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774
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
LITEKARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
OF
MANCHESTER
VOL. XL .< /s , (
Session 1871—72.
MANCHESTER :
PRINTED BY THOS. SOWLKll AND SONS, RED LION STREET, ST. ANN'S SQUARE.
LONDON : H. B.VILLIKRE, 219, REGENT STREET.
1872.
NOTE.
The object which the Society hare in view iu publishing theii* Proceed-
ings is to give an immediate and succinct account of the scientific and
and other business transacted at their meetings, to the members and the
general public. The various communications are supplied by the authors
themselves, who are alone responsible for the facts and reasonings con-
tained therein.
INDEX.
Aldis T. S., M.A. — Species viewed Mathematically, p. 14.
Bailey Chaeles", Hon. Lib. — On .^ciclium Statices found on Walney
Island, p. 23.
Baerow John. — On Tricophyton tonsui'ans, pp. 29, 61.
Baxendell J., F.EA.S., Hon. Sec. — Note on the Destruction of St. Mary's
Cliarch, Crumpsall, on the 4th January, 1872, by Fire from a Light-
ning Discharge, p. 92, On Changes in the Distribution of Barometric
Pressure, Temperature, and Eainfall, under different Winds during a
Solar Spot Period, 111. On the Distribution of Eainfall under differ-
ent Winds at St. Petersburg during a Solar Spot period, p. 122.
Note on the Eektive Velocities of different Winds at Southport, and
Eccles near Manchester, p. 135.
BiNNEY E. W., F.E,S., F.G.S., President.— On the High Eate of Mortality
in Manchester and Salford, p. 1. On the Aurora of November 10th,
1871. p. 26. On Cotton and Sugar a Centvu-y ago, extracted from the
MS. books of the late Mr. George Walker, p. 63. On a Specimen of
Stauropteris Oldhamia, p. 69. On a large Crystal of Seleuite from
the mud of the Suez Canal, p. 77. On a Specimen of Zygopteris
Lacattii from the Foot Mine, near Oldham, p. 99. Additional Notes
on the Lancashire Drift Deposits, p. 139. On the Trapping of Sewers,
p. 151.
Beadley S. M., F.E.C.S. — Observations upon the National Characteristics of
Skulls, p, 45.
Beockbank William, F.G.S.— On a Specimen of Mineral Wool, and on
Utilising Slag, p. 78.
Dale E. S., B.A.— On Aurine, p. 12.
Daebishiee E. D., F.G.S.— On a Discovery of Prehistoric Eelics in Gibb
Tarn, near St. Bees, Cumberland, p. 54. On a Plant of Cereus
Grandiflorus, p, 60.
Dawkins W. Boyd, F.E.S.— Further Account of Work done in the Victoria
Cave, near Settle, p. 9. On the Origin of oiu' Domestic Breeds of
Cattle, p, 27. On a Group of Crystals of Calcite and Sulphide of Iron
suiTounding Stalactitic Bitumen, p, 94.
Haeeisox Thomas, — On the Aurora of February ith, lb72, p. 92.
VI
HoPKiNSON John, B.A., D.Sc— On the Rupture of Iron Wire by a Blow,
p. 40. Further Experiments on the Rupture of Iron Wire, p. 119.
Hunt G-. E. — Notices of several recently discovered and undescribed British
Mosses, p. 19.
Jevons Professor W. Stanley, M.A.— Encke's Comet and the Supposed
Resisting Medium, p. 33, On the Inverse or Inductive Logical
Problem, p. 65.
Joule J. P., D.C.L,, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.— On the Diurnal Variation of
the Magnetic Inclination in Manchester during the months of May,
June, and Jvdj, 1871, p. 1. On the Hail Storm of January 4tb, 1872,
p. 75. On the Magnetic Disturbances during the Aurora of February
4th, 1872, p. 91. Experiments on the Polarization of Platina Plates
by Frictional Electricity, p. 99,
KiKKMAN Rev. T. P., M.A., F.R.S., Hon. Mem.— Once Again— the Begin-
ning of Philosophy, p. 76.
Mackeeeth Thomas, F.R.A.S. — Results of Observations, registered at Eccles,
on the Direction and Range of the Wind for 1869, as made by an Auto-
matic Anemometer for Pressure and Direction, p. 126- Results of
Rain-Grauge Observations made at Eccles, near Manchester, during
the year 1871, p. 179.
Reynolds Professor O., M.A. — On Cometary Phenomena, p. 35. On an
Electrical Corona resembling the Solar Corona, p. 100, On the
Electro-Dynamic effect the induction of Statical Electricity causes in
a Moving Body ; the induction of the Sun a probable cause of Terres-
trial Magnetism, p. 106.
RoscoE Professor H. E., F.R.S., Hon. Sec— A Study of Tungsten Com-
pounds, p. 79,
ScHOELEMMEE C, F.R.S.— On Aurine, p. 12. On the Boiling Points of the
Normal ParafRns and some of their Derivatives, p. 95.
SiDEBOTHAM JOSEPH, F.R.A.S.— Notcs on Dorcatoma bovistse, p. 23. On
Nemosoma elongata, p. 90. On the Theories of the Origin and Spread
of Typhoid Fever, p, 136.
Smith H. A., F.C.S.— On Arsenic from Alkali Works, p. 172. On Animal
Life in Water containing Free Acids, p. 174.
Stieeup Maek.— On Shells of MoUusca showing so-called Fungoid Grrowths,
p.:i37.
Syson John Edmund, L.R.C.P.E.— The Illness of the Prince of Wales and
its Lessons, p. 49.
Thoepe T. E. — Note on the Chromium Oxychloride described by Hr.
Zettnow in Poggendorfi's Annalen der Physik und Chimic, No. 6,
1871, p. 10.
Vernon G-, V., F.R.A.S.— On Black Bulb Solar Radiation Thermometers
exposed in various Media, p, 129. Rainfall at Old Trafford, Manches-
ter, in 1871, p. 182.
Vll
YiZE Rev. J. E.. M.A. — On Xenodochus carbonavius, p. 01.
Wilde Henry. — On the Influence of Q-as and Water Pipes in determining
the Direction of a Discharge of Lightning, p. 70.
Willia:ms W, Cahlbton. — On the Oxy chlorides of Antimony, p. o.
Williamson Professor W. C, F.R.S. — Corrections of the JN'omenclature of
the objects figured in a Memoir "On some of the Minute Objects found
in the Mud of the Levant," &c., pubHshed in Vol. Till, of the
Memoirs of tlie Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,
p. 172.
WiNSTANLEY Dayid. — On a New Theory explanatory of the Phenomena
exhibited by Comets, p. 154.
Meetings of the Physical and Mathematical Section, — Annual, p. 179. Ordi-
nary, pp. 122, 126.
3Ieetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section. — Annual, p. 185.
Ordinary, pp. 19, 29, 60, 90, 136, 137.
Report of the Co?/wc?7.— April 30th, 1872, p. 163.
EREATTJM.
Page 99, line 9 from top, for "Eegnalt" read "Renault."
PROCEEDINGS
OP
THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY,
Ordinary Meeting, October 3rd, 1871.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S, President, in the Chair.
Mr. Thomas Harrison and Mr. Thomas Livesey were
elected Ordinary Members of the Society.
Dr. Joule, F.R.S., exhibited curves showing the diurnal
variation of the magnetic inclination in Manchester during
the months May, June, and July, Tliese observations,
along with those of horizontal force, showed that the total
force was nearly a constant quantity.
Professor 0. Reynolds, M.A., exhibited a series of models
which he had designed to illustrate problems in the geometry
of planes and solids.
The President said that public attention had been justly
called to the high rate of mortality in the city of Manches-
ter and its adjoining borough Salford. One of the leading-
newspapers had lately stated that the gigantic infant
mortality of our great towns is notorious. In some parts of
Liverpool for example 58 per cent of the children under one
year of age die, while in other districts of the same town only
5 per cent die.
The subject of infantile mortality engaged public attention
Proceedings— Lit. & Phii,, Soc— Yol. XI.— No. 1.— Session 1871-2.
nearly a century ago, for I find from the late Mr. George
Walker's Journal, kindly presented to the Society by Mr.
B. H. Green, that
" Dr. Percival took from the Register at Manchester and
Salford for six years, from 1768 to 1774, and found there had
died under two years (compared with the whole) as 1 to 2*9,
or nearly 1 to 3. Died under 2 years of baptised children
(as above) as 1 to 3*6, say 1 to SJ. From January 1, 1780,
to January 1, 1791, 12 years. Buried 17,597, of which num-
ber have died under 2 years, 5,529 ; from 2 to 5, 1,823, all
of whom were baptised." In addition, the still-born and
those who died before baptism have to be added. Mr. Walker
also states that
" The probability of the duration of life from observations
on the Bills of Mortality of London, on an average of ten
years, by Thomas Simpson, Mathematician, 1790, Infants
just born, 1,000 ; living at the end of one year, 680 ; at the
age of 2 years, 547; at the age of 3 years, 496. Therefore
more than one half the children died under 3 years."
From these extracts it appears that the rate of mortality
amongst infants is not confined to a manufacturing popula-
tion, for it was high in Manchester before the Cotton
Manufacture had made much progress, and higher still in
former times in London, where no such employment of
females prevailed, to take the mothers from their children.
Dr. Percival, F.R.S., a former President of this Society,
and Mr. Simpson, the eminent mathematician, are both first-
rate authorities on the subject, and their results fully accord
with those of our Secretary, Mr. Baxendell, as given to tlie
Society and printed in the Proceedings for April 19th, 1870.
The mortality of our city no doubt is bad enough, but it
does not arise altogether from infantile mortality as has been
asserted, but from adult mortality as well.
Ordinary Meeting, October ITtli, 1871.
Rev. William Gaskell, M.A., Yice-Prcsident; in the Chair.
" On the Oxychloridcs of Antimony," by Mr. WiLLlAM
Carleton Williams, Student in the Laboratory of Owens
College, communicated by Professor H. E. Roscoe, F.Pv.S.
Phosphorus Oxychloride PO CI3 having been prepared by
heating together one molecule of phosphorus pentoxide with
three of pentachloride, it appeared not unlikely that a simi-
lar reaction might occur with antimony giving rise to the
missing oxychloride corresponding to the phosphorus
compound above mentioned.
The following investigation was undertaken at Dr.
Roscoe's request with the view of elucidating the above re-
action as no oxychloridcs derived from the pentachloride
have as yet been, described.
A mixture of one molecule of antimony pentoxide pre-
pared by heating the pentachloride with water witli three
molecules of the pentachloride was heated for some hours
in sealed tubes to 140" C. On opening the tube after cooling-
it was found to contain, besides unchanged pentachloride and
pentoxide, two distinct solid crystalline compounds. When
the pentoxide prepared by the action of nitric acid on the
metal is heated with the pentachloride in a similar way no
oxychloride is formed.
One of these fuses at 85" C. to a clear yellowish liquid,
whilst the other, produced only in small quantities, is
found adhering to the top of the tube in minute yellow-
ish crystals, which fuse at a higher temperature. In
order to obtain the first of these substances in a pure
state it is sufficient to place the tube upright in a vessel of
water at 90" with the empty end downwards ; the fusible
oxychloride then melts and collects as a perfectly clear
yellowish liquid. After cooling, the tube is opened and the
,4
small quantity of residual pentacliloride having been poured
off, the solid mass is dried on a porous plate over solid caustic
potash in vacuo. The oxy chloride thus obtained is a per-
fectly white crystalline substance, exceedingly hygroscopic,
so that when exposed to the air for a few minutes it becomes
a pasty mass which rapidly changes to a liquid. It readily
dissolves in an aqueous solution of tartaric acid, whilst it is
decomposed by water and is perfectly insoluble in carbon
disulphide. The melting point of the substance is 85° C. as
a mean of well agreeing determination made with four differ-
ent preparations. When heated in a retort until it boils,
chlorine gas is evolved, whi]st pentacliloride and trichloride
of antimony distil over, a residue of antimony pentoxide
remaining in the retort.
A modification of Rose's well known method of precipita-
tion first as insoluble antimoniate of soda, and then as
antimony sulphide was employed for the determination of
the antimony ; the precipitated sulphide was (1) oxidised to
SbaOi either by treatment with pure fuming nitric acid or
by heating with from 10 to 20 times its weight of pure
mercuric oxide, and (2) the sulphide was completely reduced
to metallic antimony by heating gently in a current of hy-
drogen until sulphuretted hydrogen ceases to be evolved.
In the estimation of chlorine it was found that when silver
nitrate is added to a solution of an antimony oxy chloride
acidified by nitric acid, a small trace of antimony is invari-
ably carried down with the silver chloride. In order to free
the precipitate from antimony, the silver chloride is first
heated gently in a current of hydrogen when the silver is
reduced, and, on stronger ignition the whole of the antimony
is volatilized as the hydrogen compound. Thus 1-277 grams
of an alloy containing 2'5 parts of antimony to 97*5 parts of
silver was found to lose on heating in hydrogen, 0'0321
grm. corresponding to 97-48 % of silver.
The accuracy of each of the above methods was tested by
determining the percentage of antimony and chlorine in pure
antimony trichloride, the results agreeing closely with each
other and with the theoretical composition. The objection
to Schaeffer's method of decomposing the oxy chloride by
boiling with a solution of sodium carbonate is that the pre-
cipitated oxide of antimony being in a very finely divided
state a portion of it is very apt to pass through the filter on
washing.
The simplest formula which agrees with the analytical
results is SbgCliaO or three molecules of pentachloride in
which two of chlorine are replaced by one of oxygen.
Calculated. Found.
Sbs 43-39 43-46
Cli3 54-71 54-75 •
O 1-90 —
100-00
That this is a definite compound and not a mere mixture
of pentoxide and pentachloride (Sb2 05+ 14SbCl5)is evident
from the fact that the latter substance is not dissolved out
by washing with carbon disulphide. The calculated per-
centage of pentoxide contained in this compound is 7*68 ;
on heating 2-517 grams of the oxychloride in a tube retort
a residue of 0*1799 grams of pentoxide remained, corres-
ponding to a percentage of 7*14.
The second oxychloride formed by heating the mixture of
one molecule of pentoxide and three of pentachloride is
produced only in small quantities as yellowish crystals. To
obtain it in the pure state, that portion of the tube in which
the substance is found is cut off" and after the tube has been
re-sealed it is placed in a slanting direction in a vessel con-
taining water heated from 85° to 90". The SbgCljgO melts
and runs down, leaving the other less fusible oxychloride
behind ; this is then dried on a porous plate in vacuo over
solid caustic potash. Two determinations showed that the
melting point of this substance is 97°'5 C.
6
The simplest formula agreeing with the analytical numbers
is SbgOiClp or three molecules of antimony pentachloride in
which four atoms of oxygen replace eight of chlorine.
Calculated. Found.
Sbg 58-94 58-89
CI; 86-62 86-58
O, 9-44 ..c...
100-00
From the above results it is clear that the simple
phosphorus oxychloride is not reproduced under similar
circumstances in the antimony series, but that this element
in agi-eement with its general depoi'tment gives rise to more
complicated compounds,
The oxychlorides derived from antimony trioxide have
been frequently examined; the results of the analyses of
powder of algaroth made by different investigators varies
considerably, and Sabanejeff has recently shown that these
differences are probably due to the presence in the substance
of antimony trichloride in varying quantities. This impu-
rity he gets rid of by washing the oxychloride obtained by
the action of a lai-ge excess of water on the trichloride with
ether or carbon disulphide in which the trichloride dissolves.
In this way he obtains a compound having the constant
composition Sb^ClaOs; or two molecules of trioxide in which
one of oxygen is replaced by two of chlorine, whilst a simpler
monoxy chloride SbOCl is prepared by acting with only from
2 to 10 molecules of water on the trichloride. But this on
treatment with ether or carbon disulphide loses trichloride
and yields Sb.ClA; thus 5 SbOCl ^SbClg+SbAOs.
The results of my experiments lead me to the conclusion
that the body obtained by the action of boiling water on
the trichloride does not possess the composition SbiCljOj,
but consists of 10 molecules of this substance and one of the
trichloride, which latter, however, can be removed by wash-
ing with either carbon disulphide or ether. Antimony
determinations in two different preparations gave
(1) 75-45 % Sb. (2) 75-88 % Sb; corresponding chlorine
determinations gave (1) 12-43 % CI; (2) 12-49 % CI.
Hence we ha^ve : —
Calculated for
Calculated for
Found
losb.ciA-fSbcis
SbiCl^O^
Antimony... 75*57
7C-37 ...
.... 75-66
Chlorine ... ' 12-34
1111 ..,
.... 12-46
Oxygen ... 12-09
12-52 ...
...
By acting upon 15 parts by weight of antimony trichlo-
ride with one part of trioxide in a sealed tube Schneider
(Pogg. Ann. cviii. 407) obtains a crystalline oxychloride to
which he assigns the formula 7SbCl3SbOCl. Repeating
Schneider's experiments I obtained a pearl grey crystalline
mass melting at 72° C, the melting point of the trichloride.
When acted upon by absolute alcohol it yields powder of
algaroth SbiCljOj, and its composition appears to be even
more complicated than that assigned to it by Schneider,
Antimony determinations in two specimens gave (1)
54-24 %Sb; (2) 54-16 %Sb; whilst the corresponding
chlorine estim_ations were (1) 45-69; (2) 45-87 instead of
55-08 % Sb and 44-02 % CI required by Schnider's formula,
but agreeing with the formula SbieCl^eC, which requires
54*2 % of antimony and 45-357 of chlorine.
The differences here found between the substances as
prepared by Schneider and myself may arise from the ad-
mixture of antimony trioxide with the oxychloride in the
former preparation. When the tube in v/hich the substance
has been prepared is placed in an upright position and
allowed to cool, the undissolved oxide sinks to the bottom
of the tube, but on still further cooling when the contents
of the tube are about to solidify the oxide rises from the
8
bottom and mixes with the oxycliloride. To obtain the
substance perfectly free from undissolved oxide the contents
of the tube are gently heated, and when the finely divided
oxide is deposited the clear liquid oxycliloride is drawn off
with a pipette.
Ordinary Meeting, October 31st, 1871.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS, F.G.S, President, in the Chair.
Mr. David Winstanley and Mr. John Asliworth were
elected Ordinary Members of the Society.
Mr. Wm. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., gave a short account of
the discoveries in the Victoria cave, made since the last
account was published in the Transactions of the Society.
The clay forming the bottom of the cave, and which hitherto
had been barren, was noAV yielding broken fragments of
bone, some of which had been gnawed by the cave-hysena.
A lower jaw of this animal was found, which indicated tlie
presence of the characteristic Pleistocene mammpJia in a
part of Yorkshire in which they had not been knov/n to
have existed up to the present tim.e. There were, therefore,
three distinct groups of remains in the cave. The Romano-
Celtic on the surface, the Neolithic beneath, and lastly that
which has been furnished by the clay which is glacial in
character. And since two feet of talus had been accumulated
above the Romano-celtic lawyer during the last 1,200 years, it
is very probable that the accumulation of debris of precisely
the same character between the Romano-celtic and Neolithic
layers, six feet in thickness, was formed in about thrice the
time, or 8,600 years. If this rough estimate be accepted,
and it is probably true approximately the Neolithic occupa-
tion of the cave must date back to between 4,000 and 5,000
years ago. There is no clue to the relative antiquity of the
group of remains found in the clay ; but it may safely be
stated to be far greater than that of the Neolithic stratum.
Throughout Europe the break between the Pleistocene age
represented in the cave by the bones in the clay and the
Peoceedikos— Lit. & Phil. Soc— Tol. XI.— I^o. 2.— Session 1871-2.
10
Prehistoric age — the Neolithic of the cave — is so great and
so full of difficulty that it cannot be gauged by any method
which has hitherto been invented.
Mr. Boyd Dawkins also exhibited a remarkably perfect
javelin head of bronze which had been dug up in a field
near Settle.
"Note on the Chromium Oxychloride described by Hr.
Zettnow in Poggendorff 's Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
No. 6, 1871/' by T. E. Thorpe, F.RS.E.
In the above-mentioned number of Poggendorff 's Annalen*
Hr. Emil Zettnow describes an oxychloride of Chromium to
which he assigns the formula CrgCl^O -f 4Cr03. It is obtained
by treating potassium chloro-chromate (K2Cr2O60l2) with
strong sulphuric acid, and, after a somewhat tedious course
of preparation, appears as a brownish black, brittle, amor-
phous substance, exceedingly hygroscopic, and giving up its
chlorine with great ease. Hr. Zettnow's analytical results
and the numbers required by his formula are : —
Found. Calculated.
Cr 47-28 47-23
CI 22-31 21-42
0 — 31-35
100.00
In the Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Manchester for Nov. 2nd, ISGD,"!* I described a
solid chromium oxychloride obtained by simply heating
chromyl dichloride in a sealed tube, and which, on com-
pletely freeing it from the latter body, " appears as a black
non-crystalline powder, which, when exposed to the air,
rapidly deliquesces to a dark reddish brown syrupy liquid,
which smells of free chlorine" (loc. cit.) These properties, it
will be observed, are precisely those which Hr. Zettnow
describes as belonging to his chromate of chrom-oxy chloride.
* See also " Cliem. News," Sept. I5tli, 1871.
t Also " Chem. News," Nov. 19th, 1869. Zeitschrift fur Chemie,
Jan., 1870. 95.
11
On analysis it yielded, as the mean of four determinations
made on different preparations,
CI 21-06
Cr 48-91
numbers approximating to those obtained by Hr. Zettnow.
To this compound I was induced, for reasons which I need
not here reproduce, to give the formula
ClCrOa. 0. CrO. Cr.O.Cl.
and to regard it as the chromium term of a series of salts a
few members of which had already been described by
Peligot, viz. —
Potassium chloro-chromate ClCrOi. 0. Ko- ^- CrOgCl
Sodium do. ClCrOa. 0. Na^. 0. CrO.Cl
Ammonium do. CiCrO,. 0. (NH,),. 0. CrO^Cl
Magnesium do. CiCrO,. 0. Mg. 0. CrOoCl
Calcium do. ClCiOo. 0. Ca. 0. CrO^Cl,
The above formula for the chromium chloro-chromate
requires
CI 21-86
Cr 48-54
From the close agreement in the analytical results and
correspondence in their physical properties, I am inclined to
believe that Hr. Zettnow's compound is identical with mine.
Potassium chloro-chromate heated with sulphuric acid yields,
among other products, chromyl dichloride, and, doubtless
Hr. Zettnow's compound has been derived from this body
under circumstances analogous to those in which I have
already operated. As my little notice on this matter has
evidently not come under Hr. Zettnow's observation, he
may be interested to learn that the six or seven weeks'
time which he finds necessary to give to the preparation of
this rather uninteresting compound may be considerably
shortened by simply heating the chromyl dichloride in a
closed vessel, when in a few minutes any wished-for quantity
may be transformed almost completely into the chromium
chloro-chromate and free chlorine.
12
" On Aiirine/' by R. S. Dale, B. A., and C. Schoelemmer,
F.RS.
In the July number of the Journal of the Chemical
Society, we have published a short note on Aiirine, a
colouring matter discovered by Kolbe and Schmitt, in 1861,
and which is now found in commerce under the name of
aurine, yellow coralline, or rosolic acid. The commercial
product which is obtained by heating phenol with oxalic
and sulphuric acids, is a mixture of different bodies, from
which we have isolated the pure colouring matter by
dissolving the crude aurine in alcohol, and treating this
solution with ammonia. A crystalline precipitate, a com-
pound of aurine with ammonia separated out, whilst the
other bodies present remained in solution. The ammonia
compound was washed with alcohol by means of Bunsen's
filter pump, and decomposed by dilute acetic acid. The
aurine thus obtained was further purified by repeated
crystallisation from strong acetic acid. It crystallised in
rhombic needles or prisms, the colour of which varies
according to the concentration of the acid, and as it appears
also, according to the purity of the substance. We have
obtained it in needles having the colour of chromic acid,
and a brilliant diamond lustre, or in darker red crystals of
varying shades, with a steelblue, greenish blue, or splendid
beetle-green reflection. We have analyzed these difi'erent
specimens, partly dried at 100° and partly at higher tem-
peratures, and although samples of the same preparation
gave very a.greeing results, those of difierent preparations
varied very much in their composition. The reason of this
is, that aurine retains most obstinately water a.nd acetic
acid, a fact which has also been observed by Fresenius,*
who has lately published a note on the same subject.
From concentrated hydrochloric acid aurine crystallises
in fine, hair like red needles, which, dried at 110°, contain a
large quantity of hydrochloric acid. We tried to obtain the
pure compound by precipitating a dilute alkaline with
* Journ. f. Pract. Chem., No. 10, 1871.
13
dilute hydrochloric acid, and washing the precipitate by
Bunsen's filter pump, but also this product contains hydro-
chloric acid, which was only given off above 110^
By spontaneous evaporation of an alcoholic solution,
aurine is obtained in dull red crystals, with a green metallic
lustre. Dried at 110' this body contains no alcohol, but
still retains a large quantity of water, which only escapes
between 140° — 180°, the crystals not changing their appear-
ance at all, and they may be heated up to 200^ without any
further alteration, which fact does not agree with Fresenius'
observation, that aurine crystallised from alcohol or acetic
acid melts at 156°. The analysis of this body, dried at 200°,
which we believe to be pure aurine, gave numbers closely
agreeing with the formula C20H14O3 and the mode of its
formation may, if this formula is correct, be expressed by
the equation.
SCeHeO + CA = C20H, A + 2H2O.
The substance dried at 110° lost at 180° 5*4% of water
corresponding to the formula C20H14O34-H2O.*
Caro and Wanklyn obtained by the action of nitrous acid
on rosaniline a body, which they believe to be identical
with amine, and to which they assign, from the mode of
formation, the composition C2oHi603,t differing from our
formula only by two atoms of hydi'ogen.
Nascent hydrogen converts aurine into colourless leucG-
aurine C20H1SO3. This reduction may be effected by heating-
it in an alkaline solution with zinc dust, but at the same
time a dark resinous body is formed, from which the leuco-
aurine cannot be easily freed. Better results are obtained
by acting with zinc dust on a solution of aurine in strong
acetic acid. Leuco-aurine crystallises from acetic acid or
alcohol in compact colourless prisms.
A body resembling leuco-aurine is contained in crude
aurine ; we have not as yet obtained it in a pure state. It
^Fresenius analysed aurine wliich was crystallized from alcohol and dried at
100°. His numbers agree exactly with the formula C^. ^11 ^^0.^-^-2^11^0.
f Proceed. Koy. Soc. xy., 210.
14
differs from leuco-aurine, however, by yielding a purple
solution on adding potassium ferricyanide to its alkaline
solution, whilst leuco-aurine under the same conditions is
oxidised to aurine, which dissolves in alkalis with a magenta
red colour.
By passing sulphur dioxide into a hot alcoholic solution
of aurine, brick red crystals separate, being a compound of
aurine with sulphur dioxide. They do not smell of sulphur
dioxide, undergo no change when exposed to the air, and
are only decomposed at a temperature above 100°, when
they split up into sulphur dioxide and aurine.
On mixing an alcoholic solution of aurine with a solution
of a bisulphite of the alkaline metals, the liquid becomes
colourless, a compound of aurine with the bisulphite being
formed, which by spontaneous evaporation of the solution,
is obtained in splendid, colourless, needles. These com-
pounds are decomposed by acids as well as alkalis. We
have not as yet analysed these different compounds, but
intend to do so, hoping thus to find the correct formula
for this remarkable compound.
By heating aurine with alcoholic ammonia in closed
vessels to 110°, the so-called red coralline is obtained, a
body which has great resemblance to the yellow aurine, but
dyes a redder shade. This compound we have also obtained
in fine crystals.
" Species viewed Mathematically." By T. S. Aldis, M. A.
We have learnt that all energy is really one, whether
seen in heat, constrained position or motion. Many also
believe that life is really one, whether seen in man or a
toadstool. But for our part we have often felt a difficulty.
Wliy, if all life be one, do Ave not see it passing through
every variety of form instead of being restricted to certain
well defined types ? The present paper is an attempt to
explain this.
Let us consider what Plato might have called the
15
avToZwov or complete type of animal. It consists of a
certain definite number of organs, composed of a certain
definite number of parts. It will also have certain aliments,
location, enemies, &c., which we may call its province?
necessary for its life. Thus our type animal is capable of a
flux passing through all possible forms and provinces in all
possible combinations. I include amongst these of course
many arrangements necessarily absurd. To each arrangement
of organs and provinces thus imagined would correspond a
certain vitality or power of living in the type. I mean not
merely power of individual existence, but existence as a
race.
The vitality is therefore a function of a large number of
variables, some independent, others connected by equations
of condition. It is to us quite an unknown function, but
not therefore indefinite. Therefore, as in any other function
of variables, certain relations amongst the variables will
give maxima values of the vitality. These maxima of
vitality constitute species. Vitality is not mere physical
might or agility or fecundity, but compounded of all.
Now for a maximum, we know that any change in the
variables lessens the function. We thus see how species
are stable. In the constant variation, for no being seems
capable of reproducing itself exactly, all individuals have
less vitality as they depart from the special type which
gives the maximum of vitality, and will be choked out by
those which, being nearer to the type, possess more vitality.
So Hybrids, intermediate between two maxima, will possess
less vitality than either, and will be choked out, though
the main cause of failure is that the process is like that
devised by Swift's Laputan philosopher, who sawed the
Whigs' and Tories' heads in half, and changing them, left each
brain to settle its politics in itself. So the poor mule,
with a bundle of habits, half horse and half ass, in this
intestine conflict, has little power to take care of itself
Of course all maxima may not have plants or animals repre-
senting them. If there be several njaxima suited for
nearly the same province, the maximum of greatest intensity
will choke out the others. So, too, there are probably
many maxima now unoccupied, as for instance, the thistle
represented a m^aximum of vegetable life in South America,
but till man imported the thistle to fill it up, other maxima
of less intensity held the ground. In some cases possibly
several maxima are closely related, and differ little in their
intensity, so that slightly differing species exist together,
and may in their variation pass one into the other, as
perhaps in brambles and some species of St. John's wort, &c.
If then the province of a species, i. e. the physical geo-
graphy of a country alter, and its enemies and food with
them, clearly the maximum will shift and the species change.
But this is not the evolution of new species, though to a
person who only notes geological evidence it appears so. For
just as in a storm the lightning shews the trees still, though
really waving to and fro, so the different species in geology
are probably but steps in a constant change. Such a change
of course must be slow for life to follow it, for a species con-
sists quite as much in a bundle of acquired and transmitted
habits as in a certain formation of organs, and the change in
habit will probably be far slower than the change in form.
How then do new species arise ? For we see that, if the
species be a maximum of vitality, in a multitudinous progeny
those nearest the type will choke out the others and the
species will be stable. Varieties will be connected with
maxima of vitality in two ways. Firstly, slight differences
in the province will slightly shift the maximum. Thus
mountain sheej) v/ould be more agile than low land sheep.
Secondly, in such a way as tliis. Suppose this table
a low mound, narrow though long. Then the height at any
point will be a function of the distances from the N. and E.
walls of the room. There will be one point of maximum
height, but whilst a change N. or S. produces a great change
in the altitude, one E. or W. will produce but little. So
17
there will be variations in some characteristics which will
produce little alteration in the whole vitality. Thus
amongst Vvdlcl oxen probably no varieties without horns
would exist, for they affect the vitality. Amongst pro-
tected races they do not, and so hornless varieties arise.
Still these varieties are but varieties, and are not steps
tow^ards a new maximum which a gulf of lesser vitality
still separates them from.
Or let us consider the varieties that we try to make by
select breeding. These are least of all likely to produce
new species. We simply by main force depress vitality
in removing individuals as far as we can from the normal
type, and when the vitality is sufficiently depressed we can
go no further. As for altering the province, the inde-
pendent variables, so to speak, we know so little how to do
it, and certainty could not do it gradually enough, that we
have no chance in this way of effecting anything.
How then can new species arise ? Apparently in some such
way as this, by what \ve may call the bifurcation of a
maximum. If we drew a horizontal line along which the
variation of the organs of an animal were expressed and the
corresponding vitality were drawn by ordinates, we should
get a curve we might call the vitality curve whose maxima
values would be species. As time elapses and the conditions
of the earth, &;c., altei*, the constants, so to speak, of the
curve alter, and we get our curve to vary and the maxima
shift ; and as the curve alters, one maximum may separate
into two or more others, and thus in the lapse of time one species
may separate into two or more others. Roughly to illustrate
it, suppose some species developed free from the influence
of carnivora,and that, owing to various causes, size little effects
its vitality, it may vary all through, from little and swift to
big and heavy. Nov/, introducing carnivora, we can see how
a bifurcation of our maximum would take place. The very
light and swift would preserve themselves by their agility,
the strorig and heavy by their strength, whilst the inter-
18
mediate would be killed out, and thus two distinct species
would arise, which might in course of time by further
variation separate still further apart.
Doubtless, however, this bifurcation goes back to very
remote times. Carnivores and herbivores probably separated
not as mammals but as reptiles, or even long before, whilst
ruminants and non-ruminants may have separated since
they became mammals.
Thus Australia seems to have possessed at one time only
some marsupial, which has bifurcated into various mar-
supials, but not into any of another kind. The older the
species grow the deeper is the gulf between them, and, like a
river, we have to ascend nearly to the source before we can
make a passage from one bank to the other.
To recapitulate. — Maxima of vitality are species. Any
alteration from the normal type produces less vitality, hence
the normal type is stable. A slow change of physical
geography, «fec., slowly changes these maxima, and the
species change with them, extinct species being generally
glimpses of steps in this change. New species will generally
arise from the bifurcation of maxima under circumstances
over which man can exercise little control, and which, if he
could, he would very likely alter so as either hardly to
affect the maximum at all, or too rapidly for the species to
shift with it. Selected breeding produces types of less
vitality, and therefore will hardly produce new species.
Thus the present stability of species is no argument against
the doctrine of evolution.
We hope we have not trespassed on the time of the
Society in thus putting before them not new views, but
perhaps a slightly new aspect of old views. Still as we felt
a difficulty and thought we saw a solution, we felt we
might ask their opinion upon it.
19
MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.
October 9th, 1871.
Joseph Baxendell, F.KA.S., President of the Section,
in the Chair.
" Notices of several recently discovered and undescribed
British Mosses," by G. E. Hunt, Esq.
Oymnostortiuiin Calcareiini, N. and H., var. hrevifolium,
B. and S. Gyninostoinum viridulum, Bridel,
Perennial ? dioicous ; stems coespitose, sparingly branched,
very slender, a third of an inch in height, of a reddish brown
colour below, upper part pale green, slightly glaucous;
leaves ovate or ovate lanceolate, with erect bases, thence
spreading, papillose, margin crenulated in the upper part;
cells in the upper portion of the leaf opaque, quadrangular,
in the lower portion elongated, sub-diaphanous; nerve
thick, papillose, extending almost to the apex. Male
flowers gemmiform, on very short axillary branches which
usually spring from an innovation ; perigonial leaves ovate,
suddenly acuminated, nerved to the apex.
I have not seen female flowers or fruit.
Habitat : Rocks at Blackball, near Banchory, where it was
discovered by Mr. John Sim.
Entosthodon rainimum, Hunt, sp. nova. Annual, dioicous;
stems gregarious, erect, an eighth to a quarter of an inch
high; lower leaves obovate, margin reflexed, nerve thin,
vanishing below the apex ; upper leaves oblong, suberect,
subcanaliculate, margin recurved, crenulate in the upper
part, nerve rather strong, produced ahnost to the apex ;
areolae large, those of the lower part of the leaf elongate-
hexagonal, of the upper part shorter.
Male plants with the flowers terminal, antheridia 6 to 8,
sessile, without paraphyses, perigonial leaves usually like
the upper stem leaves, but occasionally (together with all the
stem leaves) obovate, when they 'contain clavate, slightly
swollen paraphyses, without antheridia.
Female plants with the flowers both terminal and in the
20
axils of the upper stem leaves, archegonia with a few rather
long filiform paraphyses; no distinct perichoetial leaves;
vaginula short, cylindrical ; seta an eighth to a quarter of
an inch long, erect; capsule with a distinct neck, smooth, when
dry obconical, widest at the mouth, operculum conical acute.
Calyptra when young brown, very narrow conical, cleft on
one side for a third of its length, cells spirally arranged ;
peristome half immersed, teeth sixteen, very slender, linear-
subulate, transverse articulations distant
Fruit matures in August. Discovered near Glasnevin,
Dublin, on the top of a sandstone wall, by Mr. David Orr.
It has no nearly related Euroj^ean allies.
Wthera Breidleri, Juratzka {fide Fergusson). Dioicous,
growing in extended light green patches, procumbent in the
lower part, which is of a reddish brown colour ; stems about
1 J inch long, leaves ovate, decurrent, erecto-patent, concave,
serrated towards the apex, margin recurved; nerve thin,
vanishing below the apex; areolae rather large, upper ones
narrow elongate, acute at both ends, lower ones narrow
elongate-quadrangular. Male flower terminal, discoid .
outer perigonial leaves spreading, elliptic-lanceolate, longer
than the stem leaves, saccate at the base, margin strongly
recurved, apex cucullate, serrated ; inner perigonial leaves
obovate, suddenly acuminated, serrated at the diaphanous
apex, areolae large, elongate-quadrangular; antheridia sub-
sessile with short filiform paraphyses. Perichoetial leaves
linear lanceolate, recurved at the margin, strongly nerved,
nerve vanishing below the apex; seta geniculate near the
base, vslender; capsule oval pendulous, glaucous green when
young, pale reddish brown when mature.
Fruit matures July to August. Habitat : Abundant on
wet debris of slaty rocks near springs, on the table lands
above the head of Glen Callater, also on Loch-na-gar, and in
Canlochan Glen. Its companions above Glen Callater are
Dicramt7)i StarJcii, D. falcctturii, Oligotrichiim hercynicumi
and Polytrichum sexangulare. In the springs themselves
21
abound the following, viz. — Philonotis, several species;
Splachnum vascidosum, Mniiiin cinclidioides, and several
allied species ; Hypnum exannidatum, H. falcatum, Thui-
diuvi decipiens, Wehera albicans, var. glacialis, and
numerous other interesting plants.
Webera Ludwigii differs in its narrower, hardly concave,
patulous leaves, more strongly decurrent ; with larger, longer,
and more diaphanous areolse. The whole foliage also is
frequently of a fine red colour. Fruit matures in August.
Habitat : Abundant on the fine debris of granitic rocks,
by streamlets issuing from the perpetual snow beds near
the summits of Ben-mac-Dhui, Ben-na-Boord, and doubt-
less all the other mountains of like character. On the slaty
formations it is rare, and I have only seen it by a streamlet
in one small ravine above Glen Callater, where in the
middle of July the snow was lying abundantly.
Webera Schimperi, VVils. (not of B. &; S. Bry. Eur.), has
leaves more rigid, erect, narrow lanceolate, less decurrent ;
nerve stronger, continued almost to the apex ; areolse a little
longer, more obscure. Fruit matures in July. Habitat :
Frequent on debris of micaceous rock, on Ben Lawers, and
on most of the other Perthshire mountains. It also occurs
on debris near the summit of SnovvTlon, but barren.
Philonotis adpressa, Ferg. Plant widely coespitose, erect,
two or three inches liigh, either dull glaucous green, or with
a fine red tinge ; leaves papillose, when moist erect, with one
wide plica on each side of the nerve, incurved towards the
apex, when dry slightly twisted, widely ovate, from an am-
plexicaul base, not acuminate, apex either obtuse and
cucuUate, with a very slight mucro, or in the more slender
forms of the plant rather acute; margin denticulate, slightly
reflexed; nerve very thick, continuous; cells in the upper
part of the leaf small ovoid, towards the base a little shorter
and wider. I have seen neither flowers nor fruit.
Habitat : Glen Prossen, Clova, and various other places
in the Clova district — Rev. J. Fergusson. Glas Mheal,
22
Perthshire, at an elevation of 2,500 feet — G. E. Hunt. In
the letter station it was accompanied by Thuidiuin deci-
pieyis, De Not.; Bryum Duvalii, Splachnum vasculosuni,
and other rare species.
The allies of Phiionotis adpressa may be distinguished
from it as follows.
Phiionotis calcarea has longer, secund, very acute leaves,
with areolae twice or thrice larger, oblong, basal areoloe
larger, elongate-hexagonal.
Phiionotis fontana has leaves usually spreading, but some-
times secund, longer, suddenly acuminated half way up, very
acute, very distinctly plicate, margin strongly recurved,
nerve mu ch thinner, areolae linear above, small and oblong
towards the base of the leaf
Phiionotis seriata. Mitt., has leaves with a distinctly spiral
arrangement, from a suberect base, patent towards the apex,
ovate, acute, plicate, margin distinctly reflexed; areolae
linear above, small and ovoid towards the base of the leaf;
perigonial leaves from an erect dilated base which is composed
of rather large linear cells with a red tinge, upper part of leaf
widely spreading, cordate triangular, obtuse, areolae elongate-
quadrangular, very small and obscure, nerve thick and
indistinct, continuous or vanishing below the apex, margin
slightly denticulate. This species was first described in
Mitten's Musci Indiae Orientalis, in the Proceedings of the
Linnean Society for 1859. It is frequent in springs at the
head of Clova, fruiting freely in favourable seasons.
Thuidiwni decipiens, De Not.; Hypnum rigidulum, Ferg.
MSS. This species was lately described by the Kev. J. Fer-
gusson in Science Gossip, and noticed in Joiu^nal of Botany,
October, 1871. It had been collected in 18GG on Ben Lawers
by Dr. Stirton, but was for some years confounded with Hyp-
num commutatum, to which species it bears much resemblance.
The Rev. J. Fergusson, however, satisfied with its distinct-
ness, distributed it in 1870 as Hypnum rigiduhim, Ferg.,
species nova ; and a few months since Juratzka identified it
with Thuidium decipiens, De Notaris, Briologia Italiana,
1869. It occurs in springs, and is found in Britain on Ben
23
Lawers and Glas Mheal, Perthshire; at Auchinblae, Kin-
cardineshh^e, first observed by Mr. John Sim ; and abund-
antly in various places in Clova and Braemar, first observed
by the Rev. J. Fergusson. From every form of Hypnum
commutatum it is at once separated by its papillose leaves
with much dilated auriculate bases ; by its larger alar cells ;
by the ovoid cells of the upper portion of the leaf, those of
H. commutatum being linear; by its monoicous inflorescence,
and by the time of the fruit, which is at maturity in
autumn. Fruit has been found only in Italy and in South
Prussia.
Mr. Chakles Bailey distributed specimens of JEcidium
BtaticeSy Desm., which Mr. John Barrow and he had found
in some abundance on a species of Statice (probably
S. Limonium) on the 3rd of June last, on the eastern shore
of Walney Island. The Statice occurs on ground covered
each high tide, on Tummer Hill Marsh, near the AVater
Garth Nook. This leaf fungus had been announced in
" Science Gossip," 1st July, 1871, as new to Britain, it
having been found by Mr. B. S. Hill on the low muddy
shores of Southampton Water.
Mr. Bailey mentioned that the Urocystis ioompholygod.es,
Sch., also occurred on Walney Island in great plenty near
Bent Haw Scar, onThalictruni eu-minus, ^i.maritinum'E.B.;
also that jEcidAum crassum, Pers., was common on Cornus
Mas. L., at Silverdale, War ton Crag, and other places in North
Lancashire,
"Notes on Dorcatoma bovistse," by Mr. Joseph
SiDEBOTHAM, F.B.A.S.
In August, 1857, my friend Mr. Kidson Taylor found
some larvae in small fungi, on the coast at Barmouth, and
from them bred a number of the rare Dorcatoma bovist^e.
Each year since he has had sent to him, by a friend at Bar-
mouth, a box of fungi, gathered in the same place, but has
not succeeded in obtaining from them a single specimen. Our
associate Mr. Linton and I spent a few days at Barmouth
last month, and having been informed by Mr. Taylor of the
24
exact locality where he met with the Dorcatoma, we
determined, if possible^ to find it again. The place indicated
is situated between the railway and the shore, and consists
of a flat common joining up to the sandhills. Here the
most conspicuous and interesting plant to a botanist is
Juncus acutus, which occurs in very large tufts, the pretty
little Neottia spiralis, was also abundant, and, on the sand-
hills, Iberis amara, and other scarce plants.
Scattered over this common we found many fungi, in all
stages of growth — Bov'ista nigrescens, Bovista ^3^^77166^,
Geaster limhatas, and another smaller species, and one or two
species of Boletus. We carefully examined these in search of
larvse, but for some time without success. At length we
found a few in vei y small dry specimens of Bovista plumbea.
We then collected what we could find in the same condition.
In less than a week several perfect specimens of Dorca-
toma bovistse made their appearance, and others have since
continued to do so very sparingly. Sometimes the larva
eats its way out of the fungus and at once changes into the
pupa state, from which it becomes the perfect insect in
about ten days, but usually it forms a cocoon of spores,
changes to the pupa state inside the fungus, and the perfect
insect eats its way out.
We found Bovista plumbea in all stages of growth, from
the size of a pea to the old dry specimens in which were the
larvae, but found no traces of larv?e in any of the fresh ones,
although it seems most probable that eggs had been laid
and hatched in some of them ; probably the larv?e were too
small to be easily discovered.
The antennae of T>. bovistse are very curious, especially in
the male, and it would be interesting to discover the reason
for their singular formation, suited, no doubt, to their pecu-
liar mode of life.
I have sent for exhibition a few specimens of the Dorca-
toma, with legs and antennae displayed, also folded together,
in which state they look more like seeds than insects ; a
specimen of the pupa case, some of the larvae, and a specimen
of Bovista plumbea probably containing others.
25
Ordinary Meeting, November 14th, 1871.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS., F.G.S,, President, in the Chair.
Mr. Watson Smith, Jun., F.C.S., was elected an Ordinary
Member of the Society.
The President said that the Society had lately lost by
death one of its most distinguished Honorary Members,
{Sir K J. Murchison, Bart., a geologist of world-wide reputa-
tion. He had enjoyed the privilege of Sir Roderick's
friendship for over thirty-five years, and he could fully
confirm all that had been stated in the public prints of the
deceased's great scientific attainments, his liberal patronage
of science, and his kind and good heart ; but there was one
quality, namely, that of learning to the last and being ever
ready to alter his views as new facts were discovered, that,
in his opinion, had not been sufficiently noticed. For many
years he (the President) and Sir Roderick had held different
views as to the geological age of certain rocks in Yorkshire,
and latterly, on more careful examination of the district by
the officers of the Geological Survey, the latter changed his
opinion. Immediately on their doing so he wrote as
follows : —
" Belgrave Square, 4th June, 1869.
''' Dear Binney,
" My geological surveyors have, I understand, come to
the conclusion (though nothing has yet been published on it)
that the Plumpton Rocks, near Knaresborough, belong to a
well-defined band of the Millstone Grit Series,
" I have mislaid and cannot find your paper in which you
expressed the same opinion, in opposition to the views of
Peoceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc— Yol. XI.— No. 3.— Session 1871-2.
26
Sedgwick, Phillips, and myself. If so, please to refer me to
your paper, which, if I mistake not, had an accompanying
diagram. In this case you will be happy to have your
views confirmed.
" I connected the Plumpton Rocks with the red sandstone
which, underlying the magnesian limestone of Knares-
borough, is unequivocally PtTmian. But I could not con-
nect the two stratigraphically, and I came to my conclusion
merely through the close lithological similarit}^ of the
Plumpton Rocks to the well-known beds of the German
Rohte Liegende.
" Never too late to admit errata to the end of my Chapter
of Life.
" May you work on as steadily and successfully as you
have done in this, and many a year to come.
" Yours sincerely,
"Rod. J. MuRCHisoN."
Such a letter speaks volumes for the love of truth and the
kind heart of the deceased geologist whose loss is so deeply
deplored.
The President said that, on Friday the 10th instant, he
observed, at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, a splendid display
of the aurora borealis. At 8 p.m. it appeared as an arch of
a greenish colour, extending from west to east, through the
tail of the Great Bear. Afterwards, at 10 o'clock, the same
kind of arch was observed with another higher up, which
ranged west and east through the Pole Star. At this time
numerous streamers and flashes of light of a green and
yellowish-white colour flashed up from near the horizon to
the zenith, from east, south, a^nd west ; those toAvards the
west had a reddish hue. The sky was beautifully clear and
the light from the aurora was greater than ever previously
observed by him.
27
" On the Origin of our Domestic Breeds of Cattle," b}^
Wm. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Mr. Boyd Dawk ins then made some remarks on the
origin of our domestic cattle. There are at the present time
three well marked forms inhabiting Great Britain. 1. The
hornless cattle, which have lost the horns Avhich their
ancestors possessed through the selection of the breeder.
The polled Galloway cattle, for instance, are the result of
the care taken by the grandfather of the present Earl of
Selkirk, in only breeding from bulls with the shortest horns.
The hornless is altogether an artificial form, and may be
developed in any breed. 2. The Bos longifrons, or the
small black or dark brown Welsh and Scotch cattle, which
are remarkable for their short horns and the delicacy of
their build. 3. The red and white variegated cattle,
descended from the urus, and w^hich have on the whole far
larger horns. These two breed freely together, and conse-
quently it is difficult to refer some strains to their exact
parentage.
The large domestic cattle of the ui'us type are represented
in their ancient purity by the Chillingham wild oxen, as
they are generally termed, but the exact agn-eement of their
colour with that specified in the laws of Howel Dha proves
that they are descended from an ancient domestic cream-
coloured ox with red ears. The animal was introduced by
the English invaders of Roman Britain, and was unknown
in our country daring the Roman occupation.
The Bos longifrons, on the other hand, was the sole ox
which was domestic in Britain during the Roman occupa-
tion, and in the remote times out of the reach of history it
was kept in herds by the users of bronze, and before that
by the users of polished stone. This is proved conclusively
by the accumulations of bones in the dwelling places and the
tombs of those long-forgotten races of men.
The present distribution of the two breeds agrees almost
28
exactly with the areas occupied by the Celtic population
and the German, or Teutonic, invaders. The larger or
domestic urus extends throughout the low and fertile
country, and indeed through all the regions which were
occupied by Angle, Jute, Saxon, or Dane, while the smaller
Bos long if Tons is to be found only in those broken and
rugged regions in which the unhappy Roman provincials
were able to make a stand against their ruthless enemies.
The distribution, therefore of the two animals corroborates
the truth of the view taken by Mr. Freeman, that the conquest
of Britain by the English was not a mere invasion of one
race by another, but as complete a dispossession as could
possibly be imagined. The Bos longifrons lingers in Wales,
after having once occupied the whole country, just as its
Celtic owners still linger, while the urus is an invader just
in the same sense as their English possessors. Both these
animals were kept in a domestic state on the Continent, and
they make their appearance with all the domestic animals,
except the cat, in the possession of the dwellers on the Swiss
lakes in the neolithic age. The B. longifrons is of a stock
foreign to Europe, and the urus most probably was domesti-
cated in some other region by those neolithic people. Both
these animals have probably been derived from an area to
the south and east of Europe, and were introduced by the
neolithic herdsmen and farmers at a very remote period,
29
MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.
November 6th, 1871.
Joseph Baxendell, President of the Section, in the Chair.
" On Tricophyton tonsurans," by Mr. John Barrow.
Tricophyton tonsurans is the name now given to a
vegetable parasite which lives in and upon the skin of man
and some of the lower animals.
For some months past this parasite has forced itself under
my attention, and I have been anxious to obtain the best
information concerning it, and, believing that the observa-
tions I have made may be of interest to the Section, I will
state what they are.
Three forms of disease are known to which the popular,
or unpopular, name of ringworm is applied, viz. — ringworm
of the scalp, ringworm of the body, ringworm of the chin,
and another nearly allied, the liver spot.
There appears little doubt that, of these three, the two
first are identical : but, as I have not had any opportunity
of observing any but the second — that of the body — I will
confine myself to that particular form.
The first indication of the presence of this parasite was
on a child eight years old. A red ring appeared on the
face, about an inch in diameter, the edges being slightly
raised, and the centre rough and somewhat scaly. This was
declared to be ringworm, or herpes circinatus, by one
authority, and sulphurous acid was applied with success.
Very soon afterwards several patches appeared on the child's
bodyj varying from ^in. to 2in. diameter. Sulphurous acid
30
was not successful here, and carbolic and nitric acids were
used, but successive growths in various parts of the body
occurred during a space of some twelve months. Meantime
the adults in the same family were one after another subject
to the same attacks. In one case of a very obstinate nature
only one spot, about one inch in diameter, appeared on the
upper lip ; this was treated at once with carbolic acid, or
benzol, and the cuticle in two or three days was renewed,
and the spot had apparently disappeared. In a few days a
ring, external to the one destroyed, began to show itself
This was again destroyed with carbolic acid, and then an
irregular growth commenced, the ring, although interrupted,
was yet easily seen in the position that the various patches
occurj-ed upon the face, nose, temples, and forehead, the
hairs of the upper lip being the worst.
Three names were given, by another authority, to the
disease at this stage, viz. — favus, tinea circinatus, and tinea
sycosis. It was at this stage that I made the microscopical
examination of the hairs of the upper lip, and at the same
time became aware of the unsatisfactory state of our know-
ledge on this and kindred subjects.
For a long time all my efforts were fruitless. I could
neither get spores nor mycelium, nor anything giving indi-
cations of what I sought. Having obtained some of the
hairs shaved from the upper lip, and having washed these
with absolute alcohol, then with benzol, and afterwards
mounted them in balsam, mycelium chains became distinctly
visible, clothing the diseased hairs very thickly.
This was sufficient proof of the fungoid character of the
parasite, but I wanted to see the spores also.
Chancing to examine the alcohol with which the hairs
had been washed, small transparent bodies were seen, which
looked like spores. These, mounted in glycerin, changed
their shape, appearing to swell out and lose their character,
and in balsam becoming so transparent as to escape detection.
81
Having examined these bodies in alcohol alone with more
care, I had no doubt that they were the true spores removed
from their attachment by the action of washing. I have
yet to see these spores in situ.
The slides I present to the cabinet of the Section will
show that the diseased hairs are covered by nucleated cells,
square, attached end to end, and branching in all directions.
This is the mycelium, or what I hold to be the true parasitic
plant. It possesses the same relation to the spore that a
tree does to its seed, and, if we keep this in view, the life-
histor}^ in the main of most, if not all, these plants becomes
easily understood. The full and complete life-history, which
must include of necessity the mode in which reproduction
takes place in plants so minute as these, requiring Jin. object
glass even to see them, will probably long remain unwritten,
but analogy leads us to expect that at some period of the
life of these plants, and in some way or other, a true sexual
process of reproduction does take place.
There is no doubt that the spores, which you will see on
the slides presented, give existence to the mycelium, and
then this again produces filaments bearing the spores. These
filaments must not be confounded with the mycelium. The
cells of these filaments having very different characters.
Infection or contagion (one or both) will then take place
whenever the spores find a resting place upon the skin of
animals in that condition of health suited for their develop-
ment. In the cases that came immediately under my notice
the worst occurred where bodily health was impaired,
whereas contagion did not take place in one instance, even
though the boy slept regularly with his brother for months
during the continuance of the disease.
I was quite unable to obtain mycelium from the shin of
the face in the case of the adult. The disease travelled all
over. the face, leaving the beard and whiskers unattacked;
but although the hair folicle of the upper lip was filled with
mycelium, I could not get it from the skin.
32
I believe this to be the reason of the obstinacy of the
disease ; the mycelium had burrowed deep down into the
skin, beyond the reach of ordinary parasiticides, and thence
sent to the surface the spore-bearing filament. The cuticle
was repeatedly destroyed by both carbolic and nitric acids
without the destruction of the parasitic plant.
Taking this view of the subject, I venture to suggest that
the true mode of attacking these plants will be found to be
by sealing them up, whenever they appear, from the action
of light and air, the two necessities of plant growth ; but,
as it is known that fungoid growths require a larger supply
of oxygen than the flowering plant, partaking more of the
nature of animal life, the exclusion of air ought to be of
especial benefit. I am now trying an old remedy which
ought to have this effect of excluding light and air, viz.,
varnishing the affected part with a thick coating of tar
varnish, but I cannot as yet speak of the result.
I had intended to have given the result of my search
after knowledge among the hand-books on the subject of
skin diseases, but perhaps it will be sufficient to say that I
found more confusion than knowledge, and that the only
safe conclusion I have as yet arrived at is that it is the
imperative duty of every botanist and microscopist to do
what in him lies to throw light upon this subject of vege-
table parasites, which are not only disfiguring, depressing,
and painful, but in many cases continue their growth for
years ou the same individual,
38
Ordinary Meeting, November 28th, 1871.
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., RR.S., Vice-President, in the
Chair.
Mr. Richard Samuel Dale, B.A., was elected an Ordinary-
Member of the Society.
" Encke's Comet, and the Supposed Resisting Medium,"
by Professor W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
The observed regular diminution of period of Encke's
comet is still, I believe, an unexplained phenomenon for
which it is necessary to invent a special hypothesis, a Deus
ex machina, in the shape of an imaginary resisting medium.
I cannot be sure that the suggestion I am about to make
has not already been made, but I have never happened to
meet with it ; and therefore I venture to point out how it
seems likely that the retardation of the comet may be recon-
ciled with known physical laws.
It is asserted by Mr. R. A. Proctor, Professor Osborne
Reynolds, and possibly others, that comets owe many of
their peculiar phenomena to electric action. I need not
enter upon any conjectures as to the exact nature of the
electric disturbance, and I do not adopt any one theory of
cometary constitution more than another. I merely point
out that if the approach of a comet to the sun causes the
development of electricity arising from the comet's motion,
a certain resistance is at once accounted for. Wherever
there is an electric current some heat will be produced and
sooner or later radiated into space, so that the comet in each
revolution will lose a small portion of its total energy. In
the experiments of Arago, Joule, and Foucault the conver-
sion of mechanical energy into heat by the motion of a
Pkoceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc— Yol. XI.— No. 4.— Session 1871-2
34
metallic body in the neighbourhood of a magnet was made
perfectly manifest. If then there is any magnetic relation
whatever between the sun and comet, the latter will cer-
tainly experience resistance.
The question is thus resolved into one concerning the pro-
bability that a comet would experience electric disturbance
in approaching the sun. On this point we have the evidence
now existing that there is a close magnetic relation between
the sun and planets. If, as is generally believed, the sun-
spot periods depend on the motions of the planets, a
small fraction of the planetary energy must be expended.
I find, indeed, that a very brief remark to this effect was
given in the memoir of the original discoverers of the rela-
tion, namely, Messrs. Warren de la Rue, Balfour Stewart,
and B. Loewy. At p. 45 of their Eesearches on Solar
Physics they add a small note to the following effect : " It
is, however, a possible enquiry whether these phenomena
do not imply a certain loss of motion in the influencing
planets." As I conceive, no doubt can exist that periodic
disturbances depending upon the motions of bodies must
cause a certain dissipation of their energy, for if stationary
the constant radiation of the sun could not produce any
periodic changes, unless the sun were itself variable. Is
there not then a reasonable probability that the light of
the Aurora represents an almost infinitesimal fraction of
the earth's energy, and that in like manner the light of
Encke's comet represents a far larger fraction of its energy ?
It is also worthy of notice that the tail of a comet is usually
developed most largely at those parts of its orbit where the
rate of approach or recess is most rapid, and where the
electric disturbance would be correspondingly intense.
I do not, of course, deny that the resisting medium may
nevertheless exist, or may by other observations or experi-
ments be made manifest. But I hold that so long as other
physical causes can be pointed out which might produce
36
the same effect, it is quite unphilosophical to resort to a
special hypothesis. Encke's comet ought not to be quoted
as evidence of the existence of such a medium until electric
disturbance is shown by calculation to be insufficient to
account for the observed diminution of period.
" On Cometary Phenomena/' by Professor Osborne Rey-
nolds, M.A.
In all comets which have been observed through powerful
telescopes there is an action going on which appears to be
the result of evaporation. Jets of something like vapour
are seen to issue from what is supposed to be a solid nucleus
on that side which is toAvards the sun.
No such signs of evaporation are observed on the planets,
nor is there any phenomenon, that we are aware of, which
can be compared with this taking place on our earth. At
first sio'ht it seems strange that the sun should act to more
effect on such small bodies as comets than it does on the
larger bodies, even when the lattei* are nearer to it than the
former. When, hoAvever, we come to look closer, I think
good reason may be given for this ; and I think that the
difference of evaporation on the earth and on a comet insiy
probably be the cause of electrical phenomena existing on
the latter which certainly do not exist on the earth, and
that the relation between the motion of the comet and the
evaporation which might be expected to take place is
precisely that which is observed between the motion and
those appearances which I would explain on an electrical
hypothesis.
The first thing to be done is to take notice of the following
facts : —
1. Comets move in very eccentric orbits, whereas the
planets move in orbits nearly circular.
2. Comets are supposed to be much smaller than the
planets.
36
3. All the heat received by a body from the sun must be
expended in one or other of the following ways : —
I. By radiation from the body.
II. By evaporating the materials.
III. Producing chemical change in these materials, or in
electrical separation, &c.
That spent in the third method may be considered smalL
Thus
the heat which a body receives=heat radiated + heat spent
in evaporation (1)
and
heat radiated , . .. temperature of body.^v
- — : -. — Y =(some constant) x 7-rv-f ^ r^ — -(2)
neat received ^ ^ (distance 01 sun)^
Now the temperature at which any given material, say
water, would evaporate would be much lower on a comet
than on a planet, on account of the comet being so much
smaller. For we may assume that there is a limit to the
pressure which an atmosphere of vapour of unlimited extent
can exert on the materials of the body it envelopes, then
the limit of the temperature of the body will be that
which will evaporate the material of the body under this
pressure. It is clear that if there be such a limit it must
increase very rapidly with the mass of the solid body, and
hence that it would be much higher in the case of a planet
than in that of a comet. This temperature may be called
that of permanent evaporation, for as long as it was main-
tained the body would continue to evaporate; therefore the
temperature of permanent evaporation of the planet would
be much greater than that of the comet. That is, from
equation (2,) the ratio of the heat radiated away to that
received would be much less in the case of the comet than in
the case of the planet, leaving, by equation (1), a greater
ratio for evaporation in the former than in the latter.
