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PROCEEDINGS

of the

Nova Scotian Institute of Science

MCZ

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA LIBRARY

MAY 3 0 2012

Part 2

HARVARD

UNIVERSITY

Volume 46

2011

Affiliated with Access Copyright, The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency

http://www.accesscopyright.ca
Date of Publication, December 201 1
ISSN: 0078-2521

The Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science are supported in part by a grant
from the Department of Tourism Culture and Heritage, Government of Nova Scotia, with the
support of the Nova Scotia Museum. Publication of articles, principally but not exclusively
in the area of the natural science and engineering, will be considered as well as papers ema¬
nating from studies in the health professions. Both regular issues and special issues devoted
to topics of current Nova Scotian or Maritime interest are published.

EDITORIAL BOARD

Peter G. Wells (Dalhousie University) . Editor

David H.S. Richardson (Saint Mary’s University) . Associate Editor

Gail LeBlanc . Production and Layout

One Oh One . Printing

Roby Austin (Saint Mary’s University) . Physics

Nola Etkin (UPEI) . Chemistry

Mike Dadswell (Acadia University) . Aquatic Ecology,

Fisheries, Tidal Power

David Garbary (St. Francis Xavier University) . Plant Biology

Bruce Hatcher (Cape Breton University) . Marine science

Martha Jones (Cape Breton University) . Estuarine ecology,

Invasive Species

Andrew Hamilton-Wright (Mount Allison University) . Artificial Intelligence

Eric Mills (Dalhousie University) . . . History of Science

Brian Petrie (BIO-DFO) . Oceanography

David W Piper (BIO-NR Can) . Geology

Martin Willison (Dalhousie University) . Conservation Ecology

Manuscripts should be submitted electronically to the editor (nsis@dal.ca and oceans2@
ns.sympatico.ca). Membership of the NSIS is open to all those interested in Science and
subscription details can be found on the Nova Scotian Institute of Science website http://
www.chebucto.ns.ca/Science/NSIS. Members of the NSIS are not required to pay page
charges but others are currently charged $25 per page to help defray the cost of publication
http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Science/NSIS/index-new.htmI

This journal is abstracted in:

Biological Abstracts
BIOSIS Previews
GeoRef

Zoological Record
CAB Abstracts

Cover: A Hoary Bat Lasiarus cinereus, one of three bat species recorded inland and at
offshore locations in Nova Scotia (see Lucas and Hebda, this issue pp. 1 17-138) and which
are vulnerable to injury by wind turbines. Bat species that hibernate in Nova Scotia are also
threatened by the white nose syndrome (see editorial pp 111-114).

Cover photo: Brock Fenton. Back cover photos: P.G. Wells and Brock Fenton.

PROCEEDINGS

of the

Nova Scotian Institute of Science

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA MCZ

LIBRARY

MAY 3 0 2012

harvard

UNIVERSITY

Volume 46

2011

Part 2

Editorial - Wells, P.G. and Richardson, D.H.S . Ill

Errata . 115

Contributed Papers
Lucas, Z. and A. Hebda.

Lasiurine bats in Nova Scotia . 117

Corkett, C J.

Can we stop the Atlantic lobster fishery going the way of
Newfoundland’s Atlantic Cod? A perspective . 139

Garbary, D.J., J. Ferrier, and B.R. Taylor.

Late blooming of plants from Northern Nova Scotia: responses

to a mild Fall and Winter . 149

Quail, J.W. and R.A. Gossage.

The crystal structure and quantum mechanical treatment of

the anti-cancer agent Flavopiridol (hydrochloride) and the

chromone alkaloid Rohitukine . 175

Reports from the NSIS Council

President’s Report; Librarian’s Report; Editor’s Report;

Treasurer’s Report . 189

Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science (2011)
Volume 46, Part 2, pp. 1 1 1 -1 1 4

EDITORIAL

Celebrating 150 years of the NSIS and Maritime Science:

Reflecting on the Society’s Role, and
Identifying Future Roles and Challenges

The Nova Scotian Institute of Science (NSIS) celebrates its 150th
Anniversary in 2012. It was founded in Halifax in May, 1862, origi¬
nating from the Halifax Mechanics’ Institute (1831-1860) and the
Halifax Literacy and Scientific Society (1839-1862). It was originally
called the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science, as early areas
of interest were geology, minerals, botany, zoology, meteorology and
physical geography, and the economic potential of natural resources.
The Institute received its first grant from the Nova Scotia Legislature in
1867; it was incorporated in the Province by an Act of the Legislature
in 1890 and the Revised Statutes of Nova Scotia in 1967.

The NSIS is the oldest, continuous scientific organization and one
of the oldest learned societies in Canada. As such, it has been a focal
point for the important role and contributions of science in the Maritime
Provinces and Atlantic Canada from just before Confederation (1867)
to the present day. The Maritimes and Nova Scotia in particular, with
many universities and research institutes, have produced a plethora of
prominent scientists and key discoveries . These range from Abraham
Gesner, inventor of kerosene, to fundamental discoveries in marine
ecology and oceanography (with key marine science laboratories in
Halifax , Dartmouth and St. Andrews, NB), to the most recent recogni¬
tion of Willard S. Boyle who shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics
for his work developing the sensor widely used in digital cameras.
The Institute played a key role in the establishment of the Provincial
Natural History Museum in Halifax. As well, Nova Scotia is the home
to the Pugwash Conferences, a meeting place of the world’s most
prominent scientists.

Being 150 years old is a major achievement. The organization has
been a stimulus and focal point for scientific progress, reporting and
communication in the Maritime Provinces. The Proceedings have been
published from the beginning, with many distinguished contributors
writing on a wide spectrum of topics. Each year the NSIS organizes a
lecture series that includes topics of current interest. Over the years,

112

WELLS AND RICHARDSON

hundreds of monthly lectures have been given, communicating scientific
research and achievements to members and to the broader community.
The lectures are often published in the Proceedings.

In this issue we include a paper on bats which have been in the news
lately for two reasons . Firstly, large numbers of migrating bats are killed
each year by wind turbines, but recent research has shown that deaths
can be reduced by 50-75% if the turbines are shut down at low wind
speeds when they generate very little electricity. The second concern
about bats is occurrence of a new fungal disease called ‘white-nose
syndrome’ which seems to have spread from Europe to the USA, where
it was first recorded in 2006. Since then, the disease has been reported
in many states and has spread to at least four Canadian provinces.
Mortality rates for the disease often exceed 90% for bat species that
hibernate in caves during winter. In addition to bat-to-bat infection, the
disease is being spread from cave to cave inadvertently by cavers and
geocaching enthusiasts . The concern about bat populations is so serious
that COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in
Canada) has called for special reports on three bat species. The paper
in this issue is a significant contribution to our understanding of bat
biology in Nova Scotia.

The year 2012 has many local and global anniversaries with a sci¬
ence theme, and this gives us pause for thought. Locally, the Bedford
Institute of Oceanography in Dartmouth, NS, is 50 years old and is
planning a book detailing its various achievements in ocean science
during the period 1 962-20 1 2 . Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring , published
in 1962 to alert the world to the perils of toxic chemicals, galvanized
a generation of environmentalists and concerned scientists; Carson
e mphasized the wide spread use and impacts of pesticides , and referred
to aquatic studies on salmon and DDT conducted in New Brunswick
in the 1950s by Maritime scientists. This influential book is still a best
seller and will undoubtedly be celebrated widely in 2012. As well, the
active American Scientific Research Society, Sigma Xi, is celebrating
its 125th anniversary, with an emphasis on how science serves soci¬
ety and the role of team science in the 21st century. As a local aside,
the ocean liner Titanic, a marvel of nautical engineering but a 20th
Century example ol technological hubris, hit an iceberg and sank in
1 9 1 2, a fact hard to forget if you live in Halifax and visit the Maritime
Museum! The liner resting at the bottom of the NW Atlantic has been
studied by local scientists in recent years. These are but a few of the

EDITORIAL

113

current science-related anniversaries; the reader probably knows of
many more. Clearly, 2012 is a year to celebrate science!

Today, NSIS serves Nova Scotia and the Maritime region of Canada

by:

• Providing a forum for scientists and those interested in science
to learn about and discuss scientific matters, through a monthly
public lecture and discussion series, its journal (The Proceedings
of the NSIS), and its website;

• Drawing attention to issues of societal concern that intersect the
natural and social sciences, such as education, environmental and
natural resource policies, and ethics;

• Promoting research and education in science by running a Mentor¬
ship Program, conducting an annual Scientific Writing Competition
for university students, and supporting Regional Science Fairs;

• Presenting current and historical material of Canadian scientific
importance to the public on its website, www.chebucto.ns.ca/
science/nsis; and

• Housing the NSIS virtual Hall of Fame for men and women who
have contributed significantly to the scientific activity of Nova
Scotia, Canada, and the world beyond our borders (see website).

Noting this, what should the NSIS anniversary mean to members
of the Society and to the interested public? Celebrating NSIS in 2012
and the achievements of science in Nova Scotia and the Maritimes
brings attention to:

• the pivotal role of the natural and social sciences and researchers
in Canada’s history and development as a nation;

• the cornerstone role of science in Canada’s future prosperity in an
ecologically and economically sustainable world; and

• the contributions of regional scientific societies in Canada to
communicating science to the broader interested public and to
encouraging careers in science in Canada.

In addition, 2012 provides an opportunity to celebrate Maritime sci¬
ence and the scientific enterprise as a whole , in all of its dimensions and
with all of its societal benefits. We can contemplate future challenges
where all branches of science play a pivotal role in our society. It is

114

WELLS AND RICHARDSON

an opportunity for NSIS to enlarge and broaden its membership, to
distribute its Proceedings more widely in digital and paper formats,
and to reinvigorate its website . 20 1 2 is a time to defend the importance
of science in all of our institutions, especially in the Public Service,
during a time of economic downturns and debt-related cutbacks. It is
a time to strengthen linkages with other scientific organizations, such
as the Royal Society of Canada and specialized professional groups,
and to collaborate with the scientific activities of citizen-driven, non¬
governmental organizations. It is a time to sponsor forward-looking
seminars and workshops so that science and science education are
strong players in our future Maritime economy and culture. Clearly
the NSIS and its members have a key role to play now and over the
next 1 50 years !

Peter G. Wells, Editor

David H. S. Richardson, Associate Editor

Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science (2011)
Volume 46, Part 2, pp. 1 1 5

ERRATA

Eric L. Mills and Lance Laviolette. 2011. The Birds of Brier Island,
Nova Scotia. Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science 46
(1) (Special Issue), 107 pp.

Inside Cover: COVER PHOTO: Dr. Richard Stem, Kentville.

p. 3. line 4 of first paragraph: “(1981)” should read “(1981a, b)”.

p. 10, first line. Add “Research” before “Station”.

p. 16, lines 28-29 should read “Merritt Femald, the Harvard botanist,
also visited the area, landing at Sandy Cove on Digby Neck ...”

p. 48. Figure 22 should be captioned “Moulting adult Little Stint

p. 87. The last sentence should read “McLaren (in press) mentions that
this in some ways resembled the non-migratory California subspecies
A. b. canescens , but adds (in litt.) that it may have been within the
range of variation of the migratory subspecies A. b. belli T

p. 101. McLaren 1981 should be re-numbered 1981a. Add to the refer¬
ence list: “McLaren, LA. 1981b. The incidence of vagrant landbirds
on Nova Scotian islands. The Auk 98 (2): 243-257.

Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science (2011)

Volume 46, Part 2, pp. 1 1 7-1 38

LASIURINE BATS IN NOVA SCOTIA

ZOE LUCAS' and ANDREW HEBDA2

1 PO Box 64, Halifax CRO, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3J 2L4
zoelucas@greenhorsesociety.com
2Nova Scotia Museum, 1747 Summer Street,

Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 3 A6
hebdaa j@ gov. ns. ca

Three lasiurine bat species, Lasionycteris noctivagans (Silver-haired
Bat), Lasiurus cinereus (Hoary Bat), and Lasiurus borealis (Red Bat),
have been recorded in inland, coastal, and offshore locations as of Nova
Scotia. Although these records occurred over a century, 70% are from the
mid-1990s or later, largely because of research in mainland Nova Scotia,
and increased interest on Sable Island. The 65 records presented here
include 11 , 25, and 29 for Silver-haired, Hoary, and Red bats, respectively,
of which 31 are previously unpublished. Seventy-seven percent of records
are from August through November, the autumn migration period for
lasiurine bats. These observations suggest that most autumn occurrences
of these species in Nova Scotia are not extralimital, but are part of normal
migratory patterns in the province.

INTRODUCTION

Seven vespertilionid species are recorded for Nova Scotia (Broders
et al. 2003, Rockwell 2005, Scott & Hebda 2004). The province is
thought to be at or beyond the northern range limit for 5 of the 7 species ,
including the 3 species of North American lasiurine bats, Lasionycteris
noctivagans (Le Conte) Silver-haired Bat, Lasiurus cinereus (Palisot de
Beauvois) Hoary Bat, and Lasiurus borealis (Muller) Red Bat (Broders
et al. 2003, van Zyll de Jong 1985). In June- August 2003, during a
province-wide survey, Rockwell (2005) recorded >10,000 identifiable
echolocation sequences, of which only 0.4% were from lasiurine bats.
Broders et al. (2003) suggest that the lack of detection of these spe¬
cies in mid-summer in the forested areas of Kejimkujik National Park
and during September (migration period) at islands in southwestern
Nova Scotia, demonstrates that there are no significant populations
of lasiurine bats in Nova Scotia. They conclude that records for these
species, including a Red Bat breeding record from Yarmouth County,
are likely extralimital. Extensive monitoring programs continued since
2003 in mainland Nova Scotia during summer, and to a lesser extent

118

LUCAS AND HEBDA

in autumn, appears to support this conclusion. Of the thousands of
echolocation records collected, very few lasiurine bats were recorded
(pers . comm . H . Broders ,2011).

Lasiurine bats are highly migratory, some moving south hundreds
of kilometres during autumn (Cryan 2003, van Zyll de Jong 1985).
Silver-haired, Hoary, and Red bats are generally solitary, but during
migration may form flocks of >100 individuals (Carter 1950, Miller
1 897) . Fenton (1983) notes that the rearing of young in midsummer is
followed by mating season and migration, a period during which bats
of temperate areas become vagrants; this can result in bats turning up
in unexpected locations such as ships at sea and far offshore islands.

We first review prior distributional and migratory knowledge of
lasiurine bats found in Nova Scotia in the context of their biology in
North America. We then provide data on new records in Nova Scotia
and discuss this in terms of the underlying ecology of the three species.

Silver-haired Bat

The Silver-haired Bat (mean weight 11 g, wingspan 27-31 cm; van
Zyll de Jong 1985) ranges from southeastern Alaska and much of
Canada , with a maximum latitude of 6 1 °07 ’ N (Cryan 2003 , Hall 1981),
and extends south to northern Mexico (Cryan 2003). This species is
relatively scarce in eastern Canada, but fairly common across central
North America (Hall 1981, Peterson 1 966) . Over most of its range , both
sexes fly south between middle of August and early October. Records
along northern parts of the Atlantic Coast in autumn indicate that some
Silver-haired Bats may migrate along coastlines (Cryan 2003) . Banfield
(1974) notes that Silver-haired Bats have “been observed migrating in
flocks, far at sea, off the east coast of the United States, and have been
blown as far as Bermuda in autumn storms”. This species apparently
has well-developed homing instinct (Nowak 1 994) . In the eastern USA
they winter mainly at mid latitudes, approximately south of Michigan
and east of the Mississippi River (Cryan 2003, van Zyll de Jong 1985).
Van Zyll de Jong (1985) states that they have been captured flying at
temperatures below freezing (-2°C) and will hibernate north approxi¬
mately to the -6.7°C mean daily minimum January isotherm. Cryan
(2003) notes occasional reports of Silver-haired Bats hibernating in
caves, mines and trees. Previous winter records for Canada are known
from southern Ontario, southwestern British Columbia, and mainland
Nova Scotia (Moseley 2007a, Moseley 2007b, Peterson 1966, van Zyll

LASIURINE BATS IN NOVA SCOTIA

119

de Jong 1985), and include 1 bat found clinging to a stone pillar on
December 16, 1959, in Rondeau Provincial Park, Ontario.

Hoary Bat

The Hoary Bat (mean weight 27.6 g, wingspan 34-41 cm; van Zyll
de Jong 1985) has the most extensive range of any New World bat,
extending from Canada south to Chile and Argentina (Cryan 2003).
It occurs throughout most of North America south of the tree line
(Cryan 2003, van Zyll de Jong 1985). Monitoring with bat detectors
has established that this species is widely distributed in Canada and
is common in many areas, although the species is seldom sighted.
Individuals have been recorded far beyond areas that are considered
suitable habitat (van Zyll de Jong 1985), as far north as Bear Island,
at the northwest end of Hudson Bay and more than 500 miles above
the treeline (Hitchcock 1943). Records indicate coastward movement
during late summer (Cryan 2003). Fall migration takes place from
mid- August to October, and most are thought to winter in southern
USA and Mexico. There are few records for November-February
north of Georgia and South Carolina in the east (van Zyll de Jong
1985), however several records for Connecticut, New York, Indiana,
and Michigan suggest that some may winter farther north (van Zyll
de Jong 1985). This species migrates some of the longest distances
of any bat (Tuttle 1995). Strays have been reported from Iceland and
Bermuda (Allen 1939, Hayman 1959, van Gelder & Wingate 1961),
and some have landed on ships at sea. Hoary Bats are thought to be
rare in Nova Scotia (Broders et al. 2003, Scott & Hebda 2004). How¬
ever, based on echolocation recordings collected in 2003, Rockwell
(2005) suggests that they are more common in summer than direct
observations indicate.

