see the foreigner who had just arrived; while in the
kitchen the authorities were preparing an Andorran supper.
The local doctor, the guide, and myself were the only per-
_ sons at table; and the meal being a triumph of Andorran
culinary art, I was not sorry when it was over. Raymond
then descended into the depths of the underground stable
to see that all was going well with his little black mare—
perhaps even to see that it had not been exchanged for a
mule of the same colour—whilst I retired to bed.

We started at a very early hour next morning, crossed
the frontier into Spain, and reached the ancient city of
Seo d’Urgel. A further trudge of twenty miles brought
us to the little town of Bellver, and after another day
together on the plains of Catalonia, Raymond and I said
good-bye.

393

POLYDACTYLISM IN CATS; AND OTHER
FEATURES,

BY
REV. A. R. WINNINGTON-INGRAM.
(Read November 6th, 1900).

A remarkable race of many-toed cats has recently come
under my observation. These cats have usually seven
toes on each of their front feet, the extra toes being three
dew claws instead of one ; while on the hind feet they have
six toes like ordinary hind toes, but six instead of four.
The number of toes, however, is occasionally varied, for
I examined one cat which had seven toes on one front
foot, six on the other front foot, and the hind feet had re-
spectively six toes and five toes.

Now it seems highly probable that this polydactylism
is atavic—a throwing back to remote ancestors who were
polydactylous, ancestors between the Fishes and Amphibia.
We, in common with Amphibia and all descended there-
from, developed our pentadactylous condition by a gradual
abortion of the digits. Yet in these days polydactylism
is known among us; and in former days this was also the
case: for we read in the Bible (II. Samuel, xxi., 20) of a
polydactylous man “that had on every hand six fingers,
and on every foot six toes, four-and-twenty in number,”

304 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xill. (4)

who was killed by David’s nephew. The re-appearance of
an ancient character is well known, and such chance re-
appearance is propagated.

When I discovered that these many-toed cats existed in
considerable numbers in Highnam, I set myself to dis-
cover how they originated. I was informed by a reliable
person that some years ago a she Manx cat was brought
to the place, and this cat, breeding with local cats, has pro-
duced a race of many-toed cats, which, nevertheless, have
long tails like ordinary cats. There have been several
Manx cats in the place, one of the descendants of which,
with a short tail some five inches or so in length, I have
seen. This cat had the ordinary number of toes; and I
was informed by a person who formerly possessed one of
the original Manx cats from which these many-toed cats
are descended, that this Manx cat had five and four toes
as in other cats. I am also credibly imformed that the
bridge-keeper at Saul Bridge has some many-toed cats,
which are also the result of a cross between a Manx cat
and a local cat.

There is, of course, always a difficulty in proving paternity
of cats when they are allowed to run at liberty, because
although cats live in closer relationship with man than any
other domestic animals, they are less influenced by us than
any other creatures. But there is no difficulty in proving
maternity ; and in the case of the many-toed cats of High-
nam, they are undoubtedly descended from a female Manx
cat, which lived at the gardens at Highnam Court.

Why the cross with the Manx cat should have produced
this many-toed breed, I cannot say; but it is worth ob-
serving that the many-toed cats have always tails of the
usual length.

A friend of mine, who has a landed estate near Ramsey,
Isle of Man, informs me that the tail-less Manx cats are
now very scarce in the Island, because when visitors see

7
a]

I90I A. R. WINNINGTON-INGRAM—CATS 305

a good specimen, they buy it and take itaway. The Manx
cats, besides being tail-less, are shorter on their fore-legs
than ordinary cats. I may also mention that the Japan
cats of Koemfer have likewise very short tails, or are de-
ficient in those appendages altogether.

Having always been fond of cats, I have observed their
habits very closely, and have remarked the strong evidence
afforded, that the cat is a solitary animal. The way: in
which a cat takes its food is a sure sign that in its natural
state it is not in the habit of associating with greedy com-
panions. When given something to eat, a cat first smells
the morsel and then takes it in a deliberate manner, and
sits down to finish it at its leisure. Unless a cat has got
something which it likes very much, such as a fish, a
mouse, or a bird, it allows people to approach it without
jealousy. And, moreover, when a cat has caught a rat
or a mouse, it will often bring it into the house, and
lay it down near some person of whom it is fond, and
offer it to him, making at the same time a kind of humming
affectionate call-note ; and if the person is in another room,
the cat will try to attract his attention by rubbing against
him, and by this humming note, so that he may follow it
to where the prey is laid.