Now it is clear that our earth is well out of reach of this
permanent evaporation ; for the temperature at the equator
37
is much less than 212° F., which is the boiling point of water,
its most volatile substance; and we may assume that the
same is the case with all the other planets. If, however
the earth's atmosphere were removed, then evaporation
would go on until there was another atmosphere formed
which would hold the liquid in check. If, however, the
earth had no attraction for vapour, or only a very slio-ht
one, then it would go on evaporating, in the first place, until
all the water was ice, and then it would spend all the heat
it got from the sun in vapour. This, according to Sir J.
Herschel's rate, is sufficient to melt ice just enough to
reduce the diameter of the earth by an inch in about four
hours and a half, and if it had to evaporate the water as
well as melt the ice it would evaporate about one inch in
130 hours. Now, although this is a purely imaginary con-
dition with regard to the earth, yet it must exist in the
case of a small body like a comet; that is to say, there
would be no liquid on the comet even when evaporation
was going on, and, when the comet was near enough the
sun, permanent evaporation would go on, which would
only be ended by the comet removing itself, or by the
exhaustion of the volatile material. This latter would
take place supposing a comet should change its orbit when
near the sun into a circular orbit, like a planet or meteorite.
Even in the case of a periodic comet there must be some
exhaustion of the volatile materials. During the two hours
in which the comet of 1843 was within close approxima-
tion to the sun, if the comet had been made of ice covered
with lamp black it would have received the heat of 47,000
suns according to Sir J. Herschel's computation. Tliis
would have evaporated the ice at the rate of 55 feet per
hour on that side next the sun, or 13 feet over the whole
comet. But in fact, owing to the protection of its atmo-
sphere and imperfect absorbing power, it would have been
much less than this, that is to say, the diameter of the comet
38
would not have been reduced 10 feet. However it may
be that all the material evapoi'ated is not lost. For,
from the way in which comets approach and recede
from the sun, it is probable that part of their orbit lies
without and part within the range of permanent evapo-
ration. Hence during part of their motion, when they are
distant from the sun, condensation will be going on if there
is anything to condense. This agrees well with the observed
fact that a periodic comet makes less and less display each
revolution. There the heat acts on the surface of the comet
so that the less volatile substances would form a skin over
the softer ones, through which the heat would have to
pass, and through which the steam would have to force
its way in jets.
Now such jets as these would act the same part as the
jets in Armstrong's hydi'o-electrical machine, and the vapour
which emerged would be charged with either positive or
negative electricity as the case might be, the solid being
charged with electricity of the opposite kind.
The vapour as it formed an atmosphere round the nucleus
would then discharge some of the electricity back. This
would cause those portions which were nearest the nucleus to
be bright (self-luminous), brighter than the more distant.
Although the variations in temperature would be slight,
yet as the atmosphere moved outwards from the nucleus
there would be expansion, and consequently condensation ;
hence the outside of the coma might be illuminated by the
direct rays of the sun, or we might have several bands of
condensed vapour so illuminated, as suggested by Sir J.
Herschel. On the other hand, I think this illumination
may be due at least in part to the electric action between
the matter of the comet and matter previously in space.
This point will .probably be settled by Mr. Huggins when
the next large comet makes its appearance.
39
The jDeriod of greatest display is not reached till after the
comet has passed its perihelion, and the tail is visible for
much longer after this than it was before it. Now, if we
suppose the comet to be made up of liard and volatile
substances, owing to the heat absorbed by the hard sub-
stances the evaporation would lag somewhat behind the
position of the comet, and consequently be greatest after
it had passed its perihelion distance, just as a thick retort
will continue to boil after the lamp has been removed.
Hence we see that if the evaporation causes electrical
separation in the comet, this will be at its maximum just
when the display is observed to be at a maximum.
This communication is not intended as an alteration of
the views which I expressed in a former communication, but
as an extension of those views, for I formerly advanced no
hypothesis as to the possible cause of the electricity. Also
with regard to the formation of tails, I wish to add somewhat
to my former remarks. Professor Norton has shown that
the primary tail of Donati's comet might have been formed
by matter emitted by the comet and repelled by the sun
with a force equal to from '7o to '55 the attraction of the
sun for ordinary matter. The matter repelled with '55,
forming the following edge, that mth '75, the leading edge
of this tail. Professor Norton suggests that these forces may
be electrical or magnetic.
Accepting Professor Norton's calculations as correct, it is
certain that if for some cause or other the sun repelled
negative electricity, and there were tv^o streams of electrified
matter leaving the comet, charged in the ratio of '75 to '55,
these would be repelled in the ratio he wants ; at the same
time I do not think he has sufficiently taken into account the
repulsion one stream would have on the other.
Professor Norton does not suggest an explanation of the
straight tails seen with most comets a^s primary or secondaiy
tails. These I maintain can only be explained on the
40
supposition that there is matter in space in the form of gas,
and that the comet causes it to be electrically illuminated
by a brush, ae I stated in my former communication.
Again, if the tail of the comet be electricity of one kind
(say negative), leaving the comet never to return, then the
comet must leave the neighbourhood of the sun with a
charge of positive electricity, which, as it gets further from
the sun and evaporation becomes feeble, will in time over-
power the negative electricity in the atmosphere, which will
then be attracted by the sun instead of repelled, and if the
comet has any tail it will now turn away from the sun ;
in which condition it will probably remain until its approach
to our sun or some other star again cause it to become
negative and turn round. In this case a periodic
comet would turn its tail round at definite points in its
orbit, and owing to the lagging of the symmetri of the
comet's appearance in its orbit the point of turning will
be nearer to the sun on its return than on its departure.
Now, it seems from a remark of Professor Airy that comets,
when first seen, often have their tails before them, and
that such is the case with Encke's comet now visible.
"On the Rupture of Iron Wire by a Blow," by John
HoPKiNSON, B.A., D.Sc.
The usual method of considering the effect of impulsive
forces, though in most cases very convenient, sometimes
hides what a more ultimate analysis reveals. The following
is an attempt to investigate the effect the blow of a moving
mass has on a solid body in one or two simple cases ; I ven-
ture to lay it before the Society on account of its connexion
with the question of the strength of iron at different tem-
peratures.
I assume the ordinary laws concerning the strains and
stresses in an elastic solid to be approximately true, and
that if the stress at any point exceed a certain limit rupture
41
will result. Take the case of an elastic wire or rod, natural
length I, modulus E, fixed at one end, the other end is
supposed to become suddenly attached to a mass M moving
with velocity V, which the tension of the wire brings to
rest. The wire is thus submitted to an impulsive tension
due to the momentum MV, and according to the usual way
of looking at the subject of impact, the liability to rupture
should be independent of I and proportional to MY. But
in reality the mass MV is pulled up gradually, not instanta-
neously, and the wire is not at once uniformly stretched
throughout, but a wave of extension or of tension is trans-
E
mitted along the wire with velocity a when a^=— (^ being
the mass of a unit of length of the wire) ; in an infinite
wire this wave would be most intense in front, as in the
figure in which the ordinates are proportional to the tension.
In the wire of length I this wave is reflected at the fixed
point, and returns to the point of attachment of the mass
M, and the efi'ects of the direct and reflected waves must be
added, and again we must add the wave as reflected from
M back towards the fixed point. The question then of the
breaking of the wire is very complicated, and may depend
not merely on the strength of the material to resist rupture,
but also on a, E, and I, and on M and V independently, not
only on the product MV.
First take the case of an infinite wire; let x be the
unstretched distance of any point from the initial position
of the extremity which is fast to M, oj 4- ? the distance of
the same point from this origin at time t The equation of
motion is
and we have the condition
The general solution of (1) is ^—fipi — a?).
42
Substitute in (2) and put x=z{).
M.o?f{at)=:^'Ef\at)- but a^^-,
Therefore Mf\at)= —^f{ctt)—^^\
for initially f{af) — 0 and f{p£)— ;
Therefore -^^'^""'^
(Jb
= — a.
fiat
.. ,. , MV MV "M
^•^ ^ ^ a a
^{at — x)
Therefore ? = aV~^ ^ ) ^^'^® ^^ ^^^ P^^^^^
after ^ > -
Tension =Ey-=: ^ This is greatest when
at — 03=0, and then=V sIy^u-
So that for the case of an infinite wire it will break
unless the statical breaking force > V Jf^; a limit wholly
independent of M. This result is approximately true in the
case of a very long wire : if F be the force which acting
F
statically would break the wire, velocity necessary = , -—
Any change then, which increases E will render such a
wire more liable to break under impact: cold has this effect ;
we arrive then at the apparently anomalous result that
though cold increases the tensile strength of iron, yet owing
to increasing its elasticity in a higher ratio it renders it
more liable to break under impact.
Now let us return to the case of the wire lenscth I. We
have the additional condition that when x^ ^ = 0 for all
values of t, and this will introduce a number of discontinui-
ties into the solution. Up to the time — we mav deduce
a "^
the solution from the previous case ; from t=^Oio t^" we
CL
have as before
43
but then reflexion occurs, and wc have
_ ij.(at - x) _ ijL(at— 21 + x)
(4) S=^^ I . " ^T"- _^ M— I
It is to be observed that for any point x equation (3)
X . 21 — X
applies from t=:- til] t=: % whilst (4) applies from t =
21- X . . 21 + x
to t= •
a a
I will not go into the question of the reflection at the
mass M, but notice that when the wave is reflected at the
fixed point
^1 = 2^
dx a
Therefore tensions 2 V v/%i or double our previous result.
We infer then, that half the velocity of impact needed to
break the wire near the mass is sufficient to break it at the
fixed point, but that in both cases the breaking does not
depend on the mass.
These results were submitted to a rough experiment. An
ii'on wire, No. 13 gauge, about 27 feet long, and capable
of carrying 3 Jcwt. dead weight, was seized in a clamp at
top and bottom, the top clamp rested on beams on an upper
floor, whilst the lower served to receive the impact of a
falling mass. The wire was kept tort by a 561b. weight
hung below the lower clamp. The falling weight was
a ball having a hole drilled in it sliding on the wire. It is
clear that, although the clamp held without slipping, the
blow must pass through it, and will be deadened thereby,
so giving an advantage to the heavy weight. If the wire
breaks some way up the wire, or at the upper clamp, it may
be considered that the wire near the lower clamp stood the
first onset of the blow, and hence that if the wire had been
long enough it would have stood altogether.
44.
I first tried TJlbs. ; the wire stood the blow due to falls
of 6' and 6' 6" completely, but broke at the lower clamp
with 7' 0" and T 2''. We may take 6' 9'' as the breaking
height. With a IGlb. weight dropped 5' 6'' the wire broke
at the upper clamp. A 281b. was then tried, falls of 2' and 3'
respectively, broke it near the upper clamp; 4' 6'' broke
it three feet up the wire in a wounded place ; b' broke it at
the top clamp, and G' was required to break it at the lower
clamp. This may be taken as a rough confirmation of the
result that double the velocity is required to break it at
the lower clamp to that required to cause rupture at the
upper. Lastly, 411bs. was tried, a fall of 4' Q" broke it at
the upper clamp, of o 6'' at the lower; take 5' as height
required to break at the lower.
In problems of this kind it has been usually assumed by
some that two blows were equivalent when their vis vivas
were equal, by others when the momenta were equal; my
result is that they are equal when the velocities or heights
of fall are equal.
Taking the 4 libs, dropped 5' as a standard, since it will
be least affected by the clamp, I have taken out the heights
required for the other weights. Column 1, is the weight in
lbs.; 2, the fall observed ; 3, the fall required on vis viva theory;
4, that required by momentum theory :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
41
5 ....,
5
• . * . 5
28
bn% ....
7m4
6
16
6mO ....
12nll
8
6„9 ....
28n3
llnll
It will be seen that the law here arrived at is the nearest
of the three, besides which its deviation is accounted for by
the deadening effect of the clamp.
But it remains to be explained why the 7Jlbs. weight
could not break the wire at the top at all, whereas the 281bs.
broke it with a fall of only 2 feet. We should find some
means of comparing the searching eff*ect of two blows. For
this we must look to friction.
45
Assuming that the friction between two sections of the
wire is proportional to their relative velocity, a hypothesis
which accounts well for certain phenomena in sound,
I worked out its effect in this case, but the result failed to
account for the foots. This should not be surprising, for
though this assumption may be true or nearly so for small
relative velocities, it may well fail here when they are large.
The discrepancy may perhaps be attributed to the fact that
a strain which a wire will stand a short time, will ultimately
break it, and possibly in part to want of rigidity in the
supports of the upper clamp, both of which would favour
the heavy weight.
I think we may conclude from the above considerations
and rough experiments,
1st. That if any physical cause increase the tenacity of
of w^re, but increase the product of its elasticity and linear
density in a more than duplicate ratio, it will render it more
liable to break under a blow.
2nd. That the breaking of wire under a blow depends
intimately on the length of the wire, its support, and the
method of applying the blow.
3rd. That in cases such as surges on chains, etc., the effect
depends more on the velocity than on the momentum or vis
viva of the surge.
4th. That it is very rash to generalize from observations
on the breaking of structures by a blow in one case to
others even nearly allied, without carefully considering all
the details.
" Observations upon the National Characteristics of
Skulls," by S. M. Bradley, F.RC.S., Lecturer on Compara-
tive Anatomy, Eoyal School of Anatomy and Surgery,
Manchester. Communicated by Professor H. E. RoscoE,
F.KS. •
The object of this paper was to show that the classification
at present in vogue, which arranges the crania of different
nations into four groups, viz., 1, dolicocephalic-orthognathic;
2, dolicocephalic-prognathic ; 3, brachycephalic-orthogna-
46
thic; and 4, brachycephalic-prognathic, can no longer be
accepted as scientificall}^ accurate.
The measurements of Professor Retzius, who introduced
this classification, were taken on a level with the glabella in
front and the occipital tuberosity behind, i.e., just along the
line which the hat takes when placed upon the head, and
it is owing to this circumstance that I have been able to
take the measurements of hundreds of skulls by employing
an instrument used by hatters, which gives the outline of
the skull and repeats it in miniature upon a piece of card-
board. We can in a moment obtain the actual size of the
skull by running a two-inch gauge completely round the
miniature.
Turning to the examples before us, amongst the English
skulls we find extreme specimens of dolicocephalism, or
longheadedness, extreme specimens of brachycephalism, or
broadheadedness, and specimens of every intermediate type
e.g., one gives a cephalic index of 75, measuring 8 inches in
length by 6 in breadth, while another gives a cephalic index
of 881, measuring 7f inches by 6| inches.
In the German skulls, of which I have tracings, there is
not a single example of dolicocephalism, although Retzius
classes them as dolicocephalic.
Of the Danish skulls, both tlie examples shown are dolico-
cephalic.
Of the two Russian skulls, one is brachy cephalic and one
dolicocephalic.
The extremest type of brachycephalism is met ^^th in a
Greek skull, which measured 6| by 61 inches, giving a
cephalic index of 98 or nearly so.
The evidence afforded by the Jewish skull is interesting.
We have hitherto been dealing with the skulls of nations
who freely intermarry with other nations, and whose skulls
might in consequence be expected to vary, but thi^ is not
the case with the Jew ; yet we meet with long heads and
broad heads equally in this race with the others.
Another point ilUustrated by these tracings is the absence
of a bilateral symmetry in human skulls. Though the
47
unsymmetiy varies, it is probable that no such thing as a
perfectly symmetrical human skull exists.
As to orthognathism and prognathism, it may be observed
that Retzius includes amongst the orthognathi the Celtic
Scotch, Irish, and Welsh. Any one who has travelled
amongst these peoples would be able to confute the uni-
versal, or even general, truth of this statement. Amongst
the lower Irish, indeed, prognathism is the prevailing type,
and there is this further interest about the subject, that
prognathism appears to be a type rapidly acquired by
changed external circumstances. The conclusions arrived
at are as follows : —
It is probable that when the struggle for existence was
less keen than it is at present, and the human brain was in
consequence less prone to rapid growth, human skulls pre-
served a pretty uniform tj^pe, thus, e.g., all the neolothic
skulls yet found are dolicocephalic, and what is also worth
noting, they are of an unusually symmetrical character. It
is in accordance with the doctrine of evolution to suppose
that different environments (such as differences in climates,
soil, mode of livelihood, e.g., living by the chase or by agri-
culture) would produce certain and definite cranial changes :
hence would arise national types of skulls, slow in arriving
at such a difference as exists between the Eskimo and the
Negro, and slow in changing that type when acquired.
After a time the influence of civilization would come into
operation, which would tend to produce varieties in the
crania of a nation in accordance with the varieties of the
environments of the individuals comprising the nation. A
similarity of external circumstances and an absence of
intermarriage would tend to produce but one type of
skull, a difference in external circumstances and inter-
marriage would tend to produce a varying type. These
factors are both at work in civilized countries. Nations
whose skulls have long ago been of a well-marked distinctive
character are exposed to the same environments and inter-
marry— the result is a confusion and mingling of the
different forms.
48
When Retzius made his observations there is no reason to
doubt that he was right in the main, but there is sufficient
evidence in these tracings to show that the exceptions are
so numerous as to render a classification founded on suclj
principles valueless.
One other point is of interest. Progressive development
always means greater integration and greater differentiation.
The brain of the primates becomes constantly more un-
symmetrical as it becomes larger. In the bosjesman, as
in the chimpanzee, the convolutions are comparatively
simple and symmetrical. It is, to say the least of it, not
improbable, that the increasing cerebral asymmetry will
produce some effect upon the bony cranium, and hence it
is not fanciful to look upon this bilateral asymmetry as
evidence of a higher type than would be afforded by a per-
fectly symmetrical skull.
49
Ordinary Meeting, December 12th, 1871.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.
Mr. Louis Lucas was elected an Ordinary Member of the
Society.
Among the Donations announced were a series of copper
plates with the late Dr, Byrom's shorthand engraved
thereon, presented by Edward Byrom, Esq., of Kersall Cell.
On the motion of Dr. KoscoE, seconded by Mr. Spence,
it was resolved unanimously — That the thanks of the
Society be given to Mr. Byrom for his valuable Donation.
" The Illness of the Prince of Wales and its Lessons," by
Edmund John Syson, L.R.C.P.E., &c.
I need make no excuse for asking a few moments for the
discussion of certain matters connected with the Prince's
sad illness, and, confining myself to its bearings on the gene-
ral health of the nation, try, if possible, to make a great
national calamity become not unbarren of much national
good.
The specific illness of the Prince is what is technically
termed Typhoid Fever. Until 1840, Typhus was the
name under which Typhoid Fever was generally known.
Dr. Alexander P. Stewart was the first to point out the
distinction between Typhoid and Typhus, but not until
some jesivs afterwards did the profession at large accept
this great fact. Dr. Budd of Bristol prefers the name Intes-
tinal Fever, a.nd certainly it is a far preferable one, for its
symptoms and manifestations are essentially intestinal.
For minute information as to Typhus and Typhoid and
their subdivisions I must refer you to that prince of works
on Medicine — Watson. Suffice it here to say that Typhus
Peoceediis^gs — Lit. & Phil. Society. — Yoi.. XI. — No. 5 — Session 1871-2,
50
and Typhoid have each their distinctive periods of duration,
rash, symptoms, and probably causation. Typhoid Fever is
essentially a drain fever, and may be caused or excited by
drinking impure water or inhalation of impure air. Most
people hold that the specific Typhoid poison cannot be gene-
rated de novo. I hold most positively that it can, and not
only it, but every individual kind of fever poison. Such is
not the rule, but the exceptions are so numerous and well
marked as to leave no doubt that certain conditions of
putrefactive decay or decomposition give, as their resultant,
certain definite specific fever poisons. As it may be said
this is a matter for the curious rather than for the practical,
I will leave it as it stands. All however agree that tainted
water and tainted air may and do predispose to or excite
attacks of Typhoid and other fevers, and that they are both
pregnant sources of blood-poisoning. It is also agreed that
" even a fractional contamination of the air of a sleeping-
room with sewer gas is almost certain to produce disease
sooner or later."
Yet notwithstanding the universal testimony of medical
men of common sense and observation that sewer gas is so
fatal in its results, we have, as a sequence on our advance in
domestic civilisation, so constructed our houses, our sewers,
and our drains that our living rooms and the rooms in
which our food is cooked, dressed, or stored, are par excel-
lence the receptacles of tainted air. It is to this frightful
state of things that I would call your special attention.
We have in our towns main and minor sewers. These
are too often not sewers but cesspools, and if cesspools, of
course generators of sewer gases. As a rule these sewers
have been laid piecemeal without any reference to a definite
o-eneral system. The existence of a river has liad the effect
of determining the direction of sewers quite independently
of any sanitary considerations. All relating to the direc-
tion, Szc, of sewers, ought to be decided without any reference
51
to the existence or non-existence of a river passing through
the town. Good sewers should be constructed so as to
require no artificial supply of water to flush them. They
should be self-cleansing. It is almost needless to say that
our sewers here in Manchester and Salford do not comply
with these conditions. I lay a report of the Salford Sur-
veyor (J. Bowden, C.E.) before you. From it will be seen
the condition of old Salford sewers. We are trying to
remedy these. The sewers in many streets in Manchester
are in like condition. I state this from personal observa-
tion. With these defective sewers our houses are directly
connected by means of drains which are if possible in a
worse condition. House drainage is the work of unskilled
private individuals; it is done by contract. The work is
generally scamped, and there is no guarantee that either the
fall is sufficient or the jointing effective. In some districts
unsocketed pipes are used — the authorities unwisely com-
pelling their use. An unsocketed pipe drain must become
defective. Even in clay soil they are unadvisable. In put-
ting in drains, instead of what is technically termed " bone-
ing," the workmen usually use a straight-edge and level,
and allow each pipe J or J inch fall. This leads to an irre-
gular and inconstant fall. These defective drains become
attenuated cesspools, and belch forth their disease-dealing
fumes into our cellars, our bathrooms, our lavatories, our
closets, and our sculleries. The street grids are generally
trapped artificially by dirt, and the only free openings
into the sewers are in private houses. As a consequence, our
heated rooms are constantly sucking in gas from the sewers.
Where a rain spout does communicate with a drain it does
not act as a ventilator, but rather as a down shaft.
For valuable experiments as to the futility of many
accepted modes of ventilation I must refer you to Dr. San-
derson and Parke's report.
Very few scullery pipes are trapped ; the same may be
b'l
said of bath and lavatory pipes; and owing to defective
construction water-closets all more or less leak at one oj
more of their many junctions. Nurseries being generally
next to bath rooms, the coiisequence is that our children are
freely exposed to sewer gas. The scullery, the bath room,
and the room next the closet, are sure to be tainted spots.
The remedy for all these evils is very simple. Of course
the reconstruction of our sewers will be an expensive pro-
ceeding, but not so expensive as imperative. In recon-
structing these, their size, their shape, their fall, their depth
will all have to be reconsidered. A. maximum depth must
be established below which no house drain must be laid.
As a rule sewers, main and minor, are not sufficiently
get-at-able. House dra^ins must be made capable of easy
examination at definite points, and examination should be
periodic. The fall should be such tha.t their contents should
never stagnate, but flow on uninterruptedly from the house
to the sewer junction. All direct communication with
houses should be cut off. That is, all inlets to drains
should be outside houses. Household slop-water and slops
should fall on to a trapped drain inlet outside the house.
Even the water closet should do this. No brick-work
drains should be allowed, and socketed glazed pipes should
be imperative for house drains. The semi-socket I count
a socket, but cannot allow the plea of ease of pulling to
pieces to weigh for one moment in favour of the mis-
chievous unsocketed pipe. In addition to these precautions
all basements should be waterproof, and a really efficient
system of sewer ventilation established.
I have always preferred that system urged by Mr. Peter
Spence, viz., a cupola fire shaft at chosen sewer junctions.
What we want is a system which shall cause the external
air to turn inwa^rds rather than outwards; rather enter the
sewers than escape.
Trapping is an important point. Hitherto traps have
53
been insisted upon more with a view to prevent solids
entering the sewers than to prevent the escape of effluvia.
A great number of the traps in ordinary use are of no use
whatever for either purpose. If the plan of outside com-
munication with drains were adopted there would be no
necessity for any trap in any house. An efficient trap often
itself becomes a great nuisance through the putrefaction
which takes place in its fluid contents : without fluid no
trap exists.
It is impossible to more than touch on the evils of our
existing system of Towns' drainage. I know of my own
knowledge that there are very few houses into which sewer
gas does not permeate. From actual observation I know
that our Q,'eneral sewage system is most defective. That is,
if you agree with me that no sewer is rightly constructed
which allows its contents to stagnate or solid matters to
accumulate. Our house drains are many of them in a state
which beggars description, and through them, and through
our abominable middens, the soil on which we live is super-
saturated with foecal matter.
If health authorities are wise they will at once take steps
to set their houses in order, and the only way to banish
Typhoid fever from the land is by radically reforming the
defects which I have pointed out.
The Prince's illness has compelled attention to these
defects, and I am only sorry to see men of eminence in the
scientific world urging such paltry palliative remedies as
charcoal pans, instead of insisting on what will prove
cheapest in the end — real radical reform of commonly
admitted evils.
Mr. Henkt H. Howorth remarked that he spoke with-
out any special knowledge of the subject, and as a mere
Philistine, but he thought that some elementary facts of
common experience were overlooked by the gentlemen who
were engaged in improving our drainage system. He was
born ill Lisbon, whose streets were open sewers and its
atmosphere noted for its impure taint. Other Portuguese
towns had the same character, as had also the towns of
Italy and the Rhine. Yet in all these cases the deaths from
typhoid fever did not compare unfavourabl}^ with those in
English towns supposed to be decently drained and under
some sanitary supervision. The moral from this seems to
be that domestic sewage is not harmful unless diluted, and
that the evils of typhoid fever first became critical when
water closets were substituted for privies. If human ex-
cretions were allowed to decay naturally without the
addition of water, as they did in the old privies and still do
in continental towns in the open streets, however noisome
the smell may be there is apparently little fear of fever.
He also thought that the notion of ventilating the miles
of drains of a large city like Manchester by means of a few
tall chimneys with fires at their bases was chimerical.
There is no continuous draught in the drains, this being
broken by the many grids in the streets. Now, by the
ordinary laws of pneumatics it follows that if the street be
cold and the house warm, there is a continuous current of
tainted air passing on to the pantry and the closet from the
drain, the fresh air being supplied at the open grid. The
remedy that suggests itself is first to discover which classes
of sewage are innocuous, and which are liable to fermenta-
tion leading to the formation of fever germs, and to separate
the latter, and allow them either to dry by themselves or to
apply earth or ashes so that fermentation may be pre-
vented.
Mr. K D. Darbishire, F.G.S., gave an account of a re-
markable discovery of prehistoric relics in Ehenside or Gibb
Tarn, near Braystanes Station, near St. Bees, Cumber-
land.
He introduced the subject by recapitulating the classifi-
OD
cation by the Danish antiquarians of the moss deposits,
into (1) Boggy levels (Engmose), chiefly composed of, or at
least with a substratum of peat, covered with water plants
and grass, lying low at the bottom of valleys, and traversed by
water courses; these are generally less deep than the other
deposits, say 5 to 12 feet thick. (2) Peat hogs (Lyngmose,
Svampmose), large tracts composed of long-continued
growths of Sphagnum and Hypnum, kept wet from below
by concealed water supply, and usually covered more or less
with heather or other vegetation. The lower portions of the
moss consolidate into peat. They ordinarily measure from
8 to 15 feet in depth; and (3) Forest moss pits (Skovmose).
These are peculiar, and have proved the most interesting
of such deposits. They occur in depressions in the surface
of the glacial clays of the country, usually of small extent,
but sometimes of considerable depth, down to 80ft. or more.
They are distinguished by a marginal mass of tree stems,
with branches and leaves. These trees are always found
to have fallen in (towards the centre of the pit) and are often
so closely packed that it would seem difficult to place more
of them in the space. When the pit is large enough to
admit of it the central portion is filled up with moss, and
forms a small peat bog, without or with the superficial
growths.
In places where time has allowed ground to consolidate
and still later vegetation to find footing, the Danish pits
arecommonly covered by successive growths of pine, then
beech, then alder, and lastly hazel.
M. Steenstrup has calculated that to complete the develop-
ment of such a deposit, of say 10 to 20 feet in thickness of
peat, some 4,000 years may be required; but the period is
at present conjectural only.
In the course of elaborate researches it has been ascer-
tained that the Danish forest pits exhibit an earliest age of
forests of pines (P. abies^, a tree which is, except so far as
o6
recent plantations of imported trees have taken place, abso-
lutely prehistoric in that country. That age was succeeded
by degrees by an age of oaks (Q. robur, sessiliflora, Smith).
Above the oak layer appears a bed of beech trees —
now the forest tree par excellence of Denmark. Through-
out the term of these three strata, the records so to speak
of successive ages of pine, oak, and beech, the poplar
{popidus tremula L.) appears, while the white birch (betulct
alba L.) lies in the lower beds, and is succeeded above by
the hetula verrucosa L. which is the form now prevalent
in Denmark. In Denmark these forest pits are considered
the most ancient of the three peat or moss formations. The
whole of these, according to M. Steenstrup, are full of
relics of bygone races of men. He states that he believes
that there is not a pillar a yard square of any moss in
Denmark that would not yield some specimen of ancient
handiwork.
The forest pits do not at the bottom exhibit traces of
human presence, but amongst the pines objects of the stone
age appear, proving the great antiquity of the primitive
population of Denmark. M. Steenstrup himself took stone
implements from under the stems of ancient pines. Pieces
of wood cut (with the help of fire) also occur.
It would seem that the age of bronze implements coin-
cided Avitli the oak era, and the age of iron, which falls
within historic ken, with the still current period of the
beech.
In the British Islands the forest pits have not hitherto
been distinguished. In Ireland the peat bogs prevail over
a large extent of country, and the boggy levels also occur.
Each has furnished a large store of stone instruments, and
occasionally objects of wood of greater or less antiquit}^
In England stone implements are not unfrequently found
in the'low level tracts of river valleys.
The peat bogs, passing under the name of Mosses, are of
57
comparatively small extent, and have not, perhaps from kss
complete observation, yielded antiquarian results of much
consequence.
In the east of England a characteristic form of the peat
deposits occurs in the Fens of that region. These have
yielded many relics of the stone period.
In the v/estern extremity of Cumberland, the River Ehen
runs down from Ennerdale Lake, past Cleator to Egremont,
and thence southerly almost parallel to the sea-coast,
through which it breaks near Sellafield, along with the
River Calder.
For the last three miles of its course the Ehen has cut a
considerable valley, with precipitous sides, through a moss
of marine deposits of clay, gravel, and sands, and in pro-
cess of time has levelled the bottom for a width of a quarter
to half a mile, through which it now meanders. This level
tract in its lower part nearest to the sea is characteristically
called the Bogholes. It is in fact a t3rpical instance of the
low level river formation above alluded to.
A precisely similar valley bottom lies in the remarkable
depression which cuts off the headland of St. Bees from the
higher land towards the east, running from Whitehaven
southwards, past St. Bees to the sea-shore, where its water-
course, called Pow Beck, debouches.
Each of these tracts when excavated shews many prostrate
stems of fair sized oak trees. Bog oak is to be found in
great abundance below the sands at the mouth of Pow Beck
and throughout the Boo-holes. Mr. D. described and shewed
a cast of a polished celt of greenstone found in a drain in
this latter tract, and now belonging to Dr. Clark, of
Beckermet.
Between the Ehen River and the sea the marine deposits
form an elevated promontory, generally pretty level, at a
height of from 50 to 70 feet above the sea, known as Low-
side Quarter. Above this table land are numerous isolated
58
hillocks, rising somewhat above 100 feet in height above the
sea, and many small depressions now appearing as small
tarns or as peat bogs or mosses. One of the largest of these
Tarns was known as Ehenside Tarn (on the ordnance map
called Gibb Tarn) — an oval basin some four or five acres in
extent, sheltered N., W. and S. by hills.
In 1869 Mr. John Quayle, an enterprising farmer, at
Ehenside, determined to drain the tarn and make land. He
dug a drain 15 feet deep from the easterly end and thence to
the river, and, as the water went away, cut deep drains round
and across the bottom of the lake.
The lake bottom consisted apparently of peat moss, with
many trunks of trees embedded.
In 1870 the Eev. S. Pinhorn found in the heaps thrown
up by the drainers stone celts and certain wooden objects
shewing handiwork. Mr. Pinhorn laid by some of these,
and they have since been presented by his widow to, and
now form part of, the Christy collection attached to the
British Museum.
The Rev. J. W. Kenworthy, having visited the spot, was
struck with the locality and the objects discovered, and
made an interesting communication on the subject to the
Whitehaven Herald, in which he suggested that the discovery
had been made of a real lake dwelling. Mr. Kenworthy
mentioned the subject to Mr. Franks of the British
Museum who proposed to prosecute the discovery in detail.
Owing to the death of Mr. Pinhorn, his only means of
connection with the district, his purpose was laid by until
last summer when an exploration was conducted on the spot.
By this time the lake bottom was exposed and superficially
dry. Mr. Quayle's drains had done good work, and the
material from having been so soft that a dog could not have
run across it, was now solid enough to walk over.
The new research added considerably to the list of objects,
most of which will soonfind places in the Museum. Mr. Quayle
59
had preserved several very interesting specimens, all of
which he has been so good as to hand over for a similar
deposit.
The find is a remarkable one, and appears to be, so far,
unique in England, affording apparently a characteristic
instance of the forest moss-pits. A watchful observation
had failed, so far, to detect any traces of piles or platforms
such as indicate what are known as Lake dwellings.
Mr. Darbishire then exliibited and described a series of
celts, more or less highly finished, certain very interesting
specimens of wooden hafts for celts, clubs, and paddles, a
quern, and several remarkable grinding stones of diff'erent
forms ; and fragments of rude earthenware, found by Mr.
Pinliorn, Mr. Quayle, and himself
[The details of the locality and its exploration, and the
results, were intended to appear presently in the shape of
a more formal report.]
60
MICROSCOPICAL AND NATUEAL HISTORY SECTION,
Ordinary Meeting, December 4th, 1871.
Joseph Baxendell, Esq., F.RA.S., President of the Section,
in the Chair.
Mr. R D. Darbishire, B.A., F.G.S., sent two photographs
of a plant of Cereus grandiflorus, Mill, taken with magne-
sium light, on the 12th of June last. Mr. Darbishire stated
that the plant was grown by the late Mr. James Darbishire,
about fifty years ago, against a south wall, in a hothouse at
Greenheys Hall. There it used to flower about once in
three years. The largest number of flowers out at a time,
that can now be recollected, was three.
In 1852 the plant was removed and replanted against a
standard wire lattice, in a pine pit, at Pendyffryn, near
Conway.
The removal seemed at first to have checked the growth
of the plant, but it soon recovered and throve well. During
several succeeding years the beautiful flowers continued to
come out more and more freely, and latterly so abundantly
that special record was kept of their appearance.
In 1869 the first flower opened on the night of the 29th
of May, and the last on the oOth of June. The greatest
number out at once was 67, on the 26th of June, forming a
truly magnificent spectacle. That year there were altogether
131 flowers.
In 1870 the first bloom again appeared on the 29th of
May ; the last on the 4th of July. The greatest number at
once was 28 on the 17th of June, the total that season 95.
In 1871 the flowering again began on the 29th of May.
It continued, with little intermission, daily till the 28th of
01
June. The greatest numbers of flowers open at once were,
on the 12th June 31, and on the 14th 21. This year 118
flowers opened perfectly.
The plant is at present a great mass of intertwining stalks
with very numerous air roots, a shaggy, ugly, piece of vege-
tation. It measures 9 feet across, 5 feet high, and about
IJ feet thick. It shows no sign of weakness.
Cuttings taken off* it gi'ow very freely, and soon flower.
The Rev. J. E. Vize, M.A., of Forden, near Welshpool,
presented the Section with a slide of Xenodochus carhona-
rhis, Schl., and reported that this rare fungus occurs near
Welshpool in a railway cutting, with a south westerly
aspect well sheltered by a hill and a wood. The first
appeara^nce on the leaves of Sanguisorha officinalis, L., was
noticed in the middle of May when the Lecythea-form was
in perfection, but the stems and other portions of the Burnet
were greatly distorted by it. A month afterwards the
magnificent vermillion coloured spores were well sprinkled
over the leaves, the form of which was unaltered. In the
middle of July the intensely black brand spores made their
appearance, many of which had twenty or more articulations,
and were plentifully scattered over the leaves in tufts.
Mr. Vize stated that he had not watched the transition
state from the Uredo to brand-spores, but he hoped to do
so if opportunity offered.
Mr. John Barrow sent the following communication
upon the results of two experim_ents with tar for eradicating
Tricophyton tonsurans, in completion of the paper read at
the previous meeting of the section : —
Three rings of several months standing, which had resisted
applications of carbolic acid, nitric acid, and ammonia chlor-
ide of mercury — each ring being about two inches in
diameter, and having at the time the raised rough edge
62
usual in this disease, were painted over with a thick coating
of tar.
In two days the tar had been partly removed by washing
and wear, and was then completely removed by means of
benzole. The rough edge of the rings had disappeared and
could not be discovered when the finger was drawn across
it. Since then the skin has gradually recovered its natural
condition, and no appearance of a return has shown itself
At the same time a fresh ring which had made its appear-
ance on the body of another child was treated in a similar
manner, and the disease disappeared mth the tar in the
course of a couple of days.
I am happy to say that I have no further means of con-
tinuing these experiments.
Mr. Charles Bailey, in distributing some specimens of
Erica vagans, L., from the Lizard, Cornwall, suggested that
British botanists, in recording the localities on the labels of
plants, should also add the province and vice-county as
given in Mr. Watson's " Compendium of the Cybele Britan-
nica."
63
Ordinary Meeting, December 26th, 1871.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.R.S, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.
Among the Donations announced was another volume of
the MS. Journal of the late Mr. George Walker, presented
by B. H. Green, Esq.
On the motion of Mr. W. Mellor, seconded by Dr. Joule,
it was resolved unanimously — That the thanks of the
Society be given to Mr. Green for his valuable Donation.
The President said that in looking over one of the MS.
books of the late Mr. Walker, kindly presented to the
Society by Mr. B. H. Green, he found the following remarks
on Cotton and Sugar, made nearly a century ago :
On Cotton. — Kidney cotton is so called from the seeds
being conglomerated or adhering firmly to each other in the
pod. In all the other sorts they are separated. It is like-
wise called chain cotton, and I believe is the true cotton of
Brazil. A single negro may with ease clean 65 lbs. in a
day; it leaves the seeds unbroken and comes perfectly
clean from the rollers. At the end of five months from the
planting of the seeds the plant begins to blossom and put
forth its beautiful yellow flowers, and in two months more
the pod is formed. From the seventh to the tenth month
the pods ripen in succession, when they burst in three par-
titions, displaying their white glossy down to the sight.
Account of cotton wool imported into Great Britain from
all parts in years —
Supposed Value
Lbs. when manufactured.
1784 11,280,338 3,950,000
1785 17,992,888 6,000,000
1786 19,151,869 6,500,000
1787 22,600,000 7,500,000
PEOCEEDrsrGS — Lit. & Phil. Society. — Vol. XI. — No. 6 — SssgioN 1871-2.
64
On Sugar. — The sugar in about three weeks grows tole-
rably dry and fah' ; it is then said to be cured, and the pro-
cess is finished. Sugar thus obtained is called Muscovado,
and is the raw material from which the British sugar bakers
make their loaf or refined lump. There is another sort
which was formerly much approved in Great Britain for
domestic purposes, and was generally known by the name
of Lisbon sugar ; it is fair, but of a soft nature, and in the
West Indies is called clayed sugar. The process is as fol-
lows. A quantity of sugar from the cooler is put into coni-
cal pots or pans, called by the French formes, with the
points downwards, having a hole about half an inch in dia-
meter at the bottom for the molasses to drain through, but
which at first is closed with a plug. When the sugar in
these pots is cool and becomes a fixed body, which is dis-
coverable by the middle of the top falling in (usually about
twelve hours from the first potting of the sugar), the plug
is taken out and the pot placed over a large jar intended to
receive the syrup or molasses that drains from it. In this
state it is left as long as the molasses continues to drop,
which it will do from twelve to fourteen hours ; when a
stratum of clay is spread on the sugar and moistened with
water, which oozing imperceptibly through the pores of the
clay, unites intimately with and dilutes the molasses, con-
sequently more of it comes away than from sugar cured in
the hogshead, and the sugar of course becomes so much the
whiter and purer. A pound of sugar from a gallon of raw
juice or liquor is reckoned in Jamaica a very good yielding.
The loss of weight in claying is about one third. Thus a
pot of 60 lbs. is reduced to 40 lbs. But if the molasses
which is drawn ofi" in this practice be reboiled it ^vill give
near 40 per cent of sugar, so that the real loss is little more
than one fourth. East India sugars being ranked among
the Company's imports as manufactured goods, pays a duty
of £37. 16s. 3d. per cent ad valorem, on sale.
65
The circumstance which presses with the greatest weio-ht
on the British planters in the West Indies is that branch of
the monopoly which, reserving for the manufacturers of
Great Britain all such improvements as the colonial produce
is capable of receiving beyond its raw state, or first stage of
manufacture, prohibits the colonists from refining their
great staple commodity, sugar, for exportation. This is
effected by a heavy duty of £4. 18s. 8d. the cwt. on all
refined or loaf sugar imported, while raw or Muscovado
sugar pays only los. the cwt. This difi'erence operates (as
it was intended) as a complete prohibition.
The quantity of raw or Muscovado sugar imported into
Great Britain on an average of four years (1787 to 1790)
was somewhat more than 140,000 hogsheads of 14 cwt.
each at King's Beam. The drainage at sea amounted to
280,000 cwts., being in value £500,000 sterling. Such is
the loss to the public. And let it be remembered that this
loss is not merely contingent or possible, but plain, positive,
and certain ; it being undeniably true that 280,000 cwt., or
14,000 tons of sugar were sunk in the sea in the transporta-
tion of 140,000 hogsheads of the raw commodity as that
this number was imported into Great Britain; and it is
equally certain that every ounce of it would have been
saved if the planters had been permitted to refine the com-
modity in the colonies. The consequent loss to the revenue
is easily calculated : 64 gallons of molasses will produce
40 gallons of rum Jamaica proof.
" On the Inverse or Inductive Logical Problem," by Pro-
fessor W. S. Jevons, M.A.
Logical deduction consists in ascertaining from a law or
lav/s the combinations of qualities which may exist under
those conditions. The natural law that all metals are con-
ductors of electricity really means that in nature we may
find three classes of objects, namely,
66
(1) Metals conductors.
(2) Not-metals conductors.
(3) Not-metals not-conductors.
It comes to the Ksame thing if we say that it excludes the
existence of the class metals not-conductors. But every
scientific process has its inverse process. As addition is
undone by subtraction, multiplication by division, differen-
tiation by integration, so logical induction is the inverse
process of deduction. Given certain classes of objects, we
endeavour by induction to pass back to the laws embodied
in those classes. There does not exist indeed any distinct
method of induction except such as consists in inverting the
processes of deduction, by noting and remembering the laws
from which certain eff^ects necessarily follow. The difficul-
ties of induction are thus exactl}^ analagous to those of
integration.
As I have fully explained in my previous essays and
})apers, two terms or classes can be combined consistently
with the laws of thought in four different ways. Now out of
four such combinations sixteen selections (two to the power
four) can be made. As each distinct laAv gives a different
series of combinations, it follows that there could not pos-
sibly exist more than sixteen distinct forms of law governing
the combinations of two classes. But in one case, where all
the combinations remain, no special law applies ; in other
cases it can be shown that the combinations remaining are
so few as to imply self-contradiction. Only six sets of com-
binations require further consideration. By deductive exa-
mination it is found that four of these cases correspond to
varieties of the general form of law, A = AB, Avhicli ex-
presses the inclusion of the class A in the class B. By the
introduction of negative terms this general form may
receive four essentiall}^ different logical variations. Thus
we have
67
A part of B
A part of not-B
Not-A part of B
Not-A part of not-B.
Other apparent varieties, such as B part of not- A, will be
found equivalent to one or other of the above, equivalent laws
being those which lead to the same possible combinations.
The remaining two selections of combinations are found
to correspond to the general form of law A=B expressing
the coincidence of the classes A and B, as, for instance, the
coincidence between equilateral and equiangular triangles.
This form is capable of only one other logically distinct
variety, that expressing the coincidence of A with the class
not-B. Thus the solution of the inverse logical problem of
two terms leads us to the conclusion that only two forms of
relation can exist between two classes, namely, the relations
of partial and complete coincidence, but these relations may
exist in six different ways altogether, capable of expression
in a still greater number of difierent propositions.
The inverse problem of three terms is a far more complex
matter, since the possible combinations are eight in number,
and the selections of such combinations, the eighth power of
two, or 256. Many of such selections involve self-contra-
diction, but there appears to be no mode except exhaustive
examination of ascertaining how many. By methods of
inquiry fully described in the paper, it is shown that there
cannot exist more than fifteen general types or forms of
logical conditions governing the combinations of three
classes of objects. Some of these forms of law, for instance
A=:ABC, expressing the inclusion of A in the class BC, are
capable of as many as 24 variations; other forms of law
admit 12, 8, or 6 variations. A remarkable and unique form
is discovered in the proposition
A = BC or not-B not-C,
68
which is capable of but one other variety, namely,
A - B iiot-C or not-BC.
Each of these propositions can be expressed in six apparently
different modes, which on examination are found to have
exactly the same logical meaning.
A complete solution of the problem of three terms having
been obtained, it is pointed out that the corresponding
problem for four terms is almost impracticable, since it
would involve the detailed examination of Qo,5S6 different
selections of combinations. The problem of five terms may
be called impossible as regards complete solution, since it
involves no less than 4,294,967,296 cases. Similarly, six
terms admit of more than eighteen trillions of cases. Thus
it is quite impossible that the complete solution of the
inverse logical problem should ever be carried more than
one step further than it has been done in this paper.
09
Ordinary Meeting, January 9tb, 1872.
E. W. BixNNEY, RRS, F.G.S., President, in the Cliair.
The PRESIDENT exhibited some specimens of a fossil
plant resembling the Psaronius Zeidleri found in the Upper
Foot Coal Seam, near Oldham. This species has been
described by Corda, in his Beitrage Zur Flora Der Vorvelt,
and figured in Plate XL., but has not hitherto, he believed,
been met with in the British coal fields. The Oldham
specimen appeared to him to be a petiole, of about one-
eighth of an inch in diameter, and is of a nearly circular
form in its transverse section, two-thirds of it consisting of a
zone of strong parenchymatous tissue and an internal axis
of vascular tissue arranged in four radiating arms of an
irregular oval form, resembling a St. Peter's cross. As he
could not connect the specimen with a stem of Psaronius,
he proposed to call it Stauropteris Oldhamia.
In the above-named coal, as well as that of the Lower
Brooksbottom Seam, there is a great variety of beautiful
petioles which have not yet been described. Some of them
evidently belong to the genus Zygopteris, and may probably
be discovered in connection with their stems, but most of
them have been found detached and sometimes mistaken
for the rootlets of Stigmaria. From some specimens in his
cabinet he is led to believe that Cotta's Medullosa elegans
is merely the rachis of a fern or a plant allied to one. For
the best specimen of Stauropteris he is indebted to the
liberality of that intelligent collector of fossil plants, Mr,
James Whitaker, of Watersheddings, near Oldliam.
PROCEEDiNas— Lit. & Phil. Soc— Yol. XI.— No. 7.— Session 1871-2.
70
" On the Influerice of Gas and Water Pipes in determining
the Direction of a Discharge of Lightning," by Henry
Wilde, Esq.
Although the invention of the lightning conductor is one
of the noblest applications of science to the wants of man,
and its utility has been established in all parts of the world
by the experience of more than a century, yet, a sufficient
number of instances are recorded of damage done by
lightning to buildings armed with conductors to produce, in
the minds of some, an impression that the protective influ-
ence of lightning conductors is of but questionable value.
The destmction, by fire, of the beautiful church at
Crumpsall during a thunderstorm on the morning of the
4th inst., has induced me to bring before the Society, with
a view to their being known as widely as possible, some
facts connected with the electric discharge which have
guided me for some years in the recommendation of means
by which disasters of this kind may be averted.
For the proper consideration of this subject it is necessaiy
to make a distinction between the mechanical damage,
which is the direct effect of the lightning stroke, and the
damage caused indirectly by the firing of inflammable
materials which happen to be in the line of discharge,
Instances of mechanical injury to buildings, not provided
with conductors, are still sufficiently numerous to illustrate
the terrific force of the lightning stroke, and at the same
time the ignorance and indifference which prevail in some
quarters with respect to the means of averting such
disasters; for wherever lofty buildings are furnished with
conductors from the summit to the base, and thence into
the earth, damage of the mechanical kind is now happily
unknown,
71
Even in those cases, where lightning conductors have not
extended continuously through the whole height of a build-
ing, or where the lower extremity of the conductor has,
from any cause, terminated abruptly at the base of the
building, the severity of the stroke has been greatly miti-
gated, the damage being limited, in many case, to the
loosening of a few stones or bricks.
The ever extending introduction of gas and water pipes
into the interior of buildings armed with lightning con-
ductors has, however, greatly altered the character of the
protection which they formerly afforded, and the conviction
has been long forced upon me that, while buildings so armed
are effectually protected from injury of the mechanical kind,
they are more subject to damage by fire.
The proximity of lightning conductors to gas and water
mains, as an element of danger, has not yet, so far as I
know, engaged the attention of electricians, and it was first
brought under my notice at Oldham in 1861, by witnessing
the eflects of a lightning discharge from the end of a length
of iron wire rope, which had been fixed near to the top of a
tall factory chimney, for the purpose of supporting a long-
length pf telegraph wire. The chimney was provided with
a copper lightning conductor terminating in the ground in
the usual manner. In close proximity to the conductor,
and parallel with it, the wire rope descended, from near the
top of the chimney, for a distance of 100 feet, and was
finally secured to an iron bolt inserted in the chimney
about 10 feet from the ground. During a thunderstorm
which occurred soon after the telegraph wire was fixed, the
lightning descended the wire rope, and instead of discharging
itself upon the neighbouring lightning conductor, darted
72
through the air for a distance of 16 feet to a gas meter in
the cellar of an adjoining cotton warehouse, where it fused
the lead pipe connections and ignited the gas. That the
discharge had really passed between the end of the wire
rope and the lead pipe connections, was abundantly evident
from the marks made on the chimney by the fusion and
volatilization of the end of the wire rope, and by the fusion
of the lead pipe. As the accident occurred in the daytime,
the fire was soon detected, and promptly extinguished.
Another and equally instructive instance of the inductive
influence of gas pipes in determining the direction of the
lightning discharge occurred in the summer of 1SG3 at St.
Paul's Church, Kersal Moor, during divine service. To the
outside of the spire and tower of this church a copx-)er light-
ning conductor was fixed, the lower extremity of which was
extended under the soil for a distance of about 20 feet.
The lightning descended this conductor, but instead of
passing into the earth by the path provided for it, struck
through the side of the tower to a small gas pipe fixed to
the inner wall. The point at which the lightning left the
conductor was about 5 feet above the level of the ground,
and the thickness of the wall pierced was about 4 feet ; but
beyond the fracture of one of the outer stones of the wall,
and the shattering of the plaster near the gas pipe, the
building sustained no injury.
That the direction of the electric discharge had, in this
case, been determined by the gas pipes which passed under
the floor of the church, was evident from the fact that the
watches of several members of the conp-reffation who were
seated in the vicinity of the gas mains, were so strongly
magnetized as to be rendered unserviceable.
75
The church at Crumpsall is about a mile distant from
that at Kersal Moor, and the ignition of the gas by light-
ning, which undoubtedly cauRcd its destruction, is not so
distinctly traceable as it is in other cases which have come
under my observation, because the evidences of the passage
of the electric discharge have been obliterated by the fire.
From information, however, communicated to me by the
clerk in charge of the building, as to the arrangement of the
gas pipes, the most probable course of the electric discharge
was ultimately found.
The church is provided with a copper lightning conductor,
which descends outside the spire and tower as far as the
level of the roof The conductor then enters a large iron
down-spout, and from thence is carried into the same drain
as that in which the spout discharges itself Immediately
under the roof of the nave, and against the wall, a line of
iron gas pipe extended parallel with the horizontal lead
gutter which conveyed the water from the roof to the iron
spout in which the conductor was enclosed. This line of
gas-piping, though not in use for some time previous to the
fire, was in contact with the pipes connected with the meter
in the vestry, where the fire originated, and Was not more
than three feet distant from the lead gutter on the roof As
no indications of the electric discharge having taken place
through the masonry were found, as in the case of the
church at Kersal Moor, it seems highly probable that the
lightning left the conductor at the point where the latter
entered the iron spout, and by traversing the space between
the leaden gutter and the line of gas-piping in the roof,
found a more easy path to the earth by the gas mains than
was provided for it in the drain.
74
In my experiments on the electrical condition of the terres-
trial globe* I have already directed attention to the powerful
influence which lines of metal, extended in contact with
moist ground, exercise in promoting the discharge of electric
cuiTents of comparatively low tension into the earth's
substance, and also that the amount of the discharge from
an electro-motor into the earth increases conjointly with the
tension of the current and the length of the conductor
extended in contact with the earth. It is not, therefore,
surprising that atmospheric electricity, of a tension sufficient
to strike through a stratum of air several hundred yards
thick, should find an easier path to the earth by leaping
from a lightning conductor through a few feet of air or stone
to a great system of gas and water mains, extending in large
towns for miles, than by the short line of metal extended in
the ground which forms the usual termination of a lightning
conductor.
It deserves to be noticed that in the cases of lightning
discharge which I have cited, the lightning conductors
acted efficiently in protecting the buildings from damage
of a mechanical nature — the trifling injury to the church
tower at Kersal Moor being directly attributable to the
presence of the gas pipe in proximity to the conductor.
Nor would there have been any danger from fire by the
ignition of the gas if all the pipes used in the interior of
the buildings had been made of iron or brass instead of lead .
for all the cases of the ignition of gas by lightning, which
have come under my observation, have been brought about
by the fusion of lead pipes in the line of discharge. The
substitution of brass and iron, wherever lead is used in the
* Philosophical Magazine, August, 1868.
75
construction of gas apparatus, would, however, be attended
with great inconvenience and expense, and moreover, would
not avert other dangers incident to the disruptive discharge
from the conductor to the gas and water pipes within a
building. I have therefore recommended that in all cases
where lightning conductors are attached to buildings, fitted
up with gas and water pipes, the lower extremity of the
lightning conductor should be bound in good metallic con-
tact with one or other of such pipes outside the building.
By attending to this precaution the disruptive discharge
between the lightning conductor and the gas and water
pipes is -prevented, and the fusible metal pipes in the
interior of the building are placed out of t]ie influence of
the lightning discharge.
Objections have been raised by some corporations to the
establishment of metallic connexion between lightning con-
ductors and gas mains, on the ground that damage might
arise from ignition and explosion. These objections are most
irrational, as gas will not ignite and explode unless mixed
with atmospheric air, and the passage of lightning along-
continuous metallic conductors, will not ignite gas even
when mixed with air. Moreover, in every case of the ignition
of gas by lightning, the discharge is actually transmitted
along the mains, such objections notwithstanding. A gi-ave
responsibility therefore rests upon those, who, after intro-
ducing a source of danger into a building, raise obstacles
to the adoption of measures for averting this danger.
Dr. Joule remarked that, at 20 minute past 4, when the
hail storm was at its height, the atmosphere was illuminated
76
by a bright red light. This phenomenon disappeared when
the fall of hail ceased.
A Paper was read entitled " Once again— the Beginning
of Philosophy," by the Rev. T. P. Kirkman, M.A., F.RS.,
Hon. Member of the Society.
77
Ordinary Meeting, January 23rd, 1872.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.
The President exhibited to the meeting a large crystal
of Selenite, of an irregular form and eight inches in length,
given to him by Mr. Taylor, of Stretford. That gentleman
informed him that it was from the mud which had been
dredofed out of the Suez Canal. When the mud came out
of the dredge there was no appearance of crystals, but on its
drying and being afterwards broken up, they w^ere found in
the mass. The President said that he had noticed the for-
mation of similar but smaller crystals of selenite in the clay
taken out of the London and North Western Railway
Tunnel during its formation through Primrose Hill. When
the clay was first excavated there was no appearance of
crystals in it, but after it had been exposed to the weather
for a few months, on fracturing the clay these were found
dispersed throughout its mass. He had also found crystals
of selenite in the till or boulder clay at Egremont on the
Mersey and at Blackpool; and the crystals, from their
sharp edges, showed that they had been formed in situ,
and had not come from a distance as many of the stones
in the deposit had undoubtedly done. He had also seen in
coal mines the formation of small crystals of selenite nearly
an inch long in a few weeks. In this case their formation
was evidently due to water charged with carbonate of lime
coming into the shaft from the overlying drift beds and
finding its way down into the workings, and there mixing
with water containing sulphate of iron derived from decom-
posed iron pyrites ; the sulphuric acid of the iron going to
Peoceedings — Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Vol, XI. — No. 8. — Session 1871-2.
78
the lime and forming sulphate of lime, whilst the carbonic
acid once united to it went to the iron and formed carbon-
ate of iron. He was not acquainted with the composition
of the mud dredged out of the Suez Canal, and therefore
could not speak with certainty, but probably the selenite
was formed by a somewhat similar double decomposition to
that last described.
Mr. Brockbank, F.G.S., exhibited a specimen of mineral
wool, produced at the Conshohocken Iron "Works, in America,
by passing a steam jet through a stream of molten slag in
its flow from the blast furnacCo It had a lustrous white
fibre, singularly like cotton wool from the pod. It can be
made at a very trifling cost, and is likely to come into use
for several purposes. It is said to be a very effectual non-
conductor of heat, and this has led to its being used in the
United States for the coating of steam boilers and for the
linino-s of refrigerators. Similar mineral wool is sometimes
produced during the blowing in the Bessemer steel con-
verters, but only in small quantities.
Mr. Brockbank also described a very simple mode of
utilising slag, adopted at the George-Maria-Hutte Blast
Furnaces, at Osnabriick, in Hanover. The molten slag is
allowed to fall in a stream, from a height of about eight feet,
into water, and is thus formed into large bean-shaped gravel.
From the water tank it is lifted into railway trucks by
"Jacob's ladders," and is conveyed away as fast as it is
produced, and largely used for metalling railways.
In some of the English iron works the slag is now being
broken up by Blakes' stonebreakers, and sold for metalling
roads ; — and in this way it proves a source of profit, instead
of being a considerable loss in its usual form of huge heaps
of slag, disfiguring the country.
The Bessemer slags of the Hematite furnaces are found
to make excellent concrete, on account of the large quantity
79
of lime they contain ; — they are also peculiarly suitable for
manuring potatoes and barley, as they fall to powder under
the action of the atmosphere and yield up their silica and
lime to enrich the land.
" A Study of certain Tungsten Compounds," by Professor
Henry E. Roscoe, Ph.D., F.RS., &c.
The constitution of the Tungsten compounds, the
equivalent of the metal and even its elementary nature, are
subjects upon which, for many years, serious doubts have
been expressed. Thus Persoz, who at one time proposed to
regard the so-called tungsten as containing two elements, at
a subsequent date explained this by the assumption that
the equivalent of tungsten and the formula of it highest
oxide are not 184 and WO3 respectively, but that the
metal is one belonging to the arsenic group, having an
atomic weight of lo3, and forming a pentoxide and a penta-
chloride known as the tungstic compounds, together with a
lower series which correspond to the lower arsenic com-
pounds. This latter supposition, whilst unsupported by
sufficient experimental evidence of its own to attract much
attention from chemists, and contradicted by the important
fact of the normal atomic heat of the metal corresponding
to its old atomic weight, has never been satisfactorily proved
to be incorrect, and has received a certain amount of cor-
roboration from the subsequent vapour density determina-
tions of the Chloride of Tungsten published by Debray. In
this research Debray shows that the vapour density of
tungstic chloride taken in mercury- and sulphur- vapours, is
168-5 (H=l), the normal density for WCIq (W==184) being
198*5; whereas that for Persoz's tungstic chloride, TuCls
(Tu=153), is 165, closely corresponding to the experimental
density.
In order to clear up these questions a thorough investiga-
tion of the chlorides and oxy chlorides of tungsten, together
80
with the corresponding bromine and iodine compounds,
appeared before all things necessary.
The author then describes the mode employed for pre-
paring pure metallic tungsten, which was found to possess
a spec. grav. of 19 '2 61 at 12° C.
The Chlorides of Tungsten.
1. Tungsten Hexachloride, WClg.
For the preparation of this chloride in the pure state it is
absolutely necessary to exclude every trace of air or moisture.
For this purpose the metal must be burnt in a current of
perfectly dry and air-free chlorine, otherwise red oxychloride
is formed, and this cannot be separated from the chloride,
owing to the slight differences in their boiling points.
Metallic tungsten takes fire in chlorine at a moderate
heat. On heating the tube containing the metal a granular
sublimate of dark violet opaque crystals of the hexachloride
makes its appearance, which, when prepared in quantity,
collects as a dark blackish red liquid. In order to purify it
this liquid is distilled several times in excess of chlorine,
and then slowly rectified in a stream of hydrogen, by which
means any traces of adhering oxychloride can be got rid of.
The dark violet coloured crystals decrepitate on cooling,
and the mass falls to a crystalline powder. When pure the
solid hexachloride does not undergo any change, even in
moist air, but in presence of the smallest trace of oxychloride
it at once absorbs moisture, evolving fumes of hydrochloric
acid, and changes from a violet to a brown colour. Cold
water also acts very slowly on the pure substance, but,
if impure, the mass is at once decomposed by cold water into
a greenish oxide. The hexachloride is readily soluble in
carbon disulphide, from which it is deposited in hexagonal
plates. On several occasions the tubes containing the crys-
talline chloride exploded on opening them with a file, the
crystals suddenly assuming the form of the decrepitated
substance.
81
On decomposition with hot water a small quantity of
chlorine is invariably retained by the tungstic acid formed,
even after repeated distillation v/ith water. Hence it was
necessary in the analysis to reduce the oxide to metal and
to collect the hydrochloric acid formed. This was effected
by covering the weighed chloride in a porcelain boat with
water and bringing it into a bent combustion tube, one end
of which was connected with a hydrogen evolution apparatus,
and the other with a flask of water in which the acid was
collected. On gently heating the fore part of the tube (the
greatest care being taken to prevent spirting) the chloride
is converted into the yellow oxide, after which it was more
strongly heated and the reduced metallic tungsten weighed
whilst the chlorine was estimated with silver.
Six analyses of different material, prepared on different
occasions and according to different methods, yielded the
following results : —
Calculated. Found.