Red Bat

The Red Bat (mean weight 12.5 g, wingspan 28-33 cm; van Zyll de
Jong 1985) occurs throughout much of eastern North America, generally
east of the continental divide in southern Canada from the Maritimes
to Saskatchewan, south to northeastern Mexico (Cryan 2003, Hall
1981, van Zyll de Jong 1 985) . The northernmost record is at 57° 1 5 ’ N
(Hall 1981). Fall migration begins in late August and September and
continues into October. Movements during autumn are oriented east and
south (Cryan 2003). The relatively high densities after June along the
Atlantic Coast (north of New York City) may indicate coastal migration

120

LUCAS AND HEBDA

during autumn (Cryan 2003). They winter generally south of latitude
40°N (van Zyll de Jong 1985), throughout southeastern USA and into
northeastern Mexico. Cryan (2003) notes that winter concentrations
are highest in coastal Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico regions. Known
to survive temperatures as low as -5°C, this species responds to sub¬
freezing temperatures by increasing metabolism just enough to keep
its body temperature above the critical lower limit (van Zyll de Jong
1985). They are strong flyers with propensity to wander, sometimes
landing on ships at sea or oceanic islands , especially Bermuda (Findley
& Jones 1964, van Gelder & Wingate 1961). Most oceanic records
are from late August and September (van Zyll de Jong 1985). In Nova
Scotia, Red Bats are rare but probably widespread, and a confirmed
breeding there in 2001 was a first for Atlantic Canada (Broders et al.
2003) . Three of the 4 previously published extralimital or extraseasonal
records for Nova Scotia have been from vessels off the southwest coast
of the province (Brown 1953, Norton 1930, Peterson 1970).

METHODS

We reviewed published records, fluid-preserved carcasses, skins,
photographs, and reliable sight records (based on details provided and/
or known experience of the observer), and solicited information from
birders. Although bats represented by sight records were not captured
and examined, in Red Bats sex could be determined because of the
marked colour difference between the males and females of this species .
Locations of occurrences are categorized as inland, coastal, coastal
island, Sable Island, and vessel. Sable Island (44°N, 60°W), the most
offshore of Nova Scotia’s islands, is approximately 160 km southeast
of Canso, Nova Scotia, the nearest landfall. The island is roughly 45
km in length with a maximum width of 1.5 km, and surface area of
3200 ha, 30% of which is vegetated. However, except for a solitary
50 cm high Scots Pine Pinus sylvestris Linnaeus, the island is treeless
(Catling et al. 1984) and does not offer suitable foraging and roosting
habitat for lasiurine bats.

RESULTS

Review of documents and specimens resulted in 65 records (11
Silver-haired, 25 Hoary, and 29 Red bats) in Nova Scotia (Figs 1,
2, and 3, and Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4). Ot these, 16 are represented by

LASIURINE BATS IN NOVA SCOTIA

121

Silver-haired Bat records.

Hoary Bat records.

150

122

LUCAS AND HEBDA

• •

Fig 3 Red Bat records.

Table 1 Summary of records of tree bats in Nova Scotia

Silver-haired

Hoary

Red

Total

Total records

Published

Unpublished

Record Type

Specimen

Photo

Sight

Echolocation

Not recorded

Total individuals

291

341

1 Includes echolocation records as one bat each

Table 2 Silver-haired Bat records for Nova Scotia

LASIURINE BATS IN NOVA SCOTIA 123

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LUCAS AND HEBDA

specimens (including 12 at the Nova Scotia Museum of Natural His¬
tory. Halifax; 2 at Acadia University, Wolfville; 1 at the Royal Ontario
Museum, Toronto); 15 by photos; and 15 by echolocation recordings
(Broders et al. 2003, Garroway 2004, Rockwell 2005). The remain¬
ing 18 are considered to be reliable sight records and/or reports. The
earliest are of 2 Hoary Bats, 1 found in Halifax and 1 in Sambro some
time before 1864 (Gilpin 1867), but 49% of records are from 2001 or
later, due largely to research in mainland Nova Scotia (e.g., Broders
et al. 2003, Garroway 2004, Rockwell 2005), and increased interest
on Sable Island. Of 31 previously unpublished records, 11, all since
1999, are from Sable Island.

Month was recorded for 61 records (Table 5), and of these, 47 are
from August through November, the autumn migration period for
lasiurine bats. Only 9 were in summer (June-July) and 4 in winter
(December-February). Of the 47 autumn records, 24 were coastal
and 16 offshore, on Sable Island or at sea (Table 5). By species, 7 of
1 1 Silver-haired Bats, and 13 of 27 Red Bats, were recorded offshore
compared with only 2 of 25 Hoary Bats. Of the 40 individual lasiurine
bats for which sex was recorded, 31 were male (5 of 7 Silver-haired
Bats, 7 of 8 Hoary Bats, and 19 of 25 Red Bats).

Sable Island Records

Useful information on Sable Island occurrences of lasiurine bats is
more comprehensive than for other published records for Nova Sco¬
tia, and details provide additional insight into their behaviour. On the
morning of September 14, 2002, a Silver-haired Bat was found in the
Stevenson screen (a wooden box with louvered sides, approximately
one meter above the ground, containing thermometers) at the Sable
Island Station. The bat appeared to be sunning itself, with head and
back exposed, as it rested on a slat in the east-facing (sunny side) of
the screen. Later when that side fell into shade, the bat moved into
the sunshine on the south side of the screen. The bat was gone by
early evening and not seen there again. Occasionally, during the next
few weeks, a solitary bat flew around the buildings at dusk but was
not identified. On October 8, 2002, in late afternoon, a male Red Bat
was seen flying, and apparently feeding, around buildings at the sta¬
tion. This bat was observed for about 30 minutes before it flew out of
sight towards the freshwater ponds.

Table 5 Location and month of tree bat records in Nova Scotia.

LASIURINE BATS IN NOVA SCOTIA

129

130

LUCAS AND HEBDA

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LASIURINE BATS IN NOVA SCOTIA

131

In 2005 , all 3 lasiurine species were seen on the island . On the evening
of October 25 2005 , Hurricane Wilma passed 100 km south of Sable.
During the afternoon and evening, winds gusted to 1 15 km/hr from the
southeast, and backing to the east and northeast as the hurricane passed.
The first bats were sighted a few days after the hurricane, and 1 to 5
individuals were seen feeding around station buildings every evening
until mid-November. On one occasion 2 were identified as male Red
Bats. During this same period several grounded bats were recovered.
On October 26, 1 wet Silver-haired Bat was found in the Stevenson
screen at the station during a night of heavy rain and temperatures of
10.4°C to 15.3°C. The bat was held indoors overnight, and flew off
when released the following day. On November 15, a male Red Bat
was captured at mid-day when it flew up from leaf litter roughly 2 km
west of the station. It flew off when released after being photographed.
The temperature during the previous night was 7.6°C to 12.8°C, and
10.0°C when the bat was captured and released. The single Hoary Bat
from Sable was found on November 16, wet and torpid on open ground
at the side of a cement walkway at the station. Overnight temperatures
were 5.7°C to 8.4°C, and 7.1°C to 8.4°C in the morning when the bat
was found. It was taken indoors and within a few hours, presumably
after warming up, the bat became active. It was held for three weeks
and fed an artificial diet. In captivity the bat was active and capable of
flight, and ate regularly. The bat was returned to the mainland where it
• was weighed (27 .6 g) , euthanized and tested for rabies (negative) . Two
wet and grounded adult Silver-haired Bats were found at the Station
on December 29. Overnight temperatures were 1.5°C to 4.5°C, and
3 ,0°C to 4.5°C during the morning when the bats were found clinging
to a cement foundation. They were returned to the mainland and held
for four weeks but died in captivity.

During September 2010, 1 to 2 bats were occasionally seen feeding
around station buildings after dark. They were identified as Red Bats on
September 25 when two males were captured after they hit a window
and dropped to the ground. The bats were ‘in a clinch’ when they hit
the glass, and may have been fighting over a prey item. One was held
briefly for a photograph, and then released. On October 20, a single
male Red Bat was feeding near a station building during late afternoon .

132

LUCAS AND HEBDA

DISCUSSION
Normal Coastal Migration

Althouah it is well known that lasiurine bats migrate, the timing
of these movements in North America is poorly understood (Cryan
2003 . Nowak 1 994) . Cryan (2003) and Findley and Jones ( 1 964) used
museum records to examine seasonal movements and distributions
of tree bats. Cryan (2003) found that records for each species occur
beyond the usual summer range during late summer and early autumn.
This expansion may be the result of mating activity or population in¬
crease after birth and nursing of young, or it may be associated with
exploratory migration (Cryan 2003). Cryan (2003) also found that
these 3 species occur along northern coastlines more in autumn than
in spring. He suggested that this is associated with coastal navigation
augmented by exploratory migration and increase in population size.

Some bats may travel with migratory birds, or use the same migra¬
tory routes along the Atlantic seaboard as do many birds (Bleakney
1965, Maunder 1988). Numerous observations, beginning in the late
1800s, of bats in late summer and autumn flying near, and/or landing
on, vessels at sea, flying towards land from offshore, and flying along
coastlines, have been recorded for southwest Nova Scotia through
to the northeast USA (Allen 1939, Bleakney 1965, Brown 1953,
Carter 1950, Griffin 1940, Mackiewicz & Backus 1956, Miller 1897,
Norton 1930, Peterson 1970, Thomas 1921). The number reported
ranges from a single bat to hundreds, and in many instances the spe¬
cies were identified as Silver-haired, Hoary, and Red bats. Bleakney
(1965) reports information from Brier Island fishermen and suggests
that their observations may reflect an autumn migration of bats out of
Nova Scotia. Bleakney writes “Digby Neck, Long Island and Brier
Island form a long narrow peninsula opposite the coast of Maine. It
is known that many Nova Scotia landbirds funnel to the tip of this
peninsula in late summer and gather in flocks on Brier Island where
they apparently await favourable weather before making the crossing
to the United States mainland.” Further, Broders et al. (2003) note
that if there are any lasiurine bats moving through Nova Scotia in
autumn, the northeast-southwest orientation of the province might
guide bat migration towards southwest Nova Scotia, resulting in a
concentration of bats passing through coastal islands in that region.
This is supported by the autumn lasiurine bat records for Nova Scotia
reviewed here, mostly from coastal and offshore locations. There may

LASIURINE BATS IN NOVA SCOTIA

133

be some bias towards a higher number of records in these locations
because bats might be more readily sighted in relatively open coastal
and offshore areas. Nevertheless, these observations suggest that most
of these lasiurine bats are not extralimital . However, some, like the
“Wilma" bats on Sable Island, could have been displaced by weather
from southern parts of the species’ range.

We suggest that the tendency of lasiurine bats to move northwards
through the continent during spring migration, and coastward then
southward in autumn is likely based on temperature and food availabil¬
ity. During autumn, inland areas cool more rapidly than coastal areas.
Thus bats moving towards the coast would be moving into warmer
areas where flying insect prey is available later into the season, and
also where milder temperatures may reduce energy requirements for
normal activities such as arousal, feeding, and seasonal movements.

In Hoary Bat populations there is some segregation of sexes during
summer, with males occurring primarily in mountainous regions of
western North America , and females in eastern areas , although scattered
records of male Hoary Bats in more eastern areas during summer may
be young-of-the-year (Cryan 2003, Findley & Jones 1964) and some
adult males may also occur in the east. Cryan (2003) suggests that the
high proportion of male Red Bat records in northern regions during
late autumn and winter indicates that males may not migrate as far
south as females. This is consistent with the Nova Scotia observations
presented here in which males predominate in all 3 species.

Offshore Occurrences

Van Gelder and Wingate (1961) note a consistent correlation between
the occurrences of waves of bats and waves of birds in Bermuda dur¬
ing the fall migration season, with the largest influxes from September
to late November. They suggested that both bats and birds are strays
wind-drifted off the American coast while migrating. Hayman (1959)
notes that 2 separate Hoary Bats found in Iceland in October may also
have been blown off course by a storm (suggested by the occurrence
of storm-blown North American birds in Iceland), and that in at least
1 case, this was supported by weather patterns. Maunder (1988) notes
that migratory lasiurine bats in Atlantic Canada may simply be fall
wanderers , but it seems more likely that at least some of the northeastern
records, especially those recorded after mid-September, are the result
of “drift migration”. McLaren (198 1) suggests that “drift migration" is

134

LUCAS AND HEBDA

responsible for unusual autumn records of birds in eastern Canada and
the New England States, and describes “an extraordinary convergence
of air masses and wind streamlines” in the Nova Scotia region during
both spring and autumn landbird migrations. He also notes that dur¬
ing early autumn winds from the mid- western to southeastern USA,
converge on Nova Scotia and continue on out to sea. McLaren et al.
(2006) examined the occurrence of avian transatlantic vagrants from
eastern North America and the meteorological systems associated with
species composition and distribution. Their analyses supported earlier
suggestions that many vagrant North American landbirds occurring in
Britain and Ireland in autumn are likely displaced downwind across
the North Atlantic after becoming entrained in strong southwest winds
in warm sectors ahead of cold fronts along the eastern seaboard of
North America.

Migratory lasiurine bats found in offshore areas of Nova Scotia
may be individuals caught up in the same weather patterns. Of the 47
lasiurine bats recorded in Nova Scotia during August through Novem¬
ber, 24 occurred along the mainland coast and on coastal islands, and
16 occurred on vessels and at Sable Island. The latter may have been
individuals displaced beyond what is likely a normal coastal migration
route along the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia and northeastern USA.

Since the 1970s, there have been occasional sightings of bats on
Sable Island. The first confirmed lasiurine bat record for the island
was a Red Bat from 1976. Subsequently several live individuals were
dislodged from piles of lumber during spring maintenance activities,
and some were seen feeding around the Station buildings during late
afternoon or dusk in autumn, however most were not identified (e.g.,
4 individuals feeding near the Station after dusk between October 30
and November 8, 2006). No additional records were kept until autumn
2002 when a Red Bat and a Silver-haired Bat were photographed at
the Sable Station.

During autumn 2005, there was an increase in bat sightings follow¬
ing Hurricane Wilma. This coincided with the appearance of large
numbers of rare or extraseasonal birds in the wake of the hurricane
that generated a great deal of interest in Atlantic Canada (McLaren
& Mills 2006). Species sighted on the mainland and on Sable Island
included Sterna caspia (Caspian Tern), S. maxima (Royal Tern), S.
sandvicensis (Sandwich Tern) and SJorsteri (Forster’s Tern) , and Coc-
cyzus americanus (Yellow-billed Cuckoo). On Sable, as in mainland

LASIURINE BATS IN NOVA SCOTIA

135

Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, extralimital or extraseasonal sightings
of birds are sometimes attributed to the high winds of gales, tropical
storms and hurricanes, although McLaren (1981) notes that the role
of weather in displacing landbird migrants is generally through geo-
strophic wind patterns rather than through storms. It is possible that
the weather systems that brought the many southern and/or migratory
birds to Sable Island in autumn 2005 also brought the lasiurine bats.
Thus while lasiurine bats found along the coast of mainland Nova
Scotia and on coastal islands would be within a normal migratory cor¬
ridor for these species, bats on Sable Island, and sighted well offshore
flying or resting on vessels, are likely animals displaced by weather,
including strong offshore winds . This may be an important factor in the
much lower occurrence of Hoary Bats found offshore. Hoary Bats are
more than twice the size of Silver-haired Bats and Red Bats, and thus
probably stronger fliers, less prone to being blown offshore, or more
likely get back on course after being displaced. However, 6 of the 12
individual Silver-haired Bats were found on Sable Island. They are
the smallest of the lasiurine bat species, and may be more vulnerable
displacement by strong winds.

CONCLUSIONS

Although no comprehensive surveys for lasiurine bats have been
conducted in Nova Scotia, extensive echolocation surveys have sug¬
gested that there are no significant populations of these species in the
Province . While the records considered here are largely from incidental
observations, the seasonality of these records suggests that most oc¬
currences of these species in Nova Scotia are likely not extralimital.
Instead they may be part of normal migratory movements toward
coastal areas and then southward to overwintering areas. The lasiurine
bats involved in these movements may comprise animals migrating
coastward from other regions in eastern Canada and/or individuals
from small breeding populations in Nova Scotia.

Acknowledgements We thank Gerry Forbes and staff of the Sable
Island Station, Meteorological Service of Canada; Judith Eger, Royal
Ontario Museum; Fred Scott, Acadia University; Sherman Boates,Nova
Scotia Natural Resources; the many people who contributed sightings
details; and ExxonMobil Canada, Ltd. Hugh Broders, Saint Mary’s

136

LUCAS AND HEBDA

University, and Ian McLaren reviewed an early draft of the manuscript
and provided many helpful comments and insights.

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Rockwell, L. (2005) Summer distribution of bat species on mainland Nova
Scotia. Unpublished thesis, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.

Scott, F.W. & Hebda AJ (2004) Annotated list of the mammals of Nova
Scotia. Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science 42:189-208.

Thomas, 0. 1921 . Bats on migration. Journal of Mammalogy 2:167.

Tuttle, M.D. (1995) The Little-known World of Hoary Bats. Bats 13:3-6.

Van Gelder RG, & Wingate, DB (1961) The taxonomy and status of bats in
Bermuda. American Museum Novitates 2029: 1-9.

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Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science (2011)
Volume 46, Part 2, pp. 139-147

CAN WE STOP THE ATLANTIC
LOBSTER FISHERY GOING THE WAY OF
NEWFOUNDLAND’S ATLANTIC COD?

A PERSPECTIVE

CHRISTOPHER J. CORKETT

Biology Department, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H4R2
Current address: 76 Prestwick Close, Apt. 214,

Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3S 1S2

ABSTRACT

The cod and lobster fisheries of Atlantic Canada are managed in very
different ways. Regulatory policy for Atlantic cod has traditionally been
based on population or biomass measurements, something that has never
been done for the management of Atlantic Canada's lobster. While these
traditional methods differ, an alternate logical or analytic approach to
management is perhaps one way that sound and rational fisheries can be
managed. The recommendations that follow derive from asking: can we
learn analytic lessons from the collapse of Atlantic cod that might allow us
to avoid a similar collapse in Atlantic lobster? A landings-per-unit-of-effort
(LPUE) index could be constructed for the lobster industry that would
provide a continuous trend over time. This trend would form an effective
feedback model; a declining trend over time would indicate the goal of
sustainability was in jeopardy, whereas a level or increasing trend over
time would indicate that the industry was maintaining its sustainability.
Crucially, an LPUE index should only be used as an argument a posteriori
involving feedback in the form of trends. This index should never be used
as an argument a priori to estimate lobster abundance or lobster biomass.