Cats are said to attach themselves to places, and not to
people, but that is only partially true. For I have a cat
who is so attached to me that he will walk with me for a
considerable distance; and when he has gone as far with
me as he chooses, he will hide himself near the spot where
I left him, and wait an hour or more for me; and when I
return he will spring out of his hiding place with great
demonstration of pleasure, and accompany me home. This
cat is, also, so bold that he will come with me, with my
gun and dogs, and stand close to me, quite unconcerned
at the report of the gun, and then will rush to get what is
shot.

306 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XII. (4)

Cats have occasionally taken to the water. Mr Bellows
has kindly sent me the following interesting extract from
a paper by Mr PF. Sessions :—

“Some years ago our firm had two large brick-yards in Gloucester-
shire, on the banks of the Severn. Many acres of each of them became
pools of water from the excavation of the clay. A breed of web-footed
cats belonged to the foreman who resided at one of the yards. These
cats, generation after generation, nearly all being tabbies of very ordinary
appearance, took the water almost as freely as spaniels, catching fish,
and bringing them up to the cottage to eat. In order to tell whether
their taking to the water was the result of heredity or of education, we
had some young kittens taken from one brick-yard to the other, a
distance of about two miles. We were interested to learn that, as soon
as they were old enough, they went into the water as naturally as their
mothers. Some time ago, our foreman left that neighbourhood, and
took the cats with him. I have learned since that the cats have become
extinct. I understood that he never had one of that breed that did not
take to swimming and fishing, and I believe, but am not sure, diving
also. Our foreman, who owned the cats, is still living [1885]: his
name and address are—Stephen Skidmore, Oxford Road, Gloucester.
I have myself seen the cats bring the fish from the water, and examined
their paws, and it was'at my own and my father’s wish that the kits
were carried to the other pools.”*

Mr Jesse mentions a cat belonging to a miller near
Fakenham, in Norfolk, who would dive into deep water
after fish. This was almost a daily practice with this cat.
Darwin also relates a similar circumstance of a cat, who
caught trout in a stream at a mill near Lichfield. I have
never personally observed an instance of this habit in a
cat, but I have been told of a cat which catches fish in the
Severn near Tewkesbury. .

I will very shortly allude to the protective markings of
cats. There can be no doubt that the ancient dwelling-
place of the cat was the forest, because kittens at once

* Frederick Sessions. “ Web-footed Fishing Cats,” Natural History Journal and School
Reporter, Vol. ix., York, 1885.

Ee ee

——-*

1901 A. R. WINNINGTON-INGRAM—CATS 307

take to climbing trees, and because most cats are mottled
and striped after a fashion generally adopted by inhabitants
of woods. This sort of marking is very advantageous to
animals living among trees, where the light which shines
through the leaves, falls in spots and streaks on the ground
below. I remember reading an instance of protective mimi-
cry in cats which greatly interested me. Namely, that
when a tabby cat is curled up the dark bands on its coat
arrange themselves into concentric circles or spirals sug-
gestive of a coiled snake, which would be a protection
against eagles. Also that the hissing and spitting of an
enraged cat, and the display of its fangs, are another in-
stance of its imitating a snake. In both cases the hissing
is of the nature of an ultimatum.

But cats not only protect themselves, they have been
deemed worthy of protection bymen. Among the ancient
Egyptians the cat was not only protected but worshipped.
Many thousands of cats have been found embalmed in the
grottoes of Beni-Hassan-el-Aamar. The chief cat-shrine
was at Bubastis. To the Egyptians the cat was a smybol
of the moon, its eyes expanding and dilating in the pupil
like as the moon waxes and wanes. ‘The cat’s ability to
see in the darkness—as generally imagined—sanctified it
as an emblem of chaotic night. A cat suckling its young
symbolized growth.