Tungsten W 184 46-35 46-49
Chlorine Cle 213 53-65 53-32
397 100-00 99-81
The exact determination of the melting point of the
hexachloride is attended with some difiiculty, as the liqui-
faction takes place gradually and the smallest traces of
impurity depress the melting point down to about 180° C,
that given by the older observers. A mean of several
experiments gave the number 275° C (corrected) as the
melting point and 270° as the point of solidification. The
constant boiling point of the hexachloride was found to be
346-7° (corr.) under 759-5 mm. of mercury. The vapour
density of the hexachloride was determined (1) in sulphur
vapour at 440°, and (2) in mercury vapour at 350°. As the
hexachloride always leaves on distillation a small quantity
of solid residue, the substance was distilled (either in a
current of carbonic acid or of chlorine) into the heated bulb
82
from a smaller one attached to it, according to the method
adopted by the author in the determination of the vapour
density of vanadium tetrachloride. The narrow neck of the
bulb was kept open during the experiment by inserting a
platinum wire, and after the sulphur or the mercury had
been boiling for some minutes the neck was sealed.
The results of three experiments in sulphur vapour at
440° gave the density (H=l) as (1) 167-8, (2) 1097, (3)
168*8, Two determinations in mercury vapour at 350°
gave (1) 1907, (2) 191-2.* The fact of the alteration of the
vapour density from 190 at 350° (closely approaching the
normal density 198-5) to 167 at 440° shows pretty clearly
that the anomalous vapour density is to be ascribed rather
to dissociation than explained by Persoz's suggestion of an
error in the atomic weight; and this conclusion is fully
borne out by further experiments detailed in the sequel.
The residual chloride from the bulb possesses the same
properties and composition as the original substance, there
is no trace of free chlorine found in the cold bulb, nor does
the colour of the vapour of the hexachloride change when
it is strongly heated.
On heating the residue with water, a difference between
its behaviour and that of the original hexachloride can how-
ever be detected, as the residue yielded an oxide which was
perfectly yellow, but had a greenish colour, showing the
existence of traces of oxides lower than WO3, although pre-
sent in too small quantity to affect the analysis.
In order to ascertain whether the gaseous hexachloride
is decomposed at high temperatures, a portion of the ])ure
chloride was distilled upwards in a current of dry carbonic
acid for several hours. A continuous liberation of clilorine
was clearly shown to occur, for, on passing the exit carbonic
acid through a solution of potassium iodide considerable
* Eieth has lately determined the vapour density of " Wolfram Chlorid,"
showing that its molecule contains 187 instead of 184 of metal, but there is
nothing to show whether the substance thus examined was the hexa- or the
penta-chloride.
83
quantities of iodine were liberated. The residual chloride
was tested for lower chlorides by titrating a weighed quan-
tity with a standard permanganate solution, which readily
oxidizes the blue oxide, formed by the action of water on
the pentachloride, into tungstic acid. In one experiment
thus conducted the residual chloride contained 3*3 per cent
of pentachloride, Avhilst in another no less than 24-6 per
cent of the pentachloride was formed. The pentachloride
treated in a similar way yields no free chlorine, and there-
fore does not undergo a similar decomposition at high tem-
peratures.
2. Tungsten Pentachloride, WCI5.
On distilling the hexachloride in a current of hydrogen a
reduction always takes place. If the temperature be kept
but little above the boiling point of the hexachloride, the
dark red colour of the vapour is seen to vanish, and a light
yellow coloured vapour makes its appearance, which soon
condenses into black drops or long shining black needles.
After two or three distillations in hydrogen a pure product
is obtained. Tungsten pentachloride crystallizes in long
black shining needles; if condensed in fine powder its
colour is dark green, and the powdered crystals also possess
a dark green colour like that of potassium manganate.
The pentachloride is exceedingly hygroscopic, the crystals
becoming instantly covered with a dark golden-green film
on exposure to air, and small particles being instantly con-
verted into drops. The crystals do not decrepitate Hke
those of the hexachloride. On treatment with larger
quantities of water the pentachloride gives rise to an olive-
gTeen solution, although the greater part of the chloride
forms the blue oxide and hydrochloric acid. Analyses made
with three separate preparations according to the method
already described, gave the following mean result : —
Calcvilated. Found.
Tungsten W= 184 50-89 50-90
Chlorine Q\,= M1-5 49-11 48-58
361-5 100-00 99-48
84
Tungsten pentachloride melts completely at 248° C. and
solidifies at 242° ; the boiling point is 27o°-6 (coit). The
vapour density of this chloride taken in sulphur vapour at
440° was found to be (1) 186'4, (2) 186-5, (3) 185-7; the
normal calculated density (H = l) being 180-7.
Hence the molecule of pentachloride contains one atom
(W=:]84) of metal.
3. Tungsten Tetrachloride WCI4.
The tetrachloride forms the nonvolatile residue produced
in the distillation of the hexachloride in hydrogen. In
order to obtain it in a pure state the mixture of the two
higher chlorides is distilled at a low temperature, (best in a
bath of melted sulphur,) and in a current of dry hydrogen
or carbonic acid. The tetrachloride is a loose soft crystal-
line powder of a greyish brown colour. It is highly
hygroscopic, but not so much so as the pentachloride, and
it is partially decomposed by cold water into brown oxide
and hydrochloric acid, forming also a greenish brown solu-
tion, which is rather more stable than the green solutions of
the pentachloride in water. The tetrachloride is non-
volatile and infusible under ordinary pressure, but it is
decomposed on heating into pentachloride, which distills
off, and a lower dichloride which remains behind. On
heating in hydrogen at a temperature above the melting
point of zinc, the tetrachloride is reduced to metallic
tungsten, which is sometimes deposited as a black tinder-
like mass, undergoing spontaneous ignition on exposure to
the air.
Analyses of four portions gave the following mean
numbers :
Calculated. Found.
Tungsten W=184 56-45 57-22
Chlorme Ch-142 43-55 42-24
326 100-00 99-46
4, Tungsten Dichloride, WCI2.
This body is formed in light grey crusts on reducing the
hexachloride at high tem.peratures. It can be best prepared
85
from the tetrachloride by heatmg in a moderately hot zinc
bath.
The Bichloride is a non-volatile loose grey powder, with-
out lustre or crystalline structure. It undergoes change on
short exposure to air, and is converted by water into brown
oxide, with evolution of hydrogen. Analyses of two
preparations gave as follows :
Calculated. Found.
Tungsten W=184 72-15 73-00
Chlorine Clo= 71 27-85 26-35
255 100-00 99-35
Experiments made in the endeavour to prepare the
chlorides WCI3 and WCl were unsuccessful.
5. Tungsten Oxychlorides.
The Monoxy chloride WO CI4, and the Dioxy chloride
WO2CI2, have alread}^ been tolerably fully studied, never-
theless we find that Persoz actually doubts the existence of
these well characterised compounds, and Debray, obtaining
abnormal numbers for the vapour density of the first of
these bodies, is unable to explain his results.
The splendid ruby red needles of the monoxy chloride are
best obtained by passing the vapour of a chloride over
heated oxide or dioxychloride in a current of chlorine. The
crystals melt at 210-4° and solidify at 206-7°; when heated
more strongly the liquid boils at 227'5° C. (corrected), form-
ing a red vapour rather lighter coloured than that of the
hexachloride. On repeated distillation in chlorine over
charcoal the hexachloride is formed. On exposure to air
the red crystals become at once coated with a yellow ciiist
of the dioxychloride.
Analysis gave : —
Calculated. Found.
Tungsten W = 53-80 63-89
Chlorine Cl4 = 41-52 41-11
Oxygen 0= 4-68
100-00
Debray found the vapour density of this body in sulphur
86
vapour to be 148 (H=l), whereas the calculated density is
171. On repeating this determination the numbers (1) 171*3
and (2) 171*7 were obtained; whilst experiments made in
mercury vapour gave (1) 175-8, (2) 170-8, proving that the
vapour density of the monoxychloride is normal, and that
the molecule of this substance contains 184 parts of metal.
The Dioxy chloride WO2CI2 is best prepared by passing
chlorine over the brown dioxide. Analysis gave
Calculated. Found.
Tungsten W- 64-32 64-11
Chlorine Cl^- 24-31 24-74
Oxygen 0^- 11*37
100-00
The vapour density of the dioxychloride cannot be deter-
mined at 440°, as at that temperature the contents of the
bulb remains liquid.
Bromides of Tungsten.
Bromine vapour acts rapidly on hot metallic tungsten,
forming dark bromine-like vapours which condense to a
crystalline sublimate. Especial precautions require to be
employed as regards exclusion of oxygen and moisture, as
the oxy bromide formed when these substances are present
posseeses very nearly the same colour as the bromide, and
cannot be easily separated from the latter.
Tungsten Pentahromide WBr^.
By the action of excess of bromine on tungsten a penta-
and not a hexa-bromide is obtained. Prepared in this way
the pentabromide forms dark shining crystals, having a
metallic lustre not unlike that of iodine. These crystals
melt at 276' and solidify at 273°, the liquid boiling at 333'
(corr.) The pentabromide is at once decomposed by excess
of water into the blue oxide of tungsten and hydrobromic
acid, and immediately undergoes the same decomposition on
exposure to moist air. On distillation, a small quantity of
of a lower non-volatile bromide remains behind, and this
explains the slightly too high percentage of metal found in
the analysis.
87
Calculated. Found.
Tungsten W=184 31-51 32-49
Bromine Br, = 400 68-49 G7-74
584 100-00 100-23
When the pentabromide is heated to 350° in a current
of hydrogen a substance is obtained, which appears to cor-
respond to WBrs, but this is very readily decomposed, and
the dibromide WBrg is formed as a black velvety powder.
Analysis gave :
Calculated. Found.
Tungsten W=184 53-49 52-03
Bromine Br,= 160 46-51 46-26
344 100-00 99'29
Oxyhromides of Tungsten. The monoxy bromide WO Br^
is formed together with the Dioxybromide WO Br2 by
acting on a mixture of 1 part of metal and 2 parts of
tungsten dioxide with bromine. It forms shining brownish
black needles, which are easily fusible, and can be
separated from the dioxybromide by gentle sublimation
when the latter compound remains behind. The mon-
oxybromide melts at 277° and boils at 327'5°, and is readily
acted on by water.
The mean of four analyses gives :
Calculated. Found.
Tungsten W-184 35-38 36-69
Bromine ...Br4 = 320 61-54 61-04
Oxygen 0- 16 3-08
520 100-00
The dioxybromide WOgBrg is formed as light reddish
brown vapours, which condense to reddish brown coloured
crystals by passing the vapour of the pentabromide over
tungsten trioxide. The crystals do not melt, but volatilize
at a temperature near to a red heat, and they are not
acted on by water.
Analysis of four samples gave :
88
Calculated. Found.
Tungsten W=184 48-94 49-18
Bromine Bra >= 160 42-55 42*05
Oxygen 0,= 32 8-51
376 100-00
Iodide of Tungsten, W I2.
On passing iodine vapour together with carbonic acid
over metallic tungsten heated to redness a very small quan-
tity of soft scaly crystals having a greenish metallic lustre
is found to sublime. The same substance is formed (but
also in small quantities) when iodine vapour is passed over
the heated brown oxide or a mixture of metal and oxide.
The product was analyzed by passing air over the heated
iodide when it is ready converted into tungstic acid, iodine
being liberated. The iodide is infusible and cannot be re-
distilled without decomposition and it is not immediately
acted on by water.
Analysis gave : Calculated. Found.
Tungsten W=184 42-01 42-95
Iodine I2 = 254 57*99 56-64
438 100-00 99-59
Atomic Weight of Tungsten.
1. By reduction of Tungsten Trioxide.
The difficulty of obtaining perfectly pure tungstic acid
and the effect which impurity produces on the atomic
weight determinations has been pointed out by Dumas. In
order to avoid the danger to which all the former determi-
nations are subject, consequent upon the partial reduction of
the acid to green oxide which cannot again be oxidised, and
the production of which seems to be caused by presence of
traces of alkali, the tungstic acid used was prepared by
decomposing oxy chloride with water and drying and igniting
in platinum (contact with glass reduces some WO3). The
loss of weight on reduction in hydrogen and gain of weight
on oxidation was several times repeated. The oxide was
placed in a porcelain boat being heated in a porcelain tube>
89
and reduced in hydrogen and oxidised in a current of air.
After each reduction the boat was found to be partially-
coated inside with a thin black film having a metallic ap-
pearance which oxidised completely when heated in air.
A second boat was placed in the tube beyond that containing
the substance for the purpose of ascertaining whether any
metal was volatilized, but this boat was not found to become
the least discoloured. The results of the determinations
were as follows : —
1, Original weight of Oxide 7 -8840 grams.
2. Oxide after 1st Oxidation 7-8806
3. 2nd 7-8792
4. Weight of Metal, 1st reduction. 6-2438
5. 2nd 6-2481
6. 3rd 6-2488
It is evident from these numbers that the 2nd and 8rd
weights of oxide and the 2nd and 3rd weights of metal are
the only ones which can be relied on as being perfectly pure.
Taking the mean of these two series, we have 7'8799 grams
of oxide, giving 6-24845 grams of metal, or 79-296 per cent.
This corresponds to the atomic weight 183-84. In order to
have obtained the number 184-00 the weight 7"8799 grams
of oxide must have yielded 6-24960 grams of metal, differing
by 0-00115 grams from the experimental number.
2. By Analysis of the Hexachloride.
Perfectly pure hexachloride was prepared from the pure
metal (itself obtained from oxychloride). No traces of oxy-
chloride could be detected in the hexachloride employed,
and it yielded a perfectly canary yellow trioxide on treat-
ment with water, showing absence of any pentachloride.
In the determination of the chlorine, the substance was
weighed in the piece of drawn-out combustion tubing, in
which it was afterwards reduced in hydrogen, the hydro-
chloric acid being collected and estimated as silver salt.
The determination of metal was made in a porcelain boat in
which the weighed hexachloride was first carefully converted
into trioxide by exposure for two days to a moist atmo-
sphere, and afterwards reduced in hydrogen. Analysis
gave -. —
90
G-rams.
(1) Weight of Tungsten hexachloride taken 19-5700
„ Chlorine found 10-4901
Percentage of Chlorine 53 -605
(2) Weight of Chloride taken 10-4326
„ Metal obtained 4-8374
Percentage of Metal 46*368
Hence the atomic weight of the metal is 184-25 ; or, taking
the mean of the two methods, we have 184-04 as the atomic
weight of tungsten.
The author wishes to express his thanks to Mr. H. Rocholl
who has ably aided him in the above research.
MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.
January 15 th, 1872.
Joseph Baxendell, F.RA.S., President of the Section, in
the Chair.
A paper was read on Nemosoma elongata by Joseph
SiDEBOTHAM, F.RA.S.
The Author having discovered a considerable number of
specimens of this very rare species under bark of elm, at
Beeston, Notts., in November last, and having the oppor-
tunity, carefully observed its habits, of which he gave a
detailed account, illustrated by specimens and by portions
of bark and diagrams ; showing also specimens and drawings
of Hylesinus viitatiis, on which it is parasitic.
Mr. Thomas Cowaed exhibited some tropical species of
Composit?e having some curious superficial resemblances to
species of widely separated orders.
91
Ordinary Meeting, February 6th, 1872.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS., F.G.S, President, in the Chair.
Mr. Sidney Jewsbury was elected an ordinary Member of
the Society.
Dr. Joule, F.RS., called attention to the very extra-
ordinary inagnetic disturbances on the afternoon of the
4th instant, and from which he anticipated the aurora which
afterwards took place. The horizontally suspended needle
was pretty steady in the forenoon of that day, but about
4 p.m. the north end was deflected strongly to the east of
the magnetic meridian, and afterwards still more strongly
to the west. The following were the observations he had
made : —
Deflection from the Deflection from the
Magnetic Meridian. Magnetic Meridian.
Time. o / Time. . ,
4-0 p.m 0 50 E. 6-10 p.m 1 24 W.
4-30 „ 0 47 W. 6-12 „ 1 8
4-55 „ 2 22 „ 7-41 „ 0 10
4-58 „ 3 0 „ 7-43 „ 0 0
5-9 „ 3 45 „ 8-9 „ 0 42
5-12 „ 0 52" „ 8-31 „ 0 10
5-23 „ 5 36 „ 8-54 „ 1 18
5-24 „ 2 28 „ 8-58 „ 0 52
5-35 „ 0 52 „ 11-3 „ 0 5
5-55 „ 0 52 „
Mr. Sidebotham states that he also expected the mag-
nificent aurora on account of the violent disturbance of the
needle at Bowdon, amounting to at least 3°. Observation
with the spectroscope by Dr. Joule showed a bright and
almost colourless line near the yellow part of the spectrum.
This line appeared to whatever part of the heavens the
instrument was directed, and could be plainly seen when
Peoceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc— Yol. XI.— JS'o. 9.— Session 1871-2.
92
the sky was covered with clouds and rain was falling.
When looking at the most brilliant red light of the aurora a
faint red light was seen at the red end of the spectrum, and
beyond the bright white line towards the violet end two
broad bands of faint white light.
Mr. Thomas Hareison stated that he saw the aurora on
last Sunday evening from G^' 15"^ to 9^' 80°* and took spectro-
scopic observations thereon from various parts of the sky.
In each case, however, he discovered only one bright yellow
line, situated between D and E, being on Kirchoff s scale
about 1255 to 12G0. He is not acquainted with any known
substance that gives a corresponding line. The line through-
out was very clear and decided both in the narrow and wide
slit; but he failed to discover any continuous spectrum.
The line was also very perceptible by reflection from those
parts of the sky in which no trace of aurora was visible ;
and although the streaks were both red and white, the
spectroscope appeared to give the aurora as a mono-
chromatic light.
"Note on the Destruction of St. Mary's Church, Crumpsall,
on the 4th January, 1872, by Fire from a Lightning Dis-
charge," by Joseph Baxendell, F.RA.S.
The interest taken in the question as to the cause of the
recent accident by lightning to St. Mary's Church, Crumpsall,
induces me to submit to the Society the following results of
a careful examination of the lightning conductor, spouts,
gas piping, &c., at the church and rectory, which I made on
the 27th ultimo.
The lower part of the conductor passes through an iron
down-spout, and terminates in a common drain-pipe at a
distance of only 3 feet 9 inches from the lower end of the
spout, and at a depth of only about 18 inches below the
surface of the ground. It has therefore no direct connection
93
with the earth, and is in consequence absolutely useless for
the purpose for which it was intended. The iron down-spout
through which the conductor passes received the end of a
lead gutter, which extended the whole length of the church
to the top of a similar iron down-spout built in the wall
inside the rectory, and connected with another iron spout
outside the wall by a leaden bend pipe. This leaden bend
was above the floor of the vestry, and at a distance of 18
inches from it, and below the floor, there was a lead gas pipe
connected with the large gas meter, which received its
supply from a main laid in the street leading to the rectory.
There was a small meter under the tower, but no part of
the piping connected with it approached the conductor, the
spouts, or the lead gutter, within a less distance than
3 feet.
Assuming, then, that the lightning struck the top of the
conductor, its course would be through the lead gutter to
the iron down-spout in the vestry, and then by a disruptive
discharge from the lead bend to the lead gas pipe under the
floor of the vestry and through the meter to the street main.
The lead gas pipe would be melted and tlie gas ignited, and
it is very probable that the disruptive discharge from the
lead bend would also ignite any inflammable materials that
might be in that corner of the vestry.
When the discharge arrived at the gas main in the street,
part of it would pass down the main in a westerly direction
and part up the main to the supply pipe and meter at the
rectory. Here a small lead pipe passed from the meter for
a short distance along the ceiling of the cellar, and in its
course came in contact with an iron water supply pipe ; the
discharge melted part of the small lead pipe, ignited the
gas, and finally passed off through the water supply pipe
into the main in the street.
I have assumed that the lightning struck the top of the
conductor, but I must state that I was unable to discover
94
the slightest trace of any action tending to support this
view ; and it is at least equally probable that the stroke
fell directly on the top of the iron down-spout at the east
end of the church. It is stated that the bell in the tower
was heard to ring at the time of the discharge; but the
mere passage of the electric fluid down the conductor would
not affect the bell, and the concussion of the air from a dis-
charge on the top of the conductor would act uj)on the
tower in a vertical direction, and would not, therefore, be
likely to give the bell a swinging movement. If, however,
the discharge was directly on the spout at the east end of
the church, then the concussion of the air would act laterally
upon the tower in an east and west direction, and, as the
bell swings on an axis lying north and south, it is quite
conceivable that an oscillating movement might be given to
it sufficient to cause it to ring. In either case, however,
whether the discharge took place upon the top of the con-
ductor or on the top of the down-spout in the vestry, the
ultimate results would be precisely the same. Had the
conductor been directly connected with the gas main, as
suggested by Mr. Wilde, the accident to the church would
have been prevented, but not that at the rectory. The
practical conclusion, therefore, to be drawn from a consider-
ation of all the circumstances of this disastrous occurrence
is that, in towns and districts where systems of gas and
water mains and pipes exist, all lightning conductors should
be directly connected with the mains of both systems. Had
this been done at St. Mary's Church no accident would have
occurred either to the church or the rectory.
Mr. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., called the attention of the
Society to a remarkable group of crystals of calcite and sul-
phide of iron surrounding stalactitic bitumen, found at
Castleton in Derbyshire, by Rooke Pennington, Esq. The
mode of formation was tliis. When the mountain lime-
95
stone of that district became charged with bitumen, the
latter penetrated into a cavity which it traversed in long
stalactite drops. Subsequently the cavity was more or less
filled with crystals of calcite and sulphide of iron, which
were deposited by the water charged with those substances
around the drops of bitumen. The heat by which the bitu-
men found its way into the rocks must have disappeared
before the crystals were formed ; for had the latter been
the result of hydrothermal action, they may have been
coated, but certainly could not have been traversed by the
solid bituminous stalactites.
" On the Boiling Points of the normal Paraffins and some
of their Derivatives," by C. Schorlemmer, F.R.S.
It is generally asserted that the boiling points of the
members of homologous series increase regularly for each
increase of CH2. Thus it is stated that in the series of the
alcohols and fatty acids the boiling point is raised 19° for
each addition of CH2, whilst in other series this difference
is sometimes smaller, sometimes larger, but always the
same in the same series. But in many cases the boiling
points calculated by this rule do not agree at all with those
which have been observed. One reason for this discrepancy
is that the compounds of which the boiling points have been
compared are not true homologous bodies, i.e. that they
have not an analogous constitution although they differ
in the composition by CH2 or a multiple thereof. During the
last year, however, we have become acquainted with some
true homologous series, namely, the series of the normal
paraffins and the normal alcohols and their derivatives.
In a paper read before the Royal Society I have already
pointed out that the difference between the boiling points
of the lower members of these paraffins is not the same.
96
but that it decreases regularly by 4° until it becomes tlie
well known difference of 19°, as the following table will
show —
Boiling-points.
Found (mean)
Calculated.
Difference.
C H.
C H.
Co Ho
...
^3 •'-■-8
r
r ...
Co Hi 2
38
38
37°
^6 Hi4
70
71
33
C; Hic
99
100
29
Cg Hi8
124
125
25
CioHso
... 202
201
4x 19
^ifiHsi
278
278
4x 19
It appeared to me of interest to compare the boiling
points of other normal compounds, selecting of course those
only of which the boiling points have been carefully deter-
mined and corrected for pressure and expansion of the
mercurial column of the thermometer above the vapour.
The result of this investigation is that in most of the other
series the difference between the boiling points also steadily
decreases by about 2° ; but I am not in a position to state
whether this decrease ceases when the difference becomes
19°, as we do not yet know a sufficient number of compounds.
(1) Normal Iodides.
Boiling-points.
r
Observed.
Calculated.
Difference
Methyl
CH3I
40°
... 40° .
Ethyl
CAI
72
... 72
. 32°
Propyl
CsH.I
... 102
... 102
. 30
Butyl
CAI
129-6
... 130
. 28
Pentyl
CaHnI
155-4
... 15G
. 26
Hexyl
CoHiJ
179-5
... 180
. 24
Heptyl
C^Hi.I
... 202
22
Octyl
CgHiyl
... 221
... 222
20
97
Normal Bromides.
Observed.
Calculated.
Difference.
Ethyl
CM, Br
39°
.. 39°
Propyl
C3H7 Br
71
.. 71
.. 32°
Butyl
C.Hg Br
... 100-4
.. 101
.. 30
Pentyl
C^HnBr
... 128-7
.. 129
.. 28
Hexyl
CeH.aBr
—
.. 155
.. 26
Heptyl
C^HisBr
—
.. 179
.. 24
Octyl
CgHi^Br
... 199
.. 201
.. 22
Normal Chlorides,
Observed.
Calculated.
Difference.
Ethyl
CACl
12-5°
... 13°
Propyl
C3H; CI
46-4
,. 46
... 33°
Butyl
C,H, Ci
77-6
.. 77
.. 31
Pentyl
C^HnCl
... 105-6
.. 106
.. 29
Hexyl
CeH,3Cl
.. 133
.. 27
Heptyl
C;H,5C1
...
.. 158
.. 25
Octyl
CsHi.Cl
180
Normal Acetat
.. 181
res.
23
Observed
Calculated
Difference.
Ethyl
C, Hg 0,
74°
.. 74°
Propyl
C5 HioO,
102
... 101
.. 27
Butyl
CgHigO.^
125-1
... 126
.. 25
Pentyl
C7 H24O2
148-4
.. 149
.. 23
Hexyl
^8 HieOa
168-7
... 170
.. 21
Heptyl
C9 HigO^
—
... 189
.. 19
Octyl
^10^20^2
207
... 208
... 19
Whilst in these series the difference between the boiling-
points steadily diminishes, in the series of the normal alco-
hols the difference appears to remain the same, being about
19°.
Normal Alcohols.
Observed.
Calculated.
Ethyl C^HgO
78-4° ..
78-4°
Propyl CgHgO
97
97
Butyl C.HioO
.. 116
116
Pentyl C5H10O
.. 137
135
Hexyl CeHi.O
,. 156-6 ..
154
Heptyl C7H16O
173
Octyl CsHigO
.. 192
192
98
In the series of the normal fatty acids the difference
between the boiling points of the lower members is also
constant, being 22°, but afterwards it becomes less.
Acetic C2H4 Oo
Propionic CgHe 0^
Butyric C^Hg Og
Pentyhc C5H1A
Hexyhc CqRi^Oo
Heptylic C,Hi,0,
Octylic C.HieOo
Nonylic CgHigO^
Normal Fatty Acids.
Observed. Calculated.
118° ... 118°
140-6 ... 140
163-2 ... 162
184-5 ... 184
204-5 ... 206
220
233
254
Difference.
22
22
22
99
Ordinary Meeting, February 2()th, 1872.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS, F.G.S., President, in the Chaii-.
The President said that at the meeting of the Society
on the 9th of January last he alluded to the probability of
the genus Zygopteris being found in the limestone nodules
of the Foot Mine near Oldham. He had lately had an
opportunity of inspecting the collection of Mr. James
Whitaker of Watershedding, and he there recognised a
specimen of the Zygopteris Lacattii of M. Regnalt. There
was a difference between the Autun and Oldham specimens ;
for whilst the vascular bundles in the petiole of the former
were shaped like a double anchor, in the latter they came
nearly together and formed a circle; but he thought this
difference scarcely sufficient to form another species.
Dr. J. P. Joule, F.R.S., described some experiments he
had been making on the polarization by frictional electricity
of platina plates, either immersed in water or rolled together
with wet silk intervening. The charge was only diminished
one half after an interval of an hour and a quarter. It was
ascertained both in quality and quantity by transmitting it
through a delicate galvanometer. He suggested that a con-
denser on this principle might be useful for the observation
of atmospheric electricity.
Peoceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc— Yol. XI.— 'No. 10.— Session 1871-2.
100
" On an Electrical Corona resembling the Solar Corona,"
by Professor OsBORNE Reynolds, M.A.
The object of this paper is to point out a very remarkable
resemblance between a certain electrical phenomenon (which
may have been produced before, although I am not aware
that it has) and the solar corona. This resemblance seems
to me to be of great importance, for the striking features of
these two coronae are not possessed by any other halos,
coronge, or glories with which bright objects are seen to be
surrounded.
Until the eclipse of 1871 there was considerable doubt
how far the accounts given by observers of the corona could
be relied upon; but Mr. Brothers' photograph has left no
doubt on the subject. In this photograph we have a lasting
picture of what hitherto has only been seen by a few
favoured philosophers, and by them only during a few
moments of excitement.
This picture shows the beautiful radial structure of the
corona, the dark rifts which intersect it, and also shows the
disc of the moon, clear and free from light. I have not yet
seen any of the photographs of the last eclipse, but I hear
there are several, and that they show the radial structure
and rifts even more distinctly than this one does, but
whether they do or not one photograph is positive evidence ;
the absence of more simply means nothing.
The features to which I refer as those which distinguish
the solar corona are —
1. Its rifts and general radiating appearance.
2. The crossing and bending of rays.
8. Its self -luminosity shown by the spectroscopic observa-
tions of Professor Young.
101
4. The way in which its appearance changes and flickers.
When taken in connection with the blackness of the
moon's disc, which shows that the corona does not exist or
owe its existence to matter between the moon and the plate
on which the photograph is taken, these features show that
we see on the card the picture of something which actually
existed in the neighbourhood of the sun ; that the bright
rays which we see photographed were actually bright rays
of light-giving matter, standing out from the sun an
enormous distance. The rifts and general irregularity of
the picture show that these rays do not come out uniformly
all over the sun's surface, but that they are partial and local,
in some places thinly distributed and in others absent
altogether. The rays are not all of them straight or per-
pendicular to the sun's surface.
Such bright rays as these cannot be the result of the
sun's light or heat acting on an atmosphere or matter circu-
lating in the form of meteorites. If they are due to the
action of the sun's light or heat at all it must be acting on
matter distributed in the rays we see, for the sun's light and
heat coming out uniformly all round would illuminate any
surrounding matter, if at all, so as to show its figure.
The picture irresistibly calls up the idea of a radial
emission. If it is the picture of distributed matter, that
matter must exist in the form of streams leaving the sun ;
if it is the picture of some light-producing action, this also
must exist in the form of an emission from the sun.
Such then are the extraordinar}^ features of the solar
corona, and as I stated, they resemble those of an electricai
corona. Any one who is familar with the various forms of
electrical disruptive discharge will recognise the general
102
resemblance they bear to an electric brush. But to the
electric phenomenon I am about to describe it is no mere
general resemblance, it is an actual likeness with every
feature identical.
Before describing the phenomenon I may be allowed to
state how I came to notice it. It will be remembered that
in a former communication to this Society I ascribed the
phenomena of comets and the corona to a certain electrical
condition of the sun. Well, the peculiar appearance of Mr.
Brothers' photograph induced me to try if a brass ball,
brought into the condition I had ascribed to the sun, would
give off a corona presenting this appearance.
The phenomenon is produced by discharging electricity
from a brass ball in a partially exhausted receiver. To do
this there is no second pole used, the objects which surround
the outside of the glass probably answering to this purpose.
In order to produce the desired appearance a certain relation
is necessary between the pressure of the air and the inten-
sity of the discharge. It is produced best when the receiver
is a glass globe insulated on a glass stand, the ball being
supported in its middle by a rod coated with indiarubber,
to prevent its discharging and spoiling the effect. It is only
negative electricity that is discharged into the globe. What
becomes of this electricity is not clear ; when a machine is
used it probably distributes itself on the inside of the glass,
and induces a corresponding charge on the outside. When
the coil is used it must escape back for I have had it going
for hours without any variation.
There is great difficulty even when the apparatus is right
in producing the corona; using a large coil I just exhausted
the receiver till the pressure was equal to half an inch of
108
mercury, then there was no appearance of a corona, but one
more resembling what is seen in a Geissler tube, I then let
the air in gradually, and as the pressure rose the appearance
changed at first to a most extraordinary mass of briglit
serpents twining and untwining in a knot round the ball,
then to the branches of an oak tree, and as the pressure
kept increasing I gradually observed amongst the branches
a faint corona which I saw at once was what I was looking;
for, it was formed of pencils of light, forming a light radiating
envelope round the baU diminishing in brightness as it
receded from the ball, the tree gradually died out until there
was nothing left but the briglit radiating envelope, out of
which a bright ray would occasionally flash. The dia.meter
of this envelope was about three or four times that of the
ball. It was not steady but flickered so that it would
appear to turn round; it consisted of pencils, or, as they are
termed, bundles of rays, between which there were dark
gaps. These gaps moved round about the ball; subse-
quently, however, by sticking sealing-wax on the ball, I
rendered them definite and permanent. As the pressure of
air increased, the brush became fitful, and finally ceased
altogether. It was best when there was about 4 inches of
mercury in the gauge. By varying the action of the coil I
could do with different pressures of air, and hence I assume
that there is a definite relation between the intensity of the
charge in the ball and the pressure of the air surrounding it
under which the phenomena can occur.
The appearance is very faint ; so faint that it is difficult
to see it even when close to the ball, and I find that it takes
some time before the eye can fully aj^preciate its beauty.
It was unfortunately so faint that Mr. Brothers was unable
104
to photograph it. The plate was exposed ten minutes, but
there was not the slightest trace of anything on it.
The adjoining cut represents tlie apparatus employed,
except that the receiver was replaced by the globe described
above. The light round the ball gives a fair idea of the
momentary appearance, and it is impossible to represent
more, as this flickers and changes so rapidly.
This corona when compared with the solar corora has the
special features —
1. The rifts and general radial appearance, including the
bending and crossincr of ravs.
105
2. The self-luminosity.
3. The chanojefulness and flickering.
There is one point in which it differs from the solar
corona, but this is no more than must be expected. The
shading off of the light in the solar corona is much more
rapid than that in its electrical analogue. If however the
pressure of the air could be caused to vary so that it was
denser round the ball, even this difference could be done
away with.
In this experiment, then, we have actually produced all
the very features which are so extraordinary in the larger
phenomenon, and were there no other evidence than this
that the solar corona may be electrical, it seems to me that
this resemblance constitutes very strong proof. When two
things existing at different times, or in different places,
resemble each other perfectly, and resemble nothing else in
the range of our knowledge, surely that is high probability
that they are similar.
We may, however, expect, if the sun is electrical, to find
some direct indications of its electricity; nor are such
wanting. They are increasing every day. There is the
sun's effect on the electricit}^ of the earth's atmosphere, its
magnetism, and the aurora; the connection between the
sun spots and the earth, and the connection between the
planets and the sun spots, as shown by M. De la Rue and
Dr. Balfour Stewart. It must be admitted that there are
evident signs of some influence which the planetary bodies
have on the sun and it on them ; which is not gravity nor
the result of gravity, yet the result of heat. Almost all
these sio"ns are of an electrical character, and some are
electricity itself Moreover, electricity or electric induc-
tion is the only other action at a distance besides gravity
and heat that takes place, Is it not, then, probable that
this influence is electrical ? Are we to reject an hypo-
thesis which explains some of these phenomena, and may
106
explain all, simply because we do not see any cause for the
electrical condition of the sun — why the sun should be
charged with negative electricity ?
Should we have discovered that the sun was hot if we
had waited to find out why it was hot. Surely it is sufficient
to say that there is no proof that it is not electrical. We
may go further than this, for if we may compare large bodies
with small, then we may show a possible reason for its being
electrified. When two particles of different metals approach
or recede from each other they become electrified with
opposite electricities. May not the sun be approaching or
leaving some other body of a different material. I do not
suggest this as a probable explanation, but simply in answer
to those who say that it is absurd to suppose the sun can
be electrified.
" On the Electro-Dynamic effect, the induction of Statical
Electricity causes in a moving body. The induction of the
Sun a probable cause of Terrestrial Magnetism," by Professor
Osborne Reynolds, M.A.
If an electrified body was placed near a moving conductor
so as to induce an opposite charge in the moving body, this
charge would move on the surface of the conductor so as to
remain opposite the electrified body, whatever the motion
might be. Suppose the moving conductor to be an endless
metal band running past a body negatively charged, the
positive charge would be on the surface of the band opposite
to the negative body, and here it would remain whatever
might be the velocity of the band. Now the effect of the
motion of this negative electricity on the conductor would
be the same as that of an electric current in the opposite
direction to the motion of the band.
If instead of a band the moving body consisted of a steel
or iron top spinning near the charged body the effect of the
electricity on the top would be the same as that of a current
107
round it in the opposite direction to that in wiiich it was
spinning.
It might be that the electricity in the inducing body-
would produce an opposite magnetic effect on the top ; but
even if this were so (and I do not think it has been experi-
mentally shown that it would be so), its effect, owing to its
distance, would be much less than that of the electricity on
the very surface of the top. If we take no account of the
effect of the inducing body the current round the top would
be of such strength that it would carry all the electricity
induced in the top once round every revolution. And if the
top were spinning from west to east by south it would be
rendered magnetic with the positive pole uppermost, that
is, the pole corresponding to the north pole in the earth or
the south pole of the needle.
In order to show that such a current might be produced,
a glass cylinder, twelve inches long and four across, was
covered with strips of tinfoil, parallel to the axis, with
very small intervals between them. These strips were about
six inches long and one half inch wide, and the intervals
between them the two-hundreth of an inch. In one place
there was a wider interval, and from the strips adjacent to
this wires were connected by means of a commutator with
the wii'es of a very delicate galvometer. This cylinder
was mounted so that it could be turned twelve hundred
revolutions in a minute, and brought near the conductor
of an electrical machine. This apparatus, after it had been
thoroughly tested, was found to give very decided results.
As much as 20^ deflection was obtained in the needle, and
the direction of this deflection depended on the direction in
which the cylinder was turned, and on the nature of the
charge in the conductor. When this was negative the
current was in the opposite direction to that of rotation.
It may be objected that the measurement was not actually
made on the cylinder. It must, however, be remembered
108
that it was made in the circuit of metal round the cylinder,
and that my object was to find the relative motion of the
cylinder and the electricity. Altogether I think it may be
taken as exjDerimental proof of the fact previously stated
that if a steel top were spinning under the inductive
influence of a body charged with negative electricity the
effect would be that of a current round the top such as
would render it magnetic.
The cause of terrestrial magnetism has not been the
subject of so much speculation as many much less important
phenomena. It seems to have been regarded as part of the
original nature of things like gravity, and the heat of the
sun, as a cause from which other phenomena might result,
but not as itself the result of other causes.
Yet, when we come to think of it, it has none of the
characteristics of a fundamental fact ; it appears intimately
connected with other things, and when two phenomena
have a relation to each other, there is good reason for
believing them to be connected, either as parent and child,
or else as brother and sister, the one to be derived from the
other, or else them both to spring from the same cause.
Now the direction of the earth's magnetism bears a
marked relation to the eaith's figure, and yet it can have
had no hand in giving the earth its shape, which is fully
explained as the result of other causes ; therefore, we must
assume that the figure of the earth has something to do
with its magnetism, or what is more likely, that the rota-
tion which causes the earth to keep its shape, also causes it
to be magnetic.
If this is the case then there must be some influence at
work with which we are as yet unacquainted — some cause
which coupled with the rotation of the earth, results in
magnetism. From the influence which the sun exerts on
this magnetism we are at once led to associate it with the
cause. Yet the cause itself cannot be the result of either
109
the sun's heat, light, or attraction. What other influence
then can the sun exert on the earth ?
The analogy between the magnetism produced in a spin-
ning top by the inductive action of a distant body charged
with electricity, and the magnetism in the rotating earth,
probably caused by the influence of the sun, which influence
is not its mass or heat, seems to me to suggest what the
influence which the sun exerts is. If the sun were charged
with negative electricity, it seems to me to follow, from what
the experiments I have described establish, that its inductive
effect on the earth would be to render it magnetic, the
poles being as they are.
The only other way in which the sun could act to produce
or influence terrestrial magnetism would be by its own
magnetism. If the sun is a magnet, it would magnetise the
earth. If this is the cause the sun's poles must be opposite
to those of the earth. Now, it follows that such a condition
of magnetism would or might, if its materials are magnetic,
be caused by the rotation of the sun under the inductive
action of the earth and planets in exactly the same way as
that caused in the earth by the inductive action of the sun.
As the direction of rotation is the same in both bodies, and
the electricities of the opposite kind, the magnetism would
be of the opposite kind also. So that on this hypothesis it
is probable the sun would act by both causes.
When I first worked out this idea, I was not aware that
anything like it had been suggested before ; but Mr.
Baxendell, after having seen my experiments, noticed a
review of a book on terrestrial magnetism, to which he
kindly called my attention. The author, without making
any assumption with regard to the electrical condition of
the sun, assumes it to act on the earth's magnetism precisely
as it would under the conditions I have described ; and he
then proceeds to consider, not only the general . features of
the earth's mao-netism, but all its details — and this in a
110
most elaborate manner — and to show the explanation which
this hypothesis offers for them, particularly for the secular
variation of the direction of the needle, I am, therefore,
able to speak of the hypothesis as affording an explanation
of the numberless variations of the eartli's maofnetism, as
well as of its general features.
Ill
Ordinary Meeting, March oth, 1872.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.
" On Changes in the Distribution of Barometric Pressure,
Temperature, and Rainfall under different Winds during a
Solar Spot Period, by Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S.
In my paper " On Periodic Changes in the Magnetic Con-
dition of the Earth, and in the Distribution of Temperature
on its Surface;" read March 8, 1864, I endeavoured to
account for some of the phenomena therein described by
assuming that variations in the magnetic condition of the
earth produce corresponding variations in the direction and
velocity of the great currents of the atmosphere ; and some
time afterwards in considering this hypothesis more care-
fully it appeared to me that if, as is generally supposed,
magnetic changes are intimately connected with the dis-
turbances which take place in the solar photosphere, their
influence upon the atmosphere ought to be indicated by
variations in the distribution of barometric pressure, tem-
perature, and rainfall under diflferent winds corresponding
to the variations of solar spot frequency. Fortunately the
means of at once testing the soundness of this view were at
hand in the valuable tables numbered XYI. and XYIII. in
the volumes of the "Radcliffe Observations," which show
for each year the relations between barometric pressure,
temperature, and rainfall under different winds at Oxford.
I therefore extracted from these tables, and arrangfed in
order, the mean annual barometric pressures, mean tempe-
ratures, and amounts of rainfall under different winds for
the ten years 1858-67, and on carefully examining the table
thus formed I found that changes had taken place in the three
elements which corresponded very closely in the times of their
maxima and minima with those of solar spot frequency.
The mean length of a solar spot period is about 11 years
and 5 weeks, and as the volume of " Radcliffe Observations"
for 1868 has been published since I formed the ten years
table, I have included the mean results for that year in the
following table, which thus represents the changes which
took place through a complete solar spot period.
Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Yol. XI. — No. 11.— Session 1871-2.
112
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113
According to the observations of Schwabe the numbers
of groups of solar spots which occurred in the years 1858-68
were as follows : —
No. of No. of
Year. Groups. Year. Groups.
1858 188 1864 130
1859 205 18G5 93
1860 211 1866 45
1861 204 1867 25
1862 160 1868 101
1863 124
The mean number is 135, and therefore it appears that
during the five years 1858-62 the frequency of solar spots
was above the average, and during the six years 1863-68 it
was below. In order then to ascertain the effects of changes
of solar activity upon the distribution of barometric pres-
sure, temperature, and rainfall under different winds, the
above table was divided into two tables, the first com-
prising the results for the five years 1858-62, when the
number of solar spots was above the average, and the second
those for the six years 1863-68, when the number of spots
was below the average. The means of the numbers under
each wind in both tables were then determined, and a com-
parison of the two sets of results thus obtained showed, for
each element, the nature of the changes which had taken
place.
Barometric Pressure,
The mean pressures under different winds for the two
periods, and their differences, are as follows : — -
Mean Pressure Mean Pressure
1858-62. 1863-68. Difference.
N 29-859 29-849 +0^-010
N.E 29-890 29-801 +0-089
E 29-791 29-728 +0-063
S.E 29-672 29-615 +0057
S 29-635 29-652 -0-017
S.W 29-604 29-719 -0-115
W 29-684 29-789 -0-105
N.W 29-810 29-805 +0-005
114
It appears therefore that in the years of maximum solar
spot frequency the maximum barometric pressure took place
under north-east winds, and the minimum under south-
west; but in years of minimum frequency the maximum
and minimum pressures occurred respectively under north
and south-east winds. The difference of pressure under
north-west winds is almost inappreciable; and the differ-
ences under north and south winds are small ; but those
under north-east, east, south-east, south-west, and west
winds are too considerable to be fairly attributable to acci-
dental causes. In order then to determine whether they
are due to the operation of a change in the intensity of solar
activity I have made the following comparison of the mean
pressures under north-east, east, and south-east winds with
those under south-west and west winds : —
Mean Pressure
iinclei> winds from
N.E., E., & S.E.
In.
Mean Pressure
under winds from
S.W. & W.
In.
Difference.
1858
1859
1860
1861
29-848 29-649 +
29-813 29-672 +
29-728 29-502 +
29-775 29-714 +
1862 29-756
29-683
+
Inch.
•199
•141
'226
-061
-073
•012
•044
•007
•053
•150
-009
1863 28-794 29-782 +
1864 29-673 29-717 -
1865 29-715 29-722 -
1866 29-664 29-717 -
1867 29-685 29-835 -
1868 29-757 29*748 +
The maximum difference occurred in 18C0, when solar
spot frequency was at a maximum, and the minimum differ-
ence in 1867, when solar spot frequency was also at a
minimum, and the general course of the differences has a
remarkable similarity to that of the numbers representing
the variations of solar spot frequency.
As the rate of variation in the pressures during the
maximum years 1858-G2 was greatest in the quadrant
between north-west and south-west, and as winds from
the westward coming over the Atlantic are probably less
affected by disturbing causes than those coming from the
eastward over the continent of Europe, it appeared to me
that the nature of the law of change of the pressures would
be best indicated by a comparison of the differences between
the pressures under north-west and south-west winds.
These differences are as follows : —
1858 ...
... -221
1864 ...
... ^122
1859 ...
... -238
1865 ...
... -083
1860 ...
... -231
1866 ...
... -038
1861 ...
... '229
1867 ...
... -066
1862 ...
... ^109
1868 ...
... ^074
1863 ...
... -134
These numbers indicate a maximum at the end of 1859, a
minimum in the latter half of 1866, and a secondary maxi-
mum at the end of 1863, thus presenting a very close agree-
ment with the results obtained by De la Rue, Stewart, and
Loewy from actual measurements of the areas of the sun
spots observed during the period under discussion.
The mean pressure under all winds is 29*744 inches in
both periods, but the sum of the differences of the indivi-
dual pressures from this mean is 0-75 oin. in the first period,
and only 0-530in. in the second. It appears therefore that
the forces which produce the movements of the atmosphere
are more energetic in years of maximum solar activity than
in years of minimum.
Teinjperatwre.
N
Mean Temp.
5 years,
1858-62.
46-7'' ....
Mean Temp.
6 years,
1862-68.
46-8°
Difference,
.... -0-r
KE
46-7 ....
46-5
.... +0-2
E
48-1 ....
50-4
.... -2-3
SE
. . . 49-5 ....
52-2
.... -2-7
S
50-8
52-3
.... -1-5
s.w
6M ....
50-7
.... +0-4
w
48-8
48-8
0-0
N.W
....... 46-6
47-1
.... -0-5
In the first period the maximum temperature occurs
under winds from south-west, and in the second period
under winds from about south-south-east. The greatest
116
differences between the two periods occur with east, south-
east, and south winds. Comparing the mean temperature
under south-west winds with that under south and south-
east winds we have following differences : —
1858 +0-35°
1859 +0-75
1860 +2-20
1861 +0-85
1862 +0-25
1863 -0-30
Here we have again a maximum in 1860 and a minimum
in 1867.
As the temperature diminished under two winds only,
the north-east and south-west, we may compare the means
of the temperatures under these winds with those of the
wind under which the greatest increase of temperature took
place, the south-east, thus : —
1864 ....
,.. -0-75°
1865 ...,
... -1-80
1866 ....
,.. -2-10
1867 ...
... -3-70
1868 ...,
... -0-45
1858 ....
... -1-16°
1864 ,..,
,.. -2-75'
1859 ...
... -0-75
1865 ...,
,.. -4-30
1860 ..,,
... +0-05
1866 ....
.. -3-45
1861 ...
... -0-50
1867 ....
,.. -6-75
1862 ...
... -0-85
1868 ...,
... -2-15
1863 ...
... -1-90
Again we have a maximum in 1860 and a minimum in
1867, and it is therefore evident that the distribution of
temperature under different winds, like that of barometric
pressure, is very sensibly influenced by the changes which
take place m solar activity.
Rainfall.
N
N.E
E
S.E
S 7-70 11-16 -3-46
S.W 11-51 5-47 +6-04
W 4-73 2-37 +2-36
N.W 175 223 -0-48
Mean Annual Amount.
5 years, 6 years,
1858-62. 1863-68.
Inches. Inches.
3-16 2-56
Difference.
Inches.
-^0-60
3-33 ....
2-56 ....
-t-0-77
2-23 ....
2-06 ....
-fO-17
2-30 ....
4-74 ....
-2-44
117
In the first period the maximum fall occurs with south-
west, and in the second period with south winds ; and the
greatest differences between the two periods are with winds
from south-east, south, south-west, and west, the differences
with south-east and south winds being negative, and those
with south-west and west winds positive. Comparing then
the sums of the amounts which fell under the first two
winds with those which fell under the last two, we have
the following results : —
S.E. & S.
s.w. & w.
Difference.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
1858 ...
... 6-32 ...
... 11-53 ...,
... - 5-21
1859 ...
... 13-42 ...
... 15-58 ...
... - 2-16
1860 ...
... 10-06 ...
... 20-04 ...,
... - 9-98
1861 ...
... 10-44 ...
... 14-98 ....
... - 4-54
1862 ...
... 9-77 ...
... 19-08 ....
... - 9-31
1863 ...
... 11-93 ...
... 8-47 ....
... + 3-46
1864 ...
... 10-22 ...
... 7-10 ...,
... + 3-12
1865 ...
... 17-18 ...
... 5-40 ....
.. +11-78
1866 ...
., 24-72 ...
... 9-12 ....
.. +15-60
1867 ...
... 16-14 ...
... 7-98 ....
.. + 8-16
1868 ...
... 15-20 ...
... 8-99 ....
.. + 6-21
It will be observed that in every year of the first period
(1858-62) the differences were negative, while in every year
of the second period (1863-68) they were positive; or, that
the amounts of rainfall under south-west and west winds
were invariably greater than those under south-east and
south winds during the years when the number of solar
spots was above the average, and invariably less in the
years when the number of sun spots was below the average ;
and further, that the greatest difference in the first series of
years occun-ed in 1860, at the time of a solar spot maxi-
mum, and that in the second series in 1866, at or very near
the time of a solar spot minimum.
Considering the irregular character of rainfall, both in the
times of its occurrence and the amounts in which it falls, I
confess I Avas scarcely prepared to expect that the results of
118
rainfall observations would agree so closely with those of
barometric pressure and temperature.
Instead of comparing the differences between the amounts
of rainfall it would perhaps be more correct to compare
their ratios, but the results would be substantially the same.
Thus dividing the entire series of 11 years into 3 groups,
the first including the four years 1858-61, one of which was
a year of maximum frequency of solar spots ; the second the
four years 1862-65 ; and the third the three years 1866-68,
one of which was a year of minimum frequency, we have
the following amounts and their ratios : —
Sum of Sum of
Rainfall under Rainfall under
S.E. & S. winds. S.W, &W. winds. Ratio.
Inches. Inches.
4 years 1858-61 40-24 62-13 0-64
4 years 1862-65 49-10 40-05 1-22
3 years 1866-68 56-06 26-09 2*14
Here we have a small ratio in years of maximum solar
activity, and a large ratio in years of minimum, and a ratio
of intermediate value for the intervening years.
It will I think be admitted that the results of this inves-
tigation support very strongly the hypothesis which led me
to undertake it. They show also strikingly that the future
progress of meteorology must depend to a much greater
extent than has been generally supposed upon the know-
ledge we may obtain of the nature and extent of the
changes which are constantly taking place on the surface of
the sun; and therefore, in the interests of meteorological
science, it is evidently very desirable that observations of
solar phenomena should be greatly multiplied by the estab-
lishment, in various parts of the world, of observatories
specially devoted to this object, so that a continuous daily
or even hourly record may be obtained of the state of the
solar disc and its appendages, and the results discussed in
connection with those of observations of meteorological
phenomena,
119
" Further Experiments on the Rupture of Iron Wire," by
John Hopkinson, B.A., D.Sc.
In a paper read before this Society some weeks ago I
gave a theory of the rupture of an iron wire under a blow
when the wire is very long, differing from that usually
accepted practically, and an account of a few experiments in
confirmation.
In the simple case considered mathematically, certain
conditions which have a material effect on the result are
wholly neglected, such as the weight hung below the clamp
to keep the wire tort, and the mass and elasticity of the
clamp ; these I have taken into consideration.
Of course it is impossible to make experiments on an
infinitely long wire; we are therefore compelled to infer
the breaking blow for such a wire from the blow required
to break a short wire close to, the clamp, The wire used
in the following experiments was from 9 to 12 feet long
the clamp weighed 26 oz., and the weight at the end of the
wire was 61 lbs. Several attempts were made to support
the upper extremity of the wire on an indiarubber spring, in
order that the wire might behave like a long wire and
break at the bottom, and not be affected by waves reflected
from the upper clamp, but without success ; so that I was
obliged to fall back on the plan of discriminating the cases
in which the wire broke at the lower clamp from those in
which the wave produced by the blow passed over this
point without rupture and broke the wire elsewhere.
The height observed is corrected by multiplication by the
(M \^
iTjr—^, ) where M is the mass of the falling weight
and M' of the clamp. This correction rests on the assump-
tion that the clamp and cast iron weight are practically in-
compressible, and hence that at the moment of impact they
take a common velocity which is that causing rupture of
the wire. This assumption will of course be slightly in
error, and experiments were made in which leather washers
were interposed between the clamp and the iron weight to
cushion tke blow. The error produced by these washers
120
would be of the same nature as that produced by elasticity
in the clamp, but obviously many times as large. If the
error produced by one thick leather washer be but 10 inches
of reduced height, surely the effect of the elasticity of the
clamp will fall well within the limits of error in these expe-
riments.
The effect of cold on the breaking of the wire was tried
thus — the clamp and the lower extremity of the wire were
cooled by means of ether spray, and the weight dropped as
before. The effect of cooling the wire near the clamp was
in all cases to make the wire break more easily, in some
cases very markedly so. A similar result would follow
under similar circumstances from the formula for the
resilience J-gr ; and it is the almost universal experience
of those who have to handle crane chains and lifting tackle
that these are most liable to breakage in cold weather. To
this efiect of temperature and to the variable quality of
wire even in the same coil I attribute the discrepancy
between the various observations.
The first column gives the height of fall observed, the
second the reduced height, and the third the point at which
the wire broke. The observations marked * are those in
which cold was applied. The two series were tried on
different days about a fortnight apart and on wire from
different parts of the same coil. In all cases the upper
clamp rested on the bare boards of the floor above.
FIRST SERIES.
161bs. weight.
Inches. Inches. Point of Rupture.
72 60 18'' from top.
78 65 12'' from bottom.
78 65 24" from top.
81 67|- at top and bottom,
82 68J 21" from top.
84 70 ,.. at bottom.
84 70 at bottom.
*48 40 did not break.
*54 45 at bottom.
*60 50 at bottom.
*72 60 at bottom.
121
281bs, weight.
72 65 20'' from top.
78 ; . . 70 close to top.
791 711 at bottom.
81 73 at bottom.
71bs. weight.
81 54 at top.
84 56 at bottom.
*72 48 at bottom.
*75 50 at bottom.
SECOND SERIES.
281bs. weight.
54 48 broke at top.
60 53 J bottom and half way up.
60 53 J at top.
63 56 at bottom.
QG 59 at bottom.
69 61|- at bottom.
72 64J at bottom.
*36 32 attop.
*48 43 at bottom.
161bs. weight.
60 50 half way up.
66 55 at bottom.
With one dry leather washer.
72 60 4'' from bottom.
66' 55 near top.
Two dry washers.
72 60 6'' from bottom.
Three soaked washers.
78 65 broke in middle.
83 69 attop.
It should be noticed that the formula velocity = /— -
cannot be depended on except as indicating the general
character of the phenomena ; for let us attempt to deduce
1 F^
the heie^ht of fall from this formula, h=^ =^ ,
An inch wire 1 foot long weighs 3'84! lbs., the breaking
force in proper units = 80,000 X 32, and the elasticity
= 25,000,000 X 32, whence h — 38 feet about.
This discrepancy I have not yet accounted for.
122
PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.
November 7tli, 1871.
Alfred Brothers, F.RA.S., Vice-President of the Section,
in the Chair.
" On Changes in the Distribution of Barometric Pressure,
Temperature, and Eainfall under different Winds, during a
Sohir Spot Period," by Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S.
[This paper was afterwards read at the Ordinary Meeting
of the Society held March 5, 1872. See p. 111].
December 5th, 1871.
Thomas Carrick, Esq., in the Chair.
" On the Distribution of Rainfall under different Winds,
at St. Petersburg, during a Solar Spot Period," by Joseph
Baxendell, F.R.A.S.
In the paper which I read at the last meeting of the
Section it was shown that, at Oxford, changes take place
in the relative amounts of rainfall under different winds in
a period corresponding with that of solar spot frequency.
Thus in the years when the number of groups of solar spots,
as observed by Schwabe, was above the average, the amount
of rainfall under west and south-west winds was greater
than that under south and south-east winds, while in the
years when the number of groups of solar spots was below
the average the reverse of this took place, the amount of
rainfall under west and south-west winds being less than
that under south and south-east winds. The hypothesis
which led to the investigation requires, however, that great
diversity should exist in the relative amounts of rainfall
under different winds at different stations. While at some
the distribution will be similar to that at Oxford, at others
it will be of an opposite, and in others again of an inter-
mediate character; but, whatever may be the nature of the
distribution at any station, the changes to which it will be
subject will take place in a period identical with the solar
spot period. In some localities the changes will be so slight,
123
or so irregular, as not to be immediately referable to any
well-defined law. These points on the surface of the earth
may be regarded as nodal points in the general system of
circulation of the great currents of the atmosphere.
Among the places at which it seemed to me likely that
the law of change in the relative amounts of rainfall under
different winds would be found to differ considerably from
that which prevails at Oxford is St. Petersburg. I there-
fore extracted from the volumes of the Annales de VOhser-
vatoire Physique Central de Russie the amounts of rain
which fell under different winds at St. Petersburg during
the eleven years 1854-64. The results are shown in the
following table : —
Rainfall under different Winds, at St. Petersburg
DURING A Solar Spot Period.
N.
N.W.
W.
s.w.
S.
S.E.
E.
N.E.
Calm.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
lu.
In.
1854
0-800
0-675
3-543
2-101
1-088
0-776
1-041
1-087
1-644
1855
2-056
2-688
1-192
3-688
1-720
0-558
1-509
0-961
1-325
1856
0-313
1-014
6-174
2-331
1-386
1-551
0-535
1-852
0-800
1857
1-871
0-000
2-700
1-640
1-223
0-757
0-181
2-518
1-856
1858
0-213
0-445
2-218
2-441
0-475
2-759
1-025
1-075
1-002
1859
0-375
0-548
4-961
4-371
2-329
2-251
1-038
0-618
0-639
1860
1-400
1-182
2-194
3-088
1-910
2-460
2-469
0-301
0-683
1861
1-861
0-123
6-327
2-681
3-225
2-259
1-376
0-978
0-332
1862
1-045
1-448
3-290
2-717
2-032
1-921
0-497
0-431
0-368
1863
0-332
2-446
2-521
3-390
3-110
1-984
0-512
0-831
0-000
1864
2-171
6-560
3-038
4-580
2-017
7-532
1-201
2-430
0-656
Means.
1-131
1-557
3-378
3-002
1-865
2-258
1-035
1-189
0-846
From the mean values in the last line of this table it
appears that there was a principal maximum of rainfall
under west winds, and a secondary maximum under south-
east winds ; a principal minimum under east winds, and a
secondary minimum under south winds.
In the eleven years 185^-6 4 the number of groups of
124
solar spots, as observed by Schwabe and others, was above
the average in the five years 1858-62, and below the average
in the remaining six years 1854-57 and 1863-64. I there-
fore divided the series of rainfall results into two corre-
sponding series, and, taking the means of the amounts under
each wind, I obtained the following numbers :
Mean Annual Mean Annual
Amount of Rainfall, Amount of Rainfall,
185S-G2. 185i-7 and 1SG3-4. Difference.
Inches. Inches. Inches.
N 0-979 1-257 -0-278
N.W 0-749 2-230 -1-481
^y 3-798 3-028 +0-770
S.W 3-059 2-955 +0-104
S 1-994 1-757 +0-237
S.E 2-330 2-198 +0-132
E 1-281 0-830 +0-451
N.E 0-681 1-613 -0-932
C 0-605 1-047 -0-442
The differences in the last column show that the mean
amounts of rainfall under west, south-west, south, south-
east, and east winds are greater in years of maximum solar
spot frequency than in years of minimum, while the amounts
under north-east, north, and north-west winds, and calms,
are less. Comparing, then, the total amounts which feU under
west, south-west, south, south-east, and east winds in each
year with those which fell under north-east, north, and north-
west winds, and in calms, we have the following results : —
Total Amounts of
Rainfall under
W.,S.Ay.,S.,S.E.,
aud E. wiudB.
Inches.
Total Amounts of
Rainfall under
N.E., N., & N.W.,
winds and calms.
Inches.
1854 8-552 4-026
1855 8-697 7*030
1856 10-977 3-979
1857 6-501 6-245
1858 8-918 2-735
1859 14-950 2-180
1860 12-121 3-566
1861 15-868 3-294
1862 10-457 3-292
1863 11-517 3-609
1864 18-368 11-816
Ratios.
2-03
1-23
2-75
1-04
3-22
6-86
3-39
4-76
3-17
3-19
1-55
CoiTected
Ratios.
2-00
1-67
2-34
3-71
4-49
5-00
3-77
3-71
2-64
Groups
of
Solar
Spots.
79
34
98
188
205
211
204
160
124
125
The mean ratio is 801, and the ratios for the years of
maximum solar spot frequency are all above this mean,
while those for minimum years are all below it, with only
one unimportant exception.