INTRODUCTION

The Newfoundland fishery for Atlantic cod ( Gadus rnorhua Lin¬
naeus 1758) was once the largest and most productive cod fishery in
the world (McGrath, 1911; Thompson, 1943). In the early 1990s, this
fishery suffered a major collapse that has become one of the world’s
most prominent case studies of failure in fisheries management (Charles,
1997). This paper attempts to answer the question: can we learn les¬
sons from the collapse of Newfoundland's Atlantic cod that can be
used to avoid a similar collapse in Atlantic Canada s lobster ( Homarus
cunericanus H. Milne-Edwards, 1837) fishery ? Newfoundland is not

140

CORKETT

the only jurisdiction that has suffered a shortage of cod. For example,
Britain ten years ago had an annual demand for cod of 170,000 metric
tonnes (MT), well above the British fishing fleet’s EU quota for North
Sea cod which in 2002 was just under 34,000 MT. By contrast, over
the same period Iceland and Norway both had cod fisheries that were
in excellent condition with ‘fishing quotas of both countries fluctuat¬
ing only slightly from year to year, around an average of 190,000
MT’(Globefish, 2003).

Can we learn lessons from Iceland’s successful management of it’s
cod fishery, lessons that can be applied to Atlantic Canada s lobster
fishery? Perhaps if we make a comparative study of successful (Iceland
and Norway) and unsuccessful (Canada and Britain) cod fisheries, we
might gain some insight as to how lobster fisheries could be better
managed? This would doubtless be of interest but it is not the approach
taken in this discussion paper. Here, I do not look for factual answers
based on a comparative analysis; rather, I look for analytic answers
based on a logical analysis. Analytic answers are of particular interest
since they apply to the sound and rational management of fisheries
world-wide. Similar analytic methods could be used for management
of Canada’s, Iceland’s, Britain’s and Norway’s cod fisheries and for
the Atlantic Canada lobster fishery.

1. Traditional differences between the management of cod and
lobster

The applied science of managing Atlantic Canada’s ground fish
stocks has traditionally involved the use of catch limits based on
population abundance, often in the form of biomass measurements.
Biomass measurements, however, have never been part of Atlantic
Canada’s lobster management plans. Perhaps it is just because these
plans have not involved biomass based advice such as: ‘The maximum
sustainable yield (MS Y) of lobster in LFA 33 is 2 thousand MT’ , that
lobster stocks have not yet ‘gone the way of the cod’. To understand
why biomass based advice has been so devastating for ground fish
stocks, we need to understand why a decision cannot be derived solely
from facts or data. Nobody knows how many lobsters are on the sea
bottom but, even if that were known, a management decision should
not be obtained from this information. Decisions still have to be taken.
A failure to understand this fact would mean that the mistakes made
with the management ot the Newfoundland cod would be repeated in
the management of Atlantic lobster.

ATLANTIC LOBSTER FISHERY

141

2. How are management decisions to be based on scientific fact?

Regulatory management policies for a fishery are made by a col¬
lection of people - the decision makers. In the management of an At¬
lantic lobster fishery, these decision makers are members of a Lobster
Advisory Committee together with the Regional Director General of
Canada’s Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO). No one claims
that laws enacted by the decision makers of a parliament are derived
from data; why should the policies for fisheries management be any
different? That is not to say that scientific advice based on scientific
fact is not one of the important inputs the decision makers seek in
order to help them construct the policies needed to manage a fishery.
But the connection between decision and fact must be a sound one. An
example of the sound managerial use of scientific fact is to be found
in the logical analysis of engineering.

The engineer makes decisions all the time and this is done by trial
and error; that is, a decision is taken (trial) and factual feedback is ob¬
tained by ‘seeing what happens’ (error elimination). We can represent
a fishery version of this engineering decision making by the analytic
problem solving schemata provided by the philosopher of science,
Karl Popper (1979), as:

Pj -*TD-* EE TD— ► EE ...etc. (1)

where P = the initial problems including the goal to be pursued (How
do we obtain a sustainable fishery? How do we obtain further employ¬
ment for our fish processors?); TD = tentative decision, a tentative
policy that reflects the chosen goal; EE = error elimination, objective
feedback by which the effectiveness of the policy is assessed; and P2
= the new problems and consequences that arise as the result of the
decision taken.

3. How are management decisions to be guided by universal
laws?

Under an analytic or logical view of the scientific enterprise , the laws ,
models, or theories of fisheries science apply world-wide and involve
a falsifiable view of science (Corkett, 2009). A neoclassical view of
bioeconomics meets this logical requirement. Rights-based models,
for example, do not describe an actual world occupied by fallible
people such as you and me, but describe a situation logic animated by

142

CORKETT

‘agents’ or ‘actors’ , players whose rationality gives the model its great
flexibility. It is this flexibility or simplicity that allows a nghts-based
model to explain the prejudicial nature of derby fishing - the rush for
the fish. Just as the laws of physics apply universally (i.e. apply world¬
wide) and set limits on what can be accomplished by the engineer (i.e.
show what cannot be done), the logical models of fisheries economics
give negative advice that universally explains (in this case, explains
for both cod and lobster harvesting) what cannot be accomplished by
regulatory policy. For example:

One cannot obtain a sustainable cod and lobster fishery (goal)
while at the same time providing unlimited jobs for cod and lobster
fishermen (social objective).

One cannot obtain unlimited jobs for cod and lobster fishermen
(goal) without using tax payer’s money (concomitant effect).

One cannot obtain a sustainable cod and lobster fishery (goal)
without controlling the prejudicial behavior of cod and lobster
fishing derbies (unintended consequence).

One cannot control cod and lobster fishing derbies (goal) without
assigning property rights (for example, by the use of Individual
Transferable Quotas [ITQs]).

The point is not that these examples are necessarily true or particu¬
larly good, and I am certainly not advocating the adoption of ITQs for
the lobster fishery. The important point is that the examples illustrate
how, as in the physical sciences, universal advice in the social sciences
takes the analytic form of a politically neutral negative argument: If
you choose to accept goal or objective A, you cannot at the same time
achieve goal or objective B.

If you wish to achieve goal A, you have to control unintended con¬
sequence B; or you cannot achieve goal A without also controlling
concomitant effect B .

From a logical point of view, a fisheries economic tradition (such as
the use of ITQs in managing Iceland’s cod fishery) involves negative
apolitical advice, advice that explains what you should not do. Limi¬
tations on and the potential consequences of options are presented to

ATLANTIC LOBSTER FISHERY

143

the decision makers by fishery economists, but the decisions are not
derived from the science. The decisions and the responsibility that
goes with these decisions remain entirely in the hands of the decision
makers.

4. Rational management of a lobster fishery

Decisions for the rational and sound management of any lobster
fishery require the institutional and structural support of a dual mod¬
eled system, comprised of two parts:

(i) a universal model of fishery economics that provides an under¬
standing of the prejudicial nature of derby fishing (see section 3).
This model is applicable to all fisheries (thus applying to both cod
and lobster) and provides politically neutral, negative scientific
advice of the form: ‘You cannot have a sustainable cod or lobster
fishery (goal) unless you control fishing effort and overcapacity
(concomitant effects)’.

(ii) a feedback model of the lobster fishery in question that informs
us of the effectiveness of the regulatory policies put in place by
the decision makers (see section 2). Feedback is used to assess
the effectiveness of the chosen policy in meeting the goal of a
sustainable fishery. The feedback model applies only to the lobster
fishery in question (i.e. it is not universal).

5. Where does biomass modeling go so wrong?

The scientists at Canada’s DFO sometimes complain that the politi¬
cians do not listen to their advice, and indeed there is some truth to
this. But from a logical point of view, it is not at all surprising that
DFO advice is not necessarily adhered to; since this advice itself is
not politically neutral, there is no reason why other policy or political
considerations should not override it. Why should the decision makers
not strive to reduce unemployment (goal) by favoring a total allow¬
able catch (TAC) of, say, 30 million MT instead of 20 million MT?
Or why should they not strive to raise the standard of decision making
by applying the precautionary principle and setting a TAC of, say, 10
million MT or should it be 5 million MT?

Unlike the feedback model (1 , above) where the empirical evidence
provides feedback after the decision has been taken (a type of argument
referred to as a posteriori ), DFO fisheries scientists collect data that

144

CORKETT

is used to form biomass models, that in turn provide advice for the
decision to be taken (a type of argument referred to as ci priori) , as.

database — ► biomass model —► prediction —► decision (2)

Clearly, if there are uncertainties in data quality and quantity, the
scientific advice will be uncertain - a situation sometimes crudely
summarized as: ‘Garbage in: garbage out’. The prediction or advice
derived from schema (2) above deploys an argument a priori and
is referred to as political advice since, unlike economic advice (see
section 3), it is not neutral in policy terms. It describes a political or
policy decision to be taken. For example: ‘The TAC should be 20
MT or ‘The MSY is 30 million MT\ The reason why an a priori
argument is so damaging is that it sets the emphasis in decision mak¬
ing in entirely the wrong direction. Instead of understanding that all
decisions have to be taken, we are now led to believe that decisions
can be reduced to facts. Better decisions require better facts; find
the ‘better facts’ and we have the ‘better decisions’. Instead, it is a
matter of elementary logic that decisions together with goals (such
as sustainability) and standards (such as the precautionary principle)
cannot be produced from, or be reduced to, facts or data. Decisions,
goals and standards reflect the values of the proponents and form part
of the problem situation requiring solution (Pp P ... in [1] of section
2). Solutions require ingenious and creative policies, not accurate or
‘certain’ measurements of biomass! From an ethical perspective, the
hope of the fisheries scientist that the establishment of norms such as
sustainability can be based on an a priori argument results in a monism
of scientific ethics (Corkett, 2005). An example of a fisheries monism
would be the widespread use of reference points in a naive attempt
to guide the development of a sustainable fishery (Beddington et al .,
2007, their figure 1).

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

The management decisions of Atlantic Canada’s commercial ground
fisheries have been based on predictions derived from data-based
models that combine within themselves the features of the dual model
system advocated in section 4 (above). Unlike this dual system, the
data-based models used by Canada’s DFO (i) are derived from data

ATLANTIC LOBSTER FISHERY

145

and so are not universal (they cannot possibly apply to both cod and
lobster); (ii) are models of fish populations and not fishing behavior and
so provide no understanding of the prejudicial nature of derby fishing;
and (iii) advise the decision makers what to do by describing a policy
to be adopted, rather than by taking a politically neutral position that
sets limits to what can be done.

The ITQs were introduced into Iceland’s cod fishery in 1984 (Ein-
arsson, 2001). It is very easy to find objections to the ITQ system. For
example, detractors point out that the smaller fishing boats are bought
out, resulting in the larger boat owners and processors owning much
of the available quota. If the goal is to maintain high employment
for fishermen and processors, then one should never even consider
introducing a management system involving quota ownership. If the
goal, however, is to establish and maintain a sustainable fishery, the
wisdom of involving market forces in both reducing and controlling
overcapacity will be appreciated. The supporters of the ITQ system
point out that, under this system of economic benefit, vessel owners
have an incentive to buy out one another, a form of fleet downsizing
that, contrary to the usual practice, reduces fishing overcapacity without
involving government money. Iceland’s successful management of
its cod fishery, using rights-based models in the form of ITQs, is an
example of a management tradition and regime that has effectively
controlled its effort levels and overcapacity. It will come as no surprise
that similarly, a sustainable lobster fishery has to contain its effort and
fishing capacity as advocated in the universal scientific advice of section
4 (i), as: ‘One cannot have a sustainable cod or lobster fishery (goal)
unless you control fishing effort and overcapacity (concomitant effects) ’ .

RECOMMENDATIONS

Our ability to maintain a sustainable lobster fishery into the distant
future depends on learning from those mistakes of method that have
allowed the development of a gross overcapacity in our cod fisheries
(Charles 1997). The basic mistake in managing Atlantic groundfish
has been the use of biomass based advice to tell the decision makers
which policy should be adopted (see [21 section 5), rather than using a
feedback model to assess if the policy decided upon has in fact enabled
the fishery to meet the stated goal being pursued (see [1] section 2).

146

CORKETT

Lobster management has a long history of effort control; in Canada,
some regulatory measures, such as fishing seasons and size limits, have
been in place for more than eighty years (FRCC, 2007). The health
of this industry has been monitored traditionally through the use of
landings. This method, however, needs structural improvement in the
form of a more effective feedback model (see section 2). For example,
beginning in the mid-1970s, annual landings in the Atlantic region
underwent a sustained increase from about 15,000 MT to a peak of
48,000 MT in 1991 (FRCC, 2007). Did the increased landings indi¬
cate increases in lobster abundance or was it a reflection of increased
effort levels or was it a bit of both? Only a LPUE index (also called
a catch-per-unit-of-effort [CPUE]) can answer this kind of question.

A LPUE index should be constructed for the lobster industry, hence
providing a continuous trend over time. This trend would form an ef¬
fective feedback model; a declining trend over time would indicate the
goal of sustainability was in jeopardy, whereas a level or increasing
trend over time would indicate that the industry was maintaining its
sustainability.

More importantly, if it is determined that new regulatory policies
are required to reduce effort levels and avoid overcapacity, a failure
of the LPUE index to increase over time would indicate that the regu¬
lations were not effective; additional and more effective regulations
would be needed.

Crucially, a LPUE index is only to be used as an argument a pos¬
teriori involving feedback in the form of trends. This index should
never be used as an argument a priori to estimate lobster abundance or
lobster biomass. Every care must be taken not to repeat the mistakes
made by Canada’s DFO in managing the stocks of Atlantic groundfish,
methodological mistakes that many hold responsible for the collapse
of the Newfoundland Atlantic cod stock by the 1990’s, with its severe
economic, ecological and social impacts.

Acknowledgements This article has benefited from critical com¬
ments provided by Stephen R. C. Jones, and two unnamed referees.

ATLANTIC LOBSTER FISHERY

147

REFERENCES

Beddington, J.R.,Agnew, DJ., and Clark, C.W. (2007). Current problems
in the management of marine fisheries. Science 316: 1713-1716.

Charles, A.T. (1997). Fisheries management in Atlantic Canada. Ocean and
Coastal Management 35:101-119.

Corkett, C J. (2005). The Pew report on US fishery councils: a critique from
the open society. Marine Policy 29: 247-253.

Corkett, CJ. (2009). Karl Popper’s definition of science. Fisheries Research
96: 323.

Einarsson, G. (2001). Iceland and the controversial ITQ system. World
Fishing 20(7): 16-19.

Fisheries Resource and Conservation Council. (2007). Sustainability
framework for Atlantic lobster. FRCC. 07, R.l , July 2007.

Globefish Market Reports. (2003). Cod-December, 2003. Accessed 2006.
http://www.globefish.org/index .php?id=2030

McGrath, P.T. (1911). Newfoundland in 1911. Whitehead, Morris, and
Company, London.

Popper, K. (1979). Epistemology without a knowing subject. In: Objective
Knowledge, Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 106-152.

Thompson, H. (1943). A biological and economic study of cod ( Gadus
callarias, L.). Department of Natural Resources, Research Bulletin 14. St
John’s: Government of Newfoundland and Labrador.

I HI

" fij ^

Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science (2011)

Volume 46, Part 2, pp. 149-174

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM
NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA: RESPONSES TO
A MILD FALL AND WINTER*

David J. Garbary, Jonathan Ferrier, Barry R. Taylor

Department of Biology, St. Francis Xavier University,
Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada, B2G 2W5

ABSTRACT

Over 1400 flowering records of 135 species were recorded from over 125
visits to more than 20 sites in Antigonish County , Nova Scotia from November
2005 to January 2006, when the growing season is normally over. The species
identified were primarily herbaceous dicots; however, there were four species
of woody plants ( Cornus sericea, Spiraea latifolia, Symphoricarpos albus
and Salix sp.) and one monocot (. Allium schoenoprasum) . The number of
species flowering declined linearly as fall progressed, as did the amount
of flowering for each species. Nevertheless, over 40 species were still in
flower in early December, and over 20 species flowered in January. The
final flowering date was 21 January, when ten species were found. This
work builds on a previous study in 200 1 , when 93 species were recorded
in flower during November-December. In addition to the 30% increase in
recorded species in 2005, almost 50% of the species found in 2005 were
not recorded in 2001. This study provides an expanded baseline against
which changes in flowering phenology can be evaluated with respect to
subsequent regional climate change.

Key Words; Antigonish, flowering, Nova Scotia, phenology, climate change

And through this distemper ature we see the seasons alter:

hoary-headed frosts fall in the fresh lap of the crimson rose.

- A Midsummer Night’s Dream, W. Shakespeare

INTRODUCTION

There is a general consensus that climate warming has occurred on
a global scale, and that mean air temperature has increased 0.5-0.6°C
during the twentieth century (e.g., Houghton et al. 2001 , Menzel et al.
2005, McCarty 2001 , Schlelp et al. 2009, Walther et al. 1995a,b,c). In

*Dedicated to the memory of Sam Vander Kloet

Corresponding author: dgarbary@gmail.com. Tel: 902 867-2164, Fax: 902 867-2389

150

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

many parts of the world the impact or fingerprint of global warm¬
ing has been recorded in diverse biological systems (IPPC 2007, see
Core Writing Team et al. 2007). These biological responses include
the timing of bird and insect migrations, amphibian breeding, and
various phenomena associated with plant phenology, e.g., changes
in timing of leaf bud burst or leaf colour or the timing of flowering
(Hughes 2000, Parmesan 2007, Root et al. 2003, Walther 2002, 2004,
Walther et al. 2001 , 2005a).