In Britain, too, there was a Prince, who lived about the
year 950 A.D., named Howel the Good, who enacted a law
that whoever killed a cat which guarded his granary should
forfeit a milch ewe, with its fleece and lamb, or else as
much wheat as would cover the cat when it was suspended
by its tail, its head touching the floor.

I fear, however, that in these days cats do not get quite
as much protection as they formerly did, for I remember
once recommending a man as a gamekeeper who, for the
first week in his new situation, had thirteen cats on his

308 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB — VOL. xum.(4)

vermin bill. Another keeper, who isa great friend of mine,

once caught a favourite cat belonging to me ina trap. He
attached a label to its collar, bearing this suitable inscrip-
tion: “ Keeper Dick caught me last night,” and then turned
the cat loose. Much amusement was occasioned at Lass-
ington Rectory next morning when poor Tib arrived with
one foot swelled up, and the label round his neck.

309

RHYNCHELMIS: A RARE AQUATIC WORM,
BY
W. A. BAILY.
(Read November 6th, 1900).

PLATE: XVII.

In March, 1896, my attention was drawn to a worm in
my water jug, which, upon examination, appeared to have
a glossy, tube-like proboscis.

The water had been pumped up from the well which
supplies my house, 129 Dyer Street, Cirencester.

When the worm was submitted to Dr Benham, he

wrote :—
‘Department of Comparative Anatomy,

The Museum, Oxford,
March 11, 1896.
It is a most interesting worm, yclept Rhkynchelmis. Nearly ten

years ago Harker sent me a living specimen from your place, obtained
from a well, and that was the first time that it had been obser d in
Britain, at any rate there is no record of it. I did not publish auything
at the time, as Harker hoped to find more specimens, and proposed to
write something about its habits. However, it never came off. I
should be very glad to have another specimen or two. I cut sections
of the original (Harker’s) example; and I have preserved yours for
Museum purposes. But I should like another to study, as this specimen
is sexually mature, and there are one or two points that are worth
clearing up, so urge your folk to bring them to you... ... .«
Wo. B. BENHAM.”

310 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xullI. (4)

I remember the specimen alluded to by Dr Benham. It
was found in a well at Ewen, near Cirencester, and Prof.
Harker was very interested in its discovery. He made
numerous unsuccessful attempts to obtain another example
from the locality, dredging a neighbouring stream with a
large heavy landing net. But he was unsuccessful, and so
it remained until my discovery of an example in 1896.

Some three years after that, in November, 1899, two
more specimens were pumped up from the well at my
house. One example was about 230 mm., the other about
119mm. in length. The larger example I sent to Dr
Benham, at Oxford.* He had, however, left for New
Zealand, and the parcel was opened, in his absence, by
Prof. W. R. Weldon, who wrote as follows :-—

‘Department of Comparative Anatomy,
The Museum, Oxford,
3rd November, 1899.

As your parcel evidently contained a specimen which could not be
forwarded without examination, I took the liberty of opening it.

Seeing a Fthynchelmis alive | was led to open your letter.

You will find the best account of the structure of the animal in
Vejdovsky’s System der Oligochzten (Prag, 1855?), and the same
writer’s, Entwickelungsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen (1888-92 Prag),
contains an excellent monograph of its development.

A summary of knowledge about the creature is given in Beddard’s
‘Monograph of the Oligocheta.’

Yours very truly,
W. F. R. WELDON.”

[* Since this paper was written I have received a note from Prof. Weldon. He says:
“T have left your letter unanswered for a long time, in the hope of finding the older speci-
men to which you refer, but I can find no trace of it.

“ The specimen you sent last year is in the Museum, properly labelled with the locality,
and your name as donor. Its length is now naturally less than when alive: it measures
about 22:1 centimetres in its present condition.. I see no reason to doubt the identity of
this worm with Rhynchelmis limosella, Hoffmeister ; but I have not gone over the specific

characters very thoroughly, for fear of injuring your specimen.” Nov. 2oth, 1900.]