In order now to eliminate as far as possible the effects of
accidental disturbing causes we may take the means of the
ratios of every three successive years, and in this way we
obtain the corrected ratios in the fifth column of the above
table. For convenience of comparison I have added in the
sixth column the number of groups of solar spots observed
in each year by Schwabe, and a glance at the two sets of
numbers will show the remarkably close agreement which
exists between them in the times of their maxima and
minima, which seems to me fully to justify the conclusion
that both classes of phenomena are intimately connected,
either as cause and effect, or as effects of the same cause.
Excluding the amounts of rain which fell during calms
the corrected ratios become : —
1855 2-77 1860 6-42
1856 2-15 1861 4-37
1857 3-32 1862 4-04
1858 5-40 1863 2-80
1859 6-31
It will be observed that the course of these numbers is
almost identical with that of the numbers obtained when
the amounts of rain which fell during calms are combined
with those which fell under north-east, east, and north-west
winds.
The close agreement which has thus been shown to exist
at St. Petersburg between the times of maximum and
minimum frequency of solar spots, and those of the varia-
tions in the distribution of rainfall under different winds,
gives increased value to the results derived from the Oxford
observations, and affords additional support to the hypo-
thesis I ventured to advance in a former paper — that
126
changes in solar activity, and consequently in the magnetic
condition of the earth, produced corresponding changes in
the directions and velocities of the great currents of the
atmosphere, and in the distribution of barometric pressure,
temperature, and rainfall. It is therefore evidently very
desirable to discuss observations made at stations in various
parts of the globe with reference to the variations which
take place in solar activity, and thus to determine for each
station the nature of the changes which take place in the
relations between the several meteorological elements during
a solar spot period.
February 27th, 1872.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.KS, F.G.S, Vice-President of the Section,
in the Chair.
"Results of Observations, registered at Eccles, on the
Direction and Range of the Wind for 1869, as made by an
Automatic Anemometer for Pressure and Direction," by
Thomas Mackereth, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.
The following anemometric results have been obtained
from an instrument made by Mr. William Oxley, of Man-
chester, and which has been exhibited and explained at a
meeting of this Section of the Society. This instrument
records by means of a pencil the range which the wind has
made through the degrees of the compass in 24 hours, and
the exact point or degree at which the greatest pressure
took place, as well as the amount in pounds of such pressure.
From these automatic registrations the mean or general
direction of the wind for any day is easily obtained, as well
as the number of degrees of the compass through which the
wind may have veered. The results presented below are
for one year onl}^, but it is my intention, as early as possible,
to present to the Section the results of the subsequent
127
years, as it is clearly of the utmost importance to all meteoro-
logical research that observations from all kinds of auto-
matic instruments be thoroughly investigated and discussed
In the first table below is represented the number of days
in the year 1869 on which the mean direction of the wind
was on or about the following 16 points of the compass : —
Points of the compass... N XNE NE ENE E ESE SE SSE
Number of days 16 11 14 18 16 13 10 15
Points of the compass... S SSW SW WSW W WNW NW NNW
Number of days 29 32 18 33 46 45 28 21
This shows how the frequency of the winds on the west
side of the compass exceeds the east side ; but this is seen
in a more striking manner when the above days are referred
to the four points of the compass only. When thus reduced
they appear as follows : —
Cardinal Points N E S W
Niimber of days 84*5 56-5 89*5 134-5
The maximum of direction here seems to lie between the
south and the west, and the minimum between the north
and the east; and as I have shown in papers previously
read before this Section that the greatest amount of rain
falls when the direction of the wind is between the south
and the west, and the least amount falls when the direction
of the wind is between the north and the east the coinci-
dence is not without significance.
In the following table is represented the mean number of
degrees through which the wind veered when the mean or
general direction was on or about the given 16 points of the.
compass.
Points of the compass... N NNE
Number of degrees *)
through which the > 107 124
wind veered }
Points of the compass... S SSW
Number of degrees ")
through which the [ 123 133
wind veered j
If the number of degrees of range on the East and West
B
NE
ENE E ESE
SE
SSE
117
148 184 154
143
103
SW
WSW W WNW
NW
NNW
192
195 207 160
163
127
128
side of the compass be added together, it will be seen that
the sum of the degrees on the East side is 1080, whilst the
sum of the West side is 1300, showing a ratio of excess of
the West side over the East of 1-2. But if the degrees for
each of the 8 points on the East side be added to the degrees
of each of the 8 points on the West side the following result
appears : —
^ . , »,, f N NNE NE ENE E ESE SE SSE
Points of the compass j^ g gg^ g^ ^g^ -^ WNW NW NNW
Number of degrees )
tlirougli which the V 230 257 309 343 391 314 306 230
wind veered )
The maximum of these numbers of degrees is found in
the East and West, both severally and conjointly, and the
minimum in the same way in the SSE and NNW. This
seems to show that the equatorial currents take a much
wider sweep over the earth than the polar currents do, or
rather that their oscillatory waves are more extensive.
I have, below, reduced the number of degrees through
which the wind has veered to the four cardinal points, and
they appear as follows : —
Cardinal points N E S W
Number of degrees ")
through which the > 526 578 583 692
wind has veered ... )
This shows that the oscillation increases in the direction
of the sun's course, and attains its maximum at the West
point, or rather between the South and the West, thus that
the maximum of wind frequency is similar in position to its
maximum of oscillation.
The following table represents the ratio of the advance
which the veering of the wind made with the sun's course,
against its retrogression for each of the given 16 points of
the compass : —
Points of the compass... N NNE NE ENE E ESE SE SSE
Eatio of advance with ") -^.^^ g-gS 3-46 2-53 2-06 2-00 104 3-25
the sun 8 course ... )
Points of the compass... S SSW SW WSW W WNW NW NNW
Eatio of advance with I Q.g. ^^Q ^.^g ^.^g ^.^g ^ qq ^.^g ^.^q
the sun s course ... )
i2d
The mean proportion of advance which the wind makes
with the sun's course on the East side of the compass, as re-
sults from the foregoing table, is nearly twice as much as such
advance is on the West side, for the mean proportion of the
advance on the East side is 2*28, whilst on the West side it
is only 1'2L And it seems to show that the progi'ess of the
wind round the compass in the direction of the sun's course
is retarded chiefly by westerly winds.
I may also state that the horizontal movement of the air
has a maximum at a point similar to the maximum of wind
frequency and wind oscillation, for on reducing and refer-
ring the horizontal movement of the air for 1869 to the four
cardinal points, I find the mean values to be as follows : —
Cardinal points N E S "W
Mean horizontal move- ) ._ __ --w --l,
mentoftheair ... j ^1 99 117 117
Thus the maximum lies between the South and the West.
" On Black Bulb Solar Radiation Thermometers exposed
in Various Media," by G. Y. Vernok, F.RA.S., F.M.S.
Being desirous to make some comparisons of the readings
of black bulb thermometers exposed in various media, I got
Messrs. Negretti and Zambra to make me a set of three
thermometers, in addition to the ordinary black bulb maxi-
mum in vacuo.
The glass tubes containing the thermometers were filled
with hydrogen gas, carbonic acid gas, and atmospheric air,
at 82° F. ; the latter thermometer being described in the
tables as filled with compressed air. The instruments were
all alike, the glass tube enclosing them being of equal thick-
ness. The thermometers were all compared with the
Greenwich standard, and require no index error coiTection.
The observations were made in the years 1861 to 1865,
and the period embraced was just four years. Since the
latter year the observations have been discontinued, but the
thermometers remain in the same position they were
originally placed in.
130
In the tables annexed table I gives the mean monthly
readings of the thermometers for each year, with the addi-
tional readings of the black bulb freely exposed, and also
that of the maximum thermometer in the shade.
Looking at the yearly means, the black bulb in vacuo
gives the highest mean reading, the one with carbonic acid
gas comes next, followed by the condensed air one, that
filled with hydrogen giving the lowest temperature.
Examination of the monthly values shows that the maxi-
mum for all the thermometers occurs in July, and the
minimum in January. The minima of the enclosed ther-
mometers read nearly all alike; with the maxima the vacuo
and carbonic acid ones are nearly equal, and the same remark
applies to the hydrogen one and the one filled with com-
pressed air ; the latter agrees with what Tyndal points out,
that hydrogen and atmospheric air absorb heat equally.
Table 3 gives the differences of each monthly mean
referred to the reading of a freely exposed black bulb
thermometer.
In volume 5, page 169, of Symons's " Meteorological
Magazine," there is a paper by Mr. Francis Nunes, giving
comparisons of carefully made black bulb thermometers by
Pastorelli, showing a considerable difference between the
thermometer in vacuo and the one partially exhausted ; his
observations were made in October, and show a difference of
1'2° to 11*5, the vacuo thermometer being the highest of the
two. Mr. Nunes also states that an enclosed thermometer
without any exliaustion reads still lower, being from 0*8° to
12 '8 below the vacuum thermometer.
From my observations the difference between the vacuo
and condensed air thermometers is never very large,
amounting rarely in individual cases to 5'0° to 6'0°, but in
July, 18C5, reached occasionally 10-0° : the mean difference
in July only reaching 4*3°.
I am not aware of any similar series of observations to be
found anywhere else, and thought it might be desirable to
tabulate the values for comparison with any subsequent
series that may be made.
l.'U
TABLE 1.
Radiation Thermometers. — Mean Monthly Maximum
IN THE Sun.
January.
In
Vacuo.
In 1
Carbonic | In
Acid 1 Hydrogen
Gas. 1 Gas.
Con-
densed
Air.
Black
Eulb
Freely
Exposed.
Maxi-
mum
in
Shade.
1862
1863
1864
1865
o
48-0
'45-1
44-3
o
463
45-0
44-1
o
46-4
'44-7
44-1
o
47-8
45-4
44-2
o
44-6
'43-4
43-6
o
43-2
41-9
41-3
Means
45-8
45-1
45-1
45-8
43-8
42-1
February.
In
Vacuo.
In
Carbonic
Acid
Gas.
In
Hydrogen
Gas.
Con-
densed
Air.
Black
Bulb
Freely
Exposed.
Maxi-
mum
in
Shade.
1862
1863
1864
1865
o
54-8
65-0
50-5
50-7
o
53-2
61-9
49-3
51-3
o
53-0
62-4
48-9
5M
o
54-2
62-1
53-6
60-8
o
49-7
55-2
45-5
46-8
o
46-3
50-0
42-0
42-3
Means
55-2
53-9
53-8
55-2
49-3
45-1
March.
In
Vacuo.
In
Carbonic
Acid
Gas.
In
Hydrogen
Gas.
Con-
deused
Air.
Black
Bulb
Freely
Exposed.
Maxi-
mum
in
Shade.
o
o
o
o
o
o
1862
64-4
61-3
60-3
60-7
56-8
48-9
1863
75-7
73-6
72-1
72-1
62-8
52-6
1864
70-6
69-6
68-3
69-1
59-8
48-9
1865
65-3
64-9
65-9
63-1
57-0
44-1
Means
69-0
67-3
66-6
66-2
59-1
48-6
April.
In
Vacuo.
In
Carbonic
Acid
Gas.
In
Hydrogen
Gas.
Con-
densed
Air.
Black
Bulb
Freely
Exposed.
Maxi-
mum
in
Shade.
o
0
o
o
0
0
1862
81-6
76-1
73-6
75-3
70-8
57-5
1863
86-0
83-3
81-2
81-8
69-9
56-2
1864
85-8
83-4
81-9
82-8
76-0
600
1865
92 6
91-3
89-4
89-3
81-5
63-5
Means
86-5
83-5
81-5
82-3
74-6
59-3
132
May.
In
Vacuo.
In
Caxbonic
Acid
Gas.
In
Hydrogen
Gas.
Con-
densed
Air.
Black
Bulb
Freely
Exposed.
Maxi-
mum
in
Shade.
o
o
0
o
o
o
1862
95-7
89-1
86-9
86-3
81-2
64-4
1863
88-4
87-1
86-1
86-6
74-8
61-2
1864
97-5
96;4
95-0
95-8
81-4
66-5
1865
93-7
88-2
87-1
87-9
79-3
65-0
Means
93-8
: 90-2
88-8
89-1
79-2
64-3
June.
In
Vacuo.
In
Carbonic
Acid
Gas.
In
Hydrogen
Gas.
Con-
densed
Air.
Black
Bulb
Freely
Exposed.
Maxi-
mum
in
Shade.
o
o
o
0
0
0
1862
88-9
86-3
84-2
84-8
69-6
58-8
1863
97-2
96-6
93-0
94-1
81-4
66-8
1864
98-9
97-5
94-9
95-5
81-2
66-2
1865
101-8
104-6
99-0
101-0
93-0
72-8
Means
96-7
96-2
i 92-8
93-8
81-3
66-1
July.
In
Vacuo.
In
Carbonic
Acid
Gas.
In
Hydrogen
Gas.
Con-
densed
Air.
Black
Bulb
Freely
Exposed.
Maxi-
mum
in
Shade.
o
o
o
0
o
o
1862
97-8
94-0
91-9
91-8
80'3
66-7
1863
101-1
1007
98-1
98-7
87-3
70-8
1864
100-8
108-6
98-8
98-8
86-0
70-9
1865
110-6
107-2
103-4
103-8
94-4
76-6
Means
102-6
102-6
98-1
98-3
87-0
71-2
August.
In
Vacuo.
In
Carbonic
Acid
Gas.
In
Hydrogen
Gas.
Con-
densed
Air.
Black
Bulb
Freely
Exposed.
Maxi-
mum
in
Shade.
-J
o
o
o
o
0
1862
1863
93-9
93-5
91-8
92-7
83-4
68-7
1864
96-3
94-5
91-0
92-1
80-9
68-0
1865
102-6
97-0
94-8
97-0
81-7
68-7
Means
97-6
95-0
92-5
93-9
82-0
68-4
183
September.
In
Vacuo.
In
Carbonic
Acid
Gas.
In Con-
Hydrogen deused
Gas. Air.
Black
Bulb
Freely
Exposed.
Maxi-
mum
in
Shade.
1861
1862
1863
1864
o
86-5
83-6
79-2
91-7
o
80-9
81-6
78-5
88-4
o ' o
78-5 : 79-6
80-0 80-0
75-2 78-7
84-6 90-1
o
78-5
74-2
70-1
73-3
o
63-9
62-6
58-5
65-2
Means
85-2
82-3
79-6 82-1 74-0
62-6 1
In
Black
Maxi-
In
Carbonic
In
Con-
Bulb
mum
October.
Vacuo.
Acid
Gas.
Hydrogen
Gas.
densed
Air.
Freely
Exposed.
in
Shade.
1861
o
72-6
o
69-7
o
68-9
o
70-9
o
64-8
o
60-6
1863
71-3
68-0
66-6
67-2
61-9
56-5
1863
66-0
66-2
64-6
67-5
62-0
55-9
1864
69-3
66-9
64-9
68-6
61-7
57-0
Means
69-8
67-7
66-2
68-6
' 62-6
57-5
In
Black
Maxi-
In
Carbonic
In
Con-
Bulb
mum
NoTember.
Vacuo.
Acid
Gas.
Hydrogen
Gas.
der sed
Air.
Freely
Exposed.
m
Shade.
1861
o
51-4
o
50-7
o
49-6
0
51-6
o
47-2
o
46-3
1862
46-7
47-0
46-8
46-4
44-9
43-7
1863
53-6
53-4
52-8
54-4
52-3
50-7
1864
53-0
52-6
52-9
52-5
49-1
48-2
Means
51-2
50-9
50-5
512
48-4
47-2
December.
In
Vacuo.
In
Carbonic
Acid
Gas.
In Con-
Hydrogen densed
Gas. Air.
Black
Bulb
Freely
Exposed.
Maxi-
mum
in
Shade.
1861
1862
1863
1864
o
47-2
49-6
49-0
43-2
o
45-3
49-5
49-2
43-5
o
45-3
49-9
48-9
43-5
o
48-0
49-6
49-6
43-4
o
44-0
48-2
48-6
41-9
0
44-8
48-0
48-3
43-2
1 Means
47-2
46-9
46-9 1 47-7
45-7
46-1
184
TABLE 2.
Mean Results of the Four Years.
MONTH.
In
Vacuo.
January 45 '8
February ' 55*2
March | 69-0
April I 8G-5
May ! 93-8
June ! 96-7
July 1102-6
August I 97-6
September 85*2
October 69-8
November 51*2
December 47*2
Annual Means.
In
Carbonic
Acid Gas.
75-0
45-1
53-9
67-3
83-5
90-2
96-2
102-6
95-0
82-3
67-7
50-9
46-9
In
Hydrogen
Gas.
73-4
45-1
53-8
(jQ-6
81-5
88-8
92-8
98-1
92-5
79-6
66-2
50-5
46-9
In Con-
densed
Air.
45-8
55-2
66-2
82-3
89-1
93-8
98-3
93-9
82-1
68-6
61-2
47-7
Bllr. Bulb
freely
Exposed.
71-9
72-9
43-8
49-3
59-1
74-6
79-2
81-3
87-0
82-0
74-0
62-6
48-4
45-7
Maximum
in
Shade.
42-1
45-1
48-6
59-3
64-3
66-1
71-2
68-4
62-6
57-5
47-2
46-1
65-6 56-6
TABLE 3.
Differences from the Readings of the Freely Exposed
Black Bulb in the Sun.
month.
January . ,
February ..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October , ,
November
December.
Means .
In
Vacuo.
In In
Carbonic Hydrogen
Acid Gas. Gas
2-0
5-9
9-9
11-9
14-6
15-4
15-6
15-6
11-2
7-2
2-8
1-5
9-47
1-3
4-6
8-2
8-9
11-0
14-9
15-6
13-0
8-3
5-1
2-5
1-2
In Com-
pressed
Air.
1-3
4-5
7-5
6-9
9-6
11-5
11-1
10-5
5-6
3-6
2-1
1-2
7-90 6-28
2-0
5-9
7-1
7-7
9-9
12-5
11-3
11-9
8-1
6-0
2-8
2-0
7-26
135
" Note on the Relative Velocities of different Winds, at
Southport, and Eccles, near Manchester," by Joseph Baxen-
DELL, F.RA.S.
In November last Mr. Mackereth, F.R.A.S., had an ane-
mometer mounted at his observatory, Eccles, by Mr. Dancer,
precisely similar in construction to that mounted at the
Southport Meteorological Observatory. Regular observa-
tions were commenced with it on the 19th of that month,
and as Mr. Mackereth has kindly furnished me with copies
of his results to the 17th of February instant, I have thought
it might be interesting to compare them with the results of
the observations taken at the Southport Observatory.
During the 90 days from November 19, 1871, to Feb-
ruary 17, 1872, the total movement of the wind was 13696*4
miles at Eccles, and 29848-0 miles at Southport. The ratio
of the mean velocities was therefore as 1 to 2-17, or for
every 100 miles at Eccles there was a movement of 217
miles at Southport. Grouping the daily movements at
both stations according to the mean daily direction of the
wind at Eccles, as shown by Mr. Mackereth's automatic
anemometer and referred to 16 points of the compass, we
obtain the following results : —
Direction
of Wind.
N
Total Movement.
Eccles. Southport.
665-4 ... 1335-8
Direction
of Wind.
S
Total Moi
Eccles.
2855-1 ..
rement.
Southport.
5289-4
N.N.E....
311-5 ... 793-i
S.S.W... .
3356-7 ..
6099-1
N.E
121-0 ... 144-6
s.w
1507-2 ..
3154-1
E.N.E. ...
310-3 ... 572-1
w.s.w...
1473-4 ..
3155-6
E
214-0 ... 581.2
w
184-0 ..
837-5
E.S.E. ...
1105-0 ... 22G7-4
W.N.W..
136-5 ..
1184-2
S.E
360-4 ... 888-5
N.W. ...
72-2 ..
550-8
S.S.E. ...
1023-7 ... 2989-6
N.N.W...
0-0 ..
0-0
Dividing these results into four groups
we have :
—
N., N.N.E
rotal Movement of
., N.E., & E.N.E. Wmds
Eccles.
Miles.
... 1408-2
Southport.
Miles.
2845-6
Ratio.
1 to 2-02
E., E.S.E.j
S.E., 6: S.S.E.
JJ
... 2703-1
6726-7
1 to 2-48
s., s.s.w.
S.W., & w.s.w.
)»
... 9192-4
17698-2
1 to 1-92
W., W.N.W., N.W., & N.N.W
))
,.. 392-7
2572-5
1 to 6-54
136
The ratios of the velocities at Eccles to those at South-
port are therefore greatest with south-west and north-east
winds, and least with north-west and south-east winds.
The great excess of velocity of north-west winds at South-
port is very remarkable.
The results of the above comparison bring out very pro-
minently one of the causes of the great salubrity of South-
port as compared with the neighbourhood of Manchester,
namely, the much greater mean velocity of the wind, in
consequence of which the products of decomposition, and
and offensive matters generally which are injurious to
health, are much more rapidly removed at Southport than
at Manchester.
MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.
February 5th, 1872.
Joseph Baxendell, F.KA.S., President of the Section, in
the Chair.
Mr. Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S., called the attention of
members to the mass of correspondence in the papers on the
origin and spread of Typhoid fever, in which it seems to be
considered as proved that the fever is produced by what are
termed sewer gases, and the germ theory is entirely ignored,
when in all probability it is the true one. The various
gases found in sewers are well known, and if produced
artificially, as they are in various chemical processes either
alone or mixed, are comparatively harmless, even in a more
concentrated form than they are ever met with in sewers,
at any rate they never produce typhoid fever. If the germ
theory be correct the real agents in the spread of this and
other similar diseases are germs or particles, many of them
sufficiently large to be detected by the miscroscope ; these
are met with in sewers, but probably not generated there, and
137
are carried, no doubt, by the sewer gases or currents of air,
and whenever they find favourable conditions produce the
disease. The same effect is produced when impure water
is used for drinking, and this again is an argument in
favour of the germ theory, as it is never contended that the
danger is from any gases in the water.
It is most desirable that these rival theories should be
carefully examined, as the modes of getting rid of the
danger will necessarily differ widely, whichever theory be
accepted ; if it be the germ theory, then water-trapped
drains would prevent the escape of most, if not all, the
germs, but pipes to ventilate the sewers would only diffuse
and spread the mischief
February 26th, 1872.
Joseph Baxendell, F.RA.S., in the Chair.
Mr. Mark Stirrup exhibited sections of shells of moUusca,
showing so-called fungoid growths.
He referred to Dr. Carpenter's report on .shell structure,
presented to the meeting of the British Association, in 1844,
in which especial mention is made of a tubular structure in
certain shells, and he cites the A7iomia as a characteristic
example. In the last edition of "The Microscope," Dr.
Carpenter withdraws his former explanation of this structure,
and now refers it to the parasitic action of a fungus. Mr.
Stirrup showed «ections of this shell penetrated by tubuli
from the outer to the inner layers of the shell, and it is upon
the inner layer that the curious appearance of sporangia,
with slightly branched filamentous processes proceeding
from them present themselves.
The parasitic view is strengthened by the fact that these
markings are not found on all parts of the shell, and are
certainly accidental.
138
Professor Kolliker maintains the fungoid nature of these
tubuli in shells as well as in other hard tissues of animals,
as fish scales, &c.
Wedl, another investigator, considers the tubuli in all bi-
valves as produced by vegetable parasites, and that no other
interpretation can be given.
This view does not seem to be borne out by the section
of another shell which was exhibited, " Area navicula,'' in
which the tubuli are always present, forming an integrant
part ; they are disposed in a straight and tolerably regular
manner between the ridges of the shell; moreover, they
have neither the irregularly branched structure nor the
sporangia.
Erratum. — In the last number of the ''Proceedings,"
p. 99, line 9 from top for '' Regnalt" read Renault.
139
Ordinary Meeting, March 19th, 1872.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.
"Additional Notes on the Lancashire Drift Deposits,"
by E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS., F.G.S., President of the Society.
In two previous papers, abstracts of which are printed
in the Proceedings for 1870 and 1871, the author has given
his views on the high level drift found on the hill sides, and
the lower level beds found between Manchester and Oldham.
He there shewed the difficulty of classing these deposits
under Professor Hull's three-fold division of Upper and
Lower Tills or Boulder Clays, divided by sands and gravels.
In the present communication he took the section of the
railway from Liverpool to Manchester, kindly supplied to
him by Mr. G. B. Worthington, one of our members, running
nearly west and east for a distance of 80 miles, and shewed
the deposits in the cuttings, and journals of shaft sinkings
and bores ; and he then followed the Lancashire and York-
shire line from Miles Platting to near Todmorden, running
nearly north and south for a distance of 15 miles, and
described the deposits found in its sections, and neighbour-
ing pits and bores, and noticed the singular termination of
the drift near to the Rochdale Brick and Tile Works, at
Summit, above Littleborough, in the Todmorden valley.
Commencing with the railway at Edge Hill a considerable
deposit of Till or Boulder Clay is found at a height of 125
feet above the level of the sea. Then comes the rising
ground of Olive Mount, composed of Trias, as exposed in
the cutting, and reaching a height of 186 feet, but showing
little traces of Till. Next succeeds a series of embankments,
affording only one small cutting, chiefly over and through
Till, up to Huyton, where the Trias is covered by that
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc— Vol. XI.— No. 12.— Session 1871-2
140
deposit. We then reach the Lower Coal Measures of
Huytoii; and the Trias to the east of them, on which little
drift is seen. This part is the highest level on the line,
reaching to 205 feet. The Upper Coal Measures of Whiston,
the Trias of Rainhill, and the Upper and Middle Coal
Measures, and Permian beds of Sutton then succeed, all
affording slight traces of Till. East of Sutton we come to
the Township of Parr. There, at a place called Havannah,
on an elevation of 70 feet, in a bore hole, the following beds
were met with : —
ft. in.
Soil and Clay 2 0
White Sand 2 6
SoftClay 1 0
Dark Sand 4 6
Hard Marl 7 0
Quick Sand 6 6
Book Leaf Marl (laminated) 22 6
Gravel, Resting on Blue Metal ... 9 0
55 0
In a boring at New Wint, near Newton race course,
about half a mile to the north of the railway, at a height of
125 feet, the following deposits were found : —
ft. in.
Earth and Clay 6 6
RedMarl 9 6
BookLeafMarl 1 3
Dark Stony Marl 12 0
Toad Back Marl (speckled) 1 9
Quick Sand 1 8
Toad Back Marl 12 4
BookLeafMarl 1 0
Loam 3 0
Dark Toad Back Marl 9 0
BookLeafMarl 4 0
Loam 5 0
141
ft. in.
Toad Back Marl 2 0
Loam 4 0
DrySand 24 0
Gravel 6 6
Brown Eock (Iron Sand) 3 6
Loam 2 6
QuickSand... 20 9
Gravel 1 3
130 6
For these two sections I am indebted to the kindness of
Mr. John Chadwick, Mining Engineer, of Haydock Green.
After passing the Newton Bridge Station, which is only
about 54 feet above the level of the sea, a thin bed of
reddish Till is seen covering the Trias until we reach Park-
side. A considerable cutting is then found, rising to a
height of 111 feet above the sea level, composed of sand,
which extends to near Kenyon Junction, where the Till
again comes in. This is the only appearance of drift sand
seen on the line between Liverpool and Manchester. The
course of the railway is then on embankments over the
thick bed of Till extending all the way to Bury Lane, a
little to the East of which Chat Moss begins. Near Astley
Station, at a height of about 60 feet, Mr. Brockbank, F.G.S.,
in Mr. H. M. Ormerod's cutting, found the following beds,
namely —
ft. in.
Peat Moss 17 0
Sandy Clay, or Loam 1 6
Till, resting on Trias 26 0
44 6
Near to Barton Moss Station the late Mr. William Lancaster,
in a bore, found as under, viz. . —
ft.
Peat 9
Till 45
Sand and Gravel 24
Ked Rock (Trias) • 0
78
142
At Patricroft, at a height of 60 feet the Till is seen, and
was found 15 feet thick in Messrs. Lancaster's coal pit, a
little to the north of the line.
Then come the cuttings in the Trias at Eccles, which
extend to Weaste, where the Till soon comes in at Seedley
Print Works, a little to the north, where, at about 97 feet
above the sea, Till was found 71 feet in thickness resting
upon Trias. The Till extends through Cross-lane, past
Oldfield-road to Ordsall Station, where it is succeeded by
the Valley Gravel across Sal ford to the Victoria Station in
Manchester, and it there again comes in and is found next
the Workhouse, at a height of about 100 feet, as follows : —
ft.
Till, bluish colour 9
Till, brown 2
Brown Gravel 2
Trias 0
13
By the kindness of my friend Mr. Morton, F.G.S., I am
enabled to give a general idea of the drift on the banks of
the Mersey, which may be rightly described as a bed of Till,
about 60 feet in maximum thickness, with a few feet of
sand above and below it. Taking the cuttings on the rail-
way as previously given, the higher parts, such as the
sections through the Trias at Olive Mount and the Trias
and Coal Measures of Huyton, Winston, Rainhill, and Sutton,
although only attaining an elevation of 205 feet above the
sea, we have seen that there is little drift covering those
strata. Tlie deep cutting between Parkside and Kenyon
Junction, attaining an elevation of 112 feet, is the only
place where the sands are found apparently lying over the
Till, but they cannot now be there seen so as to ascertain
whether they overlie or intercalate with it. From ;Kenyon
Junction to Ordsall, Till with Valley Gravels, sometimes
covering it, underlies the whole district, with the exception
of the Trias near Eccles.
143
The term marl is commonly used for Till, or Boulder Clay,
over the greater part of Lancashire. The only places where
fossil shells have been found between Liverpool and Tod-
morden, so far as at present known, are in the Till south of
St. Helens, and in the same deposit at Astley Hall, where
TumteUa communis and Nassa reticulata, and some
fragments of shells have been met with. For specimens
from the latter place we are indebted to Mr. H. M. Ormerod.
Having thus tracked the drift from the banks of the
Mersey to Manchester from West to East, we will follow
the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway in a northerly direc-
tion through Newton, Middleton, and Blue Pits to Todmor-
den, or at least to the Rochdale Brick and Tile Works, near
the Summit Lock on the canal ; for at this point, about 650
feet above the level of the sea, the last traces of the drift
were visible, so far as we could see.
Leaving the Victoria Station, the line crosses the valley
gravel of the Irk, and runs over Till all the way to Miles
Platting, where at an elevation of 183 feet the following-
beds occurred : —
ft. in.
Till 45 0
Sand and Gravel 10 6
55 6
After going on the level for a short distance, the cuttings
throuofh the Till in Newton and Moston are reached. In
the 2nd paper read before the society, the section in the
Moston coal pit close to the line at page 103 is given,
which shows drift beds to the thickness of 184 feet. In a
cutting near the colliery a little sand is seen on a level with
the rails, and with this exception the Till may be said to
continue ail the way from Miles Platting to the Slacks
Vitriol Works, a little to the north of which the section
given at page 184 in the paper before alluded to is
met with. After the embankments near the Middleton
144
Junction are passed, the cuttings expose sand and gravel
through Boarshaw, Three Gates, Thornham, and Blue Pits,
to Rochdale.
At Boarshaw, about a quarter of a mile to the east of the
line, a bore made at an elevation of 450 feet shov^ed the
following beds : —
ft.
Soil 1
Sand and Gravel 5
Marl 15
Sand 35
Marl 13
Sand 10
Marl 3
HardSand 161
243
At Three Gates in Thornham, about half a mile north of
the last bore, at an elevation of 460 feet, the drift was as
follows :
ft. in.
Soil 1 0
Sand 1 0
Marl 10 0
Dry Sand 13 6
Marl 10 6
Quick Sand 33 0
Gravel 1 0
Marl 1 0
Quick Sand 9 0
Marl 21 0
Quick Sand 1 6
Marl 3 0
Dry Sand 5 0
Marl 5 6
Sand 71 0
187 0
145
The two last sections did not go through the drift beds ;
but at a few hundred yards to the north of the last bore,
and at about the same elevation also in Three Gates, the
following beds were found : —
ft. in.
Soil 1 0
Light Marl 4 6
Sand 0 6
Blue Marl 5 8
Sand 11 0
Brown Marl 10 4
Sand 17 0
Blue Marl 7 0
Sand 2 6
Brown Marl 7 0
Sand 4 6
Marl 33 6
Loam 2 0
Marl 2 6
Loam 21 0
Sand 50 6
Hard Stone (Boulder) 1 6
StonyMarl 2 6
Hard Stone (Boulder) 1 0
StonyMarl 30 0
Book Leaf Marl 4 6
Mixture 7 6
Brown Rock
227 8
The elevation of the bore hole was 460 feet above the level
of the sea, and about a quarter of a mile to the West of
Tandle Hill, which rises to an elevation of 750 feet, and is
composed of sand and loam to the top, so probably the drift
beds here may attain the great thickness of 510 feet assum-
ing that the coal measures at the bore and under the hill are
on the same level, a thickness much greater than has bee a
*
146
generally supposed to be found in the county. For these
interesting journals of bores we are indebted to the kind-
ness of Mr. Clarke, of the Middleton estate office.
About a mile to the west of the railway at Blue Pits
station, Mr. Livesey, Mining Engineer, in sinking the Captain
Fold Pit, near Heywood, found the following beds at an
elevation of about 400 feet.
ft.
Marl and Sand 6
Loam 9
Strong Marl 9
Loam 1
Sand 17
Gravel 10
Marl 72
Broken Metals
124
A little further to the north of the last named locality,
and at about the same elevation, Messrs. R-oscow and Lord,
in sinking, found at Greave :
ft. in.
Soil 1 0
Loam and Sand 63 5
Stony Marl 77 9
Sandy Gravel 13 10
156 0
This information was kindly furnished by Mr. James
Stott.
Returning to the railway at Rochdale, few sections of the
drift had been obtained near the town, where it must be of
great thickness in the middle oi the valley of the Roach,
but at Mayfield in Butterworth, to the east of the line, at
an elevation of about 500 feet, the following bore holes were
made in the drift without reaching the underlying coal
measures —
147
?io. 1 Bore.
ft.
Soil 3
Sand 4
Marl 54
Gravel 6
Sand
67
No. 2 Bore.
ft.
Marl C3
Gravel 9
Marl
72
On the west side of the valley of the Roach, at the Nook
Colliery, was found, according to Mr. Livesey
ft. in.
Clay , 5 9
Gravel 2 9
Marl 13 6
Black Stone
2^ 0
For about a mile and a half from Rochdale station the
line runs over embankments, and then two cuttinos throuo-h
the Till are met with near to Bellfield. After these nothino-
is seen on the line until it enters the lower coal measures
at the south side of the Summit Tunnel and continues
through them aU the way to Todmorden; but following
by the side of the canal, the Till is traced to the Rochdale
Brick and Tile Company's works, where it is seen about 12
feet in thickness lying 50 feet above the water in the canal,
which Mr. Eadson, the Engineer of the Company, informs
me is 603 feet above the sea. This deposit of Till, which
lies in a somewhat sheltered place, is of a dark blue colour,
and contains greenstones, granites, porph}T?ies, and other
foreign rocks. In most of its characters it resembles the
ordinary Till of Lancashire except that it contains more
148
rocks, and those of a generally larger size, than are usually
met with in that deposit. It is remarkable that this bed of
drift, although seen and cut through on the hill side about
50 feet above the level of the valley, the latter below and
indeed all the way to Todmorden afforded so far as we
could discover, no more Till. In a paper read before the
Manchester Geological Society in 1842, and published in its
Transactions of the following year, the author stated that
he had little doubt but that some of the most ancient por-
tions of the drift had passed the Pennine Chain through
the valley of Todmorden to Hebden Bridge, by the Summit
VaUey above Littleborough. No doubt that some drift has
passed, as we have ourselves found granites and foreign
rocks at Hebden Bridge and at other places in the valley of
the Calder, but up to this time, so far as we know, no
deposit of Till has been found to the north of the patch
now described.
Professor Hull, F.RS,, in a letter in the "Geological
Magazine," Vol. III., p. 474, alludes to this part of the valley
near where the Till is situated as affording no evidence of
having been excavated by the stream flowing in it at the
present time, and he notices the remarkable flat water-
shedding in the valley. Mr. A. H. Green, F.G.S,, in his
excellent Memoir on the Geology of North Derbyshire and
the adjacent parts of Yorkshire, at p. 131, when speaking
of the passage of the drift across the Pennine Chain, says,
"The valley of the Calder cuts right across the ridge; so
far as we know no drift is found in it at the summit level,
but at Hebden Bridge and at Elland boulders of granite and
other foreigners are found, and at the latter place in fair
plenty." The accompanying wood cut, Fig. 1, is a section
149
across the valley near the Brick and Tile Works, showing
the position of the patch of Till and the bottom of the valley,
above 820 feet in depth, which is a watershed on a flat more
than a mile in length, free from Till, so far as our observa-
tion went, the greater part of the water flowing to the
German Ocean, but some little finding its way down to the
Irish Sea. That Till did once occupy the bed of this valley
near the Brick and Tile Works is pretty certain, or else the
deposit on the sheltered hill side would scarcely now remain
to tell its tale.
There can be little doubt of the valley of Todmorden, at
least that pai-t of it at the summit is an ancient one, formed
long anterior to the period when the Till was deposited, and
that the latter once occupied it and was afterward swept
out on the rising of the land, as is probable from the small
patch left near to the Brick and Tile Works.
Concluding Remarks.
From the sections of drift given in this communication it
is clear that these deposits lie on a very irregular surface of
underlying carboniferous and triassic rocks, for, while we
find little or no drift on strata only 205 feet above the sea
level at Eainhill; at Tandle Hill, near Three Gates, above
35 miles to the north-west, we find 510 feet of drift on Coal
Measures at an elevation of 233 feet ; and, again, 12 feet of
that deposit at an elevation of 650 feet near the Kochdale
Brick and Tile Works at Summit.
How it is that the drift does not reach to so great an
elevation at the southern entrance of the Todmorden valley
as it does at the places 1,300 or 1,400 feet high, shown in
the first part of these notes, is difficult to account for, with-
out we suppose that the land in the former case has not
been raised so much as in the latter since the deposition of
the drift, or, what is more probable, that the latter has
been removed since,
150
The sections of drift now given, extending from near the
sea to almost 50 miles inland, give us no data so as to enable
us satisfactorily to class all the more ancient deposits found
in Lancashire under an Upper and a Lower Bed of Till,
divided by an intervening bed of Sand or Gravel.
151
Ordinary Meeting, April 2nd, 1872.
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS., Vice-President, in the
Chair.
Mr. S. C. Trapp and Mr. G. C. Lowe were appointed
Auditors of the Treasurer's Accounts.
Ordinary Meeting, April 16th, 1872.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.
Among the Donations announced were a number of MS.
Journals and Papers of the late Mr. Thomas Heelis, F.R.A.S.,
presented by Dr. Crompton and Mr. John Heelis. On the
motion of Mr. Baxendell, seconded by Professor Reynolds,
it was unanimously resolved that the thanks of the Society
be given to Dr. Crompton and Mr. John Heelis for their
valuable donations.
The Rev. Joseph Frees ton, was elected an Ordinary
Member of the Society.
The President said that too much attention could not
be called to the drains connecting dwelling houses with
main sewers. Of course in all modern houses it is supposed
that such communications are effectually trapped, so as to
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Society.— Vol. XI.— No. 13.— Session 1871-72.
152
prevent sewage gases gaining access to the houses. How-
ever, it is to be feared many of the so called traps are traps
to catch and transmit disease, and not to stop it. He had
himself, at his residence in Crumpsall, a drain from a sink-
stone communicating with the sewer, and for the last few
years it had acted moderately well, except during sudden
falls of the barometer, when smells would get into the house
in spite of the traps. During the past summer a servant
having found some sewage gases escaping into the yard
from the eyes communicating with the sewer, trapped them.
When he (the President) returned home last autumn he
found the yard quite free from smells, but his house full of
them, the traps in the yard having forced them inwards.
No time was lost in cutting the pipes communicating with
the sewer, so as to allow the refuse water to discharge itself
into the open air and fall into a stench trap communicating
with the sewer. This has effectually stopped all smells
from sewage gases entering his house. The connection of
of house drains with main sewers is no doubt a fertile
source of disease, and in some cases even tlie means of
transmitting it from house to house.
Mr. Richard Weaver, Sanitary Engineer and Chemist, 20,
Nile Street, Leicester, had lately informed him that he (Mr.
Weaver) had some seven months ago visited Sunderland,
then suffering from a smart attack of small-pox. The
sanitary officer and chairman of the Health Committee
stated that the sewers had excellent ventilation. This
excellent ventilation consisted of six openings into chimney
stacks, for the most part at the lower extremites of sewers.
Now, until the fallacy was pointed out, the responsible
authorities considered six openings, promiscuously selected,
153
sufficient for the ventilation of probably fifty miles of
sewers and drains, many of tliem on very steep ground,
and the tide flowing up twice in twenty-four hours.
Mr. Weaver found, as he expected, the epidemic most
severe on the outskirts and suburbs, in places of fine situa-
tion, and open country. Here was street upon street where
the sewage had spared scarcely a house ; and in almost all
was a more or less powerful odour of sewer gas. Now
this was remarkable, and the explanation he discovered,
after some trouble, although the authorities could tell him
nothing of it, that many of these streets had a special
sewer laid down in front of the houses, with a branch run
under the floors of each building, which were filled up with
ashes, and the pipe left open for the purpose of removing
sub-soil water ! The lower end of each sub-soil sewer
joined the mains, contact being supposed to be broken by a
syphon, but as these were never looked at from the day of
being laid, and as no water flowed from the cellars, in dry
weather the syphon speedily became untrapped, and an unin-
terrupted flow of gas proceeded into the houses.
A very good proof of this being the mode of propagation
of the disease was furnished in one half of a street, that is
one side of it, being without any drainage whatever and had
not a single case of small-pox. Now here the privies and
slops overflowed the yard and lane and the stench was most
unbearable, yet this side escaped. Opposite, all was much
cleaner to the eye, but the sewage gas was within the houses
and so was the epidemic. So much for our vaunted sani-
tation !
Now assuming this statement of Mr. Weaver's to be true,
it appears that in some cases the germs or particles of
154
disease are communicated by drains and sewers from
house to house, and that untrapped or badty trapped ones
are far worse than having no drains at all.
"On a new Theory explanatory of the Phenomena exhi-
bited by Comets," by David Winstanley, Esq.
An explanation of the phenomena exhibited by cometary
bodies seems to have been generally sought for amongst the
most hidden of nature's operations, indeed inventors of
theories would appear to have taken it as an axiom that the
extraordinary and imposing aspects which are frequently
presented by the heavenly bodies in question can only be
explained by the operation of natural laws which here we
do not know, by the existence of chemical substances which
here we have not got, or by the presence elsewhere of con-
ditions which here we do not find. To me it does not seem
that the causes of cometary appearances are of necessity
deeply hidden, nor that the invention of new natural laws,
new chemical substances or new conditions of matter offers
us a more philosophical or even a more handy means of
accounting for those appearances than without them we
already possess.
It is undoubtedly in the presence and the configuration
of their tails that we recognise the greatest visible differ-
ences from the planets which comets exhibit. But these
visible differences curious and interesting as they are when
present are sometimes wholly wanting, ofttimes merely
rudimentary, and when existing are continually altering
their dimensions and their forms. There are, however, two
points in which comets constantly differ from the other
members of our system, and these points are to be found in
155
the smallness of their mass and the eccentricity of their
orbital paths. It is in these ever present points of dissimi-
larity that I apprehend we shall find the cause of those
visible, those varying, and those incidental differences from
the planets, with which the term comet has become insepar-
ably associated. It has not been observed that the smallest
comets are most remarkable for their phenomena or their
aspects. On the contrary the larger bodies of the class have
always presented the most striking appearances, whence I
infer that though these appearances are beheld only in con-
nection with bodies of comparatively trivial mass, yet that
insignificance of mass is not the primary element in the
formation of the phenomena under consideration. The
eccentricity of their orbits however having been a noticeable
feature in connection with all the most remarkable comets,
it is in this particular and the circumstances which accom-
pany it, that I think the clue will be found to a solution of
the enigma of their aspects. The most obvious difference
from the planets which we might expect in the case of a
comet on account of the smallness of its mass would be the
feeble coercion of the elastic power of its gaseous parts and
the consequent voluminous development of its atmosphere,
whilst the eccentricity of its orbit would undoubtedly give
rise to enormous changes in temperature of the particles
composing it. It is in this extension of atmosphere and
in the suddenness and violence of these thermal changes
that I think it possible to find an explanation of almost
every one of those appearances which are peculiar to comets
as the ordinary and every day phenomena of their meteor-
ology.
Suppose for instance we have a planetary body composed
156
of such materials as the earth is made of and as the spectro-
scope indicates as entering into the composition of the sun,
and suppose this planetary body to be in comparison Avith
with our globe extremely small in mass, and located at such
a distance from the sun as to be sensibly affected by his
rays, say for instance within Saturn's orbit, and sup2)0se
further that it is retained at that distance until such changes
as would be produced by the temperature to which it is
there subjected are fully realised. We should then have a
central mass of more or less solid material surrounded by
an attenuated atmosphere of such substances as are gaseous
at the particular temperature there prevailing and under
the particular pressure exercised by the gravitation of the
central mass. Now let us suppose our planetary body to
be moved to another position considerably nearer to the
sun, and so subjected more largely to the influence of his
rays. An augmentation of its atmosphere would imme-
diately be commenced. Materials non-volatilisable at its
previous temperature would be raised into the gaseous form.
The volume of its atmosphere would be increased whilst the
planet's coercive power over its elasticity would be dimi-
nished. But let us suppose our planetary body to be once
more replaced in its former position and subjected to the
lesser of the two temperatures we have been considering.
The solar heat will now no longer be able to maintain all
that matter in the gaseous form which has been evaporated at
the shorter of the two distances from the sun. A condensa-
tion will accordingly be commenced through a greater or
less extent of the cometary atmos2)liere, and a more or less
dense nebulous mass will surround the central stellar
point. This nebulosity will be again evaporated into
157
transparent gas upon the removal of the body it surrounds
to its second position nearer to the sun. But the atmo-
spheric condensation into cloud-like mist which follows the
removal of our little planet from the influence of the solar
rays would also result from the removal of those solar rays
from that little planet, such for instance as would be caused
by the interposition of one of the planets. Under these
circumstances a precipitation of misty material would take
place, a precipitation which would as before be dissipated at
the termination of the eclipse.
A comet, however, is not circumstanced as our hypothe-
tical planet has been. It is not placed at some given
distance from the sun and allowed to remain there until
the maximum thermal efl'ect has been produced, and then
removed elsewhere. It is continually altering its distance
from the sun, and, apart from any axial rotation it may
have, is continually presenting a fresh aspect to the opera-
tion of the solar heat. Yapourised materials issue from its
heated surface in jets like steam, and rise towards the sun
into the cooler atmosphere above, where they lose a portion
of their heat, become partially condensed, and form a canopy
of cloud, which, when viewed from the side by the inhabi-
tants of another planet, presents the appearance of a
crescent with horns turned from the sun of a hemisphere or
a sphere of nebulous matter, according to the amount and
aggTegation of the misty particles. As the comet approaches
its perihelion this misty canopy is dissipated as transparent
gas into the upper and surrounding regions of its atmosphere
by the ever increasing power of the sun, whilst fresh jets of
steam arise from the heated surface of the central mass and
replenish the stratum of clouds. It is not diflicult to find
158
an interpretation of the existence of a number of these
cloudy strata floating in the comet's atmosphere in con-
centric rings around its central mass in the presence of
atmospheric ingredients of diflferent chemical constitu-
tion, or in supplies of vapour furnished from the same
source at different intervals of time as indicated in the
alternate violent action and total cessation of the steamy
jets which have been observed to take place. But whilst
all this is going on upon the anterior or sunward side
of the comet, there is quite another state of affairs on the
opposite side. There the planetary mass and its cloudy
canopies project their shadows and their shades into a
vast conoidal space beyond, a space in which total and
partial eclipses of the sun prevail, where the influence of
the solar rays is felt with mitigated force, and where, con-
sequently, a misty precipitation is formed, which becomes
illuminated in the penumbra by the direct rays of the par-
tially eclipsed sun, and throughout its whole extent by
the scattered beams which penetrate the bank of filmy
clouds floating over the central planetary mass, and stretch-
ing away in a direction from the sun, forms that illumi-
nated appendage known as the cometary tail.
It will be perceived, however, that though condensation
would be commenced, where the temperature was sufficiently
mitigated, throughout the whole of that coniodal space,
darkened by the intervention of the planet and its clouds,
yet, when once commenced, the inner particles of cloud
being largely protected from further radiation by those
external to them, the sum total of condensation would be
almost confined to an annular space near the circumference
of the shadow, in short, the misty cloud would have the
159
form of a hollow cone, which would account for the
frequently observed apparent division of the tail into two
lateral branches, for this hollow envelope being oblique to
the line of sight at its borders a greater depth of illuminated
matter would there be exposed to the eye.
As the comet proceeds along its path it will project a
newer shadow at an angle from that which it has already
cast, the mist formed in which latter will be dispelled by
the unimpeded action of the solar rays, whilst another
portion of the comet's atmosphere will suffer partial con-
densation, thus causing the formation of a new tail and the
dissipation of the old one to take place simultaneously, and
accounting for the enormous sweep which the tail makes
round the sun in perihelio in the manner of a rigid rod, and
in seeming defiance of gravitation and all mechanical law.
The extent to which condensation in the cometary atmos-
phere will take place will obviously depend, amongst other
things, on the difference of temperature within and without
the shadow, and on the length of time during which that
difference of temperature is allowed to operate. Now the
further from the nucleus we go the fainter and the more
diffuse the shadow will become; and apart from this, as
well as in consequence thereof, the less the difference of
temperature within and without that shade, and the longer
the time required to effect a condensation. Accordingly
the axis of the conoidal envelope will lag behind the axis
of the shadow, the more so as we recede from the nucleus,
thus producing the observed convexity on the tail's orbital
preceding side.
The further we are from the nucleus, however, and for the
same reason, the longer will be the time required to evapo-
160
rats the mist already precipitated, and the further, there-
fore, will be the point at which the mist is cleared from
that at which it was condensed, thus accounting for the
retrograde curvature of the posterior edge of the appendage,
and for the excess of this curvature over that of the opposite
side.
The angular separation of the front and rear edges of the
tail will clearly be regulated, amongst other things, by the
angular capacity of the shadow in which that tail is formed,
which increases with the comet's proximity to the sun.
Accordingly we should expect this angular separation to
be at its greatest in perihelio, which as a matter of fact has
been observed to be the case. Particular attention was
called to this phenomenon in the instance of Donati's comet
in 1858, and beautiful plates illustrative of it are given
in the 30th volume of the Astronomical Society's memoirs
by Prof Challis and Mr. Warren De la Rue.
The fact that the maximum length and splendour of a
comet's tail is attained not at but after the passage of the
perihelion is only what we might reasonably expect, for,
as we know, time is required in which to produce any
physical change, and consequently that augmentation of the
cometary atmosphere resulting from the heat received in
perilielio must necessarily be produced some time after that
heat has been received, and therefore after the perihelion
passage.
The diminution in size which the nucleus of a comet
undergoes as it approaches the sun, and the subsequent
expansion which takes place as it recedes from it, a diminu-
tion and expansion which are contemporaneous with, but
reversed in order to, the dilation and contraction of the
161
tail, follow as a corroUary to the theory I have laid down,
and seem to me strongly to indicate that the tail is really a
material appendage of the comet, and not an effect produced
by it upon any medium through which it may be supposed
to move.
It may be said in objection to my theory that comets are
not made up of such chemical substances as I have instanced
in the case of the hypothetical planet, to which I would
reply, " Nor need they be." The theory in question only
requires that they should be composed, at any rate in part,
of materials evaporable by heat aud whose vapours are con-
densible by cold, and this I think, apart from being an
almost self-evident proposition, the spectroscope has shown
to be a fact in the instances of the small comets examined
by its aid. It indicates, as I understand, the existence of
heated gaseous matter about the nucleus, and of liquid or
solid material in a state of infinitesimal division in the sub-
stance of the tail.
The six-tailed comet of 1744 will, I have no doubt, be
pointed to as one whose phenomena it is difficult to explain
in accordance with the theory I have advanced. I would
ask those who feel disposed to raise this objection to examine
the evidence upon which it is affirmed that the comet in
question was really possessed of a multiple tail. To my
own thinking that evidence is so far from being conclusive
that it would be premature to offer an explanation of the
phenomenon before the appearance of another comet, unmis-
takably presenting the peculiarities attributed to that of
1744.
There are instances on reliable record in which comets
have been known to present two tails curved in opposite
162
directions, others in which the solitary appendage has shown
no sign of curvature, and some in which two appendages
have existed at the same time, but separated by a larger
angle than seems consistent with the meteorological theory.
These instances, however, form the small exception and not
the rule, and may, moreover, be explained as merely the
results of perspective.
I think I have now said sufficient to enable those who
hear me to form an opinion as to whether the theory I have
propounded is or not likely to prove a satisfactory explana-
tion of some of the more striking of cometary phenomena.
The theory is one which, as I take it, explains more and
assumes less than is common with such theories. Besides
those I have already named, there are other points which I
conceive it fully to account for, but upon which it is quite
impossible for me to touch in the brief space to which I
feel I ought to confine my present remarks. There are
points upon which I am of opinion that the application of
quantities is practicable, and the theory itself I not only
believe to be true, but the truth of it I conceive to be capable
of numerical verification. To these and many other matters I
hope to invite your attention on some other occasion, if you
consider my present treatment of the subject as justifying
any further expenditure of your time.
163
Annual Meeting, April 30th, 1872.
E. W. BixXNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.
Monsieur A. Tr(icul, Member of the Institute of France;
Professor W. P. Schimper, of the University of Strasburg;
Professor Julius Sachs, of Wurtzburg ; H. C. Watson, F.L.S.;
Professor T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. ; John Stenhouse, LL.D.,
F.R.S.; Professor Aclolph Quetelet, of the Royal Observatory,
Brussels; and the Rev. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S., Pro-
vost of Trinity College, Dublin, were elected Honorary
Members of the Society,
The following Report of the Council was re ad by one of
the Secretaries : —
The Council refer with pleasure to the very satisfactory^
condition of the Society's finances as shown by the Trea-
surer's account, the general balance on the 31st of March
last being £340 Os. SJd! against £287 19s. Ikl. on the 31st
of March, 1871.
The number of ordinary members on the roll of the
Society on the 1st of April, 1871, was 169 ; of these two
have resigned, and one has been declared a defaulter ; eight
new members have since been elected, and the number on
the roll on the 1st of April instant was, therefore, 174.
The Council have received from Mr. R. D. Darbishire, the
Secretary of the Natural History Museum Commissioners,
and Member of the Council of Owens College, a letter dated
the 22nd instant, communicating the particulars of a bene-
faction which the late Natural History Society provided for
the promotion of the Study of Natural History in Man-
chester under the guardianship of the Literary and Philo-
sophical Society.
PEOCEEDiNas— Lit. & Phil. Society.— Vol. XI.— No. 14.— Session 1871-2.
164
By deed of declaration of trust, dated 29th January, 1868,
the Natural History Society provided for the transfer to the
Owens College, as the future Trustee of the Museum on
behalf of the public and the professors and students of the
College, of the Society's collections and property, upon there
appearing, to the satisfaction of the interim commissioners
then appointed, sufficient ground for believdng that the
College would be effectually enlarged, placed upon a public
basis, and well housed in new buildings. When this satis-
faction should have been declared, the property was to be
vested in the College upon Trust for sale, and out of the
proceeds the sum of £1,500 was to be payable by the Trus-
tees of the enlarged College to Trustees to be appointed for
that purpose by the Council of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, on such conditions as shall be
agreed upon by the same Council and the Trustees of the
enlarged College (now called Governors) as will provide
for the application of the said sum of £1,500 in the
hands of the said Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society for the promotion of Natural History in Manchester.
The commissioners met on the 10th instant, and after
examining proposals received from the College for a tem-
porary exhibition of the Museum in the new College
buildings now in process of erection in Oxford Koad,
decided upon completing the arrangement with the College.
The Trustees of the College will therefore at once proceed
to endeavour to sell the Peter Street site, to be delivered up
in June, 1873, for money or for rent, as may seem best. In
the latter case it has been agreed between the Commis-
sioners and the College that the College shall pay over £60
per annum as interest at 4 per cent on £1,500 until the prin-
cipal shall have been paid over. It will be one of the first
duties of the new Council to take steps in respect to this
communication.
165
The following papers and communications have been read
at the Ordinary and Sectional Meetings of the Society
during the Session now closing : —
1871.
Oct 3.— " On the High Death Rates of Manchester and Salford,"
by E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS., F.G.S., President.
Oct, 9. — "Notices of Several Recently-discovered and Unde-
scribed British Mosses," by G. E. Hunt, Esq.
"Notes on Dorcatoma Bovistae," by Joseph Side-
both am, F.R.A.S.
Oct. 17. — '' On the Oxychlorides of Antimony," by W. Carleton
Williams, Student in the Laboratory of Owens
College. Communicated by Professor H. E. Roscoe,
F.R.S.
Oct. 31. — "On the Discoveries made in the Victoria Cave," by
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
" Note on the Chromium Oxychloride described by
Herr Zettnow in PoggendorfF's Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, No. 6, 1871," by T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.E.
"On Aurine," by R. S. Dale, B. A., and C. Schorlemmer,
F.R.S.
"Species Viewed Mathematically," by T. S. Alois, M.A.
Nov. 6. — " On Tricophyton tonsurans,^' by Mr. John Barrow.
NoY. 7. — " On Changes in the Distribution of Barometric
Pressure, Temperature, and Rainfall under Different
Winds, during a Solar Spot Period," by Joseph
Baxendell, F.R.A.S.
Nov. 14.— "On the Aurora of November 10th, 1871," by E. W.
BiNNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S., President.
" On the Origin of our Domestic Breeds of Cattle," by
Wm. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Nov. 28. — " Encke's Comet, and the Supposed Resisting Medium,"
by Professor W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
" On Cometary Phenomena," by Professor Osborne
Reynolds, M.A.
" On the Rupture of Iron Wire by a Blow," by John
HOPKINSON, B.A,, D.Sc.
166
A^ov. 28. — " Observations upon the National Characteristics of
Skulls," by S. M. Bradley, F.RC.S., Lecturer on
Comj^arative Anatomy, Royal School of Anatomy
and Surgery, Manchester. Communicated by Pro-
fessor H. E. RoscoE, F.R.S.
Dec. 4. — " On a Plant of Ceyriis grandijiorus (Mill)," by R. D.
Darbishire, B.A., F.G.S.,
" On Xenodochus carhonarius (Schl.), by the Rev. J. E.
VizE, M.A.
" Experiments for Eradicating Tricoiiiliyton tonsurans,'^
by Mr. John Barrow.
Dec. 5. — " On the Distribution of Rainfall under Different Winds
at St. Petersburg, during a Solar Spot Period," by
Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S.
Dec. 12. — "The Illness of the Prince of Wales and its Lessons,"
by Edmund John Stson, L.R.C.P.E., &c.
"Account of a Remarkable Discovery of Prehistoric
Relics in Ehenside or Gibb Tarn, near Braystanes
Station, near St, Bees, Cumberland," by R. D.
Darbishire, B.A., F.G.S.
Dec. 26. — " Remarks on Cotton and Sugar nearly a Century ago,"
extracted from the MS. Journal of the late Mr.
George Walker, by E, W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
President.
'' On the Inverse or Inductive Logical Problem," by
Professor W. S. Jevons, M.A.
1872.
Jan. 9. — " On a Specimen of StauropteHs Oldhamia," by E. W.
Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President.
" On the Influence of Gas and Water Pipes in deter-
mining the Direction of a Discharge of Lightning,"
by Henry Wilde, Esq.
"Once again— tlie Beginning of Philosophy," by the
Rev. T. P. KiRKMAN, M.A., F.R.S., Hon. Member
of the Society.
Jan. 15.— "On Nemosoma Elongata/' by Joseph Sidebotham,
F.R.A.S.
167
Jan. 23. — " On a Crystal of Selenite from the mud dredged out of
the Suez Canal," by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
President.
" On' Mineral Wool, and on the Utilisation of Slag,"
by W. Brockbank, F.G.S.
" A Study of certain Tungsten Compounds, by Professor
H. E. RoscoE, Ph.D., F.RS., &e.
Feh. 0. — " On the Theories of the Origin and Spread of Typhoid
Fever," by Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.
Feb. 6. — '' On the Magnetic Disturbances and the Aurora of
February 4th, 1872," by J. P. Joule, D.C.L.,
F.R.S., V.P.
" On the Aurora of February 4th/' by Mr. Thomas
Harrison.
" Note on the Destruction of St. Mary's Church,
Crumpsall, on the 4th January, 1872, by Fire from
a Lightning Discharge," by Joseph Baxexdell,
F.R.A.S.
"On a Group of Crystals of Calcite and Sulphide of
Iron suiTounding Stalactitic Bitumen," by W. Boyd
Dawkins, F.R.S.
" On the Boiling Points of the Normal Paraffins and
some of their Derivatives," by C. Schorlemmeb,
F.R.S.
Feb. 20. — " On a Specimen of Zi/gopteris Lacattii,''^ by E. W.
Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President.
" Experiments on the Polarization of Platina Plates by
Frictional Electricity," by J. P. Joule, LL.D.,
F.R.S., V.P.
" On an Electrical Corona Resembling tlie Solar
Corona," by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.
'* On the Electro-Dynamic Effect the Induction of
Statical Electricity causes in a Moving Body.
The Induction of the Sun — a probable cause of
Terrestrial Magnetism," by Professor Osborne
Reynolds, M.A.
Feb, 26. — " On Shells of Mollusca showing so-called Fungoid
Growths," by Mr. Mark Stirrup.
168
Feb. 27. — " Results of Observations Registered at Eccles, on the
Direction and Range of the Wind for 1869, as made
by an Automatic Anemometer for Pressure and Direc-
tion," by Thomas Mackereth, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.
" On Black Bulb Solar Radiation Thermometers exposed
in Various Media," by G. Y. Verxon, F.R.A.S.,
F.M.S.
*' Note on the Relative Velocities of Different Winds at
Southport, and Eccles, near Manchester," by Joseph
Baxendell, F.R.A.S.
Mar. 5. — " Further Experiments on the Rupture of Iron Wire,"
by John Hopkinson, B.A., D.Sc.
Mar. 19. — "Additional Notes on the Lancashire Drift Deposits,"
by E. W. BiNNET, F.R.S., F.G.S., President.