Changes in colonization patterns along environmental gradients have
been a useful fingerprint of climate change (e.g. Walther et al. 2005b).
Changes in the timing of flowering , especially earlier spring flowering ,
have also been a key indicator (e.g., Abu-Asab et al. 2001, Fitter &
Fitter 2002, Gu et al. 2008, Houle 2007, Miller-Rushing & Primack
2008 , Thorhallsdottir 1998) . Menzel (2002) argues that aspects of plant
phenology are important biological indicators of climate change and
form an excellent proxy for temperature.

Published studies take several approaches to examining phenological
responses to climate. Most studies are observational and look for cor¬
related changes in plant and animal behaviour with changing environ¬
ment (e.g., Menzel & Fabian 1999); relatively fewer are experimental
and manipulate climate in the field to examine responses of individual
species (e.g., Dunne et al. 2003, Post et al. 2008). Some studies use
remote sensing of vegetation to quantify phenological changes as a
result of climate forcing (Badeck et al. 2005, White et al. 2005).

Although prolongation of the growing season in the fall has been
reported, this extension is considered much less significant than early
spring growth and flowering (Hovenden et al. 2008, Menzel 2003,
Menzel & Fabian 1999, Menzel et al. 2001 , Walther 2002, Thakur et
al. 2008). The emphasis on the spring arises primarily because climate
change is thought to have its greatest impact on winter and spring
temperatures, and because fall responses reflect factors in addition to
temperature to a greater extent than do spring responses (Sparks &
Menzel 2002; Walther 2003). In addition, Schaber & Badeck (2005)
and Menzel (2003) report little or no change in the timing of fall leaf
colouration, while the growing season was extended by 10 days as a
consequence ol earlier springs. In Europe and North America, climate
warming in the late twentieth century has advanced spring phenology
by 1 .2-3.8 days/decade, whereas changes in the fall are on the order
of 0.3-1 .6 days/decade (Menzel 2002, Menzel et al. 2001).

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA 151

The smaller apparent changes in fall have resulted in much less
research emphasis on impacts of changing climate on fall events. For
species with indeterminate flowering, such as many ruderal annuals
that flower until they are killed by frost, an extension of the flowering
season in fall could lead to important increases in reproductive suc¬
cess, if pollinating insects are still active or species are self pollinating.
Extensions of the fall growing season may be particularly important in
the Canadian Maritime Provinces, where extended warm periods may
follow intermittent frosts. Post et al. (2008) argue that changes in the
entire life history of species in response to climate change, including
reproduction, should be examined in an integrative way. Consequently,
there is a need for more empirical data on fall phenomena associated
with plant phenology and how this might be affected by climate change .

There is no long-term database of systematically collected observa¬
tions on fall flowering in Nova Scotia. There is, however, an excellent
provincial flora (Roland & Smith 1969, revised by Zinck 1998) with
generalized accounts of flowering times for each species, largely based
on observations during the 1940s to the 1960s. In addition, there are
extensive herbarium holdings at Acadia University (ACAD), Nova
Scotia Museum (NSPM), Nova Scotia Agricultural College (NS AC)
and St. Francis Xavier University (STFX) that reflect both historical
and more recent collections. Despite their limitations, regional her¬
baria provide a useful background against which changes in flowering
phenology can be evaluated (e.g., Favoie & Lachance 2006, Miller-
Rushing et al. 2006).

During the course of a particularly warm fall in 2001 , robust flow¬
ering was apparent in the local flora at the beginning of November.
The identity and persistence of plants in flower were recorded at a
number of local sites to the end of flowering in mid-December (Tay¬
lor & Garbary 2003). These observations provided the latest reported
flowering times in Nova Scotia for virtually all the species identified,
and extended the limit of flowering by an average of 45 days. The fall
of 2005 was another exceptionally warm season, highlighted by the
absence of frost during September and October and conspicuously
robust flowering of wild plants. A second survey of late-fall flowering
times in Antigonish County, from November 2005 to January 2006,
was therefore undertaken to compare against the 2001 survey. Specifi¬
cally, our objectives were (1) to compare late flowering phenology in
2005 with those reported in the flora of Nova Scotia (Roland 1998)
and herbarium records in the largest provincial herbarium (ACAD);

152

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

(2) to compare late-fall flowering in 200 1 and 2005 to determine if the
flowering season had lengthened or the flowering species had changed
over the four-year period; and (3) to determine whether differences
in flowering phenology between 2001 and 2005 were congruent with
evidence of local climate change in the fall since the 1950s.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To assess the prevalence of late fall flowering, 21 sites in Antigonish
County, Nova Scotia, were visited two or more times at approximately
10-day intervals beginning 1 November 2005, until flowering ceased

Table 1 Primary collecting sites in Antigonish Town and County and the habitats
examined regularly from November 2005 to January 2006. Sites visited in
at least two, ten-day periods.

Site name and coordinates

Habitats

Hawthorne Street
(45°37.5’N, 62°00.0’W)

backyards, old field, lawns, garden plots; ~0.5 km walk

St. Andrews Street
(45°37.0’N, 61°58.5’W)

waste ground and soil banks surrounding building lot
with unfinished house foundation; 100 m walk

Williams Point
(45°37.2’N, 61°57.5’W)

waste ground and streamside; ditches and garden plots
along 3 km drive

Lower West River Road
(45°36.1’N, 62°00.2’W)

ditches, roadside banks and fields along 5 km road

South Side Harbour Road
(45°37.7’N, 61°53.8’W)

ditches and roadside fields and garden plots along

10 km drive

Pomquet Harbour
(45°38.8’N, 61°50.1’W)

fields, ditches, roadside, salt marsh; 5 km drive with
several stops

Arisaig Provincial Park
(45°45.3’N, 62°10.0’W)

roadside, ditches and regenerating boreal forest;

0.25 km walk

‘Liquor Lane’ and

StFX Campus
(45°37.0’N, 61°59.5’W)

flower beds, grassy banks, waste ground, margins of
conifer stand; ~1 km walk

Kells Construction, Antigonish
Municipal Facility
(45°37.6’N, 61°59.5’W)

waste ground, river bank, construction waste piles, soil
mounds; ~1 km walk

Antigonish Landing
(45°38.0’N, 61°57.7’W)

waste ground, soil banks, margins of marshy areas,
field; ~ 0.5 km walk

Tera Tory Drive
(45°39.6’N, 61°54.7’W)

roadside, ditches, lawns, garden plots; 2 km drive

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA 153

Table 1 Continued

Site name and coordinates

Habitats

Seabright Road
(45°40.2’N, 61°57.6)

roadside and ditches, com field, waste ground around
barn construction site, margins of boreal forest;

2 km drive

Beech Hill Road
(45°36.9'N, 61°58.3’W)

waste ground, muddy banks, gravel surfaces;

5 km drive

Whidden’s Camp Ground
(45°37.3’N, 61°59.9’W)

grass field and stream banks; waste ground at margin of
parking lots; 0.5 km walk

Mount Cameron
(45°37.8’N, 61°58.5'W)

grassy banks, old field, gravel surfaces, garden plots,
soil mounds and around housing construction sites;

0.5 km walk

Main Street, opposite Hospital
(45°37.7’N, 61°58.8’W)

large building lot consisting of waste ground and fine
gravel with numerous soil mounds and bare banks;

0.25 km walk

Archibalds Point Road
(45°40.8'N, 61°54.6’W)

roadside and ditches , garden plots , margin of boreal forest ,
disturbed ground at building site; 1 km drive

Antigonish Mall
(45°37.1’N, 61°58.9'W)

waste ground and soil heaps beside parking lot, farmer’s
field, 0.5 km walk

Adam Street
(45°37.5'N, 61°58.7’W)

waste ground around commercial buildings and industrial
sites, small garden plot; 0.5 km walk

in late January (Table 1). The 31st of December and January were as¬
signed to the final period in each month (i.e., they were 1 1 days long).
A number of additional sites were visited once, for a total of over 125
site-time combinations. All sites were located within 30 km of the
Town of Antigonish . Except for occasional forays inland to St . Andrews
(45°32.8’N, 61°53.5’W) and Glen Alpine (45°28.8’N, 62°00.6,W),
all sites were within 5 km of salt water. Latitude and longitude for
each site were determined with a hand-held global positioning unit
(Garmin GPS 12, Garmin Corp., Olathe, Kansas) or calculated from
the Nova Scotia Atlas (Anonymous 2001) with values rounded to the
nearest 0.1’. All sites were at low elevation, mostly < 20 m and all
< 75 m above sea level. Although some sites were revisited within
the same 10-day period, only new-found species for that collection
period were counted as additions to the list, regardless of the number
of visits. Some sites were visited only once or a few times during the
study because of logistic constraints or the occurrence of only a few
species in flower. At each site, a complete list of species in bloom
was made during a 15-1 20 min excursion with one or two observers.

154

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

At least one specimen of each species was collected and preserved.
Vouchers were deposited in ST FX. Nomenclature and species authori¬
ties follow Roland (1998) and are given in Appendix 1 .

The number of days that flowering was lengthened was calculated
with reference to the latest flowering period cited by Roland (1998),
with the last day of the cited month being scored as within the flowering
period. Furthermore, herbarium records at ACAD, NSAC and NSPM
were examined, and the latest flowering time among these specimens
was used as the reference point for counting flowering extension when
this was later than that from Roland (see Appendix 1). Records in the
three herbaria were examined for the Taylor & Garbary (2003) study;
only records in ACAD (the largest regional herbarium, Holmgren and
Holmgren 1998) were re-evaluated for the current study. Plants were
considered in blossom if a single flower was present in which the petals
retained their natural colour and the pistils or stamens remained intact.
Typically, multiple plants, each with multiple flowers, were present at
a given site. Inconspicuous flowers (e.g. Chenopodium album) were
dissected under a stereomicroscope to ensure that appropriate organs
were present before including the species in the list of actively flowering
species. When flowering apparently ended in 2005 for a given species
earlier than in 2001 , this was recorded as a number of negative days
in the calculation of the overall average for the study (see Appendix
1). This mitigated potential exaggeration of flowering extension times
in 2005 relative to 2001 .

To determine if late flowering was consistent with evidence of climate
change, climate data from two weather stations in Antigonish County,
at Collegeville (45°28’N,62° 1 ’ W, 1950-2005) and South Side Harbour
(45°37'N, 61°54’W, 1997-2005) were obtained by downloading data
from the National Climate Data and Information Archive of Environment
Canada (http://climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca). South Side Harbour is
close to Antigonish Harbour and 7 km from the Town of Antigonish;
Collegeville is 25 km inland. Only the Collegeville station has suf¬
ficient data to have established 30-year climate normals (1971 -2000) .
Antigonish County falls into plant hardiness zone 5B of Agriculture
Canada (http:// sis .agr.gc .ca/ cansis/nsdb/climate/ hardiness/intro .html) ,
in which harsh winters kill non-hardy species (see Davis & Browne
1997 for regional climate summary).

The relationship between numbers of species in flower during each
ten-day period and weather variables during the fall and early winter
ot 2005-2006 was explored using linear correlations. Mean maximum,

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA 155

minimum and overall mean temperatures were computed for each 10-
day period from Environment Canada data at Collegeville. In addition,
heat units (with units of degree-days) were calculated as the sum of the
daily, above-zero maxima for each period; cold units were calculated
similarly as the sum of all daily minima below zero. Linear regression
was also used to model the decline in number of species flowering over
time, as this facilitated comparisons with the 2001 study.

RESULTS

Weather in fall 2005.

Temperatures in fall are typically warmer at South Side Harbour,
along the coast, than at Collegeville, which lies inland. Frosts arrive
later and are less severe near the coast as well (Table 2). Tempera¬
tures throughout the fall and early winter of 2005 were conspicuously
warmer than usual . At Collegeville , mean temperatures remained 1 -3°C
warmer than the 30-year normal from September to December (Table
2). The bigger difference, however, is in the much lower frequency
and severity of frost in 2005. In 2005 there were only 3 days of frost
at Collegeville in October 2005, and 14 in November, compared with
14 and 23 in the 30-year Normals (Table 2). Frosts were less frequent
nearer the coast, where most flowering observations were made. The
temperature difference between 2005 and previous years is less obvi¬
ous in December, but even in this month the daytime high was above
zero on 15 days at Collegeville. A 16-cm snowfall on 10 December
would have insulated low-lying plants from the most severe cold.
Even in January, the coldest month of the year, the mean maximum
temperature was above zero in 2006.

There is no consistent difference among most temperature statistics
between 2001 and 2005; the earlier year was warmer in some months
and by some measures, the later year by other measures or in other
months. The number of frost days, however, was consistently less in
2005 than in 200 1 at both South Side Harbour and Collegeville weather
stations (Table 2).

Fall climate warming in northern Nova Scotia.

In addition to the specific temperature indicators in Table 2, we also
examined changes in numbers of frost days between 1950 and 2005
using the Collegeville data set (Figure 1 ). While these data show major

156

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

fluctuations on a year to year basis, there is no apparent trend in the
five-year running average until the mid 1990s, after which there is a
strong decline. This decline is more apparent in the data from 1997-
2005 from South Side Harbour (Figure 2) where there is an almost
continuous decline in number of frost days from 8 days to 1 day, and
a major increase in days to first frost after 1 September from 33 to
61 days. The reduction in early fall frosts may be a key factor in the
persistence of flowering after 1 November.

Table 2 Climate data for an inland site (Collegeville) and a coastal site (South Side
Harbour) in Antigonish County during 2001 and 2005, and 30-year climate
normals for Collegeville, 1971-2000. Climate normals not yet established for
South Side Harbour. Some data missing for South Side Harbour in 2005-2006;
bracketed numbers allow possibility that these were frost days.

Collegeville

Temperature (°C) South Side Climate

Month

and Frost Days

Harbour

Collegeville

Normals

2005-

2001-

2005-

1971-

2006

2022

2002

2006

2000

Sept

Mean maximum

21.5

22.8

21.0

18.8

Mean

16.1

16.7

15.6

15.8

13.5

Mean minimum

10.7

10.5

9.1

10.6

7.8

Extreme minimum

3.4

0.5

-2.0

2.0

Frost days

4.9

Oct

Mean maximum

14.7

17.2

16.1

14.5

13.0

Mean

10.5

11.1

10.1

9.9

8.0

Mean minimum

6.4

5.0

3.9

5.2

3.3

Extreme minimum

-1.4

-1.8

-4.0

-3.0

Frost days

13.8

Nov

Mean maximum

10.0

8.7

8.8

10.0

6.9

Mean

5.6

4.6

4.3

5.4

2.9

Mean minimum

1.3

0.4

0.3

0.7

-0.9

Extreme minimum

-6.7

-6.5

-9.0

-7

Frost days

22.6

Dec

Mean maximum

1.8

3.6

-0.5

2.2

1.0

Mean

-2

0.6

-0.5

-1.2

-3.1

Mean minimum

-5.9

-2.6

-3.5

-4.7

-7.5

Extreme minimum

-15.1

-9.25

-10.0

-17.5

Frost days

23 (25)

29.6

Jan

Mean maximum

3.5

-1.1

-2.2

2.4

-1.5

Mean

-0.2

-4.8

-7.1

-0.7

-6.6

Mean minimum

-3.9

-8.6

-12.0

-3.8

-11.6

Extreme minimum

-10.6

-17.2

-22.0

-10.0

Frost days

17(20)

28.8

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA 157

Fig 1 Days of frost, September and October combined , with five year smoothed line based

on data from Collegeville.

Fig 2 Number of frost days September and October combined (open squares) and days
to first frost after 1 September (filled squares) based on data from South Side
Harbour.

158

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

Plants in flower.

Over 1400 site-time observations of flowering were made during
the 113 days of this research (Appendix 2). The field observations
produced a tally of 136 species from the 21 sites that were regularly
visited and 20 or more additional sites that were visited once or a few
times (Appendix 2). Limited destructive sampling of plants for iden¬
tification and preparation of vouchers necessitated continual explora¬
tion of new sites. Most of the sites represented similar habitats: waste
ground, roadside ditches, lawns, garden plots and agricultural fields
(Table 1). Most sites were highly disturbed, many with less than 50%
cover of vegetation, used for agriculture or industry (e.g., building
sites, soil dump sites, parking lots, ditches), and were characterized
by pioneer successional communities in which the bulk of the plants
in flower were herbaceous, weedy species. Although various wetlands
and forest communities were explored, these were typically devoid of
plants in flower. Exceptions were open spaces in mixed conifer for¬
est at Arisaig with Solidago bicolor , a streamside Alnus thicket near
Monastery with Solidago flexicaulis , and a salt marsh at Monks Head
(Pomquet Harbour) with Solidago sempervirens and Sueda maritima.

Unlike the survey in 2001, the list of flowering species in 2005
includes woody plants for the first time. Three of the four species ob¬
served are shrubs that normally bloom in summer: Spiraea latifolia,
Cornus sericea and Symphoricarpos albus. The fourth species, Salix
sp. (probably pussy willow, S. discolor or S.pellita ) ordinarily blooms
in April or May. All of these species were found at either more than one
site or during more than one ten-day period (Appendix 2), suggesting
that this late fall flowering was more than a rare and isolated event.

In early and mid-November, 20-30 species were found in flower at
most sites, with a maximum of 34. By the end of November, flowering
was conspicuously reduced, with an average of 13 species per site and
a maximum of 23 species. In early December there was a slight further
reduction to an average of 12 species per site and a maximum of 19.
Middle and late December showed a mean of 4 species per site with a
maximum of 6 species. Snow cover and low temperatures produced a
limited window lor collecting in mid-December and precluded visiting
large numbers of sites. About half of the sites visited in late December
had no species flowering and several still had extensive snow cover.

A total of 22 species remained in bloom in the last third of Decem¬
ber (Figure 3), indeed 15 observations were made of 12 species from

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA 159

four sites on December 30, when air temperature reached 14°C. These
records varied from the occurrence of a single blossom on a population
of dozens of individuals ( Ranunculus repens ), to abundant blossoms
on many highly frost-compromised (i.e. wilted) plants (. Raphanus
raphani strum) , to healthy plants with large numbers of buds and blos¬
soms (e.g., Polygonum arenastrum and Stellaria media). Taraxacum
officinale was present at three of the four sites visited, albeit with only
one or two flowering individuals per site. All of these species, except
Salix sp. and Ranunculus repens had been in bloom in every ten-day
period since the beginning of November.