I9OI W. A. BAILY—RHYNCHELMIS 311

The following notes on Rhynchelmis I have taken from
“Monograph of the Order of Oligochzta,’ by Frank Evers
Beddard, F.R.S., 1895.

“ Family :—LUMBRICULIDA.

Definition :—-Aquatic Oligocheta of moderate size. Sete paired
and §-shaped, sometimes with the free extremity bifid. The dorsal
blood-vessel or the transverse vessels with blind contractile appendages
(exc. Stylodrilus). Two pairs of sperm ducts (exc. Alluroides)
uniting to open by a single spermaducal gland on each side, which lies
in front of oviducal pores. No primal sete. It contains only eight
characterised genera, viz.: Lumbriculus, Rhynchelmis, Trichodrilus,
Stylodrilus, Claparedilla, Phreatothrix,. Eclipidrilus, Alluroides,
and Sutroa.

“The two distinctive characters of the family, which are
not found in any other family, or genus, are the contractile
appendages of the blood-vessels, and the arrangement of
the vasa deferentza.

Genus :—RHYNCHELMIS, Hoffmezster.

Syn. Huaxes, Grube.
» ?Lycodrilus, Grube.

Definition :—Sete not bifid at tip; clitellum viii-xvi [segments] ;
prostomium elongate ; testes in [segments] ix, x; ovaries in x1; sperm
sacs and egg sacs paired, extending through a large number of seg-
ments ; spermi-ducal glands opening on to segment x., with a coating
of glandular cells broken up into rounded masses; spermathece, one
pair opening on to seg. viii, each pouch with a single diverticulum ; a
single median albumen-gland opens on to seg. ix.

“The genus Rhynchelmis is, so far as our present know-
ledge goes, confined to the fresh waters of Europe; it has
been met with in Bohemia, Russia, Belgium and Germany ;
I point out later that certain species, referred to this genus
from other parts of the world, are probably not referable
to it.

Vv

312 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xl. (4)

“T have seen a specimen from some part of England, but
cannot give any details [this specimen was seen by Beddard
in the Oxford Museum so long ago as 1880, when it was
in the possession of the late Prof. Westwood.] There is
every possibility that it is a native of this country.

“The most salient external character of the genus is the
long prostomium; the peculiar form of this is sufficient
to prove that Hoffmeister and Grube were dealing with
the same worm in their description of Ahynuchelmis and
Euaxes;, the same kind of prostomium occurs also in the
nearly-related genus Swtroa, from North America; but
nothing of the kind is found in any other Lumbriculid ; in
Nats proboscidea, however, there is a prostomium of the
same character.

“The Nephridia are, of course, paired structures: they
commence in immature individuals in the seventh, in ma-
ture individuals in the twelfth segments. The Nephridia
become enormously large in proportion to the worm ; they
stretch so far back beyond their point of opening that on
a superficial inspection each nephridium has the appearance
of occupying several segments. The nephridiopores are
placed in front of the ventral sete.

“The Vascular System of Rhynchelmis is described in
some detail in Vejdovsky’s original paper upon the anatomy
of the worm; a figure of some additional particulars is to
be found in the ‘ Entwickelungsgeschichtliche Untersuch-
ungen’ (Pl. xxviii, figs. 7, 8). The dorsal vessel is
pulsatile ; it communicates with the ventral vessel by a
series of perivisceral trunks, a pair to each segment ; after
the eighth segment there are, in addition, a pair of vessels
arising from the dorsal trunk, which do not end in the
ventral vessel, but give off a number of contractile branches
as in other Lumbriculide; there are six or eight pairs of
these branches, which were confused by Grube with diver-
ticula of the gut; when the worms have attained to sexual

190I W. A. BAILY—RHYNCHELMIS 313

maturity, the ninth, tenth, and eleventh segments are seen
to contain each a pair of long vessels giving off a rich net-
work, which ramifies over the sperm sacs and the other
reproductive organs ; the intestine has a rich plexus, derived
from the paired non-contractile perivisceral trunks. The
ventral vessel consists, in the first five segments of the
body, of two separate halves, each half receiving the peri-
visceral trunk of its own side.