A2?r. 16.—'' On the Trapping of Sewers," by E. W. Binney, F.R.S.,
F.G.S., President.
" On a New Theory explanatory of the Phenomena
Exhibited by Comets," by David Winstanley, Esq.
Several of the papers in the above list have already
been printed in the current volume of the Society's Memoirs,
and others have been passed for printing.
The Council notice with regret that the alteration made
last year in the terms of admission of Sectional Associates
has not yet had the effect anticipated, no increase having
since taken place in the number of Associates. Nevertheless
they think it desirable to continue the system of electing
Sectional Associates during another year.
The Libriirian reports that there has been a slight in-
crease in the number of the societies exchanging their
publications with the Society, there being at this date in
England 86 Switzerland 9
Scotland 12 Denmark 2
Ireland 10 Sweden 5
British India 8 Norway 4
Australia and Tas- Italy 14
mania 5 Austria &, Hungary 14
169
Canada 5 Russia 8
United States 28 Spain 2
France and Algeria 56 Portugal 2
Germany 57 Batavia 2
Belgium 5 The Brazils 6z Chili. 2
Holland and Luxem-
bourg 16 Total 352
against 249 at a corresponding period last year.
The 4tli volume of the Society's 3rd series of Memoirs, as
well as vols. YIII. — X. of the " Proceedings," will be distri-
buted in the course of the summer to all the Home and
Foreign Societies with whom publications are exchanged.
The eleventh volume of the Proceedings has been distri-
buted by post in numbers, as published, to all the British
Societies and Honorary Members, the Council having
directed this to be done at the beginning of the session, so
as to give early publicity to the proceedings of the Society.
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171
On the motion of Mr. S. C. Trapp, seconded by Mr. J. A.
Bennion, the Annual Report was unammously adopted.
On the motion of Mr. R. S. Dale, seconded by Mr. D.
WiNSTANLEY, it was resolved unanimously : —
" That the system of electing Sectional Associates be con-
tinued during the ensuing Session."
The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Society and members of Council for the ensuing year : —
ftestb^nt.
JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., &c.
EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.a.S.
EDWARD SCHUNOK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
ROBERT ANaUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., &c.
Rev. WILLIAM aASKELL, M.A.
HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOE, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., &c.
JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.
%xm^xxxzx.
THOMAS CARRICK.
CHARLES BAILEY.
m^n MmhnB of tfee C^wnal
PETER SPENCE, F.C.S., M.S.A.
HENRY WILDE.
ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S.
OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A.
WILLIAM BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.R.S., F.a.S.
BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., F.R.S.
172
"Corrections of the Nomenclature of the objects figured
in a memoir ' On some of the Minute Objects found in the
Mud of the Levant,' &c., published in Vol. VIII. of the Me -
moirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manches-
ter/' by Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.
" On Arsenic fron) Alkali Works," by H. A. Smith, F.C.S.
Communicated by Professor H. E. RoscoE, F.KS.
Some time ago the author laid before the Society the
results of several analyses of the amounts of arsenic con-
tained in different species of pyrites, and in several of the
products in the manufacture of which the acid was employed
At that time he carried his analyses as far as the carbonate
of soda, in which no arsenic was found. The present paper
is supplementary to the former, and he now endeavours to
to show that not onty does the arsenic remain in the
various products of alkali manufacture but even escapes to
the atmosphere.
When the salt used for the production of Hydrochloric
acid is treated with Sulphuric acid, containing Arsenic, the
Arsenic present becomes converted into the trichloride.
This compound is said to be completely decomposed by
contact with water, so that, after passing along with Hydro-
chloi'ic acid gas through the condensing towers, it would
scarcely be expected that any traces of the Arsenic originally
present would be found in the escaping gas. The author
finds this, however, to be the case. A considerable quantity
of the Arsenic trichloride escapes the action of the water in
the condensing towers, and passes, along with a very small
proportion of the Hydrochloric acid gas, to the chimney.
A deposit found in the flue, about 20 feet long, leading
from the saltcake furnace to the condensing towers ; the
coke contained in the towers themselves ; the gas in the
flue leading to the chimney ; and the smoke escaping to the
chimney were all submitted to analysis, and were all found
to contain arsenic.
173
The results are gathered together in the following
tables : —
Table I.
Deposit in Flue leading from Salt-Gake furnace to Con-
densing Toiuer.
Arsenic Trioxide
per cent.
Mean of 9 Analyses = 43-434^
The total numbers in this case were found to agree very
closely, varying only from 39 per cent to 47.7 f^er cent.
This Flue had been working for some years.
Table II.
Coke.
From Condensing Toivers.
Ai'senic Trioxide
per cent.
Mean of 3 Analyses =. 2*886
In this case 10 lbs. of coke was used for each analysis,
and was digested well, first with distilled water and then
with pure Hydrochloric Acid. The towers had been in use
for about a year.
Table III.
Air in Flue.
Leading from Condensing Toiver to Chimney.
Amount of air taken for each analysis = 500 cubic feet.
Amount of air passing = 31,722 cubic feet per hour.
The mean of 12 analyses is here given.
Arsenic Trioxide Arsenic Trioxide Ai-senic Trioxide
per 1,000 cubic feet. per hour. per day.
grains. grains. grains.'
0158 5012 115-134
The arsenic will probably escape either as Arsenious
Acid or as Arsenic Trichloride. If as the latter, it may be
decomposed on coming in contact with the atmopheric mois-
ture into Arsenious and Hydrochloric Acid. -
(2Ascl3+3H20 = AsA4-6Hcl).
174
Table IV.
Specimens of Air.
Taken 10 feet from hotto'ni of Ckhnney.
Amount of air taken for each analysis = 500 cubic feet.
Arsenic Trioxide
per 1,000 cubic feet.
Mean of 9 analyses = O'OSG.
The author did not know the amount of air passing in the
chimney, so he only calculated the amount of Arsenic Tri-
oxide in grains per 1,000 cubic feet.
The method employed for collecting the Arsenic Trioxide
contained in the two last two Tables was very simple. The
air was drawn through three bottles containing respectively
Water, Hydrochloric Acid, and Nitrate of Silver. The gas
was allowed to bubble very slowly through the solutions.
The bottles containing them were capable of holding 40
ounces and were filled about half full.
The idea of Arsenic being present in the atmosphere sur-
rounding chemical works is by no means new. The fact of
its existence in large amounts in the ore from which the
o-reater proportion of our vitriol is made leads one to suppose
that it must find its way into the atmosphere at one place
or another, but the author believes that this is the first time
the comparative amounts have been brought forward.
''■ On Animal Life in Water containing Free Acids," by
H. A. Smith, F.C.S. Communicated by Professor Roscoe,
r.ii.s.
At a time when so much is being written concerning
animal life, its origin, and the conditions under which it
can exist, it was thought it might be interesting to find out
to what extent it was influenced by the presence of free
acid in the water in v/hich it existed, and also to see to
what extent free acid prevented its origination.
17o
The animals upon which the experiments were tried were
the rotifers (rotifer vulgaris).
A certain amount of air was washed with distilled water
and life allowed to originate in the solution, so that it could
be seen at once what influence the amount of acid usually
found in air had upon the life.
As a rule it required five days to bring the rotifers to
perfection. The method of experiment was very simple.
After animal life had been procured in the solution a
known amount of the various acids used was then added, and
allowed to stand one day, this was repeated till enough had
been added to destroy life.
The results of these experiments are embodied in the
following tables : —
TABLE I.
SULPHURIC ACm ADDED.
Time allowed Total Acidity. 1
to stand. Remarks.
Days. Grms. per Litre. |
5
6
7
8
0-065
0-084
0-097
0-153
Animal life very abundant. Rotifers
in very active condition.
No perceptible difference in appear-
ance of life.
Brownish shade evident in water.
Want of clearness in portion ex-
amined. Small 'clots' of vegetable
matter visible. Rotifers lausuid,
seemingly disinclined to move.
Life continued for about an hour,
all traces then disappeared. The
water presented the appearance of
being filled with decomposing and
decaying organic matter, which
was floating about in 'shreds.'
176
TABLE II.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID ADDED.
Time allowed
to stand.
Days.
Total Acidity.
Grms. per Litre.
Remarks.
0-0085
0-0109
0-018
0019
Same as in Table I.
No perceptible difference in the
appearance of solution.
No difference observable.
Life almost immediately extinct.
Fluid still clear. Bodies of rotifers
seen floating in it, but of a dull
opal-like colour, and being rapidly
acted upon by the acid, seem-
ingly becoming "shredded."
TABLE III.
SULPHUROUS ACID ADDED.
Time allowed
to stand.
Days.
Total Acidity.
Grms. per Litre.
Remarks.
5
6
7
8
0-002
0-004
0-01
Life very abundant.
Kotifers more active, causing great
disturbance in liquid.
Life sluggish. Rotifers not inclined
to move.
After 3 hours all life extinct. No
obvious action on the bodies of
animals.
It is very interesting to compare these three tables. The
order of deleterious influence on animal life being first
177
Sulphuric, then Hydrochloric and Sulphurous acids in order,
the action of the two latter being much more distinctly
marked than the action of the former.
In making observations on the amount of free acid
required to prevent origination of life it is found that the
order of acid is the same as above, but that the line is much
more sharply drawn.
TABLE IV.
Experiments on the amourd of Free Acid contained in Water in loTiich Animal
Life can originate.
SULPHURIC ACID ADDED.
Time allowed
to stand.
Days.
Total Acidity.
Grms. per Litre.
Remarks.
8
20
26
0-070
0-074
0-080
Life abundant.
Little or no life.
No life.
TABLE V.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID ADDED.
Time allowed
to stand.
Days.
Total Acidity.
Gnns. per Litre.
Remarks.
5
8
0-0085
0-009
Life abundant.
No life.
Water acidified with 0-0025 grms. Sulphurous acid per
litre was allowed to stand exactly under the same conditions
as the former to see if life could originate in water contain-
ing that amount of acidity, but after standing twenty-one
days no life Avas visible.
178
It is interesting to notice in these last two tables, and the
remark on Sulphurous acid, the sharp line of demarkation
between the amount of acid contained in water in which
life can originate and that which totally prevents origination.
In tlie case of Sulphuric acid we find that the small
amount of 0-010 grms. per litre in addition to the ordinary
acidity completely prevents it, whilst, in the case ot
Hydrochloric acid, 0005 grms. per litre is sufficient. In the
case of Sulphurous acid the author could not get life to
originate in water containing any of that acid,
179
PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.
Annual Meeting, March 26th, 1872.
Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., President of the Section, in
the Chair.
The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Section for the ensuing year : —
^rcsitfcnt.
JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.E.A.S.
E. W. BINNEY, F.E.S., F.G.S. ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S.
Sccrctarp.
G. Y. YERNON, F.R.A.S., P.M.S.
treasurer.
THOMAS CARRICK.
April 23rd, 1872.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S., Vice-President of the Section,
in the Chair.
"Results of Rain Gauge Observations made at Eccles,
near Manchester, during the year 1871/' by Thomas Mack-
ERETH, F.R.A.S., F.MS.
The rainfall of the past year, as will be seen from a table
Peocbedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Yol, XI. — No. 15.— Session 1871-2.
180
presented below, has several peculiarities. The first is that
for the first six months of the year the rainfall was in the
respective months alternately below and above the average
fall. April usually has the least rainfall, but for this year
the fall is one of the heaviest. The second peculiarity is
that the rainfall was above the average to the end of Sep-
tember, and below it to the end of the year, so far below it
as to leave the total rainfall for the year below the average
more than an inch. The number of days of rainfall in the
first three months of the year was far below the average,
but the number of wet days of the summer months almost
as much exceeded the average. The summer therefore may
be properly characterised as a thoroughly wet one. This had
a very injurious effect upon fruit. Through the amount of
cloud and moisture present in the atmosphere the sun's rays
were deprived of the heating power they usually exercise.
The following table shows the results obtained from, a
rain-gauge with a lOin. round receiver placed 3ft. above the
ground.
Quarterly Periods.
Average
of
11 Years.
Days
50
45
51
55
201
1871.
Days,
33
49
57
51
190
1871.
January ..
February
March . . . .
C April
\ May
( June
July
August . .
Seiitember
October . .
November
December
Fall
in
Inches.
1-410
2-927
1-331
3-637
1-982
3-434
3-428
1-934
4-351
4-729
1-519
2-479
Average
of
llYears
2-566
2'360
2-449
2-120
2-04C
2-491
2-630
3-002
4-021
4-231
3-179
3-184
Differences.
33-161 34-269 I —1-108
—1-156
+0-577
—1-118
+ 1-517
—0-064
+0-943
+0-798
— 1-06S
+0-330
+0-498
—1-660
—0-705
Quarterly Periods,
Average '
of I
11 Years. 1
7-365
6-657
9-653
10-694
1871.
5-668
9-053
9-713
8-727
In the next table I give the Ml of rain during the day
from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., and the fall during the night from
8 p.m. to 8 a.m. I have measured rainfall at these times
181
from a gauge with a 5iii. square receiver and 8ft. from the
ground, now for four years, and heretofore I have found that
the night fall almost regularly exceeded the day fall during
the winter months. This year only two of those months
show an excess of night fall over the day. During last sum-
mer the excess of the day fall over that of the night affords
additional evidence of the cause of the cold wet summer we
experienced last year. The excess of the day fall over the
night, and that too chiefly in the spring and summer
months, was 4-136 inches. The greatest day falls occurred
in April and July.
1 Rainfall i Rainfall i Difference
1871. 1 from ' from , between Night
'8p.m. toSa.m 8p.m. toSa.m and
I j Day Fall.
January 1 0*863 0-534
—0-329
February j 1*262 1-700
March 0-938 : 0-388
April ' 2-208 ! 1*365
May 1-235 j 0730
June 1-594 1749
July 2-043 1 1-312
August 1-298 ' 0-624
September 2-137 2-134
October 2'603 2-071
November 1-048 0-471
December 1-193 1-203
+0-438
—0-550
—0-843
-0-505
+0-155
—0-731
—0-674
—0-003
—0-532
—0-572
+0-010
18-417 1 14-281
—4-136
In the next table I present the average day and night
fall for four years. This table shows as previous ones have
done, that on an average the night fall exceeds that of the
day in the coldest months of the year -without exception.
There is another noticeable feature in this average result
that appeared in the three years' average, namely, that the
maximum of greatest night fall happens in February and
again in December. Curious enough, too, in both the three
and the four years' averages June and August have an excess
in the night rainfall.
182
Aa'eeage of Four Years from 1868 to 1871.
Rainfall
from
8a.ra. toSp.m
Rainfall Difference
from 1 between Night
Sp.ni.toSa.m and
1 Day Fall.
January
1-357
0-963
1-154
1-358
1-192
0-813
0-885
1-061
1-836
2-796
1-379
1-817
1
1-383 +0-026
1-526 +0-563
1 042 —0-112
0-963 — 0-305
0-478 — 0-714
0-976 +0-162
0-650 — n-osR
February
March
April
May
Juue
July
August
1-351
1-831
2-719
1-514
2'274
+0-290
-0-005
—0-076
+0-135
September
October
November
December
16-610
16-706
+0-096
"Rainfall at Old Trafford, Maiichesfcer, in 1871," by G. V.
Vernon, F.R.A.S, F.M.S.
The total amount of rainfall in 1871 was 33*228 inches
against 29-551 inches in 1870. The total amount was 2-390
inches below the average of the last 78 years. The fall
occurred ujDon 182 days against 155 days in 1870, and upon
6 days less than the average of the last 10 years.
Luring the two first quarters of the year the rainfall was
in excess, but considerably below the average in the last
two quarters, but especially so in the last quarter.
January, February, April, July, September, and October,
had a rainfall in excess of the average of 78 years. The
excess in April was remarkable, this month having the
smallest mean rauifall, but last year the excess was fully
75 per cent.
March, May, June, August, and November, had a rainfall
below the 78 years' average. The falls for August and
November were unusually small, the fall for August not
reaching one half its usual average, and that for November
being deficient of abouc two thirds its usual amount.
Ill a table annexed I have tabulated the days upon which
rain fell during the last ten years, and the figures show that
it by no means follows that the montlis in which the least
183
rain falls have the fewest wet days. Beginning with the
month in which rain falls upon the fewest days, we have
the following order : May, July, March, April, June, Novem-
ber, August, February, January, September, December,
October. April, in which the least rain falls, comes fourth
instead of first; November, the wettest month except Octo-
ber, comes sixth, evidently showing very heavy falls on
fewer days ; August and February come next one another,
although the former month has about half as much rain
again ; December and October are nearly equal, the latter—
the wet month of the year — carrying off the palm as regards
the number of days pn which rain falls. The number of
days on which rain falls is a very important one, as floods
are often caused by heavy rainfall falling continuously over
a few days during a comparatively dry month. August
and November would be evidently months in which to look
for floods, from the fact that with a rainfall not far below
that of October, rain falls on much fewer days ; this remark
refers especially to November,
Looking at the annual number of days on which rain
falls here, viz. a ten years' average of 188 days out of the
365, it appears that we have rain on rather more than half
the days of the year.
OLD TRAFFOED, MANCHESTER.
Rain Q-auge 3 feet above the ground, and 106 feet above sea level.
Quarterly
No. of
Quarterly
Periods.
Fall
Average
Differ-
Days
'. Periods.
Differ-
1871.
in
of
ence.
Rain-
ence.
Inches.
78
fall in
1870.
1871.
Years.
1871.
78 Years.
1871.
.Tan. ..
3-300
2-515
+0-785
13
)
41
38-
Feb. . .
2-732
2-401
+0-331
17
y 7-204
7-588
+0-384
March.
1-556
2-288
—0-732
8
i
r
April. .
3-517
2-050
+1'467
21
)
^ 7-164
35
u\
May .
2-075
2-303
—0-228
8
8'255
+1-091
]
June..
2-663
2-811
-0-148
15
f
July . .
3-546
3-505
+0-041
25
)
32
52^
August
1-600
3-510
—1-910
11
y 10-285
8-967
—1-318
(
Sept. . .
3-821
3-270
+0-551
16
i
1
f
Oct. ..
4-514
S-8S5
+0-C29
18
)
i 47
48^
Nov. . .
1-407
3-784
-2-377
10
V 10-965
8-418
—2-547
1
^
Dec. . .
2-497
3-296
-0-799
20
1
155
182
33-228
35-618
—2-390
182
35-618
33-228
1 2-39'
184
Days on which Rain Fell, 1862—1871:
Month.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1808.
1869.
1870.
1871.
Means.
January . .
February. .
March
April
May
June
July
August . .
September.
October ..
November.
December .
17
10
18
19
20
22
21
12
18
23
14
24
17
16
12
17
14
22
7
25
24
22
18
21
12
13
13
9
10
20
9
15
21
13
19
17
18
17
13
8
21
18
3
20
16
8
22
20
17
7
9
16
13
26
28
13
20
23
15
12
15
"i
13
15
16
19
22
8
19
21
18
18
16
9
8
6
14
10
24
15
29
21
21
10
14
17
9
8
10
26
19
22
20
18
14
9
10
9
IG
10
8
14
23
12
12
13
17
8
21
8
15
25
11
16
18
10
20
17-4
15-8
13-3
14-6
12-6
14-8
12-9
15-5
17-9
19-7
15-4
19-3
Total . .
218
215
171
153
214
188
188
197
155
182
188-1
it b
185
MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.
Annual Meeting, May (jth, 1872.
Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.R., in the Chair.
The following Report of the Council, and Treasurer's
Account for the past year, were read and passed : —
Your Council have to report that the following papers
have been read during the past session :
1871.
Oct. 9. — " Notices of several recently discovered and undescribed
British Mosses." — Mr. (i. E. Hunt.
" Notes on Dorcatoma bovistcej^ — Mr. Joseph Side-
BOTHAM, F.R.A.S.
Nov. 6. — " On Tricophyton toiisurans.^^ — Mr. John Barrow.
Dec. 4. — *' The flowering of Cereus grandijlorus;.^' — Mr. R. D.
Darbishire, B.A., F.G.S.
" On the occuiTence of Xenodochus carbonariua, Schl.,
near Welshpool." — Rev. J. E. Vize, M.A.
" Further Notes on Tricophyton tonsitrans.'^ — Mr. John
Barrow.
1872.
Jan. 1 5. — " On Nemosoma elongata.'" — Mr. J. Sidebotham, F. R. A.S.
Feb. 5.— "The Origin and Spread of Typhus Fever."— Mr. J.
SiDEBOTUAM, F.R.A.S.
26. — "On Shells of MoUusca, showing Interior Traces of
Fungoid Growth." — Mr. Mark Stirrup.
The number of Ordinary Members of the Section is 38,
and of Associates 12.
The funds of the Society, as will be seen from the accom-
panying balance sheet, are in a satisfactory state.
186
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187
The Election of Officers for the Session 1872-3 was then
proceeded with, and the following gentlemen were ap-
pointed :
W. C WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.
Uicc=^rcsitfcnt3 :
J. SIDEBOTHAM, F.E.A.S.
JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.
CHARLES BAILEY.
treasurer :
HENRY ALEXANDER HURST.
Secretary :
SPENCER H. BICKHAM, Junr.
©f t))c Cnouncil:
HENRY SIMPSON, M.D.
JOHN BARROW.
W. BOYD DAWKINS, F.G.S., F.R.S.,
THOMAS COWARD.
ROBERT B. SMART.
WALTER MORRIS.
ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S,
188
The following is the list of Members and Associates
Alcock, Thomas, M,D.
Bailey, Charles.
Barkow, John.
Baxendell, Joseph, F.R. A.S,
BicKHAM, Spencer H., Jun.
BiNNEY, Edward Wm., F.K.S
F.G.S.
Brockbank, \V., F.G.S.
Brogden, Henry.
Brothers, Alfred, F.R. A.S.
CoTTAM, Samuel,
Coward, Edward.
Coward, Thomas.
Dale, John, F.C.S.
Dancer, John, Benj., F.R.A.S.
Darbishire, R. D., B.A.
Dawkins, VV. Boyd, F.R.S.
Deane, William K.
Gladstone, Murray, F.R.A.S.
Heys, William Henry.
HiGGiN, James, F.C.S.
Hurst, Henry Alexaisder.
ICist of iW:cm&ers.
Latham, Arthur George,
Lynde, James Gasooine, Mem.
Inst. C.E., F.G.S., F.R.M.S.
Maclure, John Wm., F.R.G.S.
Morgan, Edward, M.D.
Morris, Walter.
Nevill, Thomas Henry.
Piers, Sir Eustace.
Rideout, William J.
Roberts, William, M.D.
Sidebotham, Joseph, F.R.A.S.
Simpson, Henry, M.D.
Smart, Robert Bath, M.R.C.S.
Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Vernon, George Yenables,
F.R.A.S.
Williamson, Wm. Crawford,
F.R.S., Prof.. Nat. Hist., Owens
College.
Wright, William Cort.
Bradbury, C. J.
Hardy, John.
Hunt, G. E.
Hunt, John.
Labrey, B. B.
Linton, James.
Xist of ^ssodatcs,
Meyer, Adolph.
Peace, Thos. S.
Plant, John, F.G.S.
RuspiNi, F. O.
Stirrup, Mark.
Waterhouse, J. Crewdson.
LIBRARY,
0^
-•~^'H'
PEOCEEDINGS _^ j.'
ciJ>BjiY
^1 J
OP THE
^o.
^nrrrrr^
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
OP
MANCHESTER.
VOL. XII.
Skssiox 1872—7:3,
MANCHESTEK
PRINTED BY THOS, SOWI.RR AND SONS, RED LION STREET, ST. ANN'S SQUARE.
LONDON: II. DAILLIERE, 219, REGENT STREET,
1873.
NOTE.
The object which the Society have in view in publishing their
Proceedings is to give an immediate and succinct account of the
scientific and other business transacted at their meetings to the
members and the general public. The various communications
are supplied by the authors themselves, who are alone responsible
for the facto and reasonings contained therein.
INDEX
Barrow John. — On tlie Use of Naphthaline in Section Cutting, p, li5,
Baxendell J., F.R.A.S., Hon. Sec— Observations of the Meteoric Shower
of November 27th, 1872, p. 24.
BiNNET E. W., F.E.S., F.G.S., V.P.— Additional Notes on the Drift
Deposits near Manchester, p. 12. Observations of the Meteoric
Shower of November 27th, 1872, p. 23. On some Specimens of
Anachoropteris, pp. 44, 72, 107. On the Quality of the Water
supplied to Manchester, p. 81.
Brockbank William, F.G.S.— Notes on Supposed Glacial Action in the
Deposition of Hematite Iron Ores in the Fm-ness District, p. 58.
On Specimens of Iron Manufactured by the old Bohemian Process
from Hematite Ores in the South of Eiu'ope, p. 72. Notes on the
Victoria Cave, Settle, p. 95,
Brothers Alfred, F.E.A.S. — Observations of the Meteoric Shower of
November 27th, 1872, p. 25.
Broughton S. — On Ball Discharge in Thunderstorms, p. 71.
Dawkins W. Boyd, M.A., F.E.S.— On some remarkable Forms of Stalag-
mites from Caves near Tenby, p. 26. On the date of the Conquest
of South Lancashire by the English, p. 26. On some Human
Bones found at Buttington, Montgomeryshire, p. 30. The Eesults
of the Settle Cave Exploration, p. 61. Observations on the Eate
at which Stalagmite is being accumulated in the Ingleborough
Cave, p. 83.
Gerland Dr. B. W.— Note on Meta-Vanadic Acid, p. 50.
Hardy John. — On the occurrence of Unio tumidus in the Manchester
District, j). 117.
Herfokd Eev. Brooke. — On the Transition from Eoman to Arabic
Numerals (so called) in England, p. 91.
Hurst H. A. — On the Flora of Alexandria (Egyi^t), p. 69.
VI
Johnson W. H., B.Sc. — On the Action of Sulphuric and Hydrochloric
Acids on Iron and Steel, p. 42, On the Influence of Acids on Iron
and Steel, p. 74.
Joule J. P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.K.S., President. — On the increase in the
number of cases of Hydrophobia, p. 41. On an Apparatus for pro-
ducing a high degree of Earef action of Air, pp. 43, 55, 57. On a
change in the position of the Freezing Point of a Thermometer,
p. 73.
Mackereth Thomas, F,K.A.S. — Results of Rain Guage Observations
made at Eccles, near Manchester, during the year 1872, p. 140.
Plant John, F.G,S. — Description of Minerals and Ores from Venezuela,
p. 113. Note on a Fossil Spider in Ironstone of the Coal Measures,
p. 146.
Reynolds, Professor O., M.A. — On the Electrical Properties of Clouds
and the Phenomena of Thunderstorms, p. 34. On a large Meteor
seen on February 3, 1873, at ten p.m., p. 48.
RouTLEDGE R., B.Sc. — On the composition of Ammonium Amalgam, p. 1.
Roberts William, M.D. — Ex^jeriments on the Question of Biogenesis,
p. 52.
ScHUNCK Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P. ~ On Methyl-alizarine and
Ethyl-alizarine, p, 86.
Sidebotham Joseph, F.R.A.S. — On the Destruction of the Rarer Species
of British Ferns, p. 69. Note on an observation of a Small Black
Spot on the Sun's disc, p. 105. Remarks on an Old Microscope,
p. 117.
Smith H. A., F.C.S. — On some points in the Chemistry of Acid Manufac-
ture, p. 20.
Smith Professor Hamilton G. — On the use of iron or bell metal Specula
coated with Nickel for Reflecting Telescopes, p. 105
Smith R. Angus, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P. — On a remarkable Fog in Iceland,
p. 11. On the Action of Town Atmospheres on Building Stones,
p. 19.
Spence James M. — On Collection of Natural History and other Objects
from Venezuela, p. 112
SpBnce Peter, F.CS.— On an Experiment in Heating a Diamond, p. 103.
Vll
Stewart Professor B., LL.D., F.R.S. — An Account of some Experiments
on the Melting" Point of Paraffin, p. 15.
Vernon G. V., F.R.A.S.— IJainfall at Old Trafford, Manclrester, p. 108.
Wilde Henry. — On some Tuiprovements in Electro-mag-netic Induction
Machines, p. 120
Wilkinson T. T., F.R.A.S.— Monthly Fall of Pvain, according- to the
North Rain Guag-e at Swinden as measured by Mr. James Emmett,
Waterworks Manager, Burnley, from January 1st, 18G6, to Decem-
ber 31st, 1872, p. 71.
Williamson Professor W. C, F.R.S. — On some specimens of Astero-
phyllites, pp, 47, lOG.
Meetings of the Physical and Mathematical Section. — Annual, p. 108. Ordi-
nary, p. 140.
Meetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section. — Annual, p. 147.
Ordinary, pp. GG, 112, 113, 117, 145.
Report of the Co?Min7.— April 20th, 1873, p. 110.
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE LITERAEY AND PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY.
Ordinary Meeting, OctolDer 1st, 1872.
Rev. William Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.
Among the donations announced were a beautiful photo-
graphic copy of a fine portrait of the late Mr. John Dawson,
of Sedbergh, by Mr. Westall, A.RA., and a fine photo-
gTaphic portrait of the Rev. Canon Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S.,
Honorary Member of the Society, both presented by Canon
Sedgwick.
On the motion of Mr. Baxendell, seconded by Mr.
Kipping, the thanks of the Society were unanimously voted
to the Rev. Canon for his interesting and valuable dona-
tions.
" On the Composition of Ammonium Amalgam," by R.
Routledge, B.Sc.
The substance now known as ammonium amalgam
appears to have been first obtained by Seebeck* in the
beginning of the year 1808, immediately after Davy had
announced his brilliant discovery of the isolation of potas-
sium and sodium by means of the Voltaic battery. Seebeck
prepared the amalgam by placing mercury which formed
the negative pole of a battery in contact with moistened
carbonate of ammonia. About the same time Berzelius and
Pontinf obtained the like result with solution of ammonia.
* Annales de Chimie, LXYI. 191.
t Gilb., VI. 260, and BihliotJieque Britannique, No. 323, 324, p. 122.
PEOCEEDixas— Lit. & Phil. Soc— Yol. XIT.— No. 1— Session 1872-3.
This discovery they communicated to Davy early in June,
1808, declaring their conviction that ammonia, like potash
and soda, must be an oxide, and that the new substance
was a combination of its metallic constituent with mercury.
Davy* immediately commenced a series of elaborate experi-
ments on the production and properties of the amalgam,
and in an account of these experiments laid before the
Royal Society in the same month he first uses the name
ammonium to indicate the supposed metallic basis of am-
monia. So convinced was Davy that the substance united
with mercury in the amalgam was of a metallic nature,
and that by combining with oxygen it constituted ammonia,
that he was inclined to view nitrogen and hydrogen, if not
as oxides of metals, at least as metallic gases.
Davy discovered that the ammonium amalgam was readily
produced when an amalgam of potassium was made to act
on moistened sal-ammoniac. He found that the electrically
prepared amalgam when introduced into a tube rapidly
evolved gas, which he describes as consisting of "about
two-thirds to three-fourths of ammonia, and the remainder
hydrogen." In another experiment, amalgam obtained by
potassium was moistened with strong liquid ammonia, and
when heated in a tube generated gas which was proved to
consist of two-thirds ammonia and one-third hydrogen.
In the following year Gay Lussac and Thenardf investiga-
ted the ammonium amalgam, and were led to regard it as a
triple compound of mercury, ammonia, and hydrogen. They
found on putting some of the amalgam prepared by potassium
into a tube which was filled up with mercury and then
inverted in a vessel of that liquid, that the amalgam gave
off, in decomposing, ammonia and hydrogen gases in the
proportion of 2i volumes to 1. But the electrically pre-
pared substance gave off the gases in quite another pro-
* Phil Trans., 1808, p. 355.
t Ueclierclies Pht/sico-Ckimiques, I. 52.
portion, the ratio in four different experiments Ijeing nearly
as 28 volumes of ammonia to 23 of hydrogen. These results
were obtained by first drying the amalgam with bibulous
paper, then introducing it into a tube containing a little
mercury, closing the tube with the finger, agitating it for
some minutes with the enclosed air, opening the tube after
inversion in mercury, measuring the ammonia by absorbing
with water, and determining eudiometrically the hydrogen
mixed with the residual air. The amalgam was afterwards
described by Thenard, in his Tixdte de Chimie,^ under the
name of " ammoniacal hydride of mercury."
It is interesting to observe that in 1816 Ampere,^ in the
passage where the now universally received views on the
constitution of ammoniacal compounds are first propounded,
refers to the amalgam. Speaking of the difiiculty of
assimilating the constitution of ammoniacal to metallic
salts, he remarks — ''• This difiiculty would disappear if we
admit that, just as cyanogen, although a compound body,
exhibits all the properties of the simple bodies which are
capable of acidifying hydrogen, so the combination of one
volume of nitrogen and four volumes of hydi'ogen which is
united to mercury in the amalgam discovered by M. See-
beck, and to chlorine in the hydrochlorate of ammonia,
behaves in all the compounds which it forms like the simple
metallic substances." This theory was more fully developed
by Berzelius and was soon generally received, except as re-
gards the amalgam, concerning which various conflicting
opinions were entertained. Daniell, j for example, speaks of
it as a mere mixture of mercury and gases resulting from the
cohesion of the mercury and the adhesion to it of the gases,-
and he cites the absorption of oxygen by melted silver as a
similar case.
* Vol. II. p. 162, 3me ed.
t Annates de Chiniie et de Physique^ II. 16, Note.
% Chemical Philosoplcy^ p. 420.
Grove,* in 1841, made a few experiments on tlie amalgam,
and advanced the idea that it is a chemical compound of
mercury and nitrogen, merely swelled up with hydrogen.
In 1864, Dr. Wetherill-[- performed several ingenious
experiments on the amalgam, Avithout however attempting
any quantitative estimate of its composition. He concludes
that it is not an alloy of mercury and ammonium, and that
the swelling up of the mass is due to the retention of gas
bubbles by virtue of some unexplained action which he
somewhat vaguely refers to catalysis.
In the Annalen der Chemie u. Pharmacie for 1868J is a
paper by Landolt, in which, after pointing out the discord-
ance of the quantitative results obtained by Davy, and by
Gay Lussac and Thenard, he describes a method by which
he attempted a new determination of the relative quantities
of ammonia and hydrogen. He prepared the substance from
a solution of sal-ammoniac, separated from the mercury,
which formed the negative pole, by a porous cell. The
amalgam, when removed from the circuit, was washed in a
stream of water to get rid of the adhering solution of sal-
ammoniac, which always contains free ammonia. It was
then immediately plunged into dilute hydrochloric acid of
known strength, and the hydrogen evolved was received in
a graduated cylinder placed over it, while the ammonia was
estimated by determining the amount of unneutralised acid
in the liquid. Two experiments gave results corresponding
respectively to 2*15 and 2*4 volumes of ammonia to 1 of
hydrogen. These figures of Landolt's cannot be considered
satisfactory, neither nearly agreeing with each other, nor
approximating to the ratio 2 : 1 sufficiently closely to justify
his conclusion that they "completely confirm the results for-
merly obtained by Davy." Indeed Landolt points out a
serious defect in his process, namely, that however rapidly
* Phil. Ma(/., United Series, vol. xix., p. 97.
t Silliman^s Amer. Journal [2], xl., 160.
JSupp. Bd., Ti., p. 316.
5
the amalgam may, after washing, be transferred into the
acid, the adhering water will nevertheless take up some
more ammonia from the continuously decomposing substance
while the hydrogen escapes.
It must be observed that Davy himself appears to have
found a difficulty in obtaining consistent results, for he does
not seem to have ever entirely satisfied himself as to the
proportions of the two gases. These are the words in which
he sums up his observations : — " As it does not seem possible
to obtain an amalgam in an uniform state, as to adhering
moisture, it is not easy to say what would be the exact ratio
between the hydrogen and ammonia produced, if no more
water was present, than would be decomposed in oxidating
the basis. But in the most refined experiments which I
have been able to make, this ratio is that of one to two ;
and in no instance in which proper precautions are taken,
is it less ; but under common circumstances often more. If
this result is taken as accurate ", &c.*
This statement of Davy's being apparently the only
authority for the assertion that the decomposing amalgam
gives ofi*the gases in atomic proportions, and yet being in con-
flict with Gay Lussac and Thenard's results, it appeared to me
desirable to attempt to obtain more exact determinations.
I used amalgam prepared by electricity in the manner
described by Landolt.
A simple mode of eliminating the disturbing eff*ect pro-
duced by the attraction of ammonia for moisture suggested
itself. A U-shaped glass tube was provided,
open at both ends, about 1-4 centimetres in
diameter and having its shorter limb 40 centi-
metres long. At the bottom of the longer
limb, just above the bend, there was an outlet
tube to which was attached a piece of caout-
chouc tubing closed by a pinch-cock. Mer-
<^ cury was poured into the tube until it filled
* Bakei'ian Lecture, 1809.
about two-thirds of the shorter limb^ into which was then
introduced the amalgam after tiie latter had been wiped
with filtering paper. Then into the end of the limb con-
taining the amalgam, a caoutchouc stopper, perforated with
a small opening, was immediately thrust so far that its
upper surface came a little below the rim of the tube. The
decomposition of the amalgam was then allowed to proceed
for a few minutes, during which period any moisture ad-
hering to the amalgam or present in the tube would become
completely saturated with ammonia, and then the two gases
would begin to escape through the perforation in the stopper
in the proportions in which they are really evolved. Mercury
was now poured into the open end of the longer limb until
the amalgam just made its appearance at the top of the hole
in the stopper, which was then closed by pushing in a piece
of glass rod. The evolved gases being now retained in the
tube pressed up the mercury in the longer limb, and it was
from time to time drawn off by the outlet tube to prevent
undue pressure on the stopper. When the decomposition
was complete, which usually occurred in about IJ hours
(but in one case more than 2^ hours were required) the
mercury was brought to the same level in both limbs and
the space occupied by the gases was marked on the tube. A
little mercury was then let out so as to make the pressure
on the gas somewhat less than that of the atmosphere, and
the space above the stopper was filled with hydrochloric
acid diluted with a little water. The glass rod was then care-
fully withdrawn for an instant so that a few drops of the
acid might enter the tube. The ammonia gas present was
of course immediately absorbed, and the mercury having
been again brought to the same level in both limbs, the
space occupied by the residual hydrogen was marked on the
tube. The volumes occupied by the gases were determined
by finding the quantity of water required to fill them from
a burette.
The following are the results of four experiments : —
No. of
Experiment
Volume of
the mixed
gases.
Volume of
residual
hydrogen.
Volume of
ammonia
absorbed.
Volumes of
ammonia found
for one volume
of hydrogen.
1
2
3
4
c.cm.
20-8
18-2
12-8
13-G
c.cm.
7-0
6-2
4-3
4-6
13-8
12-0
8-5
9-0
1-97
1-93
1-98
1-95
I believe these figures are as nearly accordant with the
atomic proportions as could be expected from the means
employed, where the possible error in determining the
volumes might amount to perhaps '2 c.cm.
In another similarly conducted experiment, in which it
was sought to obtain as much gas as possible, the tube was
closed too soon, and the result showed a deficiency of
ammonia, but is otherwise interesting : —
Experiment 5.
Volume of
Volume of
Volume of
Mercury in
Volume of
the mixed
residual
the amalgam.
amalgam.
gases.
hydrogen.
c.cm.
c.cm.
c.cm.
com.
11-8
30-5
49-0
18-0
A new observation on the amalgam has recently been
made in America by Professor C. A. Seeley,* who found, by
subjecting it to varying pressure that its volume changes,
apparently in accordance with Mariotte's law. He employed
simply a glass tube fitted with a plunger, and did not
measure the pressures or volumes. His conclusions were
that the amalgam is a mechanical or physical mixture of
liquid mercury with the gases ammonia and hydrogen, and
that its semifluid consistence is due to the mixture having
the nature of a froth.
Being desirous of submitting Seeley's remark on the com-
pressibility of the amalgam to the test of direct measure-
ment, I subjected the electrically formed amalgam to
pressure in a glass tube 48 centimetres long and I'S centi-
metres diameter. The pressure was applied by connecting
the tube with a syringe, by which air could be forced into
* Chem. Neios, June lOtb, 1870.
8
tlie apparatus, and the amount of tlie pressure was measured
by a column of mercury in an open manometer. There was
some difficulty in measuring the volume owing to the
occasional escape of bubbles of gas, which caused abrupt
alterations of the level. The results obtained are given in
the following table, which also contains a column of volumes
calculated on the supposition that the amalgam is a mere
mixture of fluid mercury and gas, allowance being made for
the pressure on the gas due to tlie column of mercury in the
amalgam itself The extreme case was assumed, namely,
that this additional pressure is represented by a column of
mercury half the height of the amalgam.
No, of
Experiment
Volume of
mercury
in tlie
amalgam.
Atmospheric
pressure in
centimetres
of mercury.
Volume of
amalgam
under
atmospheric
pressure.
The
increased
pressure in
centimetres
of mercury.
Observed
volume of
amalgam
under
increased
pressure.
Calculated
volume of
amalgam
xmder
increased
pressure.
6
com.
14-5
7G
2
c.cm.
21-0
152-4
c.cm.
18-0
c.cm.
17-9
7
11-9
7G
8
23-0
188-2
17-5
17-1
8
11-9
76
8
22-7
200-9
17-0
16-4
9
24-4
76
2
36-2
152-4
31-6
30-9
10
24-4
76
2
31-6
152-4
28-0
27-4
11
13-2
76
2
28-7
152-4
23-0
21-6
12
13-2
76
2
22-5
152-4
18-5
17-2
13
10-4
76
2
18-0
186-3
14-7
13-7
14
10-4
76
2
16-0
186-3
12-8
12-8
15
23-8
76
2
40-4
178-7
33-6
31-9
IG
23-8
76
2
42-0
176-1
33-6
32-7
17
23-8
76
2
42-8
152-6
35-0
34-7
18
23-8
76
2
40-4
177-4
33-3
31-9
19
23-8
76
2
42-2
102-6
38-8
38-5
20
23-8
76
2
42-2
153-6
34-0
34-0
21
23-8
76
2
42-2
177-4
330
32-7
22
23-8
76
2
42-0
201-5
32-2
31-6
23
23-8
76
2
40-2
177-4
32-2
32-1
24
23-8
76
2
40-6
201-5
31-2
30-6
25
23-8
76
2
36-2
149-5
32-6
30-6
26
29-2
76
2
42-0
177-4
36-8
35-4
-27
29-2
76
2
42-0
200-2
36-2
34-7
28
29-2
76
2
40-6
173-6
36-0
34-7
29
29-2
76
2
39-5
198-9
34-4
33-4
30
24'G
76
2
32-0
155-9
29-7
28-4
31
24-0
76-2
34-0 1
177-4
30-4
28-7
Five points
deduced from
the mean re-
sults of expe-
Vol of Mercury! ^^X. riments 15 to
24 having
been laid
Volumes. down in rela-
tion to rectangular axes, the curve (1) which passed through
them is represented in the diagram, which shows also the
curve (2) through five points representing the calculated
volumes, and a line (3) representing volumes corresponding
to the pressures which were applied to the top of the
columns of amalgam.
The diagram and figures sufiiciently show that the com-
pressibility of the amalgam agrees nearly with the supposi-
tion of its being a mixture of gas and mercury, but that it
is, however, somewhat less compressible. This no doubt is
owing chiefly if not entirely to its want of fluidity.
I think that from these experiments I am warranted in
drawing the two following conclusions, viz. : —
1. In the fact of the gases being evolved in atomic pro-
portions, we have the clearest proof that the ammonia and
hydrogen are chemically combined.
2. The compressibility of the mass proves that the en-
larged volume or swelling up is due mainly, if not entirely,
to free gases entangled in it.
In connection with the first of these conclusions arises
the further question whether the NH4 is combined with the
mercury. That it is so combined appears in the highest
degree probable from the apparently uniform difi'usion of
the NH4 throughout the mass, and from the fact that such
a union would be only one additional instance of the innu-
merable cases in which this radical plays the part of a metal.
Seeley says, that if the radical NH4 be contained in the
amalgam at all, it must be in the state of gas. But the
10
figures furnished by niy fifth experiment show, that if this
supposed NH4 gas had the normal molecukr vohime, and
existed in the amalgam from the beginning, a force of two
atmospheres would be required to compress it within the
amalgam. The decomposition therefore is progressive, and
points to the existence of a real compound of NH4 with the
mercury. We may therefore admit, that such a compound
is originally formed, and decomposes rapidly into mercury,
ammonia, and hydrogen, while the gases becoming entangled
in the mass impait to it that remarkable turgescence, which
is not however a property of the original cojnpound (or
ammonium amalgam), 1 nit merely an accidental result of its
decomposition.
As to the cause of the retention of the gases, I am not
prepared to offer an opinion, further than that its explana-
tion would probably involve physical rather than chemical
considerations.
I have to express my obligation to the kindness of Dr.
Roscoe for the use of the appliances of the laboratory at
Owens College, where the experiments were carried out,
and I am also indebted to him for valuable suggestions.
11
Ordinar}^ Meeting, October loth, 1872.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
Ordinary Meeting, October 29th, 1872.
Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.RS., Vice-President, in tlio
Chair.
Dr. K Angus Smith, F.R.S., described a remarkable fog
which he saw in Iceland. It appeared to rise from a small
lake and from the sea at about the same time, when it
rolled from both places and the two streams met in the
town of Reykjavik. It had the appearance of dust, and
was called dust by some persons there at first sight. This
arose from the great size of the particles of which it was
composed. They were believed to be from T^oth to shuth.
of an inch in diameter. They did not show any signs of
being vesicular, but through a small magnifier looked like
transparent concrete globules of water. They were con-
tinually tending downwards, and their place was supplied
by others that rolled over.
Ordinary Meeting, November 12th, 1872.
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., &;c.. President, in the
Chair.
Charles Anthony Burghardt, Ph.D., and Henry Arthur
Smith, F.C.S., were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.
PEOCBEDiNas— Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Vol, XII.— No. 2.— Session 1872-3.
12
"Additional Notes on the Drift Deposits near Manchester,"
by E. W. BiNNEY, V.P., F.RS., F.G.S.
In my classification of the Drift Deposits of Manchester,
printed in Vol. VITI. (second series), is given a fourfold
division of the beds, No. 4, or the lowest under the till,
being termed Lower Gravel, and described as a bed of sand
or coarse gravel having the pebbles contained in it, consist-
ing of the same kind of rocks as those found in deposits
Nos. 1, 2, and 3, well rounded, sometimes but not always
occurring under the till or brick clay.
Professor Hull, F.E.S., in a paper printed in Vol. II. (third
series) of the Memoirs of the Society, states, "Another modi-
fication which we found it necessary to make had reference
to the lower sand (No. 4) underlying the till in Mr. Binney's
classification. We have nowhere been able to discover such
a bed in situ during our examination ; and it is remarkable
that in the section of the drift which was furnished by Mr.
Binney as having been proved at St. George's Colliery,
Manchester, and where it is stated that this sand and gravel
(No. 4) is lOft. Gin. in thickness, there is no appearance
whatever of it in the neighbouring quarries of Collyhurst,
where the till may be seen directly reposing on the Permian
sandstone. I do not however wish to deny that there are
occasional patches of sand or gravel underlying the lower
till, because such bands occur in the till itself My only
object is to remove this member from the dignity of a dis-
tinct subdivision of the drift series, at least till there is
some better evidence of its existence than the reports of
well sinkers, the elasticity of whose system of nomencla-
ture is unhappily proverbial." He then gives his fourfold
division. In a paper of my own, printed in the same vol.
as Mr. Hull's, a list of eleven drift sections is given in which
the lower gravel (No. 4) appears in ten found in Man-
chester.
No doubt, as Mr. Hull states, it is quite true that on the
13
Permian sandstone in the Vauxhall delpli at CoUyhurst the
till is seen resting upon that rock without any intervening-
bed of sand or gravel ; but if any one considered the ex-
posed position of the rock at the last named place when
compared with the sheltered locality at St. George's Col-
liery, there would be no difficulty in conceiving that a bed
of sand or gravel might be removed by denuding causes
in the former, while it would be preserved in the latter.
Certainly this deposit was not given on the authority of an
ignorant well sinker, but on that of the late Mr. Thomas
Hill, an intelligent colliery manager, who was not likely to
be deceived in the change of a bed of till to 10ft. Gin. of
sand and gravel.
In my first paper previously referred to ten other instances
were given of the occurrence of the lower gravel under the
till in and near Manchester, and in the Additional Notes
on Drift printed in the last two vols, of the Proceedings of
the Society other cases are given of the bed having been
found under.
In the present communication more sections are brought
forward, the first three of which are from my own obser-
vation.
In Dantzic-street near the corner of Wells-street, Shude-
hill, the following beds were met with :
ft. in.
Till 18 0
Coarse Gravel 3 6
Broken Rock — Trias 3 6
25 0
The gravel contained rounded pebbles of the size of a
man's head, and is of a coarser description and a duller colour
than I had ever previously observed in the neighbourhood
of Manchester.
At the south end of George-street near Oxford-road,
14
opposite Mr. Jackson's warehouse, the following section was
met with :
ft. in.
Till 26 0
Red Gravel and Sand resting on Trias 4 0
30 0
In a shaft shown me by my friend Mr. Mellor at Lime-
kiln-lane, Ardwick, there was :
ft. in.
Till, about 25 0
Coarse Gravel resting on Upper Coal
Measures ...., 18 0
43 0
At Levenshulme Printworks, in Mr. Aitken's bore-hole :
ft. in.
Till 70 0
Sand and Clay 4 0
Sandy Gravel — Trias. 5 0
79 0
By the kindness of Mr. Alfred Waterhouse I am enabled
to give three sections of the drift deposits met with in ex a-
vating the foundations of the new Town Hall in Albert-
square.
At the south-west angle of Lloyd-street, Albert-square :
ft. in.
Till (hard dry clay) 16 3
Red Loamy Sand 3 0
Running White Sand 0 9
Loam and Sand on Trias 1 6
21 6
At the north-east angle :
ft. in.
Till 17 0
Soft Sand 0 3
Trias 7 0
24 3
15
At the north end Albert-square corridor :
ft. in.
Till 13 6
Light Loam 2 0
Running Sand 0 7
Rough Clay, mixed 2 0
I ine Red Sand 1 6
Shaly Rock— Trias 1 3
20 10
All the above sections show that the lower gravel and
sand is a very variable deposit. Up to the present time, to
my knowledge, no organic remains have been found in it,
and the I'ocks met with have not been so carefully examined
to speak with certainty as to whether or not they are of
the same description as those found in the till and upper
gravels. It may be the remains of a much greater deposit,
which has been denuded before the formation of the till.
Up to this, so far as I know, no scored or striated pebbles
have been observed, although there are plenty of well
rounded rocks in it.
. Whenever any excavations are being made through the
till it is desirable that parties present should carefully ex-
amine the sands and gravels lying under it as well as the
broken rock so often met with on the upper portions of
Triassic, Permian, and Carboniferous beds found near Man-
chester.
The classification of the drift in this district may still be
conveniently divided into, in the descending order: — 1.
Valley sands and gravels. 2. Beds of sand and gravel con-
taining layers of clay and till. 3. Thick bed of till con-
taining beds of sand and gravel. 4. Lower sands and gi'avels.
"An Account of some Experiments on the Melting Point
of Paraffin," by B. Stewart, F.R.S.
The following experiments were made with the view of
ascertaining
16
1st, Whether the melting point of different specimens
of paraffin is the same.
2nd, Whether that of the same specimen remains the
same.
The method of observation adopted in these experiments
was as follows. The thermometer had its stem fitted into
the cork of a colourless glass flask so that when the flask
was corked the bulb was in the centre of the flask, the ex-
tremity of the mercurial column appearing during the
experiment slightly above the cork. The flask was kept
heated to a point slightly below that of the melting point
of paraffin. The bulb of the thermometer was then dipped
for a few seconds into some melted paraffin a few degrees
above its melting point, and while covered with a fluid
coating of paraffin was replaced in the centre of the flask.
The flask being only a very little colder than the bulb, the
cooling was then very slow.
The instrument was placed so that the reflected image of
the bar of a window was seen distinctly in the mercury of
the bulb through the liquid paraffin. One observer carefully
scrutinised this reflected image by a lens, while another
watched the downward progress of the column of mercury in
the stem of the thermometer. As soon as the observer scru-
tinising the image observed a want of definition produced by
incipient freezing, he noted the circumstance to his col-
league watching the column, and thus the exact reading at
which freezing began was ascertained. It was found easily
possible to ascertain this point to one tenth of a degree
Centigi^ade. Four or five separate observations were gene-
rally taken, before each of whicli the thermometer was
re -dipped into the melted paraffin.
In case of any change taking place in the zero of the
thermometer while the experiments were in progress, the
instrument was tried in melting ice before each experiment.
17
The thermometer employed was a standard, constructed at
Owens College, No. 3.
The coating of paraffin surrounding the bulb was some-
times kept from one experiment to another, being always
carefully dried after the bulb was plunged in melting ice,
and sometimes it was removed, but this circumstance did
not appear to affect the results.
It was soon seen that different specimens of paraffin had
very different melting points, so that the research was
directed to the second question, namely, whether the same
specimen retains the same melting point, after being fre-
quently melted and solidified.
The following is a record of the various experiments
made : —
1872.
Feb. 29 Paraffin melted at 45-05.
^^^* ^ n „ (thermometernot observed).
» 13 „ „ at 44-90.
" ^1 J? ,i (thermometer not observed).
V ^Q „ „ at 44-9.
^P^*^^ 11 „ „ (thermometer not observed).
19
« 26 „ „ at 45-00.
-^^y 3 „ „ (thermometer not observed).
" ^^ " " » J? „
» 16 „ „ at 45-00.
» 23 „ „ (thermometer not observed).
June 1
" " '? » 9j
" ^ >' " '» „ „
,y 13 „ „ at 44-90.
The paraffin was melted without an observation of the
thermometer at the following dates — June 19, 27; July 3,
19, 25; Aug. 1, 9, 16, 22, 31 ; Sept. 6, 14, 21, 27; Oct. 8, 17!
Observations with the thermometer were then resumed
Avith the following results :
18
Oct. 24 Paraffin melted at 44-60.
„ 31 ,. „ (thermometer not observed).
Nov. 7 „ „ at 44-70.
„ 11 „ „ at 44-75.
The experiments now described have been made chiefly
by Mr. F. Kingdon, assistant in the Physical Laboratory of
Owens College. The most probable conclusion to be de-
duced from them appears to be that the melting point of
this specimen of parafBn has become somewhat lowered
since the experiments began.
It is proposed to continue these experiments for some
time longer ; but in the meantime it has been thought
desirable to describe the method of research, as this may be
of interest to observers of melting points.
19
Ordinary Meeting, November 26th, 1872.
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the
Chair.
Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.K.S., said that he, like others,
had observed that the particles of stone most liable to be
in long contact with rain from town atmospheres, in England
at least, were most subject to decay. Believing the acid to
be the cause, he supposed that the endurance of a silicious
stone might be somewhat measured by measuring its re-
sistance to acids. He proposed therefore to use stronger
solutions, and thus to approach to the action of long periods
of time. He tried a few specimens in this way, and with
most promising results. Pieces of about an inch cube were
broken by the fall of a hammer and the number of blows
counted. Similar pieces were steeped in weak acid ; both
sulphuric acid and muriatic were tried, and the latter pre-
ferred. The number of blows now necessary was counted.
Some sandstones gave way at once and crumbled into sand,
some resisted long. Some very dense silicious stone was
little affected ; it had stood on a bridge unaltered for centu-
ries, in a country place however. These trials were mere
Peoceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc— Vol, XIL— No. 3.— Session 1872-3.
20
beo'iiinings ; he arranged for a very extensive set of experi-
ments to be made so as to fix on a standard of comparison,
but has not found time.
" On some some i)oints in the Chemistry of Acid Manu-
facture," by H. A. Smith, F.C.S.
The author endeavours to throw some Ught on the interior
economy of the lead chamber as at present used in the
manufacture of sulphuric acid, by making first : —
An expermiental examination of the causes tvhich deter-
mine the action, inter se, of the gases in the lead chamber.
The conclusion come to differed from that generally
received. He believes that action can take place between
dry sulphurous acid and nitric acid gases, without the use
of steam, and showed by several experiments that if action
be commenced between the above mentioned gases it con-
tinues, even in the absence of air, till all the available
oxygen present in the nitric acid has been made use of
He also comes to the following conclusions : —
1. That the Aolume of steam introduced should be less
than the combined volumes of the two gases.
2. That the volume of steam introduced should increase
in proportion to the increase of temperature.
3. That the greatest amount of action between the two
gases (and therefore the greatest }'ield of vitriol)
takes place near the surface of previously formed
sulphuric acid, and that therefore in ' starting' the
21
working of a chamber sulphuric acid should be
run upon the bottom in preference to water, as at
present generally done.
4. That the upper part of the chamber is of use princi-
pally as a ' reservoir/ and that little or no action
takes place between the gases at that part.
The next poiiit claiming attention was : —
The distribution of the gases in the lead chamber.
The following tables will show the results arrived at :
SuLPHUEOTJS Acid. — Table I,
C Length of "i
-< Chanilie"
(. in feet.
-{ Chaml3er r 10 20 30 40 50 60 7
' ■ - t. j
No. 2.
ft. in height, 15
(Entrance.)
No. 1.
ft. in height, 3
(Entrance.)
72% 70to
72%
3%. 8%
46%31to
33%
1P%
29%
J L
25%
28%
26%
18%
C Length of ~1
^0 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 ^ Chamber V
I I I i I I I I ( in feet. )
30%
19%
22%
20%
29to 22%
30%
17% 17%
23%
14%
13%
135
I I I
18%: 18%
8% 1 16%
15 ft. in height.
(Exit.)
3ft. in height.
(Exit.)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Length of Chamber in feet.
No. 1 represents the percentage of acid at 3 feet from bottom of chamber.
No. 2 „ „ 15
SuLPHTTEic Acid. — Table II.
( Length of ") ( Length of ^
J Chamber |- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 4 Chamber }■
( in feet. ) i i j i . i I i i T"! i I i I in feet, j
No. 2.
ft. in height, 15
(Entrance.)
No. 1.
ft. in height, 3
(Entrance.)
1
0%
1
0%
1
6%
.,11
i
18%! 23% 20%
1 1
T
18%
1
16%
1
19%
i
12%
12%
1
7%
1
7%
1
10%
81%
1
89%
1
76%
1
70%
1
68% 67%
1 1
60%
1
56%
i
48%
1
30%
1
38%
1
30%
1
36%
1
33%
1
15 ft. in height.
(Exit.)
3 ft. in height.
(Exit.)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Length of Chamber in feet.
No. 1 represents the percentage of acid at 3 feet from bottom of chamber.
No. 2 „ „ 15
22
Nitric Acid. — Table III.
( Length of ") ( Length uf ^
-I Chamber "- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 -' Chamber V
i in feet. ) "~^ 1 , i , . i i i I i \ T"! i ; i t in feet. )
No. 2.
ft. in height, 15
(Entrance.!
Xo. 1.
ft. in height, 3
(Entrance.)
1
25%
1
18%
1
13%
1
13%
1
8%
1
7%
1
14%
1
13to
14%
1
16%
1
20%
1
7%
1
3%
1
6%
1
6%
8%
3%
1
6%
1
4%
i
4%
1
12%
1
8%
1
17%
1
20%
1
26%
i
26%
J-
15%
1
12%
1
3%
1
15 ft. in height.
(Exit.)
3 ft. in height.
(Exit.)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Length of Chamber in feet.
No. 1 represents the percentage of acid at 3 feet from bottom of chamber.
No. 2
15
23
Ordinary Meeting, December 10th, 1872.
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D, F.RS., &c., President, in
the Chair.
" Observations of the Meteoric Shower of November
27th, 1872."
1._By E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.
On the 27th November last, at Douglas, in the Isle of
Man, my attention was called by an inmate of my house to
numerous meteors in the sky. On going out of doors
about 7.45 p.m., they were seen radiating from a point
in Andromeda and falling in all directions towards the
horizon, some not proceeding far down before they dis-
appeared, whilst others travelled to a much greater
distance. The sky was perfectly clear for three hours,
during which time I observed them, and they ap-
peared in all directions to be equally numerous except
during the last hour. Some were as large as a star of
the first magnitude and others were only just perceptible.
Nearly all of them appeared to leave tails in their course,
which were generally straight, but some of them were
curled. In colour most of them were white or yellowish
white, but some of the larger ones were of a reddish tinge.
At about 7.45 p.m. six were noticed at one time. At 8.45,
on looking at about a quarter of the space of the heavens,
towards the west, I counted during a minute 21, 11, 24,
and 12 respectively. This would give an average of 17 per
minute; assuming that the other three portions of the
heavens afforded as many, and to me the meteors appeared
to be about equally dispersed, so there would be probably
about 68 per minute during the two first hours I observed
pEOCBEDiJfas— Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Vol, XII.— No. 4.— Session 1872-3.
24
them. At eleven o'clock tliey were still frilling, but not so
numerously. The early part of the evening was rainy, but
it cleared up shortly before seven, and I am informed that
meteors were then observed.
On the 3rd December inst., at 8.45 p.m., there was visible
an aurora in the form of a beautiful arch of a yellowish
white colour, extending from east to west and reaching up
to the lower parts of Ursa Major. A slight trace of
streamers was seen on the top of the arch.
2. — By Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S.
The early part of the evening of the 27th of November
was cloudy, and the meteors were not seen till about 10
minutes to 7, when a partial clearing occurred. It soon
became evident that they belonged to a distinct meteoric
stream, and my attention was therefore chiefly directed to
the determination of the position of the radiant point. The
observations were however frequently interrupted by clouds,
and at no time was the sky entirely cloudless. The inter-
vals of observation and the number of meteors whose tracks
were observed with sufficient precision to be of use in the
determination of the position of the point of divergence
were as follows : —
jS" umber of
h. m. li. lu. Meteors.
6 53 to 7 9 G. M. Time Qb
7 21 7 51 54
8 1 8 15 80
8 31 8 34 9
8 49 9 2 31
11 21 11 27 7
11 33 11 54 15
12 7 12 19 10
The total number was 271, and of these 266 had the
points of intersection of their paths in an elliptical area of
12 degrees long and 8 or 9 degrees broad, the centre of
which was in right ascension 22^ degrees, and north
25
declination 44J degrees, neai- the small star Chi Andro-
medse. Three of the remaining five had their radiant point
in the constellation Cassiopeia.