There was little change in the flowering species between the end of
December and records from January. Most species flowered in two of
the three time intervals. No species was lost, and there was a single
record of Epigea repens added in mid- January. Even the final collection
day for the study (21 January) yielded twelve records of eight species
of herbaceous plants from seven sites , with two further records of Salix.

Our observations in 2001 and 2005 (Appendix 1) extend the known
flowering periods of plants in Nova Scotia by 70 days. The observa¬
tions in 2001 for some species are later than those collected here, but
usually within the same ten-day period. The late January collections
(see Garbary & Taylor 2007 for details of these collections) provide
the latest flowering records in the province.

The change in number of species in flower over consecutive 10-day
periods from 1 November clearly follows a two-phase pattern (Figure
3). Over the first five periods, from 1 November to 20 December, the
number of species in flower declines regularly, to a minimum of 12
during the 11-20 December period. Over the last five periods, from
11 Dec to 21 January, the number of species in flower remains low
(< 25) and more or less constant. The fifth period is a transition from
the first phase to the second. The decline in species flowering over the
first five periods can be well described by a simple linear regression:

Number of species = 140.9-25.3 * (Time Period)

(R2 = 0.99, n = 5, p = 0.0017)

In contrast, the change in species flowering over the last 5 periods has
no significant correlation with time , and in fact r = 0 . Hence , rather than
the flowering period ending abruptly at the first deep frost, successive
bouts of cold weather removed progressively more species from the

160

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

(/)

10-Day Period

Fig 3 Number of species of plants recorded in bloom in Antigonish County, Nova Scotia
during 10-day periods from 1 November 2005 to 21 January 2006. Periods 1-3
cover November, 3-6 cover December and 7-9 cover January.

Number of Species
Flowering

N) O) 03 O fO

DOOOOOOO

j_ i_ i_ i_ i_ i_ i_ i

•

• *

V. J w

v'# o

(

< i . i . i

) 20 40 60 80

Heat Units (degree-days)

Fig 4 Relationship between number of species of plants in flower from 1 November 2005
lo _ 1 January 2006 and cumulative heat units in each 10-day period. Dark circles
repicsent data from 1 November to 20 December, when the number of species
declined lineai ly. Open circles are data from 2 1 December to 2 1 January, when the
number ot species in flower was approximately constant.

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA 161

flowering pool. The final group of species, those that persisted until
mid-January, were evidently able to prolong their growing season
even further because of the continued mild weather and their ability
to suffer frosts that were fatal to less resistant species.

Over the entire nine periods, the number of species in flower is more
or less equally correlated with mean maximum, mean minimum and
daily mean temperatures and cumulative heat units in each period
(r = 0.82 to 0.84, n =9). Only cold units are a relatively poor predictor
of number of species (r = 0.73). Nevertheless, the response in number
of species flowering to temperature during the last four 10-day periods
appears to be weaker than that during the first five periods (Figure 4).
This is probably so because after 20 December there were only a few
species available to reflower when the weather turned warmer again
at the end of the month, the others having entered dormancy or suc¬
cumbed to frost. Therefore above-zero temperatures were less effective
in encouraging flowering late in the season than earlier.

In the 2001 study, flowering ended in the fifth 10-day period, be¬
tween 11 and 20 December. Over those five periods however, the
rate of decline in 2005 appears remarkably similar to that in 200 1 .
Adirect comparison between the two equations is not possible , however,
because of the greater number of species collected in 2005. To correct
for this disparity, the 200 1 and 2005 regressions were both recomputed
in terms of percentages of the total number of species found in bloom
that year. The slope of the line in 2005 (-18.7 ± 1 .7 % period1) is not
significantly different (t = 1 .59, p > 0.10) from the slope of the line in
2001 (-17.4 ± 1.0% period1). Hence, the identical ecological process
of sequential removal of progressively more frost-resistant species
appears to have been active in both years.

DISCUSSION

This study and the previous one (Taylor & Garbary 2003) were initi¬
ated because of the high diversity of plants in flower and the robustness
of flowering in early November of 2005 (and 2001). This pattern was
highly unusual for northern Nova Scotia, where frosts in September
and October typically terminate flowering of all but the most robust
species. While some of our records are based on a single plant with a
single inflorescence (e.g .,Hieracium aurantiacum on 15 November),
many of our records, even those in January, are based on multiple

162

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

specimens, from multiple times and multiple sites (Appendix 2 and
Garbary & Taylor 2007).

This study of late flowering phenology in a local area of Nova
Scotia provides an empirical approach to documenting biological
responses to changes in weather patterns, if not the impact of climate
change. Our use of herbarium records to establish baseline flowering
phenologies is consistent with previous work in northeastern North
America by Miller-Rushing et al. (2006) and Primack et al. (2004),
although these studies used estimates of peak flowering times rather
than latest flowering times. Our use of herbarium specimens and the
regional flora (Roland 1998) as starting points against which to gauge
our observations assumes that prior observations and collections were
made throughout the flowering period . We have mitigated this potential
source of error by assuming that the last day of the month cited by
Roland (1998), or the latest herbarium specimen in ACAD or NS AC,
was the end of the flowering period; this minimizes our estimate of
the flowering period extension. Furthermore, our primary reference
herbarium, AC AD, is in a warmer plant hardiness zone than Antigonish
(5B rather than 5A), and plants from the Annapolis Valley might be
assumed to have a later flowering period than those from Antigonish
County do. Many of the collections of roadside flowers and ruderals
in ACAD, NS AC and STFX are student collections made as part of
course assignments, and therefore many specimens would likely have
been collected later in the autumn, toward the end of flowering periods
when some collectors were attempting to meet course requirements.
This background, combined with over 20 years experience on the lo¬
cal flora by DJG and BRT, gives us confidence in our conclusion that
200 1 and 2005 represent major anomalies in flowering phenology for
the Antigonish area, and these events were associated with an apparent
fall warming trend in the area (Table 2).

Our results complement and extend the previous study by Taylor
& Garbary (2003) that showed a 45 day average extension of known
flowering durations for Nova Scotia during 2001. The current study
suggested a further 25 day extension in mean flowering duration for
the 135 documented species. We conclude that persistent flowering
beyond the normal growing season is a reliable integrator of weather
phenomena associated with a warming climate (i.e., higher mean tem¬
peratures, later frost, less frequent and less severe cold periods), and
therefore fall-flowering surveys can be a useful instrument to document
and detect climate change. Table 2 shows that 2001 and 2005 were

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA 163

consistently warmer than climate normals based on a variety of metrics .
Furthermore, we documented an apparent change in temperature since
the mid 1 990s as shown by a reduction of frost occurrences in northern
Nova Scotia (Figures 1-2). Whether these are part of an ongoing trend
remains to be established, but they are consistent with predictions of
global climate change (e.g., Walther et al. 2005).

While our systematic observations were carried out only in 2001
and 2005, casual observations in all other years since 2001 did not
show the diversity of species in flower or robustness of flowering after
1 Nov that we observed during the study years. In 2009 and 2010 for
example, typical frosts occurred in October and casual observation
of several sites by one of us (DJG) revealed fewer than ten species in
flower at any site in Antigonish County during November. Our analysis
of climate data for the region (Table 2) shows that the fall and early
winter seasons of 2001 and 2005 were particularly mild, and supports
our conclusion that late flowering is a response to milder temperatures.

It is remarkable that the rate of disappearance of flowering species,
expressed as a percentage of the total, through the first five 10-day
periods should follow the same linear trajectory in 2005 as in 2001,
especially given that the 2005 survey includes many new species.
This pattern has been interpreted previously as successive cold snaps
acting as environmental sieves, separating groups of species accord¬
ing to increasing frost tolerance (Taylor & Garbary 2003). The reap¬
pearance of the same pattern in 2005 as in 2001 suggests that most
ruderal species are differentiated along this niche axis. As well, the
apparent generality of the pattern suggests that deviations from the
expected sequence may be used as an indicator of climate change.
Such a deviation was observed in the current study, when the final,
most persistent group of species, rather than succumbing to deep cold
as winter approached, instead persisted well into January along with
the unseasonable warmth.

The majority of studies on changes in phenology in relation to climate
warming refer to the advancement of flowering or other phenomena
in the spring, and much smaller effects during the fall (e.g., Cleland
et al. 2007, Fitter & Fitter 2002, Gu et al. 2008, Menzel et al. 2006,
and references therein). Hence the apparent 45-day prolongation of
flowering reported by Taylor & Garbary (2003) , and the further 25 -day
apparent prolongation reported here (Appendix 1 ) would seem counter
to generalized responses in the literature. It may be that later flowering

164

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

is more difficult to document as it requires multiple visits to many sites
as was done here and in Taylor & Garbary (2003).

The 135 species recorded in this study represent about 10% of the
total vascular flora of Nova Scotia. However, the dicotyledenous
flora of Nova Scotia consists of about 970 species. Based on distribu¬
tions reported in Roland (1998) and additions in Garbary & Deveau
(2007) and Taylor et al. (2008), only about 75% of this diversity may
be represented in Antigonish County, a small area with low habitat
and climatic diversity (Davis & Browne 1997). Hence, the species
we observed flowering during November-January comprise ~20%
of the local diversity of dicots. This total qualifies the late flowering
assemblage as a significant component of the angiosperm flora, and
highlights the phenological changes that can arise from even slight
changes in temperature. The capacity of so many species to extend
or recommence flowering in warm fall weather raises the prospect of
even greater blooming for longer periods with climate change that
includes further warming during the late autumn and early winter. It
remains to be determined if viable seeds can be produced by these late
fall flowering species, especially those that require insect pollination.

Acknowledgements We thank Anne Louise MacDonald, Randy
Lauff and Ian Bryson for contributing several collections to this study,
and Ruth Newell of ACAD for access to collections. This work was
supported by a research grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineer¬
ing Research Council of Canada to DJG.

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168

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

Appendix 1 Combined list of species from 2001 and 2005 that were observed flowering in
Antigonish County after November 1 st . The date given under latest herbarium
record indicates the latest flowering specimens found in one of the following
herbaria - ACAD, NS AC or NSPM. Flowering extension (days) indicates the
number of additional flowering days in Antigonish County compared with
the latest times given in Roland (1998) or a previous herbarium collection.
Symbols are as follows: Question marks indicate missing data; #-Species
found in 2001 study but not in the fall of 2005; ^-earliest flowering times for
two pussy willow species; ^interpreted as late second flowering rather than
early flowering - see text.

Species Flowering Latest

in Roland herbarium
(1998) record

Latest

flowering

2001

Latest

flowering

2005

Flowering

extension

(days)

Achillea millefolium L.

Sep

2 Dec ‘05

14 Dec

12 Jan

Allium schoenoprasum L.

July

1 Aug ‘57

2 Dec

124

Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.

Sep

16 Nov ‘06

23 Nov

Anaphalis margaritaceae (L.)

Sep

18 Oct ‘81

5 Dec

6 Nov

-29

Benth. & Hook.

Anthemis tinctoria L.

Sep

3 Aug ‘51

2 Dec

122

Arctium minus (Hill.) Bemh.

Sep

15 Nov ‘94

13 Nov

Aster ciliolatus Lindl.

Sep

14 Aug ‘68

12 Dec

2 Dec

-10

A. cordifolius L.

Oct

18 Oct ‘79

12 Dec

22 Nov

-20

A. lateriflorus (L.) Britton

Sep

28 Oct ‘87

10 Dec

3 Dec

-7

A. novae-angliae L.

Oct

16 Nov ‘05

1 Nov

A. novi-belgii L.

Sep

2 Dec ‘05

10 Dec

3 Dec

-7

A. puniceus L.

Sep

7 Oct ‘30

11 Nov

3 Dec

A. umbellatus P. Mill.

Sep

9 Sep ‘54

6 Nov

# Beilis perennis L.

Sep

6 July ‘50

16 Nov

Berteroa incana (L.) DC

Sep

1 Oct ‘41

1 Nov

Bidens connata Muhl.

Sep

6 Sep ‘52

7 Nov

# Bide ns frondosa L.

Sep

29 Sep ‘41

7 Nov

Brassica nigra (L.)

Oct

1 1 Nov ‘69

10 Nov

2 Nov

-8

W.J.D. Koch

#B. rapa L.

Oct

27 Sep ‘91

12 Dec

Campanula rapunculoides L.

Aug

20 Sep ‘79

7 Nov

3 Nov

-4

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.)

Nov

2 Dec ‘05

14 Dec

14 Jan

Medik.

Cardamine pensylvanica

Aug

1 1 Sep ‘49

15 Dec

21 Jan

Muhl. ex Willd.

Centaurea nigra L.

Sep

20 Nov ‘94

17 Nov

15 Nov

-2

Cerastium vulgatum L.

12 Dec ‘06

15 Nov

21 Jan

Chenopodium album L.

14 Oct ‘79

17 Nov

1 Dec

C. glaucum L.

Oct

22 Nov

Chaenorrhinum minus (L.)

Aug

4 Sep ‘48

15 Nov

Lange

Chrysanthemum

July

18 Sep ‘83

26 Nov

22 Nov

-4

leucanthemum L.

Cichorium intybus L.

Aug

15 Oct ‘90

12 Nov

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Aug

9 Oct ‘30

18 Nov

C.palustre (L.) Scop.

July

9 Aug ‘45

6 Nov

C. vulgare (Savi) Tenore

Sept

1 Oct ‘32

7 Nov

#Conioselinum chinense (L.)

Sep

17 Sep ‘55

1 1 Nov

Britton, Stems & Poggenb.

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA 169

Appendix 1 Continued

Species Flowering Latest Latest Latest Flowering

in Roland herbarium flowering flowering extension
(1998) record 2001 2005 (days)

Cornus sericea L.

June

4 Sep ‘25

22 Nov

Coronilla varia L.

July

13 Sep ‘90

12 Nov

ttDianthus armeria L.

July

1 Oct ‘67

19 Nov

Daucus carota L.

Sep

2 Dec ‘05

20 Nov

2 Dec

Echinocystis lobata (Michx .)

Oct

30 Sep ‘90

12 Nov

T.&G.

Echium vulgare L.

Sep

18 Aug ‘55

2 Nov

Epigaea repens L.

May

7 Nov ‘98

14 Jan

Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers.

Sep

1 Oct ‘45

16 Nov

24 Nov

E. philadelphicus L.

Aug

14 June ‘51

2 Nov

E. strigosus Muhl. Ex Willd.

Sep

16 Nov ‘06

8 Dec

6 Nov

-32

Erucastrum gallicum (Willd.)

Oct

18 Sep ‘54

12 Dec

3 Dec

-9

O.E. Schulz

Erysimum cheiranthoides L.

Sep

16 Nov ‘06

15 Dec

14 Jan

Euphorbia helioscopia L.

Sep

7 Jan ‘02

14 Dec

21 Jan

Euphrasia officinalis L.

Sep

10 Oct ‘30

10 Nov

24 Nov

Euthamnia graminifolia (L.)

Sep

17 Oct ‘17

22 Nov

1 Nov

-21

Nutt.

Fragaria vesca L.

June

27 July ‘46

1 Nov

F. virginiana Duchesne

May

5 Sep ‘86

27 Nov

15 Nov

-12

Fumaria officinalis L.

Aug

6 Sep ‘54

14 Jan

131

Galeopsis tetrahit L.

Sep

10 Oct ‘69

14 Dec

3 Dec

-11

Galium mollugo L.

Aug

23 Aug ‘52

1 Dec

Glechoma hederacea L.

Summer

1 Aug ‘62

2 Nov

Hesperis matronalis L.

July

25 Sep ‘63

17 Nov

22 Nov

Hieracium aurantiacum L.

Aug

18 Oct ‘79

15 Nov

H . floribundum Wimm.

July

3 Dec-06

24 Nov

& Grab

H. lachenalii C. Gmelin.

Aug

16 Nov ‘05

3 Dec

H. paniculatum L.

Sept

17 Sep ‘45

15 Nov

H. piloselloides Vill.

July

29 Aug ‘62

6 Nov

Hypericum perforatum L.

Aug

12 Nov ‘79

5 Nov

7 Nov

-5

#Lamium amplexicaule L.

Nov

18 Sep ‘79

8 Dec

Lathyrus pratensis L.

July

15 Aug ‘ 66

2 Nov

Leontodon autumnalis L.

Oct

3 Dec ‘05

16-Dec

30 Dec

Lepidium campestre (L.)

Sep

3 Sep ‘69

6-Dec

18 Dec

R.Br.

L. virginicum L.

Sep

2 Dec ‘06

5-Dec

15 Nov

-20

Linaria vulgaris Mill.

Aug

18 Nov 1869

5-Dec

28 Nov

-7

Lupinus polyphyllus Lindl.

July

20 Sep ‘79

11 Nov

Malva moschata L.

July

3 Dec ‘05

1 Dec

-2

M. neglecta Wallr.

Oct

2 Dec ‘05

14-Dec

14 Nov

-30

#M. rotundifolia L.

18 Oct ‘92

10-Nov

Matricaria maritima L.

Aug

2 Dec ‘05

15-Dec

13 Jan

M. matricarioides (Less.)

Nov

16 Nov ‘06

14-Dec

14 Jan

Porter

Medicago lupulina L.

Sep

7 Oct ‘87

12-Dec

9 Nov

-33

M. sativa L.

Aug

16 Nov ‘05

1 Nov

-15

170

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

Appendix 1 Continued

Species

Flowering
in Roland
(1998)

Latest

herbarium

record

Latest

flowering

2001

Latest

flowering

2005

Flowering

extension

(days)

Melilotus alba Desr.

Aug

9 Nov ‘79

20-Nov

2 Dec

M. officinalis (L.) Lam.

Aug

19 Sep ‘71

11 -Nov

14 Nov

Myosotis laxa Lehm.