“ The testes, at first overlooked by Vejdovsky, were sub-
sequently recognised by him as two pairs of gonads in the
ninth and tenth segments ; as the worm gets to be mature,
the testes disappear, their contents being transferred to the
sperm sacs; the same thing happens to the ovaries, which
lie in the eleventh segment.

“ Sense organs of epidermis:—The cells of the epidermis
are in part modified to form sense-organs.

“In Rhynchelmis there are developed, at the breeding
season, continuous zones of sense-cells arranged in groups;
the cells have the same elongated form that the sense-cells
generally show, and appear also to possess the fine pro-
cesses which arise from the epidermic cells. Vejdovsky
believed that he could trace nerves into connexion with
these cells.

“ Nervous system (Ventral nerve-chain) :—The commis-
sures which arise from the brain and embrace the gut
unite below it to form a ganglionated chain. This runs
from end to end of the body; in the extreme posterior
region, where a regeneration of segments is going on, the
ventral nerve-cord may be often seen to lie in the thick-
ness of the epidermis ; otherwise it always lies in the body
cavity. The ventral nerve-cord gives off branches in each
segment. These branches arise in two different ways : in
the earthworms and many of the aquatic genera they arise
on either side of the nerve-cord and lie in the body cavity
for a greater or shorter distance until they plunge into the
thickness of the body wall.

v2

314 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (4)

“In Rhynchelmts the two nerves, although lying close
together, are quite distinct as two nerves. They are not
present in the middle segment.

“In Rhynchelmis, Vejdovsky could only find a single
pair ; three pairs is a much more usual number.

“ Respiratory System :—In the great majority of O/go-
cheta there are no special respiratory organs—the general
body-surface occupying the place of a lung or branchia.
When the integument is thick there are always plexuses of
blood capillaries in the integument which bring the vascular
system into close relations with the external medium, and
presumably allow an exchange of gases. The blood is in
all Oligochzeta, with few exceptions, tinged with hoémo-
globin.

“ Reproductive System :—The Oligocheta, like some
other animals which are hermaphrodite, possess a compli-
cated series of organs, related to the reproductive system.

“The essential organs are the ovaries and testes—the
gonads—which are developed from the peritoneal epithe-
lium, and are nearly always paired structures, and are pre-
sent in all Oligocheeta.

“The ovaries are usually a single pair ; but there is some-
times an additional pair. The ovaries invariably agree in
position with the testes, but they are of course situated
in different segments. ‘The ovaries always lie behind the
testes. In Rhynchelmis the testes are contained in segments
ix, x, and the ovaries in segment xi; the male pore in
segment x, the oviducal pores in segments xi, xii. The
gonads are the first part of the reproductive system. ‘The
various organs, essential and non-essential, have fixed posi-
tions in the body of the worm; one organ is found always
in one segment, another in a second segment, in every
species, the position being characteristic of the species, or
genus, or family, as the case may be.

1901 W. A. BAILY—RHYNCHELMIS 315

“ The Ova are now known in a large number of Oligo-
cheeta ; but it is in Rhynchelmzs that they have been most
thoroughly studied by Vejdovsky.

“Ttis a remarkable fact that the Oligocheeta can be divided
into two groups according to the character of their ova.
In the aquatic Oligochzta the eggs are large, and contain
an abundance of yolk; in the terrestrial forms the ova are
of microscopic size, and contain but little yolk. The
mature egg of Ahynchelmis, which may be selected as a
type of a large yolked ovum, is spherical ; it has a peripheral
and extremely fine membrane, beneath which is a dense
layer of protoplasm ; connected with this is a protoplastic
net-work which ramifies through the entire egg, and in the
meshes of which are contained the yolk spherules.

“ The Cocoon :—All Oligochzta form cocoons in which
the ova and the sperm are deposited, with or without
albumen set apart for the nourishment of the embryos.
The cocoon consists of a chitinous substance, and is formed
by the activity of the clitellum. In the cocoon of Ahyn-
chelmzs Vejdovsky has found that there is albumen, which
is of course destined for the nutrition of the embryo, and
is transparent.