The average brightness of the meteors was equal to that
of a star between the 3rd and 4th magnitudes ; many, how-
ever, were equal to stars of the 1st magnitude, and several
of the finest exceeded the planets Jupiter and Venus when
in their positions of maximum brilliancy. The colour for
the most part was white ; in many, however, it was yellow
or orange, and in several of the brightest it was at first
white and then a deep red immediately before extinction.
Most of the brighter meteors left luminous trains, but
these seldom remained visible for more than a few seconds.
The apparent velocity of movement was decidedly less
than that of the 13th of November meteors.
The paths of many of the meteors were more or less
curved, and many of them formed curves of double cur-
vature.
It was observed that the radiant point appeared to move
to the eastward during the progress of the shower, so that
the mean position, from the observations made up to
8h. 34m,, was about 3 degrees to the west of the position
derived from the observations made afterwards.
The mean position of the radiant point, as given above,
shows that the course of the stream coincides almost exactly
with the orbit of Biela's comet.
3. — By Alfred Brothers, F.RA.S.
The sky at Wilmslow appears to have been less clouded
than at Cheetham Hill, and I may therefore have had a
better view of the display than Mr. Baxendell. From about
5.50 to 8.30 there was very little cloud, and during that
time the meteors were falling very nearly at the same rate.
There was no difficulty in determining the radiant point —
7 Andromedse being about the centre.
26
Probably few meteor showers have ever been seen more
favourably for determining the radiant than this one. The
result of careful counting by myself and Mr. Wilde was that
from 1800 to 2000 per hour were visible to the naked eye.
The N.W. horizon was distinctly illuminated about 8 o'clock
by auroral light, and the whole sky was more or less lumi-
nous during the whole time.
Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., brought before the notice
of the Society some remarkable forms of stalagmites which
he had obtained from some caves near Tenby. In one cave
the calcareous deposit had taken the form of small mush-
rooms standing close together with a stem not much thicker
than a hair, that covered every part of the surface, and
in some places had their tops of a dull red colour, and in
others of a snow white. In a second every pool was lined
with most beautiful crystals of dog-tooth spar, while from
the roof there descended slender stalactitic pillars, some
snow white and others of a deep red, and most of the
thickness of a straw, They stood almost as closely to-
gether as the stems of wheat in a wheat field. In a few
pools where the diip caused constant agitation of the waters
pea-like rounded concretions of carbonate of lime were
formed, some of which, polished by friction, were almost as
lustrous as pearls, and might fairly be termed ' cave-pearls.'
" On the date of the Conquest of South Lancashire by the
English," by W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S.
The most important event in the history of Lancashire,
the conquest by the English, has been either lightly touched
upon by the county historians such as Baines and Whittaker,
or so interwoven Avith the Arthurian legends as to be
almost unintelligible. The date, so far as I know, has been
altoo'ether ionored.
What, however, the modern writers have passed by or
27
misunderstood, may be gathered from certain events re-
corded in the History of Nennius, B?eda's Life of St. Cuth-
bert, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It is possible to fix
the date and the circumstances of the conquest of Southern
Lancashire with considerable accuracy, and to make out the
latest possible time at which any part of the county was
under Welsh, and not English rule, or in other words, was
within the boundary of Wales and not of England. To exa-
mine these points property we must see what relation
existed between the English on the one hand and the Brit-
Welsh on the other.
In the year 449, the three ships which contained Hengist
and his warriors landed at Ebbsfleet in Thanet, and the first
English colony Avas founded among the descendants of the
Roman provincials, who were known to the strangers as
Brit- Welsh. From that time a steady immigration of
Angle, Jute, and Frisian set in towards our eastern coast,
as far north as the Firth of Forth, until in the first
half of the 6th century the whole of the eastern part
of our island was occupied by various tribes, whose
names for the most part still survive in the names of
our counties. The princi^^al rivers also offered them a free
passage into the heart of the country, and the kingdom of
Mercia gradually expanded from the banks of the Trent
until it reached as far as the line of the Severn. The river
Humber afforded a base of operations for the Anglian free-
booters who founded the kingdom of Deira, or modern
Yorkshire, while the rock of Bamborough was the centre
from which Ida, who landed with 50 ships in the year 547
conquered Bernicia, or the region extending from the river
Tees to Edinburgh. The tide of English colonization rolled
steadily westward until at the close of the 6th century the
Pennine chain, or the stretch of hills, heath, and forest ex-
tending southwards from Cumberland and Westmoreland,
through Yorkshire and Derbyshu^e, as far as the line of the
28
Trent, formed a barrier between the Endisli and Brit-Welsh
peoples. Tlie Brit- Welsh still held their ground as far to
the east as the district round Leeds, which constituted the
kingdom of Elmet, while the kingdom of Strathclj^de ex-
tended from Chester as for north as the valley of the Clyde *
The point which immediately concerns us is the time when
that portion of the latter kingdom which comprises southern
Lancashire fell under the sway of the English.
The two kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia had united to
form the powerful state of Northumbria at the beginning of
the 7th century, under the gi^eatest of her warriors, iEthel-
frith. In the year 607 ^thelfrith advanced along the line
of the Trent through Staffordshire, avoiding by that route
the difficult country of Derbyshire and east Lancashire, and
struck at Chester, which was the principal seat of the Brit-
Welsh power in this district.-f* There he fought the famous
battle by which the power of Strathclyde was broken, and
that is celebrated in song for the death of the monks of
Bangor who fought against him with their prayers. By this
decisive blow the English first set foot on the coast of the
Irish Channel, and Strathclyde and Elmet on the one hand
were cut asunder from Wales on the other. Chester was so
thoroughly destroyed that it remained desolate for two cen-
turies, until it was restored by iEthelred and ^Ethelflsed, the
Lady of the Mercians, and the plains of Lancashire lay open
to the invader. In all probability south Lancashire was
occupied by the English at this time, and the nature of the
occupation may be gathered from the treatment of the city
of Chester. A fire, to use the metaphor of Gildas, went
through the land, and the Brit- Welsh inhabitants were
either put to the sword or compelled to become the bonds-
men of the conquerors. It is impossible to believe that the
* See Freeman, Norman Conquest, vol. i., p. 35 — map of Britain in 597-
In this map Elmet is placed in Deira, altliough it did not pass away from the
Brit- Welsh till 616 according to Nennius and the Annales Cambrine.
t Bceda Eccles. Hist. Lib. II. c. ii. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a.d. 605-fO7.
29
Brit- Welsh of Strathclyde, after such a defeat as that at
Chester, could have maintained any position in the plains
of Lancashire. The hilly districts, however, of the middle
and northern portions of the county, would offer positions
from which a defence might be successfully maintained.
We may therefore infer that the boundary of the English
dominion in Lancashire, after the fall of Chester, was marked
by the line of hills extending from Bury and sweeping-
round to join those in the neighbourhood of Oldham and the
axis of the Pennine chain.
This western advance of the Northumbrians was com-
pleted by the conquest of Elmet in 616,* by Eg^dwine, the
successor of ^thelfrith, and in all probability then, or about
that time, not merely the valley of the Aire, but also Ribbles-
dale and the hills of Derbyshire and the district extending
between Elmet and Chester became subject to Northumbria.
The remaining fragment of Strathclyde in the north
still unconquered, embracing Cumberland and Westmore-
land, was finally subdued by Ecfrith, about the years
670 — 685,-|- and with its fall the whole of this county
was absorbed into the Northumbrian kingdom. A passage
in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle under the year 923 proves
that the south Lancashire was called Northumbria. "In
this year after harvest King Eadward went with his forces
to Thelwal and commanded the 'burh' to be built and
occupied and manned, and commanded another force also of
Mercians, the while he sate there to take possession of Man-
chester (Mameceaster) in North-Humbria, and repair and
man it." This passage is of particular interest, because it
presents us with the first notice of Manchester that is to be
found in any English record. At that time it was clearly
not so important as the town of Thelwal near Warrington.
From these notices it may fairly be concluded that south
* Nennius, c. 66, circa 616, 633 a.d. Annales CambrifB, a.d. 616.
t Bseda, Vita St. Cuthbert, c. 37. For this notice I have to thank the Key.
J. R, dreen.
80
Lancashire was occupied by the Northumbrians immediately-
after the battle of Chester, and that the Northumbrian
dominion embraced mid-Lancashire shortly after the fall of
Elmet, and finally that the Welsh occupying tlie more north-
ern portions were subdued about the years G70-685 A.D«
And it must be remarked that the cause of the Celtic popu-
lation of Strathclyde remaining to this day in the portions
latest conquered, in Cumberland and the south-west of Scot-
land, while it has disappeared from south Lancashire, is due
to the change in the religion of the conquerors on the
interval between the two conquests. When the battle
of Chester laid south Lancashire at the feet of ^thel-
frith, the English were worshippers of Thor and Odin.
When Carlisle was taken by Ecfrith, they were Christians
warring against men of their own faith. In the one case
the war was one of extermination, in the other merely of
conquest.
"On some Human Bones found at Buttington, Mont-
gomeryshire," by W. Boyd Dawkins, F.RS.
Among some papers which have lately demanded my
attention, there is one relating to the discovery of human
bones in Buttington Church-yard, a hamlet near Welshpool,
Montgomeryshire, which is worthy of being placed on
record, and being brought into relation with history. In
the year 1838 the late Rev. B. Dawkins, the incumbent of
the parish, made a most remarkable discovery of human
remains while digging the foundations for a new schoolroom
at the south-west corner of the church-yard, and in making
a path leading from it to the church door. He discovered
three pits, one containing two liundred skulls, and two
others containing exactly one hundred each; the sides of the
pits being lined with the long bones of the arms and the
legs. Two other pits contained the smaller bones, such as
the vertebrae and those of the extremities. All the teeth
were wonderfully perfect, and the condition of the skulls
31
showed that the men to whom they belonged had perished
in the full vigour of manhood. Some of the skulls had
been fractured, and the men to whom they belonged had
evidently come to a violent death. A jaw bone of a horse
and some teeth w^ere found in one of the pits, and among
the circumstances noted at the time was the fact that the
root of an ash tree, growing in the church-yard, had found
its way through the nutrient foramen of a thigh-bone, into
the cavity which contained the marrow, and had grown until
it penetrated the further end of the bone, and finally burst
the shaft : the bone and root were compacted together into
one solid mass. These remains were unfortunately collected
together and reinterred on the north side of the church-
yard, without being examined by any one interested in
craniology, the few fragments which escaped reinterment
being merely the teeth, which were sold at sixpence and a
shilling apiece by the workmen, as a remedy against tooth-
ache; for the possession of a dead man's tooth was supposed,
by the people in the neighbourhood at that time, to prevent
that malady.
The interest in this discovery died away, and, so far as I
know, there was no attempt made to bring it into relation
with history, although it offers a striking proof of the
accuracy of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. In the year 894
we read that the Danes, probably under the command of
Hgesten, left Beamfleet, or Benfleet, in Essex, and, after
plundering Mercia or central England, collected their forces
at Shoebury in Essex, and gathered together an army both
from the East Angiians and the Northumbrians. "They
then went up along the Thames till they reached the Severn ;
then up along the Severn. Then Ethered the ealdorman, and
iEthelnoth the ealdorman, and the Kings-thanes who were
then at home in the fortified places, gathered forces from
every town east of the Parret, and as well west as east of
Selwood, and also north of the Thames and west of the
82
Severn, and also some part of the North-Welsh people.
When they had all drawn together then they came up with
the army at Buttington on the bank of the Severn, and
there beset them about, on either side, in a fastness. When
they had now sat there many weeks on both sides of
the river, and the King was in the west in Devon, against
the fleet, then were the enemy distressed for want of food,
and having eaten a great part of their horses, the others
being starved with hunger, then went they out against the
men who were encamped on the east bank of the river
and fought against them, and the Christians had the
victory. And Ordheh a kings-thane was there slain ; and
of the Danish men there was very great slaughter made,
and that part which got away thence was saved by flight.
When they had come into Essex to their fortress and the
ships, then the survivors again gathered a great army from
among the East-Angles and the North-Humbrians before
winter, and committed their wives and their wealth and
their ships to the East- Angles, and went at one stretch, day
and night, until they arrived at a western city in Wirral,
which is called Legaceaster (Chester).
It is evident from this passage that a most desperate
battle was fought at Buttington, between the Danes and
the combined English and Welsh forces. And when we
consider the position of the church -yard, which is slightly
above the level of the fields on the east side, and which
stands out boldly above the stretch of alluvium on the
north side, there can be but little doubt that the battle
was fought on the very spot where the bones were dis-
covered. In the Chronicle we read that the Danes were
compelled to eat their horses. The jaw of a horse was
discovered in the excavations, together with many horse's
teeth. It is therefore almost certain that these human re-
mains l^elong to the men who fell in this battle. We cannot
tell who arranged the bones in the way in which they were
33
found; nor do we know whether they belonged to Danes
English, or Welsh, but it is hardly probable that the
victors would knowingly give Christian burial to their
heathen adversaries. The commanding position offered by
the camp caused it to be chosen by the monks of the neigh-
bouring Abbey of Strata Marcella for the site of the present
church, and it is very probable that they discovered the
relics of the battle, and arranged them in the pits in the
church-yard, after the same fashion as is seen in many
crypts and catacombs.
There is another point of interest in this passage of the
Chronicle. Buttington is said to be on the east bank of the
Severn. Since that time the river course has jmssed to
the westward, at a distance of about a quarter of a mile.
Its ancient course however is still marked by a small brook
running close under the churchyard, and which finds its
way into the Severn by " the main ditch." In connexion
with this I may remark that Col. Lane Fox and myself,
when examining Offa's dyke in the year 1869, lost all trace
of it in passing from Forden northwards, when we arrived
at this stream. The Severn, flowing at that time close to
Buttington Church, would form a natural barrier between
the Mercians and the Welsh, and render the erection of a
dyke unnecessary. There is no material fact added to this
account in the Chronicle of Ethel werd, or in that of
Florence of Worcester, or Hemy of Huntingdon.
It is quite possible to trace at the present time the boun-
daries of the Danish camp. It was defended on the north-
west by the river Severn; on the east by a rampart running
parallel, or nearly so, with the road to Forden; on the north-
east by the church-yard wall; and on the south by the
depression which runs down from the present line of the
Forden road behind the Vicarage garden down to what was
then the old course of the Severn. It may also have
included the site of the out-buildings, opposite to the Green
Dragon Inn.
34
" On the Electrical Properties of Clouds and the Pheno-
mena of Thunder Storms," by Professor Osborne Reynolds,
M.A.
The object of this paper is to point out the three following
propositions respecting the behaviour of clouds under con-
ditions of electrical induction, and to suggest an explanation
of thunder storms based on these propositions and on the
assumption that the sun is in the condition of a body
charged %vith negative electricity : an assumption which I
have already made in order to explain the Solar Corona,
Comets' Tails, and Terrestrial Magnetism.
1. A cloud floating in d,ry air forms an insulated electri-
cal conductor.
2. When such a cloud is first formed it will not be charged
with electricity but will be ready to receive a charge from
any excited body to which it is near enough.
3. When a cloud charged with electricity is dAminished
by evaporation, the tension of its charge will increase until
it finds relief
I do not imagine that the truth of these propositions will
be questioned, but rather, that they will be treated as self
evident. However, as a matter of interest I have made
some experiments to prove their truth, in which I have
been more or less successful.
Experiment 1 was to shew that a cloud in dry air acts the
part of an insulated conductor. The steam from a vessel of
hot water was allowed to rise past a conductoi-, the apparatus
being in front of a large fire, so that the air was very dry.
When the conductor was charged the column of vapour was
deflected from the vertical to the conductor both for a posi-
tive and negative charge.
Experiment 2 was made with the same object as Experi-
ment 1. A gold leaf electrometer was charged so that the
leaves stood open and then a cloud made to pass by the insu-
lated leaves. As the cloud passed they were both attracted.
35
This experiment was attended with considerable difficulty,
as the moisture from the steam seemed to get on to the glass
shade over the gold leaves and so form a charged conductor
between the leaves and cloud. The cloud was first formed
by a jet of steam from a pipe, then by the vapour from a vessel
of boiling water, and lastly by a smoke ring or rather a steam
ring. By this latter method an insulated cloud was formed>
which, as it passed was attracted by the charged leaf.
Of the two latter propositions I have not been able to
obtain any experimental proof I made an attempt, but
failed, through the bursting of the vessel in which the cloud
was to be formed. I hope, however, shortly to be able to
renew the attempt, and in the meantime I will take it for
granted that these propositions are true. Faraday main-
tained that evaporation was not attended by electrical
separation unless the vapour was driven against some solid
when the friction of the particles of water gave rise to elec-
tricity. So that unless there were some free electricity in
the steam or vapour before it was condensed none could be
produced by the condensation, and hence the cloud when
formed would be uncharged.
In the same way with regard to evaporation, unless, as is
very improbable, the steam into which the water is turned
retains the electricity which was previously in the condensed
vapour ; the electricity from that part of the cloud which
evaporates must be left to increase the tension of the re-
mainder. So that, as a charged cloud is diminished by
evaporation the tension of the charge will increase, although
the charge remains the same.
I will now point out what I think to be the bearing which
these propositions have on the explanation of thunder storms.
In doing this, I am met with a great difficulty, namely
ignorance of what actually goes on in a thunder storm. We
seem to have no knowledge of any laws relating to these
every-day phenomena ; in fact we are where Franklin left
36
us — ^we know that lightning is electricity and that is all.
It is not, I think, decided whether the storm is incidental
on the electrical disturbance or vice versa, i.e., whether the
electricity causes the clouds and storm or is a mere attendant
on them. Nor can I ascertain that there is any certain infor-
mation as to whether, when the discharge is between the
earth and the clouds, the clouds are positive and the earth
negative, or vice versa. Such information as I can get
appears to point out the following law : that in the case of
a fresh-formed storm, the cloud is negative and the earth
positive ; whereas, in other cases, the cloud is positive and
the earth neoative.
Again, thunder storms move without wind or indepen-
dently of wind ; but I am not aware whether any law con-
necting this motion with the time of day, fcc, has ever been
observed, though it seems natural that however complicated
by wind and other circumstance, some such law must exist.
In this state of ignorance of what the phenomena of thunder
really are it is no good attempting to explain them. What
I shall do, therefore, is to shew how the inductive action
of the Sun would necessarily cause certain clouds to be
thunder clouds in a manner closely resembling, and for all
we know identical with, actual thunder storms.
In doing tliis I assume that the thunder is only an
attendant on the storm and not the cause of it •
and that many of the phenomena such as forked and
sheet lightning are the result of different states of
dampness of the air and different densities in the
clouds, and really indicate nothing as to the cause of
electricity. In the same way, the periodicity of the storms
is referred to the periodical recurrence of certain states of
dryness in the atmosphere. Thus the fact that tliei'e is no
thunder in winter is assumed to be owing to the dampness
of the air which allows the electricity to pass from and to
the clouds quietly. What I wish to do is to explain the
o(
cause of a cloud being at certain times in a different state of
electric excitation to the earth and other clouds, and of this
difference being sometimes on the positive side and some-
times on the negative, that is to say, why a cloud should
sometimes appear to us on the earth to be positively charged,
sometimes negatively, and at others not to be charged
at all.
The assumed condition of the sun and earth may be repre-
sented by two conductors S and E acting on one another by
induction, the sun being negative and the earth positive. The
distance between these bodies is so great that the induc-
tive action would not be confined to those parts which are
opposed, but would in a greater or less degree extend all
over their surfaces, though it would still be greater on that
side of E which is opposite to S than on the other side.
The conductor E must be surrounded by an imperfectly
insulating medium to represent damp air. The formation
of a cloud may then be represented by the introduction of
a conductor C near to the surface of E. Such a conductor
at first having no charge would attract the positive elec-
tricity in E and appear by reference to E to be negatively
charged. If it was near enough to E, a spark would at
once pass, which would represent a flash of forked lightning.
If it were not near enough for this it would obtain a charge
through the imperfect insulation of the medium. Such a
charge might pass quietly or by the electric brush. When
the cloud had obtained a charge it would not exert any
influence on the earth, unless it altered its position. But if
the heat of the sun caused part of the cloud to evaporate the
remainder would be surcharged and appear positive. Or if
C approached E then C would be overcharged, and a part of
its electricity would return, and on its return it might cause
positive lightning. Thus, suppose that after a cloud had
38
obtained its charge part of it came down suddenly in the
form of rain. As the rain came lower its electric tension
would increase until it got near enough the ground to
relieve itself with a flash of lightning, almost immediately
after which the i&rst rain would reach the ground.
It has often been noticed that something like this often
takes place; it often begins to pour immediately after a
flash of lightning, so much so that it seems that the elec-
tricity had been holding the rain up and it was only after
the discharge that it could fall. This, however, cannot be
the case, for the rain often follows so quickly after the flash
that there would not have been time for it to fall from the
cloud unless it had started before the discharge took place.
If on the other hand C receded from E, it would again
be in a position to accept more electricity, or would again
become negative. In this way, a cloud in forming, or when
first formed, would appear negatively charged ; soon after it
would become neutral, and then if it moved to or from the
earth it would appear positively or negatively charged.
If the air was very dry, as it is in the summer, any
exchange of electricity between the earth and the cloud
would cause forked lightning, in the winter it would
take place quietly, by the conduction of the moist atmo-
sphere.
In this way then there would sometimes be positive,
sometimes negative lightning; sometimes the discharge
would be a forked flash or spark, sometimes a brush or sheet
lightning. And if clouds are formed in several layers, as
would be represented by another conductor D outside C,
then in addition to the phenomena already mentioned,
similar phenomena would take place between C and D ; and
if in addition to this we were to assume that there are
39
other clouds in the neighbourhood, the phenomena might be
complicated to any extent.
And if, further, the motion of the sun is taken into
account ; as the conductor S moves round E the charges in D
and E would vary, accordingly as they were more or less
between S and E and directly under the induction of S ;
i.e., the charge in a cloud would appear to change owing to
the motion of the sun ; thus a cloud that appeared neutral
at midday would, if it did not receive or give off any
electricity, become charged positively in the evening.
With regard to the independent motion of the clouds,
there are several causes which would effect it. For instance,
a cloud whether it appeared on the earth to be negatively
or positively charged would always tend to follow the sun,
though it is possible this tendency might be very slight.
Again, one cloud would attract or repel another, according
as they were charged with the opposite or the same electri-
cities ; And in the same way a cloud would be attracted or
repelled by a hill, according to the nature of their respective
charges.
Such, then, would be some of the more apparent pheno-
mena under the assumed conditions. So far as I can see they
agree well with the general appearance of what actually
takes place, but as I have previously said, the laws relating
to thunder storms are not sufficiently known to warrant
me in doing more than suggesting this as a probable
explanation.
In these remarks I have said nothing whatever about
what is called atmospheric electricity, or the apparent
increase of positive tension as we proceed away from the
surface of the earth. I do not think that this has much to
do with thunder storms. If the law is established it seems
40 •>
to me that it will require some explanation, besides merely
that of the solar induction acting through the earth's atmo-
sphere on to the surface of the earth. It would rather
imply that the sun acts on some electricity in the higher
regions of the earth's atmosphere, and that electricity in
these regions acts again on the surface of the earth ; but,
however this may be, the effect of the assumptions
described in this paper would be much the same.
41
Ordinary Meeting, December 24th, 1872,
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the
Chair.
The President drew attention to the increasing number
of cases of hydrophobia. There was every reason for
believing that this dreadful disorder was communicated
from one animal to another by a bite, and seldom if ever
was spontaneously developed. Inasmuch therefore as the
effects of a bite nearly always occured within four months,
it would only be necessary to isolate all dogs for that period
in order to stamp out the disease. That was the opinion of
Dr. Bardsley, whose elaborate paper will be found in the
4th volume of the Memoirs of the Society, and probably
gave rise to the practice of confining dogs at certain periods
of the year, which has unfortunately been rendered to a
great extent nugatory in consequence of having been only
partially adopted.
Ordinary Meeting, January 7th, 1873,
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Szc, President, in the
Chair.
Mr. Julius Allmann was elected an Ordinary Member of
the Society.
The President referred to the great loss which the
Society had experienced by the death of one of its most
Feoceedings'— Lit. &Phil. Society.— Yol. XII.— No. 5.— Session 1872-3.
42
distinguished Honorary Members. Dr. Rankine was one
of the earliest investigators of the dynamical theory of heat,
and contributed eminently in the work of bringing that
theory to its present advanced condition. Besides this, he
was perhaps more successful than any other man in apply-
inof his own discoveries, and those of his fellow labourers in
abstract science, to practical use. His treatises on the
Steam Engine and other Prime Movers, Applied Mechanics,
Machinery, &c., form what may justly be termed an Encyclo-
paedia of Civil Engineering. Called away in the prime of
life, his loss is one of the most severe that could have
befallen science.
Mr. William H. Johnson, B.Sc, called attention to the
action of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids on iron and steel
If after immersion for say ten minutes in either of these
acids a piece of iron or steel be tested, its tensile strength
and resistance to torsion will be found to have diminished.
Exposure to the air for. several days or gentle heat will
however completely restore its original strength. On break-
ing a piece of iron wire after immersion in sulphuric acid
and gently moistening the fracture with the tip of the
tongue, bubbles of gas arise causing the wetted portion to
appear to boil. The most careful washing and coating with
lime after being dipped in the acid, and even its subsequent
drawing, in which process it is reduced in diameter by pass-
age through a die, does not interfere with either of these
phenomena; which only gradually disappear by exposure
to the air, or more quickly by gentle heat.
Prolonged immersion in acid has a tendency to produce
a crystalline structure in even the best wrought iron.
43
fr^"
Ordinary Meeting, January 21st, 1873.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS, F.G.S., Vice-Presi-
dent, in the Chair.
The Peesident explained a simple ap-
paratus by means of which a very high
deoTee of rarefaction of air could be
produced with much facility, and which
mio'ht in some circumstances be found
preferable to the common air-pump or
even the Sprengel. It consists of a glass
funnel a surmounting a globe h, from
the lower part of which a tube c descends
to a jar of mercury d. The tube e, in
connexion with the receiver to be ex-
hausted, is furnished with a vulcanised
indiarubber plug which fits into the neck
of the funnel. In using the apparatus
the stopcock / is shut and the funnel
filled w^ith mercury. Then by lifting
the tube e with its plug, the mercury
fills the globe h and the pipe c. The
tube e is then replaced, and the stopcock
being opened, the mercury descends in c
emptying the globe. By returning the
mercury into the funnel by means of a
pump, or more simply, by lifting the jar
d, the process is repeated until the requi-
site degree of rarefaction is produced.
Scale -k
^ f
^
d
44
E. W. BiNNEY, V.P., F.R.S., stated that during the last
session he had exhibited specimens of Zygopteris and Stau-
ropteris found in the lower coal measures of Lancashire, short
notices of which appeared in the Proceedings of the 9th Janu-
ary and the 20th February, 1872. He now brought some
drawings of other specimens of petioles from the same locali-
ties, which appeared to belong to the genus Anachoropteris.
Oueofthem given to him by his friend Mr. Whitaker of
Watersheddings, Oldham, was closely allied to Anachoro2ote-
rlsDecaisniiofKensiwlt. It was of an oval form, measuring
half an inch across its major and four tenths of an inch
across its minor axis.
Another singular fossil was from his own cabinet, and
procured from the Lower Brooksbottom seam of coal. It
was of a circular form and about one tenth of an inch in
diameter. Its central axis was bounded by three crescent-
shaped lines which joined together, and at their points of
junction proceeded in three rays, which at their extremities
diverged in numerous curved lines towards the circum-
ference. These rays bore some resemblance to the five rays
in an Anachoropteris figured by Renault in plate 10,
fig. 2 of tome xii. of the Annales des Sciences Natui-elles,
but in the place of being embedded in cellular tissue as
in the French specimen, they appeared to traverse a mass
of reticulated tissue arranged in a series of curved lines so as
to appear like three quadrants arranged within a circle
with the central axis in the form of a spherical triangle in
the midst of them. It is nearly impossible to describe the
fossil without the aid of a figure. He considered that it
would have to be placed in a new genus, and he had
already found five or six different species.
45
Ordinary Meeting, Febiiiary 4tli, 1873.
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Szc, President, in the
Chair.
E. W. BiNXEY, V.P., F.R.S., said tliat the Society had lost
one of its most illustrious Honorary Members by the death
of the Rev. Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S., Woodwardian Professor
of Geology in the University of Cambridge, a great and
good man, whose loss it will be hard to replace. All who
had the pleasure of his acquaintance have to deplore the
removal of one of the kindest and h eartiest of friends, as well
as one of the most eminent geologists of this century. His
published papers in the Royal Society's Catalogue, sole and
joint, amount to 58. The part of his labours which I have
been best acquainted with are the memoirs on the Maone-
sium Limestone and Lower Portions of the New Red Sand-
stone now known as Permian strata in the North of Enoiand
For patient research and sound conclusions they are models
for all future workers in the same field. Never was a more
generous or willing friend to the humble worker in science.
Many years since, on the death of that excellent naturalist
the late Samuel Gibson, of Hebden Bridge, blacksmith, the
deceased Professor with other friends, lent a ready hand in
raising a fund for the widow and family. During a long
illness poor Gibson had been compelled to part with his
collection of British insects in thirty-four cases to a neigh-
bour for as many shillings. In order to make as much
money as possible by a sale of what was left of his things,
the purchaser of the insects was asked to return them on
Pkoceedi>^G3— Lit. & Phil. Soc— Vol, XTI.— No. 6.— Session 1872-3.
46
repayment of what he had paid. After a lengthened cor-
respondence the matter was referred to Professor Sedgwick,
who settled it by writing the following letter, which by its
tact and conciliatory language proved quite effectual :
Norwich, June 25, 1849.
My Dear Sir,
I am extremely sorry that you have appealed to me about
the disposal of poor Mr. Gibson's insects, especially as I am at this
moment confined to mj bed by illness. It pains me to "write
while propped up in bed, as I feel so much lassitude that I cannot
long attend to anything. Surely no blame, in the first instance,
attaches to the Rev. Mr. . You are bound to accept his
statement without any reserve, viz., " That he was not desirous of
obtaining the insects, but having been applied to, and thinking that
purchasing them might be a little benefit to Gibson's family, he did
so, giving the amount that was required." I am truly sorry that
you have not written to the Rev. Mr. with a little more caution,
for he has, not unnaturally, taken offence at an expression in your
letter of June 4th. The case is a very plain one, he and you are
both anxious for the benefit of poor Gibson's family. He appears
not to have had any idea of the value of the collection, and if he
resolve to keep it he would not surely object to the valuation of
some good entomologist. Between the amount of such a valuation
and the sums he has already advanced he would not, I should
think hesitate to pay the difference to Mr. Gibson's family If
this plan be not adopted I think the value of the collection should
be ascertained in the way you propose, by public auction at Man-
chester, or by any method that promises to raise the largest
sum for the widow and children. I must, in conclusion, say that
I do not by any means approve of the plan of making up to the
family for the loss of the insects by occasional acts of pecuniary
help. They appear to have parted with the collection under the
pressure of dire necessity-, and this should not be turned against
them. I write with pain and labour, and fear I hardly make my-
self understood.
Very truly yours,
A. SEDGWICK.
E. W. Binney, Manchester.
47
The insects, when sold by the late Mr. Capes, at his
auction rooms in Manchester, realized the sum of £44 10s.,
and are now in the Peel Park Museum, Salford.
Altogether nearly £150 was obtained for the widow. The
last letter I received from the Professor was in the past
summer, when he presented to the Society photographic por-
traits of himself and his old friend the late Mr. Dawson, the
mathematician of Sedbergh, which are placed in our meeting
room. ' In the early days of the British Association he was
probably the most eloquent and humorous speaker amongst
its members, and few who had the pleasure of listening to
his reply to Dean Cockburn in the Geological Section at
York will ever forget it.
Professor Williamson, F.RS., stated that the second
fossil plant described by Mr. Binney at the last meeting of
the Society, on January 21st, and of which a notice appeared
in the Society's Proceedings, does not belong to some new
genus, as Mr. Binney supposed, but is one that he has
already described on two or three occasions as being the
stem or branch of the well-known genus Aster ophyllites,
In his description of the Volkmannia Binneyi, published in
the Society's Transactions in 1871, respecting which Pro-
fessor WiUiamson showed that it possessed a vascular axis
exhibiting a triquetrous transverse section, the author gave
his reasons for believing that the strobilus was the fruit
of AsterophyUites. In a letter addressed to Dr. Sharpey
on Nov. 16, 1871, and published in No. 131 of that Society's
Proceedings, Professor Williamson gave a brief description
of a stem having a similar triangular vascular axis, with
lenticularly thickened nodes, and which he again referred
to the same verticellate leaved genus. In a second letter to
Dr. Sharpey, dated May 3, 1872, the author confirmed the
above conclusions by stating that he had "got an additional
48
number of exquisite examples showing not only the nodes
but verticils of the linear leaves so characteristic of the
plant. These specimens place the correctness of my pre-
vious inference beyond all possibility of doubt, and finally
settle the point that asterophyllites is not the branch and
foliage of a calamite, but an altogether distinct type of
vegetation having an organisation peculiarly its own."
The author said that he had obtained the plant in almost
every stage of its growth, from the youngest twig to the
more matured stem, and that the genus would be the sub-
ject of his next, or fifth, of the series of memoirs now in
course of publication by the Royal Society.
" On a large Meteor seen on February 3, 1873, at 10 p.m.,"
by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.
On the 3rd of February (that is yesterday), at lOh. 7m.
(as afterwards appeared) by my watch (which was 7 minutes
fast), I was walking from Manchester along the east side of
the Oxford Road (which there runs 30"" to the east of south),
I had just reached the corner of Grafton-street, when I saw
a most brilliant meteor. I first became aware of it from the
brightness of the wall on my left, i.e., on the north-east,
which caused me to turn my head in that, the wrong, direc-
tion; the first effect was that of a flash of lightning, but it
continued and increased until it was equal to daylight. On
lifting my head I saw directly in front of me, what had
previously been hidden by the brim of my hat, a bright
object, apparently fixed in the sky, as though it were coming
directly towards me ; hnmediately afterwards it turned to
the west, and passed just under the moon (which it com-
pletely out-shone). I was very much startled when I first
caught sight of it, owing doubtless to the rapidity with
which it was increasing in size, and the directness with which
it seemed to be cominsf. The next instant I saw that it
49
was only an extraordinary meteor. It passed the moon,
falling at an angle of I should say 20^, and then ceased
suddenly, having traversed a path of about 90^, from
the south to the east. The colour of the light was
that of a blue-light, or rather burning magnesium. The
sky was cloudy, but there was no appearance of redness
about either the head or the train. I endeavoured to fix its
course by the stars, but it was too cloudy, although I could
see here and there a star. The conclusions I came to, there
and then, were that its course must have been nearly parallel
with the road, which by the map runs, at that point, 30^ to
the west of north ; that when I first saw it it was about
40° above the horizon and due south ; and that it passed
about 20^ to the north of the moon. (This would make its
line of approach from Pegasus.) While I was thinking of
its course I heard a report, not very loud, but which I con-
nected with it. I judged it was about 30" after the display.
I then looked at my watch, it was lOh. 7m. I then walked
along, talking to a fellow-traveller who had not quite
recovered his alarm. Presently we heard a loud report,
like a short peal of thunder or the firing of a large cannon ;
I immediately looked at my watch, it was then lOh. 10m., so
that this second report was from three to four minutes after
the display. I have no doubt that this was the report of
the meteor, for compared with the other it was like the
firing of a cannon to a musket. The time of the second
report would make the distance 30 or 40 miles, so that it
would have passed over Chester and burst over Liverpool.
In this case it must have been a tremendous affair, for the
sky was cloudy, and I do not think I exaggerate when I
say that at one instant it was as light as day; the train was
very long and the speed great. It ceased suddenly, as when
a ball from a Roman candle falls into water; there were no
fragments, as from an explosion.
50
"Note on Meta-Vanadic Acid," hy Dr. B. W. Gerland.
Communicated by Professor RoscoE, F.KS.
A solution of copper vanadiate in aqueous sulphurous acid,
after part of the latter is removed by boiling, deposits bril-
liant yellow cr^^stals, the description and analysis of which I
gave in the Journ. of Pract Chem., 1871, page 97. These
crystals are quite uniform in appearance and contain cupric
oxide, vanadic acid, and sulphurous acid. They rapidly
ciiano-e under the influence of air, their beautiful metallic
lustre soon disappears, and the colour becomes a dark green.
Although formed in a solution of sulphurous acid, they
nevertheless decompose when treated, after separation from
their mother liquor, with fresh sulphurous acid, so that two
kinds of crystals, brown and orange yellow, now appear
mixed together. An excess of sulphurous acid dissolves the
the former and leaves the latter intact. After filtration,
washing, and drying, they form microscopic scales of beauti-
ful lustre and a deep yellow orange colour ; they are free from
copper and sulphur, and perfectly unalterable in the air.
Heated to 100° C. and even to 130", they lose no weight,
but at a low red heat Avater is given off, and the residuum
consists of vanadium pentoxide, which fuses and crystallizes
after cooling.
The composition of the substance, previously dried over
vitriol, is according to analysis the following :
Water (loss by heating) 8.73
Vanadium pentoxide 91.06
Impurities 0. 2 1
100.00
These numbers correspond to the formula of the meta-
vanadic acid VHO3, which requires —
Water 8.97
Vanadic pentoxide 91.03
100.00
51
In some instances I obtained the same bronze or gold-
like substance by treating copper vanadiate suspended in
water with sulphurous acid gas, and in many otliers the
effect of the gas was formation of vanadic oxide in solution.
I intend to elucidate this point by further experiments.
The copper vanadiate was prepared by precipitation of
ammonium vanadiate with copper sulphate. The mother
liquor contained both copper and vanadic acid. After
evaporation the latter is found in the residue as meta-
vanadic acid, with the same metallic appearance as that
just described, and can be obtained by washing with water.
The crystals obstinately retain copper, sometimes as much
as 12 per cent, which is best removed by repeated treatment
with aqueous sulphurous acid. A sample of the substance
so prepared was analysed by Professor Roscoe with the
following results :
Weight of substance taken 0.4505 gram.
Loss on ignition ... 0.0411 „
Hence the per centage composition is found to be
Water 9.12
Vanadium pentoxide 90.88
100.00
The samples of vanadium bronze obtained by these three
different methods had the same composition, the same
appearance, and the same chemical properties. It is essen-
tially distinguished from the amorphous brick-red hydrated
vanadic acid by its indifference to reagents. Sulphurous
acid scarcely acts on it, neither does ammonia, and even a
solution of sodium carbonate dissolves it only after very
long continued boiling. In the air it is perfectly perma-
nent. It is very probable that this meta-vanadic acid will
become a favorite bronze, valued even higher than gold.
52
I trust that at some future time I shall be able to render
a more satisfactory account of this interesting substance,
and particularly of its formation.
Macclesfield, January, 1873.
Dr. Willi A.M Roberts exhibited some preparations and
experhnents bearing on the question of biogenesis. He
stated that in the last two and half years he had performed
over 300 experiments. His results supported the conclusion
that the fungi, monads, and bacteria which make their
appearance in boiled organic mixtures are not due to spon-
taneous evolution, but arise exclusively under the influence
of pre-existing germs or ferments introduced from without.
His method of experimenting consisted chiefly in exposing
organic solutions and mixtures to a boiling heat in glass
flasks whose necks had been previously tightly plugged
with cotton wool. Two modifications of the experiment
were adopted.
I. In the first modification a 4-ounce flask was employed,
and the heat applied directly by means of a gas flame.
II. In the second modification — after the introduction of
the materials to be operated on — the elongated neck of the
flask was sealed hermetically by the blowpipe above the
plug of cotton wool ; tlie flask was then weighted with a
collar of lead and immersed in a large can of water ; the
can was then put on the fire and the water boiled for 20 or
30 minutes. During the process of boiling the flask was
maintained in an upright or semi-upright position, in order
to prevent any wetting of the cotton- wool plug by the con-
tents of the flask. When the can was cold the flask was
removed and its neck filed oflf above the cotton wool, so
as to permit free ingress and egress of air.
53
Flasks thus prepared were maintained at a warmth vary-
ing from 50° to 90"" Fahr. for long periods — many weeks
and months — some in the dark and some exposed to the
light, with the following results.
I. Simple filtered infusions of animal or vegetable tissues
— a very considerable variety were tried — boiled over the
flame for five or ten minutes, in flasks previously plugged
with cotton wool, remained permanently barren. This
result was absolutely invariable.
II. More complex mixtures — milk, neutralized or alkalized
infusions of vegetable and animal tissues, similar albuminous
and gelatinous solutions, mixtures containing fragments of
animal or vegetable substances or cheese — yielded variable
results. In none of them did fungoid growths make their
appearance — but monads and bacteria frequently appeared
in abundance.
This seemingly contradictory result was inferred to be
due to the ineffective application of the heat in the process
of direct boiling over a flame. It was found that many of
these more complex mixtures frothed excessively when
boiled — brisk ebullition could not therefore be maintained
— particles were spurted about on the sides of the flask, and,
in this way, apparently escaped effective exposure to the
heat. Even when the boiling was prolonged for 20 or 30
minutes the results were still uncertain — sometimes the
flasks remained barren — sometimes they became turbid
and swarmed with bacteria.
III. By the second modification of the experiment much
more constant results were obtained — the flasks remained
almost always permanently barren — and the few exceptions
were found to be due to some imperfection in the conduct of
54
the experiment. No exceptions occurred with milk, nor
with substances, however complex, which were in actual
solution, but when considerable pieces of vegetable or animal
substances were introduced into the flasks, bacteria and
monads with putrefactive changes occasionally made their
appearance in abundance. In these exceptional cases, when
the experiments were repeated with the pieces finely com-
minuted, or introduced in some other way more favourable
to the difiusion of the heat, the flasks remained permanently
barren.
Dr. Roberts called attention to the crucial significance of
experiments on this subject made in flasks whose necks are
plugged with cotton wool. A plug of cotton wool acts as
an absolutely impervious filter to the solid particles of the
atmosphere, while it permits a free passage to the gaseous
constituents.
When one of these experiments is effectively performed,
the fluid or mixture in the flask may be exposed to the full
influence of light, of warmth, and of air, and yet it remains
permanently barren. As slow evaporation takes place the
liquid passes through all grades of concentration, possibly
chemical changes of various kinds take place within it, and
still no organic growth makes its appearance for months
and even years ; but if the plug of cotton wool be with-
drawn for a few minutes, or a single drop of any natural
water, however pure and well flltered, be introduced, then
all is changed — in a few days the clear solution becomes
turbid from bacteria and monads, or a mass of mildew covers
its surface and soon half fills the flask.
In the face of these experiments it was impossible to
doubt that the biogenic power of the atmosphere resides in
DO
its dust, and not in its gaseous ingredients ; but as to the
exact nature of that biogenic power — whether it ])e a speci-
fic germ or a ferment— no sufficient evidence has yet been
adduced. Dr. Roberts did not find that diminished pressure
of the atmosphere, obtained by sealing flasks hermetically
in ebullition, after the mode suggested by Dr. Bastian,
materially affected the results.
Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., said that he was glad to see
such uniformity of results. His own experiments, which
were very numerous on a similar point, were made differ-
ently, but were without exception proving the same. As
to the name of the substances in the air, he preferred germ:
it involved no theory. A germ may be considered that
which germinates. Bust is an equivocal expression, which
may cause a popular error. Polarity introduces a theory
which is so entirely without basis that in our present state
of knowledge we may call the inference it presupposes
decidedly false.
''P.S. To Dr. Joule's description of a Mercurial Air-
pump."
The exhauster described in the last number of the Pro-
ceedings has been further improved b}^ dispensing with the
glass tube e, and its stop-cock /. This is effected by attach-
ing the base of the globe h to a strengthened indiarubber
pipe, connected at the other end to a glass vessel of rather
larger capacity than h. This vessel has only to be succes-
sively raised and lowered in order to exhaust the receiver.
The mercury in the vessel may be either under atmospheric
56
pressure or relieved tlierefrom. In the former case it must
be alternately raised and depressed from 80 inches below h
up to that level. In the latter it must be raised and
depressed from the level of b to 30 inches above it. Castor
oil is a useful medium to prevent the passage of air between
mercury and the glass vessels.
It is important to add a little sulphuric acid to the mer-
cury, in order to remove the film of water which adheres to
the inside of the globe h. On this account it would, perhaps,
be desirable to substitute a i)lug of glass for the indiarubber
one between a and h.
57
Ordinary Meeting, February 18th, 1873.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.RS., F.G.S, Vice-President, in the Chair.
I
Scal&
12,
Dr. Joule, F.R.S., gave some
further account of the improve-
ments he had made in his air
exhausting apparatus. As
stated in the last Proceedings,
he had substituted a caout-
chouc tube attached to the
neck of a glass vessel, for the
original perpendicular pipe
with its stop-cock. This is
seen in the adjoining sketch c
and c?. The two positions, viz.
when h is being filled, and
when it is being emptied, are
shown by tlie full and the dot-
ted drawing. It is convenient
to introduce no air into d ex-
cept that required to act as a .
cushion to avoid a shock when
filled in the lower position.
Sulphuric acid may be intro-
duced into the receiver to be
exhausted, but it is perhaps
more convenient to place it
over the mercury in a, whence
it may occasionally be drawn
into h, to eff'ect the drying of
the internal parts of the appa-
ratus. Dr. Joule has met with
some difficulty in using mer-
cury gauges to ascertain the '\\ /'''
residual pressure, inasmuch as ''->.-,-.-_-;::-'-''
Peoceedixgs— Lit. & Phil. Society.— Vol. XII.— Xo. 7.— Session 1872-3.
e
Sulphuric
Acid.
3
+
3
+
3
+
1
+
1
+
1
+
0
+
58
he finds that mercury thoroughly boiled in clean glass tubes
does not show a convex surface, but adheres strongly to the
glass. However he has confidence in giving the following
results in working with his apparatus, with acid of various
streng'th, obtained by successive dilutions of sulphuric acid,
of sp. gr. 1.845 by volume.
Pressure in Inches
Water. of Mercury.
0 Inappreciable.
1 Inappreciable.
2 O'Ol at 70°
1 0-03 at 63°
2 0-15 at 63°
4 0-30 at 55°
1 0-37 at 47°
"Notes on supposed Glacial Action in the Deposition of
Hematite Iron. Ores in the Furness District," by William
Brockbank, F.G.S.
The hematite iron ore deposits in the Furness district
are of two very distinct varieties — (1) Those filling hollows
in the limestone, covered only by the post tertiary gravels
and clays, and (2) Those occurring in the carboniferous
limestone in veins, and large irregular cavities, or " pockets."
The summit of the mining district of Dalton-in-Furness
is High Haume, which rises about 508 feet above the level
of the sea, and is of Silurian age ; Coniston limestone, grits
and flags ; upon whose flanks rests the carboniferous lime-
stone. The uplifting of this central cone tilted the lime-
stones, so that they dip very quickly towards the S.E., and
broke them up into a succession of reefs, the outcrops form-
ing a parallel series of ridges from W. to E., each marked
out on the surface by lines of iron ore workings.
The source of the hematite ore appears to have been, here
as elsewhere, at or about the junction of the silurian slates
with the carboniferous limestone; and it found its way into
59
the Assures and caverns with which the latter abounds, and
wherein it is now so largely worked. The surface of the
country is remarkable for the absence of brooks on the lime-
stone area, the only two, viz., Powka Beck and Dragley
Beck, running along the base of the clay slates. The brook-
lets elsewhere find their way through the fissures in the
limestone and into the curious tarns which dot the surface.
The regular veins (2) are thus pretty easily accounted for,
being similar to those of the Whitehaven district.*
The superficial deposits (1) are more especially the sub-
ject of the present communication, as they afford, in the
writer's opinion, undoubted evidence of glacial action, and
of the mode in which the iron ore has been transported by
its agency,
John Bolton, the Ulverston geologist, published in his
" Geoloo^ical Frao^ments" several sections of bore holes and
open workings in this neighbourhood, from which the fol-
lowing has been compiled as illustrative of the district. It
is not taken from any single example, but adapted from
several instances, to show the general aspect of the whole.
ft. in.
Soil 2 0
Gravel and clay 4 0
Yellow clay, mixed with iron ore 4 0
Black mould 4 0
Iron ore (dark coloured) 2 0
Black mould, mixed with iron ore 6 0
Iron ore , 8 0
Decomposed limestone 7 0
Black woody deposit 12 0
Decomposed limestone 6 0
Black mould and wood 2 0
Yellow clay, mixed with ore 6 0
Black mould, mixed with iron ore 10 0
Black mould 4 0
Black mould, mixed with iron ore and limestone 3 0
* See Proceedings, Dec. 10, 1867, pp. 59—61, and Dec, 1, 1868, pp. 51—56.
60
Mr, Bolton was unable to give any clue to the manner in
which such remarkable sections as the above had obtained.
The occurrence of the superficial deposits, as shown in
the foregoing section, is, I believe, to be explained by the
theory of glacial action, and is evidently a part of the great
change wrought upon the surface, by the agency of ice,
during the "glacial epoch"; coeval with the boulder drift.
The great ice sheet, which then covered all the north of
England, descended from the lake mountains, grinding
down the surface rocks, and depositing the clays and
gravels in its course. The evidence of this is most strik-
ingly displayed in the above section, each line of which
apparently marks out a period, and a pause, in its course.
The iron ore occurring in these deposits is of a dark
colour, and of much lighter specific gravity than that from
the veins of limestone ; and it has the appearance of having
been all ground to powder. After exposure to atmospheric
influence it soon falls again into that state. The clays are
of a bright yellow colour, and of exceedingly fine grain,
being evidently the " flour of rocks," ground down by the
glacier in its passage over the clay-slates. The unfossilized
wood is in a remarkable state of preservation, occurring in
large fragments, as if it had been rudely broken up and
crushed, probably also by the ice. It is principally birch,
and some of the trees have been found of 2ft. diameter. In
one of the pits there was also a layer of peat, giving evidence
of a long period of rest and stagnation.
The iron ore was thus, by glacial agency, transferred from
its original place of occurrence, from the outcrop of one reef
to another, and redeposited as drift; covered up by clays
and the debris of rocks, wherever there was a cavity to
receive it. The water resulting from the thaw of the ice
would carry the ore down with it into the crevices and
caverns of the limestone, where it is now found as soft or
" puddling" ore. Aggassiz points out in liis work on glaciers
61
that ice does not sink into all the hollows, but frequently
bridges over large cavities; and these hollows would be just
of such a class as to escape contact with the moving mass
above ; so that the successive deposits would be preserved
from time to time, as the ice passed away and returned.
The following diagram will illustrate the above descrip-
tion, showing the geological structure of the district and the
mode of occurrence of the hematite iron ores, and also of the
ice covering, by which I suppose the superficial deposits to
have been formed.
SECTION NEAR DALTON-IN-FURNESS.
Ui^h Eaum s
a. Silurian (Coniston Grits and Flags).
h. Carboniferous (Limestone, witli Hematite Iron Ore in veins and "pockets'
c. Drift Deposits (Hematite Iron Ore, with Boulder Clay, Wood, and dehrh
rocks).
d. Supposed Glacier (by which the deposits (c) have been formed).
of older
" The Results of the Settle Cave Exploration," by W.
Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S.
Since the results of the exploration of the Settle Caves
were brought before the British Association at Liverpool,
in 1870, considerable progress has been made in the further
investio'ation of the remarkable contents of the Victoria
6-2
Cavern. Up to that time our researches had revealed,
perhaps, the most remarkable oollectioii of enamelled
jewellery which had ever been discovered in one spot, along
with broken bones of animals and the implements of every-
day life, which afforded a pointed contrast to the culture
implied by the workmanship of the articles of luxury. The
Roman coins, and the style of workmanship of the imple-
ments, pointed out that the cave was occupied during the
troublous times when the Roman Empire was being dis-
membered by the invading barbarians, and when Britain,
stripped of the Roman legions, was falling a prey either to
the Picts and Scots on the one hand, or to the Jutes, Angles,
and Saxons on the other. If we stretch the limits of the
occupation to the latest the}^ cannot be held to extend
nearer to our own times than the Northumbrian conquest
of Elmet (or Kingdom of Leeds and Bradford) by Eadwine,
in the year A.D. G16, that was preceded in 607 by the march
of -^thelfrith on Chester, and the great battle near that
Roman fort, celebrated in song for the defeat of the British
and the slaying of the monks of Bangor. At that time the
Northumbrian arms were first seen on the shores of the
Irish Channel, and the fragment of Roman Britain — which
had extended on the western part of our island, from the
estuary of the Severn uninterruptedly, through Derbyshire
and Lancashire into Cumberland — was divided, never again
to be united. The Roman civilization, which had up to
that time been maintained in that district disappeared, and
was replaced by the civilization which we know as English.
The traces therefore of Romano-Celtic ornaments and imple-
ments from the Victoria Cave must be assigned to the
period before the English conquest, before the Northumbrians
conquered West Yorkshire and Mid-Lancashire.
Underneath the stratum containing the Romano-Celtic or
Brit- Welsh articles, at the entrance of the cave, there was
a thickness of about six feet of angular stones, and at the
63
bottom of this a bone liarpoon or fish-spear, a bone bead,
and a few broken bones of bear, red deer, and small short-
horned ox prove that m still earlier times the cave had
been inhabited by man. A few flint flakes probably imply
that these remains are to be referred rather to the Neolithic
age than to tliat of Bronze.
Below this was a layer of stifl* clay, into which the com-
mittee sank two shafts, respectively of twelve and twenty-
five feet deep, without arriving at the bottom. They have,
however, at last penetrated it, and have broken into an
ossiferous bed, full of the remains of extinct animals, similar
to those which have been discovered at Kirkdale and else-
where; consisting of the cave bear, cave hyaena, woolly
rhinoceros, mammoth, bison, reindeer, and horse. The
bottom has not been reached, and the area exposed is so
small that it is impossible to say whether man was living
in the cave at this time or not.
The clay immediately above it is considered, both by Mr.
Boyd Dawkins and Mr. Tiddeman, to be of glacial origin,
and in that case this cave is the only one in Great Britain
which has offered clear proof that this gToup of animals
was living in the country before the glacial age. It may be
that the remains of man may be discovered here, as in the
caves of Wookey Hole, Kent's Hole, and Brixham ; but this
problem can only be solved by an exploration on a larger
scale, which the committee hope to be able to carry on by
the aid of further subscriptions, and which the British
Association has thought sufficiently important to aid by a
grant of £50. The problem which they are attempting to
solve, is not merely of local interest, but one which is
worthy of the aid of all who care for the advancement of
knowledge.
"The explorations of the Victoria Cave," wiites Mr.
Tiddeman, " carry with them more than common interest,
from the probability of making out in this district the
64
relation of the older cave mammals (and perhaps of man) to
the Glacial period. The complete absence of this fauna from
the river gravels and other Post-Glacial deposits of this
district, taken with the former existence of a great develop-
ment of ice over the northern counties, renders it highly
probable that the latter was the agent which removed their
remains from all parts of the country to which it had access,
leaving them only in sheltered caves.
" In this cave we find, above the beds containing the older
fauna, a deposit of laminated clay of gi'eat thickness, diflfer-
ing so much from the cave-earth above and below it as to
point to distinct physical conditions for its origin. Clay in
all respects similar, but containing scratched stones, has
been found intercalated with true glacial beds in the neigh-
bourhood, thus rendering the glacial origin of that in
the cave also highly probable.
" Moreover, at the back of a great thickness of talus at
the entrance glaciated boulders have been found, resting on
the edges of the beds of lower cave-earth containing the
older mammals. All points considered, there is strong
cumulative evidence pointing to the formation of the lower
cave-earth at times at any rate prior to the close of the
Glacial period and probably earlier. It is to be hoped that
further investigations may settle these and other most
important questions."
The objects found in the Victoria Cave will not be
removed from the county, but will be placed in a museum
attached to the Grammai' School at Giggleswick.
Mr. Brockbank, F.G.S., differed from Mr. Dawkins as to
the mode in which the " talus" before the Victoria cave, and
the earth with which it is filled, were deposited, and conse-
quently as to the basis upon which his estimates of time
were based. He believed this cavern had been filled by the
agency of running water, which flowed through it in rainy
seasons, as is the case in the numerous other similar caves, such
65
as the Ingleborougli and Peak caverns. He did not believe that
the " tahis" had been made up of debris which had entirely
fallen from the face of the cliffs, and which would have thus
been altogether of limestone "breccia"; but on the contrary
that a great part of it had been washed out from the interior
of the cave in times of flood, carrying with the earth any
loose bones or other light objects which lay in the cave.
The proximity of the Craven fault might account for the
presence of Silurian rocks in the debris, without the neces-
sity of supposing glacial action for their conveyance. He
did not consider it possible for the cavern to have been
filled with debris washed in through its entrance, but rather
the reverse.
6^
MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTIO>\
November 4th, 1872.
Professor W. C. Williamson, F.RS., President of the
Section, in the Chair.
The President delivered an address of which the follow-
ing is an abstract : —
Your secretary has intimaied that a few remarks would
be expected from me on the occasion of our entry upon the
work of a new session and of my occupying once more
your presidential chair. Under these circumstances I would
direct your attention for a few moments to a question that
vitally affects us as Lancashii'e naturalists. We live in a
district that has long been celebi*ated for the multitudes of
men who have devoted their leisure to the study of nature
in some one or other of its varied aspects. It was the home
of Hobson and of Caley, of Crowther and of Buxton, and the
race is still perpetuated by a large number of men like
Butter worth, Nield, and Whittaker, to whose field-labours,
as active collectors, the special investigations upon which I
have long been engaged owe so much of their success. The
energetic spirits of a kindred society — the Scientific Stu-
dents' Association — are in like maimer taking a fair share in
the work of sustaining the reputation of Lancashire for the
earnestness of its practical naturalists. We have much
reason for being thankful that we are surrounded by so
many men who are able and willing thus to carry on this
labour of love.
6f
But from amidst these grounds for congratulation there
looms out, but too distinctly, a fact of an opposite kind — a
fact which does not affect us alone, but the responsibility for
which is shared, I fear, by the entire nation. I would not
for a moment be deemed capable of unduly depreciating the
systematic study of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, to
which as Englishmen we are so addicted. On the con-
trary, I know too well that such studies are essential to us ;
they constitute the indispensable foundations upon which
those who aim at erecting loftier edifices must build. But
whilst making this admission in the most unreserved manner,
I cannot hide from myself, or from you, the fact that there
are yet higher subjects of thought and research than those
involved in the discrimination of genera and species, or in
the study of the systematic positions which objects should
occupy in the human classifications. It is eminently charac-
teristic of the present age that men have become alive to this
truth ; hence we find them in various parts of the world
grappling with the loftiest of problems. The sneers with
which "Peter Pindar" saluted Sir Joseph Banks for impaling
butterflies and boiling fleas are no longer possible. Goethe,
Oken, and Owen have stimulated us to the study of animal
and vegetable homologies ; Darwin has removed many of
the difficulties that beset the Lamar ckian ideas respecting
the origin of species ; by sending us along what I believe to
be the right track he has opened the way to new lines of
enquiry so vast as to demand the greatest of intellects to
trace their ultimate ramifications and to reach the grand
generalisations towards which they will finally conduct us.
Then there is the wide field of detailed physiological research,
in which so much has already been done, but so much of
which is yet uncultivated. We are surrounded one very hand
by myriads of plants and animals of whose life-history we
know little, but which invite our study. To this end we
must make the microscope our primaiy instrument, with the
68
auxiliary appliances of chemical reagents to which of late
years so much attention has been paid. These remarks
suggest but a few of the problems which are awaiting
a thorough solution. With the remembrance of the import-
ance of these problems fresh in our minds we may ask our-
selves what are we individually doing as our contribution
tow^ards the attainment of the desired results.
With a few noble exceptions I fear the answer to this
question is alike unsatisfactory to us as men of Manchester
and as Englishmen. We do not pursue wide and ])rolonged
researches and work them out to their ultimate issues, in
the way that is done by the naturalists of France and Ger-
many. This remark is especially applicable to the subject
of Vegetable Physiology. When I take up a number of the
Annates des Sciences Natwrelles and see such magnificent
physiological memoirs as have been supplied by men like
Mohl and Trecul, Van Tieghem and Nageli, Hofmeister and
Tulasne, I cannot but ask myself what have we English-
men to show as our contributions, to this series. I do not
forget that our countryman Robert Brown was the grandest
figure in the group of pioneers in these researches ; but upon
Avhom has his mantle fallen ? We fear that no one has
risen up amongst us capable of receiving it. The defective
standard of which I complain is further shewn in the
Physiological text-books with which we Englishmen are
satisfied. Excellent and useful as the Manuals of Henfrey,
Balfour, and Oliver may be, they bear no comj^arison to the
noble "Lerbuch" of Sachs; a volume which is as rich
in the facts which it records as it is profound in the
philosophy which it seeks to expound. I know not
what the cause of this unsatisfactory state of the higher
departments of study in England may be. Something is
doubtless due to the fact that we are all more or less engaged
in a feverish race after the material comforts of life, which
do not, in the same degree, tempt oui" Continental brethren
69
from the quiet retirement of their studies. Many of them
are content with a less share of worldly things than satis-
fies us ; hence we find amongst them a much larger number
of men who make scientific research the business of a life
than is to be found here. We have around us an earnest
band of amateurs who turn from their special callings at the
close of the day to such branches of natural science as they
severally select for the recreations of the evening and of the
holiday; but such interrupted and superficial studies, invalu-
able as they are to the students themselves — and I believe
that we can scarcely exaggerate that value — are insufficient
to supply the deeper want upon which I have dwelt. I can
only trust that we shall all be roused during the coming ses-
sion to grapple with some of the profound biological questions
that are now before the world asking for solution ; and that
we may thus contribute, in some humble degree, to remove
the reproach which I fear deservedly rests upon us, of being
satisfied with the more easily followed and superficial lines
of enquiry, instead of striving boldly to sink our plumb-
lines into the deepest abysses of the vast ocean of undis-
covered truth.
Mr. H. A. Hurst read a Paper " On the Flora of Alex-
andria (Egypt)," illustrated by a series of specimens collected
by himself
"On the Destruction of the Rarer Species of British
Ferns," by Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.
The object of the writer was to protest strongly against
the destruction of many of the rare species of our native
ferns. He mentioned four districts in Lancashire, Derby-
shire, Westmorland, and Wales, and gave lists of ferns which
he had found abundantly in them 25 years ago, all of which
have now entirely disappeared, or have become exceedingly
rare. Since fern collecting became a sort of fashion a few
70
years ago, a class of people has sprung up who gain a liveli-
hood by collecting and selling fern roots to tourists ; these
are exposed for sale in the markets during the summer
season, and it is pitiable to see cartloads of them torn from
their native rocks and glens, and to think that not one root
in a hundred will grow when carried away and planted on
rockwork; and the few plants that do survive are but
miserable representatives of their respective species. There
are laws to protect the small birds from being exterminated,
but none can be framed to protect our ferns and wild flowers.