July

10 Oct ‘30

12 Nov

M. scorpioides L.

July

13 Oct ‘30

6 Nov

Oenothera biennis L.

Oct

16 Oct ‘15

24-Nov

24 Nov

O . perennis L.

Sep

6 Sep ‘38

10-Nov

Oxalis dillenii Jacq.

6 Sep ‘29

4 Nov

Pastinaca sativa L.

July

5 Sep ‘62

5-Dec

2 Dec

-3

Physalis heterophylla Nees

Aug

25 Oct ‘49

12 Nov

Plantago lanceolata L.

Oct

11 Nov ‘79

11 -Nov

13 Nov

Polygonum arenastrum
Jord. ex Boreau

24 Oct ‘23

12-Dec

30 Dec

P. aviculare L.

Nov

19 Nov

-11

P. convolvulus L.

Nov

16 Oct ‘44

24-Nov

15 Nov

-9

P. cuspidatum Sieb. & Zucc.

Sep

6 Oct ‘78

1 Nov

P. hydropiper L.

11 Nov ‘05

12 Nov

P. lapathifolium L.

31 Aug ‘55

5 Nov

P. pensylvanicum L.

17 Sep ‘13

9 Nov

P. persicaria L .

Oct

10 Dec ‘25

25 Nov

15 Nov

-10

P. sagittatum L.

Oct

10 Oct ‘17

10 Nov

9 Nov

-1

Potentilla argentea L.

Aug

20 Nov ‘37

5 Dec

18 Nov

-17

P. canadensis L.

#P. intermedia L.

P. norvegica L.

P. simplex Michx.
Potentilla recta L.

Prunella vulgaris L.
Ranunculus acris L.

R. repens L.

Raphanus raphanistrum L.
Rubus ideaus L.

Rudbeckia laciniata L.
Rumex longifolius Alph.

de Candolle
#R. obtusifolius L.

Salix discolor Muhl.

S. pellita Andersson

Senecio jacobaea L.

S. vulgaris L.

Silene latifolia Poir.

Sinapis alba L.

S. arx’ensis L.

Sisymbrium officinale (L.) .
Scop

# Solatium dulcamara L.
Solidago bicolor L.

June

July

Summer

Aug

Sep

Oct

July

Aug

Oct

Sep

*Feb-

May

*May-

June

Sep

Nov

Sep

Aug

Oct

Sep

27 July 4 55
21 July ‘62
4 Sep ‘53

19 Sep ‘83

28 Oct ‘51
10 Oct ‘83

1 Oct ‘78
4 Dec ‘05

2 Dec ‘05
6 Nov ‘94

20 July ‘87
20 Oct ‘30

20 Oct ‘30

24 Nov
18 Nov

16 Nov

25 Nov
20 Nov

16 Nov
10 Nov

7 Oct ‘73

1 Nov ‘12
16 Nov ‘05
30 July ‘71

2 Dec ‘05

23 Sep ‘90
16 Nov ‘06

9 Dec
15 Dec
7 Nov
14 Dec

17 Nov

2 Dec
13 Nov

15 Nov
6 Nov
30 Dec
30 Dec
6 Nov
23 Nov
15 Nov

24 Nov

24 Nov
30 Dec
18 Nov
3 Dec
15 Nov
15 Nov

2 Dec

-1

157

-15

-9

-17

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA 171

Appendix 1 Continued

Species

Flowering
in Roland
(1998)

Latest

herbarium

record

Latest

flowering

2001

Latest

flowering

2005

Flowering

extension

(days)

S. canadensis L.

Aug

2 Dec ‘05

5 Dec

3 Dec

-2

S . flexicaulis L.

Sep

25 Sep ‘63

12 Nov

S . puberula Nutt.

Sep

15 Nov ‘94

10 Nov

S. rugosa P. Mill.

Sep

16 Nov ‘05

29 Nov

1 Nov

-28

S. sempervirens L.

Sep

2 Dec ‘05

18 Nov

.13 Nov

-5

Sonchus an'ensis L.

Sep

22 Oct ‘70

22 Nov

3 Dec

S. asper L.

Oct

18 Oct ‘79

9 Nov

3 Dec

S. oleraceus L.

Oct

3 Dec ‘05

15 Nov

6 Nov

-9

Spergula arvensis L.

Oct

28 Oct ‘87

12 Dec

14 Jan

Spergularia marina (L.)

Sep

5 Oct ‘28

12 Dec

30 Dec

Griseb.

Spiraea latifolia (Ait.) Borkh. Aug

5 Oct ‘01

15 Nov

Stellaria graminea L.

Oct

16 Sep ‘60

- |

24 Nov

S. media (L.) Cirillo

Nov

11 Sep ‘52

12 Dec

21 Jan

Sueda maritima (L.) Dumort.) Sep

3 Oct ‘80

3 Nov

Symphoricarpos albus (L.)

15 July ‘55

22 Nov

131

Blake

Tanacetum vulgare L.

Aug

5 Nov ‘12

12 Dec

3 Dec

-9

Taraxacum officinale (L.)

June

23 Sep ‘95

15 Dec

21 Jan

Weber

Thlaspi arxense L.

Sep

29 Aug ‘36

12 Dec

21 Jan

#Tliymus serpyllum L.

Aug

4 Sep ‘64

15 Nov

Tragopogon pratensis L.

Aug

2 Dec ‘05

7 Dec

1 Dec

-6

#Trifolium hybridum L.

10 Sep ‘25

5 Nov

Trifolium pratense L.

Sep

16 Nov ‘05

12 Dec

3 Dec

-9

T. repens L.

20 Oct ‘30

18 Nov

Verbascum thapsus L.

Sep

16 Nov ‘05

3 Dec

Veronica agrestis L.

Sep

14 July ‘48

29 Nov

V. longifolia L.

Aug

2 Sep *48

23 Nov

V. officinalis L.

Aug

20 Nov ‘94

3 Dec

V. persica Poir.

Sep

7 Sep ‘51

28 Nov

21 Jan

Vicia cracca L

Aug

16 Nov ‘05

27 Nov

3 Dec

V. sepium L.

July

26 June ‘00

1 Nov

V. villosa L.

Sep

12 Oct ‘27

3 Nov

#Viola cucullata Aiton

July

14 Sep ‘51

10 Nov

V. tricolor L.

Nov

13 Oct ‘44

5 Dec

21 Jan

172

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

Appendix 2 List of species and numbers occurring at collection sites from November 2005
to January 2006 in Antigonish County. Values indicate the number of different
sites where each species was found in flower during that ten-day period. No
species were found in flower following January 21st.

Species Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec Dec Jan Jan Jan

1-10 11-20 21-30 1-10 11-20 21-31 1-10 11-20 21

Achillea millefolium 16

Allium schoenoprasum 1

Ambrosia artemisiifolia
Anaphalis margaritacea 2
Anthemis tinctoria

Arctium minus 1

Aster ciliolatus 2

A. cordifolius 6

A. later iflorus 2

A. novae-angliae 3

A. novi-belgii 10

A. p unice us 5

A.umbellatus 1

Berteroa incana 1

Bidens connata 1

Brassica nigra 1

Campanula 3

rapunculoides

Capsella bursa-pastor is 5
Cardamine pensylvanica 1

Centaurea nigra 5

Cerastium vulgatum 2

Chenopodium album 4

C. glaucum 1

Chenorrhinum minus
Chrysanthemum 4

leucanthemum
Cichorium intybus
Cirsium arvense 3

C. palustre 2

C. vulgare 1

Cornus sericea 2

Coronilla varia 1

Daucus carota 2 1

Echinocystis lobata 3

Echium vulgare 2

Epigaea repens
Erigeron annuus 15

E. philadelphicus 2

E. strigosus 1

Erucastrum gallicum 1

Erysimum cheiranthoides 5

Euphorbia helioscopia 2

Euphrasia officinalis 3

Euthamnia graminifolia 1

15 12 7

1 - 1

3 1

1 1 1

3 3 2

2 1

2 2 2

14 10 6

9 12 8

1111

12 7 7 -

6 2 1

1 1

4 1
1

1 1
1

18 10 2

12 6

111-
9 10 6 -

3 4 4 1

12 2 1

6 4 8 1

11 11

2 2 3 1

4 2 -

11 11

LATE BLOOMING OF PLANTS FROM NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA 173

Appendix 2 Continued

Species Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec Dec Jan Jan Jan

1-10 11-20 21-30 1-10 11-20 21-31 1-10 11-20 21

Fragaria vesea
F. virginiana
Fumaria officinalis
Galeopsis tetrahit
Galium mollugo
Glechoma hederacea
Hesperis matronalis
Hieracium aurantiacum
H. lachenalii
H. paniculatum
FI. piloselloides
Hypericum perforatum
Lathyrus pratensis
Leontodon autumnalis
Lepidium campestre

L. virginicum
Linaria vulgaris
Lupinus polyphyllus
Malva moschata

M. neglecta
Matricaria maritima
M. matricarioides
Medicago lupulina
M. sativa
Melilotus alba

M. officinalis
Myosotis laxa
M. scorpioides
Oenothera biennis

O. xalis dillenii
Pastinaca sativa
Physalis heterophylla
Plantago lanceolata
Polygonum arenastrum

P. aviculare

P. convolvulus
P. cuspidatum
P. hydropiper
P. lapathifolium
P. pensylvanicum
P. persicaria
P. sagittatum
Potent ilia argentea
P. norvegica
P. simplex
Prunella vulgaris
Ranunculus acris
R. re pens

Raphanus raphanistrum

3 1

2 2 3 3

3 3 3 4

13 2-

1 - - -

111-

3 1-1

1 1 - -

3 - - -

1 - - -

12 20 18 13

2 2 4 3

1 2 - -

14 16 1

2 1 - -

112 1

10 7 8 4

2 6 4 4

9 2 - -

1 - - -

14 9 3 1

3 1

3 1 - -

1 - - -

15 13 4

1 - - -

3 8 5 2

3 1 - -

3 3 14

3 2

1 1

2
1

7 7

3 - - -

2 2--

1 2 -

6 3

5 - - -

2 7-1

5 9 10 5

1 1

5 2

1 1

2 2

3 2

174

GARBARY, FERRIER AND TAYLOR

Appendix 2 Continued

Species

Nov

1-10

Nov

11-20

Nov

21-30

Dec

1-10

Dec

11-20

Dec Jan
21-31 1-10

Rubus ideaus

Rudbeckia laciniata

Rutnex longifolius

1 1

Salix discolor

“

S. pellita

Senecio jacobaea

3 1

S. vulgaris

Silene latifolia

S. vulgaris

“

Sinapis alba

S. arvensis

Sisymbrium officinale

”

Solidago bicolor

“

—

S. canadensis

S.flexicaulis

S. puberula

“

S. rugosa

“

S. sempervirens

“ ^

Sonchus arvensis

“

S. asper

“

— —

S. oleraceus

— —

Spergula arvensis

1 1

Spergularia marina

Spiraea latifolia

“

Stellaria graminea

- -

S. media

2 3

Suaeda maritima

Symphoricarpos albus

Tanacetum vulgare

Taraxacum officinale

5 5

Thlaspi arvense

1 3

Tragopogon pratensis

Trifolium pratense

T. repens

Verbascum thapsus

Veronica agrestis

V. longifolia

V. officinalis

V. persica

Vicia cracca

V. sepium

V. villosa

Viola tricolor

2 2

458 408 236 161

21 21 18 14

Jan Jan
11-20 21

1 1
1 1

4 2

7 1

2 1

1 1

Number of records
Number of sites

14 48 34
3 16 10

46 11
18 7

Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science (2011)
Volume 46, Part 2, pp. 175-187

THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND QUANTUM
MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF THE
ANTI-CANCER AGENT FLAVOPIRIDOL
(HYDROCHLORIDE) AND THE CHROMONE
ALKALOID ROHITUKINE

J. WILSON QUAIL1 and ROBERTA. GOSSAGE2*

1 Saskatchewan Structural Sciences Centre, University of Saskatchewan,
110 Science Place, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9
2 Department of Chemistry & Biology, Ryerson University,

350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3

ABSTRACT

The characterisation of the solid-state crystal structure of the hydrochloric
acid salt of anti-cancer agent Flavopiridol ( i.e ., (-)-2-(2-chlorophenyl)-
5,7-dihydroxy-8-[(3S,4P)-3-hydroxy-l -methyl-4-piperidinyl]-4//-l-
benzopyran-4-one) is described. The title compound forms meta-stable
X-ray quality crystals by slow evaporation of solutions of the material in
aqueous methanol. The crystalline unit cell contains two organic cations,
two formal chloride counterions and two molecules of methanol, one of
which is replaced in 20% occupancy by a water molecule. The crystal
form is of space group PI with cell parameters a = 7.2014(10) A, b =
12.0094(9) A, c = 12.6581(14) A, a = 89.146(4)°, (3 = 89.788(6)° and y
= 82.180(4)°. The unit cell volume is 1084. 4(2) A3. The general structural
features of individual (gas-phase) molecules of protonated Flavopiridol and
the naturally occurring 2-methyl- [AH] -chromen-4-one analogue Rohitukine
have been calculated by application of Density Functional Theory (dft)
at the b3lyp/6-31g* level of sophistication. These results are compared to
the reported solid-state data of these two biologically relevant flavanoids.

INTRODUCTION

Flavanoids are a class of natural products that are widely distributed
in the biosphere, particularly in the plant kingdom (Harborne & Mabry,
1982), as primarily secondary metabolites. Many flavanoids are, not
surprisingly, biologically active and hence have been the subject ot
intense scrutiny by natural products chemists and the pharmaceutical
industry (Eisnor et al., 2006; Joule et al., 1995). These investigations

* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: gossage@ryerson.ca

176

QUAIL AND GOSSAGE

have led to the identification of a vast number of potential new sources
of phytochemicals that have been used or are under development as
both nutraceuticals and/or chemotherapy agents. In addition, novel
structural motifs derived from natural products often serve as starting
points or “leads” for compounds that are investigated for their clinical
potential . Many years ago , the flavanoid compound dubbed Rohitukine
(1: Scheme 1), which contains a 2-methyl- [4H] -chromen-4-one frag-

Scheme 1 Schematic representations of Rohitukine (1) and Flavopiridol (2) . Below these
pictorials are the parent structures of 2-methyl- [4H] -chromen-4-one and flavone:
left and right, respectively.

ment, was isolated (Harmon et al., 1979) from the Asian plant Amoora
rohituka (Syn. Aphanamixis polystachya) (meliaceae). This alkaloid
incorporates both the aforementioned chromone skeleton, a common
organic motif (Joule et al., 1995), and an unusual modified piperidinyl
ring system. Rohitukine itself displays a range of biological activities
including its ability to modulate immune response systems and act as
an anti-inflammatory agent (Naik et al., 1998; Sedlacek et al., 1996).
However, it is most noteworthy for its potent anti-cancer potential.
Large quantities of 1 can be obtained from Dysoxylum binectariferum
(Yang et al., 2004; Mohanakumara et al., 2010), which is currently
the primary natural source of this chromone, although two species of
Schumanniophyton also produce 1 (Houghton, 2002; Houghton &
Hairong, 1987; Houghton & Woldemariam, 1993). Chemical modi¬
fication ot the basic structure of 1 has led to the synthesis of a more
biologically active flavone (Harborne & Mabry, 1982) derivative
given the name Flavopiridol (2: 2-[2-chlorophenyl]-5,7-dihydroxy-

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

177

8-[{3S,4/?}-3-hydroxy-l-methyl-4-piperidinyl]-4//-l-benzopyran-4-
one: Scheme 1). This compound has already entered Phase III clinical
trials for applications against a number of classes of cancer including
breast, colon and lung cancers, leukaemia and cancers of the head and
neck (Billard et al., 2003; Carlson et al., 1996; Fischer & Lane, 2000;
Kitada et al., 2000; Lin & Porcu, 2004; Patel et al., 1998; Wu et al.,
2002). The mode(s) of action of 2 have been identified as primarily
due to the ability of the compound to act as a selective kinase inhibi¬
tor and thus it represents the first such inhibitor to enter clinical trials
(Bishop et al., 2001; Byrd et al., 1998; Carlson et al., 1996; Fabbro
et al., 2002; Filigueira et al., 1996 & 2002; Hu we et al., 2003; Kitada
et al., 2000; Konig et al., 1997; Krystof & Strnad, 2003; Noble et al.,
2004; Patel et al., 1998; Pepper et al., 2003; Sedlacek, 2001; Sedlacek
et al., 1996; Senderowicz et al., 1999; Senderowicz & Sausville, 2000;
Takada & Aggarwal, 2004; Wang & Ren, 2010). A brief report of the
characterisation of 1 , via single crystal X-ray diffraction methods, has
been previously reported (Yang et al., 2003) but details of the structure
(bond lengths, bond angles, etc.) were not disclosed. Flavopiridol has
not been investigated in this way. Neither 1 nor 2 have been structur¬
ally examined from a theoretical perspective by quantum mechanical
methods. In this report, dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the Nova
Scotian Institute of Science, we disclose the characterisation of the
hydrochloric acid salt of 2 by X-ray diffraction methods and compare
the solid-state structures of both 1 and 2 to those obtained by examining
the molecules via quantum mechanical methods , specifically employing
Density Functional Theory (dft) at the b3lyp/6-31g* level of theory
(Goodman, 1998; Koch & Holthausen, 2002; Sholl & Steckel, 2009).

METHODS

Flavopiridol hydrochloric acid salt ( i.e.,Alvocidib ) was kindly sup¬
plied to the authors by Sanofi-Aventis, Inc. Caution! Flavopiridol is a
potent biologically active agent and therefore should only be handled
by qualified personnel using strict laboratory safety protocols. Crystals
of the material were obtained by dissolving approximately 25 mg of
the compound in methanol (~10 mL) and then allowing the resulting
solution, contained in a small vial, to slowly evaporate under ambient
conditions. Yellow rectangular shaped crystals were obtained after a
period of about 7 days. These meta-stable crystals remain intact for a

178

QUAIL AND GOSSAGE

period of about 6 weeks before returning to a powder form of (presum¬
ably) solvent-free material.