“The cocoons of Ahynchelmis are attached to aquatic
plants. The process of formation being carefully watched
by Vejdovsky in the genus Rhynchelmis : the worm throws
off the cocoon over its head, crawling backwards to free
itself therefrom. The eggs, spermatozoa, and albumen
reach the interior of the cocoon as it passes over the
orifices of the respective ducts. Out of the numerous
eges which a single cocoon originally contains, only a few,
sometimes only one, reaches to maturity.”

316 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xu. (4)

There are the following species in the genus Ahyn-
chelmis -—

‘““RHYNCHELMIS OBTUSIROSTRIS, Menge.

Definition :—Length, 55mm.; number of segments, 100; pros-
tomium obtse ; habitat, Belgium, Germany.”

‘““RHYNCHELMIS LIMOSELLA, Hoffmeister.

Definition :—Length, 120mm. ; number of segments, 150; body
more or less quadrangular; prostomium long; sete posteriorly reduced
to one in each bundle ; chloragogen covering of gut commences in the
seventh segment ; habitat, Europe.”

According to Prof. Weldon’s remark (p. 310), this is
the species found at Cirencester.

With regard to its habits and food, | am at present
unable to give any satisfactory information. The example
of this species which was captured in November, 1899, I
kept in a small aquarium in which I had placed a small
amount of decaying vegetation. There it lived in con-
finement for just a year; and although I frequently placed
it under observation I could never perceive it in the act
of feeding.

As will be observed, I am indebted to Mr F. E. Beddard’s
Monograph for the greater portion of this paper; and I
have quoted from that work sufficient to show that Ahyn-
chelmis is a worm which has been studied with consider-
able attention, and has yielded important results from an
anatomical point of view. More details can be obtained
by consulting the works cited; but for the better under-
standing of what has been given here I append certain
figures copied from Vejdovsky’s work. They are given
in the appended Plate XVII.

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1901 W. A. BAILY—RHYNCHELMIS 317

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RHYNCHELMIS

Fic. 1 (Tafel xxi, fig. 1.)—Dorsal view of the anterior
portion of a young worm: g Cerebral ganglion ; vv Dorsal
vessel ; a Loops of the lateral vessel.

Fic. 2 (Tafel xxi, fig. 2..—The same from the ventral
side. vv Branches of the ventral vessel; x Degenerating
nephridia of the anterior segments.

FIG. 3 (Tafel xxi, fig. 3.)—Older stage of the young
worm. vd Dorsal vessel; @ Anterior; 4 Posterior lateral
vessels of a segment; g Cerebral ganglion.

FIG. 4 (Tafel xxviii, fig.8.)—Longitudinal section through
two body-segments of the adult Ahyuchelmis, which has
developed a portion of the intestinal wall with the vascular
network (dg), the ventral vessel (vv), and the ventral cord
(gz); d Division of segments ; mv Median vessel between
the intestinal network and the ventral vessel; @ Preseptal
side vessels; zch Neuro-chord; 4z Long muscle of the
ventral chord ; 7 Ring-muscle of the ventral cord.

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319

RESOLUTIONS CONCERNING MAPS.

At the Second Winter Meeting of the Session 1900-
1901, held at the School of Science, Gloucester, on
Friday, Dec. 7th, 1900, the following resolutions, proposed
by C. Callaway, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., and seconded by
Mr Chas. Upton, were unanimously carried :—

I. That this Club, having been informed that the work
of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom is under
| official review, desires to express the opinion that the
| following maps are required for the district. Their

general adoption would be of great advantage to geological
science, and to the material welfare of-the nation.

I. One-inch map of the solid geology, the information
| to be put on the new ordnance maps which have
contours, the contours to be very plainly lined
in; the geological maps at present obtainable for
this district being without contours and very
inaccurate as to roads. The results of deep
borings might also be inserted [by colour circles.]
2. A similar map on the six-inch scale, on which
should be indicated the nature and composition
of the subsoil. It is also suggested that the
details of important coast or other vertical sec-
tions should be inserted in the margins of the
sheets.
3. One-inch and six-inch colour-printed Drift maps.
These would aid in the solution of important
theoretical questions at present unsolved. They
would also be of great economic value, as bear-
ing upon water-supply, drainage, house-sites,
general sanitation, and economic questions of
agriculture.