The only suggestions the writer could make to preserve
them was to appeal to tourists on no account to purchase
roots of ferns from these dealers, and not to dig up rare
specimens when they find them, but content themselves
with the fronds. He then enumerated the various native
species of ferns, and showed how few of them were suitable
for cultivation in ordinary gardens and rockeries, and that
for such a purpose the common species were really more
suited in every way than the rarer, being handsomer and
more easily grown. He also strongly advocated the growth
of varieties from spores, and spoke of the pleasure he had
experienced in examining the extensive collection of those
raised by E. J. Lowe, F.RS., &rc., of Highfields, near Not-
tingham.
Mr. HuEST mentioned that the Madeira Dicksonia CaU
cita had been eradicated from its sole Spanish habitat, near
Algeziras, by collectors.
71
Ordinary Meeting, March 4th, 1873.
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the
Chair.
Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.8., was elected an Ordinary
Member of the Society.
T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.8., communicated the following
" Monthly Fall of Rain, according to the North Rain Gauge
at Swinden, as measured by Mr. James Emmett, Waterworks
Manager, Burnle}^, from January 1st, 1866, to December
31st, 1872" :—
1866
1867
1868
1869 1870
1871
1872
January
February
^March
April
5-17
3-65
2-24
0-99
3-12
4-45
1-48
4-08
3-74
4-55
2-23
5-12 3-19
6-75 0-78
0-80 1-70
5?-on 1 1 -.^3
1-17
2-26
0-99
2-25
1-30
2-38
2-83
1-35
1-50
3-06
2-10
1-85
4-77
3-16
3-92
4-29
2-95
6-60
3-40
4-05
6-75
5-88
6-58
3-61
May
1-23 ' 2-75
4-25. 1 1-75
5-59 4C)5>
1-50 ' 3-03 1-54
0-45 1-19 3-62
0-68 j 1-52 1-31
4-34 1 2-70 0-58
2-72 5-21 1 0-96
5-33 3-50 : 7-08
2-27 3-75 2-64
10-00 4-70 1-31
June
July
August
September ....
October
November
December
7-60
-12-07
2-71
6-86
5-88
2-06
2-94
4-27
1-26
4-55
Total in inches..
58-24
38-30
41-89 40-27 26-04
23-04
55-96
Note. — The height of the Rain Glauge is about 750 feet above the level of
the sea, and about 18 feet above the ground,
Mr. Baxendell read the following communication from
Mr. S. Broughton : —
It appears there is some doubt as to the existence of ball
discharge in thunderstorms. At the request of Mr. Baxen-
dell I communicate an observation of such, seen during the
approach of a storm, in 1854 or 1855, when walking from
Altrincham to Timperley.
Over the edge of a cloud near the east horizon a flash of
lightning was seen, and a ball apparently the size of one
from a Roman candle shot upwards through an arc of 20' or
Peoceedings— Lit. & raiL. Society.— Vol. XII. — No. 8— Si:c)Sio>- 1872-3.
72
30^ I cannot say that it went to another cloud, but that
would most likely be so, as my attention was taken up
watching the progress of the electric ball.
E. W. BiNNEY, V.R, F.R.S., said that shortly after the
meeting of the Society on the 21st January last, when he
exhibited the singular fossil plants, which were quite new
to him at the time, and which he thought would have to be
placed in a new genus, he had received excellent transverse
and longitudinal sections of similar specimens from Professor
Renault of Cluny, which were if possible in a more beautiful
state of preservation than those found in the carboniferous
strata of Lancashire. On the 4th February Professor W. C.
Williamson, F.R.S., stated that these specimens were the
branches or stems of the well-known genus Asterophyllites,
and he had communicated his views to the Royal Society
so early as November, 1871, wherein he expressed his
opinion " that Asterophyllites is not the branch or foliage of
a Calamite, but an altogether distinct type of vegetation
having an organisation peculiarly its own."
Now the distinguished French Professor in his letter to
me states that he had described this fossil plant in a memoir
read before the Academy in 1870, and that in his opinion
it belonged to Sphenophylluon, and an abstract of the
communication appears in the Goraptes Rendus for 1870.
I am not in possession of the facts from which the two
learned professors came to such different conclusions, but I
am inclined to consider the singular little stem as belonging
to a new genus until the leaves of Sphenophylhim or Aster o-
phyllites are found attached to it. When this comes to pass
of course there can be no doubt on the matter.
Mr. Brockbank, F.G.S., exhibited specimens of iron
manufactured by the old Bohemian process from hematite
ores in the south of Europe. Similar iron has also recently
73
been sent to England from Japan, the higk prices now
ruling having attracted supplies of iron from distant coun-
tries.
Finished bar iron is produced at the present time in
countries where labour is cheap and charcoal plentiful at an
exceedingly low price as compared with present values in
England. The specimens now exhibited cost only £6 per
ton for the bloom and £8 per ton for the finished bar. The
sizes of the bars are however verv small, but it is a remark-
able fact that on so small a scale iron of the very highest
quality can be made and sold at half the price of English
bars made on the largest scale with all the advantages of
our modern machinery and appliances. It is believed that
this iron is made by a similar process to that followed by
the Romans in Britain, the remains of furnaces or " bloom-
eries" on Ennerdale lake being of this class.
The President said that he had made another observa-
tion of the position of the freezing point in the thermometer
used in making the observations recorded in the Proceed-
ings for April 16, 1867, and February 22, 1870. The gradual
rise of the zero during twenty-nine years will be se6n by
the adjoining diagram, the ordinates representing divisions
etched on the glass stem each corresponding to ~iir^- of a
degree Fahrenheit.
74
" On the Influence of Acids on Iron and Steel," by
William H. Johnson, B.Sc.
I. — General Effects of Acid.
Pieces of iron and steel wire of various qualities were
immersed in sulphuric or hydrochloric acids for spaces of
time varying from 10 minutes to 12 hours, and then well
washed with water and dried, and the following experiments
made :
1. On breaking one of the pieces of wire and moistening
the fracture, still warm from the effort of breaking it,
bubbles were seen to rise through the water from the whole
surface of the fracture, even when the piece was -412 inch
diameter. Further, pieces of wire that had been immersed
in acid, washed, coated with lime, dried, and drawn to a
smaller diameter, thus removing any trace of acid on the
surface, gave bubbles in the same manner. The bubbles
are most abundant if the iron has been immersed in sulj)huric
acid, and may be seen several days after the iron has been
removed from the acid. If steeped in hydrochloric acid the
bubbles are seen with difficulty and only after long immer-
sion.
Bubbles are not apparent with steel, even after prolonged
immersion, except the steel be very mild.
Test paper was not sensibly altered in colour by the
water on the fractures.
By exposure to the atmosphere, or more quickly by steep-
ing in water, the above phenomena, as well as those to be
mentioned later on, decrease in intensity until at length
they are no longer visible, and the iron is quite restoi:ed to
its original state. Gentle heat greatly aids this. They also
cease to be visible sooner if hydrochloric acid be employed
than if sulphuric acid is used, doubtless because the latter is
less volatile.
2. The fracture of a piece of iron or steel immersed for
75
one hour or more in either acid is somewhat darker in
colour than before. After several hours the fracture may
be black in the centre and more or less crystalline in
appearance.
3. Pieces of iron or steel heated in a confined space after
immersion in acid become slightly rusted. If air has free
access during the application of heat, this is not the case.
It thus appears that heat expels the dilute acid from the
interior of the iron, which if not carried away with sufficient
rapidity by the surrounding air attacks the surface of the
iron, forming an oxide or oxy chloride of iron.
Sometimes instead of a uniform coating of rust the iron
is simply spotted. The acid will in some cases, after lapse
of time, find its way to the surface of the iron and spot it
with rust, even without the application of heat ; this is par-
ticularly the case with iron which has been soaked in
sulphuric acid.
It is this power which iron possesses of absorbing acid
and afterwards giving it off, which accounts for the difficulty
hitherto experienced of coating iron with copper, tin, or any
other metal in acid solutions. For the acid on coming to
the surface of the iron is unable to make its way through
the impervious coating of metal, and consequently com-
bining with the iron at the surface, forces the copper or tin
off.
4. The universal effect of acid on iron and steel is to
decrease its toughness. This brittleness is most marked
with steel. Sometimes a coil of steel wire after immersion
in acid will break if allowed to fall on the ground. And I
have seen hardened steel and steel containing a large per-
centage of carbon fly in pieces as soon as it was immersed
in acid without being touched at all.
II. — Effect on the Weight.
Pieces of iron and steel were immersed in acid for differ-
76
ent periods of time, well washed in water, and weighed.
They were then heated in a kitchen oven and again weighed.
The results are given in the table below.
TABLE SHOWINa THE INCREASE OF WEiaHT AFTER IMMERSION
IN ACID.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
SULPHURIC ACID.
1 1
Quality.
Weight in Grams.
Loss
by
Heat-
ing.
Gain
7c
by Im-
mer-
sion.
•000502
REMARKS.
Weight in Grams. '
i
Loss
by
Heat-
ing.
•01474
Gain °, ■=
by Im-
mer-
sion in
Acid.
•029156
Before 1 After
Heatmg Heating
Before
Heating
After
Heatingl
Steel
•124 49-81525 49 81500
-00025
\ Appearance of fracture
( ci-ystalline, speckled
50-56990
50-55516
2
Mild Steel.
-126' 47-36490 47-36920
•00470
•nnoQO^i' r s-ud v.lutc ; atteriieat-
uu»3^o J ing, fkier and greyer.
43-85370
43-84990
•00980
•022350
i
4
Best Iron..'
Char. Iron.
-122 47-48030 47-47495
125 4320994 43-20020
•00535
•00974
•011250'-)
1 >• Annealed.
022540' j
43-25005
42-34002
43-23965
42-32974
•O1O40
•01028
•024052
■024285
Total..
[187-87039 185 85035 -02004
•010659
18001967
179-97445
•04522
•025126
In acid 5 hours, then washed several times in water and heated
18 hours in an oven.
5
Mild Steel. •IGS 78-69240
73-65170
•04070
•05187,
71-36530
71-32490
-04040 -05664
6
Bestlron. . -IGS 81-68530
81-67220
•01310
-01604'
85-98500
85-94000
•03500 -04072
7
Char. Iron. -165 78-69240
78-65170
•01595
02028'
1
84-09020
84-07515
•01505, -01796
Total....
239-07010
238-97560
08975
-02918
241-44050
241-34005
•09045 -03747
1
In Acid 31 hours, then well washed in water. Hea
ted 18 hours.
8
Steel
-165 8008010 80-06770
•01240 •01548
In Acid 12 hours. Heated 30 hours.
9
Steel.'
•180
79^10020
79-09005
-01015
01283
10
Mild do. . .
•182
f Very slightly rusted
X after heating.
77^56980
77-56990
— -oooio
11
Best Iron. .
•155
74-92055
74-91722
•00333
•00440
12
Charcoal . .
•158
61-42040
61-41990
•00050
'000814
13
Ditto . . . .
•420
87^45715
87-45500
•00215
•00245
In Acid 12—13 hours, then steeped in water for 10 hours.
Heated 24 hours
•
In all cases except one they were found to have lost in
weight, and the exception was probably owing to the
increased weight caused by a slight coating of oxide over-
balancing the loss occasioned by heating.
77
The gain in weight by immersion in H~SO^ is greater
than by immersion in HCl.
In experiments 1 — 4 the gain per cent is :
For immersion in HCl = -010659
Dittoin H-SO' = -025126
or almost as 2 to 5, more accurately as 1 : 2*357.
In experiments 5 — 7 the gain per cent for
HCl =-02918
H^SO^ = -037U
as 1 : 1-284.
Experiments 9 — 13 show how rapidly steeping in water
removes what the iron has taken np by immersion in acid ;
the loss in weight on subsequent heating being only about
1-1 0th of that in previous experiments where the iron had
not been immersed in water any length of time.
III. — Effect on the Breaking Strain and
Elongation.
The effect of immersion in acid on the breakino- strain
and elongation of ii'on wire naturally suggested itself as an
interesting subject for inquiry. Accordingly a number of
pieces of iron wire were immersed in hydrochloric acid for
one or more hours, and then carefully tested for elongation
and breaking strain. The pieces were then heated on a hot
plate for some hours and again tested with the following
general results.
1. That immersion in acid diminishes the breaking strain
of iron wire from ^ to 3 per cent, and steel wire about 4-76
per cent.
2. That immersion in acid appears in some cases to
diminish, in others slightly to augment, the elongation of
iron wire; and to augment the elongation of steel wire about
30 per cent.
i^
Subjoined are the results of a few of the experiments on
iron wire.
ELGNGATIOlSr.
BREAKING STRAIN. '
QUALITY.
x>o.
Immersed in
Acid 1 Hoiir.
Heated.
Immersed in
Acid 1 hour.
Heated.
1
Annealed Iron ( 1
15%
22%
1176
1168
Wire. \ 2
19
20
1176
1162
•164m. cliam. ( 3
22
19
964
1008
Average !
18-6%
20-3%
1105-3
1112-6
/
4
24%
22%
908
944
5
24
21
908
930
6
22
25
896
946
Annealed Iron
7
21
23
! 914
908
Wire, ■{
8
22
22
1 926
924
•loOin. diam.
9
24
24
926
924
10
22
23
934
896
\
11
22
21
930
928
12
21
20
924
906
Average
22-4%
22-3%
918-4
922-8
Hard Iron (
13
•5%
2%
1230
1218
Wire, \
14
2-5
3-5
i 1146
1230
•136in. diam. (
15
2
3
) 1200
1232
Average
I 1 2%
2-83%
1192
1226-6 1
IV. — Effect of Pyroligneous Acid.
The effect of pyroligneous acid on iron and steel appears
to be exactly similar to that of hydrochloric and sulphuric
acids, causing it to become more brittle, &c., though the
effects are perhaps somewhat less intense. As in their case^
heat restores the iron to its original toughness.
V. — Eff^ects of Acids on Copper and Brass.
Sulphuric acid appears to have no effect whatever on
copper. After 18 hours' or longer immersion in sulphuric
acid copper is as tough as ever, the action being confined to
the surface only.
Brass becomes rotten after long immersion in vitriol,
doubtless, because the zinc of which it is partly composed is
attacked by the acid, and, as might be expected, heat does
not restore it to its original condition. Prolonged exposure
to a moist damp atmosphere appears to make brass brittle
just as acid does.
79
VI. — Effect of Zinc on Iron.
A piece of galvanized iron of good quality, which when
cold several times resisted bending to and fro at right angles
to itself, was raised to a red heat with such rapidity that
only a small portion of the coating of zinc was vaporised.
On then attempting to bend it, it broke off sharp, the frac-
ture being short and crystalline. When cold, this piece
broke with all its former toughness, the fracture showing a
long fibre. The same piece was then heated till all the
coating of zinc was driven oiF; it was then found impossible
to break it. This clearly shows that the iron was not red
short except when rendered so by the zinc.
The same experiments were tried with iron coated with
lead and with tinned iron, but without the above results.
Some kinds of iron do not appear to be rendered red short
by zinc.
Possibly the above phenomenon may have some connec-
tion with the fact that zinc forms an alloy with iron at a
red heat, containing from 2 per cent to 6 per cent of iron,
and having a melting point which is higher as the propor-
tion of iron is greater, while lead and tin do not alloy with
iron at this temperature. But still the iron appears to
absorb the liquid zinc in a similar way to that in which
it appears to take up acid on immersion in it, and with
similar results.
Hitherto I have spoken of iron absorbing and occluding
acid as though this something which increases the weight
of the iron, alters its tensile strain, &c., had been definitely
proved to be acid ; but in the face of my having been unable
to obtain any reaction to test paper, this is very uncertain.
Though the fact that the immersion of iron which has been
soaked in an alkaline fluid greatly hastens its restoration to
its original state, and the rusting of the surface of iron
soaked in acid when heated in a confined space, all lead to
the belief that acid is absorbed, though other bodies, such
as gases, may be occluded at the same time.
80
The experiments of Professor Graham in 1867, and more
recently those of Mr. Parry, show that hydrogen, carbonic
oxide and carbonic acid, and nitrogen are evolved from
wrought iron, cast iron, and steel, when heated in vacuo.
Therefore it seems probable that a part of the hydrogen
produced by the action of the acid on the iron may be
absorbed by th^ iron, its nascent state facilitating this.
And when the iron is heated by the effort of breaking it,
the gas may bubble up through the moisture on the frac-
ture.
In Mr. Parry's experiments while one vol. of iron evolved
two vols, of gas when heated strongly in vacuo ; one vol. of
mild steel evolved only '13 of a vol. of gas. If from a small
evolution of gas during heating of steel in vacuo we may
argue a very small evolution of gas in steel soaked in acid,
then we are led to suppose that the bubbles evolved from
the hot moist fracture of a piece of steel will be very small
or imperceptible, which experiments amply confirm.
81
Ordinary Meeting, March 18th, 1873.
J. P. Joule, D.C.L,, LL.D, F.R.S, &c. President,
in the Chair.
Mr. James Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S., was elected an
Ordinary Member of the Society.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.R.S., Y.P., said that during the last week
an interesting controversy had been going on in this city
between the Town Clerk and the Professor of Chemistry at
the Royal Institution as to the quality of the water supplied
to Manchester. These disputants are well able to wage their
own warfare, therefore it is not my intention to interfere
with them. In these days no one doubts the blessings of a
constant supply of pure and good water ; but the latter
quality is determined in a great measure by the purpose for
which it is intended to be used. If for manufacturing and
washing then a pure soft water is no doubt most desirable,
but it is very questionable if such a water when conveyed
any considerable distance in leaden pipes is the best for the
drinking purposes of a town population.
In the Report of the Commissioners for Inquiring into the
State of Large Towns and Populous Districts, Dr. Lyon
Playfair, the Commissioner who reported on the then supply
of Manchester appears to have directed little attention to
the quality of drinking water for a town population which
had to a great extent left off using the milk, porridge, brown
bread, and oatcake of our forefathers, and resorted to sloppy
tea, white bread, butter, and a little meat, for at page 411
of his Repoi-t he says : — " In considering the best means for
the extension of this benefit," alluding to a constant supply
" to the working classes, or in sanctioning the formation of
new waterworks, it would be highly advisable to obtain
Peoceedings— Lit. & Phil. Society.— Yol. XII.— Xo. 9.— Session 1872-3.
82
evidence as to the quality of the water, particularly with
regard to its hardness. The value of attention to this point
will be obvious, when the difference of consumption of
soap is considered. I found by various trials m summer
that the Manchester water possesses a hardness equivalent
to what would be obtained if 13 or 14 grains of chalk were
dissolved in a gallon of pure water." The learned Commis-
sioner gives the water at Aberdeen at one grain of chalk per
gallon, and comparing that with the 14 of Manchester and
the 12 of London, he concludes " Thus the hard water of
Manchester may be regarded as increasing the water rent to
a family of five individuals 16s. 8d. per annum, or £49,363
per annum to the whole town, a sum nearly double that of
the present water rental. But large as the cost entailed
upon a town by a bad selection of water in the umiecesary
consumption of soap, still greater loss is incurred in the wear
and tear of clothes." This was written about thirty years
since, and I have not the death-rate of Manchester in 1842.
In that space of time how much money has been expended
in Manchester by th>e public authorities in shutting up
cellar dwellings, closing grave yards, removing pigstyes,
altering ashpits and middens, opening new streets, and sup-
plying pure water ? I cannot tell its amount, but every
ratepayer knows practically that it is very large. In looking
at the rate of mortality for the week ending March 8th, as
given in the Manchester Guardian, in the 21 leading places
in the kingdom, it was at the annual rate of 28 per thousand.
In London, the rate was 27; Bristol, 31; Wolverhampton,
28 ; Birmingham, 28 ; Nottingham, 27 ; Liverpool, 31 ; Man-
chester, 36 ; Bradford, 26; Sheffield, 27 ; Newcastle-on-Tyne,
81. Now I believe the first named five towns are supplied
with hard water, and give an aggregate of 141, whilst the
latter five, are supplied with soft water, and give an
aggregate of 151. This is a significant fact and worthy
of grave consideration. True, it is only one week, and
83
a whole year ought to be examined, but I imagine the
results if carefully gone into will give no advantage to
the use of pure soft water wdien compared with hard, for 27
is a very high rate for London. In building up the skeleton
of an adult large quantities of the phosphates and carbonates
of limes are required. The well to do, who consume plenty
of butchers' meat, cheese, and new milk, may manage to
obtain what nature requires, but for the poor, who live on
sloppy tea, fine white bread, a little butter, a trifle of meat,
and plenty of soft water, where are they to get their neces-
sary supply from ? It is not my intention to assert that the
high rate of mortality is all due to soft water. No doubt
there are many causes which help to produce it, but good,
wholesome drinking water, containing carbonate of lime,
and plenty of fresh air, which is hard to get in a close and
crooked-built town of high warehouses, have in my opinion
much to do with it. In my own case, I put a little lime in
the drinking water used in my house, and I live on a sandy
hill, well exposed to the winds of heaven. In all sanitary
arrangements too much attention cannot be given to provi-
ding plenty of fresh air and as much light as practicable.
" Observations on the Rate at which Stalagmite is being
accumulated in the Ingleborough Cave," by W. Boyd
Dawkins, M.A., F.KS., F.G.S.
The only attempt to measure with accuracy the rate of
the accumulation of stalagmite in caverns, in this country,
is that made by Mr. James Farrer in the Ingleborough Cave,
in the years 1839 and 1845, and published by Professor
Phillips in " The Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of York-
shire," (second edition, 1855, pp, 34-35). The stalagmite of
which the measurements were taken is that termed, from
its shape, the jockey cap. It rises from a crystalline pave-
ment to a height of about 2 J feet, and is the result of a
deposit of carbonate of lime, brought down by a line of
drops that fall into a basin at its top, and flow over the
84
general surface. On March 13th, 1872, in company with
Mr. John Birkbeck and Mr. Walker, I was enabled by the
kindness of Mr. Farrer to take a set of measurements, to be
recorded for use in after years.
For the sake of insuring accuracy in future observations,
three holes were bored at the base of the stalagmite, and
three gauges of brass wire, gilt, inserted, gauge No. 1 in the
following table being that on the S.S.E., No. 2 on N.N.E.,
No. 3 on the W, side. The curvilinear dimensions were
taken with fine iron wire, or with a steel measure ; and the
circumferential around the base along a line marked by the
three gauges. The measurements 2, 3, and 4 of the table
ware taken on the 15th of March, by Mr. Walker, and their
accuracy may be tested by the fact that they coincide
exactly with No. 1, which I took two days before.
The lengths of wire, properly labelled, will be deposited
in the Manchester Museum, The Owens College, for future
observers.
In the following table I have given my own measure-
ments and compared them with those taken by Mr. Farrer.
TABLE OF MEASUKEMENTS.
13th Mar.
30tliOct. Increase
Rate of increase
1873.
1839. 1845.
since
per annum.
Inches.
Inches Inches.
1839
1845
Inches.
1 Basal circumference at Gauges . .
128
118 120
10
8
•2941— -2857
2 Guage No. 1 to Gauge No. 2 —
52-625
3 ,, 2 ,, 8. . . .
35-0
4 „ 3 „ 1....
40-375
.5 Gauge No. 1 to hole in centre of
basin at apex
30
6 ,, 2 ,, „ ....
29-6
7 „ 3 „
31-4
8 Hgt. from Gauge No. 1
20-9
9 ,, ,, 2 minimum
20-4
10 Maximum
29-7
11 Tape measurement on slope
gauge No. 1 to edge of apex..
26-7
, ^ i
12 „ No. 2 „
26-6
21-0 i
6-6
13 ,, ,, Maximum ,,
36-0
32-0 : 35-0
4-0 'l-O
14 Roof to apex of Jockey cap
87
95-25
18-25
•2946
15 Roof to tip of stalactite
10
j
16 Stalactite to apex of -Jockey cap.
85-25
i
Unfortunately I have been unable to identify the exact
spots where the stalagamite was measured by Mr. Farrer,
85
so that the only measurement which affords any trustworthy
data for estimating the rate of increase is number 14. With
regard to this the only possible ground of error is the erosion
of the ofeneral surface of the solid limestone, of which the
roof is composed, by carbonic acid, since the year 1845, and
this is so small as to be practically inappreciable. We have
therefore evidence that the jockey's cap is growing at the
rate of '2946 of an inch per annum, and that if the present
rate of growth be continued it will finally arrive at the roof
in about 295 years. But even this comparatively short
lapse of time will probably be diminished by the growth of
a pendent stalactite above, that is now being formed in
place of that which measured ten inches in 1845, and has
since been accidentally destroyed. It is very possible that
the jockey cap may be the result not of the continuous but
of the intermittent drip of water containing a variable
quantity of carbonate of lime, and that, therefore, the
present rate of growth is not a measure of its past or future
condition. Its possible age in 1845 was estimated by Pro-
fessor Phillips at 259 years, on the supposition that the grain
of carbonate of lime in each pint was deposited. If, however,
it grew at its present rate it may be not more than one
hundred years old. All the stalagmites and stalactites in
the Ingleborough cave may not date fui-ther back than the
time of Edward III. if the Jockey cap be taken as a measure
of the rate of deposition.
It is evident, from this instance of rapid accumulation,
that the value of a layer of stalagmite, in fixing the high
antiquity of deposits below it is comparatively little. The
layers, for instance, in Kent's Hole, which are generally
believed to have demanded a considerable lapse of time,
may possibly have been formed at the rate of a quarter of
an inch per annum, and the human bones which lie buried
under the stalagmite in the cave of Bruniquel are not for
that reason to be taken to be of vast antiquity. It may be
86
fairly concluded that the thickness of layers of stalagmite
cannot be used as an argument in support of the remote age
of the strata below. At the rate of a quarter of an inch per
annum 20 feet of stalagmite might be formed in 1000 years.
"On Methyl-alizarine and Ethyl-alizarine," by Edward
SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.KS.
In a paper which I had the honour of reading before this
Society some time ago* I gave an account of a yellow
colouring matter accompanying artificial alizarine, to which
I gave the name of anthraflavic acid. Though the sub-
stance was at the time new to me and apparently to others
also, it is quite possible it may have been previously observed
by those working with artificial alizarine, since the crude
product is probably hardly ever quite free from it, and its
presence would not be likely to escape the notice of any one
endeavouring to prepare pure alizarine from the manufactu-
red article.
My analyses of the acid and of its barium and silver •salts
led to the formula C16H10O4 for the acid, and I was therefore
inclined to view it as a body homologous with alizarine, or
alizarine in which H is replaced by CH3. I supposed it to
be derived from a hydrocarbon higher in the series than
anthracene (C15H12 ?) contained in the ordinary anthra-
cene of commerce, a body which is supposed by some che-
mists really to exist, and which would stand in the same
relation to anthracene as toluol does to benzol. It was
necessary to adopt some such hypothesis, since, as Graebe
and Liebermann remark, in referring to my experiments, a
compound obtained from anthraquinone by the same process
as that yielding alizarine cannot possibly contain 15 atoms
of carbon. The conversion of the acid into alizarine by
the action of fusing caustic potash would however admit of
explanation in accordance with my view, since the methyl
* Proceedings Lit. and Phil, Soc, Session 1870-71.
87
presumed to be contained in it might be supposed to be
eliminated and replaced by hydrogen during the process.
The examination of anthraflavic acid was subsequently
undertaken by Mr. Perkin,* whose analyses of the carefully
purified substance led to the conclusion that it is isomeric
with alizarine. I do not wish to dispute the accuracy of
this view of its composition, since a trifling admixture of
some impurity, such as anthraquinone, might easily have
given rise to the excess of carbon found in my analyses, though
I may state that a specimen of the substance, prepared from
some of the " by-product" of the manufacture of alizarine —
kindly sent me by Mr. Perkin — and purified with great
care, gave exactly the same composition as before.
Graebe and Liebermann-[- have also examined a yellow
crystalline body accompanying artificial alizarine, which is
converted into the latter by the action of fusing caustic
potash. They are of opinion that it is identical with anthra-
flavic acid, there being, indeed, little or no difference in the
properties of the two substances. They assign to it the
formula Cu Hg O3, and consider it as monoxyanthraquinone,
alizarine being dioxyanthraquinone. The results of their
analyses of the substance and its barium compound diflfer
however so widely from those obtained by Mr. Perkin and
myself (particularly in this respect, that in the compounds
of anthraflavic acid, two atoms of hydrogen are replaced by
metals, whereas in those of monoxyanthraquinone only one
atom is replaced) as to lead to the conclusion either that
there exists more than one body having the general proper-
ties— chemical and physical — of anthraflavic acid, or that we
have not all of us been working mth pure substances.
Without pronouncing any decided opinion on this point,
which can only be determined by further investigation, and
without entertaining any sanguine anticipation of being
able to prepare anthraflavic acid directly from alizarine, it
* Chem, Soc. J., XXIV, 1109, f Liebig's Annalen CLX., 141.
88
seemed to me that it might be of some interest to ascertain
the nature and properties of the methylic and ethylic sub-
stitution products of alizarine obtained directly from the
latter.
In order to obtain methyl-alizarine I tried several
methods. The first consisted in heating bromalizarine with
iodide of methyl and metallic silver in closed tubes. This
process yielded a small quantity of a crystalline substance,
which I believed to be the compound sought for. The other
method, which is one now often practised for obtaining
methylic and ethylic substitution products, gave better
results. Purified artificial alizarine was treated with a
mixture of iodide of methyl, caustic potash, and a little
methylic alcohol in closed tubes, at a moderate temperature.
After heating for some days the tubes were opened and
emptied, and the excess of iodide of methyl having been
evaporated, the residue was treated first with hot water, to
remove the iodide of potassium, and then with a little cold
alcohol. The alcohol — which dissolved out a brown resinous
impurity — having been filtered off*, the residue was treated
with dilute caustic potash lye, in which the alizarine not
acted on dissolved with a violet colour. The liquid having
been filtered off", the residue, which consisted of the potassium
compound of methyl-alizarine — a compound very little
soluble in cold water — was washed until the percolating
liquid began to be of a cherry-red colour. It was then
treated with hydrochloric acid, and the orange-coloured
flocks left undissolved were filtered off", washed and dissolved
in boiling alcohol. The alcohol, on cooling, deposited crys-
talline needles of methyl-alizarine.
Methyl-alizarine as thus prepared has the following pro-
perties : — When crystallised from boiling alcohol it appears
in long yellow needles, having a reddish tinge, but without
the semi-metallic lustre peculiar to alizarine which it gene-
rally resembles. When heated it is entirely volatilised,
89
yielding a sublimate of yellow lustrous scales and needles.
It is almost insoluble in boiling water, but dissolves easily
in concentrated sulphuric acid, even in the cold, giving a
cherry-red solution. It does not dissolve sensibly in caustic
potash lye in the cold, but on boiling a bright cherry-red
solution is obtained, which on cooling deposits dark red
crystalline masses. The solution shows no trace of absorp-
tion bands, but onl/ a general obscuration of the green part
of the spectrum, and in this respect differs widely from the
alkaline solutions of alizarine, which exhibit such ver}^
characteristic absorption bands. The solution in concen-
trated sulphuric acid does, however, show an absorption
band on the border of the green and blue, just like a solution
of anthraflavic acid in the same menstruum, but far less
distinctly than the latter, on account of the much greater
obscuration of the parts of the spectrum adjacent to the
band. On adding alcoholic potash solution to an alcoholic
solution of methyl-alizarine the potassium compound is
deposited in dark red needles, arranged in star-shaped
masses. The sodium compound, prepared in the same way,
crystallises in small light red needles. A watery solution
of the potassium compound gives with chloride of barium a
red flocculent precipitate. The alcoholic solution of methyl-
alizarine gives no precipitate with acetate of lead. When
treated with boiling nitric acid methyl-alizarine is dissolved
and decomposed, and the solution on evaporation leaves a
white crystalline residue, probably of phthalic acid. Methyl-
alizarine undergoes no change when treated with strong-
caustic potash lye, even at the boiling temperature. It is
only when fusing hydrate of potash is employed that de-
composition takes place. If the operation be carefully con-
ducted there is obtained, on the addition of water to the
fused mass, a violet -coloured solution, which shows the
absorption bands of alizarine very distinctly. There is no
doubt, therefore, that by the more energetic action of the
90
alkali at the temperature of fusion alizarine is regenerated.
Methyl-alizarine does not d^^e mordanted cloth when tried in
the usual manner. It imparts hardly any colour to the
mordants, and differs, therefore, in this respect from the
parent substance more than in any otlier.
Though methyl-alizarine differs in most points very
widely from anthraflavic acid, still the two substances are
found to resemble one another as regards some of their pro-
perties. Both yield crystallised potassium and sodium
compounds. Both are converted into alizarine by the action
of fusing potassic hydrate, though both remain unchanged
when treated with strong alkaline lyes. The action of both
on the spectrum is very similar. Neither of them is preci-
pitated from its alcoholic solution by acetate of lead. Both
are incapable of dyeing mordants.
The analysis of methyl-alizarine gave numbers corre-
sponding with the formula C15H10O4. It is therefore aliza-
rine in which one atom of hydrogen is replaced by methyl.
It still remained to determine how this substitution takes
place, whether it is one of the two hydrox^d atoms con-
tained in alizarine the hydrogen of which is replaced by
methyl, or whether the substitution is effected in a different
manner. In the former case methyl-alizarine would con-
tain only one atom of hydrogen replaceable by metals. The
formula of methyl-alizarine being Ci4Hg(HO)(CH30)02,
that of the potassium compound, for instance, would be
Ci4H6(KO)(CH30)02 and it would contain by calculation
13'3 per cent of potassium. Now the potassium compound
prepared in the manner just described and dried first over
sulphuric acid and then at 180° C, was found to contain
12*6 per cent of potassium. It is certain therefore that
methyl-alizarine belongs to the class of compound ethers,
being formed by the replacement of one of the hydrogen
atoms of a bibasic acid by methyl. It has a similar com-
position to Mr. Perkin's diacetyl -alizarine. In the latter
91
how ever two atoms of hydrogen are replaced by the com-
pound radical acetyl. Diacetyl-alizarine seems also to be a
much less stable body than methyl-alizarine.
Ethyl-alizarine may be prepared in the same way as the
corresponding methyl compound, employing iodide of ethyl
in place of iodide of methyl. The properties of the two
substances are so nearly alike that they can hardly be dis-
tinguished from one another. The composition of ethyl-
alizarine is expressed by the formula C16H12O4.
Specimens of the two substances were shown along with
some specimens sent for exhibition by Mr. Perkin, including
the new colouring matter lately discovered by him, anthra-
purpurine, and samples of dyed calico showing the different
effects produced by alizarine and anthrapurpurine.
" On the Transition from Roman to Arabic Numerals (so-
called) in England," by the Rev. Brooke Herford.
One of the collateral points of interest with which the
local historian has to occupy himself from time to time, is
the determination of dates. When, now three years ago, I
was busy with the re-editing of Baines's History of Lanca-
sliire, left incomplete by the death of my old friend Mr.
Harland, in verifying some notes about the village churches
in Leyland Hundred, my attention was asked to a date on
one of the beams of Eccleston church, which had been an
object of curiosity to many visitors, but which no one had
ever been able to decipher. The inscription was as follows :
anno trni Ifjje
carved on the oak beam in an unusually clear, square
character. For a long time I was unsuccessful in my
attempts to decipher it. It was when I had got to the very
last sheet of my work, and while examining some old M.SS.
of the reign of Elizabeth, that I was one day particularly
struck by the resemblance between the 5's of the M.SS and
92
its li's, and at once this gave me the clue to the Eccleston
date, the whole difficulty of which had lain in the very
careful " fj " which formed the second figure. I turned to
my copy of it and saw at a glance that it was in reality
1536.
The explanation of it I worked oat in my mind as
follows : — The inscription had evidently been cut by a very
careful workman ; but at that time tlie Arabic numerals
were hardly known except to scholars, and all the associa-
tions that ordinary people had with figures were with
letters used as numerals. Hence workmen tried to make
the figure oflfered to them like the nearest letter they could
find. So the workman at Eccleston, instead of imitating
what seemed to him the rude h of his copy, made a
beautiful " t) " of the period ! And the same with the 3,
which would be to him evidently a rough attempt at a Z ;
and with the 6, which, looking like an inverted e, he judi-
ciously put what he considered the right side up. My
perplexity, however, and especially the solution of it, drew
my attention to the question of how long ago the Arabic
numerals were introduced, and of the source from which
they came to us.
Until latterly it has been generally believed that our
system of decimal notation came to us from the Arabs, and
hence the name Arabic numerals. It is now however 2rene-
rally admitted that they are originally Indian. Two lines
of possible derivation from India have been traced out, each
of which has been regarded as that by which their use was
actually introduced into Europe. One is through the Moors,
It is known that the present system of arithmetic was intro-
duced from India into Persia at the end of the 8th century.
Hence it passed into use in the north-east of Africa about the
end of the 10th century, and with the Moors it would un-
doubtedly come into Spain. The other line is through the
Latins. Boetliius, in the beginning of the 6th century, in the
93
first book of his Geonietiy, describes an adaptation of the
Abacus which really involved the system of decimal numera-
tion, and some of the M.SS. — and as M. Chasles proves the
best and most ancient — contain a table of nine figures, which
are curiously like those now in use among us, — more like our
present figures indeed than are the numerals in use among
the Moors. The next link in this chain of derivation is in a
monkish treatise, De JSfunieroruin Divisione, by Gerbert, a
Benedictine monk, subsequently raised to the papal chair
(in 999) as Sylvester II. This treatise (says M. Martin)
does not explicitly describe the decimal numeration, but
throughout takes it for granted. Whence however did
Gerbert learn it ? It was said, a few generations later, from
the Saracens ; but it appears from the arguments of M.
Chasles and M. Henri Martin [to whose arguments the paper
referred in detail], that this was a mistake, and it seems on
the whole most probable that the abacus vrith nine figures
has come to us from the Latins, who had it in the time of
Boethius, whose ascription of it to Pythagoras doubtless
arose from its having been brought from India by the Neo-
pythagoreans. Preserved by Boethius, the use of these
figures with an abacus of traced columns became known to
the more learned monkish scholars of the middle ages, and
gradually came into use in scientific calculations, the Greek
cypher being supplied and the columns at length dispensed
with. For generations, probably for centuries, the signs and
the use of them would be confined to the learned, as little
understood by the common people as are now the signs of
the zodiac. It is in the popularizing of them rather than
their introduction that we probably feel the value of Arab
and Moorish influences.
The interesting question still remains as to the date at
which they first began to make their appearance in litera-
ture, to be used for inscribing dates, and, last of all, to take
their place in the transactions of the counting-house and
94
the elementary arithmetic of schools. As might be ex-
pected, all the first traces of these figures in England were
found in the old calendars and calculations with which,
here and there, the "monkish scholars busied themselves.
Chaucer in his "Dreme" (about 1375) speaks of them as
" figures newe" in a passage the t mor of which shows that
he was aware of the enormous improvement which they
ofiered upon the old use of the Roman signs. The first
printed book which is known to contain the Arabic nume-
rals is an old blackletter quarto printed at Louvain in 1476,
entitled Fasciculus Temporum. Caxton, I believe, never
uses them, in the works issued from his press ; but in
his Mirrour of the World, 1480, is a curious wood-cut
representing a man sitting at a desk, and before him a
board on which are drawn some rude representations of
Arabic figures. The earliest authentic instances of monu-
mental or structural inscriptions with Arabic numerals are
given in the ArcJiccologlcal Journal for 1850, and were accep-
ted by the Archaeological Institute as genuine : — On a ]ych
gate, at Bi-ay, Berkshire, 1448 ; on a quarry of stained
glass, at St. Cross's Hospital, Hampshire, 1497 ; on a stone,
also at St. Cross's, 1503. I believe that nothing earlier
than these is really known. There are, indeed, plenty
which claim to be of greater antiquity — but one or two
explanations will probably answer for them all. In several
cases the bottom of the antique 4, in the hundreds, has
been cut off", leaving an apparent date of the eleventh
century. In still more cases a rude 5 has been read
for a 1. These numerals would be used for inscriptions,
as a mere fancy -lettering, long before their real im-
portance was understood. Merchants would go on using
the old figures, which had served their fathers. So we find
the old system holding its place in all known public or
private accounts till the beginning, and in many cases till
far on into the sixteenth century. One curious exception.
•95
indeed, has been noted by that trustworthy antiquary the
Rev. Joseph Hunter. At one of the meetings of the
Archgeological Institute, in 1850, he brought forward a fac-
simile of an old warrant which he had discovered in the
Record Office, in which the date (1325) is expressed in one
part in Roman and in another Arabic numerals. It is a war-
rant from Hugh le Dispenser to Bonifez de Peruche and his
partners, merchants of a company, to pay forty pounds. On
the face of it, as executed by the English Chancellor, it is
dated '' the XIX° year" of Edward II. It bears, however,
the endorsement of the Italian merchant on the back, and
he has endorsed it February, 1325, in Arabic figures. I
do not know that I could conclude with a better illustration
of the probability of the account, which I have adopted
from M. Chasles and M. Martin, of .the Arabic numerals
having come to Europe from India, not first by means of
the Moors, but through the Italians, since we find an ordi-
nary Italian merchant using them in an ordinary business
transaction, at least two centuries before their common use
in English bookkeeping and commerce.
"Notes on the Victoria Cave, Settle," by William
Brockbank, F.G.S.
The discoveries of the antiquities and animal remains in
the Victoria Cave have been described to the Society.by Mr.
Boyd Dawkins, and are very fully set forth by Mr. R. Tid-
deman, F.G.S., in the Geological Magazine for January,
1873 (Vol. X., No. 1).
Mr. Tiddeman's view^s are shortly as follows. (1) He
gives a section of the cave, shewing a cavern in the face of
a limestone cliff, the floor of which is cov^ered thickly
over with stratified deposits, sloping inwards from the
entrance, and against the edges of which rests a talus of
Breccia, having below it a stratum of glacial drift clay with
boulders. The latter he shews as just occurring above the
96
bone bed in which the oldest remains were found, and which
he therefore infers to be of preglacial age.
There is a slight but important diiference between Mr.
Tiddeman's statement as herein set forth, and that of
Mr. Dawkins to this Society to which I took exception on
the 18th of February. Mr. Dawkins gave the Society to
understand that the most ancient remains, lately found,
occurred outside the cave, in the talus, in which I think he
was quite mistaken, and Mr. Tiddeman does not so place
them. My remarks, as published in the Proceedings of that
Meeting, had special reference to this very point, and as Mr.
Dawkins varied his description in the published summary,
they do not appear to be a reply to the context.
However, Mr. Dawkins and Mr. Tiddeman are both in
accord in considering that the lower cave earth in which
the oldest remains are found is immediately covered by a
clay of glacial origin ; and that in this case the Victoria Cave
is the only one in Great Britain which has offered clear
proof that the group of animals whose bones have been there
found was living in the country before the glacial age.
The conclusion above stated is so important as to demand
the clearest proof, and therefore the subject is one worthy of
the most careful consideration, and full discussion ; and as I
hold the conclusion to be altogether wrong, I will proceed
firstly^to describe the deposits from my own point of view,
and then will try to shew where I think the above gentle-
men are in error.
(1) The Victoria Cave occurs in the face of a limestone
crag, which appears to be much fissured, as the openings of
four other caverns occur in it within a quarter of a mile,
two of which are believed to be in connection with the
Victoria Cave. The cliff rises from 200 to 300 feet above
the cave, and beyond it is a high tract of pasture land, with
numerous hollows on the surface ; into which the rain sinks
and finds its way through the fissures in the limestone. So
97
completely does all water sink away, that artificial pond*
are made for the cattle to drink at in suitable places, and it
is a very curious fact, that the only true clay suitable for
puddling purposes, occurs in sheltered hollows on the sum-
mit of the hills, and this is a true glacial clay. No doubt
this clay at one time covered the entire surface of the hill
tops, as they are still dotted thickly over with huge drift
boulders, or " Calliards," as they are locally called, chiefly
of whinstone, black marble, and silurian flags, such as occur
in the neighbouring hills northwards. The caverns all
appear to have been formed on the lines of main fissures
where the limestone has been much broken. The close
proximity of the Great "Craven fault," (which runs at right
angles to the face of the Langclifl'e Scar in which the Vic-
toria Cave occurs), will account for the great extent to which
the limestone has been thus fissured.
It is therefore evident that the surface water in wet
seasons, having to find its way through these fissures, from
the watershed of a large area, would form great undergi'ound
streams, which would wear out these caverns and carry
through and into them much detritus from the surface ; and
very probably the whole of the drift clays, which have evi-
dently been denuded from the surfaces where the boulders
now lie, have been thus removed and earned away in the
course of the long ages of time which have elapsed since
their deposition, during the glacial epoch.
(2) The evidence to be gathered from, the whole district
poiats to a very considerable falling away of the face of the
limestone scars during wet seasons and frosts. The day
before my visit a mass of at least 100 tons had fallen from
above the face of the Victoria Cave, It appears to me that
the face of the scar at the cave was formerly at least 80
feet in front of its present line, and that this mass must have
fallen away, at any rate since the glacial age. The lime-
stone about the cave is so much fissured, and so constantly
98
permeated with water in large quantities, that its whole mass
is loosened, and falls away from season to season to a very
great extent. The effect of this upon our present subject
has an important bearing in two particulars.
(a) It would entirely do away with the supposition that
any part of this "talus" now lying immediately against the
entrance of the cave, was existent during the glacial epoch,
and hence that the boulders relied upon by Messrs. Tidde-
man and Dawkins cannot be in situ as therein deposited,
and
(b) That the floor level of the cave has been constantly
rising, having been reformed upon the masses of limestone
which had fallen from the roof These two important
deductions are amply verified by the present appearances
of the cliff and cavern.
(3) In every instance with which I am acquainted the
clay which fills the caverns of Yorkshire and Derby-
shire has been introduced by the agency of running water,
generally by " pot holes," which communicate with the sur-
face, and which in wet seasons give passage to large volumes
of water laden with detritus, a portion of which is deposited
in such parts of the underground channels as are favourable
to, its accumulation. Such clays are likely to be laminated,
because of the mode af their deposition, at intervals, which
allowed one layer to harden before another was deposited
upon it. The clay which is found filling the Victoria Cave
is precisely such as we should look for under the circum-
stances before described. The glacial drift deposited clay
of the boulder type upon the surface; and the rains of ages
dissolved it away and carried it down these fissures into the
cavern, where a portion of it remained. That the cave is of
the precise character here indicated I can certify, for I was
able to get to the end of it after going for a considerable
distance through mud and water — the roof being only about
two or three feet from the floor. I there found that the end
99
of the cave was an oval dome, which continued upwards in
a circular shaft as far as my sight could reach ; and I found
the sides in many places dotted witli clay, and the ledges, as
high as I could reach, thickly covered with it, of the precise
colour and appearance of that filling the cave. The surface
under the dome, or " pot hole," had also many pebbles scat-
tered over it, and these were of the same rocks as the large
drift boulders occurring on the surface. Much water was
coming down this shaft, as also in several other places in the
Victoria Cave, and it disappeared again through the floor,
and especially at a point near the entrance, where a large
aperture showed that the cavern continued to a much
lower level than the lowest point yet reached.
(4) Mr. Tiddeman's section and description gives the
stratification of clays in the interior of the cave as regular
and as consisting of (a) lower cave earth (6) bone bed con-
taining bones of older mammals (c) laminated clay, and (d)
upper cave earth.
So far as I can learn, however, I cannot agree that this
correctly describes the interior of the cavern. I should
adopt in preference the following description :
(a) Lower yellow clay, the old floor of occupation of the
cave about 1 foot thick containing large quantities of copro-
lites, the dung of the older mammals, whose bones occur
plentifully in it, and I believe this seam of clay will be found
to occur throughout the cave at varying levels.
(6) Laminated clays above and below the large masses of
limestone which have fallen from the roof and which have
been deposited by water from the surface. This clay
contains pebbles, and occasionally larger pieces of rocks,
such as occur on the surface.
(c) Cave earth on the surface of (b), at varying levels,
and which contained Roman remains. This earth occurred
generally at parts of the cavern where the roof is not much
fissured, and where consequently it has not fallen.
100
Now Mr. Tidrleman describes this upper clay or cave
earth as gradually thickening from the entrance towards the
rear of the cave, and he places a laminated clay between it
and the lower cave earth, which he also describes as dipping
gradually from the entrance towards the rear of the cavern,
and he distinctly pronounces this laminated structure to be
evidence of its glacial origin, and he supposes it to have been
deposited in the following manner : —
" Let us imagine a glacier or an ice sheet passing by the
mouth of the cave and partly blocking the entrance with its
rubbish * * * * the glacier melts by day and usually
(though not always) freezes by night. The moraine rubbish
hinders the coarser debris from entering the cave, but gives
passage to glacier water charged with fine mud. The glacier
by its grinding keeps the water charged with mud, and the
frequent change from daily flow to nightly inaction, gives
rise to that close lamination, which is its characteristic
feature."
With all respect to the opinion of so high an authority, I
altogether deny the possibility of this being the true expla-
nation, for the following reasons : —
(a) Glaciers do not deposit fine mud in lateral moraines
150 or 200 feet above the base of the glacier; and even if
they did, it is not possible that such mud could flow into
a cavern closed at its end as here described.
(6) The laminated clay occurs in the cave on the surface,
at a 'point ivhere it can only he of most recent origin, near
the dome which terminates in a " pot hole," and by which
it has evidently been only recently introduced ; and similar
clays occur in other caverns, where glacial action as above
desd'ihed could not have obtained.
After a most careful examination I am perfectly satisfied
that Mr. Tiddeman has overrated the importance of this
laminated clay, and that his theory is altogether erroneous.
101
Mr. Tiddeman describes the " talus" as having fallen from
the cliff above, and that it continued upwards, so as formerly
to close 'the entrance of the cave, which is so far quite cor-
rect. He afterwards describes the most recent discovery as
being brought to light below all the "talus" at the mouth
of the cave, viz. a bed of tenacious clay with scratched Silu-
rian and other boulders, resting on the edges of the beds
containing the remains of the older mammals, and dipping
outwards at an angle of 40°. Professor Hughes had sug-
gested to him the possibility of this boulder clay not being
in its original position, but that it might have fallen from
the cliff; but Mr. Tiddeman thinks this impossible. He
" considers that it seems likely that it is the remnant of the
moraine (lateral or profonde) which dammed up the mouth
of the cave, and prevented anything but fine sediment from
entering it during the glacial period" (as before cited), and
it is ujDon this supposition that the more important one is
based, viz.; that the remains found recently are of pre-
glacial age.
I am sorry again to have to differ from Mr. Tiddeman,
but I am perfectly convinced he is in error, and that
there is a.t present nothing at all resembling the boulder
drift clay to be seen at the entrance of Victoria Cave.
I examined the whole section very carefully, and had
some of the boulders, which are very few, got out, and
I believe they are fully to be accounted for ^vithout any
need to assume glacial action. They are of black limestone,
Silurian flags, whinstone, and millstone grit, such as occur
plentifully on the surface of the scar, and where they
were probably deposited as drift. At the point where the
animal remains so plentifully occurred is probably an old
entrance of the cavern, on a much lower level than the
original entrance when the cave was first discovered. Just
within this, in a water-worn hollow, the remains occurred
102
in the yellow clay or cave earth, which abounded with the
dung of the animals. Mr. Jackson says there was a sill
stone in front, evidently worn to smoothness by the frequent
passing of the animals ; and just beyond this point there is
an opening into a cavern, lower still than tlie lowest point
yet reached, and into which the drainage of the cavern now
flows. Everything points to the probability of a large
quantity of clay having poured out among the talus at this
place in very wet seasons, and the clay itself as now found
is a pasty, tenaceous mass, unlike any naturally deposited
clay with which I am acquainted.
Amongst the boulders I found one which is of itself suffi-
cient to account for the occurrence of boulders without any
need of a glacial theory.
It is a smoothly rounded limestone boulder, precisely such
as is formed by the rolling action of falling water in *' pot-
holes," and which cannot have had any glacial origin. This
boulder occurring as it did with others of black limestone
and Silurian slate, is to my mind perfectly conclusive.
The point at which the last discovery of older bones was
made, is at least 30 feet in advance of the original entrance,
and was covered in front with talus. It is however a por-
tion of the solid cliff, which has remained after all the rest
had faUen away, and its evidence is conclusive that a very
large mass has thus fallen since these remains were there
deposited. The fall of this large mass, containing in its
fissures clay and boulders from the glacial drift which cer-
tainly passed over it, would be amply sufficient to account
for all the drift boulders which actually occur in the talus.
I visited Victoria Cave three years ago, when the opera-
tions had newly commenced, and I then found at the top of
the talus precisely similar boulders to those which have
103
recently attracted so much attention, and I believe they will
be found throughout the debris. For all these reasons, there-
fore, I submit that there is no ground for the theory of
glacial action as put forth by these gentlemen, but on the
contrary that the filling of the Victoria Cave was the work
of long ages, by the action of running water, and that there
is no reason to suppose that the remains found in it are
older than the glacial epoch.
The President exhibited a syphon barometer, the pecu-
liarity of which consisted in the introduction of a small
quantity of sulphuric acid over the ends of the mercurial
column.
Mr. Spence, F.C.S., communicated to the Society the
result of an experiment in heating a diamond, which will
considerably modify the general impression as to that gem
being combustible only at an extremely high heat.
A friend of his had brought over a number of diamonds
from the African mines. Some of these were what is called
" off colour," not being purely white, and he put one of these
into Mr. Spence's hands to try some experiments for dis-
placing the colour if practicable.
This diamond, the size of a small pea, was immersed in
fire-clay in a small crucible, the clay being mixed with a
little carbonate of soda and hydrate of lime, the crucible was
then placed in a muffle, and for three days and nights
exposed to a heat, which, at no time, was beyond a low
cherry red. After cooling, the crucible was broken, and the
lump of hardened fire-clay was carefully broken up to
extract the diamond ; after tAVO or three fractures of the
lump an impression or hole in the indurated clay was
104
discovered just at the spot where the diamond should have
been, but not a vestige of the precious stone remained.
The only explanation of its departure that seems feasible
is, that the soda carbonate, causticised by the lime hydrate,
had by its affinity for carbonic acid assisted the oxygen of
the atmosphere getting through cracks in the clay, to
oxidise the pure carbon of which the diamond is composed
at a vastly lower temperature tlian would in ordinary
circumstances have been required — at all events this gem
was entirely volatilised at a very low red heat.
105
Ordinary Meeting, April 1st, 1873.
K Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the
Chair.
Mr. J. S. Kipping and Mr. J. Sidebotham were appointed
Auditors of the Treasurer's Accounts.
" Note on an Observation of a small black spot on the
Sun's disc," by Joseph Sidebotham, F.RA.S,
As there is again some speculation as to the existence oi
an intra-mercurial planet, and every little fact bearing on
the subject may be of value, I have referred to my diary
and find that on Monday, March 12th, 1849, our late mem-
ber Mr. G. C Lowe and I saw a small circular black spot
cross a portion of the sun's disc. We were trying the
mounting and adjustments of a 7-inch reflector we had been
making, and used an ink box between the eye-piece and the
plane speculum. At first we thought this small black spot
was upon the eye-piece, but soon found it was on the sun's
disc, and we watched its progress across the disc for nearly
half an hour. The only note in my diary is the fact of the
spot being seen — no time is mentioned, but if I remember
rightly it was about 4 o'clock in the afternoon.
Mr. Baxendell, on behalf of Mr. Sidebotham, F.RA.S.,
exhibited a knife, the blade of which is steel, the bush at
the handle brass, and the handle itself copper, all coated
with nickel, beautifully polished. In a letter which Mr.
Sidebotham had received from Professor Hamilton L. Smith,
of Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y., the writer suggests tlie
use of iron or bell metal specula, coated with nickel, for
reflecting telescopes. He says, " I ground and prepared a
bell metal speculum, which I coated with nickel, and this,
PEOCEEDiNgs — Lit. & Phil. Society. — Vol.XII. — Xo 10. — Session 1872-3.
106
when polished, proved to be more reflective (at least I
thought so) than speculum metal. The two objects which
I sought were— first to have a polished surface unattackable
by sulphuretted hydrogen (this, for example, is not injured
by packing with lucifer matches), and secondly, for large
specula, doing most of the work by the turning-tool and
lathe. I really think a large, say 3 feet, mirror, coated with
nickel, but cast of iron, and finished mostly in the lathe,
while it would not cost the tenth of a similar sized specu-
lum metal, would be almost equal to silvered glass of
the same size, and vastly more enduring as to polish.
Professor Williamson, F.RS,, referring to Mr. Binney's
remarks at the meeting of March 4th, said that Mr. Binney,
after pointing out that I had identified a certain type of
stem-structure v/ith Aster ophylUles, and that Professor
Renault had discovered the same structure in Sphenophyl-
lum, Mr, Binney proceeds to say, '' I am not in possession
of the facts from which the two learned professors came to
such different conclusions, but I am inclined to consider the
singular little stem as belonging to a new genus until the
leaves of Sphenophyllum or Asterophyllites are found
attached to it. When this comes to pass of course there can
be no doubt of the matter." I have italicised the two
important points in the preceding quotation. In the first
place I cannot understand how Mr. Binney has overlooked
my statement, made primarily in the Proceedings of the
Royal Society, and repeated in the last number of the Pro-
ceedings of your meeting of February 4th, that I had "got
a number of exquisite examples showing not only the nodes,
hut verticils of the linear leaves so characteristic of the
plant r These leaves I have obtained attached to the stems
in question in at least a dozen examples. Secondly, Mr.
Binney considers that my conclusions and those of my
friend Professor Renault are different, whereas they mutually
107
sustain each other in the strongest possible manner. Nearly
every writer who has dealt with these subjects has recog-
nised Annularia and Sphenophyllum as genera of plants
having the closest possible mutual affinity ; they are
invariably arranged side by side. Brongniart, in his
Tableau des genres de v4getaux fossiles, says of Spheno-
phyllum that "great attention is necessary in order to avoid
confounding it with certain species of AsterophylKtes;" and
again he says of the fructification of Sphenophyllum that it
" is too analagous to that of AsterophylKtes to allow of any
doubt as to the affinities of these two genera" (loc. cit. p. 52).
Mr. Carruthers, in his lecture " On the Cryptogamic Forests
of the Coal Period," says of Asterophyllites, Annularia, and
Sphenophyllum, " it is possible they may be found to con-
stitute three genera, but there are no characters possessed
by the leaves which prevent them belonging to one well
defined genus." (Proceedings of the Eoyal Institution of
Great Britain for April 18th, 1869.) I could easily multiply
similar illustrations of my statement, but I have probably
said enough to prove that, so far from the " conclusions" of
Professor Renault and myself on this point being opposed
and " different," we have been independently and unknown
to each other arriving at what are practically identical con-
clusions respecting the stem under consideration.
E. W. BiNNEY, F.R.S., said that after having heard Pro-
fessor Williamson's remarks his opinion expressed at the
meeting of the Society on the 4th day of March last was
not altered. Bphenophyllvbin and Asterophyllites have al-
ways been considered as distinct genera of plants, and they
are so described in Professor Schimper's great work. Pro-
fessor Renault writes, " Si je ne me trompe ces tiges curieuses
appartiennent a des sphenophyllum, du moins c'est ce que j'ai
t^crit dans les comptes rendus de I'academie en 1870." And
again " Je n'ai pas encore rencontre de feuilles adherentes
au rameau ce qui m'a empeche de determiner specilique-
108
ment ce sphenophyllum." When he (Mr. Binney) sees the
leaves whether of Asterophyllites or SplienopUylliim at-
tached to the curious little stem he will be convinced of
their connection, but until then he will hold to his original
opinion.
PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.
Annual Meeting, March 25th, 1873.
E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., Vice-President of the Section
in the Chair.
The following gentlemen were elected officers of the Sec-
tion for the ensuing year :
ALFRED BEOTHERS, F.R.A.S,
JOSEPH BAXENDELL, r,E.A,S.
SAMUEL BROUaHTON.
%xtm\xxtx,
THOMAS CARRICK.
^mzUxi.
dEORGE VENABLES VERNON, F.R.A.S., F.M.S,
"Rainfall at Old Trafford, Manchester," by G. V. Vernon,
F.KA.S.
The total amount of rainfall in 1872 was 50-692in. against
83-288in. in 1871.
The amount which fell in 1872 was 14-883in. above the
average of the last seventy-nine years, and in excess of any
rainfall at Manchester between 1793 and 1872. Referring
109
to the observations made by Mr. Walker from 1786 to 1798,
we find that in 1789 he collected 50-998in., and in 1792
55'250in. Since this period the rainfalls exceeding 40in.
have been 1822, 44-767in.; 1823, •i2-941in.; 1828, 45-267in.;
1830, 40-861in.; 1833, 41-677in.; 1836, 45-351in.; 1841,
41-190in.; 1845, 41-415in.; 1847, 43-555in.; 1818, 45-230in.;
1852, 45-730in.
At the time Mr. Walker registered his excessive falls, the
mean annual temperature was lower than it has been since,
and reference to my paper, "Inquiry into the question
Whether Excess or Deficiency of Temperature during part
of the year is usually compensated during the remainder of
the same year" (Memoirs, vol. 2, third series, p. 424), will
show that between 1781 and 1791 a lower mean tempera-
ture prevailed than any we have had since. The other
years in which excessive rainfall occurred, 1822, 1823, 1828,
1830, 1833, 1836, 1841, 1845, 1847, 1848, and 1852, appear
to have been iiTeg*ular as regards temperature; the years
1822, 1828, 1833, 1841, 1847, 1848, and 1852, had a tem-
perature above the average, whilst 1823, 1830, 1836, and
1845, had a temperature below the average. Taking the
average rainfall of each of these series it appears that the
heaviest rainfall occurred during the warmer years.
Returning again to the year 1872, the rainfall rises above
the average in every quainter, especially in the third, the
excess in that quarter reaching 7*104in.; in the last quarter
the excess was very small.
Every month excepting May, August, November, and
December, had a rainfall above the average, the falls of
June, July, and September being most remarkable, each of
these months having a fall of more than double the average.