X-ray diffraction data was collected at -100°C on a Nonius Kappa
CCD diffractometer, using the collect program (Nonius, 1998). Cell
refinement and data reductions used the programs denzo and scalepack
(Otwinowski & Minor, 1997). sir97 (Altomare et al., 1999) was used
to solve the structure and shelxl97 (Sheldrick, 2008) was used to
refine the structure. Ortep-3 for Windows (Farrugia, 1997) was used
for molecular graphics (Figure 1) and platon (Spek, 2001) was used
to prepare material for publication. H atoms were placed in calculated
positions with Ujso constrained to be 1 .2 times U eq of the carrier atom
for all hydrogen atoms. The structure solution has two cations and two
chloride ions in the asymmetric unit. In addition, there are two solvent
methanol molecules in the asymmetric unit, one with disorder. Twenty
percent of one methanol is replaced by a water molecule. Modelling
the disorder proved to be difficult because of the strong coupling be¬
tween the occupancy factors and the thermal factors. In the end, the
occupancy of water was set at 0.20 and the methanol at 0.80 to stabilize
the refinement. The only b alert is for possible higher symmetry. This
test does not consider the disordered atoms. Since one methanol is
disordered with a water molecule and the other is not, higher symme¬
try is not possible. Crystallographic data (excluding structure factors)
have been deposited in the Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre
as Supplementary publication No. ccdc 832180. Copies of these data
can be obtained free of charge on application to ccdc, 12 Union Road,
Cambridge CB2 1EZ, U.K. (fax: +44 1223 336 033; e-mail: deposit@
ccdc.cam.ac.uk).

Density Functional Theory was used for the quantum mechanical
calculations employing the b3lyp/6-31g* level of theory (Becke, 1993;
Lee et al., 1988); these data were obtained by using the spartan 10.0
(Spartan ,2010) suite of programs . These calculations included neutral 1
and the cationic A-protonated form of Flavopiridol (i.e., [2+H]+). Zero
point energy calculations were performed on the idealised structures
to ensure that the data reflect true minima along the potential energy
suilace and hence no negative IR or Raman frequencies were calcu¬
lated. Details ot these data (including .mol files) are available from
the authors on request.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

179

Fig 1 ORTEP representation of the two independent cations of [2+H] found in the unit
cell; cation A (left) and cation B (right).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The general crystal data parameters for the HC1 salt of 2 (i.e., [2+H]
Cl) can be found in Table 1 . A list of selected bond lengths, bond and
torsion angles for [2+H]Cl, in addition to the computationally derived
gas phase values of both 1 and cationic [2+H]+ , are displayed in Table 2 .
Molecular representations (ortep) of the two independent [2+H] cations
found within the unit cell are shown in Figure 1 . In many respects, the
solid-state structure of the cation of 2 is very similar to that described
for other structurally characterised flavones with quite typical bond
lengths and angles, specifically with respect to the benzopyrone and
aromatic ring systems (Allen et ah, 1987). 5-Hydroxyflavones, such
as the title material, typically display intra-molecular //-bonding be¬
tween the H atom on ring position-5 and the carbonyl O-atom (Chou
et al., 2002; Krishnaiah et al., 2005; Parvez et al., 2001; Shoja 1989,
1990; Watson et al., 1991) and this certainly appears to be evident
here (09H*»*0 = 1 .856A). The benzopyrone ring is essentially planar
with a torsion angle of less than 3° , similar to other flavones that have
been previously reported ( e.g ., Krishnaiah et al., 2005) and this also
appears to be the case for Rohitukine (Yang et al., 2003). For simplic¬
ity, direct comparisons will be noted for unit cell Molecule A only.
Details of Molecule B can be found in the appropriate .cif file and/or
details noted in Table 2. The overall crystal motif reveals considerable

180

QUAIL AND GOSSAGE

Table 1 General crystal data for compound (2+HCl)2*(MeOH)1 g0*(H2O)020

Parameter:

(2+HCl)2*(MeOH)IJi0*(H1O)#^0

Formula

c4JKh49Mn2o12ci4

937.85

Crystal size (mm)

0.25 x 0.20x0.13

a (A)

7.2014(10)

b (A)

12.0094(9)

c(A)

12.6581(14)

o(°)

89.146(4)

89.788(6)

Y (°)

82.180(4)

V(A3)

1084.4(2)

Dcaic(g/Cm3)

1.436

Crystal system; space group

Triclinic; PI

F(000)

490.4

T (K)

173(2)

Absorption coefficient (mm1)

0.339

20 range (°)

2.86-27.63

Limiting indices

-9 < h < +9; -15 < k < +15; -16 < 1 < +16

Reflections collected

15962

Reflections unique

8544 [R(int) = 0.0414]

Reflections I > 2o(I)

8544

Restraints / Parameters

3/571

GOF on F

1.055

Final R indices I > 2o(I)

R, = 0.0422; wR2 = 0.0911

R indices (all data)

R, = 0.0522; wR, = 0.0987

Q (e-A3)

v min, max v '

0.269,-0.284

Abs. Structure Parameter

-0.01(4)

MA)

0.71073 Mo Ka

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

181

Table 2 Selected bond lengths (A), bond and torsion angles (°) measured for
[Z+HClLHMeOH), g0*(H2O)020 and calculated (DFT: b3lyp/6-31g*) for 1 and
[2+H]+. Estimated standard deviations are shown in parentheses.

Value

1 (calc.)

[2+H]+.(calc.)

[2+H]Cl*(observed)a

c=o (A)

1.251

1.243

1.263(4); 1.269(3)

c=c (A)

1.351

1.346

1 .343(4); 1 .358(4)

C , -OH (A)

aromatic v 7

1.339; 1.359

1.330; 1.363

1.360(3); 1.364(4)
1.358(3); 1.368(3)

c-ci (A)

n/a

1.761

1.737(3); 1.741(3)

c=c-ch3 (°)

126.2

n/a

c=c-cphenyl n

n/a

124.84

125.4(3); 125.6(3)

C-CH-CH-OH (°)

56.13

-77.10

-66.4(3); -63.6(4)

OC-C-CC1 (°)

n/a

106.42

-143.0(3); 141.3(3)

a Entries for Molecule A (see text) are listed first.

intermolecular //-bonding aspects, specifically the 7-OH group with a
formal chloride anion (013H*»*C1 = 2. 23 A). The N-H functionality is
also in close proximity to one of the lattice methanol O atoms (N 1 8H»*«0
= 1 .96 A). The chlorophenyl group is oriented out of the plane of the
benzopyrone ring by about 4 1 ° ; a property which decreases the contact
distance between the Cl atom and the H on piperidinyl ring position
3’ (C17H##*C1 = 2.86A). Other flavones (Hall et al., 2001; Waller et
al., 2005), including 2’ -substituted examples, also display such large
angles (Chou et al., 2002; Shoja, 1989; Ting et al., 1972) and indeed a
value of 62° has been reported for 6-hydroxy-2’ ,3’-dimethoxyflavone
(Wallet et al., 1993).

Flavopiridol hydrochloride obviously demonstrates considerable
inter- and intra-molecular //-bonding, as detailed above, in the solid-
state. The obvious low volatility of this salt negates one’s ability to
also examine this material in the gas-phase to evaluate any //-bonding
facets. However, the examination of compounds from a theoretical
perspective allows one to probe the structural aspects of such species
in the hypothetical gas-phase (i.e., a single isolated molecule). Of the
plethora of computational methods that can be used in this regard,
Density Functional Theory (dft) has become a widely employed and
powerful tool to examine molecules and molecular fragments from a
theoretical point of view in the gas-phase, solution and indeed even
in network solids (Goodman, 1998; Koch & Holthausen, 2002; Sholl

182

QUAIL AND GOSSAGE

& Steckel, 2009). An examination of both 1 and [2+H]+ was therefore
carried out using dft to examine the overall structural properties and
attempt to draw some conclusions about possible gas-phase structures
of these two species. Selected calculated bond lengths and bond and
torsion angles can be found in Table 2. As expected (Chojnacka et al.,
2011), the dft calculations do closely parallel the solid-state struc¬
tures of the two materials. As details of the bond lengths and angles
for the crystalline state of 1 do not appear in the literature (Yang et
al., 2003), a comparison of calculated 1 to that of [2+H]+ depicts a
reasonable structural similarity between the two species (Table 2).
As inter-molecular //-bonding cannot be involved here, this restricts
the attractive forces to those of an intra-molecular nature. A skeletal
diagram indicating the calculated //-bonding aspects (dashed line
‘bonds’) is shown in Scheme 2. The calculated Flavopiridol cation
displays lesser rotation of the aromatic group with respect to that of the
benzopyrone ring (calc. 106°; found 141°) and this serves to facilitate
//-bonding between the 3’ -OH (piperdinyl) group and the chlorine
atom (calc. 017H**«C1 = 2. 65 A). Obviously, this latter result causes
considerable rotation of the piperdinyl ring and this again strengthens
intra-molecular //-bonding, in this case between the same -OH and the
benzopyrone ether O atom (017H**»07 = 2. 05 A). These latter aspects
do not appear for 1 but instead strong interactions between the piperonyl
OH and the benzopyrone 7 ’-OH position is observed (017H»*#0 =
1 .88 A: Table 2; Scheme 2). Not surprisingly, both calculated structures
include close contacts between the H atom on ring position-5 and the

O O

O D

|2+H|+

Scheme - Schematic representation of the H-bonds (dashed lines) calculated for gas-
phase 1 and the Flavopiridol cation ([2+H]+). In both cases, stereochemical
bond descriptors have been removed for clarity.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

183

carbonyl O-atom although a slight over estimation of this strength is
noted (calc . 0 1 1 H"*09 = 1 .69 A for 1 and 1 .70 A for [2+H]+) . The C=0
(1: 1.25A; 2: 1.24A) and C-Cl bonds ([2+H]+) are well-estimated in
both cases (2: C-Cl = 1.76A). The calculated UV- Visible absorptions
are also estimated with fair accuracy for both 1 (k [calc.]: 241 nm;
Xmax: [observed]: 252 nm) and [2+H]Cl (^max [calc.]: 247 nm; A,max:
[observed: aqueous]: 269 nm), despite the molecular rearrangements
noted above for gas-phase calculations (Sedlacek et al., 1996; Tang
et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2009).

CONCLUSIONS

The solid-state crystal structure of Flavopiridol hydrochloride, in
the form of meta-stable crystals containing both methanol and water
molecules, has been detailed. This compound has features similar to
other related flavanoids that have been characterised in the solid-state
such as Rohitukine. This latter material and the cationic component
of the title compound have been further examined from a theoretical
perspective by Density Functional Theory and these results suggest
a modified pattern of //-bonding for individual gas-phase molecules.

Acknowledgements The author is indebted to Ryerson University
for support of this work. Additional funding for the author has been
provided by nserc (Canada) in the form of a Discovery Grant. Prof.
D.-M. Ren (, Shandong University ) is thanked for providing a reprint
of his publication. Prof. Daniel A. Foucher ( Ryerson University) is
acknowledged for his critical review of this manuscript, as well as
anonymous journal referees.

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( 1 993) 2-(2,3-Dimethoxyphenyl)-6-hydroxy-4//- 1 -benzopyran-4-one
(6-hydroxy-2 ’, 3 ’-dimethoxy flavone). Acta Cryst C49:2030-2032.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

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Watson, W.H., Kashyap, R.P., Gao, F., & Mabry, T J. (1991) Structure of
the flavone Hymenoxin. Acta Cryst C47:459-461 .

Wu, K., Wang, C., D’Amico, M., Lee, R J., Albanese, C., Pestell, R.G.,

& Mani S. (2002) Flavopiridol and Trastuzumab synergistically inhibit
proliferation of breast cancer cells: association with selective cooperative
inhibition of cyclin D 1 -dependent kinase and Akt signalling pathways . Mol
Cancer Therap 1:695-706.

Yang, D.H., Cai, S.Q., Zhao, Y.Y., & Liang, H. (2003) Determination of
the absolute configuration of Rohitukine. Chin Chem Lett 14:720-723.
Yang, D.H., Cai, S.Q., Zhao, Y.Y. & Liang, H. (2004) A new alkaloid from
Dysoxylum binectariferum. J Asian Nat Prod Res 6:233-236.

Yang, X., Zhao, X., Phelps, M.A., Piao, L., Rozewski, D.M., Liu, Q., Lee,
L J., Marucci, G., Grever, M.R., Byrd, J.C., Dalton, J.T., & Lee, R J.
(2009) A novel liposomal formulation of flavopiridol. Int J Pharmaceutics
365:170-174.

B lilE • p . ** • si y.mwBm

Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science (2011)

Volume 46, Part 2, pp. 189-200

REPORTS FROM THE NSIS COUNCIL
NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 2010 TO 2011

The Nova Scotian Institute of Science serves Nova Scotia and the
greater Atlantic region of Canada by:

• Providing a forum for scientists and those interested in science
to learn about and discuss scientific matters, through a monthly
public lecture and discussion series,

• Publishing its journal (The Proceedings of the Nova Scotian
Institute of Science) which has appeared regularly since 1863,

• Drawing attention to issues of societal concern that intersect the
natural and social sciences, such as education, environmental
and natural resource policies, and ethics via the NSIS website,

• Promoting research and education in science by awards made to
students at each of the Regional Science Fairs in Nova Scotia,

• Supporting a number of undergraduate conferences organized
by the Atlantic Provinces Council on the Sciences (APICS) by
providing prizes for winning presentations,

• Conducting an annual Scientific Writing Competition for uni¬
versity students,

• Presenting current and historical material of Canadi¬
an scientific importance to the public on its website:
http://www.chebucto .ns .ca/Science/NSIS/index .html , and

• Maintaining a library in collaboration with Dalhousie Univer¬
sity and the Nova Scotian Institute of Science ‘Virtual Hall of
Fame’ which honours men and women who have contributed
significantly to the scientific activity in Nova Scotia.

The 2010-2011 year has proved successful with 21 new members
joining the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, the publication of two
issues of Volume 45 of the Proceedings, and the enthusiastic response
of members and the public to our lecture series. The lecture program
was organized by Ron MacKay with the help of John Rutherford and
Angelica Silva. Most of the lectures were held at the Nova Scotia Mu¬
seum of Natural History and the Institute is indebted to the Museum
for its continued support. We acknowledge the monthly assistance of
David Christianson , the Museum ’s Manager of Collections . From thirty

190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

to fifty members attended each lecture. There was an annual round
table held in January, and the NSIS also co-sponsored the Seventh An¬
nual Sable Island Update, which was held at Saint Mary’s University
and attended by some 200 people. The programme of NSIS lectures
was as follows:

Monday 4th October 2010

Dr. Brendan Murphy, Earth Sciences Department, St. Francis Xavier
University, “Mountains: Past, Present and Future”, 7.30 pm Nova
Scotia Museum of Natural History.

Monday 1st November 2010

Dr. Mike C. James, Department of Biology, Dalhousie University/
Aquatic Species at Risk, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, “The Leather¬
back Turtle: Atlantic Canada’s Giant Jellyfish Predator”, 7:30 pm
Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History.

Monday 6th December 2010

Timothy Frasier and Brenna McLeod, Department of Biology, Saint
Mary’s University. “Using Genetics to Learn about the History of
Arctic Whales” 7:30 pm Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History.

Monday 10th January 2011

Panel discussion “How Reliable is Science Anyway?” : The Prob¬
lem of Decision-making in the Context of Scientific Uncertainty.

Panellists: Dr. Lisa Gannett, Department of Philosophy, St. Mary’s
University; Dr. Bill Freedman, Department of Biology, Dalhousie
University; Dr. Tony Charles, Department of Environmental Studies,
Saint Mary’s University. 7:30 pm Scotiabank Conference Theatre,
Sobey Building, St. Mary’s University.

Monday 7th February 2011

Drs. Jerry Singleton, Melanie Keats, Laurene Rehman and David
Westwood of the School of Health and Human Performance , Dalhousie
University, in collaboration with Halifax Public Libraries, “Be a Good
Sport: Fun for Everyone Across the Life Course”, 7:00pm Keshen
Goodman Public Library.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE 191

Monday 7th March 2011

Drs. Jonathan Fowler and Tanya Peckmann Department of Anthropol¬
ogy, Saint Mary’s University. “Facial Reconstruction: an Acadian
Child from the 18th Century”, 7:30 pm Nova Scotia Museum of
Natural History.

Monday 4th April 2011

Dr. Cathy Conrad, Department of Geography, Saint Mary’s University.

“Citizen Science: How the Public Can Engage in Scientific Inquiry”,

7:30 pm Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History.

Monday 2nd May 2011

NSIS Annual Dinner and AGM (Dalhousie Faculty Club). After
dinner speaker Dr. Jeanette Janssen, Department of Mathematics and
Statistics, Dalhousie University. “Using Mathematics to Model the
World Wide Web”.

Two issues of the Proceedings were published in 2010, the first
was one devoted to Scatarie Island, NS, and the second was a regular
issue. Feedback to these issues has been very positive. The editor,
Peter Wells, plans to produce two issues of the Proceedings during
2011 calendar year. The Institute is indebted to the Editor and to the
members of the Editorial Board for their services. We also thank the
Nova Scotia Department of Tourism and Heritage for a grant to assist
with the cost of publishing the Proceedings. Finally, the Institute has
printed a further 100 copies of the first edition of The Flora of Nova
Scotia which is used by students in courses on plant identification at
Nova Scotian Universities.

Dalhousie University which houses the NSIS library has digitized
the Proceedings of the NSIS from 1863-1934 and we hope will make
more recent volumes available by 2012. Further details can be found
at: http://dalspace.library.dal.ca/dspace/handle/10222/! 1192.