320 PROG SCOTTES WOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)

4. A physiographic map on the quarter-inch scale,
coloured to height, with the rivers accurately
inserted, and with details as to dips, anticlines,
synclines, and faults, but omitting details likely
to impair the clearness of the map, such as roads,
railways, canals.

II. That copies of this resolution be forwarded to the
proper official quarters, as, for instance, the Director-
General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom,
the President of the Board of Agriculture, the Board of |
Education; also to other Scientific Societies, and that the
latter be invited by circular to give it their support.

E. B. WETHERED, F.G.S.,
President.

S. S. BUCKMAN, F.G.S.,
Flon. Secretary.

Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

The following members who were unable to be present
at the meeting, but are particularly interested in the
subject, desire to cordially support these resolutions :—

THECRIGHT HON: EARL OF DUCIE? F-R:S;4F Gea:

SIR J. E. DORINGTON, BART., M.P.

REv. Hy. HOYTE WINWOOD, F.G.S.

M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS, ex-President Cotteswold
Club.

C. I. GARDINER, F.G.S.

W. L. MEREDITH, C.E., F.G.S.

Ge BASTANTON: E.R’G:S:

ARNOLD THOMAS, F.G-.S.

G HE AVOLLASTON. E.G:S.

——— ss --”Shc(itsS OC

Ce all eae Billed

I9OI RESOLUTIONS—MAPS 321

[Copies of the above Resolutions were sent to the In-
stitutions, Scientific Societies, etc., mentioned below, with
the following note addressed to the Societies. ]

The Council of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club
beg to submit to your Society a copy of the resolutions
recently passed at a meeting of the Club with regard to
geological maps, and to ask your Society, if they approve
thereof, to pass similar resolutions with regard to the
geological maps required for your district, and to for-
ward copies thereof to official and other authorities. The
importance of the subject is evident to all Geologists,
while the educational and economic value of such maps is
undeniable.

The Hon. Secretary of the Cotteswold Club will be
pleased to be informed as to any action your Club may
take.

EG. WEVHERED, F.G:S;

President.

S. S. BUCKMAN, F.G.S.,
Flon. Secretary.
Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

List of Institutions, Societies, etc. to whom copies of
the Resolutions concerning Maps have been sent :—

Barnsley Naturalist and Scientific Society.

Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Society.
Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society.
Board of Agriculture.

Board of Education.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

British Association.

Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club.

322 PROC. ‘GOT TES WOLD’ CLUB VOL. XIII. (4)

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

Cheltenham Natural Science Society.

Chester Society of Natural Science.

Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club.
Dudley and Midland Geological and Scientific Society.
Essex Field Club.

Folkestone Natural History Society.

Geological Society of Liverpool.

Geological Society of London.

Geological Society of Manchester.

Geological Survey of England and Wales.

Geologists’ Association.

Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club.
Institute of Mining Engineers.

Leeds Geological Association.

Lincolnshire Science Society.

Maidenhead Field Club.

Newbury District Field Club.

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society.
Northumberland Natural History Society.
Nottingham Naturalists’ Society.

Reading Natural History Society.

Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.

Royal Society (London.)

Swansea Scientific Society.

Torquay Natural History Society.

Warwickshire Natural History and Archzological Society.
Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club.

Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

(END OF VOL. XIII.)

PUBLICATIONS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB

The undermentioned publications of the Club can be supplied at the
following prices :—

Fe ako’ To
Members the Public
Vol. I (not in parts) . : : : 4s 6d 6s 9d
ee " IC IG ‘ : é 5s 6d 8s 3d
ne LEE " 2 ‘ : ; 7s od Ios 6d
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Val. Xl; Part I: 5 . é ; 2s od 3s od
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In Vols. IV to XII each volume has three parts, with the following
exceptions :—Vols. VI and IX have four parts, Vol. VII has two parts.

There is also published as a Supplement to Vol. IX, The Origin of
the Cotteswold Field Club, and an Epitome of the Proceedings from its
formation to May, 1877, by W. C. Lucy, F.G.S. Price to Members
3s, to the Public 4s 6d.