The very heavy faU in the middle of July was accom-
panied by a great flood in the Medlock here, and there is
every certainty that such a rainfall again must be accom-
panied by a similpvr flood and great destruction of property.
110
What would have occurred if the rainfall in July had been
like that of 1828, ll'480in., or 3-822in. in excess of what
fell in July, 1872 ?
Rain fell on 40 days in excess of the average of the last
10 years (Proceedings, vol. 11, p. 184); rain fell upon the
greatest number of days in January, June, September, and
October, and upon the least in April.
Whatever was the disturbing cause which produced the
excessive rainfall, examination of the excess of each quar-
terly period shows that it went on increasing until Septem-
ber, and then apparently declined to the end of the year, the
excess in question being — March quarter, 2*808in.; June
quarter, 4*794in. ; September quarter, 7'104in. ; and drop-
ping down in the December quarter to 0"l77in. only.
As regards the temperature of the year, it was above the
average in every quarter, Greenwich giving
March'quarter + 5 "0° n . ^
-^ /^ ^o J 11^ excesss oi
June quarter + 0"5 / ^,
^ , -, ro vthe average
September quarter .. . +1'0 ( „,^t
-r^ 1 ^ ^„ I of 101 years;
December quarter ... +1-7 )
so that in the case of last year a high temperature has
accompanied the excessive rainfall.
Old Trafford, Manchester.
Kain Guage 3 feet above the ground, and 106 feet above sea level.
Quarterly
Periods.
1872.
1871.
1872.
Days Days
38 56-!
44 50
62
48
182 228
January . .
February..,
March
Apiil ,
IMay ,
June ,
July
August
September
October .
November.
December.
FaU
Average
m
of
Inches.
79 Years
In.
In,
4-255
2-537
3-018
2-409
2-775
2-294
2-975
2 062
2-145
2-301
6-900
2-863
7-G58
3-557
2-784
3-501
7-038
3-318
4-404
3-891
3774
3-784
2-906
3-292
50-692
25-809
Differ-
ence.
No. of
Days
Rain
feUin
1872.
Quarterly Periods.
79 Years
In.
+1-718
+0-609
+0-481
+ 0-913
-0-150
+4-037
+4-101
-0-717
+ 3-720
+0-513
-0-014
-0-326
+14-883
18
16
9
17
24
17
19
23
22
21
20
228
In.
1"
240
7-226
10-376
10-967
35-809
1872.
In.
10-048
12-020
17*480
11-144
60-692
Differ-
ence.
In.
+2-808
+4-794
+7-104
+0-177
+14-883
Ill
Ordinary Meeting, April loth, 1873.
R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.RS., Vice-President, in the Chair.
Mr. William Thomson was elected an Ordinary Member
of the Society.
Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., exhibited two fine eggs
of the golden eagle (Falco chrysaetos) taken the previous
week from a nest in the north of Scotland. Fortunately
some of the large landed proprietors both in Scotland and
Ireland are now preserving this noble bird from persecution
during the breeding time, so that it is not likely to be tho-
roughly exterminated at present, but British taken eggs are
difficult to obtain and are rare in collections.
The following letter from Mr. William Boyd Dawkins^
F.R.S., was read :
As Secretary of the Committee of the British Association
for carrying on the exploration of the Victoria Cave, I am
obliged to notice the " Notes on Victoria Cave," by Mr. W.
Brockbank, published in the Proceedings, March 10th, 1873,
pp. 95 et aeq. The notes in question are based partly on
Mr. Brockbank's examination of the cave during two visits
with an interval of two years between them, partly on the
facts recorded by Mr. Tiddeman and myself, and partly on a
gi^ound plan constructed by our superintendent Mr. Jackson,
for the Exploration Committee, that is not yet published.
I submit that until the work of the Committee to which
the cave has been handed over by the kindness of the owner
be finished, and the observations, to which Mr. Brockbank
has had no access, be recorded, his notes must of neces-
sity be imperfect and liable to error. How much he is in
error as to matters of fact may be estimated by the exami-
nation of the statement, p. 97 — " the day before my visit a,
mass of at least 100 tons had fallen from above the face of
the Victoria Cave." Mr. Jackson writes me that not even a
mass weighing one ton, although tAVO blocks possibly of
PEOCEEmKGS— Lit. & Phil. Society.— Yol. XIL— No. 11— Session 1872-3.
112
lOcwt. each, had fallen. The statement at p. 96, in which I
am made to differ with Mr. Tiddeman as to the presence of
the pleistocene mammalia inside the cave is altogether
unfounded, and the inference that I "varied my description"
after my paper came before the Society is negatived by the
fact that the abstract in question was printed for private
circulation in 1872. The remains occur at the entrance and
extend both inside and outside the cave, as I pointed out
in my diagram. These are merely two out of many points
which have been raised, and which do not lead me to alter
my conviction that the stratum containing the mammalia is
of preglacial age, or to undertake any responsibility as to
the views which I have not advanced. Were I to discuss
all tlie points which have been raised, I should anticipate
the Report of the Committee to the British Association. If
these hasty and necessarily imperfect observations were not
calculated to throw discredit on the Exploration, I should
not trouble the Society with this note.
" On some Improvements in Electro-Magnetic Induction
Machines," by Henry Wilde, Esq.
[An abstract of this paper will appear in the next number
of the Proceedings.]
MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.
Extraordinary Meeting, December 11th, 1872.
Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.
Mr. James M. Spence exhibited a large and interesting
collection of natural history and other objects from Vene-
zuela. Mr. Spence had lately returned from that country,
in which he spent eighteen montlis, during which time he
accumulated a very extensive collection.
The natural history collection contained a number of
hunters' skins of the larger animals of prey and of the chase ;
but the great wealth and beauty of the fauna of the country
was best illustrated by the extensive collection of birds.
113
which is probably the best ever got together, and embraces
examples of nearly all the tribes found in the Venezuelan
Republic.
The economical portion of the collection was of great
interest and value, chiefly from its extent and the care
w-hich had been exercised in its collection and transportation,
and the valuable notes of Dr. Ernst of Caracas, which
accompany it, rendered it still more valuable. Specimens
of the vegetable and mineral productions of Venezuela were
•to be seen in great number and variety.
Among the plants exhibited was a small collection of
Characece named by Dr. Ernst, but the chief interest was
in a small collection of plants gathered by Mr. Spence on
the summit of Mount Naiguati.
This mountain, whose altitude is nearly 9,500 feet, is the
highest in Venezuela, and was regarded as almost inacces-
sible until Mr. Spence and five companions made a successful
ascent in April, 1872. A species of grass allied to the bam-
boos and new to science was one of the results of this
ascent.
The exhibition also included an assortment of interesting
curiosities of native manufacture, recent and ancient. There
were goblets, drinking cups, and flasks more or less finely
carved out of cocoa nuts, some mounted in silver; and a
series of delicately worked cups and bowls of calabash.
From the State of Trugillo Mr. Spence has brought three
curiously shaped vessels obtained from Peruvian burial
places.
The collection remained open to the public for some days,
and was visited by a large number of persons.
January 27th, 1873.
Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., President of the
Section, in the Chair.
"Description of Minerals and Ores from Venezuela," by
John Plant, F.G.S,
114
The collection of minerals acquired by Mr. J. M. Spenco
during his residence at Caracas, and on several journeys
along tlie coast, came from the provinces of Barcelona, Boli-
var, Carabobo, and Coro, with a few obtained from the
reoions of the River Orinoco and Lake Maracaibo. The
collection contains gold in quartz of very rich character,
argentiferous ores, green and blue carbonates of copper,
copper pyrites, galena, iron ores of various kinds, carbona-
ceous minerals, calcites, silicas, and rock specimens of gneiss,
mica, talc schists, kaolin, hornblendic rocks, and serpentine
with a few imperfect fossil and silicified woods.
The gold quartz of the richest kind, came from the Pro-
vince of Guayana, where vast regions of auriferous rocks
occur ; and where also gold is found in small grains, flakes,
and nuggets of all sizes from an ounce to many pounds
weight, in a clay from two to eight inches thick, as well as
in a red peroxidated iron earth, both probably alluvial
drifts. The quartz veins are richly impregnated with gold
in crystals and strings, as may be seen in specimens in the
collection. Other specimens of the gold rocks come from
the Isle of Aruba, and Loro Estado, Tacasumino.
The argentiferous ores are galenas and cupiferous, and
are not of very great richness ; they are from La Guaira^
Cumana, and* Coro, where decomposed galenas are worked
for silver.
The copper ores include 20 specimens from mines that
have been worked with profit, one of which, the Aroa mines
in the province of Yaracui, is the most famous for the supe-
rior richness of its carbonates. The specimen of cuprite from
this mine or Quebrada has some long and beautiful crystals
of olivenite with cubes of strontian, and from Aragua are
specimens of pyrargyrite or red silver ore; others from
Caracas, Coro, and the river Tui, include malachites and a
native sulphate of copper, probably a crystallisation from
the waters issuing from the mines. The chalcopyrites are
115
neither numerous nor very good ; the best comes from the
Aroa mines, the small granular pyrites appears to be most
abundant in a decomposing gneissoze rock.
The galenas are from mines at Los Teques, Aroa, and
Campano, several are pseudomorphous crystals in filmy
aggregations, interesting specimens for the mineralogist.
The iron ores include specimens of pyrites (mundic) which
in Venezuela appears to be as abundant as in most palaeozoic
regions, ten of the samples are rich, and would be profit-
able if the cost of mining is not too expensive at Barquis-
imeto, Caracas, and the Aroa mines.
The haematites include specular, micaceous, and red u'on
ores, all comparable to the best European ores. The lim-
nites comprise bog-iron ore of recent formation and a brown
amorphous ore. The siderites include an aggregation of
tabular crystals from Caracas, probably a carbonate of
protoxide of iron valuable in making steel, and massive
clay ironstones from the districts of Corui Machate, where
coal is also worked. The crystallised and compact magnet-
ites come from the same place. A thin vein of brown
siliceous ironstone has its surfaces covered with minute
fragments of clear quartz, singular and beautiful under the
microscope.
The carbonaceous minerals are coals, graphite, sulphur,
asphaltum and -petroleum. The coals are from Nuevo Mundo,
where Mr. Spence has proved the existence of workable
coals, the Island of Toas in the Lake Maraciabo, and a can-
nel coal from Coro, with several black shales from these
localities. These coals are undoubtedly of excellent quality,
and from report can be worked economically ; their age is
at present unknown from the want of any proper geological
survey, and in the absence of fossils of any kind in the
shales in this collection; in all probability however the
Venezuelan coals are of true carboniferous age.
- The graphite from Caracas is an impure amorphous earthy
116
kind, in schists of two inches thick, occurring in talcose
and micaceous rocks. The sulphurs are massive and of good
quality from Campano, Cumana, and Coro. Asphaltum and
its varieties are reported to be found on the coasts in great
deposits and in springs : the specimens in the collection are
of excellent quality.
The twelve rock specimens of quartz crystals include
some of equal purity and size to those obtained from Brazil.
The marbles are of inferior quality and quite devoid of
colour and beauty; but in the International Exhibition of
1862 some excellent green and red marbles were shown.
The predominating rocks of the mountain ranges in
Venezuela are jmlseozoic, metamorphosed talcose and chlo-
ritic slates, with great layers of gneiss; and within this
range along the line of faults and in veins, are found an
endless variety of minerals, of which the collection contains
asbestos, serpentine, talc, hornblende chlorite, kaolin, felspar,
and selenite.
Amongst the comparatively recent rocks are stalactites,
salt, marl, alum, gypsum, and many calcareous deposits from
the sea shores and fresh water lakes.
The special collection made by Mr. Spence during a visit
to the Island of Orchilla is interesting to the geologist. It
contains sufficient specimens to decide the main geological
character of the island to be entirely metamorphic gneiss,
overlaid with modern calcareous tufas.
The collection includes a number of crude guanos, phos-
phates of lime, alumina and urao, a sesquicarbonate of soda
— all of commercial value and sources of prosperity if effi-
ciently worked.
117
February 24tb, 1878.
Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.
Mr. Hardy made a communication to the Section respect-
ing the occurrence of one of the few large bivalve mollusca
within the limits of the Manchester district, the species
in question, Unio tumidus of authors, having been observed
in considerable numbers in the canal at Barton, a little
beyond the aqueduct, and in several places between there
and Stretford : a few dead shells were also found in the
river.
References were given to works on local conchology in
which no notice of this shell as an inhabitant of the district
was to be found. Allusion was also made to the record of
a, single living example of another species of the same genus,
the U. pictorum of Linne, in the canal near Romiley ; and
during the conversation which followed the reading of the
paper Mr. T. S. Peace announced that this latter shell had
3ince been collected in quantity in the same canal some
short distance beyond Marple; thus establishing satisfac-
torily the occurrence of two out of the three British species
of Unio, the third not being at q.11 likely to inhabit any of
our rivers in their present condition ; although the speci-
mens collected at Barton were many of them much larger
than others of the same species collected in more southern
and apparently more favourable localities, and exhibited to
the meeting.
Joseph Sidebothaivi, F.R.A.S., exhibited an old micro-
scope sent by Mr. Rideout, and explained its construction.
The workmanship of the brass-work was very beautiful,
and the various motions and appliances much admired ; he
also read a letter from Mr. Dancer, who for several reasons
118
thought that the microscope was not more than 120 years
old, and was made by the elder Adams. He said that many
of these old microscopes in finish of brass-work, good fitting
and screws would compare very favourably with instru-
ments of recent construction, and that the appliances and
apparatus of one of the complete microscopes would surprise
a microscopist of the present day ; he would find many parts
and adaptations which are general^ supposed to be of
modern invention.
The stand of the microscope is of ebon}'-, and is a fine
specimen of geometrical turning. The optical part is of
course very poor, and inferior to the very chepvpest achro-
matic instrument of the present day.
119
Annual Meeting, April 29th, 1873.
E. W. BiNNEY, F,RS., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Report of the Council was read by one of
the Secretaries : —
The Council have the satisfaction to report that a further
improvement has taken place in the financial position of the
Society, the Treasurer's account showing that the general
balance on the 31st of March last was £407 Is. 4d. against
£340 Os. 8 Jd. on the 31st of March, 1872.
The number of ordinary members on the roll of the
Society on the 1st of April, 1872, was 174, and six new
members have since been elected ; the losses are, deaths, 4 ;
resignations, 4 ; and defaulters, 3. The number on the roll
on the 1st of April instant was, therefore, 169. The deceased
members are John Francis, George Cliff Lowe, Samuel
Emanuel Nelson, and Joseph Jordan.
Mr. George Cliff Lowe, whose death was the result of an
accident in the United States, was known to many of our
members for his general and accurate acquaintance with the
natural sciences, but more particularly that of astronomy.
Possessing a love of knowledge for its own sake, and a
comprehensiveness of mind to deal with other besides purely
physical subjects, he took great interest in the leading philo-
sophical questions of the present time, and his opinions were
generally to be found on the side of progress. Although not
a frequent contributor to the literature of science, Mr. Lowe
had an acuteness of perception combined with a degree of
manipulative and artistic skill which made his co-operation
and judgment much valued and sought for by others.
We thus find Mr. Lowe's name associated with that of
Professor F. C. Calvert, F.R.S., in a joint paper " On the Ex-
pansion of Metals and Alloys," pubHshed in the Proceedings
Proceedings— Lit, & Phil. Society.— Vol. XII.— No. 12— Session 1872-3.
120
of the Royal Society, vol. 10, 18G0. Mr. Lowe was also
associated in business with our member Mr. Wilde as an
electrical engineer, and suggested to him the plan of exciting
a number of electromagnetic machines by the current from
one machine, instead of employing a separate exciting
machine for each. With his philosophical attainments Mr.
Lowe combined estimable moral qualities, the most con-
spicuous of which were the amiability of his character and
the generosity of his disposition.
Mr. Joseph Jordan, F.R.C.S. Engl., was one of the oldest
members of the Society, having been elected on the 19th of
October, 1821. He was born in Manchester, and, with the
exception of a short period when he was surgeon of the 1st
Lancashire Militia, resided in Manchester all his life. He
retired from active practice about nine years ago, when he
was in the 76th year of his age. His name will be dis-
tinctly remembered as the founder of provincial medical
schools. As early as 1814 he gave regular courses of lec-
tures on anatomy, with demonstrations and dissections, to
classes of medical pupils and students. He was the first
provincial lecturer and teacher whose certificates were ac-
cepted and recognised by the examining bodies in London,
The Apothecaries' Hall began to accept his certificates in
1817, and the College of Surgeons in 1821. In 1826 he
built a medical school in Manchester at his own cost, and,
besides its lecture hall, provided it with one of the most
commodious and best-fitted dissecting rooms in England,
and transferred to it his own valuable museum, containing
nearly 4,00.0 anatomical specimens and morbid and other
preparations. He subsequently placed this museum in the
Manchester Royal School of Medicine. He devoted himself
to the arduous duties of a public lecturer for twenty years.
On his retiring from the chair a public dinner was given to
him by his friends, in October, 1834, attended by almost
every medical man of reputation in Manchester, and a
121
handsome and valuable testimonial in silver plate was
presented to him from his friends and pupils.
Mr. Jordan had further claims upon public regard as a
large benefactor to suffering humanity by professional un-
paid services. In his private practice, extending over more
than fifty years, Mr. Jordan ever showed a special devotion
to the relief of the sickness and suffering of the poor. His
great professional skill, often unpaid, and even supplemented
by a liberal purse, and that genuine kindness which ever
doubles the value of a gift, won for him the blessings of
thousands. Nor was his philanthropy less conspicuous in
official positions. About 1819 he aided largely in founding
the Lock Hospital, for unfortunate women, of which he was
the surgeon or consulting surgeon till he finally retired
from practice. He was always a steady benefactor to the
institution, in wise counsel and liberal donations. In 1835
he was appointed an honorary medical officer of the Royal
Infirmary, and long filled the honourable position of its
senior surgeon with the highest credit to himself and with
great benefit to the institution and the community at large.
Within its walls he often performed some of the greater as
well as the more dehcate operations of surgery ; his remark-
able nerve and steadiness and precision of hand admirably
qualifying him for these duties. He invented a most beau-
tiful little lamp to obtain a magnified view of the membrane
tympani and other organs, for which the Society of Arts
awarded their silver medal. His clinical lectures in the
hospital wards always attracted a large and attentive fol-
lowing of the pupils and students, and a few years ago a very
numerously signed testimonial was presented to him by the
pupils of the Royal Infirmary for these lectures. He was a
most eloquent and interesting lecturer, and his great and
long experience enabled him to illustrate his lectures with
cases bearing upon the subject, which rivetted the attention
and increased the knowledge of his hearers.
122
Mr. Jordan was a valued contributor to medical science
by a new method of treating false joints. A difficult class
of surgical cases is presented when the fractured surfaces of
bone refuse to reunite, or else unite so badly as to cause
oreat suiferinof and even loss of the use of a limb. For the
cure of these so-called " false joints," and the effecting of a
speedy, safe, and satisfactory reunion of the fractured bones,
Mr. Jordan, in the year 1854, invented and applied a new
and exceedingly simple mode of treatment. His plan was
recognised not only by his professional brethren in Man-
chester, but in June, 185G, the eminent Paris surgeon,
Professor Nelaton, in a public lecture to his class, described
the method as " a happy innovation, and one capable of
receiving numerous applications." The priority of Mr.
Jordan's claim to this invention was beyond doubt. Find-
ing, however, that a French surgeon was introducing the
method as his own, Mr. Jordan proceeded to Paris in 1860,
where he published in French a treatise, illustrated with
three plates, entitled "Traitement des Pseudarthroses par
I'Autoplastic Periostique," which not only effectually ex-
tinguished any rival claim, but comprised a full and clear
exposition of the mode of treatment in all its successive
stages, and gave to the author a European reputation.
It was at one time proposed that some mark of her
Majesty's favour should be solicited by Mr. Jordan's friends,
to honour one who had conferred so much credit upon his
profession in Manchester, and so much advantage upon the
community at large ; but the modesty of the veteran self-
sacrificing surgeon shrunk from this distinction, and at his
instance the movement was stopped.
In the last annual report it was stated, with reference to
the benefaction which the late Natural History Society
provided for the promotion of the study of Natural History
in Manchester, under the guardianship of the Literary and
Philosophical Society, that the Owens College would at
123
once proceed to endeavour to sell the Peter-street site, to
be delivered up in June, 1878, for money or for rent, as
may seem best. In the latter case it had been agreed be-
tween the commissioners and the college that the college
should pay £60 per annum as interest at 4 per cent, on
£1,500 until the principal shall have been paid over to the
society. The Council have now to report that the Peter-street
site has not yet been sold, but on the 20th of November last
a letter was addressed by Mr. Darbishire to Mr. H. A. Hurst,
the treasurer of the Microscopical and Natural History Sec-
tion, stating that by an arrangement made on that day
between the commissioners of the Peter-street Museum and
the Owens College the Museum Trust in the hands of the
college will pay to the Philosophical Society, for the present,
interest upon the sum of £1,500 at 4 per cent, from that date.
The first half-yearly payment will therefore become due on
the 20th of May next.
At a meeting of the Council held on the 7lh of January
last, a committee was appointed to consider and report
upon the desirability of incorporating the society, and of
acceding to an application of the Manchester Geological
Society for permission to hold its meetings and keep its
library within this society's buildings. Resolutions em-
bodying the recommendations of this committee will be
submitted this evening for the approval of the members of
the society.
In May of last year, Dr. R, Angus Smith, F.R.S., a vice-
president of this society, attended on behalf of the society
the centenary celebration of the foundation of the Royal
Academy of Sciences of Belgium, and a medal has this day
been received commemorative of this interesting event.
The following papers and communications have been
read at the ordinary and sectional meetings of the society
during the session now closing : —
October \st, 1872. — " On the Composition of Ammonium Amal-
gam," by 11. Routledge, B.Sc.
124
October 29th, 1872. — On a Peculiar Fog in Iceland, and on
Vesicular Vapour," by R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.
November ith, 1872.— "On the Flora of Alexandria (Egypt),"
by H. A. Hurst, Esq.
*' On the Destruction of the Rarer Species of British Ferns,"
by Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.
November I2th, 1872. — "Additional Xotcs on the Drift De^josits
near Manchester," by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., V.P.
"An Account of some Experiments on the Melting Point of
Paraffin," by Professor Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S.
November 26th, 1872. — "On the action of Town Atmospheres on
Building Stones," by R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.
" On some points in the Chemistry of Acid Manufacture," by
H. A. Smith, F.C.S.
December lOth, 1872. — "Observations of the Meteoric Shower
of Novembd' 27th, 1872," by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S. ;
Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S. ; and Alfred Brothers, F.R.A.S.
" On some remarkable Forms of Stalagmites from Caves near
Tenby," by W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
"On the date of the Conquest of South Lancashire by the
English," by W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
" On some Human Bones found at Buttington, Montgomery-
shire," by W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
" On the Electrical Properties of Clouds and the Phenomena of
Thunder Storms," by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.
December Wth, 1872. — "On a Collection of Natural History and
other Objects from Venezuela," by James M. Spence, Esq.
December 2ith, 1872. — "On the increase in the number of cases
of Hydrophobia," by J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., &c.,
President.
Jammry Itli, 1873. — "On the Action of Sulphuric and Hydro-
chloric Acids on Iron and Steel," by William H. Johnson, B.Sc.
^ January 2\st, 1873. — "On an Apparatus for producing a high
degree of Rarefaction of Air," by J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
kc, Presiden
"On some Specimens of Anachoropteris," by H W. Binney,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
125
January ilth, 1873. — " Description of Minerals and Ores from
Venezuela," by John Plant, F.G.S.
Fehruary Uh, 1873. — " On some Specimens of Asterophyllites,"
by Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.
"On a large Meteor seen on February, 3, 1873, at 10 p.m.," by
Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A,
*'Note on Meta-Vanadic Acid," by Dr. B. AV. Gerland. Com-
municated by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.
"Experiments on the Question of Biogenesis," by William
Roberts, M.D. '
February 18th, 1873. — "Account of Improvements in an Air
Exhausting Apparatus," by J. P. Joule, D.C.L.,LL.D., F.R.S., &c.,
President.
" Notes on supposed Glacial Action in the Deposition of Hema-
tite Iron Ores in the Furness District," by William Brockbank,
F.G.S.
"The Results of the Settle Cave Exploration," by W. Boyd
Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S.
February 2Uh, 1873. — " On the occurrence of Unio tumidus in
the Manchester district," by Mr. Hardy.
March ith, 1873. — "Monthly Fall of Rain, according to the
North Rain Gauge at Swinden, as measured by ]\lr. James Emmett,
Waterworks Manager, Burnley, from January 1st, 1866, to Dec.
31st, 1872," by T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S.
" On Ball Discharge in Thunderstorms," by Mr. S. Broughton.
" On Specimens of Iron manufactured by the old Bohemian
Process, from Hematite Ores in the South of Europe," by W.
Brockbank, F.G.S.
"On a Change in the Position of the Freezing Point of a
Thermometer," by J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., kc, Pre-
sident.
" On the Influence of Acids on Iron and Steel," by William H.
Johnson, B.Sc.
March ISth, 1873. — "On the Quality of the Water supplied to
Manchester," by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.
" Observations on the Rate at which Stalagmite is being accu-
mulated in the Ingleborough Cave," by W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
126
" On Methyl-alizarine and Ethyl-alizarine," by Edward Schunck,
Ph.D., F.R.S.
"On the Transition from Roman to Arabic Numerals (so
called) in England," by the Rev. Brooke Herford.
" Notes on the Victoria Cave, Settle," by William Brockbank,
F.CJ.S.
" On an Experiment in Heating a Diamond," by Peter Spence,
F.C.S.
March 2oth, 1873.--'- Rainfall at Old Trafford, Manchester," by
G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S.
April 1st, 1873. — ''Note on an Observation of a small Black
Spot on the Sun's Disc," by Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.
" On the use of iron or bell metal Specula, coated with Nickel,
for Reflecting Telescopes," by Professor Hamilton G. Smith, of
Hobart College, Geneva, N.Y., communicated by Joseph Side-
botham, F.R.A.S.
April 15th, 1873. — "On some Imjjrovements in Electro-Mag-
netic Induction Machines," by Henry Wilde, Esq.
Several of these papers have already been printed in the
current volume of the Society's Memoirs, and others have
been passed for printing.
No increase has taken place during the year in the num-
ber of Sectional Associates; nevertheless the Council
consider it desirable to continue the system of electing
such Associates during the ensuing year.
The Honorary Librarian reports that during the past year
more pressing duties have prevented him from giving that
attention to the Library which it requires, and he urges
the early appointment of a paid servant to attend to the
multifarious duties of the office. Since the last annual
meeting there is no change to report in the number of
learned bodies with which the Society is in the habit of
exchanging transactions.
On the motion of Mr. J. A. Bennion, seconded by Mi-. S.
BnouGHTON, the Annual Repoi-t was unanimously adopted.
On the motion of Mr. A. Bkotiiers, seconded by the Rev.
127
Joseph Freestone, it was resolved unanimously — That the
system of electing Sectional Associates be continued during
the ensuing session.
On the motion of Mr. R. D. Darbishire, seconded by the
Kev. William Gaskell, it was resolved unanimously — That
the Council be instructed to take steps for procuring the
incorporation of the Society under the provisions of the
Companies Acts, and to apply to the Board of Trade for
permission to omit the word "Limited" from the title of
Incorporated Society.
On the motion of Mr. W. A. Cunningham, seconded by
Mr. W. Radford it was resolved unanimously — That the
application of the Manchester Geological Society for per-
mission to hold its meetings and keep its library within this
Society's buildings, in consideration of an annual payment,
be acceded to, and the Council be authorised to negotiate
the terms and conditions of such arrangement.
The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Society and members of the Council for the ensuing year : —
JAMES PEESCOTT JOULE, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., &c.
OicE-prcstbcnts,
EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
REV. WILLIAM GASKELL, M.A.
HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOE, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.
THOMAS CARRICK.
^Tibrariau.
CHARLES BAILEY.
&{ the (fowndl.
ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S.
OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A.
WILLIAM BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.R.S.3 F.G.S.
BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., F.R.S.
ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S.
REV. BROOKE HERFORD.
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The following paper was read at the Ordinary Meeting of
the Society, held April loth, 1873 : —
" On some improvements in Electro-magnetic Induction
Machines," by Henry Wilde, Esq.
Soon after the announcement by the author (m 1866) of
the discovery that electric currents and magnets, indefin-
itely weak, could, by induction and transmutation, produce
magnets and currents of indefinite strength,* a number of
electricians suggested other methods by which this principle
could be exhibited and more powerful results obtained than
those which the author described. The most interesting as
well as the most useful of these suggestions was to augment
the magnetic force of the elementary magnet, by transmit-
ting the direct current from the armature of a magneto-
electric, or an electro-magnetic machine through wires
surrounding its own permanent or electro-magnet, in such
a direction as to intensify its magnetism until, by a series
of actions and reactions of the armature and the magnet on
each other, an exalted degree of magnetism in the iron or
steel was obtained.
This idea seems to have occurred to several electro-
mechanicians almost simultaneously in England, German}^,
and America. In a letter to the Engineer newspaper of
July 20th, 1866, Mr. Murray, after referring to the author's
experiments, writes that he Avishes to point out a variety of
the principles embodied in the machine the author had
described, which, he says, is so obvious that it cannot fail
to be hit upon by some inventor before long, and warns
anyone whom it may strike against patenting the idea,
seeing that he had already constructed a machine upon the
plan. Mr. Murray then states that, " Whereas Mr. Wilde,
" beginning with an ordinary magneto-electric machine,
" uses the current obtained from it to charge a powerful
* Proceedmgs of the Koyal Society, April 26, 1866. Philosophical Trans-
actions, Yol. clvii., 1867. Philosophical Magazine, S. 4, Vol. xxxiv.
130
" electro-magnet, and from this obtains a second and more
" powerful current, which, used in like manner, produces
" one still more intense. I, using only a single machine,
" pass the currents from its armatures through wires coiled
" round the permanent magnets in such direction as to
" intensify their magnetism, which, in its turn, reacts upon
" the armatures and intensifies the current,"
Mr. Murray's warning to inventors against patenting his
idea would seem to have been disregarded, as a patent was
taken out on December the 24th of the same year, by C. &
S. A. Vaiiey, for " Improvements in the means of generating
Electricity," wherein is described a machine consisting of
two electro-magnets and two bobbins. The bobbins are
mounted on an axle, on which also a commutator is fixed ;
the ends of the insulated wire suiTounding the bobbins are
connected with this commutator and through it with the
insulated wire of the electro-magnets, forming the whole
into one electric circuit. Before using the apparatus an
electric current is sent through the electro-magnet for the
purpose of securing a small amount of permanent magnet-
ism in the iron core of the electro-mao-net. On revolving-
the axle, the bobbins become slightly magnetised in their
passage between the poles of the electro-permanent magnets,
generating weak currents in the insulated wire surrounding
them. The effect of the current passing through the electro-
magnets is to increase their magnetism, and to magnetise in
a higher degree the bobbins when passing between the poles
of the electro-magnets, and the bobbins act and react on
each other causing the circulation of increased quantities of
electricity.
Another patent for the same idea was taken out by C. W.
Siemens, F.RS., on January the 31st, 18G7, as a communi-
cation from Dr. Werner Siemens, of Berlin. Again the
same idea was communicated to the author in a letter from
Mr. Moses G. Farmer, of Salem, Mass., U.S.A., who had
131
constructed a machine to which the initial charge of mag-
netism was imparted by means of a thermo-electric battery.
The last instance of the repetition of this same idea is
that by Sir Charles Wheatstone, in a paper " On the Aug-
mentation of the Power of a Magnet by the reaction thereon
of currents induced bv the masfnet itself"*
This enumeration of the instances where the idea of
augmenting the force of a magnet by currents induced by
itself, the author would have deemed somewhat unneces-
sary, were it not that the contrivance had been described
as a new principle in electric science, whereas it is, as Mr.
Murray justly designates it, an obvious variety of the prin-
ciples embodied in the machine the author first described
before the Royal Society.
At the time when this method of exciting an electro-
magnet was brought prominently forward by Messrs.
Siemens and Wheatstone, the author directed attention to
the fact (which would seem to have escaped the notice of
these electricians, as they omitted to mention it) that ma-
chines constructed as they had described them, are incapable,
of themselves, of producing powerful electric currents, as
the whole energy of the machine is expended in exciting its
own electro-magnet.")*
While the current transmitted from the armature of a
magneto-electric or an electro-magnetic machine through
coils surrounding its own magnet is incapable of directly
producing powerful electro-dynamic effects, such current
may be usefully employed to excite the electro-magnets
of other machines in accordance with the author's original
method. Some idea of the smallness of the quantity
of electricty requisite for this purpose will be found from
the fact that the full power of the 10 inch machine is de-
* Proceedings of the Eoyal Society, vol. xv., p. 369.
t Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,
Tol. vi., p. 103.
132
veloped when its electro-magnet is excited by the current
from four pint Grove's cells. The electro-magnet of this
machine is now excited by its own residual magnetism in
the following manner : — A small magnet cylinder (3-5 inches
diameter and 14 inches long) is bolted to the top of the 10
inch cylinder, so that the sides and axis of the former are
parallel with the similar parts of the latter. The cylinders
are separated for a space of three-quarters of an inch by
packings of brass, and consequently act upon each other by
induction through the intervening space, instead of by con-
tact as in ordinary methods of magnetisation.
The residual or permanent magnetism of the large electro-
mao-net with its cylinder is very considerable, being many
times greater than that of the four small permanent magnets
with which it was originally excited.
The small scale upon which the author's experiments
have been repeated by physicists has, in some instances,
given rise to the notion that the residual magnetism of an
electro-magnet is a lower degree of permanent magnetism
than that which originally formed the basis of his augmen-
tations.
The coils of the small armature are placed in connection
with those of the great electro-magnet, and when the
armature is rotated the magnet cylinders act and react
on each other until the electro-magnet is excited to the
highest degree of intensity. By this arrangement of the
armatures and cylinders the minor current for exciting
the electro-magnet is kept distinct from the major current
from the large armature, which may be coiled for currents
of hio-h or low tension, according to the purpose for which
they are required.
So far as the author has communicated the results of his
investio-ations on the principle of accumulative action in
electro-dynamics, they have been obtained with machines
desioTied with reference to the peculiar form of armature
133
contrived by Dr. Werner Siemens, of Berlin. While
possessing several advantages, in point of efficiency over
that of Saxton, the Siemens armature requires to be driven
at a high velocity to produce a succession of currents suffi-
ciently rapid to be available as a substitute for the voltaic
battery. Little inconvenience however arises from the high
speed when the armatures are of small dimensions, but as
the dimensions increase it becomes necessary to lower the
speedj and the large machines are, consequently, not pro-
portionately powerful with the smaller ones. Besides this,
the advantages possessed by this form of armature in
having the moving mass of met?J near the axis of rotation
is neutralised, as the dimensions increase, by the excessive
heat generated by the magnetisa^tion and demagnetisation
of the iron ; it would also be convenient in some circum-
stances to drive a machine direct from the crank or fly-
wheel of a steam-engine, without the intervention of multi-
plying gearing.
Considerations of this nature led the author, towards the
end of 1866, to propose to himself the constniction of an
electro-magnetic machine with multiple armatures, which
should remove the inconveniences inherent in those hitherto
constructed, by producing a greater number of currents for
one revolution of the armature axis. Since that time he
has been engaged, with more or less interruption, in carry-
ing out this design, and has at length constructed a machine
the performance of which surpasses all his previous essays
in this direction, in regard to power and efficiency, and
with a considerable reduction in the quantity of the mate-
rials employed.
The machine in which these results are embodied consists
of a circular framing of cast iron^ firmly fixed together by
an iron bridge and stay rods. A heavy disk of cast iron is
mounted on a driving shaft, running in bearings fitted to
each side of the framing. One of these bearings is carefully
134
Insulated from the framing by suitably formed pieces of
ebonite, and also from the shaft, by a cylinder of the same
substance. Through the side of the disk, and parallel with
its axis, sixteen holes are bored, at equal angular distances
from each other, for the reception of the same number of
cores or armatures. The cores project about two inches
through each side of the disk, and are held firmly in their
places by screws tapped through its periphery. Around
each inside face of the circular framing, and concentric with
the driving shaft, sixteen cylindrical electro-magnets are ^
fixed, at the same angular distance from each other and
from the centre of the shaft as the iron cores round the
disk ; the two circles of magnets, consequently, have their
poles opposite each other, with the disk and its circle of
iron cores revolving between them. The ends of the
cores are terminated with iron plates of a circular form,
which answer the double purpose of retaining the helices
surrounding the cores in their places, and overlapping for a
short distance the spaces between the poles of the electro-
magnets.
The cylindrical bar magnets are each coiled with 659 feet
of copper wire, 0*075 of an inch in diameter, insulated with
cotton. The helices are grouped together to form a fourfold
circuit, 2,636 feet in length, and are joined up in such a
manner that adjacent magnets in each circle, as well as those
directly opposite in both circles, have north and south
polarity in relation to each other. A charge of permanent
magnetism was imparted to the system of electro-magnets
by the current from a separate electro-magnetic machine.
The armatures, although formed of sixteen pieces of iron,
are, by projecting through both sides of the disk, thirty-two
in number. The length of insulated wire on each armature
is 116 feet, and the thickness is the same as that on the
electro-magnets. These helices are divided into eight groups
of four each, and coupled up for an intensity of 4 x 116 feet.
135
One of the groups is used for producing the minor current
lor exciting the circles of electro-magnets, while the remain-
ing groups are joined together for a quantity of seven and
an intensity of four for the production of the major current
of the machine. The aggregate weight of wire on the
electro-mao'nets is 356 lbs., and on the, armatures 26 lbs.
The helices for exciting the electro-magnets are connected
with a commutator, while those producing the major current
are placed in connection with two rings, or in place thereof
with another commutator, according as the alternating or the
direct current from the machine is required. The strength
and proportions of the several parts of the machine enable
it to be driven with advantage from 300 to 1,000 revolutions
per minute.
At the medium velocity of 500 revolutions per minute,
the major current will melt eight feet of iron wire 0'065 of
an inch in diameter (No. 16 B.W.G.), and will produce two
electric lights in series, each consuming carbons half an inch
square at the rate of three inches per hour.
When driven at a velocity of 1,000 revolutions (equiva-
lent to 16,000 waves) per minute, the current will fuse 12
feet of iron wire 0*075 of an inch in diameter, (No. 15
B.W.G.)
At this velocity the light from two sets of carbons in
series is unendurably intense as well as painful to those
exposed to its immediate influence. Estimated on the
basis afforded by the performance of the excellent magneto-
electric light machines of MM. Auguste Berlioz and Van
Malderen, who have made a careful study of the photo-
metric intensity of the electric and oil lights ; the power of
the new machine is equal to that of 1,200 Carcel lamps,
each burning 40 grammes (I'^OSoz. avoir.) of oil per hour,
or of 9,600 wax candles. The amount of mechanical energy
expended in producing this light is about 10 indicated
horse power.
136
A comparison between the power of the new machine
and that of the 10 inch machine will show that while the
current from the former fuses 12 feet of iron wire 0-075 of
an inch in diameter, the current from the latter fuses only
7 feet of wire 0-065 of an inch in diameter ; and is, con-
sequently, only about half as powerful as that from the new
machine. Besides this, the quantity of copper used in the
construction of the new machine is about 3|cwt., and of iron
locwt. ; while the weight of these metals in the 10 inch
machine is 29cwt. and 60cwt. respectively. In other words,
we have in the new machine a double amount of power,
with less than one-fourth the amount of materials employed
in the construction of the 10 inch machine. Another
advantage possessed by the new machine is the great
reduction of temperature in the armatures by their rapid
motion through the air, which acts much more efficiently
than the circulation of water through the magnet cylinder.
By increasing the diameter of the electro-magnetic circles,
conjointly with the number of electro-magnets and arma-
tures, the angular velocity of the machine may be so
diminished that it may be driven directly from the crank
of a steam engine, concurrently with an increase of electric
power proportionate to the number of electro-magnets and
armatures in the electro-mao^netic circles.
In his paper "On a Property of the Magneto-electric
Current to Control and Render Synchronous the Rotations
of the Armatures of a number of Electro-magnetic Induction
Machines,"* the author stated that this property would be
available when the machines were used for the electro-deposi-
tion of metals from their solutions. It has, however, been
found that the small resistance presented by depositing solu-
tions to the passage of the currents, prevents this property
from manifesting itself (in accordance with what the author
* Proceediugs of the Literary aud Philosophical Society of Manchester,
December 15th, 18G8.
137
stated in his paper respecting the effect of joining the poles
with a good conductor), and it is only when the machines
are employed for the production of electric light, or other
purpose, where the external resistance is considerable that
this electro-mechanical function of the current comes into
useful operation.
The author, before concluding his description of this
further development of the principle of electro-magnetic
accumulation, considers it a duty he owes to himself as well
as to science, that he should not allow to pass unnoticed the
views and statements of certain writers respecting the place
and value of his investigations in the history of natural
knowledge. The peculiar good fortune which enabled him
to follow up the discovery of a great principle to such
brilliant results has contributed, accidentally in some
instances, to establish the idea, that these results are an
expansion of Faraday's discovery of magneto-electricity
rather than a distinct step in electricial science. A brief
glance at the history and progress of electricity and magnet-
ism will suffice to show the erroneousness of this view, and
also that his discovery bears only the same kind of relation
to that of Faraday as that philosopher's discovery does to
those of Galvani, Yolta, and Grove in galvanic electricity;
and of Oersted, Ampere, Arago, and Sturgeon in electro-
magnetism. That the discovery of the indefinite increase of
the magnetic and electric forces from q^uantities indefinitely
small is a fundamental advance in electrical knowledge, and
not simply an expansion of kn own prin ciples or an improvement
in a machine, as it has been made to appear by some, is evident
from the fact that the principle since its enunciation in 18G6,
together with the author's invention of minor and major mag-
neto-electric circuits, has been embodied in the machines of
different forms constructed by Ladd, Holmes, d'lvernois,
Gramme, and others. Moreover, Faraday himself, while on
the threshold of his discovery, distinctly negatived its possi-
138
bilitj. Reasoning on the magnet as a source of electricity
in a paper "On the Physical Cliaracter of the Lines of
Magnetic Force " (Philosophical Magazine, s. 4, vol. III.,
p. 415), he says, " Its analogy with the helix is wonderful,
nevertheless there is as yet a striking experimental distinc-
tion between them ; for whereas an unchangeable magnet
can never raise up a piece of soft iron to a state more than
equal to its own, as measured by the moving wire, a helix
carrying a current can develop in an iron core magnetic
lines of force of a hundred or more times as much power as
that possessed by itself when measured by the same means.
In every point of view, therefore, the magnet deserves the
utmost exertions of the philosopher for the development of
its nature, both as a magnet and also as a source of elec-
tricity, that we may become acquainted with the great law
under which the apparent anomaly may disappear, and by
which all these various phenomena presented to us shall
become oner Now, it was the precise and absolute manner
in which Faraday stated the definiteness of the relation
between the magnetism of a permanent magnet and that of
a piece of iron magnetised by its influence, that led the
author to enunciate in terms equally absolute and precise
the antithesis of Faradaj^'s proposition. How far Faraday's
hopes and preconceptions of the electro-magnet as a source
of electricity have been realized, the results described in this
and the author's former papers will show. Already has it
superseded the use of the voltaic battery in every electro-
depositing establishment of note in this country, and it is
making rapid progress abroad.
That the transformation of mechanical energy into other
modes of force on so large a scale, and by means so simple,
will find new and much more important applications than
that above mentioned is one of the author's most firm con-
victions.
In a note to his paper the author reviews the attempt by
181)
M. Gramme to ariive at a nearer approximation to the
continuous current of the voltaic battery than that pro-
duced from a magneto-electric machine when rectified by
means of a commutator of the ordinary construction. This
refinement, the author states, possesses little or no advan-
tage in any of the applications of magneto-electricity, when
the rectified waves succeed each other at the rate of 5,000
per minute, and upwards — a rate of succession easily attain-
able, and far exceeded by the machines of Berlioz and
Holmes. At this rate the discontinuity of the waves is not
distinguishable in the electric light ; nor in the magnetisa-
tion of electro -magnets ; nor on galvanometer needles ; nor
in electrolytic processes ; and it can only be perceived by
the vibrations of a steel spring, placed before the poles of a
small electro-magnet, round which the current is trans-
mitted. Such instrument would, the author thinks, also
indicate similar points of maxima and minima in the current
from Gramme's machine. As the armature helices in this
machine are each connected with separate pieces of metal,
forming the segments of a circle, from which the current is
taken by means of ordinary metallic brushes, the number of
helices producing currents available for external use, at any
given moment, is only a fraction of those constituting the
whole circle, and, consequently, for a given weight of mate-
rials such a magneto-electric machine must be greatly in-
fei'ior in power to machines in which the current is delivered
from the whole of the helices simultaneously, as in those
hitherto constructed. The substitution by M. Gramme of
a commutator Avith multiple segments insulated from each
other, and having adjacent segments of the same polarity,
while those diametrically opposite have a polarity difierent,
requires the same precautions to be taken to prevent the
spark at the change of contacts, and is subject to the same
wear from friction, as commutators of the ordinary form, in
which the segments are united with a common metallic
140
base. Moreover, long experience has proved that for the
production of electric light the alternating current is greatly
superior to the continuous one, as commutators are dis-
pensed with, and it has the important advantage of con-
suming the carbons equally, and thereby always retains the
luminous point in the focus of any optical apparatus used
in connection with it.
In short, M. Gramme, in his endeavour to reconcile the
incompatible relations of the voltaic current and the
magneto-electric wave at the instant of its generation, has,
by inverting the order and functions of the organic parts
of an ordinary magneto-electric machine and suppressing
the action of a number of the armature helices, brought
about results retrogressive from those previously attained
by NoUet, Berlioz, and Holmes, and it is only by the
adoption of the principle of electro-dynamic accumulation
(i.e., the exciting of a major electro-magnetic induction
machine by a minor one, fixed on the same base), in accord-
ance with the principles laid down by the author in his
former papers, that the results obtained by M. Gramme
exceed those from ordinary magneto-electric machines.
PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.
April 22nd, 1873.
AlfPvED Brothers, F.RA.S., President of the Section, in
the Chair.
Results of Rain Gauge Observations made at Eccles, near
Manchester, during the year 1872, by Thomas Mackereth,
F.R.A.S., F.M.S.
The characteristic of the rainfall of the past year is its
141
immense excess of the average fall. From the table given
below this excess will be seen to be more than 13 inches, or
about 3G*7 per cent, over the average fall of the year.
There were only two months of the year, August and De-
cember, that had a fall less than the average of twelve
years, but this minimum was exceedingly small. The
greatest excess above the average happened in the summer
quarter, July to September, and the fall in July was 142 per
cent, above the average for that month. June, July, and
September were the wettest months of the year.
The number of days on which rain fell during the past
year was very large. There were only 101 days throughout
the 3'ear on which rain did not fall. There was 27 per
cent, over the average of twelve years of days on which rain
fell during the year. But the number of wet days ex-
ceeded the average most in the first six months of the year.
The number in excess in the first three months being as
much as 34 per cent.
The following table shoAVs the results obtained from a
I'ain gauge, with a lOin. round receiver placed 3 feet above
the ground.
Quarterly Periods.
Average
of 12
years.
1872.
Days.
Days.
52
70 j
46
»s
51
60 j
s
r
58
73 j
207
264
1872.
Fall
in
Inches.
January I 4'096
February 2849
Marcli I 2-794
Ai3ril ! 3-003
May I 2-548
June ....,, I 5-395
July 7-327
August j 2-988
September 6-534
October | 4-404
November [ 3-427
December ' 3-051
48-416
Average
of
12 years.
Diffei'ences.
2-693
2-391
2-432
2-193
2-088
2-733
3-022
3-001
4-231
4-245
3-200
3-173
4-1-403 )
4-0-458 >
-f 0-362 )
-f 0-810 ■)
+0-460 [
-j-2-662 )
+4-305 S
—0-013 [
-1-2 -303 )
4-0-159 )
-1-0-227 [
—0-122 )
35-402 —13014
Quarterly Periods .
Average
of
12 years.
1872.
Inches,
Inches.
7-516
9-739
7-014
10-946
10-254
16-849
10-618
10-882
142
Inthenext table I give theresults obtained from rain gauges
of two different kinds, placed in close proximity in the same
plane, and 3 feet from the ground. The one has a 10 inch
round receiver, and the other a 5 inch square receiver.
The large receiver had an excess over the small one in
every month excepting April, June, July, and December ;
but in June the rain-fall in both cases was the same. The
total difference of the fall in the two gauges was not great,
being less than half an inch on 48 J inches of rain-flill. In
comparing, however, the fall in the two gauges for an
average of five years, a larger difference arises, being more
than 6-lOths of an inch on an average fall of 36 inches, and
an excess of the large gauge occurred in every month ex-
cepting March.
1
Rainfall in
inches in
Eainfall in
inches in
ces.
From 1S68 to 1872.
;es.
lOin. round 5 in. sciuare
<u
Average of 5 years
A verage of 5 years
u
1872.
Receiver
Receiver
Si
o
rainfall in inclies,
rainfall in inches,
^
3 ft. from
3 ft. from
*S
in 10 in. round re-
in 5 in. square re-
§
ground.
ground.
q
ceiver 3 ft. from
ground.
ceiver 3 ft. from
ground.
5
1872.
1872.
January . .
4-096
3-996
-f-100
2-823
2-805
+•018
February.
2-849
2-714
+•135
2-590
2-542
-(-•048
March ...
2-794
2-735
-J--059
2-233
2-284
— 051
April . . .
3-003
3-048
— -045
2-490
2-467
+-023
May
2-548
2-484
-f--064
1-876
1-846
4--030 1
June
5-395
5-395
2-535
2^493
+-042 i
July
7-327
7-409
— -082
2 618
2-596
+-022
August . . .
2-988
2-971
+•017
2^598
2-522
+•076
Septembr.
6-534
6-363
+-171
4^255
4-204
+•051
October.,.
4-404
4-347
+•057
5-232
5-191
4--041
Novembr.
3-427
3-422
+-005
2941
2-580
+-361
December
3-051
3-059
—•008
3-816
3-806
4-010 !
48-416
47-943
+-473
36-007
35-336
+•671
In the next table I give the results obtained from two
exactly similar gauges, placed at diff"erent heights from the
ground and free from every interference. Each gauge has a
6 inch square receiver, and the one is placed 3 feet, and
the other 34 feet above the ground. The total fall in the
one 3 feet from the ground was 47*943 inches, and in the
143
one 34 feet from the ground it was 41-002 inches for the
last year. The difference between the fall in the two
gauges is 6 '941 inches, or about 14 J per cent, less rain fell
last year in the higher than in the lower gauge. In the
same table I give the average fall for five years in each
gauge, and by comparing the results I find that for such an
average fall about 16 per cent, less rain falls in the upper
than in the lower gauge.
1872.
Fall of rain in
Fall of rain in
From 1868 to 1872.
inches in 5 inch inches in 5 inch
square receiver square receiver
3 feet from the 34 feet from
ground. ' the ground.
1872. ; 1872.
1
Average fall of ] Average fall of
rain in inches for rain in inches for
5 years, in 5 inch ! 5 years, in 5 inch
square receiver 3 square receiver 34
feet from ground, feet from ground.
January
February
March ♦ .
April
May
Juue
July
August
3-996
2-714
2-735
3-048
2-484
5-395
7-409
2-971
6-363
4-347
3-422
3-059
3019
2-212
2-166
2-590
2-181
4-762
6-947
2-607
5-714
3-6G8
2-455
2-711
2-805
2-542
2-284
2-467
1-846
2-493
2-596
2-522
4-204
5-191
2-580
3-806
1-997
1-917
1-787
2-116
1-665
2-220
2-325
2-178
3-608
4-312
2-260
3-207
September
October
November
December
47-943
41-002
35-336
29-592
In the next table I give the fall of rain during the day
from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., and the faU during the night, from
8 p.m. to 8 a.m. The amount of rain that fell during the
day exceeded, the fall during the night in six months of the
year, but in the remaining months, namely, January,
AugTist, September, November, and December, the fall
during the night exceeded, the day fall. The total differ-
ence between the night and. day fall is much less than
during 1871. In that year the excess of the day over the
night fall was 4*136 inches, whilst during the past year it
was only 1*891 inches.
144
January .
February .
March
April
May
Juuc
July
August . ,
September
October . .
November
December
Raiufall in
Inches from
1 a.m. to 8 p.m.
Bainfall in
Inches from
8 p.m. to 8 a.m.
1-860
1-413
2-OGl
1-737
1-2U7
3-309
4-398
1-414
2-092
2-366
1-470
1-470
24-917
2-136
1-301
0-674
]-311
1-187
2-086
3-011
1-527
4-271
1-981
1-952
1-589
Difference
between Night
and Day Fall.
23026
+0-276
—0-112
—1-387
—0-426
—0-110
—1-223
—1-387
+0-083
+2-179
—0-385
+0-482
+0-119
-1-891
In the next table I present the average day and night
fall for five years. This table continues to show, as previous
ones which I have presented have done, that the night fall
is, as a rule, in excess after the heavy falls of rain set in in
August to the end of the year, and during the first months
of the year. The only exception which the present table
presents to this rule is the month of October. It is remark-
able, however, how near the total results of the two periods
are to each other, the difference being really only two per
cent, of the day over the night fall.
Ayeeage of Five Yeaes FEOii 1868 to 1872.
January ..
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August . .
September
October ..
November
December
Hainfall in
Inches from
a.m. to 8 p.m.
1-363
1-053
1-335
1-434
1-214
1-298
1-542
1-135
1-884
2-676
1-419
1-68S
18-032
Rainfall in Difference
Inches from between Night
8 p.m. to 8 a.m. and Day Fall.
1-444
1-489
0-948
1-032
0-632
1195
1-053
1-386
2-319
2-514
1-550
2118
17-680
+0081
+0-436
-0-387
—0-402
—0-582
—0-103
-0-489
+0-251
+0-435
—0-162
+0140
+0-430
—0-352
145
MICEOSCOPICAL AND NATUEAL HISTORY SECTION.
March 24tli, 1873.
Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., President of the
Section, in the Chair.
The President exhibited specimens of Calamostachys
Binneyana and Selaginella Wallichii.
April 21st, 1873.
Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R. S., President of the
Section, in the Chair,
Mr. Thomas Rogers was elected an Associate, and Mr.
James C. Melvill, M.A., F.L.S., a member of the Section.
Mr. Hardy exhibited specimens of Veronica Buxbaumii
(Ten) gathered on the 14th of April, by the side of a new
road leading from Barlow Moor Lane to the river bank;
growing apparently wild. Buxton in his " Botanical Guide,"
mentions its occurrence in a lane at Sale in 1847 ; and Mr.
Bailey stated that the late Dr. Windsor had met with it as
a garden weed at Whalley Range. Mr. H. C. Watson's
remark in his Compendium of the Cybele Britannica (refer-
ring to the British Islands generally) that this plant is "an
alien fast becoming a denizen," would therefore appear to
be strictly applicable to the Flora of the Manchester Dis-
trict.
Mr. John Barrow read a paper " On the Use of Naphtha-
line in Section Cutting."
I wish to bring before the notice of the members and
those microscopists who are interested in cutting sections of
soft or delicate tissues the use of Naphthaline as a support
for such tissues in the section cutter.
146
The advantages obtained by the use of Napthaline over
wax and other bodies recommended for this purpose are,
a low fusing point, absence of contraction in the cutter, very
little injury to the edge of the knife, and very ready solu-
bility after cutting in Benzol or spirit, so that the substance
is removed at once from the section without injury.
Napthaline is a body iiot very generally known outside
the works of the tar distiller or colour maker, so that possibly
some of the members may not be able to obtain samples
readily, but I shall have pleasure in supplying it to any of
our own members.
Professor Williamson recommended an admixture of wax
and oil with the Napthaline, and stated that the knife cuts
better with this addition ; he also exhibited some extremely
beautiful longitudinal and cross sections made in this way.
" Note on a Fossil Spider in Ironstone of the Coal Mea-
sures," by Mr. John Plant, F.G.S.
More than forty years ago Mr. William Anstice found a
fossil insect in a nodule of ironstone from the coal formation
of Coal brook Dale. It was figured in Dr. Buckland's Bridge-
water Treatise, plate 4G, and described by Mr. Samouelle
the entomologist as a beetle allied to a type of tropical Cur-
culios, and provisionally named as CurcuUoides Pvestvicii.
Since that time many insects have been discovered in the
coal measures both in England and America, and wings of
Neuropterous insects have been found as low down in
palaeozoic rocks as the Devonian — below which no true
insects have been yet observed. The specimen figured by
Dr. Buckland remained unique for a long time — until 187D
when another was discovered by Mr. Elliott Hollier of
Dudley, so well known for his cabinet of rare Silurian ti'ilo-
bites, in an ironstone nodule from the Dudley coal field.
This discovery has thrown considerable light upon the real
character of the one first mentioned, which turns out not
147
to be a beetle but a spider allied to an existing genus of
tropical spiders of the family of Tarentulse. The nodule in
which this specimen is embedded has split cleanly down the
axis of the insect, and both the under and upper surfaces
have been preserved in a singularly beautiful manner,
whereas in Dr. Buckland's figure the insect is less perfect
and displays rather confusedly a portion of each surface.
Mr. H. Woodward has described and figured Mr. Hollier's
specimen in the Geo. Mag. September, 1871, under the name
of Eophrynus Prestvicii, from its analogy to the spiders of
the genus Phrynus.
The appearance of each surface of this fossil is so remark-
ably unlike that they might be readily mistaken for separate
species. This is a character which may be seen in living
species of Phrynus. The upper surface in the fossil is
smooth and ringed, and the under surface granulated. In
Phrynus the body is flat, divided into rings, the thorax
broad and crescent-shaped, the skin is horny and hard, as in
the scorpions. Spiders are generally soft and without rings.
The palpi terminate in prehensile claws, the tibia of the
forelegs are of enormous length, with the tarsi of extreme
fineness, admirably adapted for delicate organs of feeling.
The Tarentulse comprise Arachnids of high organization —
approaching the scorpions — which have been found fossil
in coal measures ; and this discovery of a spider opens to
our contemplation another link of a prolific life existing iu
the vast forests of tropical coal plajits.
Annual Meeting, May oth, 1873.
Mr. Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.
The following report of the Council for the year ending
5th May, 1873, was read and passed : —
Papers on the following subjects have been read during
the past session ;
148
October Itk, 1872. — "On the Destruction of British Ferns," by
Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.
" On Malpighiaceous Hairs," by Charles Bailey.
November ith, 1872.— "The Flora of Alexandria," by H. A. Hnrst.
" On the Anatomy of Musca domestica," by T. S. Peace.
January 27th, 1873. — '' Notes on the Minerals of Venezuela," by
John Plant, F.G.S.
Fehruary \Uh, 1873. — '*0n the occurrence of Unio Tumidus in
the Manchester district," by John Hardy.
''Remarks on an old Microscope," by Joseph Sidebotham,
F.RA.S.
March 2itli, 1873. — "OnHoemopis sanguisorba," byT. S. Peace.
"Notes on Calamostachys Binneyana and Selaginello Wallichii,"
by Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.
April 2\st, 1873. — " The use of Naphthaline in Section cutting,"
by John Barrow.
" Note on a Fossil Spider in ironstone of the coal measures," by
John Plant, F.G.S.
The most valuable subject in connection with the com-
munications brought under tlie notice of the section was an
exhibition on December 11th, 1872, of a very large collec-
tion of Natural History and other objects, brougbt by Mr.
James M. Spence from Venezuela, which remained open to
the public for some days, and was visited by a large number
of persons. As Mr. Spence has just returned to this coun-
try we may hope for further communications respecting its
resources and natural history products.
The Section has to deplore the recent death of Mr. George
Edward Hunt, so well known as a muscologist, and whose
papers were some of the most valuable contributed by the
members.
The ordinary members of the Section now number 37,
the associates 12.
From the accompanying statement of accounts it will be
seen that the financial position of the Section is satisfactory,
the treasurer having a balance in hand of X37 13s.
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150
The election of officers for the Session 1873-4 was then
proceeded Avith, and the following gentlemen were ap-
pointed :
^Prcsilfcnt.
W. C. WILLIAMSON, F.E.S.
'Ficf='^^rcsitfcnts.
J. SIDEBOTHAM, F.R.A.S.
JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.
SPENCER H. BICKHAM, Jun.
treasurer.
HENRY ALEXANDER HURST.
Secretaries.
CHARLES BAILEY.
WALTER MORRIS.
©f tl)c CDouncil.
HENRY SIMPSON, M.D.
JOHN BARROW.
THOMAS COWARD.
ROBERT B. SMART.
ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S.
T. H. NEVILL.
J. C. MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.
The folio winof is the list of Members and Associates :
IList
Alcock, Thomas, M.D.
Bailey, Charles.
Barrow, John.
Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S.
BiCKHAM, Spencer H., Jun.
BiNNEY, Edward Wm., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Brockbank, W., F.G.S.
Brogden, Henry.
Brothers, Alfred, F.R.A.S.
CoTTAM, Samuel.
Coward, Edward.
Coward, Thomas.
Dale, John, F.C.S.
Dancer, John Benj., F.R.A.S.
Darbishire, R. D., B.A.
Dawkins, W. Boyd, F.R.S.
Deane, William K.
Gladstone, Murray, F.R.A.S.
Heys, William Henry.
HiGGiN, James, F.C.S.
of JRcmbcrs.
Hurst, Henry Alexander.
Latham, Arthur George.
Maclure, John Wm., F.R.G.S.
Melvill, J. C, M.A., F.L.S.
Morgan, Edward, M.D.
Morris, Walter.
Nevill, Thomas Henry.
Piers, Sir Eustace.
RiDEOUT, William J.
Roberts, William, M.D.
SiDEBOTHAM, JoSEPH, F.R.A.S.
Simpson, Henry, M.D.
Smart, Robert Bath, M.R.C.S.
Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Vernon, George Venables,
F.R.A.S.
Williamson, Wm. Crawford,
F.R.S., Prof. Nat. Hist., Owens
CoUege.
Wright, William Cort.
%ist of ^ssodatcs.
Bradbury, C. J.
Hardy, John.
Hunt, John.
Labrey, B. B.
Linton, James.
Meyer, Adolph.
Peace, Thos. S.
Plant, John, F.G.S.
Rogers, Thomas.
RuspiNi, F. O.
Stirrup, Mark.
! V .."^aterhouse, J. Crewdson.
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