A Science Writing Competition was organized again this year by
Robert Cook . This year we initiated a Video category, but unfortunately
after some initial enthusiasm, no video entries were sent in. However,
there were submissions in the Writing category and we extend con¬
gratulations to the winners in the 2011 NSIS Student Science Writing
Competition who were presented with certificates at the April meeting
of the NSIS:

1 92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

Mr. Scott G. Harroun of Saint Mary’s University is the Winner
of the Writing Award for his paper “Application of Surface En¬
hanced Raman Spectroscopy for the Determination of Chemical
Composition of Paint Samples from the Historic Charles Morris
Building in Halifax, Nova Scotia”.

And

Ms. Carol Anne Black of Dalhousie University, an Honourable
Mention award for her paper “Turbidity Currents: Nova Scotia’s
African Heritage”

A NSIS committee has been established, chaired by Michelle Paon,
which is working on special events for the 150th Anniversary. One of
the regular monthly lectures for the forthcoming year, 2012, will be on
the history of gold exploration in Nova Scotia and will be held at the
Art Gallery of Nova Scotia in association with their special exhibition
The Golden Touch’: Art and Gold in Nova Scotia.

We have submitted proposals to Canada Post for a special stamp to
celebrate this event. In addition, the Dalhousie University School for
Resource and Environmental Studies (SRES) with support from the
NSIS , applied to organize the 2012 Killam Lecture Series at Dalhousie
University. This was approved and will be part of the celebrations for
our anniversary. It will involve a series of leading science speakers.
We are also collaborating with the Bedford Institute of Oceanogra¬
phy which celebrates its 50th anniversary in 2012. We applied to the
Donner Canadian Foundation in 2010 for funds to assist with NSIS
activities associated with our 1 50th anniversary but were unfortunately
not successful.

In other activities, the Institute has again provided financial support
to the ten Regional Science Fairs in Nova Scotia. Various members of
the NSIS Council acted as judges at these fairs and selected projects
for the NSIS awards.

In conclusion, members of the Institute are undoubtedly aware that
the NSIS mission of presenting and promoting science, especially
research, can only be achieved by continued activity on the part of
members by serving on Council and by taking part in other activities
of Institute. As with all similar volunteer organizations, there is a
need tor younger members to become active as older members retire.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE 193

The Institute has a long and proud history and will celebrate 150 years
of promoting science to Nova Scotians in 2012. Few other Canadian
organizations can boast this track record.

Finally, I thank all members of Council for their diligence and hard
work during the past year.

Respectfully submitted,
David H.S. Richardson
May 2nd 2011

1 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

LIBRARIAN’S REPORT
2010/2011

Prepared for AGM May 2, 2011

There are currently one hundred and seventy-nine NSIS exchange
partners. Four institutions, Linda Hall Library, Kansas City; Polska
Akademia Nauk, Poland; Societe Geologique de Normandie et des
Amis du Museum du Havre, France; VNIRO Library, USSR cancelled
their exchange program with us over the past year. The number of
institutional members has decreased by two and is now at twenty-four.
Public Archives of Nova Scotia & Blacker Wood Library, Montreal
cancelled their membership in 201 1 . Invoices were sent out in Febru¬
ary 2011 for institutional memberships and to date we have received
payment for nineteen renewals.

Volume 45, parts 1 and 2 of the Proceedings of the Nova Scotian
Institute of Science were both published in 2010. Both issues were
sent to exchange partners and institutional members in one mailing to
save on the cost of postage. The NSIS president, David Richardson,
was able to use the St. Mary’s University mail room service which
offered reasonable rates for overseas postage.

Sales of past volumes of the Proceedings during 2010/2011 gen¬
erated $930.50 in revenue. (See Appendix A (attached) for details.)
There are 126 copies of the Flora of Nova Scotia by A.E. Roland on
hand @ $35.00 each.

The Librarian submitted the required forms to Access Copyright for
the 2010 repertoire payment to publishers. A cheque in the amount
of $43 1 .54 was received.

During the summer of 2010 volumes 13 (1910-1914) - v.l 8 (1930-
1934) ol the Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science
were digitized and made available online through a digital initiative in
the Dalhousie University Libraries. These volumes were deposited in
DalSpace and can be viewed at http://www.library.dal.ca/collections/
digitalcollections/nsis. At the March 4, 2011, meeting Council ap¬
proved a iequest from the Librarian for funding for the digitization of
v. 19 ( 1934-1938)- v. 25 (1958-1962) of th e Proceedings of the Nova
Scotian Institute of Science. This will complete the first 100 years of
the journal. A launch of the digitized version of the Proceedings is
being planned for January 2012, as part of the 150th NSIS anniversary
celebration . At the April 4th meeting of Council , a cheque for $2 ,205 .00

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE 1 95

was received by the Librarian to fund a four week position to complete
this digitization. A further proposal is being prepared to estimate the
cost of finishing the digitization of the Proceedings for v. 26-present.

At the Council meeting of April 4th, 201 1 , a motion was passed that
the price for copies of the Flora would be reduced by 10% if ten or
more copies were purchased for a class and picked up from the Li¬
brarian’s office (Regular price for a single copy is $35.00; bulk buy
discount price is $31 .50 per copy).

Dalhousie University has been assigned a new postal code. This
means a change to the NSIS mailing address, effective immediately.
The new mailing address is:

Nova Scotian Institute of Science

c/o Killam Library Reference & Research Services Office

1459 Oxford Street

Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS Canada

B3H 4R2

Publications continue to be received regularly from our 179 active
exchange partners and this material is added on an ongoing basis to
the collection. I would like to thank Carol Richardson and the Seri¬
als Department staff in the Killam Library who ensure that the NSIS
Library operations continue to function smoothly.

Respectfully submitted,

Sharon Longard
NSIS Librarian
April 12, 2011

1 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

LIBRARIAN’S REPORT
Appendix A

Monies

Date

Received

Sold

Institution

COST

Paid

June 2010

Flora of NS

Meade Victoria Humble

$35.00

June 2010

Flora of NS

Emma Morgan-Thorp

$35.00

June 2010

Flora of NS

Phil Schappert

Biology 2601 class

$700.00

September 2010

v.29 pg. 1-131

Matteo Carbona

$14.50

(7.50+7.00 S/H)

November 2010

v. 45,

pt. 1 , 2010

Nova Scotia Environment

$96.00

December 2010

v.36.

N. S. Environment Library

$10.00

pt. 2, 1986

(7.50+2.50 S/H)

December 2010

v.34,

pt.%, 1984

Sherman Jackson

$10.00

January 2011

v.34, pt. 3/4

Peter Wells

$10.00

February 1 , 20 1 1

v.27

David Bethoney

$20.00

suppl. 3, 1975

(3 x $5 .00 + $5.00 S/H)

Total

$930.50

Sales of Proceedings June 2010 - February 2011

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE 197

EDITOR’S REPORT

NSIS ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING
MAY 2ND, 2011

Status of the Proceedings of the NSIS

PNSIS Volume 45 (Parts 1 and 2) was successfully completed over
the past calendar year. Over the same period, we have strengthened
the Editorial Board, prepared guidelines for manuscript flow, and com¬
municated with the new Editorial Board regarding the Journal and
Board members responsibilities. We hope the Board will support the
Proceedings by actively soliciting papers and being involved in the
review process more directly. As well, we are supported at Dalhousie
University by two staff members (Sarah Stevenson, Gail LeBlanc) for
journal layout and production, crucial roles for the Journal’s success.
We have an excellent and enthusiastic team to run the Proceedings.

So far in 2011, two scientific papers and two student papers have
been submitted to Volume 46(2), and a full manuscript has been sub¬
mitted for a special issue Volume 46(1) by Dr. Eric Mills. An internal
list of prospective papers and editorials is guiding our activities on
the Proceedings, especially as we move towards the 150th Anniversary
year, 2012. As we progress through this year, the Proceedings will be
redesigned with a new cover and layout, and options considered for
making the Proceedings available in both print and electronic formats.

Papers and editorials are requested from all members of the NSIS.
Supported by the website, the Proceedings are the visible, written voice
piece for the Society as well as for science in all of its dimensions in
Nova Scotia and the Maritime Provinces. We hope to keep attracting
papers highlighting the advances of science by practitioners in the
Region, as well as articles on the history of science and its current role
in furthering the welfare of Maritime society, from health to economy
to environment. This is your journal; please contribute to it and help us
continually improve it’s content, distribution and use so that it serves
the Society, the Region and Canada with excellence , far into the future .

Submitted:

Peter G. Wells, Dalhousie University (Editor)

198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

TREASURER'S REPORT

NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

MARCH 31, 2011

ASSETS:

B ank Account 5 ,67 4 .44

Investments 63,068.14

TOTAL ASSETS

68,742.58

LIABILITIES AND NET WORTH:

Accounts Payable

Science Fair 100.00

100.00

NET WORTH

68,642.58

TOTAL LIABILITIES AND NET WORTH

68,742.58

INVESTMENTS:

Renaissance High Interest Savings Account

CIBC Investment

Certificate A @5.05% (due Jun 2011)

CIBC Investment

Certificate A @5.20% (due Oct. 2012)

National Bank of Canada

Certificate A@2.900% (due May 2013)
Montreal Trust Company

Certificate A@ 3. 250 % (dueJulyl5 2015)

11,268.14

11,500.00

20,000.00

10,300.00

10,000.00

TOTAL INVESTMENTS

63,068.14

Finances

The net worth of the Institute is $68,642.58 For this year, revenue
included a grant of $1000.00 from the Nova Scotia Department of
Tourism and Culture. The Institute also received $431 .54 from AC¬
CESS copyright for publication royalties. A donation of $500.00 was
received from the Situating Science Cluster (SSC); this is being held
for a future video award.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE 199

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURES
FOR 2010-2011

REVENUE

Membership Dues

Individuals $2,480.00

Institutions 469.83

AGM (2010)

1,482.00

Donations/Grant

1535.00

Sales/Page charges

Proceedings

409.50

Other-Flora

770.00

Income/Royalties

Investment Income

2,458.01

Access Copyright Royalty

431.54

Bank Interest

0.91

EXPENDITURES

Advertisement/Promotion

$542.36

AGM (2010)

1,557.17

Office supplies

27.49

Rent

56.50

Postage

1,738.21

Donations/Prizes

1,750.00

Honoraria

200.00

Proceedings Costs

3,814.86

Flora Costs

1,897.50

$10,036.79

$11,584.09

Net income: (Loss) ($1,547.30)

200 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

Expenditures for donations and prizes totalled $1750.00. This in¬
cluded $100.00 donations to each of 10 regional Science Fairs in Nova
Scotia, and two writing competition awards, one each of $500.00 for
graduate and $250.00 for undergraduate.

Membership

The Institute has 106 individual members including 6 life members
and 3 student members. This year there were 21 new members. Dues
from individual members amounted to $2 ,480 .00 and from institutional
members $469.83.

Respectfully submitted to the AGM

May 2, 2011

Elaine D. McCulloch

Treasurer

BIRDS OF BRIER ISLAND

PROCEEDINGS

of the

Nova Scotian Institute of Science

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA

Volume 46 2011 Part 1

SPECIAL ISSUE

BIRDS OF BRIER ISLAND

By Eric L, Mills and Lance Laviolette

«S> Ucvfs Scottan institute of Sakta&s
with Ar/;o«s Copynyhi, The Canadian CnpyngM licensing

Ag«ncy htip.'/www «cc«tescopyr-ght c«

Date C” Wioation, September' 2011

(D
•«— »

-Q

c n

■4—*

Birds of Brier Island by Eric L. Mills & Lance Laviolette. Sept.
201 1 ; gives a fascinating overview of the visiting and nesting
birds that have travelled through Nova Scotia’s Bay of Fundy
region and made a stopover on Brier Island. 107pp, ill. 8.5 x 1 1
in; softcover. Published as a special issue — Vol. 46, Part 1, of
the Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science.

Price: CDN$25.00 + postage and handling.

201 1 postage & handling charges per copy (CDN dollars) : Within Canada: add
$5.00 US orders: add $8.00.

If you wish to purchase multiple copies, please contact Carol Richardson
(clrichar@dal.ca) about the cost of postage and handling.

To avoid postage fees, copies of the book can also be purchased in person
at the Killam Library Research Services office, 3rd floor, Killam Library, 6225
University Ave., Halifax, Nova Scotia.

See next page for Order Form.

Order Form

Please send me _ copies of Birds of Brier Island.

$25.00 per copy = _

Add postage and handling = _

Total = $ _

Name: _

Add ress : _

Province/State: _

Country: _ Postal or zip code: _

□ Please send to my Dalhousie campus office (saves postage)

Email address: _

Please make cheque payable to: Nova Scotian Institute of Science

Mail order form and payment to:

Nova Scotian Institute of Science

c/o Killam Library, Dalhousie University, 6225 University Avenue
P. O. Box 15000, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4R2

PLEASE PHOTOCOPY & FILL OUT AND FORWARD
TO ADDRESS ABOVE.

RECOMMAND ATIONS AUX AUTEURS

Les auteurs peuvent soumettre leur manuscrit en anglais ou en frangais et doivent
l’envoyer auredacteuren chef par courriel(nsis@dal.caetoceans2@ns.sympatico.
ca) . Le titre du manuscrit doit etre sui vi des noms de tous les auteurs , leurs adresses
respectives et leurs adresses de courriel. Un resume doit suivre qui comptera au plus
200 mots . S i approprie , il doit y avoir des sections tel que 1 ’ introduction , les methodes ,
les resultats, la discussion, les conclusions et les references bibliographiques.
L'orthographe doit suivre Le Grand Robert, et il est recommande de se servir du
Systeme international d’unites. Des frais de 25,00$ par page sont presentement
imposes, a moins que tous les auteurs sont membres du Nova Scotian Institute
of Science. (Les frais d’ adhesion pour membres reguliers sont 25,00$ par an, et
pour etudiants sont 10,00$ par an.) Des tableaux, des illustrations et des photos en
noir et blanc peuvent etre inclus et seront reproduits sans frais supplementaires.
Au format copie papier du journal, les couts de reproduction en couleurs seront
aux frais des auteurs, et seront environ 500$ par planche qui peut etre une seule
photo ou un collage. Chaque tableau ou illustration doit porter un titre et une
legende auto-explicative.

Veuillez consulter des exemplaires du Journal pour verifier le format du manuscrit.
Chaque page doit etre numerotee. Les references bibliographiques doivent etre en
ordre alphabetique et doivent montrer le nom complet de la revue, et si approprie,
les numeros des revues, comme les exemples suivants:

Nielsen, K.J.,& France, D.F. (1995) The influence of adult conspecifics and shore
level on recruitment of the ribbed mussel Geukensia demissa (Dillwyn). Journal
of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 188 (l):89-98.

Cushing, D. & Walsh, J. (1976) The Ecology of the Seas. W. B. Saunders
Company, Toronto.

Lee, G.F. (1975) Role of hydrous metal oxides in the transport of heavy metals in
the environment . In: Krenkel , P. A . (ed.) , Heavy Metals in the Aquatic Environment .
Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 137-147.

Communication personnelle: Smith A.J. (2001 , pers. comm.) in text.

Document sur un site web: Auteur (l’annee de publication) titre, URL et la date
de consultation.

Les auteurs sont responsables pour la revue des epreuves en placard dans les
plus brels delais. Une reproduction electronique de Particle en format PDF sera
lournie gratuitement aux auteurs. Comme un des avantages d’adhesion, les
membres du NSIS regoivent chaque numero du journal au format copie papier.

Des exemplaires des numeros speciaux de la revue sont en vente chez NSIS aux
frais etablis par NSIS.

NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE COUNCIL 2011 - 2012

President: John Rutherford

Vice-President: Michelle Paon

Past President: David Richardson

Secretary: Linda Marks

Treasurer: Elaine McCulloch

Editor: Peter G. Wells

Librarian: Sharon Longard

Webmaster: Suzuette Soomai

Publicity: Regis Dudley

Councillors: Robert H. Cook (Writing Competition Coordinator), Michelle Paon (2012
Sesquicentennial Committee), Henry (Hank) Bird, Angelica Silva, Robert Boudreau,
John Young, Rick Singer

Student Representative: None

Observers: David Christianson (Nova Scotia Museum), Mike Sinclair and
Claudia Currie (BIO 2012 Anniversary Celebrations Committee)

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Papers may be submitted in either English or French and should be sent electronically to
the Editor at (nsis@dal.ca and oceans2@ns.sympatico.ca). The title should be followed by
names, addresses and e-mails of all authors. An abstract of up to 200 words should follow.
As appropriate, sections devoted to introduction, methods, results, discussion, conclusions
and references should be included. Canadian spelling and SI units should be used wherever
possible. There is currently a page charge of $25 per page but this will not be levied if all
authors are NSIS members (Membership costs $25 per year for regular members and $10
year for students.) Tables, figures and black and white photographs may be included and will
be published without an extra charge. Publication of colour figures in any hard copy of the
journal will incur a charge that must be borne by the author and will likely be in the range of
$500 per plate which may be a single photo or a collage. All tables and illustrations should
have a title and a self-explanatory legend.

Refer to back issues of the Journal for general layout of a paper. Pages should be numbered.
References should be in alphabetical order and give the full title of the journal and issue
numbers where appropriate, thus:

Nielsen, K.J., & France, D.F. (1995) The influence of adult conspecifics and shore level on
recruitment of the ribbed mussel Geukensici demissa (Dillwyn). Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology 188 (l):89-98.

Cushing, D. & Walsh J. (1976) The Ecology of the Seas. W. B. Saunders Company, Toronto.

Lee, G.F. (1975) Role of hydrous metal oxides in the transport of heavy metals in the
environment. In: Krenkel, PA. (ed.). Heavy Metals in the Aquatic Environment. Pergamon
Press, Oxford, pp. 137-147.

Personal Communication: Smith A.J. (2001, pers. comm.) in text.

Website Citation: Author (year) title, URL and date accessed.

Authors are responsible for correcting and returning proofs promptly. Authors will be provided
with a PDF of their paper, free of charge. NSIS members receive a hard copy of the Proceedings
as part of their annual membership. Copies of Special Issues of the NSIS proceedings may also
be purchased from NSIS at a charge established by the NSIS. See the NSIS website http://
www.chebucto.ns.ca/Science/NSIS/ for details.

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